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J8RARY
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THE SCOTTISH
GEOGRAPHICAL
MAGAZINE
Author's are alone responsible for their respective statements.
THE SCOTTISH
GEOGRAPHICAL
MAGAZINE
PUBLISHED BY THE KOYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
PROFESSOR JAMES GEIKIE, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., HON. EDITOR
MARION I. NEWBIGIN, D.Sc, ACTING EDITOR
VOLUME XXIII: 1907
4<f
/ 0
4
EDINBURGH
Printed by T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to His Majesty
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
1907
7
ROYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.
PATRON.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.
COUNCIL.
(Elected 12th November 1907.)
President.
Professor JAMES GEIKIE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.
His Grace The Doke of Hamilton.
His Grace The Duke of Montrose, K.T.
Tlie Most Hon. The Marquess of Twkeddalk, K.T.
The Most Hon. The Marquess of Linlithgow, K.T.,
G.C.M.G.,G.C.V.O.
The Right Hon. The Earl of Dalkeith.
The Right Hon. The Earl of Crawford and
BAiCAKRES, K.T., LL.D., F.R.S., P.R.A.S.
The Right Hon. The Earl of Wemyss and March,
LL.D.
The Right Hon. The Earl of Aberdeen, K.T.,
G.C.M.G., LL.D.
The Right Hon. The Earl of Stair.
The Right Hon. The Earl of Rosebery, K.G., K.T.,
D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., P.S.A.
The Right Hon. The Earl of Camperdown, LL.D.
The Right Hon. Lord Forbes.
The Right Hon. Lord Saltoun.
The Right Hon. Lord Sempill.
The Right Hon. Lord Elphinstone.
The Right Hon. Lord Balfour of Burlbioh, K.T.,
LL.D.
The Right Hon. Lord Reay, G.G.S.L, G.C.LE., D.O.L.,
LL.D., P.B.A.
Colonel The Right Hon. Lord Playfair, C.V.O., R.A.
The Right Hon. Lord Overtoun.
The Right Hon. Lord Kinnear, LL.D.
The Hon. Lord Stormonth Darling, LL.D.
The Hon. Lord Guthrie.
Sir Donald Currie, G.C.M.G., LL.D.
Sir John Murray, K. C. B. , D. Sc. , Ph.D. , LL. D. , F. R. S.
Chairmen of Centres.
Glasgmv . . Paul Rottenburg, LL.D.
Dundee . . I. Julius Weinberg, J.P., F.R.G.S.
Aberdeen . . William Smith.
Henry A. R. Chancellor.
James J. Dobbie, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S,
Captain Alan Foster.
John Geddie, F.R.G.S.
A. P. Laurie, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E.
Lieut. E. H. Shackleton, M.V.O.
W. F. G. Anderson, Glasgow.
J. Horne, LL.D., F.R.S.
John Clarke, M.A., Aberdeen.
H. B. FiNLAY.
William B. Wilson, W.S.
John Gunn, M.A., D.Sc.
Lieut. -Colonel F. Bailey.
Kenneth Sanderson, W.S.
Sir James A. Russell, LL.D.
H. M. Cadell, B.Sc.
Robert Fullerton, M.D., Glasgow.
Alexander Mackay, C.A., Dundee.
Harry W. Smith, W.S., F.R.S.6.S.
David Christison, M.D., LL.D.
George Smith, M.A.
George Mackenzie Brown.
Charles E. Price, M.P.
Hon. John Abercromby.
Ordinary Members of Council.
W. G. Burn-Murdoch.
Ebenezer Duncan, M. D., Glasgow.
A. E. Maylard, B.Sc, Glasgow.
D. F. Lowe, M.A., LL.D.
George Smith, LL.D., CLE.
W. B. Blaikie, F.R.S.E.
Captain D. Livingstone Bruce.
Colonel T. Cadell, V.C, C.B.
Colonel Wardlaw Ramsay.
John Kerr, LL.D.
Robert S. Allan, Glasgow.
A. Crosbie Turner, Glasgow.
A. B. Gilroy.
Sir George W. Baxter, LL.D., Dundee.
The Right Hon. James P. Gibson, Lord Provost
OF Edinburgh.
Professor Alex. Darroch, M.A.
Professor T. Hudson Beare, B.A., B.Sc, M.I.C.B.
W. S. Bruce, LL.D.
The Hon. Sir William Bilsland, Bart., Lord Provost
of Glasgow.
R. B. Don, Dundee.
Robert Sinclair, M.D., Dundee.
Professor J. Arthur Thomson, M.A., Abei-deen.
CrusUea— James Currie, M.A., F.R.S.E. ; James R.
Reid, CLE. ; F. Grant Ooilvie.CB., M.A., B.Sc ;
William C Smith, K.C, M.A. ; and the Honorary
Treasurers, ex officio.
Sonorarg STreassutEtB— James Currie, M.A., F.R.S.E.,
Edinburgh; Robert Gourlay, LL.D., Bank of
Scotland, Glasgow,
i^onorarp Stcrttartea — Ralph Richardson, W.S.,
F.R.S.E. ; John George Bartholomew, F.R.S.E.
Glasgow : A. Crosbie Turner, 65 Bath Street.
Dundee : David Wylie, 38 Reform Street.
Aberdeen : R. W. K. Bain, 375 Union Street.
ionorarg lEUitor— Professor James Geikik, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
l^onorarg ILibrarian— J.
F.R.S.E.
Burgess, CLE., LL.D.,
l^onorarg iWap=Cutator— Colonel James Sconce.
auSitorg— Macandrew and Blaie, C.A.
Secrctarg anS STreaaurer— Major W. Lachlan Fobbbb
Gate R.F.).
ffilJitor— Marion I. Newbigin, D.Sc.
ffijjuf CUrft— George Walker.
SOCIETY'S HALL : NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, EDINBURGH.
TELEPHONE: 1989 CENTRAL. TELEGRAMS: GEOGRAPHY, EDINBURGH.
ROYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.
CONDITIONS AND PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERSHIP.
It is provided by Chapter i. § iv. of the Constitution and Laws
of the Koyal Scottish Geographical Society, that —
" The Ordinary Members shall he those who are approved by the
Council, and tvho iiay the ordinary annual sitbscrijjtion, or a com-
position for life-membership."
The Annual Subscription is One Guinea, and is payable in
advance at the commencement of each Session. A Member may
compound for Life-Membership by payment as follows, viz. : —
When under ten years' standing, £20 ; when over ten and under
twenty years, £15; when over twenty and under 30 years, £10;
when over thirty years' standing, £5,
The Official Year, or Session, of the Society is from November 1st
to October 31st. New Members are required to pay the Subscrip-
tion for the Session in which they join the Society, at whatever
period, and they are entitled to receive the ordinary publications
of that Session. Resignations, to take effect, must be lodged with
the Secretary before the commencement of a new Session.
The privileges of Membership include admission (with one Guest)
to the Ordinary monthly Meetings of the Society, and the use of the
Library and ]\Iap-Koom. Non-resident Members may borrow books
from the Library, but they must defray the cost of transit both ways.
Each Member is entitled to receive, free by post, the Scottish Geo-
graphical Magazine, which is published monthly by the Society.
Teacher Associate Membershii'. — The Eoyal Scottish Geogra-
phical Society, at a Meeting held in the Society's Rooms on the
8th November 1906, resolved that, with the object of helping to
promote the teaching of Geography in Schools, " Teacher Associates "
(including Lady Teachers) be admitted to certain privileges of the
Society at a reduced Subscription of Half-a-Guinea, payable in
advance at the commencement of each Session,
The privileges of Associate Membership include one ticket of
admission (not transferable, and admitting only one) to the Ordinary
^Meetings of the Society, the use of the Society's Kooms, and the
right to borrow one volume from the Library. Non-resident Associate
Members may borrow books from the Library, but they must defray
the cost of transit both ways. Each Associate Member is entitled
to receive, free by post, the Scottish Geographical Magazine, which is
published monthly by the Society.
Branches of the Society have been established in Glasgow,
Dundee, and Aberdeen, where periodical Meetings are held.
COl^TENTS.
VOL. XXIII: 1907.
No. I.— JANUARY.
Ger graphical Ideal?. By Sir George Taubman Goldie, F.E.S., D.C.L.,
LL.D., President of the Royal Geographical Society,
Geographical Photography. By John Thomson, .
The Dead Heart of Australia : A Review, .
The Volcanoes of Mexico, ....
Western Tibet and the British Borderland,
The Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, .
Proceedings of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society,
Geographical Notes, .....
The Mungo Park Centenary — Report of the Malta Fever Commission —
The Stein Expedition to Eastern Turkestan — The French ArchEeological
Expedition to Central Asia — Journey to Western Tibet— The Result of the
Foureau-Lamy Mission — New Turco-Egyptian Frontier — The San Francisco
Earthquake and the Bogoslof Islands — The Geography of Alaska — The
"World's Production of Rubber— The Industrial Situation in the Southern
United States.
Educational, .........
New Books, . . . . . . . . .
Books received, ........
{Portrait, Map, and Illustrations.)
1
14
19
25
28
33
39
41
49
51
55
No. II.— FEBRUARY.
H.S.H. The Prince of Monaco, .....
The Niger Basin and Mungo Park. By Sir Harry H. Johnston, G.C.M.G.
K.C.B.,
On the Frontier of the Western Shire, British Central Africa. By H
Cravpford Angus, ......
The Upper Ituri. By J. Penman Browne, M.E., .
Proceedings of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society,
57
58
72
86
95
viii CONTENTS.
Geographical Notes, ........
Errata — Expedition to Bui niah— Ruwtnzoii — Earthquake in Jamaica—
^^eteorology in the Antarctic— The Peary Arctic Expedition— The Amundsen
Polar Expedition— New Arctic Expedition— The Duke of Orleans' Green-
land Expedition— Scottish National Antarctic Expedition— Tlie Italian
Geographical Congress of 1907— The Geographical Association— Ninth
International Geographical Congress.
Educational,
New Books, .........
Books received, ........
(Portrait, Ma2)s, and Illustrations.)
95
101
103
112
No. III.— MARCH.
Meteorological Researches in the High Atmosphere. By H.S.H. The
Prince of Monaco, . . . . .113
The Transition of British Africa. By Major A. St. H. Gibbons, F.R.G.S., 122
Prince Charles Foreland. By William S. Bruce, F.R.S.E., . . 141
Proceedings of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, . . 156
Geographical Notes, . . . . . . . .157
Professor Sir William Ramsay, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D.— The Flora of an
Island— The Survey of Lake Balaton— Dr. Sven Hedin's Expedition — The
Alexander-Gosling Expedition — Scottish National Antarctic Expedition —
New Antarctic Expedition — The Anglo-American Polar Expedition —
Personal— Geographical Congresses.
Educational, ......... 161
New Maps, ......... 163
Atlases and World Maps, ....... 165
Books received, ........ 166
{Portrait, Map, and Illustrations.)
No. IV.— APRIL.
By Marion I.
169
By Lionel W.
192
202
205
The Swiss Valais : A Study in Regional Geography.
Newbigin, D.Sc. (Lond.),
The Rivers of Scotland : The Beauly and Conon.
Hinxman, B.A., F.R.S.E.,
The Black Man's Mind, ....
Geographical Notes, .....
Old Italian Charts— The Lake of Pangong— A New Volcanic Island— A New
Zealand Geyser— The Geological Survey of New Zealand— The Structure
and Topography of Graham Land — Meteorology in the Antarctic — New
Arctic Expedition— The Production of Cereals in France— The Commercial
and Colonial Expansion of Modern States — Rubber Cultivatiou in Ceylon —
The British Association.
Educational, .........
212
CONTENTS.
New Books, .........
Books received, ........
(Illustrations, Maps, and Diagrams.)
No. V. -MAY.
The Swiss Valais : A Study in Regional Geography. By Marion I. New-
bigin, D.Sc. (Lend.), ......
Cossacks and Cossackdom. By V. Dingelstedt, Corr. Member of the
R.S.G.S.,
Proceedings of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, .
Geographical Notes, ........
The Lagoons of Venice — Sven Hedin's Expedition — The New Volcanic Island
off Burma — The Wellman Polar Expedition — New Belgian Antarctic Expedi-
tion— The Problem of the Eeturn Trade-winds— The Royal Geographical
Society's Annual Awards — The Scottish Meteorological Society — New Rail-
ways in Switzerland.
Educational, .
New Books, .
New Maps, .
Atlases,
Books received,
{Maps and Illustrations.)
IX
PAGE
214
223
225
239
261
261
266
268
277
279
279
No. VI.— JUNE.
Some Old Mexican Volcanoes. By Henry M. Cadell, B.Sc, F.R.S.E., . 281
Geographical Notes, . . . . . . . .312
The Sierra Nevada and the Alpujarra — Glaciation and Volcanic Deposits near
Rome— The History of the Scandinavian Flora — The French Census of 1906
— The Colony of Erythrea — Welwitschia and Climatic Change in Damara-
land — Inter-Oceanic Canals in Colombia — Rate of Recession of Niagara
Falls — The Anglo-American Polar Expedition — Prince Charles Foreland,
Spitsbergen— The Water Supply of Egypt— Niger Railway— Retirement of
Professor Emile A. Goeldi.
Educational, ......... 320
New Books, ........ 322
Books received, ... ..... 335
(Map and Illustrations.)
No. VII.— JULY.
Address to the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science,
Adelaide Meeting, 1907. By T. W. Fowler, . . . 337
Bathymetrical Survey of the Fresh-Water Lochs of Scotland. Under the
Direction of Sir John Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc, etc., and
Laurence Pullar, F.R.S.E., ...... 346
The Vagaries of the Colorado River. By J. W. Redway, F.R.G.S., . 360
The Vegetation of Western Australia : a Review, . . . 363
' b
X CONTENTS.
PAGE
The Southern Highlands from Glasgow. By John Frew, M.A., B.Sc,
and Frederick Mort, M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S., . . . .367
The British Antarctic Expedition, 1907. By E. H. Sbackleton, . . 372
The Future of Japan : A Review, ...... 374
Geographical Notes, ........ 377
The Fauna of Great Britain and Ireland — The Distribution of the Population
of Lower Languedoc— The Origin of the River System of North Belgium —
The British Museum Expedition to Central Africa — The Rainfall of German
West Africa — Glacial Erosion in Alaska — Chamois in New Zealand — Fauna
and Flora of Spitsbergen— The Second Belgian Antarctic Expedition — The
Wellnian Polar Expedition^New Antarctic Expedition — Progress of Argen-
tina— Minerals in Ireland — The Harbour of Bruges — Railwaj* Schemes in
Switzerland— Personal.
Educational, ......... 385
New Books, ......... 388
Books received, . . . . . .391
{Map and Figures.)
No. VIII.— AUGUST.
Notes and Observations on an Expedition in the Western Cape Colony.
By Lieut. J. A. G. Elliot, ...... 393
Athens. Notes on a Recent Visit. By Ralph Richardson, Hon. Sec.
R.S.G.S., 422
Obituary : Dr. Alexander Buchan. By Hugh Robert Mill, D.Sc, . 427
Geographical Notes, . . . .431
The Variations of Lake Chad— The Benguela-Katanga Railway— Salton Sea
—North Polar Problems— The Franklin Search Expedition— The British
Antarctic Expedition, 1907 — Personal — International Congress of
Orientalists.
Educational, ......... 436
New Books, ......... 437
New Maps, ......... 446
New Atlases, ........ 447
(Map and Illustrations.)
No. IX.— SEPTEMBER.
Old Scottish Volcanoes. By Professor James Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.,
The Mergui Archipelago : Its People and Products. By R. N. Rudmose
Brown, B.Sc, •••....
Irrigation Projects in the United States, .....
Geographical Notes, ........
The Ben Nevis Observatory— Expedition to Central Asia— The Peopling of
Algeria— Expedition to South America— The Scottish Arctic Expedition—
The British Antarctic Expedition— Commander Peary's New Expedition—
The French Antarctic Expedition— Railways in Nigeria— Personal.
449
463
484
488
Educational, .
New Books, .
Books received,
CONTENTS.
(Illustrations.)
XI
PAGE
492
493
504
No. X.— OCTOBER.
Geography and Commerce. By George G. Chisholm, M.A., B.Sc, . 505
The Place of Origin of the Moon — The Volcanic Problem. By Professor
William H. Pickering, Harvard University, . . . 523
The Jamaica Earthquake. By Professor Charles W. Brown, Brown
University ........ 535
Proceedings of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, . . . 543
Geographical Notes, ....... 545
The Geology of .Japan — The Hydrography of the Sangpo — The Nyasaland
Protectorate — Plant-zones on Mt. Ruwenzori— French Guiana — The Sierra
Maestra of Cuba — Population of Commonwealth of Australia — The Anglo-
American Polar Expedition — Mr. Harrison's Arctic Expedition — The Well-
man Polar Expedition — The Ninth International Geographical Congress —
The Economic Development of Japan.
Educational, . . . . . . . . .551
New Books, ......... 552
Books received, ........ 559
(Illustrations.)
No. XI.— NOVEMBER.
The New Fields of Geography, especially Commercial Geography. By
Prof. Dr. Max Eckert (Aachen), ..... 561
Ancient Khotan : A Review, ...... 568
Manuscript Maps by Pont, the Gordons, and Adair, in the Advocates'
Library, Edinburgh. By C. G. Cash, F.R.S.G.S., . . .574
The Leicester Meeting of the British Association, .... 593
Geographical Notes, ........ 598
The Anglo-Russian Agreement— Dr. Stein's Expedition — Dr. Sven Hedin's
Expedition — Lake Chad and the Yo River — The Surveys of British Africa
— The Frontier of Liberia — The Scottish Arctic Expedition — The Prince of
Monaco's Spitsbergen Expedition — Mr. Harrison's Expedition — Cruise of
the Belgica, July-September 1907 — Centenary of London Geological
Society — The Nyasaland Railway — Commercial Possibilities of West
Africa — Personal.
Educational, ......... 606
New Books, ......... 608
New Maps, ......... 613
Books received, . . . . . . . .616
(Map.)
xil CONTENTS.
No. XIL— DECEMBEE.
PAGE
Geography and Statecraft. By the Right Hon. Viscount Milner, P.O.,
G.C.B., G.C.M.G., Gold Medallist of the Royal Scottish Geo-
graphical Society, . .617
The Study of the Weather as a Branch of Nature Knowledge. By
Marion I. Newbigin, D.Sc, ..... 627
Proceedings of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, . . . 648
Obituary, ......... 651
Geographical Notes, ........ 652
Report on the Progress of the Ordnance Survey — Bennett Island — Upper
Burma — The Frontier of Liberia— Expedition to the Arctic — The Anglo-
American Polar Expedition — The Agricultural Development of Mada-
gascar.
Educational, ......... 658
New Books, ......... 659
Books received, ........ 667
Report of Council, ........ 669
{Portrait, Map and Illustrations.)
Index . . . . . . . . . 673
THK lili.HT Hon. 81K GEUKUE TAL IJ.MAN GOLUIE, I'.C, K.C.M.G
Gold Medallist of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society.
D.C.L., LL.D.
THE SCOTTISH
GEOGRAPHICAL
MAGAZINE.
GEOGRAPHICAL IDEALS.^
By Sir George Taubm.a.n Goldie, F.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D.,
President of the Royal Geographical Society.
GEOGRA.PHY is an eminently practical branch of knowledge, and it may,
perhaps, be contended that it has no place for ideals. There is, indeed,
a general aspect of the subject which appeals to the imagination with
almost overwhelming force. To explain my meaning, let me first ask
and answer the question, What is the hem or field of Geography % It is
the surface of our globe, in which term we also include the atmosphere
and such depths of the lithosphere and hydrosphere as are or have
been penetrated or examined by man ; so that, to a large extent, it
coincides with the locus or field of biology, although the contents of the
two sciences are, of course, very different. The exactness of my defini-
tion may be disputed, but it is sufficiently accurate for my purpose.
The entire field of geography is, in any case, only a thin film of air,
earth and water rotating and advancing amongst the immensities of
the stellar system. But this exiguous film, insignificant in dimensions
as compared even with the volume of our small planet, contains all
that we know of thought and sensation existing in the universe.
Speculate as we may, hope as we may, believe as we may, this minute
and whirling field of geography is to us the only place in which, so
far as our present knowledge goes, those phenomena exist which
differentiate life from inert matter, the only field where the mysteries
of reproduction, volition, reason, and imagination have their home.
But apart from this general aspect of an awe-inspiring and yet
1 An address delivered at the Opening Meeting of the Society in Edinburgh on
November 22.
VOL. XXIII. A
2 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
fantastic i^osition, the science of geography is essentially utilitarian.
Why then should it need ideals ? The answer, to my mind, is that
in order to produce the most effective practical work in any depart-
ment of life, it is necessary to have ideals ; even though we can no
more hope to attain them absolutely than the asymptote can actually
reach the curve which it is ever approaching. Counsels of perfection
are, indeed, so often employed as a reason for ill-considered action, or as
an excuse for inaction, that it is easy to understand the impatience
with which they are generally brushed aside by the practical but not
highly imaginative Englishman ; but when they are set up only as
goals towards which we should struggle, by paths however devious, by
successions of compromises, with well-timed haste and with well-timed
rest, their value cannot be overestimated. I can think of no finer
example of this truth than is to be found in the life of David Living-
stone, who was at once an idealist and a practical woiker in the highest
degree, and who may also be held to have approached as nearly as human
nature permits to our conception of an ideal explorer. >
Exploration. — I propose to deal, in the first place, with the ideal
explorer, partly because of the occasion which brings me here to-night,
the award of the Livingstone medal, but mainly because exploration
in the present or in the past is the very foundation on which all
geography rests. Whether the term exploration be applied to travel
amongst barbarous tribes in the heart of an unknown continent, or to
the peripatetic examination of some geographical problem in one's own
country, the category of the most efifective qualities of character and
method remains much the same, however different may be the degree in
which those qualities are called upon to be displayed.
With an almost unprecedented store of the more passive qualities of
physical courage, tact, patience and endurance, which a long life of
dangers, obstacles, privations and sickness could not exhaust, Livingstone
possessed an equally remarkable store of those more active qualities,
which many men have shown for shorter periods, but which few have
been able to maintain as he did, during decade after decade, the power
of initiative, the almost unerring perception of the most effective ways
of attaining his objects with the very limited resources at his disposal,
the unwearying persistence in pursuing those objects, and perhaps, above
all, the moral courage with which he continually risked one of the most
depressing of human calamities, failure. With the exception of physical
courage and endurance, the need for which in geographical exploration
is rapidly disappearing, these passive and active qualities of character
will always remain essential, though in a lesser degree, to the investi-
gator of nature abroad or at home.
As regards Livingstone's qualities of method I would specially deal
with his adaptation and cultivation of his mental acquirements for
service in eveiy branch of the work which he set himself to perform.
Geographers are, perhaps, apt to forget, and missionary societies, at one
period of his life, certainly forgot that although Livingstone ranks as the
most notable explorer of modern days, taking into account the great
number of years over which his services extended, he was (one may say)
GEOGRAPHICAL IDEALS. 6
born a missionary, he lived a missionary, he died a nii&sionary. He
foresaw, wlien still a youth, that for this work a medical education
would be invaluable, a truth which was not so widely appreciated in
those days as it is now. The story of his extreme privations and
difficulties in obtaining the desired education in surgery and medicine,
while barely earning his living in a factory, is at once pathetic and
bracing, but my business is only to note that if he had not acquired that
knowledge it would not have been a question of his succeeding less
completely as an explorer ; it would have meant his entire failure at an
early stage of his exploration?. Of similar character was his thorough
acquaintance with the use of tools which he foresaw would be of some
value when he became a missionary, and which proved of incalculable
value when he, at a later period, superimposed on that calling the career
of an explorer. Fortunately also, for general science, Livingstone had,
as a boy, taken great interest in botany, geology and zoology, and had
devoted his leisure to searches for specimens in the country surrounding
his home. At a later period, he cultivated to his utmost power his
acquaintance with these branches of knowledge, with the result that the
great value of his contributions from Africa was recognised by the most
competent authorities. I need only refer to the testimony of no less a
person than Professor Owen as regards Livingstone's contributions to
zoology and paleontology, to the repeated tribute which Sir Eoderick
Murchison paid to his services to geology and physical geography, and
to the following remark made by the then astronomer-royal at the Cape.
" I never knew a man," said Sir Thomas Maclear, " who, knowing
scarcely anything of the method of making geographical observations or
laying down positions, became so soon an adept, that he could take the
complete lunar observation and altitudes for time within fifteen minutes."
I quote this verbatim because it shows the intensity and whole-hearted-
ness with which Livingstone threw himself into any new study which
his new career demanded, but the need of which he could not foresee
until he determined to abandon his South African mission station for
exploration in unknown lands.
The special branches of knowledge in which Livingstone trained and
perfected himself are not, of course, all needed for explorers in every
part of the world, or in every branch of exploration in its widest and
truest sense. The explorer who travels round the shores of Britain to
examine the conditions of coast erosion will not need for this purpose
the particular mental equipment with which Livingstone armed himself,
such as medical knowledge, skill in the use of tools, acquaintance with
botany and zoology, ability to take accurate astronomical observations ;
but he will need, as fully as Livingstone needed, whatever special
acquirements his object demands, and he will approach the ideal explorer
in exact proportion to his previous cultivation of the necessary technical
knowledge and powers of scientific observation, and to the character
which he displays in the pursuit of his labours. Tact, persistence and
moral courage are hardly less essential to genuine success in civilised
lands than they are in barbarous regions, and it is indeed an open ques-
tion whether African chiefs, in the days of their independence, were not.
4 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
as a rule, less unsatisfactory to deal with than the governments of our
own and neighbouring countries,
Cartor/rophij. — Upon the foundation of exploration, in its wider
meaning, geography constructs its basement of cartography on which
must rest the entire superstructure of the science, so that our next
question concerns the ideals towards which cartographers should ad-
vance. Many years ago the late Elisee Eeclus, perhaps the greatest
geographer of the generation now passing away, strongly advocated
before the Royal Geographical Society a method which must, I fear,
long remain only an ideal, namely the use of relief globes, or sections of
globes, of such dimensions — say on the scale of I to 100,000 — that even
heights of 150 feet would be distinctly shown, without adopting the usual
method in relief maps of exaggerating the proportional height of hills
and mountains. On globes of such dimensions the geological and
ecological features of the surface could also be displayed in considerable
detail. After quoting the view urged many years ago by a scientist,
whom he justly termed " one of our eminent geographers, Dr. H. R,
Mill," that " accurate cartographic representation is the very essence of
geography," Elisee Reclus proceeded to point out that " there is only one
way to represent truly the surface of the earth. Curves are to be
translated in carves. , . . Therefore are we really astonished that public
attention and the special care of geographers are so little attracted
towards this logical mode of geographical work." He noted that globes
of considerable dimensions — up to the scale of one millionth — had
indeed been made for exhibition purposes, but that these had *' made no
pretence to accuracy in geography proper." He might have added that,
on so small a scale, such globes would have been useless for effective
hypsometrical representation as regards regions where the elevations
were generally less than 3000 feet, so that while Scotland would display
some of her beautiful hypsometrical features, England would show a
somewhat plain face. It will not be denied that there is immense force
in Elis6e Reclus's proposals. Under the existing system of education boys
are taught to think of the earth's surface only in terms of plane
trigonometry ; and although this method is approximately accurate over
small areas, it is absolutely misleading when the areas are large, the
globes in ordinary use being so small as to make it difficult for a boy to
co-ordinate them in thought with the flat maps presented to him of
individual countries. Moreover, it is one of the important advantages
of real geographical study, as it is of the study of astronomy, that the
mind is trained to think in terms of both spherical and plane trigono-
metry; and this double standpoint gives the student that stereoscopic
view of nature which is essential in every department of thought, if
existence is to be appreciated as a solid reality instead of as a flat and
unsubstantial picture. The more effective qualities of the average
officer of the navy or the mercantile marine (as compared Avith the
average landsman of equal general education) are everywhere recognised,
and are, doubtless, due to several concurrent causes ; but it does not
seem to me far-fetched to attribute them in some part to his studies in
navigation which necessitate his acquisition of the habit of viewing
GEOGRAPHICAL IDEALS. O
space from a double standpoint. In elucidation of my meaning I would
recall a remark made to me many years ago by a great pliilologist that
when a man for the first time studies another language than his own,
he acquires ideas on language generally which would otherwise have
always remained unknown, and even inconceivable to him. One of our
leading statesmen invented the hapj^y phrase " Learn to think imperially."
I would say to the young geograi)her, learn to think spherically.
Before leaving Elisee Reclus's proposals for exhibiting the earth's
surface on curves and in relief with the same scale for plan and eleva-
tions, I feel compelled to protest, of course with the greatest deference,
against the unmitigated scorn and condemnation which he and some
other eminent geographers have heaped upon the usual system of relief
maps or globes which exaggerate the proportional height of hills. Until
we reach Reclus's ideal of globes or sections of sufficient dimensions to
depict the true hypsometrical proportions, and until such globes or
sections can be so multiplied as to be within reach of every school
throughout the civilised world, it is difficult to see how an average boy
is to acquire, without the aid of the ordinary relief map, an initial grasp
of the morphology of an extensive region. No doubt the use of the
ordinary relief map must be accompanied by careful explanation of the
difference of the vertical and horizontal scales ; but it does not require
much imagination in the student to make the necessary mental adjust-
ments. Those of you who have, when bicycling or motoring, used a
guide-book giving profiles of the roads with a vertical scale several
times as large as the horizontal scale, will, I feel sure, confirm this view.
My protest arises from personal experience. It was not until at the age
of nineteen I visited Switzerland and Germany, which, even at that
date, possessed excellent relief maps, with of course exaggerated heights,
that morphology became a reality to me ; and there must be millions
who, like myself, have not been gifted with an innate initial power of
full realisation from representation by projection, where perspective
cannot be called in to assist. Once the sentiment of reality is fully
established by the aid of relief representations of a region over which
one moves, flat projections become for ever as communicative as they
are to those more fortunate persons who are born cartographers.
For the present, Reclus's gigantic globes or sections of globes are not
available and we must do the best that we can to improve our flat maps.
The ideal flat map would include every datum with which the science
of Geography in its most advanced state would deal. It would repre-
sent all the great physical features of the earth's surface, land and water
in all their various forms, mountains and hills, valleys, plains, plateaus
and depressions, oceans, inland seas, lakes and rivers. It would show
both the hypsometrical features of the lithosphere and the bathymetrical
features of the hydrosphere. It would indicate in a general way the
surface geology. It would mark the average rainfall and prevailing
temperature. It would show the main economic or ecological charac-
teristics of regions represented on a small scale, and would deal in
detail, on a large scale, with regions calling for special attention ; while
in wholly undeveloped parts of the world, the characteristics of the
6 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
surface would be exhibited, such as forest, prairie or other grass lands,
desert and swamp. It would indicate the distribution of life in its
various forms, showing the leading features of vegetable life, and the
principal types of wild animals, where such existed. So far, however,
the ideal map would exhibit only the framework in which humanity is
set, the theatre on which man has to play his part. To make it
complete, it must show the distribution of various types of mankind
over the face of the earth, the boundaries of states, the density of popu-
lation, and to some extent the general results of man's interference with
natural conditions, or what is generally regarded as political and economic
geography. I do not pretend to have exhausted all that it should
exhibit. I have only pointed out leading features that it should not
omit ; and I may sum up by saying that the ideal map of a region should
contain in cartographical symbols all the information which would be
necessary to a student who wished to write a complete geographical
memoir of the region ; for cartography is the basis of all sound
geography. Such a map is at present only an ideal which should be
striven after by all conscientious and competent cartographers, as far as
is now practicable. The question of the best methods and symbols to
be employed must be left for discussion by cartographical experts, who
appear, however, to have widely differing views on the subject; but
criticism is permissible to those who have not constructive or creative
genius, and I may point out one method which is clearly unscientific.
One has seen maps issued from time to time under the title of com-
mercial maps, and professing to show the distribution of products and
industries, in which the names of these seemed as if they had been dis-
tributed over the sheet by means of a pepper box. Horses, silk, cattle,
iron, sheep, grass, pigs, wheat, wine, and scores of other names were
scattered in a haphazard fashion, which not only failed to inform, but
actually misled any one unacquainted with the regions represented.
One of the most difficult tasks for the cartographer seems to be an
adequate representation of the hypsometrical features of the earth's
surface. For certain purposes the contour map is very useful, especially
if, as in the Swedish Official Survey map, each contour is shaded with a
gradually intensified tint of brown from the sea-level upwards. A very
effective metliod of contouring is that which Japan adopted some
twenty years ago, and which is now used in the United States Geolo-
gical and Geographical Survey. This consists of lines in a tint of brown
so arranged that at a slight distance it produces the effect of excellent
hill shading : while, on close inspection, one is able to read the contours.
Perhaps, however, the best result is produced when really good hill
shading is used in combination with contours, as is the case with the
Swiss Survey maps. This method shows very clearly the lie of the
land, while one can also read the contours from the lowest level to the
highest. Another very good example of this method is the map of
Tunis, on a scale of 1 to 50,000, which has been recently published by
the French Intelligence Department. I feel that it might be invidious
to mention by name any particular cartographical establishment in
these islands, or even on the continent of Europe, but I have little
GEOGRAPHICAL IDEALS. 7
doubt that most of you have already made up your minds as to which,
on the whole, are the most useful as well as the most artistic Atlases
available in the United Kingdom. My chief fear is that the majority
of the general public who have not yet been reached by the geographical
training so rapidly spreading on improved lines all over the country,
may form their estimate of atlases on their cheapness or on their quan-
tity and not their quality, or on the number of names which are to be
found in their indexes. Other things being equal and subject to there
being no sacrifice of clearness, a large number of names is an advan-
tage, but if they are divorced from their natural physical and economic
setting they convey very little real information. I hope that the time
has passed when it was thought that any production was good enough
for a school map or a school atlas, and that we are alive to the obvious
fact that the maps on which children are trained have no less importance
than those which are for the use of adults. It may not perhaps be prac-
ticable to produce an atlas in which all the maps are on the same scale,
but some confusion in juvenile minds might perhaps be avoided if the
maps were all on a multiple or a measure of a standard scale. It will, I
think, be generally agreed that thex'e is room to-day for even a better
atlas than any now existing, and we can only hope that with the spread
of geographical education the necessary encouragement may be given to
publishers to expend the large amounts which the production of a first-
class atlas would undoubtedly require.
Geogmpluj in War and Peace. — To whatever point of excellence carto-
graphy may be brought, however, it can never be more than a means to
an end, excepting to a small number of artistic minds to whom a really
fine map is a thing of beauty and a joy for ever. The same principle
applies to geographical knowledge generally, which may be its own
reward to a few detached minds, but which will be estimated by most
men at its practical value to mankind. A few words must therefore be
said as to their most important uses in war and peace, and we may
possibly find some ideals at which we should aim in these directions. I
put war first as the primitive state of mankind and not yet entirely out
of date. It is a moot question whether war is more useful to geography
or geography to war. The proposition that war has been one of the
greatest geographers has been so frequently expounded at length and is
so obvious to the student of history that I need not dwell upon it in this
brief address, only remarking that it is interesting to find the conviction
of its truth existing even in the United States where, more than in any
other great country, the development of geographical knowledge and
peaceful expansion have gone hand in hand.
During the Spanish-American War a well-known scientific authority,
Professor Chamberlin of Chicago, pointed out that the war might be
expected to produce a great revival of interest in geography throughout
the United States. He concluded : " It was observed at the close of the
Civil War that those who returned from its campaigns possessed an
appreciation of the elements of position and physical relationship quite
beyond that realised by the preceding generation educated under the
benign influences of peace."
8 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
We now know that Professor Chamberlin's forecast was correct, the'
Spanish-American War having given an undoubted acceleration to the
progress of the geographical spirit in the United States similar to that
which he tells us was observed after the Civil War.
The value of geography in Avar, on the other hand, may perhaps be
best brought home to our own countrymen by recalling the enormous
expenditure in which the want both of maps and of geographical
training of our oiRcers indirectly involved us during the Boer War. I
can speak confidently on these points from having served (for nearly a
year) on the Royal Commission on the South African War. It is a
matter of deep regret that, during the many years of peace and colonial
expansion at the close of the last century, Great Britain did not expend
a moderate sum annually in mapping the unsurveyed portions of the
Empire. We should not then have found ourselves attempting to
relieve Ladysmith or advancing to the Modder Eiver without maps of
the country. It is only fair to add that the lesson of the war, in this
respect, has not been altogether forgotten. During the last four years
a certain amount of money has been expended in imperial mapping of
hitherto unsurveyed regions ; and if this process is not altogether
arrested by a spirit of false economy, we may possibly at some distant
date possess fairly adequate maps of all British possessions. That is at
any rate an ideal which we should strive to attain. As regards the
want of geographical training of our officers, I have not time to cite the
mass of evidence given before our Commission by the most competent
authorities as to the general deficiency in knowledge of ground, than
which, as Lord Roberts and others pointed out, nothing could be more
important in war. Even as regards staff officers, who have considerably
more training in this subject than the ordinary regimental officers, Lord
Roberts was often struck with their inability to read maps well or to
explain quickly and intelligently about the contours and elevations. In
this respect our ideal should be to reach the level attained by Japanese
and German officers.
Geographical ignorance is a costly luxury in times of war, but it is
perhaps still more costly in times of peace. No estimate, even of the
roughest kind, can be formed of the vast sums that have been wasted in
modern days through States collectively, on the one hand, and individual
settlers, on the other hand, attempting to produce grapes from thorns
and figs from thistles.
This subject of the practical uses of ecology, or economic geography,
is far too large to be treated here incidentally ; it would require an
address or rather a series of addresses to itself. A mass of literature
on the subject already exists; but this will probably be read only by
specialists, or by those who can give a good deal of their time to scien-
tific geography. For others, the best short manual on the general
question is still, to my mind, that entitled Applied Gecgraphy, by Dr.
Scott Keltic, who is recognised, both at home and abroad, as one of
the most capable and best informed geographers of this or any other
countiy. I understand that he is a Scotsman ; and as I am speaking
to a Scottish audience, I may briefly refer to the splendid ecological
GEOGKAPHICAL IDEALS. 9
work that Scotland has done in the exploration, settling and devek p-
ment of those vast regions known as the Dominion of Canada, which
have before them so assured and so great a future. The part that
Scotland has played in that work up to 1882 is, I think, best told in
Mr. Rattray's The Scot in Brituh North America, which many of you will
have read. I may say that it was lent to me by a very distinguished
Scot, whom the rising generation probably know chiefly as the Lord
Strathcona, who raised and equipped Strathcona's horse during the
Boer War, but whom older geographers remember as the Donald Smith
who played so important a part in the development of the North-West
regions. I need hardly remind you that from Canada comes another
Scot — Sir John Murray — who is, admittedly, the greatest oceano-
grapher and limnologist that the world has produced ; that the most
successful settlement in South Africa was the Scotch settlement in
Cape Colony; that Natal is a second Scotland; that the acquisition of
British rights in East Africa, which promises to show important
ecological results, was due to the efforts of the late Sir William
Mackinnon, and was largely the result of the explorations of Joseph
Thomson; that the province known by the misleading name of British
Central Africa was opened up to commerce by the Scottish African
Lakes Company, and was made into a peaceful British possession by
the first recipient of your Livingstone Medal, Sir Harry Johnston; or
that, a century ago, the marvellous travels of Mungo Park were the
genesis of the entire movement which has opened up Africa to civi-
lisation. It must, I think, be admitted that Scotland was in the fore-
front of the great geographical and imperial movement of the nine-
teenth century. Nor has she neglected the more purely scientific sides
of geography, as Avas evidenced by the recent successful national expedi-
tion to the Antarctic regions ; while her cartography, as represented by
Keith Johnston and Bartholomew, has undoubtedly led the way in these
islands. I trust that this vigorous and practical geographical spirit
may long endure and, if possible, increase. Although the era of ex-
ploration, in the conventional sense, is drawing to a close, there is an
unlimited field open for scientific exploration and economic treatment.
Mankind has hitherto dealt with the surface of Mother earth in a hap-
hazard, a hand-to-mouth fashion, without much scientific study of the
varying ecological conditions in different localities, due to the various
combinations of slightly differing climates, soils and other geographical
data. Is it an unattainable ideal that scientific changes in the distribu-
tion and methods of production may some day raise humanity, so far as
material comfort is concerned, as much above its existing standard as
this is above the material condition of the ill-clothed, ill-sheltered, ill-
fed denizens of these islands at the commencement of our present era'?
Education. — Whatever may be the proper aims of geography as a
science of the utmost value, both in war and in peace, sound and exten-
sive geographical education is an essential condition of advance towards
those aims, and the question at once confronts us as to what should
be our educational ideals. You will remember that, after the House-
hold Suffrage Act, Robert Lowe gave the celebrated advice, often attri-
10 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
buted to Lord Beaconsfield, " Let us educate our masters." By our
masters Mr, Lowe meant of course the masses, and the nation have had
the question of the education of the masses with them for a whole
generation ; while — at any rate south of the Tweed — they seem likely
to have it with them for some generations to come ; but I venture to
repeat here, what 1 have often urged elsewhere, that on many subjects,
of which geography is one, we need in the first place to educate the
classes. This may not be an unattainable ideal, though it is still
distant.
In an address which I delivered at York last August before the
British Association I j) tinted out the advance during the last quarter of
a century in the interest in and appreciation of geography displayed by
the governing classes. A case of atavism, recently brought to my notice,
makes me fear that I was too sanguine as to the permanence of that
advance, at any rate in one important quarter.
In November 1899, regulations were laid down for the examinations
for the Foreign Office and Diplomatic Service, which naturally (and I
bdlieve merely in repetition of earlier regulations) made geography an
obligatory subject. A notice has lately been issued, to come into effect
after the 1st July next, under which geography will not only not be
obligatory, but will altogetlier cease to be one of the subjects of exami-
nation. I have not time to give you a list of the many other subjects
for which marks will be given to candidates, and which do not seem to
be as important as geograpli}^ to a Foreign Office clerk or to a Secretary
of an Embassy. I will only select six rather striking examples : Animal
Physiology, Physics, Chemistry, Moral atid Metaphysical Piiilosophy,
Sanskrit Language and Literature, and Zoology, which, of course, may
be useful if the official spends his leave in a country where big game is
plentiful. In these six subjects the candidate might make 3600 marks
out of the maximum of 6000, which he is not allowed to exceed; while
not a single mark is given for Geography. One is reminded of Mr.
W. S. Gilbert's "Pattern of a modern Major-General, " in "The Pirates
of Penzance," who was an adept ia every branch of human knowledge,
excepting tactics and strategy.
The urgency of the case impels me to narrate an interesting incident
not yet published, especially as the principal actors in the scene are
dead, so that no one's feelings will be hurt by the narration. A good
many years ago a territorial arrangement with France was in discussion,
and I was invited to consider it. The French proposals appeared to
the Foreign Office satisfactory ; but I found that they were expressed,
as might have been expected, in longitudes reckoned from the meridian
of Paris, while the map with which our Foreign Office had considered
these proposals was made in Germany and reckoned its longitudes
from the meridian of Greenwich. The arrangement in question was
never completed.
Tliis was an instance which came under my personal observation,
but it is a matter of notoriety that some of our most serious inter-
national disputes of recent years have arisen from the faulty geographical
knowledge of the negotiators of treaties in the darker ages. I believe
GEOGRAPHICAL IDEALS. 11
that our Foreign Office and Diplomatic Service for years past have been
filled with men of considerable geographical knowledge; but this im-
proved condition will not last if geography is to be eliminated from
their examinations, and Great Britain will see its future dii^lomatists
contending with bows and arrows against foreign diplomatists armed
Avith the best weapons of the twentieth century. The most serious
feature of the case, however, is that such an official denial of the national
importance of geographical education is to-day possible. It shows the
immense obstacles that still confront our Geographical Societies before
they can make great and lasting advance in what seems to me one of
their most urgent duties, that of educating the classes of Britain.
Turning from this fundamental postulate to the general principles
underlying a sound geographical education, I should like to put before
you the substance of a most interesting letter on the subject which I
have recently received from Mr. H. J. Mackinder, Director of the
London School of Economics, and whom you know to be one of the
highest authorities in Britain on Geographical Education. I have only
time to read extracts ; so that you Avill not hold the writer too closely
to passages given without their context. He says, " Geography must not
be thought of as a mass of information merely, or indeed chiefly. Its
distinguishing characteristic, giving it peculiar value as a discipline, is
that it has its own special point of view and mode of thought and of
memory. The geographer thinks in spaces and shapes. So far from
names being material to the subject, even words are not essential to
geographical thought. ... In the elementary stage the teaching of
geography should not adhere pedantically to any method. The main
point is that a few things should be vividly and rationally taught.
Such precision as is involved in the use of latitudes and longitudes
should be eschewed, unless in the highest standards. No doubt nature-
study should come first, but it must not be substituted for geography,
for which it only prepares. ... In secondary education the teaching of
geography should, I think, be more methodical and precise, but what is
chiefly important is that it should be progressive in method. Geography
may well serve in this stage for the purpose of correlating subjects, both
scientific and historical, but the more that such a function is assigned
to it the more necessary does it become to have a clearly defined and
strictly geographical argument running through the whole of the teach-
ing. In other words, the geographical point of view must be dominant,
and not the view points of this or tliat auxiliary science. ... In the
University stage, geography should be studied both from a specialist
and from a general standpoint ; that is to say, that while it is a con-
dition of progress in our knowledge that we forsake the whole field and
c )ncentrate on some part of it, yet it is only in the university stage that
what I may describe as the philosophy of the subject can be fully appre-
ciated. It is essential, however, that the specialist should already have
firmly acquired the geographical method and the geographical point
of view. Until secondary education in geography is more generally
thorough, I fear that the University teacher of the subject will have to
teach much which in a future generation will have been learned by his
12 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICi\L MAGAZINE.
pupils before they come to him. To my mind, by far the most impor-
tant function of the University teacher of geography in the present and
immediate future must be to produce a considerable number of good
secondary teachers of the subject, and to establish a tradition of
geographical school teaching. The danger of the moment is that in
view of the sudden demand for school teachers of geography which
has recently sprung up, we shall be tempted to equip and employ
persons of inferior general education and mental power. Geography
requires in the teacher both a firm grasp of principle and a broad out-
look. With these qualities, I believe that it can be made a discipline
of the highest order, but no subject is so easily reduced by an inferior
teacher to a low pedagogic value, worthy of all tlie contempt that has
been poured upon it."
Although Mr. Mackinder's remarks in this letter proceed from
elementary teaching upward to the University, we know that he is in
full accord with the policy followed by the Royal Geographical Society
during the last twenty years, of regarding recognition of geography at
our great Universities as the first and most important step in impreg-
nating the country with a geographical spirit, and of working downward
from there into the masses of the nation. As I dwelt on this question
at length in my York address, I will only add that it now seems certain
that the Welsh University will shortly have a Reader in Geography,
and that 1 cannot doubt that Scotland will succeed in her present efforts
to endow a Chair of Geography at the University of Edinburgh, which
has, I understand, done all in its power to facilitate such a measure.
It would, indeed, be extraordinary if this country, which, as I have
just shown, has been in the forefront of the great geographical move-
ment of the last century, should allow herself to be permanently
distanced in this one direction — admittedly of the highest importance —
not only by Oxford, Cambridge, and London, but also by Manchester,
Birmingham, and gallant little Wales.
Amongst the minor methods of arousing interest and imparting
information in geographical matters, perhaps the most effective is the
comparatively modern use of photographic lantern slides. For either
purpose the value of accurate and artistic visual representation accom-
panying aural explanations can hardly be overestimated, whether the
spectators and audience are trained geographers or elementary school
children. Even so lately as thirty years ago geographical lectures were
generally dreary affairs — excejit for the enthusiastic lew — unrelieved, as
they were, by pictorial representations. I feel very keenly the dis-
advantage I am under, or rather that you are under to-night, through
my having no slides; but there was no remedy; for although photo-
graphs have, I am told, been taken of ghosts, no one has yet attempted
to photograph an ideal. When we consider the instruction of children
the necessity becomes still more evident of interesting the eye as well
as the ear; and I hope that this principle will be niore and more under-
stood in our board schools, in most of which the study of geography now
consists of learning strings of names. The method of visual represen-
tation has, indeed, spread greatly during the last decade; but it does not
GEOGRAPHICAL IDEALS. 13
yet cover a tenth of the field that it might usefully occupy. I believe
this is partly due to the cost and difficulty of getting good slides, and
I may be doing a service to some who wish to interest and instruct
their fellow-parishioners in the country by drawing their attention to
the series of the Diagram Company, whose address is West Barnes
Lane, New Maiden, Surrey. I could not, of course, mention this
Company if they had been formed for purposes of profit. I am told,
however, that their objects were scientific, and that they do not at
present cover their expenses. Many of you, doubtless, know their excel-
lent slides. We have a complete series in Savile Row, and I under-
stood that one was also kept at the Outlook Tower in this city ; but
Professor Geddes tells me that this is not now the case.
Another minor educational ideal is that all books involving move-
ment from one geographical locality to another should have sketch
maps attached to them. This principle applies especially to works of
fiction, which reach a far wider public than is the case with serious
books. When we re-read the Waverley Novels after reaching maturity,
and with a knowledge of the positions and surroundings of the localities
dealt with, we cannot avoid regret that our childish interest in each of
them was not quickened and our knowledge insensibly increased by a
simple sketch map on the frontispiece. This stimulating power of pic-
torial representation is perhaps most clearly demonstrated by a case in
which the map was as imaginary as the text. How much of the interest
of Treasure Island would have been lost but for the immortal map with
which Robert Louis Stevenson enriched it ! Stevenson, indeed, was
deeply imbued with the geographical spirit, and in several books — I
can particularly recall Kidnapped — produced real maps which greatly
assist the young reader. Half a century ago, even history — ancient,
mediaeval and modern — was read in the best schools without any
reference to maps, with the result that most of us had to endure the
loss of time in re-reading, when grown up, a mass of works which we
had literally, but not geographically, mastered in our youth.
I have reserved to the last the ^q\v words I need say on the most
vital and far-reaching of all instruments of geographical education — I
mean societies such as this. They have afforded means of higher and
ever-extending knowledge even to the most instructed of their Fellows ;
they have encouraged the geographical spirit amongst their less zealous
members ; they have been the chief authors or supporters of all other
modern means of improvement in geographical education ; while the
role that lies before them is even more important than that -which they
have hitherto filled. That is why I am here to-night; and if I might
add one more ideal to my list of geographical ideals, it is that every
educated man in Scotland should join your Society, and, by his contri-
butions to your funds, enable you to extend and intensify your worU in
promoting a branch of knowledge which is one of the most important,
if not the most important, of the material sciences to the future welfare
and progress of mankind.
14 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
GEOGRAPHICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.i
{JFith Illustrations.)
By John Thomson.
My chief object in coming before this Section is to show on the screen
a selection of geographical photographs taken by myself during my
travels, which extended at intervals over a period of forty-five years.
The major part of the work was done in Far Eastern Asia, between
1860 and 1872, in regions in which the camera frequently made its
first appearance. Some plates were taken later to illustrate my work
on the island of Cyprus, others I have borrowed of recent date
produced by modern methods.
Before using the lantern, I will give a brief summary of photographic
progress, mainly in its bearing upon geographical work. In the early
days, about half a century ago, the enormous weight of dark tent,
instruments, and chemicals, combined with the technical difficulties of
primitive processes, rendered a photographic equipment a very doubtful
addition to the burden of the explorer bent on a long journey into
unknown or unphotographed lands. It was an experiment not to be
lightly undertaken, and in my experience meant the addition of four
or five carriers for safe transit.
But happily the rapid advance in photography gradually reduced
the bulk of impedimenta ; apparatus became lighter, and manipulation
simpler and more certain in result, until an outfit w^as deemed indis-
pensable to all properly organised expeditions.
The evolution of photographic methods kept pace with the progress
in discovery in almost all departments of Science, and contributed its
full share of usefulness in extending knowledge and solving problems
that without its aid would have remained insoluble. In Physical
Geography it has proved of notable service, especially in helping the
work of the cartographer. It has made us familiar with the topography
of remote quarters of the globe, and with the physical characteristics of
their people, environment, dwellings, tillage, arts, industries, etc.
I will now touch upon some points in the progress of the art which
ultimately fitted photography for its vocation as an auxiliary in scientific
research and artistic pursuits.
In its initial stages it was regarded as a curious and fascinating
revelation of the action of light on certain chemical reagents, that is up
to the time of Daguerre and Fox Talbot ; the former caught the image as
in a mirror, the latter, the Caxton of Photography, produced the first
printing process by his introduction of Calotype in 1839. Later, when
pursuing his investigations with bitumen-coated metal plates, he suc-
ceeded in etching the first photogravure, and printing from it in an
ordinary press. He was also first to foresee the potentialities of the
1 Read before Section G (Geography) at the York Meeting of the British Association,
16 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
new art in relation to Geography. I have a map etched on a metal
plate about this time by Fox Talbot, aud printed in Edinburgh, first
copying the original in the camera. After the lapse of some years full
of endeavour on the part of photographic votaries, who from time to
time scored advances, Scott Archer gave us his wet collodion process,
which materially shortened the duration of exposure necessary to obtain
an impression in the camera, and substituted glass plates as the support
for the sensitive film. The detail in wet collodion negatives was of
microscopic minuteness while presenting the finest gradation and
printing quality, which had never indeed been surpassed by any known
method. Improvements in cameras and lenses had been going on
apace, the first gaining in lightness and portability, while plano-convex
and miniscus lenses had given place to compound objectives, corrected
for spherical and chromatic aberration, and thus rendering their visual
and actenic foci coincident. The wet collodion process, appropriately
so named, could not shed its ponderosity, and was hedged round with
difficulties, as I had reason to know and appreciate, and ill adapted
for long journeys. It was the most chemically and mechanically exacting
companion to be carried on any expedition, and its shortcomings Avere
accentuated when my wanderings happened to be through forest and
tropical jungle. One special virtue must be noted, and that is that the
plate had to be exposed, developed aud finished on the spot, so that one
was enabled to judge of success or failure before striking camp.
You will be able to form your estimate of the work done under
more favourable conditions than I enjoyed in doing it, and I must
request you to bear in mind difficulties that had to be faced day by
day, in repairing apparatus, concocting and doctoring chemicals, not to
mention dangers encountered from unsympathetic natives, who regarded
the photographer as the devil incarnate, and allow some critical" discount
in my favour.
Dry collodion emulsion, introduced in 1864 by Messrs Sayce and
Bolton, greatly reduced the weight of essentials. I employed plates
coated with this emulsion later in Cyprus. They were developed with
an alkaline solution, and were in no wa}' inferior in point of speed or
quality.
Gelatine emulsion, made by Dr. Naddox in 1872, was the crowning
discovery which entirely revolutionised photography, rendering it
possible to photograph objects in motion in the fraction of a second. I
had the pleasure of making the acquaintance of the inventor a year or
two before his death — one of the most thorough, simple and unaffected
of men. The cameras in use for dry gelatine plates and films are so
multiform that they may not even be catalogued. For our purpose it
is sufficient to say that an outfit for a long journey may now be carried
in a handbag.
The ever-widening sphere of usefulness of the camera as an auxiliary
in scientific investigation, especially in relation to Geography, is so well
known that I will only venture to note some recent developments which
may prove useful to the traveller.
An ordinary well-made camera fitted with shutter and rapid recti-
GEOGRAPHICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.
17
linear lens is most useful in securing photographs of all objects which
may not be carried away. But for anthropological work, as, for example,
in taking plates of characteristic heads of alien races of men at close
quarters, the lens should be longer in focus than that used for land-
scapes or groups. The reason of this is that with a lens of short focus
the features are so distorted as to render the photograph useless as a
basis of measurement. The defects could only be partially rectified by
VOL. XXIIL B
18 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
mathematical calculation on tlie basis of the focus of the lens employed
and distance from the object photographed.
In dealing with objects of natural history, such as animals at a great
distance in their native haunts, an addition to the same camera must
be made in the shape of a tele-photographic set of lenses, so as to photo-
graph objects on a scale large enough for subsequent use. The same
tele-photographic arrangement may be used for a variety of purposes,
as in taking contours of distant mountain ranges. These are set down
simply as suggestive notes in camera-work which the traveller who is
thoroughly acquainted with the use and limitations of the instrument
may extend at will. Many failures are caused bj' neglect on the
explorers' part to get fully posted up in the mechanism of the camera
and shutter, the use of the lens, and the chemicals employed in fixing
the image, and in development. I have in my mind the poor results
of some long and arduous journeys brought about by ignorance of the
elementary conditions of success — plates decomposed, stuck together,
damp, frilled, fogged, over-exposed, under-exposed, developer wrong ;
result no image, fixed before being developed, etc., etc. But by a little
trouble and preliminary training all such pitfalls might have been
avoided and success assured.
The seeming simplicity of photographic work has been a prolific
cause of failure — the notion that one has only to touch a button to obtain
the best results possible.
A word on photographic surveying. It is described in Hints to
Travellers, published by the Royal Geographical Society.
The apparatus in use is too complicated, and I believe the conditions
required could be attained by the adjustment of an ordinary camera.
It should be framed so as to admit of the optical axis being perfectly
horizontal and the prepared plate at right angles to the axis. Two
photographs must be taken at points of view some distance from each
other to give a base-line, and from these the cartographer can set
down the relative positions of objects shown in the photographs by
triaiigulation.
The late Dr. Schlichter in 1893 described a means of finding the
latitude by lunar observations taken in the camera when a star appeared
sufficiently near the lunar disc as to come about the centre of the field.
Several exposures were made on the same plate at properly measured
intervals of time, these by micrometric measurement forming the basis
for calculation. The result was an extremely accurate determination of
longitude.
I have been frequently asked if photography in colours as it now
stands may be relied upon to give absolute mimicry of natural objects.
There is no process by which a photograph in the colour of the
object photographed may be directly taken in the camera. There are
metliods in use by which fascinating results are obtained hy taking a
set of colour registers through three as nearly as possible monochrom-
atic glass screens or filters — red, blue, and yellowish green ; this is
termed three-colour photography. The negative so taken may be used
either for what is called optical synthesis by projection through three
GEOGRAPHICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 19
colour filters by a triuaal lantern, or by reflection and combination in
an instrament called the Kromoscope. When properly registered the
result is an image in all the colours of the object photographed. Mr.
Mackinder was the first English traveller to test this process in his visit
to Mount Kenia. The negatives again may be printed on transparent
gelatine tissues stained and superposed, as in the Sanger-Shepherd
method, or used to make half-tone blocks to be printed in three colours
in the printing press.
TtlE DEAD HEA.RT OF AUSTEALIA: A KEVIEW.i
The scientific expedition which is the subject-matter of the exceedingly
interesting work now before us, took place in the summer, i.e. the
Australian summer, of 1901-2, and from the preface we learn that the
narrative has for the most part already appeared in a Melbourne news-
paper. Dr. Gregory, the head of the expedition, is now Professor of
Geology in the University of Glasgow, and he had as his colleagues a
pirty of eight, most of whom were undergraduates of the University of
Melbourne. It appears that it was at the suggestion of Dr. Howitt
that the expedition was undertaken with the view of studying the
geology of Lake Eyre, the Dead Heart of Australia, and of making a
collection of its fossil bones. Professor Gregory, the geologist, hoped to
help Dr. Howitt, the ethnologist and student of the Australian abori-
gines, " by explaining some of their traditions, by thr()wing light on
their migrations, and by showing the date of their arrival in Australia."
Bat before referring to the route and progress of the expp.dition, it is
right to give to our readers some information about Lake Eyre and its
vicinity. The tract of Australia, which bears so ominous a name, is one
of the most remarkable among the many remarkable regions in the
island continent. It is situated to the north of Spencer Gulf and has
an area of over three thousand square miles. Its surface is 39 feet
below the level of the sea. The lake is fed by several rivers and creeks
on all sides, but its principal contributors are the Diamantina and
Cooper rivers, which flow into it from the east for some months each
year. It also receives the drainage water of half a million square miles
and absorbs it all. The lake may be said to have been discovered in
the year 1840 by E. J. Eyre, an Australian cattle-driver, who, however,
was also an explorer in the true sense of the word. The story of the
discovery and of the angry controversies of the time is succinctly and
graphically told by Dr. Gregory. So far as the topography of Lake
Eyre is concerned, the whole locality was carefully surveyed some thirty
years ago. It is indeed terribly true that now the tract fully merits
the name of the Dead Heart of Australia, but once on a time the name
1 The Dead Heart of Australia : A Juurney round Lake Eyre in the Summer of 1901-
19D2, with som? account of the Lake Ei/re Basin and the Floioinq Wells of Central Australia.
By J. W. G^egorJ^, F.R.S., D.Sc. London : John Murray, 1906.
20 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
of Living Heart would have been much more appropriate; and this for
several reasons. " It gives its name to the largest of the three provinces
into which Australia has been divided on biological evidei.ce: for it is
the typical district of the 'Eremian' region proposed by the late
Professor Tate, from the evidence of plant distribution ; and it suggested
the name of the ' Eyrean Province ' proposed by Professor Spencer, in
considering the distribution of Australian animals. Anthropologi-
cally Lake Eyre is important, as it was the headquarters of the natives
of the two-class marriage group, who advanced thence south-westward
to the Eyre Peninsula and spread south-eastward until they peopled
Western Victoria." But unhappily, owing to a deficient rainfall, the
climatic condition of Lake Eyre changed, and it is no longer an active
and creative centre. "The lake has no outlet, and nor.e of the water it
receives is passed on to areas that would make better use of it. Animals
and plants are continually emigrating into the Lake Eyre basin from
the surrounding highlands; but these reinforcements are insufficient to
make good the internal waste. Great hordes of rabbits invade it, only
to perish when the plains are stricken Avith drought. Mobs of cattle
are driven on to its pastures, too often to die, overwhelmed by dust-
storms or miserably bogged in the mud of the drying waterholes. The
insatiable desert now produces little new ; its plants and animals are
few in number and in kind, and they are stunted in their individual
growth." At one time, according to Dr. Gregory, the area of the
lake was three times as large as it is now ; great kangaroos and
wombats as Avell as wallabies, bandicoots, and marsupial rats inhabited
its shores, and crocodiles and huge mudfish its waters. " But
the rainfall dwindled, the water-level sank, and the lake decreased in
size. The discharge from the lake was no longer sufficient to keep
open its channel, which the warping of the surface and the accumulation
of debris continually tended to close. Accordingly Lake Eyre lost its
outlet; its waters were henceforth removed only by evaporation; the
salts, carried into the lake by the rivers, Avere concentrated, until the
waters became salt and the fish and the crocodiles were all destroyed.
As the lake shrank in area, less and less rain fell upon its shores; the
vegetation withered ; the once green, succulent herbage was replaced by
dry, spiny plants; the giant marsupials died of hunger and thirst; hot
winds swept across the dusty plains, and the once fertile basin of Lake
Eyre was blasted into desert." When did this drying up take place 1
Dr. Gregory replies that it began early in the Pleistocene age. But the
detailed evidence in support of this theory was too technical for the
present work, and will doubtless be set forth in a future volume, where
it will receive the attention to which it is unquestionably entitled.
It was no holiday task then which Dr. Gregory and his associates
had undertaken. The traditions of the Lake Eyre district are evil, and
there was no doubt about the fact that the expedition had chosen a time
of the year when the heat was at its worst. One old explorer wrote to
the papers stating that to go to Lake Eyre at that time of the year was
little short of madness. Meteorological statistics showed that the tempera-
ture of the previous year had at one place varied between 118" and
THE DEAD HEART OF AUSTRALIA: A REVIEW. 21
125° ia the shade, Uudeterred, however, by considerations of personal
danger, the members of the expedition left Adelaide on the 13th
December 1901, and after a two days' journey by rail they reached
Hergott, some 440 miles from Adelaide, where they met their camels
and their camp equipage, and where they got the first taste of the heat
they were to endure. They had reached Hergott at the end of a heat
wave and found the heat intense. It, however, seems to have no
deleterious effects on the white population, the men of which were
found, bronzed and tanned, in the best of health, " working in the open
air at severe manual labour without adopting any precautions or special
clothes." Oa this subject Dr. Gregory has some interesting remarks,
viz. : " The tolerance of heat shown in this part of Australia certainly
supports Sambon's theory with regard to acclimatisation. Sarabon
holds that there is nothing to prevent Europeans living and working,
as well as any black race, in the hottest of tropical localities. He
maintains that the supposed unsuitability of the tropics for European
settlement is due to disease and not to climate, and that as the special
tropical diseases are due to germs, they may be cured or prevented when
the life-histories of the germs are known. The sight of white men
engaged in severe manual labour, under the midday sun in the hot
climate of the Lake Eyre depression, certainly suggested that a ' White
Australia ' is no impossible ideal for even the hottest regions of the
centre."
Notwithstanding his having received much advice to the contrary,
Dr, Gregory had decided that the means of transport for the expedition
should be camels, and on the whole he had no reason to regret his
decision. He found that " they carried their 6-cwt. loads with ease,
except occasionally over bad sand-rises; they ate any food that came in
their way, or fasted like philosophers when there was none. . . , They
soon went for a couple of days without water, and, later on, would
abstain for several days without suffering." From Hergott Springs
the expedition proceeded north-eastwards to the missionary station of
Kilalpanina, where they arrived in time for the Christmas festivities,
celebrated by the Lutheran fathers in the German fashion so far as was
practicable, and varied by corroborees performed by the junior members
of the expedition to the undisguised amusement of the aborigines whom
they found there. From Kilalpanina Dr. Gregory made a short expedi-
tion to another mission station, Kopperamanna, in order to examine the
country by which the Coaper river passes through the Desert Sandstone
hills. He found that within a few miles of Kilalpanina the Cooper had
no definite bed, but was a flood plain some eight to twelve miles in width
with sharply defined flood-lines contracting to the east. Continuing
his investigation east of the mission station, Dr. Gregory went as far
as a knoll, from which he could see the main channel of the Cooper
pass north of a ridge bearing an ominous name in the vernacular, signi-
fying " the place of death and destruction." From what he saw where
he stood on the knoll he was able to form an opinion as to the origin of
the famous Stony Djsert, which Sturt had described as an ancient sea-
bed Contravening this, Dr. Gregory tells us that the pebbles of the
22 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
stony plains show no signs of the action of water. " The Stony-
Desert, in fact, is due to the absence of water. The country where it
occurs Avas once covered by a sheet of the rock known as Desert Sand-
stone, in which there are abundant pebbles of quartz, sandstone, and
other hard materials. The Desert Sandstone has slowly decayed under
the action of the weather ; the loose sand has been blown away by the
wind, and the hard fragments remain scattered over the ground. The
Desert Sandstone once spread in a continuous sheet all across the Lake
Eyre plains ; and wherever the waste from the Desert Sandstone has
not been covered by later deposits, it litters the ground as the barren
Stony Desert." Having satisfied himself on these points, Dr. Gregory
returned to Kilalpanina, rejoined his companions and started westwards
down the Cooper for Lake Eyre. In a few days they found quantities
of stone flakes, which had been used by the aborigines as knives and
scrapers, and in the bed of the Cooper they found fossil bones of
kangaroo, bandicoot, crocodile, mudfish, and birds. On reaching the
shores of the lake it was found to be practically dry, and as no fossils
could be obtained, the party returned up the Cooper to the base camp
at the waterhole at Markoni. Anticipating favourable weather, Dr.
Gregory decided to march northwards across the fifty miles of Tirari
desert to the Diamantina river, where he expected to find a sufl&cient
supply of water. On the 11th January 1902, having given the camels
a good drink and carefully filled the water-casks and bags, the party
made a start on a most dreary expanse of sand-dunes, i.e. ridges of loam
with a thin crust of white sand on each slope. Recalling one part of
this journey, Dr. Gregory says, " I often loitered behind the caravans to
get a wider view across the country. The soil was bare, the grass-tufts
withered, and the scenery seen from the dune-crest was undeniably
depressing, and the whole land looked dead. The few black stunted
trees, with their gnarled trunks and leafless or needle-leafed boughs, had
an appropriate resemblance to dead funereal cypress. The sides of the
dune were covered by long wavy sand-ripples, where the wind had
driven the grains up the western slope ; but at the same time not a
sand grain was moving, and the ripples locked as motionless as the
fossil ripple-marks that may be seen on some London paving-stones.
The air was still and heavy — there was not a sound ; and the only
visible sign of life and motion was the steady drift of the useless
clouds across the leaden sky. Earth and sky seemed to be outvying
each other in repellent monotony. The earth was repulsive in its arid,
forlorn barrenness, and the sky was still more repulsive in its sunless
pall of cloud."
On reaching the station of Kalamurina the expedition were dis-
appointed to find it had been deserted, but a good supply of fresh wat«r
was found in a pool of the bed of the Diamantina, and the general appear-
ance of the country indicated that there need be no fear of a failure of
water. A second disappointment at Kalamurina was that no fosnl
remains could be found there owing to a flood up the river, which some
months before had covered them with silt. As a recompense, however,
Dr Gregory found it "the best zoological and botanical collecting ground'
I'
THE DEAD HEART OF AUSTRALIA : A REVIEW. 23
we had yet visited," and accordingly a halt was made there for some
days, which Dr. Gregory utilised in making an expedition up the valley
of the Diamantina to the east for the purpose of studying the geology
of the tract. He Avas fortunate also in finding some interesting fossils.
Had there been abundance of time a much longer period could have been
spent very profitably at Kalamurina and its vicinity, but the train to
Hergott, which it was imperative the expedition should catch, ran only
07ice a fortnight, and so it was necessary to proceed onwards without
further delay. They followed the course of the Diamantina westwards
for fifty miles, of which Dr. Gregory writes : " The scenery was full of
variety and often beautiful. The river passed below cliffs of marl,
crowded with large gypsum crystals, whose faces flashed in the sunlight
like plates of silver. Elsewhere the river channel was bounded by high
bluffs of bedded loam ; and from their summits we enjoyed fine views of
long serpentine reaches of salt water, entrenched in the broad river-bed.
Additional interest was given to these salt-pools by the swarms of birds
that frequented them — swans, shags, pelicans, goliah-parrots, and sea-
gulls." At the end of the fifty miles they reached Poonaranni, the last
outpost of the stations along the Queensland Road on the eastern side of
Lake Eyre ; and from there they had to make their way along the
northern side of the lake through country of which very little was
known, till they reached the stations along the Overland Route on the
west of the lake. In the course of this march they had to cross the
Kallakoopah and Makumba rivers. Had they been able to procure
local guides from among the few aborigines whom they met, their
difficulties would have been much lessened, but unfortunately, on the
one occasion when they found some of the natives, the blacks fled away
in dismay when the white men appeared. The difficulties, however, of
the region which had to be travelled over, turned out to be not so for-
midable as was anticipated ; and when, about half-way across, the party
had the good fortune to pick up a native who was a friend of one of
their guides, they soon reached Peak station on the west of the lake,
where they arrived just in time to witness part of a corroboree, a very
interesting description of which is given in another part of the book.
From Peak station a night march took them to Warrina, where they
caught the fortnightly train to Adelaide and brought to a conclusion a
very arduous and successful expedition. The publication in detail of
the scientific results will be awaited with much interest.
In this volume Dr. Gregory discusses with much acumen and con-
spicuous impartiality several questions, the interest and importaiice
of which are not confined to Australia. For example, in the course of
his travels he came across a good number of aborigines of various tribes,
and evidently spared no trouble in studying and investigating their
origin, condition, and capacities. He formed on the whole a kindly
and favourable opinion of them, a ^qw words of which may be quoted.
"Instead of finding them degraded, lazy, selfish, savage, they were
courteous and intelligent, generous even to the point of imprudence, and
phenomenally honest; while in the field they proved to be burn
naturalists and superb bushmen. . . . Before our stay at Kilalpanina
24 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
had come to an end, we all shared the feeling, that of all the quaint
delusions concerning Australia, the quaintest is that which represents its
aborigines as the most useless and untrainable of savages." In another
passage he refers to their affection for their children and care for the
aged and infirm members of the tribe, and to their unusual receptivity
of education. With regard to the vexed question of their antiquity,
he impugns the theories of Barton and Dr. Lang, and on a careful con-
sideration of their skulls and physical features, and still more of their
type of mind, he has come to the conclusion that the aborigines of
Australia belong to the Caucasian section of the human race.
It was inevitable that in a work on the "Dead Heart of Australia"
Dr. Gregory should have much to say about its climatic conditions and
water-supply ; and indeed the last quarter of this book is devoted to this
subject, the interest and importance of which to Australia are very
obvious. It was only in the year 1880 that the existence of an Artesian
supply of water was discovered and realised, and now Artesian wells are
fairly numerous, especially in Queensland, but they have not been nearly
so successful or profitable as was anticipated. For this there are two
causes : the one, the excessive soakage and evaporation, which account
for a very large proportion of the water which reaches the surface; the
other, the highly saline quality of the water in many places, which tends
in a comparatively short time to destroy the fertility of the soil. Thus
it comes about that the principal use of the Artesian wells is merely to
provide water for cattle on the stock routes through deserts. But of
late years the Artesian theory has been much discredited and is now
fast giving way to the Plutonic theory, which is based on the distribu-
tion of the water, the variations and pulsations of its pressure, and its
chemical qualities. We must refer our readers who are interested in this
subject to the lucid and thoughtful exposition of it which they will find
in this book. Dr. Gregory gives good reasons for believing that the
supply of subterranean water is limited, and that the unnecessary waste
of it which is now going on is in the last degree impolitic and should
be prohibited by legislation. In his last chapter he discusses the pro-
posal to flood Lake Eyre from the sea, a fascinating but impracticable
idea which took shape in 1883, some six years after the fantastic pro-
posal to Hood the Sahara of Africa from the ^Mediterranean. The idea to
flood Lake Eyre was revived about a dozen years ago, and rough estimates
of its initial cost were prepared. The}- amounted to the prohibitive sum of
£740,000,000, to which had to be added an enormous sum for cost of
maintenance. It was also calculated that in thirty years, owing to
evaporation, which goes on at the rate of 100 inches per annum,
the whole bed of the lake would be filled with salt. The project was
accordingly abandoned, probably for ever.
But it is impossible, within the limits of our space, to give even a
summary of the information Dr. Gregory has collected and laid before
his readers on these and other highly important topics, or the reasoning
for the conclusions at which he has arrived. We have, however, said
enough to recommend this very interesting work to our readers. We
must add that the author's style, even when dealing with scientific matters,
THE DEAD HEART OF AUSTRALIA : A REVIEW. 2o
is crisp and lucid, bright and often humorous — the style of a master of
his subject, who writes with all the confidence and clearness gained by
experience and conscientious study, and thus commands and receives
the sustained and interested attention of his readers. The photographs
which illustrate the work are good, and there are also a couple of maps
which contribute materially to the convenience of the reader.
THE VOLCANOES OF MEXICO.
1. Amonw the papers of which advance copies were distributed to the
members of the International Geological Congress in Mexico is one by
Mr. J. G. Aguilera (Director of the Mexican Geological Institute), entitled
" Les Volcans du Mexique dans leurs relations avec le relief et la
tectonique g^n^rale du pays." It is accompanied by a map, on the scale
of -,,,55^ or 78"9 miles to 1 inch, on which all the volcanoes known
to him are shown (so far as the scale permits). There is a curious
omission on the map, viz. the volcano of Tuxtla, SE. of Vera Cruz,
although it is thrice mentioned in the text. The map also shows the
chief faults, lines of fracture, and lines of plication of the strata, and is
accompanied by a corresponding map on tracing paper showing the
position and direction of the mountain chains and the distribution of
earthquakes.
The author points out that the volcanic rocks occur chiefly in the
western half of the country, and are only sporadic in the east, except in
the region where the states of Vera Cruz, Puebla, and Hidalgo meet.
Tne volcanic rocks belong principally to three types — andesites, rhyo-
lites, and basalts. Generally speaking, the andesites were extruded
first, then the rhyolites, and lastly the basalts, though there are excep-
tions to this order. The andesites were usually erupted through vents
(" cheminees "), hence by crater eruptions, although fissure eruptions are
not rare. The rhyolites, on the contrary, were the result of fissure
eruptions, with the exception of the Pico do Bernal, NE. of Qaeretaro,
and one or two others in the state of Queretaro. The basalts were
almost exclusively the product of crater eruptions.
Vulcanism, which probably began to manifest itself in the Eocene,
has continued to the present day with generally decreasing energy.
Contrary to the common idea that the Mexican volcanoes are near the
se I, almost all of them are in reality very far from it. The coastal
volcanoes are few, namely, those of Mexican Lower California, of Tepic
territory, Ouietepec in the state of Guerrero, Tuxtla in the state of Vera
Cruz, and one or two others.
The Mexican volcanic arc is parallel to the Western Sierra Madre,
anil the volcanoes are more numerous on the eastern side of that range,
that is, towards the Central Plateau ; they are also irregularly distributed
over the plateau, and are few in number in the Eastern Sierra Madre,
su;h as occur there being almost all on its side turned towards the
plateau (except Tuxtla).
There are two predominant directions of faults, fractures, and folds in
26 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Mexico; firstly, from NW. to SE., and secondly, from XE. to SAV. : the
latter is less constant than the former. A third less frequent direction
is east and west. The volcanic manifestations have taken place in lines
parallel to the mountain folds. The mineral vein.';, which owe their
origin to the volcanic rocks, exhibit very constantly a parallelism to the
lines of relief.
Mr. Aguilera claims to have demonstrated ^ that the volcanic fissure
of Humboldt,- which Felix and Lenk also suppose to be a transverse
fracture situated on the southern margin of the Central Plateau (Mesa
Central), the border itself being a manifestation of the fissure, does not
really exist, and that the valley of the Rio de las Balsas is a valley of
erosion posterior in date of formation to the volcanoes of the Cential
Plateau.
The seismic zones of Mexico are not situated in the volcanic zones,
but on the contrary they occur in regions where there are no volcanoes.
The seismic area is situated in the most ancient part of the country
where one might have expected great stability ; it is in the region of
Archaean rocks.
2. The Volcano of Nauhcampatepetl or Cofre de Piwte. — In the Bole fin
de la Sociedad Geohkjica Mexicana, tomo i. (1904), pp. 151 to 168, is a
paper in Spanish, by Mr. Ezequiel Ordonez, entitled " El Nauhcampatepetl
6 Cofre de Perote," in which the extinct volcano situated N. lat. 19° 29'
and W. long. 97° 12' is described, with four views. It owes its names,
Cofre de Perote and Nauhcampatepetl (from Mexican Nauhcampa, four-
sided ; tepetl, mountain) to the coff'er-like vestige of a lava bed, in the foim
of a flattened rectangular prism, with an estimated length of 300 meties,
a height of 25 metres at its eastern, and 40 metres at its western end,
which forms its summit. Its altitude is 4282 metres (14,048 ft), though
the Mesa Central at its western foot reaches 2400 metres (7874 ft.).
The summit does not reach the snowline, but the limit of arborescent
vegetation on the western side is at 385 0 metres (12,628 ft.). The
mountain consists of numerous superposed massive beds of lava, inclined
in the same direction as the slope of the mountain sides and separated
by beds of agglomerate, or by brecciform rocks, indicating that the
heated overlying lava-stream produced a re-fusion in the underlying
already cold bed ; in other cases the lava beds appear to be fused ^ith
one another. Some half-melted lava masses were, however, ejected by
^ Aguilera, "Sobre las condkiones tecnicas de la RepuWica Mexicana," in the Anvario
de la Acad. Mex. de Ciencias Exactas, Fisuo.sy Naturales, vol. iv. pp. 103-104 (19C0). I
have not seen this paper. Dr. Eniilio Bo.se, chief geologist of the Mexican Geological
In.stitute, maintains the same view in the chapter "On the Origin of the Mexican Mesa
Central," in Bulletin No. 13 of that Institute, entitled Geulogio. de los Al rededores de Orizaba
(1899). He says (translation), p. 49, "The Mesa Central of Mexico is a completely
secondary phenomenon and is not to be attributed to great lateral fractures (it is not a
' Horst ' [area left above its surroundings by circumjacent depression]), but was formed by
the filling up of the mo-st [elevated valleys of the ancient mountain mass by masses of
eruptive. rocks, volcanic sands and modeni alluvia."
2 See Cosmos, Bohn's edition, 1849, vol. i. p. 238, where Humboldt states that Orizaba,
Popocatepetl, Jornllo, and C'olima "are situated in a transverse fissure running from sea
to sea."
THE VOLCANOES OF MEXICO. 27
small apertures on the flanks of the great cone foiming small conical
domes near the "llano de los Pozitos " at 3000 metres. The lava
streams succeeded one another with such rapidity that it would be im-
possible to establish any chronological distinction between them. They
appear to belong to a single period of eruption. One's chief preoccupation
on arriving at the summit of Nauhcampatepetl is to discover the vent
from which so enormous a mass of lavas has been extruded, since no
complete crater exists, and in this respect, and in the mode of occurrence
of the lavas, the mountain greatly resembles Ixtaccihuatl. Between the
summit proper and a peak which Ordonez terms Pico de Mitancingo,
hardly 500 metres distant and of almost the same height, is a deep
cavity open to the east in the form of an inverted half-cone, called the
Potrero de las Viboras. While the lavas of the summit are slightly
inclined to the west, those surrounding the Potrero have a contrary
inclination. Hence Ordonez is inclined to regard the Potrero as the
place of exit of the lavas, although for such a vent it is very narrow.
The general impression that one obtains on visiting the volcano is that
of a mountain in ruins. The lavas are hypersthene andesites,^ the
porphyritic constituents being labradorite, andesine, hypersthene, and
augite, and the ground-mass consisting of more or less devitrified glass
with microlites of oligoclase, augite and black iron ore.
After a long period of repose volcanic activity was resumed, not by
the ancient vent, probably closed for ever, but at numerous points on
the eastern side of the mountain, and more basic basaltic lavas were
poured out from numerous well-formed scoria cones.
Ord6iiez holds that the great volcanoes of Mexico, in spite of their
size and altitude, are the results of the localisation and subdivision
(owing to the consumption of material and energy) of a great internal
reservoir of magma, which began to reach the surface at the beginning
of the Miocene. As a proof of this, he mentions that certain Mexican
volcanic sierras are formed in great part of one single type of eruptive
material without sudden changes of composition. These homogeneous
sierras do not exhibit a structure indicating a formation or growth due to
successive accumulations of lava, but were formed at one eruption ; they
are elongated as if they had been formed along fissures. On the flanks
and extremities of these masses we meet with monogenic volcanoes, com-
posed of successive beds of lava, volcanoes of suddenly arrested activity,
to which type he refers Cofre de Perote. Lastly, we have the great cones,
also built up of beds of lava, but in which the diminished volcanic
activity manifested itself for a long time intermittently and with a great
number of explosive eruptions, during which the old lava fields and the
extensive lakes of the neighbouring valleys were covered with thick beds
of volcanic dust and pumice. The volcanoes of the second type exhibit
summits of crestlike form, as two examples of Avhich we have Nauhcam-
patepetl and Ixtaccihuatl, each of them contiguous to a magnificent
cone of the third type, namely the Peak of Orizaba (Citlaltepetl) and
Popocatepetl. Bernard Hobson.
1 In Professor J. C. Russell's Volcanoes of North America (1897), p. 186, they are called
dioritic trachytes.
28 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
WESTERN TIBET AND THE BRITISH BORDERLAND.^
Thk title of this book inverts the order of the contents. Wliat is called
" The British Borderland " naturally comes first, and Tibet across its
border follows. The author is the Deputy Commissioner, or chief civil
officer, of the British Hill District of Kumaon, and the book is the
result of a journey made by him and Dr. Longstaff from Almora, the
district capital, along the eastern frontier of the district by the Kali
Valley and over the Lipu Lekh Pass into the adjacent parts of Tibet.
The return into Kumaon was made over the passes on the western
frontier of the district which lead into the Milam Valley.
Kumaon, with the contiguous district of British Garhwal on the
west, was ceded to the British in 1816 after the Gurkha War. It has
thus been under British administration for ninety years, and is a district
well known to and much visited by British residents in Northern
India. It has also been the subject of many official reports. To this
day the most notable of these are the reports of its first British adminis-
trator, Mr. G. W. Traill, of the Bengal Civil Service. They were
written in 1823 and 1825, and were republished with Government
sanction by the Asiatic Society of Bengal in volumes xvi. and xvii. of
The Asiatic Researches. They are the basis or contain the gist of most
of what has since been recorded officially or otherwise regarding
Kumaon. But it has remained to the author of the book before us to
describe parts of the district in a popular way, filling in many interest-
ing details, and above all to put his contribution into a pleasing (if
tviighti/) form by means of an almost innumerable collection of beautiful
photographs.
The orographical features of Kumaon and Garhwal, as of other parts
of the Himala3'an region, are striking. The districts in rough outline
make up a parallelogram about one hundred and twenty miles in length
and one hundred in depth, abutting on the east upon Nepal, and
facing to the south-west the alluvial plains of the Gangetic valley,
which at the base of the mountains may be said to have an average
elevation of about twelve hundred feet above the sea-level, and to
the north-east the plains of south-western Tibet, the average eleva-
tion of which may be put at 14,000 feet. The ranges by which the
districts are traversed trend mainly from north-west to south-east, as
do the ranges that run through the Tibetan plateau. The main axis
or watershed lies to the north close to the southern border of the
Tibetan plateau. Along the watershed, and connected with it by spurs
projecting mostly to the south, are the snowy ranges ("The Snows")
of this part of the Himalayas, knotted here and there into groups
1 Westei')i Tib'A a>id the British Borderland, the Sacred Country of Hindus and
BuMhists, with an Axount of the Oovernmtnt, Religion, and Customs of its Peoples.
By Charles A. Sherring, M.A., F.R.G.S. With a chapter by T. G. Longstaff, M.B.,
F.R.G.S., describing an attempt to climb Gurla Mandhata. With Illustrations and Maps.
London : Edward Arnold, 1906. Price 21s. 7iet.
WESTERN TIBET AND THE BKITISH BORDERLAND. 29
of peaks, over 20,000 feet, some of which are among the highest,
and present scenery of snow-field and precipice as giand as any
in the world. It is this lofty region, with the valleys, having an
elevation ranging from 10,000 to 14,000 feet, that are enfolded in
it, that is " The Borderland " of this book. It is called Bhote by
the people of Kiimaon, and its inhabitants are Bhotias. The ranges
which traverse the middle and southern parts of Kumaon are much
lower, averaging in height from 5000 to 9000 feet; and they are,
except during short periods in the winter, snowless.
The streams which pass down the larger valleys between the ranges
throughout Kumaon-Garhwal mostly issue from glaciers in the snowy
ranges. A number of these glaciers are of great size, and they descend
to 12,000 or 13,000 feet above the sea-level and about 3000 feet
below the permanent snow-line. The streams are shed off' in channels
of steep gradient, at first mostly towards the south-east or south-west,
till they turn the flanks of the ranges through deep and precipitous
gorges, the first excavation of Avhich is possibly as old or older than the
beginning of the elevation of the folds of slowly rising land out of which
the ridges themselves took form. Their rapidly flowing waters then find
their way southward into the Indian plains. None of these streams, not
even the headwaters of the great Ganges itself, have their sources to the
north of the Kumaon-Garhwal watershed. In this respect they difl^er
from the Indus and Sutlej to the west, and the Kurnjili and a few other
of the great eastern affluents of the Ganges, as v/ell as the great
Brahmaputra, to the east. The Kumaon valleys lying south of the
snowy ranges are for the most part narrow and deep, with precipitous
forest-clad sides rising abruptly from the level of the river-bed, especi-
ally on the northern sides which face southwards. Those within the
snowy ranges, after being entered from the southward through steep and
difficult passes, are found sometimes to open out into wide treeless
stretches of pasture land with comparatively easy gradients overtopped
by bare scree and crag ; while the slopes on the northern side of the
watershed gradually fall away in expanding and comparatively short
valleys into the Tibetan plateau. The region south of the snowy ranges
is one drenched by the periodical rains of India, and cut back by the
channels of -violently rushing rivers and streams of high incline. That
within and beyond them is sheltered from violent and excessive rain-
fall, and no part of it lies at an altitude very much below the sources of
its streams. Therein lie the chief immediate factors in the evolution of
their present physiographical condition.
The part of Tibet's vast area which lies to the north of the Kumaon
mountains is its south-western corner, called by the inhabitants Nari
Khorsum, and known to the people on the British side of the frontier
as Hundes. Its extent may be put at from 20,000 to 25,000 Kjuaie
miles. It has been re ore or less visited by Europeans since early in
last century ; and a good deal of information about its physiography
and people has been collected by various travellers, and gathered from
British Hill subjects trading with its inhabitants. An account of the
adventurous journey of Moorcroft and Hearsey in 1812 (before Kumaon
30 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
or any other Hill district had come into British hands) was published
in 1816; aad an account, well worthy of being put on record, more
especially for its scientific value.of a journey made in 1848 by Sir Richard
Strajhey and Air. J. E. Wiaterbottom, has in recent years been printed
in volume xv. of the Geographical Journal of London. The journey was
one of three journeys into Tibet during 1846-19, in which Sir R. Strachey
or his brother, Henry Strachey, took part. And in 1866-68 extensive
explorations were made by Pandit Nain Singh of the Indian Survey,
w!io penetrated to the gold diggings of Thok Jalung on the north-west
confines of Nari. But it has to be noted that, with the exception
of that of Moorcroft and Hearsay, the visits of travellers and
sportsmen to Xari were made by stealth, or in defiance of the local
Tibetan officials; and therefore at some disadvantage for purposes
of inquiry and observation. The outstanding feature of the Tibetan
journey described in this book is that it was made openly, presumably
with the sanction and support of the Indian Government, and* with
the consent of the Tibetan officials, lay and ecclesiastical. The author
visited the headquarters of the Tibetan officials, which are also the trading
marts, from Taklakote below the Lipu L3kh Pass to Gartok in the west,
and was permitted to enter and inspect the monasteries and temples on
the route. The latter, no European, as far as is known, had ever before
entered or even approached. If therefore the author has not as an
original explorer added to our knowledge of the general geography of
Nari, he has been able to verify and fill in much detail, and to illustrate his
narrative and observations with a great wealth of admirable and apposite
pictures. After all, the main objects of his journey were not so much
geographical, as the initiation of friendly and confidential relations with
the Tibetans and of commercial and other communications between
India and Nari. In this object, by his tact and kindly bearing, he
seems to have been very successful.
The physical features of Nari are as uniform as those of Kumaon are
varied. It is as a whole a stone-covered, wind-swept, nearly rainless
plateau, lying about 14,000 feet above the sea-level. Along the rivers
whence irrigation is possible the soil is under cultivation ; elsewhere the
land is only capable of supporting the flocks and herds of the scanty
nomads. Mineral wealth, including gold, it possesses. But borax and
salt are the only such products which have in the recent past been to
any extent material of foreign commerce. The gold has always gone
to Lhasa and Pekin.
Nari is intersected from north-west to south-east by hill-ranges at an
elevation of 2000 or 3000 feet above the plain. In, or as off-sets, of these
ranges there arise in some places groups of massive peaks reaching 3000 or
4000 feet more. Such are Kailas and Gurla Mandhata,an account of Dr.
Longstaff's plucky attempt to scale the latter of which forms one of the
chapters of this book. They are situated on the eastern limit of Nari, and
are part of tlie watershed on the eastern side of which rise the headwaters
of the Brdhmaputra, and on the southern and western those of the
Kurndii, the Sutlej, and the southern branch of the upper Indus. In
themselves, as compared with the Himalayan snowy groups, Kailas and
WESTERN TIBET AND THE BRITISH BORDERLAND. 31
Gurla, with the liakshas and Mansarovar Lakes at their foot, seem to
present no very special features of mysterious grandeur or beauty.
Tiieir place in Hindu and Buddhist mytli and theogony is jiossibly due
to their position, hid away from the known world of Hindustan and the
Panjab, behind the all but impenetrable barrier of the Himalayas, on
the confines of an unknown and ghostly country. It may be doubted
whether to the Hindu of to-day they, as places of pilgrimage, very
strongly appeal. For they have no Hindu shrines, and passing beyond
Ke larnath and Badrinath in the Garliwal mountains, shrines at which
priests summoned from Southern India minister, the pilgrim enters a
foreign and inhospitable land which now knows not (if it ever did)
Shiva and Vishnu, and where none of their votaries are present to
receive and apply votive offerings and call forth the rapture of the
worshipper. Comparatively few, therefore, of the hill-going pilgrims
pass into these higher regions, and it is questionable whether, even
with an open and safe Tibet, the throng will ever be great. In its
religious aspect as affecting India the author seems, in a Avord, to over-
estimate the importance of Nari.
^yho were the earliest human occupants of the Kumaon Hills has
not been proved. Possibly survivals of them may be seen in the
Rajis or Eawuts (the Forest-men) living near Askot, and in the servile
Doms or Dumras to be found throughout Kumaon south of the water-
shed. These are not Aryan by race ; nor, apparently, are they
mongoloid, of the type found in Bhote. Their affinities may possibly
be found to be with some of the so-called aboriginal tribes of north-
eastern India, whence, in that case, they entered the hills. Super-
imposed upon this lower stratum of i^oiJulation, except in Bhote, is
the great body of Hindus known in Kumaon as Khasias. They
are divided into various castes and have various traditions as to the
places of their origin. They speak and write a dialect of the Hindi
language, and their general social economy is that of the Aryan peoples
of the plains of north-western India. Their ostensible religion also is
the ordinary Brahminical cult of the Indian continent, inwoven here as
there into a texture of local spirit and ancestor-worship, which in
reality dominates their lives far more than the priestly cult does.
Among them are scattered families of bluer blood, the descendants or
survivals of high-caste families who, probably more recently than the
Khasias, came from the Indian plains and gained predominance, general
or local, over the hill-dwellers. For instance, a dynasty of Surajbans
(solar) Rajputs known as the Katur, is said to have once ruled Kumaon ;
and within recent historic times the Raja of Kumaon was a Chandarbans
(lunar) Rajput, whose remote ancestors were said to have lived in the
Gangetic Doab. The Rajbar of Askot spoken of in this book is also a
Surajbans, and socially superior to the surrounding Khasian Hindus.
It is wholly different with the upper stratum of population in Bhote.
That seems to be mongoloid and to have entered its present seats from
the north. As a fact Bhote was formerly part of the kingdom of Tibet
and was conquered by the Rajas of Kumaon and Garhwal well within
historic times. The north-eastern corner was perhaps never fully
32 SCOTTISH GKOGEAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
subject to the Hindus of Kumaon, and was only incorporated in that
principality when in 1791 A.d. it ^vas overrun by the Gurkhas, by whom
it was ceded to the British twenty-five years later. To this day (or at
any rate till quite recently) the Bhotias, although British subjects dwell-
ing in British territory, continue to acknoAvledge Tibetan suzerainty by
the payment of certain taxes, the enforcement of Avhich is secured by
their trading interests in Tibet.
How closely the Bhotias are akin by descent to the existing tribes
of Nari is not clear. The dialects spoken by them are apparently related
to those used there. But socially and religiously the Bhotias are far
parted from the Tibetans. "While the latter are Lamaists and Shamanists,
overridden by priests and wizards, and cursed with the custom of
polyandry, the former are not. Their ancestral customs and beliei's,
some of which are minutely described in this book, have probably
been best preserved by the eastern clans. These exhibit a social
condition which, if not highly moral, is yet singularly free from
the demands and restrictions that burden and repress the Hindu,
and from the abject submission to priestcraft and demonology that
prevails in Nari. They worship they know not what at little rude
shrines adorned with prayer flags; and the essence of their religion
seems to be the fear and appeasement of countless spirits and phantoms,
including the spirits of their ancestors. But between the worshipper and
the Unseen no professional human intermediary is employed; and ghosts
notwithstanding, they are a light-hearted and cheerful people, as well
as industrious and energetic. It is truly remarkable that this small
body of eastern Bhotias should have preserved, as they have done,
their primitive customs and traditional beliefs alike against Hindu and
Buddhist.
The case of the western Bhotias is otherwise. They afford another
instance of what has frequently been observed in India, namely the
gradual absorption of non-Aryan tribes into the ranks of Brahmanism
(see Sir Alfred Lyall's Asiafic Studies, 1st series, chapter v.). Why the
Bhotias remained outside Buddhism when their neighbours and rulers
in Nari became Buddhists, and the influences of Brahmanism have
been more potent in western than in eastern Bhote, is not fully
apparent. Doubtless the western Bhotias have been associated with
Hindus during the last two hundred years or longer, more closely
than their eastern brethren; they are certainly nearer to the great
places and routes of Hill pilgrimage. They are now, in fact, a more
civilised and polished community than the eastern Bhotias. From
among them have sprung two at least of the best of the Indian
Government's native explorers and surveyors — Nain Singh (" A ") and
Kishna Singh ("A. K."), both of whom are natives of Milam. The
opportunities of these men have been exceptional. But they are
samples of the mental and moral capacity to be found in the remote
Bhotia glens.
The energy of the Bhotias find their exercise in trade. The
practical monopoly of the traffic across the Kumaon and Garhwal
passes is in Bhotian hands, under strictly regulated arrangements among
WESTERN TIBET AND THE BRITISH BORDERLAND. 33
themselves and their Tibetan correspondents. It is carried on by packs
upon the backs of sheep, goats, and cross and thoroughbred yaks, by
which are transported the grain, sugar, cloths, and hardware (exports from
India), and the salt, borax, and wool (imports into India), which form its
staples. The value of the exports and imports is comparatively small,
and is not likely, for a long time to come, to become very great. But
the trade is worthy of encouragement as giving employment to the
labour and capital of a sturdy and enterprising, as Avell as loyal, race of
traders and carriers, who are capable also of becoming one of the vehicles
of British influence in Tibet.
The kinship of the people of Nari to the mongoloid races of Central
Asia seems to lie rather in the direction of Burma and south-western
China than on the other hand northwards in the direction of Tartary
and Mongolia. It is known, too, that between India and Tibet, includ-
ing Nari, there was considerable communication in past ages ; and
whatever may have been the case with Tantrism, Buddhism entered Tibet
from India. The primitive cult of the country was no doubt demonology,
in contact with which the imported Buddhism probably degenerated more
and more from the original Indian doctrine and practice. It seems
unlikely that much early intercourse between India and Nari took place
over the Kumaon and Garhwal passes. It was carried on chiefly from
the west along the valleys of the Indus and the Sutlej, a line of
access which the Mongol invasion of Mirza Haidar in the sixteenth
century and the Sikh expedition of 184-1 showed to be practicable.
But for a long period under the Lhasa Government Nari has been a
closed country against India. That the people themselves have no
antagonism or aversion to the foreigner from the south is plainly seen
from this book ; and official obstruction having been removed, develop-
ment of intercourse with India, to the advantage of the people of Nari
as well as of our own traders, becomes possible and likely. Eude and
barbarous as they are, the people seem to be characterised by certain
robust and improvable qualities. Their country is, however, limited in
resources and thinly populated ; and they are ruled by an unenlightened
and greedy hierocracy and ofiicialdom. A great and rapid improvement
in the condition and affairs, commercial or other, of Nari cannot reason-
ably be looked for. Yet such expeditions as that of which this book
contains the record cannot fail to accomplish a little towards the
desirable end.
THE PAGAN RACES OF THE MALAY PENINSULA.^
(With Map and Illustration.)
Men of business and travellers, whose calling takes them to the Straits
Settlements either as settlers or in passing through, are brought into
intimate association with the Malay. It is true that the bulk of the
1 Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, by W. W. Skeat and C. 0. Blagden. London :
Macmillan and Co., 1906. In two volumes. With numerous illustrations. Price 425. net.
VOL. XXIII. C
34 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
commerce, both wholesale and retai), not in the hands of the European,
is conducted by Chinese, but the Malay is constantly in evidence. He
oftentimes acts as your servant, he is messenger from office to office ;
he is an expert fisher and boatman. He is a Mohamm.edan by religion,
and is, as a rule, very much a gentleman. We have nothing to do with
him for the present ; he is not one of the pagan races. But the European
is made vaguely aware by hearsay of the existence of another race or
races of people who inhabit the mainland of the Peninsula, and the
seacoast ; an inferior type, more or less dwarfed in stature, who live in
the depths of the jungle, feeding on roots and on the prey of their
blow-pipes, very primitive and exceedingly shy. If the traveller takes a
journey into the interior, the chances are that he will see here and there
a dim form flitting among the shadows of the forest trees, an indefinite
something which whisks away into nothing. " Orang Jakun, Tuan,"
(" Jakun, Sir"), his guide will tell him, and he probably dismisses him
from his mind as one of the Aborigines, and if he is a collector, he may
wonder whether he can effect a deal for the aboriginal weapons. This
practically sums up the knowledge which the ordinary European has
of these very interesting peoples who are found in the country called
the Federated Malay States, and in the islands around. Rudyard
Kipling, in Many Inventions and under the title of " The Disturber of
the Traffic," introduces one variety of the Jakun, the Orang Laut, an
astonishingly primitive variety who live on the sea. " You cannot drown
an Orange-Lord, not even in Flores Strait on flood time." Laut, how-
ever, is pronounced like our Lout.
There has always been, since the commencement of our domination,
a small band of earnest scientists who have made a study of the Malay
and of these primitive peoples. The copious bibliography published in
the volumes under revieAv is ample evidence of this ; the names of
J. R. Logan, Crawfurd, and Thomas Braddell are intimately associated
with that mine of lore, the Journal of the Indian Archipelago, and indeed
it would be invidious to make a selection from the roll of distinguished
names. Not the least interesting to us will be that of Nelson Annandale,
Research Student in Anthropology at the University of Edinburgh, who,
as Mr. Skeat says, first broke ground in the Peninsula as a member
of the Cambridge Expedition of 1899, and has from time to time
published the results of his investigations in the Fasciculi Malayenses.
And now Mr. W. W. Skeat and Mr. Blagden have given us the outcome
of years of study, of arduous journeys and intimate personal knowledge,
in this monumental work. Mr. Skeat must rank among the foremost
of living Malay scholars and students of the races of the Peninsula, and
has already established his reputation by his book on Malay Magic ;
while Mr. Blagden is responsible for the chapter on the Language
question, and for the Comparative Vocabulary — in some ways the most
important part of the work.
As the preface indicates, the book is in the nature of a compilation
from many sources, with the addition of much original matter ; and it is
obvious that not only the various chapters, but even sections of chapters,
have been written independently and at different times, the result being
THE PAGAN RACES OF THE MALAY PENINSULA. 35
occasional " overlapping " of information ; but this is not a disadvantage,
Mixed Jakuu type, Bukit Prual, Selaugor.
for one must look on the book rather as an encyclopEedia in which the
reader will find each heading complete in itself.
36 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Who, then, are these primitive peoples'? Whence did they corned
There are three well-defined groups which inhabit the central backbone
of the Peninsula, the most northerly being the Semang, more or less
inland from Penang ; the Sakai, on a line from the Perak River ; and
the Jakuns, a composite race dwelling anywhere between Malacca and
Johore, and the islands beyond. Let us begin by admitting that all the
theories held up to the present time are only tentative, and that there is
a great field for the ethnologist ; only, as Mr. Skeat urges, let him be
quick, for distinctive features are fast disappearing. The classification
adopted is that of Professor Eudolf Martin of Zurich, who has taken
the hair as a standard. The only modification which Skeat has made
has been to add a standard for the Jakuns. Thus :
Group 1. Ulotrichi, or woolly-haired tribes. Semang.
Group 2. Cymotrichi, or wavy-haired tribes. Sakai.
Group 3. Lissotrichi, or smooth-haired tribes. Jakun and Orang
Laut.
The Semang or Negrito is brachycephalic, and in his characteristics
is allied to the Philippine negrito, the Andamanese, and the African
Pigmies. It has been fairly well established that he is in no way
connected either with the Papuan or the African negro. He has two
other characteristics ; he uses the bow and arrow in place of the blow-
pipe, and he builds his huts or shelters on the ground, and not in
trees.
The Sahii, on the other hand, is dolichocephalic. There are two
theories to account for his origin. One lately advanced by Schmidt
seeks to identify him with the Mon-Annam group, an Indo-Chinese
source to which we shall refer later. The other, Avhich has the authority
of Virchow, suggests that the Sakai is allied to the Vedda, Tamil,
Korumba, and Australian races, and may be styled the Dravido-
Australian theory. He uses the blow-pipe, a beautifully made instru-
ment, and he builds in trees, or, at any rate, at a height from the
ground.
The Jakun, again, is brachycephalic. He belongs to a less well-defined
group, consisting of tribes partly aboriginal Malayan, partly Semang,
and partly Sakai. He is mongolian or mongoloid.
In discussing the origin of these Pagan Races, it will perhaps clear
the ground if we trace what is known of the past history of the dominant
Malay race, with whom, as we have said, this work does not concern
itself. Swettenham says, in British Malaya, page 144, "There are good
reasons for believing that Malays are the descendants of people who
crossed from the south of India to Sumatra, mixed with a people
already inhabiting that island, and gradually spread themselves over
the central and most fertile states. . . . From Sumatra they gradually
worked their way to Java, to Singapore, and the Malay Peninsula," and so
on. Our authors also say of these people, " The Malay language has been
introduced into the Peninsula from Central Sumatra, where the Malay-
speaking tribes were trained under Indian influences into a more or less
civilised condition before they sent out the successive swarms of colonists
THE PAGAN RACES OF THE MALAY PENINSULA. 37
who made new homes ... in the Peninsula " {Pagan Races, vol. ii. page
434). It may be noted here that the word Malay is used to denote
38 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
this Mohammedan importation from Sumatra, while the term Malayan
signifies the aboriginal inhabitants of the Peninsula and the Archipelago,
When, then, these Malays arrived on the coast, they found the country
already occupied by the Pagan Races, whom they gradually drove into
their jungle fastnesses.
The problem which has concerned the ethnologist, and is still
vexing him, is how to trace the origin of these peoples. If we examine
the map of Asia, we see that, in the tendency of nations to overflow
towards the south, the Peninsula is a natural resting-place. It acted as
a breakwater against which the fury of the north-east monsoon expended
itself, so that even the most primitive praus could coast down from
India in comparatively calm water. Moreover, the monsoon, after
having spent its force, brought down vessels of all sorts from the China
side. In the Malay annals one reads of legends of this kind. In
endeavouring to tell what is known of these migrations, we find our-
selves in some difficulty, because the subject is still in suspense. There
are no records of any kind, and the student has to be guided by race
characteristics and by language. We are therefore brought face to face
with the problem of the Mon-Annam languages, a study which is yet in
its infancy, and which offers a very attractive field for research. The
Mon-Annam or Mon-Khmer-Annam tribes coincide very much with what
is now called Indo-China, From what distance north they originally
came is not known, but it is thought that they spread out towards the
north of India, Burma, and Indo- China generally. The reader is directed
to the excellent sketch-map which we are permitted to reproduce here,
by which he will understand far better than by any description how
these allied tribes, arising in the north-east, spread towards the west and
south, forming a rough segment of an arc, and established a linguistic
and racial connection between the extreme west of the north-west
provinces of India and the Malay Peninsula. Originally, before the
Burmese and Siamese came from the north, these Mon-Annam races
lived, the Monspeaking in Pegu, the Khmer in Camboga, and the Annam
up in Tongking, but the Annamese came gradually down the east coast
to where they are now. All this is excellently portrayed in the map.
It is thought that when the Sumatra Malays arrived on the scene, they
found that the Mon-Khmer races occupied the same relation to the
aborigines as to-day the Malays do to the primitive tribes : they occupied
the coast-line and generally the points of vantage ; they were slowly
driven south by races coming after them ; and they, in their turn,
partly assimilated and partly drove before them into the jungle, the
races who are now there.
And now the question arises. Are these pagan races of Mon-Annam
origin or not? That is the problem. We are dealing as before with
the Semang, Sakai, and Jakuns. The Semang or Negritoes are frankly
uncertain. They are allied, as we have seen, to isolated tribes far away,
as the Philippine negritoes and the Andamanese, and there is a large
number of words in their language obviously not Mon-Annam. When
we come to the Sakai, we notice a slight shade of divergence between
the views of the authors, for while, as it seems to us. Mr. Skeat inclines
THE PAGAN RACES OF THE MALAY PENINSULA. 39
to the Dravido-Australian theory of Viichow, Mr. Blagden rather holds
with the doctrine first suggested by liOgan, that the Sakai were at any
rate in touch with the Mon-Annam peoples. Schmidt, later, has followed
in Blagden's steps and boldly holds the theory that the Sakai are of Mon-
Annam origin. Of the Jakuns, less is known. They are a mixed race,
a congeries of the " tailings " of various tribes thrown into that corner
of the Peninsula from all sides. Their language is as much Archipelago
as Peninsular Malay. It has been thought, in order to account for
many discrepancies, that there were two Mon-Khmer waves, the one
preceding the other by many ages.
The chapters dealing with their modes of living, their hunting and
generally gaining a precarious livelihood, are full of interest and will amply
repay the reader. One often thinks how instructive it would be if by
some magic power one could be transported back to prehistoric times,
and see for oneself the process by which primitive man hunted the
mammoth and other big game. Well, here we have the operation going
on at the present time, if Ave substitute the elephant for the more ancient
animal. These simple people, practically naked, armed only with the
blow-pipe and rude implements made of bamboo and hard wood, will
with the greatest ease track down and kill not only elephants, but
rhinoceros and tigers. The means used are astonishingly simple, but
we shall not spoil the description by any paraphrase of our own.
Another chapter full of interest is that which deals with the making
of the blow-pipe, and the manufacture of the poison used. A careful
description is given of the Ipoh tree, the famed Upas tree of Java
(Antiaris toxicaria) ; of the Ipoh creeper, a Stryclinos, and very deadly ;
besides the Tuba, or Denis elliptica, used to stupefy the fish.
We have not touched upon the sections dealing with religion and
many other points, leaving them to the reader.
One word we must add in commendation of the illustrations. We
have seldom seen photographs which were so good in themselves, or so
well chosen. We reproduce a striking example here.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL
SOCIETY.
Meeting of Council.
At a Meeting of Council held on the 4th December, the undermentioned
ladies and gentlemen were elected Members of the Society : —
Miss J. Milne. Miss Marion C. Wilson. Mrs. J. A. Pitcairn.
Adam J. Templeton. R. W. Waddell. Miss E. S. Forsyth,
John Hosack. Mrs. Agnes Pattullo. WiUiam Gow.
James Cowan. Miss Thomson. Miss Carmichael.
Charles E. Wardlaw, C.E. Rev. J. M. Dryerre. Prof. Alexander Darroch.
Mrs. Finlay. John J. Brown. Alexander Orr.
William Mackay, M.A. W. S. Bertram. George Carmichael.
40 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
James Hutcheon. James F. Gemniill. H. F. Morland Simpson,
G. M'Kay CaiDpbell. Thomas Jack. M.A., F. S.A.Scot.
JohnGraham,M.A.,Int.Sc. William Martin. Miss M'Nab of Black-
John A. Todd, B.L. Frank Chalmers. ruthven.
Miss Magdeline L. Eussell. Miss Margaret F. Simpson. Miss L. L. Ward.
David Gloag, F.E.I.S. Thomas Chalmers Addis. The Et. Hon. the Earl of
David Ross. James M. Burnet. Mansfield.
Miss Margaret L. Russell. Mrs. E. K. Shepherd. W. J. S. Eastburn.
R. M. M'Cheyne Roddick, J. Barnes Watson. Mrs. K. C. Hunter.
M.A., F.F.A. J. Cromar Watt. William Brown,M. A., M.B.
Francis More. John T. Frew. J. Stewart Clark.
Chair of Geography.
Mr. Bartholomew, as Secretary of the Committee for the Promotion
of a Chair of Geography in the University of Edinburgh, reported that
the Committee, in view of the immediate requirements of Geographical
Teaching in the University, had decided to support the establishment of
a Lectureship until such time as the Fund permitted of the endowment
of a Chair. The Committee accordingly asked the Council to sanction
that the interest of the present subscriptions to the Fund, amounting to
about £2000, should be given as an annual contributiom to the Lecture-
ship. On the motion of Mr. Blaikie, seconded by Mr. Will C. Smith,
K.C., this was unanimously agreed to. It was also agreed that the Fund
should be invested in the name of the Society's Trustees.
General Meeting.
The following alterations and additions to the Constitution and Laios of the
Society, necessitated by the Besolutimi which was passed at the Animal General
Meeting of the Society held on the 8th November 1906; to admit "Teacher
Associates" to certain privileges of the Society at a reduced fee, v:ere considered
at a General Meeting of the Society held within the United Free Assembly
Hall, Mound, Edinburgh, on Wednesday, 12th December 1906, at 8 pjn.,
and unanimously adopted.
Neio Law under Chapter I., and Alterations in Laws IL and VIII.
Law II. to read : — The Society shall consist of Ordinary, Teacher
Associate, Corresponding, and Honorary Members.
Niv: Laiv V. — Teacher Associate Members, who must be engaged in
the work of teaching and be approved by the Council, may be admitted
to certain limited privileges of the Society on payment of a reduced
subscrijjtion.
Lav: VIII. to read : — Each Ordinary or Teacher Associate Member
whose subscription is not in arrear, and each Corresponding and
Honorary Member, shall be entitled to receive periodically a copy of the
Society's Magazine, and of such other publications of the Society as the
Council may determine.
Additions to Lav: XVIII. — Every Ordinary Member has the privilege
of introducing one visitor to each Meeting. Each Teacher Associate
Member shall receive one ticket of admission (non-transferable) to each
Meeting.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 41
Addition to Law XXVI. — The Subscription for each Teacher Associate
Member shall be Half-a-Guinea, payable on the 1st of November each
year.
Diploma of Fellowship.
The Council conferred the Honorary Diploma of Fellowship on the
Right Hon. Sir George D. Taubman Goldie, P.C, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.,
D.C.L., LL.D., President of the Royal Geographical Society.
They also conferred the Ordinary Diploma of Fellowship on Henry
Martyn Clark, M.D., Thomas Geddes, and Alexander Mackay, C.A.,
Members of the Society, who had complied with the prescribed conditions.
Lectures in January.
On the 10th January in Dundee, and the 11th in Aberdeen, Miss
Marion Newbigin, D.Sc, will deliver a lecture entitled " The Swiss
Valais : a Study in Regional Geography."
His Serene Highness the Prince of Monaco, on the 17th January in
Edinburgh, and the 18th January in Glasgow, will lecture to the Society
on " Meteorological Exploration of the High Atmosphere Phenomena."
Mr. Charles J. Wilson, F.R.S.G.S., will deliver a lecture on " Japan "
before the Dundee and Aberdeen Centres on the 29th and 30th January.
On the 31st January, Professor Sir W. M. Ramsay Avill address the
Society in Edinburgh on the " Roads and Railways on the Plateau of
Asia Minor."
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Europe.
The Mungo Park Centenary. — On the afternoon of December 10,
Sir Harry Johnston unveiled the panels which have been placed in the
Mungo Park statue at Selkirk to celebrate the Mungo Park Centenary.
In the evening Sir Harry Johnston delivered a lecture on Mungo Park
and his work.
Report of the Malta Fever Commission. — In connection with
the paper on Malta which was published here last July, it is of interest
to notice that, at the annual meeting of the Royal Society of London
held on 30th November last, an announcement was made by the Council
concerning the work of the Malta Fever Commission. It will be
remembered that some time ago Colonel D. Bruce discovered that the
cause of the disease was a germ, and the Commission have now
ascertained that the main source of propagation of the fever appears
to be the milk of infected goats. It is, of course, possible that there
may be other contributory causes, such as mosquitoes and house flies ;
42 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINK.
but it is certainly a remarkable fact that since the Commission
in Malta discovered the presence of the germ in the blood and milk
of a large proportion of the goats in Malta, and warned the authorities
to take the necessary precautions in the use of goats' milk, the number
of cases of fever has rapidly diminished. In support of this statement
it can be mentioned that, while during the months of July, August and
September of last year, 258 men of the Navy and Army suffering from
the fever were admitted to hospital, during the same period this year
the number sank to twenty-six. Those best qualified to form an
opinion believe that if the whole of the infected goats could be removed
from the island, Mediterranean fever in Malta would be reduced to
insignificant proportions, even if it would not entirely disappear.
Asia.
The Stein Expedition to Eastern Turkestan. — Dr. Stein, of
whose plans we gave some account in vol. xxii., p. 379, is making good
progress with his work. From letters published in the daily press at
the end of November it appears that he reached Kashgar in June last,
and was able to quit that city with his caravan at the end of that
month. As about two months were then available before exploration in
the desert could begin, Dr. Stein and the surveyor Rai Ram Singh
devoted a considerable amount of time to geographical surveying. Dr.
Stein finally arrived in Khotan early in August, and, after some further
geographical work, began his archaeological labours there. Here some
interesting finds were made, and the explorer then went to Keriya,
whence the letters were written. The point of most geographical
interest so far is that he emphasises the fact of the spread of cultivation
in the Khotan neighbourhood. Large areas which were waste or
covered by desert sand some years ago on his previous visit have now
been reclaimed, and water in the Khotan oasis is abundant. The fact
is especially interesting as it suggests the danger of overestimating the
evidence of gradual desiccation in this region. It may be, as has been
suggested by others, that there is an ebb and flow in the relation of
desert and cultivated land. Dr. Stein thinks that there is evidence that
irrigation on a large scale could be successfully carried out.
Further letters from Keriya, under date October 10, give some
additional details as to the extensive survey work carried out by Ram
Singh, especially in the region between the Kara-kash and Yurang-kash
rivers. At the time of writing Dr. Stein was about to continue his
journey eastwards.
The French Archaeological Expedition to Central Asia.— In
vol. xxi. p. GGO, a brief note was given here in regard to an expedition
to be undertaken to Central Asia under the leadership of .M. Pelliot. It
is now reported that the mission arrived at Kashgar in Chinese
Turkestan at the end of August last. At the date of the latest advices
the explorers intended to proceed from Kashgar to Kucha, in the north
of the Tarim basin, thence to the famous Lop Nor, and from there by
way of Sa-chu into the valley of the Hoang-ho. After striking across
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
43
the great bend of the river from Lan-chau to Siugan, they propose to
turn north again, and make their way vld Tai-yuan and Tai-tung to
Pekin.
Journey to Western Tibet.— Mr. H. Calvert, of the Indian Civil
Service, has recently undertaken a journey in Western Tibet, and some
particulars of this are given in The Civil and Military Gazette of Lahore,
quoted in the Aihenmim of November 10. Mr. Calvert, who was
entirely dependent on his Tibetan guides, took the summer route
towards Gartok, which he reached on August 4.
By this route Gartok is 122 miles from Shipki, and 344 from Simla.
Mr. Calvert penetrated to Chukang on the Indus by an unknown route.
He found the Indus here to be " a small stream easily fordable, flowing
in a narrow steep valley barely half a mile wide." Kudok, which for
some inscrutable reason the Tibetans have most jealously guarded —
turning back, for instance, Captain Ravvling, on his first tour when he
was close to it — is described as " a picturesque village on a rocky
eminence in a wide grassy plain. The eminence is crowned by a fine
dzone, and there are ruined battlements and bastions below. The
village is largely in ruins, the population having decreased considerably
of late."
Mr, Calvert sums up the results of his journey in the following
words: "The entire journey extended over 1080 miles, of which 620
were in Tibet proper. The highest camp was pitched at 17,050 feet,
and for weeks we never got below 15,000 feet. The Tibetans were
generally friendly or indifferent, and little difficulty was experienced in
obtaining yaks for transport. In the course of the tour every district in
Western Tibet was visited except those in the south-east corner visited
by Mr. Sherring last year. Several previously unknown and unmapped
routes were followed, and though no important geographical discoveries
were made, much useful and interesting information was obtained. The
weather conditions were at times very trying, much rain, hail, and snow
being encountered."
Africa.
The Results of the Foureau-Lamy Mission.— In this Magazine
(xvii. p. 416 et seq.) some account was given of the Saharan Mission
undertaken by M. Foureau, in company with Commandant Lamy, in
1898-1900. The full report of this great undertaking has now appeared
in four quarto volumes as Documents Scientifiqiies de la Mission Saharienne,
par F. Foureau (Paris, Masson et Cie., 1903-5). The volumes constitute
a work of the highest scientific importance, invaluable to all those
interested in the regions traversed by the Mission. They include a
volume of maps, and volumes devoted to astronomical and meteorological
observations, to orography, hydrography, topography and botany, and
to geology, ethnography, the prehistoric fauna, and the commercial
possibilities of the region. The account already given here makes it,
however, impossible to give space for a detailed survey of their contents.
44 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINK.
and we can do little more than call attention to the value of the whole,
and to the fine illustrations which, in combination with the maps, give
so admirable a picture of the great desert. A few words must, however,
be devoted to the chapter on Conclusions Economiques with which the last
volume closes. In effect M. Foureau states that while the experiences
of the Mission have dispelled some old fears as to the impossibility of
crossing the desert, they but confirm the old accounts of the poverty of
the region. It may be that beneath its surface great mineral wealth lies
hidden, and M. Foureau is of opinion that careful and detailed investiga-
tion should be devoted to this point, but from the surface, throughout
by far the greater part of the area, little is to be hoped. By a rational
organisation and administration of the country the number of inhabitants
can be increased, as also the productivity of certain small tracts, but
beyond this the chief hope lies in the possible mineral wealth. As
regards the French Sudan, a wise administration is required with the
avoidance of the use of Senegalese troops, for these, though excellent
fighters, are very undesirable as regular police. Security should be
assured and cultivation encouraged by every means in the power of
the Government, while money and cloth should be made the sole legal
media of exchange. In the Shari and Congo region the desiderata are
an improved jiostal and telegraphic service, a complete utilisation of the
existing means of water-transport, and the complete abolition of human
porterage with the introduction of other methods of transport where
possible. Here also cloth and money should be the only media of
exchange. M. Foureau concludes by bluntly demanding the removal
of all missionaries, of whatever church, it being his opinion that they
stir up an amount of strife which more than counterbalances any good
they may do.
New Turco-Egyptian Frontier. — We publish here a map to
show the course of this boundary as determined by the recent agreement.
The task of the Commissioners who represented the Egyptian Govern-
ment necessitated an amount of exploration which has produced results
of considerable geographical importance.
For the first 20 miles the new frontier follows the line of the water-
shed between the Wadi el Araba on the east, and the feeders of the
Wadi el Arish on the west. It then crosses an open plateau, drained —
if that expression may be used of a sterile upland where a few heavy
showers in winter and two or three poor wells alone supply water — by
the Wadi el Jerafa, which runs into the northern portion of the Wadi el
Araba, which again slopes towards the Dead Sea, and the Wadi el
Qureiya, which runs into the Wadi el Arish. From this point the
frontier follows the watershed between the Wadi el Arish and the wadis
of the wilderness of Judtea to Birin, beyond which point the dividing
line between the feeders of the former and those of the latter lies in
Turkish territory. From the El Auja district to Rafah the country
slopes towards the Mediterranean, and the " hard desert " of the Sinai
and Arabia Petraja gradually gives way to sandy dunes and steppe till
the wells of Rafah are reached.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
45
While the southern half of the frontier line from Aqaba to Mayein
traverses an arid and difficult mountainous region, inhabited only by a
few Beduin, and very poorly supplied with water, the districts on each
side of the line from Mayein to Rafah, especially in the neighbourhood
of Ain Kadeis, are described as comparatively well watered and even
capable of some agricultural development. Barley is grown as a rain
crop by the Beduin of the ^Yadi el Jaifi and El Kosseima districts ; and
the springs of Ain Kadeis, Ain el Gedairat, and, above all, of Ain el
Kosseima, supply their flocks with abundance of water throughout the
New Turco-Egyptian Frontier. 1906
year. El Auja lies on the Turkish side of the fi'ontier, and is also well
supplied with water. In fact, it would be no exaggeration to say that
between Ain Kadeis on the Egyptian and El Auja on the Turkish side
of the boundary — a distance of at most 25 miles — there is a water supply
which, by the construction of a few extemporised cisterns, could be
made to suffice for 7000 men, and might be considerably increased by
the sinking of new wells.
While the territory between Wadi el Jaifi and the JJediterranean is
never likely to hold a large settled population, there is no doubt that
the construction of dams across some of the wadis which carry a con-
siderable amount of storm water to the Wadi el Arish durine: the winter
46 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
would enable the Beduin to cultivate barley, tobacco, and vegetables to
a much greater extent than is actually the case.
America.
The San Francisco Earthquake and the Bogoslof Islands. —
Papers on the San Francisco earthquake catastrophe accumulate rapidly,
in marked contrast to the Valparaiso tremor, information in regard
to which is slow in coming to hand. In the Popular Scientific Monthly
for October, Professor David Starr Jordan gives an interesting account
of the actual rift, the article being copiously illustrated by photographs,
some of them very striking. Professor Jordan also points out that in
the spring of 1906 a fresh island arose in the St. John Bogoslof group
in the Behring Sea. The two previous islands arose during earthquake
disturbances, and Professor Jordan suggests that the birth of the new
island is connected with the great earthquake. In a further paper in
the Popular Science Montlilij for December, an illustrated account is given
of these curious islands, and of the origin of each.
The Geography of Alaska. — We have received from the United
States Geological Survey an elaborate and beautifully illustrated mono-
graph on the Geography and Geology of Alaska, which forms Professional
Paperl^o. 45. The work is professedly a compilation, intended to make
the large amount of material which has been accumulated of late years
accessible to a wider public, but as the author, Mr. Alfred Brooks, has
himself spent seven consecutive years of field work in the province, he
speaks with a first-hand knowledge of the problems involved. Mr. Brooks
states that his prime purpose has been to disseminate more accurate
notions in regard to the geography and geology of the region, and to
serve in some measure to dispel the popular fallacies in regard to it, and
we fancy that many will find from a perusal of the book that their
previous knowledge of the region was largely fallacious. At the base
of much popular error, of course, lies the fact that Alaska on an ordinary
map of North America is much distorted, so that its true size and
position are difficult to realise. A striking little sketch map in the
volume shows the province superimposed upon an ordinary map of the
States, and makes it clear that the easternmost and Avesternmost points
are separated by a distance equal to that between the Pacific and Atlantic
coasts of the States in the latitude of Los Angelos, while the distance
between the northernmost and southernmost points is nearly equal to that
between the Mexican and Canadian boundaries of the States. With
such an extension it is not surprising that there should be great variation
in climate, a variation much greater than popular belief allows for.
Some of the figures and tables in the section on climate are indeed very
striking, especially those relating to rainfall. South-eastern Alaska has
a temperate, equable, and remarkably humid climate. Sitka, approxi-
mately in the latitude of Aberdeen, has a rainfall of 88 inches per
annum, and in the south-eastern region generally the mean annual fall
varies from 80 to 1 ."^O inche.=. Two years' records at Fort Tongass, at
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. ' 47
the entrance of Dixon Inlet, give indeed an average fall of 133 inches,
with a mean annual temperature of 48°. Throughout the district we
liave cool summers and comparatively Avarm winters, but during the
winter months, which have three-fourths of the precipitation, there is
almost incessant rain. On an average there are only about one hundred
clear days in the year, and these largely in the spring. In marked con-
trast Avith this region is the Alaskan interior, where the climate is
continental in character, semi-arid, with an average rainfall of only 11
inches at Eagle, and with great extremes of heat and cold. Space does
not permit of a fuller consideration of this or the other interesting topics
discussed in the monograph, but those interested in a remarkable region
may be confidently referred to Mr. Brooks's work. The section on
climate, from which the above observations are quoted, is written by
Mr. Cleveland Abbe. •
Commercial Geography.
The World's Production of Rubber. — According to a Eeport
presented by M. Ch. Dutfart to the recent Colonial Congress at
Marseilles, the actual production of rubber at the present moment
amounts to about 56,000 tons, of which 36,800 tons come from America,
about 17,500 tons from Africa, and 1700 tons from Asia and Oceania.
The French Colonies produce 6600 tons and stand second in the list of
productive countries, the amount surpassing that produced by the British
territories. The French territories in AVest Africa constitute the first
source of supply, and after them come in order the French Congo,
Indo-China, and New Caledonia. At one time the French colonial
production went chiefly to England, and in part to Germany, but more
and more it is coming direct to France. In 1896 the importation from
the Colonies into France was only 317 tons, while in 1904 it was 2378
tons. In 1896, again, the French colonies sent 1258 tons direct to
England, and in 1904, 2165 tons, the increase in the latter case being
proportionately much less than in the former.
The Industrial Situation in the Southern United States. — We
have more than once alluded here to the economic changes which are goinw
on in the Southern States of North America as a result of the altered
conditions brought about by the war. A very interesting summing up
of the present situation from the standpoint of economic geography is
given in an article by Professor Surface in the BuUet'm of the Geographical
Society of Philadelphia (July 1906). The author begins by pointing out
that the population in the Southern States in 1900 was twenty-four and
a half millions, of which nearly one-third were of negro descent and
about 2 per cent, foreign. As compared with the census of the previous
decade, the tendency for the population to accumulate in towns is marked
as is to be expected from the rapid industrial development which is
taking place, and there is also a large migration to the less densely
populated regions in the west and north-west. Of the total population
1 8 per cent, are engaged in agriculture, which is still the most important
4S SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
occupation. Cotton is the only important export crop, and of an esti-
mated 50,000,000 acres capable of bearing this crop in the cotton belt,
only about half is actually in bearing, and this in spite of the heavy
demand for the product. Even for the present acreage, however, the
labour supply is inadequate, and as yet the negro is the only labourer
who shows aptitude for the climatic conditions which exist. On the
other hand, the development of the towns and the increased demand
for domestic servants is more and more attracting the negro away from
the cotton belt, and the demand for white labourers in the towns is also
great. The diminution of labourers is having the interesting effect of
causint^ the large plantations to be more and more divided up into small
farms, which can be worked by the owners for the most part. There
is no doubt also that the abundant supply of slave labour in former
days has had its usual effect in checking the development of the cotton
industry, for an efficient cotton-picking machine would do much to solve
the labour problem, as would also a corn harvester adapted to the
special conditions ki the uplands.
As regards manufactures, we have already emphasised here the rapid
(^rowth of cotton manufacture in the south, but the labour problem is
here almost as intense as in the fields. Hitherto, as in the earlier
development of the cotton industry in England, the demand has been
largely met by child labour, but the community are coming to a percep-
tion of the economic waste involved. Professor Surface says relatively
little of this question, but another journal (The Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science, March 1906) gives a terrible picture
of the conditions now existing. In the South children form 25 per
cent, of the wage-earners, and while many States have no regulations on
the subject whatever, Alabama and Arkansas, which are among those
which have such laws, place ten years as the limit of age, the statements
made as to age by parents or guardians being taken without inquiry.
The origin of child labour is found in the immigration into the
towns of whole families, all of whose members, women and children
alike, had been accustomed to working in the fields. The whole family
similarly went to the factory, with the result that the wages of the
whole drop to the level of those earned elsewhere by the adult males.
There is even reason to believe that children are imported from the Old
World and exploited by persons who are regarded as their legal guardians.
The child-labour question occurs not only in connection with cotton
manufacture, but also in the tobacco industry, where in North Carolina
children form 23 per cent, of the workers, and in mining, where in many
States the legal limit for boys is only twelve, a limit to which there is
reason to believe very little attention is paid. The student of sociology
will be interested to perceive how all the vicious conditions which accom-
panied child labour in Great Britain are here being repeated, including
child marriage, with all its evils.
As the figures given above indicate, foreign labour as yet is not well
represented, and hitherto the foreign labourers have not been found very
satisfactory, apparently in part because of the method of recruiting
employed. There is locally some demand for the importation of Chinese,
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 4 9
Japanese, and Korean labourers for the plantations, on account of their
supposed cheapness. Professor Surface expresses the opinion that it is
the negro who holds the key to the industrial situation, at least as
regards agriculture, and that the aim of the employers should be to
endeavour to attract him back to the soil, as he is apparently unsuited
for the conditions of town life, and rapidly degenerates there.
EDUCATIONAL.
In Sir George Goldie's address to the Society, which we publish this
month, reference is made to the fact that after July next Geography is
to cease to be a subject in Diplomatic and Foreign Office entrance ex-
aminations. It is of interest to note that the night after this address
was delivered in Edinburgh a question was asked in Parliament on the
subject, and the Secretary of State (Sir Edward Grey) replied that
"although a knowledge of geography is no doubt useful, it is a subject
with which men of general education are generally acquainted, and
which is easily acquired after entry into the service." Sir George G oldie
has written to the Times calling attention to the statements contained in
his address, and expressing regret that he finds himself unable to agree
with the official position. Most persons will probably agree that the
official optimism is hardly justified by experience, so far as the first part
of Sir Edward's statement goes, and will be inclined to suf pose that
although doubtless the subject is sometimes acquired after entrance into
the service, yet the knowledge is then often acquired at a cost to the
country somewhat out of jjroportion to its worth.
Following upon Sir George Goldie's letter some other correspondence
has appeared in the Times. From a letter of Major- General Russell we
quote the following instructive paragraph : —
A former Governor of Mauritius lias told me that when he applied for the
services of a medical officer for the Seychelles Islands, where an epidemic had
broken out, he was informed by the Colonial Office that his own medical officer
could visit these islands once a week, and hence the extia cost of an additional
doctor would be avoided. He replied that the suggestion was excellent, but there
were difficulties in carrying it out, as the Seychelles Islands were over 900 miles
distant from Mauritius. After this, can it be asserted that well-educated men in
this country are usually versed in modern geography ?
Mr. H. T. Mackinder also writes discussing the bearings of the
proposed changes. No apology is necessary for quoting from his letter
the following concise account of the present position of affairs : —
I hope that Sir Edward Grey will forgive me when I say that his description
of geography is twenty years out of date. Twenty years ago there were a few voices
already disturbing the wilderness, but for the most part geography was confined
to primary education and to the lower secondary education of girls. Persons of
superior education were wont as a rule to take pride in their geographical ignor-
ance. At that time the attitude of the Civil Service Ccmmissicneis was fully
VOL. xxin. D
50 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL 3IAGAZINE.
justified. But I submit that the steps recently taken by nearly all the Univer-
sities betoken a change with which even the Commissioners must reckon, what-
ever the temporary success of the recent strategical move. These steps, it seems
to me, constitute a general admission of the inaccuracy of the two assumptions
made in Sir Edward's reply in Parliament.
Mr. Mackinder then goes on to detail the position now taken up by-
most of the Universities of Britain in regard to the subject.
As, however, there can be little doubt that the official attitude still
represents to a considerable extent that of the ordinary " educated "
person even, it is to be feared, in Scotland, it is perhaps worth while to
call attention to the number and variety of the geographical courses
available to the student in the German universities. These courses for
the present session are detailed in the German geographical journals, and
we quote from Petermann's Mitteilungen some facts about the courses in
geography and the allied subjects open to the student in the University
of Berlin. We notice first that in this University eir/Ideen professors and
sixteen Privat-docents are to lecture on geography and the related subjects
during the present session. Students may attend courses on mathe-
matical geography, or take practical classes, elementary and advanced,
including general geography, cartography and oceanography, lectures on
spherical astronomy, and a number of courses or lectures on the taking
of astronomical observations, whether for nautical or geographical
purposes. They may study anthropology and ethnology, following up
the general courses with detailed studies of the folk-lore of special
primitive nations, or, on the other hand, correlating their studies with
the study of the history of the great civilised nations, ancient or modern.
They may study general meteorology and climatology with the prospect
of being able to follow these up along special lines. If their interests
lead them in the direction of plant-geography, they may study generally
the distribution of vegetation over the globe, or the plants of special
areas, regarded from their economic aspects. Courses on statistics and
geology are also open to them. Again, there are a vast number of lectures-
or courses on the geography of special regions, often studied in relation
to the history and development of the region, and so on — we might
continue the list considerably further. "While of course no one would
suggest that the equipment of a Civil Service candidate should include a
knowledge of all these varied topics, the length of the list must surely
suggest that modern geography is a big subject, and is not ail comprised
in one of the ordinary school text-books, nor yet is it a subject which
can be utterly neglected when the school days are over. If Germany
finds it worth while to have in her universities lectures on her colonies,
on their natural products, on their development and resources, and so
forth, it would almost seem as if similar courses might be useful in this
country. The list just given at least affords some support to Sir George
Goldie's view that in the battle of life the nations who take geography
seriously are better armed than those who regard it as child's-play,
unworthy of the attention of grown men. There is another moral,
which it is perhaps unnecessary to emphasise here, that Edinburgh might
EDUCATIONAL. 51
profitably draw from the list of professors and lecturers in the
Berlin University.
An article by Professor Heilprin, in the Bulletin of the American
Geographkal Society (Sept. 1906), on the "Impressions of a Naturalist in
British Guiana," gives an interesting account of the vast primaeval
forest which stretches from the Amazon to the Orinoco, and may be
recommended to the notice of teachers whose classes are studying this
part of South America. The contrast between the tropical forest and
the familiar woodlands of the temperate zones is well brought out, though
it is interesting to note that Professor Heilprin contests Mr. Wallace's
familiar statements in regard to the uniform green of the tropical forest.
On the water-front, at least, he thinks the display of bloom is not less
than in the temperate forest, which is, after all, not a region of brilliant
colour like the open fields and waste lands. The paper also contains an
interesting account of the animal life of the South American forest, and
is full of vivid touches of observation.
The tradition that the Grand Caiion of the Colorado should always
be chosen as a typical example of the erosive power of water is so strong
that no excuse is necessary for calling the attention of teachers to an
article on the Caiion in the Popular Science Monthly for November last.
The article is based on the new survey of the region, and supplies some
figures and illustrations which will be found useful in supplementing and
correcting the ordinary text-book accounts. Interesting is the stress
laid upon the burden of quartz sand carried by the river as the main
erosive agent, while a clear account is given of the different types of rock
forming the caiion w^alls.
NEW BOOKS.
EUROPE.
Cambridge : A Concise Guide to the Town and University. By John Willis
Clark, M.A., Hon. Litt.D. Third Edition. Cambridge : Macmillan and
Bowes, 1906. Price Is. net.
The visitor to Cambridge could wish for nothing better than Dr. Clark's com-
plete and yet compact little guide. The colleges are described by one who knowa
them well, and the descriptions are enhanced by numerous illustiations and
plans.
ASIA.
Ostasienfahrt. Von Dr. Franz Doflein. Leipzig : B. G. Teubner, 1906.
Pp. 511. Price 13 marks.
The Assistant-Keeper of the Royal Bavarian Zoological Museum here gives us
his experiences and observations in China, Japan, and Ceylon in 1904. His ship,
the Prinz Heinrich, was overhauled by a Russian man-of-war in the Red Sea, and
was injured on a coral reef in the Indian Ocean. He describes with the amplitude
and accuracy of an erudite and scientific man the leading features of the countries
through which he travelled, and furnishes beautiful illustrations of the scenery
and population, and carefully executed representations of the more novel zoological
52 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
forms which he observed. In the course of his scientific investigations in Ceylon
he says he came to a district where there was only one white man, "an irrigation
engineer, Mr. Ferguson, of Scottish extraction, who, like so many colonial English-
men, united a deep interest in natural science to very great knowledge." The
author devotes a chapter to " the Yellow Peril," and points out that while most
merchants have formed a bad opinion of the Japanese as the result of their inter-
course with Japanese merchants and sailors, a man of science who comes in con-
tact only with the best classes of the population will form a very favourable opinion
of them. He proceeds to examine the Japanese people from a scientific point of view.
They regard the family of the nation as supreme, while the individual is only a pass-
ing form, thus resembling the animal creation, where individual life is sacrificed
in order to maintain the species. Socialistic ideas would find in Japan a fruitful
soil, for we see everywhere there traces of communistic or socialistic institutions.
The pride, ambition, and enthusiasm of the people place immense power in the
hands of an intelligent government. Above all, the Spartan upbringing of the
Japanese converts them into a dangerous foe for any European nation. Now, how-
ever, Japan is entering on a great crisis. Her social life has not been much altered
by her new conditions. Although adopting modern manners, a Japanese man still
leads the old life in the midst of his family. But changes in character may occur as
the result of the modern education. Already, the author remarked a recrud-
escence of the less admirable qualities of the people. Their behaviour when peace
with Eussia was declared showed how dangerous for the state they might beconie
now that they are no longer trammelled by ancient customs. The old foundations
of their education — Religion, Ancestor-worship, and Respect for parents — begin
to disappear. Europe substitutes nothing, for the Japanese regard her Christianity
with scepticism and dislike. Looking to the inflammable character of the Japanese
and to the freedom from ancient ideas of the masses in crowded towns, it is pro-
bable that demagogues will influence them ; and if Western culture leads to the
rule of Individualism in Japan, then the chief source of the strength and might of
the nation will be destroyed.
Dr. Doflein continues: "In all probability Japan w411 be a much more
powerful political factor than she is at present, but her development is
much more diflicult to estimate than that of any other nation, partly owing to
the character of the Japanese, partly owing to the destruction of their ancient
customs." With regard to their commercial competition with Europeans, the
author U of opinion that the awakening of the East Avill do good to German
commerce, but that in China British merchants will sufl'er far more than German
from Japanese rivals. He exclaims energetically : " I see no ' yellow peril ' in
Japan. On the contrary, I hope and believe that we shall derive endless blessing
from that country. Japan presses with all her might towards the first rank of
rival Powers, and wishes to stand side by side with Britain, the United States,
and Germany. As a new factor, she will give them a fresh impetus. We shall
have a hard battle, but it will do us good. Our bureaucracy and littlenesses in life
aad trade will disappear before the giant task we shall encounter by the awakening
of non-European nations."
AFRICA.
The Making of Modern Egypt. By Sir Auckland Colvin, K.C.S.T., K.C.M.G.,
CLE. London : Seeley and Co., 1906. Price 18s. nd.
During the Ivst ten or twenty years we have had many books and reports
devling, directly or indirectly, with the making of modern Egypt. It is a tale
NEW BOOKS. 53
that bear3 repetition ; for it would be difficult, if not impossible, to select a period
of twenty-two years in the hist)ry of the colonies or dependencies of England or
of any other country which would more suc.essfally illustrate the saying that
truth is stranger than fiction, or would compare in national, general, and romantic
interest with the twenty-two years between 1882 and 1904, i.e. the period assigned
to " the making of Modern Egypt " by the writer of the book. In perusiug any
book on this subject comparisons with the brilliant works and reports of Lord
Oromer, Milner, D.iwkins, Scott, and others are inevitable, but we may say at
once that the author of this work has nothing to fear from a comparison with the
works of his predecessors. Sir Auckland Colvin has special qualifications for the
task he undertook. He is an Indian Civil Servant, who has risen through all the
grades of that distinguished service to being Lieutenant-Governor of the North-
western Provinces ani Oudh, and for some years he was British Comptroller-
General of Egypt and Financial Adviser to the Khedive. He has thus brought
to the preparation of this work a special intimate expei'ience and a statesmanlike
breadth of view, the advantiges of which become more and more obvious as the
work proceeds. The story is the record of the triumph of Lord Cromer, of whom
Sir Auckland is an acknowledged admirer. " The central figure," he writes,
*'has been the British Minister and Agent. Cabinets in London, in Paris, and in
Cairo have come and gone ; diplomatists have fretted their hour on the stage, and
have faded into obscurity. Able and devoted subordinates have in turn assisted
the British Agent ; and, their term accomplished, have passed on to other labours.
Lord Cromer alone has remained throughout ; in him, during more than twenty
years, the life of Egypt has centred, and from him all energy has radiated. The
making of modern Egypt is the work of Lord Cromer."
Undoubtedly the figure of Lord Cromer stands out high above those who may
claim to have had a share in the making of modern Egypt, but lie has been the
first to acknowledge that he has had mxny able and strenuous subordinates, with-
out whose help his task would have been impossible. Sir Auckland Colvin does
ample justice to them also, and it is pleasant to find him writing in most cordial
terms of his French colleagues, of whom many a hard thing was said not so long
ago. In his estimate of them Sir Auckland's exceptionally wide experience of
men and manners has stood him in good stead, and an extract of his appreciation
of their character and services is worth quoting, especially as it furnishes a good
example of the brilliant style in which this book is written. The French officials
in Egypt, he says, " were for the most part men of marked ability and untiring
industry. . . . Keen of wit, incisive of tongue, choleric of disposition, sensitive as
children, kindly as women, the Frenchman was the very opposite of the phleg-
matic, imperturbable Briton whom he lugged along with him in his heated course.
Which of the pair did the most useful work it was not always easy to say, but the
paces and showy movement of the Frenchmen were effective. They were never
seen in the tennis-court, nor in the saddle ; nor did field sports attract them.
Constant and often heated discussion with one another was their relaxation ; the
black official portfolio their symbol ; the frock-coat their habitual garb. There
must have been something abhorrent to their passion for correctness in the negli-
gent costume, the slack disregird of formality, the indifference to the outward
and visible signs of office, which in Egypt, as elsewhere, distinguish Englishmen.
But difference of temperament ani of training seemed to draw together, rather
than to repel. To their honour be it said, the French sought to do their duty
as conscientiously by the country which employed them, and by the colleagues
who worked with them, as though their portion had been in France, and tlieir
colleagues of their own nation. . . , Whatever the verdict of their countrymen
54 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
may have been, British colleagues recognised that their French associates were
good men and true ; worthy representatives of the great country from which they
came ; pleasant in their private lives, as in public life they were above reproach.
De Blignieres, Bellaique de Bughas, Bouterou, are gone to the silent land (if any
land, indeed, be silent where the spirits of the French dead do congregate) ; Liron
d'Airolles, Gay Lussac, Barois, and others, happily remain with us."
The history of these twenty-two years during which modern Egypt was being
made is a tangled skein, of which it is impossible in the space at our disposal to
give even a sketch. But we refer our readers to Sir Auckland Colvin's interesting,
impartial, and graphic history, assured that the perusal of it will satisfy all that
the work accomplished in Egypt is one of which the English, and, we must add,
the French nation, may well be proud. And yet an experienced administrator
and competent judge, viz. Sir Auckland himself, likens it to the barrage, which
may be described as the life-blood of Egypt. "The barrage,'" he says, "is a
replica of the British position in Egypt. It initiated in French action. It is
built upon unstable foundations ; yet, with constant caution, they can be regarded
as secure. It is essential, in the interests of the population, that the barrage
should be placed under the care of Europeans. It is patchwork, but brilliant
patchwork. It holds up the vitalising forces of the country, and distributes them
to the best advantage." Mutatis mutandis ; the same may be said of the British
position in Egypt to-day.
The last chapters of the work are devoted to a description of the present con-
dition and prospects of the Soudan, now an integral part of Egypt, with an area
of over a million square miles, and a population of under two millions of souls,
and presenting difficulties and problems which demand the most consummate
statesmanship and patience. The contrast between Egypt and the Soudan is
remarkable. " The Egyptian is laborious ; the Soudani, if he is an Arab, scorns
labour ; if he is a black man, he cannot be induced, except by hunger or scourge,
to undergo any but the lightest toil. The fertility of the soil of Egypt has passed
into a proverb ; in the Soudan irrigation is in its infancy, and the greater part of
the country has never recei\ ed a drop of water from any of the great rivers whic 1
traverse it. In Egypt distances are inconsiderable, and means of transit abound ;
the distances in the Soudan are immense, and transit is still mainly confined to
that most ancient friend of man, the camel. The seaboard is easily accessible to
all Egypt ; to the greater part of the Soudan it is most difficult of access, and to
many provinces it is wholly unknown. The climate of Egypt is far from un-
healthy to the white man ; the Soudan in part spells death to him,, and almost
everywhere, for many months in the year, is oppressive and enervating. Finally,
the Egyptian is a quiet subject, and averse from arms ; the Soudan is full of fierce
fighting men, of fearless Arab descent, and of excitable and savage black races,
both Muhammedan and heathen, but alike ignorant and impulsive, whose
fanaticism may be fanned into flame at any moment, and whose loyalty depends
rather on personal regard for individual rulers than on acquiescence in foreign
rule, or on acceptance of European guidance. . . . Imagination fails to picture
those illimitable regions, the endless swamps, the weary waterless distances, the
mighty rivers, the interminable deserts, the great silence, the scattered, sparse,
and diverse people, the little band of British officers working out their lives in
solitude, discomfort, and ill-health, while watching over the painful labours which
precede the coming of a new life."
The genius of the British race for colonisation and for government has been
tested and proved in many ways, on many a shore and in many a climate, and we
know that often the task of colonisation or government has come on us as an un-
NEW BOOKS. 55
expected, and often an unwelcome, task or duty. But this cannot be said of the
regeneration and civilisation of the Soudan, a Herculean task, but one deliberately
undertaken, the dangers and difficulties of which are only now being appreciated ;
and it will tax the genius and statesmanship of England to an extent which,
perhaps fortunately, we are slow to realise. Sir Auckland says, " There has never,
probably, in the history of the world been such a deliberate experiment in the
reclamation of mankind over so large an area ; nor perhaps such an incongruous
couple engaged in it as the blunt Briton from the Thames and his slim coadjutor
from the Nile. Which will prove to have been the better forecast, the pessimism
of General Gordon, or the optimism of Lord Cromer, it is not for the present
generation to divine. Will Great Britain echo the boast of another imperial race,
and be rcAvarded hereafter by the love of those quos domuit, nexaq^ie piu Jonginqiie
revinxii ? Or will she share the destiny of the mythical benefactors of whom the
Latin poet sang 1 of the disillusioned demi-gods, whose labours, identical in
character with her own, brought them no adequate meed of acknowledgment ? "
In times like those of to-day, when the political arena rings with the scarcely
intelligible battle-cries of mere sects and parties, we can remember with relief and
pleasure that elsewhere in the world, and certainly in Egypt and the Soudan, the
political constructive genius, which made England what it is, is still at work on a
task worthy of its great traditions, and has enough material on which to exercise
its highest powers for many years to come. It will be a happy day for the Soudan
if, some twenty or twenty-five years hence, a Sir Auckland Colvin of these days is
able to record for the Soudan as brilliant a success in constructive statesmanship
as this thoughtful and instructive work now records for the land of the
Pharaohs.
GENERAL.
Kinglalce's Eothcn. With an Introduction and Notes, by D. S. Hogarth.
London : Henry Frowde, 1906. Price 2s. 6d.
This dainty little reprint has not much direct geographical interest, either as
regards text or notes, but is of interest in throwing light upon the conditions of
life in the East at the date when the book was written.
Brown's Comjyrehensive Nautical Almanack for 1907. Glasgow :
Brown and Son, 1906. Price Is.
We have received the new issue of this invaluable publication, revised and
corrected to date. According to a notice sent with the volume, the 1907 edition
is published in two forms, the ordinary and an edition on thicker and better
paper containing some additional information. To the scientific geographer, no
less than the navigator, the information contained in the Almanack is indispens-
able, and we extend to it our annual welcome.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
The Passing of Korea. By Homer B. Hulbert, A.M., F.E.G.S. Illustrated
from Photographs. Royal 8vo. Pp. xii + 473. Price 16s. net. London : William
Heineuiann, 1906.
Un Crepuscule d'Islam. Maroc. Par Andre Chevrillok, Crown 8vo.
Pp. 315. 3/r. 5. Paris : Librairie Hachette et Cie.
56 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
The World of To-Day . Volume vi. A Survey of the Lands and Peoples of
the Globe as seen in Travel and Commerce. By A. E. Hope Moxckieff.
Pp. vi + 380. Price 8s. net. London : The Gresham Publishing Co., 1906.
Sketches from Normandy. By Louis Becke. Crown 8vo. Pp. 250. Price
6s. net. London : T. Werner Laurie, 1906.
Edinburgh under Sir Walter Scott. By "VV. T. Fyfe. With an Introduction
by R. S. Rait. Demy 8vo. Pp. xxi + 314. PricelOs.6d.net. London : Archi-
bald Constable and Co., 1906.
My Pilgrimage to the Wise Men of the East. By Moncure Daniel Co.nway-
Royal 8 vo. Pp. viii + 416. Price 12s. 6d. London: Archibald Constable and
Co., 1906.
Modern Sjxiin, 1815-1898. By H. Butler Clarke, M.A. With a Memoir
by the Rev. W. H. Huttox, B.D. Crown 8vo, Pp. xxvi + 510. Price 7s. 6d,
Cambridge : LTniversity Press, 1906.
La Chine novatrice et guerriere. Par le Capitaine D'Ollone. Un volume in
18. Pp. viii + 319. Price 3 fr. 50. Paris : Armand Colin et Cie., 1906.
The Daicn of Modern Geography. Vol. iii. A History of Exploration and
Geographical Science from the Middle of the Thirteenth to the Early Years of the
Fifteenth Century. By C. Ratmoxd Beazlet, M.A., F.R.G.S. {c. a.d. 1260-
1420.) 8vo. Pp. xvi + 638. Price20s.net. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1906.
Natives of Australia. By N. W. Thomas, M.A. (Native Races of the
British Empire.) Demy 8vo. Pp. xii + 256. Price6s.net. London : Archibald
Constable and Co., 1906.
The Romance of an Eastern Capitcd. By F. B. Bradley-Birt, B.A.,
F.R.G.S., LC.S. Demy 8vo. Pp. x + 349. Pricel2s.6d.net. London: Smith,
Elder and Co., 1906.
The Loiver Niger and its Tribes. By Mnjor Arthur Glyx Leonard.
Demy 8vo. Pp. xxii + 559. Price 12s. 6d. net. London : Macmillan and Co.,
1906.
Also the following Reports, etc. : —
Centred Provinces District Gaxetteer. 17 Parts. Edited by E. V. Russell,
LC.S. Allahabad, 1904-1905.
Punjab District Gazetteer. Vol. xiii-a. With Maps, 1904. Lahore, 1906.
A Report on the Work of the Survey Department in 1905. By Captain H. G.
Lyons, D.Sc, F.R.S., Director-General. Pp. 76. Cairo, 1906.
Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland for the Year
1905. Part iii. Scientific Investigations. Glasgow, 1906.
British Guiana Blue Bool; 1905-1906. Georgetown, Demerara, 1906.
Punjab District Gazetteers. Delhi District. Lahore, 1904.
Madras District Gazetteers. Vol. ii. 3 Parts. Madias, 1906.
Bengal District Gazetteers. By L. S. S. O'Malley. Vol. i. Calcutta, 1906.
District Gazetteers. Statistics, 1901-1902. 38 Parts. Calcutta, 1806.
Western A^istralian Year-BooJc, 1902-4 (Thirteenth Edition). By Malcolm
A. C. Fraser, F.R.G.S., F.S.S., F.R.C.Inst. Pp. x + 1283. Perth, 1906.
Military Report on Egypt, 1906. Prepared for the General StaflF, War Office.
Maps. London, 1906.
The Science Year - Book : Diary, Directory, and Scientific Summary, 1907.
Edited by Major B. F. S. Badex-Powell. Pp. 362. Price 5s. Londcn : King,
Sell and Olding, 1907.
Piiblishers forwarding books for review tvill greatly oblige by marking the price in
clear figures, especially in the case of foreign books.
H.S.H. THE PRINCE OF MONACO
THE SCOTTISH
GEOGRAPHICAL
MAGAZINE.
H.S.H. THE PRINCE OF MONACO.
(inth Portrait)
H.S.H. Albert 1st, Prince of Monaco, to whom the Society's Gold
Medal for 1906 was presented in Edinburgh on January 17th last, is
distinguished for the important services which he has rendered to
oceanography. On a previous visit to Edinburgh on July 15, 1891, the
Prince read a paper before the Royal Society on "A New Ship for
Oceanographic Work." Before that time he had been devoting his
attention to oceanographical research in a small vessel, the HirowleJle.
In this ship, in the years from 1885 to 1891, he made many studies in
oceanographical science, especially on the marine fauna of great depths,
and this has been also his object in subsequent voyages for a period
of twenty-one years. The Hirondelle being found to be too small for
the requirements of the work, a three-masted schooner, with auxiliary
engines, was built in 1891. This schooner, named the Princesse Alice,
was used until 1898. She, in turn, proved to be too small, and was
replaced by a full-powered steamship of more than 1400 tons. In 1892
the Prince of Monaco again visited Scotland, and contributed a paper
to the Edinburgh meeting of the British Association. Subsequently,
besides carrying on deep-sea work, he undertook a new investigation.
He had for many years taken much interest in meteorology, especially
as connected with the ocean, and had developed the study of this
science on Atlantic islands. He now undertook investigations, by means
of kites and balloons, in the higher atmosphere. Not content with his
investigations in the regions of the trade winds, he turned his attention
to the Polar regions, and last year he made, as already noted here, his
third cruise to Spitsbergen and the neighbouring seas. There he carried
out a series of successful and interesting experiments with meteorological
kites and balloons, and also, with the assistance of French, Norwegian,
and Scottish parties, undertook a detailed survey of a large part of the
VOL. XXIIL E
58 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
north-west of Spitsbergen and Prince Charles Foreland. In 1899 the
foundation stone of the great Cceanographical Museum of Monaco was
laid, under the patronage of the German Emperor; and last year, as we
have also recorded, the Prince of Monaco founded an institute in
Paris, with an international committee, associated with his collections
in Monaco. This institute he endowed to the extent of £1 GO, 000.
Almost every European country has some prominent scientists Avho have
been definitely associated with the oceanographical and meteorological
work of the Prince of Monaco. In this country there are associate-!
with him the names of Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, whose scientific researches
on board the Princesse Alice and at the Monaco Museum have been of
much importance ; Mr. W. S. Bruce, of the Scotia, who accompanied him
on all his Arctic voyages; and Mr. W. Smith, junr., Aberdeen, who sailed
with him in 1899 as artist.
The Prince is further associated with oceanographical research in
this country, in that during his recent visit he presided at the inaugura-
tion of the Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory, and was there met by
a representative gathering of Scottish men of science and others. At
the close of the meeting the Prince w^as asked by Mr. W. S. Bjuce, the
Director of the Laboratory, to accept a replica of the medal which had
been presented to the members of the Scottish National Antarctic Expe-
dition, as an acknowledgment of the valuable services which he had
rendered to the expedition by the loan of instruments and in other
ways, and also as a memento of his association with the new Institu-
tion. The Prince is thus not only himself a scientific investigator, but
has also been associated in more than one country with the promotion
of scientific research by others.
THE NIGER BASIX AND MUNGO PAP.K.i
(mth Map.)
By Sir Harry H. Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.
In 1603 the Scottish people discovered England as a field for adventure
and enterprise. In the middle of the seventeenth century, and from
thence to the beginning of the eighteenth, they carried out an ecjually
remarkable work of exploration and settlement in Ireland. But it was
after the union of the legislatures of England and Scotland that the
Scottish people really embarked on their great career as pioneers of dis-
covery and commercial adventure. Entering then for the first time fully
into the privilege of subjects of the British Crown under a dynasty still
Scottish in direct origin, the Scots rapidly made themselves famous in
the history of the world's development by their enterprise in Central
^ An Address deliveruil at Selkirk ou Dccemljer 10, 1906, in couuectiou with the uuveiling
of the centenary memorial panels in the Mungo Park statue.
THE NIGER BASIN AND MUNGO PARK. 59
America, the West Indies, India and Africa. James Bruce, born at
Kinnaird House, Stirlingshire, in 1730, was sent to Harrow to be
educated, and from there was despatched by his father to work in the
wine business between Spain, northern Portugal, and Great Britain.
But Bruce's ambitions led him far beyond the Spanish peninsula into
North Africa, where he was appointed Consul-General, and later on to
Egypt, from which country he made his celebrated exploration of the
Blue Nile and Abyssinia. He did not discover, as he had thought, the
ultimate source of the Nile : that good fortune was to fall jointly to the
lot of an Englishman, Speke, and a Scotsman, Grant. Were it not very
certain that the source of the Blue Nile had really been discovered by
Portuguese missionaries in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and
that therefore Bruce, unknown to himself, had been forestalled, Scotland
would have had a two-thii'ds share in the glory of discovering the origin
of the two upper head-streams of the Nile. Another great Scot, David
Livingstone, revealed to us the principal sources of the Zambezi and the
Congo. In 1777 a Scottish explorer, Captain Robert Jacob Gordon,
discovered the Orange Eiver of South Africa, Avhich has since played
such a considerable part in the delimitation of South African states.
Perhaps in proper sec^uence I should have mentioned that the first
explorer of North Africa (Tunis and Algeria) who gave an account of
his travels in the more modern style was William Lithgow, who at the
commencement of the seventeenth century — about 1610 — travelled
through parts of Algeria and Tunis, During the eighteenth century
adventurous Scots found their way to Morocco or Algeria, most often
unwillingly, being captured by Moorish pirates, and making their first
experiences of Northern Africa as captives. They generally secured their
freedom through their hard work and skill, obtaining recognition in the
eyes of some local potentate, or by the more prosaic way of being
ransomed, or possibly released at the end of some treaty-making with a
Dey, a Bey, or a Sultan. Apparently some of these Scottish adventurers
returned to the ports of Morocco or Algeria in a trading, or even in a
consular capacity, and several of them took part in the newly arisen
Liverpool trade with West Africa in the eighteenth century, thereby
finding their way to the Senegal, Gambia, Sierra Leone and the Gold
Coast.
The greatest hero, however, of Scottish exploration in the eighteenth
century was Mungo Park, to honour whose memory we are assembled
here to-night. It is of him and the results of his work that I shall treat
principally ; but before I begin to describe his truly remarkable journeys,
perhaps you will allow me to give some description of their main object —
the solution of the Niger mystery.
Towards the close of the eighteenth century, public curiosity as to the
ultimate source of the Nile was for a time set at rest by the journeys of
Bruce, Whether or not Bruce had been preceded by the Portuguese, no
one a hundred odd years ago (except perhaps a French geographer,
D'Anville) had any doubt that the main stream of the Nile was the
Abyssinian river. What therefore now attracted scientific curiosity was
the course and outlet of the Niger. The Greek writers on geography in
60 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
the centuries that preceded the Eoman Empire collected from their
intercourse with the people of the southern Mediterranean, especially the
Carthaginians and Egyptians, vague rumours of a fertile, well-watered
ref^ion beyond the Sahara Desert, faint indications not only of the origin
an'd course of the Nile, but also of some other Nile, some other great
river or lake in West Central Africa. The Eomans, when they took
possession of the North African states, made at least one expedition to
tlie southern regions of Morocco, and a still more remarkable one under
Julius Maternus through Tripoli southwards into Fezan, and apparently
from Fezan to somewhere in the neighbourhood of Bilma, that is to say,
within no very great distance of Lake Chad. The stories gathered up by
them and transmitted to us in the writings of Plinius Secundus, who was
born at Verona in A.D. 23, pay much attention to the geography of
Morocco, though the southward extent of this country is no doubt much
exaggerated and confounded in Pliny's mind with vague traditions which
may have reached him of Carthaginian journeys along the north-west
coast of Africa. Pliny mentions repeatedly a great river flowing to the
southward of Morocco called the Gir or Xigir. Much of his information,
no doubt, relates to the River Draa, which is the southern boundary of
Morocco, and is a very important watercourse draining the southern part
of the Atlas Mountains — a river, however, which probably never flows to
the sea in one continuous stream more than once in every few years, for
a few weeks. There is nothing about this river to suggest well-watered
tropical regions, nor are there in it any hippopotami or crocodiles. But
in his description of the great River Nigir, Pliny, though he places it very
much where the River Draa is found at the present day, was evidently
repeating stories of the Bambotus or Senegal of the real Niger. It
is very nearly certain that the Senegal River had been revealed to the
knowledge of the Caucasian race by Hanno or other Carthaginian
maritime adventurers. A knowledge of it spread from Carthaginian
sources to Greek writers, and the description given of the fauna and of
the vegetation makes it certain that, some five hundred years before
Christ, the Mediterranean world had a glimmering knowledge of the
regions of Atlantic Africa beyond the Sahara Desert ; they knew, that is
to say, that beyoad the limits of this arid region there were hot lands
through which copious rivers flowed, lands of strange wild beasts and of
savage, naked men. Such information as reached the Mediterranean by
the commencement of the Christian era may have suggested to ancient
Greeks or Romans the existence in West Africa of another mighty river
similar in many of its characteristics to the Nile, perhaps even, in the
minds of some geographers, the ultimate head-waters of the Nile, which
by an extraordinary curve reached Ethiopia and then turned at right
angles to the Mediterranean.
With the irruption of the Barbarians into the Roman Empire, all
interest in geography died away so far as Western Europe was concerned,
while the Byzantine I'^mpire limited its curiosity to the regions of the
East. It was the Arabs who were to take up the geographical work
commenced by Herodotus and continued by Aristotle and Strabo, Pliny,
and Ptolemy of Alexandria. The Arabs invaded North Africa in G40
THE NIGER BASIN AND MUNGO PARK. 61
A.D. They rapidly imparted their religion and language to the Berber
tribes whom they so strongly resembled in physical characteristics and
mode of life, even their languages having a very remote affinity. In the
ninth century the Arabs seem to have penetrated into Negro Africa due
west from the Nile, and across some old caravan routes from Tripoli to
the northern bend of the Niger. In the tenth century they had already
produced maps indicating an actual knowledge of the regions south of
the Sahara Desert. By about the .year 950 A.d. some of their pioneers
had travelled along the Atlantic coast south of Morocco till they reach( d
the mouth of the Senegal. They then wandered eastwards up the course
of that river and across the water-parting to the UpiJer Niger, on which
river they probably met other pioneers of Islam who had penetrated
through the regions of Lake Chad to the northern bend of the Niger. By
the beginning of the eleventh century Muhammadanism and Arab influence
had completely dominated the valley of the Niger, from its entry into the
Sahara Desert near Timbuktu almost to its source. Great Muhammadan
kingdoms arose in the lands of the Mandingo round about the Upper
Niger, and the mysterious Fula race between the Niger and the Senegal
became converted to the faith of Muhammad. In fact, in the eleventh
century a great proselytising movement led a tribe of Berbers, the
Murabitin or Moravides, across the Sahara Desert to Morocco and Spain,
once more reconquering for Islam the Spanish peninsula. This, I think,
was one of the most extraordinary episodes in the history of Africa :
that at the commencement of the Middle Ages a wild race of Tawartq
nomads should start from the Niger and in a very few years overiun
Morocco, Algeria, and nearly all Spain and Portugal, thus staving oflF
for another four hundred years the collapse of Islam in Western
Europe.
All these movements of Arabs and Arabised Berbers and Negroes
implanted very firmly in civilised Morocco- — for Morocco w-as then a
country of high civilisation — the knowledge of the existence of a great
river in West Africa beyond the Desert. This river was much confused
with the Senegal. Some people thought that the Niger — as it came
afterwards to be called — floAved from Lake Chad more or less due west
till it entered the sea through the mouth of the Senegal. This was the
impression made on the minds of those European adventurers who
coasted along North-West Africa in the fourteenth centuiy. Some of the se
bold Normans from Dieppe, C4enoese or Majorcans, probably visited
the Senegal. They brought back stories of a river of gold, which
greatly excited the cupidity and interest of the Portuguese. Through
their intercourse with Morocco, which they had partially conquered, the
Portuguese heard from their Moorish captives these stories of the
Great River beyond the Desert. Being at the same time industrious
students of the Classics in the revival of learning which had followed
the erection of Portugal into a Christian kingdom, the Poituguese
identified the Great River beyond the Desert, the River of Gold, the
river of crocodiles and sea-horses, with the " Nigir " of Pliny, and it was
probably the Portuguese who first invented the modern name of the
river which by a slight variation we call "Niger."
62 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
It seems possible, however, that the rortugue.se were not the first
amongst the Latin nations to reach AVestern Tropical Africa beyond the
Sahara Desert. In the thirteenth century the Genoese navigators had
rediscovered the Canary Islands, and in the fourteenth century Nor-
mans from Dieppe, Genoese and Catalans from Majorca, had sailed down
past the limits of the Sahara to the Senegal Kiver, and even onwards to
the coast of modern Liberia (where the Norman French claimed to have
established themselves for nearly a hundred years) as far as Elmina on the
Gold Coast. The Genoese navigators even may have penetrated further,
and perhaps may have returned in safety, but leaving no definite record
of their achievement; for all Italian maps of the fourteenth and early
fifteenth centuries, sixty or seventy years at least before the Portuguese
discoveries, gave a delineation of the African continent which on its
west coast is strikingly like actuality. But from various causes to do
with European history, these efforts emanating from the south coast of
the British Channel and the north coast of the Mediterranean came to
an end in the early part of the fifteenth century, or were fused with the
now stirring tale of Portuguese adventure which began under the direct
impulse of Prince Henry the Navigator. Genoese and Venetian captains
took service with the crown of Portugal. In 1444 the Portuguese ships
reached the mouth of the Senegal River. This was at the time
identified with the River of Gold or the Western Nile of the Arabs or
with the Nigir or Niger of Pliny. In 1456 the remarkable Venetian
navigator, Ca' da Mosto, in the service of Portugal visited the Senegal
and Gambia Rivers, and appears to have made a journey inland for some
distance along the course of the Senegal. From intercourse with the
Moors he brought back stories of the Niger River and Timbuktu, and
above all of a wonderful city or country called Guint- or Ghinala. These
stories seem to have had for origin the remarkable civilisation of Jene, a
well-known town and district on the Upper Niger, constantly the head-
quarters of a powerful Muhammadan kingdom either under the Man-
dingos or the Fulas.
From this time onwards till the eighteenth century either the
Senegal or the Gambia were looked upon as the outlet into the sea of a
great river flowing from a lake in the heart of Africa (Lake Chad, in
fact) to the Atlantic. The Moorish stories of a great watercourse run-
ning east and west ^ muddled European geography for several centuries.
All round the Atlantic coast of Guinea may be observed one great
estuary after another. Every few miles from the Senegal southward
one encounters an important river mouth. It might well be supposed,
therefore, that these multitudinous estuaries constituted perhaps the
vast delta of a great river draining at least a third of tropical Africa.
Besides the thirst for gold, which for a time was partially .slaked by the
discovery of the Gold C >ast, European covetousness was attracted towards
the basin of the Niger, a land which was felt vaguely to be analogous to
the Moslem Exst. Portuguese explorers had penetrated inland from the
1 The Seuegal, Niger, Koiuaiugu, Lake Chad and Bahv-el-Ghazal appearc-d eviiKutly to
the first Arab explorers to be one continuous waterway.
THE NIGER BASIX AND MUNGO PARK. 63
Cxokl Coast to the verge of the Xiger watershed in that direction, at any
rate to lands beyond the forest, under the influence of some semi-civilised
Muhammadan peoples. The civilisation, in fact, of the Niger basin
between the sources of that river and the falls of Bussa was very nearly
on a par with the European civilisation of the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries. There is very little doubt that the valley of the Upper Niger
north of 10° N. lat. has for many centuries been lifted above mere
savagery — above that savagery which was the almost unbroken quality of
the Guinea coast belt from the Gambia to the Niger Delta, the Congo
and the Cape of Good Hope, prior to the Portuguese settlement of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Some have even supposed that the
influence of the Caucasian, wliich is everywhere, I believe (except in
America), synonymous with the Neolithic Age and the raising of Man
from a condition of barbarism, emanated from Ancient Egypt : that
something of Egyptian civilisation, including the domestic animals of
Egypt, found its way from the middle Nile across Kordofan and Darfur
to the basin of Lake Chad and thence to the Upper Niger, while at a
later date the Libyans of North Africa and the Sahara Desert, who are
absolutely of Caucasian stock, found their way across the Sahara Desert
with the aid of oxen and camels and permeated the healthy regions of
the Upper Niger. Some, like myself, believe the Fulas to have been a
Caucasian race of North Africa speaking a type of language antecedent
to the Berber and Semitic tongues, and driven from North-West Africa
into Negro-laud by the advent of tlie Iberians, who brought with them
from southern Europe a type of language from which the modern
Hamitic and Semitic tongues are descended. At any rate the civilisa-
tion of the Niger seems to be older than the irruption of Islam and the
Islamic Arabs and Moors into that region.
It was therefore towards something like a western India, a laud of
gold, and also a land of well-clothed, turbaned people riding on horses
or donkeys, a land of well-built cities and much material comfort, that
European adventure was so strongly attracted from the fifteenth century
onwards. The British were not slow to be infected with this search for
the Niger River and the far-famed city of Timbuktu. In the seventeenth
century a British company was formed to explore the Gambia with the
object of reaching the Niger. The first explorer sent out by this enter-
prise, Richard Thomson, eventually met with a disaster, being murdered
at the instigation of the Portuguese, but he was succeeded by Richard
Jobson, who ventured a considerable distance up the Gambia — about
three hundred miles. He failed, however, to reach the Niger, and for
nearly a hundred years enterprise in this direction on the part of the
British was stopped. The French, however, had taken the matter up
by way of the Senegal. Their explorations, however, showed con-
clusively that the Senegal and the Gambia also were rivers quite
independent of the Niger system. This was confirmed by Captain
Bartholomew Stibbs, who explored the Gambia on behalf of a British
company in 1723.
In the middle of the eighteenth century, Lord Halifax, a British
statesman, became much interested in African exploration, especially as
64 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
regards the source of the Nile, It was he who made the great Scottish
traveller, Bruce — one of the first scientific explorers — Consul or Consul-
General in Algeria, and then furnished him with the means to penetrate
far into North-Eastern Africa. Bruce's preliminary work in Algeria,
Tunis and Tripoli so whetted the curiosity of scientific men in England
and Scotland as to the marvels of interior Africa that it led indirectly
to the foundation of the African Association, which proved such a potent
instrument in African discovery, and which was the direct parent of the
Royal Geographical Society of London. The moving spirit of this
association was Sir Joseph Banks, and it was Sir Joseph Banks who
selected ]\rungo Park for the exploration of the Niger. The African
Association had despatched a daring but too eccentric American seaman,
Ledyard, to Egypt, with the idea that he should cross the African
continent and come out on the Guinea coast, but he died soon after his
arrival in Egypt. Another traveller despatched in 1789 was Horneman,
an ancestor, I believe, of the founder of the famous tea firm. Horneman,
we now know, made a most marvellous journey. He started from Tripoli
in 1789, crossed the Sahara, and almost, if not quite, reached the Lower
Niger. He seems to have died in the Nupe country, which is now
the headquarters of British administration in Nigeria. Had Horneman
not succumbed to dysentery or fever, he would certainly have attempted
to follow the great river to its outlet in the sea, and might thus have
forestalled by something like fifty years the ultimate discovery of
Richard Lander. Major Houghton was sent by the Association to
the Gambia. He reached the Upper Niger from this direction, the
country of Bambuk, and the Upper Senegal, but was misled by Moorish
tribes into entering the Desert, where he was finally killed or left
to die.
All this time, though no European had yet returned to tell of actual
vision of the Niger waters, there was no doubt whatever in the mind
of educated Europe that Western Africa did possess a mighty water-
course, rising somewhere behind the mountains of Senegambia and flow-
ing eastwards. What became of the river then was a matter of much
disputed conjecture. Some geographers held that it ended in Lake
Chad, a great inland sea of Central Africa which had no outlet. Others
believed that the Niger after flowing past Timbuktu took a southern
bend (which was quite true) and flowing down through the Equatorial
regions of Western Africa, entered the sea under the name of Congo.
This was the theory favoured by Mungo Park, and one which was not
completely disproved till the journey of Richard and John Lander in
18.32 finally solved all doubt by proving the Niger to possess about fifteen
outlets into the Bight of Benin.
When Major Houghton had disappeared, the African Society looked
about for another explorer to search for and relieve Houghton, and if neces-
sary to continue his task. Their choice fell, through the influence of Sir
Joseph Banks, on a young Scottish surgeon, Mungo Park, who was
born at Foulshiels, four and a half miles from Selkiik, on the 10th of
September 1771. He was, as you know, the seventh child of a family
of thirteen ; his father, Thomas Park, being a small farmer, who, after
THE NIGER BASIN AND MUNGO PARK. 65
the manner of his class and country, determined to give all his children
the best possible education. Fortunately, perhaps, for the fulfilment of
his desire, Fate or Providence thinned out the family of thirteen to
eight. jNTungo, in common with most of his brothers and sisters, was
first educated at home by a teacher, and then transferred to the Selkirk
Grammar School, to which he Avalked backwards and forwards most
days in the week — a distance of nine miles. At fifteen years of age
he became apprenticed to Dr. Thomas Anderson, a surgeon in Selkirk,
whose descendants, I believe, are amongst Selkirk's citizens at the
present day.
In 1789 Mungo Park entered the Edinburgh University to complete
his medical studies, during which time he gave special attention to
botany. This taste had a decisive effect on his career, for it brought him
into close relations with a clever young gardener and botanical student,
James Dickson, who married one of Park's sisters. Dickson came to
know Sir Joseph Banks, who had himself given Dickson a botanical
appointment in London. Through Sir Joseph Banks' influence Park
was appointed surgeon to an East India Company's ship, and under
these auspices Park accomplished a sufficiently noteworthy voyage to
Sumatra and other parts of the East Indies, where he made collections
of Natural History. On his return, when he was twenty-four years of
age, through the influence of Sir Joseph Banks he was selected by the
African Association alluded to already.
On the 21st of June 1795 he landed at the mouth of the Gambia,
where he was obliged to remain until the beginning of October. On the
2nd of December in the same year he left the navigable regions of the
Upper Gambia and directed his little caravan toward the Upper Senegal.
Between the Faleme and the main Senegal Kiver, however, he met with
almost insuperable difliculties. His goods were plundered, his followers
dispersed, and he was reduced almost to death by starvation till he was
pitied and relieved by an old woman. At this juncture also there came
on the scene the son of a great Mandingo chief of the Upper Senegal,
who, thinking that his father might like to see a real white man, took
Park along with him to his father, the King of Kason, whose country
lay round about the modern French station of Kayt^s. From this point
the Senegal is navigable almost all the year round to the sea. This, in
fact, was the country of Bambuk which has always played an important
part in AVest African history. From here he made his way to Kaarta,
still in the land of Negroes, though a region bordering on the Sahara.
Consciously or unconsciously, he was following the same route as
Houghton. Although longing to proceed due east and strike the Niger,
native wars and rumours of wars kept heading him oft" in the direction
of the Sahara Desert and the land of the Moors. These Moors were
distinctly different to the Tamasheq (Tawareq) of the more central parts
of the Sahara, who founded Timbuktu in the eleventh century, and who
ever since have been intermittent raiders of the northern bend of the
Niger. The "Moors" who are to be met with along the north bank of
the Senegal and in the western limits of the Sahara Desert are allied
in origin to the Tawereq, but are a good deal more mixed with Negro
66
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
and Arab blood. Some of them si)eak the Zenaga dialect of that great
group of Berber tongues which includes the language of the Tamasheq
(Tawareq or Touareg) also. But a debased form of Arabic (" Hassanieh ")
more ordinarily prevails amongst them. The Sultan of Ludamar was
the chief of a section of these Moorish tribes, and a man probably of
mainly Arab descent. He enticed Park and his two remaining servants,
Johnson and Demba, into his possession. Between February and June
1796 Mungo Park was treated like a mouse captured by a cat. The
detestable Arab-Moorish hybrids, sometimes known as the Hassanieh
tribe, submitted him to every indignity and considerable torture. Again
The Niger Ba^ill.
and again they were within an inch of killing him. Sometimes he would
be allowed a deceptive amount of personal liberty, so that he would
escape and perhaps travel a hundred miles or so from their clutches, only
however to be captured, brought back, and worse treated than ever. He
was robbed little by little of his possessions. Once, he tells us, he was
shut up in a hut with a wild hog, any species of pig appearing to these
fanatical Muharamadans to be the vilest of animals, and consequently to
have a natural affinity with Cliristians. Strange to say, however, the
pig did not attack Park, but frequently charged and gored his tormentors.
His faithful personal attendant, Demba, was sold into slavery, and never
heard of ariy more. Tue other, an Anglicised Negro named Johnson,
THE NIGER BASIN AND MUNGO I'AKK. 67
worn out with constant terror and privations, lost all hope, and refused
at the last moment to accompany Mungo Park on his second attempt at
escape. Park during his captivity would have died several times from
sheer starvation had he not been taken pity on by some of the Moorish
women, especially by a certain Fatima, the wife of his principal
tormentor, Ali. Fatima was a mountain of flesh, as are all the high-
caste women in the harems of these Moors. She took a capricious liking
to Park from his good looks, which were apparent even when he was
emaciated with hunger and fatigue. Indeed, through all these
adventures in Africa women befriended him, old and young alike.
Generally at some crisis a woman provided him with food or shelter.
Yet it is amusing to read that the Moors, women and men alike,
reproached Park with being grossly indecent, because he wore the
European clothes which were fashionable at the end of the eighteenth
and beginning of the nineteenth centuries. Though these persons were
almost without an elementary idea of morality — were even, one might
say, depraved — they considered that the human form should be as little
revealed as possible, and shrouded in voluminous garments. It is
perhaps somewhat extraordinary that Muugo Park, like several other
African explorers of the same date, in the North as well as in the tropical
regions, clung so tenaciously to European clothing, obviously unfitted as
the fashions of that da}^ were for African travel, besides the fact that
they made the white man at once c^nsjticuous; whereas clad in Arab or
Moorish fashion he might have p.issed through these regions without
undue notice or opposition.
When in the month of February 1796, Park left the Moorish camp
before the dawn, jumped on to a horse, aad galloped for freedom, he had
embarked upon the most critical period of his life until that last struggle
with the rapids of the Lower Xiger which terminated his existence.
He had to ride from the verge of the Sahara through the Negro country
of Bambara. Much of the northern part of this country was waterless.
Park was sometimes five days at a time without a drink of water, which
he then only obtained from some chance rainfall. There was fortunately
a certain amount of herbage which ke})t his horse alive, and he himself
would assuage the agonies of thirst by chewing leaves. As often as not
the storms which seemed to promise relief were only dust storms, and
added to his agonies of thirst. Occasionally he would be unable to
approach a well or a stream-bed because the way to the water-supply
was obstructed or guarded by fierce lions. The journey was by no
means devoid of human beings, but from none of these did he derive
anything but harsh treatment. Much of the country had to be
accomplished on foot, the horse being too weak to bear him. If his
resistance to the agonies of thirst is wonderful, it strikes the reader of
his experiences how more remarkable was that bodily strength which
enabled him to exist, walking or riding, for a week or ten days at a
time with practically no more food than could be derived from the
chewing of leaves or roots, or an occasional handful of beans tossed to
him by some half-contemptuous Negro.
But at last he got near to the Bambara capital of Segu, and to his great
68 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
relief his reception at the hands of the Negro king was a friendly one,
though the king, influenced by Moorish visitors at his court, refused to
see Park personally. It was when waiting to cross the Niger at Segu,
"shunned and treated like a pariah," that he received unexpected
hospitality and kindness from a negress, who, while he rested, sang with
her companions that song which Park inscribed in his book, and which
has been so often quoted : —
"The winds roared and the rains fell.
The poor white man sat under our tree.
He has no mother to bring him milk,
No wife to grind his corn.
Let us pity the white man ;
No mother has he."'
From Segu, Park travelled along the north bank of the Niger to
Sansandig, where he was again harassed by the detestable Moors. His
journey extended along the Niger banks for another eighty miles east-
wards; but he stopped short before reaching Lake Debo owing to the
utter destitution of his condition and the hostility of the Moorish
merchants (whose denunciation of him dissuaded the Negroes and Fulas
from showing him hospitality). His clothes were reduced to rags. He
had absolutely no means with which to buy food, having parted even
with the brass buttons of his coat in return for such hospitality as bad
been shown him. Amongst the tortures he endured at that time were
mosquito bites. The whole valley of the Niger was swarming with
mosquitoes, and every night was renewed miseiy. How under these con-
ditions— alone, half-naked, and absolutely without means — he ever
succeeded in returning to the coast, is one of the marvels of African
exploration.
For some time past he had been without his faithful horse, which he
had lelt behind in an emaciated condition at a place called Madibu.
After returning on foot from his furthest exploration of the Niger, and
again at the point of despair, having been very badly treated by a Negro
guide, he raised his voice in expostulation in the streets of this town of
Madibu, and to his surprise Avas answered by the loud neighing of
a horse. At that moment the head man of the town came up to him
and asked if he knew who was speaking to him. Park looked puzzled,
and the man explained his jest by saying that the neighing came from
Park's own horse which he had left behind, thinking it was dying, which
had recovered, and now recognised its master's voice.
But his troubles were far from being over, though it was a great joy
to regain possession of the faithful steed. The rains had burst in their
fullest violence in the month of August. As he retraced his steps along
the Niger banks the Moors renewed their persecution. He was driven
from village to villaj;e, often without food or shelter, sometimes within
an ace of being killed by lions, which in those days seem to have infested
this country in extraordinaiy numbers. Whenever his life was saved
by timely food or shelter, it was a Negro who showed this kindness.
Moors, Arabs, and Fulas evinced an unwavering hostility towards the
white man. Yet it is regrettable to note that Park apparently to the
THE NIGER BASIN AND MUXGO PARK. G9
end of his days could not bring himself to condemn the Slave Trade. The
only thing which excited his compassion, in the horrors of which he was
one of the principal witnesses, was the fate of the intelligent Muham-
madans of the superior, almost Caucasian races — Arab or Fula hybrids —
being sent into captivity. For the poor simple-minded black Negro,
the one type of humanity that had made his exploration of the Niger
possible, he had little to say.
Ou his return journey he traced the course of the Niger upwards as
far as Bammako. Here, curiously enough, the Moors showed themselves
very civil, and sent the traveller rice and milk. Leaving Bammako to
travel through the Fula country of Handing, Park was set upon by Fula
robbers, who stripped Him naked, robbing him even of his liat. \Yhen
he protested they were within an ace of shooting him, but as they rode
away, one of the Fulas, more compassionate than the rest, threw back to
him his hat, shirt, and trousers. Park was transported with delight, for
in the lining of the hat were hidden the precious notes that he had made
of his journey. Once again he was rescued by Negroes, and Negroes on
his subsequent journey across the mountains towards the Gambia nursed
him when he was ill with fever, and kept him as their guest for months
till he regained his strength. At last he joined a Muhammadan slave
caravan, and under its escort reached the navigable waters of the Gambia,
where, of course, he found that he had long since been given up for dead.
From the mouth of the Gambia his journey home was still one of ill-luck.
He started in a slave ship bound for the United States. The ship was
so unseaworthy that it had to put into the island of Antigua in the
West Indies. Here, fortunately, he obtained a passage in a fast sailing
vessel which landed him at Falmouth on the 22nd of December 1797.
He had been absent from England two years and nine months.
Arrived in London, Park devoted himself to writing an account of
his travels. He then returned to Foulshiels, and spent much of the year
1798 in the vicinity of Selkirk. In the summer of 1799 he married
Miss Anderson, the daughter of his old master and teacher, Dr. Anderson.
They had a happy mai'ried life (during which three children were born),
until the close of 1803, when he was invited to visit the Colonial Office
in London. Between 1799 and 1803 Park practised as a surgeon at
Peebles, but was constantly visited with restless longings to add to his
achievements as an explorer. The British Government now offered him
the command of an expedition to explore the course of the Niger. He
accepted the commission. Various delays occurred in its equipment,
but at last, on the 3 1st of January 1806, he started from England, accom-
panied by Dr. Anderson and Mr. George Scott, both of them from
Selkirk or the vicinity. He also took with him five boat-builders
or carpenters. At the island of Goree, which is in the harbour of Dakar
(now the capital of French West Africa, but then a British possession),
Park picked up Lieutenant Martyn, thirty-five British soldiers, and two
bluejackets. With this force, which rode donkeys that had been shipped
from the Cape Verde Islands, he ascended the Gambia, and on the 27th
of April 1805 set out from the upper navigable reaches of that river in
the direction of the Niger. He reached Bammako on the Niger at the
70 SCOTTISH GKOGKAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
end of August with only sevta survivors out of the foity Europeans w ho
had started with him from the Gambia. Xone of these Europeans were
of any real aid to Park owing to their inexperience of African travel,
their over-indulgence in alcohol, and the extent to which they suffered
from fever ; but he had with him a Mandingo head-man, Isaac or Izako,
who was often of great assistance, and whose ultimate action in regard
to Mungo Paik probably rescued for us the only evidence we have of his
second exploration of the Niger. Alexander Anderson, his brother-in-
law, to whom he was devotedly attached, died on the 28th of October
1805, and Scott soon afterwards. Nevertheless, with Lieutenant Mart}n
and the remaining Europeans (Martyn unfortunately seems to have been
a man of very different calibre and usefulness to either Scott or Ander-
son), Mungo Park left Sansandig on the Upper Niger at the end of
November 1805 in a sailing vessel which he had rigged out in prepara-
tion for his journey of discovery down the Niger. His crew consisted of
Martyn, three British soldiers (one of whom was mad, while the others
were sick), Amadi Fatuma (a Mandingo guide), and three Negro slaves.
From the subsequent information collected by Izako from Amadi
Fatuma, who was the sole survivor of the expedition, we gather that
Park, after leaving Sansandig, journeyed almost uninterruptedly down
the course of the Niger as far as Yauri, a place on the Niger some
distance to the north of the Bussa rapids. Park's expedition had been
attacked by natives near Lake Debo, and again in the vicinity of Tim-
buktu. At the Tosaye rapids fresh attacks took place on the part of the
Tawareq, while the vessel was nearly lost on the rocks with which the
river began to be strewn. But after leaving the Ansonga rapids the
expedition had a long stretch of uninterrupted navigation, especially
when they entered the Hausa country, and therefore Park dismissed his
faithful interpreter, Amadi Fatuma, at Yauri, believing that he was now
in close proximity to the Gulf of Guinea. Moreover, as from this point
southwards he expected to travel through Negro lands, he felt assured of
a friendly reception. Unfortunately, Lieutenant Martyn was the worst
possible assistant under these circumstances. His one idea seems to have
been to shoot at any native gathering of suspicious aspect or intentions.
The hostilities increased concurrently with the frightful difficulty of
navigating the Bussa rapids. At last the prow of the vessel stuck in the
cleft of a rock, and in despair Park and his companions jumped into the
water, where they were either droAvned or killed by the weapons of the
enraged Negroes. Only one boatman (a slave) survived this disaster.
We must not be too severe perhaps even on the memory of Martyn.
It must be remembered that the appearance of the white man in the
lands of the Niger was a serious portent to the intelligent Fula, to the
Arabised Moor, and to the Tawareq of the desert. They already realised
that in the Northern Caucasian they themselves saw a future master, one
who was going to set their world to rights. Therefore wherever Park
went with his expedition they received him with undisguised hostility.
The rumour of war spreads easily in Africa, and no doubt long before
Park himself arrived within their gates the Negroes of Bussa heard an
exaggerated account of the slaughter w'hich was being effected by the
THE NIGER BASIN AND MUNGO TAKK. 71
white man's weapons. Nevertheless it was a cruel tragedy which robbed
this gallant pioneer of the complete accomplishment of his task.
It was long before his family believed that Park was really dead,
despite the fact that the British Government despatched Izako to collect
positive evidence, and that Izako even succeeded in bringing back Park's
sword-belt from the King of Yauri. As late as the year 1827, Thomas
Park, the explorer's second son, .seized an opportunity of landing on the
Gold Coast, and started for the interior to search for his father. He
died or was killed on the borders of Ashanti.
Not even when Izako returned with all the intelligence he could
collect as to the fate of Park's expedition was it realised hoAV near the
great explorer had been to solving the whole secret of the Niger, that
he had died in fact at a spot only some four hundred miles in a direct
line from the Gulf of Guinea. The first calculations as to the extent of
his exploration only carried the Niger eastwards about a hundred miles
beyond Timbuktu. Nevertheless in 1808 a clever German geographer,
Reichardt, had published a guess to the eft'ect that the final outlet of the
Niger was contained in that huge delta of rivers — in fact, what we now
know as the Niger Delta, in the Bight of Benin. Very little notice was
taken of this. Nor was there even much attention paid to the still
more remarkable deductions of M'Queen. M'Queen was a Scotsman
who resided for a time in the West Indies, and there came into contact
with Mandingo slaves, one or two of whom had actually known Park on
the Niger. For years he collated the accounts given to him by intelligent
Negroes in the West Indies, and in 1816, and again in 1821, he
published theories as to the course of the Niger and its outlet into the
Bight of Benin which traced its course with astonishing accuracy.
Nevertheless a considerable volume of scientific opinion held that the
Niger could not cut its way through the continuous range of the Kong
Mountains, which theorists had drawn all round the West African coast-
belt. The theory that the Niger was lost in the wastes of the Sahara
was too disappointing to be entertained. Consequently the Congo was
considered its only possible outlet, and Captain Tuckey was sent out by
the British Government to the mouth of the Congo to trace that river up
till it ended in Mungo Park's Niger. His expedition was a complete
disaster.
Then a new way of approaching the Niger regions was suggested,
and Denham and Clapperton and Oudney were despatched by the
British Government from Tripoli to cross the Sahara. This they did
with extraordinary success. They discovered Lake Chad and the Shari
River, and finally Clapperton reached the vicinity of the Niger at Sokoto.
But the Tula sultan would not allow him to continue his journey to the
great river. He therefore returned to England, and was again despatched
to West Africa. Amongst his companions, all of whom soon died after
leaving the Gulf of Benin, was Richard Lander, a Cornishman. Clapper-
ton and Lander jjassed through Yoruba, and reached the Niger almost
at the exact spot where Park had been killed. Clapperton then pro-
ceeded by a devious course to Sokoto, where he died of fever. His
faithful companion. Lander, returned to England. Under discouraging
72 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
circumstances, and with very paltry encouragement from the British
Government, Richard Lander with his brother John went out again to
West Africa, landed at Badagry, a place near Lagos, and thence reached
Yauri on the Niger. The brothers Lander navigated the river down
stream till its junction with the Benue, and thence southwards into the
fierce Pagan cannibal country of the Lower Niger and its delta. After
overcoming tremendous difficulties, they issued from the main stream of
the Niger through the Brass River to the breakers of the Atlantic
Ocean, They had completed Mungo Park's exploration down to
the sea.
There then only remained to trace the main stream of the Niger to its
source. The sources of the Niger were perhaps actually discovered by
two French explorers, Zweifeland Moustier, and by the English traveller,
Winwood Rede, in the sixties of the nineteenth century.
The ultimate history of Niger exploration has been a division of
glories between Britain and France, with some share also to be attributed
to the eminent German, Flegel. The region drained by this great river
is partly under French and partly under British administration. The
great names — so far as Britain is concerned — in this work are also
Scottish in descent, if not always in birthplace. Amongst them must be
mentioned MacGregor Laird, who practically founded the British naviga
tion of the Lower Niger, and that fleet of trading vessels now belonging to
Messrs. Elder Dempster, with its shipbuilding yards at Glasgow ; Joseph
Thomson, who made the most important treaties that extended British
influence over Northern Nigeria (and who has written an admirable Life
of Mungo Park) ; and Sir George Taubman Goldie, whose family, I believe,
originated not far from Selkirk, who was the political founder of the
British dominions of vast extent which lie between the Niger, the Benue
and Lake Chad. Perhaps also I may venture to attach my own name
with due humility to the long list of "Nigerians," as also being one of
Scottish descent, for to your lecturer of to-night fell the lot of organising
the beginnings of the British Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, in that
Delta of the river which Mungo Park very nearly succeeded in tracing
to its outlet in the ocean : that river with which his name must remain
for ever connected, like that of Speke with the Nile, Stanley with the
Congo, and Livingstone with the Zambezi.
ON THE FRONTIER OF THE WESTERN SHIRfi, BRITISH
CENTRAL AFRICA.
{With Map.)
By H, Crawford Angus.
Though the boundaries of the Western Shir6have been defined upon
the map, and several of the more important rivers and mountains have
bden approximately denoted, yet very little seems to be even yet knoMn
ON THE FRONTIER OF THE WESTERN SHIRE. 73
of the country through which the frontier line passes, and several errors
are apparent in the course of rivers, the position of mountains, and
names of places, on the latest maps, which facts lead me to conclude
that, though the country has been roughly triangulated, no more detailed
survey has been executed, the significant words " from native informa-
tion " being often noticed on recent surveys.
Having lived in that j)ortion of Central Africa for nearly two years,
engaged in hunting and trading, I acquired a very intimate knowledge
of its geographical features, and it is therefore my purpose, while
describing the lesser characters of this frontier country, to point out
some of the omissions and errors which are noticeable in the current
majjs of that locality.
At the time that I first penetrated into this district, it was practi-
cally unknown, and, as far as I could ascertain, I was the first European
who had ever travelled in that region. None of the chiefs, and hardly any
of the inhabitants, had ever seen a white man, and no intercourse was
held with the neighbouring tribes. There were no routes or paths
leading to the country, and the only way of reaching it was to travel
through the jungle.
There were several reasons for this state of things, the chief of which
were the evil reputation which the inhabitants had acquired from their
warlike habits and their use of poison, which facts caused trading
caravans to avoid the district and proceed to the Zambezi or Shire by
other routes, and the constant warfare in which the inhabitants were
engaged Avith the Angoni in the North, the Makololo in the South Shire
districts, and the Portuguese and their ally Chinsinga in the Zambezi
districts north of Tete. This state of war was responsible for the
absence of the ordinary native paths, which in that country act as
means of intercommunication, the people being in the habit of avoiding
making defined tracks through the jungle in order that their enemies
might have no clue to their strongholds. Finally, another cause is the
suspicious and turbulent character of the inhabitants themselves. At
the time I write of, the Anglo-Portuguese boundary, though laid down in
theory, had not yet been defined, and the Central African Administration
being elsewhere engaged in " peaceful penetration," had not taken any
steps to bring the district on their side of the frontier under their rule,
while the Portuguese, on their side, had been powerless to make their
rule acknowledged.
These, then, were the reasons to which were due the unexplored state
of the district, which is an important district, being the watershed of
the Shire and Zambezi rivers.
The columns of a geographical magazine are not the place to discuss
anthropological subjects, but the effect of geographical surroundings has
such an important bearing on the lives and customs of the inhabitants
that I must permit myself a short reference to them.
There are two tribes inhabiting this country, the one occupying the
mountainous region between the Revubwi and Mwanza rivers, and the
other the country lying between the Revubwi and the Kapochi. My
observations concern mainly the former, who are termed "Azimba,"
VOL. XXIII. F
74 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
and my acquaintance with the latter, termed "Achipeta," was less
intimate.
I am very much inclined to think that the origin of these two tribes
is different, though some persons have considered them to spring from
the same source, but this I do not think likely ; and while, so far as I
can ascertain, the Azimba are directly descended from the original
inhabitants of the country which they at present inhabit, the Achipeta
I consider a tribe originally living beyond the Loangwa river, who were
forced east by the Zulu emigration northwards under Kazunga-ndawa.
Though I have stated that the Achipeta country lies between the
Kapochi and Eevubwi rivers, yet kindred tribes inhabit all that country
beyond the Kapochi as far as the Loangwa, and have their strongholds
wherever there is a rocky eminence or mountain. Under various names,
as Asenga, Avisa, the country inhabited by them stretches far north,
circling round the borders of Northern Angoniland. But the Azimba
are only to be found in that small portion of territory bounded by the
Shir6 on the east, the Revubwi on the west, Central Angoniland on the
north, and Makanga country and Mikolongo on the south.
The customs of the two tribes are also distinctly and unmistakably
different. Their initiation ceremonies, their funeral and marriage rites,
their mode of dress and hair-dressing, their weapons, all differ, and their
lan^uajze and intonation are also so different, that the two people can
hardly understand each other.
One important point is, that though the Azimba have knowledge of
various poisons Avhich they use for the capture of game and fish, and to
mix in the food and water of their enemies, yet they have no knowledge
of the poison with which the Achipeta smear their war arrows, and look
on the custom with horror. Indeed I have seen them cry out with fear
and bolt precipitately on occasions when these arrows have been used
against them.
I was at some pains to go into the history of the Azimba tribe
during my residence amongst them, and what I gathered I shall relate
as briefly as I can.
When I first came in contact with them, I found that they were
split into five portions or small clans. The one under Ndifula and his
brother inhabited the Mount of Zobwi and Nyamba-chikopa — the
place of torn shields, named from a fight which took place there with
the Angoni, in which the latter were beaten — and claimed all
the country as far as the banks of the Mwanza river on the east
and the river Nkombedzi on the west. Another clan, the most
powerful, under Kasuza, inhabited Mount Ntapassa, and claimed
territory from the banks of the Nkombedzi river as far north as the
borders of Angoniland, and as far west as the rear side of Mount
Xtapassa, where the country of Mombusa commences, and goes west as
far as the Revubwi river, both countries reacliing south as far as Miko-
longo and Makanga. Further northwest was another chief, Goruza,
who claimed from the nortliern boundary of Mombusa's country to the
banks of the river Dwembi northwards ; eastwards to Kasuza's boundary,
and westwards to the Revubwi ; and still further north, beyond
ON THE FRONTIER OF THE WESTERN SHIRK. 75
Goruza's boundary, on the Dwembi, was Matiweri and his mother,
Nyangu, the real chief, with boundaries on the Dwembi, the Eevubwi,
Angoniland, and Kasuza's country.
These were the five clans, and it is interesting to see how a people,
once evidently powerful and united, came to be split up into factions
always warring with each other.
I may as well give the tribes' history by the mouth of Goruza, the
man who related it to me : —
" Long ago we were a powerful people, and all that country you
passed through, all across that plain where runs the Nkombedzi, our
villages were thick, and instead of trees was all maize fields and millet.
In those days the elephants used to come in herds to trample our corn,
and we used to kill many, and get much ivory ; now there is nothing to
fill even one elephant, and I have to catch monkeys and sell their skins
to buy powder. But all this was long ago, before I was born, or before
my father's father was born. Then we were under one chief, and were
strong in war, so that all the people about us gave us peace, and we sold
them our ivory for many slaves ; now we live like mice in holes, and
are harried by every one. Do not the Angoni call us ' the mice that
God has given them to kill — Zimbewa za raalunga.'
" Along the Mwanza were tobacco fields, and at Chuwali (on the
Eevubwi) we grew rice, so you may see how big a land we ate u^), and
right as far as Nsanganu we made new gardens. To-day you can see
the marks of our rubbish heaps at the head of the Makurumadzi.
Wasn't that a big land to cover 1 but we covered it as easily as I cover
my body with this little piece of bark cloth, which is so old that even the
lice cannot hide in it any more, not like the thick cotton cloth the white
man has in his tent.
"But all this was swallowed up, washed away like the Nkombedzi
in flood washes the dead leaves, when the Angoni came. For first we
had trouble with the Achipeta, with whom we used to barter iron and
ivory, which they sold to the Arab traders, who came down the Loangwa.
For they came to us and wanted to take our land, as they had been
beaten in war by a great tribe, whom we did not then know were the
Angoni. And they wanted to come into our place, but it is ill making
room for a beaten people, as when the lion wounds his prey he follows
it and then he kills where he goes. So we refused them, and fought
and beat them beyond the Revubwi. For a long time we heard tales of
men armed, with the skins of cows and with goats' hair on their heads,
but they never troubled us till after I was born. I was born at Zobwi,
and my father had all the land down to the Makurumadzi. And then
one day the news came that fire had been put to our villages at Nsan-
ganu, and a strong tribe was eating up our people there ; but we did
not fear, for we did not then know these Angoni. So all our men went
out to meet them, and we fought a great fight all from Nsanganu down
to Kalangombe.^
1 The resting place of oxen — named so froiu the fact that the Angoni halted there when
taking their cattle to Tete ; the name is, therefore, evidently subsequent to the Angoni
invasion.
76 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
" For weeks we fought, but always the Angoui brought up fresh men,
and we were compelled to fall back. And so it went on for years, until
at last we were driven to the hills, and even then we had to hide in
caves, and grow our maize in hollows of the rocks, and many of us were
caught and killed, and many made slaves, until very few of us were left.
When it came to that — I was a grown man then, and had a wife and a
child — we saw that to stay on here was simply to give our bodies to
wash the Angoni spears in sport, and Kasuza's father called us all
together, and after burning our houses and breaking our pots, we went
down and offered submission to Kankuni, the father of Chinsinga, who
was a friend of the Portuguese, and owned Makanga country. We had
always fought them till then, but now, even though we were a weak
people, he wanted us, as we were good hunters, and he knew we Avould
bring him ivory. Also he was at war with the Angoni and needed help.
We may have been slaves to go to him, but at least we could carry on
our dances and initiations in the j^roper way ; when living like rock
rabbits, we could not teach the young girls and boys, and we had only
water enough to drink, and none to make the proper ablutions with.
" So we went to him and he gave us welcome for a time, and good
came to him from our friendship, for we killed many elephants, and always
sent him the ground tusk.^ But at last a talk arose that we Avere too
strong, and Kankuni's mind began to fear that we might at last come
to rule in his land, for our chief Kasuza's father was a wise man, and
Kankuni resolved to cut at our strength. So when the first fruit
offerings, which are made when the corn is ripe, came round, he called
our old people together to do them honour and make a big feast, and
they all went, and he gave them much cloth and beer, so that their hearts,
which at first shrank from him, turned, and they all praised him ; but
when night of the second day of the feast was come, he mustered all
his own following, and confusing our old people by mixing hemp in
their beer, he gave them all to the spears of his people. Young and
old, women and children, all suffered ; only I, having been warned by
Kasuza's mother, fled, taking with me Kasuza and his brothers and
mother. That was a great killing, and the shame of it still rests on
Kankuni's son Chinsinga. Right northwards I fled with the mother
and the sons till I rested at Chuwali, where T found shelter, for the
people of Chuwali did not eat from Kankuni's hand because of trouble
about a ground tusk, and they lived in too strong a place for Kankuni
to come at them.
" Then I being a hunter, left there the mother and her sons, and
went to hunt elephants. Much I hunted, and many elephants I killed,
but at last I was caught by a party of Angoni ; see the marks on my
body of the wounds they gave me ; and for years they held me a slave,
however, treating me well, as I was known for a big hunter. So I lived
and was in peace with Chikusi their chief, who gave me wives. But
1 When au elephant is killed the tusk next the ground when the elephant lies dead is the
right of the chief on whose land it was killed.
ON THE FRONTIER OF THE WESTERN SHIRE. 77
with one chief I was not friends, for he desired ' ka nyanda nyangu,' ^
whom I had lately acquired. And he being powerful, one day when
I was away hunting he took my wife, and Chikusi would not give
me redress. So I brooded over this till news reached me that there was
a talk of people living in our old land, and I thought of Kasuza and his
mother whom I had left at Chuwali, whom I discovered, from fear of
Kankuni, had left Chuwali and gone back to the old place. When our
people heard of this, gradually one by one they turned to her, and soon
villages sprang up on the mountain of Ntapassa, the people preferring to
live in war rather than eat the poison of their hosts. So I resolved, too,
that I would also go home. But before I left Angoniland, I waited for
my revenge upon the man who had stolen my wife ; and one day, he being
called to Chikusi's village, I gathered my people, for I had a following,
and burning the village of my enemy, and taking all his cattle and pots
and women I fled south to Ntapassa. That was a big blaze which I
made, and when my enemy came back and found the fire in his thatch
and all his women gone, he followed me, and we fought on the road,
but my people having knowledge of guns beat off the Angoni, whose
weapons are the spear ; and whereas in olden times an arroAV could not
pierce a shield, a bullet now goes clean through it and hits the man
behind. So I came to Ntapassa and found Kasuza and his mother, but
even then there was no peace, for many small headmen arose each want-
ing power, and one climbed into that hill and said, ' I am a chief —
a chief of what, of rock rabbits — and another into that hill, and all
quarrelled about gardens and ground tusks, as if the Angoni were not at
our doors. And now you see how we are, with fire all round us (Fire is a
polite term for war). In the north are the Angoni, but with them since
the fight at Nyamba-Chikopa, where we beat them and gathered a heap
of shields, so high, we have had very little trouble. In the south are the
Portuguese, who want us to eat Chinsinga's grain, he whose father killed
us like rats. In the south-east to Mikolongo are the Makololo, who want
our country ; and in the west the Achipeta, who use poison on their arrows
and who know no decency. And now our only hope is that the white
man will give us peace, and then our gardens will stretch to Nsangnu
again, for we bear many children, at present food for spears."
Many other stories the old man told me of the j^ast glory of the tribe,
and it was easy to see from their customs and ceremonies that they had
once been an important people. Many degradations had, however, from
necessity of their changed mode of life, crept into their ceremonies, such
as the use of clay instead of water for certain ablutions, due to a scarcity
of water in the caves where they lived, and immoral relations due to a
scarcity of womankind ; the structure of their dwellings, and their
mode of life, also deteriorated by their confinement to the hills. When
not at war with their neighbours they were always fighting amongst
themselves, and killings were of daily occurrence. Poison was freely
1 A domestic term for a wife, only used in Azimbaland, literally "my little piece of bark
cloth," derived from the phrase applied to a wife, "the little piece of bark cloth that keeps
my back warm," from the fact that the man lies next the fire in the hut, his wife sleeping
at his back between him and the wall.
78 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
used to get rid of an enemj-, and slaves were harshly treated and given
no benefit from the slave laws that usually govern their existence.
During my stay with this peoi^le I gained their confidence to a large
extent and managed to put a stop to the Angoni raids which harassed
them, so that before I left them they had to a certain extent left the
hills and begun to cultivate the plains again. They also evinced more
cohesion among themselves, and many matters over which they used
formerly to fight were referred to a council of chiefs for settlement. I
have, however, though the history of the tribe and a description of their
customs would fill no small volume, already devoted too much space to this
subject, and I will now turn to the geographical features of the country
and the errors which I have noticed in the current maps of that district.
In a map by Mr. Daniel Eankin, made in 1892, his route is marked
as passing through part of the country I refer to, but as none of the
chief mountains or rivers are marked, and some places now definitely
fixed are erroneously located by him, I am inclined to think that he
passed south of Azimbaland, and that his route was not so far north as
he has placed it on his map. He evidently did not cross the Makura-
madzi, and only followed the Mwanza up a little above Mikolongo.
To turn first of all to the trade routes and means of intercommunica-
tion in and surrounding that district :
On the east there is the Shir6 river, impassable at that portion on
account of the Murchison cataracts, and thus the route to the north from
Chinde and the sea lies via Blantyre to Matope on the Upper Shire. The
Shir6 river makes a wide circle between Matope and Katunga, the land-
ing place for Blantyre and the north, the greater portion of which circle
is broken by rapids. This route via Blantyre is the only route to the
north on the east side.
From Matope and Mpimbi higher up the Upper Shire there are
several well-defined paths leading to Northern and Central Augoniland,
and the southernmost path of all, the one leading from Matope to
Chinkombe's in Central Angoniland may be taken as the northernmost
boundary of Azimbaland.
On the south a well defined track from Katunga on the Lower Shir6
to M'chena, marked Muchena on Kankin's map — M'chena means " white "
or " whiteness " ; Muchena would mean "in whiteness" — via Mikolongo
on the Mwanza, forms a rough boundary between the Azimba and their
southern neighbours, though the villages of the tribe are many miles
north of this.
On the west a fairly well beaten path leads from Tete to Makanga,
]\rch(''na, and Central and Northern Angoniland, keeping, however,
west of the Revubwi river and avoiding the boundaries of Azimbaland,
and after leaving M'chena passing through Achipetaland. Still further
west there are two more routes, both starting north from the Karoabassa
rapids on the Zambezi, the one crossing the Kapochi, Luia, Loangwa and
Chiritsi rivers, and leading to northern Angoniland and the lake, and
the others, following the Kapochi to Undi, and from thence proceeding
north to the Loangwa river. It is this last route which is followed by
the Arab trading caravans coming down to Tete and the coast from
MAP OF THE
WESTERN SHIRE HIGHLANDS
irxglish Miles
•80 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Bangvveolo and Tanganyika. Between this route and the Kevubwi
river, which is the boundary of the Azimba, the country is hilly, covered
with a low "Masuko " scrub and badly watered. There are few hills of
any size until Chuwali on the banks of the Eevubwi is reached, and the
country is cut up by numerous dry ravines and barren gorges. The
few hills and prominences which are scattered over the face of the land
are inhabited by the Achipeta, who live in a state of constant warfare
and whose hostile attitude to strangers causes them to be avoided. I
had some dealings with them, not always of a friendly nature, and
found their customs repulsive and their standard of life and morals very-
low.
It will thus be seen that Azimbaland is comparatively isolated from
the surrounding country, none of the big trade routes passing through
it. The only route traceable, which at one time traversed the country,
and which is now hardly distinguishable, is that leading from Tete to
Central Angoniland. This route, evidently at one time of importance,
runs from Tete to Mount Salumbidwa, and skirting the western slopes of
that mountain heads north until the Nkombedzi river is reached, then
follows the Nkombedzi north to almost its source near Mount Nsanganu,
to a slope which Mr. Rankin has marked as the Bondeka mountains, but
before reaching this point the path turns oflf and cuts over to the Dwembi
river, a tributary of the Revubwi, which it crosses and enters Central
Angoniland. This route, now disused, was made by the Angoni in
driving their cattle to Tete for sale, and must have been followed and
regularly traversed in the early days of the Angoni-Zulu invasion, but
since their power weakened has been neglected through fear of the
Azimba, who used to attack and cut up the caravans.
Inter-communication between the villages of this district is infrequent,
intercourse being held between them by means of elephant and game
paths. There is no path, connected with any of the aforementioned
trade-routes, leading to the country, and the only way of reaching it is
to steer a course through the bush. To approach the country from the
Shire the best way is to leave the river at the Murchison Falls and
follow the Makurumadzi river until it turns northwards, and from this
point it is a distance of not more than ten miles to the Mwanza river,
which is found running parallel to the Makurumadzi. The country
traversed is very broken, the soil being a reddish brown, interspersed
with quartz veins and quantities of schist. A gradual rise over
a series of low ridges takes place after leaving the Shir6 river until the
highest point between the Marurungwi mountain and the Shir<§ is reached,
which is the dividing ridge between the Mwanza and Makurumadzi rivers.
The whole of this country is covered with a low bushy scrub, mingled
with huge boabab trees, and is very sterile, only the banks of the rivers
being at all well wooded or possessing any luxuriant vegetation. From
the dividing ridge between the two rivers country of the same nature can
be seen stretching away north and south, the formation running in
ridges parallel with the course of the river, i.e., north and south. To
the west the peak of jMount Zobwi begins to be visible, and the shoulder
of a long low mountain a little to the south of it named Zangi, the
ON THE FRONTIER OF THE WESTERN SHIRE. 81
eastern slope of which is washed by the Mwanza river, which continues
its course right northwards, and does not rise at Mount Zangi as mapped
by Mr. Eankin. Leaving the banks of the Mwanza river the country
rises more sharply, and the low scrub gives place to forests of well-grown
" Masuko " with luxuriant foliage, which tree provides the bark cloth
universally worn throughout this district.
The gradual upward ascent ends abruptly in a broad well-wooded
plateau twenty miles in breadth, which is mapped under the name of
the Marurungwi range, at the portion I refer to, and further north as the
Kirke mountains. But it is in reality two distinct ranges divided by
the plateau. Mount Zangi, Mount Zobwi, and Mount Nyamba-chikopa
are the only hills of any prominence on the eastern side — the side
nearest the Shir6. Neither are they continuous, being isolated and
separated from each other by broad plains and deep gorges.
None of the three mountains gives birth to any stream of importance,
though several small burns find their source on their slopes, and all run
to join the Mwanza river.
On the other side of the plateau the character of the range is very
different, being much more rugged and precipitous, but even here there
are only two mountains of any prominence. The first of these is Mount
Ntapassa, and the second Mount Madzudzu, which both rise to a great
height above the plain, and are scarped and terraced for hundreds of
feet. Mount Madzudzu, which is the stronghold of Mombusa, lies a little
to the south and rear of Ntapassa, Kasuza's seat, which faces the
plateau.
Further west the country descends to the Revubwi river in a series of
well-defined rolling shoulders and dales, much more prominent than the
approach on the eastern side of the plateau, and to the north and south
merges into a compact mass of low rounded hills, well-wooded, which
gradually descend to join, in the north, the open plains of Angoniland,
and in the south the barren country stretching to the Zambezi.
The whole distance between the Mwanza and the Revubwi rivers is
about fifty miles, the plateau being about twenty miles in breadth, and
the two confining ranges and the ascents to them accounting for the
remaining thirty miles.
Between the two ranges, but nearer the western than the eastern
one, runs the river Nkombedzi, a tributary of the Revubwi river, and
this is the only stream of importance which traverses the plateau. The
river Minjova, finding its source on the southern slopes of Mount
Zangi far south of Mount Zobwi, and the Lisamodzi river which rises
at Nyamba-chikopa and joins the Nkombedzi, are at this point dry
except during the rains. The Nkombedzi and the Minjova being
tributaries of the Zambezi, it will be seen that the eastern range
confining the plateau is the true division between the watersheds of the
Shir6 and Zambezi, all the streams rising in the western range on the
slopes of Makzudzu and Mount Ntapassa running to swell the waters
of the Zambezi either through the medium of the Nkombedzi or the
Revubwi. Mount Ntapassa gives birth to several strong burns, all of
which go to join the Nkombedzi, on the other hand those streams rising
82 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
on the slopes of Madzudzu mountain all seek the Revubwi river. It
will be seen from the foregoing description that this plateau running
north and south is confined by two ranges, the one of which is bounded
by a tributary of the Shire, and the other by a tributary of the Zambezi,
and the plateau itself is traversed by the Nkombedzi, a sub-tributary of
the Zambezi, and that north and south both ranges flatten out to merge
into the rolling plains from which they rise. The plateau is thickly wooded
with Masuko, but in the vicinity of Mount Zobwi and Mount Ntapassa
is badly watered, and it is not till its more northern portion is reached
that the many small burns, which intersect it and run to join the
Dsvembi river, are crossed.
Seen from the plateau Mount Ntapassa has a very striking appearance,
the slopes of the foot-hills rising gradually to the foot of the first preci-
pitous upward leap, and then follows leap on leap of black slimy rock till
the ragged edge of the summit stands out against the skyline. The
mountain in length is about five miles from end to end, and has a basal
breadth of nearly three miles. Behind it, a little to the south, Madzudzu
mountain raises a round capped head, as distinct from the flat irregular-
shaped summit of Xtapassa, and to the north the low hills pile them-
selves one on to the other till they fade into the distance. These foot-
hills are much intersected by small burns which feed the Revubwi river
on the one side and the Nkombedzi on the other, though the greater
number flow into the former river.
The descent from Mount Ntapassa to the foot-hills about the
Revubwi is very sudden, the ravines between the low long parallel ridge&
being precipitous in nature ; and thus the journey from Ntapassa to the
Revubwi is a tiresome one, many steep ascents and descents having to
be accomplished, as the dividing ridges run north and south.
But to give a detailed description of this district it will be better if I
begin at where I consider the mountainous region commences, a little
north of Mikolongo, and work north to its termination at Nsanganu,.
describing as I go along the chief characters of the country and the
points on which I differ from the originators of the existing map.
But first it must be understood that from Mikolongo in the south a
gradual rise of the whole plateau takes place till an elevation of GOO 3
feet is attained at the northern termination at Mount Nsanganu,
whence the country again falls to the plain of Angoniland ; also it
must be understood that this district is not of a continuously moun-
tainous character throughout its extent, but that the upward ascent is
very gradual, almost imperceptible, and is composed of low ridges and
gentle slopes amid which there are only a very few hills of any promi-
nence, and they, from the unprominent nature of the surrounding country,
seem to rise abruptly from the ascending plateau.
Mount Salumbidwa is really the commencement of the range, and is
situated as mapped a little to the north and west of Mikolongo on the
Mwanza. Here the Minjova, a river which joins the Zambezi at the
Lupata gorge, finds its source, and two small tributaries of the Minjova
also rise here, but one, the largest of all, circles round the western slope
of Salumbidwa and runs north to Mount Zan^i. But I am of the
ON THE FRONTIER OF THE WESTERN SHIRK. 83
opinion, as I have already stated, that this tributary, marked Nkombedzi-
wa-chuma, is really the true stream of the Minjova. Further west runs
the Nkombedzi, and on the east further north a few isolated hills rise
from the ascending country commencing the broken chain of the water-
shed. Several small streams, dry except in the rains, find their source
in these hills and traverse the plateau to join the Nkombedzi. Further
east beyond these hills, in the broken country lying between them and
the Shire, the Ngona and the Mwanza, the former a tributary of the
latter, run parallel to each other, and continue thus till the Ngona
turns west to its source on the eastern slopes of the plateau at Mount
Zangi, mapped as Mount Tambani, the Mwanza continuing its course due
north and receiving several small burns from the eastern portion of the
plateau. These burns are all of a perennial nature, and thus the Mwanza
never fails in its supply of water.
On the western side of the plateau the range leading to Madzudzu
and Mount Ntapassa now commences to distinguish itself from the
prevailing character of the country, but it is not until opposite to Mount
Zangi that the western range attains any prominence, and here Mount
Madzudzu is the first height of any importance, after which, further
north and east, comes Mount Ntapassa.
On the current map several fair sized streams are given as traversing
this plain, running from the slopes of the eastern range to join the
Nkombedzi, but none of them are of importance and most of them are
dry in the summer months.
Still proceeding north and following the course of the Nkombedzi
river, mapped as the Nkondodzi river, the country assumes a more
broken character, on the western side falling in a jumble of low wooded
hills to the Eevubwi river, and on the eastern side still bounded by the
Mwanza, to which the country falls steeply. The only hill in this
latitude on the eastern side, of any importance, is Mount Nyamba-
chikopa.
The plateau narrows here considerably, and at this point the
Nkombedzi begins to flow from the north-west, considerably diminish-
ing the distance between itself and the Mwanza river, a rugged ridge
or backbone dividing the two rivers. At the same time further east
the Makurumadzi is still pursuing its southern course, flowing
parallel with the Mwanza, and divided from it by a similar backbone.
Makurumadzi means "big water," and further west of the Nkombedzi
the Dwembi is, behind a similar ridge, continuing the like southern course.
It is at this portion that there is an error in the present map, the
Mwanza being mapped as having its source in this dividing ridge,
whereas, though one or two dry ravines join it from hereabouts, the true
Mwanza still continues to flow from the northward and finds its source in
the conglomeration of low hills and ridges out of which Mount Nsanganu
rises. Here also amid these hills, on various portions of these slopes,
rise the Makurumadzi river and the Lisungwi ; there being thus three
important rivers, all tributaries of the Shir6, rising from the north-east,
east and south-eastern slopes, and two important tributaries of the
Zambezi rising from the north-west and southern slopes, these rivers
84 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
being tlie Xkombedzi and the Dwembi, both of which flow directly
into the Revubwi river, the former near M'chena, and the latter at
Chuwali.
Tliere is not ten miles distance between the source of any of these
rivers. The Nkombedzi, the Lisungwi, and the Dwembi rise all
within five miles of each other, and the Makurumadzi and Mwanza a
little further south ; and though different names can be given to the
sources, Nsanganu Mount is really the head of their watershed.
This is practically the termination of the plateau, and though
beyond this point the elevation is still above that of the country lying
to east and west, the country is open and unconfined by any definite
chain of hills, and the descent to the Revubwi, which continues its course
past Nsanganu and rises far to the north, is very gradual.
The features of all these streams are very much the same ; none of
them have high banks, and the valleys of the Mwanza, Xgona, and
Makurumadzi are very narrow, with hardly any breadth of bottom.
The banks of the Nkombedzi are much flatter and being unconfined
in a valley its current inundates a certain amount of land on either
bank when the river is in flood. The vegetation on the banks of all
these streams is similar; on the Mwanza and the Xkombedzi the
raphia palm grows in great profusion. Bamboo of an)" size is
however scarce, the bamboo thickets which clothe the mountain slopes
being of a stunted nature.
Of all these rivers the Dwembi is the most interesting, as at part of
its course it passes through a series of caves. I cannot be quite certain
whether it is the Dwembi itself or a tributary which runs underground,
as I have no means of refreshing my memory.
These caves are of a fair size and are all inhabited, stores of grain
being kept there, together with sheep and goats. There are two under-
ground channels, an upper one through which the river seems to have
flowed at one time, and a lower one into which it now seems to have
subsided.
The country traversed by the Dwembi is very fertile, far more so
than any other I have travelled through, the banks of the river being
very flat and the bottoms of the valleys being broad and open. The
soil is rich^ and maize, rice, cotton and tobacco flourish luxuriantly.
The natural vegetation is also very profuse, bamboos growing to an
enormous girth and forming large thickets low down on the bases of
the hills.
The altitude of the Dwembi valley is much beneath the plateau, and
nearly on the same level as the Kevubwi, of which it is a tributary, and
which runs parallel to it a little further west for a great part of its
course. There is a certain amount of rubber on the hills in this locality,
and at Chuwali, where the Dwembi joins the Revubwi there is a con-
siderable forest of it, the Achipeta inhabiting the mountain of Chuwali
doing a fair commerce in rubber and monkey skins. These monkeys
are of great beauty, and their skins are much prized by the Angoni for
making their war costumes. Leopards also abound hereabouts, and
the natives trap great numbers of them in log falls.
ON THE FRONTIER OF THE WESTERN SHIRE. 85
Before I close I would like to refer once more to the characteristics of
the Azimba and Achipeta. The former are extremely dark, their skins
being thin and of a soft, easily manipulated texture. The majority of
the men and \yomen are tall and handsome, thin-lipped and aquiline in
feature. They are very long-limbed, active and graceful in their move-
ments, long trunked and slender fingered and toed, the second and
third toes being unusually long and not, as I have observed (whether it
may be an anthropological fact or not I am unaware), like the hill and
cave dwellers of Achipetaland, whose big toes are abnormally spatu-
lated, and whose other toes and fingers are thick and stumpy. The
Achipeta are much thicker-skinned, and their colour is not such a deep
black, being more a dark, dirty brown. The hair of the Achipeta also is
laot so dark as that of the Azimba, being browner in colour, whereas the
hair of the Azimba is jet black.
The males of the Azimba tribe wear their hair long and unplaited,
whereas the Achipeta plait their hair and smear it with red clay and
white flour.
Some years ago I described the initiation ceremony for girls in a
paper I contributed to the German Anthropological Society, I being the
first European who ever witnessed this ceremony, which was held under
my protection in the open plains for the first time for many years ;
Angoni raids formerly having deterred the people from venturing from
the safety of the hills. The Achipeta ceremony is a very different one,
and far more degraded, but I cannot enter into such subjects in the
columns of a geographical magazine ; and it must suffice that the
customs of the two people are very different, the Achipeta dances and
initiations being much more complicated, and to Europeans indecorous,
though to the anthropologist they afford much new information and have
many points of interest.
Of the two tribes, the Achipeta are the more turbulent and treacherous,
though not so courageous or warlike as the Azimba. The former are
quick to attack unsuspecting strangers, while the latter are hospitable
and frank. Of this latter fact I had experience during my travels in
Achipetaland, when one evening, having taken up my quarters in the
vicinity of one of the Achipeta rock dwellings, I was alarmed by my
headman coming to me and telling me that the inhabitants were disposed
to attack us, one of their number (though I had been on friendly terms
with them for some days) having, after exciting himself with a decoction
of hemp, climbed on to a rock with a sheaf of poisoned arrows and
commenced to threaten my camp. When I approached the scene I
found the man at the distance of about one hundred yards standing on
a rock with his bow bent and the arrow pointed at us. He was shouting
at the top of his voice in a peculiar sing-song tone. " ISTa-penya-ulendo —
na-penya-ulendo " — "I see strangers," though his cry could not be called
parliamentary in any sense, " Lassa-ni-ulembi" — "Lassa-ni-ulembi "
— " Wound them with poison, wound them with poison." I recognised
that hemp was the cause of his conduct, and not wishing to have to
shoot him, as I wanted no trouble with the villagers, I called up his
chief, who said he was powerless to control him, and that the best thing
86 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
we could do would be to bolt. But this would have been only to incite
him to actually attack us, and in the end I decided to wait till dark and
then try and capture him. This we effected, getting round him under
cover of dusk ; though it was not a pleasant wait, literally under fire the
whole time ; of course had he actually shot an ai-row at us I would have
had to shoot him to save my men, who were so alarmed that I discovered
afterwards that they had all gone quietly and made an offering to their
guardian spirit, the offering taking the form of pulling leaves off a tree
and laying them in a heap, each man contributing : the action being
accompanied by the usual hand clapping and supplications.
This will show how untrustworthy the character of the Achipeta is ;
in comparison to the Azimba, who once formed a fair sized force and
came over 150 miles to my aid when they heard that I was in a tight
corner, far over in North Achipetaland.
Another difference between the two peoj^le is their mode of dwelling,
the Achipeta fortifying all their villages with stockades or mud walls, no
matter even if they are living in the recesses of the hills, and the
Azimba having no fortified place throughout the whole extent of their
country.
In concluding this article I wish to state that in trying to describe
the district I have dealt with, while correcting what seem to me to be
errors in the current maps, I have rather tried to give a picture that can
be understood by the average person than dealt minutely with every
feature of mountain and river, and that my observations are not those
of the surveyor, but simply those of an ordinary traveller whose
knowledge of that district is thorough, having lived and hunted in it,
and mapped it in a rough and ready way without such aids as theodolites
and plane tables.
THE UPPER ITURI.i
By J. Penman Browne, M.E.
{mth Illustration.-^.)
As the earlier stages of our journey were over comparatively well-known
ground, it may be sufficient to begin the present account at Mahagi,
which lies near the shore of Lake Albert Xyanza and almost at the foot
of the Luru mountains. We stayed two days here, and on the third
morning about 5 A.M. set out north-west to cross the Luru hills, in order
to continue our journey to the Ituri forest. We were well up the hills
when the sun rose, and witnessed a magnificent sunrise.
After traversing the Luru hills we came to a most beautiful country.
From the top of the hills right on to the Ituri forest there are broad
rolling plains and fertile valleys, having a plentiful supply of clear, cool
water in the many streams that flow through the region, which is in my
' The illustrations accompanying this paper are from photographs by Colonel Harrison.
THE UPPER ITURI. 87
opinion very suitable for the white man's occupation, and would make
an ideal stock-raising country.
In addition, the climate is splendid, as can be gathered from the fact
that this particular territory lies at an altitude ranging from 3000 feet
to 6000 feet above sea-level.
What surprised me very much on the first two days' march from
Mahagi was the absence of any living thing. No mammals, except a
few domesticated ones in the two large villages we came to, were seen,
and no birds, except a species of black-and-white crow seen near the
villages also. Walking along for hours without seeing an antelope
bound across our path, without seeing a bird flying overhead, began to
get monotonous, and we were very glad to see at last the huts and
plantations of a chief, Moka by name. Not until the end of our second
day's march did we find ourselves out of this " Silent Land," and then,
strange to say, we found a district thickly populated, and stranger still,
a land teeming with all manner of birds and game. Here the natives
turned out in force to welcome us.
We obtained a plentiful supply of sweet potatoes, manioc, bananas,
tomatoes, and European potatoes, and large bowls of milk, while many
dozens of eggs were off'ered us freely, as also were sheep, goats, and
fowls.
On this route — the Mahagi-Ituri forest route, which at the mountains
immediately to the rear of the first-mentioned place attains an altitude
of 3500 feet, and gradually rises to 6000 in less than 100 miles — one
naturally finds many changes in the vegetation with the change of
altitude. For instance, at an altitude of 3000 feet to 4000 feet one finds
the people cultivating the ground extensively and depending much upon
tropical grain as the chief means of subsistence. Further on, and at a
higher altitude, bananas and sweet potatoes form the staple food. At
this point, European vegetables thrive remarkably w^ell, and it has been
pointed out that European grain might equally do well, and so increase
the suitability of the district for the European.
The natives in these parts are peaceable and law-abiding, and seem
to be happy and contented under the Belgian rule. It was these same
people who tried to hinder Stanley on his journey to relieve Emin Pasha
at Dufile, but now, instead of trying to kill the white man, they welcome
him and do all in their power to assist him. This was, at least, our
experience of them.
Five days' march (ninehours per day) from Mahagi brought ustolrumu.
From the latter place (which is to be the headquarters of the Haut Ituri
administi'ation) one can hear the dull roar of the river Ituri as it dashes
and tumbles over the rocks on its rush to join the mighty Zaire, or Congo
River. We set off again after a stay of one day here, and, after a march
of five hours, saw the dark forest looming out in the distance. One hour
more brought us there, and we saw for the first time a band of that little
nomad people, the wandering pigmies of the great Ituri forest. They
were singing and dancing in front of the resthouse, and continued doing
this for about an hour after our arrival, apparently for our benefit.
They were very inquisitive, and did not seem to be quite sure of us,
88
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
regarding us with a certain amount of suspicion. However, after giving
them a few presents, consisting of cloth and salt and beads, we took a
few photos of them and exacted a promise from them that they would
return and see us the following morning. Next morning came, but no
pigmies. They had all fled into the forest depths, evidently thinking
we had some sinister motive in wishing them to return.
My friend. Colonel Harrison, then went off in search of elephants,
there being many in the forest here, for we could see traces "where they
had been during the night, and they could be heard in the distance
trumpeting loudly. Taking my rifle and shot gun, I got into the old
Fig. 1.— a Group of Pigmies and Balesse.
canoe, and with two men to paddle I went down the river, intending
to look for rubber-bearing vines, and also to try and get a shot at the
many bright-coloured birds which were seen flitting about in the trees
near the river. I saw a few of the beautiful black-and-white Colobus
monkeys as they swung from tree to tree, but could not get a shot at
any of them.
The journey I made down the river Ituri in the " pirogue " was peace-
ful and pleasant in the extreme. Here, running through a vast forest
of giant trees and shrubs, consisting of gigantic false cotton-trees belong-
ing to the order Sterculiaceae and other species of the Rosaceae, Euphor-
biaceae and Artocarpeae orders, the river wound and turned. Now and
then the sun's rays fell upon the pleasant waters causing them to glimmer
like silver sheen. Here and there, all down the river, were scattered
THE UPPER ITURI, 89
innumerable small islands, on which grew a few tall trees, and on the trees
could be seen many grey parrots ; also sharp-eyed kingfishers, who sat on
branches overhanging the river, looking, no doubt, for their breakfast in
the rippling waters of the Ituri. Green and yellow paroquets, sun-birds,
weaver-birds, and many others could also be seen flitting about among
the trees and undergrowth.
The Ituri forest in certain parts contains many valuable woods,
such as African mahogany, teak, greenheart, camwood, copalwood,
ebony, and ironwood, and I also found there many species of Lan-
dolphias (rubber vines), while by the rivers, where the forest sends out its
prolongations, I have come across much of both kinds of rubber, good
and bad, the latter consisting of a bastard species {Funtumia latifoli),
the latex of which cannot be got to coagulate properly.
Orchids are very numerous, a red-and-white variety being the most
common. Ferns are plentifully distributed throughout.
The Belgians have already surveyed a way through this forest in con-
nection with their Chemin de Fer des Grands Lacs scheme, but in order
to exploit this region one need not wait till this railway is constructed,
for Lake Albert Nyanza is in close proximity to a part of the Ituri
forest. Timber and produce generally could be shipped across the lake
to Uganda, or taken down the Nile as far as Nimule. Just below this
latter place, the Tola rapids of the Nile occur, which boats cannot navigate,
so it is obvious that other means than transport by w\ay of the river
must be found. A very advisable plan would be for the Uganda
government to consider the feasibility of continuing the Uganda rail-
way from its present terminus (Port Florence) to Gondokoro, the point
where the Khartum steamers call every month. Were the Uganda
railway constructed to Gondokoro, the Sudan authorities might then
consider the advisability of linking it up with the Khartum one. In
the near future the trade of Central Africa must assume enormous pro-
portions, and personally, I do not think that the Nile, as a means of
transport, could cope with the increase of traflfic which is bound to be
the outcome of the development of such vast dormant territories as the
Bahr el Ghazal, Uganda, and Central Africa generally. The advantages
that would be gained by such a railway would be many, for it is well
known that the aforementioned territories are very rich and fertile, and
offer immense possibilities to the enterprising pioneer.
To the naturalist the Ituri forest should offer immense possibilities.
It has not been thoroughly explored by white men yet, and extends
over an area of some hundreds of square miles, and is only inhabited
round the fringe by rubber " hunters," and the Wambutti or Mambutti
race of pigmies. There that rare and beautiful animal, the okapi, first
made known to science by Sir Harry Johnston, finds a home; and there
it is free from molestation from big-game hunters, for it is next to
impossible for a white man to hunt there, the forest growths being so
dense. For this reason this rare animal will be safe from extermination
for many years to come. Further north the white rhinoceros and
beautiful eland are fast becoming extinct, by reason of the easiness of
access to their haunts for indiscriminate sportsmen. We had not the
VOL. XXIII. G
90 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
luck to see any of these animals on this trip, and during the time we
were in the forest we only saw the spoor of a solitary okapi.
The Pigmies gave us some information regarding the okapi. I
might mention, in passing, that the word okapi is from the Pigmy
language, and the animal is known to them by this name. Colonel
Harrison showed them a large coloured drawing of the animal, and
many and loud were the exclamations on their beholding it. One
man drew an imaginary bow to shoot it, and cries of " Okapi ! Okapi ! "
were many.
They told us that, contrary to popular supposition, if disturbed,
the animal does not run far away. They also informed us that its
habits are similar to those of a forest hog, for it is often found wallow-
in » in a mud puddle. It feeds on young shoots and shrubs, also
succulent roots, which it digs up with its forefeet.
But to return to our journey — going back to the resthouse I found
Colonel Harrison awaiting me, he having, like myself, returned without
getting anything, so we decided to strike camp and make for Mayaribu.
This place we reached about 4.30 in the afternoon. Going down the
river we spied three small red buffaloes, but before the canoe could be
stopped they had made off into the depths of the forest, where we were
unable to follow them.
From Mayaribu we could hear the song and jest of the rubber-
gatherers as they gathered the milky latex that was later to be con-
verted into that commodity of commerce, rubber, over the smoke of
their nut-fires.
From Mayaribu we proceeded to Kavalli, where we decided to stay
a week or two, in order to get better acquainted with our little Pigmy
friends, and, if possible, to try and get an okapi.
After having gained the confidence of the Pigmies, we went hunting
one day with them. Starting out one morning as soon as daylight set in,
we accompanied a band numbering somewhere about one hundred and fifty.
They were all armed with the usual equipment for the chase, consisting
of poisoned spears, bows and barbed arrows, and knives, which are
about six inches long in the blade. They were also accompanied by a
few mongrel-looking dogs about the size of a fox-terrier. Round the
necks of these were hung iron rattles, which had a long slit on the
underside. Into this slit a wisp of grass was stuffed to prevent them
making a noise when not tracking game. As soon as any animal
is raised the wisp of grass is immediately withdrawn, and away the
dogs set in pursuit, the Pigmies following the sound of the rattle.
The Pigmies poison their spears, but, curiously enough it is not the
blade which is poisoned, but the part of the stick next the blade. It is
notched at this part, and the poison is rubbed into the notches, and
this means that it must be driven in over the blade before the poison
can take effect.
They have also a reed whistle upon which they perform a few
" calls," which signifies various things. The hunting parties are usually
divided up into two, one party driving and the other receiving the
drive. We elected to stay with the latter party. After travelling for
THE UPPER ITURI.
91
about two hours on the forest path which leads to Fort Beni, and
crossing a stream, we divided our forces, with the object aforementioned.
We sent on the driving party to enter the forest at a point further east,
while we, with the remaining party, tried to follow the stream. We
Avere not long started when we heard a peculiar " call " on the whistle.
We stopped, and were informed by our leader (a Pigmy) that the interpre-
tation of the "call" was that something had been raised. We were at
once on the alert, and waited with bated breath in expectancy. We
did not need to wait long when another " call " sounded, this time
entirely different from the first. We had no need to be told this time
Avhat it meant, for our leader rushed off to where the sound proceeded
Fig. 2. — A Balesse Hut in the Ituri Forest.
from, leaving us to follow as best we could, and when we reached the
place we found not what we fondly expected (an okapi) but an "ingo-
lubi," or forest-hog, lying in its last death-throes.
Sending it off to camp we set off through the forest again, but we
only succeeded in getting a small forest antelope.
There are a great many small animals in this forest. This can be
accounted for by the fact of the dense undergrowth ; no large or medium-
sized animal could force a way through, while smaller animals can creep
through it without much trouble. We went on until about two in the
afternoon, when, led by our friends, the Pigmies, we made for camp,
which was reached about five in the evening. I was so tired out that I
lay in bed the next day until twelve o'clock, when my boy came and
informed me that the sun was " Gati Gati," that is halfway, or, in
92 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
other words, it was midday. By the time I rose and dressed, the
Pigmies had come in, with another forest-hog, and then we had as much
work as kept us busy until evening again.
When evening came we got our friends, the Pigmies, gathered round
us, and tried to glean some information about their habits and customs,
etc. The following are a few facts which I noted down at the time. If
they wish to have success in their hunting operations, they, previous to
setting out, cut a number of small slits down the back of their wrists,
and rub in a concoction made from the roots of a certain shrub, then
they call on Allah or God, whom they designate "Loadi," also their
departed father (if he be dead), to watch over them and to prevent them
from going astray in the depths of the forest. If one loses his way and
never returns, the Devil, or " Ouda " as they name His Satanic Majesty,
is supposed to have flown oft' with him to some unknown j^art. If a
female child is born, the father gathers a few plantain leaves and brings
them home, then he and the mother start to lash the poor infant with
them. They do not want female children. On the other hand, should
a male child be born, then there are great preparations made to celebrate
this little one's advent into the world. A great feast is given at which
unlimited banana beer (called " Choki ") is consumed.
Polygamy is the recognised custom, it being usual for a man to have
two or three wives, according to his means. Circumcision is practised
also. Adultery is punishable by death.
They live chiefly on meat, the proceeds of their hunting operations.
In hunting they are very skilful and nimble, and thej- are expert
bowmen. I have seen them kill an elephant by following it and severing
the tendons of the hind legs, while at the same time one would dart
forward and thrust a large spear into the region of its heart.
Any surplus meat they may have is exchanged with their larger
neighbours for grain, sweet potatoes, or bananas, but they are never
seen by those with whom they made the exchange. At nightfall they
bring the piece of meat and put it down in a prominent part of the
village, and the following night they return to find in its place grain or
bananas.
Another of their customs is this : if a father dies his sons construct
a very small hut over his grave; and outside the hut that was once the
home of the deceased, they make a small conical structure, into which
they place a few pieces of meat and some bananas occasionall}', thinking
that one day he will return from the grave, and these articles of food
are placed in readiness for him, in case he should be hungry.
The men wear a cloth which they make from the bark of a tree, and
this cloth is usually dyed blue or red, the only two dyes that are made
by them. The women wear a bunch of leaves.
They have many curious dances. They go through a regular system
of hunting operations in the course of the dance, while the women trot
round in a circle, decorated with long racemes of gaudy flowers hanging
from their elbows, and parrots' feathers stuck through their hair.
Another dance, the " sacred dance," is one which is a favourite with
them. The chief dances round in a zigzag circle, followed by all the
THE UPPER ITUEI.
93
others ; suddenly he turns round and tries to overthrow the next one
with his right leg. The first time he fails, or elects to fail ; but on
trying again he this time overthrows his man : this is said by some
people to represent the great battle of Horus and Sut.
But to return to the characteristics of the region, we have in the
Upper Ituri a vast fertile district comprising an area of many square
miles, a part of which is clothed by primaeval forest which, as I have else-
where mentioned, contains many valuable commercial commodities. The
Fig. 3.— a Group of Shilluks, encountered near the Sohat, on the way to Kliartum.
climate is splendid, and labour is plentiful and cheap. Many of the
hillsides are covered with bracken, a species of mountain shield fern
grows freely, while in the ravines and valleys I found the common
bramble or blackberry fruiting freely. Further instances of the nature
of the climate are to be found in the fact that strawberries from Europe
were introduced here, and in the officers' gardens at Irumu they did
wonderfully well, and fruited without having any special attention or
covering from the sun. At this same place roses were blooming
profusely at the time of our visit, Xotwithstanding the fact that the
sun is very powerful, and no rain falls for a few months, the sun has not
94 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
the injurious effect upon vegetation which one might suppose, for during
the course of the night there falls a heavy dew which is very beneficial
to vegetation.
In Chief Buna's domains, three days from Mahagi, there are great
ravines, up which grow many Dracaenas, giant lobelias, and numerous
plantains, also tree ferns. Another tree found growing here, although
not in large numbers, is a species of Symphonia. This tree seems to be
distributed over nearly the whole of Central Africa, from the West
Coast to the East and in Uganda.
At the present moment the known natural resources of the Ituri are
rubber and valuable woods in the forest regions, and native grain,
bananas, etc., while gold is, at present, the only valuable mineral of any
importance discovered.
In order to develop the wealth (vegetable and mineral) of the Ituri,
it is obvious that some up-to-date method of transport must be employed.
Railways would have to be constructed, for at present there are none.
To develop every source of this territory's wealth a railway must be
made, for Avhether it be rubber cultivation, cotton cultivation, grain
growing, or gold mining which first attests the wealth-producing
capacity of this territory, some means of transport must be considered.
As I have mentioned before, the Belgians have surveyed a route for a rail-
way through this district, in connection with the one which they are at
present busily constructing towards the Great Lakes from Stanleyville,
and which it is proposed to continue right on to Mahagi on Lake Albert
iSTyanza, thence to Rejaf on the White Nile. But as yet that railway
has not nearly reached Lake Tanganyika, and when one considers that a
railway from this last-mentioned lake to Lake Albert Nyanza has to be
constructed through what is almost the most inaccessible part of Central
Africa, it is obvious that it will be a long time yet before the natives of
these parts are startled by the whistle of the "masua," as they name
an engine. And if the wealth of the Ituri has to wait until this
raihvay is made, it will not be developed for many years to come. On
the other hand, seeing that it is the intention of the Congo authorities
to construct their Great Lakes railway to Mahagi and Kejaf, why not
begin to do this from both ends, i.e. from Stanleyville at one end and
Rejaf at the other'? By this means they w^ould be able to finish their
railway in very much less time, and as there are no formidable obstacles
in the way of building a railway from Rejaf to the Ituri, it would reach
that place in a very short time, and could be made to pay from the
very start.
Even although it was a matter of a few years' time yet before the
advent of a railway in these parts of the Congo which I have already
mentioned, it would be an excellent plan in the meantime to employ
capable men, such as economic botanists, trained arboriculturists, and
men well up in all branches of scientific agriculture, also capable mining
engineers, etc., in order to teach the natives there some of the best
methods of raising the kinds of produce most suited to that particular
l>art, and to develop the mineral resources and wealth of this region
generally.
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE. 95
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL
SOCIETY.
Lectures in February.
Ox February 1, Professor Sir William M. Ramsay, D.C.L., LL.D.,
Litt.P., D.D., of Aberdeen University, will deliver his lecture on " Roads
and Railways on the Plateau of Asia Minor " in Glasgow, on February 20
in Dundee, and on February 21 in Aberdeen. Mr. C. S. Seligmann,
M.B., will address the Society on " Anthropogeographical Investigations
in British New Guinea" (with cinematograph pictures) in Edinburgh
on February 14, Glasgow on February 11, Dundee on February 12, and
Aberdeen on February 13. Professor George Adam Smith, M.A.,
D.D., LL.D., will lecture on "The Historical Evolution of Jerusalem"
in Edinburgh on February 21, and in Glasgow on February 22.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Errata: — Geographical Photography. — In our last issue on
p. 18, in the paragraph beginning " The late Dr. Schlichter," in the second
line the word latitude has been inserted in error in place of longitude.
On p. 16, Dr. A'addox should be Dr. Maddox.
Asia.
Expedition to Burmah. — The pearl oyster fisheries of the
Mergui Archipelago, lying oif the province of Tenasserim, Lower
Burmah, are to be the object of an investigation on behalf of the
Indian Government, and for this purpose Mr. R. N. Rudmose Brown
and Mr. J. J. Simpson left early last month for Rangoon. It is
extremely probable that an examination of the ground may result
in the discovery of new pearl banks, or at least the possibility of
such banks being started. It is expected that the investigation, at
least on its economic side, will be completed before the commencement
of the south-west monsoon season in May.*
Africa.
Ruwenzori. — The Duke of the Abruzzi lectured on January 7 at
Rome, and at London on January 12, on his recent expedition to
Mount Ruwenzori, and there is thus for the first time available official
information as to his results. It will be noted that the official figures
as to the heights of the peaks differ considerably from those previously
given. The following is quoted from the Times report of the lecture : —
" Roughly described, the Ruwenzori range consists of six principal
groups — divided by cols which average between 14,432 ft. and
13,786 ft. in height — stretching from north-north-east to south-
south-west with a slightly circular trend. These groups and cols in
their order, starting from north to south, have been named: — Mount
96 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL ilAGAZINE.
Gessi — col Roccati, Mount Emin — col Cavalli, Mount Speke — col Stuhl-
mann, Mount Stanley — col Scott Elliott, Mount Baker — col Freshfield,
and Mount Thompson. Mount Speke corresponds to the Duvvoni of
Sir Harry Johnston, and Mount Baker to the Semper or Kiyanja. The
separate peaks of these groups have also been named. The highest
group is the Mount Stanley, where two adjacent peaks, named
Margherita and Alexandra, reached respectively the heights of 16,815
and 16,744 feet. They were among the first climbed by the Duke,
who had reason to recognise at once their superior height to the rest
of the range. It was on June 17 that he made the ascent of peak
Alexandra, arriving at the summit at 6.30 in the morning. At that
hour the whole range was covered by a level sea of white mist, out of
which stood two islands alone, the snowy top of Alexandra, from which
he looked, and that of Margherita. Five hours later, at 11.30 on the
same morning, he was on the summit of Margherita and had ascended
the two highest points of the range.
" The snow was always in good condition, and the climbing, both on
rock and ice, never presented any difficulty. The lowest point of glacier
was at 13,677 ft. AH the glaciers show signs of receding; none were
of the first order, all being, without exception, of the secondary order,
without tributaries, recalling the glaciers of Scandinavian type. There
was no niv4. The limit of perpetual snow was at about 14,600 feet; the
area covered by it had a radius of some five miles from its centre. The
temperature upon the highest summits varied betAveen a maximum of 42-8
degrees Fahrenheit, and a minimum of 26'6 degrees. The chief difficulty
experienced was the weather, which was hardly ever clear. In spite of
its conditions, the Duke of the Abruzzi and his companions succeeded in
all the objects of their expedition, making an exact survey of the range,
climbing, determining the height of its several summits, fixing the
watershed, and bringing back, besides their maps, an admirable series of
photographs, the work of Signor Sella."
From the above it appears that Mr. AVollaston (cf. xxii. p. 380) was
correct in believing that no peak of Ruwenzori exceeds 17,000 feet in
height.
America.
Earthquake in Jamaica. — A severe earthquake shock occurred
in Jamaica on 14th January, and caused great destruction of life and
property in the town of Kingston. As has frequently happened lately,
the shock was followed by destructive fires, and has apparently caused
the subsidence of parts of the harbour and the neighbouring coast.
Polar.
Meteorology in the Antarctic. — It will be remembered that
several members of the staff of the recently closed Ben Xevis Observatory
left more than a year ago to continue the meteorological and magnetic
work initiated in March 1903 by Mr. W. S. Bruce, leader of the Scottish
National Antarctic Expedition, at Scotia Bay, South Orkneys. News has
been received from Buenos Ayres to the effect that the Antarctic research
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES, 97
ship Urugucuj left that port on 11th December last for the South
Orkneys with a party under the leadership of Mr. Angus Rankin, late
superintendent of the Ben Nevis Observatory. Included in the party is
Mr. Meldrum, a son of the late Dr. Meldrum, C.M.G., of Mauritius, who
is well known for his meteorological work.
The UriKjuaii takes plenty of provisions in case the party has to
winter in these latitudes, as it is understood that the ice conditions this
year in the south are exceptionally bad, the pack lying further north
than previously recorded.
On the return of the Uruguay to Ushuaia, the second party, consisting
largely of members of the late Ben Nevis Observatory staff, under the
leadership of Mr. Bee, was to leave for Wandel Island, at the southern
extremity of Gerlache Strait, Charcot's winter quarters, where a new
meteorological and magnetic station will be established.
Before leaving Buenos Ayres, Messrs. Eankin and Bee were invested
by the Argentine Ministry with the official insignia of office pertaining
to the position of Political Officer for these places, so that by this
time their formal annexation to the Argentine Eepublic has been
consummated.
The station at South Georgia is also being continued, while the
installation of parties on one of the islands of the South Sandwich
group, as well as on the west side of the Falklands, is contemplated
in the immediate future.
This comprehensive scheme of work cannot fail to very materially
advance our knowledge of the meteorology and magnetism of the area
lying to the south and west of Cape Horn, especially as the meteoro-
logical service of the Argentine Republic is already in a high state of
efficiency. This elaborate programme is largely due to the initiative
and enterprise of Mr. Walter G. Davis, Director of the Argentine
Meteorological Office, whose efforts have been cordially supported by
the Ministry of that country.
The Peary Arctic Expedition. — Some further details may be
added to the short account which was all that space permitted in our
December issue.
The Roosevelt left Etah on August 16, 1905, and reached Cape
Sheridan on September 15. The ice then enclosed and held the ship,
and she was made fast there for some days. The ice jammed, damaging
the rudder and propeller and unmercifully squeezing the vessel, which
on the 16th was lifted till her propeller showed. The vessel was not
floated again until the following summer, and this position perforce
became headquarters. Supplies and equipments were landed on October
12, and from the summit of Black Cape, Peary saw the sun for the last
time. The winter proved the direct antithesis of that which the Alert
experienced in the same region. The temperatures were comparatively
high, and there were squalls every few days, sometimes continuing as
furious gales for two or three days. During October there was a rapid
succession of deaths among the dogs. It Avas traced to poisoning from
cured whale-meat, several tons of which had accordingly to be thrown
98 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
away. During the winter the dogs and the Esquimos lived in con-
sequence upon the country, obtaining musk oxen, reindeer, hare, and
salmon, and building snow-houses in the Lake Hazen Basin, where they
were sent by Peary.
On February 21, Peary started on a sledge trip in the direction of
the Pole, several parties having preceded him by a couple of days.
Three marches brought him to Cape Hecla, where the entire expedition
assembled. The encampment comprised Bartlett, Wolf, Marvin,
Henson, Clarke, Ryan, Peary, 21 Eskimos, and 120 dogs. The plan
concerted was to proceed in one main and five or six division parties,
which Peary hoped would be able to advance supplies and maintain
communications with the selected base. Point Moss, lying 20 miles
to the west of Cape Hecla, was determined upon as the point of
departure from the land. Open leads and rough ice rendered progress
slow, and a considerable portion of the trail had to be cut with
pick-axes. The first glimpse of the sun was obtained on March 6.
About 80 miles from the land the character of the going greatly
improved, but leads were more frequent and wider. " At latitude
84° 38'," says Commander Peary, " I came up with Bartlett, Henson,
and Clarke, with their parties stalled by a broad lead extending east
and west as far as it could be seen. After a delay of six days, we
crossed on young ice, which bent beneath our weight. Bartlett and
Clarke were sent back for supplies."
Peary then established a coxlip-, in which instruments were placed for
the supporting parties, and, preceded by Henson, then continued his
journey, but three days later it began to blow heavily. The gale lasted
six days, during which Peary and Henson were driven 70 miles
eastward by the drifting of a great floe on which they had encamped.
Two of the Eskimos were then sent back for news. They returned in
seventy-four hours and reported that the ice was wide open to the south.
Nothing had been seen of the supporting parties. In consequence it
was resolved to make a dash for the Pole, and by forced marches, on
April 21, 87° 6' was readied, as already mentioned. Here it was found
necessary to turn, and great difficulties were then encountered. After
harking back to latitude 81°, a big lead was encountered over which no
crossing could be found. The party camped on a big floe, which drifted
steadily eastward. Here the dogs were driven away and the sledges
broken up to cook the dog-meat, which the party ate. On the fifth day
the two Eskimos reported young ice a few miles distant, which the party
eventually crossed on snow-shoes. After fearful difficulties the ] tarty
dragged themselves on May 12 into the ice at the foot of the Greenland
coast, at Cape Neuraayer. Here, two days later, a junction was eff'ected
with Clarke's party, and seven musk-oxen were secured.
The remainder of the march back to the Piooscvelt was accomplished
without any extraordinary incident. Commander Peary made another
trip, leaving records at various points, including Cape Columbia. On
July 30 he returned to the Roosevelt, which next day steamed for Thank
God Harbour. On August 25 the vessel was delayed by the ice in
Lady Franklin Bay, where the case seemed so hopeless that the explorers
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 99
prepared for a second year's sojourn in the frozen north ; but the Boosevelt
managed to get free and the voyage was resumed. At Etah the ship
was beached for four days for repairs. When more open water was
reached storm after storm was encountered, and the Itoosevelt was beaten
back and forth for days, until she finally reached Labrador. The voyage
from Labrador southward was also very stormy.
The Amundsen Polar Expedition. — Capt. Koald Amundsen re-
turned to Christiania towards the close of November, after his three and
a half years' absence in Polar regions. The records of his magnetic
observations will be worked out in Christiania, and he has presented
his entire collection to the Norwegian Government. Among the honours
which he has received may be mentioned the cross of St. Olaf bestowed
upon him by the King of Norway. Before leaving America, Captain
Amundsen was entertained by the Geographic Society of Chicago, when
addresses were delivered by American geographers and others. The
first-fruits of Captain Amundsen's expedition have already reached us
in the form of a pamphlet entitled Northern JFaters, by Dr. Fridtjof
Nansen, which discusses the results obtained during the (z/'ca's preliminary
oceanographical cruise in 1901, in their relation to the question of the
origin of the bottom waters of the Northern Seas.
New Arctic Expedition. — It is reported from St. Petersburg that
an expedition to the Arctic regions is being equipped there under the
leadership of Lieutenant-Colonel Sergeyeff. The expedition is expected
to last for several years, and will start from Yeniseisk, making from
there for Behring Strait.
The Duke of Orleans' Greenland Expedition. — In vol. xxi.
p. 610 we give a brief account of the chief results obtained by the Duke
of Orleans in his expedition to the north-east coast of Greenland in the
BeJgica during the summer of 1905. In La Giograiihie for September
15, Commandant de Gerlache gives a detailed account of the cruise,
accompanied by a chart of the ocean between Spitsbergen, Greenland
and Iceland, and a sketch-map of the new parts of the coast of Greenland
discovered by the expedition. A narrative of the expedition by the Duke
has also reached us, and a volume of scientific results is to appear shortly.
Perhaps the most interesting point as regards the general results is
the proof of the existence of an elevation of the sea-bottom between
Spitsbergen and Greenland. In lat. 78° 13' and long. 5' W. of
Greenwich successive soundings of 1476 fathoms, 1152 fathoms, and 779
fathoms were obtained, indicating a rapid rise. At a later stage in the
cruise, in almost the same latitude, but in long. 14° W., off the coast of
Greenland, a submarine bank rising to 31 fathoms of the surface was
found, but unfortunately the condition of the pack prevented the
complete investigation of this region. It is, however, possible that an
island occurs here. The elevation has been called the Belgica bank.
The sketch-map shows the new portion of the coastline so far as it
was possible to depict this under the very unfavourable conditions of
100 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
fog which prevailed. The stretch of land previously called France Land
has now been called Duke of Orleans Land, while the island on which
Cape Philippe is placed, and on which a landing was effected, has been
named He de France. This island is apparently an old moraine, and
proved to be nearly bare of ice in its southern part. Though there is very
little vegetable soil yet the flora proved rich, 19 phanerogams, 7 mosses,
4 fungi, and 6 lichens being found here.
Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. — Another of the bottle-
floats despatched on the voyage of the Scotia has been received by the
Admiralty. This float was thrown overboard on July 2, 1904, in
lat, 36 5' X., long. 30' 50' W., and was recovered on November 6,
1906, about two miles from the north end of Long Island, Bahamas,
lat. 23"- 20' X., long. 75" 07' W. The bottle thus travelled at least
2427 miles in 867 days or less, or at an average rate of at least
2 '8 miles per day.
Generat,,
The Italian Geographical Congress of 1907. — By the courtesy
of the Executive Committee, Ave have received a copy of the circular in
regard to the meeting of the Italian Geographical Congress, from which
we extract the following details : —
The Congress is to bo held in Venice, from the 26th to 31st May
1907, under the patronage of H.M. the King of Italy. Intending
members must send in an intimation, with the subscription of 10 lire,
addressed "Al Comitate Esecutivo del Yl Congresso Geografico Italiano,
Venezia.'
The President of the Executive Committee is Baron Treves de'
Bonfili, senator.
The Congress is divided into four sections: — 1. Mathematical,
physical, and anthropological geography. 2. Economic, commercial, and
colonial geography. 3. Educational (geography in education ; the culti-
vation and diffusion of geographical knowledge). 4. Historic (the
history of geography and cartography, place-names, etc.).
The Council is endeavouring to secure all facilities for the members,
so that both travelling and accommodation may be as reasonable as
possible. Tempting excursions of various kinds are being planned.
The Geographical Association. — The annual meeting of the
Geographical Association was held at the London School of Economics
and Political Science on January 4. The annual report shows that the
Association is steadily increasing its membership, there being now 535
members on the roll. The President of the Association, Mr. Douglas
Freshfield, in his address discussed at some length the recent action of
the Civil Service Commissioners in excluding the subject of geography
from the e.x;aminations for the Foreign Office and Diplomatic Service,
and expressed the hope that the recent decision would be soon reversed.
Subsequently Dr. W. X. Shaw delivered a lecture on Atmospheric
Circulation.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 101
Ninth International Geographical Congress. — We have received
the Invitation Circular together with the preliminary prograniine of this
Congress, which is to be held at Geneva from July 27 to August 6, 1908.
Copies of the Circular, together with forms of application for member-
ship, may be obtained from the Comity d' Organisation, Atheuee, Geneva,
Switzerland, while subscriptions should be paid to M. Paul Boma, 3,
boulevard du Theatre, Geneva. The preliminary programme is of a very
attractive nature, and the proceedings are expected to include two or three
excursions to the Central Alps, so readily accessible from the city. The
President is to be Dr. Arthur de Claperede, the President of the
Geographical Society of Geneva.
EDUCATIONAL.
In the December number of the Geograjihical JoxirnaJ there appears in full
the paper on Social Geography which Professor G. W. Hoke read at the
last meeting of the British Association. This paper may be strongly
recommended to the notice of teachers because of its fresh and interest-
ing outlook. Professor Hoke defines social geography as the subject which
deals with the distribution in space of social phenomena, the object, as
in the case of any other science, being the ultimate acquisition of the
power of predicting the future distribution of similar phenomena. Now
it is, of course, a commonplace of geographers that the characteristics of a
social group are in a large measure determined by the surrounding physical
conditions — probably no lesson on the people of Great Britain was ever
given without some allusion to the " silver sea " ; but man is a migratory
animal, and when he travels to a new environment he carries with him
into the new region the social and other characteristics produced in the
old. The result is that the new group produced cannot be explained
simply in terms of the new physical conditions. Professor Hoke illustrates
this point by two striking examples. The American Indian in the
Mississippi exemplified man as hunter, and the only result of the
impact of European culture was to make him hunter more than ever
by giving him weapons which made hunting more eflfective. But when
the European migrants poured into the same valley their traditions
made them largely agriculturists before pressure of space made this a
necessity of life. A remnant by social atavism swung back to the
hunter's life, and became much like the Indians. Still another portion
with the migratory instinct which had brought them thither predomin-
ating, devoted themselves to methods of transportation. Thus we have
an example of one type of physical conditions producing three types of
social life. On the other hand, as the stream of migrants to the west
pushed through the Appalachian barrier on their way, a portion of them
were left behind in the mountains and remain there to this day in
almost the same social condition as that in which they reached the new
continent. Originating from the Highlands of Scotland, they have
preserved in the Appalachians almost all their racial characteristics,
102 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
while their brethren of the west haAe segregated into hunters, farmers^
and commercial men.
The other example is the changes which the immigrant Asiatic
nomads have undergone in the Balkans. Pouring in upon Europe
through the Ural Gap some of these found themselves in their southern
course penned in the valleys of the Balkans. Retreat was impossible
because of the pressure behind, advance by the relief of the land, hence
a forced adaptation had to take place. But the whole social life was
based upon the free life of the steppe, and the community therefore
split into two sections. The most adaptable became agriculturists and
modified their whole organisation to suit, the other section, for whom
this was impossible, naturally became robbers and brigands. The difter-
ence then between their fate and that of the Appalachian Highlanders
is not based upon any geographical difference of relief but upon a
difference of social tradition.
Geographers have often shown how important is the assistance which
their science can lend to the historian — a point which is emphasised
below ; but this paper of Professor Hoke's is interesting as showing that
the converse is also true, that the geographer requires to call in the aid
of the historian before he can fully explain the reaction of man to his
environment. We may say even farther that the new and as yet
despised science of sociology must also be called to his aid. As sug-
gested above, however, we might say that what Professor Hoke calls
the social status is in essence merely a geographical factor, for it is the
product of the previous physical surroundings of the race.
Another interesting paper which illustrates a second way in which
historical and geographical teaching may be correlated, is to be found in
the Annales dc Geographie for November 15. The article is entitled " La
Geographie de la Circulation, selon Frederick Ptatzel," and the author,
M. Hiickel, aims at giving a general critical account of Ratzel's views on
the development of ways of communication, as these views are set forth
in the last edition of Political Geography. Incidentally M. Hiickel
has a good deal to say himself that is fresh and interesting.
It is impossible here to give a general account of the article, which
should be consulted by those interested, but a few striking points may
be mentioned. The central point is that historically the means of com-
munication have shown a constant tendency to evolve, and that this
evolution affords an interesting parallelism in development with the
more familiar evolution of the drainage systems of the earth's surface, as
this evolution has been expounded by the physical geographer. The
tendency has always been to shorten the line, and though for a time
trade may be artificially forced to take a certain course, in the long-run
the tendency is for it to take the course marked out by the physical
features of the earth. Very striking in its relation to history is the
dictum that the tendency is always for the trade routes to pass from the
surface of the land to the oceans or the rivers. This tendency, of which
there are many examples, has had a very important bearing on the
history of many of the nations. Thus the discovery of America and the
EDUCATIONAL. 103
utilisation of the sea-route to India ruined the Mediterranean area and
the countries to the east of it which had grown rich on the carrying
trade from the Far East. One of the most curious examples of the
reversal of a historic process is the way in which the opening of the
8uez Canal has brought back wealth and prosperity to parts of that
ruined area. Again, the vast historical importance, in their different
ways, of the Semites, the Greeks, the Italians of the Middle Ages and
later, is geographically to be explained as due to the fact that these
nations were the middlemen between the resources of the East and the
civilisation of the West. Once more, the persistent historical error which
has led the Westerns to greatly overestimate the former importance of
such countries as Arabia has a geographical origin. Arabia was never
anything but an entrepot, a country on the great trade route from the
East to the West, but owing to the vast distance which in the days of
slow transport separated the Far East from the West it came to be
erroneously regarded as itself the region of origin of the commercial
products. These are only a few of the interesting points with which the
paper deals, but they may serve to show other ways besides that men-
tioned above in which history and geography may be correlated.
NEW BOOKS
EUROPE.
Spain and her People. By J. Zimmerman, LL.D. London : T. Fisher Unwin,
1906. Pp. 350. Price 10s. U. net.
While Spain has for many years been one of the favourite resorts of British
travellers, the author informs us that his American fellow-countrymen have been
deterred from going there by "blood-curdling tales." We have no idea whence
these tales originated, and, like the author, are satisfied that there was no founda-
tion for them. Like him, too, we always found the Spanish people courteous and
kind. The author dwells on the historic depopulation of Spain, pointing out that
"from a population of 70,000,000 in the days of the Emperor Augustus, Spain has
dwindled to barely 18,000,000." He does not inform us, however, how he obtained
the statistics of Spain during the reign of Augustus Cajsar. He remarks that her
main modern disabilities are the existence of 70 per cent, of illiterates, lack
of individual enterprise and patriotism, absence of cohesion among her different
provinces, constant friction from various quarters, prevailing poverty, and a
depleted treasury. This is a heavy indictment and is probably true, with the
exception of want of patriotism, for as the Spanish guerilla war against the
French proved during the Peninsular AVar, the Spaniards could fight valiantly
against a foreign foe. L^nfortunately, the Spaniards are their own worst
enemies.
Dr. Zimmerman's tour carried him from Algeciras to Grenada, and he describes
graphically the Alhambra. Then follow Seville, Cordova, INIadrid, The Escorial,
Segovia, Toledo, Saragossa, and Barcelona, with chapters on Spanish Life and
Character, the Spanish Inquisition, the Expulsion of the Jews, the Moors in
Spain and their expulsion. Causes of the Decline of Spain, and the Future of
Spain. He found travelling in Spain agreeable, the hotels comfortable, and tiie
railway trains punctual although slow. We can commend his descriptions as full
104 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
and accurate, while the illustrations are well selected and well executed, although
a map might have been added.
As a British princess is now Queen of Spain, great interest is in Britain
naturally taken in Spain's future. The author discusses it from an American point
of view, and remarks that if America had the control of Spain, " it would be easy
enough to say that Spain would become one of the great countries of Europe, for
all the natural possibilities remain, and there is no reason for the continuance of
bad government, with ignorance, intolerance, and poverty that stand in the way
of progress." He points out that the rivers of Spain do not help her like those of
America, the Guadalquiver being the only really navigable one. He contends
that " what Spain needs is a radical change in ideas and customs, and this must
come from without," and advises her to send hundreds of her young men to the
United States to study American methods of progress, declaring "We could
make a new and great country out of Spain within twenty-five years,'" for " Spain
is rich in natural resources, and by proper cultivation the productive wealth could
be increased at least threefold, and this is not overestimating her industrial
capabilities."
A Scientific Geography. Book II., The British Isles. By Ellis W. Heaton,
B.Sc, F.G.S. London : Ealph Holland and Co., 1906. Price Is. 6cl.
This is a good little book, the first published of a series, intended, as the
preface states, rather to correlate and explain the facts of geography than to set
them forth. The chief fault we have to fiad is that the book is throughout written
with, as it were, one eye upon the examiner. The object of the student — for the
book is not intended for junior pupils — is supposed to be to get through his ex-
amination rather than to realise the joy of knowing and of reasoning. From the
geographer's point of view this is a grave neglect, if not an unnatural one. But
there is much that is fresh and interesting in the treatment, and the teacher will get
many hints from the perusal of the book. The constant insistence upon simple
sketch-maps is a valuable feature, though those actually given are usually rough.
Baedelcer's Rhine from Rotterdam to Constance. With 52 Maps and 29 Plans.
Sixteenth Revised Edition. 1906. Price 7 marks.
" The Rhine " is perhaps one of the most popular volumes of Baedeker's Series,
and no eft'ort seems to be spared to maintain its popularity. The fifteenth edition
was issued in 1903, and ia the revision consequent on the three years' interval no
less than 7 new maps and 3 plans have been added.
Handy Guide to Norway. By Thoma.s B. Willsox, M.A. With 7 3Iaps.
Fifth Edition. London : Edward Stanford, 1906. Price 5s.
New routes and hotels are every year being added to the many attractions for
the tourist in Norway, so that old editions of guide-books soon become obsolete.
Mr. Willson's little handbook has been revised and augmented in the present
edition, and forms a most useful compendium of jn-actical information for
travellers.
Christian Rome. By J. W. and A. M. Crcikshank. London : Grant Richards,
1906. Price 3s. 6f/. net.
The Eternal City offers so much to be seen that special hand-books are
necessary. In this one the Rome of Christian times is thoroughly investigated,
beginning with the Early Church illustrated by the Catacombs, then proceeding
to the Bishopric of Rome as localised in St. John Lateran, St. Peter's, and the
NEW BOOKS. 105
Vatican. A valuable series of excursions is given with drives about the city,
also a summary of the principal examples of Early Medifeval, Gothic, and
Renaissance art in Rome. After a description of the various churches and
picture galleries in Rome, a detailed account is appended of Subiaco, 45 miles
east of the city, for the compilers consider that an eSbrt should be made to
visit this place " not only for its associations as the cradle of Western monasticism,
but also as affording a dramatic contrast to the effects of the ecclesiasticism of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in the Roman churches." The volume is
most carefully compiled, practically arranged, and of a form suitable for the pocket .
A Gruise across Europe. By Donald Maxwell. London : John Lane, 1906.
Price 10s. Qd.
This amusing book, some of the pages of which recall the well-known style of
Jerome K. Jerome, is a "collection of notes and sketches," made in the course of
a cruise across Europe by a route probably unknown to nine-tenths of our readers
or even to many experienced yachtsmen. The Walru?, crossed from an unnamed
seaport near Flushing to Willemstad in North Brabant, and from there made her
way to the Black Sea " by devious windings through the Continent of Europe, by
river and canal and across the Franconian Jura Mountains, by means of Charle-
magne's ancient and almost unknown waterway to the valley of the Danube."
Nothing very exciting or remarkable occurred in the course of the cruise, unless
we account as exciting the fact, that the author and his companion were twice
supposed to be spies, first, in Holland, and again, at a soaall Hungarian village
near Buda-Pestli, and were detained for a short time pending receipt of official
instructions from the authorities. On another occasion they found themselves on
the festival of St. Mark in an obscure Hungarian village, where the populace
mistook them for holy pilgrims on their way to Palestine and liberally regaled
them with goods and presents. Some of the hundred illustrations are clever and
amusing, and spacial attention is invited by the publisher to the frontispiece
" which has been specially reproduced under the direction of the author."
ASIA.
Things Seen in Japan. By Clive Holland. London: Seeley and Co.,
1907. Price 2s. net.
This little book bears out its title. There are no fewer than fifty photographs
which reproduce scenes characteristically Japanese, while the book itself gives a
better idea of Japanese life than many a more pretentious volume. It will be
enjoyed by every one who reads it. Mr. Holland cannot altogether disregard the
change which is coming over the country through its assimilation of Western
ideas, but his object is clearly to preserve for us the Japan of tradition. Pro-
bably the traveller must haste if he is to find everything as Mr. Holland describes
it. But Japan may be trusted not readily to part with customs and manners
which enter so largely into the life of her people. From this point of view the
future history of Japan to those who, like Mr. Holland, have known the country
before its progressive moment must be intensely interesting.
India. By Pierre Loti. Translated from the French by George A. F. Manan.
Edited by Robert Harborough Sherrard. London : Werner Laurie, 1906.
Price 10s. 6d. net.
The distinguished writer of Madame Chrijsanthomim, does not leave us long in
doubt as to why he went to India. " I make my way to India," he says in his
Preface, "the cradle of human faith and thought, with nameless dread, fearing that
VOL. XXIII. H
106 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
I may find nothing but a cruel and final deception. I have not come here to make
a trifling call, but to ask or beg the keepers of the Aryan wisdom to give me their
belief in the lasting duration of the soul in place of the ineffable Christian faith
which has vanished from my soul.'' After a few days in Ceylon he crossed the " ever-
raging" Gulf of Manar, and on the 20th December 1899 landed on the Travancore
coast. Apparently he was in great hopes that the abstruse question of the lasting
duration of the soul would be solved for him within a week of his arrival. Still
more remarkable was it that he should imagine his difficulties would be solved by
the Maharajah of Travancore of all the people in India. His business with the
Maharajah was to convey to him a French decoration, which he did on Christmas
Eve ; and after the usual conversation about anything and everything except
religion Pierre Loti says, "I regret that I have been unable to converse on more
serious subjects with this amiable prince, whose soul must be so different from our
own. My first interview has taught me that the mysteries of his inmost thoughts
will be as impenetrable to me as the great temple. There is a radical difference
of race, ancestry, and religion between us : thus we do not speak the same language,
and the necessity of speaking througli a third person forms (in spite of the
affability of my interpreter) a barrier which isolates us from all communion."
From Tinnevelli he passed on through Malabar to Pondicherry, and of course
he does not miss the opportunity of doleful lamentations over the departed
glories of the formerly prosperous French settlement. Here, however, probably
to dispel his patriotic gloom, a nautch was given in his honour, which so far as
he was concerned seems to have been an unqualified success. Readers of his
other works will know what to expect, and they will not be disappointed. One
particular bayardere had " come from afar for this evening, from one of the temples
of the south, where she is in the service of Siva ; her reputation is great, and her
performances are costly." But it was worth it, "for I dreaded the moment when
it (her dance) would end and I should see her no more. . . What thoughts can
there be in the soul of a bayardere of the old race and the pure blood?" To this
somewhat indiscreet question, most judiciously, no answer is given. From
Pondicherry he made his way to Haiderabad, or, as he repeatedly and quaintly calls
it " Nizam," where apparently he first encountered the famine. His description
of it in Haiderabad and Oodeypoor is lurid enough, but it is not till he gets to
the country of Ragput (sic) and "the beautiful rose-coloured city," i.e. Jaipur,
that he lets himself go. And then neither in the pages of the English Defoe nor in
those of his own countryman Zola do we find such triumphs of gruesome realism
as we find in this volume. One passage, and that by no means above the average
in horrors, will suffice for quotation. "A French stranger alights and advances
towards one of these dreadful, inert heaps of starving human beings, and stoops
down to place pieces of money into their lifeless hands. Immediately it is as
though a horde of mummies had suddenly risen from the dead. Hands emerge
from the rags that covered the heap, and withered and bony forms rise slowly
from the ground. The ghastly resurrection suddenly extends to other heaps lying
hidden behind the piles of merchandise, the crowds and the furnaces of the
pastrycooks, for they seethe and stir and grovel on the ground. Then a swarm
of phantoms advances with faces of dead men, with horrible, grinning teeth, with
eyes whose lids have been eaten away by the flies, with breasts that hang
like empty bags on their hollow chests, and with bones Avhich rattle as they
walk. Instantly the stranger is encircled by those spectres of the charnel-house."
From Jaipur he of course visited Amber, where he casually mentions he heard
"the melancholy, flute-like voice of wandering jackals," a description of the
jackals' hideous yells which we make bold to say has never occurred to any one
NEW BOOKS. 107
before or since. From Amber he went on to Gwalior, where he inspected the
fcimous fortress and Lashkar from the top of an elephant, " so tall that we were on a
level with the first floors of the houses. The streets were so narrow that we could
even touch the delicate traceries of the sculptured galleries on which fair ladies
were sitting, who saluted us as we jiassed by," a proceeding, which must have
greatly amused or scandalised the mahout and attendants. From Grwalior he
paid a short visit to Jagganath, and then went on to Agra and Delhi, where the
magnificent buildings of the Moghals seem merely to have filled him with melan-
choly and gloom. "The land," he says, "in which the Mogul Emperors lived is
now but a winding sheet for ruined towns and palaces," a description calculated
to evoke a smile from those who have seen the flourishing cities of Delhi, Agra,
Cawnpore, Lucknow, and many others. At the famous Kutb near Delhi, which
by the way he c.ills Kuth, and describes as built of pink granite, he heard, "the
shepherds play on muted pipes," an experience certainly unique in its way.
The traveller's goal was Benares. He had been assured by the Theosophists in
Madras, where by the by he heard "the crows intone their noisy hymn to Death,"
that at Benares he would have all his distracting doubts resolved, and would there
certainly find the peace which even they could not give him. To the suggested
pilgrimage to Benares accordingly he consented gladly, but decided to " defer that
last test as long as possible, for I still hesitated like a coward whom a double fear
assails. It might be that all my hopes would be taken away from me for ever or
I might Jind. Then perhaps the new way would open out before me and an end
would come to all these earthly joys, mere illusions doubtless, but still so delight-
ful." So he wended his way to Benares ; and we have several gruesome and
realistic descriptions of the Fakirs and cremation of the dead, and of the filth of
the streets, temples and river. At last he found himself in the House of the
Masters who " work or meditate the whole day, together or alone. The plain
tables before them are loaded with those Sanscrit books containing the secrets of
that Brahmanism which preceded all our religions and philosophies by so many
thousand years. In these unfathomable books the old thinkers, those sages who
had clearer vision than any men of our race or age, have inscribed the sum of all
human knowledge. To them the inconceivable was almost clear, and their long-
forgotten works now pass our degenerate understanding ; and so, to-day, years of
initiation are required merely to see, hidden dimly amidst the obscurity of the
words, the unfathomable depths beyond." Among the masters he found a European
woman — possibly Mrs. Annie Besant — "her face still beautiful though crowned
with silver hair, and she lives here barefooted and detached from earthly strife,
the thrifty and austere life of an ascetic." Guided apparently by her, he took the
simple oath required of him and became a disciple ; but happily for his readers he
declines to attempt to repeat what the Masters commenced to teach him. We
must be content to believe on the traveller's authority that the ISIasters at Benares
"alone can give answers which will satisfy the burning questionings of the human
mind, and such evidence is brought before you that it is impossible to doubt the
continuance of life beyond the terrestrial sphere." And so the traveller seems to
have had his doubts resolved and to have found the peace of which he was in search.
Our readers, and especially those of them who know India well, will find this a
very amusing book.
Life and Adventure beyond Jordan. By the Rev. S. Robinson Lees, B.A., F.E.S.S.
London : Charles H. Kellj^ 1906. Price 5s. net.
This pretty, well-written volume owes its value very largely to the illustrations
from fine photographs by the author. Eight of these are coloured plates, and more
108 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
than a hundred reproduce eflfectively the scenery, the ruins, and sometimes the people
of Eastern Palestine, from the cedar of Lebanon south through El Hauran, Bashau,
Gilead, and Moab. The book is popularly written, and frequently illustrates the
narratives of the Bible ; but it is not scientific, and has little geographical value.
Indian Life in Totvn and Conntry. By Herbert Comptox. London : George
Newnes, Limited, 1906. Price 3s. 6d.
This little volume on Indian Life in Town and Country is the latest inblica-
tion of "Our Empire" series. In the short compass of 200 pages Mr. Compton,
who seems to have been a tea-planter, has made a creditable attempt to convey to
English readers his impressions of ordinarylndianlife and manners, both among the
nativesand among the Europeans. And we have little doubt but that Mi\ Compton
intends to be scrupulously accur&te, and he must be acquitted of any charge of
conscious malice or exaggeration. But Anglo-Indians who have bad quite as mrch
exf eiienceof India as Mr. Comjtcn will smile at such statements as these, "bribery
and corruption are the rule, not the exception, in the East. In eveiy transaction of
life it is held to be not only allowable but sensible to derive some advantage over
and above the scheduled amount." "When you come to the subordinate judicial
staff, the active judge s and magistrates, with restricted powers and comparatively
small salaries, you may take it as an axiom that, in our slang phrase, they are all
' on the make.' Prudence alone puts a limit to their harvest." ",The Indian
native official is a currish-spirited thirg at the bottom ... a consummate actor
and Machiavellian schemer, who seldom fails to worm himself into favour."
" Crime is safe and easy in the zenana, for even the law halts on the threshold."
Even when he is describing Anglo-Indian life Mr. Compton cannot be accepted
as ordinarily accurate, when he says, " India luxuriates in hermetically sealed
stores. 1 hese are the dainties of Anglo-Indian daily life, the delicacies of the
dinner-party." " Ladies are pedantically jealous, and woe betide the unhappy
hostess who makes some quite unintentional error in the order in which she sends
her guests into dinner." "The press of India does not represent public opinion,
but the views of Government ; its chief subscribers are Government officials, and
it is dependent on the powers that be for news, not to mention fat contracts for
advertising and printing. The non-official is without a vote, without representa-
tion, without privileges, and without rights, even although he be a free-born
Englishman." But enough of quotations. We are inclined to suspect that Mr.
Compton is atten)pting to describe some phases of India of at least a generation
ago. Even if this is the case many of his descriptions will not be accepted as
correct by those who knew the country well in those days, any more than they can
be accepted as true of India in the twentieth century.
AFRICA.
Second Report : Wellcome Research Laboratories at the Gordon Memorial College,
Khartoum. By Andrew Balfour, M.D., B.Sc, F.E.C.P.Edin., D.P.H.
Camb. Published by the Department of Education, Khartoum, 1906.
This valuable volume gives the results of the work done at the Wellcome
Research Laboratories at the Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum. To
geographers it is of great interest on account of the work it is doing in render-
ing the Sudan more healthy and thus opening it up for possible settlement.
To the medical profession the war against malaria and the ascertaining of
the causes of tropical diseases will appeal. The success of the measures taken to
NEW BOOKS. 109
exterminate mosquitoes and other infection-bearing insects is wonderful and most
encouraging.
The book contains a wealth of information for the sanatarian, doctor, and
naturalist ; it is exceedingly well produced, and reflects the greatest credit upon
Dr. Andrew Balfour, the Director of the Laboratories, and his assistants.
Being of an entirely technical character, it is not a book for detailed review by
us, but we very warmly commend it to those engaged in the warfare against
tropical disease. We are glad to see that attention is now to be paid to agricul-
tural chemistry, bacteriology, etc.
The illustrations are excellent.
Portuguese East Africa. By R. C. K Maugham. London : John Murray,
1906. Price 15s. net.
This interesting work on Portuguese East Africa, and more particularly on the
districts of Maurica and Sofala is very welcome, as it supplies a distinct want.
^Ye have a plethora of works of all sorts and qualities about British Africa ; we
have had a lurid light thrown more than once on the Congo State ; and we know
a good deal about French and Geiman Africa. A trustworthy work from an able
officer of sufficient experience, dealing with several important subjects of interest
in Portuguese East Africa was wanted, and is found in the volume now before us
by Mr. Maugham, the British Consul of Mozambique and Zambesia. A perusal
of the work shows that Mr. Maugham has many peculiar qualifications for the
task. He very modestly observes that "this book is intended for the traveller,
the sportsman, and for him whose delight lies in those scenes of natural unem-
bellished beauty and grandeur which Africa possesses in such profusion and
variety '' ; but in addition to these, the book will successfully appeal to the student
of history, anthropology, colonisation and administration, and to the ever-
widening circle of those who are interested in "dark" if not "darkest" Africa.
Mr. Maugham has had twelve years' experience of the regions which he describes,
and it is very obvious, that he has not only made excellent use of his exceptional
opportunities, but that, in a more than ordinarily trying climate, he has had the
requisite energy and ability to see and think for himself, and to state his matured
convictions and observations with eloquence and persuasive force. We trust
we do not misrepresent him, when we say, that, apparently, the book is primarily
intended for sportsmen, and in this respect his book necessarily challenges
comparison with the works of such mighty hunters as Selous, Schillings, Gibbons
and many others. Such comparison, however, is outside the scope of this maga-
zine, but we may say that his descriptions and stories of big and little game in
Portuguese East Africa will be found by all his readers to be exceedingly
interesting and instructive ; and the record of his experiences and his advice as
to outfit, etc, cannot fail to be most useful to sportsmen. He has many interesting
observations to make on the habits, customs, character and language of the
natives of these regions, which well deserve the attention of the student of
anthropology as well as those whose duty or pleasure induces them to travel or
sojourn there. The book is equipped with a useful map, and is adorned with
many excellent illustrations.
Un Crepuscuh d'Islam. Par Andrie Chevillon. Paris : Hachette, 1906.
Price 3fr. 50c.
The author describes his tour through Morocco in April 1905, and proves
himself a master in observation and word-painting. The motif of his work,
110 SCOTTISH GEOUKAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
however, is to show that Morocco is one of the darkest of the many dark places
of Islam. " It has the majesty of a corpse, and at first the artist perceives nothing
but this majesty. Before we know the truth we desire ardently that neither the
artisans nor locomotives of Europe should come to violate its silence and
immemorial tranquillity, and that Fez should never become like the Tangier of
to-day, with its Spanish, Jewish, and Marseilles hubbub, its fluring advertisements,
and all the vulgar uproar from which the true Mussulmans escape, taking refuge
in the memory of past ages and the lofty white peace of their Kasba. I had
hoped that in the universal disfigurement of our planet by the civilisation of the
industrial type which we call civilisation, this country would remain untouched,
and that there Avould be miraculously perpetuated there a Mussulman Middle
Age, with its faith and its original forms, thus dreaming an unfettered dream which
no foreign determination could limit. I have ended with the conviction that
anything would be better than the present corrupt stagnation. In any case,
nothing could be lost, for nothing can be worse than death. This is the present
state of Morocco. It is not enough to merely glance at it, for appearances still
resemble life. We must look below the surface. We must witness the rapine of
viziers, governors, khalifas, amels, and motasibs in connection with the taxes they
impose or take off at their pleasure, and which they first get paid in cash and
afterwards in body ; we must see their extortions by bastinado and the prison ;
we must note the misery of the masses, and, as a consequence, the prostitution,
which is not only universal, but which the authorities encourage because they
profit by it ; vt'e must observe the male vices, Avhose signs are conspicuous in the
streets ; the profound degeneration of bodies, which only look well because they
are draped ; the state of panic in which the inhabitants of towns periodically live
behind their ruined walls ; the impotence and chronic disorganisation of the army,
the officers stealing the rations of their men, and the men selling their cartridges
and rifles to rebels, and deserting whenever they please — to recognise all this
corruption we must consult, as I have done, not merely the few Europeans born
or some time resident in the country, whether merchants, official agents, officer
instructors, or physicians, but Algerian Mussulmans who live at Tangier, ElKsar
or Fez, and who never speak of what they see except with a contemptuous smile.'"
AMERICA.
Canip-Fires in the Canadian liockies. By William T. Hornaday, Sc.D. London :
T. Werner Laurie, 1906. Price Ids. net.
This volume contains the record of a month's holiday in October 1905, spent
by Dr. Hornaday, Director of the New York Zoological Park, and some sportsmen
friends in a comparatively little known tract of Britisli Columbia, vi?., the east
Kootenay region, between the Elk River and Bull River. The holiday was
devoted for the most part to the pursuit of Mountain Goat and grizzly bears ;
but the mere slaughter of these animals was by no means the onlj-, or even the
principal, object of the expedition. Indeed the sportsmen seem to have volun-
tarily imposed on themselves limitations, which to many will seem unnecessarily
restricted, even if their moderation is pronounced at once commendable and
worthy of imitation. For example, devotees of Izaac Walton here will read
with mixed feelings, that although Dr. Hornaday carried a rod and reel
twenty-five hundred miles for the sake of one day's fishing on the Fording River,
when the fateful day arrived, he and his two friends deliberately limited their
take to fifteen fish, the heaviest of them weighing 2 lbs. 4 oz., on the ground
that the party could not eat more in two days, although they were lucky
NEW BOOKS. Ill
enough to find the Cut-Throat or Black-Spotted trout taking freely. The
particular quarry of which Dr. Hornaday and his friends were in quest was, as
we have already said, the mountain goat, of which they secured some very fine
specimens now on view in some of the Zoological museums in the United States.
The Director also succeeded in getting some fine grizzly bears. But, besides
this, one of the party, Mr. Phillips, succeeded in securing some excellent photo-
graphs of mountain goats among the wild rocks, which they inhabit, and un-
doubtedly while getting these photographs, he was again and again inconsiderable
personal danger. Dr. Hornaday claims for the photographs that they represent
■what he believes "the most daring, and also the most successful, feat in big-game
photography ever accomplished," but readers of the well-known work of Mr.
Schillings, which we reviewed in the August 1906 number of this magazine, will
hardly acquiesce in this estimate. Nevertheless we can cordially admire the
extraordinary nerve and endurance on the part of Mr. Phillips, which are
abundantly evinced by the photographs and the narrative of this work. In-
cidentally we learn a great deal about the orography of the tract, and about the
habits of the birds and animals which are found there. There are also several
short stories, describing exciting incidents and adventures in the sporting career
of those who narrate them, which will not fail to amuse and interest the reader.
The illustrations by Mr. Phillips are unusually good.
AUSTRALASIA.
Haicaii, Ostmikronesien, nnd Samoa. Meine zweite Siidseereise (1897-99) zimi
Studium der Atolle nnd ihrer Bewohner. Von Professor Dr. Augustin
Kramer, Marine Oberstabsarzt. Stuttgart : Strecker & Schroder, 1906.
This lavishly illustrated work describes in a masterly manner many of the
islands of the inhabitants of Polynesia. The author piirticularly paid attention
to the growth of coral reefs and distinctly states that "an atoll as described by
Dana in his Coral and Coral Islands, and also in Text Books, viz. a great lake
surrounded by an unbroken slender coral ring, does not exist. At all events, it
is not typical." He tells how first Semper of Wiirzburg, then Rein of Bonn,
then Sir John Murray, Guppy, and Alexander Agassi z, disproved the subsidence
theory of Darwin which Dana upheld.
Professor Kramer likewise investigated the tatooing common among the
natives of Polynesia, and figures definite designs followed, being similar to those
on mats. Illustrations are given showing natives with their backs wholly tatooed,
while others have their arms and others their cheeks and necks. A choir of
women sing and beat drums while a man is being tatooed and thus drown his
painftil cries. Special songs are sung during tatooing, and in them the choir call
down from heaven power to the tatooer to do his work artistically. Tatooing is
considered in Polynesia the most noble adornment of the human body, and is
particularly applied to those parts not covered by clothing.
GENERAL.
Discoveries and Explorations in the (.'entunj. By Charles G. D. Roberts, M.A.
Nineteenth Century Series. Edinburgh : W. and R. Chambers, 1906.
Price 5s. net.
In this book we have a very compact, and for the most part a clear, account of
the knowledge obtained of all parts of the world during the nineteenth century.
The labour entailed by the production of such a volume must have been — as
the author says — very considerable, and any one who wants a bird's-eye view of the
112 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
geographical discoveries in any part of the globe during the time dealt with, will
find it here with suflBcient fulness, and the reader or student will find also in this
compendium the names of the principal explorers and a brief outline of the
work achieved by each.
A bibliography would have been of great use, but it could perhaps be hardlj
expected in such a volume. Of course in such a compressed account as the scope
of this volume admits of there are bound to be omissions, but we think the
wonder is that the author has succeeded in getting so much in, not that he has
been obliged to leave some out The perusal of his pages ought to stimulate the
student to turn to the older and fuller volumes by the explorers themselves.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
The Tourist's India. By Eustace Reynolds-Ball, F.R.G.S., F.R.C.I.
Demy 8vo. Pp. xii + 355. London : Swan Sonnenschein and Co., Ltd., 1907.
Tra Me::-Afriho : A Travers I'Afrique Centrale. Conference avec projections
donnee au 2™*^ Congres Universel d'Esperanto a Geneve, par Le Commaxdaxt
Lemaire, Ch. Pp. 85. Bruxelles. 1906.
The East and West Indian Mirror; being an account of Joris Van Speil-
bergen's Voyage Round the Woiid (1614-1617) and the Australian Navigations
of Jacob Le Maire. Translated, with Notes and an Introduction, by J. A. J. de
Villiers. (Hakluyt Society.) Demy 8vo. Pp. 1x1 + 272. London, 1906.
A Travers la Banquise du Spitzberg axi Gap Philip})e, Mai-Aoat, 1905. Par
Due D'Orleans. Pp. 350. Paris : Plon Nourrit et Cie., 1907.
The Heart of Spain: An Artist's Impressions of Toledo. By Stewart Dick.
Crown 8vo. Pp. xv + 155. Price3s.Gd.net. Edinburgh : T. N. Foulis, 1907.
Uganda by Pen and Camera. By C. W. Hattersley. With a Preface
by T. F. Victoria Buxton. Crown 8vo. Pp. xviii. Price 2s. London :
Eeligious Tract Society, 1907.
The Harmsivorth Encyclopmdia. Vols, vii.-viii. London : Thomas Nelson
and Sons, 1907.
Also the following Reports, etc. : —
The Irrigation of Mesopotamia. By Sir William Willcocks, K.C.M.G.,
F.E.G.S. Pp. 153. Cairo, 1905.
Report on the Administration of Burma for the Year 1905-1906. Rangoon,
1906.
Report on the Administration of Coorg for the Year 1905-1906. Mercaru,
1906.
Rainfall of India. Fifteenth Year, 1905. Calcutta, 1906.
Palmers and Reports relating to Minerals and Mining of New Zealand. Wel-
lington, 1906.
Illustrated Handbook to the Perthshire Natural History Museum, and Brief
Guide to the Animals, Plants, and Rocks of the County. ^ Second Edition. Pp. 87.
Price 3d. Perth : Perthshire Natural History Musem^, 1906.
Willing's Press Guide and Advertiser's Dvrectohj and Handbook, 1907.
Pp. 457. London, W.C. : James AVilling, Jun., Ltd., 1907.
Sudan Almanac, 1907. Pp. 67. Price Is. London, 1907.
Report concerning Canadian Archives for the VeaV 1905. Vol. ii. Ottawa,
1906.
Puhlishers forwarding books for review will greatly oblige by marking the price in
clear figures, especially in the case of foreign books
THE SCOTTISH
GEOGRAPHICAL
MAGAZINE.
METEOEOLOGICAL EESEARCHES IN THE HIGH
ATMOSPHEEE.i
By H.S.H. The Prince of Monaco.
{With Illustrations.)
Meteorology is a science which is much less advanced than many
others. This is due to two principal causes. In the first place, it is
only quite recently that it has been the object of experimental
research ; and, in the second place, the field of this research has
been the latitudes of Europe and Xorth America, in the so-called
temperate zone, where the conditions are those of transition from the
simple conditions obtaining at the Equator to the equally simple, but
opposite, conditions obtaining at the Poles. It is a fundamental axiom
in scientific research to attack a problem first in its simplest form, and
to introduce complications, one at a time. In the case of meteorology
the reverse has been the case. The meteorology of Northern Europe,
the most complicated and difficult problem in the science, has been
attacked first, and the reason of this is obvious, because it was there
that the means of attack were first furnished.
The beginnings of meteorology were modest, consisting of isolated
observations made by the curious in natural history, with imperfect and
often rudimentary instruments ; and it was only after these had become
more delicate and more precise, and had shown themselves capable of
throwing light on the mysteries of the air, that true meteorological obser-
vatories came into existence. At first these were confined to the centres
of population, but further progress soon made clear the necessity of
extending the researches into unpeopled and higher strata, with the result
1 An Address delivered before the Society in Edinburgh on January 17.
VOL. XXIII. I
114 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
that observatories were installed on the tops of many mountains. About
the same time aerostats came accidentally to be used for the same
purpose. Finally, in the last few years, the improvements effected in
the manufacture of steel have made it possible to fly kites at great
heights, carrying self- registering instruments and held by a wire, as
light as it is strong. Now, the india-rubber industry renders it
possible to send to altitudes hitherto inaccessible by any other means
balloons also carrying self-registering meteorological instruments.
The first experimenters Avho used kites were Americans. Guided
by Edy in 1891 and by Rotch in 1894, their instruments attained a
height of about 400 and 4000 meters. Shortly afterwards the French
Hermite and Bezancon in 1892 launched the first hallons- sonde : a much
more independent class of instruments which very soon attained heights
above the land up to 20,000 meters (65,620 feet). Quite recently the
scientific spirit of the Germans, supported by the liberality of the
Emperor William, has created at Lindenberg, in Prussia, a magnificent
establishment where meteorological researches in the higher regions of
the atmosphere are pursued regularly with both systems. These re-
searches are necessarily restricted to the air over the land. There
remained the atmosphere over the ocean, a much greater region, and its
exploration appeared to be of paramount importance. It was Professor
Hergesell of Strasburg, in the year 1904, who first interested me in the
subject, and I decided at once to attack it.
In the spring of the same year I was able, after making some altera-
tions in the sounding machine of my ship, the Princesse Alice, to use it
for sending kites to a height of 4500 meters in the northern region of
the trade winds between Portugal and the Canary Islands.
In order that the kite which carries the recording instruments — a
combination of barometer, thermometer, and hygrometer, weighing 600
grams, shall ascend to any great height it is necessary to attach to
the line or wire a series of kites at intervals varying from 500 to 1500
meters. Each of these, by adding its effort to that of the one which
precedes it, contributes to the ascensional force of the system at the
moment when the weight of the wire in the air would stop further
upward movement. By successive relays it is possible to send a kite
with instruments to a very great height, provided that no layers of
calm are met with, or if they exist, that the speed of the ship is such
that the kite can be towed at a minimum speed of seven meters per
second (15i miles per hour).
Theoretically, if the dimensions of the kites and the diameter of the
wire were progressively increased, it would be possible to reach heights
limited only by the rarification of the air. In practice, however, it is
found that, owing to the difficulties attending the dispatch of kites on
board ship, and the complications which arise from the fact that the
upper currents travel in directions which generally vary irregularly from
one level to another, a height of 6000 or 7000 meters is the greatest
that can be reached. In a recent experiment at Lindenberg, in which the
kite reached a height of 6000 meters, it was necessary to veer 17,000
meters of cable, and the final strain on the wire was 85 kilograms.
METEOROLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN THE HIGH ATMOSPHERE. 115
An experiment, using kites of the Hargrave type, is conducted as
follows : — After having made sure that the line which forms the upper
section of the flying line has a length of 50 meters, and connects the kite
with the wire, exerts a normal and well-balanced strain on the apparatus,
and when the velocity of the wind, augmented if necessary by giving a
certain speed to the ship, has reached at least seven meters per second,
the kite carrying the instruments is hoisted by a line from the mizzen-
mast head, and is then allowed to rise gradually and attain a height where
the dangerous vortices caused by the ship cease. When the kite sails
tranquilly at the end of its line, which is held by several men, whose
hands are protected by stout gloves, the masthead block is brought
down on deck and the line of the kite is joined to the steel wire, which
can then be veered from the steam winch on which it is wound.
The same manoeuvres have to be repeated as each addition is made to
the system.
A girouette,^ from which the wire quits the ship, carries a
dynamometer which indicates the tension of the wire and at the same
time performs the function of a regulator of the strains produced by the
pitching of the ship or by squalls in the atmosphere.
The kites of the Hargrave type work very well, and the steel wire
which I use has a diameter and resistance which gradually increase as
more wire is paid out. This is the principle which I apply to my
dredging and sounding cables, in order to spare useless weight in the
upper section : it is indispensable in kite ascents, in order to attain
great heights by lightening the upper section of the wire.
An observer stationed at the girouette conducts the whole opera-
tion, communicating with the man at the winch by means of an electric
bell. He records regularly by means of the sextant the heights of the kite
which carries the instruments, in order to know its position with respect
to the shij) and to ascertain approximately the influences to which it is
exposed in the successive layers thi'ough which it passes.
The launching of a kite from a ship is always a delicate operation,
and one which demands experience on account of the vortices found in
the aerial wake of the ship : of which those visible in the aqueous wake
are the image. Often when the apparatus has reached a height where
it appears to be out of danger it may be caught by one of these risky
vortices and precipitated into the sea. In stormy weather such a cata-
strophe may occur even after the kite has risen to a height of several
hundred meters.
When the wind is strong enough and the bridle (the object of which
is to keep the face of the kite to which it is attached horizontal) is not
very exactly balanced, the kite at once executes plunging zigzag move-
ments which may produce such a strain as to break the line.
When the kites have reached the greatest altitude permitted by
the circumstances, the paying out of the wire is stopped, and, either by
increasing the speed of the ship, or by heaving in the wire as quickly
as possible, a little final augmentation of height is obtained.
1 The girouette is a pivoted wheel free to revolve with the wind in auy direction.
116 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINB.
The recovery of the kites, although somewhat delicate, presents less
difficulty than their dispatch. As at the launching of the kite, a sub-
sidiary line is used which is run alongside of the bridle as soon as this
is got hold of, so as to limit the motions of the kite.
Unfortunately, even with the greatest care accidents occur. On
one occasion, in the neighbourhood of the Canary Islands, the
rupture of the wire occasioned the loss of five kites attached to 6000
meters of wire. In a case such as this, the Avhole system descends until
the lowest kite touches the sea. This then acts as a drag, which causes
the others to ascend again until a condition of equilibrium is reached,
when the whole system drifts in a direction, which is the resultant of
the separate impulses received by each kite on the wire. The velocity
of this drift has almost always been too great for the kites to be over-
taken by my ship. The system has certainly di-ifted so far and as long
as the wind has lasted.
One can imagine the astonishment of the crew of a vessel which
meets and gets entangled with such a wire, apparently suspended from a
point invisible in space.
It is interesting to note that the curves furnished by our instru-
ments can resist a prolonged immersion without suffering damage when
they meet with such an accident. The curve is a line traced by the
pen on a layer of lamp-black, deposited on the cylinder by the smoky
flame of a petroleum lamp. In a case of immersion the carbonaceous
particles disappear, but an excessively thin coating of grease, deposited
with the carbon from the flame, remains and the line traced by the point
of the pen is clearly visible in it with a magnifying glass.
A notable instance occurred during one of my earliest experiments
in the Mediterranean in 1904. An instrument was lost to the north-
ward of Corsica, and was found on the shore of Provence fifteen days
later. The curves traced in the greasy film on the recording drum Avere
still perfectly visible, and w-ere utilised with the others in Professor
Hergesell's laboratory.
A kite operation, at a height of 3000 or 4000 meters, lasts almost
the whole day, and the ship, which must at times steam full speed in
order to enable the kites to pass through zones of light wind or of calm,
may easily cover a distance of 50 or 60 miles during the operation.
I have made use of these instruments in the investigation of the
counter-trade of the northern hemisphere and with the following
results. The kites sent to a height of 4500 meters have not furnished
any indication which permitted Professor Hergesell to recognise the
existence of the counter-trades in the regions explored, although their
existence has often been reported by observers. As to the observation of
Humboldt of a south-west wind at the summit of the Peak of Tenerife,
it is to be explained in another manner. If one observes, as I did in the
summer of 1904, what takes place among the Canary Islands during the
season of the trade winds, one sees sometimes that the region of the sea,
which lies to the southward of the higher islands, as far as a distance of
20 or 30 miles from their coast, is swept by a strong south-westerly
wind. According to Professor Hergesell, this wind is due to a purely
METEOROLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN THE HIGH ATMOSPHERE. 117
local cause. The southern slopes of these islands, bearing little vegeta-
tion, exposed to the rays of a powerful sun and sheltered from the trade
wind, produce a dilatation of the atmosphere in the neighbourhood,
which rises along the slopes and overflows at the summit, overcoming
and, to a certain extent, reversing the trade wind. Humboldt and
others have been led by this phenomenon to believe that they were in
presence of the counter-trade.
It would not occur to any one to pretend that the counter-trade does
not exist. The masses of air drawn into the tropical regions by the
trade winds of both hemispheres, must regain the regions abandoned by
them, but the path which they follow is still unexplored.
After a season's work with kites in the Atlantic, I resolved to apply
to the meteorological research of the atmosphere at great altitudes above
the ocean, the system of ballons-sonde which had already been giving
excellent results on the continents. With the assistance of Professor
Hergesell I made several tentative experiments in the Mediterranean in
the spring of 1905, chiefly with the view of making myself familiar
with the difficulties which such operations present, and especially with
reference to the recovery of the balloon when it has descended again on
the sea. The final method of procedure was the following.
Two very light india-rubber balloons were inflated, one to a slightly
greater extent than the other, with hydrogen of which a supply was
carried in steel cylinders. The less inflated balloon carried the registering
instrument, enclosed in a small basket, an instrument analogous to that
used with the kites, but more complete, as well as a float suspended at the
end of a line 50 meters long. The more inflated balloon was connected
with the other by a line also 50 meters in length. Its function was,
first, to facilitate the ascent by rendering the necessary assistance to the
other balloon and, afterwards, to facilitate its descent with the
registering instrument by quitting it at the altitude determined before-
hand by the degree of inflation given, on which depends the height at
which the balloon burst. The first balloon, now become a simple
parachute, brought the instrument back towards the sea, above which it
remained floating so soon as the float at the end of the stray line
touched the surface of the water. In this way, the basket containing
the instrument was kept clear of the waves, and the balloon remained
visible at a distance of 8 to 10 miles. During the ascent it was
necessary to make observations as often as possible with the sextant and
the compass so as to fix the altitude and azimuth of the balloons at
diff"erent instants with a view to establishing the route followed through
the air, and thus to obtain the elements for arriving at a knowledge of
the strength and direction of the aerial currents in the diff'erent layers
traversed. It must be understood that the ship was following the
system at full speed, in order not to lose sight of it, a result which was
obtained, thanks not only to the excellent prismatic glasses used, but
also to the keenness of sight of some of the observers. An operation
of this kind was possible only in very clear weather, because the
disappearance of the balloons behind a cloud would have made very
doubtful the discovery of the place where they fell.
Fig. 1. — Filling tlie balloon ami stoijpiiig up small holes.
Fig. 2. — The instruments coming safely on board.
Fig. 3.— End of the experiment, the balloon returning on board
with the baskets for the instruments.
A BALLOON EXPERIMENT.
METEOROLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN THE HIGH ATMOSPHERE, 119
In these conditions I made a cruise of 5500 miles in 1905 in the
Atlantic, during which eighteen experiments were made with balloons
up to a height of 14,000 meters, of which most were successful, and
confirmed the conclusion of the previous year with regard to the
counter trade-wind, arrived at with kites used at lesser elevations.
But this method presented various grave difficulties; first, the
recovery of the balloon if it liad been sent to a great height, and second,
the exact fixation of the point Avhere the ascent of the balloon would be
stopped by the bursting of the subsidiary balloon. In fact, any fault in
the india-rubber of which the balloon was made might advance or
retard the time of explosion. From the year 1905 we have sought to
remedy these difficulties, and have succeeded as follows.
In the first place, we can now recover the balloon with its instrument,
no matter what may be the distance of the point where it reaches the
sea. Relying on the fact that, from its culminating point down to the
surface of the sea, the system passes through meteorological conditions
which are sensibly similar to those which it had met with during its
ascent, we have established a formula which permits us, if we have
followed the balloons during the greater part of their ascent, to trace
rapidly on the chart the route which the ballon parachute will
follow during its descent, and consequently, the point of the sea where
it will fall. The ship can now be steered for this point without the
necessity of following the balloon. Our formula has afforded us the
means of finding the balloon on all occasions when its course has not
been disturbed by accidental causes. We made the first successful use
of the formula in the summer of 1905,
In the second place, we can now arrest the ascent of the balloons at
the desired height. The bursting of the subsidiary balloon is no longer
used on my ship for this purpose. It presents some irregularities, which
however do not affect the validity of the results obtained, because the
barometer indicates with precision the altitudes traversed. The sub-
sidiary balloon is now detached from the system altogether at the desired
height by the action of the electric current furnished by a small dry
cell on a spring, which takes effect the moment the pen of the recording
barometer touches a conductor set for the desired altitude. In order to
be sure that the cell will act at the great altitudes where the cold is
intense, it is surrounded by a calorific envelope, Avhich does not require
to be very powerful, because the balloons, having a velocity of ascent of
300 meters per minute, attain these heights very rapidly. We made
the first application of this method in 1905.
But the baUons-sonde are not the only apparatus which we have
employed, along with kites, for investigating the phenomena of which
the high atmosphere is the seat. In certain circumstances, for instance,
when the sky is covered with clouds, or if the vicinity of inhospitable
land makes it unlikely that balloons would be recovered, we have used
captive balloons, sent to moderate heights. A ballon-sonde was fixed
to the end of the very light wire of the kites, and when it had reached
the greatest elevation which its ascensional force, diminished by the
weight of the wire, permitted, a second balloon was allowed to slip up
120 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
along the wire which, when it arrived near the first, gave the system a
fresh charge of ascensional force and permitted it to rise higher. In
this way we sent a group of three or four balloons, selected from those
which had served as baUons-sonde. Having already been exposed to very
great dilatation in the high atmosphere, it was not thought safe to use
them for this purpose again. The recording instrument was attached
to the last balloon, which could then ascend along the wire with a
velocity sufficient to afford adequate ventilation for the thermometer.
In this connection I may observe that the use of lallons-sonde
offers very considerable advantages over that of the kites, by the
exactness of the temperatures registered, which is due to the ventilation
which the thermometer, placed in a sort of chimney, receives during the
ascent. The ascent also is effected at a much higher speed.
We have also launched pilot balloons, which sever all connection
with those who dispatch them. They rise to prodigious heights and
disappear for ever. They carry no instruments, but they, furnish
valuable information regarding the direction and the violence of the
aerial currents in the highest regions of the atmosphere. The following
is the manner of their employment.
The weather being clear and otherwise favourable, three observers,
— forming a triple alliance — land on the shore of a continent or of an
island. They take with them a small balloon inflated to a diameter of
not more than one meter, and a theodolite, the telescope of which is
especially powerful. The balloon may, however, be retained on board
to be launched at a given signal from the shore.
The theodolite used by Professor Hergesell, if established on solid
ground, permits the observer to follow the balloon without losing sight
of it, whilst his two assistants read and note, every half minute, the
angles furnished.
Finally, in 1906, we have attempted, and with success, a third
method which allows a certain amount of exploration of the atmosphere,
notwithstanding the presence of clouds, but with a clear horizon. It
is then necessary to furnish the balloon with means capable only of
taking it to such an altitude that it can regain the surface of the sea at
a distance which does not exceed the limits of visibility. The ship is
then stopped on the spot where the balloon was started, and attentive
observers watch all directions in order to detect its return from above
the clouds. The only experiment of this kind Avhich we have made,
succeeded perfectly, and the balloon, which had reached a height of
4800 meters on a day when the sky was completely covered by very
low clouds, was detected and recovered at a distance of twelve
miles.
Now, what results have been furnished by this new use of balloons
over the sea ] It is, after the first exploration made with them in the
region of the trade winds during the cruise of 1905, towards the high
atmosphere of the arctic regions that I have carried on my investigations
to increase these results. I therefore took measures, in concert with
Professor Hergesell, so as to be able to make the best use of the oppor-
tunities offered by my cruise of 1906. The balloons, the instruments,
Terminal ice-face of a Spitsbergen glacier.
.^i-^^r^-
Norwegian party's camp on Spitsbergen — Captain Isacliseu and
Dr. Louet in their tent.
iVL.
mil
Flying a kite.
METEOROLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN THE HIGH ATMOSPHERE. 121
and the methods afforded a better guarantee of successful results than
in 1905.
But I was much hampered in the execution of one part of my
programme by the persistent fogs over the sea to the westward of
Spitsbergen, although in the bays and on land the Aveather was
magnificent. Thus the dispatch of hallons-sonde which the pre-
liminary experiments in the Mediterranean had rendered perfect of
execution was stopped by this unsurmountable difficulty. Twice only
was it possible to dispatch them. Nevertheless the information received
is not without value, since our registering instruments have brought
back curves from an altitude of 7500 meters in latitude 78° 55' N.
In presence of continual fog at sea and the impossibility of launching
usefully hallons-sonde in the neighbourhood of inhabited lands, we
have frequently employed our hallons-sonde as captive balloons, as I
have already explained.
But our best results have been realised with pilot balloons : these
instruments, which are small enough to be embraced by the arms of a
man, have been followed with a special theodolite to the extraordinary
altitude of 29,800 meters (97,700 ft.), if it is assumed that their velocity
of ascent increased a little with the change of density of the atmosphere
in the most elevated regions ; or at the very least to an altitude of
25,000 meters (82,000 ft.). Further, the one which attained this height
was, at the moment of its disappearance, at a distance of 80 kilometers
(49i miles) from the observers. So remarkable a result is explained
by the transparence of the atmosphere in the Arctic regions, a trans-
parence which under other circumstances permitted us to follow distinctly
on the snow of a glacier, at a distance of 40 kilometers, the movements
of a party of four persons whom I had sent on a mission of exploration
in the interior of Spitsbergen.
The information furnished by the pilot balloons which carry no
instrument because they are sacrificed, concerns questions of capital
importance for meteorology ; the direction and the velocity of the upper
currents. Now our pilot balloons of 1906 have taught us that there
exists in the Arctic regions in the neighbourhood of the 80th parallel,
at a height of about 13,600 meters, certain winds of 60 meters per
second (132 miles per hour), a force for which we have no equivalent
at the surface of the globe. Their direction was S. 68° W.
The theodolite which we employ permits the two assistants of the
one who observes the balloon while keeping it continually in the axis of
the telescope to note at every moment its position in space, its altitude
as well as its path, and the velocity of the currents which it traverses
from its departure to its disappearance.
We made thirty explorations of the high atmosphere in the arctic
region of Spitsbergen in 1906, and twenty-six in the Atlantic ocean or in
the Mediterranean in 1905; and the results of these cruises show that
if the principal states of the Av^orld were willing to diminish a little the
expense of international quarrels by submitting them to the judgment
of a tribunal less costly than that of war, and if they preserved more of
their resources for the veritable interests of humanity, it would be
122 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
possible with powerful means, very soon to ascertain the laws of
meteorology, the key of which seems to be found in the higher atmo-
spheric regions. It remains only to add that Germany has just sent to
the Atlantic and the Indian oceans a special ship, the Flanet, to con-
tinue and extend my aerial explorations. On the other hand, Messrs.
Teisserenc de Bort and Rotch have fitted out and used during 1905 and
1906 a ship of their own for this purpose.
I am also very pleased to mention the share taken in my three
Arctic expeditions by one of your Scottish meteorologists who has become
a distinguished oceanographer, Mr. W. S. Bruce, the leader of your fine
Antarctic expedition of the Scotia, one of the most fruitful of those which
have explored that region in the last few years, and one whose success
is the more pleasing to your country because it was carried out at very
moderate financial expense. It is to be hoped that the future will
permit him to continue his scientific work. This year Mr. Bruce again
accompanied nie with two assistants to the Arctic regions to undertake
the exploration of a large island off Spitsbergen, Prince Charles Foreland.
He carried this work out under weather conditions as unfavourable for
the work of survey as for navigation.
THE TRANSITION OF BRITISH AFRICA.^
By Major A. St. H. Gibbons, F.R.G.S.
{JFith Illustrations.)
My first endeavour this evening will be to give a general description of
natural Africa as it appears to the eye of the average observer travelling
from the extreme south of the continent to Egypt. By recalling points
and places of interest as they appeared to me, I shall hope to convey a
tolerably accurate impression of each successive district traversed, the
more obvious physical and climatic changes noticeable as the journey
progresses, as well as any casual point of interest that may occur. Since
impressions acquired, as well as impressions conveyed, are so largely
subject to modification or exaggeration in proportion to the degree of
imagination influencing all the temperaments concerned, I cannot hope to
be universally successful in this respect, but where I fail the photographs
you will be shown will to some extent have a corrective influence. On
arrival in Egypt we will pass on to a discussion on the British Colonies
and Protectorates of Africa, most of which lie on the route we follow.
The Cape Peninsula, with its congenial climate, productive soil, and
picturesque scenery, takes a high place amongst the more favoured spots
of this world. The visitor driving through the suburbs cannot fail to
be impressed by the noble avenues of oaks, which in height at least
would dwarf their sires of Europe if placed side by side with them, or
by the extensive plantations of firs and pines from many parts of the
world which grace the slopes of Table Mountain, a perfecting touch
1 An Address delivered before the Society in Edinburgh on December 12, 1906.
Scc_itti>l] |iari\ lt':\.vmg Frincesse A/(i:v lui I'liuce Lli.uka i>Muiai..i.
Scuttisli Assistant!^. Nuiwei-'iim Assistciuts.
A. Fuhrmeister. A. Fabrienta. L. Tinavre. H.S.H. Lieut. Staxeiuii.
Captaiu Dr. Richard. Dr. Portier. Dr. Loiiet. Capt. The Prince AV. S. F.ruce. t'aiit. Cavr.
Bouriie. Prof. Hergesell. Isachsen. of Monaco.
THE TRANSITION OF BRITISH AFRICA. 123
added by mau, but unthought of by nature when she created one of the
grandest and most beautiful monuments of scenery to be found all the
world over. The indigenous tree-growth of the Peninsula is both
sparse and scrubby, but it is a remarkable fact that when replaced by
imported stock these thrive much more luxuriantly than in their native
soil. The older trees, especially the oaks, owe their existence to the
Dutch governments of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. With
admirable forethought an "arbor day" was instituted, on successive
anniversaries of which each colonist was by law required to plant at
least one tree for himself and one for each member of his family.
Both soil and climate are particularly well adapted to the cultivation
of the grape. The government takes a leading interest in the wine
industry, and at Constautia, formerly the official seat of the Dutch
governors, the grape is produced and wine made under the best expert
supervision. If all wine grown at the Cape was up to the government
sample, the attempt made to introduce Cape wines into England a few
years ago would not have failed. Fruit has been grown for many
generations, but it was not until the early nineties that high-class fruit
was introduced. Pears and stone fruits of the very best quality are now
being successfully cultivated in ever-increasing quantities.
Leaving Cape Town by rail, a few hours introduces the traveller to
the bold, rugged scenery of the Hex River Mountains. These rise in
what appears to be a long range extending out of view to east and west.
In reality these mountains, which are about 4000 feet in altitude, form
the escarpment of the great plateau which stretches northwards through
the heart of the continent to within a short march of the Victoria Nile,
where it falls away to the level of the Upper Nile basin in two escarp-
ments. The Hex River Mountains, as one would expect, separate two
very different climates. To the south rains fall practically in the winter
months only. At this season on the plateau a bright, clear sky, almost
without a cloud, is the invariable rule. In June and July night frosts
are severe, and I have known snow to lie in some of the higher altitudes
for several days. In September — the early spring — the wet season is
heralded by occasional heavy thunderstorms, which increase in frequency
as the summer progresses. As far as the neighbourhood of the Orange
River this plateau land is remarkable for the almost total absence of
grass, but a very useful substitute exists in the growth of the little
karroo bush, a small plant not unlike some heathers in appearance, which
rivals the best sheep pastures in the world. Barren and monotonous to
the eye as the karroo veldt is throughout the winter months, it responds
to the first September rains with remarkable suddenness, when its young
green shoots, mingling with many-coloured wildflowers, convert it into a
great natural carpet of delicate tints.
In Griqualand West and Bechuanaland proper the Karroo is replaced
by undulating grass downs, and here sheep give place to cattle. Until
three miles beyond Mafeking scarce anything arboreal more shady or
imposing than our own gooseberry bush is to be seen. At one time
stunted acacias were not uncommon between Vryburg and Kimberley,
but these rapidly disappeared before the demand for wood in the early
124 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
life of the latter town. From this point, however, forest in one form or
another is general, and plain land quite the exception, to within a short
distance of Khartum. In Bechuanaland the soil is largely of a red
laterite. This covers a far greater area of the plateau land of Africa
than all other soils. In South Africa it is patchy, as it is north of the
Zambezi until within a couple of degrees of the Congo-Zambezi water-
shed, from which point it is general right throughout the high ground of
the Congo Free State, British and German East Africa, as well as
Uganda. The savannah forest of the Bechuanaland Protectorate is
mainly composed of acacias of different varieties, but in the north, where
the red soil gives place to a yellow loam, as also in the yellov/ sand of
the Kalahari, considerable patches of mopani are encountered. This
tree, the leaves of which when viewed from a short distance remind one
of the English beech, and which like the beech retains many dried leaves
after the green shoots have burst, is a hard, useful wood, the red heart
of which is rendered especially valuable on account of its being imper-
vious to the ravages of the white ant. The Bechuanaland Protectorate
is the poorest province of British Africa through which my wanderings
have led me. It is true that cattle do well in certain districts, but even
then a wide acreage is necessary to support a small herd. The rainfall
is small and uncertain, and there is evidence that it is less than it was
twenty-five years ago. Droughts are of frequent occurrence.
'Next we enter the Kalahari Desert. Though the rainfall is even
less than in the Protectorate, averaging only six or seven inches, the
Kalahari is misnamed a desert. The sandy undulations are covered
with savannah forest and a fair admixture of good cattle pasture.
" "Wilderness " is a more appropriate descriptive term in this case, and
such it will remain until the population of South Africa has so far
increased as to extend the margin of cultivation to such a country as
this, where the absence of surface water can only be made good by tap-
ping the hidden reservoirs below ground. So porous is the sandy soil of
this great wilderness, that so great a river as the Okovango, which in
19° S. lat. is a strong, deep stream two or three hundred yards wide, and
at flood time inundates a valley 20 miles broad with an average of c^uite
3 feet of water, is 60 miles further little more than a trickling stream,
and in the dry season disappears altogether. That this was not always
so is proved by the existence of beds leading to Lake Ngami which
could not have been created under present conditions. The rivers
which fed the lake when Livingstone discovered it could not have been
larger before entering the sand area than they are to-day. Yet then
Ngami was a wide stretch of water extending beyond view, while ten
years ago it was but a small reed swamp. It is said that the lake within
the last few years has shown signs of refilling. The eastern confines of
the Kalahari and the Avestern boundary of Matabeleland are conterminous,
and here the conditions alter for the better, the country becoming for
the most part undulating, well-watered plateau. More striking, however,
is the change experienced on crossing the Zambezi, the watershed of
which, lying only a few miles south of the river, marks the northern
limit of the Kalahari. After toiling for five weeks through deep sand.
THE TRANSITION OF BRITISH AFRICA.
125
under conditions which make a twelve-mile day's journey a most satis-
factory performance, it can be imagined with what feelings of exhilaration
the eyes first rest on that noble stream of clear, deep water. Here we
are on the threshold of Central Africa, and enter a sub- tropical country
differing from South Africa in many of its characteristics. The natives
are quite distinct, vegetation has undergone a considerable change, and
the shadeless, thorny acacia is replaced by comely trees from 25 to
40 feet high, according to the district in which they grow. The
northern Zambezi's affluents, and even their small tributaries in the
upper river basin, i.e, those entering above the Victoria Falls, unlike
those in South Africa, carry water throughout the year. The Zambezi
also forms a limit to the habitat of several species of game. The giraffe,
the ostrich, the tsessebe, the gemsbuck, the South African waterbuck, and
the red hartebeest, though found in some cases in large numbers near
the right bank, are unknown on the left. On the other hand Crawshay's
waterbuck and Lichenstein's hartebeest are only found beyond the
Zambezi, while the Pookoo, Lechwe, and Situtunga, being river animals
and consequently not limited by water boundaries, are found on the
western tributaries, and have followed the Okovango to Lake Ngami.
These are very common to the north and east of the river, and essentially
belong to that country. The soil of the Upper Zambezi basin is, I
believe, peculiar to itself. It is a white, large-grained sand, which, when
washed clear of alluvium, is snowlike in apjiearance. Everlasting
undulations of it extend from about 17'' 30' to 12° S. lat., and, roughly
speaking, from the western water-parting of the Kafue system to beyond
the Kwito. This prac-
tically embraces the
whole of the Upper
Zambezi basin, lying
above SOOOandbelow
4000 feet in altitude,
as well as that of the
Okovango, which, on
evidence I published
five years ago, seems
to have been part of
the Zambezi system
not many centuries
past. Just as the
Barotse Plain, which
undoubtedly was
once the basin of
a large lake, was
drained dry by the erosive action of its water on the confining
hills below the Gonye Falls, so is there evidence that at a still earlier
period the whole of this white sand area was the site of a great freshwater
inland sea, until centuries of erosion had gradually eaten a way through
the mountainous region extending for over 100 miles eastwards from the
Victoria Falls, and in doing so created the series of narrow rocky gorges
Fig. 1. — The L'uuslaacc, the first steamer placed ou the Zambezi
between the Kebrabasa Rapids and the Victoria Falls.
126 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
through which the river passes to-day. The Batoka Plateau on the
east, and the southern slopes on the long ridge which divides the Congo
and Zambezi systems, is the commencement of the great northern
expanse of red loam alluded to above. From the west of the line of the
great mountain region stretching from Lake Mweru to Lake Albert until
the dense forests in the centre of the Congo basin are reached, the
general character of the vegetation varies but little from that of Barotse-
land. The same undulating ground continues, and the same class of tree
is found on all sides. The journey northwards from Mweru to Tangan-
yika, and thence through Kivu, Albert Edward, and Victoria to Albert,
is particularly interesting. Of these lakes, three at least are victims of
the same gradual erosive action which in centuries gone by deprived the
Zambezi of its great lakes. Before the narrow Luapula outlet from
Lake Mweru had commenced to eat away the rocks at the base of the
valley through which it flows, the lake must have been at least four
times its present area, and at a still earlier period was probably one
with Lake Bengueulu. On Tanganyika the palm-tree to which, accord-
ing to native report, Livingstone tied his boat on his journey up the
lake, now stands nearly a quarter of a mile from the shore, in the gardens of
the Jesuit Mission Station at M'pala, and, so far as I could judge, 25 feet
above water-level. Tiiis gives an annual lowering of 10 inches in the
lake surface. The Lukugu outlet, through which I subsequently waded
knee-deep, passes over a sand-bar, beyond which there is a steep decline,
so we may expect the same lowering process to continue until the bed-
rock is reached. Kivu, by thousands of years the youngest of all these
lakes, seems to have remained much the same in this respect as on the
day when Avater first filled the great basin erected by one of the earth's
mightiest upheavals. On the other hand Albert Edward, where the
Semliki leaves it, has been subject to an influence similar to that exerted
on Mweru. In general appearance each lake has its charm, and each is
in character distinct from the rest. Mweru leaves on the mind an
impression of peace. The southern shores are low-lying and reed-girt,
but gradually these give place to wooded undulations, and later to larger
hills sloping to the water's edge. The north, like the south, lies low,
but is more gravelly and consequently less swampy. " Grand " is the
word that best describes Tanganyika, with its great mountain ranges
rising to many thousand feet skywards. Kivu is perhaps the gem of all,
with a water surface 4900 feet above the sf a-level ; its serrated shores, as
well as those of the large island of Kwijwi, rise in steep slopes, which on
the mainland are finally merged in the great mountains behind. The
land is rich and open, the air fresh and bracing. It is said that this
district contains no malarial microbes, and certainly the water harbours
neither hippopotami nor crocodile. It is the one large piece of African
water into which one can plunge with perfect equanimity.
Albert Edward has a certain charm of its own. Though the
approach from the south into the reed-begirt swamps that bound the
lake gives the traveller an unfavourable first impression, as these un-
congenial surroundings are replaced by the mountainous Avails of the
north and west and the w^ooded undulations of the north-east, his earlier
THE TRANSITION OF BRITISH AFRICA. 127
disappointment vanishes. The water of the lake is slightly brackish
and of a yellowish tinge, but is not undrinkable. The southern ex-
tremity forms a rendezvous for innumerable hippopotami, which find an
ideal feeding ground close by. Lake Albert, extending as it does from
the base of the Ruwenzori Range — the Mountains of the Moon — and
bordering the Torn and Unyoro plateau, which falls from over 4000 to
2400 feet into the lake itself, is a noble and Avell-favoured stretch of
water. Compared with Tanganyika it might be said that Lake Albert
is more picturesque than grand.
Lastly we have Lake Victoria, which, though not so long as Tan-
ganyika, has a greater superficial area, and by virtue of its more basin-
like shape is the only one of the six lakes referred to which can be
accurately described as an inland sea. On Victoria alone is it possible
to be in such a position as to be quite out of sight of land even on a
clear day. The shores of the lake, with its innumerable bays, trees
growing to the water's edge, and an undulating background, are very
beautiful in places and are sometimes lashed by sealike waves, a charac-
teristic which Victoria shares with Tanganyika, as I once learned very
nearly at the cost of my life.
From Nyasa there is, as is well known, a valley extending along the
line of the great lakes. As one passes northwards there is daily evidence
in both soil and other physical features of the volcanic origin of this
great lake district, and between Tanganyika and Albert Edward this is
particularly evident, especially to the north of Kivu, where the lava from
a recent eruption of one of the Umfumbira mountains still lies black and
bare over what within the memory of living natives was inhabited forest-
land. The tree-growth between Tanganyika and Kivu is stunted and
scant. In the bed of the valley the thorny shadeless acacia and the stiff
symmetrical euphorbia are alone seen, while to the north of Kivu the
valley is practically treeless until within a few miles of Lake Albert
Edward a savannah, which smacks of South Africa, is encountered. The
downs round Kivu and on the plateau of Torn are covered with elephant
grass which stands far above the height of man, and through which
progress would be almost impossible were it not for cleared paths.
Unyoro, the district which lies in the angle formed by the eastern banks
of Lake Albert and the Victoria Nile, is identical in character with the
Bechuanaland Protectorate, as is the neighbourhood of the Upper Nile
beyond the swamps of that pestilential and unprepossessing section of
the great river which lower down is so profoundly interesting and
useful. The same class of vegetation reaches to within a feAv miles of
Khartum, Avhere it is replaced by the grassless dry desert of Egypt.
Not only are these northern latitudes similar to the south, although
separated by 2000 miles of very different country, but there is also a
striking resemblance between much of the fauna of these two extremities
of the continent. The Giraffe, whose habitat in the south is limited to
the Zambezi, once more appears here, as does the Secretary Bird. In
the north and south the Ostrich is identical, though a different species
appears in the intermediate area. Except in colour the red hartebeest of
Khama's country closely resembles Jackson's hartebeest of Unyoro and
128 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
neif^hbourhood, and the White Rhinoceros (which until I secured his
counterpart on the Nile six years ago, was not known north of the
Zambezi) apparently does not exist in the intermediate area. Many of
the smaller birds seemed to take my mind back to South Africa, though,
as I shot nothing not required for food, I can only record this fact
as an impression.
Such in the main is a general summary of impressions which occur
to the ordinary observer taking a walk from one end of Africa to the
other. Up to 1890, and even later, his observations would have been
limited to the Africa described — the Africa of all past ages — for where
his footsteps were not implanted on absolutely unexplored territory, such
Europeans as had preceded him were occasional wanderers like himself
who had come and gone away again.
Xow — only sixteen years later — how changed is the whole aspect of
the Continent ! This grand sanctuary of nature is being rapidly trans-
formed. European ideas, experiments, and methods are permeating the
most remote regions. In Europe one has heard much cant on the lines
of the substitution for barbarism of the blessings of civilisation. In
Africa the curses of our vaunted social progress seem in places to loom
so large as to almost obscure its loftier attributes. In pondering over
the respect and simple hospitality of which one was wont to be the
recipient at the hands of the inhabitants of the most inaccessible districts
especially those that had never previously known a European — I have
wondered what those natives now think of the white man and his
methods !
But amidst all this confusion of ideas my mind reverts with pride to
the recollection of how on more than one occasion foes became friends
on discovering my British nationality — for from Britishers all natives
expect and usually obtain fair play.
To the same cause do I attribute the comparative ease with which I
have been able to cover long distances — occasionally through districts
by no means peaceably inclined towards Europeans generally. Since
the days of the great pioneer of modern African exploration, of whom
Scotsmen are so justly proud, I believe I may claim to be the first
traveller who has never had an askari or armed native in his employ.
My caravans have seldom exceeded tw^euty in number, and on no single
ni»ht has a watch been kept over my camp ; and yet in some countries
through which I have passed the European officials will not leave their
stations without armed escort.
Yet another memory rises before me. Early in 1900 I entered
TJcranda after nearly two years of daily marching. Since quitting British
territory in the south I had grown so accustomed to the sight of women
and children flying on my approach, that the sense of security evinced
by the natives of the Protectorate, and the respectful manner in which
both sexes stood aside and saluted as I passed on, were especially
gratifying to my British pride.
Such experiences suggest, if they do not prove, that no matter how
disappointing the existing process of civilising Africa may be, our own
system — and what is still more important, the spirit in Avhich effect is
THE TRANSITION OF BRITISH AFRICA. 129
given to it — is at least sympathetically considerate of the rights and
interests of the weaker races.
Of African Crown Colonies and Protectorates, i.e. of British posses-
sions in the earlier stages of development — there are three great groups
— west, east, and south central. With the exception of very small
possessions on the West Coast; a flimsy Foreign Oflice Protectorate over
part of Somaliland proclaimed in 1884; and the granting at the end of
1888 of a Royal Charter affecting certain territories in East Africa
leased from the Sultan of Zanzibar, the whole of this new soil, amounting
in the aggregate to over 2,000,000 square miles, has been broken since
1890. By the annexation in 1902 of the Transvaal and Orange River
Colonies a further 167,000 square miles fell under British control.
Though my travels have given me some experience of every other
colony in British Africa, they have never led me into the West Coast
group. I will therefore content myself here by merely giving one or
two historical and economic facts bearing on their prospects as a whole.
The West African Colonies cannot, as is well known, be accurately
described as health resorts, though the new acquisitions, lying as they
do well back from the coastline, are by no means as unhealthy as the
term " West Coast " implies. In places the land rises to eight or nine
hundred feet above the sea-level, which though far below the altitude
necessary to convert the tropics into a climate suitable for European
colonisation in the sense of permanent settlement under conditions of
family life, is none the less sufliciently high to ensure the existence of
well-drained and open sites for government and other stations.
The first active attempt made by England to establish a footing in
Africa took place as early as the year 1618, when English merchants,
having failed to open the Gambia to their trade, landed on the Gold
Coast and there erected a fort. This was the first of several forts and
trading stations and of a growing trade. A trading company obtained
a charter in 1662, to be succeeded ten years later by the Royal African
Company, and this in 1750 gave place to the African Company of
Merchants, which by Act of Parliament obtained more extended rights.
In 1S21 the settlements of the Gold Coast were taken over by the
Crown and placed under the administration of Sierra Leone. In 187-4
the Crown Colony of the Gold Coast Avas constituted as a separate
administration. Until 1872 the Dutch retained certain territorial and
trading rights, but were bought out in that year, the Dutch having with-
drawn twenty-two years earlier.
In Gambia the first English fort was built on an island in the
estuary of that river in 1686. The subsequent century was dis-
tinguished by a keen commercial struggle between the Portuguese, the
French, and ourselves, and it was not until 1783 that, by the Treaty of
Versailles, British sovereignty was secured over the islands in the
estuary and a small mileage on the mainland. In the earlier part of
the seventeenth century the Gold Coast and Gambia derived their chief
commercial importance as slave-collecting depots from which the planta-
tions of America and the West Indies were largely supplied. With the
crusade of Wilberforce a generous reaction in feeling took possession of
VOL. XXIII. K
130
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
the people of these islands, and many thousands of slaves were liberated.
In 1787 Sierra Leone was acquired by arrangement with native chiefs
for the express purpose of supplying a free home on their native con-
tinent for the very slaves we had been so active until recently in
forcibly deporting across the seas. The result is that Sierra Leone has
become a polyglot little black colony, of which about 45,000 of the
inhabitants are descended from liberated slaves gathered from diflPerent
parts of the continent, as against 30,000 local natives.
Among these earlier colonies we must also include Lagos, which
lies between Southern Nigeria and French territory. These, with small in-
terests in the neighbourhood of the Lower Niger, represent British terri-
torial rights as inherited from earlier generations of Englishmen. For
a century our territorial possessions on the coast had ranged between
10,000 to 15,000 square miles, and it was not until a very few years ago
that we commenced to realise that, if we did not look after our interests
with intelligence and activity, our prosperous little West Coast Colonies
would be deprived of the free exercise of trade with the interior. Even
then, as in so many parallel cases, the situation was not to be saved by
the elected representatives of the nation, but by the individual and
collective foresight of a chartered company under the direction of great
administrative ability. Commercially so successful, and politically so
active was the Royal Niger Company under tlie direction of Sir George
T. Goldie, that when the government bought out the company in 1900
the direct effect of thirteen years' work was that upwards of 300,000
square miles had been acquired for the Empire, and scope for future
prosperity was assured. The material position of these colonies is
most satisfactory, for, with the exception of the newly acquired
territories of Northern Nigeria, each colony not only pays its own way,
but steadily improves its position from year to year. Southern Nigeria,
formerly the heart of the Royal Niger Company, already heads the list,
partly no doubt owing to the business-like organisation inherited from
the Company, and partly through having the run in Northern Nigeria
of an extensive British Hinterland. Southern Nigeria was this year
wisely amalgamated with Lagos for administrative purposes.
The total revenue of all these colonies was : —
In 1900 .
In 1904 .
Increase of
1900
1904
Increase of
1900
1904
Increase of
Total Imports.
£4,258,477
. 5,790,088
. 1,531,611
ToTAi- Exports.
.£3,868,710
. 5,067,228
. 1,198,516
. £1,143,473
1,937,329
793,856
Imports from
United Kingdom,
. £3,070,021
. 5,120,589
2,050,568
Exports to
United Kingdom.
. £1,778,727
. 2,449,169
670,442
THE TRANSITION OF BRITISH AFRICA. 131
Among the produce exported from the coast are rubber, beeswax,
palm oil and kernels, gold, ivory, skins, ginger, gum-copal and ebony.
Just as the Royal Charter in 1887 intrusted the Eoyal Niger
Company with the exercise of sovereign rights with results so satisfactory
both from an Imperial and commercial standpoint, so in the following
year a charter granted to Sir William Mackinnonand his co-directors was
destined to increase the area of the British Empire by a further million
of square miles, of which a large portion is capable of useful economic
development. The Imperial British East African Company acquired its
first territorial rights by lease from the Sultan of Zanzibar, and later
supplemented these by means of treaties with native chiefs in the
interior. The most important inland territories affected was the native
kingdom of Uganda, in which the work of administration commenced
in 1890.
Unfortunately the Company was not a commercial success. In 1893
the Imperial Government took over the administration of Uganda, to
which were added in 1894-95 the districts of Unyoro, Usoga, Nandi and
Kavirondo. In 1895 the remainder of the Company's territory was
placed under the control of the Foreign Office, this latter to be
administered by the Zanzibar Consul-General as Commissioner of what
had now become the British East Africa Protectorate, the former under
a separate Commissioner being already known as the Uganda Pro-
tectorate. In 1902 Naivasha and Kisumu, the latter of which includes
the Nandi country, were transferred to the East African administration.
Thus the British East African Company died in its infancy, but like
the proverbial grain of seed wheat its short existence will, I feel sure,
prove to have been the germ of a great economic development, and it
certainly was the direct means of opening out to future British settle-
ment one of the healthiest and most interesting plateau-lands of the
world. When I visited East Africa two years ago, I confess I was not
impressed by the progress so promising a country had made during the
first fifteen years of its existence under British administration, whereas in
Uganda at the commencement of 1900 the net result of a decade of
Foreign Office rule seemed to be the introduction into the country of a
few officials and missionaries, who appeared to have played their part
with every credit to themselves as organisers in the one case and
educators in the other (for the bearing and conduct of the natives were
such as are only to be found under administrations conducted on high
principles). But trade and industry, w^iich are the raison cTetre of
the acquirement of colonial possessions, were as a principle — and I
contend as a had principle — not only discouraged, but practically pro-
hibited so far as British settlers were concerned. The effect of this was
that necessary trade was in the hands of a few Indians, and enterprising
Germans domiciled in German East Africa, while the Englishman who
wished to acquire interests in the Protectorate, even when his claims
were locally supported, was told that the Foreign Office did n( t con-
sider that the country was yet ripe for settlement. To one whose
earliest experience had fallen in the south the policy thus proclaimed
seemed a strange one indeed, for surely from the very moment property
132
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL ISIAGAZINE.
and the person can be declared safe, the trader and settler should be
encouraged, and the government should at once turn its active attention
towards the development of trade routes and cheap lines of communica-
tion. Uganda was booming in those days under the direction of a
progressive and able administrator — Sir Harry Johnston, one of your
gold-medallists. When a country is what is termed " before the public "
jiioneer settlers are always forthcoming. Uganda in due course fell
asleep under more placid auspices, and still sleeps. An opportunity was
lost. There is no longer any manifest desire among pioneer settlers to
try their luck in Uganda. They go elsewhere.
In 1892 a preliminary survey for a railway to connect Mombasa
with Lake Victoria was commenced, the government having wisely
recognised the strategic importance of such a railway in view of certain
probable eventualities
connected with the
Dervish occupation of
the Upper Nile spread-
ing as it did to the
very borders of the
Uganda Protectorate.
As a matter of course
the economic advantages
of such a line to the
Protectorate through
which it passed must
have strengthened the
government in coming
to a decision in the
matter. Persistent op-
position to the scheme
was offered, but for-
a substantial majority
of the scheme. Thus
Fig. 2.— Mediteval Portuguese Fort at Mombasa.
tunately the whole of the Opposition and
of the party then in power were in favour
the accession to power in July 1895 of Lord Salisbury's government
in no way interfered with the project, and at the end of that year
the first rail was laid. It was not, however, till six years later
that the first engine made the journey from Mombasa to the lake.
The cost of the railwaj^— £6,000,000— has been strongly criticised,
and contracting engineers have asserted that they could have com-
pleted the line in half the time, and at little more than half the
cost. This may or may not be the case, but experience in South
Africa would seem to point to the conclusion that the railway
contractor limited to time is more expeditious in his methods than the
appointed government official on an annual salary ; and in railway work
more than in most other departments of industry the saying "Time is
money " has its full significance. Though most of the country traversed
by these 584 miles of rail admits of an easy gradient and rapid work,
two great physical obstacles had to be faced. The Straits separating the
island of Mombasa from the mainland necessitated the construction of a
THE TRANSITION OF BRITISH AFRICA. 133
bridge 1732 feet in length; also the Great Kift Valley had to be
traversed. From the highest altitude — about 7400 feet — at the western
face of the Kikuyu plateau the drop is 1440 ft. (of which 1000 ft. is
very abrupt) in 85 miles, while the summit of the Man escarpment, on
the further confines of the valley, is nearly 100 feet higher. It is
satisfactory to know that the railway has already, in spite of its great
cost, justified its existence, for not only was it paying its own working
expenses five years after being open to traffic, but it has been the means
of attracting to its precincts those who are destined to form the basis of
a considerable colonial community. With a view to giving a general
impression of the country through which this railway passes in parti-
cular, and of that part of British East Africa already under control in
general, I do not think I can do better than reproduce a short extract
from a paper I read in January 1906 before the Royal Geogx'aphical
Society.
Leaving the coast late in the afternoon of one day, daylight on the next
" found us some 200 miles from Mombasa, and at an altitude of about 3000
feet above the sea-level. To the explorer, sportsman or naturalist, this
journey along the Uganda Railway is of supreme interest. The physical
features of the country are continually changing — savannah, scrub, and
open plain are passed in turn ; undulating downs and wide flats succeed
one another as the train slowly climbs to Nairobi at an altitude of
5450 feet — an average gradient from the coast of 20 feet in the mile.
The scenery throughout is eminently African. In spite of its varying
characteristics I saw nothing new to me, merely so many samples of
what I had passed through in other parts of the continent, though for
the most part these are samples of the best. At one time or another
one could imagine oneself on the grass downs or plains of Griqualand
West or the Transvaal, in the acacia scrub of the Bechuanaland Pro-
tectorate or Unyoro, or among the brighter savannahs of Barotseland and
Katanga.
"During the latter part of the journey game is never out of sight.
The zebra, the hartebeest. Grant's gazelle and Thomson's gazelle are
numerous, while waterbuck, wildebeest, ostrich, palla, and the smaller
antelopes are fairly common. Before the rinderpest swept the Upper
Zambezi basin in 1896, Barotseland probably equalled East Africa in
quantity and was richer in variety. Since those days I have never seen
anything to equal the sight which now is within reach of any one
travelling to Nairobi by rail. One fact was particularly noticeable when
we made the journey. The Athi plains were bereft of everything
green — every blade of grass. It transpired that a few days earlier
myriads of caterpillars had made their appearance in a single night, and
extending for miles to right and left, these writhed themselves onwards
in a living mass so dense as to obscure the very earth. So thick were
they that their crushed bodies on the rails denied the flywheels of the
up-country engines their grip, and the trains were continually brought
to a standstill, and, in fact, were only set in motion again by a frequent
application of sand to the rails. . . . The journey to Nakuru — the
station in the bed of the Rift Valley ... is remarkable for the
134 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
magnificence of the view as seen from the train during its descent from
the Kilcuyu escarpment into the Eift Valley. The train winds its way
through a cutting in dense primaeval forest. Through the clearing and
from occasional open patches, a most comprehensive view is obtained of
the red-brown valley 1500 feet below, and of the purple hills behind,
which culminate in the blue outline of the Mau escarpment. One looks
down on the summits of considerable hills, and can almost see into the
crater of the extinct volcano Longonot." One of the great features of
the western provinces of British East Africa is the magnificent plateau
land which rises on either side of the Rift Valley to altitudes reaching
to 8500 feet above sea-level. These plateaus are largely made up of
open grass downs between 6500 and 7500 feet, while below 6500 —
and above where the ground is stony — the type of small savannah found
in many parts of Africa prevails. The downs supply first-class cattle
pasture, capable of supporting immense herds. The prime condition of
the cattle and donkeys fed on it gives practical proof of its high quality.
On the highest levels, i.e. between 7500 and 8500, there exist extensive
belts and patches of magnificent virgin forest. Mighty trees rising to
nearly 200 feet are matted together with jungle so dense as to make
progress among them very slow and tedious. So dense is the matted
undergrowth of ropelike creepers, giant thistles and other entanglements
which dispute every step, that progress is impossible Avithout the help
of much cutting and slashing. The forest edge is so well defined that
it is impossible to say whether yards or miles separate the traveller
from the plains beyond. So easy is concealment from the eye of man
that game is rarely seen or even heard, and yet the foot spoor bears
evidence of its existence. The giant bushbuck or bongo, standing over
4 feet 6 inches at the shoulders, has never yet been so much as seen by
European eyes, and would be entirely unknown Avere it not for the
existence of something less than half-a-dozen skins and horns taken in
pitfalls by natives. The case of the bongo is in fact identical with that
of the okapi, known to exist under similar conditions a few hundred
miles further west. A skeleton, said to be that of a giant pig standing
as high as an ox, has been found in one of these forests. However,
without appearing to be incredulous, I think we may wait for more
definite evidence before giving him a name. Nevertheless, that many
facts of undiscovered interest lurk within the sunless gloom of these
great relics of centuries long since passed is not to be doubted.
Among the trees there is to be found a sprinkling of first-class
timbers, and of course, as usual, a still larger proportion of wood of
inferior quality. The podocarpus and juniper are well represented, but
perhaps the most striking of all is a giant cedar which towers upwards
in a thick straight stem. The industrialisation of these forests has
already commenced, and in the future this trafiic in timber should
become a great commercial asset when once the railway management
have accepted the principle that cheap rates to the coast not only fill
trucks which would otherwise return empty, but, in offering substantial
encouragement to the settler and thereby fostering enterprise, increase
the up-country traffic also. From an agricultural standpoint these high
THE TRANSITION OF BRITISH AFRICA.
135
plateaus, though admirable for stock-rearing purposes, do not offer as
good prospects as do the five to six thousand feet levels which are not
subject to the night frosts and high winds of the invigorating uplands.
Potatoes are grown with such success that already considerable con-
signments have been shipped to South Africa. Tree-growth is abnormally-
rapid, and agriculture generally should play a most important part
in the development both of East Africa and Uganda. A certain
amount of ivory and rubber finds its way to the coast, and experiments
are being made in the cultivation of cotton, but as yet with no very
definite results. The revenue is principally derived from customs,
duties and game licences, and does not half cover the expenditure.
The imports in 1900 stood at £193,438 as against £741,785 in
1904 — a very substantial increase of £548,347. The exports in 1900
were £113,205 ; in 1904 they had rather more than doubled this figure.
Uganda may be said to be in a stagnant condition mainly owing to the
absence of cheap lines of communication. The Nile is the natural
outlet to Uganda, and until — at a small cost as compared with the great
interests involved — the one bar to free navigation is removed, Uganda
cannot progress satisfactorily.
Twenty years ago it transpired that Great Britain was in imminent
danger of becoming seriously embarrassed in South Africa. Information,
said to be supported by more than circumstantial evidence, came to the
notice of the Cape Government to the effect that Germany was pre-
paring to expand her Damaraland Colony eastwards as far as the
Transvaal border. This accomplished, the partition of the country
northwards between Boer and Teuton would be an easy matter. Those
who recollect the history of the German acquisition of Damaraland —
a country at the time considered the natural hinterland of the Walfisch
Bay settlement — will not marvel that such a design should have been
fostered with quite a reasonable hope of success; and after all said and
done we had less claim to Khama's country, contiguous as it was to the
Boer Republic, than to the aforesaid hinterland. Fortunately for the
material and political prospects
of British South Africa there
sprang to the front one of those
powerful personalities which at
rare intervals flutter as it were
across a page of history, accom-
plish the purpose for which they
seem to have been created, then
returning whence they came, leave
behind them an influence which
moulds the course of history for
generations yet unborn. To specu-
late on the course events may take
in South Africa in the light
of the extraordinary political
situation recently created would be to play with hypothetical uncer-
tainties, but what man not utterly devoid of the virtue of patriotism
Fig. 3. — Pemba Station on the African Trans-
continental Railway, NW. Rhodesia.
136 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINH.
can ponder with equanimity on the course destiny was following in the
eiglities had it not been arrested and remoulded by the strong hand
and courageous policy of the late Cecil J. Rhodes,
In February 1888 the first sign of coming events showed itself in the
conclusion of a treaty between Great Britain and Lobengula, which
placed Matabelelaud within the sphere of British influence. The Mata-
bele Chief by this instrument undertook to refrain from entering into
any correspondence or treaty with any state or power other than
ourselves.
In October of the same year, Mr. Rudd, on behalf of a syndicate
which included Mr. Rhodes and Mr. Beit, obtained a concession of
mineral rights over the whole of Lobengula's dominions, in exchange
for a monthly payment of £100 and 1000 Martini-Henry rifles.
Shortly afterwards a second expedition arrived at Bulawayo on a
similar errand. It was led by Mr. E. A. Maund on behalf of "The
Exploring Company, Limited," of which Mr. George Cawston and Lord
Gifford were the moving spirits. Though anticipated in its designs,
the latter group successfully entered into negotiations with their more
fortunate competitors, which led to an agreement to co-operate on the
basis of a quarter-interest. This amalgamation of interests was suffi-
ciently powerful to command consideration both at home and in South
Africa.
A year later a Royal Charter, bearing the date of October 29, 1889,
was granted conferring on what now became the British South Africa
Chartered Company administrative and other functions in the country
concerned. The first board was presided over by the Duke of Abercorn,
who has retained the position ever since, and contained, among other
well-known noblemen and gentlemen, Mr. Cecil Rhodes as managing
director. Under the influence of such a man an active and progressive
policy was assured to the new enterprise, but the rapidity of the first
steps towards the consummation of the ideal in view opened the eyes of
the most sanguine. At the time the railway terminus stood at Kimberley,
and that of the telegraph at Mafeking. Within six months a special
force of military police had not merely been recruited, organised and
equipped, but with all necessary wagon transport had marched 650
miles from Kimberley and were on duty at Macloutsi, which had been
selected as a base of operations. On July 5th the first troop moved
northwards as escort to the pioneer force. At Tuli River, on the
borders of Mashonaland, a fort was constructed and garrisoned by one
troop, and on the arrival of two further troops from the south, the
force, in all 380 strong, continued its march, with the result that the
British flag was hoisted with due ceremony at Fort Salisbury on Sep-
tember 12, 1890, i.e. inside of eleven months from the date of the granting
of the Charter. In the meantime the telegraph wires were opened to
Palapye (320 miles onward), and the extension of the railway to
Vryburg — 120 miles — was all but completed. Great were the hardships
experienced by these early pioneers. Scarcely were they established in
their new quarters than the wettest season within memory of man
before or since broke over the country. The rivers flooded and remained
THE TRANSITION OF BRITISH AFRICA. 137
impassable for months, and thus cut off from supplies they were com-
pelled to subsist largely on native corn, and many good men, weakened
by lack of proper nutriment, succumbed to fever and dysentery. From
that day to this exceptional obstacles have been met and overcome.
The Matabele War in 1893 was not only costly, but acted as a brake to
progress. Annual visitations of locusts followed. Early in 1896, after
leaving Barotseland in a state of plenty, I emerged from the Kalahari to
find a second native rising by which over two hundred white men, women
and children had already lost their lives. Added to this, drought was
already creating a famine, and locusts were making that famine more
complete, and throughout the length and breadth of the land the
rinderpest had swept off whole teams of oxen. To meet these un-
expected troubles special measures were being taken, and railway
construction was being pressed forward. On the top of all this the
grave situation in the Transvaal continued to create such a sense of
anxiety and insecurity as to impose a heavy drag on industry and
enterprise throughout the sub-continent. In 1899 the South African
War sent things from bad to worse.
In spite of all this Rhodesia as a colonising concern has out-
stripped all her compeers. From Tuli to the Congo State, and as far
as the southern shores of Tanganyika, the country is effectively under
control of administrations of which the remotest districts have their
executive officers. There are 2148 miles of railway — more than
double the sum total of the railway systems of all the other colonies
discussed in this paper ; and while the combined European population
of these latter is roughly estimated at 3000, that of Rhodesia already
exceeds 13,500. The telegraph system embraces a mileage of 3984
miles, including the transcontinental lines. The imports of Southern
and North-AVestern Rhodesia combined amounted to £1,290,750
in the year ending 31st December 1905, and the exports from the
former to £1,892,488. Thus this youngest of British African Colonies
easily heads the list under the headings of communication and white
population and trade, and that in the face of abnormal obstacles which
there is every reason to hope have run their course and will not long
continue to check progress. As regards revenue, the receipts in Southern
Rhodesia from all sources in the financial year ending March 31st, 1905,
amounted to £523,669, and expenditure for administrative purposes
£499,768— a surplus of nearly £24,000. In the case of the two
northern administrations, which are some ten years younger than
Southern Rhodesia, the revenue stood at £48,030, and the expenditure at
£150,177, leaving a deficit on the whole of £78,246. It is hoped that
this will be reduced to vanishing point this year. Space will not allow
of my going more fully into the material prospects of this most promising
colonial enterprise. Suffice it to say that, mineralogically speaking, there
is probably no country so rich. The gold output in Southern Rhodesia
shows a steady annual increase, and up to October the figure for this
year was already considerably in excess of last year's output. By the
time the railway, already under construction, which is to connect Lobita
Bay on the West Coast with the northern goldfields is completed, we may
138
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Fig. 4. — Settler's lirst Residence.
expect a great development in the north in this as in many other
industries. Besides gold, copper, zinc, lead, silver, coal and other
minerals are being worked. One result of the railway extension opened
in Sei^tember to the
Rhodesia Broken Hill
mines, 374 miles beyond
the Victoria Falls, is that
already a large quantity
of zinc ore is being ex-
ported. More important
still do I consider the
prospects of planting,
agriculture and cattle
ranching, especially in
North - West Rhodesia,
for without land settle-
ment no colony can ever
fulfil its functions success-
fully. Minerals attract to
a country a floating and active population, most members of which
go out not to settle but to return Avhence they came either as
wealthy men or as paupers. On the land surface is established
not only a settled population but the hundred-and-one industries and
manufactories deriving their raw material from husbandry, as well
as i^rofessions and trades supported by such a community. From
the time Avhen I was the only European in a position to discuss the
then unmapped districts of Barotseland, or, as we now call it, North-
West Rhodesia, I have held the country up as one of the gems of
British Africa. As my experience has widened nothing has occurred to
modify this opinion. In addition to most favourable land conditions, the
rainfall since first gauged has shown extraordinary stability ; so unlike
South Africa, where droughts are frequent. Lung-sickness and " tick "
fever, so decimating to cattle from the Zambezi southward, have been
kept out of the country, and as there is a good stamp of native beast in
the country it is to be hoped the present wise policy of prohibiting
importation will be continued indefinitely,
I will now compare the administrative conditions of settlement
which I noted in British East Africa last year with those I found in
North- West Rhodesia this year. I have always been an advocate of an
intelligently progressive colonial policy as being by far the most
profitable ; and here we have, it would seem, an admirable example of
wisdom and error personified in those on whom has fallen the grave
responsibility of guiding the destinies of two young colonies.
In East Africa and Uganda the government price of land is
2 rupees, i.e. 2s. 8d, per acre — about five times its value, and thus at
the outset a stone is tied about the neck of the settler. The railway,
a government concern, makes no special terms for him and his family on
entering the country. He is tolerated but not encouraged. In North- West
Rhodesia the settler pays 8d. per acre for agricultural and 3d. for cattle
THE TRANSITION OF BRITISH AFRICA. 139
grazing land. He enters as an occupying tenant for five years, paying as
rent 5 per cent, per annum on the purchase price, and having proved
his bona fides he obtains his title on payment of the capital sum. The
administration when required will loan to him government oxen, which
at the end of twelve months he may return or purchase, and will make
him a loan at 5 per cent, interest towards the expense of fencing. The
railway not only conveys him and his family at a 75 per cent, reduction,
but gives a like rebate on all goods, furniture, implements, etc., he
imports during the first tw^elve months. Now both these countries are of
the highest intrinsic value, though East Africa has the advantage of
being on the seaboard, while North-West Rhodesia is 1000 miles away.
The Foreign Ofiice took the former over sixteen years ago ; Mr. Coryndon
was appointed first administrator of the latter six years ago. It will be
interesting to note the relative position of these colonies in 1916, to
compare their revenues for that year as well as the total of the ten
intermediate revenues, including sale of land at 2s. 8d. and 8d. or 3d. per
acre respectively ; or in other words, to compare the policy of straining
revenue sources to catch the eye of the taxpayer with more liberal and
far-seeing methods.
The British Central African Protectorate, formerly and more correctly
known as Nyasaland, represents some 68,000 of the half-million of
square miles of what may be best described as British South Central
Africa, the remainder being absorbed by NE. and NW. Rhodesia. The
Protectorate was proclaimed on May 14, 1891 — rather more than
eighteen months subsequent to the Rhodesian Charter — and is therefore
the youngest of our young colonies with the single exception of Northern
Nigeria, part of which Avas, however, as we have seen, exploited by the
Royal Niger Company at an earlier date. As was the case with the eastern
and western protectorates, British Central Africa spent its earliest infancy
tinder Foreign Office auspices, and with them ^was taken over by the
Colonial Office on April 1st of last year. A few years ago the Protectorate
promised to harbour a prosperous coffee growing community, its coffee
for a time realising the highest price in the European market. Un-
fortunately a scanty labour supply and the appearance of the coffee bug
has checked, though not extinguished, the industry. Cotton and tobacco
are being grown with some success, and chillies, ground nuts, and small
quantities of ivory are also exported. The railway connecting Blantyre
with Chiromo is approaching completion, and a branch line from the
latter place to Port Herald is open to traffic. On Lake Nyasa there are
seven steamers, and on the Shire about three times that number.
During the last three years the European population has increased from
450 to 600.
In 1901-2 the imports stood at £135,842 and exports at £21,739,
and in 1904-5 at £220,697 and £48,463 respectively.
Of the old self-governing South African Colonies I will say but little.
I was in South Africa only a few months ago and saw and heard enough
to fill me with despondency. Though racial, political and economic
rivalries may cause irritation and bitterness, these are temporary evils
capable of self-adjustment if only allowed to run their natural course.
140 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
What hurts, irritates, and prevents such sores from healing is the know-
ledge that South African interests are being made the cat's-paw of
political vote-catchers at home, and too often are misconstrued and dis-
cussed in a hostile spirit by politicians whose experience of the Empire
may be said to be limited by the boundaries of their own parishes.
Eead the history of South Africa since it fell under British domination a
century ago and you will marvel at the strange inconsistencies and
unsettling reversals of policy emanating from Downing Street. You may
even marvel what spell has retained the loyalty of a large minority. My
endeavour has been — so far as time has allowed — to give a general
account of our young African Colonies as well as a description of the
main surface characteristics of the continent being so rapidly transformed
into administrative systems from which will be evolved states destined
to assist in the completion of the destruction of Europe's monopoly in
progressive civilisation so forcibly commenced by the United States and
Japan. The growth of these embryo states has been phenomenal from
the point of view of space. Thirty years ago British Africa represented
but 274,380 square miles, fifteen years back it had grown to 1,904,660,
and to-day it stands at 2,536,900, or if we may include Egypt, whose
destinies are equally in our hands, to a round three and a half millions of
square miles, or 29 times the area of the British Isles. From the borders
of the Transvaal northwards, all our colonies and protectorates are within
the tropical zone, from which the manufacturer draws probably four-fifths
of his raw material. Owing to the leading part our countrymen have
taken in the work of original geographical work, we have been able
to monopolise a preponderating share of Africa's plateau-land, on
which Europeans may settle without prejudice to health. Thus quantity
combines with quality.
An interesting point in this page of Empire has been the extraordinary
reluctance of successive governments, as compared with foreign govern-
ments, to assume responsibility. Wellnigh every mile has been earned
by private initiative, individual and collective. I fear Ave cannot credit
this traditional governmental apathy with better intentions than the
mere shirking of responsibility, but it has none the less had, on the
whole, a most desirable effect, for expansion under such conditions, no
matter how wide in its effect, cannot be over-expansion nor yet artificial,
but is in fact a demonstration of a degree of national vigour auguring
well for the destinies of the race capable of its accomplishment. Thank
Heaven, Great Britain takes a much Avider interest in her world-wide in-
heritance than was her wont ten years ago ! May she rise still more to a
sense of her greatness and her responsibilities ! Those three and a half
million miles impose a sacred duty on each one of us, and each should take
his share in spreading the Imperial spirit — I use the term in no jingoistic
sense — until it has permeated every class of society. Patriotism because
unselfish, is one of the highest of virtues, and as such ennobles the mind
and endows it with a cleaner judgment — a judgment less tarnished with
mere personal considerations. AVith a more thoroughly Imperial-minded
electorate, no government would dare to perpetrate any such act of folly
as lost us our American Colonies, and the dread of possible disintegration
THE TRANSITION OF BRITISH AFRICA. HI
would no longer be felt as it unhappily is to-day. To suggest that our
oversea fellow-countrymen will ever willingly expatriate themselves is
to disclaim all knowledge of the sentiments dominating them as a whole.
Their blood is our blood, all our glorious traditions of the past are theirs
also, and with us they share the right to a common heritage. There is
no reason why, by an ill-conceived policy, the work of generations of
British manhood should be lost to them and us, but there will be no
security against the repetition of such a folly until we admit that our
great self-governing colonies are already ripe to assist in the government
of the Empire they adorn.
Let those who dream of universal peace through the medium of
international arbitration abandon their impractical and delusive hopes and
workfor a consolidated Empire, through which means alone this high object
is in practice possible. To my mind universal peace is impossible until
one nation not merely occupies so powerful a position as to command
deference, but by its liberality and disinterested world-policy compels
the respect of the universe. Break up the British Empire, and with the
increase in the number of independent states there will be greater scope for
avidity and a consequent increased risk of war. Foster its growth and
retain it in its integrity, and the peace ideal is not unattainable.
PRINCE CHAELES FORELAND, i
By William S. Bruce, F.R.S.E.
{With Illustrations and Map.)
On June the 17th, 1596, Willem Barents-zoon (or Barents) and
Heemskerke Hendickszoon discovered Spitsbergen after approaching it
from the north-east, probably sighting in the first place the island of
Cloven Clift'.. Steering southward along the west coast Barents and
Heemskerke sighted a steep point on June 25th, and on the 26 th
anchored between it and the mainland. This steep point Barents named
" Vogelhoeck " because of the large number of birds there. AYe may
therefore quite definitely state that Prince Charles Foreland was
discovered on the 25th of June 1596, only eight days after the sighting
of Spitsbergen.
There appears to be some doubt as to the exact time when this
island was named Prince Charles Foreland, but already, in 1612, the
British called it so, while the Dutch called it Kijn Island, after a Dutch-
man who broke his neck there that year. The name Prince Charles
Foreland therefore seems to have full historical priority, the island
having been named after the son of James vi. of Scotland. Hudson
possibly may have given this name to the island, since he visited this
part of the Spitsbergen archipelago in 1607. In 1610 the Muscovy
Company dispatched Jonas Poole in the Amitie to Bear Island, and
missing Bear Island, Poole sighted the south end of Spitsbergen on
1 Outlook Tower and Scottish Oceauograijliical Lectures, February 13, 1907.
U2
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
6th May. On the 21st of May Poole was off the south point of Prince
Charles Foreland, which he named Black Point, and landed at Vogel Hook
on the 26th of May. From this time until 1775 the Foreland Avas
frequently sighted and doubtlessly landed upon, but still little more was
known of it than in the days of Barents. In 1775 Phipps was sent out
on a North Polar Expedition by George iir, on the recommendation of
the Royal Society of London, and it is interesting to note that Horatio
Nelson was a midshipman on board the Carcass, one of Phipps's ships.
The Foreland was sighted and a peak measured estimated to have an
altitude of 4509 feet.'- Almost every ship cruising along the west coast
of Spitsbergen has sighted the Foreland, and frequent landings and
winterings have certainly been made (as I know by my sojourn there
last year), but the curious fact remains that up till last year no serious
attempt had ever been made to survey this large island, and thus
practically all the accounts are from navigators who have only seen the
island from a distance, and are therefore very far from accurate.
Scoresljy's first landing in an arctic country was on Prince Charles
Foreland at Yogel Hook, but on account of bad weather he was obliged
to put off with haste, and had difficulty in regaining his ship. He says
that "the number of birds seen in the precipices and rocks adjoining the
sea was immense ; and the noise they made on our approach was quite
deafening."
He was also ashore several times in 1818 at Milre Cape, a prominent
point on the mainland opposite Vogel Hook, probably having connection
1 See p. 153.
PRINCE CHARLES FORELAND. 143
with it by a submarine ridge. He rightly describes this as being " a
remarkable point, and dangerous to shipping going into King's Bay or
Cross Bay, being surrounded by blind rocks."
" The middle of Charles' Island," says Scoresby, " is occupied by a
mountain chain of about thirty miles in length, rising on the west side
from the sea, and on the east from a small strip of table-land, only a few
feet above the level of the ocean. In some parts of the coast, indeed,
the table-land, from which the mountains take their rise, is even below
the level of the high-water mark, and is only prevented from being
covered by a natural sea-bank of shingle, thrown up in many places to
the height of ten or fifteen feet."
Scoresby gives further descriptions of Prince Charles Foreland,
emphasising particularly the strange hill named the " Devil's Thumb " ;
but his description saying that " the highest mountains take their rise
at the water's edge," is scarcely correct, for a series of raised beaches
intervene between them and the sea. But this further description is
good, where he says, " The points formed by two or three of them are so
fine, that the imagination is at a loss to conceive of a place, on which an
adventurer, attempting the hazardous exploit of climbing one of the
summits, might rest. Were such an undertaking practicable, it is
evident it could not be effected without imminent danger. Besides
extraordinary courage and strength requisite in the adventurer, such an
attempt would need the utmost powers of exertion, as well as the most
irresistible perseverance." But probably easier ascents, by way of the
great eastern glaciers, could be made than by the precipitous western
crags.^
One of the best general descriptions of the island is Lament's,- where
he says, " Prince Charles Foreland is a long narrow island separated from
the mainland by a shallow sound. Although Spitsbergen is eminently a
mountainous country it is more properly regarded from a geological
point of view as an elevated plateau, whose sides have been broken and
cut through by glacier action, to form isolated ridges and pinnacles.
It has no great mountain range or backbone. In Prince Charles Fore-
land we find the nearest approach to such a regular arrangement of hills.
And it constitutes a sufficiently striking mountain-range occupying
nearly the whole sixty miles' length of the island. On the west side the
rise from the sea is abrupt and precipitous, but on the east the descent
is more gradual to low ground a few feet above the level of the sea.
On the latter side the glaciers have considerably encroached. The chain
of mountains is broken towards the southern extremity, and gives place
to a low, sandy flat, where numbers of sea-birds congregate in summer.
With the telescope we could make out the wreck of a timber-vessel,
which came from the Petchora river five years ago, had been abandoned
at sea by the crew, and was cast up on this shore. About the middle of
the island a singular black rock — or rather mountain, for it is 2000 feet
high — ^jutting out into the sea has been termed the ' Devil's Thumb.'
1 An Account of the Arctic Regions. By W. Scoresb)', Jud., F.R.S.E., pp. 97, 98 ; aud
118, 119. Edinburgh, 1820.
- yachting in Arctic Seas, by James Lamont. 1876. Section iir. , pp. 229, 230.
144 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Some of these mountains rear their needle-like shafts to an elevation of
from 3000 to 4000 feet."
Baron Xordenskjold explored Foreland Sound in a boat in 1868, and
sailed through it with his ship in 1872 ; while Lamont navigated it with
his yacht the Diana in 1869; Conway in 1898 and the Prince of
Monaco in 1899 also ran through with steam launches.
Dr. A. G. Nathorst was the first in 1898 to attempt anything
like a systematic investigation of the island, but these observations were
only over a period of two or three hours during a summer night when
he sent a small party ashore from his ship the Antarctic} Nevertheless
he was able to give us a more concrete idea of this unknown land than
any of his predecessors. Here is his description of the discoveries of
his party - : —
" ^Uh July 1898. — In the afternoon we were sounding to the south-
west of Prince Charles Foreland where the depth was 240 metres, and
afterwards I headed for this land to effect a lauding. The south part
of the Foreland greatly resembles the north point of Duck Island (Ando,
Tromso). Here there is an isolated set of mountains, and after that a low
plain, whilst to the north of this begins a veritable land of mountains.
This is indeed a fine range of peaks with glaciers between them. We
headed for a bay situated between two peaks called ' Sommet Fourelin '
and 'Sommet Rond ' by the French Expedition in La Manche in 1892.
I think it is appropriate to call this bay after that vessel. At 11.30 P.M.
our ship was headed into the harbour and one of the large boats was
sent ashore with Haslam aft and four oars, together with G. Anderson,
Hesselman, and J. G. Anderson. Of course no extended exploration
could be made as the whole landing lasted only a couple of hours, but
from a geological point of view I thought it was desirable to get to
know if the Hecla-Hook formation was on the west coast of the Fore-
land too. I remained on the bridge until the party had landed at one
o'clock on the morning of the 25th, and then I went to bed. At 3.30
A.M. I was awakened by the captain saying that the landing party had
returned. The geological observations were in accordance with what w^e
had expected, and the botanists had made a rich collection, which we
had not expected. Up to this time the Foreland has been said to have
very little vegetation, two phanerogams only having been known on the
island. It was therefore surprising that G. Anderson and Hesselman in
these three hours had found no fewer than twenty-nine species. Of
birds, the eiders were common and the lumnefaglar were very numerous.
" Then we headed for the west and took a sounding at noon of
1474 fathoms about 28 miles outside the Foreland."
Garwood, who visited Spitsbergen with Gregory on Conway's Expedi-
tion, writing to me on June 18, 1906, says, as far as he remembers,
"Prince Charles Foreland is composed of Hecla-Hoek beds. Those
1 Forinerlj' called Cnp Xor, and renamed Antarctic, 1893, by Svend Foyn previous to
her first Antarctic cruise 1894-1895 ; afterwards Dr. Otto Nordenskj old's iU-fated ship
during his memorable Antarctic Expedition 1901-1903.
- Translation from Tva Smirar Norra Ischafvet, etc., by A. G. Nathorst. Stockliolm,
1900. Vol. i. pp. 187-188.
PRINCE CHARLES FORELAND. 145
horribly uncompromising slates, quartz bands, and schists in which I was
never able to get anything definite, though I have found curious oolitic
beds from these rocks in Hornsund Bay. I know that the rocks of the
main island opposite are Hecla-Hoek, and although I never landed on
Prince Charles Foreland (except when we touched bottom in our launch),
I have notes that the rocks coming down to the water on the east side
are almost certainly Hecla-Hoek beds. I only state this for what it is
worth."
Last summer His Serene Highness the Prince of Monaco invited me
to accompany him now for the third time on a voyage to Spitsbergen.
I gladly accepted His Highiiess's invitation, but pointed out that 1
would like to be associated with some definite work, and suggested,
among other alternatives, that he should land me with two assistants on
Prince Charles Foreland in order to make a thorough investigation of
that practically unknown island. The Prince at once accepted my
suggestion, and having chosen two assistants I set about making pre-
parations, in the first place for a systematic geodetic survey of a definite
portion of the island, and secondly for acquiring a more exact knowledge
about its geology and natural history. My assistants were Mr. Gilbert
Kerr, lately piper and taxidermist to the Scotia, and Mr. Ernest A. Miller,
a young electrical engineer. On 27th of June the Princesse Alice
steamed into Granton, and on the 28th took her departure with the
Scottish party on board.
After a somewhat cold, bleak, and choppy passage — typical of the
North Sea — the Princesse Alice reached Bergen on 30th of June. Here
the Prince took on board another exploring party, Norwegians, headed
by Captain Isachsen of the Norwegian cavalry, who had previously seen
arctic service with Captain Sverdrup ; and Lieutenant Staxerud, a young
Norwegian infantry oflEicer, employed in the geodetic service of the
Geographical Society of Christiania. In all the Norwegian party con-
sisted of ten men, who were to take up the exploration of the north-
western corner of Spitsbergen, lying between Close Cove,i Smerenburg
Sound, Red and Liefde Bays. Tromso was reached on the 9th of July,
and at L30 P.M. on 11th July the south end of Prince Charles Foreland
was sighted. From our noon position we steered for the north end of the
Foreland, Vogel Hook (or Fair Foreland), and between six and seven in
the evening were running fairly close to the shore north of Cape Sietoe.
At 7.15 P.M. we were off the north-west point of the Foreland, which bore
S. 40° W. about two miles, and on sounding obtained ten fathoms, having
had eight fathoms just previously closer to the land. About 8.30 p.m. we
were off Quade Hook, and finally, after some difficulty on account of the
rapidly shelving bottom, anchored in Coal Haven, King's Bay, about
11.30 P.M. Just after anchoring there were several white M'hales near
the ship, and the Prince lowered a whale boat with Wedderburn in charge
to try to secure one. Next day Isachsen and his party left by the Kred-
fjord (a small steamer chartered by His Highness) for Close Cove while
1 Close Cove, so Darned by Pool, 1610, and Ebeltoft's Harbour, named by him Cross
Road. British Admiralty Chart and other modern charts call Close Cove, Cross Bay. Vide
Ifo Man's Land, by Sir Martin Conway. Cambridge University Press, 1906.
VOL. XXIII. T,
146 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Captain Carr, Professor Hergesell, and I went ashore to make observa-
tions with the theodolite for the ascent of a pilot balloon which had been
liberated from the ship.^ Afterwards I made a short excursion towards
a rather I'emarkable waterfall, which fell over the edge of a glacier ice-
clifF about two miles from the shore ; and it is interesting to note that
although a very large volume of water was coming over the ice at this
time, that at about midnight, when I was in the crow's-nest and could
get a good view of the same place from that elevated position, no water
at all was coming over the cliff. The small river from this source, that
ran into Coal Haven, was also practically dry. Some doubt may exist
as to the cause of this sudden stoppage of the flow of water, but it may
be sufficiently accounted for by a touch of frost, which had stopped the
surface thawing of the glacier caused by the brilliant sun during the
day. On July 14th the Frincesse Alice left King's Bay for Close Cove,
and at about 1 P.M. the Scottish party left on board the Kvedfjord for
Prince Charles Foreland.
The Foreland being practically unknown, it was with some difficulty,
especiall}^ in view of the soundings obtained, that Ave found a suitable
landing-place. A suitable place was, however, eventually found on the
east coast about three miles from the north end of the island. By about
2 A.M. we had succeeded in landing all our equipment from the Kvedfjord,
and she steamed back to the Prmcesse Alice in Close Cove, leaving Kerr,
Miller, and myself to set up camp. Next day was spent mostly in
arranging our stores and in making plans for excursions for the purpose
of surveying the island. One excursion was made that evening north-
ward along the shore for a distance of about two miles, and a start
was made at the survey. On the next two days other excursions were
made westward, and we reached the highest point between the two sides
of the island, in a narrow gorge, which we called "Windy Gowl," on
account of its resemblance as a wind funnel to the place of the same name
in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. On the 17th we set to work more
seriously, and shifted camp from the east coast to the neighbourhood of
Windy Gowl. We carried no tent, because the extraordinarily rough
nature of the ground prevented us taking more than our instruments, a
few provisions, and sleeping sacks. The country over which we passed
was almost absolutely barren, there being hardly a plant along the whole
route, and only two birds were seen, namely, one purple sandpiper and
one Arctic skua. On settling down for the night we had three other
visitors, namely, two skuas and one fulmar petrel.
The journey was a somewhat laborious one, the distance of three
or four miles having taken us over seven hours. The weather was
brilliantly fine and the sun scorchingly hot, so that we divested ourselves
of as much clothing as possible, and even then sweated it out. There
was bright sun all night, with a cloudless sky and a light westerly air.
The scene from Windy Gowl was a striking one. To the eastward we
looked back over the dreary stony plains we had crossed, and beyond
1 Vidf H.S. H. tlie Prince of Monaco's lecture on "Meteorological Researches in the High
Atmosphere," Edinburgh, 17th January 1907, printed in the present issue, p. 113.
PRINCE CHARLES FORELAND. 147
the Foreland Sound over the picturesque glacier-clad mainland of Spits-
bergen in the neighbourhood of King's Bay. To the westward, beyond
a less extensive but more fertile plain broken by several lagoons along
the shore, stretched the calm western ocean, with no laud between us
and Greenland, and I may say at this time with no ice in sight. On
18th July I sent Kerr and Miller back to the base camp for more stores,
while I descended to the west coast and explored northward for some
distance, making many preliminary observations and securing a fox and
a pink-footed gosling. The west coast was evidently very much more
inhabited than the east, for I came across several gaggles of pink-footed
geese, as well as eiders, purple sandpipers, and snow buntings. I got
back to camp about 11 P.M. in cold and misty weather, and Windy
Gowl keeping up its reputation, compelled us to shift camp about mid-
night and go down to the plain below. Even there, sheltered as we were,
we found the night cold enough without a tent.
Having taken longitude observations at this third camp on 20th July at
about 9 A.M., we started back again unloaded at 10 A.M. for the base camp,
doing the homeward journey, which had taken us seven hours when
loaded, in about two hours. With all possible haste we launched our
boat, carrying with us a tent, and loading her well up with sufficient
provisions for a week. Then putting out to sea, we steered northward
in order to reach the west coast of the island in the vicinity of the camp
we had left in the morning. At Vogel Hook we were compelled to run
for shelter into a cove, on account of a heavy sea and wind which got up
from the westward. We were ashore for about two hours, investigating
the wonderful bird rookeries, first discovered by Barents in 1596.
The vegetation was luxuriant with rich mosses, scurvy grass, and
many Arctic plants. Birds were countless — Bruennich's guillemots,
puffins, little auks, dovekeis, kittiwake gulls, burgomaster gulls, skuas,
fulmar petrels, pink-footed geese, purple sandpipers, and snow buntings.
The sea and wind subsiding somewhat, we continued our course round
Vogel Hook to the westward, and with some difficulty effected a landing
about one mile south of Vogel Hook on the west coast, as there was too
much sea for us to continue our voyage southward. It became necessary
therefore to push southward overland, that we might reach the camp
gear which we had left in the morning and bring it back to this new
camp further to the north. It was fortunate that we had our tent this
night, for it began to rain, a rain which was to continue almost without
halting for the next fortnight.
The camp was a most picturesque one, lying near the rugged, rock-
bound, reefy shore, on which the wild western sea broke furiously,
threatening our boats and gear, which we had to haul well up on shore
that they might not be carried away. Eising at the back of us was a
short and sharp talus, surmounted by a precipitous cliff of hard old sand-
stone, probably belonging to the Hekla Hook series. The innumerable
birds in these cliffs gave us a continual concert with their myriad voices,
while the barking of foxes, curious at our intrusion, resounded from the
caverned taluses of massive fallen rocks ; every now and then one more
curious than the rest would approach us, though with the greatest
148
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
caution. We discovered two lairs of foxes in the talus, and attempted
to dig them out, following their position by their continuous growling
and barking. It was soon obvious, however, that this attempt was
absolutely futile, for the lairs communicated with one another by endless
galleries between the interstices of the large loose rocks.
We had now been ashore for a week, and even in this short time had
recorded more definite information of Prince Charles Foreland than we
Scottish party's camp on west coast one mile soutli of Vogel Hook.
had been able to gather together from the books and records of more than
three centuries. We had made a survey in the neighbourhood of Vogel
Hook ; we had some more exact idea of the nature of the rocks ; we
knew definitely many of the mammals and birds that inhabited the
island ; and had collected up to this time twenty-four species of flower-
ing plants.
AVe remained at this camp until the 1st of August, during which
time the weather was continuousl}- bad. Gale followed gale and heavy
seas broke on the reefy shore, blowing the sj^ray right over the lower
land. Fog and mist prevailed almost continuously, and heavy rain was
PRINCE CHARLES FORELAND. 149
the order of the day. Occasionally for au hour there might be a blink
of sunshine, only to be followed again by thick, wet, stormy weather.
An idea of the stormy weather may be had from the fact that we Avere
never able during this fortnight even to think of launching the boat.
On the 31st of July, however, we actually had a chance of attempting
it, but after trying twice found it impossible owing to the heavy seas.
If it was at all possible, we were due at the base camp that night, as
the Prince had arranged to call there on the 1st of August to see how we
were getting on. We were preparing to walk across when the weather
got worse and we had to abandon all thought even of this landward
march. Although we were able to do little in the way of survey, we
made a number of local excursions and got to know intimately the whole
of the north end of the Foreland. We collected plants and, cramped up
in our tent, pressed quite a number.^ We also made a complete collection
of the rocks- of the neighbourhood, and searched long but vainly for
fossils, thus confirming the records of Xathorst and Garwood as to the
sterility of these beds. Several foxes were shot, for they became more
daring day by day as their young grew more mature and able to look
after themselves. Altogether we saw fully a hundred foxes in the
course of this fortnight.
There are two kinds of foxes in Prince Charles Foreland as in
the rest of Spitsbergen, where there may also be a third. The two
on the Foreland are probably dimorphic forms of the same species.
One is a bluish-grey colour all over, while the other appears to be what
is known in Russia as the Cross Fox. On its under parts it is Avhite,
but down the back from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail runs
a broad pale brownish band, which is crossed by two similar bands in
the limb regions. From the many adults and young that Ave saw it
would appear at least to be the rule that the uniformly dark-coloured
fox breeds more or less separately from the lighter cross form. We
haA^e at least no record of having seen mixed parents or litters. This
may even point to their being separate varieties. Towards the end of
August several very light cross foxes were seen, and one was shot.
Foxes were the only mammals Ave had seen on the island till noAv, but
Ave met Avith the bones of reindeer and bears, and saw an occasional seal
in the water, but later on I saw two reindeer. Birds were, as I have said,
plentiful, and Ave had many opportunities in this veritable Bird-land of
recording the species to be found and of Avatching their habits. On the
25th of July the young guillemots, Avho were for the most part already
hatched Avhen Ave arrived, began to take to the water, and by midnight
several hundreds, perhaps thousands, were swimming about Avith their
parents who came doAvn Avith them. Those Avhich dropped on the land
Avere at once seized by burgomaster gulls or foxes, both of Avhich lay
constantly in Avait for a dainty meal of young loom. The burgies also
attacked the young loom in the water, but here the parents made a
vigorous defence and drove them off. Kittiwake and burgomaster gulls,
1 The plants are being examined and described by Mr. R. N. Rudmose Brown, B.Sc.
- The rocks and fossils are being examined and described by Mr. Campbell.
150 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
black guillemots, little auks, razorbills and puffins were all breeding on
these cliffs at Vogel Hook and for two miles southward along the west
coast of the island. Eider ducks and pink-footed geese, both adults and
young, were very numerous along the shores, but curiously enough we
never found the nests or eggs of either, except on one occasion when we
came upon a single deserted duck's egg. Arctic skuas bred on the
plains, where we found their nests, and snow buntings' nests with eggs
or young were frequentlj'^ found in crannies. We found the young, but
not the egg, of the purple sandpiper.^
There are many graves on this and other parts of the island ; the
remains of boiling stations and huts ; abandoned boats and wreckage — all
relics of the former great whaling industry, when Dutch, French, and
British settlers lived and died on this island as on many parts of the
mainland of Spitsbergen. Most of these graves have been burrowed
out by foxes, and the skeletons lie exposed in rude lidless coffins,
weathered and worn. Here and there is a board or a solitary cross,
whose inscription indicates the name and nationality of the dead and the
time at which he lived on the Foreland. I have in some cases read
dates back to the beginning of the seventeenth century, and this well
accords with what we know of the activity of the whaling industry in
these parts three hundred years ago.
Like many other Arctic lands there is an abundance of driftwood,
especially on the west coast, and one notable feature is that a very large
proportion is from the wreckage of wooden boats, possibly mostly
Avrecked walrus sloops. This, with the invaluable though scattered
supply of birch bark, is excellent fuel, and was always used by us when-
ever possible.
On the 1st August, leaving our camp as it stood and only securing
it against weather and the ravages of foxes, we marched over to the base
camp, and in the afternoon, as neither the Princesse Alice nor the
Kvedfjord had arrived, walked three miles to the southward, where we
discovered eight Dutch graves. We also saw two great northern
divers — a new record for Spitsbergen. At 9.30 P.M. we sighted the two
ships, curiously miraged, and they anchored fully two miles from the land
in 5i fathoms at 11.30 P.M. Xext day the weather was very fine, and
at 7 A.M. we were awakened by Wedderburn's welcome Scottish voice
outside the tent. He had come ashore with letters and parcels. We
were on board about 9 A.M. The Prince was at the gangway to meet
us and gave us a hearty greeting. He had visited Wiide Bay and
Danes Gat and had met Isachsen's party and Wellman's Expedition.
We enjoyed the luxury of a hot bath, and then, after having gathered
some necessaries, such as ropes, canvas, etc., we lunched on board at 11
and left for the shore soon after noon. The Prince took his departure
at 1 o'clock to the NW. to make a balloon ascent. This was the last
we saw of the ships until the 26th of August. In the afternoon I got
good sights for longitude, having compared my chronometers with those
1 Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc, "The Mammals and Birds of Prince Charles Forelaud," liy
Wm. S. Bruce, F.R.S.E., read November 2C, 1906.
PRINCE CHARLES FORELAND. 151
on board the yacht. The rest of the time was spent in continuing the
geodetic work, first of all round the north end of the island joining our
eastern with our western survey. We extended the eastern survey to a
point about 8 miles southward from the Vogel Hook and the western
to a distance southward of over 20 miles. In all we mapped in great
detail an area of about 120 square miles, that being, roughly, the
northernmost third of the island.^
The topographical features of Prince Charles Foreland are striking,
and as there is no accurate description given in any publication, it may
be well to give a general account of these features as far as we know
them at the present date.
The British Admiralty Chart of Spitsbergen, No. 2751, published in
1865 under the superintendence of the late Captain G. H. Eichards,
with corrections up to 1901, gives our present-day standard map of
Prince Charles Foreland. This map is far from correct, and in many
ways much less accurate than some of the older maps. Edge's map of
Spitsbergen, published in 1625, reveals details which I know to exist
and which have been obliterated in the British Admiralty chart. Edge's
map has been recently emphasised by Sir Martin Conway.^
Prince Charles Foreland is a long island lying off the west coast of
Spitsbergen between King's Bay and Ice Fjord ; it is separated from
the mainland by a channel known as Foreland Sound, of which we know
very little. This channel is, however, certainly so shallow that in parts
it may, as has been supposed, present a complete bar to all vessels from
10 or 12 feet of draught. But this is not altogether so certain as
has been believed up to the present day, for the series of rough sound-
ings which I took on board the Kvedfjord indicate that we may have
3 or 4 fathoms of water as the least depth of the navigable channel.
The water appears on the whole to deepen towards the east coast of the
Foreland, but it is dangerous to make many statements, for as yet the
channel is entirely unsurveyed. The Prince of Monaco's work in
Close Cove and between Close Cove and Vogel Hook, and some
soundings I have taken, throw preliminary light on the conformation of
sea bottom at the northern end of the Sound.
Making the usual approach to the island from the southward, or
probably from a little to the west of south, one's first impression is
that there are two islands, and one has to be very close to the coast
before one can see that there is actually continuous land where at first
sight a channel appears to exist. The Foreland stretches from about
78° 10' N. to almost 79° N.,and lies roughly between the longitudes of 10"
and 13° E. It is divided into three regions, the small hilly portion
occupying 6 or 8 miles of its southern extremity, and the extensive
flat-lying portion, probably nowhere more than 20 feet above the sea,
occupying roughly the next 8 or 10 miles of its length, while the
remaining three-quarters of the island consist of an almost continuous
1 This uiap is iu the course of coustructiou, and will be published later. [Meantime a
reproduction of the latest British Admiralty chart is given.
2 No Man's Land. Sir Martin Conway. Cambridge University Press. Pp. 334-335.
152
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
range of mountains, extending right up to A'ogel Hook — the northern
point of the Foreland, This range of mountains, it is interesting to
note, contains some of the highest peaks of the Spitsbergen archi-
Prince Charles Forelaml and part of West Spitsbergen.
(From tlie Admiralty Chart, 1901.)
pelago. la all the Foreland measures about 50 to 55 miles in length,
and has an average breadth of about 6 miles. The mountains forming
its backbone rise almost always precipitously, and the ridge is only
broken here and there by a rough pass from east to west. They do
not, however, as a rule rise straight up from the sea, as they have been
>l
PRINCE CHARLES FORELAND. 153
said to do. There is almost invariably along the whole of the west
coast a low-lying terraced plain (old raised beaches), the highest terraces
of which do not reach a height of more than 50 or 60 feet, and this plain
is for the most part half a mile to two miles broad. At the back of
the plain rise the mountains with steep taluses and precipitous cliffs.
In the middle portion of the Foreland, towards the southern extremity
of the mountain range which we are at present dealing with, a number
of glaciers find an exit, but none of them reach the sea as they appear
to do, to any one sailing along the coast, but terminate on the landward
side of these raised beaches. There are no glaciers at all in the northern
part of the island. The east coast presents the same features as the
west coast AA'ith regard to raised beaches, but they are more exten-
sive, the foot of the mountains being sometimes three miles from the
sea. The slopes of the mountains also are less precipitous on the
eastern than on the western side of the land. The middle third of
the Foreland along the east coast is most fully glaciated, and for about
12 miles there is an almost continuous ice-face entering the sea. These
great glaciers have their gathering ground amongst the highest of the
mountains that exist in the island. The altitude of the highest
hill has been estimated by various people, but from exact observa-
tions made on the island I was able to measure its height as being
3850 feet.
These terraced raised beaches, which form such a marked characteristic,
are dotted over with innumerable shallow fresh-water lakes, and brackish
or sea-water lagoons which stretch along the shore. Some of the lagoons
are very large, and there is one notable one which appears on Edge's
chart, which has been wiped out by more modern cartographers. This
lagoon lies on the east coast at the head of a bay opposite English Bay,
and is obliterated on all recent maps. It has an excellent entrance
from the sea through which a boat, of considerable draught, can enter
at high tide. The breadth of this lagoon is fully a mile, while its length
is from 3 to 4 miles, and inside the water is of considerable depth. It
appeared to me an interesting place for the naturalist : for here, with
a good supply of fresh sea-water, protected from the violence of the
waves and the rending of driving ice, many forms of animal life find a
quiet home. These lagoons, and some of the fresh-water lakes also, are
the resort of pink-footed and brent geese, of eider ducks, and innumer-
able red-throated divers. Purple sandpipers dart along their shores, and
occasionally a rarer bird, as for instance the sanderling and its young,
which we discovered breeding here, and which is a new record for
Spitsbergen. Kittiwake and burgomaster gulls also, especially after
the breeding season, make their resting place here, Avhile arctic terns are
to be found flitting across, and nesting in the neighbourhood of, almost
every lagoon.
The plains are, moreover, crossed at right angles by a number of
burns and rivers which are fed from the snows and glaciers of the
higher land. The amount of water present varies considerably in accord-
ance with the time of year. In the early summer there is a very full
supply ; but as the store of snow becomes diminished later on, and as
154 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
frost binds the land the water which flows from this snow, n6ve, or even
glacier also diminishes, and in autumn it may be difficult to find a
suitable camping-place, through lack of even a small spring to furnish
necessary water.
There is a marked difference in the vegetation of the east and of the
west, the west being very much more luxuriant than the east, which is
often absolutely barren for miles. More of the big bird rookeries also
are to be found on the west coast, and in their neighbourhood the soil
is always considerably fertilised, and vegetation consequently more
abundant. Mosses, scurvy grass, tall sulphur buttercups, many saxi-
frages, small rosaceous plants and the arctic willow carpet and beautify
the land. But even on the west coast there are sterile parts, and one
not unfrequently passes abruptly from the flowery region into a veritable
desert. A sign of luxuriant vegetation in the past in certain places is
shown by considerable deposits of peat, which we used for fuel.
Nathorst was probably correct in referring to the rocks at the place
he visited south of Cape Cold as silurian rocks of the Hecla Hook
series, but, like all others, even this eminent geologist was unable to find
any fossiliferous remains. Garwood was probably only partially correct,
for, as far as I have been able to judge, the rocks of the Hecla Hook
series form the east coast of Prince Charles Foreland except towards the
northern portion. I am further inclined to this opinion by the fact that
at our base camp I was fortunate enough to discover remains of fossil
plants. Many of these are indeterminable, but I obtained good examples
of dicotyledonous leaves and, probably, stems : and also what Dr. Peach
on rough examination considers may be worm-casts. Mr. Campbell,
of the Geological Department of the University, has been good enough
to undertake to work through the material and report ujion it. Moreover,
our chairman Prof. Gregory, one of our few geologists who has actually
visited Spitsbergen and seen the land over which the Scottish party
worked last year, promises to inspect the collections, and will doubtless
be able to help in making a good report of the geology of the Foreland.
Roughly speaking, however, I think I may safely predict that the beds
on the northern part of the east coast of the Foreland are tertiary rather
than silurian, and are of the same series as exist in King's Bay. Half-
way between Yogel Hook and Cape Sitoe are very coarse conglomerates,
which are probably arch?ean and allied to those I have previously met
with in Eed Bay.
During our stay on the island we made continuous meteorological
observations by means of recording instruments, checked by eye observa-
tions, at as frequent intervals as other work would allow. We also
made a number of astronomical observations at tlie eight camps which
formed the centres of our work in the northern third of the island.
These observations have been revised, and I have to thank j\Ir. Thomas
Heath, of the Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, for working up and
classifying the results.
On the 30th August we finally left the Foreland, but with difficulty,
on account of four days' very stormy weather, which made it impossible
for boats to approach the shore. Even on the 30th we had great
"•"PP"!^
PKINCE CHARLES FORELAND. 155
difficulty, having to run the boats through surf, greatly endangering the
re-shipping of our scientific instruments and other gear. On the night
of the 30th we anchored in a sheltered bay with the Kvedfjord ofi'
the large lagoon previously referred to, and during the strong gale
and snowstorm recovered one of our boats which we had left in the
lagoon a week previously. At 8.30 A.M. on the 31st we heaved up
anchor and steamed southward towards Ice Fjord, and, sounding
frequently, I obtained as our least depth 4 fathoms : but mostly the
soundings were over 10 fathoms. We looked into Safe Harbour, and
not finding the yacht there, steamed across to Green Harbour, coming
alongside Frincesse Alice at 4.30 P.M. Fortunately the morning cleared
up, and I took some photographs and sketches of the east coast of
the Foreland, identifying several peaks I had seen from the northward.
I found that several of the peaks seen from the Scottish standard at the
south end of the " Base Line " were the furthest south on the island.
Consequently, with angles taken at some future time from another
suitable point, the position of these peaks will ultimately be very well
fixed. On September 2nd we heaved up anchor and steamed across to
Safe Harbour, in spite of very dull weather and a fresh north-westerly
breeze. On approaching the bay so much ice from the glaciers was
streaming out of it, that the Prince was compelled to abandon his
intention of going in, and heading out of Ice Fjord steamed towards
Tromso. At noon on 3rd September we were 30 miles west of Bear
Island, sailing with the fresh north-westerly breeze. Dr. Richard
found the temperature of the water much cooler in the vicinity of the
Bear Island than either to the north or south of it. During the
evening the foreyard carried away, but so coolly and systematically was
this accident taken in hand that none of us aft knew anything about it
until on going up we found the men stowing away and lashing up the
yard on deck. On the 4th we sighted the northern coast of Norway,
and in sight of the land the Prince made a meteorological balloon ascent
to the height of about 15,000 feet. We anchored at Karlso half an hour
after midnight on September 5th. In the morning we took in the
trammel net, which had been set after our arrival at Karlso, and got a
good haul of fish, and also a number of other interesting zoological
specimens. We reached Tromso at about 2 P.M., and spent most of the
afternoon going over our letters which were awaiting us there. At
6 P.M. Captain Bouree took a photograph of all those who had specially
helped in the exploration work, and afterwards the Prince entertained
Isachsen's and my men in the cabin, toasting us all, and thanking us for
the work we had done. He also told us he would have a special medal
struck to commemorate the accomplishment of the scientific work that
had been carried through on his yacht during the cruise.
Our party on board the yacht, which included representatives from
no less than seven nations — a Babel of tongues — was, however, destined
to have a gloom cast over it next morning, when Captain Henry Carr,
R.N.R., who had sailed for long years with His Highness as shipmaster,
was found lying on the floor of his cabin unconscious and paralysed.
Fortunately both the Prince himself and Captain Bouree were ex-
156 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
perieuced navigators, and there was no difficulty in carrying on properly
the conduct of the ship.
On the 10th September we put in at Trondjhem, and next day
the Princesse Alice left for Havre, instead of for Leith as was at first
intended, on account of the illness of Captain Carr. Thus terminated
the happy connection of the Scottish party with the Princesse Alice,
Kerr, Miller, and myself returning to Scotland by way of Bergen,
Newcastle and Leith.
This is the sum and substance of the Scottish exploration of Prince
Charles Foreland, and the summary of our knowledge with regard to it
up to the present day. It will be seen that much work still remains
to be done, and it is not unlikely that an opportunity may be afforded
me, with a larger party, including scientific men, of completing the survey
of Prince Charles Foreland under the auspices of that spirited inter-
national scientist, His Serene Highness, Albert, Prince of Monaco.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL
SOCIETY.
Meeting of Council.
At a Meeting of Council, held on Monday, January 28th, The Hon.
Lord Guthrie was elected a Vice-President of the Society. The following
ladies and gentlemen were elected Members of the Society : —
Hume Brodie. George Watson. Sir Wm. Willcocks, K.C.M.G.
Mrs. K. L. Beilby. Miss Elizabeth Rodger. Miss M. H. L. Clark.
James S. Davidson. Joha M'Leaii, M.A. Mrs. Pringle of Whytbank.
Dr. William Paterson. Robert T. Morrison. Miss Elizabeth R. Barty, M.A.
Alexander Hutcheson, M.A. James Wilson. Miss Margaret P. D. Stewart.
A. T. Graham. Rev. W. A. Heard, M.A., LL.D. Belpin Behari Ghosal, M.A.
Robert Campbell, M.A., B.Sc. Mrs. Lon Henry Hoover. Stuart Foulis.
Miss Esther Hope Day. James Mathieson. Fred. J. Pack.
The following ladies and gentlemen were elected " Teacher Associate "
Members of the Society : —
Mrs. A. C. Buchanan. Walter Burt, M.A. George Elder.
Miss Ethel M. Lett. Hugh J. C. Kinghorn, M.A. Horace F. M. Munro, M.A.
Miss Isabella Goodlet. Neil Eraser, M.A. Miss Hannah Watson.
H. J. Findlav. Miss Annie A. Dow. Miss C. J. B. Birrell.
J. B lunes, M.A., F.E.I. S. John Miller Nisbet, M.A., Frederick Mort, M.A., B.Sc,
Duncan Brown, CM. B.Sc. F.G.S.
Thomas W. Paterson. James Graham, M.A. Miss E. P. Taylor.
John Grant. John Amlirose, M.A. John Frew, M.A., B.Sc.
Alexander C. S. Scrimgeour, Donald Maclean, M.A. J. C'orrie.
M.A. Miss Christina A. Cameron, Miss Margaret Johnston,
Alexander Sutherland. M.A. A.L.C.M.
Miss Margaret F. Anderson.
Lectures in March.
At Dundee, on the 5th March, Mr. T. G. LongstafF, ]\I.D., F.R.G.S.,
will deliver a lecture entitled " Tours in Central Himalayas and Tibet."
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 157
On the following dates, 6th, 7th, and 8th of March, Mr. Longstaff will
repeat his address before the Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and Glasgow Centres.
On Tuesday 21st March, in Edinburgh, Mr. H. M. Cadell, B.Sc,
will give a lecture entitled "Mountaineering in Mexico."
Sir Harry H. Johnston, G.C.M.Gr., K.C.B., will address the Glasgow
and Dundee Centres on 20th and 21st March respectively. The subject
of his address will be " Liberia."
Owing to Mr. Rudmose Brown's appointment as leader of an Ex-
pedition to the Oyster Pearl Fisheries off the coast of Burma, his lecture
in Aberdeen on 20th March is postponed indefinitely.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Professor Sir William Ramsay, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D. — Our
frontispiece this month represents Professor Sir William Ramsay, of
Aberdeen University, who was presented with the Society's Silver Medal
on the occasion of his address to the Society in Edinburgh on January
31. Sir William Ramsay lectured on "Roads and Railways on the
Plateau of Asia Minor," the region with which his name is so honour-
ably associated.
The frontispiece (the Prince of Monaco) of our last issue was from
a photograph by Lafayette.
Europe.
The Flora of an Island. — In connection with the papers which we
have published here from time to time on the distribution of plants in
Scotland, it is interesting to notice a recent communication to the Trans-
actions of the Edbiburgh Field Nafiimlists' and Microscopical Society (Session
1905-6) by Miss Beatrice Sprague. The paper gives an account of the
flora of an island of shingle in the river Orchy, Dalmally, Argyll, The
island is of recent formation, and consists of beds of coarse shingle, and
of an area where the shingle is covered with river sand. While the
former part is almost bare of vegetation, the latter is thickly clothed.
Vegetation apparently began to grow here about twenty years prior to
the writing of the paper, but did not become noticeable until about five
or six years ago. In spite of the poor soil and liability to flooding, no
less than 143 species of plants were obtained upon the island, of which
137 were flowering plants. A careful study of the sources of the flora
showed that the vast majority of the plants come from the immediate
neighbourhood, nine were mountain plants apparently brought down by
streams, and nine were garden escapes. As is natural under the circum-
stances, an analysis of the plants emphasises the importance of water
rather than of wind carriage.
The Survey of Lake Balaton. — We have received copies of the
liesuUate der IFissenschaftlichenErforschung des Bcdatonsees (Vienna, 1902-6).
In this work, issued by the Balatonsee Commission of the Hungarian
158 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Geographical Society, we have, as indicated by the programme of the
survey, a comprehensive monograph of the great lake of Hungary, Lake
Balaton or the Plattensee — a work on the same lines as Forel's great
monograph on the Lake of Geneva.
The sections of the work now before us deal with such diverse
subjects as Ethnography, Archaeology, Plankton, Light and Colour, etc.,
and one section gives a comprehensive Bibliography.
An instructive comparison might be made of the various phenomena
connected with lakes as exhibited in Lake Balaton and in the Scottish
Lakes. The small but deep lakes of Scotland offer the greatest possible
contrast to the great but shallow Lake Balaton, and there can be no
doubt that the physical as well as biological phenomena will differ
profoundly.
Though comparable for size with the Lake of Geneva, Lake Balaton
has a mean depth of only about 10 feet, and a maximum depth of
scarcely 40 feet. In Scotland the greater lakes are relatively very
deep, and there are only two even moderately large lakes which are very
shallow, viz. Loch Leven and the Loch of Harray in Orkney.
Some of the subjects dealt with have but little direct relation to
lakes, or they have not been studied in that relation in Scotland. A
large volume is devoted to Ethnography. The shores of the Danube,
which have witnessed such great movements of the human race, must
yield a Avealth of material for ethnological studies as compared with our
ever sparsely-peopled Highlands, though the glens and the lochs are
not Avithout profound human interest, and the dwellings of long-passed
races, the duns, and broughs, and crannogs of our lochs have supplied
material for various works.
The sections on biology deal with some portions of the Plankton,
the Diatoms, and the MoUusca.
Dr. Entz points out that only by using the word in its widest sense
can it be said that Lake Balaton has any Plankton, True plankton
forms exist, but there is always a large admixture of littoral and bottom
species which Dr. Pantocsek, in dealing with the Diatoms, calls pseudo-
Plankton. There is an interesting chapter on the variation and the
seasonal forms of Ceratium hirundinella. Dr. Pantocsek gives a list of
nearly 300 species of Diatoms and describes very many new species and
varieties. A very small number of species belong to the active plankton,
and of these AsterioneUa gracilUma is one of the commonest plankton
organisms in Scotland, Ehizosolenia longiseta has been found in some
lochs, but is rare, while Fragilaria crotonensis is frequent in the west and
north of Scotland, where the beautiful variety contorta W. and G. S. West
is found in a number of lochs.
The section on Colour Phenomena includes a chapter on Mirages of
interest in Scotland in view of mirages of a very similar character
observed on Loch Ness. The general effect of these mirages is to raise
distant objects which are below the horizon so that they appear suspended
in air over the horizon. Along a distant receding shoreline the effect
is to raise the shoreline under promontories so that they have the
appearance of overhanging cliffs.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 159
We have never seen on Loch Ness the distinct duplication of the
mirage by reflection which is frequent on Lake Bahiton. The distant
steamer was often greatly exaggerated in size in the vertical direction,
and this may have been due to duplication. The receding steamer,
after disappearing over the horizon, often reappeared when far down the
loch. On one occasion the Fathers in the Benedictine Monastery at
Fort Augustus saw a snow-covered mountain which they judged from
its position to be Ben Wyvis.
Von Cholnolsy explains these mirages as arising when, the lake being
warmer than the air, a layer of warmer air is formed above its surface.
The great volume and depth of Loch Ness cause it to maintain a high
temperature in winter, never falling below 4r0° or 42-0'' Fahr. During
winter the air must be generally at a lower temperature than this,
especially at night ; hence we have the mirages almost every morning.
Asia.
Dr. Sven Hedin's Expedition. — According to a message from
Calcutta, Dr. Sven Hedin reached Gyangtse on February 5, and
expresses himself as delighted with the results of his expedition, the
geographical results being especially rich. He expected to reach
Shigatse at the end of February. The winter at the date of writing
had proved exceptionally severe, with temperatures of 3 1° below zero (F.),
and the whole caravan was lost crossing Tibet, but no loss of human life
occurred ; and the specimens, maps, notebooks, etc., were saved.
Africa.
The Alexander - Gosling Expedition. — Lieutenant Boyd Alex-
ander, with the Portuguese collector .Jose Lopez, the only two survivors
of the Alexander-Gosling Expedition, recently returned to London
from Africa. We have recorded here the course of the expedition up to
Bima on the Welle {see xxii. p. 381 et antea), and the subsequent death
of Captain Gosling, which took place in the vicinity of the Welle. From
Bima it was found impossible to reach Lake Albert, as was intended, so
the party turned north, and after some time had been spent among the
little-known tributaries of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, the Yei was navigated
down to the Nile, after which no further difficulties were encountered.
Polar.
Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. — Information has come
to hand through the British Admiralty regarding the finding of another
float thrown overboard from the Scotia, aft^r a drift of three years. This
bottle was put into the sea on the 14th December 1903, in latitude 40'
32' S., long. 58° 33' W., and was found on the 13th December 1906 on
the ocean beach about 10 miles SE. of the entrance of Port Philip Head,
Victoria, which is approximately in latitude 38° 18'S., long. 144° 50' E.
The float therefore travelled 9355 miles in 1095 days, i.e. 8| miles per
day. This is the second float which has been found on the coast of
Victoria, Australia.
160 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL BlAGAZINE.
New Antarctic Expedition, — Mr. E. H. Shackleton, lately Secre-
tary of the Koyal Scottish Ueographical Society, is organising a new
expedition to antarctic regions, which is to leave this country in October
next. The plans of the new expedition, as meantime outlined, are as
follows : —
On its departure the expedition will proceed to N^ew Zealand, and
thence will go down to the winter quarters of the Discovery in latitude
77° 50' S. After landing a shore party of explorers, the ship will
proceed back to Lyttelton, New Zealand, thus avoiding the risk of being
frozen in like the Discover ij, and in the following year she will return to
pick up the explorers.
If funds permit, the expedition will land a party of men at Mount
Melbourne, on the coast of Victoria Land, and will try to reach from
that point, which is the most favourable, the south magnetic pole ; but
the main object of the explorers is to follow out the discoveries made on
the southern sledge journey from the Discovery.
It is held that the southern sledge party of the Discovery would have
reached a much higher altitude if they had been more adequately
equipped for sledge work ; and in the new expedition, in addition to
dogs, Siberian ponies will be taken, as the surface of the land or ice
over which the party will have to travel will be eminently suited for this
mode of sledge travelling. Further, a novel feature will be the taking
of a special type of motor car suitable for use on the surface of the ice.
The members of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society will cordially
wish that all success may attend Mr. Shackleton's enterprise.
The Anglo-American Polar Expedition. — In our issue of
November last (p. 604), it was indicated that Mr. Mikkelsen felt doubt-
ful of being able to penetrate as far north as he had hoped on account
of the bad state of the ice. A recent communication from the com-
mander of the U.S.A. revenue cutter Thetis, however, indicates that the
expedition was more fortunate than its leader expected. The Duchess of
Bedford was towed into open water by a whaler in early September, and
probably succeeded in reaching Banks Land before the winter.
General.
Dr. Robert Bell, of the Canadian Geological Survey, who has been
a corx'esponding member of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society
since its foundation, has recently been the recipient of the Cullum Medal
of the American Geographical Society, this being the first time that this
medal has been awarded to a geographer who is not a citizen of
the United States. Dr. Bell was also awarded the Patron's Medal
of the Royal Geographical Society of London for 1906. Dr. Bell's
many friends in this country will be glad to hear of this double honour
which has reached him. Dr. Bell's scientific work has extended over
a period of fifty years, and is now bearing fruit, not only in the opening
up of the great hinterland of Canada, but also in the increased interest
which is being taken in the survey of the little-known districts of the
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. IGl
country, an iuteiest which was shown in a recent resolution of the
Canadian Senate.
AVe are glad to notice the name of Mr. W. S. Bruce, leader of the
Scottish National Antarctic Expedition, among those who are to receive
the degree of LL.D. from the University of Aberdeen.
Geographical Congresses. — We are informed that the twenty-
eighth National Congress of French Geographical Societies will be held
at Bordeaux this summer, beginning on July 28. The congress will
coincide with the Maritime Exhibition at Bordeaux, and representatives
of foreign geographical societies are cordially invited to be present.
We have also received a circular of invitation to the sixteenth
Deutsclien Geographcv.tcuj, to be held at Niirnberg, from May 21st-25th
next.
EDUCATIONAL.
Two recent articles by Professor A. Woeikow in Pekrmanns Mitteilungen
(xi., xii.) on the distribution of population over the globe considered in
relation to natural conditions and to human activity, contain much that
teachers will find suggestive and useful. No geographer would, of
course, deny that the distribution of man over the surface of the globe
is determined broadly by geographical conditions, but he must at the
same time admit that, owing to man's peculiar social characteristics, the
distribution at any one period in time is not wholly determined by con-
ditions of relief, of climate, and so forth. If we suppose that a prolific
community establishes itself in some suitable region, then, if the social
bonds are strong and the migratory instinct feeble, this area may
become more densely populated than its resources justify, even though
other suitable areas of the surface of the globe remain inadequately
populated. China is, of course, the typical example of this. Professor
Woeikow's articles, which are illustrated by two very striking maps,
and some very useful tables, are full of interesting facts in regard to the
relation between the natural conditions and the density of population.
He naturally begins by a consideration of the broad conditions,
especially climate, which limit the density of population in different
localities. Probably most teachers have dwelt upon man's adaptability,
and pointed out that climate is on the whole more important in that it
markedly affects plant-life, than for its direct effect on man as organism.
The cost of his food in different climates is of course an important
point, and here Professor Woeikow emphasises the need of fat in cold
climates. He regards fat as the most costly element in a diet, and this
fact limits the possibility of large settlements in very cold regions by
greatly increasing the cost of labour. As the grass family constitutes
man's great source of carbo-hydrates, his distribution is largely deter-
mined by the conditions suitable for the growth of its members.
Professor Woeikow goes on to give some detailed statistics which
are very striking. If we divide the world into five regions — (1) Europe
with the nearer East and North Africa, (2) Southern and Eastern Asia,
VOL. XXIIL M
162 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
(3) Africa exclusive of the region north of the Sahara, (4) America,
and (5) Australasia with the islands of the Pacific — we find that the
first two include more than four-fifths of the total population of the
globe, the Asiatic region having 840 millions as contrasted with the
480 millions in the European region. A glance at a map showing dis-
tribution will serve to show that the above are natural regions in that
they are separated from one another by sparsely populated wastes, etc.
Again, a point of much geographical interest is the fact that more than
half mankind lives between 20° to 40° N. lat. Full of suggestiveness also
is the fact that in the old civilisations of India and China the tendency
is for the population to be uniformly distributed over the surface, while
in the newer civilisations — alike in Europe and in those parts of the
world which have been peopled from Europe — the tendency is for the
greater part of the population to accumulate in large towns. The two
maps illustrate, first, the general distribution of the population of the
globe; and, secondly, the proportion of the community in the different
regions which dwells in large towns, and the contrast between the two
maps is striking in the extreme. As their colouring is broad and
simple, it could be readily transferred to any blank map of the hemi-
spheres for class-teaching purposes.
Teachers who have been interested in the papers on plant geography
which we have published here from time to time will find much of value
in an article by Mr. R. M. Harper, entitled " A Phy togeographical
Sketch of the Altamaha Grit Region of the Coastal Plain of Georgia,"
in Ann. of the New York Acadermj of Sciences, xvii. The article may be
said to be the raw material of geography, rather than geography in the
strict sense, but it is fall of interesting facts, and is illustrated by a
series of photographs which would make admirable lantern slides for
teaching purposes. The area considered is one remarkable for its
geological uniformity over a large area, and with the geological
uniformity comes great uniformity of vegetation. The plants of the
region can be classified into a number of well-defined associations,
which correspond very exactly to slight diff'erences in soil and topo-
graphy, and illustrate very precisely the value of the conception of
plant-associations to the geographer. The greater part of the area is
covered with Pine Barrens, in which the predominating tree is Finns
palustris, a light-loving tree which is sparsely scattered over the area, the
individuals being separated from one another by distances of 20 or
30 feet, thus permitting an amount of herbaceous undergrowth unusual
in forest areas. These Pine Barrens depend upon the presence of a
loamy layer beneath a surface deposit of sand. As the loam passes
gradually into an impermeable clay, and the surface is gently rolling, it
follows that the low ground tends always to be swampy, and the
vegetation of the Barrens passes into a swamp form, with a predominance
of trees or shrubs. On the other hand, where the surface sandy layer is
thick, as in the sandliills of the region, another type of vegetation,
scanty in amount and xerophytic in character, appears.
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE. 1G3
NEW MAPS.
EUROPE.
ORDNANCE SURVEY OF SCOTLAND.— The following publications were issued
from 1st to 30th November 1906 : — One-inch Map (third edition), engraved, in
outline. Sheets 29, 54. Price Is. 6d. each.
Six-inch Maps — (Revised), full sheets, engraved, without contours. Sutherland.
—Sheets 50, 71. Price 2s. 6d. each.
1 : 2500 Scale Maps — (Revised), with Houses ruled, and with Areas. Price 3s.
each. Caithness. — Sheets xvii. 14 ; xviii. 7, 8, 16 ; xix. 1, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
13, 14 ; XX. 9, 13 ; xxiii. 1, 3, 7, 13 ; xxiv. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 16 ; xxv. 1,
2, 9, 10, 13 ; XXVIII. 10, 14, 15 ; xxix. 3, 4, 7, 8, 12, 13, 15, 16 ; xxx. 1, 5, 9 ;
xxxiii. 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 ; xxxiv. 1, 2 (3 and 4), 5, 6, (7
and 11), 9, 10, (13 and 14) ; xxxix. 5, 6.
Note. — There is no coloured edition of these Sheets, and the unrevised
impressions are withdrawn from sale.
The following publications were issued from 1st to 31st December 1906 : — One-
inch Map (third edition), engraved, in outline. Sheets 43, 45. Price Is. 6d. each.
Third edition, engraved, with Hills in brown or black. Sheets 2, 5, 29, 3C, 40, 43,
45, 46, 54, 60. Price Is. 6d. each. Third edition, printed in colours ard folded
in cover, or flat in sheets. Stirling. — Sheet 39. Price — on paper Is. Gd. ; mounted
on linen 2s. ; mounted in sections 2s. 6d.
Six-inch Maps (Revised), full sheets, heliozincographed, with contours. Ross
and Cromarty. — Sheet 42. Price 2s. 6d.
1 : 2500 Scale Maps (Revised), with Houses ruled, and with Areas. Price 3s.
each. Caithness. — Sheets xxv. 5, 6 ; xxxix. 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 13 ; xlii. 4, 8, 11 (12
and 16), 15 ; xliii. 1. Edinburghshire.— Sheets x. 8, 11, 12 ; xi. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11, 12, 13, 14, 15 ; XVII. 2, 3. Sheets x. 4, 7, 10 ; xvii. 1. Price Is. 6d. each.
Note. — There is no coloured edition of these Sheets, and the unrevised
impressions are withdrawn from sale.
The following publications were issued from 1st to 31st January 1907: —
Six-inch and larger Scale Maps. — 1 :2500 Scale Maps (Revised), with House--
ruled, and with Areas. Price 3s. each. Edinburghshire — Sheet xi. 1.
Note. — There is no coloured edition of these Sheets, and the unrevised
impressions are withdrawn from sale.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SCOTLAND.— The following publications were issued
from 1st to 31st December 1906 : — One-inch Map. Sheets 13, 21 (Drift Edition).
Price 4s. each.
MEMOIRS.— The Oil Shales of the Lothians. Part I.— The Geology of the Oil-
Shale Fields : by H. M. C^adell, B.Sc, F.R.S.E., and J. S. Grant Wilson.
Part II.— Methods of working the Oil-Shales : by W, Caldwell. Part III.—
The Chemistry of the Oil-Shales : by D. R. Stewart, F.I.C. Price 4s.
UNITED KINGDOM.— GENERAL MEMOIRS.— Summary of Progress of the Geological
Survey of the United Kingdom and Museum of Practical Geology for 1905.
Price Is.
ADMIRALTY CHARTS, SCOTLAND. — Loch Kishorn and the Approaches to Loch
Carron. Surveyed by Captain Morris H. Smyth, R.N., in H.M. Surveying
Ship Research, 1904-5. Scale, 1 : 10,GOO. Published Nov. 1906. Number
3564 (3644). Price 3s.
Loch Dunvegan, including Bay. Surveyed by Captain Morris H. Smyth,
164 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
R.N., in H.M. Surveying Ship Research, 1905. Scale, 1 : 15,G30. Published
Dec. 1906. Number 3601 (3653). Price 3s.
Presented hy the Hydrographer, The Admiralty, London.
IRELAND.— Map showing the Surface Geology of Ireland, reduced chiefly from the
Ordnance and Geological Surveys under the direction of Sir Archibald Geikie,
D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S., late Director-General of the Geological Survey. Topo-
graphy by J. Bartholomew, F.Pv.G.S. Scale 1 : 633,600 or 10 miles to an
inch. Price 6s., mounted on cloth and in case.
John Bartholometv and Co., Edinburgh.
This map, complete in one sheet, is a minute and accurate reduction of the
sheets of the Geological Survey. The drift and surface geology as here shown
ought to be of much practical value and interest to agriculturists.
ASIA.
ASIA.— Stanford's New Orographical Map of Asia. Compiled under the direc-
tion of H. J. Mackinder. Scale 1 : 8,721,500. In four sheets. 1906.
Price 16s., or 20s. mounted on rollers and varnished.
Edward Stanford, London.
An eflfective school wall-map. The relief of the land is shown by contour lines
and tinted in shades of brown ; the depths of the surrounding seas are shown by
shades of blue. The lettering shows both physical and political features.
CHINA.— General Staff Map of the Province of Chih-Li (southern sheet). Scale
1 : 1,000,000 or about 16 miles to an inch. 1906. Price 2s.
Topographical Section, General Staff, London.
CHINA.— General Staff Map of the Province of Ho-Nan. Scale 1 : 1,000,000 or
about 16 miles to an inch. 1906. Price 2s. 6d.
Toptographical Section, General Staff] London.
AFRICA.
AFRIKA.— Justus Perthes' Wandkarte von Afrika zur Darstellung der Boden-
bedeckung mit 8 Kiirtchen zur Entdeckungsgeschichte und 14 Bildnissen
beriihmter Afrikaforscher. Bearbeitet von Paul Langhans. Scale 1 : 7,500,000.
Preis, 9 Mark. Jnstus Perthes, Gotha.
This effective map, composed of the plates from Stieler's Atlas, is coloured to
show the characteristic land-surface features, with political colouring superimposed
in narrow bands. A series of inset maps shows the progress of exploration during
the nineteenth century. The interest of the map is further enhanced by portraits
of the leading explorers.
EGYPT. — Bartholomew's Tourist Map of Egypt and the Lower Nile, prepared from
the latest surveys. Scale 1 : 1,000,000 or 16 miles to an inch. With inset
maps of Alexandria, Cairo, and Upper Egypt. Price 3s. Mounted on cloth.
John Bartholomew and Co., Edinburgh.
Tins map extends from the Delta to Wady Haifa. For a general map of
Egypt there is nothing more complete than this new map.
BAHR EL GHAZAL.— General Staff Map on Scale of 1 : 1,000,000, or about 16 miles
to an inch. 19ii6. Price 2s.
NEW MAPS. 1G5
ORANGE RIVER.— (Provisional) General Staff Map on Scale of 1 : 1,100,000, parts
of Sheets 127 and 128.
Topofjraphical Section, General Staff, London.
EAST EQUATORIAL AFRICA. — Anglo-German Boundary, Triangulation Charts of
the British Commission, in 3 Sheets. Scale 1 : 400,000. 1906.
To2)ographical Section, General Staff, London.
SIERRA LEONE.— General Staff Map on Scale of 1 : 250,000, or about 4 miles to an
inch. Sheets— Sherbro Island, Freetown, Falaba, Panguma, Karina, Banda-
Juma. 1906. Price Is. 6d. each Sheet.
UGANDA.— General Staff Map on Scale of 1 : 250,000, or about 4 miles to an inch.
Sheets— 86-A, 86-e, 86-i, 86-m, 86-n. 1906. Price Is. 6d. each Sheet.
ToiiograiiMcal Section, General Staff, London.
AMERICA.
CANADA.— Standard Topographical Map. Scale 1 : 250,000 or about 4 miles to an
inch. Sheets 1 NW. and 1 NE., Guelph, Ontario. James White, F.E.G.S.,
Geographer. 1906. Department of the Interior, Ottawa.
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.— Geologic Atlas— Redding Folio, Cali-
fornia ; Dover Folio, Delaware and Maryland ; St. Mary's Folio, Maryland
and Virginia ; Snnqualmie Folio, Washington ; Milwaukee Special Folio,
AVisconsin. Price 25 cents each folio.
United States Geological Survey, Washington, B.C.
ATLASES AND WORLD MAPS.
THE M.P. ATLAS. — A Collection of Maps showing the Commercial and Political
Interests of the Britit^h Isles and Empire thiou^'hout the World. 1907.
Price 25s. net. W. & A. K. Johnston, Limited, Edinburgh and London.
It appears that this Atlas is intended not only for the special use of " Members
of Parliament," as its title might seem to imply, but the abbreviation " M.P." is to
be taken in its widest interpretation, and may therefore stand either for
"Merchant Princes," "Maternal Parents," or any other form of extension as occa-
sion may require ! The Atlas deals with the British Empire and its world rela-
tions. The 41 plates contain a series of 53 maps mostly selected from Messrs.
Johnston's well-known "Royal Atlas" and other -woiks. The platts are revised
to date and effectively printed in colours. There is no index.
ATLAS OF THE "WORLD'S COMMERCE. —A new series of maps with descriptive
text and diagrams showing Products, Imports and Exports, Commercial Con-
ditions and Economic Statistics of the Countries of the World. Compiled
from the latest official returns at the Edinburgh Geographical Institute, and
edited by J. G. Bartholomew, F.R.S.E. Complete in 22 parts. Part 14
contains World Maps illustrating Climate and Diseases, Density of Popula-
tion, Races, Religions, Languages, Commercial Development, Comparative
Population and Wealth. Part 15 contains World Maps showing British
Consulates, Railways, Naval Stations, Isochronic Travel Lines and National
Tariffs, also Wealth and Population of British Isles. Part 16 contains World
Maps showing Postal and Telegraphic communication ; also British Isles,
Industrial ; Europe Industrial, and India Agricultural and Industrial. Price
6d. each part. George Newnes, Limited, London.
1G6 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
ATLAS UNIVERSEL DE GEOGRAPHIE.— Commence par M. Vivien de Saint-Martin
et continue par Fr. Schrader. Nr. 77, Etats-Unis (Region du Nord-Est)
Echellc, 1 : 3,000,000. Price 2 francs. 1906.
Librairie Hachetteet Cie., Paris.
L'ANNEE CARTOGRAPHIQUE.— Seizieme Annee, 1906. Dresse et redige sous la
direction de Fr. Schrader. Price 3 francs.
Librairie Hachette et Cie., Paris.
The maps in this issue show the frontier changes in Soulh America and Africa
for 1905. Tliere is also an interesting series of maps showing the latest researches
in the Ethnography of Russia.
GROSSER DEUTSCHER KOLONIAL-ATLAS.— Bearbeitet von Paul Sprigade und Max
Moisel. Herausgegeben von der Kolonial-Abteilung des auswiirtigen Anits.
Lieferung 5 : Nr. 1, Erdkarte zur Uebersicht des Deutschen Kolonialbesitses.
Nr. 26. Togo, Siidliches Blatt, 1 : 500,000. Nr. 16, 19, Deutsch-Ostafrika,
Usumbura Blatt und Udjidji Blatt, 1 : 1,000,000. 1906. Price 4m.
Dietrich Reimer {Ernst Vohsen), Berlin.
Although the parts of this atlas aie somewhat slow in appearing, yet the delay
is so far justified by the excellence of the maps, which, in their completeness ai.d
beauty of execution, are high-class specimens of cartography.
MULTUM IN PARVO ATLAS of the World, with Descriptive Text and complete
Index. New and revised edition. 1907. Price 2s. 6d.
W. S A. K. Johnston, Limited, Edinburgh and London.
THE WORLD.— Chart on Mercator's Projection. The World-Wide Seiies of Office
and Library Maps. Mounted on cloth and folded in case. Price 15s.
W. dc A. K. Johnston, Limited, Edinburgh and London.
This is a new edition of jMessrs. Johnston's well-known wall map revised to
date.
PHILIP'S PROGRESSIVE ATLAS of Comparative Geography. Edited by P. II.
L'Estrange, B.A. 172 Maps and Diagrams on 72 Plates, with complete
Index. Price 3s. 6d. net. George Philip & Son, Ltd., London.
This atlas consists of the maps from Mr. L'E&trange's admirable text-book of
geography which we have already commended.
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Arab and Druze at Home: A Record of Travel and Intercourse with the
Peoples of the Jordan. By Rev. William Ewing, M. A. Illustrated. Demy 8vo.
Pp. xii + 180. Price 5.s. net. T. C. and E. C. Jack, Edinburgh, 1907.
The Desert and the Sown. By Gertrude Lowthtax Bell. Illustrated.
Demy 8vo. Pp. xvi-F347. Price 16s. net. William Heinemann, London,
1907.
Under the Absolute Amir. By Frank A. Martin. Illustrated. Demy Svo.
Pp. xii + 330. Price lOs. 6«/. net. Harper and Brothers, London, 1907.
The Dominion of Canada, ivith Neicfoundland, and an Excursion to Alaska.
" Handbook for Travellers." By Karl Baedeker. With thirteen Maps and
twelve Plans. (Tiiird Edition.) Pp. Ixiv -f331. Price G marhs. Karl Paedekfr
Leipzig, 1907.
BOOKS KECEIVED. 167
The Natives of Uritisk Central Africa. By A. Wkrner. ("The Native
Rices of the British Empire.") Illustrated. 8vo. Pp. xii + 303. Price 6s. 7id.
Archibald Constable, London, 1907.
Qcograiihy in War. By Colonel E. S. May, C.B., C.M.G. Cr. 8vo. Pp. 61.
Price 2s. net. Hugh Rees Ltd., London, 1907.
" Verb. Sai)." on Going to East Africa, British Central Africa, Uganda, and
Zanzibar, and Big Game Shooting in East Africa. Edition 1906. With
SAvahali Vocabulary. Pp. 72. Price 2.s. 6f/. net. John Ball and Sons, London,
1906.
The Sacred Grove and Other Impressions of Italy. By Stanhope Bayley.
Cr. 8vo. Pp. 132. Price 4s. 6d. net. Elkin Mathews, London, 1907.
Cook's Handbook for Palestine and Syria. New Edition, thoroughly Revised
by the Rev. J. E. Hanauer and Dr. E. G. Masterman of Jerusalem. Pp.
viii + 424. Price 7s. 6d. net. Thomas Cook and Son, London, 1907.
A Grammar of the Bemba Language as Sjwken in North-East Rhodesia. By
Rev. Father Schoeffer. Edited by J. H. West Siieane, B.A. (Camb.)
Arranged, with Prefiice, by A. C. Madan, M.A. Extra fcap. 8vo. Cloth.
Pp. 72. Price 2s. 6d. net. The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1907.
Moorish Remains in Sjfain; being a Brief Record of the Arabian Conquest
of the Peninsula, with a Particular Account of the Mohammedan Architecture and
Decoration in Cordova, Seville, and Toledo. By Albert F. Calvert. 4to.
Pp. XX + 586. Price 42s. net. John Lane, London, 1907.
The Alhambra; being a Brief Record of the Arabian Conquest of the Penin-
sula, with a Particular Account of the Mohammedan Architecture and Decora-
tion. By Albert F. Calvert. 4to. Pp. xx + 586. Price 42.s. net. John Lane,
London, 1907.
Coni2}arative Art. By Edwin Swift Balch. 4to. Pp. 209. Allen,
Lane and Scott, Philadelphia, 1907.
Hunting Big Game loith Gun and with Camera: A Record of Personal
Experiences in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. By William S. Thomas.
Illustrated. Demy 8vo. Pp. x + 240. Price 9s. net. J. P. Putman's Sons,
London, 1907.
Highways and Byways in Berkshire. By James Edmund Vincent. With
Illustrations by Frederick L.Griggs. Ex. Cr. 8vo. Pp. xAi + 443. Price 6s.
each. Macmillan and Co., Loudon, 1906.
A Travers V Amerique du Sud. Par J. Delebecque. 16mo. Pj). viii + 314.
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The Egypt of the Future. By Edward Dicey, C.B. Cr. 8vo. Pp. vi-l 216.
Price 3s. 6d. net. AVilliam Heinemann, London, 1907.
Impressions of a Wanderer. By M. C. Mallik. Cr. 8vo. Pp. xvii 232.
Price 5s. T. Fisher UnAvin, London 1907.
At the Back of the Black Man's Mind; or, Notes ou the Kingly Office in
West Africa. By R. C. Dennett. Demy 8vo. Pp. xvi + 288. Price 10s. net.
Macmillan and Co., London, 1907.
Sport and Travel : Abyssinia and British East Africa. By Lord Hindlip,
F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. Illustrated. Demy 8vo. Pp. 332. Price 21s. net. T. Fisher
L^Qwin, London, 1907.
168 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
The Opal Sea. By Joux C. Vax Dvke. Cr. 8vo. Pp. xviii + 262. J. AVerner
Laurie, London, 1907.
The Sudan: A Short Compendium of Fads fl.nd Figures ahoul the Land of
Darhiess. By H. Karl W. Kumm, Ph.D., F.R.G.S., etc. With an Introduction
by the late Mrs. Karl Kumm {nee Lucy Guinne.ss). Demy 8vo. Pp. xiv + 22-1.
Price 3s. 6(?. iid. Marshall Brothers, London, 1907.
Indian Fidures and Problems. By Ian Malcolm. Demy 8vo. Pp. xvi + 294.
Price 105. ^d. net. E. Grant Richards, London, 1907.
Lyonesse: A Handhooli for the Isles of Scillij. By J. C Tonkix and
Prescott Row. With a Special Introduction by the late Sir Walter Besaxt.
Cr. 8vo. Pp. 136. Price Is. net. The Homeland Association Ltd., London,
1907.
Cook's Handbook for Erjypt and the Sudan. By E. A. Wallis Budge, M,A.,
Litt.D. (Second Edition.) Cr. 8vo. Pp. xxi + 911. Price lOs. net. Thomas
Cook and Son, London, 1907.
Tlie Harz : The Most Beautiful Mountain Region of Northern Germany.
With an Introduction by Hans Hoffmann of Weimar. Pp. 109. Rud. Stolle,
Bad Harzburtr, 1905.
The Pocket Guide to the West Indies. By Algernon E. Aspinall. Cr. 8vo.
Pp. xii + 316. Price 6s.
The '■^ Lloi/d" Guide to Australasia. Illustrated. Edited by A. G. Plate
for Norddeutscher Lloyd, Bremen. Cr. Bvo. Pp. ix + 469. Price 6s. Edward
Stanford, London, 1907.
Gravesend : The Water-gate of London, tvith its Surroundings. By Alex. J.
Philip. Cr. 8vo. Pp. 128. Price Is. net. The Homeland Association Ltd.,
London, 1907.
Report on the Dominion Government Expedition to Hudson Bag and (he Arctic
Islands on board tlu D.G.S. ''Neptune," 1903-4. By A. P. Low, B.Sc, F.R.G.S.
Demy 8vo. Pp. xviii + 355. Geological Survey, Ottawa, 1907.
La Penetration Saharienne (18.30-1906). Par Augustin Bernai:d et N.
Lacroix. Pp. x-f 195. Imprimerie Algerienne, Alger, 1906.
Britain and the British Seas. By H. J. Mackinder, INI.A. ("Regions of the
World Series.") Second Edition. Demy 8vo. Pp. xii + 375. Pricels.6d.net.
At the Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1906.
Also the following Reports, etc. : —
Report on the Administration of the Madras Presidency during the year 1905-
1906. Madras, 1906.
Madras District Gazetteer. Four Volumes. Madras, 1906.
Distrid Gazetteer of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudli. By II. R.
Nevill, I.C.S., F.R.G.S. Volume xx. Allahabad, 1906.
Central Province District Gazetteers. Edited by R. V. Russell, I.C S.
Allahabad, 1906.
Facts about Nev: Zealand. Pp. 21. Issued by New Zealand Department uf
Tourist and Health Resorts. Wellington, 1907.
Piiblishers forwarding books for review will greatly oblige by marking the price in
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THE SCOTTISH
GEOGRAPHICAL
MAGAZINE.
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IN KEGIONAL GEOGRAPHY.
By Marion I. Newbigin, D.Sc. (Lond.).
{With Maps and Illustrations.)
The Canton Valais is a region famous not only for that beauty of
scenery which year by year attracts an increasing number of visitors,
but also because of its great scientific interest. In a previous paper
(xxii. p. 285) there was published here a study of a Scottish region,
which is remarkable for its cool, damp climate, and for the
antiquity of the land surface. The Highland area has been for a pro-
longed period a land surface, and its mountains and rivers have long
since passed into geographical old age. It is far otherwise with the
area now to be considered. In its present form the Swiss Yalais is of
geologically recent origin, and its rivers and mountains are only in
process of settling about a position of equilibrium. Every here and
there one may perceive indications of this fact in the landslips which —
old or new — disfigure the mountain-sides, and the same evidence of
immaturity is to be discerned in the river-systems. Very different also
is the climate, and with climatic differences come differences in natural
products, and in the whole mode of life of the inhabitants. Further,
the geologically recent origin means that the rocks of the Valais are of
quite different type from those which cover such vast areas in the
Scottish Highlands, and this naturally produces a difference in the soil
which is of great geographical importance. Again, Avhile the Highlands
have been isolated from the dawn of history, the Yalais, to some extent
at least, has always served as a route between the countries to the north
and south of the Alps, and finally, while the Highland area shows merely
traces of a past glaciation, much of the Valais is still in the Glacial
period, so that the contrasts are many and obvious.
VOL. XXIII. N
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IX REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY. 171
The Canton Valais has an area of 5220 kilometres/ 2015 square
miles, and may be described in brief as including the upper Ehone
valley from the source of that river to its entrance into Lake Geneva.
The accompanying map shows the boundaries in detail. It will be seen
that, roughly speaking, the canton is bounded to the south by the great
chain of the Pennine Alps, including the highest mountains of Switzer-
land, and to the north by the great mountain wall of the Bernese Alps.
The southern and eastern boundaries of the canton are formed by the
Italian frontier, the western by the frontier of Savoy, which debouches
on the Lake of Geneva at St. Gingolph. The northern boundary is
formed by the Ehone itself, from its entrance into the lake to the
vicinity ofEvionnaz, and then by the watershed of the Bernese Alps.
"Within this area the course taken by the Rhone is very striking.
Beginning at its origin at the Ehone glacier we have first a steep
Alpine stretch, extending in a north-east to south-west direction down
to the town of Brig. At Brig the river bends somewhat to the west,
but runs with a general south-west direction down to Martigny.
Throughout this second region the valley floor is wide and flat, and has
evidently at no very distant period lodged one or more lakes. The
flat valley bottom is still very liable to flooding, and to obviate the risk
of inundation the towns are built for the most part on the cones brought
down by the lateral streams. At INIartigny the river takes a sharp
bend — the "elbow" of the Ehone, and turning almost at right angles to
its previous course, runs north-west to the Lake of Geneva. With this
change of direction the river valley changes its form, seems to break
through between the great mountain masses of the Dent du Midi and
the Dent de Morcles, and forms a narrow, steep-sided gorge, which in
the vicinity of St. Maurice is a mere defile, so narrow as to be readily
fortified. Between St. Maurice and Bex the character of the valley again
alters and we enter upon a. flat swampy area which is obviously merely a
silted-up part of the bed of the lake. It may be well to emphasise here
the existence of these diff"erent regions in the valley, for the climate and
therefore the products of each show considerable variations. To sum up
briefly : from the present boundary of Lake Geneva to beyond Bex -we
have a wide, swampy, flat area, which is geographically part of the lake
region ; then comes a narrow region, running north-west to south-east,
too narrow to be fully warmed by the sun, and fully exposed to the
cold north-west winds which sweep up it from the Jura ; then a wide,
sheltered, warm area, almost Italian in character, stretching from
Martigny upwards to the vicinity of Brig, and there passing into the
Alpine region, naturally colder, which ends with the birth of the infant
Ehone from its great glacier. Now the characters, whether of climate,
of the natural flora, or of the cultivated plants, which can be definitely
stamped as typically Valaisian are confined to the warm stretch from
Martigny upwards, and to the larger lateral valleys opening into it.
1 Erich Uetriclit, Die Ablation der Rhone in ihrem Walliser Einzugs-gebiete im Jahre
1904-1905. Inaugural-Dissertation der Philosopliischen Facultat Bern z. Erlangung d.
Doctorwiirde, Berue, 1906. Abstract in La Geogmphie, xv. p. 37. Reclus gives the figxire
as 5257 kilometres {Nouvelle Geographie Universelle. iii. p. 127).
172 SCOTTISH GEOGRAl'lIICAl, MAGAZINE
A glance at the map will show that the crest of the Bernese Alps is
much nearer the Rhone than the crest of the Pennines, or, in other
words, that the northern lateral valleys are short and steep, while the
southern valleys are much longer. It is a natural consequence that the
human habitations for the most part occur in the southern valleys, the
northern valleys being much more sparsely populated. One reason is, of
course, that as temperature diminishes with elevation a larger area is
available on the south side for the growth of crops, or of grass, than on
the steep northern side. Those areas of natural grass, growing at high
elevations, which in Switzerland are called alps, are indeed few on the
northern side, and as we shall see, the economic life of the Valais is
based in large part upon these alps. We shall in consequence be chiefly
interested here in the southern valleys. Without stopping to consider
these tributary valleys in detail, it may be well simjjly to mention one
or two of the lateral streams, as of some of these we shall have much to
say later.
In general, on the northern side the drainage is in an undevelop6d
state, consisting for the most part of short swift streams, debouching
independently into the Rhone. On the other hand, on the south side
the drainage is more developed, and the differential growth of the
streams has resulted in various cases of river capture. In other words,
one stream which, by reason of its larger catchment area, or the softei-
rocks of its bed, has had more excavating power than its neighbours,
has been able to tap the upper tributaries of adjacent streams, and has
thus constantly increased at the expense of its neighbours. The result
is that on the south side there are a few considerable streams, with
tributaries also of considerable size, as well as some small streams Avithout
lar^e tributaries. The chief streams of the southern bank of the Rhone
in the area under consideration are the Visp, which drains the two
valleys in which lie the health-resorts of Zermatt and Saas ; the Xavi-
genze, draining the Yal d'Anniviers ; the Borgne, draining the Val
d'Herens ; the Dranse, draining a collection of valleys, of which the
most important are the Yal de Bagnes and the Val d'Entremont, which
leads up to the St. Bernard Pass; and the Yieze, which drains the Yal
d'llliez. On the north bank we need only meantime notice the Dala,
which drains the valley in which lies Leukerbad, and the Lonza, drain-
ing the Lotschenthal.
It is not necessary for our purpose to describe in detail the course of
these valleys, or to discuss the mountain groups in which they respec-
tively arise, but something may be said of the great means of communica-
tion in the Canton. Such historical importance as a highway as the upper
Rhone valley possesses, is due to the fact that not a few of those deeply
excavated southern valleys of which we have just spoken afford access
to depressions in the great barrier of the Pennine Alps, and thus permit
of communication between Italy and Central Europe. The two most
important passes are of course the Simplon to the east, and the St.
Bernard in the more western part of the Canton. As the map recalls,
the great Simplon road has now been functionally replaced by the
railway tunnel. Until the opening of this tunnel in 1906, the Rhone
THE SWISS VALAIS: A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY. 173
valley line, it will be remembered, stopped at Brig, but concected at
Visp with the Zerraatt line. The traffic carried by the line of the main
valley, and by the branch to Zermatt, was, previous to the opening of
the tunnel, almost entirely tourist traffic. Almost, but not entirely, for
there is a considerable amount of movement of workmen from one side
of the chain to the other. It is because of this movement that we have
on the other great pass, the St. Bernard, the Hospice, which is not, as
the tourist is apt to suppose, merely for his benefit in the summer
months. The summit of the Simplon Pass lies at a height of 2009
metres (or 6565 feet), while that of the St. Bernard is 2472 metres (or
8111 feet), the elevation in both cases being too great to permit either
to have any significance as a trade route, though the significance of the
latter as a highway is suggested by the fact that it is estimated that
some 25,000 persons cross the pass annually, only a small proportion of
which are tourists. In addition to these famous passes, there are a
number of others ; indeed from almost any one of the longer valleys a
passage may be forced to Italy or Savoy. Most of these passes are,
however, of minor importance, except as regards tourist traffic. The
best known is, perhaps, the Th^odule, a glacier pass rising to 3322
metres (or 11,984 feet), which has been used certainly since the Middle
Ages, and is constantly crossed in summer time.
On the north side the passes are fewer, and from the nature of the
case are less important. The best known is the Gemmi, and there can
be no doubt, as is pointed out by Christ in his Pfanzenlehen tier Scktveiz,
that the tourist who wishes to fully appreciate the peculiarities of the
mountain-locked Valais, should enter it from the Gemmi. As the
traveller stands on the summit of the precipitous Gemmiwand, he sees
before him the whole range of the Pennine Alps with their summits of
dazzling whiteness, and at their feet the deep valley ; and he sees also
another sky, and other colouring, than that which he left behind at
Kandersteg. The light is brighter, the insolation greater, the air drier;
the whole aspect of the flora is southern instead of northern in type.
In short, to cross the Gemmi is to cross in a few hours' walk from north
to south Switzerland, is to obtain a foretaste of the sensation Avhich one
feels on standing on some summit of the Pennine Alps and looking
down upon the valleys of sunny Italy. The upper Ehone valley, which
has been called the Spain of Switzerland, is indeed almost a displaced
part of the Mediterranean lands.
The special point, however, which these brief notes on the passes are
intended to suggest is, that although passes of varying degrees of diffi-
culty do cross the ring of mountains which almost surrounds the Canton
Valais, yet the area is one of economic isolation. From its geograj^hical
peculiarities it is clear that if it prospers it must be owing to its own
products, not because it can ever serve to a great extent as a highway
for trade. A true mountain region, with a high mean elevation of
the surface, the peculiar course of the Rhone makes it even more
completely surrounded by mountains than an ordinary river-valley
can be.
As the '•' elbow " has also a marked effect upon climate, a few words
17J: .SCOTllSU GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
should be said as to its cause. Without going into geological details, it
may be sufficient to say that there is reason to believe that the valley
from Martigny to the lake, i.e. from the elbow downwards, is very old,
much older than the portion above Martigny. It was probably
formerly occupied by the river Drause, the large tributary of the Rhone
■tthich enters at Martigny. It appears probable that the Dranse occu-
pied this valley before the formation of the Bernese Alps, and the
folding near St. Maurice. As the land rose slowly, the Dranse was able
to excavate for itself a passage as elevation occurred, and there was thus
formed the gorge now found near St. Maurice. Above Martigny the
Rhone runs in a great longitudinal fold, which runs north-east and
south-west beyond the points where the Rhone ceases to occupy it. At
Martigny the Rhone quits this fold to avail itself of what was once the
valley of the Dranse.
One other point about the drainage system may be noted, and that
is that there is a remarkable discordance, throughout much of the
Valais, between the Rhone and its lateral tributaries. It is a familiar
fact that in what may be called a normal river system the lateral
streams grade gently into the main streams. In a recently glaciated
area, on the other hand, the side streams often run throughout their
course at a considerable elevation above the main valley, and either pre-
cipitate themselves finally into the main valley by a waterfall, or series
of rapids, or, if their excavating power is great, lie for the last part of
their course in deep gorges. Discordance of this kind is expressed by
saying that the tributaries run in " hanging valleys," or the same thing
may be expressed by saying with the Germans that the main valley is over-
deepened as compared with the lateral. Many but not all geologists, as is
well known, ascribe this condition to the effect of ice. It is not neces-
sary to enter upon the question of causes here, but we may point out
the frequency of hanging valleys in the Valais, especially in the lower
part of the Rhone valley. As has been already pointed out here (xxii.
p. 648) the fact has an important bearing upon the distribution of
human habitations in the side-valleys, for it renders the basal steep
portion of the valley useless to man, and greatly increases the difficulty
of access to the upper approximately level parts. On the other hand,
the steepness somewhat facilitates the task of the geographer, for it
causes a rapid diminution of temperature, a correspondingly rapid
change in natural products, and thus makes it easy to distinguish geo-
graphically between the Alpine parts of the side valleys above, and the
warm floor of the main valley below. Another result is that as the
glacier-fed streams descend to the Rhone valley they naturally deposit
much of their load of debris as soon as their velocitj^ is checked, and the
result is the formation of the large cones, wliich are very conspicuuus in
parts of the Rhone valley. Fuller particulars as to these cones will be
found in Lord Avebury's Scenery of Switzerland and the Causes to which it
is due, Avhich may be referred to for further details as to the origin of
the Rhr>np vnllpv.i
1 See also Maurice Lugeon's Quelques mots sur le gi-oupement de la population du Valais
— Abstract in Annates de Geographie (1902), xi.
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY.
175
The Climate of the Valais.
We cannot profitably consider the vegetation of the Valais without
first considering the climate, which determines the nature of the
vegetation.
It will be recollected that the Alps have a general east-to-west
trend, and in consequence, in the language of meteorology, they form a
temperature but not a rainfall divide. The meaning of this statement
is easily realised. Looked at from the Italian side the great chain forma
a barrier shutting out the cold winds of the north from the sunny south,
or, more exactly, the cold air from the north is warmed by compression
before it reaches the lower ground, and thus, in Hann's words (Handhich
der Klimatolog'te) they constitute the dividing line between the sub-
tropical climate of the Mediterranean area and the temperate climate of
Central Europe. On the other hand, as the rain-carrying winds come
from the west, i.e. are transverse to the chain, the Alps have not a rainy
and a dry side, as have north-to-south trending mountains like the
Rocky Mountains. But though these statements are generally true, yet
the emphasis which has been already laid upon the mountain ring
which encircles the Valais, paves the way for the further statement that
as regards temperature, part of the Valais approaches the Mediterranean
rather than the Central European area, while it has further an unusually
low rainfall for a mountain area. Thus Zermatt, at a height of 5315
feet (or 1620 metres) above sea-level, has a rainfall of 65 cm., that is
approximately the same as that of Leith (26 inches) which is virtually
at sea-level. The climate is not uniform, and varies not only with
the height, which is only to be expected, but also according to the
direction of the part of the Rhone valley considered, the mountain-
locked portion from Martigny upwards having a hotter and drier climate
than the portion from Martigny to the lake, which is swept by the cold,
rain-bearing, north-west winds.
Mean Annual Rainfall of Stations in the Valais, 1895-1904.
1. Rhone Vallet.
2 Southern
Valleys.
3. Northern
Valley.s.
Station. Height
Rain-
fall
in cm.
Station.
Height
in ni .
Rain-
fall
in cm.
Station.
Height
in ni.
Rain-
fall
in cm.
MartigiiY,* . 480
71
Champerv,* .
1052
164
Varen, .
750
62
Riddes,* . 492
49
Orsieres,*
890
63
LeukerViad, .
1415
100
Sion, . . 540
64
St. Bernard.*.
2478
149
Kippel,*
1376
93
Sien-e, . 551
0/
Evolena,*
1378
87
Brig, . 678
68
Griichen,
1632
55
Fiesch,* . 1080
89
Zermatt,
1613
69
Reckingen,' . 1349
108
Saas Gnnid.*.
1562
85
Oberwald, . 1370
148
Binn, * .
1390
102
The mean, in the case of stations marked *, i.s based upon a shorter period than ten
years, figures not being available in these cases for the ^vhole period 1895-1904.
176
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Sume of the general features of the region as regards rainfall may be
gathered from the accompanying map which is based upon the table,
this having been obtained from the figures given in the AnnaUn of the
Swiss Meteorological Bureau for the last ten years available. The map
shows first that over an area which extends up the Rhone valley
from about Martigny to Brig, and sends prolongations up the valleys of
the Visp and the Dranse there is, as it were, an island of low precipita-
tion, where the rainfall is less than 70 cm. (or 27i inches) per annum.
Outside of this, and extending up to Fiesch in the main valley is a
region which has a fall beneath 90 cm. (or 35 inches) per annum. Into
the next region, that with a rainfall exceeding 90 cm. but less than 110
Mean Annual Rainfall of Valais, 1895-1901. The figures are cubic centimetres.
cm. (or 43 inches), comes not only the higher ground on either side of the
upper portion of the Ehone A-alley, but also that part of the valley which
is included between Martigny and Lake Geneva. The very high ground,
i.e. that represented by the stations near the crest of either the Pennine
or Bernese Alps, has a rainfall exceeding 110 cm. per annum. The point
which it is desired to emphasise is that in the Valais rainfall is not
directly dependent upon height. If one ascends the valley from Mar-
tigny one finds the precipitation gradually diminishing until it reaches
a minimum at Riddes or Sierre, and beyond that point again increasing.
Roughly speaking, all the places below the elbow of the Rhone have a
higher rainfall than the places above", and this is true both of the side
valleys and of the main. Thus Champery in the Val d'lUiez, at a
height of 1052 metres, has a rainfall about two and a half times greater
than that of Zermatt at 1620 metres.
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IN KEGIONAL GEOGRAPHY. 177
The reason of this curious distribution is not far to seek — it is found
in the varying direction of the Rhone valley upon which stress has
already been laid. As we shall see later, the greater precipitation of the
lower part of the valley as compared with the upper is associated with
a lower temperature, and the causation in both cases is the same — up to
Martigny the valley is exposed to the cold, rain-carrying north-west and
west winds which sweep across from the Jura, while the bend at Martigny
makes these winds rare in the upper part of the valley. Above Martigny
these are replaced by the warmer, drier south-west wind, which enters the
valley after blowing over elevated ground, and therefore with something
of a foehn effect. The following figures illustrate the connection of
high temperature and low precipitation with the predominance of the
south-west wind in the Rhone valley. As recent figures are not
available for a ten years' period, two periods of three and four years
have been taken.
Climatic Factors for Sierre and Bex.
Period 1895-1897.
Height
Mean
Mean Annual
Prevailin
of Station.
Rainfall.
Temperature.
Wind.
Sierre,
. 551 m.
71 cm.
9°C.
sw.
Bex,
. 426 m.
99 cm.
Period 1901
8-8° C.
■1904.
NW.
Sierre,
. 551 m.
53 cm.
9-3° C.
SW.
Bex,
. 42 G m.
94 cm.
9-2° C.
w.
It will be noticed here that the lower station Bex is slightly colder
and much wetter than the higher, a reversal of the typical conditions in
valleys. It would appear that the south-Avest wind prevails through all
the warmer part of the upper Rhone valley, but in the Alpine region is
replaced by other winds determined by the trend of the part of the
valley considered. At Reckingen, with a rainfall of over 100 cm. (five
years' mean) the prevailing wind is west. The heavy rainfall is due to
the warm, moist wind which comes up the valley. The relation between
rainfall and wind is prettily showm by the distribution of the beech,
which, according to Christ, extends as far up the Rhone valley as the
westerly wind from Lake Geneva penetrates, i.e. throughout the area
where the damp lake climate prevails (see map, p. 190). In other words,
it extends up the valley to a point approximately midway between
Martigny and Sion, where the dry warm winds cause its disappearance.
The other three maps illustrate the temperature conditions, and are
again based upon a ten years' mean. The three maps show respectively
the mean annual, the mean January, and the mean July temperature.
Taking the mean annual first, we find that there is an area Avith a mean
of over 9" C. which extends from about Martigny nearly as far as Brig.
The next area, that including temperatures betw^een 9° and 3°, includes
not only the higher parts of the main and side valleys, but also the
lower part of the main valley. Finally, the great elevations have a mean
annual tempeiature of below 3°. The tAvo othtr maps (p. 180) shoAv that
178
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Mean Monthly Temperatures of certain Stations in the Valais,
1895-1904, compared with the Mean Monthly Temperature
AT Kingussie.
Name of
Station.
Height
above
Sea-
level.
Mean Monthly Temperatures— Centigrade.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr. 1 May
June
July Aug.
Sept, , Oct. i Nov. I Dec.
Sierre,
Metres.
561
-0-8
2-4
5-3
9-9 13-7
17-4
19-5 180
15-2 9-5 4-1 00
Leukerba'l,
1415
-2-6
-2-3
2-7 3-9
7-6
121
14-3 13-4
10-9
6-2 2-0 -1-7
Zermatt,
1613
-60
-5-2
1-9
2-2
6-4
10-5
12-7
10-6
9-0
4-1 -0-8 -5-1
St. Bernard,
2475
-8-3 1
-8-1
-6-9
-3-6
-0-2
40
6-9
6-5
4'3 -0-7 -4-2 -7-2
Kingussie,*
251
1-9
2-2
2-9 5-2 8-9
11-9
13-3' 12-9' 10-7 7-0 38 2-4
* The figure's for Kingussie are tak-eu from Dr. Biichan's paper on "The Mean Atmo-
spheric Temperature of the British Islands," Jour. Scott. Meteorol. Soc, Series iii., xiii. and
.\iv. , p. 3, and are converted to Centigrade.
Mean Annual Temperature of Valais, 1895-1904. The figures are temperatures, Centigrade.
the favoured area of the Khone valley above Martigny is both hotter in
summer and less bitterly cold in winter than would a ]?riori be expected
from the elevation. In order to bring out some features of the annual
march of temperature as compared with that of our own country the
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY. 179
accompanying curve has been constructed which contrasts the mean
monthly temperatures of certain places in the Valais with the typically
Highland area of Kingussie. The figures upon which the diagram is
based, as well as the mean monthly temperature of Leukerbad, are given
in the table. The point which the diagram specially illustrates is that,
as contrasted with the insular climate of Kingussie, the climate of the
Jan. Feb. Hat- Ap Ma^Ju Jly Auo S"ep Oct Nov Dec.
Mean Monthly Temperatures of three stations in the Valais 1895-190i, compared with
' those of Kingussie. The temperatures are Centigrade.
Valais is typically continental. This is well shown in the sudden rise
and fall of the curve in spring and autumn. Many plants which flourish
at, for instance, Sierre, will not grow at Kingussie, not, as is sometimes
supposed, because of the winter cold at the latter place— it is m point
of fact much colder in winter in the Valais— but because spring when it
comes is no laggard but comes swift-footed and sure. In the High-
lands the rise of temperature is slow and fluctuating, mild days and
bitterly cold ones often alternating. The consequence is that the plants
180
SCOTTISH GEOGKAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
are tempted one day to bggin active life, and the next are nipped with
the frost. In the Valais they are protected with snow and condemned
Mean July Temperature of Valais, 1895-1904. The tigures are temperatures. Centigrade.
JNI.-an .lanuary Temperature of Valais, 1895-1904. The figures are temperatures, Centigrade.
to forced inactivity until with a rush spring comes triumphant once for
1)11 over the forces of winter.
Another interesting point which the diagram shows is that, con-
THE SWISS VALAIS: A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY. 181
trasting places of increasiug height above sea-level, we find that the
temperature gradient is steepest in the lowest places and least steep in
the higher. This is very marked when the St. Bernard gradient is
contrasted with the Sierre one. Zermatt, which is intermediate in
height between the two, is also intermediate in this respect also. This
is a general characteristic of mountain resorts, which tend to approach
nearer the insular type of climate than places in the valleys.
The reason for this is interesting. The first point to be noticed is
that the difference of temperature due to elevation is much greater in
summer than in winter. In December, for instance, the curves for
Zermatt and Sierre approach one another much more closely than in
July, the actual difference of mean being 5'1° in the first case, and G'S"
in the other. Even more marked is the difference in the case of the St.
Bernard and Zermatt figures, for it is there 5 '8° in July, and only 2'1°
in December. The causation is to be found in the so-called inversions
of temperature,^ v/hich are frequent in Alpine regions. Under ordinary
circumstances temperature diminishes with elevation, but in mountain
regions during calm, clear weather in winter, it frequently happens that
the valley floors are colder and damper than a region on their walls.
Tn ascending from the valley floors at these times, one passes into a
warmer region, and on ascending still higher, comes again to a cold
stratum. These inversions are so frequent that they affect the mean
temperature in the winter months, and produce the appearances noted
above, that is, they lessen the steepness of the curve showing the annual
march of the temperature. For a detailed account of the cause of the
inversion, reference should be made to Hann's Handhuch, but it may in
general terms be given as the result of the tendency for the cold, heavy
air to sink to the bottom of the valley, while the warm air rises. These
inversions have an interesting effect on the life of the inhabitants, both
of the Valais and of the Alps generally. First of all they render the flat
valley floors, which are of course often old lake beds, very unsuitable
for human habitations. There is throughout the Alps a general
tendency for the houses to be placed on the walls of the valleys rather
than on the floor, because experience has shown that an elevation of
even a few metres may cause a considerable rise of temperature in
autumn and winter. Again, in the Valais where the temperature con-
ditions are favourable, the frequency of autumnal inversions makes it
possible for the inhabitants to ascend to considerable elevations and yet
enjoy comparatively warm temperatures. Something was said of these
autumn and winter migrations in a particular valley in a previous
article published here (xxii. p. 648).
It may be repeated that these inversions are local to the valleys
concerned, and are therefore only suggested by the curves given above.
To prove their existence it would be necessary to take a series of
temperature readings at different heights in the same valley. Such
readings have been taken and examples are quoted by Hann and Kerner.
1 See Hann's Handbook of Climatology, Part i., translated by Ward, p. 252 et seq., and
Kerner in Zeitschrift d. oesterr. Gesellschaft f. Meteorologie, xi. (1876), p. 1 et seq.
182 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
One other point is worth mention. It will be noted that the diagram
shows that the summer temperature of Kingussie is actually higher
than that of Zermatt. To any one who has experienced both climates
this may seem absurd. One may spend a whole summer in the High-
lands and hardly find a day when it is possible to sit for long out of
doors in comfort, while at Zermatt for day after day the temperature
may be almost intolerably hot. The explanation is of course to be
sought in the difference of insolation due to altitude. According to
figures quoted by Hann {pi). cit., p. 232), while at Whitby the difference
between the sun and shade temperature is only 5'6^ on the Gorner-
grat it is no less than 32'8°, and at the Eiffelberg it is 21°. In
consequence, on a clear day one may bask in the sunshine on the
Gornergrat at a height of 3140 metres above sea-level in spite of the
proximity of ice and snow. The figures given in the table are of course
shade temperatures.
To return to the general temperature conditions in the Valais, it
must not be supposed that the unusual conditions of warmth in the
upper Ehone valley upon which so mnch stress has been laid, are solely
due to shelter from cold winds, or to the warming and drying of the air
by compression as it descends from the mountain crests. The direction
of the valley, which allows the sun to shine for a much longer period
than would be possible in an east-to-west valley, is an important factor,
as is also the width of the valley. Throughout Switzerland, as all
tourists know, the actual, as distinguished from the theoretical, climate
of a valley, depends upon the amount of its exposure to the sun. Thus
in the Yalais the difference between the temperature of Leukerbad, on
the north side and thus facing south, and of Zermatt in a south trend-
ing valley is greater than the difference of elevation warrants. There
are, however, some interesting facts, in regard to the temperature con-
ditions at Zermatt, which we shall have to consider later in connection
with the distribution of woods in the Valais.
Something has already been said of the winds of the Yalais ; it only
remains to say a few words in regard to that curious wind known as the
foehn. The foehn is a warm dry wind which blows, sometimes with
great violence, from a southerly or south-easterly direction in certain
of the Swiss valleys, and is often of great importance as the melter
of the winter's snow and therefore as the harbinger of spiing. The
causation has been shown to be the existence of a barometric depression
in a line between Ireland and the Bay of Biscay, which causes the air
to be sucked out of the Alpine region. As the mountain wall of the
Alps prevents any direct movement of air from the south, the air over
the crest of the ridge is drawn down to the valleys to fill the place of
that which has travelled westward. This air is warmed and dried by
compression as it descends, and appears in the deep valleys as the hot,
dry, enervating foehn. Xow, owing to its trend, the upper Ehone
valley is not visited by the foehn, while the portion below Martigny is
visited with, often violent, foehn winds. The result is to make this
part warmer and drier than it would otherwise be.
As a whole, however, the Yalais is remarkable for the frequency of
THE SWISS VALAIS: A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY. 183
calms, as compared for instance with our own windy climate. It is the
frequency of calms which makes it possible to use places of relatively
great elevation as health resorts, while, on the other hand, it makes
it impossible for the foreigner at least to live with comfort on the floor
of the Ehone valley in summer. This prevalence of calms is, however,
only true of places situated in a valley. At the St. Bernard Hospice,
for example, calms do not occur, and the wind blows either from the
Swiss slope, i.e. from the noith-east, or from the Italian slope, i.e. from
the south-west, the former wind being the more frequent. Both winds
come from warmer regions, and therefore both are moisture- can ying,
hence the heavy precipitation.
The two important facts that emeige from this study of the
Valaisian climate are, first, the unexpectedly high temperature over
much of the area, and second, the unexpectedly low rainfall. Both
are reflected in the vegetation. The high temperature leads to the
growth of plants which are Mediterranean in character, the low rainfall
limits the growth of moisture-loving plants like the deciduous trees.
The steppe-like conditions produced by the strong insolation and low
precipitation would be even more striking than they are were it not for
that system of irrigation which is everywhere visible in the dry region
above Martigny. Fortunately for the Yalaisian, he has in his glacier-
covered mountains a self-regulating mechanism which fills his water-
courses the fuller the stronger the sun shines, and therefore the greater
the need felt by his cherished plants. Let there be in summer a series
of dull and cloudy days and the glacial torrents which feed his " hisses "
dwindle to a mere shadow of their former selves.^ Let the sun once
more blaze forth in his splendour, and the torrents will pour a lavish
flood into his watercourses, so that not only do alps and crops and
vineyards receive all that they need, but a thousand streams trickling
down the mountain sides proclaim the superabundance of lavish natuie,
while the climber whose task is lightened by the return of clear skies
rejoices in the haj^py fortune which in the alps combines the interest of
tourist and crops.
The Zones or Vegetation in the Valais.
In looking generally at the zones of vegetation in the Valais, and at
their constituent plants so far as these have geographical significance, it
is convenient first of all to discuss the limits of each. As the deciduous
woods of the canton are insignificant, we need only recognise three
regions: — (1) The region of cultivation; (2) the region of coniferous
woods ; and (3) the region of the high pastures or alps. Rion, as
quoted by Christ, gives 1263 metres (or 4143 feet) as the mean upper
limit of cultivation in the Valais. Imhof (see p. 191 footnote) shows
that the coniferous woods have a mean elevation of 2150 metres (or
7054 feet),while according to Jegerlehner (BeitrUge zur GeophysiJc,\. 1901-2)
the mean height of the snowline, which virtually forms the upward limit
' For some actual figures as to the effect of a drop of temperature on tlie volume of the
streams, see the paper by Erich Uetrecht, referred to on p. 171.
184 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
of the alps, is 3050 metres (or 10,000 feet). Something will be said
below of the details of temperature in the region of the woods, but
the following, quoted from Christ's Pflanzenlehen der Schweiz, gives an
interesting rough approximation. Christ says in effect that the zone of
cultivation extends upwards so long as any two months have a mean
temperature below zero, the coniferous woods so long as there are no
more than Jive mouths in the year in which the mean temperature is
less than zero, while in the alpine region there may be seven or more
months with a mean of less than zero. On the diagram on p. 179 a line
has been drawn through the zero reading to show that while Sierre with
only one month with a mean temperature of below zero, is well Avithin
the zone of cultivation, and Zermatt with four months in which the
mean is below zero, is well within the coniferous area, the St. Bernard
with eight months in which the mean drops below zero, is above the tree-
line and falls into the alpine area.
I. — The Region of Cultivation.
In the region of cultivation, especially in the warm stretch between
Martigny and Brig, the wild plants have a general ]\rediterranean aspect,
and owing to the dryness the steppe character is pronounced. The
warmth of the climate is shown by the presence of such cultivated plants
as Indian corn and tobacco, despite the mean elevation. The chief plant
of the lower part of the cultivated zone, that is, from about 460 to 800
metres (or 1500 to 2624 ft.), is however the vine, which is of great
importance in the life of the inhabitants. It is grown Avherever the
slope of the valley walls is such as to permit of the needful terracing,
and is found in the main valley from about Martigny to Morel, especially
on the northern side of the valley, and in the lateral valleys has a
special extension up the valleys of the Dranse and the Visp. It is
virtually absent from the valley between St. Maurice and Martigny for
the climatic reasons already dwelt upon, and because of the shape of the
valley. In the Dranse valley vine3Mrds extend up to above 800 metres
(2624 ft.) in the vicinity of Sembrancher, while their upward extension
in the Visp valley is even more remarkable. Near Stalden the limit is
about 834 metres (or 2736 ft.), but in 1878 Christ found vineyards at
a heif^ht of 1020 metres (or 3346 ft.) in the vicinity of this village.
The fi<''ures are only of interest because they serve once more to call
attention to the peculiar climatic conditions prevailing here, upon which
so much stress has already been laid. The station of Griichen (cf. p. 175)
shows that the rainfall here is very low, and the proximity to the great
mountain group, of which Monte Rosa is the centre, produces, as will be
shown below, very favourable conditions of temperature.
Throughout the Valais the vineyards require artificial irrigation, and
owiuf to the way iii which most of the lateral torrents run at the bottom
of deep gorges before they enter the main valley, the water has to be
brought from great distances, the straight lines of the channels being
visible for miles along the hillsides. The wine is of great importance
as an article of diet on account of the monotony of the ordinary food
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IN REGIONAL OEOGRAPHY. 185
available — dry rye bread, baked once or twice a year only, hard cheese,
and dried meat. In the article already alluded to (xxii. p. 648) some-
thing has been said of the appreciation in which it is held, and how
certain kinds are stored in the mountain cellars and storehouses until
they obtain the aroma wliich is so greatly prized. As is only natural
under the circumstances, wine plays a large part in the social life of the
people.
Above the zone where the vine forms the chief crop comes a region
where rye predominates, this being the chief cereal of the region, and
the one used to make the native bread. As has been said above, Rion
gives 1263 metres (4143 ft.) as the line which marks the mean upward
extension of cultivation, but in detail this varies greatly according to
exposure. The typical instance is of course the corn-fields of Findelen,^
near Zermatt, which extend up to 2100 metres (6890 ft.) on the sunny
side of the valley, whilst the shady side is thickly clothed with Arolla
pine, but almost every valley shows similar, if less striking conditions.
Thus in the Yal d'Anniviers we have fields near the village of Chandolin
at a height of 1900 metres (6233 ft.). (Brunhes and Girardin.^)
Mingled with the rye of this upper zone are various other crops,
grown on a smaller scale, while throughout the zone of cultivation are
an abundance of fruit-trees, varying from the figs and peaches of the
Rhone valley to the August^ripening cherries of the upper region. All
the side valleys afford interesting studies of progressive change in the
characters of the cultivated plants, and what has been already said as to
temperature, etc., will make it clear that in the upper region, whatever
the exposure, only fast-growing annuals can be grown with any prospect
of success. Where, as frequently happens, the valley consists of a series
of basins separated by relatively narrow steep defiles, the differences in
the vegetation of the successive basins is very striking. The Val de
Bagnes affords many very interesting examples of this kind. It may be
sufficient to mention the contrast between Lourtier which, at a height
of 1054 metres (3458 ft.), has many fruit-trees (cherries) and a
considerable extent of cultivated ground, while at Fionnay at 1497
metres (4911 ft.) in the next basin, the fruit-trees have disappeared, and
cultivation was represented in 1906, apart from the hay, by a tiny
patch of wretched potatoes, and a handful of what the hotel proprietors
optimistically regard as salad plants.
II. — The Woods of the Valais.^
The Valais is relatively well-wooded. According to Uetricht (cf.
footnote, p. 171), 15*9 per cent, of the total area of the upper basin of
the Rhone is covered by forest. The four Highland counties of Ross and
Cromarty, Sutherland, Inverness and Argyll, on the other hand, have only
1 Cf. article by Prince Roland Bonaparte, La Giographie, xi. (1905), pp. 'AV^-IQ.
2 Annales de Oeographie, xv. (1906), p. 347.
3 See especially Christ, Das Pflnnzenleben der Sckweiz ; Zuricli, 1882. Die Zirhe,
G. G. Simony, Jahrhuch d. oesterreichischen Alpe)i-Verei7ies,vi. (1870), and Lebensgesclnchte
d. Blutenjyjlanzen Mitteleuropas, von Kirchner, Loew u. Schroter ; Stuttgart, 1901-5.
VOL. XXIII. 0
186
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
3'4 per cent, of woods. In view of the emphasis which has been already
laid on the mountainous nature of the Valais, it is hardly necessary to
state that the woods are predominantly coniferous in type. Of the wood-
forming deciduous trees of Switzerland, the beech, as the accompanying
map shows, occupies a relatively small part of the canton. As mentioned
above, it practically occurs only in the lower part of the Rhone valley,
where the necessary conditions of moisture obtain. Accompanying the
beech in the lower part of the Rhone valley, and also in parts of the
lateral valleys, such non-forest-forming deciduous trees as elm, maple,
linden, etc., occur. Very striking to those accustomed to the Scottish
Highlands is the virtual absence of the birch. Like the Scotch fir, the
The Wood.s of the Valais (modified from Christ).
birch is not totally absent, but like the latter also it suffers severely from
competition with other species, more tolerant of shade. It is the absence
of competitors which largely determines the predominance of both
species in the Highlands.
Another deciduous tree which forms woods of some extent in parts
of the Valais is the chestnut, whose distribution is also illustrated in the
map. As Christ points out, the character of the trees and of their fruit,
as compared with the trees and fruit of Italian specimens, shows that the
conditions in the Valais are not altogether favourable to the species, and
its range is limited.
Very different from the small area occupied by deciduous woods is
that covered by the dominant conifers. A considerable number of indi-
genous conifers occur in Switzerland, but those which are most important
as forest-formers in the Valais are three in number. First and by far
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY. 187
the most important is the spruce tir {Picea excelsa, Lk.) ; mingled Avith
this, especially near its upward limit, is the larch (Larix eumpaea, D.C.) ;
while above larch and spruce, especially on the Hanks of the great Monte
Rosa group, grows the beautiful and interesting AroUa pine, the Arte or
Zirhe of the Germans {Pinus cemhra, L.), which sometimes, as in the
Zermatt valley, forms extensive woods.
The Spruce. — Of these three trees the spruce, as every one knows,
is widely distributed in Europe. Absent as an indigenous tree in Italy,
Spain, and in Southern Europe generally, in the greater part of France,
in Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, and part of the
North German plain, it forms elsewhere one of the most important of
the European forest trees, and is so abundant in Scandinavia as to
receive the common name of Norway spruce. It is, however, also
the most characteristic tree of the true Alps, its place on the lower ground
of the Jura being largely taken by the silver fir. It is the " pine " of
most popular descriptions of the Alps, and its heavy foliage and pendent
cones may be recognised in most views of Alpine scenes.
Its distribution over Europe is partly, but not wholly, determined by
climate ; not wholly, for it is absent, for example, from Great Britain,
although the climate of the west of Scotland is well suited to its needs,
and in many parts of Britain it flourishes exceedingly when planted. In
general, however, its distribution may be said to be determined by the
fact that it is intolerant of great heat, though resistant to cold, and that
it demands a considerable amount of moisture during the growing season.
According to Purkyne, it must have a mean July temperature of at least
+ 10° C, but not exceeding 187° C, and the mean January must not fall
below — 125° C. According to Kerner, the annual isotherm of r6° C.
marks its upward limit. In parts of Switzerland, however, according
to Schroter and Kirchner, it grows where the mean annual temperature
falls much below 1*6° C. It ig in consequence of these necessary condi-
tions of temperature that it is a mountain tree in those parts of Central
Europe in which it occurs, and a plain-dweller in the northern parts of
its range. But in Central Europe generally its extension downwards
from the mountains towards the low ground is limited not wholly by
climate, but in part by the fact that it there comes into competition with
the more highly evolved deciduous trees. Its extension up the slopes
is, on the other hand, chiefly determined by the meteorological conditions.
According to Jaccard, it ascends in the Valais to a mean height of 2000
metres (6562 ft.), with a maximum height of 2210 metres (7251 ft.).
But in the Valais, according to Imhof,i ^\^q mean height to which woods
ascend is 2150 metres (7054 ft. ), with a maximum of about 2300 metres
(7546 ft.). It is thus obvious that in some cases the spruce must itself
form the tree limit, and at worst it leaves but a narrow band unoccupied
which may be taken advantage of by the larch and Arolla pine.
Its upward extension is limited by the temperature range already
mentioned, and the tree further requires, as already stated, a moist
1 Die Waldgrenze in der Schxoei::, von E. Imhof. Beit rage zur Geophysik, iv. (1899-90),
241.
SCOTTISH UKOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
atmosphere. Because of its needs in regard to warmth and moisture, we
find in the Swiss Alps that all exposures are not equally favourable.
Thus it rises higher on a slope facing south-west or south than on one
facing north-east or north. As its wide horizontal range indicates, it
is tolerant of very varied types of soil, but will not thrive on very poor
or dry ground. As regards life-history, it is sufficient to quote from
Schroter and Kirchner's monograph some facts about the rate of growth.
View near Fionnay, Yal de Hagnes. 'J'lie \vni»U are spruce, iiiin
alder in foreground Ijy the stream.
witli larcli ;
For the first ten years of existence this is slow, the average height
at the end of the period being only 1|-U metres (4-5 ft.). From
the tenth year the rate of growth increases until it attains a maximum
at forty to fifty years, the average height at forty being 9 metres (29i ft.).
After the fiftieth year the rate of growth gradually declines. Seed pro-
duction commences when the tree is between thirty and forty years old,
and seeds are not abundantly produced until it is about fifty. As a
general rule a rich harvest of seed only appears once in three years. As
will be shown later, though the rate of growth appears slow and the
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY.
189
power of reproduction late in appearing, yet the Arolla pine contrasts
unfavourably with the spruce in these respects.
The spruce appears in a considerable number of forms, according to
the special conditions of life. One of these is specially interesting
because of its frequency. In the Alps, especially near grazing grounds,
it is very common to see spruces like that shown in the accompanying
photograph. In these forms there is no leader, a very short leader, or
Spruce, with the leader ile.stroyed by goats ; profuse branching has occurred below.
several small leaders. The tree has a bush-shape, and displays a number
of branches, almost prostrate on the ground, and some rooting in the
ground. These forms, which may be of considerable age in spite of
their small size, are produced as a result of injury by grazing animals.
These bite off the leader in the young tree. As a result copious lateral
branching takes place, the lateral branches lying close to the ground.
After a time these lateral branches form a hedge round the centre, which
is thus efficiently protected from further injury. One or more branches
then take on the function of leader, and shoots up suddenly, with the
190 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
result that the ordinary form is more or less perfectly re-acquired.
Other forms may be produced by constant injury from snow or ava-
lanches. The spruce, in spite of the downward droop of its branches,
must, on account of its heavy foliage, be vevy liable to injury from snow,
and it is often interesting in a fir-clad valley to notice that those parts
which from the shape of the cliffs above must be avalanche-swept in
winter are bare of trees, while the neighbouring parts are luxuriantly
clothed.
The Larch} — As compared with the spruce the larch differs not only
in appearance, but also in many other respects. "While the spruce has a
wide distribution, the larch of Europe has a very limited one. It is in
essence an inhabitant of the Alps and the Carpathians, and is indigenous
only in a narrow band of mountainous country, stretching from the
Dauphiny in the west to the vicinity of Kronstadt in Transylvania in
the east. Like not a few other conifers, it had formerly a more exten-
sive distribution, and even in the area to which it is native it is suffer-
ing from the competition of the dominant spruce. In the Dauphiny,
where the spruce reaches its limit, in the Monte Eosa district, and in
the Engadine, the larch forms extensive woods, but elsewhere it largely
occurs in the form of specimens scattered through the spruce woods.
In the Dauphiny it ascends to its maximum height of 2500 metres, and
in the Zermatt valley trees, as distinct from woods, occur up to the
2400 metre (7874 ft.) line. In view of these facts of distribution two
questions arise — why can the larch not compete with the spruce on the
lower slopes? and how is it that it replaces the spruce in the upper
region, as for example at Zermatt 1 It is in the necessary conditions of
existence of larch and spruce that the answer is found to both questions.
First, as regards temperature: — the larch can grow where the
mean annual temperature is only— 1° C. so that it is more resistant to
cold than the spruce. On the other hand, it cannot thrive if the mean
annual temperature exceeds 10^ C. As it sheds its leaves in winter,
severe cold does not greatly affect it, and it appears to demand a
winter's rest of at least four months. On the other hand, as the needles
are more delicate in structure than those of the spruce, they are very
liable to be injured by a cold spring. The larch, in short, is fitted for a
continental climate, a cold winter, and a sudden hot summer, with but
little intervening spring. The high ground suits it best, for there it is
not tempted to put forAvard its leaves until winter has finally taken its
departure. It requires less moisture than the spruce, for its root system
is better developed, and it thus obtains water from a larger area. Again,
the shape of the tree and the deciduous leaves minimise the risk of
injury from snow, which cannot lie on the slender branches. The com-
bination of the above peculiarities make it easy to understand why the
larch can grow at elevations which are impossible for the spruce.
Why is it that the lower ground is less suited to it, and that here
the si»ruce gains the mastery ? One important point is that the larch
must have a large amount of light at all stages of growth. The young
1 See Lebensgeschichte d. Blutenjyflanzen Mitteleuropcis, vou Kirchner, Loew u. Schroter.
THE SWISS VALALS : A STUDY IN RECJIONAL GEOGRAPHY. 191
spruce is tolerant of shade, but the larch at all stages of growth must
have full exposure to sunlight. One consequence of this is that in a
larch wood the trees stand well apart, while in a spruce wood they stand
close together. If we suppose that in such a wood a few spruces are
introduced, then it will be found that the shade which prevents the
larch seedlings from growing does no harm to the spruce seedlings, and
thus if the other conditions are favourable to the spruce it will more and
more predominate, and more and more produce a degree of shade
throughout the Avood which will absolutely prevent the natural repro-
duction of the larch. The handicap in favour of the spruce is, however,
somewhat diminished by the fact that the larch grows much faster. In
the ten years which it takes the spruce to grow about a metre and a
half (4-9 ft.) the larch seedling has grown about ih metres (14| ft.)
that is in youth it grows three times as fast. Though the rate of
growth diminishes in later life, yet at forty the larch can show a height
of nearly 20 metres (65| ft.) as against the 9 metres (29i ft.) of the
spruce.
The result is that where the meteorological conditions are quite
unsuited to the spruce the larch in the Valais forms pure woods —
why this is specially true of the Valais and Engadine we shall see
later. Where the conditions favour the spruce we shall find woods
composed for the most part of that species, but with an admixture of
larch wherever local conditions handicap the dominant species. Thus,
if a particular spot is much exposed to snowdrifts, the larch will thrive
better than the spruce because of its shape. If the place is storm-swept,
the better root development of the larch is in its favour. So with dry-
ness of the soil, which checks the growth of the spruces and allows the
larches to take advantage of their quicker growth to get beyond the
upas-like influence of their neighbours. This being the case, it is easy to
understand that the fact that the larch is usually found at considerable
elevations is not wholly due to its preference for these heights, but is in
part the result of the difficulty which it has in competing with the spruce
on the lower ground. Such facts as that it occurs at a height of 423
metres (1387 ft.) at Martigny show that its infrequence at low levels in
the Valais is not altogether to be ascribed to its special peculiarities, but
is in fact a result of the Struggle for Existence. On the other hand, the
fact that it does not occur till a height of 1100 metres (3609 ft.) at
Sion is probably due to a climatic cause ; cf what has been said above as
to the climate of this region.
(To he continued.)
192 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE
THE EI VERS OF SCOTLA.XD : THE BEAULY AND CONON.
By Lionel W. Hixxman, B.A., F.R.S.E.
(JFith Map and Diagrams.)
Unlike the Spey and other large streams of the north-east coast south of
the Moray Firth — livers of simple type in which the tributaries are
throughout distinctly subordinate to the main stream — the Beauly and
the Conon are examples of a complex river system, formed of several
large streams nearly equal in length and volume, and confluent at a
comparatively short distance above the river mouth.
This character is most marked in the case of the Beauly, and is
indeed apparent in the nomenclature of the river system. The Affric,
the Cannich, and the Farrar, streams of almost equal volume, unite to
form the river Glass, which at some indeterminate point in its course
between Struy and Eilean Aigas ceases to bear that name and flows to
the sea as the Beauly River.^
The apparent redundancy in the name Glen Strath Farrar now
given to the valley of the Farrar, may possibly be accounted for when
we remember that the Beauly Firth was the jEstuarium Vararum of the
early geographers, the estuary of the Yarar — that name being evidently
applied to the whole of the Farrar-Beauly river. The lower and wider
portion of the valley would then be the Strath — the upper section, above
Struy, the Glen — of the Farrar. \Yhen in later times the name Farrar
ceased to be given to the river below Struy, and that portion of the
valley became merged in Strath Glass, the name Glen Strath Farrar
remained to indicate the " glen " portion of the vanished Strath Farrar.
The Beauly.
The Beauly river system falls naturally into four well-defined
sections.
1. The mountain valley section. This includes the torrent heads,
the lake basins, and the lower courses of the Aff'ric, the Cannich, and
the Farrar. The last two of these flow in a direction transverse to the
general " graining " of the country, while the trend of the Aff'ric is
transverse-oblique.
2. The flat valley track, represented by the course of the river
Glass, longitudinal between Fasnakyle and Erchless, and transverse from
Erchless to Eilean Aigas.
3. The gorges of Eilean Aigas, the Druim, and Kilmorack.
4. The lower course of the Beauly, between the foot of the gorges
and the sea.
It is unnecessary to trace in detail the courses of each of these streams,
as they can be followed on the map. Some figures, however, may be
1 The whole stream belo^v the mouth of the Farrar is often called the river Beauly ;
but, on the other hand, Strath Glass is generally considered to extend to the head of the
gorge at Eilean Aigas.
194 SCOTTISH GKOGRAFHICAL MAGAZINE.
useful in order to give an idea of the relative pro^Dortions of the different
sections of the river system. The area of the entire basin is approxi-
mately 407 square miles, the greater part of which is high mountain
ground. The watershed lies within a few miles of the western seaboard,
the sources of the Affric, Cannich, and Farrar being distant respectively
5, 7^, and 7J- miles from the salt water of Lochs Duich and Carron.
The lengths of the component streams, measured along the principal
windings, and including the lochs through which they pass, are as
follows. The Affric to Fasnakyle, 21 miles; the Cannich, 24 miles;
the Farrar, 28 miles; the Glass from Fasnakyle to Eilean Aigas, 16
miles ; the Beauly from Eilean Aigas to Tarradale, lOi miles. The total
length of the Affric-Glass- Beauly is therefore 47^r miles, of the Cannich-
Glass-Beauly 48, and of the Farrar-Glass-Beauly 44-J miles.
Section 1. — Resembling one another in the physiographical character
of their basins, and in the causes which have controlled the evolution
of their valleys, the Affric, Cannich, and Farrar differ only in the extent
to which each has graded its course. They are essentially immature
rivers ; that is to say the fall from source to mouth is unequally dis-
tributed over their course, so that the profiles, shown in the accompany-
ing diagram, depart largely from the smooth curve of a perfectly graded
stream.
Each of these rivers presents a succession of lake basins, or stretches
in which the local base-level of erosion has been approximately reached,
succeeded by rock barriers which usually correspond to constrictions of
the valley, and are in most cases due to hard and less easily eroded
bands of rock.
The grading process has reached the furthest stage in the Farrar.
The rock barriers along the course of that river have been to a consider-
able extent cut through, so that gorges and rapids, rather than waterfalls,
mark the successive steps in the fall of the valley. A further effect of
this partial lowering of the barriers is seen in the draining of former
lakes, such as that represented by the wide alluvial flat below Broulin
Lodge ; and the lowering of the Avaters of the existing lochs indicated by
the terraces which surround Loch Mhuilinn and Loch Bunacharan, and
mark the former level of their waters. In Glen Cannich we find an
earlier stage of valley grading. Here the chain of lochs is strung so
closely on the river thread that of the 18 miles of its course — neglecting
the torrent head — nearly 8 miles are through lochs, and the connecting
links of river, between Loch Lungard and Loch na Cloiche, Loch Mullar-
doch and Loch Sealbhag, only a few hundred yards in length. The
erosion of the successive rock barriers is less advanced than on the
Farrar, and the waters of almost all the higher lochs escape either over
a fall or down a steep rapid little less than a fall. Only in the lower
part of the glen has the river cut back sufficiently to produce a gorge
such as that below Loch Craskie, and lower to some extent the waters
of the loch above. The higher lochs show no signs of shrinkage, but
terraces marking a slightly higher level are found round Lochs Sealbhag,
Car, and Craskie.
The profile of the Affric is of a still simpler character. The
THE RIVERS OF SCOTLAND': THE BEAULY AND CONON. 195
total fall of the river to Fasuakyle is 2530 feet, of which 1850 feet
takes place along the five-mile course of the mountain torrent above
Alltbeath. The remaining fall of 680 feet is v€ry unequally distributed
over a course of 19 miles. Nine miles of this distance, from the head of
the silted-up portion of Loch AfFric to Achagate below Loch Beinn a'
Mheadhoin, is practically a lake basin, with a fall only of 40 feet in the
short length of stream above Loch na Laghan ; and of the remaining
480 feet the river drops 310 feet in the 1| miles which include the
Dog Falls, the Badger Falls, and the connecting rapids. This sudden
drop in level is represented on the profile diagrams by the steepening of
the curve between the 20th and 25th mile, a feature which is most
strongly marked on the AfFric, less so on the Cannich, and is com-
paratively smoothed on the Farrar. This sudden steepening of the
gradient corresponds more or less closely in each valley with the out-
crop of a belt of gneissose rocks, much folded and resting at high angles.
It may, therefore, be due to the superior resisting power of these rocks
compared with those at the mouth of the valleys, while it is possible
that the latter may have been more or less shattered by a line of
fracture which passes along Strath Glass, and thus rendered more subject
to erosion.
An over-deepening of the upper part of Strath Glass with regard to
the tributary valleys might also be suggested as a cause of the sudden
drop at the foot of Glen Affric, which might thus be regarded as a
hanging valley. It is, however, difficult to suppose that a volume of
ice passed into the head of Strath Glass larger than that which must
have descended from the wide extent of lofty mountain ground that
surrounds the upper portions of Glen Affric and Glen Cannich.
Before passing to the next section, some interesting points in the
earlier history of the Farrar may be referred to.
Of the two streams which fall into the head of Loch Monar, the
Amhainn an-t-Sratha Mhoir or Strathmore river has now the greater
volume, and may be regarded as the real head of the river Farrar. The
other, the Allt Loch Calavie, flows for the greater part of its course
through a chain of lochs lying in a wide level valley, which heads up to
the main watershed of the country at a point where it is only 865 feet
above sea-level. The low drift-covered col rises but a few feet above
the stream on the western side of the watershed, a tributary of the river
Ling, and the flat marshy valley of the Allt an Loinfhiodha as far
down as the foot of Loch Cruoshie is clearly a continuation of the
hollow by which the eastern drainage now passes through the Gead
Lochs into Loch Monar. The stream below Loch Cruoshie is rapidly
eroding its present steep gorge, and it is evident that since glacial times
it has cut back eastwards sufiiciently to rob the headwaters of the Farrar
of the volume represented by the three burns which now flow into Loch
Cruoshie.
The gorge of the Garbh Uisge below Monar Lodge is a recent post-
glacial portion of the river channel. Its earlier course, occupied at a
time when the valley south of Beinn na Muice was probably blocked
with ice, lay through the hollow between Loch Bad na h'Achlaise and the
196 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Uisge Misgeach. Other higher channels occupied by the river during
former stages of the grading of its course can be detected immediately-
above Ardchuilk, at the level of the road between Lochs Mhuilinn and
Bunacharan, and again at the roadside half a mile below Deannie
Lodge.
The bathymetry of Loch Monar and of most of the other lochs
mentioned in this paper has been fully discussed in the Reports of the
Scottish Lake Survey published from time to time in the pages of this
Magazine.^ It will therefore be sufficient to say that all or nearly all
these lochs occupy rock-basins, though, in some instances, their waters
are partially held up by drift or alluvial deposits. Ice has in every case
been the principal eroding agent, and the powerful fault which crosses
Loch Monar in an oblique direction has probably played an important
part, as a line of weakness, in the evolution of that loch. The smaller
lochs are all of comparatively recent origin, and may be regarded as
only transient features, that under present conditions are being slowly
obliterated by the grading of the river valleys.
Section 2. — Between Fasnakyle and Erchless the river Glass occupies
a straight, trench-like, longitudinal valley, whose trend has been deter-
mined by a line of fault. The fall of the valley floor from Invercannich
to Struy, a distance of 6| miles, is only 15 feet ; the stream has graded its
course, and now winds in sluggish curves, with here and there an " ox-
bow "lake representing a former " cut-off," through a deep deposit of
silt, sand, and fine gravel.
There is little doubt that this portion of the valley is a waste-filled
basin, at one time occupied by a narrow glen-lake comparable on a small
scale with Loch Ness, and like it, developed along a XXE.-SSW. line
of fracture and consequent weakness. The waters of this lake probably
extended to the head of the gorge at Eilean Aigas and were gradually
drained by the erosion of the rock barrier below, while the higher
reaches Avere being silted up with the material brought down by the
mountain streams.
At Eilean Aigas the character of the river completely changes. The
wide haughlands and sweeping curves of the Glass give place to the
picturesque gorges through which the Beauly rushes in alternating fall
and rapid amid the beautiful scenery of the Druim and Kilmorack.
These gorges have been cut deep into the Old Red Sandstone conglomerate,
and in places even reach the underlying floor of metamorphic rock.
A feature common to most of the rivers that fall into the Moray
Firth is the abnormal steepening of the lower part of their course,
generally at or near the point where they breach the inner or landward
margin of the Old Red Sandstone belt.
In a former paper on the Spey - I have attributed this phenomenon,
which is particularly well marked in the case of that river, to the
rejuvenation produced by an uplift later than the deposition of the Old
Red Sandstone. In the case of the Beauly it seems probable that the
more recent uplift which raised the shore-line 100 feet above its present
1 Vol. xxii. No. 9, 1906; vol. xxi., 1905.
' "The River Spey," Scottish Geographical Magazine, April 1901.
THE RIVERS OF SCOTLAND: THE BEAULY AND CONON. 197
level was an important factor in the production of the lower gorges.
The 100-feet beach, which forms a conspicuous feature along the
shores of the Beauly Firth, can be traced to the mouth of the Kilmorack
gorge, while the 100-feet contour-line crosses the river at Teanassie,
more than a mile higher up. It is evident that erosion must have been
largely accelerated on the down-stream side of the uplift by the steepen-
ing of the gradient.
At the mouth of the Kilmorack gorge the Beauly enters the final
section of its course, and flowe gently over a wide alluvial plain to the
sea. Above the village of Beauly the river is eroding the marine deposits
of the successive raised beaches, while below it pushes out into the head
of the Beauly Firth an ever-advancing delta of silt and mud, closely
similar to the estuarine shelly clays that extend far up the valley of the
Conon to the limit of the 100-foot beach.
The course of the Beauly between Eilean Aigas and the sea is entirely
postglacial. An earlier preglacial channel is indicated by the hollow
of Lonbuie, which runs from Eskadale through Fanellan to Beaufort
Castle. The higher part of this hollow is now deeply filled with boulder
clay, the lower portion with alluvial sand and gravel. From Beaufort the
river probably flowed through the low-lying tract of ground occupied by
the now drained Moniack Moss to the sea between Clunes and Lentran.^
Having thus discussed in more or less detail the courses of the
streams that form the present Beauly river system, it remains to
consider briefly the earlier history of its development.
It seems probable that the Farrar, Cannich, and Aff"ric represent the
headwaters of a consequent easterly-flowing river system developed on
the original surface of the Old Red Sandstone plateau, which we know
from the outlying fragments of that formation found far up the inland
valleys, must at one time have covered the eastern side of the watershed
up to a height of at least 2500 feet above present sea-level.
A study of the map shows the significant manner in which the wide
valley of Glen Urquhart and Corrimony heads up to a well-marked
depression in the eastern wall of Strath Glass, directly opposite to the
mouth of Glen Cannich, and continues the line of that glen eastwards to
Loch Ness. It is therefore not unreasonable to supjiose that Glen
Urquhart once formed part of the course of a large eastward-flowing
river, whose head-waters were captured by a longitudinal stream at
the time when the removal of the Old Red Sandstone covering by
denudation brought into play the features of an earlier drainage system,
and diverted the confluent waters of the Cannich and the Afi'ric into
the pre-Old-Red-Sandstone valley of Strath Glass.
The Farrar-Glass-Beauly still preserves more or less its easterly
course, but the lower part of the valley has been largely modified by
subsequent events, and in earlier times the river probably flowed over
a plain of Old Red Sandstone that occupied the position of the Beauly
Firth, discharging its waters into the Moray Firth far to the eastward of
the present shores of the Black Isle.
1 As suggested by Mr. Wallace in his article " Geological Changes in the Moray Firth."
Trans. Inverness Scientific Soc, vol. ii. p. 384.
198
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
sjioj uotJin^
The Conox.
The upper part of the Conon river system is
composed of the Meig and the stream which flows
through Loch Luichart. The name Conon is first
given to the river where it issues from that loch,
the stream that flows into the head of the loch
being known as the Bran, It is, however, signi-
ficant that the Meig valley, which continues the
line of the valley of the Conon below their junc-
tion, bears the name of Strathconon, and it would
seem more fittiug that the name Bran should be
extended to the confluence of the Loch Luichart
stream with the Meig, the name Conon being re-
stricted to the united waters below that point. A
Gaelic verse, quoted by Mr. Watson in his ex-
cellent work on the place-names of Ross and
Cromarty, has reference to this anomaly : —
" Abhainn Mig tre Srath-chomiinn,
Abhainn Conuinn tre Srath-bhrainn,
Abhaiun Dabh-chuileagach tre Srath-ghairbh ;
Tri abnaicheau gun tairbh iad sin."
" The River Meig through Strath Conon,
The River Couon through Strathbran,
The River of black nooks through Strathgarve ;
Three rivers without profit these."
At Contin (the confluence) the river is joined
by its most important tributary, the Blackwater,
and four miles above its mouth receives on the
right bank the waters of the Orrin. The area of
the Conon drainage basin approximates to 483
square miles. The lengths of the various sections
are as follows : the Meig, 241 miles ; the Bran,
to the foot of the Meig, 26| miles; the Bran-
Conon, 38| miles; and the Meig-Conon, 36i
miles. The principal tributaries of the lower
river, the Blackwater and Orrin, measure respec-
tively 28 and 23 miles in length.
The mountain torrent which forms the head-
waters of the Bran-Conon rises at a height of
1500 feet on the slopes of Carn Breac, at a point
only 9 miles distant from the salt Avater of Loch
Torridon, and falls 1000 feet in its course of 5
miles to the head of Loch a' Chroisg (Rosque).
ii. § o § S t ° Issuing from the loch as the river Bran, the stream
is cutting through the high-level terraces of sand and gravel which are seen
on either side of the railway a short distance to the west of Achnasheen
station. These represent, as pointed out by Dr. Penck of Vienna,
THE RIVERS OF SCOTLAND: THE BEAULY AND CONON. 199
and further described by Dr. B, N, Peach, delta deposits laid down in an
ancient lake, which was held up by masses of ice lying in the valley
to the east and south of the present junction of the Bran with the
stream flowing out of Loch Gown.
From Achnasheen the river winds eastwards with a gentle fall
through the grassy alluvial stretches of Strathbran, its straighter
course immediately above Dosmuckeran indicating a steeper gradient
where the stream leaves the floodplain and has cut a shallow gorge
through the flagstones at the foot of Druim Dubh. Below Dosmuckeran
the river meanders in sluggish curves between high banks of sand and
clay through a flat stretch of meadow land. This alluvial flat is the
silted-up head of a large loch, now represented only by the shallow reedy
waters of Loch Achanalt and Loch Cuilinn. Li addition to the filling up
of this earlier lake by the stream at its head, its waters were lowered by
the cutting back of the rock barrier below Loch Cuilinn, and the latter
loch separated from Loch Achanalt, the former connection of the two
lakes being plainly indicated by the continuous terraces that can be
traced around them both. After leaving Loch Cuilinn the Bran passes
in rapids and small waterfalls over a series of rock barriers, above each
of which the stream expands into a wide reach of comparatively still
water, and falls 110 feet to Loch Luichart in a distance a little less than
two miles. A mile above that loch it is joined by the Grudie river, which
drains Loch Fannich and the southern slopes of the Fannich mountains.
This is a rapid rocky stream, and falls 460 feet in the last 3^^ miles of
its short course from the loch. The bathymetry of Loch Luichart
presents some interesting features, which are fully discussed in the
Report of the Scottish Lake Survey on the lakes of the Conon basin. ^
It may, however, be pointed out that the abnormal depth found close
to the head of the loch is probably due in great measure to the powerful
wrench-fault which here crosses the lake. The eff"ect of this line of
movement would be to shatter and disintegrate the rock and thus
increase the erosive eff"ect of the moving ice at this point.
The most prominent feature in the profile of the Bran-Conon, below
Loch a' Chroisg, is the sudden drop below Loch Luichart, where, in a
distance of just under a mile, the river falls 1.30 feet between the rock-
lip of the loch at the Falls of Conon and the mouth of the gorge at
Little Scatwell. It is noticeable that the Falls of Conon occupy an
almost exactly similar position with regard to the loch above and
gorge below as do the Rogie Falls on the Blackwater river, referred to in
the sequel. The erosion of the Loch Luichart barrier has, however, not
yet been sufficient to lower appreciably the waters of the loch above and
produce a marginal terrace as is the case with Loch Garve.
The course of the Meig is less varied than that of its sister stream
the Bran. Rising at a height of 1200 feet at the head of Gleann
Fhiodhaig, it runs with a fairly even fall of 730 feet in 9 miles to
Scardroy at the head of Loch Beannachan. Here a partially eroded
barrier of Lewisian gneiss crosses the stream and forms a waterfall,
1 "Lochs of the Conon Basin," Scottish Geographiail Magazine, vol. xxi. p. 467, 1905.
200 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
while openings in the barrier at higher levels with corresponding
terraces mark former courses of the stream.
The waters of Loch Beannachan lie in a hollow due to erosion along
a line of fault that can be traced westwards to Loch Maree.
The Meig issues from Loch Beannachan through a deep accumula-
tion of fluvio-glacial sand and gravel, which to some extent holds up the
waters of the loch ; and rock is first met with in the bed of the stream
a mile below the outlet. Between Inbhirchorainn and Milltown of
Strathconon the river runs NNE. and nearly at right angles to its
higher course through a straight caiion-like valley, whose lofty and pre-
cipitous eastern Avail of shattered and reddened rock forms one of the
most striking features in the scenery of Strathconon. This valley has been
determined by a powerful line of dislocation which can be traced for a
great distance through the counties of Ross and western Inverness, with a
trend parallel to that of the faults which have determined the Great Glen
and the upper part of Strath Glass. This Strathconon fault has already
been mentioned as crossing the head of Loch Luichart. At Milltown
the Meig leaves the fault-valley and resumes its normal easterly course
with a fairly even fall through Strathconon. For a distance of half
a mile above Little Scatwell the gradient is less matured, and the
stream struggles in a deep and narrow gorge through the siliceous flag-
stones of Torr a Bhealaich.
Issuing from their respective gorges at Little Scatwell, the Meig and
Bran enter a wide flood plain, through which their waters, united in the
Conon river, flow to a point below Comrie where the valley is again
constricted, and a band of siliceous rock crossing the stream has pro-
duced a low waterfall and rock gorge below.
The next steep drop in the gradient is found at the Muirton Falls
just above Newton, where the Conon encounters the coarse breccia of
Old Red Sandstone age which forms Torr Achilty. The fall or steep rapid
caused by the outcrop of this hard conglomerate is succeeded by a
stretch of a mile in which the river flows swiftly over a floor of gently
inclined grey shales and flagstones. These rocks are on the same
horizon as the bods from which are derived the mineral waters of
Strathpeff"er, and several sulphureous springs rise from the river bed
near Clachuile Inn, but are only exposed when the water is at a low
summer level.
The insignificance of the Muirton gorge as compared with that cut by
the Beauly river through the Old Red Sandstone at Kilmorack is remark-
able, but may be explained by the fact that a fault here crosses the
river, bringing the shales and flagstones into contact with the lowest
portion of the basal conglomerate. The Conon has therefore had an
easier task in eroding its channel through these softer rocks than the
Beauly on its three-mile course through the hard conglomerates of
Kilmorack and the Druim.
It may be pointed out that here again the limit of the 100-feet
raised beach coincides very nearly with the head of the gorge at Toir
Achilty. Near Muirton Mains finely laminated blue shelly clays of
estuarine character are found up to the 100-feet level, and upon these
THE RIVERS OF SCOTLAND: THE BEAULY AND CONON. 201
appear to rest the moraines that mark the last retreat of the valley
glacier up Strathcouon.
From Torr Achilty to the sea the Conon flows through a wide
alluvial plain, eroding the marine deposits of the raised beaches, and at
the same time laying down its own load of material. At Moy Bridge
it receives the waters of the Blackwater, and a short digression must
now be made to describe the salient points in the course of this im-
portant tributary.
There are many points in similarity between the physiography of
the Blackwater and that of the Conon, and these have been determined
by closely similar causes. The three large streams which form the head-
waters of the river under consideration — the Glascarnoch and the
streams which &ow through Strath Vaich and Strath Rannoch — each
present in some part of its course the usual alternation of lake or
drained and silted-up lake-basin with rock gorge through which the
stream is eroding the determining barrier below.
Two mountain torrents, draining the southern slopes of Beinn Dearg
and the northern corries of the Fannich range, unite a short distance
east of the low flat watershed to form the Glascarnoch river. It is,
however, evident that the waters of Loch Droma and the Allt
a' Mhadaidh, which now flow westwards to Loch Broom, have been
stolen from the Blackwater basin by the river Broom, which has cut back
more rapidly than the gently graded upper portion of the Glascarnoch
stream. The flat alluvial stretch, some four miles in length, above
Aultguish Inn is evidently the bed of a glen lake filled up with the
detritus brought down by the hill streams, and drained by the erosion
of a barrier mainly formed by the belt of foliated granite which crosses
the valley above Inchbae.
Below Strath Vaich the valley gradient steepens, and the river falls
430 feet in seven miles to Gortin, at the head of the alluvial flat which
represents the silted-up head of Loch Garve. This loch has also been
drained to a considerable extent by the lowering of the rock barrier at
the Falls of Rogie, and the conspicuous terraces round the southern part
of the loch show the former extent of its waters.
A high terrace of sand and gravel extends from the mouth of the
rock gorge eroded by the river below the Rogie Falls to the entrance of
the hollow occupied by Loch Achilty, whose waters are to a large extent
held up by deep alluvial deposits. There are indications that at an
earlier period, when the lower part of the valley was possibly blocked
with ice, the water may have passed through this hollow, which connects
the valleys of the Blackwater and the Conon.
Two miles below the confluence of these rivers the waters of the
Orrin pour in from the south, over a delta of coarse alluvial deposits,
through channels that shift with every heavy flood. The course of the
Orrin through its wild mountain valley presents no features of special
interest. The fall of the stream, 1200 feet, is fairly evenly distributed
over its course of 23 miles, but is on the whole greater in the portion
below Camban. Loch na Caoidhe, at the head of the valley, occupies a
rock basin, and the graded stretch that extends for a mile and a half
VOL. XXIII. P
202 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
below Am Fiar Loch represents the former extent of that piece of
water. The Orrin Falls are due to the outcrop of a band of con-
glomerate, greater in resisting power than the softer shales and flag-
stones below.
Like the Beauly, the Conon was at an early period of its history
developed on the eastward slope of a plateau of Old Eed Sandstone and,
possibly, Secondary rocks, but does not appear to have been modified
to the same extent by the reassertion of earlier surface features, and
still preserves to a large extent its original consequent course.
It is possible, however, that the southward bend of the Blackwater
between Garbad and Garve was determined by the high ground of An
Cabar and Little Wyvis, and that the pass between those mountains
indicates an earlier eastward line of drainage.
The lower course of the Conon, like that of the Beauly, Avas con-
tinued over the Old Red Sandstone plain far to the eastwards of its
present mouth, and, as has been suggested by Mr. Hugh Miller,^ the
opening between the Sutors of Cromarty may have been eroded by the
river as it cut its way down through the softer strata by which the
gneiss of the Sutors was deeply covered.
THE BLACK MAX'S MIND.^
These two volumes aie clear testimony that the importance of West
Africa to the student of ethnology is being recognised. Ultimately both
deal with the same subject. They are earnest attempts to discover the
first principles of the religion of the "West African native. Major Leonard,
in a large volume of 560 pages, has given us the result of over ten years'
study of the tribes in Southern Nigeria, and Mr. Dennett has been
reaching forward to the conclusions he arrives at, during a stay of nearly
thirty years on " the Coast." Both volumes are intensely interesting,
and what has to be said regarding their form had best be said first.
The illustrations in Mr. Dennett's book are on the whole well done, and
the signs given on p. 71 open up a subject that requires thorough
investigation — that of the sign-writing used by the natives. L^^nfortun-
ately Mr. Dennett overloads his pages with native terras that are very
difficult to remember, and to read his book involves the retention in the
mind of a goodly number of Bavili and Bini words. It is well that the
proof-reading is nearly perfect and the index very full, though there are
one or two omissions. On page 65 we have Mvumvuvu, and this is the
form found in the index which contains no reference to pages 107-8,
where the term is fully explained, and where it is printed Mvumvu??ivu.
Likaida (p. 82) is printed Likawla (p. 84). Major Leonard's book is
1 Transactions of the Inverness Scientific Society, 1885, vol. iii. p. 133.
2 The Lower Niger and its Tribes. By Arthur Glyn Leonard (Macmillan, V2s. 6d. net),
At the Back of the Black Man's Mind: or, Xotes on the Kingly Office in West Africa. By
R. E. Dennett (MacmillaD, 10s. net).
THE BLACK MAN'S MIND. 203
larger and much more diffuse. Misprints are more frequent, but I shall
merely refer to some which occur in an interesting Appendix on the
'• Grammatical Construction of Tongues." On page 507, Ja, to chew,
should be Ta, as it is printed on page 512, where, however, tuka should
be huta, and utaja should be utalia. On page 510 some use is made of
diacritical marks in the word oydkhd, but no explanation is given any-
where as to the meaning of these marks, and other words, usually written
with them, do not receive them. On page 508 the first rule is badly
stated, and the rule for comparison of adjectives is wrong, for etiakan
does not mean "extremely good" but "better than " {lit. good past). It
is a pity that these and a number of other mistakes have crept into this
very interesting Appendix. The index is far too meagre, and it is quite
impossible to locate many of the towns mentioned in the text on the
antiquated map at the end of the volume.
In both volumes insistence is rightly laid on the effect of environ-
ment on the religious ideas of the natives. Major Leonard, in his
opening chapters, gives a vivid description of Nigeria — a land baked
and hard in the dry season, but swampy and malarial in the rains, and
he seeks to trace the influence which these climatic changes and other
natural phenomena had on the minds of the people. If there is less
description in Mr. Dennett's book, it is not less necessary to keep before
us as we read, a picture first of the Mayombe and Xiloango country and
afterwards of the Benin Eiver District. The conclusions arrived at by
these two investigators seem at first sight vastly different. Says Mr.
Dennett, page 105, "In the last resort the Bavili are monists," and he
afterwards on more than one occasion makes the same statement regard-
ing the Bini, e.g. page 235, "We have noted that both the Bini and
Bavili in the first place recognise God." He then finds amongst both
peoples a distinction between things created and things procreated — the
former connected with God, the latter with the Devil. He lays stress
on the fact that the ultimate starting-point for all is God, but he admits
(p. 166) that the idea of God prevalent to-day amongst the Bavili is
very degenerate. Trade, especially the slave trade, and European mis-
conceptions regarding their civilisation, have demoralised the people so
that they do not to-day lay the stress they should and formerly did lay
on God's part in the affairs of the world. Accordingly he arrives at
Major Leonard's conclusion that for all practical purposes the natives
to-day are dualists {Lower Niger, p. 129), though the latter does not
think that Monism ever existed in Nigeria.
Both writers rest their conclusions to a large extent on arguments
of a philological character, and rightly so. But the study of West African
languages is still in its infancy, and the conclusions drawn are sometimes
hardly convincing. Thus Mr. Dennett pleads for Monism because every-
thing is ultimately brought back to God — NzamU. But Nzamhi is not
the causing First Principle. Though His name is singular in form, He
contains the " essence of the forms," and has in Himself a male and
female part (p. 167). It would seem quite probable that if the Bavili
have fallen from Monism, they had originally fought their way to it
from Polydemonism, or, to use Major Leonard's term, Naturism.
204 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
It is only natural that whilst one who has tried to get at the heart
of native ways of thought, and to observe native customs, finds much to
agree with in both books, there should be many things that he does not
agree with. I do not know the country that Mr. Dennett deals with,
but I have had a good deal to do with several " Bini Boys." Major
Leonard's observations have mostly been made on the Xiger amongst
the Ibo people, but he has travelled through a great part of the country,
and has gathered information from natives of all parts. Accordingly he
feels justified in stating his conclusions broadly, making them apply to
the whole of Nigeria. Thus he states, page 293, "Virtually, indeed,
every household has its own priest in the person of the eldest son," and
this statement is fully explained on page 395. Amongst the Efik and
XJmon peoples on the Cross River I have not found it so. The head of
the family is the priest for the family. Amongst polygamists there is
often doubt as to who is the eldest born, and accordinglj', in these tribes
at least, the father regards as his first-born the son of whose birth he
hears first, even although, because of a slave's dilatoriness in carrying
a message, or because of a child being born in a distant farm, he is really
junior to another by several days. Further, the custom of the Nsibidi
Society seems to me inconsistent with the position of the eldest son as
priest. This society was suppressed in Duke Town in 1878 or 1879,
but it was "out" in Creek Town in 1902, though it did no damage.
Its members had the right on its " play " days to kill at sight the eldest
son or daughter of any house whatsoever. Other children could walk
the town with safety. It seems hardly possible that the people would
submit to have their family priest in continual danger. Mr. Dennett
does not seem to have found traces of this special sanctity of the eldest
son, and facts like the above do not agree with it.
Amongst the Bavili there does not seem to be any human sacrifice.
At least no mention is made of it in At the Back of the Black Man's Mind.
Major Leonard has a great deal that is interesting to say about it.
Amons the Inokuns this religious rite was performed till after the Aro
war, but now it has ceased. Indeed the custom was universal, and
within the memory of man was practised even in Calabar. Some time
a^^o I got a full account of the change from human to other sacrifices
in connection witli an idem at Okpoko, a farm village near Ikunetu.
Formerly there was sacrificed to this idem a light-coloured woman —
owoafia. But — and this is an interesting part of the tradition — about
forty years ago the idem itself said that this was not good, and told the
people to bring other sacrifices. Accordingly a white cow was offered.
Gradually the value of the sacrifice decreased, till at last it became merely
one white egg. With this meagre offering the idem was offended and in
1902 declared that no sacrifices save those that used to be offered would
be accepted. The people understood this to involve a return to human
sacrifice, and next day led a light-coloured woman to the sacred place and
turned her face toward the idem. This was done to remind tlie idem that
human sacrifice had been discontinued at its own command. Then were
sacrificed " a white cow, a white fowl, a white tortoise, and many other
animals, all white " Since then they have not sacrificed to the idem, nor
THE BLACK MAN's MIND. 205
planted in that place. So the idem is offended and has gone to another
part. This is proved, because the tree in which the idem lived is dead,
[n revenge for the way it has been treated, the idem has sent an ekpo
(devil) to OkpiSko, and this el-po lies in wait for Ikunetu people going
up-river and kills them — evidently the idem takes in this way the human
sacrifice that was denied it. It is stated that many people from Ikunetu
have lost their lives through this ekpo.
I have told this story because it illustrates the power that the old
killing customs still have over the minds of the people. Till these are
got rid of, it seems hopeless to expect the people to make progress.
Both Major Leonard and Mr. Dennett think that the hope for the future
of the black man — Bantu and Negro — lies in the development of their
customs. This is true if development involves the loss of a good deal
that has grown up during the centuries and the retention only of Avhat
is best in the customs of the people. Can this be done 1 Will it be
that the native of Africa Avill lose his tribal exclusiveness and take a
human view of life, and yet retain his present religious ideas? Is it
possible to keep the family system, and yet cast out the ancestor-worship
on which it rests ? There is no doubt that Christian missions are
influencing the people. So far the missionaries have ^practically left the
principles they teach to influence the lives of their converts and gradu-
ally to transform the social fabric. This is the slowest way, but it is the
wisest, because it involves least loss of what is good in the old state of
affairs. But as surely as Christianity broke down the slave system of
Rome, and the serf system of mediaeval Europe, so surely is it having a
revolutionary effect on the system of domestic slavery in West Africa.
Its progress cannot be stayed, and however much we may regret the
passing of many of the old customs, they cannot for long endure before
customs which, because resting on a higher idea of God, are nobler and
truer. Meanwhile let us learn all we can regarding the older customs
of the people before they pass for ever. It is because of the insight and
the sympathy that Mr. Dennett and Major Leonard have brought to
their work that their books are so interesting and so valuable.
J. K. Macgregor.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Europe.
Old Italian Charts. — The magazine of the Societa Geografica
Itaiiana for November has an article on certain nautical charts in the
Communal Library in Bologna. They do not belong entirely to the
" glorious epoch " of Italian mapmaking, from the end of the thirteenth
to the middle of the sixteenth centuries, but they are still notable pro-
ductions. They are: (1) The Atlas of Count Ottimano Freducci, dated
1538; (2) Atlas of Giacomo Scotto, 1593; (3) Nautical Chart of Yin-
cenzo Demetrio Volcio, 1601 ; (4) Nautical Chart of Placido Caloiro,
206 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
1639 ; (5) Atlas of Placido Caloiro, 1665; (G) Atlas of Trofi mo Vernier,
1679 ; and (7) an anonymous atlas.
These have all been described before, but the present article gives
more detail. There are many points of interest in these later charts,
showing, for instance, the steps of transition from the mediaeval to the
modern map. The Commune of Bologna also possess a splendid atlas
of Candia, drawn by hand by Francisco Basilicata, from 1636 to 1639,
dedicated to Andrea Vernier.
Tlie executive of the Geographical Exhibition to be held in Venice
next May promise to show a display of cartographical treasures, and it
is just possible that visitors may have an opportunity of seeing these old
charts.
Asia.
The Lake of Pangong, — In the Journal of Geology (vii. 1906) Mr.
Ellsworth Huntington gives an account of this lake, which he visited on
his way to Chinese Turkestan. The lake, which lies in the province of
Ladakh, or Little Tibet, is the last of a series of five connected lakes
lying at a height of 14,000 feet. The upper lakes are in Tibetan
territory, and drain into one another so that they are fresh, but Pangong,
which has no outlet, is saline. At the time of Mr. Huntington's visit,
at the beginning of May, the lake was still frozen, and the minimum
air temperature at night was from 21° to 29^ Fahr. The inhabitants
were then just beginning to sow barley, the only crop which will ripen.
This May-sown crop is reaped in September, and at the lake level
usually ripens, but at Phobrang, a few hundred feet higher, it often
fails, the limit of cultivation being thus reached.
The origin of the lake is of some interest in connection with the
question of the glacial origin of lakes generally. It has been stated that
the basin is due to the damming of an old outlet by fans formed by
tributary torrents, but the author is of opinion that this is an error, and
that there must be a rock lip which blocks the outlet. He considers
further that the probabilities are that the basin behind the lip has been
eroded by ice, and that it thus resembles the fiords of Xortvay and the
valley lakes of Switzerland.
Another interesting point about the lake is that its lacustrine
deposits and shorelines indicate that it is subject to constant oscillations
of level due to variations either in rainfall or evaporation. The i:)ossi-
bility that such variations are taking place simultaneously over a large
area in Asia suggests that the detailed study of these variations may
cast much light upon the recent history of climate.
A New Volcanic Island. — The Times recently reported the
appearance of a new volcanic island off the Burmese coast, and some
further details are furnished in a letter to Nature for February 18. The
island is situated off the coast of Arakan, in the Bay of Bengal, about
nine miles to the north-westward of Chebuda Island, and appeared
above the surface of the sea on December 14. Its greatest length is
307 yards, and greatest breadth 217 yards, while the summit has a
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 207
height of 19 feet above high-water level. When visited by Commander
Beauchamp at the end of December, the island was found to be still in
an active condition at the northern end, where several springs of hot
liquid mud were found. Elsewhere the surface had dried in the sun,
and would support the weight of a man. Mingled with the mud of
which the island is composed a few fragments of angular stone were
found, and an interesting point was the amount of drift-wood which had
accumulated in the short period which had elapsed between the origin
of the island and its being visited. The naturalist of the party collected
no less than fourteen kinds of seed. In view, however, of the nature of
the constituent material it is improbable that the island will endure for
more than a short period.
Australasia.
A New Zealand Geyser. — In the course of a short article in the
Geological Magazim (Nov. 1906), Mr. M. Maclaren gives an interesting
accouut of a short-lived New Zealand geyser. This geyser — Waimangu
by name — was discovered in January 1900, though it had probably been
in existence for a short time previously. Its basin was some 130 feet
long and 80 feet wide, and was usually full of black muddy water. It
was active almost daily, but the eruptions were irregular in violence,
sometimes liurling a mass of water estimated at 800 tons to a maximum
height of 1500 feet, while at other times the geyser played lightly and
intermittently for five or six hours at a time. For more than four years
after its discovery the geyser was in active eruption, but during July
and August 190i, it remained quiescent for nearly two months. This
period was followed by renewed activity, which lasted till the end of
October, when the geyser became extinct, and has so remained since.
The interest of the case lies in the apparent connection with another
phenomenon of the same region. Four miles to the north-west lies
Tarawara Lake, which in June 1886 was effected by an eruption of
Tarawara Mountain. The eruption threw a great barrier of ash across
the valley which formed the natural outlet of the lake. The result was
an immediate rise of the lake surface by 28 feet, and a slower sub-
sequent rise which raised it an additional 14 feet by the end of October
1904. On the very clay on which the geyser gave forth its last discharge
the waters of the lake overtopped the barrier and rushed away, forming
a tremendous torrent for a period of a few days until the level had sunk.
This correlation in time certainly suggests that the waters of the geyser
had a superficial origin, and the author mentions other New Zealand
examples which tend in the same direction, and are thus opposed to
the view of Suess that the waters of geysers have always a deep
origin.
The Geological Survey of New Zealand. — We have received a
monograph on the Geology of the Hokitika Sheet, North Westland Quad-
rangle, which forms Bulletin No. 1 (new series) of the New Zealand
Geological Survey. The district of Westland includes the western
watershed of the Alps of South Island, a region full of scientific and
208 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
geographical interest. The region is also of economic importance on
account of the occurrence there of alluvial gold, and though gold is now
only obtained in reduced amounts, the possibility of the discovery of
gold-bearing veins of commercial value cannot be overlooked. Hokitika,
the town which gives its name to the sheet under discussion, is a small
settlement which oAved its origin to the fact that it was in the vicinity
of the Hokitika river that the first finds of gold were made.
As regards the general physical features of the district, the whole of
the west coast is remarkable for its relatively low tree-line, despite the
mild climate and the comparatively low latitude. On the lowlands
trees are abundant, and the forests yield valuable timbei-, but at a
height of about 3000 feet they become dwarfed to a low impenetrable
scrub. This only persists about another 500 feet, and is replaced by
an Alpine flora, which is again limited in extent by the very low snow-
line. The rainfall is very heavy — an average of 1 17 inches per annum as
against 51 inches at Wellington. Eain falls on an average 177 days
per annum, and the wettest month is October. The mean annual
temperature is 53° F. In 1906, a year of unusual cold. Pope's Pass
(5290 feet) was almost covered with snow at the period of maximum
melting, while snow fell at a height of 3000 feet during each of the
summer months.
The glaciers of the region are small and of the Piedmont type. They
have little, if any, excavating power, and very little morainic matter is
now being deposited. The glaciation of the region seems to date from
the Miocene, and apparently reached its maximum in Upper Pliocene
or early Pleistocene times, since which time it has gradually diminished.
From the point of vieAV of topography the district can be divided into three
regions — the alpine chain, with in the district a maximum height of
7197 feet (Mount Eosamond) ; an elevated peneplain with a mean height
of 4000 to 5000 feet; and a coastal plain. Some fine illustrations show
the characters of these different regions. The coastal plain is interest-
ing, because it is covered by a great sheet of morainic and fluviatile
deposits in which are found the auriferous deposits. The whole of the
glacial debris seems to be auriferous, but it is only worth woiking where
a natural process of concentration has occurred, and the richer leads
appear noAv to have been all exploited.
Polar.
The Structure and Topography of Graham Land.— Mr. Gunnar
Anderssen gives in the I>uUetin of I he Gcoloyical Institution of the Uni-
versity of Upsala (vii. 1904-5) an interesting account of Graham Land,
based ujion the researches of the Swedish Antarctic Expedition. He
points out that the land-forms of the region, here as usual, are intimately
connected with the geological structure of the ground, thus making it
possible to make rather wider statements as to geology than actual
observations justify. By far the larger part of the area in question is
made up of a series of plutonic rocks similar to those found in the
Andean Cordillera, mingled with displaced and folded sedimentary
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 209
rocks. The landscape so formed is highly mountainous, with narrow
peaks and rugged crests. The ice-cover is generally incomplete, leaving
bare many lofty mountains, only the more gentle slopes being covered
with inland ice. The large valleys are filled with great glaciers, and
even where the whole surface is ice-covered the swarms of crevasses and
the hummocks reveal the unevenness of the ground beneath. On the
other hand, on the east coast of the mainland, there are broad promon-
tories and large islands, as Ross Island and Vega Island, of very
characteristic shape. This is a typical plateau-region with its horizontal
surface covered by slightly vaulted inland ice, the coastline being formed
by dark vertical cliffs. These cliffs show clearly the composition of the
area, being formed of a coarse basaltic tuff sparingly intercalated with
lava flows and dikes. The centre of the region is in Ross Island, which
rises in the centre to the huge conical Mt. Haddington, possibly a large
volcano. The third type of landscape is found in the Snow Hill and
Seymour Island region, and is interesting because it is the only consider-
able region which is free from land-ice. The reason, perhaps partly to
be sought in special conditions of temperature, etc., is apparently chiefly
the nature of the rocks, which are soft sandstones of Cretaceous and
Tertiary age. These sandstones are easily acted upon by water, and
the regions where they occur are therefore low and deeply dissected.
Only in this region does melting of the snow occur to any considerable
extent in summer-time. The illustrations by which Mr. Anderssen's
article is accompanied show admirably the different types of scenery
in the three regions mentioned.
As regards glaciation and the ice-covering, it is curious to note that,
extensive as is the latter, the existing glaciers are far from active, and
in the northern part of Graham Land at least the only icebergs pro-
duced are small and irregular in form. The characteristically Antarctic
tabular bergs met with by the expedition must therefore have come
from further south. At the same time there are clear indications that
glaciation was formerly much more powerful than at present. At the
southernmost point reached by Nordenskjold evidence was found that
the inland ice formerly rose 300 metres higher on the side of the
Borchgrevink nunatak than it does to-day.
Another point upon which the paper lays great stress is the remark-
able similarity both as regards orography and geological structure to be
observed between Graham Land and South America.
Meteorology in the Antarctic. — In connection with our previous
note on this subject (p. 96), we may state that Mr. W. S. Bruce has
received word of the arrival of the Uruguay at Scotia Bay, South
Orkneys, with Mr. Angus Rankin's party on board. The vessel
encountered hundreds of icebergs, and heavy pack ice, and was
considerably damaged. The party at the Observatory were found to
be in good health, and to have accomplished a year of excellent work.
New Arctic Expedition. — According to the Afhenceum the Duke of
Orleans is preparing to lead another expedition to the Arctic in the
210 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
yacht La Belgica. Captain de Gerlache will be in command, and the
crew will consist of men who have already had Arctic experience. It is
expected that the expedition will sail from Ostend in the middle of
April.
Commercial Geography.
The Production of Cereals in France. — A short note on this
subject ill the lu'cue Geaerak des Sdcnces for December 15 gives some
interesting facts. The area devoted to cereals in France oscillates about
37 milliou acres (15 million hectares), that is, covers about 28 or 29 per
cent, of the whole area of the country. About half the total is given up
to wheat, but this will no longer pay as a sole crop, though it does well in
rotation, especially with beet. The areas given to wheat and barley are
slightly decreasing, while that covered by oats is stationary. In 1905
the total production of wheat in France was 327 million bushels (119
million hectolitres), and though far behind Russia and the United States
she ranks third in the list of producing countries. But in spite of this
enormous production she does not produce quite enough for her own
wants, her exports of wheat, oats and barley, never quite equalling her
imports. Much of the excess is furnished by Algeria and Tunis, and
Russia also sends corn to France. The price of home-grown cereals is
no longer determined by local conditions, but by the prices which reign
in the great markets of the world. This is due to the constant diminu-
tion of the price of transport across the ocean, so that now it costs less
to bring wheat from New York to Havre than to bring it from Havre
to Paris.
The Commercial and Colonial Expansion of Modern States. —
The Recls'a Colonlale, official organ of the Institute Culoniale Italiano,
whose (Ubut we lately noticed and welcomed, is justifying its existence
by the character of its contributions. One excellent feature is, that
debates in the Senate on Colonial questions are quoted in cxfenso, so that
those interested may refer to thena with facility, without having to
turn over old files of newspapers. The second number reports a discus-
sion in the Senate, inaugurated by De Martino, on the necessity, among
other things, for the reform of the Consular Service, which some of us
might do Avorse than read.
In the third number there appears a most interesting article by Dr.
Filippo Carli, secretary to the Chamber of Commerce in Brescia, entitled
" Technical Education and Economic Expansion." The occasion for it
is a book just issued by Marco Fanni on " The Commercial and Colonial
Expansion of Modern State?," and Dr. Carli uses it as a text from which
to evolve his own views on technical education. The book itself should
interest us, because the author's prognostications concerning the future
of Great Britain are most gloomy, and while we may not share in his
alarm, it is useful to know what impression we produce on our neighbours.
Carli differs from him on one important point, and uses this very diverg-
ence to illustrate his own opinions. Fanno, it seems, believes that the
GEOGKAPHICAL NOTES. 211
phenomena of expansion are purely material. As he puts it, " the
colonial expansion of the different countries depends on their commercial
expansion, and that iu its turn on the increase of population." Again,
" the impelling force of economic, social and political progress, is the
increase of population." Nothing is allowed for racial differences,
nothing for superior training; the only difference is in geographical
position. For instance, the northern nations were less agricultural than
the southern from their geographical position, and so had to develop
their industries in order to purchase food-stuffs.
Carli traverses this view entirely, dwelling on the great force of what he
calls the spiritual element, which includes technical education. Technical
education influences economic expansion in two ways: (1) as the co-
efficient of industrial development, and therefore indirectly as a power
in the conquests of markets ; (2) as the direct coefficient iu commercial
penetration.
From these two points of view Germany is held up as a great example.
Directly after the Franco-Prussian War, she set herself to educate her
people. The diffusion of technical education began iu Prussia in 1876 ;
in Wiirfcemburg the most important industrial schools began in 1893-94 ;
the great school for textiles in Planen was founded in 1877 ; the similar
one in Barlin started in 1875; and many others had their beginning
about the same time. We know what the result has been ; how Germany
has advanced by leaps and bounds in the commercial world.
So much for industrial development. When we consider commercial
penetration, Germany very wisely says, " It is not enough to have goods
of the best quality, produced to undersell our rivals. We must make
the consumer aware of their value." Hence comes the development of
the consular service. The modern German consul is a trained man of
business. The whole of the German trade centres iu his office to be
fostered and encouraged by him, and he is never above his business.
Rubber Cultivation in Ceylon. — The last issue (1906-7) of
Ferguson's Cnjlon H-uidbooJ: and Dlrectorij, a volume of great value
which has just reached us, contains some statistics as to the area under
rubber in Ceylon which have, or are likely to have iu the immediate
future, considerable economic importance. In July 1905 Ceylon had
about 40,000 acres planted with rubber, but so rapid was progress
in the following year that in little more than a year the acreage
leaped up to 100,000 acres, not counting the acreage of native gardens,
which is considerable. In the Malay Peninsula there are probably
about another 60,000 acres. As yet these plantations, almost all
of recent origin, produce only a few hundred tons, and thus do not
seriously compete in the market with the supplies from S>uth America
and Africa, but there is aprobibility that in another six or seven years
Ceylon and the Malay region with Java will be each in a position to put
about 10,000 tons on the market. It will be remembered that in South
America and the Congo Free State it is the wild rubber which is col-
lected, and there is som? doubt whether tropical Africa at least can
long keep up the present rate of supply. As both Ceylon and the
212 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Malay region are in different ways Avell fitted to cultivate rubber, Ceylon
especially having a good and cheap supply of labour, there can be no
doubt that Africa at least will have to alter her methods if she is not to
lose her market. It is one of the curious little facts with which economic
geography abounds that at the present time Ceylon is supplying seed to
Brazil, from which her own plants of Para rubber were originally
obtained.
A very interesting account of the development of rubber cultivation
in Ceylon will also be found in Naiure for December 27, in an article
by Dr. J. C. Willis, which also gives some account of the Rubber
Exhibition held at Ceylon last September. The Eeport on this Exhi-
bition, containing the lectures and discussions which took place at it,
has also been sent to us by Messrs. Ferguson of Colombo. Further, the
indirect effect of the cultivation of rubber in Ceylon in stimulating
interest in its cultivation in South Ameiica will be found discussed in
a paper by M. Paul Le Conte in the Bulletin mensnel of the Society de
G6ographie Commerciale de Paris fur November last.
General.
The British Association. — We have received the usual intimation
in regard to the Meeting of the British Association, which is to be held
this year at Leicester, beginning on Wednesday, July 31, under the
Presidency of Sir David Gill. The President of Section E (Geography)
is to be Mr. G. G. Chisholm. An attractive programme of excursions is
being arranged, the geologically famous Charnwood Forest area being
within easy reach of Leicester by rail or road. The Honorary Local
Secretaries are Messrs. Alfred Colson and G. V. Hiley, Millstone Lane,
Leicester.
EDUCATIONAL.
In the December issue of the Revista Geografica Italiana there
appears a suggestive article on Professor Cvigic's monumental work on
" Human Settlements in the Servian Countries," especially interesting in
connection with the distribution of cities and villages in the region.
These two types of settlement have, of course, a widely difterent origin,
for while the situation and character of a village is determined solely
by the local topographical conditions, the choice of the site of a city is
influenced by many concurrent factors, such as the great arteries of
communication, the rivers, the seaports, and their connection with
foreign countries.
If we consult the map of the Balkan Peninsula, it will be noticeable
that the western division differs in character from the eastern. In the
former, the country is divided up by mountain ranges running north
and south, with deep and sunless valleys between them ; while towards
the east, the mountains are irregular in outline, enclosing circumscribed
depressions and valleys which only with difficulty communicate with one
another. Again, it will be seen that the Peninsula is intersected
EDUCATIONAL. 213
longitudinally by the great Morava and Vardar valleys, and transversely
by the ancient Via Egnatia. In a climatic sense the country is also
divided up, for while the northern slopes are densely wooded, and are sub-
ject to all the weather conditions of a forest land, the southern division
is arid and devoid of vegetation. These geographical peculiarities
are reflected in the settlements. Of villages there are two types,
roughly speaking, the sparse and the imited, and it will be found that
the line of division runs from north-east to south-west, that the sjDarse
type prevails in the north-west, and the united in the south-east. As
might be expected, the long ranges of mountains with their sunless
valleys, full of water, encourage the inhabitants to settle high up on
the ridges, in the sun, and the condition that is found is that of long
straggling villages, each house apart from the others and surrounded by
its fields. The wooded condition further favours this tendency to
isolated farms. In the south-east, on the other hand, where the isolated
valley and the absence of forest lands prevail, the villages are at the
bottom of these valleys, the houses being huddled together, often back
to back, and the pasture lands are situated at a distance on the
hillsides.
The cities, again, are naturally found along the main arteries of
communication already alluded to, along the great highway of the
Morava and Vardar, from Salonika to the Danube ; by the Via Egnatia
from the Black Sea to the shores of the Adriatic ; and in the north
along the line of the Save and Danube, one of the most striking
examples being Belgrade itself, situated as it is at the junction of the
Danube and Save. One sees how these cities wax and wane in prosperity
in sympathy with the fortunes of the seaports and the foreign traffic.
For instance, up to the early part of last century the bulk of the traffic
went and came by the Adriatic ports, whereas since then it tends to
take the northern routes towards the Danube, and the })rosperity of the
former cities and ports has suffered in proportion.
While there is, of course, nothing new in the above conception, the
particular application is interesting.
We publish this month a short note on the cultivation of rubber in
Ceylon which may be recommended to teachers as affording material
for an interesting lesson. Though as yet the cultivated rubber does not
command so high a price on the market as the Avild product, yet the
probabilities seem to be that there will happen in this case what has
already happened in the case of cinchona. We gave here some time
ago (xx. p, 321) a short account of the work done by the Dutch in the
acclimatisation of that plant, and the consequent loss to South America
of much of its market for the product; and it would seem that the
painstaking work Avhich has been done in the case of rubber is likely to
have similarly its reward in the capture by the eastern planters of the
rubber market. If this occurs, or if the East can even seriously
threaten the South American and African monopoly, the probabilities
are that extensive social changes in, for example, the Congo Free State
will necessarily take place, and there is something very stimulating to
214 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
the imagination in the slow conquest by scientific methods of an industry
hitherto conducted on primitive and slovenly lines.
According to an article in Science for December 21, the Geographic
Society of Chicago has been interesting itself in the development of in-
struction in meteorology throughout the United States. It has collected
a set of 270 lantern slides of various meteorological subjects, and has
compiled a descriptive text to accompany them. The slides have been
copied from the Atlas of Meteorology, recent text-books, the Monthly IFcather
Eevietv, and from photographs, etc., while the text has been compiled under
the auspices of an efficient committee. The text includes a bibliography
for the use of teachers, and the whole is available at cost price. The
idea is an admirable one, and deserves to be further developed.
NEW BOOKS.
EUROPE.
Modern Spain, 181.5-1898. By Butler Clarke. Cambridge : At the
University Press, 1906. Price 7s. 6d.
This is another volume of the Cambridge Historical Series, which quite sus-
tains the high level which the previous works have accustomed us to. The aim
of this series is, as the editor says, to sketch the history of modern Europe with
that of its chief colonies and conquests, and it is intended for the use of all persons
anxious to understand the nature of existing political conditions. As indicated in
the title. Modern Spain, after an introductory chapter touching on the time of the
Peninsular War, or as the Spaniard calls it, the War of Independence, takes the
reader over that stormy period from 1815 to close on the present time.
The interest for the general reader will centre on the account of the Pragmatic
Sanction and the resulting Carlist wars. Spain had always from time immemorial
recognised the right of females to the throne of Castile and Leon in default of
males, but Philip v. introduced the Salic Law in 1713. Later, in 1789, Carlos iv.
set this law aside, and a decree was prepared which received the name of the
Pragmatic Sanction, and which had the effect of restoring the former conditional
rights of females. But it was never promulgated, and therefore, as Don Carlos
insisted, never became law. Forty years later, when it was known that Doiia
Christina was to become a Jiiother, Ferdinand proceeded to the due promulgation,
but it was too late. Hence the Carlist Avars, and all the horrors of civil warfare.
The first Don Carlos seems to have been a scrupulous and honourable gentleman,
and to have behaved throughout with great gallantry. But for this, his
descendants might have ruled over Spain.
Many familiar figures flit across the pages as we read. Espartero, the brilliant
soldier but unscrupulous politician ; Serrano, the gay and gallant lover of Isabella ;
Cabrera, the brutal Carlist leader ; and certainly not least, Queen Isabella herself;
how she was made a pawn of and wronged by her scheming Neapolitan mother.
An important addition to the volume is the copious bibliography. No work is
included which is not considered trustworthy, and on this account we are glad to
observe that the Episidios NacionaJes of Perez Galdos have an honourable
mention, for they are delightful reading and full of quiet humour.
It is with great regret that one reads, in the sympathetic memoir, that the
NEW BOOKS. 215
author died just as he had completed this work. He was an enthusiastic lover of
Spain, and by his extensive acquaintance with Spanish literature and history,
was unusually well qualified for the task which he undertook.
Britain and the British Seas. By H. J. Mackinder, M.A. With Maps and
Diagrams. Second Edition. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1907. Price 7s. 6d.
This book has so rapidly acquired the status of a classic that all geographers
will welcome the appearance of a second edition. The alterations are trifling ; we
notice that same, but not all the misprints, etc., noted in our previous review
(xviii., p. 325) have been corrected, and it is naturally gratifying to us to see how
often the Scottish Geographical Magctzine appears among the new references
added.
As a point of special interest to our own readers, we may notice that on p. 127
it is stated that the Avon has probably captured the head-stream of the Dee, Dee
being obviously a misprint for Don.
niustratecl Handbook to the Perthshire Natural History Museum, and Brief
Guide to the Animals and Plants of the County. By Alex. M. Rodger,
Curator. Second Edition. Perth, 1906. Price 3d.
This pamphlet was reviewed in vol. xxi. p. 507. The new edition is slightly
modified in form, and has some additional illustrations, and also a sketch map of
Perthshire. Otherwise we have only to repeat our former words of praise.
Sketches from Normandy. By Louis Becke. London : T. Werner Laurie,
1907. Pp. 250. Price 6s.
The title, be it noted, is not of but from Normandy, and really the locale is
unimportant. The sketches are mainly of people, — tourists, French domestics,
French children. Also they are concerned with dogs, shooting, the entente
cordiale, etc. They are light and abound in amusing incidents.
The Heart of Spain: An Artist's Impression of Toledo. By Stewart Dick.
London and Edinburgh : T. N. Foulis, 1907.
The result of Mr. Dick's sojourn in Toledo is a very pleasant volume, breath-
ing the fascination of the place. As he truly suggests, it is a city peopled with
the ghosts of old-time warriors, Goths, Moors, and Christians, jostling one
another in the narrow streets. Zorrilla, indeed, in one of his dramas represents
this feeling, and as one looks over the ramparts by the light of the evening sun,
the impression is produced that with a very slight stretch of imagination one
might see the armour of the host^ of the Catholic Kings glinting in the distance.
Mr. Dick's illustrations are admirable, especially the sketches in colour,
which most faithfully reproduce the colouring of Toledo and the country round.
Those who have visited Toledo will feel that in turning over the pages of this
volume they are making a return journey in the company of "one who knows."
We cannot make up our minds to share his high opinion of El C4reco, having
a recollection of sundry nightmares by him on the walls of the Prado.
My Experiences of the Island of Cyprus. By B. Stewart. Illustrated from
Photographs by the Author. London : Skeffington and Son, 1906. Price
6s.
Cyprus is seldom written about, and Mr. Stewart's account of the British isle
in the north-west corner of the Mediterranean Sea is all the more interesting-. He
216 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHIUAI, MAGAZINK.
makes no pretence to literary style, but tells a plain, unvarnished tale, with
sufficient sprightliness to produce a readable book. He has been twice in the
island in recent years, first as an engineer in connection with the railway, and the
second time (in the early months of 1906) revisiting old scenes. Cyprus is a
wretched island, sufiFering from extremes, deluged at one time with rains, and at
another time burnt to a cinder by the heat. Mosquitoes abound, and ophthalmia
is common. " What a desolate and unhappy-looking country Cyprus is I " is the
exclamation agaiu and again of the traveller gazing on the broad stretch of
country. To add to its drawbacks, it seems to be badly served for post-office
and trade purposes by the steamship companies. In the dashing years of the
forward Colonial policy of 1895 and onwards, British money was flung at it, and
squandered on harbours nobody uses, and on railways on which nobody travels.
British capital has also been sunk in trying to utilise the land, but it has been a
hopeless enterprise. While the island is administered by Great Britain, it is still,
according to the one-sided treaty of 1878, a part of the Turkish Empire, and on
certain conditions being fulfilled, Britain may evacuate it at any time. This
doubtless impedes the development of the island ; indeed it is gravely alleged
" British administration has done nothing for Cyprus," in spite of a yearly grant
of over .£.30,000 fi'om the Imperial' exchequer. The only useful outlay has been
in the making of country roads. It is also remarkable that it is the Greek flag
that is almost universally used, and the Union Jack is seldom visible. Mr.
Stewart has a good deal to say about the churches in Cyiirus, and enriches his
book with many excellent photographs of them. He also gives a brief and
succinct account of its history and of its few antiquities. If Cyprus-is to redeem
its past, it is time the Turkish bond was broken, and 'Britain's flag allowed to fly
with undisputed authority over the whole island.
ASIA.
Persia Past and Present : A Book of Travel and Research. With more than 200
Illustrations and a Map. By A. V. Williams Jacksox, Professor of Indo-
Iranian Languages in Columbia University. New York : The Macmillan
Company. London : Macmillan and Co., Ltd. 1906. Price 17s. net.
We have here an important contribution to the historical geography of western
Persia. It is not an ordinary traveller's tale, but the work of a competent
scientific investigator and interpreter, prepared, as every page proves, with great
care and elaboration, and written in a clear and graphic style. The author is
professor of Indo-Iranian languages in Columbia University, and was for a time
adjunct-professor of English language and literature. Priind facie, the tenure
of these offices is warranty of his being a man of culture and learning. This book
wholly confirms the impression. As an ardent student of the ancient languages
and religions of the East, Professor Jackson had previously visited India and
Ceylon, and by personal investigation had learned among the Parsis of Bombay,
descendants of the old Zoroastrians and preservers of their traditional beliefs and
customs, much about the ancient Magian religion, its sacred writings, and the
past history and present condition of its votaries. He had in 1899 written a
life of Zoroaster, the prophet of ancient Iran, sage and reformer, "representative
and type of the laws of the Medes and Persians," " the forerunner of those wise
men of the East who came and bowed before the majesty of the new-born Light
of the world." In that book he endeavoured to picture for the reader the some-
what shadowy figure of the prophet, and to sift from the heap of legend, tradi-
tion, and classical allusion the facts of his life, times, and teaching. In the
NEW BOOKS. 217
present book the author again appears as an enthusiastic and laborious inquirer
into things old and new : a well-equipped linguist, acquainted with the various
scripts to be found in western Persia from the Accadian or Assyrian cuneiform
to the modern cursive Persian, and familiar with the records of historians and
geographers from the Achaamenian rock-inscriptions and the pahlavi texts of the
Sasanids to the writings of mediaeval and modern Arabs and Europeans.
The plan of the journey described in this book was, says Professor Jackson,
to traverse as much of the territory known to Zoroaster as possible, and to visit
the places most celebrated in the history of Persia. Entering the country from
Russian Transcaucasia by way of Tiiiis, Erivan, and Julfa, he visited Tabriz, and
traversed the Zoroastriati region round Lake Urumiah. Thence he proceeded
southward to Takht-i-Suleiman (the ruined site of Gandaka and the great fire-
temple of Adhargushnasp), and Hamadan (the ancient Median capital, Ecbatana).
From there he visited the Ganj Namah trilingual inscriptions carved in cuneiform
on Mount Alvaiid by Darius and Xerxes. From Hamadan also a digression
westward to Kermanshah was made, in the outward and return courses of which
he scaled, at peril of limb and life, th'e great Behistan rock and examined its
famous inscriptions ; inspected the grottoes and bas-relief sculptures of Tak-i-
Bostan, with which is associated the legends of Khosru, Shirin, and Farhad ; and
identified at Kangavar the ruined temple of Anahita, the Persian Diana, whose
worship was widespread in Iran in the fourth century before Christ. Continuing
the southward journey from Hamadan, the author arrived at Ispahan, the former
cai^ital of the modern Shahs of Persia, where he found resident a few families of
Zoroastrians or Parsis, the first he had met in Persia. He then went on, first
to Pasargadte, on the plain of Murghab, the royal seat of Cyrus, where the great
monarch's column and tomb still bear his epitaph ; and then, forty miles further
south, to Persepolis, the imperial city of Darius and his successors, the magnifi-
cent ruins of which attest its once regal splendour. Finally, the author reached
the southern limit of his journey, Shiraz, the home of Saadi and Hafiz. Thence
returning northwards he visited Yezd. The largest community of Zoroastrians in
Persia, numbering several thousand souls, is established there ; and in inter-
course with them the author found the chief occupation and interest of his stay
in Yezd. Thereafter he proceeded to Teheran, whence he visited Rei, the Rhaga
or Rages of antiquity, the traditional home of the mother of Zoroaster ; and
subsequently left Persia by way of Kasbin and Resht.
The purpose of the journey, again says the author, was in the first instance
antiquarian study and scholarly research, especially with regard to Zoroaster and
the ancient faith of the Magi. But he likewise observed and for himself investi-
gated, and in this book has described, many of the geographical features and
historical problems, as well as the ancient and modern manners and customs, of
western Iran. Further as he went along, he noted, and has depicted, the condi-
tions of domestic and national life and economy, and the incidents and accidents
of travel, in the Persia of to-day. He has thereby succeeded in producing a
most interesting and well-illustrated book of modern travel for the general reader ;
and for the special student a work enriched and illuminated by the results of
solid learning and of careful research into the past and present records and
history of the field of travel.
Tibet, the Mysterious. By Sir Thomas Holdich. With Maps, Diagrams, and
other Illustrations, and Map by W. and A. K. Johnston. London : Alston
Rivers, Ltd. Price 7s. 6d. net.
This volume of " The Story of Exploration " Series is a useful and timely
VOL. XXIII. Q
218 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
addition to the series. The account given in it of the explorations which have
gradually, more especially during the last thirty or forty years, substituted
accurate knowledge for fable and ignorance, may be taken as putting into readily
iatelligible aid realable form the ge)graphical results of those explorations and
their possible political and commercial effects. It also shows the great extent
of work of first-class importance from a political and commercial point of view,
principally in eastern and south-eastern Tibet, that still awaits the explorer. A
beginning not wanting in promise has, through the late military expedition from
India, been made in the penetration into Tibet of European influence friendly to
Great Britain. The hope seems not unreasonable that, by virtue of tact and
patience and the avoidance of haste on the part of the invader, the next quarter
of a century may see the establishment of freer intercourse and of better means
of communication with Tibet, and the opening up of the territories, as yet
scarcely trodden by the explorer but apparently rich in resources and population,
that lie on its south-eastern borders. Nor ought it to be overlooked that while we
have been disposed to rail at the exclusiveness and obstruction of the ruling
powers in Tibet, the same attribute and attitude are to be found, and have been
quietly acquiesced in on the Indian side of the great Himalayan divide, within
our own immediate sphere of political and commercial influence. What of
Nepal ? It is a country practically unvisited by — almost completely closed
against— the European explorer and trader. Not even the courses of some of
its great rivers — the Kurmili, the Gandak, the Kosi, and their affiuents — which
debouch into the Gangetic valley, have been tracked through it by our geographers
to their sources on the Indian or the further side of the Himalayan watershed.
In ancient times intercourse between India and Tibet across the central and
eastern Himalayas was undoubtedly freely carried on. According to tradition
the first king of Tibet was a native of India, son of the king of the eastern
Gangetic kingdom of Kosila ; and Buddhism probably permeated Tibet princi-
pally through the s.ime avenues from India. It may safely be said that but for
the interposition of the exclusive principalities of Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan,
British communication with and influence in Tibet would long ago have been
far greater than it is now. It seems high time, therefore, that the geographer and
trader, backed by the Indian Government, should take these regions peacefully
but steadily in hand.
As a literary production this book in its earlier chapters is not quite worthy of
the reputation of the distinguished author of TJte Indian Borderland. The material
available for the compilation of these chapters was no doubt slender and scanty,
and vague in details. But from Chapter viii, (in which the travels of Hue and
Gabet are recounted) onwards, and above all in the chapters wherein the journeys
of the intrepid explorers (European and native) from India are described, the
narrative, though sometimes dift'use, lacks little in definiteness of outline or
detail. The author is dealing with well-considered material with some of which
he has firsthand and intimate acquaintance. Much of the material is not readily
accessible to the ordinary reading public. To them therefore it is a very distinct
boon to be presented with a consectitive account of the exploratory work which
has been accomplished during the last few decades in the Tibetan region. In this
account not the least gratifying feature is the hearty acknowledgment and appre-
ciation of the i)art taken by the native Indian surveyors and explorers Avho, with
rare fidelity to their employers, persistently carried out, through long periods of
peril and privation, the duty intrusted to them.
A bibliography is appended to the book, which will prove useful to those who
wish to refer to original authorities.
NEW BOOKS. 219
Before closing this notice, it may not be out of place to say that the ideutifica-
cation by Hue of an Englishman who was reported to have lived at Lhasa from
1826 to 1838 with the traveller Moorcroft is not altogether probable, although the
author of this book seems disposed so to accept it (y. chap. vii. 123-4). Moor-
croft was a veterinary surgeon, who, after attaining eminence in his profession
in England, in 1808 and being then over forty years of age, went to India to
supervise the East India Company's horse-breeding and remount operations in
northern India. After making his expedition into Nari Khorsum in company
with Haidar Hearsey in 1811-12, he started in 1819, accompanied by an English-
man named Trebeck, on a journey to Turkistan through the Panjab (then ruled by
Ranjit Singh), Ladak, Kashmir, and Afghanistan. His object was investigation,
not only regarding the Turkoman horse for breeding purposes in India, but also
into the general trade resources of those countries and the possibility of estab-
lishing mercantile relations between them and India. He was not, however,
accredited by the Indian Government, which, on the contrary, discountenanced
his proceedings and eventually stopped his pay during absence. He left Bokhara
on the return journey in August 1825, but got no further than Andkhui in
Afghan Turkistan, where he was said to have died, probably through foul means.
Trebeck also was said to have died somewhat later at Mazar*i-Sharif. Some
at lea^t of their papers were recovered, and an account of their travels was
published in 1841 under the editorship of the distinguished orientalist, H. H.
Wilson. That, unknown to the Indian authorities, the report of Moorcroft's death
was false, and that he made his way from Bokhara to Lhasa and lived there till 1838,
seems scarcely credible.
Folk Tales from Tibet, to ith Illustrations by a Tibetan Artist and some Verses from
Tibetan Love-Songs. Collected and translated by Captain W. F. O'Connor,
CLE. London : Hurst and Blackett, Ltd., 1906. Price 6s. net.
This book hardly falls within the scope of geography, except that in these
days geography lays claim to an interest in most mundane i\icts and affairs.
Geographical or not, however, the book contains a capital collection of fables, very
well told, portraying, chiefly under the guise of talking animals, the foibles and
virtues of mankind in Tibet and elsewhere, and full of worldly wisdom not unmixed
with guile. The folklorist will judge whether the stories are probably indigenous
or exotic, ancient or modern. But in any case they prove that the Tibetan of
to-day, who loves to recite them and to hear them recited, has imagination and
humour, and in spite of lamas (grand and lowly), demons, wizards, and other
causes of depression, has plenty of good spirits and is a happy-minded and
sagacious enough fellow. The drawings are after the conventional manner of the
country — a manner apparently derived from China as regards design and colour.
The best picture (a photograph) is the frontispiece showing a Tibetan fabulist and
his household, the former a jolly-looking old soul who is plainly capable of enjoy-
ing the narration of his tales as mucli as, the author tells us, the listeners are.
La Chine novatrice et guerriere. Par le Capitaine D'Olloxe. Paris : Colin, 1906.
Price 3 fr. 50 c.
As Captain D'Ollone was commissioned by the French Government to visit
and report on China, this work is not that of a passing traveller. He entitles it
" Innovating and Warlike China," showing at once her willingness to accept
changes and her determination to defend herself. After reminding us that Chinese
history begins in B.C. 722, he describes graphically the constant wars which
220 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
occurred for the occupation of China down to its most glorious period, that of the
great Manchu emperors, Kangsi and Kien-lung (1662-1799), the first British
envoy, Lord Macartney, being received by the latter in 1759. From 1808 onwards,
difficulties occurred with Britain in regard to the exportation of opium from
India to China, the British fleet in 1840 bombarding Canton, taking Shanghai,
threatening Nankin, and thus causing China to yield. The result of the " Opium
War" was the treaty of Nankin in 1842, which opened China by according five
treaty ports to British commerce, and ceded Hong Kong to Britain, this being
the first dismemberment of China. France and the United States were afterwards
accorded the same privileges of commerce. In 1851 the Taiping rebellion shook
China to its foundations, and led to the French and British fleets seizing Canton,
the Taku forts, and the mouth of the Peiho in 1857. In 1860 a French and
Anglo-Indian force retook the Taku forts and burned the summer palace near
Pekin, after which the province, of which Vladivostok is capital, was ceded to
Russia. At last, in 1864, after thirteen years of carnage during which 3,000,000
are said to have perished, the Taiping rebellion was quelled by the Chinese
Imperial army capturing Nankin, the rebels' capital. The more recent dis-
memberments of China are the conquest of Indo-China by the French and British,
and of Formosa and Corea by the Japanese, with the occupation of Kiao Chau
by the Germans, and the cession of Port Arthur to the Russians, and of Weihaiwei
to the British. The author points out that China consists of not one but many
races, and resembles a Europe rather than a France or an Italy.
Buddhism, now the faith of four hundred millions of Chinese, was introduced
from India into China a.d. 65, but it was not authorised by Imperial edict till
335. In 638 Mohammedanism was introduced from Persia, and in 744 an
emperor had a religious service in his palace conducted by seven Christian priests.
In 1293 the Franciscan, John de Monte Corvino, arrived in Pekin, sent by the
Pope, and was well received. Fourteen years later he was nominated Archbishop
of Pekin with three suffragan bishops. Foreign Christians, however, behaved so
badly after their arrival in China, that they acquired the name of " foreign devils,"
and were massacred in the sixteenth century, but the Jesuits persevered, and,
being learned men, converted many Chinese, even members of the Imperial family.
The great Manchu Emperor Kangsi accorded liberty to the Christian faith
throughout the empire in 1692. Dominican missionaries, however, protested
against the Jesuit ritual and appealed with success to the Pope, which irritated
Kmgsi, who in 1717 issued an edict prohibiting the promulgation of the Christian
faith. Po2)e Benedict xiv. issued a bull condemning the Chinese worship of
ancestors and Confucius, and a terrible persecution of Christians occurred in
174G, which was renewed in 1838 owing to the opium war with Britain. In 1844
a treaty with France authorised Christian missionaries, and there are now forty-
three bishoprics and 900,000 Roman Catholics in China, while there are 200,000
Protestants. There are thirty or forty millions of Mohammedans, and there is
scarcely an important town without its mosque. Islam progresses daily in China.
After discussing administrative and social China, the author describes its
modern transformation, beginning with the reforms from 1860 to 1900. The
defeat of China by Japan in 1894-5 produced consternation, for the Chinese had
always regarded the little Japanese with contempt and as vassals. Military
schools directed by European and Japanese instructors were at once established
at Tientsin, Nankin, and Hankow. Later, telegraphs were introduced, and there
are now 33,000 miles of telegraph. Then railways were constructed and extend
already to over 3000 miles, with concessions for 2500 miles more. Nothing is
mire remarkable than the way in which railways have become popular in China.
NEW BOOKS. 221
With regard to the new Chinese army, the length of service has been fixed
at ten years, three on active service, three in the first reserve, and four in the
second reserve, which will furnish a reserve of one million men. After the
army reforms are complete in 1908, the authorities hope to still further increase
the army till it reaches ten million men all armed with the latest weapons and
thoroughly trained after the best systems. Education is likewise being reformed
in China, and in 1902 the University of Pekin was reorganised and divided into
eight faculties preparing for forty-six different callings. The schools have also
been reorganised, and foreign languages are taught in the following order — English,
Japanese, French, German, and Russian. What stands in China's way is lack of
money, or rather (for the country is very rich), the Government do not know how
to finance the reforms they would like to introduce. The author concludes by
declining to say whether or not China is approaching its downfall or renaissance,
and decLires that he would be a bold man who would venture to prophesy
regarding such a complex empire, of which, he maintains, " we know nothing.''
British Malaya : An Account of the Origin and Progress of British Influence in
Malaya. By Sir F. Swettenham, K.C.INI.G. London : John Lane, 1906.
Price 16s. net.
This volume on British Malaya is not unworthy of the distinguished name of
its author. From the first jsage to the last it holds our interest and our attention.
It is jjartly an account of the Straits Settlements before and after they became a
Crown Colony in 1867. It describes Penang and Wellesley with their entrancing
beauty, Malacca with its romance and its records of by-gone European adventurers
in Portuguese Cathedral and Dutch Stadthouse, Singapore — the Lion City — with
its past, remote and almost unknown, and all the opening possibilities of its future.
It is only eighty years since it entered on its present phase of British settlement
and free port owing to the prescient wisdom of Sir Stamford Ratfies, and his
co-adjutor Colonel Farquhar. In these eighty years Singapore has become the
eighth port in the world for the volume of its trade. Raffles, however, aimed at
more than the establishment of a port at Singapore ; his further aim was to have
h;id a sister p )rt at Acheen in Sumatra, and thus have handed over to his country
the guardianship of the gate of the Eastern Ocean, so that it might ever be open
for the benefit of " such as pass upon the seas on their lawful occasions." One of
the most charming features of this book is the tribute paid to this same Sir S.
Raffles, that almost forgotten Founder of Empire, " who never exalted himself nor
depreciated others." His very burial-place is unknown to us, but his living
character is brought before us in the extracts from the Hikazat Abdullah, the fresh
and simply-written book of his Malay protege, Abdullah.
But the main part of the volume concerns the progress made by what are called
the Federated Malay States, namely, Perak, Selangor, the Negri SembilanorNine
States, and the eastern state of Pahang. These native states are under the pro-
tection of the British Government, though not forming a constituent part of the
British Empire. The record of their progress and of the benefits thus conferred
on humanity must fill every Briton with pride and gratitmle. The story of it is
told by Sir F. Swettenham — himself a Governor of the Straits Colony and High
Commissioner for the Federated States — with great lucidity and modesty. It almost
transcends belief to read how a handful of our countrymen, led by a few so-called
Residents at the Courts of the Malay Sultans, unsupported by any diplomatic,
political or military power, have, with the welcome aid of Chinese energy and
industry, altered the face of the whole country. The problem and its solution are
briefly indicated in the following sentences.
222 SCOTTISH GEOGKAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
" If I have been able to give the reader an intelligible idea of this waste of
jungles and swamps, of mountains and rivers, sparsely inhabited by a far from
industrious or happy people, preying on each other and on the heaven-sent
Chinese toiler in an atmosphere of eternal heat, tempered by frequent deluges
of tropical rain ; if I have been able to show him something of the extraordinary
change which has passed over the country and the people, lighting the dark places,
bringing freedom and comfort and happiness to the greatly oppressed, and wealth
to the greatly industrious ; if now the reader sees a country covered with towns
and villages, with roads and railways, with an enormously increased population,
with every signs of advancement and prosperity, and if he also understands, in a
measure at least, how this change has been brought about, I will cease to trouble
him with further details of this unique experiment in administration."
But the details of the unwearied "spade-work" necessary are full of stimulus,
and for them the reader must be referred to the volume itself.
The map and illustrations are excellent. In addition to the absorbing political
interest there is a suggestive chapter on the character of the Malays, their customs,
arts, literature, and their "parabolic'' or "proverbial" wisdom.
POLAR.
The Norwegian North Polar Expedition, Scientific Results. Edited by Fridtjof
Nansex. Vol. V. Published by the F. Nansen Fund for the Advancement
of Science. London : Longmans, Green and Co., 1906.
This volume contains a paper on the Bottom Deposits of the North Polar .Sea
by 0. B. Boggild. The chief point brought out is the great uniformity of the
deposits, due to the absence of land ice in the North Polar basin. Not a single
mineral jjarticle was found over 2 mm. in diameter ; and of those present
none were derived from volcanic rocks. Sixteen samples in all were obtained,
most were shallow water deposits from ofl' the Siberian coast ; a few of grey deep-
sea clay diflering only from the former in being of a rather finer consistency. The
absence of rocks in the shallow water deposits makes it probable that there are
no projecting rocks above the surface and that there has been little, if any,
elevation of the sea-bottom in recent geological periods. The deep-sea clays
showed a remaikable paucity of organic constituents, doubtless because the surface
of the ocean is for the greater part of the year entirely ice-covered. The fora-
minifera never reached 5 per cent, and siliceous organisms were entirely absent.
Separate appendices deal with the chemical analyses of the deposits and with
the Thalamophora (Foraminifera) from the deposits and from the mud of ice-
floes.
The greater part of the volume is taken up with an investigation of " Dead-
Water" by V. W. Ekman. This phenomenon was met with by the Fram off
Taimur Island and is frequently experienced in some of the Norwegian Fjords.
Sailing ships, slow steamers, or boats in tow suddenly lose way and refuse to
answer the helm. This occurs where a layer of fresh or brackish water is present
on top of the salt water. The author quotes a number of recorded instances and
has done some excellent experimental work with boat models in a tank containing
layers of water of different specific gravity. He makes it clear that a vessel
moving at low speed generates large waves (well shown in photographs) at the
boundary between the fresh and salt water, and that the propelling force is
dissipated in their generation. Steering way is lost because the rudder is largely
in a thickened layer of forward-moving fresh water. At higher speeds (varying
with the depth of the fresh water layer and difference in density between the
BOOKS RECEIVED. 223
two layers) these boundary waves are not produced and "Dead-Water ' will
not trouble the navi'ffatoi;.
The last paper is one by Nansen on the Protozoa from the pools which formed
on the surface of the ice-floes in summer. These were in all probability marine
in origin, the germs being frozen into the ice when it formed, and development
taking place with the summer thaw ; they flourished in water which had only
1 to 2 per cent. NaCl along with numerous marine diatoms and other alg*.
The protozoa were chiefly Infusioria, but some belonged to the Flagellata.
Numerous drawings made at the time of collection are reproduced, but circum-
stances did not permit of the full life-history of the organisms being made out
nor were they specifically determined.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
Life hy the Seashore: An Introduction to Natiiral History. By Marion
Newbigin, D.Sc. (Lond.) With many original Illustrations by Florence
Newbigin. Cr. 8vo. Pp. viii + 344. Price 2s. 6d. net. Swan Sonnenschein and
Co., Ltd., London, 1907.
On the Trail of the Immigrant. By Edward A. Steiner. Demy 8vo.
Pp. 375. Price §1.50 net. Fleming H. Revell, New York, 1907.
A Mission in China. By W. E. Soothill. Demy 8vo. Pp. xii + 293.
Price 5s. net. Oliphant Anderson and Ferrier, Edinburgh, 1907.
Our Oivn Islands: An Elementary Study in Geography. By H. J.
Mackinder, M.A. Cr. Svo. Pp. xv. + 298. Price 2s. 6d.net. George Philip
and Son, Ltd., London, E.C.
Handbook of Polar Discoveries. By A. W. Greely, Major-General L'nited
States Army. Third Edition. Cr. Svo. Pp. xii + 325. Little, Brown and Co.,
Boston, 1907.
The Egyptian Sudan. By J. Kelly Giffen, D.D. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo.
Pp. 252. Price 3-^. 6d. net. Third Edition. Fleming H. Ptevell, New York,
1907.
Highways and Byways of the Mississip)pi Valley. Written and illustrated by
Clifton Johnson. Demy 8vo. Pp. xiv + 287. Price 8s. 6(7. net. The Macmillan
Co., New York, 1906.
Three Vagabonds in Friesland with a Yacht and Camera. By H. F.
Tomalin. With Photographic Pictures by Arthur Marshall, A.E.I.B.A.,
F.R.P.S. 4to. Pp. xii-l- 229 + xx:vi. Frice Is.Qd. net. Siuipkin, Marshall and
Co., London, 1907.
Die Halbinsel des Sinai in ihrer Bedeutung nach Erdkunde und Geschichte
auf Grund eigener Forschung an Ort und Stelle. Dargestellt von Professor Dr.
E. Dagobert Schoenfeld. Demy 8vo. Pp. viii + 196. Preis 3/.8. Dietrich
Reimer (Ernst Vohsen), Berlin, 1907.
Dti Niger au Golfe de Guinee par le pays de Kong et le Mossi. Par le
Captain Binger (1887-1889). Two Volumes. Hachette et Cie., Paris 1892. (Pre-
sented by Colonel P. Durham Trotter.)
A Junior Course of Comparative Geography, consisting of Course A : of " A
Progressive Course of Comparative Geography." By P. H. L 'Estrange, B.A.
With 140 Pictures and Diagrams. Demy 8vo. Pp. viii 4- 239. Price 2$. 6d. net.
George Philip and Son, Ltd., London, 1907.
Lehrbuch der Ewhe-Sprache in Togo (Anglo-Dialekt), von A. Seidel. Pp. 176.
224 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
The Havsa Language : Grammar {in English) and Systematic Vocabulary :
(Hausa-German-French-English). Von A. Seidel. Pp. 292. Julius Gross, Vei-
h.g, Heidelberg, 1906.
Japanese Rule in Formosa. By Yosaburo Takekoshi, with Preface by
liaron Shimpei Goto. Translated by George Braithwaite. Illustrated.
Demy 8vo. Pp. xv + 342. Price 10s. 6rf. net. Longmans and Co., London,
1907.
British North America : The Far West, the Home of the Salish and Dene. By
C Hill Troct. (Native Races of the British Empire Series.) Demy 8vo. Pp.
xiv + 263. Price Qs. net. Archibald Constable, London, 1907.
Also the following Reports, etc. : —
General Handhooh for PJiodesia. Pp. 66. British South Africa Co., London,
1907.
Illwitrated Handbook of North-Eastern Rhodesia. Pp. .35. " Administration
Press," Fort Jameson, 1906.
Winter in Schiveden. Wegweiser des Schwedischen Touristenvereines. Pp. 48.
Wahlstrom and Widstrand, Stockholm, 1906.
Summary Report of the Geological Survey Department of Canada for 1905 and
1906.
Geological Survey of Canada. Section of Mines. Annual Report for 1904.
Ottawa, 1906.
Western Australian Year-Booh, 1902-1904. (Thirteenth Edition). By Mal-
colm A. C. Eraser, F.R.G.S., F.S.S., F.R.C. Inst. Pp. x + 1283. Perth, W.A.,
1906.
Administration Report of the Marine Survey of India for 190.5-1906.
Bombay, 1906.
Repoii on the Administration of the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore for
the year 1905-1906. By The Hon. Mr. Stcart Eraser, I.C.S., CLE. Bangalore,
1906.
Pi,e,port on the Administration of Coorg for the year 1905-1906. Mercara, 1906.
Zur Wirtschafts- und Siedlungs-Geographie von Ober-Burma und den Nord-
lichen Shan-Staaten. Von Dr. Hans J. Wehrli. Pp. 130. Ziirich, 1906.
Monism? Thoughts suggested by Professor HaeckeVs book "The Riddle of
the Universe." By S. Ph. Marcus, M.D. Translated by R. W. Felkix,
M.D., F.R.S.E. Pp.144 Price Is. net. Pebman, Ltd., London, 1907.
General Report on the Operations of the Survey of India during 1904-5. Pre-
pared under the direction of Colonel F. B. Loxge, R.E. Calcutta, 1906.
Ceylon in 1903-1905, describing the Progre.'<s of the Island sincr 1803 .■ its present
Agricultural and Commercial Enterprise, with useful Statistical Information. By
John Ferguson, C.M.G. Demy 8vo, pp. xl-f 158-f clxxxvi-f 27.
The Ceylon Rubber Exhibition, 1906. Lectures and Discussions on Rubber
Cultivation and Preparation (Illustrated). Pp. 130.
The Cexjlon Handbook and Directory and Compendium of Useful Information
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Presidential Address delivered before the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic
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Publishers forwarding books for review will greatly oblige by marking the price in
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I
MAP OF CONON AND BEAULY BASINS
[^L'JSTRATING MR HINXMAN'S PAPBB
THE SCOTTISH
GEOGRAPHICAL
MAGAZINE.
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY.
By Marion I. Newbigin, D.Sc. (Lond.).
(With Maps and Illustrations.)
{Continued from page 192.)
The Woods of the Valais.
The Arolla pine. — But even at the high levels the larch has not
matters all its own way, for there it comes into competition with the
third important conifer of the Valais, the Arolla pine. In the Valais,
and especially in the vicinity of the ]\Ionte Rosa massif, the Arolla pine
occurs at the tree-limit, sometimes mingled with larch and sometimes
forming unmixed woods of considerable extent. Like the larch, it some-
times ascends as more or less scattered trees up to over 2400 metres
(7874 ft,) and forms woods even above the 2300 metre line (754 6 ft.).
It does not, however, descend as low as the larch, being much less tolerant
of high temperatures. Where larch and pine occur in the same locality
the pine ascends higher than the larch. The lowest point to which the
Arolla pine descends in the Valais is 1500 metres (4921 ft.) at Lac
Champex. It thus can hardly be said to compete with the spruce, for
it does not as a rule flourish till levels when the spruce is beginning to
feel the effects of the low temperature. On the other hand, the com-
petition of the spruce drives the larch up to the region favoured by the
Arolla pine, and in consequence either of this or of climatic changes
Finns cemhra is gradually losing its hold, and is certainly a dying
species. In the Arolla valley itself the trees are few in number, are in
many cases in a dying state, and young trees to take the place of the old
are conspicuously absent.
Spruce and larch are familiar to all, but it may be well to point out
some of the characters of the less familiar Arolla pine. The needles,
vol. XXIII. R
226 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
instead of growing in bunches of two like those of our familiar Scotch
fir, are many in each cluster, the seeds are devoid of a " wing," and are
large and edible, being prized as food by man, by squirrels and other
rodents, and by birds, notably the nutcracker, which is said to live
largely upon them in Siberia, and may be seen at Arolla constantly
engaged in tearing the cones to pieces with its powerful bill. In the
Alps as a rule only relatively few cones are produced, but about once in
ten years the harvest is exceptionally abundant. The toll taken by
man, bird and beast is, however, so heavy that there can be no doubt
that one reason for the gradual disappearance of the tree is that very
few seeds are allowed to germinate. In itself this is not, however, a
sufficient reason, for the tree is more fruitful in Siberia, and its compara-
tive barrenness in the Alps can only be the result of unfavourable con-
ditions of life.
The distribution of the Arolla pine is remarkable in that the area
occupied by it in the Alps is small as compared with the vast tract
which it occupies in Asia. Its abundance in Siberia has indeed given
it the name of Siberian cedar. In Central Europe it occupies discon-
nected areas in the Alps and Carpathians, where its range nearly corre-
sponds with that of the larch. The fact that the areas are disconnected
would to the student of distribution at once suggest that it is an old
type, and in point of fact there is abundant evidence to prove that Pinus
cembra had once a much more extended distribution in Europe. In brief,
it is one of the relics of the glacial period, and its progressive disappear-
ance before and during the human period is to be regarded as due to
that series of changes of climate which in Scotland, for example, is leading
to the weathering and destruction of the peat deposits laid down under
other conditions of climate (cf. Mr. Lewis's paper, S.G.M., xxii. p. 241).
It has been already pointed out that the larch is a tree adapted to a
continental climate, but this is true to an even greater extent of the
Arolla pine. It is physiologically fitted for a long severe winter and a
sudden hot summer. According to Simony, a locality where the mean
temperature of May is 7°C. is as unfavourable as one where the mean
summer temperature is less than 8° C. A frost-free period of sixty-seven
days is sufficient, but the temperature during that period must be con-
siderable. According to Simony, in the Alps the isotherms of 0° and 5° C,
mark its upward and lower limits. But even more than conditions of
temperature is its extension limited by conditions of moisture. It is the
physiological relic of a period when the air was loaded with moisture,
and in the Alps it approaches the glaciers because their damp breath is
like a reminiscence of an earlier time. It also favours a clay soil or a
soil containing humus because of the power which each displays of hold-
ing water. Further, in that in the Alps it is the westerly winds which
bring moisture, we find that westerly exposures are much more favour-
able than easterly ones. Thus on a valley wall facing south-west the tree
will on the average ascend more than 300 metres (984 ft.) higher than
on a slope in the same region facing south-east. In this case the up-
ward extension on the south-west slope is due to the favourable conditions
of warmth, and the lower to the favourable conditions of moisture.
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY.
227
In regard to physiology there are many interesting points, all
tending to emphasise the primitive nature of the tree. Thus growth is
extraordinarily slow — like the elephant the AroUa pine belongs to a
period when time was of no consequence. The normal length of life is
350 to 400 years, and exceptionally trees may live 600 to 800 years.
Eeproduction does not take place until the tree is sixty years old, and
in the Alps, as already mentioned, cones are abundant only about once
in ten years. The seedlings are shade-loving, and grow much more
slowly than those of the spruce. Thus it takes ten years for them to
reach a height of half a metre (H ft.), and at eighty years, when the
larch has reached a height of 30 metres (98 ft.), and the spruce about
22 metres (72 ft.), the Arolla pine is only about 8 metres (26 ft.) high.
The seedlings can only thrive where there is undergrowth to shield them
in the early part of their life, and this fact naturally limits the upward
extension of the tree. To all the natural disadvantages which limit the
spread of the tree, one must add that its close-textured wood is valuable,
so that in the Alps man long since joined the already lengthy list of
its enemies. The wood is strongly impregnated with resin, and in con-
sequence decays very slowly. One result of this is that, under natural
conditions, dead trunks may stand for a long period before they fall. It
is the presence of such dead trunks in regions where there are no young
trees that is one of the proofs of the former extension of the Arolla pine
in the Alps. Almost everywhere in the Alps it is possible to demon-
strate by this and other means that the area is constantly diminishing.
In short the Arolla pine, even less than the larch, cannot effectively
contest the supremacy of the spruce in the Valais. The pine, indeed, on
account of the unfiivourable north-eastern exposure of the northern
valleys, is for the most part limited to the lateral valleys to the south of
the Rhone, and is only abundant about the Monte Rosa group. The
accompanying table sums up the characters and distribution of the three
trees mentioned : —
Summary Table for Spruce, Larch, and Arolla Pine.
Height of Tree.
Tree.
Limit of
Temperature.
Maximum elpva-
tion i-eaclied.
First
Flowering.
Remarks.
At 10 yrs.
At 80 yrs.
22 m.
Spruce, .
-H-6°C.
2000-2100 m.
U-H ni.
30-40 yrs.
Moisture in air
or soil essen-
tial.
Larch, .
-r c.
2300-2400 m.
4 m.
30 m.
15-20 yrs.
Full exposure
to sua essen-
tial.
Pine,
0-0" c.
2300-2400 m.
•5 m.
8-9 m.
60 yrs.
Large amount
of moisture
in air or soil
essential.
The heights are given iu metres, and the temperature is the lowest mean annual the tree can
tolerate.
228 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Of the other conifers which occur in the Valais, it is only necessary
to mention in passing the mountain pine (Pimis montana), which is
infrequent, but sometimes forms pure cultures, as, for example, at
Grachen in the Saas valley. Here it occurs in its upright form, the
curious dwarf form which is common in Austria at the tree-limit being
uncommon in Switzerland. As already mentioned, the Scotch fir
(Pinus sylvestris) is somewhat uncommon as a forest-former. It occurs
on the floor of the Rhone valley, where the soil has the necessary
arenaceous character, and also sometimes on moraines. It does not,
according to Christ, ascend above 1500 metres (4921 ft.).
A short note on the actual conditions in certain valleys may serve to
make the foregoing general description more vivid. Take, for example,
the Val de Bagnes. For much of its extent the sides of this valley are
luxuriantly clothed with spruce. The highest village is Fionnay (really
a mayen and not a village), which stands at an elevation of 1497 metres
(4910 ft.: cf figure on p. 188). Round the little group of houses and
hotels fir-woods are abundant, and mixed with the dominant species,
especially at the margin of the torrent, at the edges of clearings, or
generally in places unsuited to the spruce, the larch occurs. Walking
up the valley from Fionnay, it will be found that the spruce persists
until one has ascended a vertical height of about 100 metres (328 ft.),
but at a height of some 1590 metres (5116 ft.) it is replaced to a large
extent by larch. The transition between the two types of wood is very
striking here, and it is interesting to see how the few remaining spruces
seem to seek shelter beneath the taller larches. In the region where
the spruce is dominant the surface of the ground is either covered with
pasture-land or with forest, but in the larch region the grass flourishes
beneath the sparsely scattered trees, thus giving a combination of wood
and pasture which is rarely seen in Switzerland.
On continuing up the valley, we find that the last larches, Avhich are
also the last trees, are seen near the inn at Mauvoisin at a height of
about 1800 metres, the valley above being narrow and almost sunless
even in midsummer. Lower down the valley trees ascend about 200
metres (or C56 ft.) higher, but here the valley is wider, and therefore
more fully exposed to the sun. General 1}% we may say of the Val de
Bagnes that the tree-limit varies from 1800 to 2000 metres (5905 to
6562 ft.) according to the exposure, and larches form the limiting form,
the Arolla pine being absent.
If the traveller continue his journey to the head of the valley, and
then cross one of the glacier passes to Arolla, he will find that while he
left behind the last tree at 1800 metres (5905 ft.), he finds the first
trees in the Arolla valley at from 2200 to 2300 metres (7218 to 7546 ft.),
that is, about 400 to 500 metres (1300 to 1640ft.) higher up. Further,
while in the valley which he has left behind the larch formed the tree-
limit, the first trees which he encounters here are Arolla pines. This fact
the guide-books do not fail to emphasise ; but the traveller who, stimu-
lated by Baedeker, looks forward with interest to seeing this tree, will be
greatly disappointed when his eyes fall upon the aged and decrepit
trunks which surround the hotels, and are outlined against that dreary
THE SWISS VALAIS: A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY.
229
waste of stone which is the chief feature of the Combe d'Arolla. Let
him continue his journey over to Zermatt and he will find there, at an
elevation of 2300 metres or more, fine and flourishing woods of Arolla
pines, which constitute indeed one of the great beauties of the valley.
As other series of valleys would give similar results, we are justified in
saying briefly that the tree-limit rises as the Zermatt region is ap-
proached, and that Avhere the limit is high the Arolla pine forms the
limiting species ; where it is low this species tends to be absent. We
have seen above that the zone of cultivation also rises as the Zermatt
region is approached.
The explanation has been so clearly set forth in a series of recent
Mean elevation of the surface of Switzeriaud. (From de Q\iervam after Liez.)
German papers that it can be given very briefly, the more briefly as the
results of these papers are expressed in maps which we reproduce here.
In the first place, a paper on the mean elevation of Switzerland, by
H. Liez,^ shows that the greater part of the Valais has a mean elevation
of over 2000 metres (6562 ft.), and a considerable area in the vicinity of
the Monte Rosa group, a mean elevation of over 2500 metres (8202 ft.).
Comparing with this the results obtained by J. Jegerlehner,- in a study
of the snowline, we find that this line rises highest (3200 metres or
10,499 ft.) in the region of the greatest mean elevation, while Ed.
Imhof ^ has shown that the same thing is true of the tree limit, which is
highest in the Monte Rosa region, the region of greatest mean elevation,
and next highest in the Engadine, where the mean elevation is almost
1 " Die Verteilung der mittleren Hohe in der Sch.\\ei7."—Jahresbericht d. Geographischen
Gesellschaft von Bern, xviii. (1903).
2 Beitrdgez. (reophi/sik, v. (1901-:2).
3 " Die Waldgrenze in d. Seliweiz," T. cit. iv. (1899-90).
230
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
as great. As throughout Switzerland it can be shown that the snowline
and the tree-limit vary together, the distance between them remaining
Isoliypses of tree-limit. (From de Quervain aftt-r Imliof. )
Isohypses of suowliue. (From ile Quervaiu after Jegerleliner. )
approximately constant, it is reasonable to suppose that both are deter-
mined by a similar cause, which has been shown by A. de Qiiervain ^ to
1 "Die Hebungd. atmospliari.sclien Isotliermen in d. Schweizer Alpen u. ihrer Beziehung
;renzen."— r. cit., vi. (1903-4y
z. d. Hobengrt
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY.
231
be the special conditions of temperature which exist in regions of great
mean elevation. This author has taken the daily temperature readings at
Isotherms at a height of 1500 m., July, 1 p.m. (From de Quervain.)
Isotherms at a height of loOO m., Jan., 7 a.m. (From de Quervain. )
7 A.i\[. and 1 P.M. for a large number of stations of different altitudes
throughout the year for a ten years' period, and after reducing the tem-
peratures to a mean level of 1500 metres (4921 ft.) has plotted the
results in the form of a series of isotherms on the map of Switzerland.
232 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Two of these maps are reproduced here. The result is to show that,
owing to the conditions of radiation, etc., which exist in mountain
regions, the temperature at midday is considerably greater in regions of
great mean elevation than in regions of lower mean elevation, through-
out the greater part of the year. In other words, a place in the Zermatt
region, or in the Engadine, at an elevation of 1500 metres, would have
at midday a considerably higher temperature than a place of the same
elevation in the Canton Ticino, or one in the vicinity of Lake Geneva.
This statement is true for all the months from February to November,
but not in January and December. The amount of the difference varies
with the season, being greatest (5'5°) in July and least in February
(3"5°). On the other hand, at seven o'clock in the morning the elevation
of the isotherms is much less conspicuous even in the warmer months,
and in the colder months there is then a depression of the isotherms at
great elevations (cf. map p. 231). That is, at seven o'clock on a January
morning a place in the Nicolaithal would be considerably colder than
one of corresponding elevation in the lowlands. As it is the midday
temperatui'e which specially counts in the life of plants, and in the
melting of snow, the results obtained by de Quervain, explain the eleva-
tion of both the snowline and the tree-limit in the Yalais. The
causation of the elevation of the isotherms on approaching the great
mountain masses is the conditions of radiation which exist there as com-
pared with those existing in regions of less mean elevation.
In the Alps of the Yalais generally a vertical distance of about 890
metres separates the snowline from the tree-limit, but it is rather inter-
esting to note tliat in Val de Bagnes the two are separated by a vertical
distance of 1000 metres (or 3281 ft.). The reason, as de Quervain
points out, is to be sought in the shape of the valley. The mountains
reach a considerable elevation (Grand Combin, 4317 metres, or 14,164
ft.), but the valleys are deep narrow gorges, whose walls, as in the
vicinity of Mauvoisin, may shut out the sun save for a short period of
the day. The elevation of the mountains raises the snowline, but the
shape of the valley lowers the tree-limit, hence the unusual distance
between the two here, and hence also the absence of suitable ground for
the Arolla pine.
III. — TnK Alps of thp: Valais.
We have finally to consider that most important part of the
Valaisiaii area, the Alps or high pastures. From all that has been
said already of climate, eleA^ation and natural productions, it is obvious
that the possibilities of cultivation in the region must be strictly
limited. The flat floor of the Rhone valley with its constant liability
to inundation, the lower terraced slopes of the main valley, and ])arts of
the larger lateral valleys, constitute the whole available area, and even
so cultivation in the higher parts is beset with many difficulties. The
mineral products of the region are insignificant, manufactures almost
absent, and yet the canton in 1904 had an estimated population of
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRArilY. 233
116,843 ^ persons, giving a, density of 56 per square mile as contrasted
witli a density of 11 for Sutherland, and 21 for Inverness. Further,
the population is increasing, the estimate for 1904 showing an increase
of 2 per cent, on the 1900 figures. This obviously means some source
of wealth which has not been yet considered, and though we must not
forget the "tourist industry," yet the great source of wealth in the
canton is certainly the cow.
If we may take the sheep as a symbol for the Scottish Highlands,
then the cow may serve as a fitting symbol for the Valais, as for much
of Switzerland. The development of the dairying industry again
depends upon the abundant growth of grass in the alps.
It would be a matter of great interest, as illustrating the inter-
relations of history and geography, to trace in the case of the hill-folk
of Switzerland and the Highlands the relation of the mental and moral
qualities to the occupation. For that this is not the place, but in pass-
ing we may just note that in both cases the open life on the mountains
with the flocks has bred an unconquerable love of freedom and in-
dependence, and a warrior spirit, which has time and again left its
mark on the pages of history. Our language is deeply impressed with
the Oriental imagery wdiich makes the shepherd the type of gentleness,
but in point of fact the herd's life, with its perpetual conflict with
nature, does not, among the Westerns at least, produce such a spirit.
Again, no doubt because of the constant contact with the forces of
nature, alike in Switzerland and in Scotland, the people of the hills are
profoundly and typically religious. This attribute expresses itself in
different forms it is true, but even the most confirmed Protestant can
hardly fail to be touched by those crude religious emblems Avhich are
dotted over the Swiss hills, and which, hardly less than the churches
of the Scottish Highlands, suggest the connection between the pastoral
life and strong religious instinct.
Leaving aside those sociological points, it is necessary to consider in
detail what exactly an alp is. In the list of the zones of vegetation in
the Valais given above, the third or alpine zone was stated to be that
between the tree-limit and the snowline. Very little reflection will,
however, make it clear that over a large proportion of this area the
vegetation is not sufficiently great in amount to form a pasturage.
Great expanses of the surface are covered by moraines or by screes and
rock-rubbish, and other regions are precipitous, and devoid of any cover-
ing of soil. Thus the alpine region is the region in which the high
pastures occur, but not the region in which the surface is predominantly
pasturage. Again, nimble as the Swiss cow is, there is a limit to its
agility, and therefore, although the pasturages are by no means, as the
stranger is apt to assume, level areas, there are necessarily regions of
moderate gradient, AVhat, then, are these grass-covered regions which
occur throughout the high ground of Switzerland ? Eoughly speaking,
the alps are mountain shelves bordering the valleys, and these shelves
form pasturages because they mark the sites of the old glaciers and are
1 Statesman's Year Book, 1906,
234
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
thus covered with morainic matter, -NA'hich forms a fertile soil. The accom-
panying three sections across parts of the Val de Bagnes show the exact
position of the alps. It will be noted that the valley in which the present
torrent flows becomes increasingly gorge-like as one ascends the valley,
Fig. 1.
Sections across the Yal de Bagnes, to show the position of the alps,
and vertical scales are the same.
The horizontal
but whatever the shape of the existing valley, there is clearly shown at
either side the platform which marks the remains of the bed of the old
glacier, and here the alp is situated. Thus, in climbing the side of the
valley one has first a very steep rise from the valley floor, then a
gentle slope — the alp, which ends suddenly (Fig. 1) or gradually
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY. 235
(Figs. 2 and 3) against the base of the great peaks. Fig. 3 ^ is taken
above the level at which trees occur in the Val de Bagnes, but Fig. 1 is
of great interest as showing the position of the woods relative to the alps,
and the position of what are known as the mayens. Where the first
part of tlie valley wall has a considerable slope, but is not absolutely
precipitous, it is usually clothed with trees. Where the slope is gentle,
as especially happens where a lateral stream has formed a considerable
cone, then there is a more or less considerable stretch of pasturage, care-
fully fenced in (see illustration p. 236). It is here that the cattle come
in spring while the snow is still on the upper pasturages. When they
are driven to the high ground in the middle of June, the grass is allowed
to grow again, and by the earlier part of August it is cut as hay, to be
stored for use in late autumn or winter. Between forest and mayen, as
the figures suggest, there is a certain amount of rivalry as it were, and
it is to extend these early pasturages that in parts of Switzerland
excessive forest destruction has gone on. The mayen forms a transi-
tion between the cultivated land and the alp, and the fact that it is
less difficult of access than the alp makes it possible to cut and store its
grass as hay. The alp, if one may put the matter so, is so difficult of
access that its produce must be transported in the compact form of
cheese.
One other point, both mayen and alp have been made by the
denuding action of ice and water — we need not stop here to discuss
the relative action of the two — but these forces are also their great
enemies. Both alp and mayen are bounded above by steep slopes, and
that in a region where serial denudation is extraordinarily rapid. Both
are in consequence in constant risk of being overwhelmed by avalanches
of stones and mud, while as the glaciers advance and retreat their
moraines may be pushed over fertile stretches of pasturage. In other
words, the forces which made the pasturages are still in action. Again,
the position of the alps is such that they are naturally traversed by
streams of w^ater from the heights above, such streams being of all
dimensions. The soil of the alp is never very thick, but the dense
covering of grass and herbage protects it from the denuding action of
the small runnels so long as it is intact. If, however, the pasturages
are badly managed and allowed to be overcrowded, then the covering
may be completely destroyed, the dark soil beneath is exposed and is
soon channelled and carried away. In the Val de Bagnes the cows are
milked on the alp, and small areas of destroyed pasture of this kind
were very obvious round the huts Avhere the cows are collected for
milking. The grass and alpine plants have here disappeared, and are
replaced by a scanty covering of nettle, Chenopodium, dock and
dandelion. Where si^ch patches occur on the slope the soil is being
rapidly washed away.
1 It is iuterestiiig to note the resemblance between this section and the diagranimatic
representation of an alpine valley given by Professor Kilian in an article on "Glacial
Erosion and the Formation of Terraces," in La Giographie, xiv. 5, 1906. To this article
reference should be made for an explanation of the causation of the peculiar shape of the
valley. See also Penck's Die. Alpeu im Eisuitalter.
236
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
In regard to the paths to the alps, a point which was very notice-
able in the Val de Bagnes is worth mention in connection with the
evolution of ways of communication. The valley is still unsophisti-
cated, and therefore the paths are for the cows and not primarily for
the tourists — there are no special tourists' paths. Now, wherever the
gradient is steep the path is admirably marked, but no sooner does the
ground become easy than the path dies away and is lost. The reason
is obvious. When the ascent is steep the cows must necessarily keep
together, and the path must be kept in repair ; where it is easy each
Mayeli du lii-M.T.-5, N al lU- ougUL-s. 1 lie uul.> ,.ie jjiuce^ uii a uoiic iJH)U..iit (lowu
by the lateral stream to the right. Note the gentle slope to the left which
forms the niayen or spring pasturage. The trees are spruce, mingled with
larch.
cow wanders off on a' path of her own in search of some succulent herb,
and the herdsman allows them to scatter until the a})proach of a steep
region necessitates their collection. This is very striking in the path
over the Col de I'enCtre, which is a mule-path according to the guide-
books, but which in point of fact, in crossing the pasturage of Chermon-
tane, simply disappears, though above and below it is well marked.
»
THE SWISS VALAIS: A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY. 237
The plants of the alps. — We have thus seen that the alp is a relic of
a past period of greater glaciation, and as its soil is thus the rock
dt^bris derived from the neighbouring mountains, there are naturally
great differences in the fertility of the different alps. We must next
consider the nature of the plants produced by the alps in order to
learn wherein consists the value of a fertile alp. As compared with the
more familiar conditions which exist in this country, the striking
feature is that the grasses are relatively less important. In this
country the chief fodder plants are the grasses and various Leguminosse,
especially the clovers. The reason is not primarily the special food
value of these plants as compared with others, but the absence of strong
distasteful odours, of much indigestible supporting tissue, and of poisonous
extractives, etc. In Switzerland a very large number of plants are
consumed as fodder, and of the three which are specially prized by
the herdsmen as signs of fertility on an alp, only one is a grass.
These three precious plants are Poa alpina, a grass which is not un-
common on the hills of Scotland, a plantain (Plantago alpina), and one
of the Umbelliferse, Meum mntelUna by name. A large number of
grasses, Leguminosse, Compositse, and so on are also eaten, but relatively
the grasses are less important than with us. Further, when valley grass
or hay is compared with alpine hay or grass, it is found that the alpine
plants are richer in proteids and fats, while they are poorer in cellulose
than the valley forms. The reason is to be sought in the special con-
ditions of existence of the mountain plants. As already explained, they
are during the short growing period exposed to very strong insolation.
The bright light checks growth, so that the plants tend to become
tufted and short-stemmed. At the same time there is a slighter
development of mechanical tissue, so that they are softer and less rigid.
The result is that plants which the cattle will not eat or cannot digest on
the low ground are sought after as food above. Again, it is well known
that many alpines tend to reproduce themselves vegetatively rather
than by seeds. The grass Poa alpina, for instance, in its viviparous
variety, has leafy buds in place of flowers. Associated with the vege-
tative method of reproduction, and with the necessity of storing food
for the long cold winter, there is a strong tendency to accumulate food-
products in the leaves. We might perhaps sum up the difterences by
saying that the plants of the high alps have to concentrate into a period
of about three months the whole of their activities, and that in conse-
quence the growth there is richer but less voluminous than on the
lower ground. Another point of view is to say that as only a few
herbivores naturally inhabit the high alps, the plants of that locality do
not need the means of protection necessary for plants growing at less
elevations.
Whatever the immediate cause, the result, so far as man is concerned,
may be realised by quoting from Anderegiii's book ^ some figures for the
alps of the Valais. There are in the canton 422 alps, which have a
1 Schweizerische Alpwirtschaft. Ulustrirtes Lehrbuch. Yon Professor Felix Anderegg.
3 Parts. Bern, 1899.
238 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
capital value of nearly £180,000 (ih million francs) and yield a net
profit of £28,000 (705,000 francs) per annum. This works out at
nearly a pound per " kuhstoss " (i.e. the proportion of alp required for
the keep of one cow during the sojourn on the alp). The figures, of
course, include a number of young cattle, etc., which are not directly
productive. Where cows in milk alone are considered it is found that
the net profit obtained from each cow during its eighty-eight days'
sojourn on the alp is about £2, 10s. (the actual figure is 62 francs;
see Anderegg, ii. p. 507) in butter, milk, and cheese. In other words,
every day spent on the alp by each cow brings a net profit of sevenpence
to its owner. Owing to the difficulty of transport, due to the position
of the alps, the milk is for the most part converted into cheese, the
whey being given to the muscular-looking pigs which accompany the
herd to the alps. As the cheese is not consumed on the alp, it is
obvious that every summer the alp is losing more than is returned to it
in the form of manure. How is this waste made up for ? To some
extent it is made up for by the system of irrigation which, as already
mentioned, prevails in the Valais. The irrigation channels contain
glacier water, or " glacier milk " as the Germans call it, which is simply
loaded with glacier mud. The fine particles of this mud fertilise the
soil in precisely the same fashion as the Nile mud fertilises Egypt.
Again, even where systematic irrigation does not go on, denudation is
proceeding so rapidly all round that the surface of the alps is in constant
process of renewal. In this connection it will be remembered that, as
the alps are geologically of recent origin, and consist of a vast number
of kinds of rocks of very different hardness, rock waste is much more
rapid than in an old land surface like the Highlands of Scotland, where
the softer rocks have long since been worn away to form the Lowlands,
and only the resistant forms remain.
It was pointed out in the early part of this paper that by far the
most impressive way of entering the Valais is to cross the Gemmi pass,
and gaze from its summit over the great cleft of the Rhone valley to the
giant peaks of the Pennine Alps towering up to the sky. The fore-
going account may serve to show that the instinct which draws the
attention first to the mountain wall is geographically the right one, for
almost every feature of the geography of the canton is determined by
the mountains. It is the mountain ring which produces the warm, dry
climate, while the glaciers supply the water necessary to make up for
the deficient rainfall. Further, it is the scouring action of the glaciers
which supplies the rock-floor upon which the whole fertility of the
region depends. Even the catastrophes which often overwhelm not only
pasturages but villages are in reality but part of the beneficent action
by which nature perpetually fertilises anew the Alpine lands. The
geographer who crosses the turbid Rhone on his homeward journey may
carry his thought one step further and reflect that pasturages and
mayens, even the great lake itself, are but temporary phenomena, but
stages in the process by which the alps are in process of being ground
down to a mere core like the Scottish Highlands. Meantime, however,
whether from wholly geographical causes or not, there can be no doubt
THE SWISS VALAIS : A STUDY IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY. 239
that the Alpine regions benefit a proportionately much larger number of
persons than do the Highlands. In the alps one sees man as, at least to
some extent, the conqueror of nature, rather than as the conquered, as
in the Highlands.
COSSACKS AND COSSACKDOM.
By V. DiNGELSTEDT, Corr. Member of the R.S.G.S.
The Cossacks have perhaps primarily an historical and political interest,
for they have powerfully contributed to the extension and maintenance
of the huge Russian Empire ; but they possess also considerable interest
for geographers and ethnographers, for they occupy an area more than
double the size of that of the United Kingdom, their number equals
that of the population of some independent states, and their ethnic
composition is more complicated than that of many other nations.
The Cossacks are now attracting the particular attention of the
civilised world ; for, after having won for Russia immense territories,
they are now actively employed in crushing the internal troubles, due to
popular discontent and a desire for change in the political and social
regime.
Literature about Cossacks is not abundant. There are many
erroneous notions about them, and the author of the present article deems
it useful to gather together what is known about them just at the
present moment, when they are playing such a conspicuous part on the
scene of contemporary history, and perhaps are on the point of under-
going themselves some important transformations in accordance with
new popular tendencies incompatible with the existence of Cossackdom.
Cossacks are not a nation, nor a particular tribe nor race: they are a
distinct and privileged part of the heterogeneous Russian population, a
social body of soldier-husbandmen, a class (soslovid), an hereditary order
(confririe) with its own duties, rights, privileges, customs, manners and
traditions. They are not governed by the common law, but by rules
constituting a part of the military code. They are not burghers nor
citizens, but militiamen, and their interests are not those of common
Russian subjects.
Napoleon i. was strongly impressed by the deeds of the Cossacks ;
he prophesied that in a century Europe would be either republican or
Cossack. It does not seem that the great leader proved himself a
great prophet, but he did not certainly much err in attributing to
Cossacks an eminent importance and value.
Let us cast a glance on the origin of Cossacks and their past prowess,
before considering the territory they occupy, their divisions, their
strength, occupations, customs, character, etc.
Name and origin. — The name of Cossack — Russian KosaJ: — has been
variously derived from the Turkish hazdk, meaning a robber, and other
words in different languages signifying " an armed man," " a sabre," " a
240 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
rover," " a goat," " a cassock," etc. It was first heard of in the tenth
century. Manoudi calls them Kechek, and Nestor somewhat later
gives them the name of Kassghar. For the Russian mind the name of
Cossack conveys an idea of a free, rough, weather-beaten, and rather
happy fellow. There is a Russian saying: —
" It is for that
The Cossack is so fat :
From sweet repast
To calm repose
He turns."
It is probable, however, that this description refers more to the past
than the present state of Cossackdom, and gives a clue to its remote
origin.
According to Scherer (Annals of Russia Minor) the first Cossacks were
descended from Komans obliged to flee before the invasion of Tartars,
who in 1272, under the leadership of Batu-khan, came to occupy the
part of the empire left by Tchinghis-khan.
The Komans settled at first in the lower Yaik (Uralsk), but, later on,
on the approach of Batu-khan, were forced to flee as far as the Dnieper
and the Don, and take refuge in the caves, the islands and the marshes
of the lower parts of these rivers. Hence they made their raids into
the neighbouring states and enlisted all the roving and discontented
elements, Tartars, Kalmucks, etc., for rapine and pillage. They gave
origin to a number of hordes, some of whom, after many adventures,
settled in the islands of the Dnieper below its falls, and thus formed
the Zaporog Setcli.
Zaporog Cossacks were the prototype of Cossacks. The world has
never seen such an audacious, enterprising, and terrible band of military
men, with proverbial courage. In order to obtain admission to their
number, it was required from the candidate to profess the Greek faith,
to be a bachelor, to pass in a boat against the current the thirteen
cataracts of the Dnieper, to have killed ten of his enemies, to be an
excellent shooter, to be able to swim across the Dnieper, and so on.
Their chiefs were elected every year. They had almost everything in
common, and they rigorously excluded women from their midst. About
seventy thousand strong, they became a scourge to all their neighbours,
a menace even for Russia at the time when Ataman Mazeppa made
friendship with Charles Xii., the king of Sweden. After the battle of
Poltava, and later under Catherine ii., they were partly dispersed and
partly annihilated.
Two things were necessary for the extension of Cossack states —
space and discontent ; and both Russia and Poland in the sixteenth
century had plenty of those gangs of adventurers, marauders, vagabonds,
robbers, outcasts, cut-throats who, seeking freedom and fleeing from
pursuit, were able to traverse badly delimited frontiers, and establish
themselves on some masterless lands on the wooded banks of the
Dnieper, the Don, Ural, etc.
These predatory gangs of malcontents could not faiPto be organised
COSSACKS AND COSSACKDOM. 241
under the headship of more distinguished men. To their formation into
more orderly communities further contributed Polish and Lithuano-
Eussian lords, and later on the princes of Moscovia, who impressed on
them the ideas of knighthood and the stamp of patriotism.
The Polish landlords obtained as a grant from their kings
immense territories in the southern steppes of Russia, and, in order to
people them, they promised to peasants willing to settle in these regions
freedom from taxes and duties and impunity from any crimes they had
committed. The measure proved successful, the formerly uninhabited
steppes changed their aspect, they were peopled and opened to culture ;
the stanitsas, at first independent one from another, combined for the
election of a common chief or ataman (hetman); and already in 1649 a
daring Cossack chief on the Dnieper, Hetman Khmelnitsky, had suc-
ceeded in establishing a semi-autonomous state, at first allied to Poland
and later transferring its allegiance to Russia (1654); other Cossack
communities at the end of the fifteenth century, after the partition of
the south-eastern steppes between Poland, Muscovia and Turkey, rose
to considerable importance, acquired lands and rich booty, and were able
to wage wars with all their neighbours, and especially the Moslems.
The Tzars of Moskov knew how to profit by the valour and audacity
of these turbulent freelances; they supplied them with bread, powder
and lead, granted them lands and privileges, addressed them compli-
ments, recognised their liberties, and at the same time prepared the
way for submitting them to their rule.
After Zaporog's slez of Cossacks, crushed and suppressed by Catherine ii.
(1792), the next great colony of Cossacks, and the most important one
at the present day, was established in the middle of the sixteenth
century, on the Don and Medvieditsa and the shores of the Azov Sea.
The first Don Cossacks ataman which history mentions, bore the
Tartar name of Sariazman, but the colony consisted mainly of outlaws
and fugitives, rascolnick (dissidents) and adventurers from Russia, and
Poland, and the Crimea. In the second half of the same century these
colonists had already succeeded in forming powerful and aggressive com-
munities. Lately their number has considerably increased by Zaporog
Cossacks, the people of Ukraine, runaways, brigands and adventurers
from all eastern Europe, all willing to enter into the ranks of Cossacks
in order to enjoy liberty and the adventurous life of freelances and
marauders.
In 1570 the Don Cossacks asked for and received the protection
of Ivan the Terrible, but his hand did not weigh heavy on them, and
long afterwards they could repeat the saying : " The Tzar reigns in
Moskov and the Cossack on the Don."
In 1580, under the leadership of Yermak, an absconded criminal, a
gang of Don Cossacks conquered a part of Siberia and thus laid the
foundation of the now important Siberian Cossacks' army.
The power and prosperity of the Don Cossacks only increased
their turbulence and aggi'essive spirit, and Peter the Great found it
necessary to subdue them ; he crushed their revolt under Bulavin,
reduced their territory, and forbade further recruiting of their ranks.
VOL. XXIII. S
242 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
In the course of time the number and the importance of the
Cossack settlements went on increasing. In order to push forward
the frontiers of their domain the Russian princes did not want so much
to wage great wars, as to wage small ones, in the Caucasus and in
Central Asia, against Asiatic tribes, mostly divided among themselves.
They wanted for that purpose not great regular armies, but armed,
warlike, adventurous, vigilant populations, exactly such as these free-
booters and daring adventurers who formed Cossackdom, and were
recruited from the discontented elements of the nation, were capable
of offering. The Cossacks constituted also an excellent distraction
from internal troubles. Being compelled to defend their frontiers from
the incursions of piratical tribes, and hoping to extend their domains at
the first opportunity, the Russian princes, by granting lands and privileges,
founded more and more Cossack colonies. Thus have been founded on
the lower course of the Kuban the Tchernomorsky Cossack army, mainly
from the remains of the Zaporogs ; the Terek-Kislar Cossack army
in the Northern Caucasus ; the Grebenskoy Cossack army in the second
half of the sixteenth century from the fugitives from the Don, after
the punitive expedition of the stolnic Murashkin ; the Mosdoc Cossack
army, from the Cossacks settled at first on the Volga and the Khoper,
and others. The cordon line of Cossack settlements went on con-
tinually increasing from the Sea of Azov to the Caspian, and from the
Caspian along the Ural across Orenburg towards the Kirghiz steppes, the
Altai, Semiryechinsk, Baikal, and Transbaikal up to the river Amoor
and the Pacific, In the rear of the Cossacks' fortified line, protected
by them, settled Russian agriculturists, affording also recruits for the
Cossacks.
Historical. — We have no intention of entering into any details of the
stirring and bloodstained history of Cossacks, but it would be hardly
possible to understand their psychology without remembering some
at least of the great deeds which have rendered them so famous.
In the history of mankind, as in that of the earth, the past is never
completely past; it leaves its traces and reacts on the present. The
actual state of the Cossacks is powerfully influenced by their glorious
traditions, which live in their souls and continue to inspire them.
The halcyon days of Cossacks belong to the seventeenth century, when
Zaporog Cossacks fought as allies of Poland against Turkey under
the headship of Konassewitch Sahaydatchny (1621), and somewhat
later against the Poles themselves under the orders of Bogdan Khmel-
nitsky, who rallied around his standard fifty thousand men. After
having obtained some signal victories over Polish generals, Khmel-
nitsky proclaimed the emancipation of the peasants, raised up the
Don Cossacks, reinforced his army by Tartar troops, and with an army
of 400,000 strong, marched to Germany, and was arrested only by the
heroic resistance of a Polish noble of English origin, Andrew Firley.
After the convention of Zborov (1G49) the same Khmelnitsky invaded
Moldavia, ransomed its Gospodar, and occupied Podolia.
In 1654 he concluded at Pereiaslav a convention with the Tzar
Alexander Michailovitch, by the terms of which a portion of the
COSSACKS AND COSSACKDOM. 243
Ukraine, with its Cossack population, submitted under conditions of a
considerable independence to the dominion of Russia. This sovereignty
was often only nominal, the Cossacks of Ukraine remained restless,
they changed their allegiance now and then, broke into fresh revolts,
menaced all their neighbours, shed torrents of blood, until at last they
were suppressed and partly annihilated by the vigorous action of
General Tekeli, sent by Catherine ii. (1790). History has preserved
many narratives of the extraordinary exploits of the Zaporog Cossacks ;
they were renowned as reckless corsairs, they managed with admirable
ability their light boats (czat/Id), pushed them to the estuary of the
Dnieper, penetrated into the Azov and Black Seas, and, like the ancient
Danes, wherever they made good landing, they spread slaughter, con-
flagration, and ruin. The most renowned of the Cossack leaders or
hetmans were : John Mazeppa, elected as hetman by the Ukraine
Cossacks in 1687 — he attempted to throw off the sovereignty of the
Tzar Peter the Great, took part in the battle of Poltava, after which he
fled (1709) to Bender and there died; Yermak — the conqueror of
Siberia ; Stenka Razin, the famous robber, who succeeded in alluring
200,000 men to his standard; Bulavin, Nekrassof who revolted against
Peter the Great ; Minaef, Krasnoshchekof, Platov, leader of Cossacks in
the war with Napoleon ; Zelesniak, the leader of the rebellion of 1768 ;
Gouba, Sava, Rozycki, Pugatchef and others.
With each of these names a whole epopee is connected in the
Cossack mind, and they chant their heroes and transmit their high
deeds from generation to generation. At the time of Catherine ii. the
Cossack name was so renowned that many of the Russian grandees
and generals caused themselves to be inscribed as Cossacks (among
others Count Potemkin). From the famous Zaporog and Little-Russian
Cossacks have survived to our days a certain number of landowners
(Cossacks) outside of the village communities who still enjoy greater
prosperity than the rest.
Territory. — Cossack colonies occupy now a line extending for about
6790 miles from east to west and about 870 from south to north, or
42° 57' to 55° 28' N. lat. ; from the Don and the Sea of Azov to the
district of Vladivostok on the Sea of Japan, and from Terek to Orenburg
they cover an area of about 220,000 square miles, that is, more than
that of the German Empire. There are ten distinct Cossack colonies,
or voislvs, each owning their land and waters granted to them in
perpetuity by letters patent of the Tzar. The most extensive Cossack
territory is that of the Don, having an area of 63,532 square miles,
then come in order of their extension : the Orenburg colony, with 35,792
square miles; Transbaikal colony, 32,953 square miles; Ural, 27,221
square miles; Kuban, 25,566; Siberian, 21,560; Terek, 8220; As-
trachan, 3135 ; and that of Amoor, 2542 square miles. The total
population of these extensive lands is about three millions, of whom
71 per cent, are Cossacks and 29 per cent. non-Cossacks. The Imperial
charters granting to the Cossacks land and privileges issued formerly
have been recently renewed and solemnly announced to different Cossack
armies, gathered in their respective head-quarters. We reproduce here
244 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE,
the Edict, dated 24 January 1906, addressed to the Don Cossacks. It
runs as follows : —
" To Our faithfully dear and valiard Bon Cossacks Army.
" Since the first days of its existence, more than three hundred years
ago, the glorious voisko of Don has served faithfully the Tzar and
Fatherland. Relentlessly pursuing the bright goal then opened for
Russia in the development of her formidable might, it has ever since
heroically and with an unalterable, limitless devotion of all her sons
to the throne and Russian State, defended its frontiers, and, constitut-
ing thus a bulwark on its borders, contributed to its extension.
" In the years of heavy trials sent to the Russian Empire by the
inscrutable designs of Providence, all the Don Cossacks, animated with
equal affection and courage and always placing themselves in fclie ranks
of the defenders of the honour and the dignity of the Russian power,
have acquired by the spirit of military virtues always inherent in them
and by their countless glorious deeds immortal fame, and the gratitude
of the Fatherland.
"And now in the just-terminated war with Japan, and particularly
in the actual heavy days of trouble, the Don Cossacks, strictly following
the behests of their ancestors to serve the Tzar and the Russians faith-
fully and truly, have served as a model to all the true sons of the
Fatherland.
" In recognition for such a devoted, indefatigable, and faithful service,
We declare to the valiant and Our dear Don army Our particular monarchi-
cal benevolence, and confirm herewith all the rights and privileges granted
to them by Our august Forefathers now resting in God, pledging Our
Imperial word for the inviolability of their actual mode of service,
which has brought to them historical glory, as well as of all their goods
and possessions acquired by the labour, services, and blood of their
ancestors and confirmed by Imperial edicts."
Similar edicts have been also granted recently to the Orenburg
Cossacks army (23rd February 1906), the Ural Cossacks, the Terek
Cossacks army (23rd April 1906), the Siberian Cossacks, and the
Kuban Cossacks.
The lands of the Cossacks are unevenly distributed between 41'' and
55° N. latitude, in the plains and in the mountains ; they enjoy generally
a healthy and moderate climate, and, with some exceptions, might be
considered as quite favourable for the activity of man. Tiie mouths
of the Kuban, Terek, and Ural, as also the loAver course of the Araoor,
the Usuri, and the Sungatch, are malarial, and there are also in Orenburg
some tracts north of Ui river and Pressnogorki that are considered
unhealthy.
At the beginning the Cossack lands were mostly considered as
collective property ; they are now allotted to families, save for some
reserves. The land granted to Cossacks is considered as equivalent for
the sacrifices they submit to in order to wear arms in the service of
Fatherland; the allotment of each male Cossack is from 8 to 32*4 acres.
The pensions to officers are also granted in form of land. In 1775 on
COSSACKS AND COSSACKDOM. 245
those officers were conferred the rights of nobility and of the jjossession of
serfs. Since the emancipation (1856) Cossack officers have been granted
an allotment, according to rank, of from 247 to 4200 acres. It is now
permitted to all non-Cossacks to settle in the Cossacks land, and conse-
quently the proportion of civil population on those lands is increasing.
In the absence of the Cossack owner his land is leased or administered
by the community.
We shall give a very succinct account of all the Cossack regions : —
The Don Region. — Area, 63,532 square miles — that is more than the
total of England and Wales; domiciled population, 2,575,878 (1897);
density of 71 per square mile. The chief town is Novotcherkask. The
region is divided into otdjehj or districts, and has 117 stanitsa (villages)
and 1918 hamlets. It belongs to the southern steppes of Eussia, and
extends from the upper Vorona affluent of the Don on the frontiers of
the Voronej, Tambov, and Saratov governments, on the north, to the Sea
of Azov and the mouth of the Eisk on the border of Kuban Cossacks
land in the south. This great region may be divided into two principal
parts, that of the north above the confluence of the Don and Medvieditsa,
which is mainly agricultural, and that of the lower basin of Don, where
are cultivated vines and fruits. In the Russian saying it is reputed
to be a land of plenty, of milk and honey. The Don (anc. Janais) is
reverenced by the Cossacks as the great benefactor, and is chanted in
popular songs —
" Ho, you father, famous, quiet Don !
Our Nourisher, Don Ivanowitcb,
You enjoy a splendid fame,
A splendid fame and a good parole."
It is a mighty river 1150 miles long, having its source in a small lake
in the government of Tula, and falling into the Sea of Azov by three
mouths, one of which is navigable. It receives eighty affluents, of which
the principal are the Sosna and the Donetz on the right, and the
Khoper, the Medvieditsa, the Sal, and the Manitch on the left. Its
course is obstructed by frequent sandbanks at low water, but in high
spring water, when it overflows its banks, it is navigable as high as
Zadonsk, 600 miles from its mouth.
The region on the left shore of the Don forms mainly a low, uniform,
saltish, infertile plain, constituting a prolongation of the Aralo-Caspian
steppes. Its monotony is occasionally interrupted hj tumuli (kurgan) 33
to 50 feet high, considered as Huns' and Scythians' graves. On the right
bank of the Don the region is traversed by the small chain of the hills
of Donetz (about 500 feet high). Along the Don, the Khoper, and the
Medvieditsa there are many lakes and marshes, swarming with small fish.
The districts of Donetz, Tcherkask, and Miuz are Carboniferous ; the
northern part of the country is Cretaceous ; the south-west consists of
Miocene beds. The Carboniferous rocks contain sandstones, argillaceous
slates, millstone, and are rich coal-measures. The Cossack population
is about 1,064,000, the proportion of men to women as 96 to 100,
Kuhanland, twice as large as Switzerland (36,441 square miles),
consists of two unequal and dissimilar parts, the one on the north
246 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
of the Kuban (ancient Tchernomorie), a low plain slightly descending
fi'om the heights of Stavropol towards Azov, traversed by numerous rivers
running into the Sea of Azov, and the main chain of the Caucasus, and
strewn with kanians, covering the graves of its ancient inhabitants ;
the other on the south of the Kuban, hilly and mountainous, rapidly in-
creasing in altitude from the Taman peninsula eastwards to Mount
Elburz ; on its southern limit stretches the Black Mountain, above
GOOO feet, which slopes gradually northwards and very abruptly south-
wards. It is traversed by many rivers (Laba, Bjelaia, Seleutchuk) and
gullies.
The low part of the Kuban province has a generally fertile soil, but
it is marshy, partly covered with jungle, and consequently unhealthy ; it
is poor in wood. There are many salt lakes.
Up to 1868 the Cossacks were recognised as the sole proprietors
of these vast lands, granted at first (1792) to those of the former
Zaporog Cossacks who had submitted to Russia and declared them-
selves willing to marry. Since that date, however, this exclusive
ownership) of Cossacks has been abolished, and the land left open to
private purchasers.
The total population was estimated twenty-six years ago at 519,011
Cossacks, 149,749 non-Cossacks. The first have increased since by about
30 per cent, and are estimated now at 675,000. The proportion of men to
women is as 100 to 97. The non-Cossack population is very mixed and
steadily increasing (Russian, Tcherkess, Abkhasian, German, etc.).
The Region of the Tcnk Cossacks has an area almost as great as tliat of
Bavaria (26,822 square miles), and consists of three principal parts — the
eastern one, stretching along the left bank of the Malka and the Terek,
down to its estuaries; it is marshy and flat, and subject to inundations;
the middle one, along the Sunzha, is hilly, but also subject to inunda-
tions ; the western, from Vladicavkas to the mouth of the Malka, along
the left bank of the Terek, is mountainous. On the east there are
sand)' deserts or steppes, which go on extending. The mountain parts,
in the upper region of the Sunzha, the Atta and the Kembileivka, all
Terek's tributaries, are woody, difficult to cultivate, and have a rough
and humid climate. There is, however, much fertile land on the banks
of the Terek, and there are met excellent fruit-trees, vines, pastures and
forests. In regard to this river, as also the Kuban, many particulars
have been given in this Magazine for June 1899.
The portion of land belonging to the Cossacks constitutes about 32
per cent, of the whole area ; the rest of it belongs to the non-Cossack
population. About 14'5 per cent, of the land is considered as unfit for
culture; 14'7 is under forests and orchards. The rest are arable and
grazing lands. There are 4,750,000 acres of communal property, 316,000
acres belonging to officers, and almost as much is in the army reserves :
mean lot for every Cossack, 58 acres.
The total population is given at 933,485, of whom about 200,000
are Cossacks. The chief town is Grosny.
Thr Astraclian or Volga Cossack lands, on both sides of the lower
Volga, cover an area twice as large as that of Switzerland. The origin
COSSACKS AND COSSACKDOM. 247
of this Cossack colony is not exactly known, but it is mentioned in
history as far back as 1581, when the voeivodes of Astrac])an, Lizki and
Pushkin, were ordered to start against the Shanihal of Tarki (Daghestan)
with 1000 Volga and 500 Yaik Cossacks. This land is fertile on the
borders of the Saratov and Samara provinces; between Tchernoi Jar and
Yenotaevsk (beneath Zaritzin) it forms an argillaceous, flat, elevated
plateau ; further down there are pastures on the right bank of the Volga,
whereas on its left bank (Inner Kirghiz Horde) sand prevails.
The Volga nourishes the Cossack, and constitutes for him an excellent
waterway.
The total Cossack population is estimated at 30,000 : the proportion
of men to women as 95 to 100.
Ural or Yaik Cossack land (27,221 square miles) is included within
the governorship of Orenburg and stretches along the right bank of the
Ural. The steppes beyond the Volga approach the Ural and possess a
mountainous character, consisting of a long succession of grey or whitish-
grey ridges, variegated with brown streaks and whitish-red spots of naked
land. Usually mournful and sunburned, these steppes become highly
animated in the spi'ing, when they are covered with rich many-coloured
pastures on which the Ural Cossacks, in incessant conflict with their
enemies, the Kirghiz, graze their flocks and herds of sheep and horses.
The area belonging to the Cossacks is almost as large as Bavaria, and
their chief settlement is Uralsk. It was at first occupied by adventurous
Don Cossacks, who fled hither after their defeat by Murashkin (1577),
and destroyed the Tartar city of Saraitchek.
The Cossack land extends on the gentle southern slopes of the
Obschy-Syrt, a range of detached hills, some of which, at the sources of
the Derkul, a right affluent of the Ural, have an altitude of 600 feet,
declining gradually to 70 feet. The land is most fertile, well wooded,
and well irrigated. The small rivers draining the mountain range
periodically overflow the deepest hollows and create a magnificent graz-
ing ground. From Uralsk downwards the surface is flat, gradually
sinking until at Kalmykovo it descends almost to the sea-level and
passes into the sandy desert. The Ural delta overflows in high waters,
and is permanently covered with jungle and bush, making a good pro-
tection for cattle in winter.
The land for purposes of administration is divided into three otdjely ;
it has thirty stanitsas and 138 hamlets.
The total Cossack population is 117,000 ; the proportion of men to
women as 90 to 100.
Orenhurg Cossack land is larger than Ireland, and is the northward
prolongation of Ural Cossack land. It is traversed in different direc-
tions by broad but not high off"shoots of the Ural mountains. Some
parts of it, viz. the district between the Miuss and Ui (secondary tribu-
taries of the Tobol) are almost at sea-level and are covered with numerous
salt, briny and freshwater lakes. There are but few deserts : the soil is
mostly fertile, and is partly covered with deciduous forests. From the
main chain of the Ural, at the sources of the Ural and Ui rivers, there
detaches itself a secondary watershed, attaining in some parts an alti-
248 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
tude of 1200 feet, and remarkable for its vast and beautiful forests.
One of these — Dsliobyk-Karagai — measures not less than 77,400 acres.
Southwards the mountain range (Guberlinsky) descends rapidly into
the valley of the upper Ural. The land is rich in mines.
The total Cossack population attains 378,000; the proportion of
men to women is as 95 to 100.
Siberian Cossack land stretches in a long and narrow tract beyond
the Ural, along the Presnogorky, Irtysh, Buchtarminsk, and Bisk lines,
and, partly dispersed in the steppes of the Kirghiz Horde, covers an
area almost as large as Bavaria.
The Presnogorky line along the Ishim, on the south of Tobolsk down
to the steppes of Kirghiz, is strewn with numerous salt, bitter, and fresh-
water lakes. It is only partly fit for cultivation in its alluvial parts ;
there are pastures and woods. Cattle and horse-breeding are hampered
by the want of good water, and diseases arising from the sickly emana-
tions of the stagnant waters and putrefying vegetable matters.
The Irtysh line, in the province of Akmolinsk, covers mostly a sandy,
woodless tract along the river, which runs from Semipalatinsk to Omsk
(462 miles) without an affluent. On the left bank of the Irtysh there
are, however, some excellent pastures.
The Buchtarminsky Cossack line is situated on the northern offshoots
of the Altai mountain range at an altitude of G80 to 900 feet. In the
valleys of some rivers arising in these mountains there is little wood,
but an abundance of good arable land, meadow, and pasture.
The Bisk (Biisk) line on the upper Obi, also on the northern rami-
fications of the Altai, at an altitude of 1000 to 2000 feet, has an
abundance of pasture and arable land, and is besides richly covered with
wood.
The lands of the Cossacks in the Kirghiz steppe are mostly fertile
and favourable for grazing.
The total Cossack population is calculated in round numbers at
124,000.
Semiri/echinsh Cossack land constitutes a part of the government of the
stepi)es between Siberia and Turkestan, has an area of 1041 square
miles, and is naturally divided into a mountainous part, belonging to
the system of the Thian-shan and a flat country traversed by many
rivers, and sprinkled with a considerable number of lakes great and
small. The name of the i)rovince signifies icven rivers, which are the
Karatal, and its afiluents the Kok-su, the Biien, the Akh-su with the
Sarkan, and the Baskan, with the Lepsa.
There are other and even more important rivers such as the Hi,
partly navigable, which falls into Lake Balkash and covers with
its delta an area of above 5000 square miles. Among the lakes,
Issik-kul is thrice as large as the Lake of Geneva, and the Ala-kul, the
Sassyk-kul, the Baskan, are also noticeable. The low region slopes
slightly towards the NE., in which direction the rivers floAV into the
Balkash ; it is an argillaceous sandy steppe, supposed to be formerly the
bed of a tertiary sea, being then in communication with the. great sea
of Central Asia (Han-hai). The Cossacks are mainly settled in the
COSSACKS AND COSSACKDOM. 249
mountainous country of Ala-tau, at an altitude of 2000 to 2500
feet.
There is now a very mixed population : about 51 per cent. Kirghiz,
24 per cent, of Sartes, 6 per cent, of Euzbegs, 5 per cent, of Tadjiks,
3 per cent, of Kuroraa, and the rest is divided between the Russians
(whose number has steadily increased), the Kiptchak, the Tarantchis, the
Tartars, Kalmucks, Dungans, and Persians. The number of Cossacks is
not much above 26,000; their capital is Verny. It is a promised land
of Eussian immigration, and quite recently the Cossacks had to concede
130,000 dessiatine of their reserves to Russians.
TranshaiM Cossack land is twice as large as Switzerland, occupies
the southern and eastern part of Transbaikalia, and is divided by the
Yablonovoi (Stanovoy) range of mountains, which converge with the
northern buttress ranges of the Aldan high plain, into two parts — the
eastern one with a mean altitude of above 2000 feet, and the western
not much above 1000 feet. The first and higher part is very broken
and woody, and is traversed by many ranges parallel to the main chain,
and enclosing the basins of the Ingoda, Onon, Gasimur, and other rivers ;
on its southern extremity it passes into an undulating steppe. The
second and lower part lies in broad and elevated valleys formed by the
Ingoda, the Selenga and its affluents, the Dshida and Tshikoi. As there
is only one easy passage through the Stanovoy range (road to Tchita)
comnumications here are very difficult.
The chief town is Tchita Total Cossack population, 187,000.
Amoor Cossack land extends in the form of an oasis along the deserts
of the Amoor and the Ussury, as also on the banks of the lake Chanka
on the north and east of Manchuria. This colony, which is of recent
origin, is divided into three otdjely (districts) ; it has seventeen stanitsas,
about 100 hamlets, and 3200 farms; its chief town is Blagovechensk
(9300 inhabitants). At the confluence of the Zeya, the most important
tributary of the Amoor, the Cossacks settled when detached in 1858
from the Transbaikal Cossacks, and they were obliged to fit out and
maintain two mounted regiments and two foot battalions. This land
is subject to inundations, and otherwise the conditions of life must be
rather dreary, for the government has been obliged to strengthen their
number with military outposts.
The total Cossack population may be estimated at 28,000.
Ethnography. — The Cossacks sprung from an admixture of diff"erent
races, but the identity of their calling and their mode of life and warfare
have stamped on them all a common Russian cachet. The great
majority of Cossacks are Great Russians, they are settled mainly on
the Don ; Little Russians now preponderate in the Kuban and Terek
Cossacks army ; there are also to be found on the Don, in the Orenburg,
Semiryechinsk, Siberian and Transbaikal Cossack colonies. Tartars are
numerous among the Don, Ural, Orenburg, Siberian, and Semiryechinsk
Cossacks ; they are also to be found among the first three Cossacks' colonies
a not inconsiderable number of Kalmucks. lu the Transbaikal Cossack
army were incorporated a number of Buriat and Tungus, and among the
Caucasian Cossacks there are now some Caucasian Highlanders, Lesghins,
250 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Tclierkess, Tchetchen, and others ; finally, in the Orenburg Cossack
army there are Bashkir, Mordvin, and Tchuvashes. There are few Jews,
about 0"5 per cent.
Cossacks are generally a beautiful race of men, and there are ever
to be found on the Don, and especially on the Terek and Kuban,
splendid specimens of men and women. They are almost all excellent
horsemen, robust, enduring, weather-beaten, soldierlike, hardened, adroit,
everything that the bearing of arms, the life in the open air on horse-
back can make them. Each Cossack army has, however, some special
peculiarities.
The Caucasian Cossacks, and especially those of Terek, have much
intermingled with Caucasian mountaineers — Tchetchen, Tcherkess, and
also Nogai and others ; they have borrowed of them many of their
peculiarities and have improved in bodily structure. The Terek Cossacks
are a beautiful tribe. Their women are particularly remarkable, and are
reputed to be in many ways superior to their masters, as more forward
and even more intelligent. They combine the classical, regular features
of Tchetchen women with the powerful constitution of the women of
the Russian northern type.
The Cossacks speak Russian, but have many words of their own,
and they give their own significance to some Russian words.
The Cossack as loarrior. — The Cossack is a born freebooter, he has all
the qualities of a militia horseman and is quite efficiently adapted for
outpost service. Cossacks are excellent for foraging parties, surprising
the enemy, cutting off his communications, pursuing him when defeated.
Only fifty years ago Cossackdom constituted a military caste which
it was forbidden to leave. Among the Caucasian Cossacks even a female
member of a Cossack family could marry out of the caste only by special
permission.
In 1856 was begun the reform, realised ten years later, according
to which Cossackdom ceased to be a caste, its military affairs were
separated from its civil business, and its administration from justice.
The law of 1874 thoroughly remodelled the whole military organisation
of Cossacks ; they are now incorporated in the field troops. The
military organisation of Cossacks thus underwent considerable change
with the strengthening of the central power of the State. Very loose
at first, with considerable freedom in the choice of the chiefs, mode
of operations and generalship, it became more stringent and more
appropriate not only to military requirements but also to the increased
civil and peaceful interests of the country.
Before 1835 there were no fixed rules for the military obligations
of Cossacks; each individual served as long as he Avas capable. In that
year it was decreed, at first for the Don Cossacks and later for the
others, that each capable Cossack of nineteen years of age is liable to serve
for thirty years, and that all male children of Cossacks, on the attain-
ment of seventeen years of age, are to be enrolled as minors for two years
in the recruiting schools. The reforms of Alexander ii. have consider-
ably lightened the service of Cossacks, they have introduced stricter
qualifications for recruits, increased the number of the dispensed, and
COSSACKS AND COSSACKDOM. 251
thus caused a greater inequality among Cossacks, many of whom can
pursue different peaceful, lucrative callings.
Cossacks are now called at nineteen years to draw lots, save pupils
of high schools and professionals. According to custom, at the entrance
into active service the recruits simultaneously admitted exchange
between themselves various gifts. Cossacks when set free constitute
a class of men who maintain their right on the land, but have to pay
during twenty-two years a special tax of 1 5 roubles a year.
Cossacks, treated by Napoleon I. as miserabile cavaUeria, have proved
themselves to be an excellent instrument of conquest over the multitude
of mostly semi-barbarous people Russia has encountered in her ex-
pansion ; they have been called to fight, and have developed in quite
an extraordinary degree watchfulness, vigilance, readiness for an un-
guarded attack, endurance — in fact all the qualities necessary for the
struggle in the van of an army.
From his tenderest years a Cossack learns to ride, and with maturity
he becomes an accomplished horseman, capable of performing on his
enduring and well-trained horse the tricks one admires only in the
circus. His horse is a true companion, as capable as himself of lying in
wait for hours without betraying his presence.
Besides Cossack cavalry (a force of 268 squadrons [hundreds] in
time of peace and 868 squadrons on war-footing) there are also some
companies of Cossack infantry or pladune (to lie prostrate), so called
because their special task is to search for traces of their enemies in bush
or otherwise covered places, and to lie in wait. A. plastunc is expected to
be not only a good shot, but also a good pedestrian, enduring and
patient in the highest degree. The plastunes acquired great renown in
the wars with Tcherkess on the Kuban.
All Cossacks are warlike and proud, faithful in their service and
true to their Tzar. All the traditions, aspirations, songs, and deeds
of the Cossack's life, for centuries, have centred mainly in warlike
prowess ; war has ever been considered by them as a glorious undertaking,
opening a large field for audacious daring and all manly virtues.
In their dealings with their enemies, or whom they are bidden to
consider as such, they are not only coarse, cruel, violent, but even
ferocious, and it would be easy to fill volumes with instances of their
atrocities. In a Russian popular pamphlet about Cossacks (Alexandrov,
Moscow, 1899) one finds narratives of how the Ural Cossacks knocked
down the Kirghiz so unmercifully, that even the Ural groaned as with
pain, how they pursued them like wild goats, how a famous Cossack —
Vasily Struniashof — descended the Ural on a small craft with two guns,
trying to approach unperceived the Kirghiz camp and kill with a single
shot two of them. When in pursuit of a retreating foe they utter singular
savage cries, and woe to the unfortunate falling in their hands. The
wars with Napoleon, and especially the Caucasian wars, have left as inex-
haustible chronicles of human cruelties as of heroic deeds.
The Cossacks form about 6 per cent, of the regular Russian army ;
the proportion is 7 per cent, for West Siberia and 22 per cent, for
Turkestan.
252 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
In relation to different arras the proportion is 1 per cent, for the
infantry, 7 7 per cent, for the cavalry, and 50 per cent, for the artillery.
We do not know exactly the total Cossack force, but we may evaluate
it approximately at 130,000 in time of peace and four times this number
in time of war. The Cossack has to serve twenty years, of which three
years are for training, twelve at the frontier, and five in reserve. The
twelve years' service is divided into three callings, four years each. One
third of the male Cossack population fit to bear arms, constitute the
regiments of the first calling (49i regiments). Actually the Cossack
has only three years' service. The highest authority is vested in the
superior administration of the Cossack armies. Don and Siberia
Cossacks have their Atamans, nominated by the Crown, with the rights
of Governor-General ; the other Cossacks, vo'isho, are placed under the
control of the General-Governors of the parts of the empire to which
they belong. The supreme Ataman of the Don Cossacks is the heir-
apparent.
Uniform and Arms. — The Caucasian Cossacks have borrowed their
beautiful uniform from the Caucasian Highlanders (Tcherkess); a
close-fitting, woollen or silken, short heskmei, a red or blue shirt with
a collar and an upper dark green coat — khcrlesslcn, with a cartridge box
on both sides of the breast, a papaclici (shaggy sheepskin cap) on the
head, and viatchiki (soleless morocco boots), for the feet, as well as j^orshni
of raw skin requiring to be wetted before being drawn on. For protec-
tion in cold weather, and for a covering a Caucasian Cossack has his
bitreca — a large, shaggy, foldless mantle, and his hashh/J: or bonnet.
Armed and dressed as a Tcherkess, the Caucasian Cossack is scarcely
distinguishable from him. Other Cossacks wear dark green or blue
tunics with epaulets, partlets, and collar edgings of different colours,
broadly striped pantaloons of the colour of the coat, and a cap with a
coloured band, a visor, and a cockade.
Most Cossacks are armed with a Berdan-gun, a shashJca (a crooked
sabre), and the famous whip. Caucasian Cossacks have daggers, and the
first file of most squadrons bear lances.
The Cossack must provide himself with his arms and his equipment,
as also his horse at his OAvn cost; he wants for that from 150 to 300
roubles ; he must keep all that in order ; in case of his being incapable
of providing himself with all necessary for the service he is helped out
of communal resources.
A Cossack bears all his arms separately so as not to allow any clank-
ing ; he takes good care of them ; and though his dress may be ragged,
his arms are always in good order.
The Cossack as Policeman. — The internal troubles of Russia have recently
caused the Government of the Czar to employ Cossacks as a police force,
and many landlords also menaced by agrarian disorders recur to them
for the protection of their goods. The intervention of Cossacks in the
maintenance of civil order has a brutal and often a sanguinary result;
they do not proceed with much nicety and discretion, and use freely their
dreadful nagaiJca, and even their firearms. Called to bring a tumultuous
crowd to reason, they do not endeavour to disperse it, but they pack it
COSSACKS AND COSSACKDOM. 253
together and then trample upon it, playing furiously with their whips and
shashka. They do often exercise violence upon the population, violate
property, outrage women, and provoke most bitter complaints from
the civil population. All Cossacks do not, however, approve of their
employment as a police force, and in the midst of their female popula-
tion, their wives and their sisters, there seems to reign some discontent
at such pitiless proceedings against the revolutionary elements of the
Russian people, their Christian, though slightly inferior brethren, called
a little disdainfully the catsap. There are even some recorded instances
when the Cossacks refused to be employed for police duties.
The Cossacks, in fact, are in no way ideal policemen ; they are rather
too brutal for these delicate functions, and besides, they enjoy among
the Russian people the not wholly unmerited reputation of being very
clever and audacious thieves — which is not a useful quality in policemen.
The Cossack as Citizen — Customs and 3fa7iners.— The Cossack is not
only a warrior and a policeman, but he is also a peaceful and industrious
citizen, who has his lands to till, his garden to cultivate, his cattle and
horses to raise ; his fishing, hunting, and a number of trades and
occupations to look after. Compared with ordinary Russian peasant
and tradesman, the Cossack may be considered as a privileged being; he
is more cultured, and he has a prouder and more dignified bearing than
the Russian peasant. Cossacks have to give to the state a difficult and
perilous service, but on the whole they enjoy a life superior to that of
the rest of Russia. Their allotments are superior to those of Russian
peasants, they are mostly settled along great rivers abounding in fish,
they pay no taxes, they are little interfered with in their industries
and daily work.
The Cossacks are in consequence and on the whole more con-
servative and more satisfied with their lot than the rest of the Russians.
There has certainly been manifested some dissatisfaction in the ranks
of the Cossacks, and there are some elements among them who would
like to reform Cossackdom in a radical way, but the great majority
remain profoundly conservative. They respect their elders, maintain
their faith, and their old customs.
To understand the Cossacks it is necessary to remember that they are
mostly the descendants of those terrible fanatics of liberty and orthodoxy,
the Zaporog Cossacks, who in their appeal to new recruits said, " We
urge to join us all Avho are ready to be impaled, to be racked, quartered,
to suffer all tortures for the Christian faith."
The Cossack observes severely all the fasts in this sense, that on
those days he does not eat either flesh, nor any other animal food,
except fish, and that his meals are prepared with vegetable oil. He
goes to church on holy days, and he likes to put one or even a whole
bunch of wax tapers, before the ikon (holy image) ; he does not eat
before the mass, and on Sunday evenings he likes to read the Scriptures
and the history of the saints. There are a considerable number of
starover or old believers among the Cossacks (about 10 per cent.), and
about 4 per cent, of non-Christian creeds.
On the Don and the Ural the wooden or stone houses of the Cossacks
254 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
look far more comfortable and are more spacious than the ordinary-
peasant Russian isba. A Cossack's house consists usually of two neat
and bright rooms, provided with a large Russian stove, adorned with
numerous ikons and the portraits of the reigning family, and furnished
with beds, benches, tables, and sideboards. There are feather beds,
carpets, cushions, bedclothes ; and along the walls, arms and copper
ware.
The Cossack eats and drinks abundantly and well, he crosses himself
before and after meals, as he crosses himself also when yawning and on
many other occasions. At dinner on week-days he has bread, cakes,
curdled milk, cabbage or fish soup, and mutton. On Sundays he has
in addition, fish, salt beef, fowls, and even sometimes venison ; on fast-
days he eats freely of cucumbers, water-melons, pumpkins or gourds,
dried sturgeon, caviare, herring, potatoes, fruits, etc. He does not eat
without drinking, but washes down his food with bumpers of ichihir,
taken always at one draught, even by the ladies. The Cossack's capacity
for drinking is great, for he can take at once a whole tchapura ! a wooden
chalice containing eight glasses. In their leisure hours the Cossack's
youth, and especially the women, gnaw continually grains of turnsole.
Cossacks are strong and adroit, but they willingly leave to their
strong and patient women not only house but also field and other work.
They indulge in warlike sports — shooting, wild galloping, lance-throwing,
and they like also to chant songs of their famous heroes of old — Yermak,
Razin, Bulavin, Nekrassof, MinaefF, Krasnoschekof, Platov, Ilovaisky,
and others.
A Cossack will endure any climate ; he has admirable instinct, which
permits him to find his way in the wildest tract. His j)assions are
easily aroused, and there are many stories of sanguinary conHict between
rivals, and even between father and son, the Cossack marrying young
and leaving his wife, on account of his service, for a long time alone.
There are a number of educated men among Cossacks, but ordinary
Cossacks are generally very ignorant and highly superstitious ; they
seem to remain in some respects very children of nature, noisily demon-
strating their joy in success, but also easily dispirited in adversity. The
Cossack believes in devils, sorcery, spells, etc. With all this they are
cunning and patient in stratagems. They are very hospitable. Every one
is happy to have friends (kunaJ:), and to keep faithful to his friends. The
Cossacks do not generally exercise any marked influence on the aborigines
they are brought into contact with ; on the contrary, they easily adopt
local customs. They are pious; on every occasion they invoke the name
of God, and perhaps as often that of the devil. At the beginning of
his meals, in drinking one's health, at any supposed danger, and even
at the moment when, pointing at his enemy, he pulls the trigger of
his musket, the Cossack says " In the name of the Father and the Son."
The manners of Cossacks are what their warlike habits, the use of
arras, long absence from home, and severe duties have made them. To
be a good fellow among them signifies to be faithful in friendship and
hatred, a strong drunkard, an adroit robber of horses and cattle, a singer,
and a player on the balalaika, a good sportsman, a hoaxer, a favourite
COSSACKS AND COSSACKDOM, 255
with women, and before all a djighif, a dauntless horseman prepared to
kill and to be killed.
Cossack ivomen are highly praised, and considered by many as
superior to their men in intelligence and industry. They do not
enjoy, however, from their men the consideration due to their value
and are even often treated harshly. Heavy work in the house, or
courtyard, and the field is left to them ; to them is principally due all
the welfare and comfort the Cossack enjoys. The habit of heavy
masculine work and industry have developed in the women intelli-
gence and muscular strength, and also a considerable amount of
authority in the family life. The Cossack's house and all his goods
are acquired and maintained, thanks to the labour and the care of his
women. Affecting for them before a stranger a kind of scorn, the rude
Cossacks cannot, however, but recognise their skill, powerful good sense,
and firmness of character.
Cossack industries. — Cossacks possess rich lands, beautiful rivers with
plenty of fish, herds of cattle and horses; they are agriculturists, gardeners,
fishermen, tradesmen, and men of commerce, they pursue many kinds
of industries, but with all that, they do not constitute a self-suflScient
state or community taking the ordinary chances in the universal struggle
for life. They are a privileged community, or rather a number of
communities, provided with many good things of this world somewhat
at the expense of the state of which they are members. They are
insured to a certain degree against the perils accompanying the free
struggle for existence, and probably in consequence of that, as also of
the obligations imposed on them and of their backward state of culture,
their industries are not progressive.
Agriculture. — In the early days of Cossackdom, among Zaporog
and Don Cossacks tillage was despised and even interdicted, it being
the occupation of the peasants residing among them, but now agriculture
has become the most important industry of Cossacks.
Apart from the considerable extent of land belonging to the always
increasing class of civilians, peasants, artisans, craftsmen, etc., which since
1867 have obtained the right to buy land and become proprietors in the
formerly exclusive Cossacks domain, the tillable land in their possession,
which has been estimated in the seven principal Cossacks regions at
about 90 million acres, falls into three categories : communal lauds, about
66 per cent, of the whole, reserve lands 22 per cent., and the lands
belonging to officers 12 per cent. These numbers are, however, only
provisional. The communal lands are in the possession of villages
or stanitsas, they are divided among the male members of the commune
at their attainment of seventeen years of age, on the basis of an
allotment which varies in diff"erent Cossack regions, according to the
quality of the soil, from 20 to 216 acres, the mean being 12 dessiatine
(32-7 acres).
The reserve land is considered as belonging to an entire voisko, and
in a given Cossacks region it is administered by local authorities under
the upper control of the War Ministry. It is a state fund destined to
subsidise the Cossacks in case of particular want, to help in furnishing
256 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
armaments, etc. The proceeds of the land go to supply the funds in
l^ossession of each voishn.
According to an estimate made twenty-five years ago, the total funds
in cash at the disposal of the Cossacks were eighteen and a half million
roubles, or about seventeen roubles per head for the male population.
We have no more recent data.
Prosperity is greatest among the Ural Cossacks ; the Don, Kuban,
Orenburg, and Siberian are also well off, whereas the Transbaikal and
Amoor Cossacks suffer from the great distances of any centre of civili-
sation and of markets; Terek, Astrachan and Semireychinsk Cossacks
seem to be the poorest. The usual cereal crops are wheat, rye, barley,
oats, buckwheat, millet, and potatoes.
All Cossack lands, save the Transbaikal and Astrachan regions,
produce cereals in quantities sufficient for the needs of the population,
while the Don and Semireyechinsk region has a surplus. Apart from
the arable land, the Cossacks cultivate orchards and gardens, they raise
cabbages, cucumbers, melons, apple, cherry, and plum trees, and they
have some special crops such as flax, hemp and tobacco. The Don Terek
Cossacks have a considerable acreage under vines, and all have vast
stretches of meadow and pasture land.
The agricultural methods of Cossacks are of a primitive description,
their plough is heavy and unmanageable, and they do not generally
introduce new agricultural machines, preferring to make their patient
and strong women do the work.
The Cossacks are also apiculturists ; in the Kuban, Don, Terek and
Siberian Cossack regions they produce honey and wax to the value of
about half a million roubles. Next to agriculture, the most important
industry of Cossacks is cattle and horse breeding.
Their live stock was valued some time ago per hundred heads of
Cossack male and female population for all the ten Cossack regions as
follow : —
Horses, GO (Ural 140, Transbaikal 124, Don 35).
Cattle, 94 (Don 136, Ural 134, Kuban 126).
Sheep, 161 (Ural 503, Kuban 290, Transbaikal and Don, 276).
In the Kuban and Orenburg regions there are besides about 300 pigs
per 100 Cossacks.
The Cossack horse is a cross-breed between Russian, Kalmuck,
Kirghiz, and Bashkir horses, and has excellent qualities. It is rather small
(except Black Sea Cossack horses), but well built, extraordinarily endur-
ing even under bad nurture ; being left much at liberty in the steppes, it
has acquired much prudence and very acute senses. The "Black Sea"
horse, from the Dnieper, has a short neck, is strong, enduring, and
sturdy. The Caucasian Cossacks have excellent horses of mixed Arab
and Karabagh blood ; there are also Nogai and Kabardine horses,
admirable mountain climbers.
The Russian Government favours horse-breeding, and has estab-
lished studs on the Don and the Caucasus, and has assigned for this
purpose in the Don Cossack region an area of above two million
acres.
COSSACKS AND COSSACKDOM. 257
The cattle of the Don Cossacks are renowned for their size and
excellent qualities. The sheep (Moldovan race) have long but hard
wool. The poor animals are badly cared for and often perish from the
inclemency of the weather. In all the Cossack lands where there is also
some percentage of non-Cossack population, the number of live-stock
belonging to the first is far superior to that belonging to the last (in the
ratio of 82 to 16).
Fisheries. — Cossacks are good fishers, and as almost all their posses-
sions extend along the great rivers, abounding in fish, or are on the
shores of the Caspian, Black, and Azov seas, or on the great lake of
Baikal, fisheries constitute a considerable item in their prosperity. The
streams of water traversing the lands of Cossacks, as also the parts of the
seas adjoining these lands, are the undivided property of the respective
Cossack voisko. Fishing is permitted to all Cossacks, with only such
restrictions as are considered necessary to secure undisturbed spawning.
Besides the great fisheries belonging to the headquarters of a voisko,
some of which lie even outside Cossack land, and which are leased,
there are also fisheries in the lakes and rivers inside the limits of a
stanitsa and belonging to all its members.
The richest fisheries are on the Don and the Ural; after them come
those of the Kuban and Azov Sea, as also those on the Caspian and
Volga. In these waters are caught some kinds of sturgeon (white and
stellated), silure, sandre, bream, cyprinus viviba, carp, herring, and dab.
On the Ural they distinguish " red " and " white " fish : " red " fish is
more valuable but scarce (Acipenser sturio, A. ruthenus) ; it is reserved for
export ; the " white," by far the more abundant, is consumed by the
Cossacks on their numerous fast-days. From the " red " fish is obtained
caviare, viosiga (dried back tendons), and isinglass. In the cold season
the fish is served fresh, in hot season salted or dried.
The products of the fisheries are not unimportant, and, according to
some statistics, may be valued at about four to five million roubles a year,
more than half of which belongs to the Ural region, where they are the
main source of income. The river Ural is recognised as the undivided
property of the Ural voisko, and the fishing is permitted to all Cossacks
on the condition of observing certain established, pretty complicated rules.
The Ural Cossacks enjoy also the right of fishing on the Tcholkar lake
and its tributary, the Ankotys.
In the Astrachan voisko all waters are leased for fishing, the adminis-
tration reserving to themselves only some rights regarding train-oil and
the salting.
The fisheries on the Don yield about 1000 tons per annum.
Mining Industries. — In the Cossack lands coal, naphtha, pig-iron, and
salt are obtained. The exploitation of these is left free of taxes.
The coal on the Donetz began to be extracted in 1842; since then
the exploitation has steadily progressed, and the output rose from
1,624,720 tons in 1884 to 7,413,000 tons in 1898.
The naphtha wells are worked in the land of the Terek and Kuban
Cossacks; they are leased. The Grosny oil-fields yielded, in 1899,
406,000 tons of crude oil.
VOL. XXIII. T
258 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Pig-iron is obtained on the Don — 1,333,258 tons in 1899; it is
partly exported.
There are many salt lakes in Cossack land : on the Don the lake of
Manytch ; in Kuban five groups of salt lakes, on the shores of Azov,
Bugas, Petrovsk, Akhtarsk, Achuev, Yassan — forty lakes in all ; on the
Ural ten salt-lakes.
Cossacks obtain their salt for consumption by means of taxes levied
by their own administration ; where there are no salt-works, they get it
from the state — 77 lbs. per head yearly.
There are some other industries, such as the exploitation of the
forests, and hunting. A Cossack may be also a tanner, a potter, a
tradesman, an artisan of various kinds, a craftsman, but there is no par-
ticular Cossack industry, and in all kinds of industries the Cossacks are
rather back\yard; their principal preoccupation of being ready for war
prevents them from engaging in peaceful pursuits. Most Cossacks are
excellent sportsmen, the hunting of wild boar, deer, and hares being a
favourite pastime with them.
Independently of their military tastes and pursuits, the industrial
activity of Cossacks is hampered by their dependence upon their autho-
rities even in private and industrial concerns.
Manufactures. — The Cossacks have neither time nor knowledge nor
disposition to employ themselves in manufactories ; they leave it to the
non-Cossack portion of their population, called outlanders, which is
steadily increasing. There are counted some 1500, mostly small, manu-
factories, in Cossack land, viz. the oil industry, tanyards, brick-making,
potteries, candle-making, etc., producing a sum of about 10 to 12 million
roubles yearly. It is a very poor result indeed, when compared with
the industrial activities of many free countries, such as Switzerland, for
instance, whose population is only equal to that of the Cossacks, whose
territory is only one-fourteenth part of that occupied by Cossacks, and
which exports manufactured goods to the value of 900 millions — that is
thirty-six times as much as the Cossacks.
Commerce. — The Cossacks are not merchants, and commerce as a
peaceful occupation, requiring for its success peace, order, and equity,
is incompatible with their martial, restless spirit. Some Cossacks regard
commerce with sheer contempt ; they prefer to take rather than to buy.
For long the commerce in Cossack land was carried on exclusively by
the non-Cossack portion of the population, but the Cossack at least per-
ceived the inconvenience of being always cheated by outlanders, and
they demanded to be permitted to carry on commerce for themselves. In
1835, on the Don, and later in other parts of Cossack land, there was
instituted a commercial class among the Cossacks, who, in return for
a special tax levied for the benefit of the voisko, were liberated from
military service and were granted some privileges.
Later on all merchants in Russia had to pay for their patents, and
the loss sustained to the Cossack treasury from the suspension of the
special tax on Cossack merchants was made good by the state. But the
number of the last was very inconsiderable (about 4500), and the trade
now, as before, is mainly carried on by the non-Cossacks.
COSSACKS AND COSSACKDOM. 259
The exports consist of raw and half-manufactured goods, imports of
manufactured goods, and especially textiles, of a total value which has
been estimated at iJ^ million roubles in 1878, and, considering its
annual increase of about one per cent., it cannot be now much above
64 million roubles.
Cosscu'k Finance. — Cossackdom is a kind of state in the state which
levies taxes, owns vast extents of land, waters, mines, and forests, and
has its proper grant from the administration, and so on. The total
revenue of all the ten Cossacks lands was given twenty-six years ago as
equal to 6,396,801 roubles; the expenditure left a balance of 93,000
roubles. We regret not being able to give the actual figures for the
present time, but having regard to the slight progress in agriculture and
industry made by the Cossacks, we do not suppose the total to be much
above 10 million roubles. The richest communal properties are in the
Don, Kuban, and Ural Cossacks voisko; the poorest on Terek, Semir-
yechinsk, and Transbaikal. The expenditure on public schools varies
from 10 to 40 per cent, of the budget. There is as yet not a single
high school in the Cossack lands.
Conclusion. — Russia is on the eve of radical reforms ; it is highly
probable that, with the emancipation of the great masses from the civil
inequalities and their participation in the councils of the great Empire,
the external policy of Russia will be more settled, and its limits will not
be further extended, and the question naturally arises, What will become
of the Cossacks 1 Are they to enjoy indefinitely their present privileged
position, or are they to become like the other subjects of Russia ?
The Cossacks have played a great historical part in the increase of
Russian power and dominion ; they continue to retain considerable
military importance, but does not their maintenance as a privileged and
military caste constitute some danger to the peaceful development of
Russia 1
It is remarkable that among the Cossacks themselves there exists
some, if not widespread, discontent. Some Cossack deputies in the last
Duma made themselves interpreters of the complaints of Cossacks. It
seems that the land and the privileges they possess do not always constitute
for them a sufficient equivalent for their obligations to serve as the militia
of Russia. Some of them believe that they have reasons to complain of
a serious economic crisis, provoked by an unusually prolonged retention
of their men under arms ; others affirm that they have been outraged in
their best traditions by being employed for the suppression of the aspira-
tions for freedom they themselves have always cherished. The dis-
content may as yet be only quite partial, though there have been already
some revolts to suppress in which the military authorities have had
recourse to regular troops ; but there are not the Cossacks' interests alone
to be considered.
What is the advantage to the Russian state in the further main-
tenance of the privileged status of the Cossacks'? There is certainly a
financial advantage, viz. the fact that the tax on the Cossacks, like that
on all ordinary Russian subjects, is insufficient to cover the expenses of
the military department for the levy, the equipment, and the armament
260 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
of tlie Cossack troops, which is now done at the cost of the Cossacks
themseh^es. It is said, further, that the military charge falls more heavily
on the Cossacks than on the rest of the population. In each 1000 men the
Cossacks give yearly 17 recruits, the other population only 5 ; on actual
service there are 62 men for each 1000 among the Cossacks, and only
24 among the rest of the Empire ; the respective numbers in time of war
are as 245 to 57. The mobilisation of Cossacks is also proceeding more
quickly than that of the rest of the army.
We are not concerned to weigh the validity of all these argu-
ments, but certainly the maintenance of the Cossacks is not exclusively
either a financial or a military question ; it is also an important social
and political problem ; there are implicated important considerations of
civil and social importance.
There is, besides, to consider that Eussia may no longer need a
particularly Avarlike population on its present frontiers, and that among
this population itself dissatisfaction may increase in consequence of
the progress of more peaceful ideas and of changed circumstances, which
do not favour the military spirit and counsel the changing of arms for
the plough.
The transformation may be gradual, without disturbing the Cossacks'
rightful possessions. The Don and Ural Cossack may become quite as
peaceful citizens as are now numerous Little-Russian Cossacks, whose
ancestors were the most uncompromising of true Cossacks.
In some respects the Cossacks are better prepared than the rest of
the population for realising the new^ course Eussia is about to enter
upon ; they have already enjoyed a certain autonomy, freedom, and
electoral rights. Their rich lands may become the granaries of Eussia.
It is certain that the Cossacks are in narrow straits just now, when
the whole of Eussia is in the midst of an alarming crisis. The war with
Japan had already necessitated extraordinary efforts, and now, indepen-
dently of the forty-nine and a half regiments of the first calling, there
are mobilised eight regiments from Orenburg, three regiments from the
Ural, and one regiment from other Cossacks, except Caucasians, as if it
were a time of war. Thanks to these enforced duties, lasting three
years, many Cossack families, writes Step, organ of the Orenburg
Cossacks, are ruined, their fields remain untilled, their houses unrepaired,
and they have no cattle. It is true the Government has set apart seven
million roubles for their assistance, but this is far from being sufficient.
These and similar complaints from Cossackland, though partly explicable
by the particular conditions of the time, do not prove the excellency
of the system, and may be considered as favouring a radical change of
a state of privilege into that of equality before the law, of an exclusively
martial spirit into a more balanced use of all the human faculties.
Viewing the general progress of the world and the increased
peaceful competition of all human races, it is time for the Cossacks
to apply their great energies to other than military prowess, to take
to schools, science, art, industry and commerce, and to make a better
use of the immense natural resources offered them by their vast and
beautiful lands and splendid waters.
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE. 2G1
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL
SOCIETY.
At a Meeting of Council held on the 27th March, the undermentioned
lady and gentlemen were elected Members of the Society : —
Dr. A. Gall. Miss A. J. Aldons.
W. Henry Bruce. Thomas Murdoch, J.P.
Diploma of Fellowship.
The Council conferred the Ordinary Diploma of Fellowship on
J. Penman-Browne ; Robert M. Macdonald ; Fred. J, Pack, B.S.M.E,,
A.M., Ph.D., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy, subject to their
complying with the prescribed conditions.
Centenary of the Geological Society of London.
The above Society intends to celebrate its Centenary on the 26th,
27th, and 28th September next, and the President of the R. S. G. S.,
Professor James Geikie, F.R.S., has been appointed delegate to represent
this Society at the celebration aud to present an address of congratulation.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Europe.
The Lagoons of Venice. — In the March number of this Magazine
it was noted that the Reale Instituto Veneto had decided to investigate
the phenomena connected with the water-ways of the Lagoons. We
have now received a Preliminary Statement by Sig. Magrini, in which
he formulates his programme as follows : —
I. The study of the propagation of the tidal wave along the western
coast of the upper Adriatic from the Porto Corsini to the Porto Buso,
aid the investigation of the bottom of the channels at the entrance
of the ports. 2. The study of the tidal wave in the lagoon fed by the
port of Malamocco. Sig. Magrini hojies that these investigations will
go far to aid future procedure.
Asia.
Sven Hedin's Expedition. — This explorer reached Shigatse on
February 9, and full details of his journey are now available.
The high plateau land of Central Asia was reached by a pass
19,500 feet above sea-level. Once in the Ling-zi Thang and Aksai
Chin (White Desert) travelling proved much easier than had been
anticipated. Excellent grass was met with every day, and the expedition
was always able to pitch camp in the neighbourhood of water, though
sometimes this necessitated long marches. The country Avas com-
262 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
paratively flat and the going good, especially after the autumn frosts set
in. To north and to south magnificent panoramic views spread them-
seh'es out before the traveller's eyes, on the one hand lying the parallel
ranges of the Kuen Luen mountains, and on the other hand the ramifica-
tions of the Karakorum system. Keeping at first an easterly and after-
wards a south-easterly course, Dr. Hedin avoided as far as possible the
region already visited and mapped by other travellers. On reaching
Lake Lighton, which Dr. Hedin describes as one of the largest and
most charming lakes he has seen in Tibet, part of the caravan was sent
back. Two excursions were made on the lake and a number of sound-
ings were taken. Though he had 220 feet of sounding rope with him,
Dr. Hedin was twice unable to reach the bottom. On the other hand,
Pul-cho and Yeshil-kul, two other lakes in the same region, were found
to be quite shallow. Pursuing his journey he entered an expanse of
unknown country, and here the real hardships of the journey began.
The transport animals dwindled in number day by day. There was an
abundance of water, but rarely any grass ; sometimes not even yak-dung
Avas to be had for the camp fires. Gradually, however, as the expedition
advanced to the east, the character of the country improved. Here and
there a new lake was sighted, and at least every other day a pass had to
be crossed.
Eventually the Bogchang Tsanpo was reached and was followed for
some days. Christmas was spent at Dumbok Cho, intense cold being
experienced, the thermometer going down as low as —35° Centigrade.
Storms of wind and sometimes snow blew daily from the west-south-
west. By the time they reached the northern shores of Ngantse Cho
both men and animals were completely exhausted.
On renewing the march southwards the expedition entered upon a
very complicated stretch of country extending from Ngantse Cho to the
Tsanpo, or Ui^per Brahmaputra. Several comparatively low passes had
to be crossed, and five which reached an elevation of 19,000 feet.
Bitterly cold weather was experienced, with driving snowstoims; but,
though involving great hardships, the journey was extremely interesting
and instructive. The first high pass is Sela La, situated in the gigantic
mountain range — one of the highest in Asia — that foims the watershed
between Xgantse Cho and Dargra Yum Cho, on the one hand, and the
L'pper Brahmaputra on the other. Geographically this is one of the
most interesting passes Dr. Hedin has ever crossed, marking as it docs
a point on the frontier between the plateauland, with its self-contained
basins, and the waters that eventually find an outlet in the Indian Ocean.
The blank spaces on the map of this region have been filled in by Dr.
Hedin with a veritable labyrinth of mountains and rivers. In between
all the high passes the expedition crossed rivers flowing due west to the
My-tsanpo, which in turn flows southwards to the Brahmaputra and is
a great river, even in winter when frozen over. The last pass, La Eoch,
l>resented no diflficulties, and from its summit the travellers obtained a
magnificent view over the Brahmaputra valley, the great river beirg
seen far below, winding through the valley like a streak of silver.
From the summit of the pass there is a descent of about a thousand feet
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 263
to the large village of Ye, or, rather, group of villages and temples,
where the travellers found the first trees they had seen for many months.
As was invariably the case in Dr. Hedin's experience, the natives showed
themselves friendly and hospitable. Turning then eastwards, the ex-
pedition followed the course of the Brahmaputra for three days to
Shigatse. On the last day, from Sta-nagpo Dr. Hedin descended the
river in a Tibetan boat, and was cordially received at Shigatse by the
Tashi lama. From the above it appears that the previous message (see
p. 159) that Dr. Hedin reached Gyangtse on February 5 must have
been an error.
The New Volcanic Island off Burma. — In connection with the
Note on this island Avhich appeared in our la&t issue (p. 206), it is of
interest to note that a series of photographs of the island, taken on
December 31, which show very clearly both the appearance of the island
from a distance, and the nature of its surface at the time of the visit,
appears in the April issue of the Geographical Jotirrtal
POLAE.
The Wellman Polar Expedition. — A Eeuter message states that
before sailing for New York, Mr. Walter Wellman announced that he
would again attempt to reach the North Pole by airship during the
coming summer. The expedition steamer Frithjof, which is now at
Trondhjem, is to be ready to leave Tromso, with the expedition on board,
for Spitsbergen on June 1. The party will consist of about thirty-five
men, and will proceed at once to the expedition base at Dane's Island,
established last year, where three men are now living. The balloon pait
of the airship America has been rebuilt. The proper speed of this air-
ship is 16 to 18 statute miles per hour, and the fuel carried gives 1 50 hours
of motoring at full speed; the radius of action is thus over 2250 mihs,
or nearly double the distance from Spitsbergen to the Pole and back
again. All the mechanical part is being thoroughly tested by weeks of
lunning, and at Spitsbergen trials will be made in the air of the com-
pleted ship before attempting the voyage to the Pole. In addition to
motors, machinery, nearly three and a half tons of petrol, the crew of
four or five men, a dozen sledge dogs and a completely equipped sledging
party for a possible return over the ice in case of need, the America will
carry a ton and a half of food, making it possible for the crew to spend
the entire winter in the Arctic regions should that be necessary. It is
planned to reach the expedition base at Spitsbergen in June, to have
trials of the airship in July, and to stait for the Pole in the latter part
of that month, or in the first half of August.
New Belgian Antarctic Expedition. — According to a note in
Glohus, M. Henryk Arctowski's plans for a new Belgian expedition to
the Antarctic region are well advanced, and are arousing much interest in
Belgium. The region to which the expedition is to devote attention is
that lying between the ground explored by the last Belgian expedition and
264 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Edward YII. Land. The last expedition reached long. 102° W., and
there is a vast extent of unexplored territory between this and the
new land discovered by the Discovery expedition, which, it will be
remembered, is in 152° W. If, as is expected, continental land is
reached, it is hoj^ed that this may be explored by the help of motor-
car sledges, of whose use M. Arctowski has always been a strong
advocate. The cost of the expedition is estimated at 800,000 francs
(£32,000), and it is not certain whether it will be able to start this
October or not.
General.
The Problem of the Return Trade-winds. — In connection witli
the account given in this Magazine (p. 116) by the Prince of ^Monaco of
Professor Hergesell's observations and deductions on the subject of the
anti-trades, it is of interest to note a paper by Mr. A. Lawrence Rotch
{Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., xlii) on certain observations on the
subject made during 1905 and 1906. The experiments were performed
in the Atlantic from the steam-yacht Otaria, under the auspices of the
author and of M. Teisserenc de Rort, and the results in this case, as
contrasted with the Princesse Alice experiments, are to show the exist-
ence of anti-trade winds, which are south-west in the latitude of the
Canaries, and south-east near the Cape Verde Islands, thus illustrating
the effect of the earth's rotation. Further, a special investigation made
in 1906 in the open ocean to the westward of the Canaries showed the
presence of a south-westerly anti-trade extending upwards from a height
of betAveen 3000 and 4000 metres, and thus goes so far to disprove
Professor Hergesell's suggestion that the south-west wind at the summit
of the Peak of Teneriffe is a local phenomenon, and not, as was pre-
viously supposed, the true anti-trade. In other words, the result of the
Rotch and Teisserenc de Bort expedition is to support the older view of
the position of the return current against the negative position maintained
by Professor Hergesell on the basis of the Princesse Alice experi-
ments. The further investigation of the subject will be awaited with
interest.
The Royal Geographical Society's Annual Awards. — With the
approval of the King, the two Royal Medals have this year been awarded
by the Council of the Royal Geographical Society — the Founder's to
Dr. Francisco Moreno, and the Patron's to Dr. Roald Amundsen.
Dr. Moreno, who is an Argentine, is one of the foremost scientific
geographers of the day. For more than twenty years he has been
personally occupied in the work of South American exploration, Pata-
gonia and the Southern Andes have been his peculiar field, and in the
prosecution of his work he has encountered unusual risks. He was the
expert employed by the Government of the Argentine Republic on the
Chile- Argentina boundary question, and it is to him that we owe nearly
all our knowledge of the physical geography of the extreme south of
South America.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 265
Captain Roald Amundsen, a distinguished Norwegian explorer, has,
as is well known, only recently completed the North- West Passage for
the first time in a ship. He served as first lieutenant on board the
Belgica in the Belgian Antarctic Expedition. On his return he devoted
himself to mastering the subject of terrestrial magnetism, placing himself
under the tuition of Dr. von Neumayer, of the Hamburg Observatory, in
order that he might qualify himself for his projected work ai'ound the
North Magnetic Pole. After purchasing his ship, the Gjiki, he spent
some time exploring the ocean between Spitsbergen and Greenland,
making valuable contributions to oceanography which have since been
worked out by Dr. Nansen. He sailed for the region around the North
Magnetic Pole in 1903, in his tiny ship, with eight men all told, all of
them more or less specialists. He devoted two years to careful observa-
tions with the best instruments around the North Magnetic Pole, making
contributions of the first order to knowledge of the geographical distribu-
tion of magnetism. During the stay of the expedition in the neighbour-
hood of Boothia, several expeditions were made in various directions.
A large section hitherto unmapped of the North American coast was
mapped, and much other geographical work done in the neighbouring
islands, and careful observations were made on the Eskimo, among whom
the expedition lived.
Of the other honours which the Society has at its disposal, the Mur-
chison Bequest has been awarded to Captain G. E. Smith for his various
important surveys in British East Africa ; the Gill Memorial to Mr. C.
Raymond Beazly for his work in three volumes on The Dawn of Modern
Geography, the result of many years' research ; the Back Bequest to Mr.
C. E. Moss for his important researches on the geographical distribution
of vegetation in England; and the Cuthbert Peek Fund to Major C. W.
Gwynn, C.M.G., D.S.O., R.E., for the important geographical and carto-
graphical work which he carried out in the Blue Nile region and on the
proposed Sudan- Abyssinian frontier.
The Scottish Meteorological Society. — The annual general meet-
ing of this Society was held in Edinburgh on March 19, Professor
Crum Brown presiding. The chairman pointed out the need for in-
creasing the membership of the society, and for making the value of its
work better known throughout Scotland. Subsequently papers were
read by Dr. Buchan on " Thunderstorms in Scotland," and on " Varia-
tions in Mean Monthly Temperatures in Edinburgh " by Mr. R. T.
Ormerod.
Commercial Geography.
New Railways in Switzerland. — According to the Times, several
new railway schemes in connection with tourist resorts in Switzerland
are in a more or less advanced condition. The Anniviers Valley Elec-
trical Company has been authorised to construct a railway in four
sections, from Sierre to Vissoye, from Vissoye to Zinal, from Zinal to
Zermatt, with a branch from Vissoye to St. Luc. This line will yet
266 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
further dimiiiisli the number of tourist resorts without railway communi-
cation in Switzerland, and as regards the Zinal to Zermatt section at
least seems a little unnecessary. This section is to cross via Mountet.
Further, the concession for the long-talked of Matterhorn railway has
now been applied for, though it is to be hoped that this wholly uncalled-
for scheme will not be persisted in.
Another concession of much greater importance applied for is that
for a railway from Coire to Chiavenna, which would tunnel through the
Spliigen. The main tunnel would be just under seventeen miles in
length, of which somewhat more than half would be in Swiss territory
and the remainder in Italian. The cost w^ould be about five millions
sterling, and the enterprise would, it is estimated, take some eight years
to carry out. The total length of the line would be a little over
fifty-two miles. It is stated that the Italian Government is in favour
of the scheme, which has received extensive support.
EDUCATIONAL.
It is probable that the value of the study of the w^eather changes
day by day as an introduction to geography and nature study is not so
fully appreciated by teachers as it might be, while those teachers who
are convinced of its value may perhaps welcome some account of the
aids to its study in schools which are furnished by the publications of
the Meteorological Office. It is hoped that a meeting for teachers and
others interested in education may be held during the autumn in con-
nection with the Society of Edinburgh, when a paper would be read on
the value of meteorology as a part of geography, followed by a discussion
on the subject. Meantime, examples of the Meteorological Office's
publications have been laid on the library table for inspection by those
interested. This office publishes weather reports in three forms. The
Dailij report is issued daily at 2 P.M., and is supplied post free for five
shillings a quarter. Single copies can be obtained from the Meteoro-
logical Office, 63 Victoria Street, London, S.W., for the sum of one
penny plus postage, while copies for class use can be obtained on giving
notice at the rate of Gd. per ten copies. The daily report gives the
observations of barometer, thermometer, wind, weather, etc., for the
evening and morning preceding publication, with notes on foreign
stations, etc., and, the feature of greatest value for teaching purposes,
charts showing the pressure, temperature, etc., for the morning of the
day of publication. With the opening of the new cable to Faeroe and
Iceland it has been possible to extend the charts over a much larger
part of the Atlantic than was formerly included, and as three baro-
metric charts appear on the same sheet, it is possible to follow in the
clearest and most satisfactory way the approach of barometric depressions
from the west. For example, the charts for February 20 show very
clearly the approach and path of the great storm which wrecked the
Berlin the following day. It can hardly be questioned that in a sea-
EDUCATIONAL. 267
fariug nation the power to read &ucli a chart should be in the possession
of every school child. There can be little doubt also that the right
method is to let the scholars make observations of their own for their
own locality, and then by means of the weather charts let them see that
the local changes are all part of a great cycle which is affecting the
weather of the whole country.
The JVeeldy weather report is a quarto document of eight pages,
which is sold at the price of 6d., and can be obtained singly from
Messrs. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, or can be obtained for an annual
subscription of £1, 10s. post free. It contains a very large amount of
information in regard to the meteorological conditions for the week, to-
gether with three charts, one of temperature and two showing wind and
isobars for every day of the preceding week. These chaits are reduced
in size as compared with the daily charts, but there is of course a great
educational advantage in being able to follow the changes simultaneously
through a whole weekly period.
Finally, beginning with January of the present year, the Meteoro-
logical Office publishes a Monthly report, sold at the price of 6d. per single
copy, or 6s. 6d. per annum post free, which gives a summary of the
weather conditions during the month, and includes four maps showing
the average conditions during the month. The first of these deals with
pressure and wind, and compares the average for the particular month
with the average for the same month during a thirty-five years' period.
The second, a very interesting chait, shows the path of depressions
during the month, while the remaining two illustrate temperature and
rainfall.
On p. 102 we noted here an article byM. Miickel on "La Geographie
de la Circulation." A second part of this article appears in the Annates
de G6ogra2ohie for January 15, and may be also recommended to the
notice of teachers as full of interesting and suggestive points, and
Avith many references which will be found useful to teachers. The
present article is concerned with methods of communication on
land, a subject which is exceptionally well suited for useful lessons.
It treats of roads and paths, means of transport, animal and
mechanical, and methods of transmitting information in their relation
to geography, and, to a less extent, to history. That man is the
dearest and least efficient of transport animals is well known, but it is
interesting to note that his intelligence, prudence, and power of negotiat-
ing narrow and difficult passages make him an exceedingly useful one
wherever the special conditions demand these qualities. The bearing of
these facts on the evolution of the slave trade of Africa, for example, is
a point of great interest, as is also the gradual replacement theie of the
porter by motor-car or railway train. But without stopping to mention
in detail the numerous interesting matters with which the article deals,
we may recommend to the notice of teachers the following dictum as
one which it is important to impress in all its bearing upon their pupils :
— "Circulation is a movement provoked by the variety of the resources
of the globe, where nature has distributed unequally the sum total of
268 SCOTTISH GEOGEAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
commodities and work among peoples and States. It is the local variety
of nature which has created circulation, the means of obtaining economic
equilibrium among peoples. ... It is the principal agent in the develop-
ment of States ; it prepares the foundation of their power and is an
essential element of their organisation ; there is no State without an
economic policy, however rudimentary."
NEW BOOKS.
ASIA.
The Passing of Korea. By Homer E. Hulbert, A.M., F.R.G.S.
London : William Heinemann, 1906. Price 16s. net.
Since the days of the Rasso-Japanese war we have had several books which
have dealt more or les5 comprehensively with the Empire of Korea. The latest
of these is the handsome and well-illustrated volume now before us from the
cipable pen of Mr. Homer R. Hulbert, the author of several well-known works,
amongst others a History of Korea. This book seems to have been written in
the first instance for the special enlightenment of the American public, bu t
it will find, as it certainly deserves, agreat number of interested readers on this
side of the Atlantic. It jmrports to be a defence as well as a description and
history of the Koreans, and the author is indignant and sore that one result of
the Russo-Japanese war has been the loss of the independence of Korea and
its practical subjugation by Japan. He hardly disguises his distrust and dislike
of our Eastern ally, although he cannot but admit her military prowess and
marvellous advance in the arts and sciences of peace. He wisely refrains from
prophecy, and contents himself with saying that " it is difficult to foresee what
the resultant civilisation of Japan will be. There is nothing final as yet, nor
have the conflicting forces indicated along whit definite lines the intense
nationalism of the Japanese will develop."
With every desire and intention to show us the best side of the Koreans, Mr.
Hidbert has, we fear, been too honest and truthful in his descriptions of the
Korean court and people. Take for example the important matter of religion.
Of this Mr. Hulbert points out that so long ago as the sixth and seventh centuries,
Korea became " the slave of Chinese thought. She lost all spontaneity and
originality. To imitate became her highest ambition, and she lost sight of all
beyond this contracted horizon. Intrinsically and potentially the Korean is a
man of high intellectual possibilities, but he is, superficially, what he is by virtue
of his training and education. Take him out of this environment, and give him a
chance to develop independently and naturally, and you would have as good a
b.-ain as the Far East has to offer." But it seems to us that what has happened
is precisely what Mr. Hulbert here desiderates. Korea under the stimulus of
Japanese civilisation will be taken out of its time-worn environment, and will get
a chance of development such as has never occurred hitherto in its history. The
conservatism and backwardness of tha Koreans as described by Mr. Hulbert are
phenomenal. What are we to think of a nation which up to thirty years ago con-
fined itself to the use of flint and steel, declined to use petroleum, sewing-needles,
thread, soap, and a thousand other articles of daily use, and where " every man
wai obliged to carry on his person a small piece of wood on which were written
his nime, the year of his birth, and his rank. Any one who failed to carry this
NEW BOOKS. 269
tag was considered an outlaw." The Korean as depicted by Mr. Hulbert is
excessively proud and improvident, lavish of his own money when he has any, and
with that of others when he has none of his own ; he sees " about as much moral
turpitude in a lie as we see in a mixed metaphor or a split infinitive " ; his
language when angry is unspeakably filthy and gross, and his conduct like that
of an insane person or "of a fanged beast" ; he is utterly callous to the sufl^erings
of animals : per contra, he is hospitable when he has tlie means of being so. The
system of Government as described by Mr. Hulliert evokes wonder that any
nation, however submissive, could tolerate it for half a dozen years ; and his
graphic descriptions of the procedure of the so-called Courts of Justice are equally
astounding. Blackmail, it seems, is a fine art, and is practised in all walks of
life. With regard to means of communication, there are now a few miles of
railway in Korea, but by far the greater part of the roads throughout the Empire
are mere bridle-paths, fit only for the use of bullocks, ponies, and men ; and
Mr. Hulbert is of opinion that " more dead weight is carried on men's backs than
on those of bullocks and horses combined." The only important industries in
Korea are agriculture, fishing, and mining. In literature the Korean is as con-
servative and backward as he is in other things. "Imitation of past writings is
the highest excellence to be achieved. Not only is there no such thing as
originality, but the very word itself is wanting." There is, strange to say, an
encyclopfedia in a hundred and twelve volumes, and there are a few somewhat
disreputable novels. Education is confined to Chinese classics, and in each
village is conducted " in a little room in a private house where the boys sit on
the floor with their large print-books of Chinese character before them, and as
they sway back and forth with half-shut eyes, they drone out the sounds of the
ideographs, not in unison, but each for himself. There is no such thing as a
class, for no two of the boys are together." The petty sum of twenty thousand
dollars is all that the State expends on education. With regard to the position of
women in Korea, Mr. Hulbert judiciously remarks that "under existing moral
conditions the seclusion of women in the Far East is a blessing and not a curse,
and its immediate abolishment would result in a moral chaos rather than, as some
suppose, in the elevation of society."
The description we have thus given of the Koreans is practically that of Mr.
Hulbert, and taking him at his own word the inference seems inevitable, "that
the Korean people are a degenerate and contemptible nation, incapable of better
things, intellectually inferior, and better off under Japanese rule than indepen-
dent." But as a matter of fact, Korea has not yet been annexed ; it has merely
been brought within the sphere of Japan's influence and taken under her pro-
tection ; and it lies within her own power to profit by the proximity of a civilisa
tion which is far beyond what she has ever dreamed of.
It is very obvious that Mr. Hulbert is profoundly indignant at and resentful of
the treatment of Korea by the United States of America. " If there is any
nation on earth," he says, "that deserves the active and substantial aid of the
American people, that nation is Korea. . . . But when the time of difficulty
approached and America's disinterested friendship was to be called upon to prove
the genuineness of its oft-repeated ijrotestations, we deserted her with such
celerity, such cold-heartedness, and such a refinement of contempt, that the blood
of every decent American citizen in Korea boiled with indignation. While the
most loyal, cultured and patriotic Koreans were committing suicide one after the
other, because they could not survive the death of their country, the American
Minister was toasting the perpetrators of the outrage in bumpers of champagne ;
utterly callous to the death-throes of an Empire which had treated American
270 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
citizens with a courtesy and consideration they had enjoyed in no other Oriental
country." But however it may have come about, we are convinced that the
present condition and prospects of Korea in no way warrant any gloomy prog-
nostications as to its future ; on the contrary, they are more healthy and hopeful
than they have ever been since Korea first merged from obscurity into the light
of history in the days of Kija, who, it is said, flourished before the reign of David
in Jerusalem.
We cordially recommend this valuable and exhaustive work to our readers.
]Mr. Hulbert is master of an easy and perspicuous style, and it is very evident that
he has made a profound and sympathetic study of Korea and its people, but this has
not prevented his observing and recording the many and grave defects and faults
in their character. His chapters on the folklore, religion, superstition and burial
customs of Korea are very interesting and instructive, and some of his transla-
tions of Korean poetry are graceful and melodious.
The Tod'xs. By W. H. R. PiIvers, Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. With
Illustrations. London : Macmillan and Co., 1906. Price 2ls. net.
It does not often happen in this country that a man enters upon the anthropo-
logical examination of a primitive people like the Todas so well equipped by
previous experience for the task as Mr. W. Rivers. He formed one of the mem-
bers of the Cambridge expedition in charge of Dr. Haddon, sent out a few years
ago to investigate the tribes of New Guinea and the islands of the Torres Straits.
He was therefore well qualified to gather information, down to the minutest
particulars, concerning the social organisation, the daily life, the religion, the
myths, the ceremonies performed at birth, marriage and death, etc., of the Todas.
The result is a stout volume, sufficiently illustrated, that may be placed in the
same category as the two important works of Messrs. Spencer and Gillen on the
native tribes of Central Australia, to which volumes it forms a worthy pendant.
The Todas who now inhabit the Niigiri Hills are grouped round the hill-station
of Ootacamund in the Madras Presidency and have excited the interest and curi-
osity of many visitors to this sanatorium. They difi'er in appearance from other
natives of Southern Indin, being lighter in colour, so that some writers have
supposed them to be of Aryan or Caucasic origin. They arc divided into two
endogamous divisions, each of which is sub-divided into smaller exogamous septs.
What distinguishes the Todas pre-eminently from other peoples is their cult of the
cow buffalo, for they pay no attention to the bull, who does not even receive a
name. The basis of the greater part of the ritual of the Todas consists in the
milking and churning at the dairies, which may really be regarded as temples.
These are held so sacred that the author was never allowed to enter within the
walls enclosing the dairy, still less to enter the building itself. Save at appointed
times women are also excluded from the precincts of the dairy. A certain amount
of sanctity is attached to the head dairyman, and to attain this dignity, which in
these degenerate days is not coveted, he must undergo a ceremony of initiation, the
central feature of which is purification, and lead a life entailing considerable priva-
tion during the few years he holds office. He must be celibate and leave his wife ;
he may not go home or visit the bazaar or attend funerals, and ho must never be
touched by an ordinary man.
The gods of the Todas are thought of as invisible and inhabiting the hilltops,
but in other respects they are human, for each has his own dairies and bufi'aloes.
They seem to be a development of hill-spirits, and there is little to show that
ancestor worship has played any part in the evolution of their religion or that gods
NEW BOOKS. 271
are personifications of the forces of Nature. Sometimes a hero might be raised to
the dignity of a god. Kwoto, for instance, was of human parentage, but aspired to
belong to the society of gods. After giving proof of his strength before the gods,
they asked him if he could tie the sun with a stone chain. Forthwith Kwoto put
a stone-chain round the sun and hauled it down to the ground, and as it was thirsty
he took it to a stream to allow it to drink. After such an exhibition of his power
Kwoto was acknowledged to be the mightiest of the gods.
The magic beliefs of the Todas, their methods of divination, and the character
of their spells for curing disease, are much on the same lines as those of other
people on a similar plane of civilisation. As regards funeral rites, they practise
cremation, and the funeral ceremonies are sometimes prolonged for months. One
of the ceremonies, that of " earth throwing," may possibly mean that inhumation
was the funeral rite formerly, and that cremation is of more recent origin. Buffa-
loes are sacrificed on these occasions ; yet the Todas do not eat the flesh but give
it to the Kotas, another hill-tribe of different origin, who supply the Todas with
earthenware and other objects they cannot manufacture for themselves. Before
the corpse is burnt all the ornaments Avith which it was adorned are removed — a
practice which does not prevent the people from believing that the deceased is not
thereby deprived of these objects in the other world. This world of the dead is
supposed to lie to the west and to be illumined by the same sun as ours. The sun
is an object of reverence, and every man on leaving his hut in the morning is care-
ful to salute it with a special gesture. But no reverence seems to be paid to fire
or to the moon, and there is no evidence of phallic worship.
The Todas have the classificatory system of kinship and practice polyandry,
usually fraternal. When a woman marries a man she becomes the wife of all his
brothers. A man can and ought to marry the daughter of his maternal uncle or
of his paternal aunt, but he may not marry the daughter of his paternal uncles or
of his maternal aunts. The rule that a man must take a wife from a clan different
from his own partly accounts for these prohibitions.
In the last chapter the author discusses the possible origin of the Todas. He
is inclined to believe that they came to the Nilgiri Hills from Malabar. The
he id-measurements of the Todas correspond very closely with those of the Nairs,
who also practise fraternal polyandry and whose social and religious customs
closely resemble those of the Todas. The Toda language appears to be much like
Malayalam, so that there is a good deal to be said for the author's opinion. Yet
the Todas can only be derived from any of the Malabar races on the supposition
that the migration took place a very long time ago.
In the appendix will be found 72 genealogical tables in which the genealogy of
736 persons, or nearly the whole existing Toda population, is carried back for three
or four generations. The work and the toil involved in preparing this almost
novel method of research must have been immense.
My Pilgrimage to the Wise Men of the East. By Moncure D. Coxwat.
Archibald Constable and Co., Ltd., 1906. Price 12s. 6d. net.
The first impression which the reader has, is that this is not a book of travel
in the ordinary sense, nor of immediate interest to the geographer. Indeed
Mr. Conway frankly says that he is not so much impressed with scenery and
places as with his fellow-creatures. As the reader advances through the volume,
he realises that he has before him a document of considerable interest to the
student of religion, for the author has used the occasion to pass in review the
religious experiences of his life. The Pilgrimage will chiefly appeal to those
272 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
who are drawn to the form of belief of which Moncure Conway is one of the
foremost exponents, but even those who do not like either his views or methods,
will find a certain element of pathos in these pages. For in the foreword he
relates how he first came to study the religions of the East by having put into his
hands the translation by Wilkins of the Bhagavat Gita, and how he was affected
by the wonderful dialogue of Krishna and Arjuna. Then, as he relates, came his
opportunity, in 1882, when he was enabled to go round the world and meet face
to face with the followers of the old religions. Hence this work. In it we have
an account of the many interesting men and women he met, not to speak of the
numberless cranks of all sorts from Arabi to Madame Blavatsky.
We may doubt very much whether he gained greatly by his personal inter-
course with the Hindu. He seemed to travel with a mind eager to accept
anything antagonistic to the religion in which he was reared, and it would be
strange if he were not indulged to the top of his bent.
We are glad to see that Mr. Conway renders full justice to the catholic spirit
in which the British Government fulfils its great responsibilities.
Under the Sun. By Perceval Landon. London : Hurst and Blackett,
Limited, 1906. Price Us. 6d. net.
In this work the reader has a series of brightly written sketches, describing
over a score of the well-known cities of India. The subject is somewhat hack-
neyed now, but the interest attached to our Indian Empire is perennial, and Mr.
Landon's work is sure to find acceptance with a large body of readers. It is to be
followed by another work, dealing in a similar way with some of the towns which
are not so well known. The book is embellished with some excellent photo-
graphs.
Tamil Grammar Self-Taught. By Don M. de Zilva Wickremasixghe.
London : Marlborough and Co., 1906. Price 5s.
This useful little volume is a valuable addition to the series of which it fcin s
a member. As it informs us, the Tamil language is spoken by more than sixteen
millions of people in India and Northern Ceylon, in addition to the large Tamil
communities in the tea plantations of Burma, Straits Settlements, etc., so that
the grammar should be of interest to not a few persons in this country.
The First Expedition of the Portuguese to Banda. By James Koxburgh
M'Cltmont, M.A. Hobart : Privately printed, 1905.
Mr. M'Clymont has given a very interesting account of one of Albuquerque's
great achievements. In order to "place" this particular expedition, the reader
may be referred to Sir W. W. Hunter's History of British India. It was war to
the knife between Islam and Christendom ; and in order to cripple the
Mohammedan trade with the Far East, Albuquerque's scheme was to occupy
three main points of control, at Ormuz, at Goa, and ]\Ialacca ; and it was in
pursuance of this plan that he undertook and carried out the expedition.
Mr. M'Clymont fills in from original sources many details which are barely
touched upon by Hunter, and shows how, after reducing Malacca, the great
admiral sailed round the coast of Java, and finally landed at Banda.
We welcome this careful monograph dealing with a period of history which
is almost without parallel, and yet which is only veiy in peifectly Isrcwn.
NEW BOOKS. 273
Lotus Land: Being an Account of the Country and the People of Southern Siam.
By P. A. Thompson, B.A. A.M.LC.E. etc. London : T. "Werner Laurie,
1906. Price 16s. net.
This book is a solid and most satisfactory piece of work. After giving an
interesting historical sketch of the history of Siam in the introduction, the author,
who has resided for three years amongst the peasantry there, presents for our
edification a lucid and graphic description of the country and its inhabitants, art,
religion and conditions of life. He has, however, omitted all tales of adventure or
any account of the rulers of Siam.
In the introduction Mr. Thompson has sought with success to reconcile the
conflicting statements of his authorities, and urges Europeans living in the country
still further to clear up many points not yet elucidated. We trust that his request
will be acceded to.
The excellent illustrations from photographs by the author are a noteworthy
feature in the book. His description of Bangkok is lively, vivid and sympathetic
withal ; it shows an accurate and comprehensive observation, as does the whole
volume.
The Siamese have a great reverence for authority, and this may explain why
Europeans have found it so easy to deal with those placed under their rule. Still
they are not servile, and, while perfectly polite, speak to Europeans as one free
man to another. Good subordinates, they do not show much administrative
ability, and hence European advisers are employed together with Americans.
The general adviser to the Government at present is an American ; railways,
postal arrangements and the telegraph system are under Germans ; the navy and the
gendarmerie under Danes ; public works are superintended by Italians, and French-
men rule the sanitation ; Belgians look after justice and finance, while customs, educa-
tion, mining and survey are officered by the British : truly an international pot-pourri,
but it seems to work well. The Buddhist religion is well and sympathetically
described; the Buddhist attitude towards warring sects is thus described: "A
company of blind men were once w.alking along a road when it chanced that they
met an elephant. Each felt the animal, and then they fell to discussing what it
was that they had met. One had felt only the tusk,'and he said it was something
round and smooth ; another hai felt the ear, and he said it was something large
and flat ; a third had felt a leg and he declared it was like the trunk of a tree,
while a fourth who had felt the tail said that it was a rope. Soon they began to
quarrel over it and then from words they proceeded to blows, but a certain sage
who had witnessed the occurrence stopped them and said, ' Had you but pieced
together the facts you each perceived, you would, amongst you, have arrived at
the truth.' "
The temples, symbols, and brotherhood of the yellow robe are well described.
Siamese art is studied with care, and we can promise our readers much pleasure and
instruction from the volume as a whole. We do not often get such a satisfactory
book to review.
AFRICA.
A Tr avers VAfrique Gentrale (Tra Mez-Afriko). Conference avec projections
donnee au 2™« Congres Universel d'Esperanto a Geneve, P'' Septembre 1906.
Par Le Commandant Lemaire, Ch. Bruges : A. S. Witteryck, Editeur.
This is an illustrated report of an address delivered by Commandant Lemaire,
printed in French and Esperanto, the pages being so arranged as to facilitate the
VOL. XXIII. U
274 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
learning of Espeninto by any one familiar with French. The address, which gives
a popular account of Commandant Lemaire's crossing of Africa, is extremely
fresh and interesting, and we recommend the pamphlet to the notice of all
interested alike in geography and Esperanto.
In the same connection we may note that we have also received a communica-
tion from the "Delegation for the adoption of an International Auxiliary Lan-
guage" in connection with the Third Universal Congress of Esperantists, to
be held at Cambridge this August.
Uganda by Pen and Camera. By C. W. Hatterslet. London : Religious
Tract Society, 1906. Price 2s.
This little book, which is written in a somewhat artless style, is chiefly of value
to those who are interested in mission work in Uganda, but incidentally gives
some information as to the scenery and people of L^ganda, and of those met with
on the journey thither from Mombasa. The book is illustrated by numerous
jDhotographs, and indicates clearly the progress which has been recently made in
Uganda.
Wisa Handbook: A Short Introduction to the Wisa Dialed of North-East
Rhodesia. By A. C. Madan. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1906. Price 3s.
We published here recently an appeal from the author of this book for infor-
mation in regard to the languages of the Bantu races. In the preface to the
present handbook of the hitherto little-known Wisa dialect, he points out that it
has all the characteristic grammatical peculiarities of the Bantu type. The
language is spoken not only by the Wisas, but in a slightly modified form also
by the Lalas, who live between the Loangwa and the Kafue rivers in about
29' to 30° E. long., and 14" S. lat. Besides an account of the language, the hand-
book contains in an appendix two Wisa stories, with translation and notes, and
should be very useful to students.
The Egypt of the Future. By Edward Dicey, C.B. London: William
Heinemann, 1907. Pp. 216. Price 3»-. 6rf. net.
Mr. Dicey is so well known as a writer upon things Egyptian that anything
from his vigorous pen is sure to be widely read, and whatever view may be taken
of the main contention of this book, it is at any rate informative and eminently
readable. In Mr. Dicey's opinion the true policy of this country towards Egypt
is at once to regularise our position by declaring the country a British Protectorate,
taking over the Public Debt, abolishing the Capitulations and Mixed Courts, and
then reforming the administration in various ways, notably by a far larger
employment of native officials. He holds that the present anomalous position
lays us open at any time to that demand for International Control, as opposed to
the " free hand," which Germany asserted and established in the case of Morocco.
Moreover, he says there is a steadily growing obstacle in the form of passive
resistance from the Egyptians themselves, due to the spread of native newspapers,
ill-digested education, and the Pan-Islamic movement. The official view th;it the
Fellaheen recognise so fully the advantages which have accrued to them under
our rule that they desire nothing better than its continuance, is scouted by Mr.
Dicey. Gratitude among Orientals occupies a small place compared to creed. A
further plea for action is that ere long in his view the break-up of the Turkish
Empire must occur, and the whole question of Egypt and our position there will
be forced immediately upon the attention of other countries. It is better to strike
NEW BOOKS. 275
now. That M'e must in some form retain and strengthen our hold upon Ejiypt
for the sake of our Indian Empire is a point upon which Mr. Dicey has no
doubts whatever.
The book contains a very frank criticism of Lord Cromer's policy of adminis-
tration, which the writer holds to be conducted for the benefit of England first
and of Egypt only in the second place, to be out of touch with native feeling, and
too autocratic. He admits at the same time that the country has throughout its
history been ruled by a succession of despots, and that the late Consul-General
was as good an absolute ruler as Egypt has ever possessed. But he declares his
preference for the policy advocated by Lord Dufierin— that adopted in the Native
States of India and elsewhere — under which supreme authority is vested in the
representative of the Protecting Power, native administrators are employed as
fully as is possible, and while considerable latitude is allowed them as to their
methods, they are sternly punished in the case of any gross abuse or scandal.
Our impression is, that although some readers will adopt the view on behalf of
which Mr. Dicey has issued this book, the majority, especially in view of the
difficulties which he so ably expounds, will not support his advocacy of a cov2) d'etat,
but will rather adhere to the policy attributed to Lord Cromer which is described
as going on as we are until some fine day the world discovers that we have estab-
lished a Protectorate without anybody knowing that we have done so. We may
note that the book was published before the issue of Lord Cromer's 1906 Eeport,
ia which his legislative proposals are further developed. In any case the book,
which we understand was at once translated into Arabic, is sure of a large circle
of readers.
We are glad to note, for little credit is given nowadays to the possibility of
friendly action on the part of Germany, that Mr. Dicey attributes to her inter-
vention at Constantinople the collapse of the recent Akabah incident.
AMERICA.
Canada To-day. By J. A. Hobson, M.A. London : T. Fisher Unwin, 1906.
Price 3.S. Gd. net.
In the winter of 1905-6 Mr. Hobson, a convinced free-trader, contributed a
series of letters to the Daily Chronicle setting forth his impressions on the
subject of Free Trade versus Protection with special reference to Canada and the
United States. These letters are rewritten and republished with a number of
corrections and additions in the volume now before us. Incidentally we got
some information as to the progress, resources and conditions of Canada of the
present day.
GENERAL.
Hints to Travellers: Scientific and General. Edited for the Council of the Royal
Geographical Society by G. A. Reeves, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Ninth Edition,
revised and enlarged. 2 vols. Price 15s. net. London : The Royal Geo-
grai^hical Society.
The Royal Geographical Society must be heartily congratulated on the new
edition of these valuable volumes, Hints to Travellers, and more particularly must
congratulations be given to Mr. Reeves, the able editor, to whom is due the thanks
of all geographers, and especially all practical travellers and explorers. In a
wonderful way he has compressed into these two volumes practically everything
that is necessary for intending explorers, and the size and general arrangement of
these books make them a valuable vade mecum for explorers in the field.
276 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
One particularly notices the additions to the ninth edition, which has been
brought up to date in a way that leaves nothing to be desired.
Looking through the first volume, one notices certain additions which we feel
ought to be briefly mentioned in this article. The section entitled "Introductory
Remarks" serves as a general guide to survey work to be undertaken, the methods
to follow, the instruments to use, so that the geographical surveyor may follow
the most accurate method for work under whatever circumstances he may be
placed The need of this particular section has long been felt, and we are glad
to see that Mr. Reeves has included it in this edition. The outfit list has been
considerably altered, and an approximate price-list of instruments has been
added, which will guide intending travellers when contemplating any expedition,
and give them a reliable figure to base their calculation of cost upon.
In Part ii. we notice that the theodolite has received more adequate notice, and
the small 4" transit theodolite which has been specially designed by Mr. Reeves for
travellers, to whom weight is a great consideration, is, from what we know of the
subject, a vast improvement. It is fitted with Mr. Reeves's tangent micrometer,
which enables readings to be taken with great accuracy. This, we believe, is the
first published description of this micrometer and theodolite, and from information
received from surveyors who work with this instrument, it leaves nothing to be
desired. We also notice that the mathematical principle of the sextant is given
for the first time in this v;ork.
The Editor seems to be of the opinion that Captain George's Mercurial
Barometer, the description of which was left out of the last edition but is now
reinserted, is the best class of barometer for a traveller to take, owing to the tubes
being carried empty.
From pages 86 to 93 a special new section of sketches and projections of maps,
and a complete example of a projection (Survey of India Projection), is inserted.
Part IV. is entitled Geographical Surveying and Mapping, and nearly the whole
of this important section is entirely new to the book, and contains much infor-
mation. It gives descriptions of base measurements, interpolation of points, a
■ complete example of theodolite traversing, reduction to centre, accurate methods of
computing geodetic distances, latitudes, longitudes, and azimuths, route survey-
ing with example of field-book ; a complete chapter on determination of height
by levelling, theodolite vertical angles, barometer and boiling point, and an
example of contouring. The photographic surveying section has been rewritten
and made more general, hints being given on making use of ordinary photographs
in surveying. At the end of this section methods of adjusting theodolite angles
are briefly given.
In Part v.. Astronomical Observations, we note that for the first time this
section ia prefaced by the definitions of practical astronomy, which must be of
considerable assistance to beginners ; then follow examples of astronomical
observations for latitude, time, longitude, and azimuths. The most important
feature of this is that many of them are taken with the transit theodolite, which
is certainly the instrument for land surveying. The formula employed in each case
is also set, which was never done before, so that one need not work mechanically.
We also note that at the end of the volume many new and important tables
have been added. In volume ii. much has been done to bring it up to date, but
the changes in this volume are nothing compared with those in the first volume.
Mr. Reeves is indeed to be congratulated on an accurate, painstaking, and
excellent work, much of which is original, but he fully acknowledges in the preface
his indebtedness to many other gentlemen who assisted him.
NEW BOOKS. 277
The Science Year-Booh and Diary for 1907. Edited by Major B. F. S. Baden-
Powell. London : King, Sell, and Olding. Price 5s.
We published a somewhat lengthy review of this annual last year, so that it is
only necessary to say that the alterations in the present issue are not numerous.
The Report of Scientific Progress has been modified, but still shows need of im-
provement. We notice that in the article Natural History text headings which
must have been present in the MS. have been omitted by the compositors, with
very bizarre results, as for examj^le, the implied inclusion of the tsetse-fly among
the nudibranch molluscs ! Throughout the articles also adjectives are employed
with a profusion which suggests log-rolling, and is certainly inelegant ; thus a
British Association address is described as " extremely fascinating." We have
noticed a lai'ge number of serious misprints.
The World of To-Day. Vol. vi. By A. E. Hope Moncrieff. London :
Gresham Publishing Company, 1906. Pp. 380. Numerous illustrations.
Price 8s. net.
This is the concluding volume of a notable series, produced too within a short
space of time, if one considers the all-world area which is comprised, and the
excellence of the workmanship. To include in the survey of this one volume,
as he does, the United States, Canada, Arctic America, and all Eurojie, has
demanded from the author a greater power of compression than was required in
the other volumes. But his w^riting never fails to be free and interesting and
informative. The illustrations as hitherto are well selected and well reproduced,
and the comprehensive index deserves mention. We congratulate Mr. Hope
Moncrieff on having made in this series a distinguished addition to the long list
of excellent works which already stands to his credit.
NEW MAPS.
EUROPE.
ORDNANCE SURVEY OF SCOTLAND.— The following publications were issued
from 1st to 28th Feliruary 1907 : — One-inch Map (third edition), engraved, in
outline. Sheets 28, 51. Price Is. 6d. each.
Six-inch and Larger Scale Maps. — Six-inch Maps (Revised), full sheets, en-
graved, without contours. Eoss and Cromarty. — Sheet 25. Price 2s. 6d. Full
Sheets, heliozincographed, with contours. Ross and Cromarty. — Sheets, 76, 78.
Price 2s. 6d. each. Sheets, 30, 43, 90. Price 2s. each. Without contours. Boss
and Cromarty. — Sheets 26, 40. Price 2s. 6d. each.
1 : 2500 Scale Maps (Revised), with Houses stippled, and with Areas. Price 3s.
each. Edinhnrghshire. — Sheets vi. 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16 ; xi. 4 ; xii. 2,
3, 5. Sheet ii. 3. Price Is. 6d.
Note. — There is no coloured edition of these Sheets, and the unrevised
impressions are withdrawn from sale.
The following publications were issued from 1st to 31st March 1907 : — One-
inch Map (third edition), engraved, with Hills in Brown or Black. Sheets 28, 51.
Price Is 6d. each.
Diagrams (County). Scale four miles to one inch, showing Civil Parishes, with
a Table of their Areas. Elginshire and Nairnshire. Price 6d. each.
Six-inch and Larger Scale Maps. — Six-inch Maps (Revised), full sheets, helio-
zincographed, with contours. Inverness-shire. — Sheets 2, 3, 4. Price 2s. 6d.
each. Sheet 1a. Price 2s. -Ross and Cromarty. — Sheets 18a, 27, 28, 41, 52,
278 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
54, 55, 64, 65, 66, 77, 88, 89, 99, 100, 101. Price 2s. 6d. each. Sheets 67, 79.
Price 2s. each. Sutherland. — Sheets 108, 112. Price 2s. 6d. each. Without
contours. Boss and Cromarty. — Sheets 11a, 18, 29, 39, 53. Price 2s. 6d. each.
Stitherland.— Sheets, 102, 103. Price 2s. 6d. each. Sheet 113. Price 2s.
1 : 2500 Scale Maps (Revised), with Houses stippled, and with Areas. Price
3s. each. Edinburghshire. — Sheets ii. 11, 14, 15 ; v. 3, 7, 8, (10 and 6), 11, 12,
14, 15, 16 ; VI. 2, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14 ; vii. 13 ; xi. 2, 3 ; xii. 1, 4, 16 ; xiii. 1, 5, 13 ;
xvni. 4. Sheets ii. 6 (13 and 9) ; v. 13. Price Is. 6d. each.
Note. — There is no coloured edition of these Sheets, and the unrevised
impressions are withdrawn from sale.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SCOTLAND —The following publications were issued
from 1st to 31st March 1907 : — Four miles to one inch, colour printed. Sheets
16, 17. Price 2s. 6d. each.
ADMIRALTY CHART, SCOTLAND.— Ports in the Shetland Islands : Balta Harbour.
Surveyed by Lieut. C. C. Bell, E.N., 1906. Scale 1 : 6900. Published Jan.
1907. Number 3643 (3657). Price 2s. Admiralty Office, London.
CHANNEL ISLANDS. — Bartholomew's Reduced Survey Maps of the . 19(i7.
Jersey on scale of \h inches to mile, Guernsey 1| to mile, Sark 2 inches to
mile. Price Is., or mounted on cloth in case 2s.
John Bartholometo and Co., Edinburgh.
A sheet of maps specially prepared for the use of tourists in the Channel Islands.
TURKEY. — Environs of Adrianojjle. Scale 1 : 250,000 or about 4 miles to an
inch. Sept. 1906. Price 2s. 6d.
Topograxjhical Section, General Staff, London.
RUSSIA.— Caucasia. Scale 1 : 2,027,520 or 32 miles to an inch. 1906.
Topographical Survey, General Staff, London.
AFRICA.
ANGLO-PORTUGUESE BOUNDARY North and South of the Zambesi. Map in 7
sheets. Scale 1 : 250,000 or about 4 miles to an inch. Nov. 1906.
Topographical Section, General Staff, London.
GAMBIA. — Reproduced from the work of the Anglo-French Boundary Commission,
1904-1905. Scale 1 : 250,000 or about 4 miles to an inch. 2 sheets. 1906
Price 2s. each sheet. Topograjihical Sectio7i, General Staff] London.
GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA.— Scale 1 : 3,000,000 or about 50 miles to an inch.
Dec. 1906. Tojjographical Section, General Staff', London.
GOLD COAST.— General Staff Map on Scale of 1 : 1,000,000. Parts of Sheets 60,
72, and 73. 1906. In 2 sheets. Price 2s. each sheet.
SOMALILAND.— Map of Portion of . General Staff Map on Scale of
1 : 1,000,000. 1906. Topographical Section, General Staff, London.
SOMALILAND.— Gene lal Staff Map on Scale of 1 : 250,000 or about 4 miles to an
inch. Sheets 68-i, 68-j, 86-b, 86-k. 1905. Price Is. 6d. each sheet.
Topographical Section, General Staff', London.
SOUTHERN NIGERIA AND KAMERUNS.— Map of Boundary between . 1905-6.
Scale 1 : 100,000. lu two sheets.
Topographical Section, General Staff, London.
WALFISCH BAY.— General Staff Map on Scale of 1 : 1,000,000. Sheet 119. 1906.
Price 2s. Topograjjhical Section, General Staff', London.
NEW MAPS. 279
AMERICA.
NORTH AMERICA. — Stanford's New Orographical JMap of North America. Com-
piled under the direction of H. J. Mackinder, M.A. Scale 1 : 6,013,500. In
four sheets. 1907. Price 16s. or 20s. mounted on rollers and varnislied.
Edward Stanford, London.
This is the latest addition to Mr. Stanford's excellent series of Physical Wall
Maps. The relief of the land surface is efiectively shown in shades of brown, and
the ocean depths in shades of blue. The lettering also includes political names.
CANADA.— Ontario, Welland Sheet, Topographic Map. Scale 1 : 63,360 or 1 inch
to 1 mile. Department of Militia and Defence, 1907.
TopograiJhical Section, General Staff, London.
CANADA, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.— Nova Scotia. Scale 1 : 63,360 or 1 inch to 1
mile. Sheets 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 74, 75, 76, 82, 83. Robert Bell,
D.Sc, LL.D., etc.. Acting Director of Survey. 1905. Price 10 cents each
sheet. Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa.
ATLASES.
PHILIP'S HANDY VOLUME ATLAS of the World, with Statistical Notes and Index,
by E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S. Seventh edition, revised to date. 1907.
Price 3s. 6d. George Philip and Son, Limited, London.
The new edition of this useful and popular little atlas appears to be carefully
revised to date.
ATLAS OF THE WORLD'S COMMERCE.— A new series of maps with descriptive
text and diagrams showing Products, Imports and Exports, Commercial Con-
ditions and Economic Statistics of the Countries of the World. Compiled
from the latest official returns at the Edinburgh Geographical Institute, and
edited by J. G. Bartholomew, F.R.S.E. 1907. Parts 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, and
22, completing the atlas. Price 6d. each part.
George Neiones, Limited, London.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
Panama: the Isthmus and Canal. By C. H. Forbes-Li.xdsay. Illustrated.
Crown 8vo. Pp. 384. Price $1 net. The John C. Winston Company, Phila-
delphia, 1906.
Southern France and Corsica : Handbook for Travellers. By Karl Baedeker.
Fifth Edition. Pi-ice 9 marks. Leipsic, 1907.
The Real Australia. By Alfred Buchanan. Large crown 8vo. Pp. vii +
318. Price 6s. T. Fisher Unwin, London, 1907.
Natives of Northern India. By W. Crooke, B.A. ("The Native Races of
the British Empire.") Demy 8vo. Pp. xiv-f-270. Price 6s. net. Archibald
Constable, London, 1907.
First Ste2)s in Geography. By Alexis Everett Frye. Large 4to. Pp. viii
+ 170. Ginn and Company, Boston, 1907.
280 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
On the Mexican Highlands, with a Passing Glimjjse of Cuba. By William
Seymour Edwards. Demy 8vo. Pp. 283. Price Si "50 net. Jennings and
Graham, Cincinnati, 1906.
Sunny Singapore : an Account of the Place and its People, vith a Shtch of the
Results of Missionary Work. By the Rev. J. A. Bethuxe Cook. Crown 8vo.
Price 5s. net. Pp. xiii + 158. Elliot Stock, London, 1907.
The Future of Japan, with a Survey of Present Conditions. By AV. Petrie
Watson. Crown 8vo. Pp. xxxi + 389. Price 10s. 6d. nd. Duckworth and
Co., London, 1907.
A Historical Geography of the British Colonies. Volume vi., Australasia. By
J. D. Rogers. With Maps. Crown 8vo. Pp. xii + 440. Price Is. Qd. Claren-
don Press, Oxford, 1907.
The ''Queen" Neivspaper Boole of Travel: A Guide to Home and Foreign
Resorts. Compiled by the Travel Editor (M. Hornsby, F.R.G.S.). Fourth
year. Pp. 530. Price 2s. 6rf. Horace Cox, London, 1907.
The Montreux-Bcrnese Oberland Railway, via the Simmenthal. Descriptive
Notice by Alfred Ceresole. Illustrated. (Illustrated Europe Guide Books.)
Cr. 8vo. Pp. 76. Price 1.50 /r. Art Institut, Orell Fiissli, Ziirich, 1907.
Also the following Reports, etc. : —
Northern Waters : Captain Roald Amundseyi's Oceanographic Observations in
the Arctic Seas in 1901, with a Discussio7i of the Origin of the Bottom Waters of
the Northern Seas. By Fridtjof Nansen. Christiania, 1906.
British New Guinea. Annual Report for the Year ending 30th June 1906.
Melbourne, 1907.
P^mjab District Gazetteers. Volume xiii^. Lahore, 1905.
Madras District Gazetteers. Three Volumes. Madras, 1906.
Bengal District Gazetteers. Two Volumes. Calcutta, 1906.
Catalogue of the War Office Library. Parti. Pp.1307. 1907.
British Central Africa (Nyasaland) Diary, 1907, ivith Handbook on the Pro-
tectorate compiled in the Secretary's Office from Information received from Various
Sources. Price 3s. 6d. net. Zoraba, B.C. A., 1907.
Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the Years 1905, 1906. Two
Volumes. Washington, 1906.
Guide- Annuaire de Madagascar et Dep>tndances. Annees 1906-1907. Pp. 487.
Tananarive, 1907.
Second Report {Northern Area) on Fishery and Hydrographical Investigations
in the North Sea and Adjacent Waters, 1904-1905. Part i.. Hydrography.
London, 1907.
Handbook for Fast Africa, Uganda and Zanzibar, 1907. Crown 8vo.
Pp. 300. Price 2s. Government Printing Press, Mombasa, 1907.
Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, York, 1906.
John Murray, London, 1907.
Madras District Gazetteers: Madura. By W. Francis. Madras, 1906.
Survey of Tides and Currents in Canadian Waters. By W. Bell Dawson,
C.E. Ottawa, 1907.
Report 071 the Administration of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh,
1905-1906. Allahabad, 1907.
Publishers forwarding books for review xvill greatly oblige by marking the price in
clear figures, especially in the case of foreign books.
Fig. 1.— Citlaltepetl or Peak of Orizaba, 18,206 feet, looking uortlnvards from camp at the cave
13,500 feet above sea. (Drawn by G. Straton Ferrier, R.I., after sketch by Autlior.)
THE SCOTTISH
GEOGRAPHICAL
MAGAZINE.
SOME OLD MEXICAN VOLCANOES.
By Henry M. Cadell, B.Sc, F.R.S.E.
{With Maps and Illustrations.)
The United States of Mexico have not yet become a hapi^y huntinf^-
grouml for British travellers, and the man in the street, unless perhaps
specially interested in silver mines, knows little and has few oiiportiini-
ties of learning mnch at first hand about that very interesting country.
Mexico is a land of good natural resources and great possibilities, and it
is high time that our acquaintance with the natural characteristics of the
Republic should be improved, and our geographical knowledge extended
of its mountains, plains, and important physical features.
With a view to the better education of other countries in this direc-
tion, the Government of the Republic invited the tenth International
Geological Congress to meet in Mexico City last autumn, and the invita-
tion to attend that cosmopolitan assembly was the occasion of my visit
to Mexico. The guests were treated with the greatest kindness and
hospitality by the venerable President and the numerous governors and
state officials at different parts of the Republic. Unique facilities were
afforded of visiting places of scientific interest remote and difficult of
access to the ordinary private traveller unacquainted with the lan»ua»e
and manners and customs of the people. Expeditions were ort^anised
and excellent horses — without which travel in Mexico is impossible
were provided along with armed escorts, ensuring not only perfect safety
but reasonable comfort and freedom from the anxiety that solitary
travellers are liable to experience in districts more or less remote from
civilisation and a perfectly settled government. The escorts, armed as
they were to the teeth with rifle, sword, and revolver, may indeed have
VOL. XXIII. V
282 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
been sometimes necessary, but were no doubt sent partly as a compli-
ment to the scientific strangers, like the numerous banquets and enter-
tainments to which they were treated wherever they went. For all
these amenities of travel it is now a pleasure no less than a duty to
make public and thankful acknowledgment.
The United States of Mexico, after nearly a century of more or less
stormy independence, have now, unlike many of the neighbouring
Spanish American republics, begun to settle down to a measure of
political rest. The rising generation is learning that it is not only quite
possible to thrive without the excitement of periodical revolutions, but
that a strong and settled government is a positive advantage and worthy
of general support. This happy discovery arises from the prolonged and
beneficent reigQ of the strong man who sits on the throne of Mexico, for
the Mexico of to-day is to all practical intents and purposes not a con-
stitutional republic as w^e understand the term, but an absolute monarchy,
and General Porfirio Diaz, although nominally its President, is in reality
an autocrat of a pronounced type. But he is a benevolent as well as a
capable autocrat, and his rule is well adapted to and liked by the
great majority of his subjects. After thirty years of arduous work he
has succeeded by military skill, political wisdom, and strength of purpose
in overcoming the most powerful obstacles and in bringing order out of
the chaos and misgovernment of centuries of Spanish misrule and re-
publican strife. He has lived to reap the reward of a long and strenuous
life in seeing the financial credit of Mexico built up from less than nil,
and the country raised like Egypt to a condition of prosperity and
security it has never enjoyed before.
General Diaz celebrated his seventy-sixth birthday on the 15th of
September last, the day before the great anniversary festival of Mexican
Independence. The writer had the honour to be his guest in the
National Palace in Mexico City that evening, and it was a pleasing
spectacle to see the ovation which the venerable soldier and statesman
received when he appeared on the balcony of the Hall of the Ambassa-
dors, waved the national flag, and greeted the assembled multitude in
the square below — an ovation that proved to a stranger how large a
place he holds in the hearts of his countrymen, who, to the number of
fifty or sixty thousand, were waiting to do him honour.
With the establishment of a strong central government, not only
determined but also able to put down violence, mischief to property, and
highway robbery, and thus to make travel fairly safe in a country that
was, until comparatively recently, infested with thieves and bands of
dangerous outlaws, the facilities for travelling have become greatly im-
proved. The Mexican law, which is severe against certain classes of
evil-doers, is relentlessly carried out. Any one, for example, who is
found placing obstacles on a railway that may cause an accident, or
interfering with the public telegraph wires, may be executed by the
police without a trial. Only the week before I landed in Mexico last
August, three men were apprehended for unscrewing the fish-plates on
the Mexican Mountain Railway near Esperanza, with the intention of
upsetting the train at a dangerous part of the line. Happily the engine
SOME OLD MEXICAN VOLCANOES, 283
and the first cars crossed the weak spot in safety, and the rear part of
the train, although upset, turned over towards the mountain and so was
not thrown over the precipice on the other side of the line. But a
terrible accident might easily have been produced, and the mischief-
makers, who had been hunted down and admitted the crime, were
dragged to the spot and shot by the police without further legal for-
malities. By such summary means the majesty of the law has been
maintained and a vast number of evil-doers have been eliminated, greatly
to the advantage of the travelling public, so that now it is undoubtedly
safer to travel in Mexico than on many railways in the enlightened
Republic to the north, where the arm of the law is so weak that robbers
can often evade or defy it with practical impunity. Mexico is, however,
a vast country with an area of 767,000 square miles — as large as the
United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary combined —
and parts of it are inhabited by wild tribes of predatory Indians who
have never been conquered and among whom it is almost impossible to
travel in any capacity. These remote regions, situated chiefly on the
Pacific slope, have consequently been hardly ever explored, and very
little humanity is shown to their troublesome inhabitants by the central
government.
In certain districts Mexico possesses enormous stores of mineral
wealth, and it was mainly the glitter of its silver and gold that led to
the original Spanish invasion of 1519 and the subsequent conquest of
the country by Cortes and his band of dauntless adventurers. The hunt
for precious metals is still the great incentive to exploration as well as
the leading industry in the more remote and mountainous tracts. The
mines are mostly worked by foreigners, and it is no secret that the large
interest the Americans are acquiring in this direction is causing consider-
able uneasiness among the native Mexicans and the ruling classes, who
are beginning to descry the Uitlander looming up rather ominously for
their future peace. The American mining explorer from the Western
States, although in many ways quite a useful pioneer, is in many other
ways an obnoxious neighbour to the old-world and well-mannered
Mexican, who resents rough treatment, particularly from his own guests
who are enjoying the benefits of his hospitality and making fortunes from
his native soil.
The Mexicans prefer to let outsiders not only open up their mines
but make most of their railways, and now that a solid government is
established, the natural resources of the Eepublic are being steadil}^
developed by foreign capital. There is here an excellent field for profit-
able commercial enterprise, especially by the British, who cannot be sus-
pected of any ulterior political designs on Mexico, and are therefore
likely to be more acceptable concessionaires than the 'cute Yankee from
the adjacent Republic. The friendship between our respective govern-
ments was demonstrated last September in a pleasing way when the
King, through his able minister, Mr. Reginald Tower, invested President
Diaz with the order of G.C.B. The function was performed in the
presence of the British colony in Mexico, over three hundred in number,
and it was pleasing to observe the appreciation of the venerable President
284 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
on receiving a signal mark of lionour from a British sovereign which has
seldom, if ever, been conferred on the head of any American State before.
While speaking of the progress of Mexico, it is only right to mention
that although, mainly through the influence of her present powerful
ruler, she has succeeded in establishing for the time being a strong and
able government adapted to the present state and material requirements
of the country, the social and moral condition of the people generally
stilMeaves very much to be desired. The population of the Eepublic is
over thirteen and a half millions, and that of the capital about four
hundred thousand. Although education is progressing steadily, and
wealth is accumulating fast, the magnificent streets and buildings of the
capital do not yet include a university, while the vast mass of the
rural population remains quite illiterate. The Peons or agricultural
labourers on the huge haciendas (or estates) are practically in a state of
serfdom, with no chance of bettering their hard lot or getting rid of the
debt in which they are often kept purposely involved all their lives by
their wealthy employers. Many of these estates are of enormous size,
and several exceed a million acres in area. It is no uncommon sight to
see twenty-five pairs of horses ploughing one field in the rich Valley of
Mexico, where the farms are well cultivated and extremely profitable.
A large part of the Aiilley is devoted to the cultivation of the Agave
or great aloe, the extraction of whose juice, when the plant reaches
maturity, is a most lucrative branch of agriculture. The pulque or
liquor made from the fermented juice is the favourite national drink, and
the pulque haciendas, on which, over many square miles, the prickly
aloes are planted in lines of remarkable mathematical precision, produce
a characteristic and very striking feature in the landscape. The craving
for pulque, like that for intoxicants with us, is a source of much poverty
and crime among the common people, and the authorities, headed by
Senor Guillermo de Landa y Escandon, the distinguished Governor of
the Federal District of Mexico, are endeavouring, and with marked
success, to diminish this evil by restricting the sale of alcoholic beverages
on working days and suppressing it entirely on half-holidays.
Another conspicuous feature of the country is the enormous number
and magnificence of the churches. When the Spaniards first came to
Mexico in 1519 they found the Aztecs, who were then the ruling race,
addicted to horrible human sacrifices and cannibalism, and they resolved,
while bringing these pagans under the Spanish rule, to erect the Cross in
every town, and give them the benefit of a better religion as well as a
better government. Their aims were thus not altogether sordid, but
after nearly four hundred years of Papal domination better results
should be apparent now. In spite of the magnificence and number of
the ecclesiastical edifices, the priesthood at the present day seem
incapable of using for the greatest good the vast influence and organisa-
tion at their disposal. The church a generation ago had so aggrandised
itself that it came to own the best of the land, as it did in Scotland
before the Reformation, and ruled the country for its own ends and so
badly that the people finally rose against its tyranny, and disestablished
it for ever. The enormous property it had unrighteously accumulated
SOME OLD MEXICAN VOLCANOES. 285
was appropriated by the State and sold for public purposes, and the
monasteries and convents, which had become hotbeds of mischief and
idleness, were abolished and turned into schools and other useful institu-
tions. So drastic was the measure that now the priests are not even
permitted to wear their ecclesiastical vestments in the streets, and all
religious processions are strictly prohibited outside the churches. The
horrible Inquisition was abolished long ago, and persecution is now
quite at an end, perfect freedom of worship being at the same time
accorded to all religious denominations in the Republic.
Among other much-needed reforms carried out by President Diaz
was the institution of the Rurales or Mounted Police force, a fine
efficient body of men whose acquaintance we had many opportunities
of making while travelling in the country districts. The Rurales were
originally bandits, with which Mexico used to swarm, and the story is
told of how Diaz summoned a large body of them to meet him, and
then asked them frankly how much the average remuneration from their
predatory profession might amount to. On hearing the sum he pro-
mised, if they would give up plunder and enlist in his service, he would
double their pay and turn their misdirected energies into a useful
channel. This advantageous offer was accepted with alacrity by the
great majority, who knew the ways and haunts of robbers intimately,
and were thereupon employed to hunt down the recalcitrant minority
and clear the land of undesirables generally. The Rurales are now the
best force at the disposal of the Government, and the principal instru-
ment for upholding the majesty of the law throughout the length and
breadth of the land. It is thus evident that, from a geographical
point of view, the Rurales deserve special notice, their services to
travellers being of the highest importance.
The physical geography of Mexico, full of interest as it is, has not
yet been much studied. Mexico City, the capital, situated in the
Federal District, extends over a flat plain surrounded by chains of old
volcanic hills and mountains. The valley is an enclosed basin with no
natural outlet, and is partly occupied by shallow lakes fed by streams
from the neighbouring heights. Although the basin is enclosed, the
water is fresh, and this is one of the interesting physical peculiarities
to be observed in diff'erent parts of the country. The plain is part of
the great Mexican plateau between 7000 and 8000 feet above the sea,
and is reached by two mountain railways — the Mexican and Interoceanic
— from the harbour of Vera Cruz on the Gulf of Mexico, which run
with many windings from the hot coastal plain, where sugar-cane and
bananas flourish, up to the cooler region of maize and barley. The
mean annual temperature of Mexico City is about 61° F., with a
maximum of 89°, and a minimum of 35°, and the rainy season is in
summer between May and September, when in the afternoons the clouds
gather and heavy thunder-showers are of almost daily occurrence.
The plateau at this season is covered with bright verdure, and the
fields are variegated with good crops and decked with flowers of lovely
hues. After the rains cease the grass withers and the land becomes
brown and dusty until the dry winter months have passed away.
286 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE
Texcoco, which is tlie largest of tlie lakes ou the plateau, is about 1 2 miles
long and 8 miles wide. It was much larger in the time of Cortes and
the Aztecs. Mexico City, or rather the site of the present city, was then
an island approached by embanked causeways from the adjacent shores,
but the waters of the lake, which is quite shallow, have retreated in
consequence of vast drainage operations begun by the Spaniards and
extended by modern engineers. The city is now (superficially) on dry
land, and the shore of the lake is six miles away, but the subsoil remains
full of water, so that it is impossible to construct dry cellars under the
ground level. The soft alluvial soil makes bad foundations, and many
handsome buildings have been badly twisted by the yielding of the
ground as the water-level has been gradually lowered. There is in the
city a good deal of malaria and typhus fever, and pneumonia is a
common trouble among the thinly clad and overcrowded natives of the
poorer class, the result being that the death-rate sometimes reaches 60
per 1 000 in spite of the modern sanitary measures that Government has
inaugurated.
The highest mountains in Mexico are all volcanic, with, as a rule,
tlie characteristic conical configuration. The first mountain the traveller
sees as he approaches the coast is the mighty snow-ca])ped peak of
Orizaba, to which I shall refer later, and the most striking objects in
the landscape at Mexico City are the white crests of Popocatepetl and
Ixtaccihuatl, which rise into the sky far above the multitudes of smaller
volcanic cones around them. The princij'al active volcano is Colima,
near the Pacific coast and over 12,000 feet in height. An excursion
was organised to Colima, but I preferred to join the expedition which
went at the same time to Jorullo, a recent volcano no longer in activity,
whose remarkable history has been noticed in all good books of geology
and geography since the great Baron von Humboldt made his memorable
visit to it in 1803.
The subject of the following pages will be the four old volcanoes,
Nevado de Toluca, Jorullo, Orizaba, and l*o})Ocatepetl, and the order of
their descri})tion will be that in which 1 visited them in August and
Sejitember 1906 and not the order to which their relative geographical
importance may entitle them.
Nevado de Toluca.
This mountain was visited on the way to the volcano of Jorullo, and
the party which set out from Mexico City to see it on the 28th of
August was a fairly cosmopolitan one. It included representatives of
Germany (who were most numerous), France, Italy, Austria, Pussia,
Finland, the United States of America, and Great Britain, besides several
Mexican geologists, the number being about thirty all told. The United
Kingdom was represented by only two geologists, Mr. Bernard Hobson
from Manchester University, and the writer from Scotland.
The Mexican National Eaihvay resembles all the others in the
Republic in being a single line. Like the less important railways it is on
the metre gauge adapted to light trains in a country of great distances,
SOME OLD MEXICAN VOLCANOES. 287
where the traffic is as yet comparatively small and industry only
partially developed. Tlie line rises from the valley of Mexico, which is
7440 feet above the sea, to the cooler plateau of the valley of Toluca 46
miles west of the capital, and about 120U feet higher up. At the city of
Toluca, a clean old town with a population of some 25,000, a sumptuous
banquet was provided for the hungry geologists by Sefior Gonzales, the
hospitable Governor of the State of Mexico, and next morning the
expedition to the old volcano started in earnest.
Xinantecatl or Nevado de Toluca, the fourth highest mountain of
Mexico, rising as it does to a height of almost 15,000 feet, is a con-
spicuous landmark in that part of the country, but scarcely reaches the
snowline and is only white in the winter mouths. The average height
of the valley of Toluca is, according to Mr. T. Flores, 2630 metres or 8628
feet, so that the mountain has not quite the imposing appearance of
other old volcanoes whose base is at a lower level. The accompanying
figure (2), from a photo by Mr. Hobson,^ shows the view from a small
hill close to the city, with the old parish church built in 1585 in the
centre of the picture and several characteristic little cones protruding
above the plain in the middle distance.
The first part of the journey was by rail to Calimaya, a village
eleven miles from Toluca. On alighting from the train we found drawn
up in line a gallant company of the Rurales awaiting us. There were
some thirty-five troopers, each with a spare horse, and having selected
the largest and strongest I could find, I rode ofi" with the cavalcade,
numbering some seventy horsemen and horsewomen (a few ladies having
joined the party), besides a detachment of baggage mules and Indian
mozos. We galloped oft' to the strains of martial music from the band
and drummers of the town, and as we passed along the narrow little
streets the whole population turned out and let oft' rockets and fireworks
in profusion, which, however, we could only hear and smell in the
bright blaze of the tropical sun that lovely morning.
The road, or rather bridle-track, lay through fields of maize, barley,
and aloe, on a soil of cream-coloured pumiceous ash, cut up by barrancas
or gullies with vertical sides, which, fortunately for us, were quite dry
although the rainy season was not yet over. As we approached the
mountain these little canons increased in depth, and the sides, some-
times over 20 feet high, showed fine sections of the white granular
ash that reminded me forcibly of the gullies in the ash round Mount
Tarawera in New Zealand, which I visited in 1895 and afterwards
described in this Magazine. There is no frost to speak of in either
country to cause the sides to crumble down, and the erosion of the
barrancas is entirely caused by the torrents that periodically undermine
their walls and keep them always vertical or even dangerously over-
hanging. Large slices could often be seen falling in, so that care was
necessary not to ride too near the edge either above or below the clifts
1 This and all the other illustrations of this article are from original photographs taken
liy the author or his companions, or from panoramic sketches made by the author of scenes
which were incapable of adequate photographic representation.
288 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
in such places. The base of the mounlaiu is densely clothed Avith a
forest, which rises to a height of about 13,500 feet, and it was impos-
sible not to be struck with the lovely Hora of the cool mountain slopes
in this temperate island under a tropical sky.
Three kinds of broad-leaved deciduous trees were conspicuous, tlie
oak, alder, and a dwarf willow. The oak is a more vigorous-looking
tree than any of the ordinary British species. It has large glossy leaves
white and downy on the under surface. The alder closely resembled
our common European species Alnus glutmosa. The main mass of the
forest was, however, of Finns Montezumce, a tree like the Corsican
(laricio) in habit but with three long strong needles in each sheath
instead of the two which are the common characteristic of the Austrian,
Corsican, and Scots pines of Europe. Many of the trees were 2h to
3 feet in diameter, and the saplings showed rapid annual growths of
3 to 4 feet. Most of the larger stems had been gashed for resin, and
woodcutters were at work making square axe-hewn logs where the
forest was being cleared. There was no attempt at anything like
systematic forestry, either in clearing the old or in propagating young
trees to replace them, and this is a subject that might well be considered
in connection with the other Government schemes for developing the
natural resources of the country.
The ground under the trees was carpeted with lovely flowers of
many hues, conspicuous among which were bunches of lavender-coloured
lupine, and spikes of the common crimson penstemon, such as grows
in all old-fashioned herbaceous borders in Scotland. Among many
other flowers I did not know it was not difficult to recognise such
old friends as the daisy, horsegowan, yarrow, corafrey, vetch, stitclnvort,
wild geranium, red salvia, which, if not identical with, were all nearly
related to the common European varieties. Thistles of various sorts
were there also, and among different ferns the common bracken (Fleris
aquilina) was plentiful, if not on this mountain, at least on others I shall
again refer to. Like the black croAv the bracken seems to thrive every-
where. I have seen it in the wilds of Western Australia, and other
travellers have noticed it in remote i)arts of Africa. There was, liow-
ever, no heather, or anything like it, with its bonnie purple bells, on any
of these Mexican mountains.
After a ride of ten or t^velve miles through this delightful flowery
forest we reached the camping ground at 11,000 feet above the sea,
where the air was perceptibly cooler and a blazing fire was a welcome
sight. Our kind hosts and our energetic young guide, Sefior Flores of
the Mexican Geological Institute, had built large wooden huts to shelter
us during the night from the cold and the tropical rain that might fall
in torrents at any time after sunset.
Next morning, after a cold and somewhat sleepless night, the bugle
sounded the rouse at five, and after a snack we mounted our nimble
steeds and made for the crater. As the sun rose above the eastern
horizon the view from the camp was truly magnificent. Gazing through
the tall ruddy stems of the pines into the blaze of golden light beyond,
the eye swept over a vast and variegated plain flecked with woods and
SOME OLD ]\rF.XICAN VOLCANOES.
289
lakes and little clouds, and bounded by ridges of purple hills, beyond
which, in the far distance, seventy to eighty miles away, the majestic
cone of Popocatepetl and its rugged companion Ixtaccihuatl lifted their
snowclad summits high into the clear morning air. By nine o'clock
the lovely vision was ended, the mantling clouds rose and swathed the
distant mountains in their fleecy folds, keeping them entirely hidden all
the rest of the day.
Tow-ards 13,000 feet the pines, which at that altitude had entirely
Fig. 4. — Lower Crater Lake, Nevado ile Toluca.
superseded the broad-leaved trees, became smaller, and ended somewhat
abruptly about 500 feet higher up, leaving nothing but dull green grass
and a few flowers growing thinly on the smooth mountain side above.
A good bridle-path winding round a shoulder with a smooth sharp
crest of crumbling grey ash, led to the crater lakes beyond, which were
the objective of the expedition.
Nevado de Toluca is a volcano of Tertiary age which has not been
active within historic or traditionary times, and no steam or vapour
now issues from any part of it. There are two crater lakes on the
summit, the larger of which — the Laguna Grande — is 300 metres long
290
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
by 213 in breadth, with a maximum depth of 10 metres or 33 feet.
The height of this lake above the sea is 4270 metres or a little over
11 000 feet, and the highest point of the crater rim above it is 4565
metres (=14,977 ft.), or practically 15,000 feet, according to the latest
measurements by Sr. Flores. Nevado de Toluca holds the- fourth place
among the great Mexican volcanic peaks, and comes next after Ixtacci-
huatl, Popocatepetl, and Orizaba, the giant of the group. It is, how-
ever, proper to note that none of these 7iiountains have yet been
mathematically surveyed, and the heights are only more or less close
approximations obtained by the thermo-barometer. Different observers
have obtained different results with considerable variations between
tliem, and until mathematical rather than meteorological methods of
Fiii. 5. — Upper Crater Lake, Nevado de Toluca.
lieight measurement are adopted, the absolute altitudes will not be
accurately determined.
The crater, which is elliptical in plan, is 1565 yards long by 650
wide. The rim is gashed with irregular lips and partly buried under
long screes of reddish crumbling ash and lava, through which rugged
knotty spurs and knobs project at intervals. The lavas are of tlie
hornblende-hypersthene andesitic class, and these covered by pumiceous
tuff and breccias form the body of the cone. The main crater has in
the centre a small lava dome rising prominently between the two little
lakes, and this seems to have been the result of the expiring efforts of
the volcano.
As the party ascended towards the rim the thin air began to tell on
tlie horses, and they, like some of their riders, showed signs of con-
siderable fatigue. From humane feelings some of us were glad to
SOME OLD MEXICAN VOLCANOES. 291
dismount aud lead the tired animals over the last ridge. The noses of
some of the riders began to bleed, and none of us felt equal to great
exertion, so that the sight of the cami)ing-ground on the shore of the
Laguna Grande was extremely welcome both to man and beast. The
very heiglit of Mexican hospitality was here reached in the shape of a
boat that was being laboriously carried up on the shoulders of a squad
of stout Indians for our delectation on the waters of the placid lake,
14,000 feet above the sea.
Numerous photographs were taken of this interesting spot, two of
which are now reproduced in Figs. 4 and 5. The ride back to Calimaya
Station, by a more direct route than that of the previous day's ascent,
did not occupy more than six hours, and we returned to Toluca after
darkness had set in.
The Volcano of Jorullo.
From Toluca the loute lay westward through a country of cultivated
shallow valleys and volcanic cones, covered for the most pait with
small trees. A day was spent in Morelia, the capital of the State of
Michoacan, 188 miles distant by rail from Toluca. A beautiful old city
of over 30,000 inhabitants, founded in 1541, Morelia is situated in a
characteristic strath with fields and lakes encircled by high wooded
volcanic hills. The city, like the capital and many others in Mexico,
was anciently supplied with water by a long aqueduct from the hill.=,
the old Gothic arches of which form one of the many picturesque
features of the quaint Spanish architectuie of a former age. Peiliaps
the most Avonderful object of a geological kind that came under our
notice at the Michoacan Museum was a lump of vesicular lava about a
foot in diameter, from an extinct volcano, which was full of charr(d
heads of maize of a very distinct character. This specimen, collected at
the Hacienda de la Magdalena, 1 1 f miles from Morelia, and near the
volcanic Pico de Quinceo, was doubly interesting, as it confirmed the
observation that has been occasionally made in other countries, that lava
can sometimes preserve fossils, a fact that very few geologists would be
prepared to admit on theoretical grounds only ; and it also proved that
maize has been cultivated by the Indians for many centuries, at a time
when several of the volcanoes, now apparently quite extinct, were still
in a state of activity (Fig. 6).^
Under the able guidance of M. Ezequiel Ordonez, sub-director of the
Geological Institute, who here joined the party, we were conveyed by
rail to Patzcuaro, 39 miles west of Morelia, where the hard work of the
expedition was to begin. Patzcuaro is a clean little town with the
usual square or plaza containing a well with shady trees and numerous
churches and shrines. Like other villages in that remote place, it shows
a mixture of ancient Spanish and modern scientific conveniences, includ-
I A short .account of this reniark.able specinieu, and notes of other records of plant
remains in basalt, are to be found in the Geohnjical Maga-Jne for May 1907. The accom-
panying figure is reproduced here by the kind permission of the editor of the Magazine.
292
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
ing electric light derived from the waterfalls in the neighbouring moun-
tains. The town is situated about 250 feet above the railway that skirts
the great lake of Patzcuaro, and a mule tramway conveys passengers up
from the station, a distance of a mile and a half. On the return journey
Fig. 6. — Basaltic Scoria containing lieails ot Maize, preserved in the Miclioucan
Museum, Mexico.
the car is allowed to run down by gravitation, the muk's following it at
their leisure.
The Lake of Patzcuaro is seen to best advantage from Los Balcones,
a view-point about 100 feet above the town on the volcanic hill of El
Calvario. I visited this lovely spot on two different occasions, and had
time to make a panoramic sketch of the magnificent scene which is repro-
duced on a small scale on Fig. 3. The lake, although it has no out-
let, is quite fresh and full of fish. The inhabitants of the numerous
villages on the islands and round the shores live by fishing and agricul-
Fig. 7.— Midday lialt at Rancho Niievo. (Photo by Dr. W. Wahl.)
Fig. 8. — Distant view of Volcano of .loruUo.
SOME OLD MEXICAN VOLCANOES. 293
ture, and their fleets of square-ended dug-out canoes skimming about
the lake add life and interest to the picture. The lake is 12^ miles long
and not much more than 23 feet deep. It is studded with islands — the
tops of small volcanoes like those that peep up through some parts of the
plain of Mexico — and is surrounded by groups of great volcanic cones
densely wooded to the crest but fringed below with a patchwork of
cultivated fields sloping gently down to the water's edge. The surface
of the water is 6697 feet above the sea, and some of the surrounding
mountains rise to heights of a few thousand feet above the lake. "When
they were in activity they were no doubt considerably higher, as the
craters are generally more or less worn away. The whole scene must at
that time have been one of terrific grandeur as each eruption filled the air
with clouds of steam and ashes, and the craters vomited forth fiery floods
of lava to choke up the river valleys and produce great lakes with the
impounded water.
The night was spent in the small hotel, and next morning we were up
at 4.30, and an hour later we were all mounted and off" on our 60 miles'
ride to Jorullo under the protection of a company of trusty Rurales to
see that we neither did nor suffered harm on that mysterious journey.
Some natives whom we passed asked if we were not afraid to go near
that dread mountain, the tradition of whose terrible eruption nearly a
century and a half ago still haunted the popular imagination.
The first day's ride was over a hilly district, partly wooded and partly
cultivated with maize, which thrives well on the rich volcanic soil. The
country was not unlike some parts of the Scottish Lowlands, with grass
parks among rounded hills, and fields in which oxen were working with
the primitive wooden plough of the country. The roads are not much
better than bridle tracks running across country and through the streams
or river beds that traverse them, only the deepest of which are spanned
by wooden bridges. Happily for us, although there were local floods at
other places, the weather in that district had been unusually dry, so that
the streams were all passable, and the mud, which was deep enough at
places, was sufficiently hard to let the horses through without much
difficulty.
After a ride of 12 leagues or 30 miles we reached the small town of
Ario, where the first night was spent in the prefecture or quarters of the
chief magistrate, a roomy old place with a small patio or central court,
oflf which several good-sized apartments opened, in which beds had been
placed for our night's lodging. Like Patzcuaro, the village was lit with
electricity and could boast of an instrumental band, which assembled in
the patio and discoursed good music all the evening, to the delight of the
visitors, who were objects of great interest to the whole native popula-
tion. A local poet came in after supper when the usual toasts were
being honoured, and recited appropriate verses, which, however, being
in Spanish, were only understood in a dim, general way by most of
us. The sentiment, however, was duly appreciated and applauded
by all.
Ario, which lies directly south of Patzcuaro, is nearly 1000 feet lower
down and on the edge of the Mexican Plateau. Its altitude is 6200
294 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
feet, and the road is on the whole a long descent of about 3900 feet from
Ario to the base of the lava field of JoruUo. The following morning by
six we were all saddled in and ready for the long descent into the Tierra
Caliente or hot country. The path was very rough, and the red volcanic
clay bottom so slippery, that even the best riders and some of the Kurales
had bad spills at places.
The road followed a long, shallow valley, filled up ages ago with lava
streams, which had rotted down into a soft, brown clay. Deep barrancas
had been excavated by the torrents in wet weather, some of which were
dangerously near the edge of the slippery way. The hillsides and upper
part of the valley were covered with bushes and pines.
After a halt for breakfast at the llancho Nuevo, a hacienda or large
farm building 11 miles from Ario and 1600 feet lower down, the journey
was resumed at noon (Fig. 7). The path entered a lovely pine forest with
open glades, through which it was possible to gallop along quite com-
fortably. At about 1500 feet above sea-level the pines ended and the
tropical forest was entered. The path ran through a jungle of fan palms
and mimosas, and past groves of bananas and sugar-cane. The palms
were often entirely encircled in the ivy-like embrace of a climbing ficus,
and covered with tufts of orchids, with which I stuffed my saddle-bags
to cultivate under glass at home. Huge yellow bunches of a large-leaved
kind of mistletoe hanging fi'om the spreading branches of the trees
reminded one of far other scenes and cooler climes, while here and there
rude straw-thatched dwellings of Indians were to be seen, the inmates of
which showed no disposition to molest us, and were indeed to all appear-
ance most friendly in returning our passing salutations.
As we entered this delightful country the goal of our journey hove
in sight. On the opposite side of the valley below us a black, flat-topped
hill, partly covered with bush, appeared standing alone against a back-
ground of higher mountains covered with grass and forest (Fig. 8). This
was the famous Volcano of Jorullo, which Humboldt's description has
made classical in the geological world. It was entirely unlike the pictures
or descriptions I had seen, which are mostly copies of Humboldt's original
sketch. A reproduction of this taken from his atlas is now given for
the sake of comparison with the picture that presented itself to us a
century afterwards (Fig. 9). Humboldt's description and those of
several later travellers are inaccurate in several respects, and it is well
that the results of the latest and most exact investigations should now
be recorded for the benefit of geographers and geologists in Europe, as
it is not likely that many at home will soon have such an opportunity,
even if they had the will, to risk the journey to such an outlandish spot
to make the investigation for themselves.
Continuing our ride southwards, the lowest point was reached at the
Hacienda La Playa, a hamlet at the north side of the Jorullo amphi-
theatre where we were regaled with glasses of warm milk, and the
Germans of the party found beer provided for them free by the hospit-
able Government, for all of which kindness the tired and thirsty travellers
were most grateful. The bottom of the valley is here about 2300 feet
above sea-level, and nearly 5000 feet below Patzcuaro. The bed of the
'"''"'"- ,/,„,. /'■"I"'"'-'
Fio. 9.— Sketi_-li, Map and Section of .Tonillo, as drawn by Von Humboldt after his visit in 1803.
SOME OLD MEXICAN VOLCANOES. 295
valley is occupied by the San Pedro river, a muddy stream which was
forded on the way to the camping place a few miles farther on.
After leaving La Playa, the soil, hitherto brown, became black and
sandy from the ashes of Jorullo that began to cover the ground and
increased in quantity as we approached the volcano. On the left or
east side of the river the path turned eastwards and upwards over the
edge of the oldest of the lava streams of Jorullo. The Malpays or " bad
land," as this rougli lava-covered ground is called, had a thin covering of
sandy ash, on which rough grass, flowers, and scattered mimosa trees
were growing, while the shady nooks in the rough basalt knobs were
shaggy with maidenhair and other tropical ferns.
This part of the road was most attractive to traverse, but after a ride
of some thirty miles a climb of 1000 feet during the last four miles of the
way under a tropical sun, with the thermometer at 90'^ F., was rather
trying both to man and beast, and our horses were scarcely able to
follow us as we toiled on foot over the old lava streams up to our night's
quarters on the mountain side.
I have already referred to the mineral wealth of Mexico, which is
most abundant among the mountainous districts composed of old volcanic
rocks, and to the inducement it off"ers to exploration in remote places.
It so happens that copper exists in this district, and mines have been
opened in the old volcanic plateau to the south-east of the volcano by
the Compania de Inguaran: The comfortable house of the manager at
Mata de Platano, about a mile south of the cone of Jorullo, had been
kindly placed at our disposal, in the spacious verandah and rooms of
which, after supper and a delicious bath, we were snugly housed for the
night. A panoramic sketch giving an outline of the magnificent view
obtained from this point is given in Fig. 10, and a photo of the cone
of Jorullo, and our night's quarters, in Fig. 15.
The following day the horses were too tired to go out, and we rose
at five and proceeded to explore the volcano on foot. Under the guid-
ance of Seuor Ezequiel Ord6uez, who had surveyed Jorullo, and acted
as a most admirable conductor to the party, and accompanied by a
retinue of Indian mozos to attend to our bodily wants, we were able to
study the mountain under the most favourable conditions.
The volcano of Jorullo lies at the east side of an amphitheatre of
ancient volcanic hills much worn away, on the slope of which, about
a mile south of the cone and 700 feet below the summit, the houses at
Mata de Platano are situated. We descended the grassy side of the
old basaltic plateau, crossed a small stream, and then began to climb
the slope of black ashes surrounding the principal crater. The Avay led
upwards along a dry barranca cut by torrents in the finely stratified
black sand and lapilli overgrown with beautiful ferns, mimosas, and
umbrageous fig-trees, with spreading limbs and stems a yard or more in
diameter. The upper part of the ash cone has a slope of 30° to 35°,
aiid is mostly covered with bushes and jungle, the sides being furrowed
with deep channels. As we neared the top a thunderstorm burst over
our heads, and it was soon abundantly evident how these steep channels
came to be washed out. But in half an hour the clouds rolled away,
296
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
and the sun burst through and continued to beat fiercely down on us
all the rest of the day.
Jorullo is quite an insignificant volcano in comparison with hundreds
of others in Mexico, and the highest point on the crater's brink is not
more than 4330 feet above sea-level. The top of the cone is about
1700 feet above the lowest part of the old valley at La Playa, and 1312
feet above the actual base of the volcano on the west side. On the east
Fig. 11. — Tropical Vegetation on Cone of Jorullo.
side next the edge of the old valley the cone is only 574 feet high. Its
interest is derived, not from its size but from its liistory, as its age is
known to a day, and it was exactly one hundred and forty-six years and
eleven months old on the 28th of August when we climbed its side,
the first eruption having taken place on the 28th of September 1759.
As we emerged from the jungle on the outer slope the crater sud-
denly appeared before us — a huge pit more than 400 feet deep, with
rugged sides of bare red rock and scoria. The centre Avas evidently sub-
siding as the sides were rent ])y deep fissures running concentrically round
the cavity, each crack forming the edge of a rude bench and reminding
SOME OLD MEXICAN VOLCANOES. 297
one of the seats round an ancient amphitheatre. The faces of the scarps
looked quite fresh, and Mr. Ordonez said large slices often slipped in-
wards as the contraction progressed. The sides converged to a point
surrounded by loose talus slopes, and on the north side a deep gash was
conspicuous in the rim, reaching half-way down to the bottom, through
which the last of the lava streams had overflowed and poured down the
side of the cone.
The bottom of the crater is, according to Mr. OrdiMlez, 489 feet
below the highest point on the rim named the " Pico de Eiano."
The crater is elliptical in shape, being 568 yards in length from
N. to S. and 421 yards in breadth. Steam and pale sulphur vapour
could be seen rising from several of the fissures, the most conspicuous of
the fumaroles being in the lip on the north side.
From the summit it was easy to see at a glance the relation of the
volcano to its interesting surroundings. It has been described by
Humboldt as rising from a plain, the surface of which swelled up at the
first eruption like a bubble inflated from below whose roof reverberated
with a hollow sound under a horse's hoofs. Now, it is not quite correct
to describe the locality as a plain, as it is only a short valley between
high mountains, in the form of a natural amphitheatre between eight
and nine miles wide, and the extent of level ground cannot ever have
been very great.
Before the catastrophe of 1759 the valley was so rich and lovely
with its fields of sugar-cane, indigo, and guava, and its groves of bananas
and palms, that it was known to the natives as " Jorullo," or the land of
Paradise. But many beautiful spots in that part of the world are apt
to be dangerous habitations. In the spring and summer of 1759
ominous rumblings of the earth were felt at Ario and over the whole
district, while the now extinct cones Cutzarondiro were in full activity. ^
On the night of 28th and 29th September the natives, who had fled in
terror to the neighbouring heights, beheld the valley over the space of
more than a square league burst into fire before their eyes. Huge
sheets of flames shot upwards from the earth, while incandescent stones
were hurled to vast heights and descended in showers of fiery rain. A
dense cloud of cinders and scoriae hovered in the air brightly lit up by
the fires in the throat of the new-born volcano. At the same time the
terrified spectators saw, or thought they saw, the earth swelling up
above the ancient level of the " plain," like the surface of a convulsed sea,
while the waters of the San Pedro river were swallowed up in the fiery
chasm where they were dissolved into their component elements. The
surface of the earth round the volcano became embossed with multitudes
of miniature volcanoes or ' hornitos " which emitted incessant columns
of smoke and steam.
This account of the eruption given by panic-stricken eye-witnesses is
naturally not quite a reliable statement of what actually took place. Very
little study is now necessary to prove that the oft-repeated story of the
swelling up of the ground in one night is entirely c myth. Mr. Ordoiiez,
1 See Scottish Geo;/raphical Magazine, 1887, p. 146.
VOL. XXIII. Y
298 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
who lias carefully surveyed the ground and sifted the historical evidence
and traditions relating to the eruption, said to us that Jorullo remained
ill violent activity for five months, and was spasmodically in eruption for
some seventeen years afterwards. Four distinct floods of olivine basalt
lava were poured out, the boundaries of which are quite clear and have
been accurately mapped by him. The welling up of the first of these from
the original fissure or vent before the cinder cones were formed, may
easily have misled the terrified natives into believing that the surface of
the ground had bulged up like a gigantic bubble.
Tiie first or oldest of the lava streams was the most extensive and
covered an area of about 3i square miles. The rough barren surfaces,
now clad with only a scanty covering of vegetation, are known as
" Malpays " or " bad lands," and the " hornitos " or " little ovens " that
figure so prominently on Humboldt's sketch are now scarcely recognis-
able. ^Ye examined several Avhich, but for the earlier descriptions,
would probably have never been noticed. They are insignificant mounds
of black stratified ashes or lapilli, sometimes 5 or G feet high and 4 or
5 yards in width. They show signs of a central aperture or crack
through which the vapour no doubt escaped, and they generally possess
a solid or hollow cone of the underlying basalt lava round which the
ashy layers have formed like the skins of an onion. Many of them
are covered with mimosa trees and bushes wdiose roots find a congenial
habitat in the laminated and porous soil. (Fig. 13.)
The hornitos mark the spots where the steam and gases bubbled up
through the fine ash on the earlier lava streams while they were cool-
ing. These excrescences do not appear on the fourth or latest lava
stream which issued from the breach on the north side of the main
crater, and hangs over the mountain side like a long brown tongue with
an extremely rough scoriaceous surface free of ash and almost devoid of
vegetation. The final effort of the volcano was to pour out this lava
stream, which appears to have welled up quietly without the explosive
violence which attended the earlier eruptions. As it overflowed the
crust hardened, and the still liquid stream ran on through a tunnel the
roof of which finally collapsed, leaving a rough gully in its track. This
is locally known as the Street of ruins or " Calle de las ruinas." Under
some of the Mexican lava streams caves have thus originated, the roofs
of which are still intact. At the Pyramids of Teotihuacan in the
Mexican valley one of these, known as the Grotto de Porfirio Diaz is so
large that it provided a banqueting hall for a party of some three
hundred members of the Geological Congress at their visit to that
interesting place.
The accompanying map from the survey of Mr. Ordonez shows the
four lava streams, the main volcano and the volcancitos or smaller cones
adjoining it. Humboldt and the earlier travellers stated that there were
five of these minor vents, but this is not correct, as there are only three
volcancitos, all of which are situated along one line about two miles in
length. The direction is nearly NNE. and SSW., and this no doubt was
the line of a fissure that o})ened when the fii.st eruption took place.
The Volcancito del Norte is situated about 1500 yards NNE. of the
Fig. 12.— Volcaucito del Norte from ESE. (Photo l>y B. Hob.soi).
Fig. 13. —Remains of a Honiito on lavatielil oi JoruUo. (Photo l.)y Dr. W. Wahl.
Fig. 14. — Jorullo from NW. showing "Malpays,"' central cone, and volcancitos.
(Sketcli by Autlior. )
Fig. If). — Cone ot .lonillo I'roni Mata de Platano.
SOIVFE OLD MEXICAN VOLCANOES.
299
main crater, and the Volcancito del 8ur just a mile to the SSW., while
the Volcancito de Enmedio, the smallest of the group, lies between Jorullo
and the Volcancito del Sur, which it closely adjoins. All these volcan-
citos are horse-shoe shaped, and the craters are breached on the west
side. They rise to heights of from 180 to 394 feet above their respec-
tive bases, the highest or northern cone being 730 feet lower than the
crest of Jorullo. The four cones all spring from the second lava stream,
and apparently reached the explosive stage after it was poured out. All
of them latterly became choked up and extinct except the central vent
of Jorullo, which survived long enough to increase its cinder cone to its
present dimensions and vomit out two more lava streams before its
energies finally became exhausted. (Figs. 12 and 14.)
Two niglits were spent on the mountain, and the accompanying
Fig. 16.— Native huts at Mata de Platano.
sketches and photos, taken by the writer and other members of the party,
will convey a better idea of its features than pages of description. With
the exception of a small deer and a couple of snakes, we saw no wild
animals on the mountain. Fig. 16 shows the type of native huts in this
district at Mata de Platano. The return journey occupied three days,
and we arrived back in Mexico City on 1st September M^ell pleased with
the visit to Jorullo.
Citlaltepetl, or the Peak of Orizaba.
As the European visitor sails wearily over the steaming waters of the
Gulf, the first sight of the Mexican coast as day begins to break is one
not easily forgotten. The eye wanders over the deep blue waters towards
300 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
a line ot low saudhills covered with scrubby vegetation most monotonous
and unpicturesque in aspect. Far inland, away beyond a mysterious
hazy background of high laud smothered under banks of fleecy clouds,
the form of a huge snow-capped mountain stands out in bold relief
against the western sky, Citlaltepetl, the Mountain of the Star, as the
natives call it, or the Peak of Orizaba, as it is generally known to
Europeans, can be seen 100 miles away, and when free of clouds its
pyramidal crest is the most impressive and conspicuous landmark on the
Gulf of Mexico. Towering as it does in solitary grandeur far above the
high plateau of Mexico to a height approaching 19,000 feet, Citlaltepetl
is not only the highest mountain in the republic, but almost the highest
in North America, being surpassed in height by only two others, Mount
M'Kinley in Alaska, and Mount Logan in the Canadian St. Elias Range.
(Fig. 17).
Before leaving the country I made up my mind if possible to survey it
from the top of that lone peak, a spot on which very few Europeans and
perhaps still fewer Mexicans have ever set foot, on account of the difficulty
of access and atmosphere — or want of it — surrounding the snowy solitude.
Not much information was available as to the best way to make the
ascent, and it was necessaiy to find out the ways and means for oneself.
Some members of the Geological Congress had been unsuccessful in the
attempt, owing mainly to the tropical rains in August, but a few others
who waited till September, when the weather was more propitious,
reached the toj). Among these were Professor A. P. Coleman of Toronto
and some Am.erican geologists, and their valuable experience was placed
at the disposal of the party with which I arranged to go at a later date.
This was not an excursion under Government auspices like the ride to
Jorullo, and as none of us were sufficiently familiar with Si)anish, and
native interpreters were not to be found, a difficulty arose at the outset.
But this was removed when Mr. W. T. Tower of Chicago University,
who had been studying the fauna of Mexico and knew the country well,
kindly offered to act as our guide, interpreter, and friend.
The other members of the party were Professor F. 1). Adams of M'Gill
University, Montreal, Mr. R. A. Daly of the Canadian Geological Survey,
Mr. G. 0. Smith and Mr. F. E. Wright of the U.S. Geological Survey— six
in all, including the writer. Permission had to be obtained from the
Laird, for Citlaltepetl is situated on an estate of more than 1000 square
miles, one of the many vast haciendas owned by a single proprietor.
The district is, or was until recently, a favourite haunt of robbers and
outlaws, and it is advisable, if not absolutely necessary, to have letters
of introduction or permission to satisfy the estate officials of the respect-
ability and inofl"ensiveness of unknown visitors. A letter of introduction
was also given us by the obliging officials in Mexico to the Jefe Politico
or Chief Magistrate of the district, asking him to provide jiolice ])rotec-
tion and an armed escort, if necessary, for three or four days on the
mountain.
Such things as hobnails in boots and alpenstocks for mountaineering
are not known to the Mexicans, but some of the pikes used by the
picadors in the bull-ring with sharp iron shods Avere found in an old
Fig. 17. — Peak of Orizaba from Gulf of Mexico near Vera Cruz.
(Sketch by Author.)
Fig. 18.— Party preparing to descend from summit of Orizaba (18,206 feet).
SOME OLD BIEXICAN VOLCANOES. 301
curiosity shop, and they served our more humane purposes very well,
while Professor Koiiigsberger of Freiburg lent us an ice-axe for the ascents
he intended to make. With these implements, ropes, goggles, and pro-
visions, we set out from Mexico City by the train leaving for Vera Cruz
at 7 A.M. on the 17th of September. The railway, a single line on the
ordinary gauge, runs for the first 150 miles along the plateau, gradually
ascending from the terminus in Mexico City, whicli is 7348 feet above
sealevel, to the highest point at Esperanza, 8044 feet in altitude,
where the steep descent down the edge of the plateau to Vera Cruz
begins. We alighted at San Andres, the station before Esperanza, 7972
feet in altitude and 137 miles from the capital.
At San Andres a Rurale trooper was waiting, and he conducted us to
the mule tramcar that runs across the valley to the village of Chalchi-
comula at the foot of the mountain. The valley seemed absolutely level,
and the surface at that place was quite flat from the railway that runs
south-eastwards along the base of the low hills on the one side to the
foot of the mountain slope of Citlaltepetl, three or four miles off on the
opposite side. Now the curious physical circumstance was noticed as
we returned three days afterwards, that the plain was not level in reality,
but had a regular slope to the west or north-west. This was made
abundantly clear when the tramcar to the station went off on its own
account and ran all the way to San Andres, the mules following it at
their leisure. There was no trace of a stream along the base of the hills
that skirted the lower edge of the strath, which might have explained
the gradual declivity. The valley, being of good alluvial soil, had been
apparently levelled by water in a lake or washed flat by rain originally,
and the only explanation that suggested itself was that the whole country
had been tilted slightly up to the east at a recent geological period. Mr.
Tower said he had noticed signs of this phenomenon in other valleys,
and believed it indicated a general orogenetic movement the extent and
nature of which has not yet been investigated.
At Chalchicomula we found quarters in a small inn with a large
name, " El Grand Hotel de Cieclo Veinte " (the grand hotel of the
twentieth century), where we engaged an Indian guide, Augustin, and
seven mozos with horses, mules, and the necessary blankets to protect us
against cold at night, and sombreros to shelter us from the sun on the
snow by day. Next morning at 5.30 we were up, and after the
customary formalities of loading the animals, the company, consisting
of six horsemen, six pack-mules, one mounted guide, and one mounted
Rurale, trotted off soon after daybreak.
The road led upwards through dry barrancas of yellow pumiceous
ash with which the base of the mountain is covered on the west side,
past the remains of ancient pyramids small in size but quite distinct in
form, which, like the great pyramids of Teotihuacan, may some day be
found worth exploration and restoration. The ground was well cultivated
with barley and maize up to the base of the forest zone. At 800 feet
above Chalchicomula the path ran into the forest, which here consisted
of Montezuma pines with tall, straight stems two feet or more in thick-
ness growing among lupins, penstemons, foxgloves, and other flowers
302 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
similar to those already noted on Xevado de Toluca. As we ascended,
a good many firs of the spruce family made their appearance, and the
three-leaved Montezuma pines became mixed with five-leaved pines of
the Weymouth or Strobus family. (Fig. 19.)
At 12,000 feet the trees became thinner and the path began to wind
about among stone-sprinkled mounds that at once recalled the moraines
of old glaciated countries. All doubt on this point was set at rest when
at one place a conspicuous boulder about six feet long appeared lying
against the side of one of the mounds, and furrowed from end to end
with magnificent glacial striae, made all the more clear by the rain that
had come on as the afternoon advanced. Unfortunately, owing to the
bad light it was impossible to photograph this interesting relic of the ice
age. From this point onwards the little glen up which we rode was
entirely covered with moraines of a very distinct sort, produced when
the ice-cap on the mountain extended six or seven thousand feet over its
side, or twice as far down as it does in our time.
Citlaltepetl was in activity from 1545 to 1565, and since then there
seems to be no record of an eruption. That the glaciers had retreated
before the volcano became quiescent was soon made evident. At about
13,000 feet the face of a lava stream apparently about a hundred feet
high, and two or three miles long, was seen like a huge flat caterpillar
creeping right down from the snowy side of the cone on to the top of
these moraine mounds, and partly blocking up the valley between the
main peak and the Sierra Xegra, a minor but still lofty mountain shoulder
on its south-western side (Fig. 20). That the lava was much younger
than the moraines was clear from the circumstance that it had a rough
and broken surface like that of any other recent lava stream, and had
neither been worn away by any passing glacier nor greatly disintegrated
by the weather, which at that altitude is as severe as in other cold
regions. It was covered by pines at least a century old, and had all the
appearance of being a product of one of the last eiuption.«.
The view westwards from the moraines at 1 3,000 feet was so extensive
that we could see across the valley of I'uebla and })ast the great dark
cone of Malinche to the snowclad crests of Popocatepetl and Ixtacci-
huatl, a hundred miles away. Some idea of this splendid vista may be
formed from Fig. 20, drawn from a sketch I made on the way up.
The Sierra Xegra is the dark, bare cone of a separate volcano of great
size which does not quite reach the snowline. It is covered with talus
slopes of debris (Fig. 21), and is separated from the main peak of
Orizaba by a flat saddle between two side glens. The path ran up the
western glen, at whose water-parting the glaciers had taken their rise,
and the lava stream had poured down half-way across the flat ground
and solidified before reaching the opposite slope at the base of the Sierra
Xegra. In ascending to the night's quarters we passed round the front
of the lava flow and turned northwards along its eastern edge.
At a height of about 13,500 feet .some distance up the face of the
lava cliff" and close to the upper limit of trees, there is a small cave
with a patch of level ground in front, and here we halted and kindled
the camp fire. The thin air began to aff'ect the horses, none of which
Fiu. 19.— la the Pine Forest on Orizaba
(10,000 feet).
SOME OLD MEXICAN VOLCANOES. 303
were particularly good, long before we reached this height, and after
a ride of fifteen miles and a climb of 5500 feet we were all glad of
a night's rest even in such poor quarters under an old and cold lava
stream. (Fig. ^2.)
There are many famous caves in Mexico, by far the finest of which
are in the great limestone deposits under the volcanic rocks. In some
of these a whole cavalry regiment can camp comfortably. But the cave
on Orizaba, like the grotto at Teotihuacan, is of volcanic origin and not
produced by the dissolving away of the rock by water. It is a rough,
irregular cavity perhaps seven yards long by three in width, but part of
the bottom opposite the entrance is three or four feet above the lower
story, and the roof comes down to within a couple of feet of the fioor
at one side. This fact one of the party who slept with his head under
it had neglected to note, and when he rose suddenly in the dark next
morning, he received a most striking reminder of it. Although the roof
was leaky and the floor rough the cave was a useful shelter, and we soon
had a blazing fire to make tea and dry our soaking clothes after the rain
ceased to fall in the evening. For six or seven good-sized travellers the
sleeping accommodation in such a hole was rather limited. The lair I
selected, after the shorter men had been accommodated, had the disadvan-
tage that three drops fell continuously on it — one over my feet, one on
my nose, and the third into my ear — whichever way I turned ; and to add
to the comfort of the lodging, our good Indian friend Augustin, after we
were all solidly tucked in downstairs in the first-class cabin, while the
Rurale trooper and the six mozos bivouacked round the fire outside,
thought fit to deposit himself in the upper or second-class compartment
with his toes suspended only a few inches from my nose, an attitude
probal)ly more pleasant for him than for me in the circumstances. A
little grass had been sprinkled over the floor, but my experience, after
sleeping on many kinds of beds in many countries, is that in the end
and on the whole a lava bed is not to be recommended for a couch.
After a sleepless night we were all glad to rouse our stiff' limbs at
3.30 next morning, a couple of hours before sunrise, and jump up when-
ever the reveille sounded. Two hours later we were saddled in, and by
sunrise were well on the way up to' the snowline. The view north-
wards of the crest of Citlaltepetl was quite clear and free of clouds at
that hour, and an idea of the scene may be gained from the sketch,
Fig. 1. Numerous photos were taken, but none of them proved quite
satisfactory in showing both the foreground and distance with equal
distinctness. They seemed also to diminish the height of the cone, and
the sketch is therefore drawn on a slightly exaggerated scale to give
efl*ect to the true angle of slope and the impression of height that was
experienced as we made the ascent.
From the camp to the snowline we rode over stony ground with
tufts of grass and huge thistles, and at this height, among other plants
of alpine facies, one with a strong resemblance to the Swiss edelweiss
wa.s plentiful. The edges of old lava streams produced low cliff's, from
which glossy blocks of andesitic lava had fallen and lay scattered about.
No doubt the slope had been covered by glaciers that produced some of
304
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
the moraines lower down, but there were no very conspicuous signs of
ice-erosion on this part of the mountain, and no moraines were noticed.
Unlike Popocatepetl, which, as I shall afterwards notice, is covered with
a thick coating of ash, Orizaba seems, on this side at least, to be quite
free of ashes and to have emitted only lava in its last eruptions.
It was as much as the horses could do to carry us up to the snowline,
which was reached by 7.30. The accompanying photo (Fig. 23) shows the
foot of the snow at about 1 5,000 feet, and gives the true angle of slope
of the upper 3500 feet of the cone, which we found by the clinometer
to be from 35° to 42° nearly all the way up.^ Our Indian guides led us
in a bee-line to the summit by the steepest but most direct route. At
first we took advantage of spurs of rock projecting radially through the
Fici. 23. — Foot of .snowline on Orizaba.
snow for the first thousand feet or so, and these gave a good foothold
while they lasted. The rate of ascent was a thousand feet per hour at
first, but as we ascended the air became so thin and cold that breathing
increased in difficulty and progress diminished accordingly. The snow
became harder, and it was no longer possible to climb without cutting
steps for a foothold. The foremost guide led the way with a spade and
made a notch which the man following him deepened with the ice-axe.
The last 1500 feet were extremely trying to the strongest of us. I have
been across some parts of the Alps, and some of my companions had
done mountaineering on the snows of the Rocky Mountains, but none
1 In Felix and Lenk's BeitriiAje zur Ocohigie wnd I'dlaim/nlni/ie der Rcjndilik Mexico
(Leipzig, 1889-1899), pp. 47-49, it is stated that towards the north the angle of inclination of
the cone is 4.^°, and during their ascent in FeViruary 1877 from the soutli, the Mexican
engineers Plowes, Rodriguez, and Vigil found in places slopes up to 60^
[
T0<
l'^„
S pd
J o
SOME OLD MEXICAN VOLCANOES.
305
of US had ever climbed so high as this and breathed an atmosphere so
attenuated, the sun overhead beating down on us with all his tropical
strength. We had provided against the sunstroke by wearing Mexican
sombrero?, and against the intense reflection from the snow below us by
using goggles, so that our appearance had something of the horrible and
awful as the procession moved solemnly upwards. The Indians were
clad in Zerapes or blankets, and wore sandals to prevent them slipping,
their feet being rolled up in strips of sacking. One of them had neglected
to protect his eyes and, poor fellow, they were like balls of fire when in
an almost blind state he got home. Accustomed to a comparatively
Fig. 24.— Native guide,s on summit of Orizaba (Photo by ¥. E. Wright).
warm climate, it was marvellous how these people endured the cold and
tramped along with practically bare feet, the snow squeezing its way
between their sandals and their bare soles. They tramped steadily
upwards, and it was as much as we could do to follow, as every dozen
steps we had to sit down utterly exhausted or lean on our sticks to
recover a little fresh energy for the next eff"ort. The other members of
the party were all from ten to twenty years my juniors, and I for once
wished for the old days when I was able to climb Ben Nevis in an
hour and three-quarters, at the rate of 2600 feet per hour, but twenty
years makes a good difference to one's mountaineering powers, and the
air on Ben Nevis has more oxygen than that on the snows of Orizaba,
so I had a little excuse for being the last to reach the top. To climb
306 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
that mountain requires a sound heart and strong limbs and lungs, and
only a few have the physical ability to reach the summit, which explains
the reason why so few ascents of Orizaba have been, or are likely to be,
made by white people. (Fig. 24-.)^
With a great effort we all got to the top about one o'clock without
a slip, after a climb of five and a half hours. Suddenly we found our-
selves on the brink of the great crater. It was bitterly cold and our
moustaches were frozen solid, while the biting wind threatened to
envelop us in a rising cloud of snow.
The swirling clouds lifted for a short time and disclosed yawning
beneath us an awful gulf whose bottom was shrouded in thick mist.
The walls were of pale red andesitic lava, and the crater seemed to be
about a quarter of a mile in diameter. I was about to creep to the
brink for a peep over when the guides pulled me back in terror, indi-
cating that the edge of the vertical precipice was concealed under an
overhanging ledge of snow which nobody durst tread on and live. I
thouglit of my happy home and my dear wife and bairns far away as I
drew back to a safer place and turned my eyes to a different quarter.
As we gazed eastwards the eye swept over a vast sea of fleecy clouds
that almost smothered the whole landscape, but through the rifts the
blue waters of the Mexican Gulf could be descried here and tliere.
The cone of Popocatepetl, one hundred miles away to the west, was no
longer to be seen through the rolling clouds, and indeed it was clear
that the afternoon mists would soon envelop us also if we lingered there
much longer. On the highest point a rude cross had been erected long
ago by some pious soul, made of iron pipes and a wooden pole stuck
into some blocks of ice ; but it was badly in need of repair as the accom-
panying photo will show (Fig. 24). The altitude of the Peak of Orizaba
has never been determined by trigonometry, and like that of the
other high mountains in Mexico it is variouslj^ estimated by different
authorities. For long Citlaltepetl was supposed to be lower than
Popocatepetl, but I have been on both mountains, and without even a
barometer I was quite satisfied that such is not the case. The aneroid
we carried unfortunately failed to move above 17,900 feet, long before
we reached the top. We probably climbed 500 or GOO feet, and perhaps
more, after it became dumb, and no doubt remained in our mind that
the summit is not far from 18,500 feet above the sea. Some authorities
give the height at over 19,000 feet, but Mr. Flores in his account of
Nevado de Toluca, published for the use of the Geological Congress,
incidentally mentions 5549 metres or 18,206 feet as the correct figure
for Orizaba, and 5450 metres or 17,881 feet for Popocatepetl.
The descent was begun at 1.45, and as this was a more dangerous,
although less laborious operation than the ascent, we made use of our
ropes, and well it was that we did so as they saved us from the fatal
consequences of some slips on the way down tlie ice-slope. The accom-
panying snapshot (Fig. 18) shows some of the party preparing the
J Tlie first recordeil ascent was made in May 1848 1ij' tlie North American officers
Lieutenants Reynold and Maynard (see Felix and Lenk loc. cit.).
Fig. 21. — Sierra Nesfra froDi foot of snowline on Orizaba.
Fig. 22. — Author and guide Ausustiu in eave on Orizabu
SOME OLD ]\[EXICAN VOLCANOES.
307
ropes for the descent. This occupied about two hours. After the
upper 2000 feet the dangerous part of the journey was over, and we
were able to discard the ropes and slide down the last 1000 or 1500
feet on foot. The horses were awaiting us where we left them in the
morning, and very glad we were to get on their backs and scramble
down to our cave, which we reached at five o'clock, all very tired and
hungry after the long day's work.
Next morning, after another sleepless night in our dismal quarters,
we rose at 4.30 and left two hours later, at sunrise, for Chalchicomula,
which Ave reached at eleven after a ride of only four and a half hours.
Here we parted with our faithful guide Augustin, who explained in his
own language that for white men we had climbed very well. Mexico
was reached in the afternoon, and for any one who may wish to follow
our track it may be mentioned that the four days' trip, including rail-
way fares, food, guides, horses, and all charges, cost each of us altogether
£4, 16s., not more than 24s. per day.
Popocatepetl.
Popocatepetl, or the Smoking Mountain, although somewhat lower
than Citlaltepetl, is much better known, and its conspicuous position
and commanding height, overlooking as it does the whole valley of
Mexico, as well as the traditions which have been associated with it
since the days of the Spanish conquest, have given the volcano a world-
wide reputation to which the higher peak cannot lay claim. In some
ways Popocatepetl is the more interesting mountain of the two. It is
not difficult to reach, and although it has not been recently in eruption
it has been active in historic times, and is perhaps not yet quite on the
retired list.
Many accounts have been given of the ascent and pictures published
of the majestic cone and its surrounding.«, but most of these descriptions
are exaggerated in several particulars. A short description of the
volcano, as it appeared to me and my companions last September, may
be interesting to readers of the Scottish Geographical Magazine, in which
Mexican geography generally has hitherto occupied a very small place.
When Cortes arrived in the Valley of Mexico in 1519, Popocatepetl
was in eruption, and the first attempt of his gallant cavaliers to reach
the crater, under Captain Diego Ordaz, was baffled by the volumes of
smoke and cinders that assailed them as they neared the summit. The
exploit was, however, a great one even for those days of chivalry, and
in commemoration of it the Emperor Charles v. allowed Ordaz to
assume a burning mountain on his family escutcheon.
Two years afterwards Cortes, who was not satisfied with the result,
sent up another party under Francisco Montafio, a cavalier of determined
resolution, in order to obtain sulphur for the manufacture of gunpowder.
The mountain was then quiet, and the Spaniards, five in number, climbed
to the very edge of the crater, which was found to be elliptical in
shape and more than a league (or 2i miles) in circumference. The
depth was from 800 to 1000 feet, and a lurid flame burned gloomily at
308 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
the bottom sending up sulphurous steam which, condensing on the side
of the cavity, coated tliem over with a hiyer of sulpliur. Lots were cast,
and it fell to Montafio himself to descend in a basket into the hideous
abyss in quest of the coveted mineral. He was lowered by his com-
panions 400 feet down the precipitous walls, and the operation was
repeated until he had collected sufficient sulphur for the wants of the
army. (Prescott, Book iir. chap, viii.)
The records of eruptions since that period are apparently not very
complete. A. de Lapperent, in his Trait6 de GMoijie, states that, follow-
ing a period of rest of sixteen years, there was a small eruption in 1539,
after which the volcano seemed quite extinct. But in 1664 it again
vomited out ashes for several days, since when it has remained
quiescent.
According to Aguilera and Ordonez, the oldest lavas of Popocatepetl
were olivine basalts. These were followed by hypersthene andesites,
which predominate, and the latest lavas are trachytes, the last eruption
being marked by a thick bed of ash.
Volcanoes are usually found in the vicinity of the sea or large lakes,
but those of Mexico supply numerous notable exceptions to this rule.
Popocatepetl is situated 44 miles south-east of Mexico City and about
135 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, the nearest water being the shallow
lagoon of Chalco, more than 20 miles to the north-west.
On the 24th September I left Mexico City with two geologists from
Finland, Dr. Victor Hackmann and Dr. Walter Wahl, of Helsingfors
University. The Interoceanic Railway, a single line on the metre
gauge, on which we travelled as far as Amecameca, runs south-eastwards
across the plain and past Lake Texcoco, a shallow sheet of water with
an indefinite shoreline merging at the edge into shallow pools and
partly submerged grassy meadows, on which large flocks of cattle and
sheep were grazing. The line then turns southwards among the
numerous little volcanic cones of the Santa Catarina group, in the
vicinity of which isolated hills are scattered about whose configuration
shows them to be due to explosions of ash unaccompanied by lava flows.
The line leaves the plain, and gradually rising passes through a beautiful
country with flat fields below the volcanic slopes on the left, and isolated
cones covered with trees on the right. After a thirty-six miles' run we
reached Amecameca, a small town on the plain below Popocatepetl 8570
feet above sea-level. The railway journey only takes a couple of hours,
and by starting early it is possible to do the trip in two days; but the
mountain is not always clear of clouds, and so it is advisable to have a
day or two to spare. We found comfortable quarters in the little Hotel
Hispaniola Americana, where horses, guides, and provisions were
obtained. As visitors are fairly common, we had none of the trouble in
making arrangements that occurred at Chalchicomula, and it was not
even necessary to have the protection of a Rurale, as murders are now
comparatively rare, and the excellent rule of President Diaz has made
the road up Popocatepetl quite safe during daylight at least.
Leaving Ameca at 9.30 next morning the road, like that to Orizaba,
led upwards through cultivated fields of barley and wheat with barrancas
Fi(i. 25. — Crest of Popocatepetl IVoni Tlaiiiaeas.
Fig. 26.— Sulphur Ranch of Tlamacas (12,987 feet).
SOME OLD MEXICAN VOLCANOES. 309
whose vertical sides sliowed strata of alluvium, stones, and beds of white
pumiceous ash. The trees in tlie forest zone were at first firs of the spruce
family with large upright cones, mixed with a considerable quantity of
cypress and only a few pines such as I have noted elsewhere. The
pines increased as we ascended, and 1200 feet up the forest zone the
firs diminished until none were left, and the forest was one of pure pines
chiefly of the Montezuma variety, with three needles in each sheath and
short dumpy cones. I examined a large number of these and found
that in several cases there were on the same twig tufts of two, three,
four, and five needles, showing apparently that the botanical division,
according to the number of needles, is not of universal application, or
perhaps that these high-growing trees may be the remaining parents
from which the differentiated species have originally sprung. Many of
the trees near tlie top of the forest zone were dead and blasted, standing
gaunt and bare or lying bleaclied with the storms of years. Thunder-
storms are of daily occurrence in the summer months, and some of the
stems had been recently ripped up by lightning, and no doubt this is
tlie cause of much of the destruction of these high forests. The bleached
and blasted stems formed quite a feature in the landscape and were con-
spicuous miles awiiy among the dark foliage of the surviving pines.
The forests cease on the north side of Popocatepetl at 13,200 feet, and
the ground at that height becomes covered with a thick coating of black
ash on which many old trees are growing. There is a good path all the
way up to the Sulphur Ranch at Tlamacas, where we halted for the
night. The ranch is situated at 12,987 feet, a short distance below
tlie upper limit of trees, in an open, shallow glen at the foot of a tree-
covered ridge on the north side of the cone. (Fig. 26.)
It was here that General Oclioa distilled the sulphur collected from
the interior of the crater, and six small cast-iron retorts with some
brick flues and a chimney stalk are all that now remain of his refinery.
This dangerous but at one time lucrative industry has not been carried
on for the last twenty years, but the wooden sheds adjoining the refinery,
although rather leaky overhead, are still useful as a shelter for visitors to
the crater. The ranch is about fifteen miles by road from Ameca. The
road is a good bridle-path, and after a delightful ride of six hours
through the flowery forest we reached the night's quarters three hours
before sunset, in time to get shelter should the usual afternoon's rain
come on.
Before the mist rolled up and enveloped the great cone above us we
had time to look round and take some photos and sketches. On the
south the saow-capped summit towered in dazzling whiteness over a
broad bare pedestal of black ashes deeply furrowed with barrancas into
which the snow projected in sharp tongues like glaciers. The ridge on
which we sat was the continuation of a huge rugged spur of reddish
lava running up to the snow like a pyramidal buttress, and known as
the Pico del Fraile. This view, taken from a sketch I made from the
ridge above Tlamacas, is given in Fig. 25.
Towards the north in the opposite direction was the sharp profile of
the ridge of Ixtaccihuatl seen end on, whose forest-covered base lay
310 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE,
wrapped in fleecy clouds which entirely hid the plain beneath. Some
loud claps of thunder warned us to seek shelter, and at six o'clock the
clouds rose and sent us down to explore the interior of the sulphur ranch
of Tlamacas. The shed was divided by a partition into a smaller and a
larger compartment, in the former of which was a capacious arched brick
fireplace about 3 feet square with an iron chimney pipe running up
through the roof, and a raised platform of boards broad enough to sleep
on across the end of the apartment opposite the fire. The mozos soon
filled the hearth with blazing logs, and we cooked our primitive supper in
the clay pots they had brought up, but the chimney was far too small to
vent the smoke and it rolled out in pungent volumes and escaped
through the openings in the shaky roof The larger or second-class
compartment was occupied by the mozos, who kindled a fire in the
middle of the floor and slept comfortably round it, while the thunder
rolled and the wolves howled dismally in the darkness of the cold
nocturnal air outside, making us feel thankful for the shelter this rude
hut afl'orded. The rain which was falling was kept off our bedstead by
an inner roof of boards a few feet above it, and with the blankets
we had brought up and some dry grass below us, we lay down to
rest.
Xext morning, after a sleepless night, we rose at five and by six
were mounted and ready for the climb. The trail led over a barranca
cut through red stratified lavas and breccias covered v.ith the black
ashes of later eruptions. Beyond this was a steep ashy slope with
tufts of grass, thistles, and scanty vegetation above the forest line, and
as we ascended the thin air became very trying for our horses, which had
to stop and rest every dozen paces. The mean height of the snowline on
the north side of the cone is 14,272 feet, according to the most recent
measurements by Aguilera and Ordonez, about 1000 feet above the
upper limit of trees, and 1375 feet above the ranch. The horses were
left at La Cruce, a ridge of brown lava on which a cross is erected to
mark the death of a man on the mountain. The number of such grue-
some 1 mdmarks tells a sad tale wherever one goes in Mexico, as it is
the custom to set up a wooden cross by the roadside wherever a murder
has taken place, and some I noticed were quite recently erected, in the
mining districts, but those on Popocatepetl were not numerous. At La
Cruce the horses were sent back, and we proceeded on foot up the ashy
slope to the snowline, a climb that took about an hour. The snow was
very soft, and all the way up there was no difficulty in obtaining a good
footing. We saw nothing of the jagged spikes and columns of ice described
by Brocklehurst in the marvellous sketch accompanying the description
of his ascent in 1881. This sketch, and others in his interesting book,
Mexico To-day, are gross exaggerations of the actual scenes they depict,
— scenes I had opportunities of studying on several occasions.
The snow-slope was between 30° and 35° most of the way up, and
on this occasion our guides, unlike those on Oi'izaba, took the easier
zigzag course. The edge of the snow was reached at 8.30, and in three
hours more a whiff" of sulphur vapour announced that the top of the
great crater was at hand. At 11.30 the abyss suddenly opened in front
SOME OLD MEXICAN VOLCANOES. 311
of US in all its grandeur, and we sat down to rest astride the brink and
gazed in silent awe into the fearsome pit.
The air was clear and cold, but I did not experience much of the
extreme difficulty in breathing and exertion that made the Orizaba climb
so trying on the previous week. Indeed, after Orizaba the climb up
Popocatapetl was child's play. The time taken to ascend the snow-slope
was 5f hours on Orizaba against 3 hours on Popo, and as the snow
began at about 1-5,000 feet in the former case and at less than 14,000 in
the latter, there remained in my mind absolutely no doubt that Orizaba
is much the higher mountain of the two. But, on the other hand, it is
only right to mention that while I climbed to the very top of Orizaba,
the summit of Popocatepetl — the Pico Mayor — was several hundreds of
feet above the part of the crater lip where we halted. The altitude of
the summit is given by Messrs. Aguilera and Ordonez at 17,881 feet,
which is no doubt the most correct estimate that has as yet been made
of the height of this mountain.
The view from the crater was, it need hardly be said, truly magnifi-
cent, but not equal to the view I have also seen of the snows of Everest
and Kinchinjunga from the Tiger Hill above Daijiling. A vast sea of
fleecy clouds covered the whole country far beneath us, but away to the
east through this misty ocean there rose like a lonely island the huge datk
cone of Malinche, and still further off the snow-crested peak of Orizaba
could easily be distinguished on the horizon a hundred miles or more
away. The view of Orizaba from Popocatepetl did not, however, seem
nearly so striking as that of Popocatepetl from Orizaba given in Figure 19,
probably because of the clouds that concealed all the intervening plain
on the day of our visit. As we gazed over this cloudy expanse towards
the north-northeast a remarkable flat brown patch appeared in the air
like a cloud in shape, but quite unlike one in hue. It seemed much too
high for land, and the only explanation that suggested itself was eitlier
that it was a cloud of dust from some unknown volcano near the coast,
or that it was a mirage by which the land appeared lifted up by refrac-
tion of the air far above its natural height. As no volcanoes were
known to be active in that quarter the latter ex[)lanation seemed to be
the more feasible of the two.
Turning towards the crater, which was free of clouds and perfectly
visible, the walls were seen to be made up of thick beds of red volcanic
rock with vertical faces and low ledges between them on which the snow
was lying in patches, while fringes of great icicles hung over the
jagged projections. The precipice under the Pico Mayor showed signs
of two sets of eruptions, as the lower strata were at one place cut off by
an upper set of beds lying obliquely across their edges and dipping in a
diflferent direction in the way geologists describe as an iinconformability.
From the face of this precipice, as well as on the opposite edge of the crater,
vapour was rising from cracks, but the strongest of the fumaroles was
deep down in the bottom of the crater, and here the pale cloud ascended
in great puff's under considerable pressure. As it circled upwards the
sulphur condensed in a dull yellow skin on the face of the dark red lava,
and this, combined with the white snow, patches of which reached down
312 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
to the margin of the brilliantly green crater lake in the centre, produced
a most remarkable combination of colour and weird scenic effect.
The vapour at times bursts out with explosive force, and I even noticed it
rising in a column above the summit, from Soltepec, a place on the railway
about sixty miles away. The crater lake is round in shape and intensely
green in colour, and is situated at a depth of 1640 feet below the highest
point of the rim. The crater itself, oval in plan, is about 2000 feet by
1300 feet in diameter at the mouth. Round the lake there is a talus
slope, and as we sat on the rim we could see and hear stones and
rubbish being constantly precipitated on to it. When Brockleliurst
visited the volcano in 1881 the sulphur was being worked, and gangs of
thirty men lived for four weeks at a time in the bottom of that infernal
hole, the only access to which Avas by a rope attached to a winch on the
brow of one of the cliffs, at the lowest part of the rim about 600 feet
above their huts at the side of the lake. This extraordinary industry had
then been carried on for twenty years by General Ochoa, and the hardy
Indian "Volcaneros" did not seem much the worse, the only bad effects
being that their teeth were liable to wear down and their clothes to rot
with the sulphur fumes. They worked in alternate gangs, it is true, 100
men being employed altogether, but it is not surprising that, in spite of
the extra pay and liquor they received, there was a difficulty in obtaining
labourers for carrying on that dreadful industry in the fearsome throat of
the smoking mountain.
The descent from the crater was an easy and delightful ride, and the
only fault it had was the short time we were in the saddle. We had
three guides, one for each of us, and three mats or pitates for steeds.
These were doubled up so as to make a comfortable toboggan for two
people. The Indians sat in front with their sticks to prevent a run away,
and their European passengers behind, Avith legs .spread out and heels in
the air. Off we sped one after the other at four or five miles an hour,
and in fifteen minutes landed in the soft snow near the ashes. So soft
was the snow near the foot of the slope that we sank into it and had to
wade almost up to the knees down the last fifty yards. An hour's quick
walk took us back to the ranch for dinner. By two o'clock we mounted
our steeds for the homeward journey, and galloped into Ameca at a quarter
past six, returning next morning to Mexico City after three nights*
absence from headquarters.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
EiT];oi'E.
The Sierra Nevada and the Alpujarra. — The Bohtin <Je la
Real Sociedad Geogrdjica (toin. 46) publishes a very interesting contribu-
tion on this little-known region which offers an almost novel field to the
tourist. Parallel and to the south of the Sierra Nevada is a lower
range, the Contraviesca, and between the two lies the valley of the
Alpujarra. Beyond this second range lies the sea. It will be remem-
bered that when Boabdil abdicated, the Catholic kings made over to
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 313
him and his heirs this very country. When the unfortunate monarch
passed by the Ultimo Suspiro del Moro, where he looked back on his
beloved Granada and wept, he skirted round the Sierra IS^evada and
made his way to Andarax in Lower Alpujarra, where he settled down.
In a short time he was driven out for state reasons, and finally went
over to Fez, where he lived many years, and died like a gallant gentle-
man in the battle-front. This district has therefore seme interest for
the historian. The valley has not yet been opened up by proper roads,
nor by railway. Beyond one carriage road connecting Ugijar with the
eastern boundary, the only means of communication are bridle paths,
and travelling is neither easy nor comfortable. Alarc6n, indeed, quotes
a current proverb : Cada uno tiene su moclo de matar imlgas (each one has
his way of killing fleas). That was at Orgiva, the principal town in
the district.
The usual route for the Sierra Nevada is from Granada to the
Collata de Velete, the Col and starting-point for the Picacho and
Mulahacen ; thence to Capileira, a little village on the southern face, in
the upper Alpujarra. From this point the tourist works round to
Lanjaron, and so back to Granada, a tour of four days. But this route
just skirts the Alpujarra. The author, on the other hand, left the line
of rail at La Calahorra, a little south of Guadix, and striking to the
right, crossed the Puerto de la Ragua, an old mule-track, or as we might
say, a drove-road, which took him to Ugijar. It was by this pass that
all the traffic was carried on towards the north in the days before the
railway. Then by bridle-path he went to Orgiva and Cadiar, where
Aben-Humeya was crowned during the rising of the Moriscoes. Cadiar
is on the threshold of the upper Alpujarra; from thence the start is
made for the peaks, and from this point the ascent of the Contraviesca is
most easily undertaken. The height of this range is not half that of
the Sierra Nevada, and the latter is seen to great advantage from the
lesser heights. To approach the great peaks, either Trevelez or
Capileira must be the final halt, Capileira by preference for the Picacho,
Trevelez for Mulahacen. In either case the distance is six hours to the
summit, from whence again to Granada is a matter of six or seven hours.
As compared with the Pyrenees, the Sierra Nevada is shorter and
not so deep, and, on the other hand, Mulahacen is higher than Mont
Perdu. Indeed the Sierra Nevada ranks next to the Alps in altitude.
But while the Pyrenees and the Alps resemble each other in general
features, the more southern range is widely different, more entirely
Spanish ; the scenery tends to be bleak and arid, vegetation is scarce
and stunted, and water is scarce. The general aspect is grim and
forbidding. The attraction lies in the views from the heights. Towards
the sea, on the rare occasions when the atmosphere is propitious, the
mountains of Africa are plainly visible, and the traveller gets a magni-
ficent view, but mostly when the mountain tops are clear the horizon is
enveloped in mist. Towards the north, on the other hand, on a clear
day one can see even as far as the Sierra Morena, while lying in the
valley underneath is Granada plainly visible.
The author indicates that a project has been in the wind for a light
VOL. xxin. z
314 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
railway from Granada to the crest, and this, with proper hotels, would
open up a very interesting district to the tourist. The map which
accompanies the paper is rather exasperating, for while professing to
have been got up expressly, it misses out half the place described, so
that the reader has to supplement it by an ordinary map. There are
excellent photographs of the Sierra Nevada.
Glaciation and Volcanic Deposits near Rome. — In the Atti
della Eecde Academia dei Lincei for 16th December, Signor Dainelli con-
tributes an interesting note on the geology of the upper reaches of the
Aniene, to the east of Rome, beyond Subiaco, in the Sabine Mountains.
He has discovered here distinct evidences of glacial action in the basin
of Filettiuo, pointing to two periods of glaciation, the first traces being
at an altitude of about 1400 metres, the other at 1650. There is thus
a difference of 250 metres between the two deposits, and this coi-responds
closely with a similar condition in the Balkans, where there are traces
of two periods of glaciation separated by a distance of 250 metres.
Dainelli does not think it possible at present to make synchronous
comparison, as Cvijic has attempted, between these glaciations and those
of the Alps, as it is still uncertain whether the former belong to the two
periods of Riss and Wiirra (as recognised in the Alps) or to two stages
in the period of Wiirm. Of not less importance is the result of a
microscopic examination made by the author of the substance of the
moraine corresponding to the second glaciation. He found that the
material was volcanic, and from its composition evidently proceeded
from the Lazial volcanoes, the craters of the Alban Mountains, proving
that the period of activity of these volcanoes coincided with the second
glaciation.
The History of the Scandinavian Flora. — We have received
from Dr. Gunnar Andersson a pamphlet on the history of the develop-
ment of the flora of Scandinavia, consisting of a paper which Avas read
in abbreviated form before the International Botanical Congress at
Vienna in 1905, and is published in full as a separate from the Pro-
ceedings of the Congress. The paper discusses in detail the characters
of the flora during the Interglacial periods, and during the late quater-
nary period, as determined by the various plant deposits found in peat
moors and elsewhere. The details are somewhat beyond our scope,
but the paper is of special interest in that it includes a series of very
valuable illustrations showing various plant formations as they exist at
the present day in the Scandinavian peninsula, as well as some sketch
maps showing the distribution of certain dominant species. Some of
these figures give very interesting and characteristic views of the existing
conditions in Scandinavia, so markedly contrasted in some respects with
those which exist in Scotland.
The French Census of 1906. — In the Eevue Fm^aise for March
1907 there appears an article giving an analysis, with maps, of the
results of the last census in France. On March 4, 1906, the tot^l
population of France was 39,252,267 persons, as against 38,961,945 in
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
315
1901. This gives an increase, in the five years' period, of 290,322
persons, as against an increase of 444,613 for the period 1896-1901.
During the last twenty-five years there has been a steady though not
uniform fall in the rate of increase, and since 187 2 the total increase
has been only a little over three millions. On the other hand, in the last
quinquennial period the population of Germany has increased by over
four millions, a figure which represents the increase in France for nearly
half a century. The author also emphasises the rapid rate of increase in
England and even in Italy, though here the increase is ma&ked by the
high emigration figures. The tendency in France for the population to
accumulate in the large centres is well marked, but yet the cities of
Lille, Bordeaux, Roubaix and Toulouse now show a diminution of
population as compared with 1901. This is one of the indications that
in France the attractive influence of the great cities is in process of
being checked.
Perhaps associated with the sIoav increase of the native-born is the
large percentage of foreigners in France. In 1906 there were more
than a million, giving a proportion of 25 foreigners to 1000 of the
total population. No other nation in Europe, it is stated, has so large
a percentage. In C4ermany there are only 8 or 9 foreigners per
1000 of the total population. Since the naturalisation law of 1889
the number in France has, however, been diminishing, and the figures for
1906 show a decrease as compared with those for 1901, This law made
naturalisation compulsory on certain categories of foreigners residing in
France, and has thus raised the number of natives as compared with
foreigners. In sum, then, the 1906 figures, like those of preceding
censuses, tend to show that in France the birth-rate is steadily falling,
without any corresponding drop in the marriage rate. The slight
excess of births over deaths is due to the constantly falling death-rate.
Since 1890, when both were 22 per 1000, the two rates have been
approximately equal. The author of the article, M. Cilvanet, draws the
usual conclusions from the figures in regard to military matters, and
also quotes from M. Bertillon a someAvhat interesting statement in
regard to the peoples speaking the great European languages. If a
French author, says M, Bertillon, addresses himself to all those speaking
his native tongue he can only count upon a total public of 46 millions,
if a German author does this his public includes 100 millions, while an
English-speaking writer has before him 120 million persons who can
understand his mother tongue. One would add, however, that it is not
only the number of persons speaking it which make a language worth
knowing.
Africa.
The Colony of Erythrea, — Italy has for some years been endeavour-
ing to check the stream of emigration to America, which is considered
by many statesmen to be depleting the mother country without corre-
sponding benefit. Many legislators have looked to their own colony of
Erythrea, on the east coast of Africa, as a suitable outlet. The Co-
operative Society of Ravenna, (Societa cooperativa dei lavoratori della
316 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
terra di Molinella e di Eavenua) which has done such good work in the
Oampagna, has been conducting experiments in Erythrea, and lately a
commission was sent out to inquire into the results. The BoUetino
dell' Ernir/raziotie, No. 16, 1906, contains a very exhaustive state-
ment of the opinions arrived at. The objects of the commission
were to find out if the climatic and other conditions were favourable
to the employment of white labour, and if so, to acquire a tract
of 10,000 hectares as a base for progressive colonisation for, say, 200
families. The commission finds that below 1800 metres the climate
is not suitable; that over 2000 metres is too cold for the industrial
plants, but that between these two altitudes the climate is as
salubrious and as suitable for agriculture as any in Italy. They were,
however, met with this serious difficulty, that while there is abundance
of such land, it is already occupied by the aborigines. These natives
have no system of rotation of crops. When one district is exhausted,
they leave it to nature for several years and flit to another, and they are
thus exhausting the country and destroying the forest land. The first
suggestion, therefore, is that the Italian Government should check this
nomadic instinct, and insist on the natives learning proper methods. In
this manner the free government land would be allotted to white settlers,
who would cultivate and restore it to proper condition.
The wheat grown from indigenous seed is excellent, but the native
methods of growing it are very faulty. With good selection of seed, as
good wheat can be raised as any in Italy.
The Abyssinian cattle are highly spoken of, and only require careful
breeding and care. The same applies to the sheep and to the mules.
The communications are bad, a railway from Massowa to Asmara is much
wanted ; and therefore the settler is recommended to direct his attention
to such industrial plants as Tobacco, Agava Sbalana, Hibiscus cannabinus,
Cotton (especially Upland), Sanseriera Ehrenhirgiana , and S. guineensis,
and other textile plants which are of comparatively small bulk. A full
and complete list of these plants is given in the text, and careful experi-
ments are being carried out at Asmara and elsewhere.
It is considered, then, that the colony of Erythrea is, with the
limitations indicated, quite suitable for the Italian labourer if the
Government will seriously take the matter up. Moreover, below 1800
metres there is ample room for the raising of many valuable crops with
the aid of native labour. One drawback is the excessive cost of trans-
port to Italy. The Navegazione Generale Italiana is not only subsidised
by the State, but is protected from outside competition by heavy
anchorage taxes at Massowa. This ought to be amended.
It will be borne in mind that many authorities do not believe in
Erythrea as a permanent settlement for Italians. They hold, among
other things, that if the ordinary labourer is planted down in the midst
of a black population, he will intermarry, and so give rise to a degenerate
race of half-breeds.
Welwitschia and Climatic Change in Damaraland. — A short
article by Professor H. H. W. Pearson in Nature for April 4 on the
curious coniferous plant first discovered by Welwitsch in Damaraland,
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 3J7
and named after him, contains a note on possible climatic changes in
this region which is of geographical interest. In the course of an ex-
pedition from Walfisch Bay to Winhoek, Professor Pearson found the
plant abundant in the littoral desert, and was able to make some obser-
vations on the method of fertilisation and so forth. In the nursery at
Okahandya he was also able to study some young seedlings, which in
the wild state have hitherto been sought in vain. The plant, as all
botanists know, is a low-growing species with all the features of a
desert form. Growth is slow, and the duration of life prolonged. The
seedlings showed a relatively rapid elongation of the root, the object
evidently being to enable the plant to tap an underground source of
water as soon as possible. Surface water is scanty and infrequent here,
and Professor Pearson suggests that the apparent failure of natural re-
production in a region which is well suited to the adults means that the
climate is becoming drier, and that the conditions necessary to start
germination are less frequent than formerly. Evidently the species is
losing ground, which at least suggests change in climatic conditions, and
this is believed to be probable on other grounds.
America.
Inter-Oceanic Canals in Colombia. — The Bohtin de la Real
Sociedad Geogrdfica (torn. 46) contains an article by Dr. Novoa Zerda of
Bogota advocating a canal between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans which
will pass through Columbia. Readers of Mr. Leonard Petre's book
(reviewed here, xxii. p. 637) will remember the description of the
manoeuvres which led to the secession of Panama from Colombia, and
the consequent loss to the latter republic of any participation in the
Panama Canal scheme. The Colombians felt themselves badly used by
the United States, but Mr. Petre considers that the faults were not all
on one side. In looking therefore at the present suggestion it will be
borne in mind that the writer is influenced not a little by his patriotic
feelings. The scheme is that in place of a route through Nicaragua,
which has been mooted, a waterway should be engineered by way of the
rivers Atrato and Truando, communicating by canal and " tunnel " with
Humboldt Bay on the Pacific. There is also an alternative route higher
up the Atrato. The details are fully given, showing a large saving over
the Nicaragua!! route, and asserting that the harbour accommodation
would be superior, and moreover that there would be less risk of the
locks being upset by earthquakes.
This scheme is by no means new, having been gone into by competent
engineers from America many years ago. The article might have been
more convincing had the writer's hostility to the United States been less
apparent. Petre says of the Atrato, that it " has a very long stretch of
stream navigable by steamers, and even at Quibdo it is 250 yards wide
and 1 2 feet deep. Unfortunately, like other rivers reaching the northern
coast, its mouth is closed to ocean steamers by a shallow bar where it
falls into the Gulf of Darien." The writer of the paper does not dwell
upon this bar, nor does he make it clear what ki!!d of tunnels he proposes
to construct for ocean steamers. An excellent map accompanies the article.
318 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Rate of Recession of Niagara Falls. — As is well known, of late
years the power of Niagara Falls has been largely used for engineering
purposes. This has involved such considerable modifications in the
amount of water going over the Falls, that there is little doubt that
lienceforth the conditions of erosion of the gorge will be greatly modi-
fied. Now the rate of erosion here has always been a favourite subject
of investigation for geologists, and Mr. G. K. Gilbert has returned to it
with the object of making a final determination up to 1905, that is,
before the altered conditions have had time to make themselves felt.
He publishes his results in Bulletin No. 306 of the United States Geolo-
gical Survey. Apart from the actual problem of the numerical rate, the
pamphlet is of great interest in that it gives a series of diagrams, sketch
maps, photographs, reproductions of some of the earlier sketches, etc.,
which serve to give a good idea of the actual changes of form which
have occurred in the period under consideration, that from the first
accurate investigation by Europeans until the present day. Mr. Gilbert
finds that the rate of erosion of the Horseshoe and the American Fall is
very unequal. His calculations give for the period of sixty-three years
from 1842 to 1905 a rate of about 5 feet per annum for the Horseshoe
Fall, but during this period the rate was not uniform throughout, the
recession between 1842 and 1875 being apparently less than that between
1875 and 1905. During the period 1827-1905 the rate of recession of
the American Fall was less than three inches per annum. No attempt is
made to estimate the time taken by the Falls to recede from Lewiston
to their present position, because in the author's opinion the rate of
erosion has varied greatly both from time to time and also from point
to point of the gorge, so that the whole period could not be estimated
without taking into account a great number of facts.
A somewhat similar investigation has been undertaken by Professor
J. W. W. Spencer, who recently gave an account of his results to the
Geological Society of London. Professor Spencer estimates the present
rate of recession of the crest-line of the Falls at 4*2 feet per annum, and
believes that this rate has approximately obtained for 227 years.
Calculations of the earlier rate lead him to the conclusion that the entire
age of the Falls is 39,000 years.
POLAE.
The Anglo-American Polar Expedition. — Letters published in
the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society for April give
definite information in regard to this expedition, whose exact position
has hitherto been in doubt. An undated letter from Captain Mikkelsen,
probably written in September or October last, reached the above
Society on March 9. It was written from Flaxman Island, on the
north-east coast of Alaska, in about 146° W. long., and about 240 miles
west of the Mackenzie delta. As already mentioned, the Duchess of
Beilfonl was towed round Point Barrow by a whaler, but early in Sep-
tember the leader came to the conclusion that it would be necessary to
winter at Flaxman Island instead of attempting to prolong the journey
further. The expedition has collected sufficient evidence to make the
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 319
existence of land to the north of Alaska higlily probable. The exist-
ence of this land has already been suggested by Sir Clements Markham
and Dr. R. A. Harris. The question was to be investigated in detail in
the field by the expedition early in the present year.
The ethnologist of the party, Mr. Stefansson, has also written to the
American Geographical Society. He is stationed near the Mackenzie delta,
which he reached by travelling down that river and not by the sea-route.
Prince Charles Foreland, Spitsbergen. — Dr. Wm. S. Bruce has
arranged for a second expedition to Prince Charles Foreland, Spits-
bergen, in order to continue the work he began there last year whilst in
company with H.S.H. the Prince of Monaco on board his yacht the
Prmcesse Alice.
The object of the expedition is to endeavour to complete the topo-
graphical survey of the island and the investigation of its geology, fauna,
and flora; also to carry on as far as possible the hydrographical survey
in Foreland Sound and in the vicinity of the coast, one object being
(should weather permit) the sounding out of the edge of the continental
shelf. Dr. Bruce has for his assistants Mr. J. V. Burn Murdoch, who
has had extensive experience of survey work in Siberia, Korea, Man-
churia, Japan, and South Africa, Mr. Stewart Ross, MA., and Mr.
Gilbert Kerr, formerly piper of the Scotia. Mr. Burn Murdoch left
Edinburgh on May 19, following up the scientific instruments, equip-
ment, and stores which left the previous day, by Messrs. James Currie
and Co.'s steamer Bernlcia, who assisted the expedition by carrying
them to Newcastle, whence they were transferred to the steamer Venus
for Norway. Mr. Burn Murdoch proceeded by the same steamer. Dr.
Bruce and the rest of the staff left Edinburgh on May 27. From
Tromso a special steamer has been chartered which leaves that port on
June 5, and is expected to land the expedition on Prince Charles Fore-
land on about June 8. The point of landing aimed for is towards
the south-end of the east coast in the vicinity of Sea Horse Bay, but
should the ice be fast in Foreland Sound and the Channel in consequence
unnavigable the expedition will have to land at Black Point or on the
west coast. The expedition will finally be relieved and brought back
to Europe by H.S.H. the Prince of Monaco on board his yacht the
Princesse Alice. This is the third expedition which has set out since
January from the Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory. It is the eighth
time that Dr. Bruce sails to the Polar regions.
Commercial Geography.
The Water Supply of Egypt. — A dispatch from Lord Cromer con-
taining an account of the proposed raising of the Assuan dam, with the
object of increasing the water supply of Egypt, has been issued by the
Foreign Office as a Parliamentary paper. Sir William Garstin is of
opinion that no other project, except raising the dam, will have the
desired effect, and suggests that it should be raised by about 23 feet, at
an approximate cost of £E1, 500,000. It is estimated that the present
supply of water is only about a quarter of that which will be ultimately
320 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
required, and the proposed addition will more than double the existing
supply, raising it from 980,000 cubic metres to 2,300,000 cubic metres.
It is proposed that the additional supply be entirely devoted to the
benefit of Lower Egypt to the north of Cairo. The eftect of the pro-
posed alteration -will be to submerge the temples on Philae Island
during the winter, and these temples will then be only exposed during
the months fi'om July to October. The idea of moving the temples has
meantime been abandoned.
Niger Railway. — According to the Temj^s of May 1, M. Eoume,
the Governor of French West Africa, has inaugurated a further section
of the above railway from Konakry to the Niger. The line has now
reached the river Kukure, and it is expected that it will be finished as
far as Kumi, near Timbo, by the end of the year. This place has been
chosen for the site of the Central Station, and for the future capital of
Guinea. It is hoped to complete the whole railway by 1910.
General.
We have received an intimation to the effect that considerations of
health and family reasons have compelled Professor Eniile A. Goeldi to
resign his position as Acting Director of the Museum of Natural His-
tory and Ethnography at Para, Brazil. In terms of his contract, Pro-
fessor Goeldi has the right to appoint a successor, and has chosen his
colleague, Dr. J. Huber, chief of the Botanical Section. The State
Government has conferred upon Dr. Goeldi the title of Honorary
Director, and has appointed him delegate representing the Museum at
the International Congress of Geography at Geneva, as well as at some
other coming Congresses. Professor Goeldi intends to associate himself
with the University of Berne, and to continue there his work on the
Natural History and Ethnography of the Amazon area. Dr. Huber pro-
poses to continue the administration of the Museum along the lines laid
down by Dr. Goeldi, with whom he has been associated for nearly
twelve years.
EDUCATIONAL.
An article in the National Geographic Magazine for March on Rail-
way Eoutes in Alaska may be recommended to teachers as affording
material for an interesting lesson on the evolution of means of transport,
and the conditions which determine the direction of the evolution. The
article is illustrated by a striking series of sketch maps, and contains
much that is exceedingly suggestive from the jwint of view of com-
mercial geography. Alaska is a country in which, owing to the nature
of the climate, the agricultural resources are almost nil, and its rapid
development of late years has of course been due to the discovery of its
mineral wealth. From the nature of the climate and of the surface
transport is a matter of great difficulty. A considerable mileage of
navigable rivers does occur, but these are only available during the
warmer months of the year. Between the rivers and the terminal
regions the most economical form of transport, apart from railways,
EDUCATIONAL. 321
which are as yet few, is by sledging. The result is the rather curious
fact that goods carried up the rivers in summer have to wait till winter
to be carried to their destination, unless very heavy summer freight
charges are to be paid. In consequence it is being found increasingly
necessary to supplement the navigable rivers by railroads. As yet Alaska
only contains two hundred miles of rail, but for the full development of
its mineral resources — gold, coal, and copper — further lines are required.
A great difficulty, however, is that the region whose mineral resources
promise to justify railway construction lies between the international
boundary and the 154th meridian, and this region is separated from the
Pacific seaboard by a number of parallel mountain ranges which form
the Pacific Mountain System, and which must be crossed before the
interior is reached. The author considers the different possibilities in
regard to this traverse, and shows that the political and commercial
factors are such that the route Avhich from the point of view of topo-
graphy only seems the logical one, is apparently ruled out of court.
The great interest of the paper, then, from the point of view of com-
mercial geography, is that it illustrates, by a practical example, the fact
that the route of lines of communication is determined by more than
one set of factors, and not by the topography alone. Further, the
author's conclusion that the facts meantime available are not sufficient
to determine the best route for immediate construction, and that the
problem will probably be practically solved by the wasteful method of
experimentation, followed by a struggle for existence among competing
lines, suggests some interesting geographical morals.
A short article in The Journal of Geography for January 1907 by
R. H. AVhitbeck on the points which should be emphasised in the
teaching of the geography of Europe, contains some points worth note.
The central idea is that in going over the geography of a continent with
a junior class it is a mistake to employ a rigid scheme, giving in each
case a fixed amount of time to physical features, commerce, and so forth,
according to the methods beloved of old-fashioned text-books, but that
the teacher's aim should be rather to emphasise those points in each case
which are of prime importance, and are characteristic of the nation or
country discussed, while slurring over the others. Thus in the case of
Great Britain, Germany, and Belgium it is the factors which have made
for the predominance of the industries of these nations which are of
importance, Greece, Italy, and Spain, on the other hand, are given as
examples of countries whose greatest interest lies in their past history,
Russia of one in which it centres in the life and struggles of the people.
The recommendations, of course, virtually resolve themselves into the
giving in every case of a vivid impressionist sketch, and the danger — a
danger which we have seen exemplified in some recent American geo-
graphical elementary text-books — is that the personal equation enters so
largely into the sketching process that the result may have little or no
objective value. It not infrequently happens in such cases that a concise
impressionist statement about a place or country, once formulated, is
repeated in text-book after text-book long after it has lost all the truth
it ever possessed, and it is unfortunately true also that these general state-
322 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINK.
ments, believed in from early youth on an original basis of authority
and not of reason, are precisely those which have the longest life.
Some of the geueral points in regard both to the continent of Europe
and of the individual countries here stressed are, however, of real value :
as, for example, the emphasis laid upon the great irregularity of the
European coastline as a factor in the commercial development of the
continent; on the many and scattered mountain ranges as leading to
the existence of numerous, relatively small, and independent states ; and
on the exceptionally mild climate of the northern portion. We note
further with approval that the author regards as the primary danger in
geograpiiical teaching that of attempting to teach too much.
NEW BOOKS.
EUROPE.
Moorish Remains in S2)ain; beiiif/ « Brief Record of the Arabian Conquest of the
Peninsula, ivith a particular Account of Cordova, Sei:ille, and Toledo. By
Albert F. Calvert. London : John Lane, 1906. Price 42s. net.
The Alhambra. By Albert F. Calvert. Second edition. London : John
Lane, 1907. Price 42s. net.
As Mr. Calvert truly says in his preface to one of these volumes, he has sup-
plied a long-felt want. He describes how, when he came to study the architecture
of the Alhambra, he found that there was no illustrated work which dealt adequately
with the subject and which at the same time was accessible to the general public.
Costly volumes there were hidden away in public libraries, histories also in Spanish
and Arabic, but these were not within the reach of the ordinary reader. He there-
fore made a special study of the history of the Arab Domination, sifting the
various authorities, and only retaining the most trustworthy. He considers, for
instance, that ihe authors most worthy of credence are Gayangos, the translator of
the manuscript of Al-Makkari, and Dr. Dozy of Leyden ; and he omits, probably
quite justly, the work of Conde, Los Arabcs en Espana. Conde, however, did
have access to the manuscripts in the Escorial, a privilege which was denied to
Gayangos. In dealing with the artistic side of his subject, Mr. Calvert has made
diligent use of the work of Owen Jones and others.
Very wisely, we think, the author has made the letterpress subservient to the
illustrations, for while the volumes will be acceptable to all who are interested
in Spain, they appeal more directly to the student of design and the architect.
Mr. Calvert has not only used the camera himself, but has levied contributions
on all the best illustrated works, and, as a result, has produced t'wo volumes of
great interest. The historical resume should be thoroughly mastered in order to
comprehend the artistic evolution. One of two points at once strike the reader.
The length of time during which the Arab domination subsisted, " a period elapsed
equal to that which passed since England was subjugated by the Normans ; and the
descendants of Musa and Tarik might as little anticipate being forced into exile
across the Straits ... as the descendants of Eollo and "William may dream of
being driven back to the shores of Normandy." All told, the period lasted from
710 to 1610.
Another point which is well brought out is the dramatic suddenness of the
Arab conquest. Tarik landed on a foraging expedition. He found the Peninsula
to all intents and purposes empty ; the Visigoth power, a worthless exhibition of
NEW BOOKS. 323
brute strength, had sunk into sensuality and helpless decay, and the land and its
wealth were at the mercy of the first invader. " Unworthy of remembrance "
Hallam stigmatises the Visigoths, and so they fell. So also eventually the Arab
conquerors quarrelled among themselves, fell into luxury, did not, so to speak,
keep their armour burnished, and they, too, in their turn were swept from the
land. It is a dramatic story told with considerable force, and it forms a fitting
prelude to the beautiful illustrations of jNIoorish art.
Mr. Calvert found that to most people this artistic evolution meant simply the
Alhambra ; that to them there was little else worthy of note, foi getting that it
is not even the best example, but is typical rather of the decay of the Moslem
power. Therefore he has published a second volume dealing with Toledo, Seville,
and Cordoba, showing, for instance, that the Alcazar at Seville is finer than any-
thing in Granada, and justly extolling the mosque at Cordoba, which strikes one
as the most wonderful thing in all Spain. The reader, after mastering the general
history, might do well to reverse the order of the books and commence with
Toledo and the severe beauty of Cristo de la Luz and Sta. Maria La Blanca.
Then Cordoba and its mosque would lead up to the Alcazar at Seville, which in
its turn would form a fitting introduction to the Alhambra.
■' Dios bizo la Alhambra y Grauada
Por si alguua vez se causaba de sn niorada."
" God made the Alhambra and Granada, lest at any time He might tire of His
own Dwelling-place."
In dealing with the authors whom he consulted, Mr. Calvert takes occasion,
as we have said, to mention how much Gayangos was hampered by an illiberal
policy which closed the library of the Escorial to him with all its valuable manu-
scripts, and it is pleasant to read that Alfonso xiir. has shown a more enlightened
tendency, and has removed all restrictions which might stand in the way of
research.
We may express the hope that Mr. Calvert will be encouraged to continue his
studies of the many other Moorish remains which are less well known.
The Sacred Grove, and otJur Imjyressions of Italy. By Staxhope Baylet.
London : Elkin Mathews, 1907. Price 4s. (jd. net.
Many of these papers have already appeared in the Times of India, others are
now printed for the first time. Mr. Bayley has evidently lived much in the
country and has got into touch with the people. The reader will find in the
pages before him the indefinable charm which he meets in the country itself. It
is not the mere beauty of the scenery, nor indeed any one aspect ; it is the
curious feeling which so many have that everything is strangely familiar and is
not being seen for the first time. jNIany will read the paper on the Madonna of
Venice with peculiar interest, and the description of that wonderful old Byzantine
mosaic in the church at Murano will find an answering echo in many a heart.
Euskin felt this influence, and regretted that the figure was so hidden by tawdry
cloth hangings ; but whoever has once looked into that face will not soon forget
the impression produced.
"A runic inscription in Venice" tells of one of the lions at the Arsenal which
bears an inscription recording the name of Harold the Tall, who afterwards as
King of Norway fought with our Harold, and was killed at Stamford Bridge
shortly before the battle of Hastings.
All travellers who love their Italy will read this little volume with reminiscent
pleasure.
324 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Three Vagabonds in Friesland. Bj^ H. F. Tomalin. With Photogi-aphic Pic-
tures by Arthur Marshall, A.R.I. B.A., F.R.P.S. London : Simpkin,
Marshal], Hamilton, Kent and Co., 1907. Price Is. 6d. nef.
Friesland is the north-western proA-ince of the Netherlands, and is bounded on
the north, west, and south by the Zuyder Zee, and on the east by the provinces
of Groningen and Drenthe, a somewhat unusual but very accessible place for a
summer holiday, as "a man may dine in London and lunch next day in Friesland."
The author of this work describes it very accurately as " a book of photographs
with letterpress obligato," and we may say at once that the photographs are
excellent. The three vagabonds spent a very enjoyable holiday, entering the
country at Stavoren, and making their way in a Dutch boat over the meers, or, as
we might call them on the analogy of Norfolk, the broads, until they reached
Leeuwarden, from whence they returned homewards. They met with no start-
ling or exciting adventures, and had to live for the most part on eggs, cheese, and
vegetables. Throughout the whole of the expedition they received nuich simple
courtesy and kindness, and they present to us a very pleasing portrait of the
Dutch i^easantry. The excellent photographs, however, are the feature of the
book.
Winter in Schweden. Wegweiser des Schiotdischen Touristenvereines, No. 28.
Stockholm : Wahlstrom and Widstrand.
This is a small pamphlet to be had gratis on application to the Swedish
Tourist Club, Stockholm, which, by the aid of letterpress and many photographs,
sets forward the winter charms of Sweden. Many of the illustrations are ex-
ceedingly striking, and the list of pofsible winter sports seems long.
ASIA.
The Tourists' India. By Eustace Reynolds-Ball, F.R.G.S., F.R.C.L
London : Swan Sonnenschein and Co., Limited, 1907.
The author of this book, while adu)itting that the output of books on India of
late years has been enormous, describes it as "a conspectus or popular sketch of
the present-day topographical, archteological, historical and social aspects of the
great show cities and tourist centres of India." As a series of sketches it is
eminently readable and entertaining, although it contains nothing new. It runs
on much the same lines as Mr. Perceval Landon's Under the Smi ; i.e. we have
a number of light sketches of the principal cities of India, with Mandalay,
Colombo, and Aden thrown into the bargain. Bombay is disposed of in eight
pages, Agra in nine, Amritsar in five, Udaipur in six, and so on. There is also an
appendix of Practical Information for the Tourist, ranging from the Mohammedan
Calendar to cures for snake-bites. The illustrations are good, and there is an
useful map.
The Desert and the Soicn. By Gertrude Lowtuian Bell. Loudon : Heine-
mann, 1907. Price 16s. net.
Arab and Druze at Home. By William Ewing, M.A. London and Edinburgh :
T. C. and E. C. Jack, 1907. Price 5s. net.
The Desert and the Soivn is a delightful book. From the time that in Miss
Bell's company we cross " the great bridge across the Jordan with its trellised
sides and roof of beams," we breathe the atmosphere of the East. First, it is
that of the Desert : at least so do we call it, but not so the Arabs. " To them it
is neither desert nor wilderness, but a land of which they know every feature, a
NEW BOOKS. 325
mother-country whose smallest product has a use sufficient for their needs.
They know, or at least they knew, how to rejoice in the great si)aces and how to
honour the rush of the storm." Still, as in the centuries gone by, "the ghazu
(plundering raid) is the only industry the Desert knows, and its only game."
From the Desert we pass to the Mountain, the home of the Druzes, that
people in whom we British have never lost interest since, in 1860, Lord Dufferin
was sent to reconcile the vendetta of Christian Maronite and of Mohammedan
Druze, and succeeded in saving the chiefs of the latter from being treated as
scapegoats by the Turkish authorities, who were really responsible for the con-
tinuous anarchy which led to the outburst that deluged the Lebanon with blood.
Not but that the Druzes themselves are a fighting and a fiery race. Listen to the
wild song in which war is, so to speak, declared by the Mountain upon the Desert,
by Druze upon Arab :
" Upon them, upon them ! That our spears may drink their hearts !
Let the babe leave his mother's breast 1
Let the young man arise and begone !
Upon them, upon them I 0 Lord our God ! that our swords may drink at
their hearts."
The descriptions, though short, stamp themselves on the memory. There is
Damascus, " swept by the clean desert winds, with the finest Arab population
that can be found anywhere, the descendants of the original invaders, who came
upon the first wave of conquest and have kept their stock almost pure." It is
the only world-renowned city which has remained "as important under the rule
of Islam as it had been under the Empire of Eonie." There is Haleb or Aleppo,
"at the beginning of the great Mesopotamian flats, slowly dying for want of an
outlet to the sea." There is Kalb Lozeh, halfway between Aleppo and Antioch,
with its great church, " not only the last word in the history of Syrian archi-
tecture, spoken at the end of many centuries of endeavour, but the beginning of
a new chapter in the architecture of the world. The fine and simple beauty of
the Romanesque was born in North Syria." Lastly, there is Antioch itself :
" Earthquakes and the changing floods of the stream have overturned and covered
with silt the palaces of the Greek and of the Roman city : the town has shrunk
away from the castle walls ; but it is still one of the loveliest of places, with its
great ragged hill behind it, croAvned with walls, and its clustered red roofs stretch-
ing to the fertile and wide valley of the Orontes."
The object of the book is not political, but there is much in it which deserves
to be pondered by us British, whose sovereign rules over so many Mohamme-
dans, who have such an enormous stake in the East. We ought to notice, for
instance, such a judgment as this on Turkish policy. "The Turk can organise a
village community, but he cannot govern on wide lines ; above all, he cannot
govern on foreign lines, and unfortunately he is brought more and more into con-
tact with foreign nations. Even his own subjects have caught the infection of
progress. . . . And yet for all his failure there is no one who would obviously be
fitted to take his place. For my own immediate purpose, I speak only of Syria.
... Of what value are the pan- Arabic associations and the inflammatory leaflets
that they issue from foreign printing presses ? The answer is easy : They are
worth nothing at all. There is no nation of Arabs . . . the Syrian country is
inhabited by Arabic-speaking races all eager to be at each other's throats, and
only prevented from fulfilling their natural desires by the ragged half-fed soldier
who draws at rare intervals the Sultan's pay." And again, what can be more
characteristic of the "tremulous" East than this which follows? "It is scarcely
326 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
an exaggeration to say that if an English {sic) regiment is cut up on the borders
of Afghanistan, the English (sic) tourist will be mocked at iu the streets of
Damascus. Islam is the bond that connects the western and central parts of the
continent, as it is the electric current by which the transmission of sentiment is
effected, and its potency is increased by the fact that there is little or no sense of
territorial nationality to counterbalance it." Finally, with regard to the increase
of British influence in the East in the last few years, the author notes that, as far
as she can judge, the change is due " to Lord Cromer's brilliant administration in
Egypt, Lord Curzon's policy on the Persian Gulf, and the alliance with the con-
quering Japanese."
In conclusion, it is marvellous how this lady, with an insignificant escort,
travelled half the length of the Ottoman Empire and was treated with universal
respect and civility. It reminds one of Kinglake's remark that Damascus is
more tolerant and safer than Oxford. There is indeed much in The Desert and the
SoiOH that recalls Eothen, and Miss Bell's work shares in the charm of that most
fascinating of books of tiavel.
Mr. Ewing's book is less ambitious, but is clearly written and gives valuable
information on Trachonitis, Mount Gilead, and the country east of the Jordan. The
Circassians who have emigrated thither are likely, according to the author, to
make good colonists ; " in their agricultural enterprises they are protected by their
reputation for absolute fearlessness, unwavering energy in avenging an injury, and
skill in the itse of their weapons." Comparing the Arabs and Druzes as warriors,
he admires the simple daring, wild bravery, and personal intrepidity of the
Beduins, while acknowledging that in power of united action and stubborn endur-
ance the Druzes have the superiority. "There is," he adds, "a strain of true
nobility in the character of that people, who in the hour of victory Lave ever
chivalrously protected defenceless women and little children from all injury and
insult." This book can well be read as a pendant to The Desert and the ^'o«•«.
A Mission in China. By W. E. Soothill, Author of " The Student's Pocket
Chinese Dictionary," translator of the Wenchow New Testament, etc.
London and Edinburgh : Oliphant Anderson and Ferrier, 1907. Price bs. net.
This is an account of the Methodist Free Church Mission Station at Wenchow,
in Eastern China, detailing the daily life and work of the missionary pro-
pagandist.
As is stated in the preface, the book is written chiefly for those who lend their
support to such missions, and in our view their judgment, after perusal of the
book, should undoubtedly be — to put it on a commercial plane — that in Wenchow
at any rate they are getting value for their money.
There is a spirit of earnest optimism in the account Avhich, to some extent,
disarms criticism, but which optimism seems to us hardly warranted by the results
accomplished after a quarter of a century of patient labour ; but it is perhaps we
who expect too much. Of matters of Geographical or Ethnological interest in
the book there is practically none.
There is a chapter on opium — not very conclusive, except that it shows how,
if the Indian drug were excluded from China to-morrow, the evil would still be
there, as it would simply stimulate the further extension of the poppy cultivation
in China. The last five cliapters of the book are devoted to a condensed but
very lucid exposition of the religions of China, and is perhaps the most interesting
portion of the volume to the general reader.
The author is evidently an enthusiastic believer in the ultimate triumph of
the Christianisation of China, and his linguistic achievements in Chinese, if
I
NEW BOOKS. 327
equally attained by his brethren in the mission-field, will go far to make that
objective a little nearer realisation than it seems to be at present.
Indian Pichires and Problems. By Ian Malcolm. London : E. Grant Richards,
1907. Price 10s. 6d. net.
Yet another book on India ! But this work is not of the pot-boiler stamp, of
which we have had far too many of late years. The ex-member for Stowmarket
presents for the consideration of his readers a series of "Indian Pictures and
Problems," in which his breadth of view, his sympathy with official and native, his
impartiality and his enthusiasm, are all abundantly evident. And yet withal he
does not pose as an authority ; he sees and sketches with commendable clearness
some of the problems which beset the British administration of India, but he offers
no nostrum of his own by which every one of these problems is to be solved. He
has seen for himself the sagacity, skill, energy and statesmanship of the men on
the spot from the Viceroy down to the junior police officers, and lie has come to
the deliberate conclusion that the future weal or woe of our Eastern Empire is and
should be in their hands rather than in those of the India Office or the House of
Commons. He has given special attention to the condition of affairs and the com-
plexities of the problems which constitute the difficulty of the north-western
frontier province, and Anglo-Indians will recognise the impartiality with which he
sets forth the policies of the conflicting schools of politicians. Mr. Malcolm is
evidently a keen sportsman, and endowed with a keen sense of the beauties of
nature, as well as with the ability to convey to his readers a satisfactory picture
of what he has seen. He has a number of good stories which lose nothing by the
way he tells them. We recommend this work to our readers as one of the best
which have appeared on India during the last decade.
AFRICA.
The Sudan: A SItort Compendium of Facts and Figures about the Land of Dark-
ness. By H. Karl Kumm, Ph.D., F.R.G.S., with an Introduction by the late
Mrs. Karl Kumm {nee Lucy Guinness). Illustrations, Maps, and Meteoro-
logical Tables. London : Marshall Brothers, n.d. Price 3s. 6d. net.
The main, indeed the only, reason for publishing this book is to awaken
interest in the Sudan from a missionary point of view. It well fulfils its purpose.
The author has travelled widely in the Sudan, and gives an accurate contribution
to our knowledge ; it is brief, and if it cannot claim any great depth, still it may
the more readily arouse interest. Dr. Kumm's first chapter, " Here endeth the
Second Lesson," is, we think, the best call to a missionary life which we remember
to have read, at any rate for many a long day. The number of missionaries in the
Sudan is very small — as far as we can make out from the statistics given, fourteen
women and thirty-seven men, belonging to four missionary societies, but no Roman
Catholic missionaries are mentioned, so far as we can see.
Useful notes are given on the waterways and details respecting the naviga-
bility of the rivers in Nigeria. The bibliography of the Western Sudan is fairly
complete, and the meteorological tables are of real value. A small book of this
nature must perforce be somewhat sketchy, but from the point of view from which
it is written it is quite good, and will doubtless be read widely in missionary
circles, and should appeal forcibly to their self-denying efforts. Dr. R. F. Horton
writes a very sympathetic preface to the volume and heartily commends it. The
illustrations, though of interest, are not all equally well produced. The small
map is clear, but of no geographical importance.
I
328 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
The Guide to South Africa, for the Use of Tourists, Sportsmen, Invalids, and
Settlers. 1906-1907 Edition. Edited annually by A. Samler Brown and
G. Gordon Brown. London : Sampson Low, Marston, and Co.
We noticed the last edition of this useful little guide in volume xxii. p. 168,
and have only to repeat our former words of praise for its compact arrangement
and the amount of information it contains.
The Natives of British Central Africa. By A. Werner. ("The Native Races of
the British Empire " Series.) With 32 Illustrations. London : Archibald Con-
stable and Co., Limited, 1906. Price 6s. net.
Mr. N. W. Thomas and Messrs. Constable are doing an Imperial service in
publishing a series of volumes which Mr. Thomas is editing, entitled " The Native
Races of the British Empire," thereby seeking to spread a knowledge of the dark-
skinned races under the British flag. In the preface the editor calls attention to
the well-known but little appreciated fact that the Berlin Museum has ethno-
graphical collections at least ten times as large as those of the British Museum,
though only twenty-nine years have been given to the work. It is surely a very
humiliating fact to record that British anthropologists have to go to Germany to
study the various races under our flag I Again, he says that it is probable that
the money necessary for the study of savage races will not be forthcoming until
those races are extinct ! Can nothing be done to make Britain rouse herself ?
Truly we lag far behind our contemporaries, and that we shall bitterly regret our
inertia when it is too late, is certain.
This series of books is not intended to be too technical in character, but to
ffive a readable and graphic account of native races, which ought to awaken a
more popular interest in the subject, so that "the man in the street" may have a
clear idea of the peoples over whom he rules. Mayhap, if he could be induced to
take up a book of such vital and important interest, he might be induced to take
cognisance of higher literature than the record of racing odds and cup-ties. For
Government officials, too, this series is of great importance. As is well known,
millions are squandered and thousands of lives lost through the crass ignorance
of those sent out to rule and work amongst races which cannot be understood
offhand.
We turn now to the very interesting and well-illustrated book. It is
easily read, but yet gives a clear and comprehensive account of the country,
people, their religion, habits and customs, factions, language, government, and
folklore, and all with commendable brevity, in less than 300 pages, although no
point of real importance has been omitted by the author.
The statement on page 124, that no European has witnessed initiation cere-
monies thouo-h incorrect, may be excused. ^Nlr. Crawford Angus, a correspond-
ing member of our Society, published a very full account of the initiation
dances, but this was read before a German anthropological society. Father H. B.
Barnes has also described these dances, but the paper was only read a few
months ago at the Anthropological Institute, and has not been published.
To refer to this " initiation " for a moment, we could learn a lesson from these
so-called savage folk. When boys and girls arrive at a marriageable age they are
taken apart, and, by means of ceremonies and instruction, taught the meaning of
life and the duties of husband and wife, so as to prepare them for the future. An
admirable custom, though perhaps somewhat crudely carried out in this primitive
state of society. Our own young people suffer much from the lack of such in-
struction. A book of this sort, full of facts, is not adapted for reviewing by
NEW BOOKS. 329
making extracts. It must be read from cover to cover, and we can promise our
readers that they will be well repaid. Author, editor, and publisher alike are to
be congratulated, and we trust the series so well begun will maintain the high
level reached by this volume. If so, this series will render a very real service to
the Imperial cause so many of us have at heart, and which more would uphold
did they in the least comprehend the inheritance and the responsibilities which
are ours.
Sport and Travel: Abyssinia ami British East Africa. By Lord Hindlip.
London : T. Fisher Unwin, 1906. Price 21s. net.
In this volume we have a pleasantly written and interesting account of three
expeditions made by Lord Hindlip for the purposes of sport. The first was in
1902, when he and an American friend, Mr. Waterhouse, went to Abyssinia, where,
entering the country at Zeila, they made their way to the capital and had an
interview with King Menelik. From him they got permission to proceed south
to Lakes Zuai, Margherita, and Chamo, which they circumambulated, keeping first
on the eastern shores and returning by the west. At one place they were not
far from Lake Rudolph. Lord Hindlip, who unquestionably is an expert, pro-
nounces Abyssinia proper but a poor country for sport. Incidentally we learn from
him a good deal about the tyranny and oppression of the government and the
wretched condition of the population — nothing strictly new, but valuable confirma-
tion of the reports of other travellers. For the scene of his second hunting
expedition Lord Hindlip selected British East Africa. Arriving at Mombasa in
the middle of January 190.3, he took train to Fort Ternan not far from the
Kavirondo Gulf on Lake Victoria Nyanza. His first attempt for elephants at
Kericho was a failure, so he went north to Eldoma Ravine and Baringo, where big
game abounded, and there he succeeded in securing many additional trophies for
his collection. Another exi^edition to Mount Sirgoi to the north-west was equally
fortunate, as, in addition to finding rhinoceros, Lord Hindlip secured his first lion.
The tract round Mount Sirgoi has, according to Lord Hindlip, an absolutely
perfect climate, most suitable for colonisation, with abundance of extensive plains
suitable for sheep and cattle .rearing and for the cultivation of various grains.
This was the tract offered some time ago by the Foreign Office to the Zionists.
In May 1905, Lord Hindlip returned to Eldoma Ravine and Sirgoi, accom-
panied by Lady Hindlip, and was again successful in getting good sport and his
first giratie. From the vicinity of Mount Sirgoi the party proceeded through
swamps and floods towards Mount Elgon, and Lord Hindlip secured his first
elephant, which, to his unmitigated disgust, turned out to be a female. Crossing
the Turkwell river, they found themselves in the Ivaramojo territory of the
Uganda Protectorate. Owing to want of time Lord Hindlip, after a few days at
Kelim on the north of Mount Elgon, retraced his steps across the Turkwell and
marched along the eastern slopes of Mount Elgon, where game was found to be
plentiful and several fine specimens were secured. He gives a very interestino-
account of the cave dwellings on Mount Elgon inhabited by a somewhat pusillani-
mous tribe called the Gabumi. Contrary to the current theories. Lord Hindli^D
thinks the Elgon caves are natural and not artificial. To reach Kisumu the
terminus of the L'ganda railway, they marched through the territory of the Kavi-
rondos, an interesting tribe inhabiting a very malarious tract. From Kisumu
Lord and Lady Hindlip returned to Mombasa. The main object of these expedi-
tions was, as we have said, sport, and in this Lord Hindlip was very successful.
But in addition to many well told and exciting narratives of sport, we have in this
VOL. XXIII. 2 A
330 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
volume acute and valuable observations regarding the country, its resources, and
its inhabitants. The numerous photographs which illustrate the book are excellent,
and. there are also two useful maps. If the work attains to a second edition
it would be well to assimilate the spelling of the place-names in the maps and the
letterpress.
The Egyptian Sudan. By J. Kelly Giffen', D.D. 3rd edition. London and
Edinburgh : Fleming H. Revell Company, k.d. Price 3.<. 6(h net.
After a very slight sketch of the Egyptian Sudan, Dr. Giffen proceeds to give
a description of its present condition and future prospects. He crossed the
desert by the military railway in 1900 ; it is, we imagine, in a more satisfactory
condition now than at that time. The book is written from the missionary point
of view. Dr. GifFen, with Dr. Watson of the American Mission in Egypt, went
with the Rev. A. A. Cooper, of the British and Foreign Bible Society, to view the
land in 1899 and find out what prospects for mission work there were. The
author points out that it is always much easier to start a mission when some of
the young men who have been in mission schools have settled in the neighbovu'-
hood. He found them everywhere, and speaks well of the influences which they
have exerted. The difficulties of building a mission station and commencing
mission work are well described, and readers will gain an insight into this phase
of life from the perusal of the book and learn somewhat of the obstacles to be
surmounted in entering an uncivilised country in oider to spread the Light. The
people — the Shullas — amongst whom the work has been begun are depicted in a
satisfactory way. The sketch of what the Sudan really is and the prospects
of prosperity which may be reasonably looked for, are of much value, as so many
think of the country as a wild desert, unreclaimable and unprofitable, not worth
the lives and gold which have been paid for it. Readers will be inclined to re-
consider this opinion when they lay down this volume. The illustrations are
good,
AMERICA.
Highways and Byways of the Mississij?pi Valley. Written and Illustrated by
Clifton Johnsox. New York : The Macmillan Company. London :
Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1906. Price 8s. 6(7. net.
In this volume we have a series of sketches of scenery and life in the Missis-
sippi Valley which have already appeared in various magazines in America. The
writer has added to each chapter a brief note of suggestions, so that intending
travellers may see these regions "with the utmost comfort and facility." A
perusal of the book, however, leads us to doubt if even ordinary comfort may be
expected in the i^laces described, and certainly the facilities for travel are remark-
ably few.
A travers VAmerique du Sud. By J. Delebecque, Paris : Plon, 1907.
Price 3fr. 50c.
The author left Panama in September 1904 for an extensive tour through
Ecuador and Peru and down the Amazon from its headwaters to the sea. Arriving
at Guayaquil, the chief port of Ecuador, he found it unattractive, so pushed on
to Quito, the capital, by the railway to Colta, and from thence to Quito by an
uncomfortable coach journey of over two days. Quito is situated 2850 metres
above the sea, and the atmosphere is fresh and cold. It has neither industries
nor hotels, but lately the electric light was introduced. While Ecuador possesses
NEW BOOKS. 331
fewer persons of Spanish descent than any other South American republic, the
author insists that South Americans generally constitute a race by themselves,
intelligent and acute, but inexact, fond of display, given greatly to exaggeration,
incurably lazy, extremely vain, and possessing a contempt of foreigners and an
ardent but narrow patriotism. No amount of travelling in Europe ever changes
their natural qualities. While the author was at Quito, Parliament met and dis-
established the Roman Catholic State Church of Ecuador, and confiscated its
funds to supply the wants of the State. The army of Ecuador consists largely of
officers and musical bands, but it has instructors sent by Chile. After passing
Chimborazo (6250 metres high), first ascended by Edward Whymper in 1880, the
author sailed down the Guayas river to Guayaquil, and found that the chief
amusement during the sail was shooting the crocodiles, which are seen in hundreds
basking on the banks. With modern guns they are easily killed, particularly if
hit near the nape of the neck, and their numbers never seem to decrease.
Four days' sailing along the monotonous and ugly west coast of South America
brought our traveller to Callao, the port of Lima, the capital of Peru, which he
reached by electric tramway. Less picturesque than Quito, Lima is, however, an
attractive city, and has a population exceeding 100,000. Its climate is perfect, for
cold and extreme heat are unknown and rain rarely falls. Should a tourist appear
with an umbrella he will be mobbed and called a " Chilian," which is the worst a
Peruvian can say of any one. Otherwise, the manners of the Limans are as gentle
and kind as their climate. At the same time, their Spanish blood demands
Bullfights. Delightful sea-bathing resorts spread along the coast. French officers
now instruct the Peruvian army, which had fallen into disorder and was severely
defeated by that of Chile in the war of 1879-81. Foreigners are numerous at Lima,
particularly Italians, English and Americans being found at Callao, while Chinese
swarm in thousands everywhere with their distinctive racial characteristics of love
of labour, and thrift, and dirty appearance. They do not wear pigtails in Peru.
The most novel and geographically important part of the author's route was
his spirited expedition by the " central road of Peru " from Lima across the Andes
and through the vast wooded region to the river Pichis and to the confluence of
the rivers Pachitea and Ucayali, and from thence down the Amazon to the
Atlantic. First he went by train from Lima to Oroya, by the highest railway in
the world, which attains an elevation nearly equal to that of Mont Blanc, a rail-
way which does credit to its North American constructoi s. Mountain sickness is
experienced on this railway across the Western Cordillera. Leaving Oroya on
horseback on November 23, our traveller crossed the Eastern Cordillera, and it
was not till he reached the Amazon watershed that Nature revealed herself in all her
tropical beauty. For days he passed through forest while vampire bats attacked
his mules by night, but though they lost much blood they were not weakened.
Human beings protect themselves by means of mosquito nets.
After a laborious journey over a road in whose mud the mules often stuck fast,
the author reached on 6th December Puerto Yessup, on the river Pichis, and the
land portion of his trans-continental voyage was at an end. He stepped into a
boat which was simply a hollowed tree 5^ yards long, less than a yard broad, less
than half a yard deep, and manned by two Indians. Occasionally all had to lie
flat to pass under the overhanging branch of a tree, or had to enter the water to
remove one barring the way. At last Puerto Bermudez, at the confluence of the
Pichis and Chivis, was reached, and there the Franciscan Fathers informed the
author that he must employ a certain Irishman named Robert Crawford if he
wished to go further. Crawford gave him a boat and steered him downstream
while retailing his adventures in Peru and his successful establishment there, and
332 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL INIAGAZINE.
handed hiui on to other boatmen until the steamer for Iquitos was reached. By
five days' sailing down the Amazon in a good British steamer of the Booth Line
the author arrived at Manaos, a city of 50,000 inhabitants and the chief place of
export for indiarubl)er, of which it is really the metropolis, with Booth liners leav-
ing thrice a month for Liverpool and also for New York. In sixty hours Para, at
the mouth of the Amazon, was reached. It has 125,000 inhabitants. Having left
Lima on 22nd November, the author arrived at Para on 25th January, and con-
cludes his long and arduous journey with the remark that, in spite of many
privations, he thoroughly enjoyed it. The maps appended to the volume are poor,
but that showing M. Delebecque's Itinerary along the "Central Road of Peru " is
valuable as an original contribution to our knowledge of "Darkest South
America."
AUSTRALASIA.
Hie Natives of Australia. By N. W. Thomas, INI, A. London : Archibald
Constable and Co., Limited, 1906. Price 6s. net.
This book is the first of the " Native Races of the British Empire " series,
which has for its object the diffusion of popular as opposed to technical informa-
tion regarding the native races of the British Empire. In the volume now before
us the author treats of the native races of Australia, and he has put together in
an eminently readable form and in a short compass much interesting information
regarding the aborigines of the island continent. The work does not claim to be
exhaustive. On the contrary, we understand that the writer is preparing a larger
general work on the aborigines, for which he invites the assistance of those who
have special information on the subject or photographs which might be useful as
illustrations. NotAvitbstanding that so much has been written on the subject,
there is still ample room for an exhaustive, comprehensive, and scientific work
on the aborigines of Australia, of whom it has to be confessed that much still
remains obscure and doubtful as to their antiquity, their origin, their develop-
ment, their history, and their customs. We are accustomed to speak of them as
tribes, but we are apt to forget that the so-called tribes number anything from
between two and three score to two or three hundred, and are distributed over an
area of something like three million square miles ; their movements depend on
their food supply, a fact which prevents their settling down for longer than a few
months in any one place ; each tribe has a distinct language of its own, and that
language is liable to change because of tribal customs and superstitions ; it has
also its own legends, folklore, religious ceremonials, and the like, which it
sedulously conceals, partly from distrust and partly from a real, though merely
superstitious fear of the conseqitences of disclosure. The numbers of the abori-
gines are decreasing rapidly. These notorious facts do not contribute to a prompt
or easy elucidation of their former history and present condition and ctistoms ;
and thus Mr. Thoma-! has undertaken a difiicult and arduous task, in which we
may wish him every sitccess. In the meantime, in the work before us, the
ordinary reader will find a well-balanced compendium of useful information,
collected with considerable trouble and patient research from a variety of sources
regarding a difficult and, in many respects, an obscure though interesting subject.
The work is embellished by some good photographs.
POLAR.
Life in the Antarctic : Photographs by the Scottish Antarctic Ecq)edition. Cowans'
Nature Books, No. 10. London and Glasgow : Cowans and Gray, 1907.
Price Q(L net.
We have nothing but unstinted praise for this delightful little book, which
NEW BOOKS. 333
consists of sixty photographs, with a few short notes by Dr. W. S. Bruce. When
our most famous caricaturist represents penguins at the North Pole, it is obvious
that the public still requires education on the subject of the life of the Antarctic
region, and at a very small outlay they may now obtain a great deal of informa-
tion in the pleasantest way. All teachers of geography should include the
pamphlet in their outfit, and parents interested in nature study should not fail
to get it for their children.
GENERAL.
The Opal Sea. By John C. Van Dyke. London : T. Werner Laurie, 1906.
Pp. 262.
While geography recognises a Red, a Yellow, a White, and a Black Sea, the term
" Opal Sea " is purely the creation of the author, who was struck by the fact that
"on warm summer days, in tropical regions, the air over the sea at sunrise will be
pale blue ; at noDu, if the heat continues, it will show a trembling, dancing gas-
blue ; and by three of the afternoon perhaps it is rosy blue or opalescent — some-
thing that shimmers and changes like mother-of-pearl. Given such an atmo-
sphere above a smooth water-surface, and the inevitable result is that supreme
bsauty of reflection, the opal sea.'' There is no aspect of the sea, whether in
calm or storm, which Mr. Van Dyke has not studied, and which he does not
describe with great beauty and with scientific accuracy. He gives also an account
of the marine fauna and flora and of sea and shore birds, which completes one of
the most exhaustive and readable books on the sea which has yet been published.
The title of the book is too limited and fanciful.
The Polish Jew : his Social and Economic Value. By Beatrice C. Baskerville,
London : Chapman and Hall, Limited, 1906. Price 10s. Qd. net.
The Polish Jew occurs sporadically in most of our large cities, and some of his
characteristics are sufiiciently well known, if not admired This volume afi'ords
an excellent opportunity for studying him in the mass and in his natural habitat.
Tne present state of aff'airs in Russia gives the study more than an anthropological
interest : the political interest, indeed, almost overshadows the scientific. The book
now before us deals with all sides of the question — economic, historical, and political ,
and gives evidence of a large amount of study at first hand. The essential question
is that of the possibility of real assimilation ; whether or not the Jew can became
a bona-fide citizen of the land in which he dwells. The indications of a satisfactory
solution are not hop^fal. Recent movements seem even to accentuate the difi'er-
eaces between Jew and Pole. The problem is a tangled one, but the presentation
of it by the author is as clear as can be hoped for, and will repay study.
The Life of Isabella Bird (Mrs. Bisho})). By Anxa M. Stoddart.
London : John Murray, 1906. Price 18s. net.
The name of Isabella Bird is one which deserves to be remembered among
the women of action of this country, and it is well that a record of her life should
be preserved. In Scotland, where she spent so many years, and where she had
many friends, the present volume will be specially acceptable. Miss Stoddart is
a capable biographer. She has made a judicious selection from Mrs. Bishop's
correspondence, and the narrative is written with due appreciation and reserve.
Mrs. Bishop's books and lectures have made the public familiar with her
travels, and these need not be particularised here. They were made alone, and in
spite of periodical ill-health. Throughout the book there is always the contrast
334 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
between the retiring, quiet-voiced little lady as she appeared at home, and the
fearless and observant traveller, who apart from the actual dangers which she
overcame, must necessarily have been able to exercise a powerful influence on the
barbarous or semi-civilised peoples with whom she came in contact. The book
compels the conviction that Mrs. Bishop was no ordinary personality.
A Junior Course of Comparative Geociraphy, consisting of Course A of "A Pro-
gressive Course of Comparative Geography." By P. H. L 'Estrange, B.A.
With 140 Pictures and Diagrams. London : George Philip and Son, Ltd.,
1907. Price 2s. 6d. net.
This is a part of the " Progressive Course " issued for the use of boys between
the ages of eleven and thirteen. We have already reviewed the larger work
(xxii. p. 619), so it may be sufficient merely to call attention to this volume.
lAfe by the Sea-Shore : A n Introduction to Natural History. By ISlARioy
Newbigix, D.Sc. (Lond.) London : Swan Sonnenschein, 1907. Price
2s. 6d. net.
This is a reprint of a little book which has only indirect geographical interest,
but will be found useful by sojourners at the seaside.
Oyi the Trail of the Immigrant. By Edward A. Steiner, Professor in Iowa
College, Grunnell, Iowa. Price 5s. net. New York, Chicago, Toronto,
London and Edinburgh : Fleming H. Revell and Co., 1907.
Since the days when Robert Louis Stevenson was an emigrant West, there is
— if we are to judge from this book — little in the lot of the emigrant which ia
changed for the better. The overcrowding, the discomfort on board ship, is much
the same, and the feeding and food still nauseating. We are glad to note, how-
ever, that Professor Steiner makes an exception in favour of the better accommo-
dation and better feeding on board British liners and emigrant ships ; his
strictures being mostly directed against the Continental shipping companies. The
book is chiefly descriptive of the early stages in the life history of the future
American citizen, from the time when he emerges from the land of his nativity —
be it Scandinavia or Piedmont, until he is dumped down in Castle Garden, or
Ellis Island, New York, and after. We are introduced to German, Russian,
Austrian, and Hungarian Jews, Slavs, Greeks, Magyars and Finns, Neapolitans and
Sicilians, follow their fortunes from the time the Emigrant is transformed into the
Immigrant, and afterwards trace them to their homes and haunts in the great
cities of the Republic, and watch them at their work and leisure. In some cases
it is a very sad story, and the troubles of the unfortunate aliens seem only to
culminate on their arrival on the shores of America. The "Man at the Gate" —
the Inspector of the New York Commission of Immigration — makes short work of
the " undesirable alien." The poverty-stricken, the lame and the halt, and the
blind are bundled back again whence they came. Whilst we may appreciate
the motive, we must deplore the method, for some of the scenes depicted as
enacted at Ellis Island are very sad. The book is somewhat disappointing in so
far that the author hardly follows up the trail in the way the title of the book
suggests. The immigrant is studied and exploited in the big cities and towns, but
on the thoasaads wh) trek west, the rural and agricultural immigrants, little
more than a passing glance is bestowed. Also, what is more disappointing to
a British re.ider is the entire absence of any reference to the Irish immigrant,
who has played such an important part in the social and political history of the
United States.
NEW BOOKS. 335
Professor Steiner treats very exhaustively the comparative value to the
community of the different types and nationalities, and some of his conclusions are
at variance with what might have been expected from what we know of the un-
desirable alien as we find him. The student of sociology will find much to interest
him in these pages, and if the problems of the future in America which await
solution are mainly religious and political, we have no doubt the American people
will find their solution possible. There can be no question, however, that there
exists in the heterogeneous congeries of nationalities which go to make the
citizens of the United States, all the latent elements of a bloody revolution. It
also remains to be seen in the event of a struggle, internecine or international,
whether these masses arriving in America— half a million annually— would
respond with that feeling which we know and designate as patriotism.
The author expresses his views very clearly, and there are fewer Americanisms
than might be expected ; but why write (page 23) 70's for seventies ? The
Appendix seems to us very poor in immigration statistics.
Hunting Big Game icith Gun and Camera. By William S. Thomas. New
York and London : G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1907. Price 9s. net.
This volume contains the record of some very enjoyable but not very exciting
hunting expeditions, mostly in Canada. It is profusely illustrated with very
good photographs, the work of the author, Mr. Thomas, who in his last chapter
descants on the delights of hunting with a kodak rather than a rifle. Our readers
have already heard a good deal of this kind of sport from Mr. Schillings and Mr.
Hornaday, whose works were reviewed in this Magazim' only a short time ago.
Elementarij Studies in Geography: Our Own Islands. By H. J. Mackixder, M.A.
London : G. Philip and Son, 1907. Price 2s. Qd.
First Steps in Geography. By Alexis E. Frte. Boston : Ginn and Co., 1906.
Like every other science, geography can be entered not merely through for-
bidden portals but by a Beautiful Gate such as these admirable manuals throw
open wide to the young. "With the aid of a simple and attractive text, striking
illustrations, and plain, clear, intelligible maps the study of geography becomes a
pleasure. Mr. Mackinder even summons poetry to his aid in his efforts to
arrest and hold the attention of his youthful students and fiies their minds with
Scott's lines on Flodden, a stanza from the ballad of Chevy Chase, Byron on
Lochnagar, and Macaulay's poem on the beacon-fires arousing all England to the
approach of the Armada. Mr. Frye (who is first Superintendent of Schools of
Cuba) aims more widely by showing Man's relations to Nature throughout the
globe, but his book's wealth of pictorial illustrations deprives his subject of all
dullness. Works like these disarm the critic, who can only thank their authors
for exercising so much skill and ingenuity in converting the geography-lesson in
schools from a penance to a delight.
BOOKS EECEIVED.
The Book of Capri. By Harold E. Trower, B.A., British Consular Agent,
Capri. With Illustrations. Demy 8vo. Pp. xxviii-f 345. Price Lire b. Emil
Prass, Naples, 1906.
The Truce in the East and its Aftermath; being the sequel to " The Ee-Shaping
of the Far East." By B. L. Putxam Weale. Demy 8vo. Pp. xvi -f 647.
Price 12s. 6d. net. Macmillan and Co., London, 1907.
336 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
The Greatness and Decline of Borne. By Guglielmo Ferrero, translated by
Alfred E. Zimmern, M.A. Two volumes, demy 8vo. Pp. Vol. i., viii + 328.
Vol. II., vi + 389. Fricel7s.net. William Heineruann, London, 1907.
The Egijptian SOdan, its History ajid Monuments. By E. A. Wallis Budge,
M.A., Litt.D., etc. In Two Volumes. With numerous Illustrations. Large
Demy 8vo. Pp. Vol. i., xxviii + 652. Vol. ii., x + 618. Price42s.net. Kegan
Paul, Trench, Triibner, and Co., Ltd., London, 1907.
Statistical Abstract of the World. By Henry Gannett, B.S., M.E,, LL.D.
24mo. Pp. viii + 84. Friceds.net. First Edition. John Wiley and Sons, New
York, 1907.
From Trail to Eaihvay through the Ajipalachians. By Albert Perry
BRiGHAii, A.M. Crown 8vo. Pp. viii + 188. Frice 2s. 6d. Ginn and Company,
Boston, 1907.
Eothiemurchus. By Hugh Macmillan, D.D., LL.D., F.E.S.E. Illustrated.
Demy 8vo. Pp. viii + 145. Frice 3s. Qd. net. J. M. Dent and Co., London, 1907.
Bed Biissia. By John Foster Eraser. Illustrated. Crown 8vo. Pp. xii +
288. Frice 6s. Cassell and Co., Ltd., London, 1907.
Sark: The Gtm of the Channel Islands. Pictured and Described by Mrs.
Henry Bowles. Large 4to. Pp. 80. Arnold Fairbairns, London, 19('7.
Comfanions in the Sierra. By Charles Rudy, with an Introduction by
R. B. CuNNiNGHAME Graham. Demy 8vo. Pp. 310. Frice 6s. Jolm Lane,
London, 1907.
To-Morrow in the East. By Douglas Story. Crown 8vo. Pp. ix + 267.
Frice 6s. Chapman and Hall, London, 1907.
The Chinese Empire : A General and Missionary Survey. With Portraits and
Illustr.vtions. Edited by Marshall Broomhall, B.A. With Preface by the
Riffht Hon. Sir Ernest Satow, G.C.M.G. Demy 8vo. Pp. xxiv 4-472. Frice
7s. 6d. net. Morgan and Scott, London, 1907.
Limnologia. Studio Scientifico dei Layhi. Per G. P. Magrini. Pp. xv-^
242. Ulrico Hoepli, Milano, 1907.
Wanderings East of Suez. In Ceylon, India, China and Japan. By
Frederic Courtland Penfield. Demy 8vo. Pp. xvii + 349. Frice 10s. 6d. net.
George Bell and Sons, London, 1907.
The Aran Islands. By J. M. Synge. ^^'ith Drawings by Jack B. Yeats.
Demy 8vo. Pp. xii -• 189. Frice 5s. net. Maunsel and Co., Ltd., Dublin.
Also the following Reports, etc. : —
Transactions of the Highland and Agricultnral Society of Scotland. Fifth
Series. Volume xix. Edinburgh, 1907.
Cape of Good Hope. Civil Service List for 1907. Edited by Ernest F.
KiLPiN, C.M.G. Cape Town, 1907.
Beport on the Administration of the Bombay Fresidency for the Year 1905-
1906. Bombay, 1907.
Imperial Gazetteer of India. New Edition. Vols, i., iii., and iv., Descriptive,
Economic, and Administrative. Frice Gs. net. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1907.
Beport concerning Canadian Archives for the Year 1905. Vol. i. Ottawa,
1906.
Fublishers forwarding books for review tvill greatly oblige by markiiig the price in
clear figures, especially in the case of foreign books.
3 3 b
II
GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE VOLCANOES OF JORULLO BY E. ORDONEZ
TOPOGRAPHY BY A. VILLAFaSa AND A. ANGUIANO
Scale : 1-30,000
2 1 ladLes - 1 Enghsh Mile
Cdel tiuurilt)
•I" Fnmaroles still emitting vapour.
Scottisli Geographical Magazine. ]'.)(,7
THE SCOTTISH
GEOGRAPHICAL
MAGAZINE.
ADDRESS TO THE AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION
FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
ADELAIDE MEETING, 1907.1
By Thomas Walker Fowler,
M.Inst.C.E., M.Am.Soc.C.E., F.R.G.S., etc.,
Hon. Sec. Victoria Branch, Roj'al Geograjjhical Society of Australasia.
Since the last meeting of the Association held at Dunedin in 1904 the
event of greatest interest to geographers of our Southern Hemisphere
has been the return of the British National Antarctic Expedition from
the scene of its labours in Ross Sea and Victoria Land. The detailed
account of the expedition has been available for some time, and
attentive readers are compelled to admire the courage and determina-
tion with which the work of the expedition Avas carried out — courage
and determination well worthy of the best traditions of our race.
Captain Scott's farthest point south was 82° 16' 33", or about 534
statute miles from the Pole. This is about 50 miles less than the dis-
tance by rail from Sydney to Melbourne, or 50 miles more than that
from Melbourne to Adelaide. To reach this position Captain Scott and
his comrades in ninety-three days covered 960 miles — an excellent
record for a sledge journey, which, however, was surpassed by that
of the same leader, who the following season, when journeying westward
with another party, ascended to the great plateau of Victoria Land and
covered 1098 miles in eighty-one days, a large part of the journey being
at an altitude of 9000 feet in latitude 78° S. In some respects this
journey resembles that of Nansen across Greenland in 1888 in latitude
64i° N. He reached practically the same altitude and travelled 282
miles in forty-one days.
1 Presidential Address, Section E (Geography). Read 8tl) January 1907.
VOL. XXIII. 2 B
338 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Captain Scott gives us a vivid description of the pleasures of
sledging in Polar regions and enables us to understand more clearly the
hardships experienced by the early Polar explorers such as Parry and
the Rosses, Franklin, M'Clure, M'Clintock and others, who had not the
facilities available to more recent explorers of obtaining warm food.
Commander Peary still maintains his attack on the North Pole, and
on 21st April 1906 reached 87° 6' N. latitude, or about 203 miles trom
his goal, when he was compelled to retire.
The difference in conditions observed on approaching either Pole
is remarkable, and so far no satisfactory explanation has been forth-
coming. Whilst Scott's great Southern journey was approximately
parallel to the south-eastern coastline of Victoria Land it was over the
surface of the great ice-sheet originally discovered by Sir James Clark
Ross, The evidence we have tends to show that this ice-sheet is
hundreds of feet in thickness, and extending uninterruptedly towards
the Pole. Some authorities have suggested that it is of glacial origin,
in which case the surface altitude would increase with increase of
latitude, but no such increase was observed, neither by Scott during his
Southern journey, nor by those whom he sent to the south-east nearl)'
200 miles for the .special purpose of observing the conditions of the ice.
As far as is known, the Great Barrier ice is hundreds of feet in thick-
ness (pi)ssibly in places reaching one thousand feet) and covers a
sea surface. The more northern portion is probably afloat, whilst it
seems possible that at the more southerly parts reached by Scott's
parties the ice extends to the sea-bottom. In any case the ice surface
is certainly not drifting. On the other hand, Commander Peary in
extreme northern latitudes met with comparatively thin " floe " ice
intersected by open leads and drifting rapidly to the eastward, the more
northern ice moving moi-e rapidly than that to the south.
It will be remembered that Nansen in the Frdrii found, as he anti-
cipated, a westerly current to the north of Asia, which he hoped would
take him across the Pole, but which actually carried the Fram to latitude
85° 55' N. in longitude 66° 33' E. The existence of this westerly
current in the extreme north beyond Siberia and the easterly current
found by Peary north of Grant Land seem to imply the existence of
one broad current across the high Polar seas, and that the North Pole
itself is covered with water (or more correctly, water-borne ice), since,
should a current sweep, say from Behring Strait across tlie Pole to the
meridian of Greenwich, the direction followed by the Asiatic side of that
current would be described as westerly, and that of the American side
as easterly, although the water streams would be running towards the
same point and parallel to each other.
During the year we have been advised of the successful accomi»lish-
ment of the North- West Passage by Captain Amundsen in the Norwegian
ship Gjija after a voyage of over three years. This is the first occasion
on which a navigator has taken his vessel from the Atlantic to the
Pacific by the coast of North America and its islands; but M'Clure
over fifty years ago brought his crew in the reverse direction during
the Franklin search, being thus the first to make the North-West
ADDRESS TO THE AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCTATION. 339
Passage, altliough lie had to abandon his vessel (the Investigator) in the
ice. The accomplishment of the North-West Passage brings to our
minds the names of many gallant navigators and British naval heroes
from the days of Queen J'llizabeth — Frobisher and Davis, equally at
home in fighting icebergs or the Spanish Armada; Hudson and Baffin ;
James Cook ; Parry ; the Eosfces and Franklin ; and many others ;
whilst the interview between young Horatio Nelson and the Polar bear
cannot be forgotten.
Of what advantage is Polar exploration ? Why risk human life and
treasure in endeavouring to wrest from Nature her secrets in these
regions of such desolate and inhospitable character] These questions
have been often asked, yet might not similar questions have been asked
with reference to Australia wlien the gallant Sturt returned from his
central Australian Expedition"? On Sturt's track there now stands one
of Australia's most important mining centres, a city of 30,000 in-
habitants— the world-famed Broken Hill. On one memorable occasion
Sir John Franklin traversed the ice-bound regions of the far North- West
America, suffering the greatest possible hardships and having actually to
eat his boots to maintain life. What benefit to mankind could such a
country be 1 In it now the miner is hard at work, and Klondyke, the
Yukon, and Cape Nome are household words.
Taught by experience on their western boundary, where, through the
carelessness of British statesmen of the past, they now find themselves
shut out from access to the seaboard, our Canadian fellow-citizens are
steadily extending their dominion and the boundaries of the Empire by
including the ice-bound islands to their north, and it may be asked
whether Australia should not take similar action with reference to these
southern seas, its scattered islands, and Antarctica. Apparently value-
less at present, are they not possibly future Klondykes?
Independent of the possible future value of these Polar regions to
the human race, their exploration and scientific examination produce
data of considerable practical value in solving the problems of meteoro-
logy and terrestrial magnetism, whilst the work has been noted for its
value in developing the best characteristics of British seamen.
As geographical students we are deeply indebted to those explorers
who have given us a knowledge of the Avorld's great geographical
features, which govern the development of nations and determine their
lines of communication. To the Civil Engineer more especially, a
thorough grasp of the geography of the country in which his work is
located becomes of vital importance, so that he may take advantage of
all favourable conditioiis and guard against or minimise the effect of all
unfavourable ones. On the other hand, it falls to the lot of the Civil
Engineer to alter or modify geographical conditions. By piercing the
Alps he has brought Southern and Northern Europe into close touch
with each other. With his barrages, canals, and other irrigation works
he has enormously increased the prosperity and productiveness of Egypt
and of India, whilst with the Suez Canal he has revolutionised the com-
mercial relations between Europe and the Eastern World. We may
therefore note with satisfaction that our American cousins have actively
340 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
resumed operations at the isthmus of Panama, and that there is every
prospect of the great scheme originated by Lesseps l)eing carried to a
successful termination by people of the Anglo-Saxon race. Whilst
necessarily this great work will principally benefit American commerce,
Australasia cannot fail to profit from it immensely.
Turning to Australia, the prosperity of the South Australian Branch
of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia is a matter for con-
gratulation and pride. Recently the Branch has secured the " York
Gate Library," a collection of works of the greatest interest to Australia,
and South Australians must be gratified to think that these volumes
will for the future be housed in their capital. Whilst we rejoice at
the prosperity of the Branch, we sympathise with it in the loss it has
sustained through the death of its veteran Honorary Secretary, the late
Mr. A. T. Magarey. The Queensland Branch of the Society has also
suflfered a severe loss through the death of its illustrious President, Sir
Augustus C. Gregory, whose name should always, in view of his valuable
services in the exploration of the Continent, be a household word
amongst Australians. Ripe in years and in honours, he passed away
beloved by all who knew him.
After twenty-three years of most arduous and valuable work, the
veteran Mr. A. C. Macdonald has resigned the Secretaryship of the
Victorian Branch of the Society, and I have been elected his successor.
I take this opportunity of testifying to the zeal and energy with which
Mr. Macdonald has always worked to promote geographical research
throughout Australia.
Recently some Victorians have claimed that the country between
the Murrumbidgee and the Murray is legally a portion of Victoria as
defined by the Separation Act, under which it was established as a
Colony. Personally I cannot agree with this view, as, whilst at one
time the Port Philip District did extend to the Murrumbidgee, the
boundaries were then clearly defined and described as, inter alia, follow-
ing that river, so that when the Imperial Parliament, in constituting
the Colony and describing the boundaries, excluded all reference to the
Murrumbidgee and referred to the Murray alone, it deliberately and in-
tentionally fixed the boundary between New South Wales and Victoria
as at present accej^ted. An examination of Australian history in con-
nection with that boundary shows that an injustice has been done to the
memory of the first native Australian explorer. Hamilton Hume, who,
during his memorable journey from the New Soutli Wales settlements
to Port Philip, discovered and crossed Australia's greatest river in
November 1824 at Albury, and named it the Hume in honour of his
father, A. H. Hume. Captain Sturt in 1829 followed the Murrum-
bidgee down to its junction with Hume River (which had not in the
interval been traced beloAv Albury), entered the latter, and followed it
to its mouth, calling it the Murray after Sir George Murray, a dis-
tinguished oflicer who had served with credit in the l*eninsular Wars
and was at the time presiding over the Colonial Oftice. By right of
priority Hume's name should stand, and be applied to the whole course
ADDRESS TO THE AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION. 341
of the river from its source to its mouth in Encounter 13ay. The New
South Wales Government gives a partial recognition to the original
discoverer, marking the stream as the "Murray River (or Hume River) "
on the official maps. Our Geographical Societies might with propriety
unite in asking their respective Governments to restore the original
name.
The work of the Australian pioneer explorer is drawing towards a
close, and the problem of utilising and settling the interior becomes of
increasing importance. The search for gold has been a great stimulant
to exploration, and the interior of Western Australia, formerly a " terra
incognita," is now covered with a close network of travellers' tracks.
Conservation and utilisation of the limited water supply and economi-
cal means of transport are the great essentials for the development of
the interior. Artesian and semi-Artesian wells have been most effectual
in providing an insurance against drought in parts of Queensland. New
South Wales and South Australia and the storages of Barossa and
Beetaloo with their reticulations must be of great value to those
supplied.
The Barcoo or Cooper's Creek and the Diamentina provide occasional
supplies for the northern portions of South Australia, but as far as I can
gather these streams are too wide and shallow to permit of useful storages
being constructed in view of the enormous evaporation. The particulars
supplied by travellers as to the Macdonnell Ranges, however, would
indicate that in that locality sites suitable for the construction of
enormous water storages of considerable depth can be found, and no
doubt will be utilised when the country becomes more developed. In
this connection the journals of Mr. Teitkins and of the Horn Scientific
Expedition, and Mr. Arthur Giles's paper read before the Victorian Branch
of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia in 1902, are most
suggestive.
In Victoria extensive works for irrigation and water conservation
have been projected and are in part carried out, and these will provide
a fairly satisfactory safeguard against future droughts, and in New
South Wales similar works are projected. Whilst these works will
necessarily be of immense benefit to the area supplied, I sympathise
strongly with the South Australian view that the interests of the Murray
(or as we may term it, the Hume) navigation should not be completely
sacrificed to those of irrigation. For its area, the valley of the Hume
and its tributaries is the most fertile region of Australia, and whilst the
commerce of its more eastern parts can be more economically dealt with
by rail from the adjoining seaboard, the river itself forms the natural
outlet for the lower portion. Hence the locking and canalisation of the
Hume and its tributaries, the Darling and (possibly also the lower
Murrumbidgee) are works in which we as geographers are deeply in-
terested. These works to be successful must be carried out to provide
the maximum depth for navigation possible, since to secure economical
transport (whether by rail or water) the goods must be handled in large
quantities as otherwise transit expenses increase enormously.
To reap full benefits from the river navigation the entrance must be
342 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINK.
thrown open to the shipping of the world so that vessels of the largest
size may pass in and out. The importance of such navigation has been
recognised elsewhere, as in the cases of the Danube and the ]\Iississippi,
where very large sums of money have been expended to secure the
desired results. Compared with these instances the conditions at
Encounter Bay seem much more favourable, and in view of experience
elsewhere the problem should be comparatively easy. Sooner or later
this important work, which will facilitate the drainage of valuable lands,
will be carried out.
In recent years the waters of the Southern Hemisphere south of 40°
S. latitude have frequently been called the " Southern Ocean," and
Professor Gregory in his presidential address to this section at Dunedin,
whilst approving of the name, advocates its application to the expanse of
waters south of " a line passing from Tierra del Fuego, through South
Georgia to Cape Colony, thence approximately along the parallel of
36° S. latitude to the south-western corner of Australia. The Southern
Ocean washes the whole southern shore of Australia, and may fairly be
extended to include all the Tasman Sea. It runs down the western
shores of New Zealand to South Island, and thence runs southward to
the Antarctic Continent near Cape Adair, at the point where the
Atlantic Coast type of Wilkes Land joins the Pacific Coast type of
Victoria Land. The whole Pacific is one geograpliical unit. It is
bounded entirely by coasts of the Pacific type, and if we limit the
Southern Ocean to the great ocean belt that extends from South America
past South Africa to New Zealand, that also may be regarded as an
independent geographical unit bounded by coasts of the Atlantic type."
I confess that I cannot follow Professor Gregory's reasoning. Tlie
American coastline of the Pacific Ocean is of a character quite distinct
from that of the Asiatic and Australian portions, or even of the eastern
coastline of New Zealand, re.sembling more the western coastline of
that country, which western coast the Professor makes a boundary of his
Southern Ocean. Should the term be adhered to there seems to be
some reason for extending the boundary from Stewart Island, New
'jeahind, to Cape Horn, thus excising an area of a stormy character from
the Pacific Ocean. However, the boundaries of the oceans where not
fixed by coastlines must be of a more or less arbitrary character, and I
can see no sound reason for departing from the divisions and nomen-
clature recommended by the committee appointed by the Royal
Geographical Society in 1845, which consisted of Sir Roderick
Murchison, Sir George Back, Captain Beaufort, Sir John Franklin. Mi-.
Greenough, and Captain Smyth. These gentlemen applied the terms
Arctic and Antarctic Oceans to the waters within the corresponding
circles, and applied the terms Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans to the
rest of the oceanic waters adopting the meridians of Cape Horn, Cape
L'Agulhas, and South Cape, Tasmania, as the division lines where not
naturally fixed by the continents. Should the waters within the Arctic
and Antarctic circles be considered too small to be termed oceans the
former would naturally merge into the Atlantic and the latter into the
ADDRESS TO THE AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION. 343
the three main oceans whose meridianal boundaries would be continued
until land is met.
Varying practice exists amongst map-makers as to the limits of Bass
Strait, and hence it may be noted that the western boundai^ies adojited by
the Admiralty are from Cape Otway, Victoria, to Cape Wickhani, King
Island, and thence from the south point of that island (Stokes Point) to
Cape Grim, Tasmania. As to the eastern boundary, Admiralty charts
and practice seem to vary, in some instances Cape Howe being taken
as the northern point, and in others Wilson's Promontory. Personally
I would adopt the former. Eddystone Point, Tasmania, is taken as the
southern boundary, and the division line may 1)e taken as extending
through the islands of Furneaux group.
The celebrated German geographer. Dr. Karl Fricker, has suggested
that the channel between Tierra del Fuego and the Falklands on the
north, and the South Shetlands and Graham's Land on the south, should
be termed Drake Strait in memory of the great British navigator who
first sailed in its waters. The proposal does not seem to have attracted
the attention it deserves, and is worthy of support. In view of the
width of the channel, however, the term " Drake Sea" seems preferable
to that of "Drake Strait." VN^hilst the pioneer exploration of Australian
lands is rapidly approaching completion, the scientific examination of
our southern seas has scarcely been commenced, and the present is a
fitting occasion for bringing the subject under notice. Thanks mainly
to the work of the British Admiralty, we have reliable surveys and
soundings carried out with considerable detail in the vicinity of our
principal ports and in such localities as Wilson's Promontory, and with
less detail generally along the coasts, whilst the soundings are sufficiently
extensive to fix with reasonable accuracy the ])Osition of the Australian
continental shelf, which we know passes to the south of Tasmania and
is of itself an indication that that island was at one time connected
with the mainland. Of deep-sea soundings we have but few, and as a
result our information as to the configuration of our ocean beds is very
meagre, being based mainly on observations made in connection with
the Challenger and Valdivia expeditions. In view of the enormous
areas to be covered those observations were necessarily made at consider-
able distances apart, and as far as I can gather not a single deep-sea
sounding has been made at Australian expense. And yet a detailed
working knowledge of our Australian seas would be of immense money
value to Australia.
In 1902, before the Victorian Branch of our Australasian Geo-
graphical Society, I discussed the effect of variations in the level of the
ocean bottom in diverting the ocean currents, and showed that the
southern current of Tasman's Sea was derived in this mam er from the
south equatorial current of the Pacific Ocean. My predecessor in this
Chair, Professor Gregory, discussed the subject in his address to the
section at Dunedin, pointing out the eff"ect of irregularities in the ocean
floor in mixing surface and lower waters with consequent variations of
temperatures and densities. In 1898, and again in 1900, I directed the
attention of the section to the eff"ect of such variations of temperature
344 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
and density of our ocean waters in modifying the nature of our seasons,
and this view was subsequently supported very forcibly by Professor
Gregory in the address already mentioned and elsewhere. Accurate
long-period weather forecasting is a problem of vital importance to
Australian graziers, farmers, and others, and its solution would amply
justify an expenditure sufficient to defray the cost of the necessary
scientific investigation. Both in America and Western Europe it has
been proved that an accurate knowledge and continuous observation of
the adjoining oceans are essential in such investigations. It is well
known that the general track of all weather changes in Southern
Australia is from west to east, and hence we are deeply interested in
the oceanography of the Indian Ocean to the west and south-west of
Australia. With ray own limited opportunities I have been able to
detect a connection between the variations of the surface temperatures
of Bass Strait and the character of the Victorian seasons. Mr. H. C.
Russell, then cliief of the Sydney Observatory, informed me that he had
evidence of an abnormal northing in the westerly winds of the Indian
Ocean during the periods over which I had noted high sea tempera-
tures in Bass Strait, causing a drift towards Australia of waters from
the warmer parts of that ocean, whilst the low temperatures were
coincident with periods in which the southings were more prevalent
and the drifts carried greater proportions of the cold Antarctic waters.
If such results can be obtained from the comparatively cursory observa-
tions made by an individual dux'ing his leisure moments, what valuable
information may be obtainable from a thoroughly scientific national
investigation 1
The lines on which such an investigation should be commenced
would be as follows : — Soundings sufficiently close to give reliable
information as to the general conditions of the ocean floor should be
made from 150" E. longitude to 60° E. longitude, and extending from
say 50° S. latitude to the coastline or to 20° S. latitude. Preferably
the soundings would be carried along meridian lines, say 5° apart, a
sounding being taken on each line at each degree of latitude. Whilst
at every sounding the temperatures and densities of surface and l)ottom
waters would be observed, at every 5th sounding these should be
observed at every 100 or 200 fathoms. The information thus obtained
would give a good base, and positions at which closer soundings might be
desirable could then be determined. Such a programme would involve
19 lines of soundings averaging about 25 in each, and about 30,000
miles of steaming, irrespective of distances travelled for supplies,
etc., whilst, under favourable circumstances, i)robably eighteen soundings
could be taken per week. Allowing for delays the work would probably
take about eighteen months, and if carried out with a small steamer
might cost about £15,000. In addition, arrangements should be
made for all vessels trading to Australia via the Cape or the Suez
Canal to supply a complete meteorological log to the Commonwealth
weather office, giving information relative to the Indian Ocean similar
to that supplied by many such vessels to the Meteorological Office in
London, whilst our weather office staff should be numerically strong
ADDRESS TO THE AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION. 345
enough to analyse and digest the inforniatiou thus obtained promptly
and before the conditions to which it applied have passed away. Thus
attacked there is a reasonable prospect of the important problem of
long-period weather forecasting being solved for Australia.
I am tempted to quote from Professor Gregory's address, already
referred to, as follows : — " In meteorology each continent must work out
its own salvation. Europe may help us with methods, but we must
apply them ourselves to our own waters before we can share in the
rewards. Patiently and excellently meteorologists all over Australia
are recording the daily changes of our weather ; but far out in the great
Southern Ocean the fundamental processes that are determining the
rainfall a year or two years ahead are passing unnoticed and unknown.
Australia has spent vast sums in irrigation works that have failed
through lack of water, and provides for accurate records of present
weather; but for the sake of a few hundred pounds a year we are
leaving unstudied the causes that produce and control it. What gift
would be of more benefit to the vast agricultural interests of Australia
than a warning as to whether they must be prepared next year to face
a drought or a deluge? The apparent fickleness and severity of our
climatic changes introduce as large an element of gambling into our
farming as there is, alas ! in many of our reckless mining ventures.
The dragon of uncertainty that now preys on our agriculturists could be
defeated by foreknowledge of approaching spells of fair weather and of
foul. That knowledge is available if we but seek it. For, like the seer
of old, modern science assures us, Cast thy bread on the waters, and thou
shalt find it again, though it may be not till after many days."
In conclusion, I wish to quote the able remarks of Lieutenant
Pillsbury in connection with his report on the Gulf Stream (U.S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey Report, 1890, p. 471): — "There is another reason
for studying these (oceanic) currents, which will ultimately have the most
beneficial influence on mankind. It is now known that the currents
vary, through certain forces acting upon them, by periodic changes,
entirely according to law, and again through apparently erratic forces.
Probably every motion of these vast bodies is absolutely governed by
laws which can be ascertainetl. The moisture and varying temperature
of the land depends largely upon the positions of these currents in the
ocean, and it is thought that when we knoAV the laws of the latter we
will, with the aid of meteorology, be able to say to the farmers hundreds
of miles distant from the sea, ' You will have an abnormal amount of
rain during next summer,' or ' The winter will be cold and clear' : and
by these predictions they can plant a crop to suit the circumstances, or
provide an unusual amount of food for their stock. We Avill be able to
say to the mariner, at such a time the current will be so much an hour
in such a dix-ection, and the percentage of error will be but trifling.
From a study of these great forces, then, we derive our greatest benefits,
and any amount of well-directed eff"ort to gain a complete mastery of
their laws will revert directly to the good of the human race."
Note. — The following is the text of a recommendation adopted by the Council
346 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINK
of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science on January 12,
1907 :--
"That the Association urge upon the Comnionwealih Government the
(le>irability of undertaking the scientific examination of the Indian Ocean
between the meridians of 60" and 150° E. longitude, and from the Australian
coastline or latitude 20° 8. to latitude 50° S., with the object of obtaining
reliable data for long-pericd wcatlier forecasting."
BA.THY METRICAL SURVEY OF THE P^RESH- WATER LOCHS
OF SCOTLAND.!
Under the Direction of Sir JoHN MuuKAY, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc, etc.,
and Laukknge Pullar, F.R.S.E.
I'akt XII. — -Till'; Lochs of the Lochv Basin.
The Locliy basin is a large and important one, having on its bonndaiy-
linc and within it some of the highest peaks in Scotland, including the
highest — Ben Nevis. It stretches from Sgor nan Coireachan on the west
to Meall Cruaidh and Creag Ruadh on the east, a distance of over 40
miles, and from Glas Bheinn and Leim Uilleini on the south to Carn
Dearg and Carn Leac on the nortli, a distance of over 20 miles, the
total area of the basin exceeding 400 square miles. Within this basin
ten lochs were sounded by the Lake Survey staff, viz. Lochs Lochy,
Arkaig, Pattack, na h-Earba (east and west), Laggan, Ossian, Gliuil-
binn, Treig, and an Dubh Lochan. Five of the lochs exceed 3 miles in
length, and four exceed 5 miles in lengtli, wliile one of them (Loch
Arkaig) is 12 miles in length; five of them exceed 100 feet in depth,
and three exceed 300 feet in dei)th, while one of them (Loch Lochy)
exceeds 500 feet in depth. It has bsen found convenient to include in
this paper also two small lochs which drain directly into Loch Linnhe,
viz., Lochan Limn da-Blna on the east and Loch nan Gabhar on the west.
Loch nan Gabhar is in Argyllshire, while all the remaining lochs are
situated in Inverness-shire. Of the lochs and rivers within the area
under discussion. Loch Arkaig drains into Loch Lochy by the short
river Arkaig, while the other lochs within the basin drain into the river
Spean, which joins the river Lochy shortly after its exit from Loch
Lochy, the junction of the two rivers being marked by the pretty falls of
Mucomir.
The Lochy basin, only a small portion of which has been mapped
by the Geological Survey, lies wholly within the region of the crystal-
line schists of the Central Highlands. It is intersected by the powerful
north-east and soutii-west fault that traverses the Great Glen from
Inverness to the shores of Loch Linnhe. In the area west of this
dislocation the rocks, so far as known, consist of quartz-biotite granu-
1 Abbreviated from a paper, with maps and tigures, in tlie Hcvyrophkal Jnurnal for
December 1906.
BATHYMETRICAL SURVEY OF FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND. 347
lites and muscovite-biotite schists, which are believed to represent
altered sediments. These are traversed by acid and basic intrusions
and numerous veins of granite and pegmatite.
East of the Great Glen several of the metaniorphic groups of the
Eastern Highlands are represented, including the Perthshire quartzite,
black schist, limestone, Ardrishaig phyllites, and the associated quartzite,
the beds striking generally in a north-east and south-west direction.
These schists are pierced by various masses of igneous rock, of which
the most important is the large intrusion of granite forming the lovi^er
part of Ben Nevis. It is capped by andesitic lavas, breccias, and tuffs,
presumably of Lower Old Eed Sandstone age.
Loch LorJiy. — Loch Lochy is the southernmost of the chain of lochs
occupying the Great Glen, which were utilised in forming the Caledonian
Canal. Its southern end is about 8 miles north of Fort William. It is
a straight loch, running nearly north-east to south-west. In form Loch
Lochy is a narrow triangle, with the apex at the north end, gradually
widening southward to near Bunarkaig, where the greatest breadth is
found, after which it rapidly narrows for the remaining two miles to the
outflow at Gairlochy. A good road runs along the eastern shore, a
rough cart-road on the western side, and several stations of the Inver-
garry and Fort Augustus railway now^ give easy access to the loch on
the east side. The surroundings are wild, gloomy, and solitary. No
village is found on its shores, an occasional house being passed on the
east side, while the west side is uninhabited save for .one or two distant
cots.
The hills on the west rise with a uniform very steep slope to a
height of more than 3000 feet (Sron a Choire Ghairbh), broken only
by the deep gashes torn by the torreiits in the glacial dchvis, which here
extends far up the mountains. On the east the slope is about the same,
but the hills less high, the ridge (almost wholly covered with debris)
which separates Loch Lochy from Glen Gloy reaching to 2000 feet.
The only important streams feeding the loch are the river Arkaig,
bearing the superfluent waters from Loch Arkaig, entering near the
lower end, and a large burn coming down Glen Gloy, the rest of
the feeders being mere mountain torrents. A very small portion of the
overflow of Loch Oich enters Loch Lochy by the Caledonian Canal.
The length of the loch is a little under 10 miles, the greatest breadth
1:^ miles, opposite the mouth of the Arkaig, and the average breadth
three-fifths of a mile. The greatest depth is 531 feet, and ihe mean
depth 229 feet. The loch has a superficial area of nearly 6 square mile?,
and drains directly an area of about 58 square miles, but as it receives
the outflow from Loch Arkaig the total drainage area is nearly 124
square miles. The overflow of Loch Lochy is carried by the river
Lochy into Loch Linnhe.
The survey of the loch occupied from April 28 to May 1, 1903; the
height of the surface above sea-level on commencing the survey was
found to be 94*24 feet, as compared with 93"2 feet observed by the
officers of the Ordnance Survey on July 1, 1870. Loch Lochy contains
348 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
37,726 millions of cubic feet of water, or nearly 50 per cent, more than
Loch Arkaig, the second largest loch in the basin.
At the north end a small basin, called Ceann Loch, measuring one-
half by one-third of a mile, and having a maximum depth of 66 feet, is
cut off from the main loch by a narrow channel in which the greatest
depth is 40 feet.
The main loch is a simple basin, with the (J -shaped section charac-
teristic of glacier-formed lakes. All the contours are continuous, those
at 50 and 100 feet enclosing areas little less than the total length of the
loch. The area enclosed by the 200-feet contour measures 01 miles in
length, by the 300-feet contour 4| miles, and by the 400-feet contour a
little over 3 miles in length. The 500-feet contour encloses a veiy
small area, one-third of a mile long by one-eighth of a mile broad, just
about the middle of the loch, and includes the deepest sounding in 531
feet. From opposite the mouth of the river Arkaig to the outfloAv, the
loch shallows rapidly and the contours are irregular.
The flat-bottomed character of the basin is indicated by the com-
paratively large area covered by water between 400 and 500 feet in
depth, an area greater than in the two shallower zones; the zone
between 100 and 200 feet, also, is rather larger than the shore zone.
2'emperature Observations} — The surface temperature varied from
43"5° F. to 42-1°. A series taken on April 29 showed the small range
from the surface to 425 feet of only 1*2°. The change is very gradual,
but quickest in the upper 50 feet, where half of the total range occurs.
Loch Arkaig. — Loch Arkaig is a long, narrow, curved loch, running
nearly due east and west, the lower end about one mile west of Loch
Lochy and 10 miles north of Fort William.
The lower 2)art of the loch is well wooded, picturesque, and romantic,
with hills to north and south, reaching well over 2000 feet in height.
The upper part is barer and grander, the mountains exceeding 3000 feet
in height. A road runs along the north side of the loch, deteriorating
towards the west end into a rough track which leads to Loch Nevis and
Loch Morar. Several wooded islands enhance the charm of the scenery,
and on one of these is one of the few nesting-i)laces of the osprey, still
occupied by the birds at the time the survey Avas made. There is very
good fishing in Loch Arkaig, and lake trout up to 10 lbs. in weight were
taken from the loch while the survey was going on.
Loch Arkaig is 12 miles long, of somewhat irregular outline, but
broadest in the middle parts and tapering towards each end. The
greatest breadth is nearly a mile, the mean breadth half a mile. The
' During tlie past twenty years Sir Jolin Murray has taken many temperature observa-
tions in Loch Lochy, and has published and discussed the results in the following papers, to
which the reader is referred for further details: — (1) "On the Effects of Winds on the Dis-
tribution of Temperature in the Sea- and Fresh-water Lochs of the West of Scotland,"
Sciittish Geographical Magazine, vol. iv. p. 345, 1888; (2) "On the Temperature of the
Salt- and Fresh-water Lochs of the West of Scotland, at Difterent Depths and Seasons,
during the years 1887 and 1888," Proceedings Royal Society, Edinlurgh, vol. xviii. p. 139,
1891 ; (3) "Some Observations on the Temperature of the Water of the Scottish Fresh-water
Lochs," Scottish Geographical Magazine, vol. xiii. p. 1, 1897.
BATHYMETRICAL SURVEY OF FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND. 349
maximum depth is 359 feet, the mean dejDth 152|feet. The surface has
an area of 6^ square miles, and the loch drains an area of 66 square
miles. The volume of water is estimated at 26,573 millions of cubic
feet.
No large loch drains into Loch Arkaig, but several very small lochs
do so, the largest being Loch a' Bhlair, a mile to the north. The chief
streams enter at the west end, where a short river brings the drainage
of Glens Pean and Dessary, and on the south side, where the stream from
Glen Camgharaidh enters near the upper end, and that from Glen Mallie
near the lower end. Only mountain torrents enter on the north. The
river Arkaig, a mile long, conveys the overflow of Loch Arkaig into
Loch Lochy.
When surveyed, in the middle of June 1902, the height above sea-
level was found to be 1 39 feet ; the officers of the Ordnance Survey found
the elevation to be 139'8 feet above the sea on July 10, 1869.
The basin of Loch Arkaig is nearly simple, the slight irregularities
being doubtless correlated with the curving outline. The contours at 50
feet and 1 00 feet are continuous. A little over two miles from the west end
of the loch there is an abrupt narrowing, and the loch continues narrow
to the end. Corresponding with this the 200-feet contour is broken into
two basins. In the narrow western part is a separate 200-feet basin,
with a maximum depth of 262 feet; this is only separated from the
main 200-feet basin by a slight shallowing to 183 feet. The main 200-
feet basin is about 8 miles long ; it includes three areas of over 300 feet,
which, however, are only separated by very slight shallowings. The
largest of these 300-feet areas is about two miles long, is situated just
about the middle of the loch, and includes the maximum depth of 359
feet. The others, further to the east, are close together, and of very
slight extent. Though the wide portion of the loch, fully nine miles in
length, forms a simple basin, there is not the well-marked (J -section
found in typical glacier-formed lochs.
Through the kindness of Mr. Thomas Honeyman, factor to Cameron
of Lochiel, we have inspected a bathymetrical chart of Loch Arkaig,
based upon soundings taken in 1889 by an officer in the German army
named Sandler. The chart is drawn to the scale of If inches to
the mile, and the soundings are given in fathoms. A comparison of
Sandler's map with the Lake Survey map shows that — (1) Sandler's
soundings are much less numerous than those taken by the Lake Survey,
and many of his lines were taken in zigzag fashion instead of running at
right angles to the axis of the loch; (2) Though there is a general
agreement between the two maps, the Lake Survey map shows as a rule
rather deeper water, position for position ; for instance, taking the
deepest soundings on each of Sandler's lines, and placing it approximately
on the Lake Survey map, deeper soundings occur in the vicinity ; thus
Sandler's deepest sounding in 55 fathoms (330 feet) approximates to the
Lake Survey maximum in 359 feet.
Temperature Observations. — The surface temperature in the centre of
the loch varied from 48*3° F. to 51-5° during the three days of the
survey; near shore it reached 52"3° on June 13. A series taken in the
350 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
main basin on June 11 showed a range of i'T'' lium ilie surface to 280
feet, the greatest variation being observed in the superficial layers of
water.
Loch Pat tack — Loch Pattack (or Pattaig) lies at a considerable
elevation among the mountains which separate Loch Ericht from Loch
La^^f^an. It is only about two miles distant from Loch Ericht, though
it belongs to a ditferent drainage system, draining by the river Pattack, •
some nine miles long, into the upper end of Loch Laggan. It is a loch
of somewhat irregular form, about a mile long by half a mile broad, its
lonf' axis running nearly north-east and south-west. The maximum
depth is 58 feet, and the mean depth 14 feet. The volume of
water is estimated at 106 million cubic feet. The superficial area is
about 173 acres, or fully a quarter of a square mile, and it drains an
area of 18 square miles. It receives the greater part of the drainage of
the east side of the mountain mass, of which Ben Alder (3757 feet) is
the highest peak. In this drainage area are three smaller lochs, which
were not surveyed. When surveyed in May 1904, the height above
sea-level was estimated (from spot-levels) at 1419 feet.
The basin is quite simple, the contours roughly following the
irregular outline of the shore, and the deepest part almost in the
centre of the loch. The slopes are gentle, except opposite the mouths
of the two rivers, both of which have laid down alluvial promontories,
with small islands, from which the incline to the deepest water is rapid.
The loch is on the whole shallow, for 78 per cent, of the lake-floor is
covered by less than 20 feet of water, and 60 per cent, by less than
10 feet of water.
Temperature Observations. — A series of temperatures, taken in the
deepest part of the loch, gave 42-6° F. at the surface, 41-4' at 25 feet,
and 40-8'' at 50 feet.
Lochan na h-Earha. — The two lochs which bear this name may have
formed at no very distant date a single loch, as suggested by the com-
mon name and by the appearance of the ground. Be that as it may,
they are now two distinct lochs, diftering by nearly 10 feet in level.
In April 1873, the Ordnance Survey officers found the elevation of the
west loch to be 1151*7 feet, and that of the east loch 1142-3 feet, above
sea-level. They lie in a valley, which runs nearly parallel to that
occupied by Loch Laggan, to the south side of that loch, and distant
from it about a mile. Hills of over 3000 feet rise close on the east; on
the west they are separated from Loch Laggan by a ridge of between
2000 and 2500 feet in height. The shores are for the most part wooded.
The IFest Loch. — This is the larger, broader, and deeper of the two.
It lies at an elevation of about 1150 feet, some 330 feet higher than
Loch Laggan. It is fully 1 'l miles in length, rather less than one-third
of a mile in greatest breadth, and a quarter of a mile in mean breadth.
The greatest depth is 81 feet, the mean depth over 35^ feet. It has a
superficial area of about 2G3 acres, or less than half a square mile, and
drains an area of fully 5 square miles. The volume of water amounts to
408 millions of cubic feet. The loch is fed chiefly by two small streams,
coming down from Beinn a' Chlachair, which unite just before entering
BATHYMETRICAL SURVEY OF FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND. 351
the loch. A stream, half a mile long, vviuds through a boggy Hat, con-
veying the overtlow to the east loch. The long narrow loch is nearly
straight. From the centre it narrows to the outflow, but south-west-
ward to the upper end the width is nearly uniform, the end rectangular,
straight, and a quarter of a mile across.
The basin is quite simple, none of the contour lines being broken.
The contours do not closely follow the shore-line; they narrow more
decidedly than the outline from the centre to each end, the slopes being
much steeper towards the centre of the loch, where the sections are
U-shaped. The deepest part is rather to the east of the centre, and it
is curious to note in close proximity an elevation with only 30 feet on it,
surrounded on all sides by water exceeding 50 feet in depth.
Temperature Observations. — A series of temperatures at the deepest
part of the loch showed a range 4"8^' F. from top to bottom. The
greater part of this was in the upper 10 feet, the difference between 10
and 60 feet being only 1"^.
Near shore the surface temperature was as high as b?>'V\ the air
temperature being 62*2°.
The East Loch. — This is about half a mile distant from the west
loch, and nearly 10 feet lower, about 1140 feet above the sea. It is \\
miles long, a quarter of a mile in greatest breadth, and averages just
under one-fifth of a mile in bi'eadth. The maximum depth is 69 feet
and the mean depth 31 feet. It has an area of about 146 acres, or
nearly a quarter of a square mile, and drains an area extending to about
9|^ square miles, including that draining into the west loch. The
volume of water is 191 millions of cubic feet, or less than half the
volume of the west loch. The chief feeder is the stream from the west
loch. There enters also at the upper end a branch of the Allt na
Magha, the stream which has laid down the delta now separating the
two lochs. About the middle of the east shore enters the small stream
coming from Loch an lubhair. The waters of Lochan na h-Earba are
discharged by the Allt Lowrag, about a mile long, into Loch Laggan.
The east loch has the same general form as the west loch, long and
narrow, broader at the upper end and tapeiing to the outflow. The
deep water is all towards the upper end, the lower half of the loch being
very shallow. The area enclosed by the 50-feet contour is about half
the total length of the loch, and in this part the sections are somewhat
[J-shaped. A slight shoaling is observable opposite the entrance of
the stream near the middle of the eastern shore, where, in the centre,
the deepest sounding was 52 feet, with depths of 60 feet and over both
to the north-east and south-west.
Temperat\ire Observations. — Serial temperatures in the deepest part
indicated practically the same range (5^) as in the west loch, and the
distribution of tem])erature was exactly similar, but all parts of the loch
were about 1° higher.
Loch Laggan. — Loch Laggan is situated in the southern portion of
luverness-shire, between the Highland and West Highland railways,
being about equally distant from the nearest points of each. Dal-
whinnie, on the Highland Railway, is about 6i miles from the upper
352 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
end of the loch ; Tulloch, on the West Highland Railway, is about six
miles from the lower end. The coach road from Kingussie to Tulloch
passes along the northern shore. The loch runs nearly north-east and
south-west, and occupies a valley lying between the very high mountains
of Badenoch on the south-east and an equally high and more extensive
mountain mass of the district of Lochaber on the west. The loch is of
the usual elongate narrow form of Scottish lochs, narrowest in the
central parts, and somewhat expanded towards each end, Avhere deeper
water occurs. The outline is very irregular, and the bottom, as shown
by the contours, correspondingly irregular. A number of larger and
smaller islands are found in the narrower parts of the loch. The
length is a little over 7 miles, the greatest breadth two-thirds of a mile,
the mean breadth nearly half a mile, the superficial area about 1900
acres, or nearly 3 square miles. The maximum depth is 174 feet, the
mean depth fiS feet, and the volume of water about 5600 millions of
cubic feet. The loch was surveyed on June 2 and 3, 1902, when the
elevation of the lake-surface above the sea was found by levelling from
bench-marks to be S18"6 feet; the officers of the Ordnance Survey
found the elevation to be 818"9 feet above sea-level on October 19, 1867.
The shores are wooded nearly throughout, and the scenery wild and
picturesque, the mountains rising abruptly on the north side into a
series of peaks, culminating in Creag Meaghaidh, 3700 feet high. On
the south-east the high mountains are more distant, Beinn a' Chlachair,
over 3500 feet, being 4 miles from the lower end of the loch. Close to
the loch on this side, two hills, rather more than 2000 feet in height,
separate it from the valley in which lies Lochan na h-Earba. Loch
Laggan drains directly an area of 34 square miles, but since it receives
the overflow from Loch Pattack and Lochan na h-Earba, its total drainage
area is nearly 62 square miles. The principal stream entering the loch
is the river Pattack, which drains Loch Pattack and a number of smaller
lochs. The Allt Lowrag brings the overflow of Lochan na h-Earba.
Near Aberarder, in the middle of the north shore, two large burns enter,
and there are many smaller streams on this side. The river Spean
issues from the loch, and flows into the Lochy close to Loch Lochy.
Contours are drawn for every 25 feet of depth. The bottom is so
irregular that only the 25-feet and the 50-feet contours are continuous,
and follow approximately the outline of the shore. All the others are
much broken up. The 75-feet contour is broken into four distinct
portions; the largest of these approaches the west end of the loch, and
is 2 J- miles in length. Two lesser areas, each about two-thirds of a mile
in length, occur close together in the naiTow middle part of the loch.
Tlie 75-feet area towards the upper end of the loch is nearly H miles in
length. The shallowings between these various basins are all ojiposite
the mouths of streams, but in one instance the stream is too small to
account for the shallowing, and other larger streams a])pear to have had
no effect on the contours. The largest 75-feet basin includes two areas
of over 100 feet, a very limited one in the narrow part of the loch, with
a maximum depth of 105 feet, and another, 1 J- miles in length, near the
west end. This 100-feet area is at the broadest and deepest part of the
BATHYMETRICAL SURVEY OF FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND. 353
lake, aud includes au area, two-thirds of a mile in ieiigtli, of over 150
feet, in which two soundings of 174 feet and 170 feet respectively were
taken, with a shallowing of 155 feet between them. The two small
75-feet areas near the middle of the lake include depths of 112 and 114
feet respectively. The easternmost 75-feet area includes two very
small basins of over 125 feet, with maxima of 133 and 141 feet. Manj'
lesser irregularities occur. For about half a mile from the inflow of the
river Pattack the loch is very shallow, and the bottom and shores are
sandy.
Temperature Olmrvations. — A series of temperatures, taken towards
the east end of the loch at noon on June 3, 1902, indicates a range of
only 1*2° F., the greater part of the variation occurring in the upper
10 feet of water.
Loch Ossian. — Loch Ossian (or Ouchan) is a narrow loch in a valley
running nearly north-east and south-west to the north of Rannoch
moor. It lies at a considerable elevation, about a mile north-east of
the summit of the West Highland Railway, at Corrour Station, from
which the loch can be seen. The mountains rise to over 3000 feet
both on the north-west and south-east. The former solitude is now
relieved, since the mansion of Sir John Stirling-Maxwell, Bart., has
been built on the shore of the loch.
In form Loch Ossian is narrow, with its long axis slightly curved,
and of nearly uniform breadth throughout. It is 3^ miles long, nearly
half a mile in greatest breadth, and has a mean breadth of about one
third of a mile. The greatest depth is 132 feet, and the mean depth
43 feet. It has a superficial area of just about a square mile, and a
volume of 1224 millions of cubic feet. It drains an area of nearly
10| square miles, receiving only mountain torrents from the surround-
ing hills, and flows out by the river Ossian into Loch Ghuilbinn, 2^
miles to the north. The loch was surveyed on May 14, 15, and 16,
1902, when the height of the water above sea-level was found to be
1268"7 feet; this is nearly identical with the level determined by the
Ordnance Survey officers on May 27, 1870, viz. 12686 feet.
The bottom of Loch Ossian is very uneven, the transverse, as well
as longitudinal, sections being undulate. Only the 25-feet contour
follows the line of the shore. The 50-feet contour encloses an area two
miles in length. The south- westei-n portion of this for three-quarters
of a mile is exceedingly narrow. Near the middle of the loch it
broadens to a quarter of a mile, and continues broad to near the out-
flow. The area over 75 feet in depth is fully a mile in length, that
over 100 feet half a mile, and that over 125 feet a quarter of a mile in
length. One mile from the upper end there is in the centre of the loch
a shoal, over which the depth is only 11 feet.
The area of the lake-floor covered by water between 25 and 50 feet
in depth is larger than the shore-zone covered by less than 25 feet of
water.
Temperature Observations. — A series of temperatures taken at 1 p.m.
on May 16, 1902, shows a range of less than 1'' F.
VOL. XXIIL 2 c
354 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Loch GhuUbinn. — Loch Ghuilbian (or Gulbin) is a small and rela-
tively broad loch, lying in the midst of the high mountainous region
between Lochs Ericht, Treig, and Laggan. The long axis runs nearly
north and south. The surrounding hills rise on all sides into peaks of
well over 3000 feet. The loch is fully three-quarters of a mile long,
and nearly half a mile in greatest breadth, with a mean breadth of a
little over a quarter of a mile. The greatest depth is 49 feet, and the
mean depth over 13 feet. The superficial area is about 146 acres, or
nearly a quarter of a square mile, and the volume 85 million cubic feet.
It receives the drainage of a basin extending to 29 square miles, in-
cluding Loch Ossian. It is fed chiefly by the river Ossian, which,
besides bringing the overflow of Loch Ossian, receives the drainage of
considerable glens both to the east and west. Its outflow is by the
river Ghuilbinu, which flows due north about five miles and enters the
river Spean just below Loch Laggan. The level of the loch is estimated
from spot-levels on the shore to be 11 GO feet above the sea.
Loch Ghuilbinn is a simple basin. The sides slope very gently
down to 20 feet, nearly 8G per cent, of the whole area of the loch being
less than 20 feet in depth. From 20 to 40 feet the slope of the sides is
much steeper. A very small area exceeds 40 feet in depth, only about
3^ per cent, of the whole. The surface temperature on May 17, 1902,
varied from 45-0° to 45'3° F.
Loch Treig. — Loch Treig occupies a deep narrow valley among very
high mountains in the region of Lochabar. The valley trends nearly
due north and south. The West Highland Railway runs along the east
side, and Tulloch Station, Avheuce the coach road goes oS" towards
Kingussie, is only two miles from the north or lower end of the loch.
There is no road on either side of the loch, nor is there to the south
any public road nearer than Kingshouse, at the head of Glencoe, Kannoch
Station being about equally distant. The old road from Struan to the
old Corrour Lodge came to the head of the loch, but is now disused and
in bad condition. A cart-road approaches the north end of the loch.
The sides of the loch are quite uninhabited, but at or near either end
are a few keepers' houses and farms. The mountains rise very steeply
on either side, those on the west being higher, rising in a series of
peaks, the highest of which (Stob Choire an Easain Mhoir) reaches a
height of 3658 feet; on the east the highest peak is Cnoc Dearg, 3433
feet high.
The length is a little over five miles, the greatest breadth three-
quarters of a mile, mean breadth just under half a mile. The maximum
depth is 436 feet, the mean de[)th 207 feet. The area of the loch is
nearly 2h square miles, and it drains an area of about 42 square miles.
Three streams, considerable only during floods, enter the upper end
of the loch ; the sides are unbroken by any large stream, but are scored
by the torrents which cut through the glacial fJ(^hris, which here, as
at Loch Lochy, extends far up the hillsides. The overflow is carried
by the short river Treig into the river Spean at Tulloch. On May 29,
1902, when the survey was finished, Loch Treig was 787'0 feet above
BATHYMKTRICAL SURVEY OF FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND. 355
sea-level ; the level was high in consequence of recent rains. On
July 13, 1886, the Ordnance Survey found the height above the sea to
be 783'9 feet. In volume Loch Treig comes third among the lochs of
the Lochy basin, containing 13,907 millions of cubic feet. This is more
than twice the volume of Loch Laggan, rather more than half that of
Loch Arkaig, and one-third that of Loch Lochy.
In form Loch Treig is a narrow triangle, broadest towards the south
end, and tapering all the way to the outflow. Half a mile from the
north end a rocky promontory, the Rudlia Ceann Ard Thonnaich,
constricts the loch, but there is no shallowing in the narrows, where
the depth is well over 200 feet. The basin is quite simple, all the
contours approximately following the shore-line. The steep slope of
the hills is continued under water, and there is in most parts but little
beach. The axis of the loch is slightly curved, and the line of
greatest depth is nearer the west shore. The area over 400 feet deep
is very narrow, about two miles in length, and at both ends comes very
close to the west side, the steepest slopes in the loch being at these
points. The cross-sections in the middle parts of the loch only show
slightly the U -shape which distinguishes glacier-hollowed lochs. The
valley is so narrow, relatively to the depth of the loch, that the steep
slopes reach far towards the middle, and leave but little comparatively
level bottom. Towards the south end, where the loch is broader, and
the depth less (from 200 to a little over 300 feet), there is a greater
extent of nearly flat bottom, and the U -section is more clearly marked.
Temperature Observations. — At the early season when Loch Treig -was
surveyed, the surface was very little warmer than the bottom, the whole
difference between the surface and 300 feet, on May 29 when the last
series was taken, being only 1'7°. Four days earlier, May 24, the
difference was only 0-7° F. In the interval the surface had risen in
temperature 1"6°, while at 300 feet the rise was oidy 0'6°.
Ari Dahh LocJum. — A very small loch situated about half way between
Loch Treig and the river Spean and a little to the west of the river
Treig. It lies at an elevation of 785 to 790 feet above the sea, at the
west side of an extensive deposit of gravel and sand, hills of moderate
height rising on the west shore. It is of somewhat oblong form,
diversified by many little bays, and is shallow and weedy towards the
south end. It is nearly a quarter of a mile long, and covers an area of
about 8^- acres. The greatest depth is 40 feet, and the mean depth
15^ feet. The volume of water amounts to 6 millions of cubic feet.
It has a drainage area of about one-sixth of a square mile, receiving
only local superficial water. It drains by a small stream northward
into the river Spean.
The basin of the loch is quite simple, the deepest part being much
nearer the nortli end, and the longitudinal slope is accordingly quicker
at the north end and very gradual towards the south. The temperature
of the water on October 18, 1904, was 46-0° F. at the surface, the same
at a depth of 20 feet, and only a trifling fraction less at the bottom,
45-8°.
356 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Lochan Lhnn, dii-BIira. — A very picturesque locli, almost halt' way
between Fort William and Ballacliulish. It is about live miles south of
Fort William, and is reached by a very rough road, one of General
Wade's military roads. It is a narrow loch, with its axis running north-
east and south-west. The surrounding hills are of moderate height
(1500 to 2000 feet) and grassy, except on the east, where Mullach nan
Coirean rises steeply to 3000 feet. Patches of fir wood towards the
lower end of the loch enhance the beauty of the scene.
The loch is nearly a mile long and relatively very narrow, the
greatest breadth being only about one-sixth of a mile, and the mean
breadth one-eighth of a mile. The maximum depth is 25 feet, and the
mean depth 8| feet. The surface has an area of about 66 acres. The
volume of water is 23 millions of cubic feet. It receives the drainage
from an area of over a square mile, by small burns only, and flows out
by the Water of Kiachuish into Loch Linnhe,
At the date when surveyed (May 9, 1903) the height above sea-level
was 510"1 feet, exactly one foot lower than the elevation deterniintd by
the Ordnance Survey officers in May, 1867.
The basin of Lochan Lunn da-Bhra is broken by islands, about a
quarter of a mile from each end, and nearly in the middle of the loch.
The island towards the upper end is on a bar, the greatest depth to the
north-w^est and south-east of it being respectively 9 and 8 feet. This
bar cuts oft" a separate small basin, with a maximum depth of 21 feet.
The greatest depth of the loch, 25 feet, was found not far to the north-
east of this island. North-east from the lower island it is everywhere
shallow, nowhere exceeding 7 feet.
The shores of Lochan Lunn da-Bhr;i are composed chiefly of gravel
with boulders, which form many heather-covered mounds. Rock is
exposed in many small spots. The stream flows out through a flattish
tract, covered with moraine mounds, about half a mile long, and rock
was seen in the channel at a distance of about 100 feet from the
loch. The promontory below Lundavra farm has been laid down by
the stream.
We were told by the local inhabitants that the loch will sometimes
freeze all over in a single night, and that small dark trout are abundant
in it. There are also some pink-coloured trout, and others silvery like
salmon.
The temperature was 48"0'' F. throughout.
Loch nan Gahhar. — Loch nan Gabhar (or Gour) is a little weedy
hollow lying close to the sea-shore, and very little above sea-level, on
the west side of Loch Linnhe, nearly opposite Ballachulish. It runs
nearly east and west, and occupies the southern portion of a large oval
alluvial flat, in the midst of which rises an abrupt boss of rock, the T6rr
an Duin, apparently some 70 or 80 feet in height. This alluvial flat is
surrounded by steep rocky hills, which form the southern shore of the
loch.
The loch is of very irregular form, and interrupted by narrows,
bays, and promontories. It is fully half a mile long, one-sixth of a mile
BATHYMETRICAL SURVEY OF FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND. 357
in greatest breadth, and one-eighth of a mile in mean breadth. The
maximum depth is 5 feet, and the mean depth 2i feet. The area of the
water-surface is only about 45 acres, and it receives the drainage of
13 square miles of country. The height above sea-level, on the date
when the survey was made (May 12, 1903), was 7'35 feet, as compared
with 7 '5 feet observed by the officers of the Ordnance Survey on
July 19, 1867.
Loch nan Gabhar receives by the river Gour the drainage of a
considerable mountainous stretch of country, bordering Glen Gour,
which extends five miles west from the loch, among peaks rising to nearly
2500 feet. Two branch glens extend several miles to the north, and
one of these brings the overflow of a small loch, Lochan na Beinne
Baine, which was not surveyed. As a consequence of the extensive
drainage area, the loch is subject to great alterations of level. The river
has laid down long spits of sand, and threatens to silt up the loch alto-
gether. A very short stream conveys the overflow to the sea ; there is
a boss of rock on the north side where it leaves the loch. In volume
Loch nan Gabhar is the last in the basin, containing only five millions of
cubic feet, or one million less than the volume of an Dubh Lochan.
The temperature of the water on May 12, 1903, was 5r5" F. at the
surface and at the depth of five feet.
The Red Lochan at TuUoch. — The Ked Lochan, called in Gaelic by
a name wliich signifies "brown eye," is a very small pond lying in an
extensive morainic terrace at Fersit, near the north end of I^och Treig.
It is only about 30 yards in its longest diameter, and 5 feet deep in the
centre, is fed only by rains, and has no outflow except by percolation
through the gravel, yet its surface is maintained almost constantly at
the same level. The water is always turbid, and varies in colour from
dull green to brown or red.
It was first examined by Sir John Murray in May 1902. The water
was then brown ; the collection taken with the coarse net very pale
yellow, that taken with the fine net a decided red. At that time there
were only two very abundant organisms — the larva of an insect,
Corethra, known as the " phantom larva," and a reddish-coloured rotifer,
Anurceavalga. There were many other rotifera, entomostraca, and other
organisms common in ponds, but none of these were abundant enough to
be held responsible for the colour of the water. The collection made
with the fine net was examined by Dr. T. N. Johnston and James
Murray. On adding a little formalin, which killed the animals, a blood-
red sediment was deposited, which was found to consist chiefly of ^. valga
and myriads of its red eggs. At that time this species seemed to be
mainly the cause of the red colour.
Examined at different seasons, the colour was found to vary. In
October 1903, it was very red; in May 1904, dull brown ; in January
1 905, green. On all these occasions the phantom larva was about equally
abundant, and none was seen in a more advanced stage of development.
The changes of colour are doubtless correlated with the predominance
of one or another organism. The A. vahja is not always red; in May
358 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
1903, it was dull grey in colour. When algae are swarming, tlie colour
will incline to green. The colour may be affected by the development
of certain entomostraca — iJiaptomus gracilis, for instance, was very
abundant, but quite colourless, in May 1903. Later in the year it
becomes brown or red.
There are other ponds in close proximity to the Red Lochan, but
none of these shares the turbidity and reddish-brown colour. The
peculiarity is probably due to its being more closely shut in. The
surrounding rim of gravel is 14 feet above the pond at its lowest part.
There is, besides, a fringe of birch trees. The water is stagnant, which
favours the growth of certain organisms, particularly Anurcea valga.
The blood-red larva of C/iinmomus, though abundant, could have no part
in causing the red colour, as it was not in the open water, l)ut among
the weeds and mud.
]\Ir. Robertson, the keeper at Fersit, to whom we are indebted for
several collections and much information about the loch, states that it
is later in freezing than the other ponds in the region. The more active
decomposition in the stagnant water would account for this.
The temperature of the water in May is about 45*0° F. It is said
that wildfowl never settle on this pond, and that the common frog cannot
live in it.
The following legend was related to Sir John Murray concerning this
Red locli : —
" Many centuries ago there lived in these parts a noted hunter named
Donnuil. In return for some services rendered to the witch of Ben-a-
Vreich, she offered to deprive the deer either of the sense of sight or of
smell, so far as he was personally concerned. He chose to have the deer
deprived of the sense of smell, ' for,' said he, ' I can easily cheat their eye.'
The witch, liowever, told him that in the stomach of the last stag he
would kill there would be found a ball of worsted thread. As time
passed Donnuil became ill, and, while weak in bed, his daughter told
him a fine stag was caught by the horns in some bushes near the house.
He asked for his cross-bow, and, although in bed, he shot the stag
through his bedroom window. Later on his daughter brought him a
ball of worsted which had been found in the stomach of the stag. He
knew his end was near; indeed, he died the same evening. On the
following morning the Red Lochan had appeared at the place where the
stag was killed."
This story was evidently invented to explain the origin of the Red
loch, and is of the same order as those stories invented to explain why
the fox has a bushy tail, and why the serpent crawls on his belly.
NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE LOCHS IN THE
LOCHY DISTRICT.
By Jamks Murray.
Thkre is little peculiarity in the Itiology of the large lakes in the basin, except in
that of Loch Lochy. They contain the ordinaiy fauna of great lakes of low tern-
BATHYMETRICAL SURVEY OF FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND. 359
perature. Most of them were surveyed so early in the season that the water was
little above the minimum winter temperature, and the summer Crustacea (Holope-
(Umn, Lqdodora, etc.) had not arrived. The smaller lochs were warmer, and some
of those Crustacea were present.
Loch Arkaig. — The plankton is almost exactly that typical of large lakes, with
hardly any local peculiarity. Tlie larva of Leptodora, which we have rarely found,
was present. A few examples of the somewhat rare Latona setifera were found.
A few species of plankton-desmids, chiefly of the genus Staurastrum, occurred,
Vuit they were less conspicuous tlian in the lochs farther west.
Loch Lochy. — Though the situation of Loch Lochy is so similar to that of Loch
Ness, and though the depth in the two lochs is comparable, the plankton of Loch
Lochy offers a reimirkable contrast to that of Loch Ness. In two difl'erent years
when the lochs were examined, the plankton in Loch Lochy was found to be much
richer. The quantity was many times greater, the species more numerous, but the
special feature was the quantity and variety of the phytoplankton. This will be
treated in detail later by Prof. Bachmann. Diatoms were very abundant. Tahd-
laria fenestrata, var. asterionelloides, was of more luxuriant growth than had been
observed elsewhere, the colonies often making more than two complete turns of
the spiral. The rare crustacean Ophnjox'us ijracilii< (discovered in Britain in Loch
Ness by Mr. D. J. Scourfield) was present. The heliozoon Clathrnlina, of frequent
occurrence in our larger lakes, but usually as skeletons merely, was here abundant
and alive, the majority of the examples having the pseudopodia fully extended.
Lochan na h-Earha. — The fauna calls for little comment. Latona setifera was
found in the west loch. Of the summer Crustacea, HoJopcdiuvi was in both lochs,
Liptodora only in the east loch, and Biaphanosoma brachywum only in the west
loch. Desmids were conspicuous in both lochs, and included s(me species which
we have not often found.
Loch Laggan. — The plankton is quite ordinary, except that it is the only loch
of the basin where we observed two species of Diaptomus. One was the common
D. gracilis, the other difficult to determine, owing to the lack of fully matured
examples, but almost certainly IK laticcps.
Loch Ossian and Loch Ghuilbinn. — The fauna of these lochs is in no way
peculiar. Desmids were scarce in Loch Ossian, and abundant in Loch Ghuilbinn,
where, among others, Staurastrum ophiura occurred.
Loch Treig. — Bosmina obtiisirostris had a very long spine, approaching the
variety kmgispina, as found in Loch Morar. This is the only large lake where we
found the rotifer Triarthra longiseta. Skeletons of Clathritlina, were abundant.
The phytoplankton was fairly rich in species, and about a dozen Desmids were
noted.
An Dubh Lochan. — This was examined very late in the season. The chief
peculiarity noted was the red colour of the Liaptomns, a feature found in moie
marked degree in Lochan Lunn da-Bhra. Desmids were abundant, and the two
fine species, Staurastrum braziliense and S. longispinum occurred.
Lochan Limn, da-Bhra. — The DiajMmns in this loch was so deep red that
when the nets were taken out after towing they seemed to contain blood.
Loch nan Gabhar. — From its shallow weedy character an abundant fauna
would be expected here, yet we found the collections exceptionally poor.
C'ORRECTiON. — King Eider Due]:.
In our paper on the "Lochs of the Tay Basin," Part III., which appeartd in
the Scottish Geographical Magazine for January 1904 (vol. xx. p. 15), the following
360
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
sentence occurs: "The king eider is said to have bred in the White Loch for
some years, and to have successfully reared its young." This is evidently an
error, and I am sorry the sentence should have escaped my notice in reading the
proof of the paper. The statement was entered in the note-book of one of the
assistants of the Survey on the authority of one of the neighbouring proprietors
of the district faniiliiu- with the ornithology of the While Loch. I am not able to
state what bird was taken for the king eider.— John Murray.
THE VAGARIES OF THE COLORADO RIVER.
By Jacques W. Redway, F.R.G.S.
(mthMap.)
About fourteen years ago I described, in the columns of the
Geographiad Journal, the conditions whicli caused the Colorado River
to overflow its banks, desert its lower course, and flow temporarily into
the Colorado desert. At that time the overflow lasted a few weeks
only, and, for reasons that I shall endeavour to make plain, the river
soon recovered its former channel. Within the pa,>5t few months the
river has again turned its flood into the desert, with results that have
proved tremendously destructive, and have at the same time brought
about international complications.
Long ago, but probably within the limit of quaternary times, the Gulf
of California extended much further northw\ard than it does at the pre-
O C t -^ "vj
sent time. It certainly included the region shown on the accompanying
map^ within the contour of sea-level ; it probably included nearly another
1 This map is ouly approximately correct.
THE VAGARIES OF THE COLORADO RIVER. 361
two hundred miles of Salton Lake, bearing the ominous name — Death
Valley. The area within the contour of sea-level has borne several
names. As I first knew the region it was called both " Coahuilla "
and " Conchilla " Valley ; it is now commonly known as Imperial
Valley. The flooded portion, since the flood of 1892, has been known
as " Salton Lake " ; in my time it was known as the " Sink of San
Felipe," from the fact that an occasional cloudburst on the eastern slope
of the San Jacinto ranges sent a flood of water into the lower part of
the basin. The entire region east of the San Jacinto divide is a most
pronounced desert, whose summer temperature is comparable with that
of the region about the Red Sea. For two weeks at a time I have
seen the thermometer vary from 100° to 124° in the shade: in the
midday sun it ranged from 140° to 145°.
An inspection of the accompanying map shows that the Colorado
River flows practically around the side of a hill — that is, the land to
the westward is much lower than that to the eastward ; so whenever the
river is running more than bank full, it flows out into the desert to the
westward. This has happened many times, and many dry " washes "
and sinks mark the various overflows. Several of these channels are
wide and deep. One of them. New River, has found a place on most
maps. It is generally represented as a stream rising in the San Jacinto
mountains and flowing into the Colorado ; as a matter of fact, however,
it flows out of the Colorado into the hollow of the former head of the
Gulf of California. The Colorado itself has probably flowed into the
Gulf in about the same place in which it now flows ever since it has
existed. It is one of the muddiest rivers in the world, and, in time, the
enormous loads of sediment brought from the Sierra Abajo plateau have
bridged the gulf, leaving a depression of 300 feet below sea-level to the
north-west. Steadily-blowing winds, sometimes from one direction,
sometimes from another, have wrought great changes in the topography,
and have brought thither the seeds of many species of plants. The
excessive growth of the latter, after the flood of 1892, directed the
attention of ranchers to the fact that water alone was needed to make
the region wonderfully productive. If weeds, why not foodstuff's?
So the ranchers began taking up lands that could be irrigated, and,
in time, several hundred small farms were yielding crops that in both
quality and quantity almost staggered belief — grain, grasses, fruits and
vegetables; in a few years a fifty-acre ranch would make its owner rich.
Moreover, the surveys showed that, at a conservative estimate, nearly
twelve thousand square miles of desert land might be reclaimed. The
California Development Company was therefore organised for the pur-
pose of supplying the required water, and in the fall of 1900 began an
elaborate system of canals, the main trunk of which is shown on the
map. In July 1901 water was supplied to about two square miles of
cultivated lands ; in five years from that date the demands for irrigation
water came from the owners of 225,000 acres — about 350 square miles
of cultivated fields. By this time, moreover, the rapidly increasing
population of farmers had become clamorous for more water.
The canal was constructed (see A on the map) along the dry wash
362 SCOTTISH UEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
of Salton River, a distributary of the Colorado, formed in the same
manner as New Kiver. At low water on one of the succeeding years
the out-take became clogged with silt - on account of the reduced
velocity of the river. Two other out-takes were dug with the same
result. All these were in the State of California and, therefore, within
American territory.
The third attempt was made just across the international boundary
(see B on the map), at a place where, it was thought, the grade was steep
enough to carry the thick river sediments. It was. From the moment
the water was turned into the canal it was practically beyond control.
What was worse, the contractors had failed to put in headgates. But
inasmuch as the Colorado was at low- water, no great damage resulted.
The engineers reckoned on having several months in which the headgates
might be constructed, but they did not take the GJila River into their
plans. Now, the Gila is a most uncertain factor ; in the space of twenty-
four hours it can roll down a tremendous torrent of water. And this it
proceeded to do. Cloudbursts in the Mogollon plateau and its outlying
ranges poured a flood into its channel and the wall of water passed Vuma.
It made short work of the place where the headgates of the canal should
have been, but were not.
By the time the engineers had obtained the material for setting the
headgates, the annual flood of the Colorada was also on hand. The canal
originally was about fifty feet. As I saw it in the month of January it
was not far from a mile in width. The town of Calexico had narrowly
escaped destruction. On the opposite side of the canal, in Mexico, the
village of Mexicali had grown into existence. The swiftly moving flood
made short work of it, however, and in a few hours only a few scattered
dwellings were left. The flood also filled the channel of New River,
cutting it out in one place, and forming a lake several square miles in
extent. New River itself was half a mile Avide.
In the meantime the Southern Pacific Railway had taken the matter
in hand, in order to save about a hundred miles of road bed. A tempo-
rary track was built to the break, and the work of closing the breach was
put in the charge of Colonel Itandolf, an expert in work of the kind.
Under his supervision a dam, or wall of stone and mattresses held in
place by driven piles, was immediately begun, and by early fall the river
had been turned back into its former channel. The dam itself was built
in a skilful manner, but availed little. A December Hood in the Colorado
made a breach elsewhere and the river again poured its flood into Imperial
Valley.
In January of the past year I rode nearly fifty miles along the shore
of a lake whose dry basin years before I had traversed half a dozen
times. It was then the most inhospitable desert I have ever seen.
Nearly fifty years ago Dr, J. P. Widney, an army surgeon, first called
public attention to the possil)ility of flooding it. General Stoneman, after-
' Tlic carrying power of flowing water increases enormonsly with tlie rate of the velocity
of How ; if tlie velocity be doubled, the water will carry sixty-fonr times as much sediment,
and couversely.
THE VAGARIES OF THE COLORADO RIVER. 363
ward Governor of California, threw cold water on the project in the form
of a demonstration that the whole volume of the Colorado would not fill
the depression, so great is the rate of evaporation. I am inclined to
think that General Stoneman's position is correct ; the intrusion of water
would obliterate about every eftbrt that has been put forth in the way of
reclamation, however.
On the supposition that the flow of the river should continue, there
would certainly be a lake much larger than Salton Lake is at present.
Moreover, the lake would be much larger in winter than in summer,
when the rate of evaporation is enormous. From a physiographic stand-
point the question is not difficult. Left to itself, the flow will continue
until the silting of the new channel raises the latter to a level higher
than the old bed. The first process in this direction is already visible.
From a point near Calexico, where the grade is steepest, the " backcutting "
has been very rapid ; as nearly as I could judge, it has been a quarter of
a mile or more a day. The recession, of course, will be slower in the
future, but it will be felt above Yuma. The immediate tendency will
be to bring the channels of the canal wash-out and the river nearer to the
same base level. Ultimately the river, wandering alternately from the
one channel to the other, will fill Imperial Valley with sediments.
What the river fails to do the wind will accomplish. Any work that
man may undertake will be ephemeral.
Some tempest-in-a-teapot international complications are likely to
arise. The Colorado is a navigable stream ; its mouth is in Mexico. An
American corporation has crossed the international boundary and, oper-
ating in Mexican territory, has diverted the navigable waters of the river
into the territory of the United States. Cannot the sovereign State of
Mexico demand either that the water be restored to the former channel,
or else that a measured portion of it be diverted into Mexican territory
for purposes of agriculture ? Justice certainly demands one or the other.
THE VEGETATION OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA: A REVIEW.^
The memoirs which together constitute Die Vegetation der Ercle stand
prominent as models of description of vegetation on geographical lines.
Their wide method of treatment renders them quite as important to the
geographer as to the botanist. Each memoir covers a large area, and
the vegetation is described as a whole made up of plant groups, fitted to
live in the conditions of their environment and amongst their competi-
tors, and having a history past and present. The first six volumes of
the series dealt with portions of Europe, and have been reviewed in this
Magazine, as they appeared, since 1897; they were Wilkomm on the
Iberian Peninsula, Pax on the Carpathians, Radde on the Caucasus,
V^on Beck on lUyria of the Balkans, Graebner on the Heaths of the
North German Plain, and Drude on Hercynia of Central Germany. The
1 Die PJlanzenweH von West-Ausfralien siidlich des Wencfekreis. By Dr. L. Dit-ls. (Z>/V
Vegetation der Erde, vii.) Engelmann, Leipzig, 1906. Price 36 M.
364 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
seventh volume, by Dr. L. Diels of the Berlin Botanic Garden, is extra-
European and describes the vegetation of part of Australia, a British
colony. One feels inclined to ask why it should fall to the lot of Dr.
Diels to describe the vegetation of Australia — the land whose flora
was first made known by Archibald Menzies, Eobert Brown, James
Drummond, and many another Briton who ranked high amongst the
world's botanical explorers. It would be easy to give many reasons why
these early botanists failed to do what Dr. Diels has done ; the time
was not rij^e, and their arduous journeys were the foundation of what
we know to-day. During several decades Australia has possessed
botanical establishments under the guidance of able botanists, notably
Ferdinand von Miiller, to whose pioneer work this memoir owes much.
Since Miiller's time botanists have collected in Western Australia and
other parts, but no one has attempted to sort out the vegetation of any
large area and to study it in the manner now set before us. This is
where Dr. Diels, trained in the methods of Engler, found his opportunity,
not so much in exploring new lands as in studying carefully the distri-
bution of plants over an area in which the species were fairly well known,
and one which presented many important problems in geographical
botany. The time actually spent in Western Australia was from
November 1900 till December 1901, but this was preceded by two months
in Cape Colony, and succeeded by further study of the vegetation of
Eastern Australia and New Zealand. The present memoir is detailed
and beyond our criticism, only general topics can be glanced at here
and there.
An introductory chapter on the vegetation of the Australian con-
tinent is the best summary we have seen. Broadly speaking, Australia
strongly resembles South Africa in its climate and forms of vegetation.
The interior is an extensive and dry plateau with few rivers. On the
eastern side high mountains fringe the plateau and fall abruptly to the
sea ; on the other coasts the plains are broader and the descent from the
interior is more gradual. The climate of the north is tropical with
summer rains, that of the south more temperate and with winter rains.
Inland the rainfall diminishes rapidly, so that large tracts of the interior
are liable to prolonged droughts, and are subject to a wide daily range of
temperature, 20° C. being not uncommon. All these factors influence
the vegetation, and the range of plant formations is wide. The rain-
forest of the tropics of the Amazon, the Congo, and the Malay is found in
a few limited areas between the east coast ranges and the sea, especially
on the Bellenden Kerr Range. Dr. Diels notes the same features in this
forest as those described for the African " Dark Forest " : the sharply
defined edge of the " Big Scrubs " in contrast to the open scrubs or
savannahs adjoining ; the tall trees carrying the canopy high overhead ;
the wealth of lianes swinging cable-like from tree to tree, mingled with
masses of epiphytes above, and a dense tropical undergrowth wherever
light can pierce the canopy. But the tropical rain-forest of Australia
cannot be measured by marches of days or weeks, it is strictly confined
to narrow limits where the rainfall is high and dispersed throughout the
year. The temperate climate and winter rains of south-eastern Victoria
THE VEGETATION OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA : A REVIEW.
365
and Tasmania also favour iorest-growth. Here the dominant trees include
many giant Eucalypti, the Cabbage Palm (Livistonia), the Australian
Araucarias and other trees not met with in the tropical forest; the
massive liaues are replaced by slender forms {Clematis, Smilax, etc.), and
the epiphytic Ferns and Orchids are less dense. Tlie undergrowth
includes so many ferns ranging from Tree Ferns downwards that the
" Fern Tree Gullies " are one of the sights of Victoria. A third form
of forest is met with on the uplands of Victoria, and again, more
extensive, in the extreme southern angle of Western Australia ; this is
the " sclerophyll " or evergreen forest and bush familiar to travellers in
the Mediterranean as the " Macchie " or "Maquis," with its shrubby
Cistus, tree Heath, and evergreen Oak. In Australia, Eucalypti are
important elements of tlie evergreen forest, the "Jarrali" and "Karri"
being valuable timber trees, and smaller Blue Gums forming much of
the lower bush. These forest ai'eas, however, occupy small areas in
Australia, which as a whole is not a timber-exporting country like
Canada, The greater part of the continent is subject to periods of
drought, and trees occur in a straggling fashion in groups, along water-
courses and in other places where moisture is available. The Eucalypti
are extremely characteristic of Australia, quite as much so as the
Marsupials amongst animals. They are found under all conditions, as
giants in lofty forests, as the chief element in the widely dispersed
" Blue Gum " scrubs on the grasslands, and again as low scrubby trees
or shrubs in the drier interior or on exposed mountain slopes. The
bluish-green leaves in an edgewise position (not horizontal with an
upper and lower surface as with our own trees), and the flower-buds
protected by a lid which falls ofi' as they open, these give the Eucalypti
a fantastic appearance and are excellent adaptations against drought.
Where trees or shrubs will grow, there the Eucalypti hold sway along
with Acacias and other trees, and one will look in vain for the Conifers
{Ahidineif), the Oaks and the Birches of the Northern Hemisphere. The
following list of the plant-formations shown on the vegetation map in
this book will give a glimpse into the character of Australian vege-
tation : —
Type of Vegetation.
Tropical Rain-forest.
Temperate Rain-forest
Sclerophyll forest.
Savannah forest.
Savannah.
Miilga scrub.
Bi'igalow and Mallee
scrub and Sand-
beaths.
1 Desert.
Principal Tree.
Under Shrubs.
Surface Vegetation.
Mixture of many trees. Numerous shrubs.
Eucalyptus dominant. A few shrubs.
Eucalyjitus dominant. Numerous small
shrubs.
Eucalyptus or Acacia Few or no shrubs.
in groups.
A few low trees or shrubs.
A few low trees or shrulis, chietly Acacia.
Numerous low trees or shrubs ; Acacia and
Eucalyptus abundant.
Scattered shrubs : Acacia and Casuarina.
No grass.
Littlegrass,niany ferns
No grass.
Much grass.
Much grass.
Little grass.
No grass.
Little grass, chiefly
Triodia.
The greater part of the memoir is descriptive of the vegetation of
Western Australia south of the Tropic of Capricorn. There is an
366 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
excellent historical account of the botanical exploration from the earliest
records of JJampier at the close of the seventeenth century on to the
present time. The whole is a record of much labour and progress,
but an interesting diagram shows that much ground still remains to be
explored. Diels divides Extra-tropical Western Australia into two
provinces : the South-west, which lies along the coast from Shark's Bay
to Esperance Bay in the south ; and the Eremsea or inland province
which approaches the coast north of Shark's Bay. The limit between
the two provinces almost coincides with the rainfall line of 40 cm.
(IG inches) per annum ; in the South-west province the rainfall increases
towards the coast, attaining 125 cm. on a narrow strip between Albany
and Karridale ; Perth has about 75 cm. The Eremaea rainfall is scanty,
Coolgardie ranging about 25 cm. The zones of vegetation approxi-
mately follow tlie rainfall lines. A coast zone of bush and open forest
becomes further inland the dense Jarrah and Karri forest ; this gives
place to open Eucalyptus forest, which dwindles to scrub on the margin
of the Eremaja. This latter is a monotonous region with no well-defined
valleys, the water-courses being only temporary in the winter-rains.
The Eremsea is to south-west Australia as the Karroo is to Cape Colony,
a dry desert during many months, subject to wide ranges of temperature.
The South-west province is rich in Cycads, Proteacese, the heath-like
Epacrids, Orchids, and many other species. The Eremaia is poor
lloristically, but during the rains there is a good display of brightly
coloured Compositai and other annual and bulbous plants. Economically
the South-west province has valuable forests of Jarrah and other Euca-
lypti, and in the moister valleys cereals, vegetables, and fruits of the
temperate zone flourish. It was here that the first settlement in Western
Australia took place, and progress into the dry interior has been slow,
so that on the whole man has not yet influenced the vegetation to any
great extent. In the Erempea the author does not anticipate extensive
cultivation until irrigation is instituted on a large scale.
It would be a task to attempt to summarise Dr. Diels' detailed
description of the two provinces. His method is to describe the
indicator plants of each sub-division, and with the aid of numerous
figures, to i)oint out the ecological adaptation of leaf, stem, flower, etc.,
to the conditions of the environment. The appearance of the plant-
formations is presented in a series of photographs which range from the
Mangrove groves of the coast and the coast-scrubs to the forests of
Jarrah, Karri, and other giant Eucalypti, and through other scrubs to
tlie salt-encrusted soils of the interior. The great variety in Eucalypti
and Acacias is presented by these photographs most forcibly. The
figures also convey some idea of the great interest of south-west
Australia from the floristic outlook. The Proteacea?, a most interesting
group, is represented by many species of Ikinhsia, Ilalm, Grevillca, and
other genera. Closely following these comes the Myrtle order, with
many species of Melaleuca, including the Silver-leaf Tree. The majority
of the species are confined to the moist South-west province ; they dis-
appear in the dry interior, but reappear again in the eastern coasts.
South-west Australia presents an interesting problem in plant distribu-
THE VEGETATION OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA : A REVIEW. 367
tion, because a large number of species occur in this corner of the
continent completely cut off from their allies by long distances ; this
is discussed at some length with the aid of a series of diagrams. North-
east Australia has many links connecting its flora witli that of the
Malayan region, and south-east Australia is related through New
Zealand forms to the Antarctic floral region. These elements of the
flora, howevei', which link up eastern Australia to other floral regions,
are missing almost entirely from south-west Australia, and thereby
making the isolation of its flora still more conspicuous. A certain
resemblance to the flora of South Africa led Sir Joseph Hooker to his
well-known theory of a common origin. It is certainly noteworthy
that the natural orders — Proteacea3, Restiacepe, and others — recorded
by Hooker are represented by more species in South Africa and
Australia than in any other part of the earth. Does this indicate a
common origin — a former great Antarctic continent suggested by some
— or is it to be ascribed to convergence 1 Dr, Diels does not attempt
to settle the difficulty, but he consiilers that the resemblance is
superficial and due to similar climatic and topographic conditions.
It is observed that trees are subordinate elements in the Cape flora,
whereas in south-west Australia they dominate large areas extending
even on to the Eremaea plateau, the equivalent of the treeless Karroo
of South Africa. On the other hand, south-west Australia cannot lay
claim to that wealth of succulent and bulbous plants so characteristic
of South Africa.
The Vegetation of Western Australia will take its place amongst the
best of these works which within recent years have done so much to
raise the plane of botanical geography towards the place it ought to
hold. The author's task has been no easy one, since it involved the
sifting out of essentials from a great mass of details which in too many
instances have drawn off attention from the main issue. Appreciation
by us may be best expressed by a hearty recommendation of the work
to all students of plant-geography without restriction to those interested
in Australia only.
THE SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS FROM GLASGOW.
By John Frew, M.A., B.Sc, and Frederick Mort, M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S.
(JrHh Figures.)
In June 190G, in this Magazine, we described the first of a series of
drawings to be used in identifying the peaks of the Southern Highlands
from the Clyde valley. This article described the view from Dumgoyn
in the northern part of the valley; the second set of drawings, published
in August 1906, showed the Highlands from Gourock, and the drawings
in this issue show the hills as seen from Glasgow. The three papers
thus desci'ibe respectively the outlook from the north, the south, and the
centre of the Clyde valley.
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THE SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS FROM GLASGOW. 369
As was to be expected, the atmospheric difficulties were very con-
siderable in surveying distant hills from a city so smoky as Glasgow.
Repeated expeditions during a period of nine months were made to
the two observation stations Avithout success, until two or three suc-
cessive days in May of exceptionally clear weather, and with the wind
in the right direction, enabled us to secure the necessary readings.
At first we used a prismatic compass for this survey, and although
this gave a result over the range accurate within one degree, we felt
that enough reliance could not be placed on these readings and so dis-
carded them completely. The angles were therefore taken as before with
the theodolite and transferred to maps, while the final outlines were
made from drawings and photographs. The second diagram in each plate
shows an enlarged view of the most interesting part of the range.
We selected Ruchill Park and Springburn Park as the best points
from which to take observations. The highest part of the former is an
artificial hillock known locally as the " Mound " or " Spion Kop," from
which a very fine view can be obtained on a clear day. There is a
corresponding hillock in Springburn Park, but the view from it is inter-
cepted by buildings, and until it is raised several feet it is worse than
useless as an observation point, for it draws people from the place where
an uninterrupted view may be obtained. The point from which our
drawings were made is beside the Reading Room, and on a stretch
of grass between it and the road.
We are enabled to see several interesting Highland peaks from
Glasgow, because there is fortunately a gap in the line of volcanic hills
to the north-west. The Campsie Fells and Kilpatrick Hills were doubt-
less originally one continuous range, but a great notch has been cut
into them, and this gap is now known as the Plane Valle3^ The stream
that runs in this valley at the present time, the Plane Water, is a
tributary of the Endrick flowing west into Loch Lomond, and seems far
too insignificant to have cut the great opening that one looks through
from Glasgow. The explanation of the discrepancy is given in Cadell's
classic paj^er on the Dumbartonshire Highlands published in this
Magazine in 1886. The valley was probably originally the outflow
of the drainage from the district west of Loch Lomond before that loch
came into existence. Its river was of considerable size and flowed east-
wards towards the Forth. After the water supply was cut off by the
formation of Loch Lomond a small stream originated in the valley with
a flow in a direction opposite to that of the first river. This stream is
the Plane AVater, a tiny rivulet that seems almost lost in its large valley.
As one walks up the short hill towards the gate of Springburn Park,
a fine conical peak is visible at the edge of Dumgoyn, but on entering
the park the view of it is just cut off. This is Peinn Chabhair, which is
well seen from Ruchill. Of the Highland peaks visible from this point
the most distant is Pen Lui 39;| miles off. Pen Lomond is 24 1 miles
away, and Dumgoyn 9^ miles.
We have shown the Kilpatrick Hills and the Campsie Fells in both
drawings, although they cannot be classed as Highland. Poth ranges
present some interesting points. They are remnants of the great lava
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THE SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS FROM GLASGO\\'.
371
plateau, the material of which gushed from hundreds of volcanoes in
early Carboniferous times, and stretched from Stirling to Campbeltown.
They are built up in layers, each bed representing a distinct eruption,
and this can be very well seen from both Glasgow stations. At Cochno
Loch, or to the right of Diimfoyn, a series of steps can be clearly
recognised, each step representing a different lava flow. It was this
phenomenon that gave the name " trap " to these rocks, from the Swedish
" trappa," a stair. A look at the Spout of Ballagan through a field-glass
is worth while. There are visible here the sedimentary rocks that under-
lie the volcanic lavas. To the extreme left of the Kilpatricks the
Highland chain is seen again at Cnoc a Mhadaith, behind Kilmun, and
still farther the deep notch of Glen Lean.
The Highland peaks that can be seen from Springburn are shown in
the following table, with their heights and angular distances from Dum-
goyn, which stands out conspicuously at the end of the Campsie Hills.
Mountains
SEEN FROM SpR
INGBURN.
Angular distance from
Mountain.
Height.
Dunigoyn.
1 Beinn Chabhair,
3053 feet
V 32'
Beinn Diibh-chraige,
3204 „
2' 41'
Beinn Oss,
3374 „
4° 18'
Ben Lui,
3708 „
5° 29'
Ben Lomond, .
3192 „
9° 58'
Ptarmigan,
2398 „
11° 31'
Beinn Dnbh, .
2509 „
12° 44'
Ben Vane,
3004 .,
13° 32'
Ben Buie,
3106 „
14° 1'
Ben Inie,
3318 „
16° 24'
Cnoc a Mhadaith,
1535 „
45° 46'
Sgarach Mor, .
1972 „
47' 16'
The peaks visible from Euchill Park are shown in the following
table.
Mountains seen from Ruchill.
Angular Distance from
Mountain.
Height.
Dumgoyn.
Stob Garbh, .
3143 feet
2° 52'
Beinn Tulachan,
3099 „
3° 3'
Oruach Ardran,
3477 „
3° 40'
Beinn Doireanc,
3523 „
3° 51'
Stob a Choin, .
2839 „
4' 25'
Beinn a Chroin,
3101 „
6° 6'
Beinn Chabhair,
3053 „
8° 58'
Beinn Dubh-chraige,
3204 „
11° 20'
Beu Lomond,
3192 .,
irir
Cnoc a Mhadaith, .
1535 „
55° 20'
A glance at the two draAvings will show the considerable change in
372 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
the peaks to be seen, made by the seemingly slight shift of the point of
view from Springburn to Ruchill. On the extreme right the distant
range is seen to be rising into a mountain which is just cut off by
Dumgoyn. If the valley had been a very little wider at this point we
should have seen Stobinian and Ben More. Cruach Ardran is not
named on the drawing, but it may be seen just to the right of Beinn
Doireann. The most distant peak visible from Ruchill is Beinn
Doireann, 47 miles from Glasgow in a straight line. Places of interest
that lie behind any of the hills shown, but are not themselves visible,
have been indicated by arrows pointing downward.
THE BRITISH ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION, 1907.
By E. H. Shackleton.
The plans of the expedition can now be defined with greater precision
than when the first announcement was made some months ago. (See
p. 160.)
King Edward YII. Land, at the eastern end of Ross's great ice
barrier, has been selected as tlie base of operations in place of the head-
quarters of the Discovery Expedition at the other end of the barrier.
For the purposes of the expedition a Newfoundland sealing steamer
named the Nimrod, of 250 net tonnage, capable of carrying three hundred
tons of coal in addition to all supplies, has been purchased. The work
of equipment will be hurried forward with a view to departure on the
long voyage to the south by the end of July. I expect to accompany
the vessel on the outward voyage only as far as Madeira, to see that
everything is in proper working order. Arrangements are being made
for the accomplishment of an important magnetic survey. A special
compass platform will be erected at a height of between thirty and forty
feet from the deck, and all iron fittings in its neighbourhood will be
replaced by brass fittings. Regular magnetic observations will be taken,
and every five hundred miles the ship is to be "swung" for deviation
and variation. Returning from Madeira I expect to start finally for New
Zealand about the middle of October and to rejoin the Nimrod at
Lyttelton. The experience of the various voyages that were made
through the pack ice in connection with the Discovery Expedition went
to show that the later the start the more favourable the conditions, as
the pack ice is dispersed by the end of January ; and accordingly I do
not propose to sail from Lyttelton till the end of the first week in the
New Year. The united expedition at that time will probably number
twenty-eight members, including a landing party of twelve. King
Edward VII. Land it is hoped to reach by the 1st of February, and after
landing myself and those who are to winter with me in the Antarctic,
the Nimrod will return to New Zealand, and during the next eight or
nine months devote as much time as possible to the continuation of her
BRITLSH ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION, 1907. 373
magnetic survey along the great trade routes between New Zealand and
Australia, and from Australia across the Indian Ocean.
With the exploring party will be landed on King Edward YII. Land
the sections of a carefully planned living hut, twelve Siberian ponies, a
team of twelve picked dogs from the far North-West of Canada, and the
specially constructed motor car which will form such a novel feature of
the expedition. Work will at once be started in accordance with a
definite programme. While the hut is being erected and the winter
quarters otherwise put in order, the closing days of the Antarctic
summer will be utilised for establishing a line of depots as far, it is
hoped, as 150 geographical miles to the south. The part of King
Edward VII. Land, at which it is hoped to effect a landing, is in
about 77° 30' S. latitude, or 750 geographical miles from the Pole.
During the winter the scientific studies, for the pursuit of which the
expedition will be fully equipped, will absorb a large share of attention.
All through, indeed, I intend to couple with exploration the work
of scientific investigation, and during the year which we expect to
remain in the far south, three of the members of the party — the
geologist, the biologist, and the magnetician — will devote themselves
entirely to their special researches within a radius of a hundred miles or
so of the winter quarters.
With the return of spring efforts will be made to extend the line
of depots another hundred geographical miles to the south — that is,
to within five hundred geographical miles of the Pole. As on the
Discovery expedition, the party which will attempt to reach the South
Pole will be limited to three members. With us we will take six of the
Siberian ponies and the motor-car, which, constructed by the Arrol-
Johuston Company, of Paisley, is made of steel specially adapted to
withstand extreme cold. It will be driven by a spirit which will work
satisfactorily in low temperatures, and is provided with three diff'erent
sets of wheels for use on surfaces of diff'erent softness. Great hopes are
entertained of its value for traction purposes, but I recognise that its
employment is an experiment, and the chances of the expedition's
success are far from being centred in any such novel means of locomo-
tion. The use of Siberian ponies in the Antarctic is also in the nature
of an experiment, but the hardiness and strength they have developed on
the bitterly cold plains of Eastern Siberia, where they are accustomed to
live in the open all through the winter, justify the hope that the experi-
ment will be a success. In the final resort there will be the dogs to fall
back on. The comparative failure of the dogs on the Discovery Expedi-
tion was in part, at any rate, due to the deterioration of their food in
passing through the tropics. To all the food arrangements I am devoting
the most careful attention, and, benefiting by experience, hope to avoid
in this respect the misfortunes of the National Expedition. Thus
fortified in every way that human forethought can suggest, I hope to
reach a high southern latitude, if not the Pole itself. But the southward
journey will not be the only important exploration undertaken. A
second party of three, with three of the Siberian ponies, will be detailed
to penetrate in a south-easterly direction behind the coast of King
374 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Edward VII. Land, while a third, also composed of three members, with
three of the ponies, will seek to follow the coast round in the direction
of Alexandra Land. So little is known of all this region that whether
or not all our hopes are realised, these journeys of exploration can
scarcely fail to result in most interesting additions to our geographical
knowledge of the South Polar area.
The return of the Ximrod has been fixed for about the end of
January 1909. Against any possible failure of the ship to keep the
appointment the landing party will be doubly guarded. Not only shall
we take out with us food supplies for two full years, but we shall be
provided with a first-class lifeboat, equipped with a motor-engine and
capable of carrying provisions to last a party of twelve for two and a
half months. If, as is planned, the ship picks up the party early in
1909, the course of the vessel will be directed to the Balleny Islands, off
the northern end of Victoria Land, and the remainder of the summer
will be devoted to a westerly cruise, as near as the ice will permit, to
Ad^lie Land, Clarie Land, and the other patches of coast extending west-
wards to Kemp and Enderby Lands, which go by the general name of
Wilkes Land, after the American explorer v.ho visited that region some
seventy years ago. AVe propose to pursue a zigzag course, taking sound-
ings the while, for the purpose of discovering the limits of the continental
shelf — supposing that the various patches of land that have been sighted
do in fact form part of the hypothetical Antarctic continent. After
pursuing the westerly voyage as far as the season will permit, the expedi-
tion will turn northwards and eastwards again, and commence the
homeward voyage across the India, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans, continu-
ing to accumulate magnetic observations that should be of considerable
practical value to mariners as well as of scientific interest.
THE FUTURE OF JAPAN : A REVIEW.^
This is a striking and in some respects a startling book, well worthy of
perusal and consideration. The criticism, while full and searching, is
kindly and sympathetic. We will try to indicate briefly the writer's
main conclusions as far as possible in his own words.
Modern Japan dates from the Revolution of 1868. That revolution
was mainly the work of a small band of leaders — some fifty-five in all —
Samurai or nobles for the most part, but without great social rank or
oflficial standing : so far as it came from the people at all it arose from
the national exclusiveness and objection to the agreements with foreign
powers into which the Shogun had entered. This feeling was made use
of by the Samurai leaders to overthrow the Shugunate and to restore the
power of the Emperor, and then in his name to carry out still further
the expansive movement which had begun, and to throw Japan open to
all the influences of the West. The great quest of these leaders was
1 The Future of Jcqmn. By W. Petrie Watson, London, Duckworth. 10s. 6d. net.
THE FUTURE OF JAPAN : A REVIEW. 375
to discover the best methods of foreign countries and to apply them :
Germany and France, Britain and the United States, were put under
contribution with the supreme object of placing Japan on an equality
with the great nations of the world. The methods thus borrowed and
applied have been eminently rich in results: education has been organ-
ised, law has been codified, a navy has been created, the army has been
re-built from its foundations; railroads, a banking system, a postal system,
telegraphs, docks, lighthouses, newspapers, universities, all the external
characteristics of a progressive civilisation have been imported into and
" erected " in the country. All that the Government has undertaken is
done with marvellous thoroughness and efficiency, notably in everything
that concerns the military services with regard to previous preparation,
to the equipment and management of hospitals, to secrecy and prompt-
ness of action, and to conduct in the field. This brilliant success,
however, has been the work of a few statesmen rather than of the
nation. Nowhere is there a greater chasm between the rulers and the
ruled. The leading statesmen are not politicians but administrators —
great civil servants acting for the interests of the people, but hardly
through the people. The political franchise is confined to somewhat
less than half a million out of a nation of forty-two millions. There is.
a Diet of two Houses, but the ministers are responsible to the Emperor;-
not to the Diet, and the real driving force does not lie even with the
ministers but with the " Elder Statesmen," as they are called, an informal
unconstitutional body that stands at the back of the cabinet of the day.
Further, besides this political powerlessness of the mass of the nation,
there is another and more serious consequence of this government from
above — the lack of individuality and self-reliance. There is a striking
contrast when we turn from State action to that which depends on the
initiative of individuals. Here we come across another and a distinct
Japan : we find a people with charming qualities, cheerful optimists
with a capacity for contentment with small things. Here are no crying
children, no grumbling old men, no petulant old women. On the other
hand, they have the defects of their qualities : there is no punctuality,
no precision, no high standard of work, but an acquiescence in an almost
all-prevailing bribery and corruption.
It cannot be said that the author fails to realise the great difficulty
of harmonising these two views of Japan, or of explaining how the
absence of individuality and of self-reliance can be reconciled with the
intelligent action, with the conscious co-operation, with the devotion and
the supreme power of self-eff"acement for the common weal that have
distinguished Japanese military action by land and sea, that have
extorted admiration from unfriendly nations, and have illuminated their
recent annals with an imperishable memory. He labours to explain this
"antimony" and contradiction, but fails, in our opinion, to carry full
conviction to his readers. The intelligent working of a system so
complex in its ramifications, the orderly combination of all conditions
of men towards the accomplishment of the common aim, would seem
impossible of attainment without more individual self-reliance than this
interesting volume credits to the Japanese. The truth that underlies
376 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
his contention need not be denied, but it would seem to have been
exaggerated till it has overborne his sounder judgment.
The writer breaks fresh ground when he points out that the Eevolu-
tion of 18G8 that caused the downfall of the Shogunate and of feudalism,
also strained the bonds of social order, and that the ties that hold
together the new Japan that has since come into existence are of feebler
force. Of such ties the- first that naturally occurs to our minds is
" Bushi-do " — " the way of the warrior " — at once the maker and the
product of old Japan, " the source from which sprang the motives of
men's noblest actions." The leading virtues which this way of looking
at life evoked may be said to be Frugality, Fealty, Filial Piety. Its
influence is not yet dead ; that it still remains an animating spirit in
modern as in pre-modern Japan is amply testified by the late war with
its abundance of heroism, of self-command, of indifl"erence to life. But
it is the ideal morality of the " Samurai," of the noble military class,
that is disappearing under the revived power and majesty of the
Crown, and is insufficient in extent and in moral meaning as a basis for
the civilisation of the Japan of our own day and of the days to come,
the Japan of commerce and of industry.
A more potent and enduring bond is to be found in the Family.
The conception of the Family as a social unit and of the State as a larger
Family, crowned by the headship of the Emperor, and consecrated by the
religious sanction of ancestor worship, is likely to remain a leading and
unifying influence in Japan. The Japanese family descends in the male
line, its constituent elements are father and son, not husband and wife ;
the woman is merely a necessary accident ; the idea of " home," home
which is made hy the woman, which is the centre from which her social
influence spreads, does not enter into it.
The third great bond of society is the sense of patriotism. "This is
a new and powerful emotion to the Japanese, a product of the conditions
of their modern era." Amid all the difficulties connected with the re-
construction of the polity and civilisation of their country, in face of the
imminence of a struggle with a great foreign Power, the sustaining prin-
ciple has been the consciousness of the Nation. This consciousness has
found support in the permanence of the Family as expressed in ancestor
worship and in the divinity of the Emperor as the mysterious and sacred
embodiment of the State. It has assumed the character and the
functions of a religion.
To Religion, however, itself, as we understand it, the Japanese mind
seems at present indiff"erent. The more intellectual have been infected
with the scepticism of Modern Western Philosophy ; the progress in
wealth and in power achieved during the last few years have developed
in others a materialistic view of life ; above all, the two great concep-
tions which, to use the language of a Japanese Christian, are necessary
to unlock the ultimate secret of Christianity, are not easy for the mass
of the people to grasp. These are the conviction of a personal God,
and the conviction of a sinful self. So far, then, there seems little hope
of the spread of Christian doctrine, yet there is another way of approach-
ing the divine fact of Christianity, and with a people so generous in
THE FUTURE OF JAPAN : A REVIEW. 377
their recognition of the heroic, it may be anticipated that a perception of
the life and personality of its Founder may dawn upon them amid the
wreck of their ancient ideas and of their present religion of loyalty.
With these words of hope the author leaves us.
One comment may be added. We must remember how young, how
new the civilisation of modern Japan is, how easily and with how little
effort everything had come to them till within the last years. Otheis
had laboured, and they had entered into the fruits of their labours.
Now they too have paid the price of suffering without which growth is
impossible, and it is too early yet to estimate the moral and spiritual
significance of the silent sacrifice, the unflinching devotion to duty, which
illustrated the war and astonished an unsuspecting world.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Europe.
The Fauna of Great Britain and Ireland. — In the Irish
Naturalist for April there appears a report of a paper on "The
Problems of an Island Fauna," read by Mr. C. B. Moffat to the Dublin
Naturalists' Field Club. The paper contains an interesting suggestion
as to the cause of the poverty of the fauna of Ireland as compared with
that of Great Britain, and of Great Britain as compared with that of the
Continent of Europe. The usual explanation, as is well known, is that
these islands were cut off from the Continent before the missing forms
had had time to reach them. Mr. Molfat regards this as an insufficient
reason, partly because there is clear evidence that some of the forms
which are now absent did at one time exist here, but have died out.
It is thus not only a question of what we have failed to gain, but of
what we have lost. His suggestion is that the reason of the poverty,
here as in other island areas, may be in part due to the inherent weak-
ness of those members of a species which inhabit the periphery of the
distributional area of the particular species. In other words, it is
suggested that on a given land area there is a tendency for the stronger
and more fit forms to inhabit the more favourable situations, while the
less fit are driven to the margins. If a portion of the periphery is
subsequently cut off as an island, so that repeated colonisation becomes
impossible, then the stock in the isolated region, prevented from inter-
crossing with more dominant forms, and no longer receiving fresh
immigrants, may gradually die out from inherent weakness. The
suggestion, whether true or not, is at least interesting.
The Distribution of the Population of Lower Languedoc— In
the Bulletin of the Societe Languedocienne de Geographic (xxix.), M. Max
Sorre publishes a series of articles on this subject, illustrated by a map
and a series of diagrams, etc. The points of general interest are the
complexity of the problems involved and the varying economic factois
which have modified, and are modifying, the distribution and numbers
378 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
of the population. The author points out, in the first place, that the
region is one Nvhich has been inhabited for a prolonged period of time,
and that by a succession of intermingled races. Thus not only has there
been time for man to adjust himself to the geographical conditions, but
also the mixture of races make it probable that all the natural resources
of the region have to some extent been utilised, for civilisation here is
very old. In spite of this, however, equilibrium has by no means been
completely attained, and the population has been and is fluctuating in an
extraordinary way. The reason is obvious when we recollect that the
two important cultivated plants of the region are the vine and the
mulberry tree, Avhose associated industries have been of recent years
greatly influenced respectively by the phylloxera and the silkworm
diseases. The author's discussion of the relation between the economic
crises induced by phylloxera and the diseases of silkworms and the
variations of the populations of the diff"erent districts is exceedingly
interesting, more especially as regards his demonstration of the way in
which the introduction of resistant vine-stocks lead to an almost com-
plete recovery of prosperity by the owners of vineyards, and a consequent
return of the population to the devastated districts. He shows in detail
how under the new conditions the distribution of the vine has somewhat
altered, and with this alteration appeared a corresponding alteration in
the distribution of the people. In the silk-producing districts the
recovery has been much less marked, and the result is that while
formerly there was economic equilibrium between the vine-growing and
silk-producing districts, the destructive diseases named have disturbed
this equilibrium, and at present the first-named is over-peopled, the
latter under-peopled. In the vine-growing regions the density is now
about 92 per square kilometre, while in the silk districts it is only about
62 per square kilometre. Further, there is a marked distinction between
the two regions in regard to the nature of the settlements. In the vine
region of the plain of the Herault a family can live on -the produce of
one hectare (about 21 acres). Cultivation is thus intensive, and the
consequence of the small area required is seen in the predominance of
communes of considerable size. On the other hand, in the silk-pro-
ducing districts the population is scattered and the communes of smaller
size, except where other occupations or resources are added to the rearing
of the silkworms.
The connection between the above facts and the present "wine crisis"
in the south of France is obvious.
The Origin of the River System of North Belgium. — In the
Bulletin d.l.Socicte Beige d. Giologie (xx. p. 71, 190G), M. A. Briquet
discusses the origin of the river systems of North Belgium. As a glance
at the map will recall, the system is remarkable in two respects — first,
in the remarkable "espalier" arrangement of the constituent streams;
and second, in the communication of the whole system with the sea by
an outlet which crosses the elevated threshold formed by the plateau
region of the AVaes and Campine. The explanation in detail is difticult
to follow without the author's maps, but the essence of the matter may
GEOGRArHlCAL NOTES. 379
be stated as follows : — In the first place, there are four periods in the
evolution of the system, traces of all which are still obvious. We have,
first, the period of the retreat of the Pliocene sea; second, the period
of maximum erosion of the valleys which followed, and was contem-
poraneous with the period of maximum retreat of the sea. This period
was followed by a new rise of sea-level, less extensive than that of
Pliocene times, which was again followed by a renewed retreat and by
the establishment of the existing conditions.
In the first period, as the Pliocene sea retreated, a system of con-
sequent streams was established, consisting of a series of parallel rivers,
draining towards the north-north-east, the direction of retreat of the
ocean. The remnant of this condition persists in mid-Belgium and the
north of France, where the Yser, Lys, Escaut, Dendre, Senne, Dyle,
Geete, and Demer, in parts or in the whole of their respective courses,
represent the remains of this primitive series of streams. To the north,
on the other hand, the primitive arrangement has been obliterated by
subsequent changes. On this primitive condition followed a process of
diff"erential erosion which resulted in numerous cases of river capture.
The evidence goes to show that on proceeding westward each successive
stream had greater excavating power than its eastern neighbour, and the
result was to change the original south-south-west to north-north-east
direction to an almost perpendicular one — that is, to turn the streams
towards the north-west. Not a few of the existing streams show in the
lower part of their courses remnants of this process. Thus the Escaut
between Cond6 and Tournai has an oblique direction towards the north-
west, above the latter place it regains its original north-north-east
direction, the direction in which it flows above Conde. The causation,
as has been shown by other w-riters, is the fact that the existing Escaut
has captured the head-waters of the Dendre. Many other similar cases
are discernible, and show that generally the excavating powder of the
streams increased towards the west. During the course of the second
period the evolution of the river system proceeded until the process of
capture had been carried so far that all the streams found a common
exit in a channel which passed to the north-west of Ghent to enter the
sea at some unknown point.
This was, however, preceded by a stage when the eastern trunks
found a separate exit in the vicinity of the spot where Antwerp now
stands. Later, the Ghent channel, which had greater excavating power,
succeeded in capturing the feeders of this trunk, and became, as
indicated, the sole exit of the system. There followed a new depression
which flooded a large part of the Ghent channel, and also carried the
waters of the sea into the interior by the old Antwerp channel. The
result was that the upper portions of the tributaries of the old system
flowed into the great inlets so formed as separate streams, and the
drainage was thus restored to a primitive condition. When the new
elevation took place and the sea retreated, the conditions favoured the
eastern streams, which were in consequence enabled to capture the
lower courses of their western companions, and the result was to
establish the single existing trunk wdiich enters the sea past Antwerp.
380 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Africa.
The British Museum Expedition to Central Africa. — Dr.
Wollaston, a member of the expedition which Avas sent out iu October
1905 (of. xxi. p. 661) by the Natural History Department of the British
Museum to explore the Euwenzori region, who has now returned to
England, has communicated to Renter's Agency an account of his experi-
ences. Dr. WoUaston left Entebbe, the capital of Uganda, in September
last, and worked his way through the province of Ankoli to Lake Albert
Edward, where he crossed the Uganda-Congo frontier. He then pro-
ceeded down that lake in a boat lent by the Congo administration. From
the south of Lake Albert Edward the expedition proceeded through the
heart of the Mfumbiro volcanic region, traversing ground where no
Englishman had ever been before. For the most part the volcanoes
were extinct. There were nine of them altogether, the highest being
about 14,000 ft. Near the top they are covered with dense bamboo,
which is supposed to be inhabited by a race of pygmies, who make
their abode there and live by raiding the villages on the lower slopes.
Although the expedition spent five weeks among the volcanoes, it was not
found possible to visit the people at their summits. Nothing is known
of them beyond the fact that they are of diminutive stature, and, as
they are far removed from the Congo forest pygmies, they are pro-
bably a new race. From the volcanic region Dr. Wollaston proceeded
down a steep descent to Lake Kivu, which was found to be full of
islands surrounded by a glorious range of mountains and supporting
a very thick population. From Kivu the expedition travelled to
Tanganyika through the unknown valley of the Rusisi, a very
interesting and mountainous region. Tanganyika was reached at the
north end at a place called Uvira. Here Dr. Wollaston came upon the
sleeping-sickness country, and from this point through the Manyuema
country traversed a region devastated by this terrible plague. He
describes the sights as being fearful, with people dead and dying on
the roadside, as it is the custom of these people to turn out stricken
natives to die. The expedition reached the upper waters of the Congo
at Kasongo in February, and proceeded by canoe down the river to
Ponthierville at the head of Stanley Falls, where it joined the railway
to Stanleyville. Three hundred miles above Stanley Falls the new
railway going up to Tanganyika, which will eventually connect witli
the Cape to Cairo railway, is in progress.
The Rainfall of German West Africa. — In the Mltteilunfjen aus
d. Dcufscheii Schutzgehicte {xx. 1, 1907) there ajipears a long paper, with a
rainfall map and numerous diagrams, on the rainfall in German "West
Africa, which sums up what is at present known on this subject. As is
well known, from the point of view of physical geography this region of
Africa can be divided into three zones, according to the nature of the
vegetation. The coastal zone consists of stony or sandy desert, devoid
of a covering of vegetation, or with at most a si)arse covering of dune or
steppe grass in the moister parts. Further inland is the steppe region.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 381
where the grass reaches a height of 1| metres, thorny acacias occur, and
cattle-rearing can be carried on. Further to the interior savannahs occur,
with trees and bushes. The map shows that the three regions corre-
spond roughly, the coastal to a rainfall from 0 to 150 millimetres (0 to 5-9
inches) per annum, the steppe region to an annual fall of from 150 to 450
m. (5 "9 to 17"7 inches), and the savannah region from 450 to 700 m.
(17*7 to 27'5 inches). In the coastal region a considerable area, that
nearest the coast, has a fall of less than 50 m. (about 2 inches) per
annum. The rainfall is greater both to the north and to the south of
German territory, and the author, Dr. OttAveiler, considers that the
facts go to show that the strip belonging to Germany is the driest and
most desert part of West Africa. The region of greatest drought occurs
between Walfisch Bay and Liideritz Bay, where the precipitation is
almost nil, and this in the author's opinion forms one of the driest, if
not the driest, part of the earth's surface. On passing inland the rain-
fall increases, and as already indicated, the vegetation becomes more
abundant. But generally it may be said that the climatic conditions are
such as to render the economic development of the country a matter of
great difficulty. Though the statistical evidence is scanty, the author
is of opinion that, such as it is, it does not support the vieAv that South
Africa is in process of drying up.
In detail we may note that the rain of the interior is almost
exclusively summer rain, and is brought almost entirely by winds
coming from some direction between north and east. Further, it varies
very greatly in amount from year to year, and falls for the most part in
thunderstorms, or even in torrential downpours, so that a great part of
the total annual fall may be included in a ver}' short period of time.
The causation of the dryness of the coastal region is interesting. The
predominating winds here are southerly or south-westerly, that is, are
sea-breezes, and the land rises with some rapidity from the coast.
Elsewhere, as for instance in the British area, these are the conditions
wliich produce a heavy rainfall. We have to note, however, that the
winds in West Africa come from higher and colder latitudes, and in
particular, that they blow over the cold Benguela current. The conse-
quence is, first, that the air contains but little moisture when it reaches
the land ; and, second, that the cooling effect of its ascent is more than
counterbalanced by the heating effect of the sun ; thus its temperature
never falls below condensation point. Again, the hills of Damaraland
effectually prevent any moisture borne by easterly winds from reaching
the coastal strip. These and other points are very well shown on the
map, which also gives some vei-y interesting examples of local rain-
shadows. The paper in addition contains tables giving all trustworthy
rain records for the region, whether official or unofficial.
America.
Glacial Erosion in Alaska. — In the Popular Science Monthly for
February, Professor Ealph Tarr gives an interesting account of the
hanging valleys of Alaska, as these may be seen when traversing the
382 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
famous '•Inside Passage," that series of chanuels, canals and reaches
wliich may be threaded for more than 1000 miles from Seattle to Sitka,
in south-eastern Alaska, without ever entering the open ocean. In this
journey along the coast of British Colombia and Alaska, the hanging
valleys are so striking that they are constantly commented upon by
persons not as a rule interested in geographical phenomena, and they
are accompanied by certain peculiarities of topography, such as the
U- shape of the valleys, the absence of overlapping spurs, and so forth,
which markedly differentiate it from that of the ordinary type due to
water erosion. Professor Tarr describes these peculiarities in detail, illus-
trating by a series of fine photographs, discusses fully the various hypo-
theses, apart from ice action, which have been put forward to account
for the origin of the peculiarities, and comes finally to the conclusion
that, except glacial action, there is no valid hypothesis in the field. He
considers that the scepticism which still exists in certain quarters in
regard to the possibility of glacial erosion on the grand scale required is
due to the fact that geologists have chiefly studied the small and
dwindling glaciers of the Alps. To these doubters he recommends a
journey through the Inside Passage, and also to the fiords to the north-
west of this, such as Yakutat, a journey which he believes cannot fail to
bring conviction.
Another paper by the same author in the Bulletin of the Geographical
Society of Philadelphia for January 1907 gives an account of a very
remarkable advance which has taken place in certain of the glaciers of
Yakutat Bay, Alaska. Professor Tarr first visited this region in the
summer of 1905, and returned the following summer with the object of
crossing the Malaspina glacier, which had been found by earlier parties
to form an admirable highway for travel. To the surprise of the party,
however, it was found that certain, though not all, of the glaciers of the
region had experienced a sudden and marked advance, of such a nature
that the ice was advancing upon what had previously been forest ground.
During the visit of the party trees were constantly falling into ice
crevasses, morainic material was being engulfed, fresh glacial torrents
were developing, and in short there were clear evidences of rapid change
still in progress. Some of the photographs of the previous summer are
included in the article accompanied by those of 1906, and the contrast
between the two is certainly very striking. Such a sudden change can-
not be ascribed to climatic variation, and the only hypothesis meantime
is that it was due to earthquake action. In the autumn of 1899, as is
well known, this part of Alaska was visited by severe earthquake
shocks, which caused marked uplift of the coastline. The earthquake
was accompanied by violent shaking of the surface, repeated many
times, which caused the dislodgment of great masses of rock. There can
therefore be little doubt that in the high regions they would also cause
great displacement of snow and ice. It is supposed that the eff"ect of
this was to start a marked wave of advance in those of the glaciers
whose ice-meers were affected in this way, and that this wave of advance
appeared suddenly on the lower ground after being propagated through
the length of the glacier. A very striking photograph at the end of the
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 383
article shows the ice overwhelming trees in leaf at the margin of its
adv^ancing' ice-cliff.
Australasia.
Chamois in New Zealand. — According to a note in the Times an
attempt is being made to acclimatise the chamois in New Zealand. A
small herd, consisting of two males and six females, has been sent to
the Government of New Zealand by the Emperor of Austria, and have
arrived at Wellington in perfect condition. On their arrival the animals
were taken to the Hermitage at the foot of Mount Cook, and their
progress is being there watched with great interest.
Polar.
Fauna and Flora of Spitsbergen. — In the Bulletin ' of the
Societe Lauguedocienne de Geographie (xxix. 3), M. De Baichis gives a
picturesque account of Spitsbergen and its flora and fauna, together with
some notes on the geology, topography, climate, etc. The paper is especi-
ally valuable in giving a brief general survey of our knowledge of the region
and in the stress which it lays upon the differences between the western
and eastern coasts of Spitsbergen, and also on the importance to Europe
of the existence of this archipelago, of Franz Josef Land, and of Novaia
Zemlia, in protecting Western Europe from the influence of the Polar
currents.
In this connection it is worth note that politically Spitsbergen is not
attached to any European power, and that in spite of the fact that in
summer there is a certain amount of tourist and other traffic to it, and
it is probable that the coal, which is of good quality, will acquire
increasing importance. This coal made its appearance in the market
of Europe for the first time in 1904. According to a note in Feter-
mann's Mitteilungen, towards the close of the last year there was some
correspondence in the Norwegian and Swedish papers on the subject,
each country claiming the right to annex the group. It would appear
that the question cannot long remain undecided. A conjoint project
between Russia and Norway for the establishment of a scientific obser-
vatory, suggested some years ago, has apparently fallen to the ground.
The Second Belgian Antarctic Expedition. — On May 12, a
meeting was held at Brussels to discuss ways and means of forwarding
Mr. Henryk Arctowski's second Antarctic expedition (cf. p. 263). It is
proposed to reach the edge of the ice-pack early in the season in which
the start is made, in about long. 100° W., and to spend some months
in making hydrographic and magnetic observations. At a suitable
opportunity efforts will be concentrated on making a way through the
pack to the Antarctic coast, trusting to the prevailing easterly winds to
bring the expedition to the neighbourhood of Edward VII. Land, where
the vessel may be able to go into winter quarters at the edge of the ice-
barrier. Efforts will be made during the following spring to penetrate
to the south by means of automobiles. It is intended that the expedi-
tion shall be fitted out for two winters and three summers.
384 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
The Wellman Polar Expedition. — Mr. Walter Wellman and his
party left Tromsoe on June 3 for Spitsbergen with the airship America.
Mr. Wellman hopes to start for the Pole on some date between July 20
and August 1 0, but if necessary the start will be made as late as
August 20. Some modifications have been made in the airship, which
will accommodate ten or twelve men, twelve dogs, and enough food to
last the crew ten months.
New Antarctic Expedition. — It is announced that Dr. F. A. Cook
is to lead an Antarctic Expedition next year. Dr. Cook proposes to
establish a base camp near the Discovery's winter quarters on Erebus
Island, and to attempt to reach the South Pole by motor car. It will be
remembered that Mr. Shackleton intended at first to make Erebus Island
his headquarters, but he has now changed his plans, and proposes to
establish his base on Edward VII. Land (cf. article p. 372). Dr. Cook
was a member of the Belgian Expedition in 1897-99, and also made
the first ascent of Mount M'Kinley in Alaska last year.
Commercial Geography.
Progress of Argentina. — We have received from an Argentine
correspondent some notes on the progress of this country. In the ten
years from 1895-1905, the area under cultivation has increased by 170
per cent., the actual increase being 20,687,898 acres. The greatest
increase has been made with regard to alfalfa, and is due to the fact
that within the last five years it has been discovered that this plant will
flourish on the salty, sandy sands to the west, which had been previously
regarded as barren. Other cultivated plants have shown a steady if less
marked increase. In regard to wheat production the country now
takes the third place in the world, while its production of maize is only
second to that of the United States. With the improvement of methods
of agriculture there has been a tendency for the very large estates to be
split into smaller ones. It is estimated that in the decade the total
number of live-stock animals has increased by more than eight millions,
the increase in cattle and sheep accounting for by far the greatest part
of this figure. Horses, on the other hand, show a decrease of nearly a
million.
Minerals in Ireland. — Recent careful investigations in Ireland
have shown the existence there of an unexpected wealth of iron ore.
The chief part of the iron worked in Ireland of recent years, apart from
the bog iron ore of Donegal, has been found interbedded with the Antrim
basalts in the neighbourhood of Cusliendall, but new mines will probably
be developed further to the north in Antrim, and at one or two points
in the county of Londonderry. Here haematite, bauxite, gannister, and
manganese have been found. Large quantities of bauxite have been
found near Portrush, while rich hajmatitic veins have been discovered in
the neighbourhood of Draperstown in southern Londonderry. Both the
bauxite and the haematite are easy of access, and it is hoped that sufficient
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 385
of the latter at least may be produced to form an export trade with
Great Britain.
The Harbour of Bruges. — Students of Belgian history know that
in the fourteenth century Bruges, in spite of its inland position, was one
of the most important commercial cities of the world. It stands on an
arm of the sea, the Zwyn, which then formed a good inland harbour.
Alterations of the coast-line led, however, to great silting up of this inlet,
and, despite all that could be done, by the end of the fifteenth century
the port had greatly declined in favour of Antwerp. Some eleven years
ago elaborate works were undertaken with the object of restoring to the
city some of its earlier importance. These works, fully detailed in
a recent issue of the Times, comprise three parts, an outer port at
Zeebrugge on the sea-coast, a sea canal, and an inner port at Bruges.
The port, though only officially open this spriug, has been in use for two
years, and the opening of the canal is to be celebrated by elaborate fetes
this summer. Zeebrugge is situated thirteen miles to the east of Ostend,
and leads by a sea canal eight and a half miles long to the port of Bruges.
It is hoped that the whole scheme will enable Bruges to regain its old
position as the foremost port of Belgium.
Railway Schemes in Switzerland. — The process of railway con-
struction in Switzerland continues at a rapid rate. Among the latest
schemes is one to connect the St. Gothard and Simplon routes, by the
construction of a line from Brig towards the Rhone Glacier. The line
will be about thirty-one miles in length, and will pass through a number
of stations in the Upper Valais to which access is at present only obtain-
able on foot or by diligence. The line will be worked electrically, the
power being derived from the upper Rhone, and the difference of level
between the extremities will be about 3450 feet. Another scheme is to
construct a branch line to Leukerbad from the Rhone valley line, which
will facilitate the approach to the Gemmi. Eurther, there seems some
prospect that in the near future the whole railway system of Switzerland
may be electrified.
Mr. Andrew Watt has been elected Meteorological Secretary of the
Scottish Meteorological Society in succession to the late Dr. Buchan,
F.R.S. Mr. Watt has since 1900 been closely associated with Dr.
Buchan in the discussion of rainfall and other meteorological problems.
EDUCATIONAL.
In his anniversaiy address to the Royal Geographical Society on
May 27, the President, Sir George Goldie, departed from the usual
practice of summing up the chief geographical events of the preceding
twelve months, in order to concentrate attention on the effects of the
Civil Service Commissioners' decision that geography shall cease to be a
subject for the examinations for the Foreign Office (cf. p. 10). Some
VOL, XXIIL 2 E
386 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
paragraphs of this address, which have a direct lesson for us, may be
quoted here from the report of the speech : —
It was inevitable, said Sir George, that this remarkable decision should arouse
a great deal of public attention, mainly, of course, on the ground of the mainten-
ance of our national and Imperial interests which came into touch with those of
foreign nations in so many parts of the world. That was, no doubt, a considera-
tion worthy of much attention, but he was concerned to make it clear that the
question was one of far wider importance than as merely affecting the efficiency of
certain of our public services. That this fact had been so little recognised was, he
thought, due to a natural and even commendable repugnance on the part of
cultured minds to admit that our educational systems, based nominally, and to a
large extent really, on intrinsically sound educational principles — such as develop-
ing the thinking powers of the student, strengthening his judgment, quickening
his perceptive faculties, and cultivating his memory — had also necessarily rested
largely on what, for want of a belter phrase, he described as financial considerations.
These fell into two divisions. The first of them affected directly only the
Universities, but it affected indirectly the educational systems of all the non-
State-aided schools in this country, as these, for various reasons, based their
systems entirely on those adopted by the Universities. It was a serious misfor-
tune that but few of the latter had been in a position to set apart sufficient funds
for the endowment of a chair in geography or a school of geography. Yet he did
not know a single instance of a University in the United Kingdom which was
indifferent on this question of geographical education. So far as he could gather —
and he had taken considerable trouble to ascertain the general trend of feeling —
nothing but the want of money prevented any of the Universities from following
the examples of Oxford, Cambridge, and London. But in most cases their too
scanty funds were already appropriated to older established branches of study
which no thinking man would wish to see starved. Unfortunately, the Eoyal
Geographical Society had no extensive resources of its own with which to come to
the assistance in this matter of the Universities generally. It had for years shared
in the maintenance of the scliools of geography of Oxford and Cambridge ; but it
would not be justified in advancing much further in this direction, in view of the
heavy and i;rgent calls made upon its resources in entirely different directions.
If, however, amongst its Fellows, or its sympathisers, there were any who were
able and disposed to aid the advance of human knowledge by endowment, he did
not think that they could better serve their purpose than by contributing to the
founding of a chair of geography at any one of the Universities as yet unprovided
with a geography school. The other division of financial considerations to which
he alluded was of a less simple nature, but it was not less effective in blocking
the progress of geographical education and the introduction of this subject into
the list of those eligible by candidates for the public services. To avoid mis-
apprehension on this point he premised that he was not dealing at present with
the educational systems of our State or rate aided schools which were not dependent
on the favour of parents nor subject to competition with other schools. It would
suffice to confine their attention for the moment to private schools, public schools,
and, to some extent, Universities — that was to say, to institutions where the sons
of the leisured classes, or the well-to-do classes, were brought up, and from which
strata our educational ideas and systems had invariably filtered down to the
less-favoured classes which were waging a daily struggle for bare existence. With
rare exceptions, every educational institution, not supported by public funds, had
EDUCATIONAL. 387
to some degree — though to a varying degree — to strike a tacit bargain with the
parents of its students ; the parents paying the money on which the prosperity,
or, most frequently, the existence of the institution depended, and requiring in
return, in the vast majority of cases, that their boys should receive such instiuc-
tion as should best enable them to compete on equal terms with their fellow-
students. The proprietors of private schools, the governing bodies of public
schools, and even, though to a lesser extent, the Universities themselves, could
not therefore afford to give the same prominence to a subject which carried no
marks in the civil and military examinations that they gave to subjects which
carried such marks. On the other hand, the Civil Service Commissioners
naturally hesitated to demand proficiency in a subject which held only a
secondary position, or sometimes no position at all, in the educational institutions
of the country ; and the question thus moved in a vicious circle. He did not, of
course, imagine that all the sons of the well-to-do classes of this country competed
. in examinations controlled by the Civil Service Commissioners ; but the proijortion
of them so competing was sufficiently large to affect very seriously the standing in
the whole educational sphere of any subject according as it was or was not a
means of gaining marks in the civil and military examinations ; and it might be
confidently asserted that if geography received the recognition which they desired,
it would very shortly take its place in Great Britain, as it had long since done in
the United States, Germany, and other countries, as one of the fundamental and
indispensable elements in the education of childhood and youth. That this had
not been the case up to now was probably due to the unintelligent and un-
methodical manner in which the subject was taught until some 20 years ago, with
the result that the majority of those who were to-day in a position to speak with
authority retained an entirely false imiwession of its scope and objects. Certainly,
during his own school life, the hour in the week devoted to geography was
universally anticipated with strong aversion as a dreary exercise of the memory in
acquiring names entirely divorced from the realities of life, so that one of the
most human and interesting of all branches of knowledge, intimately connected as
it was with the history of mankind, with our present occupations, and with our
future development, was presented to them as an arid and flowerless waste. The
new methods and conceptions of geography had been so frequently and fully
placed before them by the most competent experts in their science that he would
not attempt to summarise them. It was, indeed, to the University of Oxford,
supported, as he could not doubt that it would be, by the Universities of
Cambridge, London, Edinburgh, and other great centres of education, that
geographers must look for a satisfactory solution of this important question :
for, so far as could be gathered from correspondence on the subject which
appeared in the columns of The Times some months ago, the Civil Service
Commissioners were willing to consider the admission of geography as one of the
voluntary subjects for examinations, provided the great Universities would give a
lead. In taking such a step both the Universities and the Commissioners would
have behind them an immense pressure of public opinion, owing to the sudden
awakening both of interest in the Empire as a whole and of recognition of our
widespread ignorance of its geographical conditions.
The above quotations may serve to suggest the far-reaching im-
portance of the movement for the establishment of a chair of geography
in the University of Edinburgh,
388 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
NEW BOOKS.
EUROPE.
Highivays and Byways of Berkshire. By James Edmund Vincent, with
Illustrations by Frederick L. Griggs. London : Macmillan and Co., 1906.
Price 6s.
This book, like the other volumes of the series, is a kind of apotheosis of a
guide-book, and will be found equally useful and agreeable to those who actually
wish to tour through the county, as to those who, in the author's words, prefer
travelling by proxy in an armchair. Mr. Vincent is, as should be the case in
a work of this kind, an enthusiastic admirer of Berkshire — so enthusiastic indeed
that he seems to regard as a personal enemy any one who has shown a want of
appreciation or even ignorance of its beauties or its history. We are led from
one place of interest or beauty to another, with careful directions as to the
road we ought to follow, and excellent descriptions of the spots we are to visit,
made clearer by Mr. Griggs's charming illustrations. Questions of history, both
local and national, of topography, of philology, of anthropology, are all discussed
as the occasion presents itself. We read interesting accounts of such varied
personalities as Wayland Smith, Tom Brown, Alfred the Great, the Fair
Rosamund, and the late Lord Wantage. No doubt the success of the book is
made easier by the fact that Berkshire contains such a long list of places of note
in our national history, such as Windsor, Ashdown, Newbury, Reading, Wantage,
and Godstow, to mention only a few. Altogether it may be recommended as one
of the most excellent volumes of an excellent sei'ies. It may be added that its
value is enhanced by a very complete index.
Edinburgh under Sir Walter Scott. By W. T. Fyfe. With an Introduction by
by R, S. Rait. London : Archibald Constable and Co., Ltd. Price
lOs. 6d. net.
By Edinburgh Mr. Fyfe means both the material Edinburgh of Craigleith
sandstone and the society of illustrious men that made it, as Mr. Rait proclaims
in his short Introduction, the intellectual centre of Britain for the half century
after Johnson's death. Naturally it is the latter that receives the greater share of
attention. Yet of the many names put forward in support of Edinburgh's claim
to literary and learned hegemony, some of the most noted will scarcely be found
in these pages. This is a consequence of over-simplicity of method. The method
is that of the critic of the Eatanswill Gazette. Mr. Fyfe has gone to Lockhart for
Scott and to Cockburn for Edinburgh. When he has made a summary of Lock-
hart, and used it as a thread to string selected beads from Cockburn, he considers
the task all but complete. It must be admitted that a good deal can be done in
this way. Cockburn's portraits of professors can be worked into the story of
Scott's university days ; Braxfield, Eskgrove, Hermand, and the rest can be
brought in a propos of his admission to the bar ; and so with other groups.
Apart from the danger of omitting men of importance, or mentioning them only by
the way as in any ordinary biography, there is the further disadvantage that the two
works here "contaminated" are on vastly difierent scales. Even as here reduced
Scott appears as a colossus among cameos : justly perhaps in respect of his genius ;
inconvenientlyiin respect of the professed subject of the book, Edinburgh under
Sir Walter Scott. Whatever may be its faults of construction, the book's matter
is, for the most part, as good as one could wish. It could hardly be other where
sometimes a whole chapter, except one paragraph, or a paragraph and a few lines,
I
I
NEW BOOKS. 389
is direct quotation from Cockburn's Memorials of his Time. By assiduous reading
one conies now and then upon something that is neither Cockbui-n nor Lockhart.
" Jupiter " Carlyle, the Scots Magazine, and other authorities are sometimes drawn
upon, and occasionally Mr. Fyfe himself comes forward. He adds a few up-to-
date details of topography and a few allusions to the topics of to-day or yesterday.
For example: "The name 'Queensberry House' is painted on the gate, and is
also on a brass plate at the bell-handle. -The building looks like a modern
barrack, the windows having been pointed and freshened up for the visit of
King Edward : very proper treatment for a ' House of Eefuge,' if not for Queens-
berry House." Again of the National Monument : "Perhaps in an era of colossal
fortunes, some Individual may anticipate the city — engrossed with its Usher Hall
and water-fleas — and capture the national glory to crown with immortality his
own proud name." There are several onslaughts, more violent than eS'ectual, upon
the Ballantynes, "the bounding brothers of Kelso," who are contrasted with
Constable, "truly a great man, and in all respects a gentleman." In one place the
table of contents seems to promise something new: "Dr. Joseph Black — Latent
Heat — His personal Appearance — Anecdote of last Illness — His History of Great
Britain — Forerunner of the Modern School." The name of the respectable but
too little respected Robert Henry has dropped out. As a life of Scott Mr.
Fyfe's book is readable and justifiable. For those who cannot obtain Cockbui'n
it is much more, but a new edition of the Memorials would have been better.
«
ASIA.
Natives of Northern India. By William Crooke, B.A., of the Bengal Civil
Service (Retired). London : Archibald Constable and Co., Ltd., 1907.
Price 6s.
The editor of the "Native Races of the British Emj^ire" series was fortunate
in securing for a work on the tribes of Northern India Mr. W. Crooke, whose
many valuable contributions to the science of ethnology, so far as it relates to
India, have won for hiui a place in the foremost rank of living ethnologists. His
official duties during a long residence in Northern India, his pei'^onal tastes and
bent of mind, and his many local investigations of antiquarian and ethnological
questions there have enabled him to acquire a thorough grasp of the subject and
to speak with an authority which has long been recognised as second to none.
In the volume now before us he assigns the northern tribes of India to three
distinct races, viz., the fair Indo-Aryans, the best representatives of whom are
the Kashmiri Brahmins ; the dark Dravidians, for the purest examples of whom
we have to go to the Nilgiris in Southern India ; and the yellow Mongoloids, of
whom the Lepchas of Bhotan and Sikkim are good specimens. The Indo-Aryans
and Dravidians are dolichocephalic ; the Mongoloids are brachycephalic. The
Indo-Aryans came from the north or west, the Dravidians canie from the south,
and the Mongoloids came from the north of the Himalayan range ; but now the
three races have become so intermixed, at least in the north of India, that it is
" impossible to say where one variety of man ends and another begins." After a
perhaps necessarily but disappointingly brief description of the tribes in the
northern and southern hills, Mr. Crooke takes up the much-discussed question of
caste, and points out that the caste is a collection of families having a common
name, and usually following a common occupation ; also that it usually claims
common descent from a mythical ancestor, and that it invariably is endogamous.
He notes in passing that from the sacred books of the Buddhists and Jains it
appears that the system of caste came into existence only some six centuries
390 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
before Christ. The greater part of this most interesting -work is devoted to
descriptions of the village and its industries, home life, the occupations of women,
child life (including games and amusements), birth, marriage, and death rites.
T-he concluding chapters deal with animism, magic, shamanism, and witchcraft.
A perusal of the work leaves no doubt in the mind of the reader that the author
was embarrassed and even hampered by the wealth of material at his disposal
and the necessity of compressing the work within the limits which had been
prescribed. Every page in it is full of most interesting and instructive matter,
and will be read with much profit and enjoyment not only by the general public,
but especially by those who have lived some time in the scenes inhabited by the
strange and interesting peoples whom Mr. Crooke so accurately and felicitously
describes. Our only regret in closing the book is that it is not twice as long as
it now is.
AMERICA.
The\Oruise of the Neptune. By A. P. Low, B.Sc, F.R.G.S. Ottawa :
Government Printing Bureau, 1906.
In the spring of 1903 the Canadian Government decided " to send a cruiser
to patrol the waters of Hudson Bay and those adjacent to the eastern Arctic
islands ; also to aid in the establishment on the adjoining shores of permanent
stations for the collecting of customs, the administration of justice, and the
enforcement of law as in other parts of the Dominion " ; and the exceedingly
interesting volume now before us is the report of what was done in carrying out
these objects. It is written by Mr. A. P. Low, the officer in charge, who, not
content with a merely official report of his cruise from August 1903 to October
1904, has added several interesting chapters containing "a short historical
account of earlier explorations and discoveries in north-eastern Arctic America ;
a geographical sketch of what is at present known of the inhabitants and geology
of the unorganised north-eastern territories of the Dominion ; short descriptions
of the important whaling and sealing industries ; and opinions as to the possible
navigation of Hudson Strait and Hudson Bay." There are also valuable ap-
pendices giving " the meteorological observations taken on the voyage, interest-
ing notes on the thickness and growth of the ice ; also lists of the birds, plants,
and fossils collected in these northern regions." The story of the cruise is
written in the clear, frank, easy, businesslike way which we expect from a
scientist who is also a sailor ; and the interest never flags. It speaks well for
the seamanship of the officers and crew of the Neptune that they cruised for some
fourteen months amid the shoals and ice of Hudson Bay and met with no more
serious mishap than the loss of the launch, which was wrecked near a place
judiciously named Dangerous Point. The historical summary is very complete,
beginning with the voyage of Sir Martin Frobisher in 1576 and ending with
that of Sverdrup in the Fram in 1902. To the ethnologist the most interesting
chapters will be those descriptive of the Eskimos, in which Mr. Low has brought
together the results of former investigations and researches by missionaries,
seamen, and scientists, and has supplemented them by his own observations.
Within the compass of fifty pages the reader has presented to him an excellent
compendium of what is known regarding the daily life, habits, customs, religion,
etc., of these strange and rapidly-diminishing races. The description of the
geology of the region has been judiciously compiled from reports by such com-
petent authorities as Drs. Dawson, Bell, and Schei. A specially interesting
chapter is devoted to the industry of whaling, from which we learn that although
NEW BOOKS. 391
the value of a large whale varies from ^3000 to £4000, yet so few whales are
now left that the chase is becoming unprofitable. This unusually attractive
report is equipped with an excellent map, and is illustrated with some very good
photographs, and we cordially recommend it to the perusal of our readers.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
The Land in the Mountains : Being an Account of the Fast and Present of
Tyrol, its People and its Castles. By W. A. Baillie-Grohman. With an
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net. London : Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent and Co., 1907.
L'Aurore Australe. Par Biard D'Aunet. Un volume in IG. Pp. 402. Prix
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The Senior Geography. By A. J. Herbertson and F. D. Herbertson ("The
Oxford Geographies," Vol. iii.) Crown 8vo. Pp. viii + 363, with 117 Maps and
Diagrams. Price 2.5. 6d. Oxford : Clarendon Pres?, 1907.
Ancient Khotan: Detailed Report of Archaological Explorations in Chinese
Turkestan carried o%d and described imder the Orders of H.M. Indian Government.
By M. AuREL Stein, I.E.S. Vol. i. Text, Vol. ii. Illustrations. Eoyal Quarto.
Pp. xxiv + 621. 119 Plates. Price £5, 5s. net. Oxford: Clnrendon Press,
1907.
Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen: Select Narratives from the '•'■Principal
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by C. Raymond Beazley. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo. Pp. lxxii + 415. Price 4s. 6d.
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Red Rubber: The Rubber Slave Trade on the Congo. By E. D. Morel
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Unwin, 1907.
Eiszeit und Urgesehichte des Menschen. Von Hans Poiilig. Cr. 8vo. Pp.
viii + 141. Preis M. 1.25. Leipzig : Quelle und Meyer, 1907.
Grundzuge der Ldnderkunde. Von Dr. Alfred Hettner. Europe. I. Band.
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Le Lot, Padirac, Rocamadour, Lacave : Guide du Touriste du Naturaliste et
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Masson et Cie., 1907.
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79 Illustrations and Maps. Pp. xv + 224. Eleventh Edition.
A Guide to Chamonix and the Range of Mont Blanc. By Edward Whymper.
Pp. xlv + 206. Twelfth Edition. Loudon : John Murray, 1907.
J Vulcani Attivi delta Terra: Morfologia-Dinamismo-Prodotti-Distribiizione
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THE SCOTTISH
GEOGRAPHICAL
MAGAZINE.
NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN
THE WESTERN CAPE COLONY.
By Lieut. J. A. G. Elliot.
(JFith Map and Illustrations.)^
There are so many interesting parts of the globe that it seems scarcely
worth while to attempt to describe a country that is little better than
a desert, yet such is the Karroo — that great expanse stretching from
the Rogge Veld, Komsberg, Nieuwveld, and Sneeuwberg Ranges to the
Orange River, which forms the boundary between Cape Colony on the
one side and German South- West Africa, Bechuanaland, Griqualand, and
the Orange River Colony on the other. It is, however, only with regard
to the north-west portion of this that I have any personal knowledge.
No exploration of a scientific nature has, I believe, ever been made
through this country unless perhaps that under Livingstone who, on
his way to the Zambesi, is said to have passed through the farm of
Schietfontein, the site of the present town of Carnarvon. Since his day
considerable changes have no doubt taken place, more especially in
regard to the quantity of animal life,- the lack of which is most
remarkable. This is simply due to unrestricted shooting on the part
of the Boers, and especially of the " vor-trekkers," ^ who, instead of
limiting their exertions to reducing the natives, and killing such animals
as destroyed their stock, carried death to every living thing that crossed
their path. Consequently nothing but an occasional troop of ostriches
1 All the illustrations of this article are from original photograplis taken bj' myself.
Fig. 4 unfortunately gives an inadequate representation of the true height of the mountains.
- Insect life is unlimited, including varieties of beetles, ants, and spiders ; there are
also numbers of lizards and locusts.
3 " Vor-trekker " — Dutch word meaning leader or pioneer.
VOL. XXIII. 2 F
394 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
breaks the monotony of the wilderness, save when a rain-storm has
brought after it the erratic springbok, or equally erratic N'maquois
partridge, or locusts.
An expeditionary party,^ commanded by Captain A., was despatched
to Victoria "West in October 1905 with the object of fixing survey
points (1) between that place and Prieska, and (2) between two lines
of the Geodetic survey, running the one for some distance along lat. 31"
South, in the vicinity of the upper Zak River, and the other along the
Orange River in lat. 28|^ and 29° South, in the neighbourhood of
Upington. (See Map, p. 402.)
On the completion of the first part of this work we found ourselves
at Carnarvon, where, the heat of midsummer being over, at an elevation
of some 4000 feet the temperature was delightful.
In spite of a rest and the recuperating effect of the cool air, our
animals had hardly recovered from the killing heat of the low veld
from which we had returned, before it was necessary to take the second
portion of the work in hand.
"We trekked away westwards to places called Brandvlei and Tontel-
boschkolk, but after six or eight weeks found it necessary to return to
Carnarvon to get supplies, forage, mails, and general outfit. Thus this
part of our journey was divided into two distinct trips, to the latter and
more interesting of which I propose limiting myself here.
As before, our route lay westward, through and along the Karree
Berg, the western part of which forms a portion of the most important
watershed in that district. This watershed may be said to commence
at Tulbagh, near the Zak River valley, and to run from there to Pot
Loer in the Karree Berg, and along that range to within ten miles of
Carnarvon, then a little southward to the Beyersberg and to Paardeberg,
and so on to Biesjesdam, thence gradually dying away to the north-
east. It measures nearly 150 miles in length and runs practically due
east and west along lat. 31'" S.
After all, it is but one of the many watersheds to the north of the
Drakensberg, forming the chief geographical features of the country.
"Water on the south side of this range drains away to the Brak River to
the east and to the Zak River to the west.
In March, shortly before we left Carnarvon, there had been a good
rainfall in the neighbourhood, the first recorded for three years.
Therefore it is needless to say that up to this time everything had been
dried up ; most of the veld bushes had died, and water at the farms
had become so scarce that travellers were obliged to pay for it. Further
west in the Fraserburg district there had still been no rain and the
farmers were leaving their homes and were following their sheep which,
months before, had been sent away to Hopetown, Prieska, and the
Orange River Colony — in fact anywhere where water and grazing were
to be had. The roads were often littered with carcases, and it was
1 The party consisted of Captain A. , myself, and four natives. We were fitted out with
a light L.P. waggon, a small Scotch cart, fifteen donkeys, four mules, and four horses.
These numbers were much reduced before the end of the expedition.
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTERN CAPE COLONY. 395
not uncommon to find a Boer ^ who once had been the proud possessor of,
say, 3000 head of sheep having now no more than 300. Providentially
the March rains, although confined to the country in the vicinity of
Carnarvon and that to the south-east of it, saved some at any rate from
utter ruin.
Thus, when we started off, the veld was showing signs of recovery,
and those bushes that were not absolutely dead were getting green, and
a few blades of grass were showing themselves here and there. But
this is not a grass-growing district. The veld is covered with scrub
or heath, of which a certain kind is unsurpassed for fattening sheep, and
makes the Karroo famous for small stock farming. If only two inches
Fig. 1. — Typical dry river-l)eil.
of i^ain could be counted upon yearly it would be one of the best sheep-
raising countries in the world.
To any one who has not seen the Karroo it is difficult to give a
realistic description of it ; its immensity, its monotony, the prepon-
derance here of rocks, there of gravel or of sand, as the case may be,
the peculiar vegetation which changes from a luxurious carpet of
gorgeous many-coloured flowers of untold varieties to a black dead
waste as rain or drought has blessed or cursed the land — these are the
points which are most striking to a stranger. The majority of travellers
who have seen the Karroo know it from the railway train, and grumble
at the weary twenty-four hours from Matjesfontein to Orange Eiver
Station or Norvals Pont. These people have little idea of the Karroo
1 " Boer" is a Dutch word meaning farmer.
396
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
as it really is ; for to know and to appreciate it a man must have lived
there, have seen the works of Nature, and have mixed with the in-
habitants. Only by so doing can he form opinions that are of any value.
As mentioned above, our road ran through the Karree Berg, which
takes the form of a rough, irregular- shaped plateau. Winding our way
up from Carnarvon we crossed the main ridge and proceeded rapidly
down a glen past Konka, whence we emerged on sandy open veld that
gradually fell away to a small farm situated some miles ahead on a
dried-up spruit.
It may be as well here to say that all rivers, spruits, and water-
courses mentioned in this paper are absolutely dry unless special note
Fig. 2. — Zwarttontein.
is made to the contrary. There is never any running water except
after rain, and farmers dig holes or sink shallow wells in order to get
a sufficient supply for domestic purposes and for a few head of sheep.
From the spruit the road gradually rose again for about two and
a half miles, and then we suddenly found ourselves at the top of
Meintjeskloof — a narrow glen — down which we went. It is so hemmed
in by hills on each side that for part of the way the road is carried
along the bed of the spruit, which, owing to the recent rains, had lately
come down in a torrent, torn up all semblance of a track, and scattered
rocks in wild profusion everywhere. It was almost impassable for
transport.
From the foot of Meintjeskloof we again found ourselves on a sandy
stretch of veld ; but only for about three-quarters of a mile, when the
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTERN CAPE COLONY. 397
road turns at right angles to the left up another glen, which in due course
brought us up to a flat plateau only about 100 feet lower than the top
of the surrounding hills. But here a shock was awaiting us. For the
last half mile the bushes had been getting poorer and less green, and on
reaching the plain it was only too obvious that not a drop of rain had
fallen, for a desolate stretch of black sticks and heavy sand lay before us !
Previous experience told us what this would mean, and we did not
relish the thought.
In the far distance, at the foot of one of the last spurs of the Karree
Fk
-Dutch family at Zwartfontein.
Berg, the farm of Zwartfontein could be distinguished (see Fig. 2),
where in due course we arrived and outspanned for several hours.
From the ridge behind the house we obtained a very extensive view
to the north-west in the direction of Boterleegte and the Twee Melk
Berg. Seeing the low-lying disposition of the ground ahead of us, we
gathered that the condition of the road would be sandy and that
travelling would be consequently slow, so we decided to benefit by
a full moon and make a night trek into this wilderness. Nothing
disturbed the stillness of the night but the howling of the jackals.^
Our road lay by Zout Rivier, and so on to the Twee Melk Berg — a
mountain named from its resemblance to a woman's breasts — of which
the higher peak was our destination. It rises abruptly on the north
1 Jackals, tiger-cat, and snakes are common though not frequently seen. Rooicat (lynx)
and tiger (leopard) are rare. Baboons are common in the hills in certain districts.
398
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
side about 1000 feet above the surrounding plain, and this makes it
much more noticeable than Port Loer, which is in fact considerably
higher and has no equal for many miles around. The latter rises to
a height of -1789 feet above sea-level.
From Pot Loer the main ridge of hills gradually falls away to the
west. They are still called the Karree Berg, and extend as far as
Rietpoort, whence they are connected by rantjes and small detached
kopjes with the Pihenosterberg — a flat but rough plateau, jutting
abruptly northward into the plain. At Dassies Kloof there is a rapid
fall in the general level of the country — apparently a "steppe"' between
Fig. 4. — The Jakhals Toren aud distant Tulbagli Mouutains.
two plateaus — the easternmost being several hundred feet above the
other.
There is a break of five or six miles of open country between the
Ehenosterberg and the Jakhals Toren — a Toren being a hill of perfectly
symmetrical conical form terminating in a "krantz,"^ i.e. a low pre-
cipitous cliff round the summit of a hill. In this instance the krantz
is about fifty feet in height (Fig 4).
Hills of this type are by no means rare. Amongst the Tulbagh
Mountains there are several very perfect, though smaller ones. The
Pramberg " and Aasvogel Kop in the district of Victoria West are hills
of a similar nature. On a still larger scale, but of much the same kind,
1 " Krantz" — literal meaning is crown.
- " Pram " — Dutch word for breast.
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTERN CAPE COLONY. 399
are many of the detached kopjes in the Britstown district, as an examjile
of which Leebs Kop ^ stands pre-eminent.
The rock forming the top of these hills is dolerite, Avhilst the sides
seem to be of a broken shale.
A flat stretch of three-quarters of a mile separates the Jakhals Toren
from the nearest of the Tulbagh Mountains, near the westernmost point
of which is Tulbagh itself. These hills rise about 1000 feet above the
plain.
Like the Twee Melk Berg, and for that matter like all hills south
of the Orange Eiver, the Tulbagh Mountains are steeper on the north
side than on the south, in places being even precipitous.
What is very striking is the remarkable resemblance these hills bear
to a seagirt coast — the sea in this ca?e being represented by the far
stretching plain, out of which the hills protrude so conspicuously. The
horizontal and parallel ridges running along the sides of many of the hills,
more especially in the mountainous country of north-western Natal,
are very conspicuous.
From Tulbagh the country bears a very featureless aspect, the only
defined hills being Spion Berg to the west, the Calvinia Mountains and
Fraserburg Mountains to the south-west and south respectively, and our
old friends Pot Loer and the Twee Melk Berg to the east ; to the north
nothing strikes the eye as it scans the low undulating plain except a few
red sand-dunes, and the ridge of low-lying hills running east and west
of Leeuwkuils Poort, which is the only distinct feature between ourselves
and the flat skyline about fifty miles distant. The general slope of the
country is both northwards and westwards, though in the latter direction
only as far as the Zak River. Beyond Leeuwkuils Poort and the ridge
of hills there, comes a line of " vloers," after which the ground begins
rising into the " bult " ^ beyond, but this does not attain the height of the
Tulbagh Mountains.
The "vloers " are one of the most remarkable features of the country,
and conform to the general trend of the hills in so far that they lie between
them, and extend like them east and west. A " vloer," which is a Dutch
word meaning " floor," is an absolutely level flat of caked mud destitute
as a rule of all vegetation. When there is rain, however, it becomes too
heavy for wheel traffic and remains so till the water has evaporated or
drained away, sometimes leaving a coating of coarse salt. On Commis-
sioners Pan, for instance, as well as at places more conveniently situated
near Kimberley, syndicates have been formed for collecting the salt, and
no doubt, if the country were opened up, this would prove a good
business.
In this part of South Africa a pan does not essentially difi'er from a
vloer, and often the word is used synonymously. But strictly speaking,
I believe it is the crater of an extinct volcano, varying in size from thirty
J The Lion's Head at Cape Town also seems to be a somewhat similar bnt less remark-
able feature of the same kind.
2 "Bult"— high, featureless, undulating plateau, from one rise of which it is impossible
to see further than to the top of the next, and so on.
400 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
yards to two or more miles in diameter. The most typical are found
on the tops of hills where they are usually elliptical and of consider-
able depth, i.e. from 50 to 100 feet below the surface of the surrounding
ground. The bottom of a pan is absolutely level, and often consists of a
blue soil entirely different from that round about. Such at any rate is
the case in the Transvaal and Orange Eiver Colony. A vloer differs
from a pan inasmuch as it may be of irregular shape and looks like the
bed of a dried-up lake. The vloer, too, usually has an outlet, whilst the
pan has not. Both are alike, however, in being dead level.
After finishing our observations on the Twee Melk Berg, we trekked
off through deadly dull country to Klip Ivolk, on the main road between
Carnarvon and Brandvlei. We were more than delighted to find a large
dam full of water at that place, good rains having recently fallen on
part of the farm and also in the direction of Van "Wyks Ylei. The
farmer was rejoicing too, for he had now enough water to last him for
at least eighteen months. We secured from him a few fresh vegetables,
mealies, sponspecs,^ and meat, which were all the more agreeable after
the ordinary fare of tinned meat and biscuit.
Our work now carried us westward again, and on account of the heat
— for we had now fallen a good many hundred feet since leaving Car-
narvon— we made a night trek to Yzerdoorns, the latter part of the way
being through practically an uninterrupted series of vloers.
The rising sun, glistening across desolate flats of mud, together with
the fleeting figure of my companion, that might have been taken for a
silhouette of Don Q. riding over the waste, made a picture that is not
easily forgotten.
From here we struck north to Molmans farm at Bros Pan, where we
encamped at a convenient distance from the house. Molman, as his name
suggests, is of Turkish origin, and if report is true he has not entirely
lost the nature of his forefathers. On this farm petroleum has been dis-
covered, and will probably be worked before many years. There is no
doubt that petroleum stone is found very extensively, but whether the
oil has been exhausted by natural phenomena or not is a matter for
experts to decide. This stone is frequently to be found in low-lying
ground, but it does not become exposed to view unless at the foot of a
kopje, where there has been some natural disturbance. I have, however,
noticed it on the bult on the same farm, but this is very exceptional.
Generally all the bults in this part of South Africa are formed of gravel
and seem to suggest possibilities of considerable interest to the geologist.
From Bros Pan we moved out on to the bult, which runs approximately
east and west from near Twee Rivier to Hartogs Kloof. Though the
Hartebeest River breaks through at this last-mentioned place, the general
hill feature is carried on in a north-easterly direction by the Konka
Berg.
As it proved impossible to fix and mark points either in the neigh-
bourhood of Bros Pan or on the adjoining farm of Abiqua Puts, it was
decided to separate — one of us travelling by Hartogs Kloof, and triangu-
^ " Sponspecs " — kind of sweet melon.
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTEEN CAPE COLONY. 401
lating on the hills there, including Eiet Kop and the Boschmansberg,
whilst the other went by Brandvlei and down the Zak valley to Blok-
zyn-kolk, where we intended to meet.
This having been definitely arranged, I trekked into Brandvlei — one
of those heaven-forsaken spots on the border of the almost unknown
country of Bushmansland — where I raised such forage and supplies as
were available. With no apparent means of existence, it is little more
than extraordinary how a population consisting merely of about a dozen
Dutch and Jewish families, together with, say, a hundred and fifty natives,
can exist at all. The church, a double-storied building, is the only
edifice of any pretensions, and looks much out of place amongst the sun-
dried brick hovels that surround it. The spot is not an enlivening one,
and recollections of the difficulties we had experienced in getting water
on a former occasion made me all the more desirous of curtailing my
visit. The particulars are as follows : —
It had happened that after a good morning's work we arrived at a
farm where we were told that we should find no water short of the Zak
River, nearly thirty miles further on. We started in the evening, and
after a few miles came to a large vloer, which we crossed at the narrowest
part, but which even there was nearly three miles broad. Then we
wound our way for many a long mile up the bult, near the top of which
we outspanned for the night. Here one of the horses got sand colic,
but a good dose of medicine put him to rights — at least sufficiently so to
allow of his being led behind the waggon the next day. Although we
started before light, we had nevertheless underrated the time required,
for what with the heavy roads, the great heat soon after sunrise, and the
animals getting tired and thirsty, it was not until midday in the full
blaze of a semi-tropical sun that we struck the Zak River, which, like
all others, was quite dry ! Having in vain explored right and left in
the hopes of finding a waterhole, we decided to push on a few miles to
the village of Brandvlei. But further disappointment was awaiting us ;
for immediately on arrival we drove the animals down to the village
well, merely to find that the water was so bitter and salt that only the
donkeys would touch it. Needless to say it was too bad for the inhabi-
tants, who we found carted their water from a certain place in the
river-bed three miles further on. There was no choice but to go on
there and to encamp near to it.
Now, at the time of my second visit I remembered these difficulties,
and there having been no rain in the country I expected to be in a worse
plight than before ; but fortunately the river, which rises in the Drakens-
berg, where the rainfall is often very heavy, had come down a short
time previously, and though dry again now, there was enough water in a
small dam at Dik Dooms for our wants.
Owing to the prolonged drought of some five years' standing a great
number of farmers had been compelled to leave the district and go else-
where, thus greatly adding to our difficulties in finding our way. These
were still further increased by our " boys " ^ being strangers to this part
1 " Boy " — Colonial word for native servant.
LIEUT. ELLIOT'S EXPEDITION IN N.W. CAPE COLONY.
Jlolapo ^
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SalhToTiiaav^^^
I d^
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FRJi^SERfaURG
Uilh'stpii -^o/ ^
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r ' "Ec^Mwiwita/i, ^^ Prim. } ^io
i
^U r^*^^^^. VICTOfl<A WE9.T 5^
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Lieut. Elliots Route shown thus.
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTERN CAPE COLONY. 403
of South Africa, and by our having no guide, so that we were dependent
upon our own limited knowledge of Cape Dutch for any information we
required : this was very unreliable.
The map on page 402 shows that the Zak Eiver, together with the
Fish River, and other minor tributaries, drain the greater portion of the
Fraserburg district. Rising as many of them do in the Rogge Yeld,
Komsberg, and Nieuwveld mountains, where there is a considerable rain-
fall, they enable the farmers living along practically the whole length
of the Zak River, to count on its flowing several times in the year.
From Brandvlei the river winds through an open valley four to five
miles in width bounded by low hills. Here the river-bed is about
eighteen feet in depth and seventy yards in breadth, and continues
so past Onderste Dooms, where a few clumps of thorn along the banks
break the usual bleakness of the scenery.
There is no special geographical feature before coming to the huge
vleis into which the Zak River may be said to debouch, and in the centre
of which are the farmhouses of Blok-zyn-kolk.
On arrival at the southern extremity at a place called Straus
Kolk, I found the river was coming down, the vleis inundated,
and all roads into Blok-zyn-kolk impassable, for heavy transport at
any rate, except one from the south-west, which being on the opposite
side of the river was of course of no use to me as I could not get there.
These " vleis" — improperly so called, as the strict meaning of the word
is " valley " — are identical with the usual type of vloer already described,
except that instead of being a barren stretch of caked mud, the soil is
extremely fertile and highly productive where under cultivation.
This difference appears to be due to the rich alluvial mud deposited
by the Zak River rather than to any other cause. All sides are
surrounded by featureless hills, which gradually merge into the "bult"
proper, the Lemoen Kop and Klein Lemoen Kop being the only
exceptions.
At Blok-zyn-kolk dams of considerable size store up the waters of
the Zak, and a great deal of wheat is raised there. Although an average
yield of seventy to an hundredfold is obtained by the farmers, the lack of
a near market is too insurmountable a difficulty for the unenterprising
Dutchmen.
Owing chiefly to natural causes, but also no doubt partly to the dams,
no surface water escapes below the Lemoen Kop, and the dry valley of
the Zak vrinds along for thirty miles or so before meeting the Hartebeest
River, which like all others floAvs only at times of rain. Of course a
certain amount of water filters down the Zak valley from the large vleis,
as well as drains in on either side from the neighbouring hills, keeping
the grass fresh and green and filling up Avells.
But let us now glance at the map, and imagine ourselves standing on
the Lemoen Kop looking north-eastwards. Straight 4n front is the
Kuilsberg, connected with us by a neck of undulating high land several
hundred feet above the valley of the Zak on our left, and similarly above
Verneuk Pan on our right, whilst almost at our feet upon the neck lies
the vloer at Sand Puts. The pan, which has an extent of about twenty
404 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
miles, might more appropriately be termed a vloer by reason of its
resemblance to a huge dry lake, and of its having an outlet in the
Hartebeest River at its eastern extremity. Owing to its great size the
" ophazel " or mirage is exceptionally delusive, and it is due to this that
the Dutch gave it the name of Verneuk or Bamboozle Pan.
According to the legend, a certain Boer who was riding over it, got
so puzzled by the mirage, that, after travelling for several hours, he had
to admit himself lost. Tired with his ride and parched with thirst, he
off-saddled, and, according to the custom of the country, let his horse
loose. The animal wandered a short distance, when suddenly the way-
farer noticed, much to his surprise, a second horse exactly similar to his
own. To be brief, the real one disappeared in search of water or food,
and the Boer was left to pursue the phantom. A few months later some
farmers, returning from a successful hunt after springbok, came across
the bleaching remains of the lost Jappie. Of his identity there was no
doubt, and friends had no hesitation in guessing the cause of his death.
We may here notice that the alternate lines of hill and vloer which
succeed each other in the country we have been traversing, conform
approximately to one general direction, east and west.
In the first place there is the main watershed of the Karree Berg,
including Pot Loer and Tulbagh, then a series of vloers and low ground
extending from the Blomberg near the Zak River to Yzerdoorn, Boeter-
leegte, and Van "Wyk's Vlei ; these are succeeded by the bult, to the
south-east and east of Brandvlei running to Hartogs Kloof, and con-
tinued from there by the Konka Berg. Xext come the large vleis round
Blok-zyn-kolk, the Sand Puts vloer, and Verneuk Pan. These main
features seem to be carried on to the east of the Hartebeest River.
Immediately to the north of the western portion of Verneuk Pan
is the Kuilsberg, from which high ground extends right away east-
wards to the Kyle or Bosch Bulten — an exceptionally large undulating
gravel plateau, rising to considerable elevation and quite waterless.
North of the Kuilsberg the dry valley of the Zak River, running in a
north-easterly direction, emphasises the height of the bult on the opposite
side ; and this is in fact the highest ground between the Brandvlei-
Konkaberg bult and the Orange River. It extends from some indefinite
point in Bushraansland to the Hartebeest River, dying away in the
Kokerberg south of Kenhard, To the north of this the country falls
much more rapidly and with no trace of the general features that have
so far predominated. Very marked, isolated, and often grotesquely
shaped hills now make their appearance along the valleys of the
Hartebeest and Orange rivers. The tops of these kopjes correspond
approximately with the height of the bult, and thus as the level of the
ground gradually falls away to the rivers the more prominent do they
become. Owing to their great steepness and to the abruptness with
which their sides descend — there being no gradual sloping away near
the base — the impression is given of their being stuck on to the earth
rather than forming an integral part of it.
A word remains to be said regarding the Prieska Mountains ; these
stretch from the neighbourhood of Grootdoornbergfontein south of
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTERN CAPE COLONY. 405
Prieska in a north-westerly direction to the Orange River, and then
continue along it in a broken line of ridges. These hills are of
geological rather than of geographical interest, abounding in asbestos
and crysidolite.
To return to our movements, it will be remembered that on separat-
ing at Abigua Puts we had arranged to meet at Blok-zyn-kolk ; but
now, owing to the flooded condition of the vleis, it Avas impossible to
carry out the plan. Under these circumstances I decided to outspan at
a place called Sand Puts, where A. turned up next day — by instinct,
without knowing that it was impossible to get to Blok-zyn-kolk. After
making observations from the Lemoen Kop we proceeded to the Kuilsberg
and then on to the Kokerberg.
The character of the gravel on the bults and of the coarse sand ^ in
the Zak River valley appeared to be of considerable interest. Quartz,
felspar, and mica predominate in it, whilst zircon, green pebbles, garnets
and other crystals are not uncommon in certain parts. In places
extremely hard grey granite rocks protrude in the river bed and some-
times outcrops of pure white quartz are met with on the high ground.
Copper exists north of the Kokerberg, and in the vicinity of Kenhard.
Driekopjes is the most prominent feature near by, and is made use
of as a heliograph station by the police. Although it rises 800 to 1000
feet above the surrounding country, it is all the same insufficiently high
to afford a view over the bult to the south of it, and was consequently
of little use to us for work in that direction. The bult, too, was so flat
as to necessitate several minor treks to the south-east, south, and south-
west, before the work could be satisfactorily carried forward again.
Bad luck seemed to dog our steps at this time, for in attempting to
fix points on the Bosch Bult we got nearly stranded on its wide waterless
wastes, and on another occasion, owing to our " boys " mistaking their
way when they had been sent on with the waggon, we underwent the
affliction of tracking them for the greater portion of the night over rough
and unknown roads before succeeding in catching them up.
Soon after this I trekked into Bushmansland, but the difficulty of
getting water quite took away any pleasure in the trip. There, far
beyond the touch of civilisation, the white man was to be seen in his
crudest form, and it was interesting to observe to what state he had
fallen. Broadly speaking, the Dutchman in South Africa bears some
resemblance to the Scotsman. Both are loosely put together, big-boned
and angular, but in his stature, which is usually not less than six feet,
and in the oval shape of his head, the Dutchman diff"ers from the bullet
and square-headed people of North Britain. His complexion, too, is
very dark, due partly to exposure to a semi-tropical sun, partly to a
naturally sallow appearance, mostly observable amongst women and
children ; whilst dark hair and eyes are predominant throughout the race.
Whilst in most parts of South Africa there are only certain families
— such as De Villiers — in which coloured blood can be distinguished,
yet here in the back-country it is not only frequent but strongly marked.
1 The colour of the sand is grey, tinged with pink, and it glitters a great deal.
406
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
The women are strong and strapping for their sex, and as matrons
reach the most monstrous proportions imaginable. Good looks and
figure from an English standpoint are usually wanting.
Maturing earlier than in England/ girls who have reached the age
of sixteen or seventeen should be compared with those of three or four
and twenty at home. For this reason marriage is contracted correspond-
ingly early ; it is also more easily entered into since there do not exist
on the veld the same difficulties as in the midst of twentieth-century
civilisation in the old country, for the needs of a newly wedded pair are of
the simplest kind — not much more than a waggon, a tent, and a flock of
i-iu. 5. — N'ljLTeii-toe-zyii-kolk (Bushmauslaucl).
sheep and goats being requisite. When even these humble requirements
are not to be had, the "bywoner system "' has to be resorted to. It is
a system common in South Africa, and practically amounts to an arrange-
ment between owner and tenant. The former supplies his bywoner with
a small house and a plot of land, whilst the latter in return gives a
portion of his crops or the value of his labour in payment thereof.
In the Western Cape Colony it occurred to me that fiimilies were
1 The fact of girls reaching puberty earlier in South Africa than in Europe does not
appear to apply only to the Dutch, but also to the English. The age of twelve or thirteen is
generally considereil equivalent to that of sixteen or seventeen elsewhere, but cases at ten or
eleven are not unknown. In short a girl who is not engaged to be married at twenty
is usually considered quite an "old maid." It is noteworthy that children born of
women under seventeen years of age seem often to die in infancy.
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTERN CAPE COLONY. 407
insufficiently split up, and that the bywoner system was not so general
as in other parts of South Africa ; or at any rate it existed in a modified
form, the bywoners instead of being strangers being near relatives of the
proprietor. It is not uncommon to find quite a community of the same
kindred living together. The grandfather — who as likely as not was
the first settler — occupies the best house, whilst close by are his sons in
huts or house-tents with their respective families. Uncles, aunts, and
cousins dwell at the adjoining farms — in short, there are blood relations
all round. The Boer has no ambition, or if he has any, it lies in the
direction of owning land.^ If he can raise a few sheep on the part
apportioned to him, has a wife to keep his hovel clean and to cook for
him, and a sufficiently large family to tend his flocks and do the farm
work, he is content.
This lack of hope and ambition is not calculated to improve the race.
There being no inducement and also no necessity for the young Boer to
leave the locality in which he was born, marriage is almost necessarily
confined to persons more or less nearly related to each other. Incest is
not uncommon. Consequently it is not surprising that the number of
persons of ill-developed or deranged mental capacities is large, but they
are not of a dangerous or wild disposition. Whether the percentage is
greater than that in England it is impossible for me to judge, more
especially as at home private or public funds are available for procuring
special accommodation, and this is well known to be greatly deficient in
the Colony.
I have heard stated on excellent authority that a tendency to
hypochondria exists, and that this is probably due to in-breeding, but
speaking from personal experience I should not say that the Dutch are
disposed to melancholy, but, on the contrary, lead happier and more
contented lives than mankind generally. Still, as my informants were
medical men, they were much better able to learn about the innermost
thoughts and lives of these people than a passing stranger like myself.
That a Boer is very despondent in sickness is quite undeniable — so is a
native — but it by no means follows that they are so when in health.
Ignorance, and want of common sense in medical matters, together
with a half-belief that sickness is sent direct by the hand of God in
punishment for some off'ence, and should not for that reason be inter-
fered with, possibly in some degree accounts for this dejection. One is
reminded of the old rhyme —
" When the devil was ill, the devil a saint would be ;
When the devil was well, the devil a saint was he."
This applies truly to many a Dutch farmer, who sends for a doctor
quickly enough if he should himself be indisposed, but would not dream
of doing so for his wife or child till death is imminent. Doubtless he
1 On the death of a Dutch farmer the land is equally divided amongst the sons — the
eldest succeeding to the house and probably to the most valuable portion of the farm with it.
At present, however, it is not uncommon to find many Boers owning 100,000 to 200,000
niorgen, i.e. 202,000 to 404,000 acres.
408 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL SIAGAZINE.
does not hold them ia that degree of affection which one would expect
between persons of such near ties, for to him they are little better than
chattels. " Surely," he reasons to himself, " if my big ugly vrou has
committed some ill-doing by reason of which she is in the eyes of the
Almighty no longer fit to dwell on earth, surely it is not for me, a
humble and oprecht servant of the Lord, to interfere with His works,
but rather to worship and give thanks for His goodness and bounty in
supplying a choice of more than one ' mooi meisje ' in the district, who
I know will jump at the chance of becoming the wife of a great land-
owner like myself. As for the child, well — he will hardly be missed
out of a family of eighteen." ^
In the Transvaal and Orange River Colony the farmers are better
educated, and possess a knowledge of English and of the world which
would be hard to find in the inhabitant of the Karroo.^
Credulity follows in the steps of ignorance, and no portion of South
Africa lends itself more aptly than this as a happy hunting-ground for
quacks.
Towards preservation of health the Boer takes no measures. The
houses impress one with their superficial cleanliness indoors, and their
dirtiness out of doors, even up to the door-step. The beds, too, which
are sufficiently broad to accommodate several persons, are infested with
thousands of fleas and bugs — a circumstance that is not surprising con-
sidering that neither men nor women wash themselves sufficiently. It
is due to dirt and careless sanitation that diphtheria is so common a
cause of death amongst children, sometimes taking the form of an
epidemic and sweeping right through communities.
Leprosy is not uncommon in the outlying farms amongst both the
white and coloured population ; but when the disease is sufficiently
advanced to attract attention the individual is sent to Robben Island.
There are other causes habitual to a Boer's mode of life that must
affect his health ^ and physique, but these can only be briefly touched
upon here : — Inter alia the growing ignorance of women in matters
relating to child-birth and to the rearing of their off'spring, the exclusion
of fresh air from bedrooms, eating undue quantities of meat in propor-
tion to other food,"* drinking bad coff"ee all day long, and smoking on an
average one pound of tobacco per week.
There can be little doubt that environment or local surroundings
have great influence upon men — individually in shaping their character,
opinions, and lives ; collectively, in creating the constitution, policy, and
history of nations. So that in considering the characteristics of the
inhabitants of the Karroo and their customs it is essential to call to mind
the circumstances which have moulded them into what they are.
History records the landing of the Dutch at the Cape ^ in the year
1 Very large faniilies are the rule. I noticeil once au inscription on a tombstone record-
ing that a woman had given birth to twenty-eight children.
2 Difference in the language as spoken in the Karroo is marked.
3 Indigestion and highly strung nervous systems are very general.
•» This refers only to the Karroo and other sheep-rearing districts.
5 Discovered by Vasco da Gamba in 1497.
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTERN CAPE COLONY. 409
1650, the subsequent native wars, and their gradual but slow occujDation
of the country which we have been describing.
The primitive manner of living and simplicity in thought and action
are remarkable ; their Avorld is so small, and offers so little stimulus to
the imagination, that their ideas have no opportunity of expanding,
being confined to matters of actual necessity and of everyday life, except
in regard to those matters connected Avith religion and with the awe-
inspiring mysteries of nature.
The man concerns himself with only his sheep, the condition of the
veld, and the prospects of rain ; the Avoman thinks but of her household
duties, and counts up the number of days to the next " Nachtmaal,"
This is a semi-religious festival held usually two or three times a year,
somewhat corresponding to the former fast day in the Church of
Scotland, It is an occasion when the people for miles and miles around
trek in to the dorp in their best clothes, and give themselves up to
pleasure. Every house in the place is overcrowded, and many have to
rest content with the shelter of tents or waggons. Dancing — their one
great social enjoyment — is freely indulged in, but the excitement,
together with a very low general standard of morality, usually leads to
a good deal of loose intercourse.
In this, as in all things, the Boer is very primitive and totally
lacking in sense of delicacy. The broadest remarks are passed at
wedding feasts, whilst at all times looseness of conversation between
men and women is to be observed, often in the presence of quite
young girls.
The shops or stores as they are usually called, do a great deal of
business at nachtmaal, when the Boer thinks himself justified in laying
in a small stock of delicacies, and in buying things that may take his
fancy. One of his little peculiarities — as any back-country storekeeper
will admit — is his inability to resist annexing any little thing that may
by chance be lying on the counter. If the shopman is sharp enough to
notice what has happened, it is the etiquette to say nothing, but to include
the value of the article in the bill of purchases ; whilst the Boer, on the
other hand, as he was not 'cute enough to avoid detection, pays up quite
willingly.
The condition of a back-country home depends much on the owner's
wealth or poverty, and on the supply of water available. In the case of
well-to-do people a good house is erected made of sun-dried bricks and
covered with white plaster; but humble individuals have to content
themselves with a poorer class of building, mud-hovels, rond-davels, or
tents.
In a good dwelling the main walls are from two to three feet in
thickness, fitted with lattice windows and doors. Partitions, however,
are often no more than the width of a single brick, and sometimes in
small houses a curtain answers the purpose.
All houses except mud-hovels and rond-davels are built on practically
the same plan. The main door opens direct into a central parlour or
living room, off which there is a bedroom on each side forming the total
accommodation. Wealthy farmers, however, obtain more by adding a
VOL. XXIII. 2 G
410 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
room opposite the entrance, and then either increase the size of the
bedrooms, or add a small reception-room on one side and a kind of
scullery on the other. With the extra wealthy more rooms still are
provided, accessible from a covered " stoep " ^ running the length of the
house.
What is particularly striking is that there are no provisions what-
ever for privacy ; passages are unknown, and access to rooms is obtained
direct from one to the other. There are no means of bathing, sometimes
not even for washing ; a single basin and jug not infrequently doing
duty for a whole family.
The kitchen is usually a very primitive concern and out of doors.
It consists merely of an oven made of sun-dried brick and a con-
veniently raised dresser of like material, suitable for making a fire on,
cutting up meat, etc., and is surrounded by a loosely piled fence of veld-
bush, sufficiently high to keep off the wind. The oven and fireplace are
neatly coated with a mixture of ant-heap and dung, which forms a hard
smooth surface when dry. This mixture is also used frequently to
cement the floors of houses ; it is clean and cool.
The very poorest Boer lives in a yet ruder kind of dwelling than
that already described ; sometimes in nothing better than a shelter
thatched with grass, sometimes in a rond-davel, and sometimes in
nothing at all.
A rond-davel is a circular-shaped building of stone, say twelve to
fifteen feet in diameter, with a conelike roof, made by each successive
stone overlapping the one immediately beneath if, and closed by a large
flat slab on top. Chinks are filled with mud, and the whole, both
inside and out, is cemented over with the usual compound of ant-heap
and dung. From the accompanying photograph (Fig. 6), it will be
observed that certain stones are left protruding on the outside at regular
interv^als, but with what object it is difficult to say, unless as a strange
form of decoration. These rond-davels appear originally to have been
used as kraals - by native chiefs.
Close to the farmhouses and rather to the back of them are the
sheep and cattle pens, into which stock are driven at night. The walls
are built of stone or of slabs of hardened " mess " ^ cut from an adjoining
kraal. Thus the walls supply a plentiful reserve of fuel ! It gives out
a peculiar odour rather like peat, for "mess" makes a good smouldering
fire, and is practically the only kind of combustil)le in the country.
Near by, also, is the well from which water is obtained in a variety of
ways. Should it be deep, i.e. from eighteen to thirty feet, a bucket,
rope, and roller are sometimes used, or else a donkey is harnessed to a
beam of wood and trotted round and round, setting a series of small iron
buckets in motion which empty the water into a trough. The better-off
farmers go in for wind pumps of the latest manufacture.
1 The nearest word e.xpressiug the meauiug of " stoep " in English is veraiiilah, but it
need not necessarily be covered, and very often is not so in this part of South Africa.
* Kraal means Kaffir hut or sheep or cattle fold.
3 "Mess" — Dutch word for cow dung.
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTERN CAPE COLONY. 411
But at the poorer farms, of course, nothing nearly so grand is to be
found. There the wells are usually not more than 10 to 15 feet in
depth, the mouth of which is half covered with planks, on which one has
to stand in order to lower a pail. A good deal of skill is required to
fill it, and to bring it to the top again without falling in oneself. It is
not uncommon to find at the brink of a well a tall forked stake support-
ing a cross-piece kept in place by reims,^ so tied as to allow it to swing.
On the one end is fixed a rope and bucket, and on the other a heavy
rock, the weight of which is sufficient to raise a pailful of water. The
latter is always more or less brackish, sometimes being extremely bitter
Fig. 6. — A Pioud-davel, with threshiiig-tioor in foreground.
and undrinkable. Owing to its scarcity in certain parts, permanent
dwellings are not possible ; and consequently, since the people are con-
tinually on the move, they find it convenient to live in tents, or, what is
more general, merely in covered waggons. After good rains, hundreds
trek into the heart of Bushmansland with their flocks and families and
lead a nomadic existence there, encamping by the side of vleis and pans,
till water gives out and they are driven back again.
At permanent homes there is usually a very small garden in which
mealies, pumpkins, water-melons, sponspecs, and vines are grown. Fig-
trees do admirably and are decidedly common, whilst orange and apple
trees are to be seen in the gardens of the more progressive farmers — for
we must remember that they look upon their gardens as a means of
getting luxuries, not necessaries.
1 " Reims," strips of cured hide.
412 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
A Boer's ordinary fare consists of mutton, bread, eggs, and goats
milk. Coffee and sugar are the only provisions bought for regular con-
sumption, but sweets become a large item when there is ready money ;
for a Dutchman's, and more particularly a Dutchwoman's fondness for
" laekers " is as great as that of the Scotch.
Spirits are practically untouched except in the " towns," and this is
greatly due to the influence of the women, who are much opposed to the
use of liquors of all kinds, even to the colonial " dop." ^
At most times the back-country farmer has all his capital invested
in land or stock, and he cannot be induced to pay for anything in cash.
Although the head of every family stores his money in some secret
hiding-place, in the framework of his bed or below the floor, he would
not think of making use of it except on the gravest occasions, and far
less of depositing such funds at interest in a bjnk.'-
The men are fairly well travelled in their own district, but all are
grossly ignorant of the rudiments of general knowledge. I have fre-
quently been told I was a liar for saying the earth was round ! And
it is quite impossible for them to grasp that very diff'erent conditions of
life obtain in other parts of the world.
With all their little peccadilloes, the Dutch are deeply and genuinely
religious. Few agnostics are to be found amongst them. But to show
the diflSculty there is, and always will be, in the Englishman under-
standing them, they will never hesitate to evade the truth to get the
better of a bargain.
Their thoughts and actions are based upon the desire of gaining
their own ends, irrespective of religious scruples, if they have any, for
by continued perusal of the Old Testament, which forms the bulk of their
Biblical reading, they have come, perhaps unconsciously, to liken them-
selves to the chosen race.
As might be expected, the religion in itself is so simple as to verge
on the uncouth, for, although a minister occasionally travels round from
farm to farm, the average Boer obtains practically no religious instruc-
tion, and so builds up for himself a faith based upon what he acknow-
ledges to be fundamental truths, and upon such ideas as have been
implanted in him in infancy. At nachtmaal, it is true, he has the
opportunity of listening to a pious discourse, but doubtless finds it hard
to rivet his attention at a time when there is so much to divert it.
Indeed in the whole great extent of country with which we are
treating there are no churches, except one in each of the few villages
mentioned in the text; and even at those places the congregation
seldom think it worth while to support a regular " predicant." For an
example of the properly conducted service it is necessary to visit the
more frequented parts of the Colony, the towns of the Orange River
Colony, or the Transvaal. It bears great resemblance to that of the
Church of Scotland, as also in the profession of faith, in which there are
no points of radical difference.
' " Dop," Cape br.^ndy.
2 In poor years, and often at other times, barter is resorted to.
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTERN CAPE COLONY. 413
At the farms it is usual to have morning and evening prayer, which
frequently includes the singing of a psalm immediately after getting up
from and before going to bed. On Sunday, between ten and eleven o'clock,
one of the senior members of the family conducts service. It is customary
to begin by singing a psalm, which is followed by prayer, reading of the
Old Testament, and so on, but though every household conforms to this
general custom, there is nothing in the shape of a liturgy. The singing
is carried on at the top of their voices, and very unpleasant it is to listen
to at close quarters. Prayers may be said aloud by any member pre-
sent, though I fancy it is somewhat of a privilege usually reserved for
the men. It is generally in the form of a petition closely concerning
themselves; it may be for rain, for blessings on the Lord's chosen
people, and in particular on the inmates of the house, for the swift
destruction of their enemies, for the safety and success of their spiritual
and political leaders, and for preservation against contamination from
those who belong to the big cities — those sinks of immorality, wicked-
ness, and vice — and who come into their midst but for their own
aggrandisement, like the Aasvogel to feed upon lambs. In some houses,
Sunday afternoon, after the usual siesta, is again devoted to prayer,
whilst grace before and after meals is invariable.
At all such times the elders assume the mien of undeviating absorp-
tion, which cannot be simulated by their juniors, who are obviously often
wearied out by the frequency and monotony of their devotions. And
yet, paradoxical as it may seem, those who know the Dutchman best will
not allow that he is a hypocrite. Personally I should doubt if one can
find firmer adherents to their own church than these rough farmers.
Unsophisticated and unrestricted as they are in all their actions, it is
but natural that their religion should also be broad and simple so as to
appeal to those that are born and bred on the veld. Yet although
simplicity in form and freedom of worship are the chief characteristics of
the Dutch Church,^ it signally fails to inculcate morality on anything
like European standards. This is certainly difficult where the codes of
morality, honour, and chivalry are so different.
Although, like all South Africans, the Dutchman shows little courtesy
to the gentler sex, for which the latter have themselves much to blame,
yet it must not be supposed that he is utterly destitute of manners ; for,
except amongst the poorest class, living in remote parts, he is infinitely
more hospitable and civil than are the Jewish, German, and English
population of the local "' towns."
The Dutch compare very favourably with their social equals in
Europe ; but of course they are very uneducated. To some extent they
realise this drawback, and parents will now take considerable trouble to
procure a good education for their children, whose aptitude for learning
is remarkable.
The quiet life led by several generations in the solitude of the veld
seems to have strengthened without cultivating their mental power, and
1 In speaking here of the Dutch Church, its three divisions have been treated as a
whole without entering upon the merits of any particular branch.
414 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
in this respect they contrast favourably with the sharp but shallow-
witted town-bred folk.
From the white let us now turn to the black population, and note
the changes that have occurred during the last fifty years or so.
Without going into details of past history it will suffice to mention
that prior to the Dutch occupation the country was inhabited by
Bushmen and Hottentots who had been driven further and further
back into the mountains and desert fastnesses by inroads of bands of
Kaffirs coming from the East. The Kaffirs being a pastoral people did
not venture very far west of the present railway line, south of De Aar —
Kaffirskraal in the Beyersberg ^ being one of the most western points
attained.
This was the condition of affairs when small parties of Dutchmen
gradually crept forward and settled on the land, with the inevitable
result that a bitter struggle for supremacy ensued, and it was not till
after many years of warfare and barbarous reprisal that the natives^
were finally subdued. There is not a Boer in the country who cannot
tell of the unspeakable horrors of a native raid ; for when the black man
attacks, he strikes when least expected, usually at night, sparing neither
woman nor child.
In these wars the Bushmen were hunted down and exterminated,
partly because they seemed to be nearer allied to the brute beast
than to man, and partly because of the impossibility of domesticating
them.
At the present day there are none south of the Orange Eiver,
though a few years ago they were still to be found in parts of Bush-
mansland, and it seems probable that they still visit certain localities
there at such times when herds of springbok and game^ are driven
south for want of pasturage and rain ; but in ordinary circumstances
they are not now to be met with except in the depths of the Kalahari
Desert.
The average Dutchman can tell nothing of native history, except
what has come within his own personal knowledge or within that of his
father ; whilst the native, with his natural distrust of the white man,
feigns ignorance or stupidity whenever questioned on the subject.
Once or twice only with the persuasion of a handful of " baccy " have I
been able to get old coloured men to speak of their youth and of their
forefathers. But on each occasion the difficulty arose of ascertaining
how long ago the events related had occurred. The only evidence from
which deductions can be made lies in the knowledge of what the natives
are like to-day.
However, as the Bushmen are generally considered to be of an older
origin, they have a claim to be considered first.
My information regarding them has been derived from the Dutch
and a few English colonials who have either travelled in the Kalahari
' Called after Beyer, who was their chief.
' Natives — Bushmen, Hottentots, and KaflBrs.
3 Game includes Gemsbok and Wildebeest, but these do not leave the Kalahari.
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTERN CAPE COLONY. 415
themselves or had relatives that have done so, and it should therefore be
trustworthy; but it might be as well to remember that exaggeration
is a common fault, and that a colonial is a good hand at spinning
a yarn.
There seems to be little doubt, however, that the real Bushmen are
becoming less numerous every year, and are probably dying out. They
form a race of pigmies averaging from 3 feet 8 inches to 4 feet
2 inches in height, and are of a copper yellow colour somewhat like the
Hottentots. They live on game, killed with poisoned arrows, and
roots, whilst " sanna " — a kind of wild melon — supplies them with drink
during at least certain portions of the year. A marvellous instinct
for finding water is attributed to them, and it is even said that in
certain parts they suck it from the ground by means of hollow reeds
inserted to a depth of only 6 or 9 inches in the sand. These strange,
half-starved, barely human creatures lead a nomadic existence singly, or
at certain times of the year in pairs ; merely scraping a shallow hole in
the ground in which to lie at night, or sometimes collecting a little
grass for the sake of extra warmth and comfort.^
The difficulty of sustaining life is the reason for their not settling
permanently at any one place and for their solitary manner of life, and it
is due to this that the females, who by the way are accredited with always
giving birth to twins, invariably kill one child, if not both.
In some of the most remote parts we ourselves came across so-called
Bushmen, but these seemed in fact to be but a low type of the Hottentot
race, or to be half-bloods between the latter and the Bushmen proper.
They work on the farms, but never for long, preferring to return to their
nomadic habits, and to live on the veld for months at a time.
Let us now turn to the Hottentots, who are the ordinary coloured
people on the Karroo. They differ most conspicuously from the other
native tribes of South Africa in being of a yellow colour and in having
broad low foreheads and high cheek-bones, denoting possibly Mongolian
extraction.
Their hair grows in curly tufts like that of other natives, but not
nearly so thickly, whilst the face is practically bare, except in the case
of old persons, when a lanky growth appears on the chin.
The women are remarkable for their grotesquely large buttocks, the
upper portion of which protrudes from the body at a very sharp angle,
thus forming an admirable seat for their piccanins - which they carry
slung in a blanket straddle-legs across the back. The weight is taken
entirely on the buttocks, the blanket being used to form a kind of nest
to prevent the child from falling oif.^
The Hottentots are very prolific, and the advent of the white man
in their midst is having marked effect; the number of half-castes is
1 The Kalahari Desert is not absolutely destitute of vegetation as often t-upposed, but
covered with sparse grass between the sand-dunes, which, however, keep continually shifting
according as the wind blows.
2 Piccanin — native word for baby.
3 What is known in medicine as the "Mens Veneris" is also a remarkable, though
artificial, peculiarity of these women.
416 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
increasing yearly, so much so that in another generation or two a large
section of the native population will be white.
Evidence of this is apparent at all the local towns, of which Car-
narvon is as good an example as any. A missionary settled here in
days gone by on what was then the farm lands of Schietfontein, where
in course of time he collected the natives around him and founded a
proper mission station. At a still later date white men began to take
up their abode here too, with the present grotesque result of white and
black living practically in the same street together.
It is extremely mischievous when so little distinction exists between
white and black — as is the case here — when the latter resides with and
lives on an equality with the former, and when he even possesses a
franchise. The average white man in the countrj- associates far too readily
with the native, and it is not an uncommon sight, for instance, to see a
transport rider, not only chatting round the camp-fire in company with
his "boj's," but even eating with them out of the same cooking-pot.
Were this all perhaps no great harm might be done, but the stamp of
conversation is often of the lowest description and of a kind punishable
by death in many tribes in the natural state. Yet more, when social
and sexual intercourse is combined with the grossest immorality, it
cannot be expected that one man should have respect for another who
has not any even for himself. It is indeed hurtful to a coloured race to
be brought in touch with "Western civilisation, and to come under the
demoralising influence of missionaries who try to instil doctrines far
above their intelligencp.
To return to personal matters, the reader may recollect that we
experienced considerable difficulty in the vicinity of Kenhard, and in
consequence our stay there was protracted much longer than we had at
first anticipated.
Since leaving Carnarvon we had trekked between 400 and 500
miles, and bad food and water had told upon man and beast. Wheat
was the only kind of grain obtainable, and the animals thrived far from
well on it. They were suffering constantly from sand colic, too; yet
although we carried drugs with which to dose them on the first
symptoms, and took ever)^ possible precaution, we lost one of the horses
from it.
We ourselves were laid low with a short but sharp attack of
dysentery caused by the filthy and bitter water which we had to put
up with wherever we went.
So our delight was unbounded when before leaving Kenhard the
long drought of several years' standing was at last broken by a heavenly,
life-giving rain, which continued to fall for nearly three days throughout
the district.
When at length we turned our faces northward, pans, rock- pools,
and vleis were full, rendering our journey possible along any road and
in any direction desired.
My companion and 1 left Kenhard by different routes, and did not
meet again until reaching Eatel Draai, nearly two-thirds of the way to
Upington. It was particularly noticeable here that grass was taking
I
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTERN OAl'E COLONY. 417
the place of the ordinary veld scrub that had so far prevailed. In the
journey itself nothing of special interest occurred except the difficulty
we experienced in getting through occasional sand-dunes that were now
making their appearance.
Towards the end of May we encamped on the south side of the
Orange Eiver, opposite Upington, preferring to remain there rather than
to move into the town, owing to the difficulty of getting through the
heavy sand in the low ground, which extends for at least half a mile
from the river bank. This low ground is cut up with intricate and
deep channels, being almost entirely flooded when the river is high ;
I
Fig. 7. — View amongst the islands on the Orange River, near Upington.
it is mostly covered with trees and bushes of various kinds — Mimosa
being the predominating and finest class of timber. In fact it all
makes an ideal home for the small grey monkeys that live there.
The road itself zigzags through the bush, avoiding as far as possible
the deepest sand and water-courses, and finally emerges on the top of a
bank overlooking the river. A good pont is in use here, and is practi-
cally the only means of access to Upington from the south, the drift
being only possible when the water is very low, and not being considered
safe even then.
The village stands on the top of the very steep bank on the north
side, into which a deep cutting has been made to allow heavy transport
to get up from the landing-stage. All the same it is frequently found
necessary to inspan double teams to the waggons.
418
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Although the ferry was working day and night, it was no uncommon
sight to see seventy to eighty waggons waiting their turn to cross. For
at this time the war in German South-West Africa was in full swing,
and supplies of all kinds were pouring through from all the chief sea-
port towns in South Africa. Upington was alive with contractors,
transport riders, and others — all " on the make," and they were doing
it well.
In ordinary times the town would be similar to other back-country
villages were it not for the interest that centres round the divisional
Fm. 8. — Pont across the Orauge River — Upiugtou.
head-quarters of the police, who are instrumental in bringing a little
money into the place.
A small church, bank, post-office, a few stores, one or two good
houses, and some nice gardens and orange-trees are really all there is
here. The accompanying photograph gives a better idea of this small
border town than can any description of mine.
Before closing this paper a word may be said on the climate, which
must be acknowledged to be one of the most important factors that
govern the prosperity or decay of the country. There are long spells of
drought, and there can be no doubt that the land is, as the farmers
generally assert, gradually drying up, but this may be partly accounted
for by the annual deposit of sand swept up from the Kalahari Desert by
the prevailing north-westerly winds.
As regards temperature, we find that places on the high veld like
Victoria West or Carnarvon are particularly cold in winter and pleasant
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTERN GAPE COLONY. 419
in summer, whilst others on the Orange Eiver are just the reverse —
pleasant in winter and broiling hot in summer. At Upington a
temperature in the shade of 120° Fahrenheit is often registered.
Everywhere vegetation is strikingly monotonous, consisting nearly
entirely of veld-scrub, except in the north, where grass takes its place.
Mimosa, willow, and " wacht een bietje " thorn grow along the banks of
the largest rivers, whilst the stunted Karree boom ^ is common enough on
certain hills. The Koker boom {Aloe dkhotoma), likewise, flourishes on the
driest, hottest, and most rocky kopjes imaginable, but only on and to the
north of the Kokerberg. Its thick peeling bark, straight stem, and cactus-
FiQ. 9. — Koker boom {Aluc diciiiAijuio)
like head, give it an ugly though remarkable appearance, a good idea of
which can be obtained from the photograph. Amongst the smaller
plants we find prickly pear and other cacti, numerous bulbs, and after
rain thousands of varieties of flowers. The " Tontclbosch " - — so called
from the white, silklike fibre in the pod, with which the " vor-trekkers "
used to make tinder — is very common in the dry beds of streams and
along their banks.
Having completed our work at Upington and made our final
arrangements, we at last set off with the donkey waggon, mule cart, and
1 " Boom"— Dutch word meaning tree.
2 This plant is particularly favoured by large brilliantly coloured locusts, of which the
female is conspicuous in being bigger than its mate.
420
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE
oue remaining horse to trek into Prieska — a distance of about 150
miles.
Although the road was very sandy and cut up by the German
traffic, all went well till near Koegrabe, where we encountered con-
siderable difficulty in getting through a sand-dune, losing thereby a
great deal of time. Annoying as the delay was it Avas nothing in
comparison to what was yet in store for us. After slowly toiling on for
some miles we came towards evening into the midst of regular sand-
hills, in which we became firmly embedded. As all our efforts to
extricate the waggon were of no avail, and the animals were becoming
Fig. 10. — In the saud-dunes.
thoroughly tired and disheartened, we had no choice but to bivouac
where we were and wait till morning. At break of day we were up and
unloading the waggon, then after inspanning both the mules and horse
to the donkey team, we finally got through by dint of much struggling.
I need hardly say that it was some time yet before the discarded forage
and equipment was picked up — an ordeal bad enough in ordinary
circumstances in the deep sand, but made ten times worse by a strong
wind which carried blinding clouds of dust before it. We were very
glad when we saw the waggon at last creeping forward again, for,
including rest, we had taken between seventeen and eighteen hours to
get over about a mile of ground, and still more so on finding water a
short way on. Such slow progress, combined with the irritating effect
of the hot wind of the desert, and thick dust, was most depressing, as
OBSERVATIONS ON AN EXPEDITION IN WESTERN CAPE COLONY. 421
we felt that if we met with many more similar experiences we should be
considerably overdue in arriving at Prieska, if indeed we did not run
short of provisions and forage on the way.
However, taken on the whole, the road somewhat improved from
here, though once more we got rather badly stuck a day or two later.
As before, we outspanned the mules and were just fixing them up in
front of the donkeys, when the horizon suddenly darkened, the wind
chopped round, and we saw that we were in for a storm ; but not a storm
in the ordinary sense of the word of thunder or rain, but a sand-storm —
which is infinitely worse. It approached in a solid, thick, yellow bank
rather like a London fog, and very quickly. In a few minutes accompanied
by a roaring wind it was upon us; breathing became so difficult that it
was only possible to do so by turning one's back to the storm, and there
was nothing to be done but try to get what shelter one could from the
waggon, cover one's face with a handkerchief, and utter fervent prayers
that it would soon be over.
After about twenty minutes or so the worst was past, and we were
able to struggle out of the dune and trek on. It was well on in the
night before we halted at some distance from a large pan containing
water ; although there was a half moon it was very dark owin» to the
thick canopy of foglike dust which was still drifting along.
So disagreeable was this — so painful indeed, especially to our eyes
which Avere bloodshot, and which we could barely open — that we lost no
time in getting up the tent, which never was used except in a standin<y
camp. Altogether it was a very unpleasant experience, and one I should
be sorry to have to go through again.
Nothing requires special notice during the remainder of our journey.
We passed Dragoender, which is a farmhouse and hostelry combined
and so on through the Prieska Mountains to Glen Allan, where a second
party took over our animals and equipment. Without loss of time we
rode in the few miles that yet separated us from Prieska, where after
shaking the last of the desert dust from our feet we took train for
Cape Town.
Thus our long journey came to an end, for at Cape Town we found
our destinations lay far apart, A. having to return to his regiment in
Orange River Colony, and I having to sail for home.
As we bade each other farewell, it was not without feelings of regret
on my part as I recollected the nine months we had spent together in a
wonderful though desert country, and the different experiences we had
encountered there.
It may be worth mentioning that the distance we had trekked cannot
have been less than 2000 miles in all.
422 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
ATHENS.
NOTES ON A RECENT VISIT.
By Ralph Richardson, Hon. Sec. E.S.G.S.
Although Athens is a small and relatively an unimportant town, it
contains remains of antiquity and is surrounded by a halo of history which
give it a foremost place among the cities of the world. Modern writers
have lavished upon it terms such as they have applied to no other city.
Milton hailed it as " the eye of Greece, mother of arts and eloquence."
Dean Farrar speaks of the " eager gaze " with which the modern
traveller scans the scenery and outline of Athens.
The scenery of the country around Athens lacks, to a Scottish eye,
verdure and woodland, its hills are bare, its general appearance is one
of desolation, yet, when the mountains and sea with which Athens is
girt are lit up by the setting sun, a magic touch is given to the land-
scape and bestows on it an extraordinary beauty. Then the Acropolis
with its far-famed temples stands out clear and impressive, while the
innumerable peaks of the mountains of -t-Egina and Salamis and the
country beyond acquire definite form, and the heights of Hymettus,
Lycabettus, and Pentelicus are flooded with a purple glow.
Athens is situated about the same level above the sea as Princes
Street, Edinburgh. The capitals of Greece and Scotland have topo-
graphically much in common. Both are in the neighbourhood of
the sea, the port of the one, the Piraeus, being four miles distant from
Athens, while Leith and Edinburgh now form virtually one town.
The Acropolis corresponds to the Calton Hill and is of similar height,
while, although immensely less imposing, the National Monument on
the latter looks like a fragment of the Parthenon. Nor does Athens
lack its Arthur's Seat, for it finds in its Lycabettus an isolated hill
in its immediate vicinity although 88 feet higher than its northern
representative. But Athens possesses none of those magnificent
evidences of ancient volcanic energy which give to Edinburgh a
site unequalled in picturesque grandeur. It has no Castle rock, no
Salisbury Crags. Even its Lycabettus and Acropolis are but eminences
of limestone, schist, and marl, and are not the products of volcanic out-
bursts like Arthur's Seat, the Calton Hill, and other heights around
Edinburgh, and do not produce the same scenic effect.
The geology of the environs of Athens was described by Herren
Bittner, Neumayr, and Teller, with a geological map of Greece, in the
DenJcschriften der Kalserlichen Akademie der Jrissenschaften, published at
Vienna in 1880 (vol. xl. p. 379). It is also displayed in the Carte
Giolorji<iue Internationale de VEurope (Feuille, 39 D vi).
From these authorities we learn that the city rests on crystalline
schists, with a tract of alluvium stretching from the north-west of Athens
to the coast at the Pirifus and Phalerum. The outlying hills around
Athens known as Hymettus and Pentelicus consist of metamorphic rocks
ATHENS. 423
and produce marbles which have been divided geologically into upper,
middle, and lower, all of which are found on Hymettus, The famous
Pentelic marbles belong to the upper group.
With regard to Lycabettus, the Athenian Arthur's Seat, a local
guide-book describes it as consisting of a substratum of greenish-grey
slate and sandstone, over which is marl interbedded with limestone, while
the topmost layer is of blue-grey limestone.
To the north of Athens are Neogene rocks consisting of Miocene
and Pliocene Tertiaries, and in them some very remarkable geological
discoveries have been made. In Miocene times Greece was united to
Asia Minor by great plains on which grazed huge animals such as the
Dinotherium, Hipparion, and Giraffe, now found fossil in Greece. In
the Pliocene of Pikermi to the north-east of Athens were found remains
of Rhinoceros, Hipparion, Mastodon, Dinotherium and other extinct
fauna. These Pikermi beds, which have become celebrated in the
annals of geology, extend from the upper slopes of Pentelicus to Mara-
thon. They consist of breccia conglomerate and sandy marls, and are
noted for their bright red colour and fertile soil.
The coast of the Bay of Eleusis to the west of Athens consists of
alluvium and upper cretaceous rocks, with Neogene rocks and alluvium
stretching past the Pirasus and Phalerum, followed by the Hymettus
range with its varied development of marbles. That denudation on an
extensive scale has planed the rocks around Athens is evident from
their mammilated appearance, while the harder deposits such as form
Lycabettus and the Acropolis have so far resisted the denuding agencies
as to stand out to-day as eminences.
To those who are acquainted with the scenery of Derbyshire that of
the country around Athens would seem familiar, for both largely consist
of limestone producing a bare and treeless, grey and stony, landscape
without verdure. Thus an air of desolation spreads around Athens,
and one misses the wooded hillsides and verdant fields which under
other geological and meteorological conditions might have obtained.
No more delightful change can be imagined than to go from the stony
surroundings and dusty atmosphere of Athens to the Royal country
house of Tatoi (a two liours' drive to the north) with its magnificent
expanse of forest and exquisite mountain air.
With the exception of the alluvial tract stretching from the north-
west of Athens to the Piiseus and Phalerum, the soil is thin, a fact which
did not escape the attention either of ancient or modern observers, Plato
comparing the country round Athens to the emaciated body of an
animal whose bones showed through its skin.
Milton also referred to the same characteristic in pointing to the
land
" Where, on the ^^Igean shore, a city stands
Built nobly, jDure the air, and light the soil."
Thus, with one of the finest climates in the world, the limestone
soil of Athens is by no means productive. Absence of good grass makes
the goat, not the cow, predominant. Vegetables are scarce. Trees and
424 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
cultivated flowers are rare. Even the water is uot above suspicion, for
it is hard and leaves an unhealthy deposit, while the dust produced from
the rocks around Athens and from its unpaved streets is not only one
of the chief drawbacks of the city, but is also said to cause consumption
by attacking the lungs. The absence of rain in spring dries up the
streams, and we found that the famed Ilissus, by whose banks Plato
once walked and taught, lacked the chief charm of a river — it contained
no water.
One of the attractions of Athens is its fine climate at a period of the
year when that of Scotland is often peculiarly trying. At the close of
April 1907 the weather in Athens was superb, the thermometer ranging
daily from above 60° to above 70° Fahr. in the shade, often with a
cloudless sky. We saw barley being harvested in fields on the road
to Eleusis on 1st May, and were told that from the middle of that
month onwards the heat becomes such that the streets of Athens are
deserted at midday. There is a well-equipped observatory on the Hill
of the Nymphs, near Athens, situated 321 feet above the level of the sea,
and commanding a magnificent view in every direction.
At present the chief routes from Britain to Greece are either by the
Mail route from London to Brindisi by railway and sailing rid Corfu to
Patras, whence railway to Athens; or by train to Marseilles and steamer
to the Pirseus. The steamers of the Austrian-Lloyd Company from
Trieste via Brindisi, Corfu, and Patras to the Piraeus, and from thence to
Constantinople, are extremely well appointed. But the heyday of modern
Athens will uot arrive until it secures railway communication with the
rest of Europe. At present the railway from Athens northwards
stops at Larissa, and sixty miles of railway would require to be con-
structed to carry the line on to Verria in Turkey and link it with the
railway system of Europe. Sixty miles of railway would be thought
nothing of in South Africa, but as Greeks and Turks hate each other,
and neither have any money, some other authority (probably German)
will have to supply the missing link. Then a new era will dawn upon
Athens, which will be put in direct railway communication with Buda-
pest, Vienna, Berlin, and Paris, and travellers will go to Athens by
" Athenian Express " with as much rapidity and comfort as they now
do to Constantinople by the " Orient Express."
Before that event occurs, however, the Athenian authorities must
" mend their ways." Even in Constantinople the streets are paved a la
mode Tnrque with cobble-stones. In Athens they are not paved at all.
They certainly possess iroffoirs (or foot-pavements), but the rest of the
street remains in a state of Xature, with the surface left untouched and
full of ruts, forming a sea of mud in wet weather and an accumulation
of dust in dry. The Athenian mind appears to see no incongruity in
streets which often contain magnificent marble buildings and fine shops,
having roadways like hill tracks. A portion of the .Eolus street has
been asphalted, but it is the only street in Athens of the kind.
Yet the Government do not seem to lack money for the art of war,
for we saw at Patras several of the eight new torpedo-boats which have
just been added to the Greek navy. Greek finance has always been
ATHENS. 425
considered a debatable quantity, but, judging by the improved rate of
exchange, it must be more stable than formerly. According to Mac-
millan's Guide to the Eastern Medlterraneait, the rate of exchange in Greece
in 1901 was " usually about 40 paper drachmas to the sovereign."' In
April 1907 the exchange Avas 26 drachmas, 90 leptas, to the sovereign —
a very great difference. The Greek currency consists of the drachma of
100 leptas, corresponding to the franc of 100 centimes. Silver coins
are rarely seen, the ordinary money used consisting of nickel coins
denoting leptas, and paper money for drachmas. Seeing that paper is
issued for so small an amount as a drachma (or 9d.), and also that the
paper notes pass through an untold number of hands until they become
yellow and almost illegible, the debased character of Greek currency is
beyond question.
Putting aside, however, all these drawbacks, no more attractive or
interesting town than Athens, for a short stay, can be imagined. The
people are kind, quiet, and polite. Like all Greeks, they are said to be
very fond of the British, and this is not surprising, for no Greeks ever
pleaded more Avarmly for Greece than did Byron and Gladstone, names
reverenced throughout Hellas. Both have had mai'ble monuments
erected to their memory in Athens, for it was to the British poet and
statesman as much as to any others that Greece won and kept the inde-
pendence she enjoys to-day. It is a remarkable, but exact, historical
fact that the undeniable popularity enjoyed by the British throughout
Italy, Hungary, and Greece is due to the circumstance that, almost alone
among the nations of Europe, Britain countenanced and substantially
aided these countries in achieving their liberty.
The chief visitors to Greece, however, are not the British but the
Americans, whose Government, like that of Biiuiin, France, Germany,
and Austria, supports a special Archaeological School in Athens. It is
interesting to note the homage paid by the citizens of the great Republic
of the West to its small but immortal prototype. Next in number to
the Americans come the Germans, and only after them the British.
German devotion to Greece is, however, by no means new. No one
admired Greek art more than Goethe, and no one sympathised more with
the Greek struggle for independence. When Byron left for the fi'ont
in 182.3, Goethe, who was then seventy-four, sent him the poem
besrinning : —
" Ein freundlich Wort kommt eines nach dem andern
Von Siiden her und bringt uns frohe Stunden ;
Es ruft uns auf, zuni Edelsten zu wandern :
Nicht ist der Geist, doch ist der Fuss, gebunden. '
Byron died next year at Missolonghi, opposite Patras, aged thirty-
six, a prey to the great exertions he made for the Greeks, whose inde-
pendence, according to a recent Scottish writer in the Spectator, " gave
an impetus to the rise of national sentiment throughout the Balkans."
The Athenians seem to be a very religious people, and the numerous
churches of the Greek faith are both Avell kept and well attended. The
older ones are quaint little buildings of Byzantine architecture, and out-
VOL. XXIII. 2 H
426 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
wardly have a beehive form. The church called Kapnikarea contains a
tablet stating that it was founded a.d. 418 by Eudosia, wife of Theodosius
the younger, Emperor of Constantinople, while the old Metropolitan
Church is said to have been built by the Empress Irene A.D. 775. Both
are very curious both outwardly and inwardly, and the latter has ancient
Christian symbols, such as the vine and the dove, in relief on marble.
The interiors of the Greek churches at Athens are clean and elegant,
and are decorated with good pictures of saints, with an absence of the
garish ornament so common in Roman Catholic churches. The wor-
shippers on entering cross themselves vigorously and then proceed to
kiss the glass frame enclosing the picture of their favourite saint. Then
they purchase a taper at the door, and, lighting it, place it before his
shrine. Tapers are for sale at various prices.
We witnessed a service in the little church on the summit of Lyca-
bettus, and were struck with the number of persons who took the
trouble to climb to the top of this hill (910 feet) to attend it. The
service was of the very simplest character, and the only difference in the
general conduct of it, as compared with the Anglican or Roman ritual,
was the disappearance of the priest at intervals behind the Templon, a
partition which, in Greek churches, completely separates the altar from
the rest of the church. The Greek priests are generally good-look-
ing, full-bearded men, wearing long hair, and black gowns, and high
hats, whose brims are above and not below the hat.
Good Friday was celebrated in the Greek Church at Athens on 3rd
May last, the Anglican celebration having been on 29th March.
We were fortunate to be in Athens at that time, and to witness scenes
of great popular excitement. After all, both in Athens and Constanti-
nople, it is the striking religious observances of the people that make
the greatest impression on the tourists mind. In Athens on the night
preceding Good Friday the churches were crowded, and although all
the Avorshippers remained standing, for Greek churches are not seated,
the services were protracted till midnight.
In every church on Good Friday a bier lay in front of the Templon,
and on it lay a Bible. Worshippers of every class pressed forward
all day long to kiss the Bible and the bier, the latter being covered
with flowers. At night the congregations of the various churches
headed by their priests, formed processions through the streets, accom-
panied by military bands playing, and choristers singing, religious music.
Crosses and banners were carried as well as the palls of the biers which
had lain in the churches that day, and as they passed every spectator
uncovered and crossed. The Metropolitan Bishop in robes and mitre,
accompanied by the Prime Minister and the highest political and
military functionaries of Greece, walked in the procession to the
Cathedral of Athens. The whole population of Athens was astir, and
most of the people carried lighted tapers, forming a scene of universal
religious enthusiasm which probably no other European country could
display.
Religious processions, however, have always been the custom in
Athens, for a frieze of the Parthenon (now in the British Museum)
ATHENS. 427
represents the procession of the Panathenaea, when maidens of the
noblest rank, carrying gifts and accompanied by a great crowd, walked
in solemn procession to do homage to Athena, the goddess who was the
guardian of Athens.
Athenian funerals differ from ours in that the face of the deceased is
exposed, and the corpse, covered with flowers, is borne through the
streets preceded by a band of priests singing the funeral service. As the
corpse passes, every hat is raised and every one crosses himself or her-
self repeatedly. We noticed also that, preparatory to Easter, the
habit of praying by telling beads was general, well-dressed men having
strings of fine amber beads, while in the lower ranks simpler ones were
employed.
The absence of women, or at all events the overwhelming number
of men seen in the streets of Athens has been ascribed to the women
still seeking seclusion as in the days of their Mohammedan rulers, for we
must remember that the Greeks were under Ottoman sway from 1456
till 1830, or 374 years. But, as Professor Tucker remarks in his
recent most interesting book on Life in Ancient Athens — "At Athens,
more than anywhere else in Greece, the woman was thrust, both publicly
and socially, into the background,' Even Plato who, on this subject,
was more liberal than most Athenians, expressed the opinion that the
special excellence of a woman was " to keep house well, and obey her
husband." In modern Athens men and boys do all the trade, for it is
not thought proper that a woman should work outside her dwelling.
The general behaviour of the Athenians is superior to that observ-
able in our cities. Drunkenness is not seen. Beggars are not allowed.
Politeness is invariable. Rude noisy behaviour is exceedingly rare.
The Athenians are still fond of Learning, and the better classes speak
English accurately. They are still the active, intellectual race whom
St. Paul found willing listeners, if tough disputants. They have erected
in marble a magnificent University, Academy of Science, and Public
Library, and seem determined to make their glorious city not un-
worthy of its ancient boast, "Omnium artium inventrices Athene."
OBITUARY.
DR. ALEXANDER BUCHAN.
By Hugh Robert Mill, D.Sc.
Alexander Buchan Avas born in Kinnesswood, Kinross, on 11th April
1829, and was educated at the Free Church Normal School in Edinburgh,
then newly founded as a result of the Disruption of 1843, and afterwards
at the LTniversity, where he took the degree of M.A. in 1864. From
1848 onwards he followed the profession of a teacher, for which in-
deed he was naturally gifted, and throughout his life he retained the
power of imparting instruction easily and pleasantly. As a schoolmaster
he filled appointments at Banchory, Blackford, and lastly at Dunkeld.
428 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
But for a weakness in the throat that continued to trouble him through
life he might never have relinquished the profession he had chosen.
The first scientific study which attracted the attention of Alexander
Buchan appears to have been botany, and especially the study of the
native plants of Scotland, though he took part in at least one of the
long excursions to the Alps which Professor Balfour led through all
the difficulties of continental travel at that period. The field botanist
cannot but be interested in the weather, and we may assume that it
was in this way that Buchan's thoughts Avere turned to meteorology.
The Scottish Meteorological Society was founded in 1856, and its
early records give full particulars of the qualifications, appointment and
withdrawal of successive secretaries; but curiously enough nothing is
said in the published minutes of the retirement of Mr. A. H. Burgess,
■who was in office at the meeting on 3rd September 1S60, or the
appointment of Mr. A. Buchan, who read a paper as meteorological
secretary at the meeting of 11th April 1861. The subject "was the cold
weather of the previous Christmas, and this, so far as I can ascertain,
was Dr. Buchan's first contribution to the literature of meteorology.
It is interesting to observe that even at this early period he treated
the problem in a distinctly geographical manner, and he called attention
to a fact, the importance of which he often referred to afterwards, the
remarkable difi"erence in the distribution of low temperatures according
to the configuration of the surrounding land surface. The paper con-
cludes : " Thus the highest winter temperature is to be found along the
west coast ; the lowest in low plains at such a distance from the sea as
not to be influenced by it, and in hollows enclosed by hills; and all
places elevated above the immediately surrounding neighbourhood are
effectually protected from the extremes of temperature."
Throughout his life Dr. Buchan always insisted on the importance of
taking the character of the site of a station into account before using its
record in drawing any general conclusions as to climate. It is not
surprising that he became an original member of the Royal Scottish
Geographical Society, and took a constant interest in its welfare.
From 1861 onwards Dr. Buchan was nearly as much the author as
the editor of the Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society, the
"new series "' of which was started in the following year. He spent
much time on the discussion of barometrical observations during the
early years at the Society, dealing at first Avith the records for Scotland,
but soon passing on to consider the data for the whole world. It was
the period of most rapid advance in meteorology, the principles of the
synoptic weather chart, of the relation of wind direction to the isobars,
and of scientific forecasts of the weather for short periods had just been
enunciated, and thanks to the enthusiasm with which Buchan took the
matter up in these early years the name of Buys Ballot and the exten-
sion of the relation between barometric gradient and wind direction
were soon thoroughly familiar in this country.
In 1867 he published his Handy Book of Mekorologij, a second
edition of which appeared in the following year. This book showed
so firm a grasp of the principles of the science, and so thorough a
OBITUARY : DR. ALEXANDER BUC'HAN. 429
mastery of observational detail, that it became the standard textbook
in the language • and in later years many were the appeals made to
the author to bring it up to date, but the increasing volume of official
work and the burden of various important researches were such that
the appeals had to be made in vain. In one way it is perhaps better
that the book should remain as a landmark of the meteorological know-
ledge of forty years ago, for the time has now passed in which it
might have been possible to adapt the frame for the picture of that
day to the ampler canvas of the present. Following on the larger
work an Introductory Textbook of Meteorology in 1871 presented no new
features.
In 1869 Mr. Buchan read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh the
paper by which his reputation as a leader in meteorology was estab-
lished at once and for ever throughout the Avorld. It dealt with a
subject of such difficulty and complexity that only an enthusiast in
the marshalling of figures could ever have attempted it with any
prospect of success — no less a problem than the charting of the mean
distribution of atmospheric pressure and of prevailing winds over
the globe. This paper was perhaps the most fruitful, though it was
far from being the most laborious piece of Avork which Dr. Buchan
accomplished. A natural result was that on the return of the ChaHenz/cr
expedition in 1876 the vast mass of meteorological data accumu-
lated in every part of the world was handed over to Dr. Buchan
to report upon. Following the enlightened practice introduced for
all the reports of that great expedition, additional data accumulated
before and after the expedition were utilised, and so Dr. Buchan was
able to prepare as the basis of his Report on Atmospheric Circulation,
published in 1889, maps of the world representing the mean temperature
and also the mean barometric pressure and wind directions for every
month as well as for the year. These entirely original maps went far
towards forming a meteorological atlas, and when only a few years ago
Dr. Buchan, in association with Dr. Herbertson, undertook the editorship
of the volume on Meteorology in Bartholomew's great Phymal Atlas the
data compiled for the Challenger Report formed one of the most striking
advances on the Berghaus Atlas upon which it was based.
Oceanography occupied a considerable share of Dr. Buchan's atten-
tion. At an early period he had organised observations of sea tempera-
ture in connection with herring fisheries, and in later years he contributed
a massive memoir on " Oceanic Circulation " to the Challenger Beports.
Climatology, that department of meteorology which is equally a
department of geography, always claimed the lions share of Dr. Buchan's
attention. He worked as much with maps as with tables of figures, and
it is to his patient labours that we are indebted for most of our know-
ledge as to the monthly distribution of pressure and temperature over
the British Isles.
The relation of climate to disease occupied his attention and was
dealt with in several papers written jointly with Sir Arthur Mitchell,
one of the founders of the Scottish Meteorological Society.
In 1883 two important enterprises engaged much of the time of
430 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Dr. Buchan ; one of these was the establishment of the Scottish Marine
Station at Granton by Sir John Murray. It was at this time that I
was brought into close relations with Dr. Buchan, and in the instruction
I received from him in the art of meteorological observing I first recog-
nised his vast experience and technical skill and experienced that kindly
helpfulness which never ceased to the end of his life.
The second enterprise was the foundation of the observatory on the
summit of Ben Nevis, and subsequently of a second observatory at Fort
William. For the i-eraainder of his life the meteorology of Ben Nevis
unquestionably held the first place in Dr. Buchan's scientific work. He
took his share in the efforts to awaken public interest and secure the
necessary funds to start the observatories, and to carry them on, and he
put forth more energy than was perhaps prudent from the point of view
of health in the effort to persuade an indifferent Government to place the
work on a permanent basis. This is not the place to revive the memory
of old controversy or to rake up old grievances, but without stirring the
ashes of the old fires it may be said that, although the departmental com-
mittee appointed by the Government at the instance of Dr. Buchan and
his colleagues failed to provide for the continuation of the work he had
so much at heart, it did at least make recommendations of a kind which
opened the yvecy for great improvements in the conditions of meteorological
work and in the useful co-operation of the various meteorological agencies
in the United Kingdom. The publication of the hourly observations at
the two observatories and the discussion of the data filled his later years,
and though comparatively little remained to be done, Dr. Buchan died
before the completion of the last volume.
AVhile Dr. Buchan was particularly associated throughout his long
and active life with the scientific activity of Scotland, and of Edinburgh
in particular, he Avas also well known in London, where he had a place on
several important representative bodies. For many years he was the
representative of the Royal Society of Edinburgh on the committee,
nominated for the most part by the Royal Society of London, for the
administration of the Government grant of £4000 per annum for scientific
research. In 1887 he was appointed a member of the Meteorological
Council, the body which, on the responsibility of the Royal Society of
London, directed the Meteorological Office and administered the sum set
apart by Parliament for the meteorological service of the country. Dr.
Buchan also frequently attended the meetings of international committees,
and was personally acquainted with all the leading continental authorities
in his own department.
When the Symons Memorial gold medal was founded, the Royal
Meteorological Society made the first award to Dr. Buchan as the most
eminent British meteorologist.
Dr. Buchan received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the University
of Glasgow in 1887. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh in 1869, a member of its council two years later, and he
received in turn the Makdougall Brisbane and the Gunning prizes of the
Society. In 1878 he became curator of the library — a post which, with
the permanent membership of the Council, he held until within a year or
OBITUARY: DR. ALEXANDER EU(1HAN. 431
two of his death. In my mind^ and in the minds of many who frequented
the meetings of the Eoyal Society of Edinburgh in the eighties and
nineties of last century, the old rooms on th(i Mound will always remain
most intimately associated with three notable figures — Professor P. G.
Tait, for so many years the general secretary, Dr. Alexander Buchan, and
Mr. James Gordon, the picturesque librarian. In connection with the
Royal Society Club, Dr. Buchan shone in a sphere with which many to
whom he was familiar in the streets and in his oflfice never associated
him, the purveyor of intellectual gaiety of the old Scottish type. As a
host Dr. Buchan was always charming, and his breakfasts on the occasion
of such meetings as those of the British Association are not to be for-
gotten by any one who had the jirivilege of taking part in them. Mrs.
Buchan amply seconded his hospitality, and the guest who came even for
an hour could not fail to recognise a domestic life of singular harmony.
Nor can we close these notes without a tribute to the memory of Miss
Jessie Hill Buchan, the faithful niece and invaluable assistant who
worked for so many years in the office with her uncle ; and it is sad to
remember that both wife and niece passed away before himself. He is
survived by Dr. Hill Buchan, his only son.
In private life Dr. Buchan was full of surprises to those who expect
to find a student of science a man of one idea. He took a deep interest
in church matters and was an elder in Free St. George's. He revelled
in poetry, especially in the old Scottish ballads, from which on suitable
occasions he could produce singularly apt quotations. He was a firm and
generous friend, and all his qualities were such as to enshrine him in the
memory of those who knew him in the full vigour of his strenuous years
as something grand and heroic cast in the mould of Browning's
" Grammarian " :—
" Here — here 's his place, where meteors shoot, clouds form,
Lightnino-s are loosened,
Stars come and go ! Let joy break with the storm.
Peace let the dew send I
Lofty designs must close in like ettects :
Loftily lying.
Leave him — still loftier than the world suspects,
Living and dying."
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES,
Africa,
The Variations of Lake Chad. — An article in La Giographie for
March 15 gives some results of military reconnaissances undertaken
during 1906 by the troops of the Lake Chad region, and among other
points gives some notes obtained from the natives in regard to the
variations of level in Lake Chad, The Buddumas and Kanembus agree
in giving a period of about twenty years as the limit of the ordinary
432 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
small fluctuations of the lake. The total period is probably made up
as follows : — FiA^e years of high water, five years of falling level, five
years of low water, and five years of rise. Finally, at the end apparently
of four or five twenty-year periods of fluctuation, there occurs an almost
complete desiccation which is followed by a great rise of level. An old
native was found who remembered the last great drying up, which on
his evidence is assigned to a period between 1828 and 1833, while nearly
twenty years later, in 1851, the level was very high. The same native
stated that his grandfather told of an earlier desiccation seen by him.
It would appear that during 1906 the lake was very low, but it remains
for the future to show whether it has really reached its lowest point or
not, that is whether or not it will now turn to rise.
The Benguela-Katanga Railway. — We are informed that the
railhead of this line has now reached about 60 miles from Lobito Bay,
while the preliminary reconnaissance in the direction of Katanga has
reached 465 miles from Lobito Bay.
America,
Salton Sea. — In connection with Mr. Eedway's paper on this
artificial lake which appeared in our July issue, it is of interest to note
that, according to Scienre, a careful investigation of the phenomena of
evaporation in the region is to be undertaken by the United States
Weather Bureau, the United States Reclamation Service, and the
United States Geological Survey, acting in combination. The Colorado
river has now been returned to its original channel, the lake has begun
to dry up, and in future the accession of water to the basin will be
merely nominal. It is estimated that from ten to fifteen years will be
required for the complete dissipation of the present " Sea," and the
process of evaporation is to be watched in detail from a group of
meteorological stations conducted under the auspices of the bodies
named above. The points to which attention will be specially devoted
are, the relation of evaporation to temperature, atmospheric humidit}-
and wind, and an endeavour Avill be made to develop a general formula
for the estimation of the evaporation in any locality where the ordinary
climatic factors are known. A reconnaissance of the locality has already
been made.
Polar.
North Polar Problems. — Dr. Fridtjof Nansen read a paper on
this subject before the Roj'al Geographical Society in April last, of
which the following is an abridged account.
The deep North Polar basin forms the northern termination of a
series of depression of the earth's crust which extend north through
the Norwegian Sea from the eastern Atlantic, and form a dividing line
between the continental masses of the Old and New Worlds. The
eruption of the Jurassic basalts of Franz Josef Land and Spitsbergen
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 433
may have had some connection with the sinking in of the bottom of
the North Polar Sea, but the basin was probably to a great extent
formed before the outpouring of these basalts. As yet newer volcanic
rocks are not known from the edges of the North Polar basin. De
Long reported basalt on Bennett Island but Ave do not know its age.
It is most improbable that any block of land (horst) could have
remained isolated in the middle of such a basin, surrounded by deep
water on all sides, and without having any connection with the
surrounding lands or continental shelves. It is therefore of great
importance to determine where the continental shelf ends oflF the known
coasts. But the edge of the continental shelf in the North Polar region
is only known exactly in two places, to the north-west of the New
Siberian Islands, and to the north of Spitsbergen, whilst in the region
between these two places we know only the deep sea to the north.
Except in these two places we have little direct knowledge of the
limits of the continental shelf. The rule that such shelves are narrower
outside high and mountainous coasts than off low, flat lands only holds
good where the mountainous formation of the coast is in near relation to
its trend, and to the continental slope outside, and also where the coast-
line is built of primary rocks. This seems hardly to be the case on the
northern coast of the American Arctic Archipelago and Greenland,
though there are rather high promontories in places. It is possible that
along the northern coast of Alaska the necessary conditions are fulfilled,
and therefore the shelf may be narrower there, but even this is uncertain.
It is possible that the deeper soundings which have been taken there
may merely indicate the presence of numerous submarine valleys, so that
further observations are necessary to delimit the continental shelf here.
But it cannot be said that the geomorphologic features of the known
part of the Arctic regions exclude the possibility of a wide continental
shelf, possibly with lands on it, which may extend into some parts of
the Unknown North.
The marine currents and the ice-drift seem to indicate that there is
an extensive tract of sea to the north of the Fravis track. Peary's
experiences also indicate that there is much sea to the north of
Greenland. The ice-drift converges towards the opening between Spits-
bergen and Greenland, and Peary's observation of a rapid eastward drift
also indicate that there cannot have been much land to the east of his
northward track. But as we do not know the depths over which Peary
travelled, we cannot say much with regard to the possibility of land or
continental shelf further north and east. The drift of the Jeannette also
did not indicate land to the north.
Dr. Nansen's own conclusions with regard to an actual current in the
surface-layers of the North Polar Basin, pointing towards Franz Josef
Land and Spitsbergen, might seem to indicate that there was land to the
north, and that the North Polar Basin is thus a long, narrow depression.
For, owing to the earth's rotation, it might be expected that a surface-
current of this kind would be deflected towards the coast on its right-
hand side, i.e. towards the Greenland and Areerican side. It is, however,
he thinks, probable that the winds and ice-drift in the unknown parts of
434 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
the sea might have influenced the direction of the Frams drift, and that
therefore the results arrived at as to the direction of the current are not
ij;uite correct.
The statement that the difference in the amount of the tides on
Bennett Island and the coast of Alaska proves the existence of extensive
lands to the north, is not, in Dr. Nansens opinion, valid ; while the
differences in the ice of the Beaufort Sea, and in the sea crossed by the
Fram do not support the view that extensive land exists in the Unknown
North. The occurrence of drift-wood on the northern coast, and even
on the floe-ice itself to the north-west of Greenland, i)roves that this ice
must have drifted across the unknown sea from Siberia or America.
The great quantity of " Post- Glacial " driftwood, found even at high
elevations on the now ice-bound coasts to the north, points to a milder
period in Post-Glacial times with a more open North Polar Sea. As
sledge journeys do not give sufficient opportunity for soundings and
oceanographical work, Dr. Nansen is of opinion that the best results in
Polar regions would be obtained by allowing a ship to drift from the sea
north of Behring Straits or Western Alaska across the Unknown North
and towards Greenland. The drift could probably be accomplished in
five years.
The Franklin Search Expedition. — An interesting event in the
history of Polar exploration is commemorated in the following letter,
addressed by Sir George Taubman Goldie, President of the Royal
Geographical Society, Sir Clements Markham, Vice-President of the
Society, and Sir Allen Young, to the veteran commander of the Fox,
Sir Leopold McClintock. "We quote the letter in full here : —
1 Savile Row, Burlixgtox Garden's, London, W.,
June 30, 1907.
Dear Sir Le(jpold McClixtock — In the name and on behalf of the Council of
the Royal Geographical Society, we salute and congratulate our gold medallist of
1860 and one of the most valued of our colleagues on a great occasion. For this
day is the r)0th anniversary of the departure of the Fox on her memorable voyage.
"We are reminded of your long preparation for your final Arctic service, duiing
which you became the organiser and the creator of Arctic sledge travelling. You
brought your system to such perfection that you and your companion, Lieutenant
Frederick Mecham, achieved the wonderful journeys of 1853 and 1854 — the most
wonderful on record. These results afford the strongest proof of the suitability
of your travelling equipments.
With such experience you were the leading Arctic authority when Lady
Franklin, forced to complete the search for her husband and his gallant com-
panions at her own expense, secured your services to command the expedition.
The voyage of the Fox was a great landmark in the history of geography, whether
we consider its conduct, its discoveries, or its momentous results. There is
nothing finer in onr naval annals than your firmness and resolution when, after
the misfortune of being beset for a winter and then driven out of the ice in a gale
of wind, you coolly turned the ship's head again "Northward Ho I" You sought
no port for refreshment, but turned at once to the battle. Such indomitable
pluck commanded success.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 435
The discoverer of the fate of Franklin bears a name which will never be
forgotten by his countrymen. Your book has long been, and will continue to be,
one of the classic narratives of our language, recording a great achievement simply
and modestly, yet in a way which tills the reader with sympathy and interest.
It is not for us to refer to your long and valuable subsequent services in the
Navy and at the Trinity House ; but we may express our deep sense of the value
of what you have continued to do in the interests of geography and of discovery
during a long course of years.
You have lived to see much valuable and some splendid work achieved in the
Arctic regions, but no one has approached your unequalled journeys, and you still
continue to be the greatest, as you are the first, of Arctic sledge travellers.
That you may long be spared to us, and that you and yours may continue to
enjoy health and happiness, is the earnest wish and hope of your numerous friends
and admirers, and, above all, of your old colleagues who take this propitious
opportunity of giving expression to their feelings.
We are, dear Sir Leopold, yours most sincerely,
George Taubman Goldie, P.R.G.S.
Clements R. Markham, V.P.'R.G.H.
Allex Young, Navigating Officer of the Fox.
The British Antarctic Expedition, 1907. — At the beginning of
July there was opened in Loudon an exhibition of the equipment and
food supplies for this expedition. The greatest care has been taken
with the packing of the food supplies in order to obviate as far as
possible all risk of deterioration either in the tropics or in the extreme
south. Exceptional features in regard to the supplies are the 150
gallons of petrol which is being taken for the motor-car, and the bales
of comj^ressed hay, etc., for the use of the Siberian ponies. As regards
the clothing, fur enters into the supplies only to a limited extent,
woollen underclothing with outer clothes of heavy pilot cloth, covered
externally by a coat of windproof material, predominating. The hut
consists of wood, with double walls lined with granulated cork, and it is
to be lighted by acetylene.
General.
Lieut. -Colonel Burnley-Campbell, a Fellow of our Society, informs
us, as a point of interest connected with the development of means of
communication, that he has recently accomplished the circuit of the
globe, via the Canadian Pacific and Siberian railways, in the record time
of 40 days 19i hours. The journey was made by the route Liverpool,
Quebec, Vancouver, Yokohama, Tsaruga, Vladivostok, Harbin, Irkutsk,
Moscow, Berlin, Ostend, Dover.
International Congress of Orientalists. — We have received a
circular of invitation to the Fifteenth Meeting of this Congress, which
is to be held at Copenhagen in the second half of August 1908. The
Secretary of the Organising Committee is Dr. Chr. Sarauw, Frederiksberg
Alice, 48, Copenhagen, to whom application should be made.'
436 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
EDUCATIONAL.
Ax interesting paper by Mr. C. E. Moss on the Geographical Listrihution
of Vegetation in Somerset, Bath, and Bridgeicater District, with a map and
numerous illustrations, has been published as a pamphlet by the Eoyal
Geographical Society, and contains much that teachers will find ex-
ceedingly valuable. In addition to the vegetation map in colours the
paper contains two sketch maps, one showing rainfall and the other the
geological structure of the district considered. The author concludes
that in this district the plant associations are determined more by the
soil than by the climatic conditions, and it is exceedingly interesting to
compare the large map and that showing the rocks from this point of
view, the relations being exceedingly clear and obvious. Throughout
the paper great emphasis is laid on rock structure, and this naturally
greatly increases the value from a geographical point of view. The series
of botanical papers which have now been published along similar lines
by our own Society and by the Royal Geographical Society are making it
more and more clear that the connection between the geological composi-
tion and the vegetation of a locality is exceedingly intimate, and the
geographical significance of this can hardly be overestimated. For
example, in the particular district here treated the upland region consists
of three types of rocks and therefore of soils. These are the sandstones,
the limestones, and the deep marls and clays. Each of these has its
characteristic type of vegetation ; on the sandstones the dominant associa-
tion is the oak wood, on the limestone the ash wood, and on the deep
marls and clays the oak-hazel wood. The different plant associations
are considered in detail by the author, but the essential fact is as stated
above. The different types are illustrated by some very interesting and
characteristic photographs. If we take, for instance, the two illustrating
ash on limestone, then any one who is familiar with limestone scenery in
say Yorkshire or ^Vestmorland, will recognise at once the same type of
vegetation as that indicated here for Somerset. Therefore, it would seem
that the teacher, in place of the ordinary statement that in such and such
parts of England limestones come to the surface, can employ a much
more interesting form of presentation in saying that in such parts
of England, at low levels, one would find ash woods with such and such
accompanying plants, while at higher levels such and such other plants
would be found. Again, in considering the Highlands of Scotland, one
can now definitely correlate the uniformity of the great stretches of
heather with the uniformity of the underlying rocks, and one can point
out that where there is a very thin layer of soil over limestone, as in most
upland regions in Yorkshire, heather will not grow, and its presence there
indicates the presence of deeper patches of glacial clay. In Somerset
there is no boulder clay, but the heather appears over limestone wherever
the conditions favour the development of some thickness of soil. There
can be little doubt that such teaching will appeal far more than a mere
account of rock structure, for it is not the rock but the covering of
vegetation that is the distinguishing feature of the greater part of the
earth's surface. If, further, the method of regional geography is adopted,
EDUCATIONAL. 437
aud the home district is considered as a starting-point, it should be
possible to use the botanical part of the nature study course as an
important aid. If a sufficient number of workers are found to carry out
for Great Britain generally the work begun by the Messrs. Smith, Lewis,
Moss, and others, we should be able in a few years' time to reach
some general conclusions on the plant associations of the different
natural areas of our country, which should be of great geographical
value.
NEW BOOKS.
EUROPE.
Rothicmurchus. By Hugh Macmillax, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. London :
J. M. Dent and Co., 1907. Price 3.-;. 6d net.
The many admirers of the works of the late Dr. Hugh Macmillan will welcome
in this little volume a series of sketches which he contributed to the Art Journal
some time ago. They form a charming description of the district seen from
Aviemore to the south, which contains a group of giant peaks of which Ben
Macdhui is the highest, although not perhaps the most striking. As may be
expected, when we remember they were written for the Art Journal, the sketches
are distinguished by wealth of brilliant and even florid descrijrtion of Highland
mountain scenery. But those who have lived on Speyside and explored Eothie-
murchus and the Larig Ghru Avill be the first to admit that the descriptions are
not overdrawn. The photographs by which the book is illustrated are excep-
tionally good.
Sark: The Gem of the Channel Islands. By Mrs. Hexrt Bowles. London :
Arnold Fairbairn, 1907. Price 3s. Qd.
This handsomely got-up little volume may best be described as a series of
very beautiful photographs, depicting the scenery in Sark, one of the Channel
Islands, with a running commentary of letterpress. Its deserved popularity is
attested by the fact that although the first edition appeared in December last, a
second edition was required in February.
The Book of Capri. By Harold E. Trower, B.A., British Consular Agent
at Capri. Naples: Emil Prass, 1906. Price Lire 5.
This volume appeals for the most part to the student of history and archaeology,
and may justly be described as an erudite compendium of all that can be ascer-
tained about Capri. Mr. Trower apparently has distrusted his own unaided
capacity to compose an attractive work, and therefore he has invoked the assistance
of others to deal with special subjects, cjj. geology, climate, and the like, while
old contributions to The Field and The Gentlewoman have been requisitioned to
expand the book. In his preface the author frankly states that he lays no claim
to originality, and that he has drawn his materials freely from other sources and
laid before the reader their ipsissima verba. The extent to which he has had
recourse to this expedient may be measured from a cursory examination of one of
the longest and most interesting chapters in the book, viz., the one on " Capri
under Tiberius.'' This chapter occupies twenty-eight pages, and in it we have
over forty quotations, some of them more than a whole page in length. The
438 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
general and unfortunate result is that the book seems "a thing of shreds and
patches," whereas in reality it is the result of much patient, laborious and successful
study and research by a writer who brings to the consideration of his subject
plenty of experience and enthusiasm. As such we commend it to the perusal of
all who contemplate a cruise in the Mediterranean or a tour in Southern Italy.
The Aran Islands. By J. M. Syxge. With 12 Drawings by Jack B. Yeats.
Dublin : ]\Iaunsel and Co., Ltd. 1907. Pi-ice 5s. net.
The Aran Islands lie in Galway Bay and are chiefly visited by travellers in
search of antiquities, whether in stones or language. But it is with the people
chiefly that Mr. Synireis concerned, and this book partakes of their dreamy incon-
sequent nature. A fairy tale is followed by the description of an eviction ; the
local nomenclature is discussed or the applicability of ordinary rules of justice to
such minds as these ; and all through the book are scattered finely drawn word-
pictures of sunsets, of funerals, of the joys and terrors of the canvas curagh and so
forth. The life of some of the natives is tlesignated as " perhaps the most primi-
tive that is left in Europe." Mx". Synge's sympathetic writing will enliance the
interest now being taken in the Erse, and the book is the gainer by characteristic
work from Mr. J. B. Yeats's pencil.
ASIA.
Cook's Handbook for Palestine and Syria. New edition thoroughly revised by
Rev. J. E. Kaxauer and Dr. E. G. Mastermax of Jerusalem. London:
Thomas Cook and Son, 1907. Price 7s. 6d. net.
For the advantages of safe and comfortable travelling arranj^ements in Palestine
and Syria the public is largely indebted to the enterprise of Messrs. Coi>k, and it
is further indebted to them for this useful handbook which must prove an invaluable
companion to the tourist. Some of the maps, such as that of Lower Palestine,
leave much to be desired in the way of clearness and legibility.
Under the Absolute Amir. By Frank A. Martix. London and New York :
Harper and Brothers, 1907. Price lOs. 6V7. net.
A note on the title-page informs us that the author was for eight years succes-
sively engineer-in-chief to two of the Amirs of Afghanistan, and for part of this
time was the only Englishman resident in Kabul. The book contains an account
of his experiences there, the tendency being to emphasise anything of a horrible
description, and of experiences of this kind there was apparently no lack. Con-
siderable space is given to accounts of the two Amirs under whom the author
served, but of matter of directly geographical interest there is not much. The
volume is illustrated by photographs and by the author's drawings. The latter
are remarkable but hardly beautiful, and display some uncertainty in the matter
of perspective. The price of the book seems to us excessive, considering its sketchy
nature.
AFRICA.
Cook's Handbook for Erjypt and the Sudan. By E. A. Wallis Budge, M. A., Litt.D.
Second Edition. London : Thomas Cook and Son, 1906. Price lOs. mt.
A handbook for Egypt and the Nile embodying the archaeological research of
such an authority as Dr. Budge, the Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities in the British
Museum, together with the extensive practical travel experience of Messrs. Cook,
ought to satisfy all the requirements of the most exacting traveller. Some idea
NEW BOOKS. 439
of the up-to-date completeness of this edition may be realised when it is stated
that no less than eighty pajjes have been added for the description of recent
archteological discoveries.
AMERICA.
Economic Geology of the United States. By Heinrich Ries, Assistant Professor
of Economic Geology at Cornell University. Nev? York : The Macmillan
Company. London : Macmillan and Company, Limited, 1905. Friee 82.60.
This volume can be confidently recommended as an excellent elementary
treatise on the economic geology of the United States. Sjiecial prominence is
given to the non-metallic minerals in view of the fact that, in 1903, the value of
their production exceeded that of the metallic minerals by one hundred and fifty
million dollars (£30,000,000). Among the subjects dealt with are coal, petroleum,
building stones, clay, lime and calcareous cements, salts, fertilisers, soils and road-
materials, iron, copper, lead and zinc, gold and silver, and minor metals.
The notable feature of the book is the extent and variety of the information
which is presented in a condensed and lucid manner. For example in the case of
coal, its varieties and a list of proximate analyses are given, the theories of origin
are discussed, the structural features met with in the field are illustrated, the
various coalfields of the United States and their geological distribution are indi-
cated together Avith the output in recent years. The chapter concludes with a list
of literature relating to the subject. The same comprehensive method of treat-
ment is followed throughout the book.
Another striking feature is the series of maps, vertical and horizontal sections,
and the photographs of quarries, pit workings and mining fields, illustrating
different branches of economic geology. For educational purposes the volume
reaches a high standard of excellence as an elementary treatise.
The Pocket Guide to the West Indies. By Algernon E. Aspinall. London :
Edward Stanford, 1907. Price 6s. net.
As a general handbook to the West Indies, Mr. Aspinall's little volume ought
to be of great service. It gives a good description of the islands, combined with
much practical information for tourists, and is well illustrated with maps and
photographs.
From Trail to Railway through the AirpalacMans. By Albert Perry
Brigham, A.m. Boston, New York, Chicago, London : Ginn and
Company, x.d. Price 2.s. Qd.
This crisply written and interesting manual is from the capable pen of the
Professor of Geology in Colgate University, and describes the gradual trans-
formation "from trail to railway" which has taken place in the system of
communications within the Eastern United States. In describing the transforma-
tion of communications Professor Brigham has much to tell tis of historical and
biographical interest, and although naturally and justly proud of the dauntless
energy, perseverance and fertility of resource of his countrymen, he has wisely
refrained from the high-falutin, Hail-Columbia style of writing which is still
somewhat popular on the other side of the Atlantic. The little volume is a
successful attempt to correlate the history and geography of the Eastern States,
and will be much appreciated by the young scholars for whom, we apprehend,
the book is intended.
440 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Through the Heart of Brazil. By Frederick E. Glass. London : The South
American Evangelical Mission.
This little book contains an interesting description of a journey made by the
Kev. Frederick E. Glass at the instance of the British and Foreign Bible
Society in a comparatively unknown region of Brazil. Mr. Glass had excep-
tional qualifications for the task. He had had fourteen years' experience of
South America, and had made five such expeditions before this one. Still his
new undertaking was fairly formidable, for it implied a journey of something like
five thousand miles, much of it over partially explored territory, some of which
was inhabited by treacherous and hostile Indians. Moreover, Mr. Glass could
count upon it that his evangelistic work was certain to encounter from first to
last the bitter opposition of the Koman Catholic clergy who constitute the
established church in Brazil. The greater pare of the book is in the form of a
diary. Mr. Glass and his comrades started from Rio de Janeiro, and traversed by
rail the provinces of Rio, San Paulo, and Minas Geraes, arriving at the town
of Araguay early in April 1902. Thence they marched to the once fairly pros-
perous but now almost deserted gold-mining town of Santa Cruz, and thence to
Goyaz, which they reached early in June. From there they made their way
through the forest to the Araguay River, the boundary of the State of ^Nlatto
Grosso, crossing which they marched through territory, populated mostly by
Indians, to Cuyaba, the capital of the state. Cuyaba, according to Mr. Glass,
is the farthest interior port reached by steam navigation in South America,
being not less than 2000 miles up the Paraguay river. There they stayed till
the middle of September, and then started on the return journey, which was
accomplished in river steamers, via Corumba, Coimbra, Ascension, Corrientes,
Parana, and Rosario to Buenos Aires. From the itinerary we learn a good deal
about the hardsliips which are to be expected in marching through the Brazilian
forest, and when one leaves the beaten track ; and incidentally we learn some-
thing of local conditions and circumstances of places and peoples in South America
far removed from the ordinary conditions of civilisation. The book is illustrated
with some fairly good photographs.
POLAR.
^1 travers la Banquise du Spitzlnirg au Cape Philip2)e. Par le Due D'Orleaxs.
Paris : Plon-Nourrit et Cie., 1907.
On p. 99 of the present volume of this Magazine we summarised the chief
scientific results of the Duke of Orleans' Greenland expedition. The present
volume, beautifully and copiously illustrated both with coloured and uncoloured
figures, gives a narrative of the journey. As regards the get up of the volume,
the chief fault we have to find is that it is impossible to handle it, even with the
greatest care, without finding that it promptly falls to pieces, while the paper
employed not only gives the book a weight which is very fatiguing, but also, from
the glazed surface employed to throw otf the text figures, has an unpleasant efl'ect
upon the eyes. On the other hand, the printing is very clear and the figures are
excellent throughout. The narrative takes the form of a diary, and is written
with true French vivacity, as also with that charm of style which seems so much
commoner among the French than among ourselves. The note of personality rather
than of impersonal science is struck throughout, and we feel that the author was
perhaps interested in the natural phenomena experienced in so far as they affected
NEW BOOKS. 441
the mental states of the party rather than in their objective significance. But in
a popular account of an expedition there can be no doubt that this is by far the
most interesting point of view. In addition to the diary the volume contains
various appendices, including an account of the discovery of the east coast of
Greenland, a list of the birds and mammals seen on the voyage, one of the sound-
ings made, and so forth. As a bright and lively account of an Arctic journey
without any great excitements, but which, despite its short duration, was very
successful, we cordially recommend the book.
GENERAL.
Atlas of the World's Commerce: a New Series of Maps, u-ith Descriptive Text and
Diagrams. Edited by J. G. Bartholomew, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S., etc.
London : George Newnes, Ltd., 1907. Price £\, Is.
This handsome folio claims the credit of being a pioneer work. But looking
at the formidable array of plates, one is tempted to ask, "Is it not at this date
both the first word on the subject and the last?" One hesitates to think of the
labour which has gone to the compilation of these graphic representations of a
most complex matter, and if they cannot settle in one way or another the burning
" fiscal question," at all events they supply a vivid and irrefragable treatise on the
subject. To stir the interest of readers, we may allude to the titles of some of the
176 pages of plates (many of them double-paged maps and diagrams) — "World
— Rainfall, Winds, and Climatic Diseases"; "British Isles — Wealth and Popu-
lation " ; " World — Total British Trade "; " World — Strength of National Navies " ;
"The Far East— Commercial Routes and Vegetation." Later in the volume there
are tables of the distribution of food, mineral and miscellaneous products, and of
textile materials. In the last-named the immense extent of the cotton areas in
the British portions of Africa is strikingly depicted. Regarding the whole, we
feel that there are not many persons who are qualified, even if they think fit, to
imjjugn the accuracy of this solid work of reference.
While the bulk of the volume is occupied with plates and diagrams, with text
interspersed, attention should be specially directed to the two articles at the com-
mencement, namely, "An Introduction to Economic Geography," by Mr George
G. Chisholm, and "The Commodities of Commerce," by Mr. W. A. Taylor.
They strike us as pirticularly comprehensive and authoritative. The volume is
worthy of its editor in all respects, and we may just note, in conclusion, his
hearty acknowledgments of the labours of Mr. W. A. Taylor and of certain of his
draughtsmen and other assistants. The cost of the book is remarkably low.
The Dawn of Modern Geography. Vol. iii. By C. Ratmoxd Beazley, M.A.,
F.R.G.S. Oxford : At the Clarendon Press, 1906. Price 20s.
By the publication of this third volume Mr. Raymond Beazley completes the
History of Mediaeval Exploration and Geographical Science which he tells us
he began in 1895. In a review of vols. i. and ii., which apjjeared in the issue of
this Magazine for July 1902, we drew attention to the immense reading, industry,
and research which are so obvious in a perusal of these volumes, and of this, the
concluding volume, we may remark at once that it is in no way inferior to its
predecessors in geographical and historical interest or in literary merit. Indeed,
to the great majority of readers the period of history with which Mr. Beazley now
deals, i.e. from 1260 to 1420 a.d., will be found much more interesting in many
respects than any of the periods referred to in the preceding volumes. It is the
VOL. XXIII. 2 I
442 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
period "from the practical termination of the Crusades to the Council of
Constance, from the first true English Parliament to the Battle of Agincourt,
from the earlier travels of the elder Polos to the commencement of the Portuguese
explorations led by Henry the Navigator." Among the many important epochs
of geographical history " there are few of greater importance, of deeper suggestive-
ness and of more permanent effect than the century and a half in which we
o-radually embark upon the oceanic stage of our development. For, in relation to
man's knowledge of the earth and his exploration of the same, it is now we reach
the end of the overland philosophy of European expansion, it is now that we turn
to another element to give us that final triumph which seems denied on terra
firma."
After a brief introductory chapter Mr. Beazley takes up the subject of the
Asiatic travellers, the greatest of whom were the Polos, Nicolo and Maffeo, and
above all, Marco, of whom he gives a thoughtful and judicious estimate as "a
man of the world and of business, alive to the value of money and material good,
interested in all commercial aftairs, a careful, albeit rather solemn, observer of new
and quaint customs, passionately fond of sport and the chase, and of very liberal,
though orthodox mind, a foe of heretics, but an admirer of the Buddha." It is
impossible for us within the limits of our space to give even a sketch of the
journeys of the Polos, but we refer our readers to the interesting and graphic
account given by Mr. Beazley, a perusal of which will confirm his deliberate
judgment that Marco Polo's work is "the best survey of the world that Medituval
Christianity has left us ; in all the literature of the Middle Ages it is only
equalled by that of Ibu Batuta ; in spite of its shortcomings, its occasional
concessions to legend and romance, the appeal of its Prologue is admirably true :
pour savoir la pure verite ties diverses regions du monde, si prenez ce livre et le faites
lire." The successors of the Polos are divided by Mr. Beazley into two classes,
viz., missionary travellers, and laymen engaged in commerce, diplomacy, and
adventure. Prominent among the missionaries are John of Monte Corvino,
who penetrated as far east as Peking ; Ricold of Monte Croce, who explored
Persia ; Jordanus of Severac, who continued the work of John of Monte Corvino
in Bombay and Malabar ; Pascal of Vittoria, who chose Eastern Europe and
Central Asia as the scenes of his mission ; Friar Odoric of Pordenone, who
followed in the footsteps of the Polos as far as Peking and profited by their
popularity ; John of Florence, better known as Marignolli, "a poor old wheezing
hound, without repute for eloquence or learning" according to one ecclesiastical
opponent, but nevertheless selected by Pope Benedict xii. to head a Franciscan
mission to Peking, where they were received with enthusiasm and remained with
acceptance for three years. Among the laymen prominence is given to ^Marino
Sanuto the Elder, of Torcello, with his far-reaching projects of the conquest of
Egypt and Christian control of the Mediterranean and Indian Seas ; Pegolotti of
Florence, who composed a merchant's handbook " of supreme value to the
traders of the fourteenth century ; and to all students of mediivval life, media.'val
travel, and mediaeval traffic, beyond price"; Clavigo of Madrid, despatched by
Henry of Castille to the court of Timur at Samarkhand, where he witnessed the
bibulous habits of the monarch and his courtiers, and had the courage to resist
the pressing solicitations of Timur's chief sultana, who, like her lord, believed
" there could be no true jollity without drunken men " ; Schiltberger of Bavaria,
captured at Nicopolis, and enslaved first by Bajazet, and afterwards by Timur
and his successors, in whose service he wandered through Armenia and the
Caucasus to Irak, Erivan, and even to Siberia, thence to the Crimea, Circassia,
and Mingrelia, ultimately making his escape near Batum. In this most interesting
NEW BOOKS. 443
chapter a few pages are given to Sir John Mandeville, who is deservedly dismissed
as an impostor and plagiarist, whose romance, although it attained an unprece-
dented popularity, is of no real value.
In his third chapter ^Ir. Beazley gives a brief sketch of the travels of various
pilgrims to the Holy Land, of whom the principal are the Dominican Burchard,
William of Boldensel, Ludolf of Suchem, and the Russians, Ignatius of Smolensk
and the archimandrite Grethenius. In his introduction to the fourth chapter
Mr. Beazley sums up the lesson of his work, so far as it had proceeded, in these
words : " From the middle of the thirteenth century to the middle of the fourteenth,
Latin Christendom, as we have seen, directs the main stream of its expansive
energies upon the direct overland routes to the great centres of Asiatic civilisation
and wealth ; this continental attack is unsuccessful, alike in trade, diplomacy, and
missionary enterprise ; but in failure lie the elements of success. Accurate
knowledge of the goal aimed at ; a realisation of the value of unrestricted access
to the distant sources of the most precious wares ; some understanding of the
weakness of that Golden Orient ; a dawning conception of the all-encircling and
connecting ocean, and of its function as an aid to human intercourse ; an
exaggerated but stimulating vision of the Christian communities lying beyond the
Islamic zone — in the Indies, in East Africa, and in the heart of Asia ; a persistent
hope and purpose, with the aid of these natural allies, to found such a Christian
dominion as had been attempted, with only temporary success, in the Nearer
East ; these are among the results of that ubiquitous and sustained energy which
had explored the Mongol Empire and the Indies, Persia and Cathay, the Black
Sea and the Southern Ocean, from the days of Carpini to those of Marignolli, of
Clavigo, and of Schiltberger. And yet one more thing had been gained. A
beginning had been made in the right direction ; men's eyes had begun to turn to
the true path of deliverance." The true path of deliverance was the path of
maritime exploration, and in this Italy, or rather Genoa, led the van by the
re-discovery of the Canary Islands about 1270 a.d. and by the ill-fated expedition
of Ugolino Vivaldi in 1291. Of this enterprise Mr. Beazley remarks: "It is
needless to dilate upon the magnificent boldness of the venture of 1291, the
result of private enterprise, upon its character as the first distinct efi'urt of
Christian Europeans in African coasting Asia-wards, upon its attempt to solve at
one stroke the problem which batiled explanation for the next two centuries, or
upon its suggestions of future triumph, 'the prophetic soul of the wide world
dreaming on things to come ' ; it is, perhaps, more useful to remark the thorough-
ness of the whole undertaking — Franciscan missionaries accompanying Italian
mariners, warriors, and traders — western religion and western commerce, with the
defence of western arms, combining to make the first reconnaissance by a new
route upon that Heathendom which John of Monte Corvino and Peter of Zerco-
longo, in similar alliance, were at this very time invading along the historical
' overland ' ways. Still more uuist we note the primary emphasis on mercantile
ambitions ; here, as elsewhere, commercial irstinct is the mainspring of the most
vital and profitable exploration." From this time forward the maritime countries
of Europe, Italy, Portugal, Spain, France, begin to send expeditions in quest of a
route to India. The English claim to the discovery of Madeira in 1370 is biiefly
referred to by Mr. Beazley and dismissed as untenable. The fifth chapter deals
with "the general commercial activities of the chief European states, the lesser
achievements of European merchant-travellers and others, in so far as these
contribute to widen the horizon of knowledge or to maintain the more distant
outlook of European civilisation during the same period (1260-1420)," and it is
pointed out that " it is in mercantile ambitions that we begin to find the motive-
444 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
power for permanent European expansion, the source of the most fruitful
exploration and geographical description." Here again Venice and Genoa stand
out prominent as the most important cities in the work of exploration. Compared
with that of Italy the contributions of Spain, France, or England to the work of
exploration are inconsiderable.
In his last two chapters Mr. Beazley deals with the geographical theories of
the age. After commenting on the marked improvement in general knowledge of
the surface of the earth shown by geographical and cosmographical treatises, he
takes up " the two outstanding achievements of the Mediivval Renaissance in
geographical science, the discovery and employment of a portable mariner's guide,
indejiendent of the heavenly bodies, and the gradual elaboration of the first true
maps." The compass was well known to the Chinese as long ago as the second
century of the Christian era, but it is not till nearly the end of the twelfth century
that we first hear of it as in general use among European seamen. Its intermediate
history is obscure, and in all probability will never be cleared up. If the history
of the development of the mariner's compass is obscure, so also is that of the
preparation of accurate maps. On this most interesting subject Mr. Beazley has
much to say which well repays perusal. The fact that the i^ortolan mile, >.<'. the
distance-scale which is found in all the portolani, more nearly corresponds with the
Catalan league than with any other known media?val measure is duly weighed by
hira, but he is of opinion that " the seamen of north-west Italy, and especially of
Genoa and Pisa, deserve the chief place in the roll of honour" of those who
originated the portolani, the earliest of which, the " Portolano Vesconte," is dated
1311. ivir. Beazley, however, justly points out that the portolano was not the
product of any one man or school or decade, and that it was probably the result of
a combination of many sketches or charts of isolated portions of the Mediterranean
coast. "Many years, probably some centuries, of painfully recorded experience
must have gone to create it ; the notes, plans, and oral traditions of generations of
pilots and captains are certainly to be seen in its results. Nothing in the history
of cartography is more significant ; at no point, perhaps, is there a more impressive
advance in human knowledge than when we pass from the highest designs of tlie
pre-i)ortolan type — designs on the whole quite abreast of Ptolemy's — to that Carte
Pisane with which opens the great series of the mediieval jierij^li." This volume
is illustrated with a number of the most interesting of the portolani. In the last
chapter we have brief notices of some non-Christian explorers, amongst whom the
famous Ibn Batuta is much the most conspicuous. His record of travel includes
visits to North Africa, Southern Russia and Siberia, Samarkhand, Kabul, Delhi,
the Maldives, Malaya, Canton, Peking, Mecca, the Western Sudan, Timbuctoo,
and the Niger. Not the least remarkable and valuable part of this work is the
appendix which gives a list of the leading manuscripts and editions of the principal
texts in vols. ii. and iii. It is a striking and convincing illustration of the patient
assiduity and industry of Mr. Beazley. For example, we gather from it that of
the eighty-five known manuscripts of Marco Polo's work he has personally
examined no less than thirty. Last, but not least, there is a very useful index to
the contents of all three volumes.
We congratulate Mr. Beazley most heartily on the successful comi)letion of
an important work which cannot fail to enhance his well-known reputation as a
historian and geographer. These volumes present to us the story of the IMiddle
Ages in a new and interesting light, indicating as they do a spirit of enterprise,
widely spread and long sustained in Europe, mixed oddly enough from time to
time with a sincere and earnest piety and patriotism, and now and again with love
of gain and the sterner motives Avhich are inseparable from competition and
NEW BOOKS. 445
commercial rivalry. They form a veritable mine of interest and information to
the student of history and economics as vrell as to the student of geography, and
they should do much to rescue the period of history which they describe from the
injustice and obloquy implied in the name of the Dark Ages.
Impressions of a Wanderer. By Manmath C. Mallik. London :
T. Fisher Unwin, 1907. Price 5s.
The writer of this book is, we imagine, an Indian gentleman, a Barrister of
the Middle Temple, who some time ago published a work on the somewhat
abstruse subject of The Problem of Existence. Since then, we presume, his
experience has widened and his judgment has ripened, and we have now before
us the second instalment of his message to humanity ; and, to tell the truth, the
message now and again is somewhat startling. At times, however, we seem to
have heard some of the writer's sentiments in other and older works. For
example, in the introduction we are told that "human nature is much the same
all over the globe," "travel enables one to observe the action of natural forces in
all departments of knowledge and of life," and " physical and mental faculties need
rest at times for short intervals" — observations probably profound, but not
exactly fresh. Evidently Mr. Mallik is keen to impress on his readers the
recondite fact that " variety is the law of nature " : to this he recurs on pages 11,
17, 61 and 66 and re-enforces it with wealth of illustration. His first chapter
is devoted to the subject of language, and he advocates with remarkable
courage and unexpected skill the imposition of a universal language. He sees
the difficulties, but does not despair. As a preliminary step he makes the
ingenious suggestion that "even if one language cannot be made universal, there
seems to be no reason why a Lingual Union, after the example of the Postal
Union, may not be brought into existence." Three pages suffice to show that
neither French nor German will do as the language of the Lingual Union ; so he
turns to English, for the success of which, it appears, only a little tact and diplo-
macy are required.
In his second chapter Mr. Mallik inveighs against the variety of monetary
currencies throughout the world, and with an earnestness evidently the result of
dearly bought experience he warns the traveller to be on his guard against
spurious coins.
Chapter in. deals with "the physical and moral features" of the world, and
here we have much deep recondite wisdom in such dicta as "guide-books are
indispensable things," "hotels are much the same at every place," "all nature
springs from the same source — the four elements, air, earth, fire and water," " it is
human to have partialities and dislikes." As the chapter proceeds it is evident
that one of Mr. Mallik's dislikes is what he calls the " privileged class," for
dealing with which he suggests measures which leave little to be desired in the
way of thoroughness. Mr. Mallik is obviously a well-educated Indian gentleman ;
nevertheless we find him describing his own country, the prosperity of which,
notwithstanding recent famines and plague, is the envy of the East, in these
words : "In India, the people are supposed to exist for the Government and not
the Government for the people " ; "the position created by prolonged torpor has
rendered India a moral and material plague-spot of mankind, full of peril."
" India has the misfortune of having no real ruler. The doctrine of the divine
right of kings has been demolished in England and in France, but in its place
expansion of Empire has brought into existence the divine right of the 'white '
skin, the demolition of which has been commenced by Japan and will have to be
446 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
finished by China and India." " Thanks to the noble British teaching of bygone
days and to recent events, the struggle against despotism in India has commenced,
and will yet have to be consecrated, as in other lands, by deeds of martyrdom
and sacrifice." We get a welcome but only a momentary relief, when we find
that on the next page Mr. Mallik takes up the less exciting topics of custom-
house duties on the frontier and the comforts of railway travelling, but he soon
warms to his subject again and denounces freely Germany, Russia, and the
United States of America. As a nation we are at present in the throes of re-
organising our army and military administration, so we cannot aftbrd to neglect
an invaluable hint we receive from INIr. Mallik, who points out that "the German
Emperor is believed to be convinced that the Japanese and the Gurkhas fight
well owing to the possession of short legs, and to be intent on devising a method
for making the German army bow-legged in order to make it invincible in war."
We are sure that the patriotism of a Carnegie will anticipate the action of the
Kaiser by the ofl'er of a substantial reward to any one who will devise the best
system of creating a bow-legged race. In the remaining chapters of his book,
Mr. Mallik sets forth his impressions during visits to Norway, Japan, and one or
two more countries, but none of these require any special remark.
The ^^ Qnccii," Neiv.fpaper Booh of Travel : A Guide to Home and Foreign Resorts.
Compiled by the Travel Editor, M. Hornsby, F.R.G.S. 1907. Price 2.s-. 6rf.
It is scarcely to be expected that the tourist resorts of the world at large can
be adequately dealt with in the compass of one small handbook, a large proportion
of which is devoted to advertisements ; nevertheless this " Travel Gazetteer," as it
may be called, will prove a most useful reference book in planning holiday tours.
It is supplemented with tables of world-travel routes and other information for
tourists.
NEW MAPS.
EUROPE.
ORDNANCE SURVEY OF SCOTLAND.— The following publications were issued
from 1st to 30th April 1907 : — Six-inch and Larger Scale Maps. — Six-inch Maps
(Revised), full sheets, engraved, without contours. Sutherland.— Sheets 30, 40,
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NEW MAPS. 447
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GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SCOTLAND.— Sheet 17. Scale of 4 miles to one inch.
Price, unmounted, 2s. 6d. net. T. Fisher Unwin, London.
This sheet, which includes the eastern half of Dumfriesshire and the southern
half of Roxburghshire, is reduced from the one-inch maps published in 1904.
BARTHOLOMEWS PLAN OF LONDON.— In four sections, NW., NE., SW. and
SE. Scale 3 inches to a mile. Revised to 1907. Price of each section Is.
paper, and 2s. cloth, mounted. John Bartholomeiv and Co., Edinburgh.
RUSSIA. — Carte de la Russie de I'Europe, tiree du Grand Atlas de Marcks, com-
mencee par M. le professeur E. Petri et achevee et redigee par M. J. de
Schokalsky, President de la Section de la Geographie Physique de la Society
Imperiale Russe de Geographie, etc. In 16 sheets. Scale 1 : 2,000,000.
1906.
Presented to the Society by Colonel Jules de Schokalsky, St. Petersburg.
This new map, which is the most complete general map of Russia apart from
the Government survey, reflects much credit on its editor. Colonel Schokalsky,
who is mainly responsible for its production. Unfortunately for English students,
the lettering is in Russian characters.
AMERICA.
CANADA. — Topographic Map of Canada. Scale 1 : 63,360, or 1 inch to a mile.
Ontario. — Sheet 4, Grimsby ; Sheet 7, Fort Erie. (Department of Militia
and Defence, Ottawa, 1907.) Toporjraiyhical Section, General Staff, London.
UNITED STATES SURVEY.— Topographic Sheets on scale of 1 : 62,500, or about
1 inch to a mile. 1906. Price 5 cents each sheet. (The figures after the
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Maine, 3 ; Maryland, 3 ; Michigan, 6 ; Missouri, 2 ; Montana, 3 ; Nevada, 1
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mont, 1 ; Virginia, 1 ; Washington, 1 ; West Virginia, 3 ; Wisconsin, 7.
United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.
NEW ATLASES.
BACON'S ATLAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES, revised according to the latest Ordnance
Survey. Containing 124 double-page maps and plans, colonial supplement,
index-gazetteer and historical descriptions, tables of population, etc. Edited
by G. W. Bacon, F.R.G.S. 1907.
G. W. Bacon and Co., Limited, London.
The hundred and thirty maps and plans in this atlas are of varying merit or
demerit, and represent so many different periods and styles in the evolution of
British cartography that it can scarcely be called a systematic atlas, but rather a
miscellaneous collection of plates, good, bad, and indifferent. The maps are
stated to be revised from the latest Ordnance Survey, but, so far as we have
examined the Scottish maps, this revision is very far from being up to date — thus
in the large-scale sectional maps of Scotland we note the omission of the railways
448 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
to Lauder, Cruden Bay, Fort Augustus, Ballachulish, Forfar-Brechin, Brechin-
Edzell, and many others constructed within the past ten years. This atlas is
supplemented with a useful series of general maps of the British Colonies and
possessions.
STANFORD'S GEOLOGICAL ATLAS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, with plates
of characteristic fossils, preceded by descriptions of the geolugical structure
of Great Britain and Ireland and their counties ; and of the features observ-
able along the principal lineg of railway. By Horace B. Woodward, F.E.S.,
F.G.S. Second edition. 1907. Price 12s. 6d. net.
Edward Stanford, London.
In this excellent little atlas Scotland receives extremely scant treatment. The
maps in the English });irt of the atlas were formerly known as Reynolds' Geological
Atlns, and consist of thirty-one plates of county maps on varying scales; but only
two plates on a very much smaller scale are devoted to Scotland, and only two to
Ireland. Mr. H. B. Woodward's interesting text describes the geological features
of interest in each district, and a series of plates of the characteristic fossils is
most valuable for reference.
ATLAS OF CANADA. — Prepared under the direction of James White, F.R.G.S.,
Geographer. 1906. Department of the Interior, Ottawa.
The Canadian Government and Mr. White deserve to be congratulated on this
most valuable contribution to the geography of Canada, which supplies a want
long felt by students, intending emigrants, and others interested in the resources
and dcA^elopment of the Dominion. It consists of ninety plates, forty-six of which
are coloured maps, and the rest statistical diagrams. The maps illustrate relief of
land, geology, minerals, forests, telegraphs, telephones, railways, lighthouses,
climate, density of population, ethnography, etc., followed by a series of plans of
the principal towns. The diagrams show at a glance a summary of the trade and
commerce, distribution of population, agriculture, manufactures, vital statistics,
finance, fisheries, railways and other statistics illustrating the progress and
development of the country. In addition to the maps and diagrams, there are
also statistical tables giving a summary of areas and populations according to the
1901 census. The engraving and printing of the atlas is admirably clear and
eflective.
ATLAS UNIVERSEL DE GEOGRAPHIE.— Commence per M. Vivien de Saint-Martin,
et continue par Fr. Schrader. No. 51. Perse, Afghanistan, et Inde Nord-
Ouest ; Echelle de 1 : 5,000,000. No. 63. Algerie, Tunisie ; Echelle de
1 : 2,500,000. Price 2 francs each map.
Lihrairie Hachette et Civ., Parix.
FORMAE ORBIS ANTIQUI. — 36 Karten im Format von 52 : 64 cm., mit kritischem
Text und Quellenangabe zu jeder Karte. Bearbeitet und herausgegeben von
Richard Kiepert. No. xiii. Peloponnesus cum Attica, mit 6 Seiten Text.
No. XIV. Phocis, BiL'Otia, Attica, Athenae, mit 8 Seiten Text. No. xx.
Italiae Pars Media, mit 8 Seiten Text. No. xxi. Eoma Urbs temporibus
liberae reipublicae. Magna Graecia, mit 4 Seiten Text. No. xxii. Roma
Urbs inde ab imp. Augusti aetate, mit 4 Seiten Text. No. xxiii. Italia
Superior cum Regionibus Ali^nis, mit 11 Seiten Text. Price 3 M. each part.
Didrich Rcimer (Ern.4 Vohsen), Berlin.
For scholarship and beauty of execution, Kiepert's great classical atlas is a work
unsurpassed in any language. These new maps are the latest additions, and repre-
sent the most recent results of classical research.
THE SCOTTISH
GEOGKAPHICAL
MAGAZIl^E.
OLD SCOTTISH VOLCANOES.
By Professor James Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
During many successive periods volcanoes have plajed a prominent
part in the geological history of Scotland, and it is to them we owe
some of the most picturesque features of our country. True, we cannot
show groups of well-preserved cones, such as those of the Eifel and
Auvergne. So long a time has elapsed since even the latest manifesta-
tion of volcanic action in Scotland that the forces of denudation have
succeeded in obliterating all the more obvious traces of that action.
The lavas and fragmental materials erupted at the surface have, in
short, experienced so much erosion that the present configuration of the
ground bears little or no resemblance to that of any volcanic region in
which igneous action has only recently become extinct. And if this be
true of our latest eruptions, it is more strikingly true of those of earlier
ages. We can still in many cases point to the centres from which our
more ancient lavas and ashes were ejected, but not infrequently this is
impossible — the products of volcanic action remain, but the sources
from which they came can only be conjectured. Sometimes, indeed,
lavas and ashes have alike vanished— their former existence being sug-
gested partly by the presence of old volcanic vents plugged up with
igneous rock of one kind or another, and partly by the appearance of
more or less numerous sheets, dykes, and veins of formerly molten
matter which has obviously cooled and consolidated below ground. In
such cases it is clear that considerable denudation must have taken
place before such deeply-seated portions of the ancient foci of eruption
could have been laid bare, and in the general lowering of the surface
all superficial volcanic accumulations have necessarily disappeared. Not
infrequently direct evidence of eruptions is entirely wanting, and a
VOL. XXIII. 2 K
450 SCOTTISH GEOGKAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
kind of indirect evidence may be all that is forthcoming. Not only
may superficial volcanic accumulations have entirely vanished, but the
plugged-up vents or funnels, with their associated sheets, dykes, and
veins, may nowhere be seen, and yet the geologist may be convinced
that before the deposition of certain strata volcanic action must have
taken place at no great distance from the district over which those
strata were laid down. For example, the basal portions of some great
series of strata may be abundantly charged with water-worn fragments
of volcanic rocks, which must obviously have been derived from the
breaking up of pre-existing masses of igneous origin. Sometimes it is
possible to trace the stones in question to their source, but just as often
this cannot be done. The rocks underlying the conglomerates with
their tell-tale fragments may not yield any evidence whatsoever of
volcanic action, yet we may be justified in surmising that after their
formation, and before the deposition of the overlying conglomerates,
volcanic eruptions must have taken place somewhere in the neigh-
bourhood.
When we reflect that the sedimentary formations of the globe are all
of derivative origin — that is, built up out of the ruins of pre-existing
rocks — it is obvious that the geological record must be very imperfect,
and that of many episodes in the history of the past either no evidence
has been preserved, or. is not now recognisable. It is not less obvious
that the oldest formations of a country, having, as a rule, been most
frequently exposed to erosion and changes of all kinds, will usually
show a more imperfect record, and be harder to decipher than the
formations of later ages. Again, when we remember that movements of
the earth's crust of one kind or another have taken place at all periods,
and that in many cases, as in Scotland, such movements have resulted
in the folding, crumpling, and fracturing of the crust, we cannot be
surprised to find that the oldest formations are generally tlie most
disturbed, and their structure the most difficult to unravel. Xot only
are the ancient rocks of Scotland very much disturbed, but they have
undergone numerous complex changes both in texture and structure,
whereby their original character has been greatly obscured and often
obliterated. It might have been expected, therefore, that the earliest
chapters of the geological history of our country are neither so full nor
so readily interpreted as those that follow — the history becoming more
detailed and more easily comprehended as we proceed from the oldest
to the youngest systems.
The oldest rocks of Scotland belong to that primeval stage known
as the Archaean, and are confined to the north-west Highlands and the
Outer Hebrides. That period is incalculably remote, and its records
are so fragmentary and confused that their meaning can be but dimly
apprehended. So many aeons separate the present from the Archaean — so
profoundly has the whole structure of the earth's crust been modified since
then, so many geographical revolutions has the Scottish area experienced,
so frequently has its configuration been remodelled — that we know prac-
tically nothing of the conditions that obtained at the surface in those
far-past ages. All that can be affirmed is that many of the ArchcBan
OLD SCOTTISH VOLCANOES. 451
rocks are of igneous origin, and that their character is such as to lead to
the belief that they were not extruded at the surface as lavas, the
molten matter having obviously cooled and consolidated below ground.
It is not improbable, however, that some at least of the granitoid rocks
of Archaean times may represent the deep-seated products of volcanic
action — that while they were intruded below, lavas and ashes may
have been ejected at the surface. No recognisable traces of such
ancient volcanoes, however, have been preserved — the sea-floors or
land-surfaces of the Scottish area of Archaean times have apparently
wholly vanished, or at least are no longer manifest. Nevertheless, it is
not impossible that geologists may yet discover relics of the kind, seeing
that elsewhere, as in Sweden, remains of what seem to have been
Archaean volcanic eruptions have been detected.
Of much later age than the Archaean, but still of vast antiquity, are
the rocks that constitute the major portion of the Scottish Highlands.
The relative position of the crystalline schists that lie east and south-
east of the Archaean tracts is at present undetermined. We only know
that they are much younger than the Archaean, and that they may
possibly include rocks of pre-Cambrian, Cambrian, and even perhaps
Silurian age. They are as a rule so highly metamorphosed and con-
fused that their precise origin is often obscure, and the absence of
fossils prevents their geological position being definitely determined.
East of the Great Glen, however, the structure and origin of the rocks
in question are more readily deciphered. In that region they appear
to consist to a considerable extent of what were originally aqueous
accumulations — conglomerates, grits, sandy and argillaceous strata, and
occasional limestones. These ancient marine deposits are now much
altered, and over wide areas have been changed into crystalline schists.
Associated with them are numerous sheets and masses of igneous rock —
most of Avhich would seem to be of an intrusive character, that is to say,
formerly molten matter which has cooled and consolidated at less or
greater depths from the surface. Here and there, however, the rocks in
question are suggestive rather of lavas, while certain green schistose
rocks occurring in the same series are supposed to represent fine-grained
fragmental volcanic ejecta. If the rocks of the east Highlands, there-
fore, be assigned to pre-Cambrian times, we may be justified in believing
that the period of their formation was marked by considerable volcanic
activity — numerous flows of lava and much dust and ash having
accumulated on the floor of the sea. The precise geological position of
the rocks in question, however, is, as already mentioned, quite uncertain.
But if submarine volcanoes really existed in the Scottish area in pre-
Cambrian times, that would be quite in keeping with the evidence
supplied by the presumably pre-Cambrian rocks of Anglesey, the
Wrekin, Caer Cardoc, and other hills of the Welsh borders, the Malvern
Hills, and Charnwood Forest — in all of which traces of volcanic action
have been detected.
Of the succeeding Cambrian period the records in Scotland are
somewhat scanty, and such as they are they have hitherto yielded no
evidence of volcanic action. We know, however, that considerable
452 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
volcanoes existed elsewhere in the British area at that time, more
particularly in Wales, and on a smaller scale in the region of the
Malvern Hills and in Warwickshire. It must be remembered that it is
only in the areas just mentioned that Cambrian rocks crop out at the
surface, and that over extensive regions in England they must lie
buried under a great thickness of later formations. The same is doubt-
less true of the Cambrian in Scotland. Could these concealed rocks be
exposed we should probably find that volcanoes were more widely
distributed during Cambrian times than the available evidence would
lead us to infer.
If recognisable Cambrian rocks are only sparingly developed in Scot-
land, it is quite otherwise with those belonging to the succeeding Silurian
period. Strata of that age constitute the larger portion of our Southern
Uplands — both Lower and Upper Silurian being represented. The
sedimentary rocks referred to consist of marine accumulations, and would
appear to have been deposited over the floor of a somewhat shallow sea.
Amongst the Lower Silurian strata of the Scottish area Ave find abundant
evidence of volcanic action. Not only do lava-flows and beds of fine
fragmental ejecta (tuff's) occur over extensive areas, but now and again
M'e encounter thick masses of coarse "breccia" or "agglomerate" —
aggregates of angular and subangular blocks and stones — which have
obviously accumulated in the immediate vicinity of volcanic vents.
Probably all these eruptions were submarine, but it is not unlikely that
many of the volcanoes eventually grew to be subaerial, and that in time
numerous volcanic islets may have dotted the Lower Silurian sea of
southern Scotland. How much of the Scottish area was occupied by
that sea we cannot tell. Probably Lower Silurian rocks lie concealed
throughout the whole of the central Lowlands, because they reappear
in a narrow belt along the southern borders of the Highlands. It
is not improbable, indeed, that some of the crystalline schists of the
central Highlands may really be the metamorphosed representatives of
the sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Southern Uplands. Be that
as it may, we can hardly doubt that the Lower Silurian sea extended
over all southern and central Scotland and a considerable portion of
the Highlands. And the evidence supplied by the Silurian rocks occur-
ring along the Highland border shows that submarine volcanoes flourished
there just as they did further south.
But copious as are the records of volcanic action in the Lower
Silurian of Scotland, they cannot compare with those which are met
with amongst the corresponding strata of England, Wales, and Ireland.
Numerous volcanoes appeared in the relatively shallow sea by which
those tracts were largely covered. In Wales the earliest eruptions of
Silurian times were upon a grand scale. It is out of the volcanic
materials of that stage that the mountain-masses of Cader Idris, Aran
Mawddwy, Arenig, and Moel Wyn have been carved and sculptured.
Eventually volcanic action in the Welsh area became less vigorous — only
a few volcanoes of no great size appearing here and there. But before
the close of the period the subterranean forces again displayed astonish-
ing activity, more especially in what is now north Wales. The lavas
OLD SCOTTISH VOLCANOES. 453
and tuffs then ejected are conspicuously displayed in Snowdon and other
heights in the same region.
In the Lake District of north-west England the relics of Silurian
volcanoes are not less conspicuous. Eruptions appear to have commenced
in that region almost at the dawn of the period, and to have continued
without interruption nearly to the close of Lower Silurian times. While
it is doubtful whether any of the Welsh volcanoes ever became sub-
aerial, there are some grounds for believing that the eruptions of the
Lake District were not wholly submarine. Roughly contemporaneous
Avith the Welsh and Cumbrian volcanic rocks are those so well exposed
along the eastern borders of Ireland, where there would appear to have
existed numerous and often closely contiguous volcanic vents.
The volcanic activity which thus characterised the Lower Silurian
period throughout the British area eventually became exhausted. With
the extinction of the numerous volcanoes of southern Scotland, the Lake
District, Wales, and east Ireland, the effusion of lava and ash on the
floor of the Silurian sea practically ceased. Only in the far west of
Ireland and in Gloucestershire is there any evidence to show that
volcanic action was continued into Upper Silurian times.
In the Scottish area the succeeding Old Red Sandstone period was
marked by strenuous and long-continued volcanic action. Some of the
more conspicuous hill-ranges of the Scottish Lowlands consist largely
of the lavas and tuffs ejected from our Old Red Sandstone volcanoes.
Among the ranges referred to are the Sidlaw and Ochil Hills, the Pent-
lands, and not a few of the hills in south Ayrshire. The Old Red Sand-
stone strata of Scotland consist of a Lower and an Upper series — in the
former of which volcanic rocks attain a great development. The physical
conditions under which the strata in question appear to have been
accumulated may be very shortly outlined. After Upper Silurian times
the Scottish area was converted into dry land. This change was brought
about by a great movement of the earth's crust, whereby the floor of the
Silurian sea was gradually uplifted and squeezed in a direction from
south-east to north-west. In consequence of this upheaval by lateral
thrust, the new-born land showed an irregularly wrinkled surface, being
traversed from south-west to north-east by parallel ridges and inter-
vening depressions of vai'ying width and extent. The depressions thus
formed inland seas or great fresh-water lakes — the margins of which can
still be traced more or less satisfactorily, although in many places they
have been obscured by subsequent modifications of the surface. It was
in these lakes that the Old Red Sandstone strata gradually accumulated.
To the several basins in question Sir Archibald Geikie has given dis-
tinctive names. The largest lake — "Lake Caledonia" — stretched from
what is now our east coast south-westward across Arran and the south
end of Cantire into Ireland as far as Lough Erne. It extended, in short,
over the whole breadth of the central Lowlands, between the Highlands
and the Southern Uplands. The deposits of another basin — "Lake
Orcadie " — occupy wide areas in the region of the Moray Firth and the
Orkney and Shetland Islands. " Lake of Lome " is the name given to the
basin which includes the Old Red Sandstones of western Argyllshire ;
454 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
while the area occupied by the Old Eed rocks of the Cheviot Hills and
Berwickshire is designated " Lake Cheviot." It is needless to say that
Lake Orcadie, Lake Caledonia, and Lake Cheviot must have extended
east and north-east into regions which are now submerged.
Each of those ancient lakes became the scene of vigorous and pro-
longed volcanic activity. Eruptions appear to have commenced at a very
early stage, and to have persisted in some cases down almost to the close of
the Lower Old Red Sandstone epoch. To understand the nature of the con-
ditions under which the volcanic eruptions took place, we must remember
that the sedimentary strata with which the igneous rocks are associated
give evidence of having been accumulated in relatively shallow water, and
yet they attain a great thickness. The thickness of the red sandstones
occupying the basin of Lake Caledonia, for example, can hardly be
less than 18,000 feet. Obviously this great depth of material of shallow-
water origin could only have been accumulated upon a gradually sub-
siding Hoor. The bottoms of the basins slowly sank down, but the
lakes never attained a profound depth, because sedimentation kept pace
with depression — the amount of sand and mud transported from the
adjacent high grounds and spread upon the lake-floors effectually pre-
vented over-deepening. It is probable, therefore, that the great crustal
movement which brought the topographical features of Old Red Sand-
stone times into existence was continued during that period — that
wrinkling of the crust did not cease when the great lakes appeared, but
that the upward folds of the crust continued slowly to rise and the
downward flows as slowly to sink. To supply all the material carried
down from the contiguous high grounds into the lake-basins implies
enormous denudation of the land — the gradual lowering of the latter
being compensated by the process of upheaval, just as the filling-up of
the troughs was prevented by the continuous sinking of their floors.
The lavas and fragmental ejecta attain in some basins a great thick-
ness. In that of Lake Caledonia they reach not less than 6000 feet.
Probably the bulk of these materials was erupted on the floors of the
lakes, but here and there the volcanoes would seem to have grown
so rapidly as to become subaerial. In Lake Caledonia there appear to
have been two chains of volcanoes, both extending in the same general
direction — from south-west to north-east. The relics of the northern
chain are seen in the Sidlaw and Ochil Hills, in Cantire and Arran, while
the southern chain is represented by the Pentland Hills and by numerous
heights that extend in the same general direction towards the south-west
along the flanks of the Southern Uplands into Ayrshire.
The foci of eruption are in many places recognisable. Sometimes
these are occupied by larger or smaller bosses of some crystalline igneous
rock ; at other times the pipes or funnels are filled with agglomerates or
breccias. Now and again also we encounter thick sheets of igneous rock
which have obviously cooled and consolidated below ground — denudation
having gradually removed the rock-masses underneath which they
formerly lay entirely concealed.
Another interesting area of Old Red Sandstone volcanic rocks is that
of the Cheviot Hills. These hills consist of a great series of lavas
OLD SCOTTISH VOLCANOES. 455
accompanied by very little tuff. The chief focus of eruption is marked
by a boss of granite, which occupies an area of 20 square miles, and rises
into the summit of the range. From this granite numerous dykes and
veins proceed outwards into the surrounding lavas. Brief mention may
also be made of the rocks of St. Abb's Head, which consist of a series of
lavas and tuffs, near which we can see the focus of eruption, filled up
with angular and subangular fragments and intrusions of crystalline
igneous rock.
Volcanic activity, in short, characterised all the great basins in which
the Lower Old Red Sandstones of Scotland were deposited — the " Lake of
Lome " and "Lake Orcadie," like the others, had their volcanoes; and it
is interesting to note that this was the case also in the south of Ireland,
where in the Killarney district lavas and tuffs are associated with strata
of Lower Old Red Sandstone age, accumulated under the same geo-
graphical conditions as obtained in Scotland.
Volcanic action seems to have died out during Lower Old lied Sand-
stone times in all the ancient Scottish lakes, with the exception of the
Orkney basin, where lavas and tuffs and pipes of eruption indicate the
existence of subaqueous volcanoes during the deposition of the Upper Old
Red Sandstone. It may be added that there is evidence of jit least one
considerable volcano having been active in the south-west of Ireland, near
Limerick, at approximately the same time.
The Devonian rocks of the south-west of England occupy the same
stratigraphical position as the Old Red Sandstones of Scotland, and are
probably therefore roughly contemporaneous. But while the Scottish
series are of lacustrine origin the Devonian strata have been accumulated
in the sea. Associated with these marine deposits occur lavas and ashes,
showing that volcanic action supervened in southern England at some
stage during the vast period of time which separated the close of the
Silurian from the beginning of the Carboniferous period. The Devonian
submarine volcanoes may therefore have been active at about the same
time as the lake volcanoes of Old Red Sandstone times.
The succeeding Carboniferous period was marked especially in Scot-
land by extensive volcanic action. Eruptions seem to have commenced
with the very dawn of the period and to have continued down to the
time when the " Coal-measures" began to be accumulated — the "Coal-
measures " forming the uppermost division of the great Carboniferous
system.
Strata younger than the Carboniferous cover relatively small areas in
Scotland, hence it is possible to acquire a fuller knowledge of Carboni-
ferous volcanoes than of the eruptions of earlier periods. Rocks of Car-
boniferous age may be said to occupy nearly all the low grounds of central
Scotland. True, they are often concealed under superficial accumulations
of various kinds, but the abundant sections laid bare by streams, rivers,
and the sea, together with numerous artificial openings of every kind,
have enabled geologists to obtain a clear view of the structure and
general character of the great coal-bearing system of strata. The geo-
graphical conditions that marked the formation of the Lower Old Red
Sandstone were continued, but with many modifications, while the
456 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Upper Old Red Sandstones were being deposited. The great lakes, it is
true, had been more or less silted up, and their areas had been also
restricted by considerable earth movements, but broad lake basins per-
sisted up to the close of the period.
No hard and fast line separates the deposits of Upper Old Red
Sandstone times from the basement beds of the Carboniferous system —
the general character of the latter suggesting, however, a gradual
passage from lacustrine to lagoon and estuarine conditions. There are
few parts of central Scotland in which volcanic action did not manifest
itself from time to time during the protracted Carboniferous period. In
some regions the eruptions were of relatively short duration, while in
other areas they persisted through many long ages. The earlier volcanoes
were of a character akin to those of Old Red Sandstone times. Amongst
the oldest were those from which the lavas and tuffs in the neighbour-
hood of Kelso were ejected. The rocks referred to are well displayed in
the hills about Stitchell and Smailholm. They occupy a considerable
area, extending from Greenlaw in the north to Roxburgh in the south.
East of Kelso they are overlaid by younger sedimentary strata, and we
cannot tell, therefore, what their range may be in that direction. It is
obvious, however, that they must formerly have covered a wide area
to the south and west of their present boundary, for dotted over the
region in question many old vents are still conspicuous, such as the
Dunian, Ruberslaw, Minto Crags, and the Eildons.
But the most continuous stretch of Carboniferous volcanic rocks is
that which circles round the north-west borders of the coal-fields of
Stirlingshire and Lanarkshire, and forms the Campsie Hills, the
Kilpatrick and Kilbarchan Hills, and the broad belt of high ground that
extends from Castle Semple Loch to the valley of the Avon, near Strath-
aven. Belonging, apparently, to the same stage of volcanic activity are
the lavas and tuffs of Arthur Seat, and the similar but more abundantly
developed volcanic rocks of North Berwick and the Garlton Hills. The
plugged-up vents of that region are well represented by the Bass Rock,
North Berwick Law, and Traprain.
All the eruptions referred to are assigned to an early stage of the
Carboniferous period, and appear to have taken place on the floors of
lagoons and estuaries, but in certain cases the eruptions Avere submarine,
as is shown by the occasional occurrence of sea-shells in fine-grained tuffs.
Not a few of the old foci of eruption have been located, as we have seen.
Some of these are met with in the very heart of the great lava-fields,
others appear near their margins, while yet others lie beyond — separated,
it may be, by several miles from the nearest lava-flow. The vents in
question frequently form conspicuous hills, which is invariably the case
when the material that plugs them is of harder consistency than the
surrounding rocks. Sometimes the plug consists wholly of a massive
crystalline igneous rock, at other times it is an aggregate of angular and
subangular blocks, or the vent may be occupied both by crystalline rock
and fragmental materials. From the distribution of these old vents and
the trend of the associated lavas and tuffs we gather that ejections took
place sometimes from chains or lines of contiguous volcanoes, and
OLD SCOTTISH VOLCANOES. 457
in other cases from irregular groups of cones. Eruptions occurring now
here, now there, broad subaqueous plateaux were eventually built up,
which it is needless to say must have been much more extensive than
the hilly tracts that now represent them.
The later stages of the Carboniferous period in Scotland were marked
by a somewhat different type of eruptions — namely, by numerous more
or less isolated volcanoes, many of which were of insignificant dimensions.
They seem to have resembled the imys of Auvergne. Many were mere
cinder-cones from which no lavas were ejected. Others, again, were of
more considerable size, and from these not only loose fragmental
materials, but more or less numerous flows of lava proceeded. When
several such puys were closely associated, their united efforts succeeded
in building up broad plateau-like banks, on a smaller scale, however, than
the volcanic plateaux of early Carboniferous times. Most of the
eruptions now referred to seem to have taken place in lagoons and
estuaries or in shallow bays of the sea. Now and again, however, the
puys were probably subaerial.
The dominant movement of the crust during the growth and decay
of these later Carboniferous volcanoes was one of subsidence, so that
the puys which erupted in lagoons or upon the floor of the sea were
eventually buried under slowly accumulating sheets of sedimentary
materials, and in this manner many of them have been preserved. That
the eruptions frequently took place under water is shown by the inter-
calation amongst the tuffs of fossiliferous shales, etc., and now and
again of limestones, containing sea-shells and corals. It is improbable,
however, that all the eruptions were subaqueous. Doubtless some of
the larger puys which commenced upon the floor of sea or lagoon
eventually succeeded in becoming subaerial. Nor is evidence wanting
to suggest that not a few volcanoes erupted on dry land, and after their
extinction became clothed with coniferous trees, the remains of which
often occur abundantly in the tuffs associated with the old vents.
Although in many cases portions of the lavas and fragmental
materials ejected from the puys can still be seen surrounding the foci of
eruption, yet more usually all traces of the cones have vanished, and
all that remains to mark the sites of the volcanoes are the plugs of
igneous rock that occupy the "necks" or pipes of eruption.
The relics of these Carboniferous puys often form conspicuous features
in the landscape. Fife is especially rich in this respect. The Binn of
Burntisland, the Hill of Beath, and the Saline Hills are excellent
examples. The Castle Rock of Edinburgh, Binns Hill and Tor Hill in
Linlithgowshire, Great Moor, Tinnis Hill, and other similar isolated
hills in Liddesdale may also be mentioned.
The earlier and more extensive eruptions of the Carboniferous period
had not ceased before the puy type of volcano made its appearance, but
the latter continued long after the great plateau-eruptions had come to
a close. The puys in the east and south-east of Scotland were the
first to die out. In Ayrshire and Renfrewshire, however, they remained
active down to the beginning of that stage which is represented by the
uppermost division of the Carboniferous system, known as the " Coal-
458 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
measures," when they finally became extinct. There is nowhere any
trace of volcanic action having marked the accumulation of that great
series of coal-bearing strata.
During the crustal movements which affected Scotland in post-
Carboniferous times, the Carboniferous strata, with their abundant
igneous rocks, were folded and fractured, and have subsequently
experienced enormous denudation. The backs of the many upward
folds have been gradually planed away, and the whole succession of the
strata from the lowest to the uppermost stages has thus been exposed.
Hence we see not only the lavas and tuffs which have from time to time
been ejected at the surface, but the numerous " sills " or sheets and
dykes of formerly molten rock which never rose to the surface, but were
injected at less or greater depths. Owing to the fact that these igneous
intrusions usually consist of much more durable rock than the strata
amongst which they occur, they often form well-marked ridges and
heights in the Lowlands. Salisbury Crags, Corstorphine Hill, the
Lomond Hills, Cult and Cleish Hills are good examples, and many others
might be cited. Most of these intrusions seem to belong to that later
stage of volcanic activity which was marked by the puy-like eruptions
described above.
Elsewhere in the British Islands volcanic action played a subordinate
part during the Carboniferous period. There is evidence, how-
ever, of submarine volcanoes having existed in England, as in Derby-
shire and Devonshire, and in King's County and near Limerick in
Ireland.
Overlying the youngest Carboniferous strata in Scotland comes a series
of red sandstones, the relation of which to the underlying Coal-measures
shows that a vast period of time separates the two formations. The
Scottish Carboniferous system, as we have seen, was laid down during a
period when the earth's crust in our area was slowly subsiding. The
movement may not have been continuous — there may have been long
pauses, and these may even have been interrupted sometimes by gradual
uplifting. But certainly the dominant movement was one of subsidence.
It happened then that while the conditions of sedimentation in the
earlier stages were for the most part estuarine, in the later stages the
lagoons and estuaries, owing to increasing subsidence, were often largely
replaced by more or less open sea, over the floor of which flourished the
corals and other organism.s whose remains constitute the limestones of
the Carboniferous system. But the formation of limestone was fre-
quently interrupted — lagoon and estuarine conditions returning again
and again, until finally marine invasions ceased — the whole of the
uppermost division of the Carboniferous strata (Coal-measures) having
been apparently accumulated in estuaries and lagoons. AVhile many of
the coal-seams, which occur as well in the Limestone series as in the
Coal-measures, represent old land surfaces — thick jungles and marshy
growths — not a few would seem to have been formed in shallow water
— estuarine or sea-water as the case may have been. In short, the
flora of the period not only covered the broad deltas and lowlands of
central Scotland, but even invaded the quiet waters — gigantic, reed-
OLD SCOTTISH VOLCANOES. 459
like trees flourishing abundantly in shallow lagoons and estuaries,
over the floors of which much vegetable sludge and slime gradually
accumulated.
Great crustal movements supervened eventually, and the geographical
conditions of the Scottish area were revolutionised. The old lagoons
and estuaries vanished, and were replaced by a wide land-surface, which
for a long period of time became subject to denudation. The folded and
fractured Carboniferous rocks had consequently experienced much waste
before the succeeding Permian strata came to be deposited. These Per-
mian beds, chiefly red sandstones, have only a very limited distribution in
Scotland. They occur chiefly in the valley of the Ayr, and in Nithsdale
and Annandale. Owing to the paucity of tlieir organic remains, there is
some uncertainty as to their precise stratigraphical position, but they
probably were deposited during the later stages of the Permian period,
and may even pertain in part to the subsequent Triassic period. They
apjiear to have been accumulated in inland lakes or basins, much after
the manner of the Old Red Sandstone, but the basins were on a much
smaller scale. Nevertheless the Permian strata must formerly have
extended far beyond their present limits, for they have obviously
suff'ered much denudation.
Volcanic action, which, as we have seen, had ceased to agitate the
Scottish area before the formation of the Coal-measures, and had remained
dormant during the vast lapse of time that separated the deposition of
these "measures" from the accumulation of the overlying Permian
sandstones, again broke out. The volcanoes of Permian times all
belonged to the puy-type, and most of them were small. Many, indeed,
appear to have been mere tuff"- and cinder-cones — the products of one
eruption. From some, however, not only fragmental materials but
lavas were ejected. Sometimes these puys are disjDOsed along lines
of "faults " or fractures, at other times they do not appear to be con-
nected with fractures, but occur scattered about in irregular groups.
They are especially numerous in Ayrshire and the east of Fife. As in
most cases only the plugged-up "necks" remain, it is often impossible
to say whether the puys erupted in Avater or on dry land. In the
valley of the Ayr, however, lavas and tuff's are interstratified with the
red sandstones, and the same is the case in Nithsdale, so that it is quite
certain that some at least of the Permian eruptions were subaqueous.
Bearing in mind that the Permian sedimentary strata were formerly
much more extensive, and may well have covered wide areas over
which many isolated " necks " are distributed, it is not improbable that
these latter may also have erupted on the floor of the ancient basins —
their lavas and tuff's, and the sandstones with which they may have been
interstratified, having been removed by denudation.
In the east of Fife many old vents occur which have been assigned
to the Permian period — although no strata of that age are met with in
that region. They closely resemble, however, the corresponding " necks "
of Ayrshire and Nithsdale, and like those they are of much later date
than the Carboniferous strata they traverse. They often form con-
spicuous isolated hills, such as Kellie Law and Largo Law, and numerous
460 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL iUGAZINE.
examples can be studied upon the shore between Elie and St. Monans,
where they have been bared and cut into by the sea.
The denudation which has so greatly affected the Permian rocks of
Scotland has in many cases revealed the igneous masses which were
injected below the surface, cooling and consolidating there. The best
examples of such " sills " occur in Ayrshire, and are especially well
developed in the neighbourhood of Ualmellington, not a few of the hills
in that district owing their origin to the presence of intrusive masses,
Kilmein Hill may be cited as a good example.
The only certain evidence of Permian volcanic action in England is
met with in Devonshire, where lavas and tuffs are interstratified with
the red sandstones, but hitherto none of the vents from which these may
have come has been discovered.
After the Permian period volcanic action remained for some time
dormant. During the preceding period that action had been gradu-
ally becoming weaker, and finally a long pause ensued. In Permian
times renewed activity was manifested, but on a much reduced scale.
Prolonged as was the interval that separated the latest eruptions of the
Carboniferous from those of the Permian, it was relatively short as com-
pared with the vast succession of ages that su})ervened after the Permian,
during which the British area remained wholly undisturbed by volcanic
action. The enormous sedimentary accumulations of the Jurassic and
Cretaceous periods (of which so large a part of England is built up)
speak only of quiet deposition in widespread seas. Nowhere do they
yield the slightest trace of contemporaneous volcanoes. These systems
are very sparingly represented in Scotland, although there is every
reason to believe that they must formerly have had a, wider extension.
It is quite possible, therefore, that considerable parts of the Scottish
area may have been overflowed by the Jurassic and Cretaceous seas.
But however that may have been, there is no evidence to show that less
dry land existed in Scotland during Jurassic and Cretaceous times than
during the preceding Triassic and Permian periods. It would seem, in
short, as if the major portion of Scotland had remained above water
throughout the long Mesozoic era.
The succeeding Tertiary systems are likewise very sparingly repre-
sented in the Scottish area by aqueous sedimentary rocks. But, on the
other hand, igneous rocks greatly abound and bear witness to excessive
volcanic activity. These Tertiary eruptions were on a far greater scale
than those of earlier ages, and gave rise to vast plateaux, the shattered
and much denuded relics of which are well seen in the Inner Hebrides.
The islands of Skye, Canna, Rum, Eigg, Mull, and the adjacent coast-
lands of Ardnamurchan and Morven consist largely of the rocks in
question, and were probably all at one time connected, forming together
one great volcanic plateau. Many of the most striking mountains in the
west of Scotland have been carved out of these Tertiary rocks. Among
them may be named the Cuillen Hills in Skye, the Scuir of Eigg, and
Goat Fell in Arran.
Distinct phases characterised the eruptions of Tertiary times. The
first phase was marked by the wholesale fracturing and fissuring of the
OLD SCOTTISH VOLCANOES 461
crust, by the rise of molten matter in the clefts thus formed, and its
frequent escape at the surface in prodigious floods. The great plateau-
basalts of the Inner Hebrides, of Antrim, the Fa3roe Islands, Iceland, and
Greenland all belong apparently to the same geological period, and all
alike formerly had a much wider extension. It would seem that in
early Tertiary times the whole of the area extending as a broad belt
from Greenland to Scotland was underlaid by a vast sea of molten
matter, struggling to gain a passage to the surface. The overlying crust,
bulged up and strained by the rising fiery tide, was shattered by earth-
quake shocks, and a multitudinous series of cracks and fissures appeared,
up through which in many places the imprisoned molten matter escaped
and poured out in many successive streams. The lava appears some-
times to have welled up and overflowed from long lines of fracture, at
other times it issued at various points upon such fissures. Indeed, the
surface of the growing plateau appears to have been studded with rows of
volcanoes, and here and there with more or less isolated or sporadic vents
— the pipes of which can still be seen in many places. Lavas chiefly
were erupted, but not infrequently loose ejecta of large blocks and smaller
rock-fragments and cinders were shot out, and now and again fine dust
and ashes. While lavas flowed out at the surface, it often happened
that molten matter was injected at various depths below, forming here
and there thick " sills " or sheets, with accompanying tortuous veins and
dykes. Although the earlier eruptions may in some places have been
submarine, yet wherever the base of the volcanic series is exposed it
appears to rest upon an old land- surface. Successive floods of lava
gradually filled up the valleys and depressions, and eventually covered
the hills, thus completely obliterating the topographical features of a
wide region, and building up a vast plateau over the buried land. Now
and again there were pauses in the volcanic activity, during which, in
some places at least, the rocks forming the surface of the plateau were
exposed to atmospheric action, and decayed ; while here and there pools,
lakes, and streams appeared, and a vigorous vegetation clothed the land
— the plants being indicative of warm, genial climatic conditions.
Hence in time sedimentary deposits accumulated, and in these were pre-
served relics of that flora. These now form the thin leaf-beds and coals
Avhich appear intercalated among the plateau-basalts of Iceland, the
Fteroe Islands, and the Inner Hebrides.
The evidence would lead us further to believe that the great basaltic
plateau, of which the Inner Hebrides are the truncated remains, formerly
occupied all the area that separates those islands from the mainland and
extended far westward into regions which are now submerged. From
the Highlands large rivers made their way across the plateau during the
period of its growth, and here and there dug out deep ravines and
broader hollows which were subsequently overflowed and buried under
younger floods of lava. Nay, even after the plateau-basalts ceased to be
ejected the same rivers continued the work of erosion, excavating their
channels in the youngest basalts that capped the plateau. Enormous
denudation has since taken place, but one of these old river-courses has
been singularly preserved in the island of Eigg. The Scuir of that
462 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
island is the relics of a pitchstone-lava, which occupies the bed of an old
river with its gravelly accumulations. The flanks of the ancient valley
have been denuded away, and the river-bed with its pitchstone now
forms the dominant height of the island. The pitchstone must have
come from some small vent in the neighbourhood — the last known to
have erupted on the surface of the volcanic plateau — and to the lucky
accident of the lava having found its way into a valley we owe the pre-
servation of the ancient river-gravel.
Some time after the accumulation of the plateau-basalts had been
completed, the region appears to have been again shaken by earthquakes
and traversed by abundant fissures into which molten matter was injected,
but there is no evidence to show that any of these fissures communicated
with the actual surface. They are now represented by a numerous series
of dykes, resembling those of the earlier stage, but being usually smaller
and often more tortuous and irregular in their course.
The latest phases of volcanic activity in Tertiary times were marked
by the uprise within the plateaux of enormous masses of igneous rock,
none of which, however, appears to have actually reached the surface.
The earliest intrusions consisted of basic rock, known to geologists as
gahhro, that rose in great boss-like masses, from which innumerable
sheets proceeded outwards, insinuating themselves between the bedded
basalts of the plateau. So enormous is the amount of the intrusive
matter that the surface of the plateau must have bulged up here and
there above these boss-like intrusions.
Of later date than the intrusions of gabbro are large and small ones
composed of more acid rocks, such as granite, felsite, and pitchstone.
Some of the bosses pertaining to this stage are of great extent and noAV
form mountain masses, such as the Red Hills of Skye and the granitic
heights of Arran. Like the earlier gabbro intrusions, none of these
acid rocks reached the surface — they are wholly subterranean in origin,
although they may well have influenced the surface of the volcanic
plateaux into which they rose, causing it to bulge upwards.
It is quite clear that the latest period of volcanic activity manifested
in the British Islands far exceeded in importance any other of which we
have evidence. When the formation of the great plateau was com})leted
it is probable that it not only occupied the area between north Ireland
and the west Highlands of Scotland, but extended away to the north-
west by the F?eroe Islands and Iceland, and perhaps even to Greenland.
After the cessation of volcanic action subsidence ensued — the plateaux
was fractured and rent, and vast segments slowly sank under the waters
of the Atlantic. The portions that remained above the sea came in time
to be still further lowered by denudation — until in many places the
deep-seated bosses of gabbro and granite were exposed, and now, owing
to their superior durability, these have assumed the character of domi-
nant heights, the basalts which formerly covered and surrounded them
having been largely removed. The volcanic islands of the Inner
Hebrides ai'e thus mere outliers or remnants of a plateau — the constituent
rocks of which formerly attained a thickness of many thousand feet.
The plateau-basalts are now restricted to these islands and the adjacent
OLD SCOTTISH VOLCANOES. 463
coast-lands, but it is possible that they may formerly have covered con-
siderable areas in what are now the lowlands of central Scotland. These
lowlands are traversed by many great dykes, a few of which have been
followed more or less continuously into England. It seems likely
enough that some of these may have communicated with the surface, and
that lava may have flowed from them. But the whole surface of the land
has been so greatly lowered since they were injected, that even if they
had emitted lavas these might well have been removed by subsequent
denudation. Many dykes, however, did not reach the original surface,
but are now exposed owing to the removal of the rocks underneath which
they were formerly concealed. Indeed, in our coal-fields not a few have
been encountered which die out before the existing surface is reached.
The presence of these great dykes, which may occasionally be followed
for miles in a nearly straight line, crossing deep valleys and running
over considerable hills, implies such enormous denudation of the surface
that it is hard to believe that so much rock material could have been
removed since Tertiary times. Moreover, there are other geological facts
that lead one to doubt whether the dykes referred to have any connec-
tion with the eruptions of Tertiary times. Some of them at least Avould
appear to be of Carboniferous age, and the probabilities are that the
same is true of many others. But even if it cannot be shoAvn that the
Tertiary basalts ever invaded central Scotland, the evidence is over-
whelming as to the former existence of a vast volcanic plateau, of which
the rocks of Antrim and the Inner Hebrides are the sorely wasted
relics.
THE MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO : ITS PEOPLE AND
PRODUCTS.
By R. N. EuDMOSE Brown, B.Sc.
( JJHh Illustrations.)
Lying somewhat off the great trade routes and the travel arteries of the
East, the Mergui Archipelago has received scant and infrequent attention
at the hands of geographers and naturalists. The few casual remarks
that are to be found with regard to it in geograjjhical works and books
of reference are none too accurate, and the only existing maps (Admiralty
Charts 216a, 216b, and 824) are far from reliable. One of the earliest,
if not actually the first, record of a visit to the Mergui Archipelago Avas
in 1792 when a certain Captain T. Forrest^ made a voyage southward
from Calcutta in search of suitable sugar-growing countries. He traversed
the archipelago, but beyond some quaint diagrammatic panoramas of the
islands his book gives little information.
Several writers since then have drawn attention to the peculiar
inhabitants of the archipelago, the Selungs, but it is to Dr. John Ander-
son, late superintendent of the Calcutta Museum, that we are indebted
1 A Voyage from Calcutta to tlie Mergui Archipelago, Th. Forrest. London, 1792.
464 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
for the fullest published accounts of the islands, their people and natural
history. During the early months of this year I was fortunate enough
to be able to spend many weeks in the archipelago from its northern to
almost its southern limits, and also to visit the group of islands lying to
the north of the archipelago in the latitude of Tavoy — the Moskos
Islands.
The Mergui Archipelago extends northward through almost five
degrees of latitude from 8° 30' N., and includes an area, roughly
speaking, of some 10,000 square miles, in which are fully over two
hundred islands of all sizes.
Two large rivers enter the sea in the protection of the archipelago,
the Tenasserim River at Mergui, and the Lenya River some 45 miles
further south. These rivers, particularly the former, bring down an
enormous quantity of mud from the soft shales over which they pass,
with the result that they tend to form deltas. It is in fact on the delta
of the Tenasserim River that Mergui stands. And as the delta grows
outwards towards the islands and in their shelter it tends to fill up
the channels between them and the mainland, with a result that the
nearer islands become gradually absorbed into the mouths of the rivers
and are only separated from one another by narrow creeks and mud-
flats. Thus King Island is only separated from the mainland by a single
navigable channel, Fells Passage, barely half a mile in width, and a few
lesser channels with only one to four fathoms of water in them ; Sellore
is practically joined to the mainland; and Kisserain Island has only
a fathom of water between it and the coast with a scarcely navigable
channel between it and Domel Island. Further south where no rivers
discharge there is relatively deep water to near the coast.
All the islands from lat. 14" 30' N. to the Sayer Islands in lat. 8° 29'
N. must be considered together from the point of view of structure,
though the northern islands constitute the Moskos group, while the Mergui
Archipelago, strictly speaking, extends from Tavoy Island to the Sayer
Islands. The islands are almost all lofty, and on the larger of them the
ranges invariably run north and south parallel to the mountains of the
mainland. A glance at the chart shows the remarkable regularity Avith
which these islands lie in two parallel chains. The innermost series
runs from Tavoy Point, through Tavoy, Iron, King, Merghi, Sellore,
Julian, Kisserain, Paye, Sir C. Malcolm, Sir Ch. Forbes, and Sir R.
Campbell Island to Boyce Head on the mainland. The more western
series is longer and the chain is broader, often lying in two lines, but
none the less well defined. It seems to start in the Moskos group, then
after some seventy miles of relatively deep water reappears in the Doung
group, where it divides into two series, the one comprising (to cite only
the principal islands) Grant and Ross, Christmas, Parker, Trotter. Money,
Domel, Bushby, Sir J. Malcolm, Sir E. Owen, High, Lampi or Sullivans,
Sir W. James, Pine Tree, St, Luke, St. Matthew, and the Aladdin Islands.
The outer series of this chain from the Doung group southward includes
Elphinstone, Lloyds, Courts, Bentinck, the Five Sisters, Clara, the Great
Swinton, and Lord Loughborough Islands, wlience it passes through the
St. Andrews group to the Aladdin Islands. There the two series amal-
THE MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO : ITS PEOPLE AND PRODUCTS 465
gamate and run together through Chance and Middle Islands to terminate
in the Sayer Islands. Practically all the important islands of the archi-
pelago lie on one or other of these two great chains. West of them lie
a few isolated islands and rocks, again arranged in a series, Kabosa,
Tenasserim, Blundell, Sir C. Metcalfe, Bailey, Sargent, Sir Jh. Hayes,
Great Western, Torres Island, "Black Rock," and the Twins. The whole
archipelago, including the Moskos Island, is well within the 50-fathom
line, and the steamer track through the islands never passes over more
than thirty fathoms and generally much less. The bottom near the
mainland is mud, but further out tends to be sand and rock. Almost
all the islands are rocky, and most are " steep-to," all round with the
exception of a few shelving sandy beaches, though these are less frequent
in the north, and remarkably scarce in the Moskos Islands. There are no
coral atolls, but there are one or two low-lying sandy islands of the
nature of cays, such as Crichton Island or Bogwo in the Gregory group,
and Pine Tree Island,
Sunken rocks and rocks awash abound in many parts of the archi-
pelago, and are by no means all charted. The only parts that are really
well surveyed are the approaches to Mergui and the steamer track from
Fells Passage between Bentinck and Domel Islands through Forrest
Strait. The Admiralty Charts (216a, 216b, and 824) date from 1828,
with additions in 1839 and again in 1887 : these latter were made by
Commander A. Carpenter,R.N., from that famous oceanographical research
ship, the Investigator : a ship in which I also had the privilege of visiting
the archipelago this year. The southern chart (21 6b) is the least
accurate, not having been really completed, and this part of the coast and
islands is in great need of a new survey.
The archipelago has been British territory since 1826, when it was
made over by treaty with the King of Burma, but in the vicinity of
Victoria Point there was for long some uncertainty as to the position of
the Burmo-Siamese frontier. The dispute was settled in 1894 by a pro-
clamation placing Victoria Island, St. Matthew Island, the Birds Nest
group, and other islands north thereof under British administration.
The far southern group of the Sayer Islands are also considered British.
The enterprise exhibited by Siam in erecting two lighthouses in her
sphere of the islands is noteworthy. One is a long-established one on
Goh Phi Island at the mouth of the Eenong River, but it has been
heightened several feet this year. The other, a powerful flashing light,
is on the dangerous Spiteful Rock north of Saddle Island, which, strange
to say, though now two years old, still does not appear on the Admiralty
Chart. The traffic into the Pakchan River is not large, and possibly these
lights serve little purpose as yet, but as the country is opened up an
increasing production of rubber and tin will certainly bring more shipping
to the river, and the lighthouses will then be of service.
With regard to the geology of these islands I can only make a few
very general remarks. The Moskos group are entirely granitic and rise
abruptly from the sea. The Doung group (Elphinstone, Grant Ross, and
adjacent islands) is largely granitic also, and so are Sir J. Malcolm and
Sir E. Owen Islands further south.
VOL. XXIII. 2 L
466 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
The islands from "Warden Island to the Five Sisters, including
Bentinck Island, are in the main sedimentary, being composed of much
contorted beds of soft shales and sandstones, often showing signs of
merging into quartzites. The same is the case with the Gregory group
east of Lampi or Sullivans Island. But altogether the geology of the
archipelago is very little known and would well rejiay extended study.
Dense jungle covers all the islands, except the small rocks and pinnacles
on which there is no soil nor any possibility of vegetation obtaining a
hold. The jungle reaches to the water's edges on the more precipitous
islands, but the low-lying and more sheltered ones inshore are often
fringed with mangrove. The vegetation on the northern islands is on
the whole more dense than on those from Bentinck Island and Domel south-
ward, and another very conspicuous feature of the more northern islands
is the great number of blasted trees standing gaunt above the top of the
jungle. This is said to have been caused by a cyclone which swept that
part of the archipelago a few years ago and killed all the larger trees.
With an annual rainfall of over 160 inches and no absolutely dry
season, as rain is liable to fall any day even during the NE. monsoon, it
is natural that the forest partakes of the character of the tropical rain
forest with gradations towards the monsoon forest (using the termino-
logy of Schimper). It is not as lofty as the typical rain forest, but is
evergreen and rich in woody lianas and epiphytes. In the drier and
more open places such as at the back of the sandy beaches and on such
a " cay " as Crichton Island, a species, of casuarina is not uncommon
(C. equi sell folia). It is this tree which has given the name of Pine Tree
Island to a small island south of the Lampi group. The numbers of
these trees are rapidly decreasing, as it supplies the favourite timber for
firewood and is eagerly cut down for this purpose by the crews of the
Governmeiit launches when they run short of coal. A few specimens of
a species of screw palm {Pandanuf) and one of Cycas are occasionally
met with, and rubber (Ficus ehifitira) is said to grow wild on some of the
islands ; certainly the climate is admirably adapted to it, and planted
specimens which I saw at Victoria Point are growing exuberantly. A
species of Dlpteromrpns grows on several of the islands and is in great
demand for the resin which it yields.
Plantains, cocoanut palms, and pine-apples do not grow wild but are
often found in spots frequented by Selungs or Burmese fishermen.
The jak fruit (Arforarpus integrifoUa), which is very common on the
coast, is seldom seen on the islands, nor are the durian (Durio zihdhinus)
or the mangosteen (Garcinia manfjostana) except in Selung " gardens."
The fauna of the islands exhibits no very striking characteristics
except its apparent poverty. The islands are not "infested by wild
animals — tiger, rhinoceros, and deer," as the Admiralty pilot pictur-
esquely states. Dr. John Anderson^ has entered fully into the animal
life of these islands, particularly the Elphinstone group and King Island
as it was some twenty years ago. Probably to-day many species are
rarer and some extinct in the archipelago. Tigers and rhinoceros are
1 Jov/r. Linn. Soc. London, Zoology. Vols. xxi. and xxii.
THE MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO: ITS PEOPLE AND PRODUCTS. 407
unknown now, though both of them, and especially the former, are
numerous on the mainland. A small chevrotain (Tragulus sjk) h iound
on some of the larger islands. Wild pig (Sus scrofa) are said to be not
uncommon, and the Selungs occasionally hunt them with their dogs.
The only really abundant mammals are monkeys, of which two species
are found, Semnoplthecus obsairus and Macaciis ojnomolugus. The latter
of these is to be seen in large hordes along the exposed muddy shores
at low tide collecting its food of crabs and limpets. The former species
is frequently met with in noisy parties in the jungle chattering merrily
overhead. On one or two islands much-worn dugong skulls and bones
gave evidence of this animal's existence in the archipelago. These may
have been the " whales "' which led Commander Lloyd to give Whale
Bay its name in 1837, but more likely they were porpoises which are
often to be seen.
Bird life in the archipelago does not strike one by its abundance,
although there are well over a hundred species recorded by Dr. Anderson.
But many of these are birds of the dusk and most are inhabitants of the
jungle, so the visitor who lands only during the day on the fringe of the
jungle cannot expect to see many. The most conspicuous birds are the
hornbills, whose characteristic scream is to be heard morning and even-
ing as they fly far overhead from island to island. Pigeons, including
the Imperial pigeons, are often to be heard in the jungle, and herons are
very common on the mud-flats of the islands nearer the mainland. Of
the haunts of the swallow who builds the edible nests (CoIlocaUia esculenta)
I shall speak further on.
Crocodiles are said to be very common in the muddy estuaries and
mangrove-lined creeks such as Celerity Passage and a hundred other
similar localities : they also appear occasionally at Mergui harbour.
Many species of water snakes have been recorded from the archipelago,
but they do not seem numerous ; one may go for days without seeing
a single one except in the huge Burmese fish-traps. Lizards and geckos
of brilliant colouring naturally abound. The large turtle (Chelone myrjas)
should be mentioned on account of its commercial value. Among the
infinite variety and abundance of fishes one may note especially the
huge sting ray (Baja) which is hourly to be seen leaping up out of the
sea, gleaming in the sunshine, and falling again with a splash. Sharks
are numerous and very dangerous : in some particularly infested spots
the pearl divers are chary of descending on this account.
Coral reefs are very scarce in the waters of the archipelago ; pro-
bably the large amount of mud in suspension is detrimental to the growth
of the corals. There are none nearer to the mainland than at Bushby
Island and High Peaked Island, and the most extensive ones are round
about Steep and Eyles Islands, Westminster Hall, and the southern end
of Sullivans Island. These coral reefs support their usual rich fauna in
striking contrast to the poverty of many of the rocky and almost all the
muddy shores. The pearl oyster banks are thickly populated with rich
alcyonaria and black corals (Antijjathes arhmrn and A. spiralis), among
which the pearl oysters are none too easy to find.
The principal inhabitants of this archipelago are the sea -gypsies
468
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
variously known as the Selungs, Salones, or Chillones, a race of uncertain
origin, who are confined to these islands and a few places of resort on
the adjoining mainland. Since the archipelago first came within the
ken of Europeans this curious race has attracted a fair amount of
attention, and various accounts of their mode of life and customs have
appeared. In 1882 Dr. John Anderson made a study of these people
and collected most records previously published.^ But it may not be
Avithout interest to give here some account of the present state of the
tribes and to record a few new developments in their history.
Tlie origin of this race is still a very debated point, but they
certainly have Malay affinities rather than Burmese. There seems
Fig. 1. — Sflungs. Cantor Island.
to be no ground for the oft-repeated statement that they show Negro
relationships.
The Selung is generally below the average size and of a colour
varying from light brown to very nearly black, though the former is by
far commoner. Their features are very coarse as a rule, and generally
distinctly Mongolian, but this again varies very much due to the ad-
mixture of Malay, Siamese, Karen, and even Chinese blood.
One of the most aberrant types I saw Avas the daughter of the head-
man of Cantor Island — a maiden with not unpleasing but most decided
Mongolian features. Many of the Selungs have facial features that are
1 The Selungs of the Mergui Archipelago, John Anderson, M.D., F.R.S. London,
Triibner and Co., 1890. This work contains a short vocabulary of the Selung languages
and several photographs of the race.
THE MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO : ITS PEOPLE AND PRODUCTS. 469
curiously reminiscent of those of the Tibetans. Their hair is dark or
black, lank, coarse and not curly. The children often have lighter hair,
but in their case it is cut short but for a few wisps on the top of the
head, and these are frequently almost white at the tips, an occurrence
which their parents attribute to the bleaching action of the sea water in
which they are continually at play. They seem to arrive at puberty
young and to age rapidly, especially the women, who at about fifty appear
quite old, but as they keep no record of their ages it is impossible to
give the average duration of life. The young women are far from hand-
some, but the old are veritable hags in their repulsiveness. Decrepit
and helpless men and women are never seen : the rough life of continual
exposure would ensure their death before reaching this stage. At
various times it has been repeated that this race is dying out and will
soon be extinct, but from what I saw and heard in the Archipelago and
at Mergui I think this is far from likely ; in that respect I can concur
with Anderson, who believed (1887) there were no reliable grounds for
the assumption. Their numbers have been variously estimated. At
the time of the British occupation of Mergui (1824) an obvious under-
estimate of 400 was given; about 1840 Heifer, who in many respects is
not a reliable authority with regard to these people, put the numbers at
1000; in 1860 the Deputy Commissioner of Mergui put 1000 as the
extreme limit, and in 1880-81 a census — the first enumeration to be
taken — found 868 Selungs. The figures given in the British Burma
Gazetteer in 1880, 3000 to 4000, were certainly far from correct, but I do
not think the Selung race to-day can number under 800 to 900 individuals.
Children are numerous in the tribe, and with the exception of a certain
amount of skin disease, seem to be very healthy and happy. Moreover,
in the islands of the archipelago the Selungs have a practically undis-
puted territory, so that there is little fear that competition with a higher
race will crush them, or drive them from this last refuge to extermina-
tion, and they are as yet largely free from the evil effects of a superficial
civilisation. The race is almost entirely a nomadic one, living in their
frail boats and moving about the various islands engaged in their
occupation of fishing during the whole north-east monsoon season from
September to May. During this fine weather they make no settled
encampments, and when they come to shore merely draw up their boats
on a sandy beach and spend a night or two there before putting to sea
again. On the other hand, the strong winds and rough seas that pre-
vail during the south-west monsoon from May to September compel
them to seek a home ashore, and at that season they erect rude dwellings
of bamboos and palm leaves upon platforms above sheltered beaches.
During these months they subsist on their store of dried fish, a scanty
stock of rice and a few fruits, and occupy themselves in making mats
from strips of Pandanus leaf — their sole manufacture. Traces of these
settlements in the shape of wrecked bamboo platforms and rubbish
heaps are very common in the archipelago, especially at Port Maria,
Elphinstone Island, Bushby Island, Middle Passage, and Sir Charles
Forbes Island.
The Selungs are a timid, unobtrusive people, and generally run away
470 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
on the approach of strangers. On more than one occasion when we
went ashore to a temporary encampment we saw the inhabitants run for
the jungle as we approached, leaving their camp deserted except for
a few yelping curs. Sometimes a few of the older people remained, and
generally a little coaxing induced the greater proportion of the party to
return : on some islands, however, no amount of cajolery would induce
the "jungle-folk," as the Burmese call them, to approach. This
timidity is most marked in the south of the archipelago, where inter-
course with white men and Chinese traders is rare, while the fear of
Malay raiders has even to-day good grounds. Among the northern
islands one finds less timid bands of Selungs and a greater ease in
communicating with them, as frequent visits to Mergui and Burmese
fishing-villages have made some of them not only less suspicious of
strangers, but also fairly fluent in Burmese.
One generally finds the sea-gypsies cruising about in companies of
ten to twenty or more, with five or six individuals and numerous dogs
in each boat. These boats, which they manage with marvellous skill,
seem on first appearance very frail structures, but they appear to be
quite seaworthy. A boat averages in length about 1 5 to 20 feet, with
a beam of 6 to 8 feet. The lower part of the hull is a dug-out carefully
fashioned and cut on not ungraceful lines, with a large semi-circle
scooped out at bow and stern : this is said by Anderson to be to assist
the children in climbing into the boats. It is a characteristic feature
that is never wanting. The upper works of the boat are constructed of
successive layers of strips of palm stem bound by lianas to one another
and to vertical ribs projecting upwards from the dug-out. The seams
are then made watertight with a kind of dammar, which is smeared
over them. A primitive sort of deck is built on the after part of the
boat and round the sides and a large tiller rigged. A rude shelter of
palm leaves is constructed over the deck on a bamboo framework, and this
is removed entire and carried ashore to serve as a hut when the owners
spend a night on the beach. Each boat has a small fireplace of clay
two feet square in a box frame just forward of the " cabin." A palm-
leaf sail — a square lug — is generally seen, but a few of the boats now
have a cloth sail. The rigging is all of rattans. Beyond this the
appliances found in a boat are of the simplest description — a few home-
made mats, several stout bamboo water-vessels, a clay pot or two, and
some broken earthenware, the latter as often as not " made in Germany " :
while the battered kerosene tin, that invariable precursor of civilisation,
is not an uncommon sight. Their tools are of the rudest : an adze and
a knife or two, and always at least one three-pronged barbed fishing-
spear made of rough iron. All their metal and generally the tools
themselves are bought at Mergui or Kenong. I also saw on several
occasions a more evolved spear of a single prong and of the nature of a
harpoon. Both these weapons the Selungs use with great dexterity in
fishing, while their miserable adzes and knives are the only tools they
possess for boat-building. On a certain occasion when I steamed in
a small launch into a bay I discovered three Selung boats on the beach
and their owners rapidly retreating into the jungle, with the exception
THE MEK(;UI ARCHIPELAGO : ITS PEOPLE AND PRODUCTS.
471
of two obviously very terrified men who had remained in their boats,
and each seated in the stern was awaiting our coming with a fishing-
spear in his hand, no doubt intending to grimly defend his scanty
property against the " pirates." But on no occasion did these people
show the least trace of animosity, and I have never even heard of one of
them striking a blow at any human being.
The clothing of the Selungs is of the scantiest, and generally con-
sists of little more for men or women than a cloth round the middle, but
4J^^H
aHtSiS^
hI
'''^^lOBiflEKiM^K 7v*^!^^^^l
^H^Hp^' ^^^I^H
f^^^
^^..-Hga^E
^^^^^^^^"
" '^^jy
ir^ -'V
y.'-'
Fig. 2.— Selling Boa
a few women now, no doubt in imitation of the Burmese, cover their
breasts. The children rejoice in the absence of all pretence at clothes.
Their food is, naturally, fish in the main, fresh during their normal
wandering life, but dried during the wet season ; in this latter case it
is generally the string ray {Raja qi.) : but they have other articles of
diet as well; green snails {Turbo marmcmta), oysters of various sorts
without a litter of whose shells no Selung encampment is complete ;
Chitons ; the large green turtle — a rare delicacy to them ; probably
some beche-de-mcr (though I have never seen them consume it), the
472 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
large clam {Tridacna), and some honey and various fruits. They penetrate
far into the islands in search of this honey, which is said to be derived
from Ajiis dorsata, and no Selung boat is complete without a few dirty
bottles full of it. Occasionally here and there on the islands one finds
small plantacions of fruit-trees which the sea-gypsies visit from time to
time, durians, plantains, and pine-apples, and a rare cocoanut-palm or
mango-tree; but agriculture, even in such a rudimentary form, is
evidently very irksome to the average Selung. Rice they are very fond
of but never cultivate, and their only mode of obtaining it is by barter
with the Chinese or Malay traders who visit them occasionally,
generally to the material and moral detriment of the Selungs. Except
with a few near Mergui money seems to have no currency, and barter
was the only way in which we could obtain any fruit or honey. They
make no strong drink of their own, but are said to eagerly buy it from
the traders, though of this I must say I had no evidence ; nor did I see
anything of their addiction to opium-eating which all writers have
mentioned as so widespread a vice among this race. Doubtless a little
opium would do them no more harm and as much good as it does to the
average Burman coolie, but I saw no Selung who was a victim to the
habit of taking it. Often during my cruise through the waters of the
archipelago 1 had been told by various Burman and Manilla divers of
Cantor Island and its Selung village and cultivations, but it was only
shortly before leaving that I was able to visit this place, and certainly
it was most interesting. Cantor Island lies not far from Mergui,
perhaps thirty miles by the shortest route through the creeks, which
would generally be available for the Selung boats, and it is in full sight
of the two or three steamers that weekly pass it some three miles away
en route for Victoria Point or Penang : this the settlers say gives them
confidence that they will not suffer at the hands of the Malay marauders,
whose depredations are still not unknown in the southern and more
remote waters. The island has an area of about one to two square
miles, which has been completely cleared of jungle by the efficacious
and satisfactory method of firing it. On the eastern — that is, the
sheltered — beach a row of ten or twelve comparatively substantial
houses has been built. Each house is raised above the beach on a
platform of poles, and contains three to five small rooms. The walls
and partitions are of palm leaves and the roofs of the same material.
The method of utilising these leaves is as follows : — A long thin stick
is taken, and over this the palm leaf is bent double and a wooden
skewer run through it : about twenty leaves are thus fastened on each
stick overlapping one another, and these sticks are then fastened one
above the other to form the walls of the house. Most of the houses
contained a store of dried fish and a large number of cotton pods, and
in one — the headman's house — I found a cat, the only one I saw among
the Selungs. Below the houses, where the stench is never very mild,
was the usual litter of empty valves of the window-pane oyster (Phuuna
placenta). The plantations are extensive, and consist of several acres of
plantains and pine-apples, a few cocoanuts and some mangosteens, as well
as the cotton-tree {Lomhax mulaharkum). A fair number of fowls were to be
THE MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO : ITS I'EOrLK AND PRODUCTS.
473
seen. This settlement is permanent, and contains some forty to fifty people
during the dry season andmore than double during the wet season. The
headman, a finely-built vigorous and intelligent man of about forty, is
the acknowledged chief of the settlement, and all bartering with the
Chinese traders is done through him, and he himself as well as many of
his subjects are frequent visitors to Mergui, where they go sell fruit
and oysters in the market, and in consequence many of them speak
Burmese with moderate fluency. This is said to be the only permanent
settlement of the Selungs in the entire archipelago at present, though
there are certain recognised spots where they congregate at times to
Flo. 3. — Selling houses, Cantor Island.
meet the traders, such as the southern end of Lampi, at which place I
saw a number of boats collected and a large Malay trading-boat in their
midst: that island seems to have been a market-place as far back as
1894, when Mr. F. L. Jardine^ mentioned it. From time to time it
appears that certain Selungs have tried to abandon their roving life and
settle down to become agriculturists in addition to fishermen, but
circumstances have been too strong for them. In the case of one such
attempt on Elphinstone Island which I heard of, Malay raiders swooped
down and ravaged it, and this has happened more than once. In 1882
there was a permanent village on King Island called Yimiki (or Yaymyit-
gee in Burmese) consisting of several houses," but I was unable to visit
its site, and was told it had been abandoned. Jardine speaks of
1 Report to the Governmeut of Burniu on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Mergui
Archipelago, 1894. 2 yee Anderson (tvc. cil.), pp. 9-1'J.
474 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
one on Lord Loughborough Island which I am likewise told has been
given up. The truth is that probably the roving spirit of these restless
sea-gypsies is too deeply ingrained in them to ever allow of their
becoming a sedentary people. The nomad rarely becomes an agri-
culturist : when he does it is by force, and then he seldom survives the
experiment. And the sea-gypsies when they have more than once been
urged to settle have replied they could never be happy under these
conditions and that they have no desire to try them. The case of these
people is an excellent example of the physical environment determining
the vocation of a race. The islands are in most cases small and steeply
inclined, often rocky and always clothed in dense jungle, unless indeed
they are merely barren crags ; they are in fact as ill-suited as could be
for agriculture, while the fear of dacoits never was a negligible factor, and
the islands are too small to support much game or many beasts. On
the other hand, fish are abundant in the waters of the archipelago, the
sheltered channels and creeks offer safety to boats, suitable anchorages
and enticing sandy beaches abound and light breezes are frequent, strong
winds scarce except in summer — almost ideal conditions for a fishing
community. Thus, whatever may have been the vocation of the Selungs
in their earlier days in other lands, it was inevitable that in the Mergui
Archipelago they should take the line of least resistance and develop
into a sea-faring folk. It seems unlikely they will change. It would
only be pressure of competition in their fishing-grounds that would
be likely to cause them to abandon their nomadic life. That certainly
has something to do with the settlement on Cantor Island, and possibly an
increasing desire for fruit and rice, taught them by more frequent inter-
course with the coastal tribes, might be a factor in such a change, but
it will not come for several generations yet.
However, the upward step in social status that the peasant community
of Cantor Island has taken is very obvious. These Selungs, who have
been here seven years, appear better fed and more vigorous; the want of
food i.s probably not a daily problem for they gather it from both sea and
land, and have a sufficiency to store it, and a permanent dwelling in
which to do so. It would be of interest to spend long enough among
them to be able to compare the moral and intellectual life of these
Cantor Island people with that of their primitive nomadic brethren.
As far as could be ascertained by questioning the sea-gypsies them-
selves and those Burmese and others who come in contact with them,
there are, with the exception of the headman on this island, no chiefs
among the Selungs and certainly no supreme chief over all. Each
boat is a small community in itself, and from what I could gather,
a patriarchal community : when several boats go together all the
season, doubtless the most experienced greybeard leads. Nowa-
days they are free from governmental control in any way. Time
was when a tax of two rupees a boat was inflicted on them " to inculcate
some ideas of responsibility into them " (or words to that effect), but this
has fortunately been abandoned long since, largely because the difficulty
of collecting it was too great.
It would be superfluous to enter here upon a description of all aspects
THE MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO: ITS PEOPLE AND PRODUCTS. 475
of Selung life and activity, but I may refer to a few customs and beliefs
that I came across, especially since they seem to vary a little from those
given in earlier accounts. They have no marriage ceremony whatever.
When a man is able to get his own cooking-pots and mats he goes to ask
the father for his daughter's hand, with her assent be it said, and he is
never refused. As soon as they can the couple get their own boat, and
they are expected to do so after the birth of their first child. In the
meantime they live in the boat of the wife's parents. Illegitimate
children are very rare. Many deaths are said to occur in child-birth,
but as a rule the mother is at work at her daily duties within a few days
of the birth of her child. There are no medicine men in the tribe and
no medicines. The dead are never buried, but are left on a small platform
on some tiny island and never revisited. They say " when a man is dead
he is no use ; therefore put him away," and they seem to have no belief
in a spiritual life.
Their religion, if one may so call it, is not a great feature of their
lives, and apparently they have only very occasionally in each year any
religious ceremony : at other times I doubt if their creed troubles
them at all. The belief which they are said to entertain with regard to
certain spirits or nsUs invading sick people ^ I did not come across, but
more than one party said they had " no god, no spirit, no one to pray to."
However, on Cantor Island I found three very crude idols in a much
neglected condition. In general appearance the idea of each of these
was the same, and I will describe the best one. It consisted of a roughly
hewn erect plank standing about twelve feet high and crudely ornamented
with crosses and lines in black : the summit was capped with a small top
roughly inlaid with pieces of mother-of-pearl. About half-way up a
horizontal cross-piece was fixed, and towards the top serrated pieces of
wood projected outwards and upwards, each ornamented like the upright ;
small cloth flags waved from the ends of the arms and the top of the
figure. The other two idols were smaller, ten and five feet respectively,
and were of essentially the same design with slight variations in ornamen-
tation and carving at the top ; one was somewhat elaborately inlaid
with mother-of-pearl for half its length. According to the headman an
annual festival takes place around these idols at the end of the wet
season. Chinese traders at that time bring an abundance of spirituous
liquor, which is eagerly bought ; and incited by this the Selungs dance
and riot before the images as many hours as they are able. Then, when
they have sufficiently recovered from their revels, they put to sea to begin
the season's fishing. Evidently the festival is largely an expression of
their joy in being liberated from their shore quarters and enabled to take
to their boats for another season. But the significance of the idol I do
not know. Anderson speaks of a somewhat similar orgie which he wit-
nessed, at which a spirit called Theedah was invoked. This he con-
sidered a strange lingering travesty of Christian doctrines which the
Selungs are known to have imbibed from missionaries many years ago.
I cannot but think it possible that these idols which I saw are associated
with the same long-forgotten teachings.
1 Anderson, loc. cit., pp. 14-18.
476 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
The distribution of the race seems to be somewhat wider now than it
has been in the past. All the islands of the archipelago are visited by
them, from the extreme .southern Sayer Islands to Tavoy Island, where I
found a small encampment of them : while on the Southern and Middle
Moskos Islands a few traces of them are to be seen, whither probably
they come in search of green snail and trocas shell. They visit Mergui
in large numbers and are often to be seen in the market-place and
streets ; I have counted fifteen Selung boats lying off the town at one
time. In the south they are said frequently to visit Tongka, the town
on Junkseylon Island on the Siamese coast beyond the Sayer Islands.
Poverty even in the possession of the most elementary essentials of
life seems to be an ever-present characteristic of these nomadic fishermen,
and more than one writer has remarked upon this fact. Living in a
luxuriant tropical clime, amid fertile islands, they appear to be for ever
hungry and half starved : their shelters in the wet season are utterly
inadequate to protect them ; their tools and their household goods are
of the meanest description. It seems as if this strange people had never
outlived the days when probably they were hunted from the mainland
and driven, a despised and downtrodden race, to take shelter amidst
these islands They strike one essentially as a race of outcasts.
In addition to the Selungs the other inhabitants of the islands are
not numerous, and most of them are only temporary visitors during the
dry season. On several of the larger islands near the mainland, such as
Kisserain, Domel and King are small Burmese fishing villages with fairly
substantial bamboo and palm-leaf huts built on piles above the mud.
In Fells Passage and Celerity Passage these villages are numerous.
During the fine season the number of inhabitants is increased and
temporary settlements appear. At that season the muddy creeks and
channels towards the coast are often alive with Burmese fishing-boats,
and almost blocked in places with the pali.sades of the fish-traps which
extend across them. These fishermen are in great contrast to the
relatively educated Burmans of the jungle towns, but in physical develop-
ment they greatly excel the latter. At Port Owen in Tavoy Island — one
of the ])est of the many splendid harbours among the islands — is a settle-
ment of several hundred Karens. They have a native missionary in their
midst, who also officiates as schoolmaster, and they all profess Christianity,
which, if one might judge from their melodious hymn singing one Sunday
afternoon, certainly seems to have taken a strong hold. I had no
means of ascertaining whether the doctrines are deeper-rooted than
these outward manifestations showed.
Pearling is responsible for a large infiux of people to certain parts of
the archipelago from September to April, and with the exception of an
occasional steamer and a few Chinese junks, the pearling boats are the
largest craft to be seen. They stay on the banks for about a month and
then return to Mergui to discharge their shell and to renew their stock of
provisions. It must not be supposed that these boats work entirely for
the pearls : one might rather say that mother-of-pearl shell is what they
rely on to pay expenses and perhaps a small profit, while the pearls they
find are clear gain.
THE MERGUT ARCHTPELAGO : TTS PEOPLE AND PRODUCTS. 477
A few Chinese traders, growing rich off the poor Selungs, some
edible - birds' - nest collectors, turtle -egg hunters, and Uche-de-mer
gatherers complete the population of these scattered islands.
It is worth mentioning here a tradition that was once prevalent in
the district as to a former more extensive and civilised occupation of the
islands of the archipelago. During my visit I came on no trace of this
belief, but Captain R. Lloyd, writing in 1838,^ speaks of a current
Burmese tradition of a former large population who cultivated Lam pi (or
Sullivans Island) and of the story of a ruined town to be found in its
interior. He was unable to verify the existence of this, but from a
general appearance of Lampi it does not seem probable that it was ever
cultivated, Avhile the interior would seem the most unlikely of places for
a town.
However, it is quite certain that the whole province of Tenasserim
was more thickly populated some centuries ago than it is to-day. The
frequent wars that it was the theatre of some two or three centuries ago
and the diversion of the great trade routes to Siam from land to sea have
all had a serious affect in depopulating the land.
The productions of the archipelago, though of the usual type of these
tropical islands, are not without interest. The nature of the trade
approximates very closely to that of most of the South Sea Islands, but
is on the whole poorer.
The shell of the mother-of-pearl oyster (Margaritifera maxima) must
be looked upon as the most important production since it brings in
a large return and is responsible for a fleet of about eighty boats which
are engaged in fishing it. Each boat contains a Manilla or Japanese
diver (rarely a Burmese one), a diver's tender of the same nationality as
the diver, and a crew of some five or six Burmans who generally come
from Tavoy and neighbourhood for the fishing season. The amount
of shell brought into Mergui in recent years has varied from sixty tons to
one hundred tons, but as much as 340 tons have been taken in a
single season, September to April inclusive. The price of this varies
considerably with its quality and the quantity of the world's supply.
Last season it generally sold at £85 to £95 a ton at Mergui, and
this summer Mergui shell realised £140 a ton in London. Practically
the whole of the supply goes to Paris and London.
In former years the Selungs took an active part in this industry, and
many of the more expert among them could dive to eight or ten fathoms.
Now that the fishing has been generally carried into deeper waters,
where naked diving is impossible, the Selungs no longer participate in it
to any extent.
The green snail {Turbo marmorata) and trocas shells (Trockus sp.) are
other objects 6f search, both on account of their mother-of-pearl, and
though they are less valuable than the huge pearl-shell oyster, yet they
continue to be in great demand in the European shell markets. The
right to gather these shells, as well as hkhc-de-mer, is annually auctioned
1 R. Lloyd: Mergui Coast Lines and IsLauds, Jmir. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. vii
pp. 1027-38 (1838).
478 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE
at Mergui for different parts of the archipelago. The actual fishing
is done in shallow water by Selungs, men and women, who collect for the
lessees, generally Chinamen. The shell is sold at Mergui at varying
prices. This year £40 to £45 a ton was given for green snail, and £18
a ton for trocas — over eighty tons of green snail are often collected in a
season, which means about 200,000 shells. Of trocas the quantity
is often smaller, but it varies greatly from year to year. Beche-de-mer or
trepang collecting is not a very flourishing occupation in the Mergui
Archipelago. These holothurians prefer a coral bottom, and coral reefs
are not numerous in these waters. However, where they do occur holo-
thurians are to be found in extraordinary abundance, but unfortunately
chiefly of a dark red species that has poor commercial value and does not
repay the trouble and expense of collection. The more valuable species
(known as the teat-fish) are much scarcer and occur in deeper water, but not
invariably on coral reefs. The export of beche-de-mer from ]\Iergui each
year varies from five tons to twenty tons, valued at about £6 a ton.
Practically all this is sent to Penang and Singapore for the large Chinese
population at these towns, and very little is locally consumed at Mergui
despite the large proportion of Chinamen there.
No copra industry exists on the islands or along the neighbouring
coast, and cocoanut palms are relatively rare and are seldom to be seen in
large plantations.
Another Chinese delicacy, the edible nest of the swift (CoUocallia
esailenfa), is obtained from certain of the islands, notably the Sayer
Islands, the Birds Nest group, St. Matthew Island, Turret Island,
Bentinck Island, Kabosa and Tenasserim Islands, parts of Tavoy
Island and the Cradle Islands of the Moskos group, as well as certain
other small islets and rocks. On the precipitous rocks where these
birds choose to build their dainty glistening Avhite nests it is no easy
task to collect them : only by means of bamboo ladders can most of
the places be scaled, but the high prices obtainable for the nests com-
pensates for the difficulty experienced in obtaining them.
The collectors, who obtain the privilege by annual auction at Mergui,
visit the breeding-places once a month during the nesting season and
remove all the obtainable nests ; but despite this wholesale destruction
of eggs and young the supply seems to show no sign of diminution.
The nests are very valuable, and are sold for twice their weight in
rupees, which works out at about ninepence each, or £5 per lb. The
whole supply goes to Penang, Singapore, and Hong-Kong. An idea
of the amount of these nests obtainable may be got from the fact
that for the right to collect them on the Birds Nest group, a cluster of
eight or nine small islets, in one season recently a sum of over £1700
was paid.
The eggs of the large turtle {Chelone mydas) are eagerly collected on
many of the sandy beaches on various islands. The turtles, as is well
known, come ashore at night to lay their eggs, which they deposit in
a pit in the sand above high water-mark, afterwards shovelling dry
sand over them. The egg collectors watch them come ashore and rifle
the " nests " as soon as the turtles leave ; but even if one is not pre-
THE MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO ; ITS PEOPLE AND PRODUCTS. 479
sent at the laying there is little difficulty in locating the " nest " : the
tracks of the turtle and the disturbed sand at once betray it. As many
as from two hundred to over three hundred are found in one nest, and
some egg collectors whom I came across at the Moskos Islands told me they
may get a thousand a night, and have got on occasions thirty thousand
eggs in a month, but this is an unusually large quantity. These eggs,
which are all consumed locally, sell in Tavoy or Mergui for 3s. 4d. to
3s. 6d. a hundred, and since these particular collectors had only to pay
an annual rent of £66, 13s. 4d. (Rs. 1000) for the exclusive rights for the
Moskos Islands, their profit should not be small. The expenses entailed
are only the cost of a boat, three men, and some provisions.
Honey and beeswax from a plentiful species of bee (said to be Apis
dorsata) is gathered by the Selungs in the jungle. A certain quantity of
the honey is consumed by them, as it forms one of their staple articles of
diet ; but a large amount finds its way to Mergui every year. During
the season three to four tons of honey and one to two tons of beeswax
have been exported. A certain quantity of dammar, wood-aloes (from
Aquilaria agallocha), and some sandal-wood are also brought into Mergui
from the islands. Bats' guano is collected on some of the more northerly
islands, but this is a minor occupation, and there are no deposits of guano
of great extent.
Black coral (Antipathes spiralis) always finds a ready market, though
the price is never very high. It is often found by the divers, who look
upon it as one of their perquisites. It realises from 20s. to 34s. a
hundred pieces, but only the stouter three or four feet of the lower
end are of any value : the long tapering end is always thrown away.
The main use is for bangles and beads, and no diver ashore in Mer-
gui considers his outfit complete without a black coral walking-stick.
The only two manufactures of the islands are torches and mats. The
former is in the hands of Burmese, the latter entirely in the hands
of Selungs. Kabosa Island is a favourite resort of the torch-makers
during the dry season, on account of the abundance of the material to
hand in the shape of the essential resin producing trees {Dipterocarpms spp.).
This resinous matter is mixed with decayed wood, a little oil is added,
and the whole is then bound in a palm leaf: when dry it is ready
for use. These torches afford almost the only means of illumination
in most houses. In former years each torch-maker used to pay an
annual licence of 6s. 8d. (Rs. 5): over two hundred of these licences
were usually taken out. Whether the same tax holds now I do not
know.
The mats of Selung manufacture are quite simple and very service-
able and constitute their great wealth in trade. They are woven
by the women from strips of palm leaf (Pandamns sp.), and when
completed are each about 10 ft. by 13 ft. A number are used by
the Selungs themselves, but quantities find their way to Mergui, and
many are re-exported — their value is about 5d. or 6d. each. In 1894-5
over nine thousand of these mats were exported from Mergui.
The town of Mergui itself — " the big town " to the Burmese on the
coast and the Selungs of the archipelago — is actually on an island cut off
480
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
from the mainland by the Tenasserim River and one of its numerous
creeks. It stretches a mile or more along a muddy shore, and rises
over the top of a small ridge some 180 feet high and down its further
slopes. The effect of the wooden houses and palm-leaf thatch, the
glistening white pagoda and the bungalows on the hill-top amid the
trees and profuse flowers, give a decidedly picturesque and pleasing view
from the anchorage. The town is rapidly spreading jungle-wards, and
its population is increasing annually. In the absence of an accurate
census in recent years I have estimated the population at not less than
15,000. Of these, probably one-third or more are Chinamen and the
rest Burmese and Hindoo, with some Malays and a few Philippino and
Fig. 4. — The main street of Mergui.
Japanese divers and divers' tenders. The Hindoo element is strong, as
all the coolies employed for the harder manual work in the town and
harbour are from India, as is the usual rule in Burma.
It is essentially the town of the archipelago, and it is to the islands
and the water around them that Mergui turns for its livelihood. True,
it has one or two flourishing rice-mills and some trade in timber, but
these are secondary and only assume importance when the SW. monsoon
season shuts the archipelago from view. In the dry season all interest
and attention is centred in the archipelago, while the mainland and the
jungle are forgotten. And above everything else that the archipelago
sends to Mergui it is pearls and pearl shell that hold the first place of
importance, and one must remember that before the start of the system-
atic pearling in 1891 Mergui was a "half-ruined village." Nothing
THE MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO: ITS PEOrLE AND PRODUCTS 481
has SO prominent a place in current conversation and interest as pearling.
Everywhere it is the staple topic of conversation, Avhile tin and rubber
are only beginning to demand a share of attention. There are only
some eighty pearling schooners at work belonging to about fifty or sixty
owners, but the number of persons employed in these boats, together
Avith the number who handle the shell and pearls ashore, is considerable.
Yet this alone would not account for the commanding interest that
pearling claims. That is largely due to the element of gambling it
entails.
The pearls obtained practically all represent clear profit over work-
ing expenses, and they constitute a profit whose size no man can gauge.
It may vary from a few pounds to a thousand or more, and is all a
matter of chance. Any day a big pearl may be found : then the
fortunate owner is the hero of the hour until another and a better find
absorbs all attention. This factor of uncertainty is what gives pearling
a prior hold in the interest of the population of Mergui.
The history of Mergui, peaceful and forgotten as the town is to-day,
has been full of incident and strife. Originally the seaport of the
inland town of Tenasserim, it had great importance through the fifteenth,
sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries as the great shipping centre of the
whole province of Tenasserim. But more than that, it was from Mergui
that the shortest route lay into Siam, and the vast and valuable trade of
Siam and the East all passed through this town. In consequence of this
strategic value Mergui was often in dispute between the rival kingdoms
in the Peninsula, and at different times in its history it has been in the
hands of Burma, Pegu, and Siam. However, with the advent of larger
ships and greater skill in navigation, the highway to the East gradually
ceased to be overland across the isthmus and Mergui lost its importance.
During the early part of the first Burmese War (1824) Mergui Avas
finally seized by Britain, and in the treaty which followed the close of
the struggle the King of Burma ceded " Mergui and Tenasserim, their
islands and dependencies."
The other settlements on the coast exhibit little that is noteAvorthy.
Victoria Point, the most southerly in Burma, is simply a small frontier
station facing the Siamese state of Renong. It has a good enough
anchorage for small vessels, but is not easy of access even in daytime.
It is quite possible that with the rapid development of LoAver Burma,
Victoria Point may become a port of some importance for the export of
tin and rubber. At present these commodities are exported from
MaliAvun, a small mining settlement and Para-rubber plantation nine
miles up the Maliwun River, a shallow tributary of the Pakchan River,
but the place is only accessible by shalloAv draught steamers. Across
the Pakchan River from Victoria Point is the entrance to the Renong
River at which is a small Siamese fishing village. The town of
Renong lies some way up the river, but the greater part of the journey
must be made by land, for boats can only ascend about a mile. A
bar at the mouth prevents any steamer bigger than a launch from
entering.
The country northAvard from Victoria Point to Mergui was the
VOL. xxiii. 2 M
482
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
subject of a paper in this Magazine ^ some years ago, and it has not
materially changed since.
A few tin mines are to be found at various points up the coast, but
there is no settlement of any importance before Bokpyin is reached in
11° 16' N. This is a small village at the mouth of an unnavigable river,
and its main occupation is fishing. The population at Bokpyin as well as
at Victoria Point is far more Malay and Siamese than Burmese. There
is said to have once been, perhaps a century ago, a far more extensive
population around this place, and the land, though nearly all overgrown
FiQ. 5. — Bokpyiu.
now, certainly gives the impression of once having been cleared and
cultivated. The vicinity is low-lying and apparently quite well adapted
for rice-fields. Following the coast the next settlement is Chediug, some
eight or nine miles north of Bokpyin. This fishing village, according
to Commander R. Lloyd,- was formed about eighty years ago by the
exertions of the then Commissioner of the district with a view to in-
ducing the Malays in the vicinity to settle down and abandon their
predatory incursions on the Burmese and Selungs.
From the point where the Lenya Kiver runs into the sea as far as
1 South Teuassi'rim and the Mergui Ardiipeliigo : Win. Sutherland, .S'.<r'. J/., vol. .\iv.
(1898) pp. 449 to 464. Reference may also Ije made to H. W. Smyth, Notes ou a Journey
to Some of the South-western Provinces of Siam, O'. J., vol. vi. pp. 401-421, and 522-540.
' R. Lloyd, loc, cit.
THE MERGUl ARCHIPELAGO: ITS PEOPLE AND PRODUCTS. 483
Mergui the coast is edged with many low lying islands barely separated
from the mainland by shallow creeks, and the land is skirted with
muddy flats and mangrove swamps. Among these nestle various small
fishing villages, but none of any importance, as they are practically in-
accessible except to small boats.
North of Mergui the coastline, though fringed by mangroves, is more
distinct, and there are a few settlements, though none of any size or
importance until Tavoy is reached, some thirty-five miles up the tortuous
Tavoy River. This town lies in the centre of a rich alluvial plain and
is an agricultural centre. Originally as the meeting-place of peasant
and fisherman at the head of the navigable river, it was once of more
importance than to-day, but it still has a fair trade by means of Chinese
junks which ply between it and the Straits Settlements.
The advent of steamers and deeper draught vessels has, however,
caused a new settlement to arise lower down the river, Tsinbyubin,
where a great deal of merchandise is shipped and unshijiped. There is a
large export trade in fruits, mangosteens, durians and bananas and jak
fruits and others to Rangoon, for Tavoy marks about the northern limit
of mangosteens and durians.
The future of this lower part of the province of Tenasserim, from
Mergui southward, undoubtedly lies in rubber and tin. Para rubber
is thriving well in many places where plantations have been started,
for water is abundant, and in the dry season the trees can easily be
irrigated. The less valuable product of Fkus dastica grows with
astonishing vigour, but there is no call to cultivate it where the more
remunerative species will thrive. No doubt in the northern part of the
peninsula the north-east monsoon season would prove too dry for
rubber, as it does not experience the occasional heavy rains which are
liable to occur in the south during that season.
Already large quantities of tin are being exported from Maliwun,
Renong, Mergui, and other ports on the coast, and it seems simply a
matter of time until the rich production of the Straits Settlements is
rivalled by that of Siamese Malay States and Tenasserim. A scarcity
of labour and means of transport seem to be the two great difficulties to
contend with at present.
In conclusion, I must take this opportunity of expressing my thanks
for untiring assistance to Commander W. G. Beauchamp, R.I.M., and the
officers of the R.I.M.S. Invesligator, in Avhich ship I was fortunate
enough to visit the Archipelago ; to Mr. Metcalfe, Deputy Commissioner
of Mergui, and other inhabitants of the town, for much information
given with the greatest readiness ; and finally to my colleague in the
Pearl Fisheries Investigation, Mr. James J. Simpson.
484 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN THE UNITED STATES.
Two recent illustrated articles ^ in geographical journals give accounts
of the efforts which are being made by the Government of the United
States to render useful to man tracts of land Avhich have hitherto been
unproductive desert, and illustrate the great changes which are thus
being produced in the arid and semi-arid States.
The most important of the recent Acts of Congress affecting irriga-
tion is the Reclamation Act, passed on June 17, 1902. This Act
provides that all moneys received from the sale and disposal of public
lands in Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana,
Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon,
South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming, shall be set apart as
a special fund in the Treasury, to be known as the Reclamation Fund,
and to be used in the examination and survey for, and in the construction
and maintenance of, irrigation works for the storage, diversion and
development of waters for the reclamation of arid and semi-arid lands
in the above states and territories. The person entering upon lands to
be irrigated by such Government works must reclaim at least half of
the total irrigable area of his entry for agricultural purposes, and before
receiving a patent for his land he must pay to the Government, in ten
or less annual instalments, the charges that have been apportioned
against the tract. Further, in order to prevent the acquisition of large
tracts for speculative purposes, and possible absenteeism, it is" enacted
that no right to the use of water for land in private ownership shall
be sold for a tract exceeding 160 acres to any one landowner, and no
such sale shall be made to any landowner unless he be an actual bona fide
resident on such land, or occupant thereof residing in the neighbourhood
of the land. The funds derived from this law have now reached the
sum of £6,400,000 sterling, and the annual increment is about
£800,000.
The sixteen arid and semi-arid states named above constitute about
one-half of the area of the continental part of the United States, or about
one million five hundred thousand square miles. Much of this vast area
does not require irrigation, and parts of it, owing to engineering and
other difficulties, cannot be reclaimed, but it is estimated that it will be
possible to irrigate about fifty million acres, in addition to the ten million
acres already reclaimed.
Some twenty-four projects ai'e now being undertaken, while thirteen
others are meantime in abeyance until these are completed. It is
estimated that these twenty-four will add ultimately 3,198,000 acres
to the crop-producing region of the United States, while the other
thirteen will give an additional 3,270,000 acres.
Some of the projects now under way may be briefly described here.
1 Soe " Irrigation in the United States," by Major J. H. Beacom, Gevgraphical Journal,
April 1907; and also article by C. J. Blancliard in National Geograjihic Magadne, April
1907. See also this Magazine, vol. xxii. p. 524.
IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN THE UNITED STATES. 485
The Salt River project in Arizona, which involves the construction of a
dam across the caiion of the Salt liiver about sixty miles above the city
of rhoinix, will yield about one hundred and seventy-five thousand acres
of productive land, and will, it is expected, be completed in 1909. The
formation of the dam has necessitated as a preliminary the hewing of
a roadway out of the solid rock-wall of the canon.
The dam which is being constructed across the caiion is only 800
feet long at the top, but rises 284 feet from its foundations. It will
hold up more water than the great dam at Assuan, and Avill create
a lake 25 miles long and 2 miles wide. Another project, that of
Minidoka in Idaho, has reclaimed a large tract formerly useless and
covered with sage-brush. The chief engineering work in this case was
a rock-fill dam, which has a height of 80 feet and a length of 625
feet. The dam was completed in 1906, and associated with it is a
canal system to be in operation this year. This system is more than
100 miles in length, and will cover 60,000 acres. In 1904 this region
had not a single inhabitant, but now there are 4000 persons there,
and the land, previously regarded as worthless, is now valued at £8 to
£15 per acre.
Another important project is that in the Yakima valley in the State
of Washington, The Yakima river has its source on the eastern slope
of the Cascade Mountains, and flows in a south-easterly direction until
it empties into the Colombia some distance above Walla- Walla. Here
various sub-projects are to be undertaken which will be ultimately
combined into one system. These comprise canals, ditches, and storage-
dams to hold back the flood waters of the river in several mountain
lakes. The total outlay will be about two and a half million pounds,
and it is estimated that the water obtainable will irrigate about three
hundred thousand acres. When irrigated the land is of extraordinary
fertility, yielding valuable crops of apples and hops as well as hay
So heavy is the yield that orchard land sometimes realises over £40G
per acre.
In Kew Mexico the very important Eio Grande project has been
approved, but meantime work upon it is slow. The princii^al feature
of this project is to be the construction of a huge dam, intended to
impound 2,000,000 acre feet of water, which is to be constructed about
one hundred miles north of El Paso, Texas. The dam will be 255 feet
high, 400 feet long at the bottom, and 1150 feet long at the top. The
estimated cost of the whole project will be about one million and a
half pounds sterling, and the water will irrigate 180,000 acres. There
have been international difiiculties with Mexico, but these have now been
adjusted. In this region also the fertility is great, and the best results
seem to be obtained with small plots and careful and scientific methods.
These mean a relatively dense population, and gives hope of combining
the best features of both town and country life.
A very interesting project, from the point of view of the engineering
difficulties involved, is that of the Uncompahgve valley in Colorado. In
this State the Gunnison flows for a considerable distance in a deep canon,
with almost vertical walls of 2000 feet in height. Though there are
486 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE
no great difficulties in the way of making a lock on this river, it is
found that no dam of reasonable height would lift the water to the level
of the surrounding lands. But not far away, at a much lower level, lies
the Uncompahgre valley, and by building a low dam in the canon of
the Gunnison, and tunnelling through the rock-wall between the two
rivers, it is possible to carry the water of the Gunnison into the valley
of the Uncompahgre. The tunnel which forms the underground water-
way is to be nearly six miles long, and has a cross-section of 101
by 111 feet. The work of tunnelling is being carried on with great
rapidity, despite various difficulties, such as the occurrence of gas,
subterranean springs, and so forth. The combination of the waters
of the two streams will irrigate about one hundred thousand acres of
very fertile land in the Uncompahgre valley. This valley has a general
elevation of about five thousand feet, but owing to the lofty ranges of
mountains which surround it the climate is mild and equable. The soil
is of unusual fertility and the district is noted for its fine fruits.
In the case of the Milk river project, in northern Montana, close
to the international boundary, some difficult international questions are
involved. In this region two rivers, the St. Mary's and Milk river,
rise in Montana, on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. The
St. Mary's is a mountain stream, and on issuing from the mountains it
runs north, crosses the boundary line, and finally reaches Hudson's
Bay. Milk river is a prairie stream, having its source only a little
east of the St. Mary's river, and it also flows north into Canadian
territory, but after wandering through that country for about one
hundred and fifty miles, it returns to the United States, and its waters
finally reach the Gulf of Mexico. It is proposed to build a dam 50
feet high on the St. Mary's river, and to cut a canal across the low
divide separating this river from Milk river, and thus divert as much
of the water of the former into the latter as might be required for the
irrigation of 100,000 acres lying along its lower stretches. As the
Milk river is, however, being already used for irrigation purposes in
Canada, some difficulty has arisen in regard to water rights.
In southern Oregon and northern California an interesting scheme,
known as the Klamath project, is to be carried out. In the Klamath
valley there are at present three lakes, Upper Klamath, Lower Klamath,
and Tule or Rhett lake. The Lower Klamath is dammed by a natural
dyke which is to be cut through, thus draining the lake bed, which
will be divided into farms and irrigated. Tule lake receives its entire
supply from a river, called the Lost River, which wanders about for
60 miles and finally returns to a point only about six miles from
where it started. This river is to be dammed and its waters carried
off to irrigate lands lying in the valley; this will cause Tule lake
to dry up, and its bed will then be irrigated, and used for agricultural
purposes. In all, about 240,000 acres will be brought under irrigation
here, and as the engineering questions involved are very simple, the
cost will only be about £3 10s. per acre, the lowest estimated cost of
any of the Government projects.
The Yuma project will irrigate 85,000 acres lying in Arizona and
IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN THE UNITED STATES. 487
California. A great dam nearly a mile long will be thrown across the
Colorado river about 12 miles above Yuma. It will have a length up
and down stream of 2G7 feet with a height of only 19 feet, and there
will be two canal systems, one on either side of the Colorado, with
headworks at opposite sides of the dam. The waters of the canal that
has its headworks at the eastern end of the dam will be carried under
the Gila river, which flows into the Colorado a few miles below the
dam, by a siphon of steel and concrete about 3300 feet long. The
reclamation works in the Imperial valley in Colorado have already been
dealt with here.
On an average the charges against each acre of reclaimed land work
out at about £10, while in addition there is the necessary outlay on
buildings, tools, machinery, as well as the cost of seed and water for
the first crop. It is thus obvious that farming on irrigated land can
only be undertaken by those with some capital as well as with con-
siderable skill. The Government strives so far as possible to minimise
the risk of failure by giving expert aid and advice, especially as regards
the kinds of plants best fitted for the diff'erent types of lands.
The Bureau of Plant Industry keeps a corps of agricultural experts
travelling over the globe on the search for kinds of cultivated plants
superior to those already grown in the States, or for new plants which
might be grown there. When such new plants are received they are
sent to experimental stations in such of the States as seem most likely,
bearing in view the origin of the plant, to afford suitable soil and
climate.
Among the species which have been successfully introduced are the
olive from southern Europe, the orange from eastern Brazil, the tomato,
the Lima bean and the potato from Peru ; also rhubarb, celery, and
asparagus. Among the more successful of recent introductions is the
durum wheat from southern Europe and Russia, which is found to be
well suited to the dry lands of the semi-arid states. This is the wheat
from which macaroni is made, and the acreage devoted to its cultiva-
tion is increasing so rapidly that it is even hoped that in the future
America may be shipping macaroni to Italy. Again, a hardy Swedish
type of oats, capable of resisting great drought, has been introduced into
Montana, the Dakotas, and the neighbouring lands, and is giving ex-
cellent yields. In the colder region of the north-west forms of the Siberian
crab-apple have been introduced, also the Vladimir cherry. Alfalfa is
also proving very successful, and is valuable in that it is tolerant of
lands in which excess of alkali is present. It is hoped that in the near
future large areas of lands now useless on this account may be reclaimed.
The varieties chosen for this purpose are those grown in the alkali
districts of Turkestan and Algeria, while other types have been found
capable of resisting the rigorous winters of the north-western prairie
states.
For the fertile oases being produced in the lower Colorado valley
many plants are available. Such are berseem, the clover of Egypt, the
fig-tree of Smyrna, many varieties of date-palm from Egypt and from
the oases of Biskra, while a species of alfalfa has been found which on
488 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
this rich land will yield six or seven crops in the year, averaging for the
whole from ten to twelve tons per acre. But indeed the crops in the
irrigated areas seem enormous when the right plants are utilised and
the requisite skill is available. In the Yakima valley it is stated that
apples may yield as much as £360 worth of fruit per acre. Geographi-
cally the various schemes are of interest in view of the great changes
which irrigation is producing in what has hitherto been the Great
American Desert.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Europe.
The Ben Nevis Observatory. — In reply to a question put to him
in the House of Commons on 1st August, as to whether he was in a
position to say if he was able to accede to the request of the Scottish
Members of Parliament for a grant to the Scottish Meteorological Society
for the purpose of re-opening and maintaining the Ben Nevis observa-
tories, the Chancellor of the Exchequer said the only scheme which had
up to the present been placed before him was one under which the whole
cost of the re-equipment and maintenance of the observatories would be
thrown upon public funds, and to this he did not feel justified in assent-
ing. He was, however, quite prepared to consider the question of
renewing the Government grant, which was for many years given to
these institutions through the Meteorological Council, provided that an
adequate contribution towards their re-establishment and maintenance
were forthcoming from other sources.
Asia.
Expedition to Central Asia. — It is announced that a scientific
expedition for the exploration of Central Asia has been organised by the
Eussian Geographical Society. It will be under the leadership of M.
Kozlow, and will leave in October next. The expedition proposes to
spend two years in the close examination of Southern Mongolia and the
western parts of the Chinese provinces of Kansuh and Szechuen. It is
stated that the whole cost of the expedition will be borne by the Czar.
Africa.
The Peopling of Algeria. — In the Bevuc Gin^rale rlea Scie7ires (8)
Professor Bertrand Auerbach gives a critical summary of a recent official
publication on the progress which has been made in the peopling of
Algeria by persons of French nationality in the period 1871-1906.
During this period the official policy has been consistently to encourage
French immigrants as opposed to those of other nationalities. At the
beginning of the period this work was facilitated by the insurrection
of 1871, which gave to the Government a rich windfall in the shape of
the confiscated territories of the revolting tribes, while somewhat later
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 489
the extensive emigration from the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine
seemed to offer abundance of suitable colonists. The National Assembly-
set apart 100,000 hectares for the use of these emigrants, the ground
being allocated under strict regulations having for their object the
selection of families likely to settle permanently upon the land, and
having sufficient capital to work it. In spite, however, of these pre-
cautions, the immigrants were in large part not agriculturists, but
workmen and others unaccustomed to country life. The result seems,
however, to have been better than might have been expected, for of
1183 families established only 277 had quitted Algeria or disappeared in
1899. On the other hand, of 165 specially selected families, placed in
villages by the "Soci6te de Protection des Alsaciens-Lorrains," only 80
remain. At the same times as the inhabitants of Alsace and Lorraine
a considerable number of other French immigrants entered the country,
so that in the period 1871-1880 the French population increased
from 130,000 to 195,000. But in the same period, without any
Government aid, the foreign population increased from 115,000 to
181,000. These immigrants consisted especially of Spaniards, Italians,
and Maltese, and supplied the labour necessary for the public works.
The higher birthrate among these races assures them of numerical
superiority, even if the social superiority of the French is assured by
the laws governing the acquisition of land. As in similar cases else-
where, the favoured position of the French by birth or naturalisation
has necessitated very elaborate legal machinery, to obviate the risk of
speculation in land, and to ensure the actual settling on the soil of
the owners. But, while the above represents the official Government
policy, the fear of the agriculturists at home that their markets would
be menaced by the cereals and wines of Algeria has always acted as a
check, and the figures seem also to emphasise once again the reluctance
of the French to become permanent colonists. At the end of 1880,
after a decade of forward policy, 3891 families of French origin had
been established as compared with 4582 Algerians. While all the
families established, French or Algerian, show a strong tendency to
abandon their land after a period, a marked difference is that while in
the case of the Algerians new families are always to be found to replace
the old, this is not the case with those of French origin. Thus in 1892
there were 153 purchasers of Government land, and the Administration
displayed much satisfaction because the number of French families
reached the exceptionally high figure of 38, or one-fourth of the whole.
Further, the French colonists are not always suitable, some French
communes not scrupling to give false information in order to rid them-
selves of undesirables, who are then sent as settlers with grants
(concessionnaires) to Algeria.
Within the last few years, however, determined efforts have been
made to remedy the abuses, and to obtain suitable colonists with the
necessary capital and stock. In 1902 land was distributed to 187
French families and to only 106 Algerians; in 1903 the families of
French origin established numbered 376 against 160 Algerians. In
1904, however, the Administration ceased the free distribution of land,
490 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
which must now be acquired at a fixed price, or by bidding, two-thirds
of the lots for sale being reserved for those of French nationality. If
the competition for the land under these conditions has not been keen,
yet the last two years has added to the population some 455 French
families, all possessing some capital.
The total result is that 30 years of sustained effort have added 30,000
French colonists to Algeria.
America.
Expedition to South America. — A new scientific expedition to
the extreme south of South America is being organised by Mr. Carl
Skottsberg, one of the members of the recent Swedish Antarctic Expedi-
tion, which will leave Gottenberg during this month, and will consist of
Messrs. Skottsberg, P. Quesnel, and T. Halle. It will not sail in a ship
of its own, but will make use of the ordinary mail steamers and coasting
vessels for transport to the scene of operations, and will be equipped for
botanical, geological, and meteorological work. Proceeding via Buenos
Aires and Montevideo to the Falklands, the leader and Mr. Halle will
there spend the summer of 1907-8 for the purpose of continuing the
researches begun by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition, Mr. Quesnel
meanwhile going to Punta Arenas, where he hopes to make an excursion
to the Cerro Payne region. On re-uniting at Punta Arenas, the party
will, if time permits, make an expedition to the northwards along the
Cordillera and round Otway and Skyring waters before winter sets in.
This will be spent in the rainy region of the western channels, and in
the spring an attempt will be made to reach Lago Fagnano, the party
then moving its head(iuarters to the region of Beagle Channel. It is
proposed to conclude the summer's work with a trip to Tekeenika Bay,
returning to Sweden in April or May 1909.
Polar.
The Scottish Arctic Expedition. — News has been received at the
Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory of the arrival of the Scottish Arctic
Expedition on board the ss. Phrenix at Prince Charles Foreland. Very
heavy weather was encountered after leaving the Norwegian coast, and
a large quantity of ice exceptionally far to the south and west of Bear
Island. This ice continued right up to Spitzbergen. AVhen Dr. William
S. Bruce and his companions arrived at Prince Charles Foreland on 11th
June they found the country completely covered with snow. The ex-
pedition experienced considerable difficulty in landing the scientific
instruments, equipment, and stores on account of a perpendicular wall
of ice which fringed the coast.
The British Antarctic Expedition. — The Xlmrod, the vessel of
Mr. E. H. Shackleton's Expedition, left the Thames on 30th July, with
Lieutenant IJupert England in command. The members of the expedition
on board are Mr. James Murray, the biologist : Mr. AV. A. Mitchell,
surgeon and zoologist ; and Mr. A. F. Mackay, the junior surgeon of the
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 491
landing party, who will also engage in zoological work. The remaining
members of the expedition will join the ship at Lyttleton, New Zealand,
These include, besides Mr. Shackleton, Mr. S. Marshall, senior surgeon
of the shore party and cartographer of the expedition ; Lieutenant Adams,
R.N.R., who will be in charge of the meteorological work, and Sir Philip
Brocklehurst, for survey work and field geology. Dr. David, Professor
of Geology in Sydney University, has arranged to accompany the ex-
pedition south to King Edward VII. Land.
Commander Peary's New Expedition. — This explorer's new
attack upon the Pole has been postponed for a year owing to some
delay in obtaining the new boilers for the Roosevelt. Meantime the
vessel is to be taken to Etah, Greenland, with the object of establishing
a new coal depot. It is expected to return by the end of September.
The French Antarctic Expedition. — Further particulars are to
hand of the plans for Dr. Charcot's new Antarctic expedition. His
choice of the same field of exploration as on the former expedition has
been made, after due consideration of the plans of other expeditions now
being organised or projected, for the following reasons: — (1) the im-
portance of gaining further knowledge of the almost unknown Alex-
ander I. Land ; (2) the possibility of the existence in that region of an
ice-barrier similar to that of Ross, over the surface of which an advance
could be made ; (3) the advantages of continuing the scientific work
begun by the former expedition, and utilising the experience gained by
it ; (4) the support to be expected from the Argentine Eepublic in view
of the excellent relations entered upon on the former occasion. The
building of a special ship will, it is hoped, soon be begun. The 300,000
francs (£12,000), which the French Government have just asked Parlia-
ment to grant in aid of the Expedition, are to be immediately used for
its construction. While large enough to permit the carrying out of
scientific work under suitable conditions, the vessel will be small enough
to enable it to navigate in safety along the coasts and to seek shelter in
small coves. In addition to ordinary sledges it is proposed to take
motor-sledges for possible use on the surface of an ice-barrier. Wandel
Island is to be the final base of operations, and from this the coast of
Alexander i. Land will be explored as far as possible, scientific work
being at the same time carried on at the base. During the second
summer an attempt will be made to navigate westward as far as possible
in the direction of King Edward vii. Land. It is expected that the
total cost of the expedition will be about £30,000, of which the State is
to provide £24,000.
Commercial Geography.
Railways in Nigeria. — It has been decided to authorise the im-
mediate construction of a pioneer railway of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge, 400 miles
long, from Baro, which is the highest convenient point on the perennially
492 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
navigable reaches of the Niger, to Bida, by Zungeru, and thence to
Zaria and Kano. The work of construction, which will occupy four
years, will be begun under the general supervision of Sir Percy Girouard,
whose experience in building the desert railway in the Sudan is well
known. Full estimates based on regular surveys place the cost of such
a line at £3000 a mile, or £1,230,000 in all. In vieAV of the fact that
the amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria is approved in
principle, and will probably be accomplished in the next few years, the
money will be raised as a loan by Southern Nigeria, and will form part
of the debt of that colony. The rapidly expanding revenues of Southern
Nigeria and its excellent financial position will, in the opinion of the
Secretary of State, enable that colony to assume this burden without
embarrassment. The new line will enable British enterprise to reach
the extensive cotton-growing areas of Northern Nigeria. The intention
to construct the Baro-Kano railway will in no way be allowed to arrest
or delay the progress of the Lagos railway, which will be steadily con-
tinued till it crosses the Niger at Jebba,and ultimatel}^ effects a junction
with the northern line at or in the neighbourhood of Zungeru.
General.
Personal. — Our readers will regret to learn of the death of Prof.
Angelo Heilprin on July 17, at the age of fifty-four. Professor Heilprin's
name has been frequently mentioned in our pages during the last few
years in connection with his work on Mount Pel(3e and the eruption of
Martinique, but he led the Peary Relief Expedition in 1892, and is also
known as the author of a very useful book on the Geographical and
Geological Didrihntion of Animals (International Scientific Series), as well
as of various works on geological and other subjects.
EDUCATIONAL.
In the IhtUetiri of the Belgian Geographical Society for the present
year (No. 1), M. Jos. Halkin gives an interesting account of the present
condition of geographical teaching in the University of Liege, and its
development in recent years. The historical account with which the
article begins need not detain us here, except merely to note that in
Belgium it is thoroughl}^ recognised that the attempt to improve the
teaching of geography in schools is doomed to failure unless adequate
means are taken for the instruction of the future teachers at the Univer-
sity— a point which it is still necessary to emphasise here. After due
consideration, it was concluded that the only means to ensure this was to
found a doctorate in geography, the hope being that in course of time
the teaching of geography in schools will pass more and more into the
hands of these specially qualified persons. The doctorate was only
founded in 1900, so that of results it is yet somewhat too soon to speak,
but some points in regard to instruction aiul ideals have their value
for us.
The future doctor of geography must pass two examinations, that as
EDUCATIONAL. 493
candidate, for which he can go up at the end of two years' study, and
that of licentiate, i)assed at the end of the fourth year, while after these
examinations are passed he must present a thesis in order to obtain his
degree. If he desire to devote himself to the teaching of geography he
must in addition show that he possesses the power of setting forth his
knowledge in a publicly delivered lesson. Throughout the course the
methodology of geography is taught in addition to its content. The
courses in geography are included in the Faculty of Science, and candi-
dates are required to study the elements of the natural sciences as well
as mathematics, historical and philosophical science, and so on. In other
words, the course is based on the frank assumption, often emphasised
here, that modern geography is and should be a means of setting forth
the methods and results of science. No clearer proof of this is required
than the fact that such an academic subject as zoology is included in
the course. It is studied under two heads — first, a general treatment
of the different faunas, continental, marine, and so forth ; and second,
under the head of economic zoology, which deals with animals in so far
as they furnish the materials of commerce. The course in physical
geography begins with a consideration of the local conditions, and then
radiates out from this starting-point. Great stress is laid upon practical
work, and in general the account of the course contains much that is
valuable in connection with geographical teaching.
A ponderous volume on the Climatology of the United States by Pro-
fessor A. J. Henry, published recently by the United States Department of
Agriculture, may be recommended to the notice of teachers as full of
interesting matter, and including a great number of useful charts. The
second part of the volume gives detailed climatic statistics for certain
meteorological stations, while the first part contains a general discussion
of the climates of the United States, so written as to form also an in-
troduction to meteorology. Great emphasis is laid on the cyclonic and
anticyclonic control of climate, or, in other words, on the chief variations
of weather experienced day by day in different localities. An example
of a Daily Weather Chart for the States is given, as well as series of
small charts, illustrating, for example, the passage of different types
of storms across the area. Teachers who are in the habit of giving
lessons on British weather will find here abundant material for lessons
emphasising the contrasts which the conditions in the States present.
The relation of the climates to the physical features of the different
parts of the area is also well brought out.
NEW BOOKS.
EUROPE.
A Guide to Zermatt and the Matterhom : eleventh edition. .1 Guidi- to Chamonix
and the Range of Mt. Blanc: twelfth edition. By Edward Whymper.
London : John Murray, 1907. Price 3s. net each
These old friends do not require any new recommendation to travellers in
Switzerland. Both are kept up to date, and the present editions have notes of
494 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
interesting events which have occurred since the publication of the last editions.
The note under the heading of Fatalities in the Chamonix volume ujay be useful
as servii)g to drive home to reckless tourist.s the dangers of solitary or guideless
mountain excursions.
ASIA.
A Handbook of Cypru-^. Compiled by Sir J. T. Hutchison, M.A., and Claude
Delaval Cobham, C.M.G. With Frontispiece and Two Maps. Fifth Issue.
London : Edward Stanford, 1907. Price 2s. 6rf. net.
This handbook has been revised and brought up to date, the sections on the
geology and flora have been modified, and a short note on mythology added. The
flora of the island evidently requires fuller investigation, and we recommend it to
the notice of botanists desiring new fields to be treated by modern methods.
The Truce in the Far Ead and (Vs Aftirmath. By B. L. Putnam Weale.
London : Macmillan and Co., Ltd. New York : The Macmillan ( 'onipany.
1907.
In our issue for May 1906 we noticed Mr. Putnam Weale's interesting work
on The Reshaping of the Far East, and now in the volume before us he returns
to the subject, and we have as the sequel The Truce in the Far East and, its
Aftermath. Both works are frankly political, and have for their object to
enlighten Western public o2)inion as to the true state of afi'airs in the Far East.
Thi Reshnpinij of the Far East related the story of China, Korea, Japan and
Russia down to the eve of the declaration of peace in 1905. The Treaty of
Portsmouth and the Anglo-Japanese Alliance have, according to Mr. Putnam
Weale, created a new condition of affairs, which justify, if they do not neces.sitate,
another volume. It may be remarked at once that the sequel contains a good
deal of very interesting matter and speculation, but it is somewhat unnecessarily
padded with what may now be considered ancient history. The notices of Korea
confirm to a great extent the doleful account of that decadent and effete empire
given in the masterly work of Mr. Hulbert, The Passinej of Kona, which we
reviewed in May last, and strengthen the contention that, at least for the present,
the best thing that can happen to Korea is to undergo a long spell of Japanese
tutelage under whatever name the tutelage may be di.<!guised. In this work,
as in his former one, Mr. Putnam Weale hardly conceals his dislike or
distrust of the Japanese, and his conviction that the peace between Russia
and Japan is merely a truce during which both combatants are anxiously
preparing for a renewal of the war. But he believes that the war in the
Far East in the future will be much affected and complicated by .several
great changes in the internal condition of China, which is now waking up
from the sleep of ages, shaking off its lethargy, and beginning to agitate in
a serious way for " China for the Chinese." In the ordinary course of nature
the reign of the present aged Dowager-Empress must soon come to an end,
and then, if we understand Mr. Putnam Weale aright, there are likely to be
violent contests for the succession to the throne. In the meantime, Russia, he is
convinced, is " the unbeaten Power, " which in 1915 will be ready to renew the
struggle for supremacy in the Far East under conditions which will go far to
secure its success. It is obvious that within a period of nine years it is hopeless
for Russia to expect to recover her supremacy on the Eastern seas, but this
weakness, it is contended, will be more than counterbalanced by wholesale con-
struction of strategic railways ; indeed the author's description of the use of
NEW BOOKS. '495
railways in the Russo-Japanese war is one of the most interesting topics in^the
book. But in a perusal of this book the reader cannot fail to observe that the
writer seems to be unaware that Russia nowadays has more than enough to
occupy itself with in the rearrangement of its own internal atiairs without
contemplating or preparing for future wars for a good many years to come. It
may indeed be true that the period of nine years still to elapse ere the truce
expires is likely to see prodigious changes in China, but it is also true that
within the same period equally prodigious changes may take place in Russia —
changes of which one result may be that another devastating war in the Far
East or elsewhere will be the very last thing the Russian Empire or nation
will care to undertake.
Wanderiugi^ East of Sues. By Frederic Courtland Penfield. London :
George Bell and Sons. New York : The Century Co., 1907. Price lOs. 6d.
tut.
It was quite superfluous on the part of Mr. Penfield to tell us in his introduction
to this work that he had prepared for his travels in the East by "years of sym-
pathetic study of Kipling." Throughout these pages we have plenty examples of
the superficiality and flashiness and striving after effect, which are the least efl'ective
points of that well-known author's early style, and which in a very short time get
wearisome and pall on the reader. But Mr. Penfield writes with a purpose. He
claims to be conscientious, and as such "compelled to describe not alone what he
saw, but iti clarion notes tell of some things he failed of seeing ; for our country,
emerging but now from the formative period, and destined to pinnanrntly lead the
universe in- material offairs, is entitled to be better known in the East by its
manufactures." The words we have printed in italics indicate the point of view
from which Mr. Penfield surveys the East, and more especially China. It is a
region of the globe to which the United States have not yet given the proper
amount of attention. To his surprise and disgust Mr. Penfield observed that east
of Suez the travelling American "fails to see the product of Uncle Sam's mills,
workshops, mines, and farms. From the moment he passes the Suez Canal to his
arrival at Hong-Kong or Yokohama, the Stars and Stripes are discovered in no
harbour nor upon any sea ; and may be he sees the emblem of the great rejmblic
not once in the transit of the Pacific. And the products of owr marvellous country
are met but .seldom, if at all, where the American wanders in the East. He is
rewarded by finding that the Light of Asia is American petroleum, but that is
about the only Western commodity he is sure of encountering in months of travel.
This state of things is generally wrong." And he looks for a commercial
Utopia where " the genius of our nation should cause our ploughs and harrows to
prepare the valley and delta of the Nile fur tillage ; be responsible for the whir of
more of our agricultural machinery in the fields of India ; locate our lathes and
planers and drilling machines in Eastern shops in substitution for those made in
England or Germany ; be responsible for American locomotives drawing American
cars in Manchuria and Korea over rails rolled in Pittsburg, and induce half the
inhabitants of Southern Asia to dress in fabrics woven in the LTnited States,
millions of the people of Cathay to tread the earth in shoes produced in New
England, and all swayed to an appreciation of our flour as a substitute for rice —
yes, make it easy to obtain pure canned foods everywhere in China and Japan,
even to hear the merry click of the typewriter in Delhi, Bangkok, and Pekin."
As a matter of fact only a small part of the work is given up to the serious object
which the writer has in view. The greater part of the book is devoted to sketches of
well-known places in the East, e.g. Suez, Bombay, Benares, Canton, etc. — sketches
496 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
neither belter nor worse than those of which we have had a plethora of late. In
his last two chapters Mr. Penfield tries his hand at la hanttpolUi'iiu ; in the one
he gives a fanciful, a la Kipling perhaps, de-scription of " the Kaiser's play for
Chinese trade," and in the other he discusses "Japan's commercial future, and
enlarges on the advantage of cultivating friendly relations with the Empire of the
Mikado, with the view to supi)lying it Avith the raw materials in which Japan is
naturally deficient. "The Mikado's Empire is bound to Great Britain by a
political alliance of unusual force, but industrial Japan must of necessity be linked
to the United States by commercial ties even stronger. Distance between Europe
and Japan, and excessive Suez Canal tolls, gave unassailable advantage to the
United States as purveyor of unwrought materials to the budding New England
of the Far East." The mixture of "Hail Columbia" and diluted-Kipling style
may be popular across the Atlantic, and secure for this book a fairly large circle of
readers which it is not likely to obtain here.
AUSTRALASIA.
Hutorical Geographij of the British Colonies. Vol. vi. Australasia. By
L. D. RoGKHs. Oxford, At the Clarendon Press. 1907.
This is a well-planned and useful manual. The history of Australia is traced
through three stages. The first is the epoch of struggle for existence, the
successful close of which is marked by the crossing of the Blue Mountains and by
the first attempts at inland exploration. The second period is that of growth and
expansion, partly by means of extension — illustrated by the squatting districts of
New South Wales — and partly by means of dispersion, that is by means of
planting settlements in ditferent and remote places on the coastline, leading
finally to the separate existence of South and of West Australia and of Australia
Felix or Victoria. Then comes the discovery of gold, serving as a transition to
the third period which is marked by the rise of the Labour party, the policy of
"Australia for the Australians,'" and the federation into the Commonwealth.
In the history of New Zealand prominence is given to the cause of the land
difficulties with the Maoris, to the influence of Sir George Grey both as Governor
and as Premier, and to the contrast yet the similarity between the continental
Australia and the island realm of New Zealand which seems as if destined to be
the centre of and to give unity to the British Empire of the South Pacific. This
leads to the most interesting chapter of the book, the Modern History of the
Pacific.
In the more purely geographical part the simplest coral atolls and the groups
of the Pacific Islands are taken first, then the semi-continental islands of New
Guinea and New Zealand, and finally the continent of Australia. The maps
throughout are well-chosen and clear. Little notice, however, is taken either of
the Flora or Fauna.
There is only one serious criticism we would venture to pass on a book which
serves its general purpose so well. If the metaphors were dropped and the too
frequent tags of poetry were omitted there would be a distinct gain in simplicity
and in lucidity.
The ^^ Lloyd" Guide to Aiidralasia. Illustrated. Edited by A. G. Plate for the
Norddeutscher Lloyd, Bremen. London : Edward Stanford, 1906. Price
6.V. net.
This compact handbook for Australasia, issued by the N.D.L., supplies a want
long felt by steamship travellers. We need only add that, as a practical guide-
book, the work is really well done, and that the illustrations and maps are excellent.
NEW BOOKS. 497
L'Aurorr AvMralr. Par Biard d'Aunet. Paris : Plon Nonrrit and Co., 1907.
Pp. 402. Price 3 fr. no.
M. d'Aunet, who officially represented France in Australia from 1893 to 1905,
here gives his observations on that country's people and institutions, and the fact
that most of the volume has already appeared in the Revue dex Deux Mondex of
September, October and November 1906 proves its high literary quality. The
author is extremely frank in his statements, and makes little allowance for the
well-known sensitiveness felt by Australians in hearing their country criticised.
However, having lived there for twelve years, he is entitled to express his views.
His first chapter deals with Australian Society, and he evidently does not think
much of it. " The customs of the people are devoid of local colour, the habits of
Society seem to be commonplace, and public opinion is governed by paltry
questions. . . . Art and Literature have little eff'ect on Australian Society, into
which only politicians are beginning to introduce themselves. While the aristo-
cracy of birth does not exist, that of wealth is not rich enough to impose its ideas.
Society moves on without aim and without traditions, attached to a routine im-
ported from the Motherland and, lacking initiative, follows a little circle of never-
changing amusements. . . . Australia remains very Britannic. It is one of the
])eculiarities of the Anglo-Saxon mind, like that of Islam, never to modify itself
in keeping with new environments. The Englishman follows the same habits
wherever he goes, for he has only two ideas of life, the English which is good, and
the non-English which is not." M. d'Aunet considers that Australia is "haunted
at present by too vast ideas, and is profoundly divided by rival sentiments of
particularism, nationality and imperialism. She advances with uncertain steps
towards her normal development. Her material prosperity is for years to come
dependent on fickle meteorological conditions, and the progress of her affairs is too
much subject to the caprices of parliamentary combinations. In spite, however,
of these unfavourable symptoms, the Australian nation remains intrinsically healthv
and robust." He points out the danger to the Australians of over-devotion to
sport, which he declares is their " great business." He considers that to this abuse
is due their weakness in secondary education, and he states that the surprising
total of £6,000,000 is spent annually in wagers on Australian racecourses. He
recognises the high qualities of Australian women, "who can do everything but
make a curtsy," and the superior manners of Australian, as compared with French,
officials, and he gives an amusing account of the viceregal functions at which he
was officially present.
In his second chapter, the author shows the difference between Socialism in
Australia and France. While the aim in both cases is the progressive suppression
of private property, the Australian idea by its intense patriotism, its according
impartial deference to all religious denominations, and its respect for public order,
is differentiated from the French. The Labour party in Australia hesitates to
accept frankly the name of Socialist, and, wiser than that of France, does not
parade its view.«, but is moderate in its language. As the Australian workman is
rarely very poor, he does not see the need of upsetting everything that exists, and
while listening calmly to his leaders, he follows them only at a distance. He does
not desire to build society on new foundations but simply to improve his own
position. He thus obtained not merely the exclusion of coloured immigrants but
also of white European artisans, with the residt that while immigration into
Australia numbered 521,000 persons between 1852 and 1861, it fell to 2400 persons
l)etween 1892 and 1901, and between 1902 and 1904 there Avere 8000 more
persons leaving than entering Australia. Alarmed at this, the Australian Govern-
VOL. XXIII. 2 N
498 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
ment is now encouraging the immigration of small agriculturists. Australia is
dejjendent on rainfall, and recent periods of drought reduced her stock of sheep
from 100,000,000 to .55,000,000, but since 1903 four excellent years have occurred,
and her pastoral and agricultural industries have recovered their former prosperity.
It is to the beneficent rainfall, and the consequent prosperity, that the author
attributes the serious defeats at the polls which the Labour parly has recently
sustained.
INI. d'Aunet's remaining chapters treat elaborately of the constitution and
economic value of Australia, and describe how she is regarded abroad. Looking
to her low natality and immigration, he does not expect her population to
exceed five and a half millions during the next twenty years. Yet Australia con-
tains everything required for the food of man and for the scientific progress of
industry. £16,000,000 worth of gold are annually extracted from her mines.
She produces annually in good years i'28,000,000 worth of wool, her chief industry,
whereof one-half goes to Europe. Her only rival is Argentina, but the latter's wool
is not of such fine quality. The total annual value of her pastoral products
exported is, on an average, £.36,000,000, while that of her rivals exceeds £7,000,000.
The financial position of Australia is at present, in the author's opinion, satisfiictory,
the credit of the country resting on its natural resources, but the weak point in
its finances is the excessive proportion of capital borrowed abroad. Yet Australia
is determined to have a navy of her own. She has already an army of 24,000 men.
The average Australian is satisfied that his country requires no help from without
and that everything is better in Australia than anywhere else.
AMERICA.
British North America. I. The Far West: The Home of the Salish and the Dene.
By C. Hill-Tout. London : Archibald Constable and Co., 1907. Price
6s. net.
This IS another volume of the series of which we have already spoken here,
dealing with the native races of the British Empire. No subject more deserves
attention at the hands of British anthropologists than the life-history of the
uncivilised races of the Empire, and it is to be feared that in the past opportuni-
ties of study have been lost which in the nature of things cannot recur.
The present volume is one of which we wish to speak in terms of the highest
appreciation. It is written in a popular, understandable way, but it gives
evidence of a close and pi'olonged observation of the two races with which it
deals. There are altogether ten separate stocks or nations, classified on the basis
of their language, in British North America, and the two now dealt with are the
Salish and the Dene, Avho inhabit the extreme north-west — the country which
extends practically from the shores of Hudson's Bay to the Pacific Ocean. Both
of these tribes are again divided into numerous linguistic groups or divisions, but
jMr. Hill-Tout confines himself principally to the common racial characteristics
which make up the social life and organisation of a j^rimitive people. Only two
points need be noticed here. One is that, unlike the Eastern tribes, neither the
Salish nor the Dene races are really warlike. But in all other moral qualities,
save that of courage, the Indians of British Columbia rank high. For honesty,
hospitality and charity they stand out conspicuously. In this connection Mr.
Hill-Tout refers also to their receptivencss, which he says is one of their most
striking qualities. "It would be difiicult,"' he says, "to find two peoples more
susceptible to foreign inttuences, more receptive of new ideas, and more ready and
willins to carry them out. We assumed a grave responsibility when we under-
toi)k to civilise these races."
NEW BOOKS. 499
The second point which may be noticed is that in spite of the just and humane
treatment of the native population by the Government and of the fact that wars and
disturbances but rarely now occur, the whole native ijopulation of the Province
scarcely numbers twenty-five thousand in comparison with an estimated popula-
tion of five times that number during the first half of last century. This would
appear to indicate that in a very short period the native races will be extinct.
But Mr. Hill-Tout does not take a discouraging view for their future. He regards
the present conditions of these native races as more comfortable than the average
European peasant, and is of opinion that they are now fast fitting themselves for
the conditions of modern civilised life. It is to be hoped that this opinion will
prove correct, and that they will form under altered conditions a permanent
addition to the races of the Emjnre. A large number of excellent photographs add
value to the book.
Panama: The Isthmus and the Canal. By C. H. Forbes-Lindsay. Phila-
delphia : The John C. Winston Co., 1906. Price Is. net.
This is a very interesting little volume, which may be fairly descriVjed as a
brief history of Panama from the year 1513 a.d., when it emerges into the light
of history, and when the fact that it is an isthmus was discovered by the Spanish
adventurer, Vasco Nunez de Balboa. The special object, however, of the work is
to give the reader a succinct account of the various projects and eftorts which
have been made from time to time to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans at
or near Panama by a railway or canal or both. Of these, by far the most im-
portant was the ill-fated project of Baron Lesseps to construct a sea-level canal,
the miscarriage of which caused such widespread misery and ruin to many of the
hapless shareholders some twenty years ago. But its failure in a sense cleared the
way for the similar project now taken in hand by the Government of the United
States of America, the prospects of which are, at least for the present, fairly
hopeful and favourable. It is obvious to the reader that the author's personal
predilections are in favour of a lock canal, and in this he has the support of many
high authorities, of whom we need mention only one, viz. General Abbot, U.S.A.,
an engineer of distinction, who had exceptional opportunities of studying this
problem when he was consulting engineer to the New Panama Canal Company.
He placed on record his opinion that "it is the unanimous opinion of all the
engineers who have had practical experience in canal work, and time to thoioughly
study the problem, that no sea-level projet without locks, and no sea-level canal
even with a tidal lock, is practicable that would be comparable in ease and safety
of transit to one equipped with modern locks, and planned to take advantage of
all the desirable elements which the natural conditions offer." Nevertheless, as is
now well known, the United States Government has decided in favour of a sea-
level canal, notwithstanding the fact that it will be more costly and take longer
time to construct. The reader will find a fairly impartial statement of the argu-
ments in favour of each kind of project in the pages of this work. The mere fact
that the construction of the canal has been undertaken by the United States
Government is a guarantee that sooner or later, and without consideration of
expense, it will be carried through, unless owing to local seismic disturbances its
completion and maintenance are proved to be a physical impossibility. One imme-
diate result of the undertaking of the United States Government is that indepen-
dence, peace, and the possibility if not the certainty of a prosperous future are
secured to the republic of Panama which came into existence only in 1903. A
glance at the map is sufficient to confirm the remark of the author that "the
establishment of a waterway between the two great oceans of the globe will more
500 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
widely affect the commerce of the world than any single work or event in its
history," but as Mr. Colquhoun in his Key to the Pacific observes, "it will benefit
America in an infinitely greater degree than Europe." We gladly recommend
this work to the perusal of our readers.
POLAR.
Handbook of Polar Discoveries. By A. W. Greelt, Major-General, United
States Army. Third Edition. Revised and enlarged. Boston : Little, Brown
and Company, 1907.
The volume nov/ before us is a third edition of a work by General Greely,
U.S.A., the first edition of which appeared in 1896, and met with general accept-
ance (see our review, S.G.M., xiii. p. 50). During the twelve years which have
elapsed since the publication of the first edition, there have been several important
expeditions despatched by various nations to the Arctic and also to the Antarctic
regions, and so a new and up-to-date revision of the original work was more than
justified. It claims to contain in the compass of 300 pages the gist of 70,000
pages of original narrative, and this explains of itself how the reader will find in
it merely a condensed statement of what has been done in the matter of polar
discoveries up to the present day ; if he wishes to have the details of how the
various expeditions originated, progressed, succeeded or failed, he must turn to
the original narratives of which he will find a very complete list compiled for his
information in this book. Indeed, it seems to us that in the case of ninety-nine
out of a hundred readers the principal use of this work will be as a book of refer-
ence, from which they can ascertain where to look for detailed information,
and, regarded in this light, the Handbook of Polar Discoveries is distinctly
valuable.
GENERAL.
rnstrumentenktmde filr ForscJmngs-Beisende. By Professor W. Miller, with the
assistance of Professor C. Seidel. With 134 figures. Hannover : Dr. Max
Jauecke, 1906. Price M. 4.40.
This pamphlet consists first of a general account of the instruments required
by the scientific traveller ; then of lists of those employed by certain actual
expeditions ; thirdly, of a detailed list of the chief forms of scientific instruments,
with prices, weights, and specification, as made by various firms, chiefly German ;
fourthly, of a list of the addresses of the firms mentioned, with their telegraphic
codes, and full information in regard to the cost of freight, etc., for the despatch
of instruments to various parts of the world ; and finally of an appendix on
wireless telegraphy according to the " Telefunken " system. One is struck by
the extraordinary industry which must have been required to get together all
this mass of information. There can be no doubt that intending travellers,
especially those of German nationality, will find much that is valuable in the
brochure, but we are not clear as to its exact raison d'etre, for it seems to present
a curious combination of illustrated Maker's catalogue and scientific book. One
wonders, for instance, why only Herr So-and-so's geological hammers should be
mentioned.
Limnologia: Studio Scientifico dci Laghi. By Dott. G. P. Magrixl Milan:
Ulrico Hoepli, 1907. Price 3 lin:
This is one of the useful little Hoepli manuals, and serves to emphasise the
increasing interest which is being taken in the study of lakes. The early chapters
NEW BOOKS. 501
discuss the methods and pronranime of a lake survey, giving some account of the
instruments employed. They are followed by a discussion of the morphology of
lakes, of the nature of the bottom, of the hydraulic regime, of the phenomena of
seiches, of temperatures and their variations, of the colour, transparency, and
biology of lakes. The appendices give some statistics in regard to Italian lakes,
and also in regard to certain of the other lakes of Europe. The whole gives in
small bulk a concise and valuable summary of the chief methods and results of
Lake Survey and may be cordially recommended to those interested.
The East and West IixliaH Mirror ; being an Account of Joris van Sjmlhergen's
Voyage round tJa- World, and the Australian Navigations of Jacob Le Maire.
Translated, with Notes and an Introduction, by J. A. J. de Villiers. London :
Printed for the Hakluyt .Society, 1906.
The latest publication of the Hakluyt Society takes us back to a period of
English history, the interest of which can never cease, at least for Englishmen.
The sixteenth century was ended. During the last decade of the century the
great captains, Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, Cavendish, and others, one by one
had left for ever the scenes of their glory ; and Burleigh and Walsingham, the
great ministers, and Philip of Spain, the arch-enemy of England, were all gathered
to their fathers. In 1603 the great queen herself died, and in a couple of years
was followed to the tomb by George Clifford, Earl of Cumberland, whose exploits
by sea and land had placed him in the ranks of the greatest of the age. On the
throne of England sat a pusillanimous pedant, who trembled at the sight of a
sword or at the thought of war, and who, to his eternal infamy, threw into the
Tower of London and shamefully sacrificed to the spite and rancour of Philip's
son. Sir Walter Raleigh, an explorer and hero second to none of the illustrious
band who in these stirring days were the saviours and makers of England. Lord
Howard of Effingham, Lord High Admiral at the time of the Armada, was still
alive, and must have watched with shame and disgust the unwelcome as unwonted
spectacle of the policy of England being modified, if not moulded, according to
the selfish diplomacy of a Spanish ambassador like Gondomar. The scene of
rivalry and battle had been transferred from the English Channel, the ports and
harbours of Spain and its colonies, and the routes of the Spanish treasure-ships,
to the coasts of India and the Spice Islands, where the successors of Drake and
the heroes of the Armada, Lancaster, the Middletons, Best, and others, gal-
lantly and amidst most adverse circumstances, were laying the foundations of
an imperishable empire, while they imagined they were only procuring cloves and
pepper for the profit of the merchant adventurers of Founder's Hall. The once
glorious sun of Spain was indeed setting for ever. The dawn of England's great-
ness should have been bright, but owing to the personal character of the English
monarch it was dim and cloudy and doubtful ; and an opportunity was given to
a rival power to join in the melee for ascendancy on the sea and future empire, of
which it was not slow to take advantage. Writing of the Dutch in 1609 Sir
Thomas Overbury said : " There belongs to that State 20,000 vessels of all sorts.
So that if the Spaniards were entirely beaten out of these parts, the kings of
France and England would take as much pains to sirppress as ever they did to
raise them. For being our enemies, they are able to give us the law at sea ; and
eat us out of all trade, much more the French ; having at this time three ships for
our one, though none so good as our best." In the volume now before us we have
narratives of Dutch naval skill and heroism, which enable us to appreciate and
502 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
understand how the Dutch were such formidable rivals to Spaniards, French, and
British in the early days of the seventeenth century.
Very little is known as yet of the personal history of Joris van Speilbergen,
the second Dutchman to circumnavigate the world ; even the date snd place (f
his birth are uncertain ; he died in 1620 at Bergen op Zoom. He has left two
journals of his voyages, the second of which is the one now published by the
Hakluyt Society under the able editorship of Mr. de Villiers of the British
Museum. The first journal contains a record of Speilbergen's voyage in 1601-3
to the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, Sumatra, Acheen, and Bantam. In 1607
Speilbergen took part under the famous Dutch Admiral Van Heemskercke in the
victory over the Spanish fleet in the Bay of Gibraltar; and as Mr. de Villiers
shrewdly suggests, it is very likely that the gallantry displayed on that occasion
had much to do with his appointment to the command of an expedition in 1614.
The expedition consisted of six ships (two of them very small), which sailed from
Texel in August 1614, and, having circumnavigated the world, returned in July
1617. With characteristic modesty Speilbergen in his dedication to the States-
General of the Netherlands says nothing about the dargers he had passed through,
or the eneraies he had sought out and defeated ; he merely presents to them
"the narrative of my last journey, performed with six lessels through the
Magelanes, along the coasts of Chili, Peru, Nova Hispania, and California, the
Maniles, Molucques, and other East Indian shores,'' where owing to limitations of
space we may not follow him, but we can heaitily recommend his journal to our
readers as exceedingly interesting. It is also illustrated with a number of quaint
maps and diagi-ams.
The second part of the volume contains therecordof a voyage made by one Jacob
Le Maire under circumstances much more appropriate to the pages of a romance
than to those of a sailor's log. The good ship Gendrachf, of 220 tons, aimed and
provisioned for a long voyage, left Texel on June 14, 1615, with sixty-five men
on board, and of these only two, viz. Jacob Le INIaire and William Coinelisz
Schouten, knew where she was going. It appears that their High Mij.htiness(s
the States-General of the United Nethotlands had forbidden eveiy Netherlander,
except the General East India Company, to sail east of the Cape of Good Hope
or through the Straits of Magellan to India or anywhere else. But this was not
at all to the mind of Isaac Le Maire, a renowned merchant of Amsterdam, and
William Cornelisz Schouten of Hoorn, the latter being something of an expert,
having already been thrice to the East Indies as skipper, pilot, and merchant.
These two worthies "did often speak and deliberate together whether it were not
possible to come by some other way not mentioned nor forbidden in the afore.said
charter (to the East India Company) unto the great South Sea, where they were
of opinion they would discover great and rich countries in which ships would
obtain rich cargoes." The result of these deliberations was an agreement "to go
and make a search in the most southerly and unknown part of the earth, to look
for a thoroughfare south of the Strait Magellaine extending to the afortsaid South
Sea, of which they thought there was no small probability, from various parti-
culars concerning the aforesaid Strait of Magellanes discovered by others at
various times." On this Isaac Le ]\Iaire and William Cornelisz Schouten and a
select body of friends elected themselves directors of the adventure, and induced
the Netherlands public to subscribe the necessary funds " without howe\u- giving
any of the participants any revelation or knowledge of the projected voynge, but
keeping that secret among themselves, the aforesaid directors." The secrecy
that was accepted by the subscribers was equally accepted by the sailors and
petty officers, and it was not till the Gcndracht crossed the Equator in the end of
NEW BOOKS. 503
October 1615 that the crews were informed of where they were going. On the 2!Sth
October it was announced that the aim of the voyage was " to get by a way other
than the Strait of Magellanes into the South Sea in order to discover there certain
new countries in the south where it was thought great wealth could be got, or, if
that did not succeed according to desire, that we should then sail along the great
South Sea to the East Indies. There was great joy among the crew that day
concerning this declaration, for they now knew whither they were being taken,
and each one hoped to get something on his own account out of a prosperous
voyage and to profit by it." The Oendrackt encountered the usual storms and
hindrances on its way to Magellan Straits. On arriving there it sailed farther
south, and on January 24, 1616, turned west through what apj^eared to be a
new strait, which- was promptly named " Fretuui le Maire," having on the west
side an island named after Prince Maurice of Nassau, and on the east some land
which was called Staaten-landt. The ship's log goes on to say : " In the evening
the wind veered to the south-west, and we then ran southward that night with a
heavy roll from the south-west and very blue water, from which we opined and
were certain that we had open and deep water on the weather side, not doubting
til at it was the great South Sea, whereat we were very glad, holding that a way
had been discovered by us which had until then been unknown to man, as we
afterwards found to be the truth." The aim of the voyage had thus been accom-
plished ; but where were the rich countries with which to trade ? The Gendracht
held on its course, north and west, finding only petty islands, until, after
much trouble from sickness and scurvy, and many hardships from hunger and
hostile natives, they reached the coa,st of New Guinea. In September 1616
they cast anchor at Ternate, where they found one of the ships of Speilbergen's
si[uadron. Soon after their arrival at Batavia, Jan Pietersz Koenen, the able and
energetic but unscrupulous and tyrannical President of the Dutch East India
Company, disbelieving, or pretending to disbelieve, the story of the discovery
of a new passage south of Magellan Straits, confiscated the ship and the cargo
as one not associated with the General Company, and as having set out on her
voyage without their orders. The luckless Jacob Le Maire was ti-ansferred to
Speilbergen's ship to be taken home to Holland, but on 22nd December he died
at sea, " wherefore our Admiral and all the others were deeply grieved, since he
was a man endowed with remarkable knowledge and experience in matters of
navigation." Jan Cornelisz Schouten had died on board the Gendracht some four
months previously. The other brother, Willem, returned with Speilbergen to
Holland, but it was not till after two years' litigation that the injustice at Batavia
was redressed.
The arduous task of translating and editing these quaint and interesting
records has been skilfully and judiciously accomplished by Mr. de Villiers, who
has also contributed a thoughtful and erudite introduction, in which much light
is thrown on the quaestio vexatia of their authorship. The latest publication of
the Hakluyt Society fully maintains the high standard of historical and literary
merit for which the Society's publications have so enviable a reputation.
The Statesman's Year-book, 1907. Forty-fourth annual publication. Edited by
J. Scott Keltie, LL.D., with the assistance of J. P. A. Kenwick, M.A., LL.B.
London : Macmillan and (Jo., 1907. I'riee lOs. 6'/. net.
We have to extend our annual welcome to this invaluable volume which has
been brought up to date, and is as usual illustrated by new maps and diagrams
showing the important boundary changes during the past year, as well as other
facts of current interest. The value of the annual hardly needs re-emphasis.
504 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
Nearest the Pole : A Narrative of the Polar Expedition of the Pearij Arctic
(Jluh in the ss. ''Roosevelt," 1905-1906. By E. E. Pkary, U.S.N. Imperial 8vo.
Pp. XX + 411. Price 21s. net. London : Hutchinson and Co., 1907.
Les Falaises de la Manche. Par Jules Girard. 4to. Pp. 194. Paris : E.
Lcroux, 1907. Presented by the Author.
Through Jamaica with a Kodak. By Alfred Leader. With introductory
notes by His Grace the Archbishop of the West Indies and Sir Alfred F.
Jones, K.C.M.G. Demy 8vo. Pp. xxii + 208. Price 6s. net. Bristol: John
Wright and Co., 1907.
The Truth about the Congo. By Professor Frederick Starr. Crown Svo.
Pp. viii + 129 Chicago, U.S.A. : Forbes and Co., 1907.
A Scientific Geography. Book V., Africa. By Ellis W. Heaton, B.Sc,
F.G.S. Crown 8vo. Pp. 109. Price Is. Sd. net. London : Ralph Holland and
Co., 1907.
Sfere Cosmografiche e lora applicazione alia re>iohir.ione di prohlemi di Geo-
grafia Matematica. Por Prof. Dott. Angelo L. Andreini (Manual! Hoepli).
Crown 8vo. Pp. xxix + 326. Price Lire 3. Milana : Ulrico Hoepli, 1907.
Switzerland and the Adjacent Portions of Italy, Savoy, and Tyrol. Handbook
for Travellers. By Karl Baedeker. 22nd edition. Price 8 Marks. Leipzig, 1907.
A Book of the Cevenncs. By S. Baring Gould, B.A. Crown 8vo. Pp.
xii + 308. Price 6s. London: John Long, 1907.
Tin Deposits of the World, with a chapter on Tin Snwlting. By Sydney
Fawns, F.G.S. Demy 8vo. Pp. xii + 304. Price 15s. net. London: The
Mining Journal, 1907.
The Royal Tour in India: A record of the Tour of T. R. J{. The Prince and
Princess of Wales in India and Burma, from November 1905 to March 1906. By
Stanley Reed. With a preface by Sir Walter Lawrence, Bart. G.C.I.E. 4to.
Pp. xxiv + 514. Bombay : The Times Press, 1906.
Geographical Distribution of Vegetation in Somerset : Bath and Bridgwater
District. By C. E. Moss, M.Sc. Pp. 71. London : Royal Geographiral Society,
1907.
The Central Alps. By the late John Ball, F.R.S., etc. Part I. A new
edition reconstructed and revised on behalf of the Alpine Club under the general
editorship of A. V. Valentine-Richards. Crown 8vo. Pp. xxviii + 326. Price
6s. 6d. net. London : Longmans, Green, and Co., 1907.
Ide of Man Illustrated. Written by Rev. John Quine. Pp. 100. Price
Is. Bournemouth : Mate and Son, 1907.
Also the following Reports, etc. : —
Guide to the Great Game Animals (Ungulata) in the Dejmrtnunf of Zoology,
British Museum {Nat%iral History). London, 1907.
Extracts from, Narratire Reports of Officers of the Survey rf India for the
season 1904-190.'). Prepared under the direction of Colonel F. B. Longe, R.E.
Calcutta, 1907.
Central Provinces District Gazetteers: Sambalimr District. Edited by R. V.
Russell, I.C.S. Allahabad, 1907.
Bengal District Gazetteer : Darjeeling. By L. S. S. O'Malley. Calcutta, 1907.
Administration Report on the Raihvays in India for the year 1906. Simla,
1907.
Twenty-Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1902-
1903. By W. H. Holmes. Washington, 1907.
Sociological Papers. Vol. IIL, 1906. London : Macmillan and Co., 1907.
THE SCOTTISH
GEOGRAPHICAL
MAGAZINE.
GEOGRAPHY AND COMMERCE.^
By George G. Chisholm, M.A., B.Sc.
The subject which I have chosen for this address is one that is very
apt to raise questions that might lead to keen and even warm contro-
versJ^ For the raising of such questions no occasion coukl be less
suitable, and it will therefore be my endeavour to handle the subject in
such a manner that burning questions may be altogether avoided. For
that reason I propose to consider the relations of geography and com-
merce from an historical point of view, which at least gives one the
opportunity of confining oneself to less debatable ground than is entered
on when one ventures on prophecy, that " most gratuitous form of
error," as it is styled by George Eliot. That I shall be able to keep
wholly free from debatable matter is more than I can hope, but it is my
intention to try to avoid it as much as possible by illustrating my
subject chiefly by reference to the broad, familiar facts of commerce
considered in the light of geographical and other implications that may
be described as obvious — obvious, and yet perhaps not unimportant and
not unworthy of having attention specially called to them ; for, after
all, the obvious is obvious only to those who are looking in the right
direction and with the proper focus, not to those who are looking
another way or far beyond what is immediately before them.
As the first of these obvious considerations I may point out that
unquestionably the foundation of commerce is the mutual advantage to
be derived from the exchange of commodities produced in different
places. Geographical relations are therefore of necessity implied in
commerce. But those who carry on commerce have always aimed at
the greatest possible advantage to themselves, and the commerce that
1 Presidential Address to Section E (Geography), delivered at the Leicester Meeting of
the British Association,
VOL. XXIII. 2 0
506 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
has always attracted the greatest attention is that which has resulted in
the greatest additions to their wealth. Peculiar importance therefore
belongs to the geographical relations between regions which under any
given circumstances lead to the most profitable exchanges.
But befare applying this consideration there is another point which
must detain us a little. In speaking of wealth as I have just done I am
aware that I have made use of a term which economists recognise as one
requiring a great deal of exposition to prevent misunderstanding, and
there is not the slightest doubt that in the history of commerce it has
led to great misunderstanding, and therefore it is necessary, without
entering upon an economic disquisition on the subject, to consider the
meaning of the term " wealth " sufficiently to indicate the way in which
that misunderstanding has arisen. For this purpose it will be most
convenient not to give one of the highly abstract definitions of wealth
which a modern political economist will give us, but to go back to the
more concrete considerations set forth by Adam Smith, who tells us
that " the wealth of a country consists not in its gold and silver only,
but in its lauds, houses, and consumable goods of all different kinds." ^
Now no definition of wealth is given by economists which excludes this
last form of wealth, but the misunderstanding to which I refer arises
from the fact that this form of wealth is apt to be overlooked. It may
happen that a country or region produces a great abundance of con-
sumable goods in proportion to its population, and hence from this
point of view be entitled to be regarded as wealthy, and yet may not
be a country or region that attracts much attention by its wealth.
What has always attracted attention to wealth, and what has caused
wealth to have an important effect in directing the main streams of
commerce, and commerce to have an important effect, direct or indirect,
on history, has been the accumulation of much wealth in few hands,
so that a comparatively small number of people in a community have
enjoyed, directly or indirectly, the command of a great deal of labour,
have had the means of providing themselves with commodious and
luxurious houses, with a variety of other comforts, luxuries, and splen-
dours, and over and above that the means of so directing labour as to
add still further to their wealth. Such conditions may exist where the
f'reat bulk of the population are extremely poor.
iSTow, it happens that wherever a great abundance of consumable
commodities is produced on a relatively small area there is always in
that area a greater or smaller number of individuals in whose hands
much wealth is concentrated. It is for economists to explain how this
comes about, or has come about, but it is a fact of the utmost import-
ance for geographers to bear in mind in considering the relations of
commerce and geography.
The existence of a relatively dense population may be due to
different causes, such as a great abundance of agricultural products, the
carrying on of mining or manufacturing industries, the concentration
of the administration of a great dominion, or the pursuit of commerce
1 Wealth of Nations, book iv. ch. i.
GEOGRAPHY AND COMMERCE. r,07
itself. Where it is due to auy cause but the production of great
quantities of the necessaries of life, foodstutfs must be imported in large
quantities, and where the pursuit of manufactures is the cause, or one
of the chief causes, then the importing of raw materials is entailed.
Where these are most advantageously found there also much wealth is
likely to be accumulated in few hands.
Further, it is to be noted that where a comparatively small number
have the command of much wealth there is sure to be a demand for
things of such value that they can be bought only by the wealthy,
things that are more or less rare, such as precious metals, jewels, gems,
ivory, fine woods, ornamental skins and feathers, manufactured goods of
rare materials or of fine quality, as well as, in many places and in most
periods of history, slaves. Such trade is necessarily limited in amount,
but puts great profits in the hands of those who carry it on with success,
and for that reason attracts attention.
With this class of goods may be associated certain others that may
be regarded as intermediate in position between those which are bought
only by the wealthy and those which are not merely generally consumed
but also very widely produced. Amongst these may be mentioned salt,
the consumption of which is universal, but the production of which,
away from the seaboards of the warmer latitudes, though in a sense
widespread, is strictly confined to scattered spots. A more interesting
example is that of spices, one of which, pepper, has from a remote
period been very generally consumed, but in still smaller quantity than
salt, and for that reason has been able to bear still higher transport
costs. For ages these costs were very high, for various reasons, amongst
which were risks both numerous and great, but the profits of those who
were successful in the trade were proportionately high.
Peculiar importance in commercial geography is thereby given to
the relations between the regions that yield or yielded spices and those
in which they were consumed at a great distance from the place of
origin, and one of the most important facts in human history is that for
many hundreds of years an extremely valuable trade in these com-
modities was carried on between India and the Mediterranean. Spices
no doubt were less talked about, less prominent as symbols of wealth,
than gems and jewels, fine woods and ivory, but they formed the basis
of a larger trade, which was in the aggregate probably more profitable
than that in the still more costly wares.
The geographical relations between India and the Mediterranean
necessarily determined the routes followed by this traffic. These routes
were singularly few. They were practically confined for the most part
to minor variations in two main routes, one by way of the Red Sea, the
other by the Persian Gulf At more than one period of history, in very
early times in the days of the splendour of Assyria and Babylonia, and
again in the flourishing days of the Caliphs of Baghdad, the Persian
Gulf route had a peculiar advantage in the existence of the large and
rich populations that afforded an intermediate market; and another
important fact in the relations of geography and commerce, one that has
had vast effects on human history, is that the physical conditions of the
508 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
area between the head of the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean are,
and throughout human history have been, such as to malce the most
convenient outlet of that route some point or points on that seaboard
which in ancient times was known as Phoenicia. Between that seaboard
and the Euphrates the desert is sufficiently narrowed to be most easily
crossed. The most favoured outlets on this seaboard were not always
the same. They varied in different circumstances which gave a dift'erent
geographical value now to one point, now to another. But on these
variations, interesting and instructive as they are from a geographical
point of view, there is no time to enter on this occasion, and it will be
enough to call attention to a very interesting paper by the late Elis(§e
lieclus, entitled "La Phi^nicie et les Pheniciens," dealing with this and
other matters connected with the geographical basis of Phoenician
commerce and industry — a paper too that is apt to be overlooked,
inasmuch as it was contributed by him with a generosity characteristic
of one of the least self-seeking natures with which the world was ever
blessed to a rather out-of-the-way publication, the Biill. de la Soc.
Neuchdteloise de Geog. (vol. xii. 1900). But while I do not desire to
enter into details regarding the Phoenicians it is necessary to point out
how naturally and indeed inevitably this position of the Phoenician
cities between the Mediterranean on the one hand and Mesopotamia
and the Persian Gulf route to India on the other hand brought other
sources of wealth in its train. Conveniences for the distribution of
manufactured goods have always been one of the most important
advantages for the development of manufacturing industry, and the
wealthier the community forming the market for the products of such
industry the more valuable are the manufactures likely to be. Hence
the Phoenician manufactures of fine linens and woollens richly dyed,
glass and metal wares, for which other parts of the Mediterranean and
its seaboard furnished the raw materials, slaves to do the manual
labour, and food for that population which the narrow strip of Phoenicia
could not adequately supply. Food is indeed a bulky commodity, but
even bulky commodities could be transported by sea at a relatively
small cost, and in connection with this traffic we must note the indirect
effect which the wealth of Phoenicia must have had in promoting the
settlement of districts favourably situated for supplying food, and
especially of such districts where the opportunities for producing food
were great, but not fully turned to account, where the supply therefore
could easily be made superabundant in proportion to the wants of the
population. This shows that from the very nature of commerce its
benefits are not confined to one side. Although the geographical con-
ditions for a long period of time led to a special accumulation of the
wealth due to commerce in Phoenicia, Phoenician trade promoted the
growth of wealth and civilisation elsewhere. The Greeks of tiie -^gean
distinctly recognised what they owed to the Phoenicians, and they in
their turn derived much wealth from Eastern trade, even though not so
directly as the Phoenicians, and they in their turn derived some of the
food for a commercial population from the far west — from Syracuse,
Sybaris, and even the distant Kurae. But the far east had a peculiar
GEOGRAPHY AND COMMERCE. 509
fascination. As the articles from which much of the wealth of
commerce was derived originally came from India, it was natural that
the idea should arise that India was a Avealthy country, a country well
worth possessing. I am not aware whether India ever was in historical
times a wealthy country in the sense of producing a great abundance of
the necessaries and ordinary conveniences and comforts of life in pro-
portion to the population, but if it was not rich itself it was at least the
means of making others rich. There can hardly be a doubt that the
desire of possessing this country of real or imagined wealth was pro-
minent among the motives that led Alexander the Great to embark on
that enterprise which had such surprisingly — one might almost say
miraculously — widespread, profound, and lasting effects on the history
of the Near East. If we may accept as historical the speech in which
Qaintus Curtius represents Alexander as having addressed his troops
after his victory over Porus, in order to encourage them to advance
further into India, that speech affords fairly strong evidence of what has
just been stated. "What now remained for them," said Alexander, "was
a noble spoil. The much-rumoured riches of the East abounded in those
very regions to which their steps were now bent. The spoils accordingly
which they had taken from the Persians had now become cheap and
common. They were going to fill v/ith pearls, precious stones, gold, and
ivory not only their private abodes, but all Macedonia and Greece."^
Alexander was no merchant. Pepper was beneath his notice. His
symbols of wealth are those which have always most powerfully affected
the imagination. Later on, however, we shall meet with a king who
was a merchant, and who understood perhaps 1 tetter than Alexander
wherein consisted the value of Indian trade.
At the outset of his career Alexander had destroyed Tyre, thinking,
no doubt, that he had thereby wiped away the claims of one rival for a
share of the wealth of the East; but it is a noteworthy fact that he did
not thereby destroy the value of the site of Tyre under the conditions
which then subsisted. Tyre revived and again obtained wealth from
its trade with the East, as it did again and again in subsequent history.
A heavier blow to Tyre than its mere destruction was the ultimate
accomplishment of Alexander's idea for founding a great seat of
commerce on the harbour which he saw could be created in the neigh-
bourhood of the Nile delta. The foundation of Alexandria and the
successful efforts of the successors of Alexander in Egypt to divert a
large part of the trade in spices and other Oriental goods to the Red
Sea route for the Mediterranean did more than a single act of war to
deprive Tyre and other Phcenician cities of the peculiar pre-eminence
which they had long enjoyed in the trade of those wealth-bringing
commodities.
But perhaps the history of Venice shows even more clearly than that
of Tyre the importance of this eastern trade in connection with certain
inevitable geographical relations. The foundation of the future com-
mercial glory of Venice may be said to have been laid when Rome
1 J. W. M'Crindle, The Invasion of India hy Alexander the Greai (1893), p. 215.
510 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
planted her colonies north of the Po. The gradual clearing of forests
gained for agriculture to a greater and greater extent one of the most
favoured agricultural areas in Europe. There resulted a superfluity of
agricultural products which begot a trade by sea. The great outlet of
this plain in Roman times was Aquileia, Avhich in the beginning of the
fifth century, when no one of discernment could imagine that there
would ever be other than Roman times, was described by a Roman man
of affairs and minor poet as one of the nine great cities of the world.
But before that century was out Aquileia was destroyed, never to
recover. The value of its site was replaced, and that in a strange way,
which no man of discernment could ever have foreseen. The time that
saw the destruction of Aquileia and the times that immediately followed
were such as made safety a prime consideration, especially for all who
possessed or desired to possess wealth. Refugees from Aquileia, and
afterwards from other Italian cities, thought at first of nothing but
safety. Many of them found it on a few muddy and sandy islands near
the muddy shores of the lagoon in which Venice now lies. But here
they found the means of trade. The sea could be made to furnish both
fish and salt, and the rivers that flowed into the lagoon enabled them to
exchange these commodities for provisions of other kinds which the
adjoining land could supply. Gradually this commerce grew, until in
the eighth century we find the Venetians trading with Syria and Africa,
Constantinople, and the ports of the Black Sea.
Throughout the period of growth the policy of this trading republic,
both by land and sea, is very significant. Venice early realised the force
of Bacon's maxim " that he that commands the sea is at great liberty,
and may take as much and as little of war as he will." Power at sea was
necessary to provide security for her commerce. In early times she
generally owned allegiance to the Eastern Roman Empire, a suzerainty
which could do her little harm and could and did do her much good. To
that allegiance she adhered until she was strong enough to turn against
and reap advantage from the overthrow of her suzerain. At an earlier
date, before the close of the tenth century, she had conquered Dalmatia,
and thereby destroyed the hordes of pirates who had found refuge in the
innumerable harbours of that coast and constantly harassed the com-
merce of the Adriatic. At every opportunity she secured establishments
and acquired possessions in the Levant.
On the land side, however, dominion would have added more to her
risks than her advantages, and that dominion was not sought. For more
than eight hundred years after the first flight to the islands of the
lagoon, more than six hundred after the election of the first Doge (697),
Venice possessed no territory on the mainland beyond a mere narrow
ribbon on the edge of the lagoon. The nature of the situation made her
indispensable to the trade of the land immediately behind. An incident
belonging to the close of the ninth century illustrates the force of this
observation. A keen dispute had arisen between the Patriarch of
Aquileia and the Patriarch of Grado. Venice supported the Patriarch
of Grado and war seemed to be threatened. But so necessary had the
commerce of Venice become to the inhabitants of the territory acknow-
GEOGRAPHY AND COMMERCE. 511
ledging the authority of Aquileia that in order to bring about the
submission of the Patriarch of Aquileia it was enough to close or blockade
the port of Pilo, on the mainland opposite the lidi. The subjects of
Aquileia then forced the patriarch to sue for peace. ^ On another occa-
sion, in a dispute with the Bishops of Bellumo and Treviso, the matter
was again partly settled through the efficacy of the measures taken by the
Doge Orseolo ii., with the consent of the people, to stop commerce with
the territory of the bishops, by which the inhabitants found themselves
without supplies of salt, and without the means of exchanging their
leather and meat for Venetian wares or selling the abundant timber of
their forests for the building of Venetian ships.- In holding the outlets
for maritime commerce.Venice felt herself to be in the possession of " the
keys of trade," to use the expression employed by Sir William Petty in
speaking of the analogous position of Holland in later times at the
mouths of the Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt.
But while possession on the mainland was not necessary to Venice
she always recognised and sought the advantage of good relations with
the occupants of the plains behind her, whoever these occupants might
be, and on every occasion endeavoured to turn to her own benefit the
vicissitudes of those plains. In her earlier days she is found now
in alliance with the Greeks, now with the Pope, now with the archbishops
of Ravenna, and now with the Lombards, just as it happened to suit her
interests, and in any case taking every opportunity of obtaining direct
and indirect advantages from trade with the most profitable customers in
the plains. When famine pursued the steps of the Lombard invaders of
Italy in the sixth century, " the Venetians in their pacific retreat," says
Mutinelli,^ " could send their ships to the ports of Apulia and elsewhere
to obtain victuals and corn for the famished barbarians," and in con-
sequence the Lombards took them under their protection and granted
them security and favours throughout the Lombard kingdom. When
Charlemagne, at the invitation of the Pope, invaded Italy to deliver the
Church from its subjection to the Lombards, Venetian traders promptly
appeared in the camp of the Franks at Pavia and sold to the Prankish
chiefs all the riches of the East — Tyrian purples, the plumage of gay
birds, silks, and other ornaments, pranked in which the purchasers
stalked about in their pride, feeling, no doubt, that now at last they had
conquered a land whose wealth would reward all their labours and hard-
ships.* Charlemagne, it is true, was inclined to look with little favour
on the Venetians, whom he regarded as supporters of the Greeks, but an
attack by his son Pepin in 809 on the islands of the lagoon only served
to establish the strength and security of their position, at least on the
inner islands of the lagoon. By closing the passages of the canals,
removing the navigation beacons, and fortifying and barring the chief
entrances to the land they succeeded in holding out during a siege of six
months, till the heats of summer began to decimate the troops of Pepin,
1 Romanin, Storia documentata di Venezia, vol. i. pp, 197-8. - Ibid., pp. 270-1.
3 Del Commercio dei Veneziani, p. 12.
4 De rebus bellicis Caroli Magni, L. iii., quoted by Konianin, as above, vol. i. p. 1-30.
512 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
who, on hearing also of the approach of a Greek fleet, came to terms
with the Venetians on conditions similar to those which had been main-
tained with the Lombards. The Venetians agreed to a tribute, but solely
for the narrow strip of territory held on the mainland and in return for
commercial privileges in the Frankish dominion, not for any recognition
of the existence of the State. The tribute was afterwards paid or with-
held according to the power which the emperors showed of enforcing it:
but one permanent result of this incident was that the Venetians, per-
ceiving the smaller security belonging to the islands nearer the mainland,
of their own choice made the Rialto the capital of their little State.^
As a last illustration of the nature of the relations of Venice to the
North Italian plains, we may refer to some of the points mentioned in a
celebrated and often quoted address delivered to the principal senators
of Venice by the Doge Mocenigo just before his death (1-123), at the
time at which Venetian trade was at the very height of its prosperity.
At that time Venice was in possession of a considerable tract of adjacent
territory on the mainland, and there was a party favourable to further
action on the part of Venice against the growing power of Milan. The
aged and sagacious Doge feared that this party was going to gain the
upper hand and elect as his successor Francesco Foscari, who, he thought,
would involve them in dangerous and disastrous as well as useless enter-
prises. The immediate occasion of the conflict of views in the Venetian
Senate Avas a request of the Florentines for support against alleged
designs of the Duke of Milan. Mocenigo, however, not only warned
the senators in the most earnest and urgent language against Foscari
personally, but also advised them against the particular enterprise, main-
taining that it was of no consequence even if the Duke of Milan made
himself master of Florence, since the artisans of Milan would continue
to send their manufactures to Venice, and the A'enetians would be
enriched to the loss of the Florentines. He then went on to give parti-
culars of the trade of Venice at that time, dwelling specially on the value
of that with Lombardy. To Lombardy alone, it appears, Venice sold
every year cloths to the value of 400,000 ducats, tele (1 linens) to
the value of 10,000 ducats : wools of France and Spain to the value of
240,000 ducats, cotton to the value of 250,000 ducats, wine to the value
of 30,000 ducats, cloth of gold and silk to the value of 250,000 ducats,
soap to the same value, spices and sugar to the value of 539,000 ducats,
dye-woods to the value of 120,000 ducats, other articles 110,000 ducats :
in all, goods to the value of more than 2,500,000 ducats, the profit
amounting to quite half a million ducats. With the exaggeration that
comes natural to a lover of his country, Mocenigo goes on to say rather
grandiloquently that to the Venetians alone land and sea were equally
open : to them only belonged the carriage of all riches ; they were the
providers of the entire world.
All this trade, as well as that of Genoa and other Italian ports which
sharpd with others in the spice trade, must have had a remarkably fructi-
1 Romanin, as above, vol. i. pp. 144-9.
GEOGRAPHY AND COMMERCE. 513
fying effect in North Italy generally. Agriculture and manufactures
would be alike promoted, and in consequence of that the growth of
population ; and Avhen war, with its attendant scourges, led to a diminu-
tion both of industry and population, this commerce could not fail
to assist in bringing about a speedy recovery. It has already been
hinted that in manufactures both Milan and Florence took a prominent
place in the time of Mocenigo. In truth, manufactures in both cities
are of much older date, and it may be interesting to mention here that
even in the thirteenth century English wool was a commodity suffi-
ciently valuable to bear the cost of transport to Florence. A letter has
comedown to us,^ dated London, January 6, 1284, from the representa-
tive of a Florentine house, giving particulars as to purchases that he had
made, in many cases for several years in advance, of all or a portion of
the wool of many English monasteries from Netley and Titchfield, in
Hants, and Robertsbridge in Sussex, to Grimsby, in Lincolnshire, and
Sawley, on the Ribble, in the county of York (one of these monasteries,
you may be interested to learn, as near Leicester as Monks Kirby, about
midway between Rugby and Nuneaton), and from the work in Avhich
this letter is published we also get particulars - as to the cost of convey-
ing wool from London by way of Liborne to the Mediterranean port of
Aigues Mortes in the same or the following century. Florence, indeed,
depended on England, Spain, and Portugal for wools of fine quality,
its own and other wools of Italy being of very inferior value, so that
when four bales of English wool were worth in Florence 240 gold florins,
the same quantity of wool of Garfagna dell' Aquila was worth only forty
florins.^ The author of this work adds that he has found no indication
of the prices of the wools of Spain and Portugal in Florence. Besides
manufacturing cloths from the raw material, '^Florence carried on a large
trade in dressing and finishing woollens manufactured in Flanders and
Brabant, and brought to Florence either by way of Paris and the Saone-
Rhone valley or by way of Germany and across the Alps. In the time
of Mocenigo many of these products of Florentine industry came to
Venice for export. In the address already referred to, Florence is said
to have sent to Venice every year 16,000 pieces of cloth, which were
sold to Aquila, Sicily, Syria, Candia, the Morea, and Istria.
It will be noticed that in the address above quoted Mocenigo lays
no special stress on the spice trade, but there is not the slightest doubt
that spices were amongst the most important commodities with which
1 Published (1765) in a work having no author's name, but stated in the British Museum
Catalogue to be by (J. F. Pagnini della Ventura, and bearing the title Delia Decima e clelle
altre Gravezze della Moneta, e della Mercatura de' Fioreniini Jino al secolo XVI., the third
volume of which contains La Pratica della Mercatura of Balducci Pegolotti (ascribed to the
tirst half of the fourteenth century), under whose name the work is entered in the British
Museum Catalogue. The date of the letter is given on p. 94 of vol ii., and the letter itself
on pp. .324-7 of the same volume. For the identification of the names of monasteries in their
much-disguised Italian forms and spelling, I am indebted to my friend, Mr. A. B. Hinds,
I\I.A., editor of the last-issued volume of the Calendar of State Pa2)ers {Venice). Most of
them, however, are entered and identified in the list givej^ from Pegolotti on pp. 629-41 of
Cunningham's Orov>th of English Industry and Commerce, Early and 3Iiddle Ages, 4th
edition (1905). - Ibid., vol. iii. pp. 261-3. ^ pjid., vol. ii. p. 95.
514 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
the Venetians proAdded a large part of the Avestern world. Just as now-
adays the large trade of Britain in bulky goods makes of this country a
great entrepot for the more valuable and less bulky, so in Venetian times
the excej^tionally large population behind Venice receiving and supply-
ing the bulky goods thus fed the shipping which brought to Venice a
much larger proportion of the more valuable goods of the East than was
brought to other ports. But there is plenty of direct evidence of the
importance of Indian trade to Italy in the Middle Ages. It is to be
I'emembered that of necessity this trade enriched other countries before
it reached Venice, and in proof of its importance in the Mediterranean
generally one may call attention to the investigations of the Venetian
Marin Sanuto Torcello about the end of the thirteenth century, who, we
are told, saw with indignation that the defeats of the Christians in
Palestine were specially due to the power of the Soldans of Egypt, and
perceiving that their great power derived its nourishment from the
commerce with the Indies, based on that observation the projects which
he urged on Christendom for the overthrow of that power. It is further
significant that a sea way to India should have been sought by Genoese
as early as 1291,^ and even more significant that, a century later,
Venice should have found it worth while to maintain a consul in
Siam.-
But the clearest evidence of the supreme importance of the Indian
trade to the Italian cities is to be found in the results of the discovery
which finally diverted from Venice and the Mediterranean the great bulk
of the Indian trade until that trade had lost all the special significance
which it had retained for thousands of years. It need hardly be said
that I refer to the discovery of the sea way to India by the Portuguese
in 1497-99. Of the feeling aroused in Venice by this discovery
Romanin has reproduced,^ from the Diarii of Priuli, an interesting con-
temporary record, written with reference to a despatch to the Doge,
probably from Pietro Pasqualigo, a Venetian envoy at Lisbon at the
time of the return of the second Portuguese voyage to India under
Cabral. The letter is stated to have reached Venice on July 24, 1501.
After giving the letter, in which we are told, among other things, how
the Portuguese had charged their ships at Cochin with spices at a price
which the writer feared to mention, Priuli adds : " On the arrival of this
news at Venice all the city was deeply moved and remained stupefied,
and the wisest held it for the worst news that could reach them. For,
it being recognised that Venice had risen to so high a degree of renown
and wealth solely by the commerce of the sea and by navigation, by
means of which every year a great quantity of spices was brought
thither, which foreigners then flocked together to acquire, and that by
their presence and the traflic they obtained immense advantages, now by
this new voyage the spices would be brought from the Indies to Lisbon,
1 See the account of this attempt, and its results, so far as they are known, in G. H.
Pertz, Der cUteste Versuch ziir Entdeckung des Seeveges nach Ostindien, Berlin, 1859.
2 Romanin, as above, vol. iii. p. 335, note (5).
3 As above, vol. iv. p. 461.
GEOGRAPHY AND COMMERCE. 515
Avhere Hungarians, Germans, Flemings, and French ^ would seek to
acquire them, being able to get them there cheaply ; and that because
the spices that came to Venice passed through the whole of Syria and
the countries of the Soldan, jiaying in every place exorbitant duties, so
that at their arrival at Venice they were so weighted that, what at first
was of the value of a single ducat, was raised in the end to sixty, and
even a hundred ducats ; from which vexations, the voyage by sea being
exempt, it resulted that Portugal could give them at a much lower price."
So said the wisest, but it is interesting also to note what was said by the
less wise. Priuli goes on : " And while the w- isest saw that, others
refused to believe the story [these, I presume, Avere the least wise],
and others again said that the King of Portugal would not be able to
continue this navigation to Calicut, since of thirteen caravels only six
had returned safe, the loss would be greater than the advantage, and
that it would not be so easy to find men who would consent to risk their
lives in so long and perilous a navigation ; that the Sultan of Alexan-
dria, seeing the loss of so fine a profit as that obtained by the passage of
the spices through his lands, would see to that."
But in this case it happened that the wisest were right. The effects
of this discovery were not long in making themselves felt in the notable
diminution in the sales of spices at Venice. Under the date February
1504 Priuli enters in his diary, " The galleys of Alexandria have entered
into harbour empty : a thing never before seen." In the following
month the same thing happened in the case of the galleys from Beirut.^
Under August 1506 it is stated that the Germans at the fair of the pre-
ceding month had bought very little. Various remedies for these evils
were thought of, and among these it is interesting to note that in 1504
the Council of Ten seriously discussed a proposal to empower an envoy
to the Sultan of Egypt to come to an agreement with him, if possible,
for the cutting of a canal through the Isthmus of Suez.^ But the pro-
posal was not adopted. Other efforts to avert the results of the great
achievement of the Portuguese were vain. Other disasters befell the
republic about the same time. Not only was commerce taking another
direction, but, says Romanin, "the wars of Italy were emptying the
treasury, the Turkish power was despoiling the republic step by step of
its possessions beyond the sea, and Venice was beginning to descend that
incline which was to reduce it to a subordinate position among the
powders of Europe."'* North Italy generally suffered at the same time.
The withdrawal of the greater part of the spice trade, by diminishing
the growth of Avealth among the inhabitants, made that part of the
world a less important market for manufactured goods. Countries out-
side of Italy, where rival manufactures had already started, were
increasing their wealth more rapidly, and thus imparting an increasing
stimulus to their manufactures, and these increpsed while those of Italy
1 We must recognise with due humility that the English are of little account in Venetian
eyes in 1501.
2 G. Coen, Le Grandi Strade del Commercio Internazwnale j^roposte Jino dal Sec. JTV.
(Leghorn, 1888), p. 71.
3 Coen, as above, pp. 82-83. * As above, vol. iv. p. 466.
516 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
declined. In 1338 the number of woollen factories in Florence is given
at 200, making in all 70,000 to 80,000 pieces of cloth in the year; in
1472 the number of shops or factories had risen to 270, but no estimate
is given of the quantity of the product; in 1529, however, the number
of shops is eaid to have sunk to 150, and the quantity of cloth manufac-
tured to 23,000 pieces per annum, and in the time of the editor of
Balducci Pegolotti the quantity was only about 3000 pieces annually.^
Before going further, however, there is one point in the comments on
the discovery of the sea way to India quoted above from the Diarii of
Priuli which calls for notice. Hungarians, Germans, Flemings, and
French, he observes, will in future go to Lisbon to get the spices of India
more cheaply than at Venice. This remark illustrates the difficulty of
shifting the geographical point of view according to circumstances, a
difficulty of which at all times abundant illustrations can be offered.
The purchasers of spices who come first into the mind of Priuli are
Hungarians and Germans. It was inevitable that they should be among
the leading customers of Venice. The Hungarians were supplied from
the Dalmatian ports which belonged to Venice. The Germans came by
way of the Ehine and the Elbe, and then across the Alps to get supplies
for central, north-western, and northern Europe. But it was neither
Hungarians nor Germans who came in greatest numbers to Lisbon to
buy the spices which Portuguese ships brought from the East, In any
case Lisbon had no advantages like those of Venice for supplying by land
a large and rich population immediately behind it. The valley of the
Tagus was small and poor, and had not the capacity for expansion in
wealth and population which the Lombard plains had when the commerce
of Venice began to grow. The bulk of the spices brought to Lisbon had
therefore to reach their final markets by routes that did not pass through
Lisbon into the interior. To supply the most important of those markets
it was the Dutch, the people who held "the keys of trade " for the im-
portant valleys of the Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt, who came to Lisbon
in greatest numbers to buy spices of the Portuguese. And here it has
to be added that, in spite of the discovery of the sea way to India, the
Venetians continued to retain great advantages in the spice trade with
Hungary and parts of Germany, as well as, of course, the northern plains
of Italy. Things did not remain always as bad as recorded in the years
1504: and 1506. The Portuguese, while maintaining successfully for a
hundred years the monopoly of the trade in spices at the place of origin
in the East, found their advantage in dividing the trade with Europe
between the sea way and the Persian Gulf route, of which latter route
they held the key since the final capture of Ormuz in 1515. The trade
by way of the Tigris through Baghdad (the so-called Babylon of those
days) and the Euphrates to the old Phoenician seaboard was again revived,
and was maintained as long as Portugal held command of the trade.
It was by this route that the first English commercial expedition to India,
that of Xewberie, Leedes, Story, and Fitch, went out in 1583, and by
which Ralph Fitch, the sole survivor of that expedition, returned in 1591.
1 Delia Decima, as above, vol. ii. pp. 64, 105.
GEOGRAPHY AND GOMMERCE. 517
By this route Venice got back some ot her spice trade ; not perhaps with
the same profit to herself as formerly, but still a trade of no slight im-
portance not only to A^'enice, but also to Augsburg, Nuremberg, and some
of the other cities of South Germany.
But beyond doubt the bulk of the trade was now carried on by the
sea route, and we are thereby enabled to get a better idea both of the
amount and the nature of the trade. On both points we get information
from the Narrative of the above-named Ealph Fitch, who tells us that
" the Fleete which commeth every yeere from Portugal, which be foure,
five, or sixe great shippes, commeth first hither [to Goa.] And they
come for the most part in September, and remaine there fortie or fiftie
dayes ; and then go to Cochin, where they lade their Pepper for Portugall." ^
Now in 1583 a ship of 500 tons would certainly be called a great ship.
In 1572 the largest vessel sailing from the port of London was of 240
tons,^ and the largest of the first fleet of the East India Company was
one of 600 tons. I could give more definite information as to the
capacity of these fleets at that time if I knew exactly what a salma was,
for in a report on Portuguese trade sent to the Grand Duke Ferdinand I.
of Tuscany (1587-1608) we are told that the fleet consisted of four oi-
five carracks of the capacity of 5000 or 6000 salmc.^ But a salma is a
term for which one sometimes gets a very indefinite meaning, at other
times definite but very diverse meanings, sometimes a weight of 25 lbs.,
which is obviously too little, and again a weight of 1000 lbs., which is
probably too much. The large dictionary of Tommaseo gives this latter
weight with an example stating the capacity of a ship ; but if that were
the meaning then the carracks would be of a burden of from 2250 to
2700 tons, a much heavier tonnage than is elsewhere indicated, so far as
I am aware, for vessels of the period. Probably .3000 tons would be the
outside limit of the aggregate cargoes annually brought to Portugal, for
in any case much room in the ships was required for the large crews of
those days with their armaments, for then the idea of carrying on com-
merce by sea without being in a position to defend your ship w^as out of
the question.
Of the commodities sent home from India, Fitch mentions in this
place only pepper, and the correspondence of Albuquerque with the King
of Portugal soon after the discovery of the sea way to India clearly reveals
how all-important the pepper trade was ; but it may be worth while to
give the complete list of the commodities which Raljili Fitch enumerates
at the end of his Narrative as coming from India and the country further
eastward. The list is not a long one. It comprises pepper, ginger,
cloves, nutmegs and maces, camphora("a precious thing among the Indians
. . . solde dearer then golde "), lignum aloes, long pepper, muske, amber,
rubies, saphires, and spinels, diamants, pearles, spodium, and many other
kindes of drugs from Cambaia — all of them, it will be observed, having
the character of being of high value in proportion to their bulk, so that
1 Horton Eyley, Ralph Fitch, p. 61.
2 Ibid., p. 17.
3 Angelo de Gubernatis, Ifemoria intorno ai viaggiaiori Italiani nelle Indie Orientali
dal secolo XIII. a tutto il XVI., p. 149.
518 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
a very great value of such goods might be carried in ships of small
capacity.
Fitch does not tell us what was sent in return, but information as to
that is to be had from other sources and presents one or two points of
interest. In 1513 Albuquerque, after a long course of fighting, concluded
a peace with the Zamorin of Calicut, in which it was agreed, among other
things, that the Zamorin should supply the Portuguese with all the
" spices and drugs " his land produced, and that " coral, silk stuffs, quick-
silver, vermilion, copper, lead, saffron, alum, and all other merchandise
from Portugal " should be sold at Calicut as heretofore.^ Coral comes
first in this enumeration. To us at the present day this does not seem
a very important article of commerce, but it was otherwise then. One
Mafio di Priuli, writing from India in 1537 to the Magnifico M. Con-
stantino di Priuli, says, " At a great fair which is called that of Tremel
I have seen buttons of coral sold for their weight in silver." ^ That is
the point of view of a European in India, but a native of the East Indies
in Europe at the same date would no doubt have spoken with astonish-
ment of the amount of silver that could be got in Europe for a few grains
of pepper. Oar letter-writer says in his cheerful, hopeful, gossiping way,
" The gains of these parts are other than those of Damascus, Aleppo, and
Alexandria : for if one does not gain cent, per cent, from Portugal here,
and from here back again, one thinks that one gains nothing. And three
or four years would be quite enough." ^ But, while he indicates how
these immense gains are made, he also indicates clearly enough how they
continue to be made — that is, how they are so counterbalanced by losses
that if these great gains were not made on occasion commerce would
cease. It was all very well to exchange your coral for spices, but the
great matter was to get your coral out and your spices home in safety.
The writer of this letter had entrusted to a friend who had left on a ship
for Ormuz jewels of the value of 4000 Venetian ducats, but the jewels
were lost. He believed that his friend was murdered. " But such losses,"
he adds, " will occur." Another time he lost more than 6000 ducats in
cold in Portuguese vessels going to Ormuz, and on another occasion he
suffered great loss when Pegu was sacked by the King of Burma.
These notes may serve to illustrate the conditions of trade in the
glorious days for Portugal when fine fortunes were heaped up in Lisbon
through trade, but the great bulk of humanity got very little at least
directly through that trade ; but we have not exhausted the interest con-
nected with the nature of the outgoing commodities for India, and to that
it will be well to return. Another of the stipulations of the treaty of
1513 above referred to was that while duties were to be paid in coin "the
Portuguese were to pay for all the pepper and other merchandise they
might purchase in kind," and, as the peace led among other things to
a dearth of prizes, Albuquerque " was constrained to send an urgent
request home for large quantities of merchandise to be sent out to
1 Danvers, The Porhir/iiese in India, vol. i. p. '283.
2 P. 34 of the letter ref rred to as published at Venice in 1824.
3 Ibid., p. 29.
GEOGRAPHY AND COMMERCE. 519
make up for this deficiency."^ How long this stipulation remained in
force I cannot say, but things were certainly different a hundred years
later. In the report to the Grand Duke of Florence above cited we are
told that what the Portuguese carry to India for exchange is above all
"silver in reals, and besides silver, wine, oil, and some other sort of
merchandise, such as coral, glass, and the like, of little importance " ;
and as to the silver he adds that " the reals bring a gain of more than
50 per cent, as soon as they have reached India, for the real of eight,
which in Lisbon is worth 320 reis, in India is sold and spent at the
rate of 480 to 484 reis of that money, and with it one buys all sorts
of spices and drugs which are sold there, except pepper, which is the
monopoly of the King of Portugal and those to whom he gives a lease
of that trade." The importance of silver among the outgoing com-
modities for India has continued from that time down to the present
day, latterly, however, in diminishing proportion. For a long time
after the date at which we have now arrived it was as predominant as
a means of exchange with India as it was in the first century of the
Christian era, when the drain of silver from the Roman Empire to the
East was bewailed by the Avriters of that time. In the voyages of
the English East India Company of the four years 1620-23 inclusive
the value of the bullion (chiefly silver) sent out to India was £205,710,
as against only £58,806 worth of merchandise.^
Now, what is the meaning of the change in the position of silver in
Indian trade which seems to have taken place between 1513 and the
end of the sixteenth century 1 No doubt we may see there the result
of another change in geographical relations brouglit about by a discovery
nearly contemporaneous with that of the sea way to India — namely, that
of the New World. The first result of that discovery of importance to
commerce was the pouring into Europe of large quantities of the precious
metals, and the quantity was enormously enhanced after the silver mines
of Potosi, in Upper Peru (as it was then called), were discovered in
1545. It was probably this discovery that brought it about that of
all commodities of such small bulk in proportion to their value as to
stand the costs of transport to the East this was the one which could
be sent out for most part with the greatest advantage. And this dis-
covery no doubt also helps to explain why that of the sea way to India
had so little effect for a very long time in lowering the prices of spices in
Europe, why prices even rose. At the time of the return of Vasco da
Gama from the first voyage to India the price of pepper at Lisbon is
estimated by Danvers^ to have been about Is. 5d. per lb., and we all
know that the immediate occasion of the foundation of the English East
India Company about a hundred years later was that the Dutch suddenly
raised the price of pepper against the English from 3s, to 6s. and
8s. per lb.
1 Danvers, vol. i. pp. 284, 286.
- I take these figures from p. 6. of the appendix to P. Colquhouu's Treatise on the
Wealth, Poicer, and Resources of the British Empire, 2nd ed., London, 1815.
3 As above, vol. i. p. 64.
520 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
But the particular commodity which made up the principal portion
of the outward trade to India is, after all, a matter of detail, though not
unimportant detail. The main point on which I want to insist is that,
whatever the commodities were, whether carried out or home, the nature
of the trade with the East was little if at all altered by the discovery of
the direct route to India by sea. The trade still continued to be one
concerned in a moderate number of articles of small bulk but high value.
It was merely a change of route that the Portuguese effected, and for
more than a hundred years they remained in sole command of this
route. After that, however, they were ousted from the greater part
of this trade, and that the more valuable part, chiefly by the Dutch,
and from a geographical point of view it is very interesting to note how
the Dutch did it. They did not trouble themselves much about India
proper. They left the Portuguese alone at Goa, and from that port as
a base allowed them to pick up as much trade as they could at Calicut
and Cochin, which, said Albuquerque, "were capable of supplying the
Portuguese fleets until the Day of Judgment." But Malacca, on the
straits of that name, gave command of the route to the further East,
whence came in the end even larger quantities of pepper than could be
got from India, whence came too ginger, cloves, and nutmegs, as well as
the products of China. The importance of this place Albuquerque had
accordingly recognised, and in 1511, the year after he took Goa, he
took it also by the right that always belongs to the lion as against the
jackal. This place was taken by the Dutch (1641), who had previously
established themselves on Java and the Spice Islands, where they main-
tained an absolute monopoly. Ceylon, again, was (and is) almost the
only place from which the true cinnamon was to be obtained, so the
Dutch took that island also from the Portuguese (1656). As long as
the Portuguese were the sole Europeans in the East, Calicut and Cochin
not merely furnished the Portuguese with Indian wares, but were im-
portant entrepots for the spices, perfumes, drugs, and jewels of the
further East as well as of Chinese silks and porcelains; but the trade
in these commodities could be wholly or largely diverted to places in
the possession of the Dutch. Even before the capture of Malacca and
Ceylon a Portuguese viceroy had reported (1638) that the Dutch had a
monopoly of trade from the Bay of Cochin China to the point of Sunda.
But this change also was little more than a change of route. The
general character of the Eastern trade remained the same. The English
East India Company, whose operations, through the hostility of the
Dutch, came to be restricted to India proper, there founded a trade
that gave much more opportunity for expansion under modern condi-
tions than that of the Dutch, but for a long time it retained the same
character. All the commodities enumerated by Colquhoun as brought
back by the voyages of 1620-3 in exchange for the bullion and mer-
chandise sent out were pepper, cloves, mace, nutmegs, Chinese and
Persian raw silk, besides calicoes, the sole manufactured article, and one
of course that had relatively a much higher value than now, when the
direction of the trade in that commodity is reversed.
A similar character for a long time belonged to the trans- Atlantic
GEOGRAPHY AND COMMERCE. 521
trade, even though the costs of transport in that case were less, and
favoured the development of a trade in somewhat bulkier commodities.
Furs from the Far North, tobacco from Virginia, sugar and afterwards
coffee and cotton from the West Indies, were by far the most prominent
imports. It was the tobacco trade of Virginia that first enabled Glasgow,
which at the time of the Union of the English and Scottish Parliaments
was an insignificant town with less than 13,000 inhabitants, to convert
itself into a seaport, and thus lay the foundations of its subsequent
prosperity. ISTow tobacco makes up less than 1 per cent, of the value
of the goods imported at Glasgow, and, though that may be partly due
to a diminution in the actual quantity of tobacco imported at Glasgow,
this result has chiefly been brought about by changes in relative values.
A hundred years ago the value of the imports into Great Britain and
Ireland from the British West Indies Avas about one-fourth of the
total value of the imports from all parts; now it is less than 1 per
cent, of that value.
What has brought about such changes, what makes the essential
difference between recent and all previous commerce, is the series of
enormous improvements in the means of communication which followed
so closely on the invention of textile machinery and the improvement of
the steam-engine in this country. These improvements have had two
important effects on commerce. First, they have facilitated the main-
tenance of order and security both by land and sea, and thus enormously
reduced the risks of commerce. Secondly, they have directly lowered
the cost of transport for different goods in different degrees. Bulky
goods of little value could now for the first time be profitably conveyed
many hundreds of miles by land to a seaport, and there load ever larger
ships for distant shores, thus opening up markets with vast undeveloped
resources in the heart of great continents. Along with these bulkier
goods the more valuable goods are carried at a cost far below that of
former times, so that for such commodities as pepper the mere freight is
almost a negligible item.
At the present day there can be no doubt that in point of quantity
the spice trade is much larger than it ever w^as. If Venice could get the
whole of that trade into her hands, a thing which she never had, notwith-
standing the patriotic boast of Doge Mocenigo, the trade would not now
bring her a tithe of the wealth which it brought in the days of her
grandeur. Much has been said of the sudden " fall " of the Portuguese
and Dutch in turn, and that fall has often been explained by mistakes
in method. "Tlie fall of the Dutch colonial empire resulted," says Sir
William Hunter, " from its short-sighted commercial policy. It was
deliberately based upon a monopoly of the trade in spices, and remained
from first to last destitute of sound economical principles."' ^ But one
may well ask, Did the Dutch ever fail in a manner for which they were
in any way responsible 1 It is true that the Dutch East India Company
did not supply as many people as they could with the spices of which
they held the monopoly. But that was not their aim. It is true that
VOL. XXIII,
1 ImjKrial Gazetteer of India, 2nd e<l.. vol. vi. p. £62.
2 P
522 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
they did not build up a great empire like that of the English East India
Company. But neither was that their aim. Their aim was to declare
dividends, and dividends they declared. The profits of the company
down to 1720 averaged 20 per cent, per annum, never sinking below
15 per cent., and sometimes rising to 50 per cent. If spices ceased to
enable them to declare such dividends that was not their fault. It was
James Watt, George Stephenson, William Symington, and Eobert
Fulton, who, without intending it, and without being able to foresee
what in this respect they were destined to do, sucked the value out of
pepper, and that in a manner which neither the strength of armies nor
the subtlety of statesmen could have done anything to prevent.
Now the countries that offer the most attractive markets for the
greatest quantities of goods of all kinds are no longer those which look
to the spice trade or to trade in any specially valuable commodities for
their enrichment, but those which abound in coal so placed as to develop a
great amount of manufacturing industry, an industry engaged for the most
part in working for the million, not merely in producing the luxuries of the
rich. The commodities of very small bulk in proportion to their value
now have a comparatively insignificant place in commerce. The precious
metals and precious stones still indeed retain a good deal of their former
importance. But very few vegetable or animal products can be put in
the bame category. Rubber, indeed, may be reckoned as one, and very
handsome profits are reaped from some rubber estates. But every one
knows that such exceptional profits can be reaped only for a short time.
Of animal products ornamental feathers are the most valuable in propor-
tion to their bulk. Egrets' feathers, I believe, are seldom worth less and
often worth a good deal more than twice their weight in gold, but orna-
mental feathers altogether make up less than a third of 1 per cent, of the
total value of British imports.
Perhaps the greatest feature of modern commerce is the unparalleled
manner in which it has promoted the increase of population nearly
all the world over. Rendering it possible for manufacturing and com-
mercial peoples to depend in a very large measure for their very means
of subsistence on supplies brought from the ends of the earth, it is
rapidly pushing the settlement of vacant land to the base of the
mountains and the edge of the desert. Fifteen years ago Professor
Bryce said, " AVe may conjecture that within the lifetime of persons now
living the outflow from Europe to North America will have practically
stopped."^ We are at least nearing the time when the "new lands" of
this earth in the temperate zone will all have been allotted. The results
of such a check to expansion after a long period of stimulation to expan-
sion must be momentous, but what the nature of these results will be I
for one confess that I am unable to foresee. I am, however, convinced
that, if we are to be enabled to make any probable forecast as to the
course of future development, one of the most important aids to that
result must consist in the study of the relations of geography and history
1 "The Migrations of the Races of Men considered Historically," in the Scotlish
Geographical Magazine, 1892, p. 419.
GEOGRAPHY AND COMMERCE. 523
from the point of view which I have endeavoured to indicate. To study
these relations merely with reference to the immediate causes and effects
of wars and treaties gives little real insight into the working of geo-
graphical influences in history. As in the study of the human body medical
men have recognised the necessity of ascertaining with the aid of the
microscope the normal functions of the cells of which the body is com-
posed, the pathological states that interfere with their normal working,
and the effects on one part of the body of minute disturbances of function
in another part, so in tracing the course of history it is becoming more
and more recognised that the minute gradual silent changes must be
inquired into and taken into account, not merely in relation to the
regions in which they take place, but in relation, it may be, to regions
far distant. Such studies, it is true, are not confined to the geographer.
In them, indeed, the geographer must seek the aid of workers in other
fields ; but there can hardly be a doubt that it must help greatly towards
arriving at a sound solution of the problems presented to keep steadily
before one the geographical point of view. The field for such studies is
of course immense, the material perhaps not all that could be wished ;
but I can imagine no task more delightful for those who have the
opportunity to engage in it than that of seeking out and examining
from that point of view such material as actually exists.
THE PLACE OF ORIGIN OF THE MOON— THE VGLO^ANIC
PROBLEM.i
By Professor William H. Pickering, Harvard University.
( JVith Illustrations.)
In 1879 Professor George H. Darwin propounded the view that the
Moon formerly formed a part of tlie Earth. That it was originally
much nearer to the Earth than it is at present, and is now slowly reced-
ing from us, was clearly shown by his equations. After considerable
discussion, his conclusions have been accepted by the great majority of
astronomers, although many of the geologists do not view them with
favour. Assuming the correctness of his hypothesis, it will be of
interest to determine, first, if possible, from what part of the Earth the
Moon originated, and, second, to follow out our conclusions on this
point and see to what results they may lead.
When the separation took place, it has been shown that the com-
bined planet was not very much larger than is the Earth at present. It
must therefore have been mostly in the solid or liquid condition. If in
the latter state, it is obvious that no indication of the Moon's former
place could be found at the present time. Very few astronomers or
geologists to-day, however, believe that the Earth ever was completely
1 Reprinted, with the author's corrections aud additions, from The Journal of Geology,
XV. 1 (1907).
524 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
liquid. It has probably always been partly solid, partly liquid, and
partly gaseous. It is composed of such diverse materials, and these are
exposed at different points throughout its volume to such diverse
pressures, that, unless we assume it to have condensed from a highly in-
candescent nebula, which is unlikely, we should scarcely expect it ever
to have presented a uniform liquid surface.
The sux-face was probably hot, but how hot we have no means of
knowing. Beneath the surface, however, where radiation was impos-
sible, much higher temperatures were found, as is still the case, and in
what follows we shall assume that the interior was practically liquid, or
was ready to become actually so where relieved of the pressure due to
the gravity of the outer layers ; that is, where the centrifugal force
became sufficiently high, as in the equatorial regions. Precisely how the
Earth came into its present form, whether by planetesimal condensation
or otherwise, does not concern us here. We merely assume that in
these early days the Earth was in much the same condition that we
find it at present, except that it was hotter. We also assume that it
was slo\vly condensing from a more bulky form, rendering fission
possible.
These processes of fission and condensation we see going on all
around us at the present time in the stellar universe, as indicated by the
variable stars of short period and the spectroscopic binaries. It there-
fore requires no great stretch of the imagination to conceive that it
may also have occurred on a smaller scale in the case of our Earth and
Moon. «
It does not follow, however, that our combined planet was ever incan-
descent. Indeed, this seems to be unlikely. A cold nebula which is
later to condense into a sun must almost necessarily be composed largely
of solid matter. The electric disturbances by which we see it, illumine
only the gaseous portions, but the metallic elements must be there never-
theless, all the time unseen.
Assuming then a hot, solid, ellipsoidal Earth, Avith an interior more
or less liquid, at least beneath the Equator, reA^olving on its axis once in
about four or five hours, Ave have a picture of our as yet moonless planet
as conceived by the astronomer. As it continued to cool, vast volumes
of steam and other gases escaped from its interior into space, increasing
its density and diminishing its volume.
As its volume diminished, its speed of rotation increased, until by
centrifugal force, as explained by Darwin, the Moon was born. If the
crust was solid, and if the Moon escaped from it, it is almost certain that
a scar of some sort would have been left, and it is of interest to see if
we can find it.
The specific gravity of the Earth as a whole is 5*6. That of the
surface material ranges in general between 2'2 and 3'2, with an average
of 2'7. The specific gravity of the ]\Ioon is 3'4. This indicates clearly
that the Moon is composed of material scraped off from the outer surface
of the Earth, rather than of matter obtained from a considerable depth.
At the same time, the specific gravity S'i indicates that the layer of
material removed had an appreciable thickness.
THE PLACE OF ORIGIN OF THE MOON — THE VOLCANIC PROBLEM. 525
As is well known, the land and water are very irregularly distributed
over the surface of our globe. If we erect a perpendicular from a point
situated one thousand miles to the north-east of New Zealand, and view
the Earth from a distance in this direction, we shall find that very little
land will be visible, while the outline of the Pacific will approach the
form of a circle.
Fk;. 1.
Figure 1 is a map of the globe on zenithal projection, where the
radii are proportional to the actual distances represented. There is no
distortion, therefore, in the radial direction, and the exact shape of the
Pacific with regard to a great circle is clearly shown. The inner circle
represents the circumference of the globe, and is therefore 90' from the
central point. The latitude of this point is 25° S. Away from the
centre the tangential distances necessarily become more and more dis-
TT
torted, the distortion at the circumference making them appear — , or
r6 times too large.
Figure 2 is taken from Gilbert's Continental Problems of Geology
(Smithsonian Report, 1892), p. 164, and is founded on the results of
the Challenger Expedition as deduced by Murray. In it ordiuates
represent feet, and abscissae areas, the extreme abscissa representing
the total area of the Earth's surface. This area is composed chiefly
of two plateaus: one the continental, whose mean altitude is 1000
526
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINF.
feet above sea-level; the other the oceanic, whose mean altitude is
— 14,000 feet.
It will be noticed that the edge of the continental plateau is below
sea-level, but not more than 1000 feet below it. This contour may be
taken, therefore, as the true boundary more properly than the water-
line itself. In Yig. 1 it is indicated by a dotted line. Its position
near the Antarctic continent is unknown. The location of the latter,
excepting where indicated by the full line, has not been determined.
The line composed of dashes therefore indicates its maximum possible
area.
If we travel north 90° from the central point of Fig. 1 to the
immediate vicinity of Bering Strait, and erect another perpendicular,
from which we again examine the globe, we shall obtain a view resem-
+ -10,000 FT,
[
-t- -20,000 FT.
1
-
+ -SO. 000 FT.
\
CONTI NETNTAL
. PLATEAU
-
OCCAM IC
P LA~EA U
- -20.000 FT.
~"
- -50,000 FT.
\
Fio. 2.
bling Fig. 3. In this ma]i, which is drawn in orthographic projection,
there is no tangential distortion, and the appearance is that which the
Earth would have if seen from a great distance. The horizontal line
is a meridian ; the vertical is a projection of the inner circle shown in
Fio-. 1. The continents and islands at the edges of the disk have been
allowed to project out beyond the ocean beds in order to make more
evident the systematic grouping of the continental masses on one side
of the globe. With the exception of Australia, the Antarctic continent,
and a small part of South America, all represented in the lower half of
Fig. 1, there is no important land on the water side of the globe, not
shown in Fig. 3.
An inspection of this figure shows that the Earth's centre of gravity,
which is the centre of the circular arcs, does not coincide with its centre
of volume, and this deviation would be still more marked were the
mobile portions of the surface — i.e. the oceans — drawn off. The centre
of gravity would then be moved slightly to the right in the figure, and
the centre of volume still more so. The ocean side of the solid Earth
has obviously a higher specific gravity than the continental side.
It is the general opinion among geologists that the continental forms
have always existed — that they are indestructible. How, then, could
they have originated ] We know something of the permanent surface
features of three bodies in the universe besides the Earth, namely, the
Moon, Mars, and Mercury. None of these shows us anything resembling
THE PLACE OF ORIGIN OF THE MOON — THE VOLCANIC PROBLEM. 527
the irregular terrestrial distribution of the high-and-low-level plains of
our continents and oceans.
If we examine more minutely the coasts of our great oceans, we shall
find the Pacific bounded by a nearly continuous line of active or extinct
volcanoes, and this is true whether in North or South America, Asia, the
East Indies, New Zealand, and Antarctica. The only possible break is
the east coast of Australia, but even here there is a line of volcanic
islands, lying a short distance off the coast, stretching from NeAv Guinea
more than half-way to New Zealand. The coasts of the Pacific are
Fio. 3.
generally mountainous and abrupt, and composed of curves convex
toward the ocean.
The Atlantic coasts, on the other hand, are generally low, flat, and
composed of curves as often concave as convex. As to volcanoes, they
are few and scattered. The only conspicuous exception to the general
rule is the range of the Lesser Antilles, which both in form and volcanic
nature reminds us of the Pacific coast of Asia. The Indian Ocean
resembles the Atlantic, except where it approaches the vicinity of the
Pacific, and there the characteristic volcanoes again appear.
A curious feature of the Atlantic Ocean is that the two sides have in
places a strong similarity. Figure 4 is drawn in globular projection,
which is used so frequently for the hemispheres in ordinary atlases,
except that in this instance the projection is carried over the Pole on
to the other side. This projection gives very little distortion in the
528 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
vicinity of the central meridian, which is the portion of the map to
Fig. 4.
which we shall especially refer. The shaded areas represent those parts
THE PLACE OF ORIGIN OF THE MOON — THE VOLCANIC PROBLEM. 529
of the ocean that are more than 1000 feet in depth. Regarding the
unshaded area between America and Asia we have no information.
When the Earth-Moon planet condensed from the original nebula, its
denser materials collected at the lower levels, while the lighter ones were
distributed with considerable uniformity over its surface. At the present
day we find the lighter materials missing from one hemisphere. The
mean surface density of the continents is about 2*7. Their mean density
is certainly greater. We find a large mass of material now up in the
sky, which it is generally believed by astronomers formerly formed part
of our Earth, and the density of this material, after some compression by
its own gravity, we find to be 3'4, or not far from that of the missing
continents. From this we conclude that this mass of material formerly
covered that part of the Earth where the continents are lacking, and
which is now occupied by the Pacific Ocean. In fact, there is no other
place from which it could have come. Who it was that first suggested
that the Moon originated in the Pacific is unknown. The idea seems
to be a very old one. The object of the present paper is to find what
support for this hypothesis is afforded by the results of modern science,
when examined both qualitatively and quantitatively.
The volume of the Moon is equivalent to a solid whose surface is
equal to that of all our terrestrial oceans, and whose depth is thirty-six
miles. It seems probable, therefore, that at this time the Earth had a
solid crust averaging thirty-six miles in thickness, beneath which the
temperature was so high that the materials were in places liquid, and in
other places only kept solid by the enormous jiressure of the superincum-
bent material. AVhen the Moon separated from us, three-quarters of
this crust was carried away, and it is suggested that the remainder was
torn in two to form the eastern and western continents. These then
floated on the liquid surface like two large ice-floes.
If their specific gravity was the same as that of the Moon, 3'4, since
the continental plateau averages nearly three miles higher than the ocean
bed, the specific gravity of the liquid in which they floated must have
been 3'7. Later, when this liquid surface cooled, the huge depression
thus formed was occupied by our present oceans.
The volcanic islands in the oceans, such as Hawaii, were obviously
formed after the withdrawal of the Moon, and are analogous to the small
craters scattered over the lunar maria. While their surface material
presents no extraordinary density, the lava being full of bubbles and
small cavities, interesting results have been obtained by the Coast Survey
with the pendulum. Observations were made by E. D. Preston near the
summit, and on the slopes of Mauna Kea, Hawaii, at altitudes of 13,060,
6660, and 8 feet. He writes :
" It appears that the lower half of Mauna Kea is of a very much greater density
than the upper. The former gives a value of 3'7 and the latter 2"1, the mean
density of the whole mountain being 2"9. This is somewhat greater than that
found for Haleakala [a neighbouring volcano] and is notably larger than the
density of the surface rocks. Indeed, this appears to be the highest value yet
deduced from pendulum work."^
1 American Journal of Science, voL cxlv. (1893). p. 256.
530 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
The remark of Major Dutton ^ is interesting in this connection, that
a part of the bulk of these mountains is due to accumulation, and a part
to uplifting. The upper half is clearly due to matter, chiefly scoria,
which has been expelled from the various vents. The lower half is
probably due to the slow uplifting of the former ocean bed.
It would seem as if borings carried on in this vicinity to a depth of
only a few hundred feet would bring to the surface the same kind of
rock material that, beneath the continents, would only be found at a
depth of many miles. Presumably this material would turn out to be
lava similar to that found on the surface, save that under the great
pressure the innumerable little cavities, rendering the material generally
so porous, would have practically disappeared. The fact that its density,
3'7, as determined by Preston, coincides with the theoretical value just
deduced is of interest.
Turning now to Fig. 4, six points indicated by circles have been
marked along the coastline of the eastern continent. Corresponding to
these, six similar points have been marked along the American coast.
The two broken lines joining these various points are slightly inclined to
one another, but the other small differences in relative position and
distance are apparent and not real, being due to the necessary slight
distortion of the map. The South American continent does not fit well
into this arrangement, and does not appear to have remained perfectly
l»arallel to ISTorth America during its transit across the fiery ocean, in
obedience to the pull of the Moon. Instead, it seems to have rotated
slightly, as shown, about a point somewhat to the east of the Isthmus of
Panama.
In trying thus to match the continents together, we must take the
outline of the continental plateau rather than the coastline. Five-hixths
of the area of the Atlantic basin is thus very well accounted for, but
there still remains a considerable area east of the United States, together
with the Gulf of ^Mexico, and the Caribbean and Mediterranean Seas,
not explained. Tlie eastern outline of the Atlantic area is indicated by
the dotted line.
The action that took place was then somewhat as follows. As the
part of the Earth's crust near the present islands of New Zealand began
to rise, in obedience to a centrifugal law developed by the Earth's rota-
tion, the crust on the opposite side cracked and split in two, forming the
bed of the Atlantic Ocean. Before the crack could widen more than
two thousand miles the pull became so intense that a huge, roughly
circular piece, forming nearly three-quarters of the Earth's whole crust,
was taken out of the middle, and carried away to form the Moon. This
left a continent on each side of the Pacific. Thus the Atlantic bed was
formed only a few moments before that of the Pacific, and the necessity
for two chief oceans instead of one is made fairly apparent.
The antipodes of the central spot in the map of the Pacific is
indicated by the cross in Northern Africa. If the ultimate releasing
force which caused the disruption of the Moon wns, as has been
1 U.S. Geological Report. 1882-83, p. 195.
THE PLACE OF ORIGIN OF THE MOON — THE VOLCANIC I'ROBLbM. 531
supposed, the solar tides, we should expect that a certain amount of
material might escape from both sides of the Earth. If the Sun were
overhead at the central point in the Pacific, then within less than an
hour, using Darwin's rate of rotation, it would have been exactly
opposite to the area in question in the Atlantic, Gulf, and Caribbean
Sea.
The similarity of the Lesser Antilles to the Asiatic islands, already
pointed out, corroborates this explanation. It is also to be noted that
the greatest depths in the Atlantic, 21,000 feet, are found along the
eastern boundary of this region. Similarly, one of the deepest parts of
the Pacific, 31,000 feet, is indicated by a dot close to the central point
on the map, Fig. 1. Around this deep portion on the east, north, and
west is a shallower area from 15,000 to 20,000 feet in depth, and then,
as we ajDproach the continents, again a deeper area.
All those who have studied the stratification of the Appalachian
region have concluded that the sediments came chiefly from the east.
The geologists also tell us that it is certain that a continental area,
narrow at the noith and widening at the south, formerly existed to the
eastward of the United States. This area they believe to have sunk
beneath the ocean in more recent times. One or the other of these two
explanations is probably correct, and perhaps they both are true. Either
would account for the greater breadth of the Atlantic at this point.
There are several coincidences relating to the position of the central
point of the Pacific which may or may not be accidental. The close
coincidence with the very deep area above noted is the first of these.
The second relates to its latitude, — 25°. This is within a degree and a
half of the tropic of Capricorn. The tropics are the lines on a uniform
sphere where the direct solar tidal pull acts for the greatest length of
time on any particular area of rock. Here also the leverage of the tidal
pull on the Earth's crust would be greatest in displacing a protuberant
equatorial ring. If the Moon were generated from the Earth by centri-
fugal force, liberated by the tides, we should expect the central point to
coincide with one of the tropics of that time. The coincidence with the
present tropic would indicate that the axis of the Earth can have changed
very little in the meantime. The third and fourth coincidences are
more likely to be accidental. The third is that the central point
coincides in longitude with Bering Strait, where the two continents are
supposed to have slipped past one another. The fourth is that the strait
is almost exactly 90'", more accurately 91°, in latitude from the central
point.
If the greater continents were split apart, we should by the same
analogy conclude that Antarctica and Australia were diawn from the
Indian Ocean ; the former from the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope,
the latter farther east.
If it is true, as here suggested, that we owe our continents to the
Moon, then the human race owes far more to that body than we have
ever before placed to its credit. If the Moon had not been formed, or
if it had carried away the whole of the terrestrial crust, our Earth would
have been completely enveloped by its oceans, as is presumably the case
532 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
with Venus at jiresent, and our race could hardly have advanced much
beyond the intelligence of the present deep-sea fish. If the Moon had
been of but half its present bulk or had been slightly larger than it is at
present, our continents would have been greatly diminished in area, and
our numbers decimated, or our lands over-populated.
Connected intimately with the origin of the continents is the problem
as to the cause of volcanoes, and why they are at present always situated
near the sea. A point that is of the utmost consequence in its bearing
on this question is the fact, noted by Charles Darwin, that active
volcanoes are found only Avhere the coastline is rising. Clearly the
same cause produces both effects.
A rising region, as pointed out by Button, must evidently be increas-
ing its volume. This increase may occur either with or without an
increase of mass. In the latter case the increase must be due to a rise
of temperature. It has been shown that, if a part of the Earth's crust
fifty miles in thickness were to have its temperature raised 200° F., its
surface would be raised to the extent of 1000 to 1500 feet.^ The
Bolivian plateau has an elevation of two and a half miles. That of the
Himalayas is about a mile higher. It is improbable that these elevations
are due to this cause.
The alternative is that in the rising regions we have an increase of
mass. If the mass were increased materially, it has been shown by
Gilbert^ that the hot subterranean region should yield to the added
pressure, thus neutralising the elevation. An added column of rock two
miles in height could not possibly be supported. Apparently our last
resort is to introduce some lighter material, such as water or steam.
The pressure on the steam, if its temperature were above the critical
point, would be so great that its density would be but little less than the
equivalent extrapolated value for water. It might have one-fourth of
the weight of an equal column of rock.
Liquid lava is full of water, and as the lava cools the water is expelled
from it. The lava at Hilo, Hawaii, contains innumerable bubbles, indi-
cating the presence of steam, which had been retained by it Avithin its
structure for many days, ever since it had left the crater of Mauna Loa,
fifty miles distant.
Since volcanoes are intermittent in action, the charging process must
still be going on at the present time ; otherwise there would have been
one long discharge in the distant past, which would have rendered all
our present volcanoes extinct.
Since volcanoes are active only near the oceans, it has been suggested
that the eruption is due to sea water that has entered by cracks in the
Earth's crust and is subsequently discharged from the volcano. Volcanoes
do discharge salt water, but the solid ingredients of the water do not
occur in the same proportions that they do in the sea. Some of the sea
salts are often found to be absent, while other salts are often found that
do not occur at all in sea water. This fact, together with the inherent
1 Judd, Volcanoes, p. 347.
2 Continental Problems of Geology, Smithsonian Report, 1S92, p. 165.
THE PLACE OF ORIGIN OF THE MOON — THE VOLCANIC PROBLEM. 533
improbability that sea water should be sucked in at a low level and
pumped out at a high one, renders this explanation improbable.
Another explanation of the universal presence of water in volcanic
products is that it is derived from rain water, which has percolated down
through the soil. This theory, however, does not account for the fact
that volcanoes are always found near the sea. Neither of these theories
account for the gradual elevation of the land in volcanic regions.
Since the process of charging volcanoes with steam is still going on,
and since it appears that the necessary water is not derived from either
the sea or the atmosphere, the only alternative seems to be that it comes
from the heavy stony material forming the ocean beds, and does not
come in appreciable quantities, at present, from the lighter material
forming the continents. It is evident, however, that this lighter material
is sometimes cracked, permitting the discharge to take place through it.
This Avas the case with the extinct volcanoes in Central Europe, and
those near the Yellowstone Park and Arizona in this country. The
volcanoes at present active in North and South America seem to rise
from what was probably formerly the edge of the continental plateau.
The next question that arises is : From what depth does the lava
come 1 Judged by its temperature at the vent, unless it becomes heated
by friction, by compression, or by radio-activity on its way to the sur-
face, which seems improbable, it must have come from a considerable
distance. The rate of increase of temperature with the depth varies in
different parts of the world from 20 to 100 feet per degree Fahrenheit.
It may fairly be taken near the surface at 100° per mile of depth.
From its surface temperature, Bonney estimates ^ that " the lava is gener-
ally supplied from a zone situated at a depth of from 20 to 25, or possibly
to 30 miles, in the crust of the Earth." Computed from the speed of
travel of earthquake waves, Fischer and Milne have placed the thickness
of the crust at about 30 miles.- Judged by the amount of radium
contained in the igneous rocks of the earth's surface, and the total
quantity which the earth can be assumed to contain, Strutt has computed
the thickness of the crust to be about -45 miles. It is interesting to note
that the thickness that we have found dependent on the volume of the
Moon — 36 miles — lies well within these values. It is certainly gratify-
ing that four computations based on such dissimilar data should all lead
to so nearly the same result.
Daubree has shown ^ that water separated from a chamber filled with
steam at a temperature of about 160° C. by a close, fine-grained sand-
stone, passed through the slab with ease, against the outward pressure of
the steam. lie also found that the facilitj^ with which the water found
a passage was increased by heat. There is therefore no difficulty in
understanding the transmission of water through hot rocks at consider-
able depths. Its presence, moreover, would tend to lower the melting-
point of the rock, and make it more viscous.
1 Volcanoes, p. 284.
2 Milne, Seismology, p. 120.
3 Geological Experiments, vol. i. p. 237.
534 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
A certain amount of water may even be transmitted in this manner
down through the ocean floors ; but when we consider that the trans-
mitting medium consists of cold rock several miles in thickness, the Avater
advancing against a constantly increasing pressure, it does not seem that
the amount transmitted per year in this manner can be very large.
In our hypothesis explaining the origin of the continents, it was
stated that they were composed of the crust which was either originally
solid or else had already cooled sufficiently to become so. They had
therefore expelled a large part of any water which they may originally
have contained. The ocean beds at the time of the great catastrophe
were liquid. They therefore absorbed all the water available, if indeed
they were not already saturated Avith it. They had a much higher tem-
perature, having come from a greater depth, and contained much more
water at this period than the continents, and, it is believed, have been
giving it out as they cooled ever since.
Doubtless the hot bases of the continents have absorbed some water
from the ocean beds as the latter cooled, and the expansion and diminished
specific gravity thus caused would tend to elevate them in the vicinity
of the oceans. This has occurred notably in the vicinity of the Pacific,
the whole of whose coasts are at the present time in a state of elevation.
We can understand also that the systematic difi'erence in material and
density, extending over large areas, would render the boundaries of the
continents more subject to cracks, with their resulting volcanoes and
earthquakes, than other portions of the Earth's surface. A zone of
territory subject to earthquakes extends around the Pacific.
As is known from its rigidity, the interior of the Earth as a whole is
solid. There cannot even be at present a continuous liquid surface
between the centre and the crust. Beneath every active volcano, how-
ever, there must be an area from which its lava is derived. In some way,
without doubt by the contraction of the Earth, this lava is caused to
approach the surface, and on the way it gradually changes from a viscous
solid to a viscous liquid. There are only two ways in which this change
can take place : one is by an increase in temperature, the other by a
decrease in pressure. The latter is probably the actual one.
Tangentially considered, the lower portions of what we may for con-
venience call the Earth's crust are in a state of compression, the upper
portions in a state of tension. Radially all are in a state of compression.
Between the upper and lower portions is a neutral surface of no tangential
strain. When a crack caused by the tangential tension reaches this
neutral surface, the viscous rock oozes up through it, becoming more and
more liquid as it approaches the surface and the pressure is diminished.
As it melts and is relieved of pressure, its density diminishes, and, if it
finally reaches the surface, the erupted lava will continue to flow till the
pressure at its source is reduced to equality with the hydrostatic pressure
at the base of the crack. The larger the opening and the shorter the
distance from the surface, the sooner will this equality of pressure occur,
and the shorter be the duration of the eruption. The expansion of the
bubbles of steam near the top of the crack diminishes the hydrostatic
pressure, and their escape obviously causes the explosions usually noticed.
THE PLACE OF ORIGIN OF THE MOON — THE VOLCANIC PROBLEM. 535
The violent manifestations are therefore all generated near the surface,
as is the case of a geyser.
The uprush and escape of all this material broaden the crack into a
tube several hundred feet in diameter. After the lava has ceased to flow,
the steam working its way up to the vent still keeps a somewhat narrowed
passage open. It thus continues as a line of weakness; and when the
flow of steam and viscous rock from below on all sides toward the area
of diminished pressure again increases this pressure beyond the breaking
strength of the resisting material, the eruption will be renewed.
Volcanoes frequently lie along arcs of circles, which, if complete, would
resemble the lunar maria both in size and shape. One of the most com-
plete of these series of arcs has the China Sea for its centre, while the
volcanoes are found in the Philippines, Celebes, Java, Sumatra, the Malay
Peninsula, and Southern China to the west of Canton. The diameter of
this circle is 2000 miles. The Japan and Bering Seas are similarly partly
surrounded by incomplete arcs. The shape of the latter is decidedly
elliptical.
THE JAMAICA EARTHQUAKE, i
By Professor Charles W. Brown, Brown University.
Within a period of nine months three regions in the Western Hemi-
sphere, geologically closely akin, but geographically distant one from the
other, were visited by earthquakes, causing an appalling loss of life and
property. In all cases the disasters had been preceded by minor earth-
shakings for years, and the areas were known to be in zones of earth-
unrest. No warning, however, unless the tremors that occur at
irregular intervals every month or two could be counted as such,
characterised these last disturbances. But these tremors must he
regarded as the climax of a long-continued yielding to strain which has
resulted in a series of minor breakings. This faulting culminated in a
great fracturing of the earth's crust and a consequent destructive
earth-shaking. The kindred conditions of these diff"erent areas appear
to be, first, a considerable amount of diff"erential relief only obtained
where mountains are associated with marine depths; and, in the
second place, the occurrence of newer and less compacted sediments
upon these slopes.
For several months previous to the afternoon of January 14, 1907,
there had been no noticeable increase in the number or intensity of
the customary slight shocks that occur in the Island of Jamaica every
month or two. In Weather Report iv. of Jamaica, Mr. Maxwell Hall
has noted some twenty-six minor shocks that occurred from 1880 to
1886, and this number might be regarded as typical of the seismic
phenomena in that region. A slight shock was noticed by many in
November last, but the memories of the destruction of Port Royal by
1 See The Popular Science MoHthly, May 1907.
536 SCOTTISH GEOGKAPHICAL MAGA21NE.
the historic earthquake of 1692 had been dulled by the interval of two
centuries, and the Jamaicans had begun to think themselves in a region
of comparative safety. Slight tremors and shocks caused but scant atten-
tion or notice on the part of a few of the people. Consequently, when
the real cry of " wolf" came, for the first second or so but few realised the
danger. The slight tremor, however, instantly increased to a terrible
vibration of the earth that threw down great walls and buildings, and
inside of a minute transformed the city of Kingston from a prosperous
metropolis to a place of destruction and mourning.
In order to appreciate their relative importance and possible influence
upon seismic activity, let us notice the topographic, geologic, and batho-
graphic conditions that exist at Jamaica. The etymology of the word
Jamaica, originating in two descriptive Indian words meaning " well-
wooded and watered," and modified by the Spaniards to " Xaymacn,"
is interesting, taken in connection with the historic topographic
description of the island given by Columbus to Queen Isabella on his
return from the West Indies — " a crumpled handkerchief picked up by
the middle."
The aptness of the simile cannot be questioned when one sees the
many steep knife-edged divides (typical " bad-land " topography) rising
abruptly in fifteen miles 7400 feet to the misty Blue Mountain peaks
that tower above the small inland valleys, or the narrow plains that
fringe the seashore. These plains constitute the very small percentage
of the island that is fairly level, and it is upon these plains that the
larger towns and the larger plantations of bananas and sugar-cane are
found. These level areas are made up of alluvial deposits, fans or
sheet- wash brought from the adjacent ragged slopes by the river in flood-
time. Upon the rather bare slopes occasional rectangular patches of
lio'ht green show the location of small banana farms or " pens." But the
more abundant and typical tropical verdure is found lower down on the
fringing plains. The island has long ]:)een known for the abundance and
variety of its tropical and subtropical products due to the fertility of the
limestone soil and the abundance of the rainfall, which varies largely,
however, in amount, from 10 inches at Port Royal to 126 inches some
years in the higher regions.
Geologically, Jamaica is of comparatively recent age, for its basal
Blue Mountain series of sediments and intrusives is of late Cretaceous
and Eocene times. This series makes up the mountainous backbone of
the island, while the later Oligocene limestone overlaps the former series
in a thick piedmontal formation covering two-thirds of the island. The
more recent alluvial and littoral formations were deposited during the
period of uniform elevation following, and constitute the fringing plains
of the island.
In the structural geology of Jamaica, the earliest axis of folding now
evident is the northwest-southeast line of the Blue Mountains, with
later eastwest foldings along the more ancient line of orogenic movement
which outlined the Greater Antilles in early Mesozoic tiraes.^ The
1 See Hill's "The Geology and Phys^ical Geography of Jamaica." Bull. Mus. Comp,
ZooL, xxxiv., 1899, Tp. i2l.
THE JAMAICA EARTHQUAKE. 537
writer has observed transverse faults in the Bhie Mountain region, which
undoubtedly indicate lines along which fracture may occur.
M. de Ballore ^ coincides with Mr. Hill's ideas regarding an east-west
folding for the Antilles in postulating his theory of an anticlinal axis
that marks the line of the Greater Antilles and a parallel synclinal belt
immediately to the north of Jamaica, which coincides with the Bartlett
Deep.
The bathographic relations of Jamaica are significant. We see
that Jamaica and the other Antillean islands are but the higher peaks
of a lofty and precipitous, but submerged, mountain chain. The
tremendous differential relief of over 38,000 feet that exists in places in
the Caribbean region apparently coincides with a zone of seismic and
volcanic frequency. We know that the crust of the earth is always
in a state of tension. This stress may come from the shrinkage of the
earth, from the loading or unloading of the earth's surface through
erosion or deposition, or from other sources. The resistance is
lessened on a relatively steep slope where the points of application
of this lateral pressure at the ends, not falling in the same plane,
tend to produce a fracture. When a sudden slip in the adjustment
occurs, the resulting jar is transmitted through the earth as earthquake
waves.
Port Royal is at the western tip of a narrow seven-mile sand-spit
that makes a natural breakwater to one of the finest harbours in the
West Indies. When the town was for the most part submerged by the
earthquake of 1692, this favourite site was abandoned for the Liguanea
plain just across the harbour, and Kingston was founded on the largest
of the fringing plains of loosely compacted sands and gravels. And here
in this closely built city of 60,000 persons (and at Buff Bay opposite on
the north shore) the destruction by the last earthquake was felt most
keenly. Eighty-five per cent, of the buildings were injured or destroyed.
Then came Kingston's old enemy fire, and swept over ten or fifteen blocks
of the business and warehouse section.
The earthquake shock that brought disaster to the island of Jamaica
began, according to the regulator of Mr. J. A. Soulette, at 3.33 P.M.
Others record its arrival two or three minutes earlier. In various
places on the island, as reported by local times, its occurrence varied
from 3.20 to 3.45 P.M. In the investigation it was found impossible to
plot any coseismal lines, for the reason that no accurate co-ordinated
time exists in the island. Since the shock, however, there has been a
movement on foot in Kingston to establish a system of accurate time-
keeping throughout Jamaica. The shock lasted about thirty-five seconds,
varying in length with the location and geological position of the observer.
At the east end of the island some noted a duration of sixty seconds ;
on the north shore a length of ninety seconds, Avhile at other points near
by the duration reported was anything from five to forty seconds. The
slight preliminary tremors were felt immediately before the main shock,
and the noise and roar were heard slightly before the coming of the
1 Tremblements de Terre, F. de Montessus de Ballore, 1906. ';
VOL. XXUI. 2 Q
538 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
major vibrations. One man, used to earthquake countries, hearing the
sound from the preliminary tremors, rushed out of doors into the street,
only to be thrown toward the west by the violent shaking. He dragged
an injured companion a hundred feet or so during the slight lessening
of the violent shock, and then felt the second climax of a slow undulat-
ing character pass underneath. This experience is like the phenomena
of double earthquake shocks which have come to Jamaica in past years,
and also has characterised many of the sequent shocks. Another man
repeated his actions and found that he could jump through the fallen
wall of the house, and then over a low fence and get into the street in
about forty seconds. The increase and decrease of the tremors are so
gradual that it is very difficult for an observer to tell just when the
shock comes and when it ends. From the majority of the testimony
it is evident that in this disaster the movement quickly reached the
major climax in about ten seconds, then lessened in intensity for about
ten more, then gently swelled to a second and minor climax and
disappeared in a total of about thirty-five seconds.
While there were apparently no preliminary shocks at Jamaica,
there have been many sequent vibrations of the earth more or less
severe. The press has chronicled one on February 23, which was the
strongest since the earthquake, and another one was also noted on
March 22. Mr. Maxwell Hall has noted some eighty shocks after the
main shock on January 14 to I'ebruary 5, several of them shaking the
whole island, while others were of local extent. On the early morning
of January 28 one small shock aAvakened me instantly by a slight shak-
ing of my cot in the tent in which we were sheltered. The continuance of
the motion gave one a sense of insecurity and unsteadiness, and brought
with it a slight tinge of dread and nausea. My first impression upon
waking was of a rushing, whistling sound from the south-west ; it
increased and passed overhead, rapidly lessening and disappearing. It
Avas very similar in sound to the approach and passing of a large flock
of ducks flying low. Then from the racecourse, only a quarter-mile
distant, and only a short time quieted, came the cries of the frightened
negroes and the howls of the numerous dogs with which Kingston is
cursed, and the crowing of the many roosters in the trees — as they did
about every hour during the night. The shock felt on board the mov-
ing Port Antonio train produced a feeling as if the coaches were running
upon the sleepers, and at the same time swaying so much that it seemed
as if they would topple over to the south-west. No damage, however,
was done to any of the rolling stock or to the roadbed. In none of the
many tunnels was any disjilacement observed. A man driving on the
road suddenly felt his vehicle thrown in an angling position across the
road, and it seemed difficult for the horse to keep its footing. It was
observed, however, that motion sometimes counteracted the vibration
of the ground and made the latter imperceptible.
From the data available, the dependence of earthquakes in intensity
upon topography is well emphasised. Loosely compacted fringing and
alluvial plains extended the intensity farther than the more compact
and elastic mountain regions. Not only do these less elastic plains give
THE JAMAICA EARTHQUAKE. 539
a greater amplitude to the waves and cause greater destruction, but
apparently the earth-waves are affected by plains indented in hills
as sea-waves change their direction in entering the arm of a bay.
In the middle of the Hope Eiver Valley at Mona plantation, an
observer noticed the motion pass him and then saw the landslide
occur at the mouth of the river to the southward. As the wave passed
over the cane-fields, a motion was observed similar to that produced in
a field of grain by the wind. The direction here was at right angles
to the path of the wave-motion only five miles away at Kingston,
situated on the western slopes of Long Mountain. The motion ap-
proached the island from the south-west, changing on the land its
direction and intensity with the change in the nature of the material
through which it passed. In the lower part of the city of Kingston the
path of the movement was well marked by the overthrowing of walls,
piers, statues, monuments, large chimneys, and a similar movement
towards the east of even large marble slabs covering graves. North-
ward from the city the motion appeared to come more from the south,
and the northern walls showed the greatest damage ; and westward, the
jjath of motion appeared to swing so that it came from Kingston. The
absence of any large buildings away from the villages and cities made
the plotting of directions rather difiicult, for the lightly-built mud-
wattled huts were not affected by the shock, and tests by hearing are
very unreliable. But there was a general diminution in intensity away
from Kingston ; this decreasing rapidly eastward and less so to the
north. Haiti did not feel the shock, neither was it felt at Colon or
at Grand Cayman, 175 miles west, but Santiago, 120 miles north,
experienced a slight shock.
Cracks in buildings, which at Kingston dip some fifty degrees
east, are always perpendicular to the path of the emergence of earth-
quake waves. Hitherto, the intensity area and epicentre have been
regarded as synonymous. But the dip of the angling cracks at Kingston
points to a locus of disturbance much to the west of that city, while
the lines of isoseismals indicate the intensity area in the western half
of Kingston. It may readily be imagined, then, that the area of greatest
destruction may not be directly above the focus. Suppose a highly
elastic rock is there situated, and some distance away is found a plain
of loosely-formed material. The destruction in the latter area will
far exceed that in the former in spite of its favourable location. Until
we register the actual amplitude, wave-length, and period, and, with
the elasticity of the rock underneath, calculate from the more readily
discerned data on adjacent but less elastic media the changes that have
occurred in the wave-motion, it will be difiicult to determine with accuracj
in a region of rocks of widely varying elasticity the location of epi-
centres. For outliers of rock in plains must deflect, refract, and reflect
wave-motion and even shadow-areas in these plains. The only con-
clusion then is that the east end of the Liguanea plain was the nearest
area to the real epicentre that by nature of material would give the
greatest amplitude to the destructive epifocal waves. Further, the
angle of emergence at Kingston co-ordinated with the proximity of a
54:0 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE,
probable epicentre, together with the limited area of disturbance,
indicates a shallow origin of about three miles.
The line of intensity of the earthquake destruction apparently ex-
tended to a greater distance northward than to the east or west. For
at BufF and Annotta bays on the north shore the destruction was but
little less than at Kingston. Furthermore, the shock was felt at
Santiago to the north, and not at Haiti to the east or on land to the
west of Jamaica. The inference is that the locus of the disturbance
originated in a line of north-south faulting rather than in an area of less
linear extent. The north-south faultlines extendino; throuE^hout the
island, and some probable faultlines extending in a similar direction
through Cuba (marked by sharp valleys) may indicate in a general way
the direction of possible faulting at the present time. It may be noted
that this line of faulting lies at a considerable angle with the general
trend of the Antillean folding. The beautiful mountain road from
Kingston to Newcastle was in the line of greatest intensity. But though
spurs showed considerable destruction, and in places the road slipped
off the face of the steep slopes, or portions of the hills slipped down on
the road carrying it away or obliterating it by landslides in many places,
yet the destruction was caused more by the unstable position of the
road, or of these masses of earth, rather than by the intensity of the
shock. At Newcastle, moreover, the buildings were for the most part
not damaged to any great extent, except as their location on a terraced
slope or on the crest of a short divide would place them in a position
of unstable equilibrium. Similar destruction might be caused by a
severe rainstorm, or, in the northern countries, by frost action as well as
by earthquake waves.
From the investigation of the many cracked walls at Kingston, the
amplitude of the wave motion (as one might expect on alluvial founda-
tions) Avas considerable. Spaces from half an inch to two inches were
left in massive walls. Floors and ceilings ^vere {)ulled from the shallow
supports in many cases and caused destruction in more instances than
would have been necessary had there been greater foresight in the
manner of building. From an open circular well of masonry some twenty
feet in diameter, water was thrown up some eight feet and over the
north-eastern lip of this well. A brick pier in a fence Avas thrown to the
eastward beyond its arc, some two-thirds the length of its radius. At
the same place large slabs of marble were moved along on their cement
base to the eastward some three inches or more in spite of the attendant
friction. The amplitude was probably less than an inch at Kingston.
The speed of the various waves in this earthquake can only be ap-
proximated. During a slight shock that occurred afterwards, of about
one-third the intensity, from an interrupted telephone conversation from
Kingston to Port Antonio, it Avas estimated that the Avave travelled about
2000 feet per second. As yet no data have been available concerning
the breaking of the cables, and as to the exact time or speed as marked by
such fractures. The Panama cable Avas broken in tAvo places, one four miles
and the other some twenty miles offshore from Bull Bay, but so coA'ered
was it Avith debris that a couple of miles or so of the cable had to be
THE JAMAICA EAKTHQUAKE. 541
abandoned. The preliminary tremors were heard before being felt, and
probably were slower than sound waves. With the increase of speed
that comes with the augmentation of intensity of earthquakes, it is
probable that the rate of the major vibrations was about 10,000 feet
per second.
As has been previously stated, the shock was a double one ; the first
climax apparently came from the west, while the second one, less dis-
putive and more undulating in its character, apparently came more from
the southward of Kingston. These tAvo directions of vibration resulted
in an almost universal gyratory movement of columns, statues, piers,
sections of brick chimneys, and even of buildings, in a counter-clockwise
fashion.
Geologically, earthquakes often are not very important. In the
case of the earthquake at Jamaica, however, there apparently was a zone
of fissuring and subsidence from 100 yards to 300 yards in Avidth. It
started at the western part of the city of Kingston, ran along the water
front encircling the harbour, and continued along the line of the Pali-
sadoes, reaching its greatest destructive effect at Port Royal. One arm
of this fissuring followed up the river Cobre to the carriage road. From
soundings taken by the kindness of Mr. Charlton Thomson, harbour-
master, it was ascertained that in several places along the edge of the
harbour the bottom had sunk from old soundings of one fathom and a
half to over six fathoms, and that on the harbour side of the base of the
Palisadoes, a series of step-faults reached a maximum depression at the
shore to the north of four fathoms. This zone of disturbance continued,
as far as could be traced, in an interrupted line along the Palisadoes,
and caused a maximum depression at the western tip of Port Eoyal,
where the buildings were tilted by the sinking and 100 yards or more
of land were submerged to a depth of from 8 to 25 feet. This fissuring
of the earth was caused by the repeated tearing apart and closing of the
earth's crust, accompanied generally by the ejection of water, sand, and
mud, sometimes to the height of three or four feet, but the subsidence
prevented the forming of any cones about these craterlets. The sands
first thrown up were afterwards covered by a layer of mud.
To account for the unique line of fissuring and subsidence is difficult.
It was noted that considerable disturbance took place at the shoreline
where the earth vibrations were refracted in changing from the medium
of one elasticity to a medium of a difi'erent elasticity. But the middle
portions of the harbour were stable and the channel was unchanged,
though a beacon light near Fort Augusta was broken off. In this lime-
stone country, solution by underground waters might be sufficient to
account for the sinking of a small area like the harbour at Kingston.
But the harbour did not sink — only a small encircling zone, and that
located either on the shore or slightly offshore. The continuous tearing
apart and closing of these fissures, covering a few hours' time as it did
in some instances, might account for the hydraulicing of the loosely
compacted sands and gravels in the zone of fissuring, and allow
for subsidence. Again, ground waters may have caused considerable
solution of the limy constituents where the waters entered the harbour.
542 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
But no theory as yet satisfactorily accounts for this peculiar subsidence.
At the eastern part of the harbour at Rock Fort a considerable change in
underground drainage was observed, where a small spring was increased
to a stream eight feet wide and six inches deep.
It was here at the Rock Fort Penitentiary quarry that a guard gave
me the only reliable account of a sea-wave. After a few moments had
elapsed and the convicts had run from the landslides on the face of the
quarry and gathered around him for protection, the sea retreated for a
hundred feet and then advanced inward upon the shore about sixty feet
in a low wave a couple of feet high. Ocho Rios, near St. Anne's Bay,
oil the north shore, also had its harbour emptied for about seventy-five
yards, after which a small incoming wave was followed by gradually
lessening oscillations. A careful search ten days later along the other
places of the harbour and coastline, however, revealed no trace of any
sea- wave, even of slight degree.
Thanks to the energy of the department in charge of the waterworks,
and to the good fortune that caused no important breaks in the system,
Kingston was shut off from its water supply for only two hours. Some
of its cement reservoirs situated near a large wrecked school-building
showed no damage. The pipe that carries the city's sewage eastward
to the sea at the base of the Palisadoes, however, was broken at several
places along the zone of Assuring, and its linear extent, like that of the
water pipe along the Palisadoes, Avas marked by rifting in the earth.
A. prompt rejiairing of the breaks in these two systems undoubtedly
saved the city from an outbreak of destructive pestilence.
Arches in buildings apparently withstood the shock to a notable
degree, whether transverse or parallel to the line of the earthquake
motion. Generally when built in houses they preserved the parts
around them. The Institute, a building in which some two hundred
delegates had assembled in the first session of the West Indian Agri-
cultural Conference, is built on two lines of arches at right angles to
each other. The Institute was damaged, but withstood the shock. The
great destruction of brick buildings in Kingston was doubtless due to
the fact that poor mortar and dry bricks were used in the construction.
The mortar generally appeared to be rather porous, and usually the
cracks in the wall followed the mortar, though at Up Park Camp, where
the bricks were laid in cement mortar, the cracks passed through the
bricks.
The streets were narrow, so that the falling wall of even a two-story
building would block the street, and many persons escaped from falling
buildings only to be crushed in the choked narrow streets. A cement
floor may help to preserve a building from destruction. In many cases it
could be seen that if the floors had been well tied to the walls and the
walls themselves held at the corners, a great lessening of the destruction
would have resulted. On account of the white ants, foreign woods are,
unless creosoted, difficult to use, but some frame houses showed but the
slightest effect of the earthquake shock. The " barrack " or " noggin "
structure, much used in earthquake countries, apparently suffered nearly
as much as other brick walls.
THE JAMAICA EAETHQUAKE. 543
Jamaica lies in a region of great differential relief and consequent
stress. The earthquake was confined in its area of greatest destruction
to small limits upon alluvial detrital material, where the amplitude was
increased to bring about this effect, varying with the heterogeneity of
material. The origin of the shock was comparatively shallow, and the
earthquake was local in character. While there was a general distinct
rotary motion induced by two components of the vibrations, the
major component came from a westerly direction. There were feAV
evidences of sea-waves, but there Avas a unique zone of fissuring and
subsidence about the harbour of Kingston. Finally, the disasters at
San Francisco, Valparaiso, and Kingston should teach the lesson that in
the case of cities located in a danger zone (where there are many recurring
shocks of slight degree), there is always a possibility of the coming of a
disastrous shock ; that certain types of buildings should be built and
streets laid out with that possibility in mind ; that water, sewage, and
lighting systems should be planned in sections, and that as far as
possible a city should not be located nor large edifices erected upon
uncompacted rocks and soils.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE EOYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL
SOCIETY.
At a Meeting of Council, held on July 19, the following lady and
gentleman were elected Members of the Society : —
Miss E, G. Kemp, London. Captain A. Akin-Higgins.
Diploma of Fellowship.
The Council conferred the Ordinary Diploma of Fellowship on
Miss E. G. Kemp, Captain A. Akin-Higgins, and the Rev. Alexander M.
Sutherland, Members of the Society, who had complied with the
prescribed conditions.
Society's Rooms.
The Council also resolved to forward the following letter to the
Secretary for Scotland : —
"29th July 1907.
" Unto the Right Honourable John Sinclair, M.P.,
" Secretary for Scotland.
" SiE, — At a Meeting held to-day the Council of this Society re-
quested me to communicate with you, as it was understood that the
question of the Society's tenancy of premises in the National Portrait
544 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Gallery, Edinburgh, had been submitted to you by the Board of Trustees
under the National Galleries of Scotland Act.
" The Society's tenancy of its premises in the National Portrait
Gallery has already lasted for sixteen years, and during that period the
Society has annually paid to the Government a rent of £125.
" In the Report of the Departmental Committee, appointed by Lord
Balfour of Burleigh when Secretary for Scotland, there is not merely
a recommendation that the above rent be remitted, but also the Com-
mittee implied that permanency of tenure should be granted to the
Society.
" During the twenty-three years of its existence the Society has done
much to extend Geographical education throughout Scotland. Its
Monthly Magazine is recognised as an important scientific publication,
devoting special attention to original research of national interest.
Although contributors are not paid, this publication costs the Society
upwards of £800 per annum. The Society has always had four centres
of activity, situated in Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee, and Aberdeen, and
its Lectures in all these cities are very largely attended.
"Owing to its exertions, and its desire to meet the demands of its
various centres, the Society has annually expended all its available
income, and it has been unable to undertake more work or to open new
centres throughout Scotland solely for lack of funds.
" In these circumstances the Council appeals to you to keep in view
the straitened financial condition of the Society, and its necessity for
financial help, if its usefulness is to be continued and remain unimpaired.
" At the present time the Society feels that it would be disastrous to
its interests to be forced to leave the premises where it has been lodged
for sixteen years. Besides the heavy expenses of removal, the change of
its well-known headquarters would be very prejudicial; and the Council
ventures to hope that by some rearrangement of rooms it may still be
possible to provide in the National Portrait Gallery office accommoda-
tion for the Board of Trustees without disturbing the Geographical
Society's tenancy.
" If the present tenancy of the Society is to be interfered with, it
would be absolutely necessary, in order to prevent serious injury to the
Society's important public work, that it should receive an annual grant
from Government, and it is calculated that adequate accommodation
in a suitable locality could not be provided for less than £300 per
annum.
"Seeing that the Royal Geographical Society of London receives
an annual Government grant of £500 and has only one centre, a similar
grant to this Society in aid of the expenses of four centres throughout
Scotland seems reasonable.
" I shall be glad to furnish you with any other information, statistical
or otherwise, concerning the Society and its work, and I have the
honour to remain. Sir, your most obedient servant,
James Geikie, President."
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE. 545
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Asia.
The Geology of Japan. — A paper on this subject by Mr. E.
Anderson was read recently before the Geological Society of Washington,
and from the summary in Science (May 24) we select the following
points of geographical interest. The Japanese chain of islands is
continental in character, and not chiefly volcanic in origin, though
volcanic activity has always been a feature of its history. The ground
plan of the group was laid in the earliest geological time, for Archsean
gneisses and schists, together with a great series of Palseozoic rocks,
form the basal complex. On this primitive land mass, rocks of Secondary,
Tertiary, and Post-Tertiary age have been superimposed. Geological
activity has been always great and has been long-continued, as is shown
by the changes which the sediments have undergone, while the earth-
quakes of the present time show that land movements are still going on.
There is considerable resemblance between the geology of Japan
and that of the western coast of America. In both California and
Japan there is a similar basement complex. In both intrusions of
granite, apparently of Mesozoic age, are widespread and important.
The old floras and faunas show considerable resemblance, as do also
those of recent times. Further, in both cases there have been long
coastal belts of volcanic activity during Tertiary and Quaternary times,
the thickness and wide extent attained by the Tertiary tuffs of Japan
being remarkable. Both countries show recent earth-movements, as
illustrated in raised Quaternary deposits and marine terraces, and in the
present oscillations of the shore level. In both countries land-building
was tremendously rapid in Tertiary times, when land areas were rapidly
denuded and great thicknesses of rock deposited along narrow belts.
The Hydrography of the Sangpo. — In the Annual Report of the
Board of Scientific Advice for India (1905-6) there is a note by Colonel
Burrard calling attention to the peculiar fact that all the principal
tributaries of the Sangpo show a tendency to flow in the opposite
direction to the main stream. Colonel Burrard suggests as an explana-
tion of this the hypothesis that at no very distant date the river flowed
from east to west instead of from west to east, and that the tributaries
were developed at this period. When the river reversed its course he
supposes that a great lake was formed in south-eastern Tibet, which
overflowed the southern ranges, and gradually cut a gorge through them.
The same process is happening in Kashmir, where the Jhelum is cutting
a gorge. Colonel Burrard also points out the curious fact that in the
Himalayas the highest point of a range of mountains is frequently in
close proximity to the gorge of a river. He thinks that the explanation
may be that the highest points of a range tend to occur where the range
bends, and that bends are at the same time the weakest points of a
546 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
range, the parts most easily attacked by water and ice. It will be of
interest to learn whether the Sangpo also pierces the Himalaya near a
point of maximum elevation, but this is not a point likely to be settled
meantime.
Africa.
The Nyasaland Protectorate. — An Order of Council, dated
July 6, was promulgated at the beginning of September, changing the
designation of the British Central Africa Protectorate to the Nyasaland
Protectorate, and appointing a governor in place of a commissioner and
executive and legislative councils.
Plant-zones on Mt. Ruwenzori. — At a recent meeting of the
Linnsean Society, a paper was read giving some account of the plants of
Euwenzori as studied by Dr. Wollastou in his expedition (cf. p. 380).
From 3000 to 7000 feet the vegetation includes some common tropical
weeds, with a fair percentage of more localised species and some
novelties. Cultivation ceases above 7000 feet, and the largest forests
occur between this height and 8000 feet. Above 8000 feet the forest
thins out, and is gradually replaced by a belt of small tree-heaths and
Podocarpus. On the east side the bamboo zone begins about 8500 feet,
and extends up to 10,000 feet. The big tree-heaths begin about 9500
feet, at which height a number of terrestrial orchids were found, with
numerous ferns. From 10,000 to 11,000 feet moss is abundant on the
ground, and also on the trees, forming cushions two feet deep. In this
region two tree-lobelias were found. Between 11,000 and 12,000 feet,
helichrysums, lobelias, tree-heaths and tree-senecios are the conspicuous
plants. The heaths cease about 12,500 feet, but the tree-senecios
continue up to nearly 14,000 feet. Another kind of lobelia appears at
about 12,500 feet, and continues almost to the snowline on the steepest
slopes. The helichrysums sometimes form bushes four to five feet high,
and grow luxuriantly. At 14,000 feet a small Arabis was found, and a
rush, a grass (a new species of Poa), and mosses were found growing up
to the level of permanent snow.
America.
French Guiana. — We have received a pamphlet entitled Notice
Hisiorique sur La Giujane Francaise, by M. Henry Richard, which was
published on the occasion of the Colonial exposition at Marseilles last
year. The author, who is Honorary President of the Chamber of
Agriculture at Cayenne, in a prefatory note says that his object is
not to give a complete account of the history of the Colony, but simply
to draw attention to its resources and possibilities. The colony, he
says, has been much neglected, and requires capital and energy for its
further development. The historical account shows that at the end of
the eighteenth century French Guiana contained a large number of cattle
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 547
and sheep, and that this industry had reached considerable dimensions.
Neglect, disease, and other causes led to the disappearance of the model
farms and to the great reduction in number of the cattle, so that now
the colony requires to import much of its butcher meat. According
to the author, however, the savannas which extend from Macouria to
Organabo, at the border of the sea, are capable with proper care of once
more supporting abundant flocks and herds. Similarly, various past
attempts have shown that parts of the country are capable of producing
all the tropical plants of commerce, cocoa and rubber being especially
likely to be profitable. Again, the partially sandy ground of the littoral
from Point Macouria to Organabo has in the past produced cotton and
would do so at a profit now, when the demand for the product is so
greatly increasing. The industries just mentioned require the improve-
ment of the means of communication, and some attempt should also
be made to open up the rich forests of the interior. The first desideratum
in the author's opinion is the appointment of a permanent scientific
commission, which should study in detail the resources and possibilities
of the country.
The Sierra Maestra of Cuba. — An article by Mr. B. E. Fernow
in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society (May 1907) gives
a brief account of a journey in the High Sierra Maestra of Cuba. Of
special interest is the account of the forest of the region. The High
Sierra Maestra has a general level of over 3000 feet, and though there
are two rainy seasons, from March to May or June, and from September
to November respectively, yet the climate is on the whole dry, the
conditions varying between the xerophytic and the mesophytic types.
The whole mountain range is densely clothed with forest, but owing
to the relative dryness this is very much less dense than the typical
tropical forest. The undergrowth is not excessive, and the woods are
not gloomy and impenetrable, as in a damp tropical region. The author
emphasises, however, a point of interest which differentiates this forest
from a temperate one, which at first sight it somewhat resembles. This
is the large number of species, and the relatively small number of each
species present. Great numbers of individual trees do not occur, and
there is nothing to represent the numerous pines, or maples, or oaks,
or so on of the northern forests. In other words, the struggle for
existence in so far as inanimate nature is concerned is less keen than
in the temperate forest, and therefore no one species has a handicap
as compared with its neighbours. Commercially this renders the tropical
forest much more difficult of exploitation than the temperate one, for
the valuable species occur in single specimens or small groups, and other
specimens of the tree may not occur within a considerable radius.
Another consequence of the equal terms on which the species compete
is that trees of commercial size are few. Over the area examined by
the author marketable trees rarely rise to ten per acre, and on the
average there are less than two such per acre The forest in which
these observations were made is, it may be noted, virgin ; much of it
indeed has never been explored.
548 scottish geographical magazine,
Australasia.
Population of Commonwealth of Australia. — We have received
from the Commonwealth Statistician a hiiUctin on the Determination
of the Population of Australia for each quarter from December 31, 1900,
to December 30, 1906, which also includes a review of Census Methods.
From this pamphlet we extract the following figures in regard to the
different States. The total estimated population of the Commonwealth
on December 31, 1906, was 4,085,417 persons, of which 2,153,119 were
males, and 1,982,298 were females, and this population was distributed
among the States as follows: — Xew South Wales, 1,526,607; Victoria,
1,231,940; Queensland, 535,113; South Australia (including Northern
Territory), 383,829; Western Australia, 261,746: Tasmania, 180,156.
Polar.
The Anglo-American Polar Expedition. — According to a tele-
gram from Winnipeg at the beginning of September, the Ducliess of Bedford,
the vessel of this expedition, was lost near Fort Anxious at some prior
period. Captain Mikkelsen, Mr. Leffingwell, and another member of the
party had left the ship in February, with sixty days' provisions, in search
of supposed land to the north, and at the time of the vessel's loss they
had been gone seventy days, and no news had been received of them,
though one of their dog teams had returned.
Up to last December the expedition, it is known, was stationed at
the ship's winter quarters, off Flaxman Island (cf. also p. 318), whence
Captain Mikkelsen intended to start on his expedition to the north.
According to a June telegram. Captain Mikkelsen reached Herschel
Island in April of the present year, and reported that the ship was ice-
bound 150 miles to the north-west. He started to return to the vessel
at the end of April with the intention of navigating further north, but
it would appear probable that at this time the vessel was already lost.
The information which has since been received, though sufficient to
relieve the anxiety whicli was beginning to be felt as to the safety of
the members of the expedition, is not yet adequate to make quite
clear the movements of the two parties. At the time when news was
received of the loss of the vessel it was known that the party on board
was safe, but, as stated above, nothing was known as to the whereabouts
of Captain Mikkelsen and Mr. Leffingwell. On September 9, however,
a message was received from Mr. Stefansson, the ethnologist of the
expedition, dated from Eagle City, Alaska, which is on the Upper
Yukon river, stating that the expedition was safe. This was followed a
few days later by a more detailed message from Captain Mikkelsen and
Mr. Leffingwell. The message was dated from Dawson City, in the
Yukon territory, and stated that the party had sledged 500 miles over
the sea-ice, crossing the continental shelf twice. Soundings had been
taken fifty miles off tlie Alaskan coast and beyond, but no bottom was
found at 630 metres. Next year the party hope to continue their
exploration of the geology and ethnography of the district, together
with the survey of the Beaufort Sea.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 549
Mr. Harrison's Arctic Expedition. — In vol. xxii. p. 604 we
published a short note on Mi'. Harrison's Arctic expedition (see also xxi.
I>. 609), which started with the object of investigating the same problem
as Captain Mikkelsen. In the middle of September of the present year
some further news came to hand of Mr. Harrison's movements. Though
he has not succeeded in carrying out his original scheme he appears to
have done much useful work in the region of the Mackenzie river. The
letter referred to brought the account of Mr. Harrison's movements
down to the middle of June, and was dated from Fort Macpherson, Peel
river, to the west of the Mackenzie river. During the period from
September 1906 to last June Mr. Harrison was occupied with survey
work in the region of the Mackenzie, especially to the east of this river.
Last autumn he visited the Eskimo lakes near the coast to the east of
the Mackenzie, and as game was very scarce and fish plentiful in the
lakes he wintered near them. The fish lasted well into January, but so
soon as the sun reappeared no more were caught, either on hooks or by
nets. In January Mr. Harrison went down to the coast, and surveyed
the coastal region. As a result he has made maps both of the east and
west branches of the Mackenzie from Fort Separation to the ocean, and
also from the east branch of the Mackenzie to 130" 59' 22" W. long,
and up to 68° 40' N. lat. from the coast. Mr, Harrison has been consider-
ably hampered in his movements by a scarcity of supplies.
The Wellman Polar Expedition. — The members of this ex-
pedition arrived at Tromsoe in the middle of September, the attempt on
the Pole having been abandoned on account of the unfavourable weather.
An attempt was made to launch the airship at the beginning of September,
but the wind drove it back to the mainland of Spitsbergen. The season
during the present year has been throughout unfavourable.
General.
The Ninth International Geographical Congress. — In our Feb-
ruary issue (p. 101) a preliminary notice was given in regard to this
Congress. According to a long article in Le Globe (June 1907), at a
meeting of the Organising Committee held in May of the present year,
the arrangements for the Congress were further elaborated, especially in
regard to the scientific excursions. These number ten, vary in length
up to eight or ten days, will take place some before and some after the
Congress, and are each to be under the charge of a specialist. It is
expected that in the course of these varied excursions all the important
questions in regard to scientific geography will receive consideration.
From the preliminary programme of the excursions, which appears in
the same article, Ave extract the following. Dr. J. Frith will lead an
excursion, lasting six days, to study the morphology of the Alps and
their foothills. This excursion starts from Zurich, and the party \\\\\ cross
the Briinig to Meiringen, descend to Interlaken, cross the Gemmi, and
follow the Rhone valley to the lake, and so to Geneva. A longer and more
elaborate excursion, under Dr. Lugeon, will have for its object the study
550 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
of the i^henomenon of inverted folding in the Alps. Starting from
Lausanne, this party will study part of the shores of Lake Geneva, the
district of Leysin and the Ormonts, the structure of the Dent de
Morcles and the Diablerets, the gorge of the Ehone, and will then
ascend to Zermatt, from which place the return to Geneva will be made.
M Muret will lead an excursion for the study of economic forestry in
the High Alps, which will last a week, and will start from Brienz. The
ground covered may be indicated by the following list of sleeping-places
— Brienz, Neuchatel, Fribourg, Aigle, Villeneuve, Bex, Geneva. Under
the leadership of Dr. Schardt the structure of the Jura, the plateau, and
the Alps will be studied in two excursions, one before and one after the
Congress, occupying a total of ten days. The first will start from
Neuchatel, and will follow the route Bulle, Grandvillard, Rougemont,
Gstad, Gsteig, Sanetsch, Sion. The second part will be devoted to the
southern part of the crystalline Alps, and starting from Brigue the party
will cross to Domo d'Ossola by the Simplon, From Domo d'Ossola they
will travel to Yarzo and Veglia, and so by the Passo Forchetta to Brigue
again. An elaborate botanical excursion, under the leadership of Dr.
Schroeter, and lasting eleven days, will start from Lucerne, where Pilatus
will be ascended, then the party will travel on to the Engadine, and to
Lakes Como, Lugano, and Maggiore, the return to Geneva being made
by the Simplon route. There will be also a series of shorter excursions,
one to study vegetation contrasts and the technique of botanical distribu-
tion in the vicinity of Lake Geneva under the leadership of Dr. Briquet,
and one to study Chemical Erosion, under Dr. Emile Chaix. Glacial
morphology will be studied under Professor Briickner in an excursion
which starts from Geneva, and includes Chamonix, the Rhone Glacier,
and Lucerne. Professor Brunhes will lead a party for the study of the
contrasts between glacial and fluvial erosion in an eight-day excursion,
chiefly in the Bernese Oberland region. All the excursions are limited
as regards numbers, and detailed instructions are given as to the neces-
sary equipment, amount of walking, etc., as well as the estimated cost of
each excursion.
Commercial Geography.
The Economic Development of Japan. — Attention may be drawn
to a lengthy article, illustrated by a map, in the BuUctin Ecciwmique
(January to February, 1907), in which M. George Dauphinot gives a
detailed account of the resources and commercial development of Japan.
The article is not of a nature which lends itself readily to the purposes
of an abstract, but it may be recommended to the notice of those
specially interested in the subject. Of special value is the account of
the rapid industrial development of the country. An important factor
has been, and still is, the low rate of wages, and the large amount of
female labour available, at wages of from 36 to G2 centimes per day (i.e.
about 3|d. to 6d.) Female labour is utilised in almost all forms of
industry. The development of industry has also been aided by the
large amount of water-power available. The author takes a favourable
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 551
view of the condition of Japanese finance, but considers that in view of
the rapidly developing industries the existing policy of protection will
require modification.
EDUCATIONAL.
In the Geographische Zeitschrift for July 30, Professor Geistbeck pub-
lishes a paper on "Methods of Geographical Teaching," which was prepared
for a discussion on this subject at the 16th Deutschen Geographentag at
Niirnberg. If it contains nothing strikingly novel, the paper emphasises
once more points in connection with geographical teaching which are
worth constant repetition. Some, perhaps, of the suggestions are rather
counsels of perfection under the ordinary conditions of school teaching,
but as ideals they may be found stimulating.
In the first place, Professor Geistbeck considers that geography must be
definitely regarded as a subject which can only be studied by the method
of direct observation. Who will learn to know the earth as it actually
appears must, as he picturesquely says, come forth from the four walls
of the school. It is not there that the subject can be studied, and just
as the study of botany must begin with the living plant (let teachers of
nature-study note this !), so the study of geography must begin with the
world as it is. The elementary geographical concej^tions, the general
points in regard to earth-knowledge so far as these are illustrated in the
home district, methods of orientation, of measurement, the rocks under-
lying the surface, the plants and animals of the home district, and so
forth, no less than an elementary knowledge of map-reading — all this
should be learnt in the field. Further, it is essential, says Professor Geist-
beck, that the method of direct observation should be continued through-
out the whole school course and not confined to one period. In the
early stages the object should be only to develop the "geographic sense,"
and to arouse geographical interest, while later the scholars should be
more and more trained in the practical handling of maps, no less than
in the perception of the relations of geographic phenomena. The author
lays great stress upon the value of training in the comprehension of a
landscape through the eye, because of the frequency of repetition of the
same type of landscape in different parts of the world. Thus when the
scholars have been trained to perceive the morphological features due
to recent severe glaciation in their own district, they know also the
prevalent type of landscape in a great number of other areas. In the
field work the simpler forms of scientific instruments should be employed,
and care should be taken to prevent the lessons becoming too vague and
generalised by assigning a definite object to each.
This direct observation must, however, be supplemented by indirect
forms of observation in the schoolroom. Here reliefs of the home dis-
trict, photographs, and especially maps, are of supreme importance.
They must be supplemented by various collections, as of stones, minerals,
specimens of commercial products, and so on. An interesting suggestion
552 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
is the construction of a geological map of the home district, with the
actual rocks of the locality.
As regards what he calls the anthropological element in earth-know-
ledge, Professor G-eistbeck is strongly opposed to the division of the
subject into the two branches of political and physical geography, studied
separately. The rivers, lakes and seas, the hills and valleys, the plains
and moniitains, wind and weather, appear as acting forces in the life
of the people of the region, and the true value of geography is lost
unless the intimate relation of the physical environment and the economic
facts is made clear by simultaneous study. Geography, as the author
truly says, is not a mere combination of sciences ; these form the ele-
ments of which it is composed, but they combine to constitute a new
science, as chemical elements unite to form a compound. The ruling idea
of geography is the organic relation between the earth and its living
creatures : it is a synthesis, and all facts which cannot be related to
other facts should be excluded from its sphere and left to the separate
sciences to which they properly belong, while on the other hand facts
which can be correlated should be studied in their relations.
NEW BOOKS.
EUEOPE.
The Land in the Mountains : Tyrol. By W. A. Baillie-Grohman. With
Introduction by Charles Landis. Illustrated with 82 Plates and Maps of
Modern Tyrol and Ancient Ehaetia. London : Simpkin, Marshall and
Co., Ltd., 1907. Price 12s. 6(1. net.
The name of Mr, Baillie-Grohman is well known on both sides of the Atlantic
and in various fields of activity. But, possibly, in all his writings he has found
no field more congenial to him than this description of Tyrol, his native land.
The story of Tyrol ("The Tyrol" is incorrect) is told from all points of view,
and much and well-directed study has gone to the telling of it. Thanks largely
to its possessing in its centre the Brenner Pass, "the natural portal between
the North and the South," history has seldom stood still in Tyrol ; rather it has
been a continual epitome of the history of Europe. The tale is vividly told here,
and many are the interesting personages figured — the Emperor Maximilian,
whose love of sport is done justice to ; George Von Frundsberg, the creator of the
first drilled-mercenaries in Europe ; the great Fugger family, the Eotbschilds of
the Middle Ages ; Archduchess Eleanore, daughter of James i. of Scotland, who
so drew to herself the afiections of her subjects ; and many others. The accounts
given of the people of Tyrol, past and present, of the country itself and its
cistles with their treasures of ancient armour and furniture, make the reader glad
that it has fallen to one so admirably equipped for the task to give to the English-
speaking world this first authoritative description of a singular country.
There is no page in the volume without interest. But the immediate attrac-
tion is the wealth of beautiful illustrations with which it is enrichtd— picturesque
ruins, antique drawings, details of wood-carving, mountain scenery, etc. — and
throut^h all are scattered many views of the author's own Schloss Matzen in the
Unter Innthal, which forms a worthy example of the Tyrolean castle as it
NEW BOOKS. 553
remains to-day. We may note also the fly-leaves fiicing the plates, which,
besides the name and a descriptioa of the plate, give references to the text and
ID other plates, — a useful feature.
Aq interesting biography of Mr. Baillie-Grohman, from the pen of an Ameri-
can f I lend, opens the volume.
Red litissia. By John Foster Fraser. London, Paris, New York, and
Melbourne : Cassell and Co., 1907. Price Us.
A very lurid picture, and not nice reading ! We find no fault with the author,
he conceives he has a duty to perform, and he has done it very well, but we would
fain, after reading his book, prefer- to think that he has painted the picture
too red.
The book is a kaleidoscopic review of Russia as she is to-day, and according to
Mr. John Foster Fraser she is in a very bad way indeed. Serfdom were freedom
compared to the grinding tyranny of Bureaucracy and Militarism. The country
is seething with sedition and secret societies from the Baltic to the Pacific. The
Duma is a hollow mockery. Government there is none. The nation is bankrupt
materially and morally, and if one half only of what Mr. Fraser tells us were true,
Kus&ia is not fit to rank as a civilised country as we unierstand civilisation
iu the twentieth century. We are in accord with Mr. Fraser when he says,
" What Russia wants is a strong man." At present she is a festering
sore among nations. We repeat, the book is not nice reading, but it is worth
rea ling, nevertheless.
Companions in the, Sierra. By Charles Rudy. London : John Lane, 1907.
Price Gs.
This is a purposeless little book, written in a poetic vein, with very pretty
descriptive vignettes of Spanish country scenery, men and donkeys, and a very
characteristic prefatory introduction by Mr. R. B. Cunninghame Graham.
Fidd Path Rambles. By Walker Miles. Series 29 : over one hundred miUs
of rambles round Leith Hill, with a route from Dorking to Horsham and back.
With Illustrations. London : Taylor and Son, 1907. Price Is. net.
This is a member of a useful little stries of books whose object is to encourage
country rambles, and facilitate their accomplishment. Though the particular
locality is outside our range, yet the object is one which a geographical society
should encourage by every means in its power. We are, however, scmewtat
scandalised to read in the accompanying adveitisement slip that the routes are so
fully detailed "that all ijecessity for consulting a map is avoided." A rambler
who does not always carry a map has yet to learn the A B C of his sport, and to
suppose that any book or guide can replace a map is to ignore the fundamental
postulates of the geographer.
ASIA.
Japanese Ride in Foi'mosa. By Yosaburo Takekoshi. Translated by George
Braithwaite. London : Longmans, Green and Co., 1907. Price 10.9. 6<'. net.
A very impartial account by a Japanese of Japanese colonisation. The author
does not unduly magnify the achievements of his countrymen nor minimise their
failures, for the Japs, like their predecessors the Dutch and Chinese, have had
their failures in Formosa. This is not a book like Consul Davidson's compre-
hensive volume upon this enchanting island, but it is a book well worth reading
VOL. xxin. 2 R
554 SCOITISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
as an object lesson to all nations, more especially Germany, as to " thorough " when
applied to colonisation.
The Japanese have had to begin all over again with their treatment of the
savage native tribes, and have now got them well in hand. The possibilities of
this^perhaps the most fertile and productive island in the world — are very inter-
estingly dealt with, and the rapid development of the resources of the agricultural
and mineral wealth of the country in so short a time is nothing short of mar-
vellous. Altogether, this is a very educative and readable volume, and the
traaslator has done his work well.
To-morrov in the East. By Douglas Story. London : Chapman and Hall,
1907. Price 6s.
This book is a somewhat disconcerting contribution to the elucidation of the
future in the Far East, by one who can claim more than the average newspaper
correspondent's knowledge of the subject. The author takes rather a pessimistic
view of the future as regards British interests in the Orient, and sees no material
advantage to us in our alliance with Japan. His version of the history of the
Japanese protectorate over Korea may be true or not, but it shows at any rate that
the Japs have not much to learn from Western methods when diplomacy fails.
The book begins with a chapter on " The New Egypt,'' written in the same
alarmist strain which permeates the whole volume, and we think the picture is
overdrawn. The book, however, deserves some attention.
Sunny Siiigapon'. By Rev. J. A. Bethune Cook. London : Elliot Stock, 1907.
Price 5s. net.
One of the numerous books dealing with missionary effort in the East, of
which we should say the supply is quite equal to the demand. Himself a
missionary, the author has presented a modest review of missionary work in
Malaya. He has mvrshalled his historical fticts very succinctly, and the
accounts of the Chinese population in Singapore and the Federated States, as
also the chapter on the future of China, are thoughtfully written.
The Twipi-rial Gazetteer of Imlia. New edition, published under the authority of
His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council. Oxford : at the
Clarend(m Press, 1907. Price 6s. net for each of 26 vols., including the
Atlas, or £b (4s. each) subscription in advance.
From every point of view, save the literary, this third edition of the India
Gazetteer promises to prove the greatest book ever published on our Indian Empire.
It is more, it is a far more adequate and complete scientific and administrative
treasury of fact and philosophy regarding the land and the people, and especially
the geography, than any civilised Government in Europe or America has yet
attempted to prepare. This colossal enterprise has cost the Indian Government
from first to last £75,000. The late Sir W. Hunter had practically carte blanche
to organise all over India the material, which in 1881 appeared in nine volumes.
Since that time not only has the book passed out of print, but the Indian Empire
has grown, the census of 1901 has revealed much, and, above all, a whole crowd of
experts have risen from the C'ivil Service chiefly skilled to bring to the new facts
the latest teaching of science and of administrative experience. Hence the
twenty-six volumes will form a new book worthy of the subject.
The first four volumes, each of more than 500 demy octavo pages, are devoted
NEW BOOKS. 555
to the description of, and historical, economic and administrative, accounts of
India. These will be followed by the Atlas of sixty-four plates and the alphabetical
gazetteer made up of articles re-written by the district officers and the sup* rinten-
dents of the census of 1901. Only the descriptive, economic and administrative
volumes are now before us. These at once establish a high standard of excellence.
For each chapter the ablest expert has been secured. Not one of the articles falls
short of excellence and fullness combined, save, perhaps, that on the many
religions professed in India. The same justice is not done to Christianity as to
Hindooism and Animism.
The writer, evidently in defective sympathy with the one Faith which claims
universal allegiance, contents himself with a reference to the satisfactory
chapter on the subject in the second edition. Very admirable is Dr. Grier-
son's chapter on the Languages. Other writers are Sir Joseph Hooker on
the Flora, the late Dr. T. W. Blandford on the Fauna, Sir T. Holdich on the
Physical Geography, Mr. Holland, F.R.S., on the Geology and Mineral Products,
Dr. James Burgess on the Architecture, and Sir George Watt on the Arts and
Manufactures. Most clear and satisfactory are the chapters on the land revenue
and tenures, on rents, wages and prices, and on agriculture. To Sir Herbert
Risley, the editor, is due the original outline of this magnificent undertaking,
to which we hope to do justice as the successive volumes appear.
AMERICA.
On the Mexican Highlands. By William Skymodr Edwards. Cincinnati :
Jennings and Graham, 1906. Price $1..')0 net.
This is a pleasantly written account by a passing visitor of a six weeks' tiip
through New Orleans, Central Mexico, and home to the United States via Cuba.
The writer describes, with the help of a kodak, his impressions of the places he
saw, and his pictures of Mexico, if slight, will prove interesting so far as they
go, especially to American readers, for whom they are priruarily intended.
The author paid a visit to the copper mines on the Balsas River in the Tierra
Caliente, or hot country, abaut which he gives sundry interesting notes, describing
the unhappy lot of the enslaved Indian peons who wear out their miserable lives
to enrich their luxurious owners in Mexico Cityj Madrid, or Paris, as their
ancestors have done before them for hundreds of years. At page 145 we read of
one of those mines : "The Mina el Puerto is an ancient mine, now neai'ly ex-
hausted ; for it has been worked almost two hundred years, all through a single
doorway cut into the rock, barred by a great wooden door, fastened by a ponderous
lock with a ponderous iron key. Each morning for many decades the owner has
taken the key from his belt, unlocked the big door, and sent fifteen to twenty
naked Indians down the 'chicken ladders' (poles with notches cut in them for
steps) four hundred feet into the hot mines below. There is no ventilation, there
are no pumps, there is no other way to go in or out. Two or three hours is the
longest time a man can work at the bottom of this hole ; when the Indian can
stand it no longer he climbs up bringing on his back the ore which he has been
able to dislodge, or a bag of water, if any shall have leaked in." The first owners
of the mine had taken up only half an acre, and nobody had ever entered the
mine to ascertain its size, except the owner himself, who kept the big key on his
belt, while generations of Indians dug and sweated in the unknown depths inside.
This might have gone on to the present day but for an accident which happened
two or three years ago. One stormy night two American travellers chanced to
take refuge under the hospitable roof of the wealthy Mexican owner, who in his
556 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
courteous Spanish style gave them the best of his fare and the biggest of his
himmocks to sleep in. "All that he had was theirs," including the history of
his family mine of wealth. They were sent off with every token of goodwill
next day. A few months afterAfards, however, they returned with a mining
inspector from the Mexican government and a company of rurales or mounted
police with arms. The owner to save taxes had never acquired a title to anything
beyond the original half acre, and if ore had been extracted from the ground cut-
side it, it had been stolen from the government, and dire are the penalties for
theft in the land of the iron hand. What lay beyond the half acre now belonged
to the two strangers, who had acquired a title since their visit, and might sue in
the courts and recover full value of it and all legal costs if they thought proper.
They politely explained the circumstances to their former host, and intimated to
him that they would not prosecute, provided he made a deed in their favour for
all the claim he had to the half acre, including the big door and anything else he
might possess. He was a discreet man, and the rurales had repeating rifles of the
latest pattern in their hands. He then mounted his horse, which the strangers
allowed him to keep, and rode away a beggar. Next morning the Americans
unlocked the big door and sent the Indians down to their daily toil ; but the
author explains (page 150) that these gentlemen had bad to beat a hasty retreat
from their own country a short time previously, and at the time of his visit one
of them was in a Mexican prison for robbing his i>artner, and the latter had
disappeared after committing another offence, leaving the mine in the hands of
receivers I
Such incidents as these are not calculated to allay the suspicions of Mexicans
about their northern neighbours, and one cannot wonder at the underlying feeling
of dislike with which the "gringoes" are everywhere regarded in Mexican
raining districts.
Through Jamaica with a Kodak. By Alfred Leader. Bristol : John Wright
and Co., 1907. Price 6s. net.
In this daintily got-up little volume the writer gives a pleasantly-written and
simple account of a tour in Jamaica, which occupied some fotir or five months of
the year 1905. There is no effort at fine writing or at the compilation of a guide-
book. The writer merely gives his impressions of what he saw as he passed from
place to place in the island. The principal attraction of the volume is the many
illustrations, nearly all of which are photographs taken by Mr. Leader himself. In
an introductory note the Archbishop of the West Indies vouches for the truth-
fulness and discretion of the author, and states that " this volume will prove very
acceptable to those who desire to get, within moderate compass, a correct impres-
sion of the island and its people. The writer has furnished on the whole a
remarkably accurate representation of both. The photographs have been chos* n
with discretion, and are really illustrations of the normal condition of the country
and its inhabitants."
Forty Years in the Argentine Republic. By Arthur E. Shaw. London : Elkia
Brothers, 1907. Price 2s. 6d. net.
The author of this little volume has spent forty years in Argentina mostly in
employment of one or other of the many railways which have been constructed in
that republic. His reminiscences are set forth in a series of gossipy, slangy
sketches, from which the reader may glean some amusement and may gather
some information as to the development of Argentina since 1864. The numerous
anecdotes are characteristic of the Southern Hemisphere, and support the son:e-
NEW BOOKS. 557
what disparaging view the writer takes of public life and morality in the
Argentine.
AUSTRALASIA.
The Real Australia. By Alfred Buchanan. London : T. Fisher Unwin,
1907. Price 6.s.
The aim of this book is not geographical. It is to picture the life — the social,
literary, individual, present-day life of the developing Continent with its four
millions of people. What lends interest and value to the book is that the author
is a resident Australian. He possesses a vivid and attractive stjle, not without
the cynical touches to which all picturing of life easily lends itself, but writes with
evident sincerity and good-will for his adopted country. He holds up the mirror
to the various phases of life, principally as centred in Melbourne and Sydney,
two cities whose characteristics the author contrasts and describes in brilliant
fashion. The first glimpse of Real Australia he presents us with is that of its
" Virtues and Vices." Its principal virtue is hospitality, and its glaring vice is
gambling. Horse-racing is its chief sport, the national recreation. And as the
author remark^, '• the two — racing and gambling — insensibly melt into each other."
Society is controlled by women, and dominated by snobbery. The ideal that
overtops all others is purely a monetary one. In the game of politics all classes
can participate, and the game is played with not too clean hands. Sketches are
given of the four leading statesmen — Sir Edmund Barton, Mr. Alfred Deakin,
Mr. Chris. Watson, and Mr. George H. Reid. In the literary sphere Australia
still struggles with the common fate of small communities, of despising its own
products. London is the objective of the literary genius. Unless the message of
the poet, or the novelist, or the essayist has been wafted to and fro across the
distant seas, the Australian public passes it by unheeded. Yet the examples that
Mr. Buchanan gives of the taleat of the young Continent show that the founda-
tions of an Australian literature are being nobly laid. It is the universa
misfortune of those who lay the foundations to be, at the beginning, among the
despised and rejected of niea. The Imperialist and the Little Australian are
depicted in strong colours in the concluding chapters of the book. The religious
side of Australian life, which one would have thought would have a place in
Beat Australia, the author is evidently unacquainted with.
GENERAL.
Eisztit vnd Vrgeschichte des Mcnscheii. Von J. Pohlig. Leipsig : Quelle and
Meyer, 1907. M. 1-2.").
In this little work Professor Pohlig gives an outline sketch of the Glacia
Period, and passes in review the opinions held by anthropologists and geologists
as to the seveial races of man whose remains and relics have been met with in
Quaternary or Pleistocene deposits. The author strongly supports the view, now
so widely held, that the Quaternary was distinguished by its peculiar climatic
conditions — cold or glacial and warm epochs alternating throughout the period.
The apelike man {PitJiccanthropux) discovered by Dubois in Java is assigned by
Dr. Pohlig to "older Quaternary times.'' "Neandertal Man," for a long time
represented by one cranium only, has within recent years acquired greater im-
portance. The remains of some three hundred men of the same type have been
discovered in a cave near Krapina in Croatia, so that there cannot now be any
doubt that a race of men with "brutal skulls" lived in Europe during the
Quaternary Period. According to our author the Neandertal race flourished in
the second or "Helvetian" interglacial epoch, and seems to have emigrated when
558 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAl, MAGAZINE.
the next succeeding or third glacial epoch was approaching. Next after this race
appeared a type represented by certain skulls discovered at Btiinn in Moravia,
which Pohlig designates the "Neandertaloid." To a still later date belong the
better-formed skulls met with in the caves of France and Belgium (Cro-Magnon
and Engis). The author has succeeded in crowding into his book much interesting
matter, which is so well arranged, however, that the reader will have little
difficulty in following him. But he need not be surprised if not a few of his
statements and conclusions should be contested by others who are labouring in
the same field of Avork.
The Oxford Geocjrapliux. Vol. III. The Senior Geography. By Dr. A. J. Herbert-
son and F. H. Herbertson. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1907. Price 2s. 6d.
This admirable little text-book, following the first and second volumes which
are intended for junior pupils, is meant to carry the teaching up to the point
where university work may profitably start.
The world is described according to its natural regions, which are classified
into the following four groups :— (1) Polar ; (2) Cool Temperate ; (3) Warm Tem-
perate ; (4) Hot Land-^. Each of these, with the exception of (1), is subdivided
into four sections, and these again into lesser natural divisions. The treatment
is botli physical and historical, and well calculated to attract the pupil and make
him delight in studying geography when put before him in such a pleasing style.
These books are now too well known to require more commendation to teachers
in elementary and higher schools.
Lehrbuch der Ewhe-Sprache in Togo {Anglo-diahkt), Mit Ubuncjstucken, einem
aysti'matischcii Vokabular und einnn Le.'«burh. Von A. Seidel. Heidelberg,
Paris, London, Rome, St. Petersburg : Julius Groos, 1907.
Die Hmissasjjrache : Grammatilc (deiitsch) tiad systematisch geordnetes Worterbuch.
Han»sa-deuUch-franz'usisch-inglii<ch. Von A. Seidel. Heidelberg, Paris,
London, Rome, St. Petejsburg : Julius Groos, 1907.
Both of these books are wiitten according to the Gaspey-Otto-Sauer method.
The second is written in German, French, and English, the first in German only.
Both are remarkably full and detailed, and should be of great use to the students
of the languages concerned.
Red Rubber: The Rubber Slave Trade on the Congo. By G. 1). jMorel. With
an Introduction by Sir Harry H. Johnston. London : T. Fisher L'nwin.
Popular Edition. Frice Is. mt.
This book is devoted to a subject with which as a geographical society we are
not concerned, though as individuals every one of our members may be directly
interested. We can therefore do no more than call attention here to our receipt
of the volume.
Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen: Select Narratives from the "Principal Navi-
gations" of Halcbiyt. Edited by Edward John Payne. Oxford: At the
Clarendon Press, 1907. Price 4s. (id. net.
In an editorial note to this most interesting volume Mr. Payne explains that
it is merely a condensation of the second edition of the two volumes of "Narra-
tives" which were published some years ago. The condensation has been effected
by the elimination of about 160 pages containing Sir Walter Raleigh's "dreary
and philoiuythic" "Discovery of Guinea," and Cavendish's "Last Voyage,"
with the appendix giving his doleful letter to his friend and executor, Sir
Tristram Gorges. The introduction to this volume, which is in many respects the
NEW BOOKS. 559
most interesting and instructive part of the work, is a reprint of parts of tlie
introductions to the two volumes published in 1893 and 1900. By way of new
matter we have a reproduction of a map of North America ..nd Greenland, pub-
lished by Hakluyt in 1599, and some valuable notes in elucidation of the text
from the pen of Mr. Raymond Beazley, the distinguislied author of the Davm of
Geography. The third edition of the Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen deserves
to be even more popular than its predecessors, alike with the younger and the older
generations, and on both sides of ihe Atlantic.
A Grammar of the Bemba Language as spoken in North-rast Bhodesia. By the
Rev. Father Shoeffer. Edited by J. H. West Sheank, and arranged with
Preface by A. C. Madan. Oxford : Clarendon Pres.«, 1907.
The Bemba or Weniba language is spoken throughout ihe stretch of country
bounded to the north and west by Lakes Tanganyika and Bangweolo, on the east
by the Chambeshi, and on the west by the Luapula and Lake Mweiu. But it is
understood from the Liuilaba in the Congo Free State without a break to Kuronga
OQ Lake Nyasa, and this small grammar should therefore prove useful, especially
as it is only the second work on the language which has been written. The
Bemba language belongs to the Bantu group, and is remarkable for its multiplicity
of grammatical forms, especially in regard to the verb and its tenses.
Tin Deposits of the World, vith a Chapter on Tin Smelting. By Sydney
Fawns, F.G.S. Second Edition. London : The Mining Journal, 1907.
Pp. 304. Priee 15s. net.
After stating that "during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Cornwall
seems to have been the main source of the world's tin supply," tl e author divides
the deposits in which Tin occurs in economic form into {a) Fissure Deposits,
Lodes ; (6) Masses, Stockworks, etc. ; and (f) Alluvial Tin Ore Deposits. He
then describes the Alluvial Tin Deposits of the Malay Peninsuhi, Sumatra, Siam,
Burma, and Indo-China with a chapter on Alluvial Tin Mining. He next
describes the Lode Deposits in the Malay Peninsula, and then the Tin Deposits
of New South Wales, Queensland, Tasmania, Western and South Australia, New
Zealand, and Victoria. Next he discusses those of Bolivia, Cornwall, Nigeria,
Transvaal, Swazieland, Congo Free State, Japan, Greenland, Finland, China,
Korea, and Siberia, followed by those of Central Europe, Spain and Portugal,
France and Italy, Scotland and Ireland, Mexico, the United States and Alaska.
Descriptions follow of the Tin Mines of Mount Bischofl" (Tasmania) and Dolcoaih
(the largest tin producer in Cornwall) with Chapters on Tin Crushing and
Dressing Machinery, Dredging for Tin, Methods of Tin Assaying, Statistics of
Tin Production and Tin Smelting, wiih a Bibliogiaijhy.
In the Statistical Chapter are stated the " United Kingdom Imports of Tin
Ores, 1906," amounting in all to 20,714 tons, whereof 17,627 came from Bolivia.
The volume is exceedingly practical and exhaustive and is fully illustiated with
views and sections of Tin workings and with Maps showing the various Tin
districts of the world.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
We have received the following new books, which will be reviewed in due
course : —
Cordova: A City of the Moors. By Albert F. Calvert and Walter M.
Gallichan. With 160 illustrations. Crown 8vo. Pp. xvi+ 159. Price 3s. 6(/.
net. London : John Lane, 1907.
560 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE
Modern Argentina : The El Dorado of To-day, ivith Notes on Uruguay and
Chile. By W. H. KoEBEL. With 123 illustration?. Demy 8vo. Pp. xv + 380.
Price 12s. 6d. net. London : Francis Griffith-', 1907.
The Guanches of Tenerife : The Holy Image of Our Lady of Candelaria and the
Spanish Conquest and Settlement. By the Friar Aloxso de Espinosa of the
Order of Preachers. Translated and edited, with Notes and an Introduction, by
Sir Clements Markham, K.C.B. (Halduyt Series.) Demy 8vo. Pp. xxviH- 220.
London : Hakluyt Society, 1907.
Island in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart. Von Paul Hermann. Zwei Bande.
Vol. I., pp. xii + 376 ; vol. ii., pj). 316. 31. 8'7r). Leipzig : Verlag von "Wilhelm
Engelmann, 1907.
Paris and Environs ivith Routes from London to Paris. Handbook for
Travellers. By Karl Baedeker. "With 14 maps and 3S plans. Price 6
Marks. Leipzig : Karl Baedeker, 1 907.
The Russian Peasant. By Howard P. Kennard, M.D. Illustrated.
Crown 8vo. Pp. 302. Price 6s. net. London : T. Werner Laurie, 19.07.
Canada's Century : Progress and Resources of the Great Dominion. Notes
with snapshots and other illustrations on an extensive tour in British North
America. Eoyal 8vo. Pp. 552. Price 6s. net. London : The Financier and
Btdlionist, 1907.
Tlie Long Labrador Trail. By Dillon Wallace. Demy 8vo. Pp. xii +
315. Price Is. 6d. London : Hodder and Stoughton, 1907.
A Scientific Geography. Book IV., North America. By Ellis W. Heaton,'
B.Sc, F.G.S. Crown 8vo. Pp. 130. Price Is. 6d. net. London: Ralph
Holland and Co., 1907.
Africa. Vol. I., North America. By A. H. Keane, F.R.G.S. (Stanford's
"Compendium of Geography and Travel"). New issue." Maps and illustrations.
Second edition revised. Demy 8vo. Pp. xx + 640. Price 15s. London:
Edward Stanford, 1907.
Also the following Reports, etc :—
Broivn's Nautical Almanac for 1908. Pp. 867. Price Is. James Brown
and Son.
2'he Commercial Possibilities of West Africa. By Viscount Mountmorres.
Pp. 24. Price 6d.
Liverpool University Institute of Commercial Research in the Tropics, Liver-
pool, 1907.
Report of the Progress of the Ordnance Stirvey to the Zlst March 19u7. London,^
1907.
Punjab District Gazetteers. Vol. xixb. Lahore District Statistical Tables
with maps, 1904. Lahore, 1905.
The Surveys of British Africa. The Annual Report of the Colonial Survey
Committee. London, 1907.
Notes on the Traditions of South African Races, especially of the Malalanga
of Mashonaland. By R. N. Hall. Grahamstown, S.A., 1907.
Hydrographische Untersuchungen im Nordlichen Teile der Ostsee, im Bott-
nischen und Finnischen Meerbusen. Helsingfors, 1907.
The River Pilcomayo from its Di<r]tnrge into the River Paraguay to Parallel
22° S. With map of reference, detailed map in seven sheets, sketch of routes.
By Gunnar Lange. Buenos Ayres, 1906.
British Rainfall, 1906. By Hugh Robert jMill. London, 1907.
Publishers forwarding books for review will greatly oblige by marking the price
in clear fgures, especially in the case of foreign books.
THE SCOTTISH
GEOGKAPHICAL
MAGAZINE.
THE NEW FIELDS OF GEOGRAPHY, ESPECIALLY COM-
MERCFAL GEOGRAPHY.!
By Prof. Dr. Max Eckert (Aachen).
" Nothing endures ; all is in a state of flux." This saying of the ancient
philosopher has even more validity now than in old times. That is
proved in the progress alike of practical life and of science. Almost
all fields of science are developing now more rapidly than of yore.
One rapidly developing discipline of recent years has been geo-
graphy. It has attained a greater extent and come to embrace new
fields of operation. Among those new fields that is the chief in which
inquiry is made as to the relations between man and the land which he
inhabits. This new field is called shortly anthropogeography, or the
geography of mankind.
Friedrich Ratzel in the last decades of last century, but above all by
means of his two-volume work entitled Anthrojjogeographie, was the first
to create a scientific basis for the consideration of the conditions of
man's dependence on the soil. But Ratzel was not the first to express
anthropogeographical truths. Anthropogeographical observations are
found in older researches, as in Montesquieu, Reinhold, Forster, Herder,
Alex. v. Humboldt, Carl Ritter, and others. Carl Ritter expressly
emphasised the dependence of man on the soil. For him the soil is
man's dwelling-place and place of education. But he did not succeed
in arriving at principles enabling us to take a comprehensive view of
the distribution of man on the globe. Ratzel only has succeeded in
founding anthropogeography as an independent branch of science, in
fixing for that science the methods and subjects of inquiry. Amongst
1 A paper read before Section E (Geography) at the Leicester Meeting of the British
Association,
VOL. XXIII. 2 S
562 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
those who had the greatest influence on Ratzel, besides Herder and
Ritter, may be mentioned Herbert Spencer, the great English philo-
sopher.
Greography as a whole is an independent science, of which anthropo-
geography is an integral part. Although Loffler, professor of Geography
at the University of Copenhagen, warns us against regarding anthropo-
geography as a special department of the science on the same footing as
physical geography, nevertheless its tasks and methods, and the circle
of ideas connected with it, are in many respects so different from those
of physical geograpliy that one is compelled to regard it in that light
and to prosecute its development as such.
Anthropogeography is content neither with the mere empirical
assortment of facts nor with the arrangement of those facts on the
basis of external schematism without an explanatory foundation. It
deals with a special field of facts and phenomena, and seeks to devise
an elucidative connection between the separate geographical frame-
works and the history that has been enacted and the civilisation that
has been worked out within them. It has, therefore, all the qualities
that go to constitute a discipline an independent science.
The objective sciences have for a long time been divided, in virtue
of differences in appliances, methods, and principles, into the natural
and moral sciences. The geography of man is the sole science in
which the mutual relations between the natural and moral sciences are
made manifest. Its dominant function has a side connected with the
moral sciences in so far as it investigates the products of the mind with
reference to the special region of intellectual life, and examines them in
the light of their historical conditions ; and on the other hand has a side
connected with the physical sciences, in so far as it makes the physics
of the globe the starting-point of its observations, and, with the aid of
inductions in the sphere of natural science, arrives at general laws con-
cerning the influence of the earth on man and that of man on the earth.
It is manifestly the latter side that is the more important in anthropo-
geography.
As the question Where I is the first to arise in every geographical
inquiry, so anthropogeography must start with the place nearest to that
in which man lives, namely, with the settlement. The geography of
settlements is an important foundation of anthropogeography. It
treats of the situation, size, form, and development of settlements. The
aspect of the settlement and its influence on the character of the land-
scape are further interesting questions. The study of the mode of
establishment and of the local extent of the settlements leads to im-
portant results, which are first of an historical nature, in so far as they
relate to the first settlers and the fluctuations of their history, and
secondly of a sociological character, in so far as they relate to cultural
institutions and the exchange of cultural ideas and plans.
In this investigation of settlements we must consider not merely the
individual home but also the villages, towns, and cities of the whole
habitable earth, of the " Q^cumene."
Man desires not merely to dwell in a place, but also to live, that is.
THE NEW FIELDS OF GEOGRAPHY. 5G3
to satisfy his wants. Economic Gcograpliy teaches us how man makes
use of his place of settlement and his terrestrial environment to satisfy
those wants. As economic interests extend and multiply man goes out
from his narrow home, from his native sphere of activity ; he has com-
mercial intercourse with his neighbours, nay, even with other peoples.
The discussion of the manner in which and the apparatus by means of
which traffic is carried on leads to the (/eoi/nq^hy of traffic.
Thus a modern and scientific geography of industry and commerce
grows out of anthropogeography. Economic and commercial geography
represent in a quite special manner the economic and physical sides of
anthropogeography. On these views and the inquiries they suggest I
have based my work entitled Grundriss dcr Hanclelsgeographic.
Chisholm, however, has attained similar results, but in a different
manner. His excellent and celebrated book called a Handbook of
Commercial Geograffiiy is the outcome of actual practice as much as a
product that has sprouted on geographical soil. Anthropogeography
was scarcely a starting-point for him. That for all that he has succeeded
in building up a good work from an independent foundation arises,
perhaps, to a great extent from the imposing and widely ramifying
development of the economic and commercial life of the British people
for many centuries. The history, the position in the world and the
present commercial activity and commercial supremacy of Great Britain,
gave directly an immense quantity of facts which do not come readily
to an inquirer of another nationality.
Modern economic and commercial geography are really the same as
what was formerly termed the geography of trade. The character and
problems of modern commercial geography are shortly as follows : —
Commercial geography must have its source in the knowledge of
situation and of orographical and hydrographical conditions, and, with
the inclusion of important chapters on climatology, geology, political
economy, and political geography, must arrive at a thorough understand-
ing of the conditions of production and commerce both in separate
regions and in the commercial world as a whole. More shortly stated,
commercial geography must regard the earth as the seat of human
production and commercial life.
Commercial geography presupposes the knowledge of " general
geography," that is to say, the corresponding chapters of mathematical
and physical geography. Commercial geography is not satisfied with
knowing where the granaries of the separate countries and continents
lie, but must ask for the reason, must inquire as to the situation in
latitude and altitude, as to climate, water supply, and the composition of
the soil. Thus commercial geography must take into account the fact
that the growth of cultivated plants, whose value, as every one knows, is
raised by increased demand, is quite different in mountainous situations,
on low-lying ground, on marsh, moor, and alluvial soil.
The commercial geographer must, moreover, be familiar with the
various degrees of decomposition of the different kinds of rock. Very
important is the determination of the extent of loss over the whole area
of the earth on which agriculture actually is or may be pursued. Thus,
564 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
in China, for example, agriculture is co-extensive with the deposits of
loss, which, owing to its yielding nature, is perhaps a hindrance to
traffic, but for the economy of the Chinese people is of very great
significance. Some steppes have a soil distinguished by containing
much humus in the upper, but possessing the character of loss in the
deeper layers. The best known is the black soil, chernozyom, in
middle and southern Russia, on the Ob. and in the United States. A
similar formation is the black soil, called reijvr or cotton-soil, covering
a third part of southern India.
Besides the knowledge of the soil the knowledge of the orography
or morphology of the earth's surface is important for commercial
geography. The inclination of the ground to the horizon, and the
relation of that angle to cultivation and insolation, have to be considered
under the head of agriculture. The importance of these phenomena is
most apparent in the case of the larger mountain chains. On the
northern slopes winter is longer, and consequently the period of
vegetation shorter ; winter-sown crops do not succeed well, if at all, and
in many cases the cultivation of some plants is altogether excluded.
The southern slopes are often exposed to the process of freezing and
thawing, so that winter-sown seeds are very apt to perish. In many
parts of Switzerland and Scotland it has been observed that crops thrive
better on the northern than on the southern side in spite of the ripening
being six or eight days later.
The climate of a country is just as decisive as the soil concerning the
to be or not to be of certain species of plants. George Chisholm rightly
says : " In the case of cultivated products, soil and climate are considera-
tions of first importance in determining the variety obtaining at different
places." Every plant demands a certain minimum of warmth and
moisture if it is to flourish. The polar limits of plants are determined
chiefly by temperature ; but the rainfall also is often an important factor
in determining the distribution in latitude. If the weather conditions
remained the same year after year, the same isotherms and isohyets
would limit the distribution of species of plants. Experience, however,
shows that the facts are quite otherwise. Existing observations show
rather that neither the mean temperature nor the mean rainfall has so
great an influence on plant growth as the variations of both phenomena.
Thus, for example, the variations in the climate of Europe have
important effects on the yield of the crops and the price of corn in our
continent.
How far industry and commerce are dependent on climate I will not
further explain.
Commercial geography is much enriched by anthropogeography in the
inquiries respecting traffic. Anthropogeography enables us to understand
the degree in which at different times and under diflferent circumstances
the means of communication have facilitated the movements of entire
peoples, and have thus caused an acceleration of the course of history.
The means of conveyance among civilised peoples are essentially different
from those of primitive peoples. These know only the path, whereas
civilised peoples have accelerated the movement both of goods and
THE NEW FIELDS OF GEOGRAPHY. 565
persons by the construction of roads and by advances in the mechanical
arts generally. These considerations lead to the knowledge of the fact
that traffic and historical movements go on at the same time, or that the
one prepares the way for the other, as for example, the business intercourse
of Eussian merchants with Siberia went in advance of the extension of
Russian sway over northern Asia, and business relations between British
merchants and the peoples of India and Africa preceded the acquisition
of colonial possessions on the part of Great Britain in those regions.
Anthropogeography leads commercial geography to discussions about
the relation of the zone of intercourse to the " CEcumene," the inhabited
earth, about the quality of roads, the means of bridging over the gaps
between different areas of human settlement, about roads as a standard
of civilisation, as instruments of war, about traffic as a preliminary con-
dition of the growth of states. All this is of the greatest importance in
commercial geography, opens out quite new perspectives, and leads to a
deeper comprehension of terrestrial problems.
Traffic is the movement or conveyance of persons, animals, or things
towards definite points. According as one considers place, movement,
or object moved, three large groups in the mode of intercourse can be
distinguished. Considering place, I distinguish intercourse by footpath,
mule (or other animal) track, road, railway, river, lake, coast, and over-
sea traffic. Considering the nature of the movement one may distinguish
walking, running, carrying, the employment of animals for riding or
draught, and as beasts of burden, among which may be included flying
animals as carrying pigeons, and the employment of sledges, ships,
carriages, balloons, and wires with the aid of various mechanical con-
trivances and dynamical agents. Finally, considering the object moved
one distinguishes traffic in persons, commodities, and news. In a general
sense one also distinguishes intercourse by land, water, and air.
It is an important task of commercial geography to determine the
regional distribution of the different kinds of road and the means of
transport. The roads of commerce are not only a means of civilisation,
they are also a measure of the degree of civilisation, and it is especially
by the improvement in the means of transport that during the last
hundred years commerce has attained a development both in content
and extent with which that of antiquity can scarcely be compared, eA^en
when we consider the roads of the Romans and the Chinese and the
cemented road of the Incas on the inner highlands of the Andes.
The highway of world commerce, so far as one may speak of it at all
with reference to ancient times, has totally changed its character. Even
to-day the roads of the interior of Brazil, of Africa, and of Asia
(caravan routes) are nothing else than a certain kind of marked stages
(itineraries).
The great pioneer in road (including railroad) making has been
Great Britain, but the importance of commercial roads is now well
appreciated and exactly known by other states, amongst which we may
single out Russia. It is only by the abundance of the means of com-
munication that that colossal and clumsy giant, chained at hands and
feet, has become free and flexible. And it is just this fact which gives
566 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
US a suflficient explanation of the almost feverish haste in the construc-
tion of railways in eastern Siberia and towards the frontiers of Persia
and Afghanistan.
Strictly speaking, a world-trade did not exist till the most recent
times, till the Pacific became a link in the world's commercial highways.
The network of commerce has often been compared with the vessels
that serve for the circulation of the blood in the human body. Just as
this is effected by a number of larger and smaller veins and arteries that
ramify through the body, so the world-trade is carried on in main-lines
and by-roads the density of which depends on the direction and slope
of the mountains, on the course of the rivers, on the climate, and on tlie
fertility of the soil caused by the latter and by the general situation, on
the natural products, and on the character of the confines both political
and natural. In order to estimate the density of traffic in a certain
territory it is less important to know the total length of the arteries of
commerce than the ratio of that length to the area. It is even of greater
interest to calculate the ratio of that length to a given number of
inhabitants, say 10,000.
The methods of overcoming the obstacles to intercourse have been
very much improved technically, but even in this connection there are
still many points of view of geographical importance to be considered, A
fine example of this kind of inquiry was furnished by R. M. Brown in
his paper on " Climatic Factors in Railway Construction and Operation "
in the Scottish Geoijraphiml Magazine, vol. xix. (1903).
The length of track interests the commercial geographer in virtue of
the practical commercial importance of this factor in determining, along
with others, whether the transport of goods will bear the freight charges
or not.
The straits connecting great oceans and the great routes across con-
tinents are of peculiar importance in commercial geography.
Another subject that will be dealt with in scientific commercial geo-
graphy is the average speed of conveyance both of passengers and goods.
The determination of the average cost of transport is a consideration just
as important as, in many respects even more important than, the question
of average speed. This, hov/ever, has seldom been indicated, and that
only in individual cases. There is still a great lack of such statistics as
would enable us to give a comparative view of large commercial regions,
and an even greater lack of such information when we consider the com-
merce of the world as a whole.
Transit trade also demands special consideration. For many terri-
tories it is this trade which is of quite vital importance. To mention
only Belgium, we may call to mind the fact that on the occasion of the
foundation of the International Postal Union at the Congress at Berne in
1874, that country found it necessary to protest against the free transit
of foreign letters, pointing out that the number of letters sent from
Belgium to foreign countries was only one-twentieth of the number that
merely passed through from one country to another.
Much work has still to be done in order to ascertain the average
duration of journeys. The lines that indicate the equal mean duration
THE NEW FIELDS OF GEOGRAPHY. 5G7
of journeys from given centi-es, the so-called isochrons or isohemeres, are
still very defective, even though the cartographical reproduction of such
data goes back to Carl Ritter (1833). Goetz has drawn special maps
showing in days the time taken for the transport of goods at different
periods. Another attempt of the same nature was made by Mr. Francis
Galton in his paper, " On the Construction of Isochrouic Passage Charts "
(Proc. lioy. Geocj. Soc, New Series, vol. iii., 1881, pp. G57-8). The
accompanying map shows the time required to reach any place on the
globe (from London). More recent isochronic maps exist for Germany
and Austria.
Passing over different kinds of intercourse, as by mail, telegraph,
telephone, and cable, we may glance at inland and maritime navigation,
the causes, character, and results of which are carefully examined in
commercial geography.
Canals connecting different seas and oceans, like the North Sea and
Baltic Canal and the Suez Canal, the mouths of rivers accessible to sea-
going vessels, like those of the Elbe from Hamburg, and the Thames
from London downwards, and finally canals by which ports have been
accessible to the giant vessels of the present day, like the North Sea
Canal in the Netherlands (Amsterdam to Ijmuiden), or inland places
have been converted into seaports, as in the case of the Manchester Ship
Canal, do not fall to be considered under the head of inland navigation.
The importance of inland waterways is growing every year. An ex-
cellent synopsis has recently been given by Mr. George G. Chisholm in
his paper on "Inland Waterways" (Geor/. ./owr., July 1907).
Intermarine and interoceanic canals are of the very greatest import-
ance. To the former belong the canal connections between the minor
seas more or less cut off from the great oceans or between them and the
main body of an ocean, such as the Caledonian Canal, the Gota Canal,
the Kaiser- Wilhelm Canal. Under the head of interoceanic canals come
the Suez Canal, and the canal now being pierced through the Isthmus
of Panama.
One of the most important subjects of inquiry in commercial geo-
graphy is that relating to harbours and seaports. A comprehensive and
detailed morphology of harbours is still lacking. We have only a partial
treatment of this subject by Richthofen, Kriimmel, Wiedenfeld, Shaler,
and others. But the importance of a harbour depends not merely on its
morphological character, but also on the nature of the hinterland, that
is on the degree in which the country lying behind is fitted to form a
good market or to supply a great abundance of industrial products. A
coast rich in bays and harbours but lacking a hinterland is valueless for
commerce. For a large country seeking an outlet to the sea it is not
necessary to have a coast everywhere well adapted for harbours ; if
only there are some favourably situated and formed seaports, which
serve as valves for the expansion of the nation. A good example in this
respect is afforded by the German Empire.
All this great apparatus of traffic relates chiefly to world commerce,
which is principally based on the exchange of commodities. Nowadays
one often speaks of commodities for which there is a world-market, the
568 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
most important of such commodities being grain, living animals, articles
consumed as stimulants and luxuries, and raw materials.
The effect of the modern commercial organisation on different
branches of industry has come to be of the highest importance. It
influences agriculture and forestry as powerfully as it does mining and
manufacturing industry, and last, not least, it affects the distribution
between wholesale and retail trade. Nowadays it is needless to build
huge granaries for the storage of surplus crops, for the distribution of
such surpluses is decided by wire and steam. The fluctuations in the
prices of the main means of subsistence are becoming smaller. The
telegraph connects the London corn-market daily with that of Chicago
and those of the Indian export towns, as also with those of Russia,
Roumania, Hungary, Chile, and the Argentine Republic. The uni-
formity of prices resulting from such intercommunication is of very con-
siderable importance for the markets of continental Europe which are
protected by Customs duties like those of Germany and France. One
may say that now a secure provision for the sustenance of the world has
nearly been reached.
In the manifold development of a community organised as a state,
which, as Aristotle says, is founded on the aim of living together, trade
and commerce are of the greatest importance. Trade and commerce have
Europeanised the globe, and the study of these phenomena, and especially
the study of commercial geography, is becoming daily more necessary for
the states taking part in the world struggle.
Commercial geography pursues a valuable aim. It is destined not
only to become a new branch of science, but also to fructify older
branches, such as general geography and even political economy, which
will thereby acquire a fuller knowledge of their subject matter, and, last
not least, cognate branches of study of more recent date, such as
biography.
ANCIENT KHOTAN : A REYIEW.i
These volumes, admirable in their typography and wealth of illustration,
contain Dr. Stein's report on the archfeological results of the explorations
carried out in 1900-1901 under the orders of the Government of India
in the southern portion of Chinese Turkestan, and particularly in the
territory of Khotan. In them Dr. Stein has given, with amplitude
of description and dissertation, an account of each of the sites
explored and excavated, and has had catalogued and delineated every
object gathered and preserved. In finally fulfilling this task he has been
aided by various collaborators whose valuable contributions, erudite and
artistic, form the lists and appendices in Volume i. and appear in the
1 Ancient Khotan. By M. Aurel Stein, Indian Educational Department. Vol. i. Text
with descriptive list of antiques, etc. Vol. ii. Plates of photographs, plans, etc., with a
map of the territory of Khotan from original surveys. Oxford : at the Clarendon Press,
1907. Price, £5, 5s. net.
ANCIENT KlIOTAN : A REVIEW. 569
illustrations of Volume ii. Their share in completing the crowning
work of his laborious and vigilant researches is duly acknowledged in
the Introduction to Volume i. In it also are set forth briefly the
circumstances under which the explorations were undertaken and carried
out, and the principles of archaiological research which guided him in his
examination of sites and objects, and in recording and correlating its
results.
Readers of this Magazine are already familiar in a general way with
Dr. Stein's journey and explorations. In the July number of 1902
(vol. xviii. p. 391) a summary was given of his ''Preliminary Report"
upon them (dated 5th October 1901). And in the number for Novem-
ber 1903 (vol. xix. pp. 581-9), the Magazine contained a review of the
"Personal Narrative" of his journey, published in April 1903 under the
title of Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan. It is unnecessary therefore formally
to introduce Dr. Stein and the regions visited by him to readers of the
Magazine, and to repeat what has been said in it about him as explorer,
scholar, and author, or again go over the personal incidents and topo-
graphical and scenic details of his journey and discoveries. In these
respects it is sufficient to say that the general reader will find in these
most interesting volumes very much more than a repetition or rkhavffd
of the previous boojcs. Further, these volumes cannot fail to secure
the admiring appreciation of Oriental scholars and antiquarians through-
out the world, at once for the mass of material gathered and authorities
consulted, for the elaborate carefulness with which their collection and
examination were carried out, and for the truly scientific method —
thorough, cautious and well-balanced in tone, and clear and precise in
style — in which the material, in all its diversity and multiplicity, has
been described, and the results of its examination recorded. The book
is in fact a model of scientific antiquarian inquiry, reasoning, and
description.
Dr. Stein is first and foremost an archaeologist, rather than a
geographical pioneer in new and unbeaten tracks. Yet with the
assistance of his Indian surveyor he did much important survey and
topographical work on the journey through the mountainous regions
between Kashmir and Kashgar and in the Kun-lun ranges bordering the
south-western portion of the Tarim Basin. All his researches into
history, ethnology, linguistics, epigraphy and art in these regions and in
Chinese Turkestan were related more or less to their ancient and modern
geography. His route led him, in general, through the same territories
and places of high Asia and Turkestan as were visited by the famous
Chinese pilgrims Fa-hsien, Sung Yiin, and Hsilan-tsang, and by Marco
Polo, the prince of mediaeval European geographers. The footmarks of
all these travellers he traced on his own journey and has identified in
the volumes before us. And, most appropriately, the volumes are
dedicated to the memory of Sir Henry Yule, whose name will always be
conjoined with that of Marco Polo as the Venetian's collator and
exponent.
Unique, and interesting in the extreme as Di'. Stein's explorations were,
however, it is to be noted that the history of Khotan and the adjacent tracts
570 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
of Chinese Turkestan does not reach back into the hoar antiquity which we
are accustomed to associate with the East — the antiquity of the countries
of Asia and Africa which lie around and north of the Persian Gulf, and
around the Levant and south-eastern coasts of the Mediterranean.
Compared with the histories of the civilisations — the political, com-
mercial, religious and literary systems — developed long ages before the
Christian era in Chaldrea, Egypt, Pho?nicia, Asia Minor, Persia, and
Greece, that of Turkestan is short, and its antiquarian remains are recent
and unimpressive. The racial origin of the early occupants of Kashgar
and Yarkand, the most western of the Turkestan oases, has not been
discussed by Dr. Stein. But he shows that our historic knowledge of
these territories begins, through Chinese annals, in the second century
before Christ, while the monumental and literary relics found in them —
trifling in number, diversity, and preservation compared with those
discovered further east in Turkestan — mostly date from well within the
Christian era ; indeed, of the position of Kashgar and Yarkand cities no
definite indication is contained in any recorded notice till early in the
sixteenth century A.D, Kashgar, however, lies on what, doubtless from
time immemorial, was a frequented line of communication through
Central Asia between the interior of China in the Far East and the
regions on and beyond the Jaxartes and Oxus on the west — the route,
namely, along the southern foot of the Tienshan Range north of the
Tarim River, and out of the Tarim basin by the Terek Pass into
the ancient Sogdiana and Baktria. Lying as Kashgar thus did, on
the highway of restless and warlike tribes, its political condition
within historic centuries has been Avhat might be looked for. At
different times it has been subject to Chinese of various dynasties, to
Indo-Sythians, White Huns, "Western Turks, Tibetans, Arabs, Karluk
Turks, Kalmaks, Mongols, and finally again to Chinese. Whatever
ingredients these various invaders and rulers may have contributed
towards the formation of the population now inhabiting Kashgar and
Yarkand, to them there has probably been added a considerable nomad
Kirghis element, the smaller proportion of which in the Khotanese
population further east seemed, to Dr. Stein's eye, to differentiate it, in
physical appearance, from that of Kashgar.
Of the primitive religion of Chinese Turkestan nothing seems to be
known. The Buddhism of Kashgar was that of the school of the "Little
Vehicle," introduced apparently soon after the commencement of the
Christian era. It is thought to have come, through its Indo-Sythic rulers,
from Baktria and the west, rather than from India and the south. From
the west also Zoroastrianism and Nestorian Christianity advanced in the
early Christian centuries into Kashgar, and were transmitted to China.
The latter religion survived the introduction of Islam into Turkestan,
and was still extant, if not flourishing, in the thirteenth century, in the
time of Marco Polo, who found the country subject to Kublai Khan,
" the Great Caan. " In the eighth century Kashgar was occupied by the
Arab General Qutayba, then in alliance with the Tibetans who were at
war with the Chinese. But the power of China reasserted itself, and
not till the tenth and eleventh centuries did Islam under the chiefs of
ANCIENT KHOTAN : A REVIEW. 571
the Karluk tribe of Turks, the successors of Satok Boghra Khan, become
supreme in Turkestan. With the rapid extinction of Buddhism which
followed the establishment of Islam, Buddhist buildings and records fell
into neglect and decay ; and it doubtless was in part owing to the long-
continued political vicissitudes of Kashgar and the eager iconoclasm of
its Muslim conquerors that, in comparison with the more secluded oases
to the east, the fewer ancient sites which are found in Kashgar and
Yarkand have been less prolific than they in archaeological "finds."
The principal of these eastern oases is Khotan. But in physical
origin and in population they all, beginning from Karghalik on the west,
seem in the main to be alike. Situated at the (hjlumclmment on to the
plain of the rivers flowing from the rugged and barren Kun-lun
ranges, they owe their existence to the silt deposited by those rivers and
to the facilities for irrigation furnished by them. Bastioned on the
south by the Kun-lun and divided one from the other by spaces of in-
hospitable waste, the oases are hemmed in on the north by the vast
sands of the Tarim basin and overshadowed throughout a great part of
the year by its fierce sand-laden winds. Time out of mind, apparently,
an important and profit-yielding trade route has run through them east
and west (one notable article of commerce being the jade dug out of the
Kun-lun valleys). But they have always remained in a comparative
isolation unknown to Kashgar.
It would seem from such evidence, anthropological and philological,
as is available — human bones were apparently not obtained by Dr. Stein
— that the stocks of mankind whence the present population of these
oases was derived had no predecessors which have left palpable traces of
themselves; and that the oldest historical evidence regarding man in
them dates back only to the centuries immediately preceding the
Christian era. One of the component ethnic elements of the population
is described as Eastern Iranian, and therefore Aryan. It came from the
west, and unalloyed representatives of it are said to be seen in the
existing Galcha tribes of the Pamirs, the " Tajik "' Wakhis and Sarikolis,
and in the Pakhpos of the valleys above Karghalik. With this Iranian
element were combined Turki, Tibetan, and Chinese elements — the first
having come from the north and west, the others from the east. The
first was probably not introduced (and then perhaps not very largely)
until the eleventh Christian century, the Buddhist kings of Khotan
having stoutly maintained their independence against Muslim dominion.
The Tibetan and Chinese elements were doubtless of much earlier
introduction than the Turki. They were probably present before
the temporary supremacy of the Tibetans in Turkestan in their
contest with the Chinese in the seventh century A.D. Whether they
were antecedent or subsequent to the Iranian in their advent in Khotan
can never perhaps be determined. As in the case of that stock with
its "unknown" Iranian language, distinct traces of the individuality of
the Tibetan element were left and preserved in the "unknown" Proto-
Tibetan tongue found in texts unearthed by Dr. Stein in Khotan.
A further possible ethnic element in the Khotan population is
indicated by legend, religion, and language. Of a primitive religion
572 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
in Turkestan, as already remarked, there is apparently no trace.
The sole prevailing pre-Islamic religion within historic time was
Buddhism, but in Khotan and the east, Buddhism of the " Great
Vehicle" school. That this Buddhism came from India across the
Kara-koram seems clear ; and legend connects its introduction into
Khotan with the pre-Christian era of Asoka and the Indian region of
ancient Taxila. Dr. Stein is evidently disposed to think that the intro-
duction of Buddhism accompanied, or at any rate followed, an early
immigration of Indians into Khotan ; and this immigration led not only
to the complete extension of Buddhism with its Sanskrit language and
script, but to the use in Khotan of an Indian Prakrit dialect and cursive
Brahmi and Kharosthi writing.
The ethnological and philological relations of pre-Islamic Khotan
were therefore sufficiently remarkable. They illustrate once more the
undaunted perseverance with which the races of human kind push their
way, however rough and perilous the paths, over the face of the globe.
Its population was derived from Iranian, Indian, and Mongoloid stocks ;
its languages were Iranian, Indian (Sanskrit and Prakrit), Proto-Tibetan,
and Chinese, written mostly in the Sanskritic Brahmi and Kharosthi,
and in Chinese characters. With the adv^eut of Islam the philology as
well as the religion was changed completely. The various tongues and
modes of writing disappeared, and Turki became the one language
commonly used. But the ethnological quality of the population under-
went little change. The chiefs of Khotan were for centuries the vassals
of China. During the struggle between China and Tibet in the seventh
and eighth centuries A.D., in which the supremacy of China over Turkestan
was for a time suspended, they became subject to Tibet. From this
subjection they were probably released, and Chinese influence restored,
when the Tibetans were overcome by the Uigurs : and, as we saw, not
till the eleventh century were the Khotanese brought under the Turks
and Islam. Since then Mongols and Chinese have ruled them. But
these political changes have, in the course of centuries, had little effect
upon their ethnic condition and upon their characteristics, physical and
psychical. The Khotanese of to-day to all appearance possess the same
physical, mental, and moral attributes, the same general disposition and
accomplishments, with the single exception of love of study, which
struck all the early travellers as being characteristic of them.
Of the nature of the civilisation and manner of human life prevailing
in Khotan in pre-Islamic times, Dr. Stein's archaeological collections
afford numerous indications. To enter into details in respect to these
would occupy more space and time than is here at our disposal. It may be
said in a few words, however, that the material and social life andthe culture
of the Khotanese seem to have been of a fairly advanced and well-regulated
type. They were largely the result of influences from India (more
especially Gandhara) on the one side, and from China and Tibet on the
other. But articles of later Greek, and even of Eoman, design give proof
of intercourse with countries far to the west. The cult of Buddhism,
with its temples and monasteries, its jjaintings and writings, was a pre-
vailing feature of the civilisation. Borrowing and lending, buying and
ANCIENT KHOTAN : A REVIEW. 573
selling went on in coin of both the West and the East. The people were
comfortably clad and housed. Yet the use of stone, and even of kiln-
fired bricks, in construction and ornament was unknown, and their
domestic and public buildings consisted of wood, adobe, and plastered
wattle. Paper, birch-bark, and palm leaves seem scarcely to have found
place in their libraries and offices : their writing was mostly committed
to and transmitted on wooden tablets, wooden slips, and leather. The
people were fond of colour and decorative art. Few articles made with
the precious metals and precious stones are among Dr. Stein's " finds."
But the presence of gold dust in the soil of abandoned sites perhaps
indicates the extensive use of gilding in the decoration of temples and
images. The nature of the physical environment of life is also traceable.
Internal disorder and invasion by enemies from without doubtless
brought about shiftings of the population. But Dr. Stein's excavations,
exposing the state of a number of evacuated towns and villages, show
that abandonment did not always take place in haste and alarm.
Whatever the iconoclastic proclivities of Islam, the chief sites excavated
had been given up long before Khotan was entered by Mahomedans.
The forces of nature, of old as now, contributed largely to the desertion
of old settlements.
As bearing upon this subject, Dr. Stein has carefully described the
physical geography of the Turkestan oases. He has shown how, as they
tail off into the wastes of the Tarim basin, the silt-laden waters of their
snow-fed rivers are liable in flood time to wander right or left as they
find a way among the undulations made by the driving and eroding
winds and by the silt deposits of previous years : how where used near their
dihouchement from the hills for irrigation, these waters tend gradually to
raise the level of the cultivated land with their silt, and to leave in
hollows the inhabited sites and uncultivated ground : how the soil which
now covers the ancient bui'ied sites consists not of the sand of the central
Tarim desert, but of the loess silt which once on a time had been rolled
down by the rivers from the Kun-lunvalleys, and when desiccated under the
torrid heat of summer had been taken up and re-deposited by the winds.
It is only by persistent struggle that the irrigation of cultivatio;i in these
oases can be kept up, and without irrigation the splendidly fertile loess
soil is valueless. The forces just alluded to are ever tending to change
the course and scope of the irrigation ; and any slackening of human
effort, whencesoever resulting under the unstable conditions of human
existence, must accentuate their modifying power and help to obliterate
the agricultural settlement. Actual experiences of the kind have
taken place within human memory ; and although it is possible, nay
probable, that a secular climatic change in the form of increasing desic-
cation is going on in the Tarim region, it is evident that the physio-
graphical forces now plainly observable may reasonably be held to account
for the phenomena of the past.
As an Indian official who has been witness of the effect and efficiency
of scientific irrigation in the Punjab, Dr. Stein saw the wide field that
lies open in Turkestan for similar operations. What productive tracts
might not these oases become were their water resources made use of
574 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
and controlled by scientific hands ! Population may at present be
scant; but in such lands and among such Eastern peoples, where favour-
able agricultural conditions are secured, population soon gathers and
increases. An enlightened, stable, and progressive government is all that
is wanting. With the re-awakening of the Far East that may still be
to come.
MANUSCRIPT MAPS BY PONT, THE GORDONS, AND ADAIR,
IN THE ADVOCATES' LIBRARY, EDINBURGH.
By C. G. Cash, F.R.S.G.S.
In August, 1901, I published in this Magazine an article entitled "The
First Topographical Survey of Scotland," giving an account of the pre-
paration of the maps that appear in the Scottish volume of Blaeu's^//a.^.
In the last section of that article I referred to a volume of manuscript
maps in the Advocates' Library, these being original sketch maps by
Timothy Pont, map studies and partly finished maps by Robert Gordon
and James Gordon, and maps prepared for Sir Robert Sibbald by John
Adair.
The volume was catalogued as " Collection of maps drawn by Timothy
Pont the celebrated geographer who prepared the 'Theatrum Scotiae'
about the year 1608, with a number of maps drawn by John Adair circa
1680." In the Index Catalogue the entry was "Pont (Timothy)
geographer. Collection of maps drawn by Timothy Pont, about the year
1608 ; also a number of maps drawn by John Adair, circa 1680. Miscel.
143." Tlie printed title on the back of the volume was ''Pout's Maps
of Scotland circa 1608." On a page at the beginning of the volume was
this entry in manuscript, " These maps were drawn by Timothy Pont,
the celebrated Geographer, who prepared the ' Theatrum Scotiae,' about
the year 1608 (see Chambers's Biog. Did. vol. iv. p. 119). W. H. H,
A number of maps by John Adair are bound in at the end of the volume,
circa 1680.." Some errors in these entries have previously been sufficiently
pointed out.
In my previous article I wrote somewhat strongly as to the unsatis-
factory condition of these maps, and the need for and desirability of
proper and conservative treatment of them, and I made some suggestions
to that end. These suggestions were brought before the Curators of the
Advocates' Library and before the Publications Committee of the Royal
Scottish Geographical Societ}', but various circumstances prevented any
action being then taken. I continued, however, as opportunity offered,
my own studies of the maps, and graduall}^ acquired a considerable know-
ledge of them, and accumulated a body of notes in regard to them. By
reference to other manuscripts in the Advocates' Library I became so
far acquainted with the scripts of Pont, the two Gordons, and Sibbald,
that I could recognise them on the various maps: the signed maps also
gave a clue to the styles of cartography ; and so I ventured a classifica-
tion as to authorship that left very few doubtful cases. One feature
MANUSCRIPT MAPS BY PONT, THE GORDONS, AND ADAIR. 575
that for a time caused me some doubt is that many maps are endorsed
with a place-name followed by the initials " M. T. P.," standing for
" Magister Timothy Pont." At first I was inclined to suppose that this
indicated that Pont had drawn the majis ; but it afterwards became
evident that though in some cases this is so, in others its meaning is
that the map was compiled from the surveys of Pont. Speaking gener-
ally the Pont maps are distinguished by a roughness of execution, and
by being ruled in surveyor's squares. In some cases his work, when
very much faded, has been worked over or added to by one of the
Gordons. The Adair maps are quite easily distinguished by their special
style of execution.
In the course of my close examination of the maps, I found that some
of them had mapping and script text on the back. All such work was
of course hidden by the mounting; but by dint of careful inspection on
days of brilliant sunshine, I succeeded in ascertaining in several cases
what district the mapping dealt with, and it became evident that inter-
esting work was concealed.
Early in the present year I learned that the process of deterioration
of the volume had gone so far that repairs were imperatively necessary,
and that the volume was ordered for re-binding. At once I placed myself
in communication with Mr. W. K. Dickson, the new Keeper of the Library,
sending him a copy of my previous paper, repeating my suggestions, and
offering my services in connection with any possible re-arrangement and
re-mounting of the maps. Mr. Dickson had been paying much attention
to the valuable collection of manuscripts under his care, and at his
request I submitted a somewhat detailed report on the condition of the
A^olume and its maps, and on what treatment of them seemed desirable.
Then he and I consulted with Messrs. Waterston as to how far my
recommendations were feasible within certain limits of expense, and as
the outcome of the conference the volume was entrusted to them for
treatment, and they have taken much personal interest in the problems
the work presented.
The first step was to number the maps consecutively in the order in
which they were then bound, so that subsequent identification would be
easy. Then all the maps were dismounted. It is curious to see in how
many cases several pieces of paper had been conjoined to make a large
sheet, as though paper had been expensive. Again, in many cases a
piece of a map had been excised, presumably because erroneous, and a
fresh piece of paper had been patched on in its place. These joinings and
patchings made the process of dismounting old and in many cases frail
papers a difficult and delicate one. Again, in some cases the ink was
much faded, and there was the danger of still further fading if the maps
were wet. But Messrs. Waterston's binder, Mr. George Tod, is a man
of technical knowledge and skill, cautious and conservative, and keenly
interested in such a piece of work. In the most perfectly successful
manner he removed all these precious papers from their mounts without,
as far as I can see, any damage at all. It was then comparatively easy
for me to sort them into three sets according to authorship, a Pont set
a Gordons set, and an Adair set. The maps in each set were then
576 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
arranged topographically, working through the map uf Scotland irom
north and west to south and east.
When the sheets were all dismounted, I examined the maps and text
on their backs, and arranged for the proper " inlaying " of some sheets
so as to expose any work that seemed of value. Mere name endorse-
ments or unimportant scribble mappings are not exposed in the new
mounting, and it has, unfortunately, been impossible to expose the
mapping on the back of No. 5 of the Gordon maps. But I have made a
careful traced copy of this map, and this copy is bound in with the
maps. The rectangular blank in this copy shows where a piece of the
paper had been cut out in making a change in the mapping on the face
of the sheet, where the new patch will be readily recognised.
When these maps passed into the possession of Sir Robert Sibbald,
he endorsed many of them, and also entered lists of some (jf them in his
Repertonj of Manuscripts (Advocates' Library pi^ess-mark 33"3"16) and
Collections for the DescrijAion of Scotland (Advocates' Library press-mark
33"515). In the former he catalogues sixty-live maps as " Maps done
by Timothy Pont M.S.," but he professes only to " give the titles of the
most remarkable of ym." In the latter he catalogues forty-eight manu-
script maps, " brought to me by Mr. Gregory fra ye person of Rothemay,"
and seven of Adair's maps. I cannot reconcile Sibbald's two lists with
each other, nor in every case identify the maps in them. It is obvious,
as he states, that he did not catalogue some of the maps he received, and
I think that he is sometimes in error as to authorship.
In the following lists the maps are numbered consecutively in the
order in which they are now re-bound in three volumes. When a title
appears on the face of the map, it is quoted as " Title " ; when there is a
title on the back, it is quoted as " Endorsement," abbreviated to " End.".
A brief statement is made as to the district slioAvn in each map, the
style of workmanship, and anything noteworthy in regard to the map.
I use the word " script " to indicate letters of the ordinary manuscript
shape, and the word "print" to indicate letters of Roman or Italic
printed shape, though done with the pen. We seem to have no special
word for manuscript-printing. It is to be remembered that all these
maps are hand-done, except the one "proof," No. 6 among the Adair
maps The entries with bracketed numbers are: — (1) the size of the
sheet, in inches ; (2) the size of the mapping, in inches, in each case
first north to south then east to west; (3) the scale given, in number of
miles intended to be represented by one inch ; (4) the actual scale, in
number of miles actually represented by one inch.
The titles and endorsements of these maps are in various hands. On
the Pont maps are such entries by Pont himself, and by the Gordons
and Sibbald. The Gordon maps have been written on by their authors,
and often also by Sibbald. The Adair maps bear no marking except
that by Adair. It is usually possible to recognise the different scripts,
and after each quoted title or endorsement of the Pont and Gordon maps
I have given in square brackets the initials of its writer, but some of
these identifications are not certain.
In several cases the maps bear definite statements of authorship or
MANUSCRIPT MAPS BY PONT, THE C40IID0NS, AND ADAIR. 577
date. Such statements appear on Pont maps Nos. 10, 11, 13, 15, 20, 21,
and 34, and on Gordon maps Nos. 4, 9, 11, 25, 2G, 28a, 32, 36, 37, 41,
52, 53, and 62. I have already said that "M. T. P." is not a conclusive
marking: but I consider that the entry " R. G." sufficiently indicates
Eobert Gordon as the author of a map.
Manuscript Maps by Timothy Pont.
1. End : " Kyntail. M. T. P." [R. G.]. A very rough sketch map of
Lochs Erriboll, Tongue, etc. The map is confused by lines of correc-
tions and cancelling. (1) 12x12. (2) 11x12. (3) . (4) c. 1.
2. Title, " Mapp of Strathnavern." [R. S.]. End : " Strathnaverne.
M. T. P." [R.G.], and "Mapp of Strath Nauern." [T. P.]. A rough
sketch map in much detail of the country draining to the north coast,
from Cape Wrath (called here Faro Heade) to the mouth of the R.
Halladale. The work is mostly in small script, and the names read
from the east. There are many script notes, especially along the coast
(1)121x16*. (2)121x151 (3) . (4) c. 31.
On the back there is script, and mapping of the same district.
3. End : " Edera-chewles. M. T. P." [R. G.]. A fairly detailed map
of the coast in the Edrachilles district, ruled in squares of about -\ inch
sides. The work is very rough and untidy ; several parts are cancelled,
and some parts have been drawn twice. There are several manuscript
notes. Two entries are, " Extreem Wilderness," and " Many Woolfs in
this . . ." The names read from the east. (1) 16 x 11. (2) 16 x 11
(3) . (4)c. 3.
4. Title, " Part of the Back syde of Rosse." [R. S.]. End : " Part of
the back syde of Rosse. M. T. P." [R. G,]. The sheet carries six very
rough sketch maps of parts of the north-Avest coast ; some parts of the
script are difficult to read. (1) 16x12.
On the back there is script, and mapping of Loch Assynt, etc,
A. Probably the neighbourhood of Loch Laxford. (2) 2\ X H
(3) . (4) .
B. The neighbourhood of Loch Laxford. (2) 2|xlA. (3) .
(4) 4 or 5.
C. The profile of some mountains, probably between Maree and
Torridon, but hopelessly confused, (2) Hx 3|-. (3) , (4) .
D. Title, " Yis is ye coast be south Loch Eu." [T. P.]. The coast
from Loch Ewe to Loch Torridon, but utterly vague (2) 7 x 24
(3) . (4)c. 5.
E. Loch Carron with the River Carron, and Loch Alsh. (2) 7 x 8h
(3) 21. (4) c. 3.
F. Loch Broom, Little Loch Broom (called Loch Carllen), and Loch
Gruinard, with their rivers. (2) 8x10. (3) 2. (4) 2.
5. End : " L. Ness, Abertarf, Glengarriff. Stranarrn, & Seats in
Murrey, Glenmorisdenn, Vrwhodynn, Straharkegg." [T. P.], and " Loch
Ness, Abertarf, Straharkeg, Glenmorisdenn, Vrwhodynn, air L." [T.P.],
VOL. XXIII. 2 T
578 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
and " Seats in Morray."' [T. P.]. Map of Glenmore, with Lochs Garry
and Quoich. The work is somewhat rough print and script. The names
read from the north-east. The sheet is ruled in squares of about i inch
sides. (I)25xl3f. (2)25x131. (3) . (4) c. 2.
6. Title, "Abernethy & ye draught of Spey." [R. S.]. End:
"Abernethy & ye draught of Spey. M. T. P.' [Pt. G.], and "All
Straspay in Mappe." [T. P.]. A detailed map of the River Spey from
just above Craigellachie and "Auymoir" to a little below Fochabers,
and the River Nethy. The work at the mouth of the Spey is illegible;
the drawing goes right to the edge of the paper, but there is no sugges-
tion of a sea-coast. The junction of the Nethy with the Spey is not
shown ; the Spey has there been drawn wrongly and then corrected, but
the Nethy has not been joined to the new drawing. A part of the
River Avon is shown. The work is rough, and much of it has been
done over. The names read from the north. The sheet has been ruled
from east to west at intervals of f inch. (1) 16 X llj. (2) 16 X llj.
(3) . (4)c. 2i. _ ^
On the back there is mapping of the Nethy and its tributaries.
7. Title, "Strath Avin & Glen Tanner." [R. S.]. End: "Strath
Avin, Glen Tanner." [R. G.], and " The draught of the river of Awin
from the springs to the Inver yrof." [R. G.] ; most of this second endorse-
ment is on the back of No. 18, the two maps having been drawn on one
sheet and cut apart. This sheet bears four maps. There is much
detail, and the work is in good but stiff black printing over very faded
brown, but with many names not re-written. The re-writing seems to
be Robert Gordon's work. The general eftect is untidy. The sheet is
ruled in squares of about J inch sides. (1) 12x12.
A. In the middle of the top part of the sheet is a rough profile
sketch of Ben Lawers. (2) 2f x 31. (3) . (4) .
B. Title, '•' Glen Tanyr." [T. P.], in the upper left-hand part of the
sheet. The hills are drawn strongly. The names read from the north,
the south being at the top of the map. (2) 5^ X 5. (3) . (4) c. 3.
C. Title, "The laich of Strath Avin, it is evil and wrong." [? R. G.],
in the upper right-hand part of the sheet. This is the lower course of
the Avon, which in the earlier draught was plotted twice. It is " evil
and wrong," for the Lift'et is drawn as entering on its left bank, and the
Brown on its right. (2) 4i x 3i. (3) . (4) c. 3.
I). Title, "Strath Avin?' [? R. G.], occupying the lower half of the
sheet. Does not include the upper course of the Avon, but shows the
Builg and the junction of Avon with Spey. The lower part of the
district has not been re-worked. (2) 6 J x Hi. (3) . (4) c. 3.
8. Title, "Mapp of Murray." [R. S.]. End: "Murray. M. T. P."
[R. G.], and " Murray." [T. P.]. The map extends from the Lossie to the
middle of Loch Ness, and from the coast to the sources of the rivers.
The work is in somewhat coarse print, but this is one of the neatest of
the Pont maps. (1)13x17. (2)12x17. (3) 2§. (4) 3 J.
9. Title, "The coast betwixt Spey and Diberne.'" [R. S.]. End:
MANUSCRIPT MAPS BY PONT, THE GORDONS, AND ADAIR, 579
" All the coast betuixt Spey and Doverne. M. T. P." [E. G.], " Enzei
Boyn & Bamph." [T. P.], aud " Mapp of Eazie Boyne and Bamf." [T. P.].
A detailed map, covering about eiglit miles inland. An inset in the top
right-hand corner gives a piece of Banffshire east of the Deveron. The
work is in rough semi-cursive print. The names read from the south-
east. (1) 13i X 16f. (2)13x15. (3) . (4) c. 2J.
10. Title, "Buqhan from Ythan River to Duverne by Tim. Pont."
[E. S.]. End: " M. Timothe Pont. Buquhan from Ythan river to
Dovern." [R. G.]. The western boundary curves outwards from the
mouth of the Ythan to Banff". There is much detail in coarse printing ;
in the southern half, the names are printed parallel to the curved
boundary. The sheet is ruled with faded red ink into squares of f inch
sides, "Eurie one of these dimensions do little exceed half a myle."
The actual scale is uneven, and seems to increase northwards. (1)
13ixl6|. (2)13|xl6j. (3)c. 11 (4) If to 3.
11. Title, "Both ye sides of Dee fra Kinkairn to Aberdeen by Tim.
Pont." [R. S.]. End : " Both syds of Dee fra Kincarn to Abirdene
Mr. Timothie Pont." [R. G.], and, " Marr. all Dee R . . . " [T. P.], partly
illegible. The work is in fairly neat print and script, but so much
rubbed as to be not easily legible in some parts. The coast has been
much corrected. The names read mostly from the east. There are
some notes in Robert Gordon's script. (1) 13xl6f. (2) 13xl6|.
(3) . (4)c. 2.
1 2. End : " Loch Lyon. M. T. P." [R. G.]. The map shows Lochs
Linnhe, Eil, and Leven. It is ruled in squares of about f inch sides.
The work is fairly neat print over faded script ; some of the script is not
done over, aud there is also more recent script. (1) 12|xll5-. (2)
lUx8. (3) . (4) c. 3.
There is mapping on the back, " Part of Rannach."
Along the top edge of the sheet there is an illegible fragment of a
map, "Of Cowell, Lochaw, and Lorn," dealing with the neighbourhood
of Loch Fyne.
13. Title, "A Description of Maimoir in Lochabir wt. ye placis
adioyning be Mr. Timothee Pont." [T. P. and R.G.], "be Mr. Timothee
Pont" being added by Gordon. A very detailed, well-executed, and
clear map of the district between and round Loch "Yiel" and Loch
"Lyon," i.e. Eil and Leven. The work is in large, stiff, clear print, and
the general effect of the map is strong, bold, and clear. The sheet is
ruled faintly in squares of /v inch sides. This is the best finished of
the Pont maps. (1)16x14' (2)15x12. (3)4. (4)4.
14. Eud : "Coull, Lome, & Lochaw." [R. S.]. Map including
Lochs Awe, upper Fyne, Long, Ridden, Striven, Holy, and Goil, and the
north part of the Isle of Bute. There is much detail in neat print,
somewhat faded. The sheet is ruled in squares of about | inch sides.
(1)12^x191. (2)12x19. (3)2f. (4) 2§.
15. End: "Part of Couel comonlie called Cowl to witt Glastree &
580 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Ardskeodenish, al yis in Argyll & Lome be Mr. Tim. Pont." [R. G.],
and " Glastree & Ardskeodenish." [T. P.]. A detailed map of the dis-
trict between Loch Fyne and Jura Sound near the River Add. The
work is fairly neat print. The names read mostly from the west. The
sheet is ruled in squares of yV inch sides. (1) 5f X 5^. (2) 5f X5;^.
(3) . (4)c. 2.
On the back is an almost illegible " Mem. to Loch syinn."
16. A detailed map of the district round Lochs Gare, Long, Goil,
Holy, and Eck. The work is fairly neat print. The sheet is made up
of several pieces of paper patched together. (1) 7f x 9f. (2) 7h x 9|.
(3)2^. (4) 2 to 3.
17. End : "Loch Lomund and all his yles in Map." [T. P.]. A map
of Loch Lomond and the heads of the neighbouring sea lochs ; it
includes Loch Ard and the beginning of the Forth. The work is partly
neat small print and partly script ; it has faded, and some parts have
been done over. There are several meaningless wavy lines. The sheet
is ruled in squares of t inch sides. (1)16x11. (2)16x11. (3) c. 2.
(4)2.
18. Title, " Loch Tay." [T. P.]. End : " Loch Tay." [R. G.]. A map
of Loch Tay and the beginning of the River Tay. Near " Weemb " the
river has been drawn three times, two of the drawings being cancelled.
The work is fairly neat print and script, some of it done over. The
sheet is ruled in squares of about | inch sides. This map and No. 7
were drawn on the same sheet, and cut apart. (1) 5^ X 12. (2) 4f x llf.
(3) . (4)c. 21.
19. Title, "Mapp of Garry & its Branches." [R. S.]. A map of
the River Garry above the junction of the Tilt, including part of
" L. Eyracht " and the upper waters of the River Tromie. There is
much detail in neat print, most of it having been done over. The sheet
is ruled with red ink over older faded red ink in squares of f inch sides.
(1)12x131. (2)9ixl2i. (3) . (4)c. 3.
20. Title, "This pag qpryseth all the Branches and River of Tilt
compleetlie, be Mr. Ti. Pont." [T. P. and R. G.]. End: " Glentilt.
M. T. P. " [R. G.]. A detailed map of the River Tilt and its tributaries,
including also the River Dee from the Chest to Braemar, the River
Geldie, and the Ey Burn. The work is in faded brown ink, and seems
to have been done over. Some slight additions are in Robert Gordon's
script, including "be Mr. Ti. Pont "in the Title. (1) 12ix8. (2) 12x8.
(3)21. X4)c. 2i.
21. Title, "The Draugt of Strath Erin be Mr. Timothee Pont."
[R. G.]. End : " Strath-Iern and pt. of Glen Amont in :Mappe." [T. P.],
and " Strath-eryne and Glen Almond M. T. P." [R. G.J, with the added
note "Glen almond is not drawne out heer yeat Jany 1G37." [R. G.].
A detailed map of Strath Earn. The work is fairly neat print, in black
ink over faded brown. The sheet is ruled in squares of less than I inch
sides. A scale is ruled, but has neither names nor figures. In the top
MANUSCRIPT IVIAPS BY PONT, THE GORDONS, AND ADAIR. 581
right-hand corner is a cancelled sketch map of part of Glen Almond.
(I)10ixl4|. (2)10xUi (3)12. (4) c. 2.
22. This sheet bears two maps. The whole sheet is ruled in squares
of 1^ inch sides. (1)10^x14.
A. Map of the district along the south side of the River Earn
between Drummond Castle and Forteviot. There is good detail in fairly
neat print, some of it done over. All the names read from the north.
(2)51x91. (3) . (4)c. 2.
B. Title, " Glenalmond. M. T. P. " [E. G.]. A detailed map in fairly
neat print, some of it done over. (2) 6| X 12. (3) . (4) c. 2h.
There is some very rough mapping on the back, with the title,
" Lochabre. M. T. P. " [R. G.], and some script about the same district.
23. This sheet bears two maps ; it is ruled in squares of about f inch
sides. (1)12^x12.
On the back there is some illegible endorsement, and also some
verse, " The . . . of S>- Philip Sydney."
J. End: "Howe of Taye and Tilt. M. T. P." [R.G.]. A map of
the River Tay from Loch Tay to Dunkeld, with Rivers Tummel, Garry,
and Tilt. The name " Timmell fl. " is given to the Tilt as well as to the
Tummel. The work is somewhat rough print and script. (2) 10 x 12.
(3)14. (4)c. 2.
B. A map of the Lunan Burn, a tributary of the Isla. The work is
somewhat rough print and script, and much of it has been done over ;
there are also several corrections. The two maps are imperfectly separated
by an irregular line. (2) G^x 6J. (3) c. 2. (4) c. li.
24. Title, "Country above Perth." [R. S.]. End: "The countrie
above Perth. M. T. P. " [R. G.]. A map of that part of the Tay basin
that lies west of the River Tay, and between Perth and the River Bran.
The work is moderately good print, in somewhat faded ink. (1) 8 X 7^^-.
(2)71x71. (3) . (4)2.
25. Map of the River Tay from Dunkeld to Benchil, and part of the
Isla. The map has been cut out of a larger sheet, and is ruled in squares
of about ^ inch sides. The work is rather untidy print in faded ink over
faded script. (1)7x8. (2) 6 x 7. (3) . (4) 2.
On the back there is rough mapping of the country from Ben Nevis
to Blair Athol.
26. End: "Angus." [R. G.], and, in pencil, "Angus & Mearns."
[R. G.], and " Laich of Angus, Mr. Timothee Pont." [R. G.]. A very
detailed map of the country from Perth to Arbroath. The work is fair
print and fair script; two inks were used, and one has faded. The
general effect is untidy ; much of the work has been done over.
(l)12x2U. (2)12x211 (3) U. (4) U.
27. End: "Strathardle & Glenshey." [T. P.]. A fairly detailed
map, in somewhat faded, fairly neat print, over very faded print and
script. The many corrections give the map an untidy appearance. The
sheet is ruled in squares of about ] inch sides. (1) 15.Vxlli. (2) 15x11.
(3) If. (4) 14.
582 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
28. Title, "Glen Yla from ye head." [E. S.]. End: " Al Glen Yla
... in Mappe." [T. P.], partly illegible. A map of Glen Isla down to
the junction of "B. Elycht," that is the Burn of Alytb. There are three
insets, two of them cancelled, showing the continuation of the Isla from
Airly nearly to Couper. The work is in fair print. The sheet is ruled
in squares of ? inch sides. (1) IGxllf. (2) 16xll|. (3) .
(4) c. 2.
29. Title, " Part of Anguse." [K. S.]. End : " Pairt of Anguss.
M. T. P. " [R. G.]. A detailed map of the district of the South Esk and
the Isla. The sheet is ruled roughly into squares of about J inch sides.
The work is in neat print, but has faded so that much is scarcely legible ;
some seems to have been done over in darker ink. There is a patch in
the bottom left-hand corner. (1) 8x9. (2) 7| x 9. (3) 2|. (4) c. 3.
30. This sheet bears two maps. (1) lOf x 14|.
On the back there is mapping of the Norain River and the "Westwater.
A. Title, "Ye draught of South Eske Eiver or Esken Duy." [R.G.].
The work is in fairly neat print, in black ink over faded brown. There
are script notes in faded ink scarcely legible. The place-names near the
junction of the Prosen are illegible, and this part of the map has been
twice re-drawn in the margin. (2) 7i X 14. (3) . (4) 2.
B. Title, "Ye draught of North Esk River." [R.G.]. This map is
separated from the previous one by a curved double line. It is done in
the same style. (2) 9x14. (3) U. (4) c. 3i.
31. Outline map of Tay Estuary from " Madlenguir " to a little
beyond "Butannais." Few places are shown. There are several lines
of soundings, and some anchorages. The work is in neat script. There
are 32 radiants from a wind-rose in the middle of the map. (1) 13^x14 J.
(2)12|xl4l. (3) . (4)1.
32. End: " Sterlinshyr." [R. G.], given twice. Map of central Scot-
land, from the Clyde below Dumbarton to the Forth at Saltcoats, and
from Stirling to the Clyde above the Kelvin. The work is in neat print-
ing, and some of it seems to have been added by Robert Gordon. The
map is ruled with red ink in squares of 1 inch sides. (1) 12^x15^.
(2)ll|xl5|. (3) . (4)c. 3.
33. Title, in stiff heavy print, " Baronee of Renfrew." [T. P.]. End :
"Renfrow." [R. G.]. The district from the Clyde estuary southwards to
Flatterstoun. The sheet is irregularly ruled in squares of about | inch
sides. There is much detail in fair print. The map has been cut in a
very irregular line out of a larger sheet, and to the north and east it is
pasted on to a sheet with ruled margin lines. (1)10x15. (2) 9i x 14i.
(3) . (-t)c. 3.
34. End: "Clydsdale." [R. G.], and " Clyddsdall." [T. P.], and "The
Mappe of all Cliddsdale." [R. G.]. A map of Clydesdale from Queens-
berry Hill to just below Glasgow. The sheet is ruled in squares of about
^ inch sides. It bears a date in the top right-hand corner "... Sept.
et Oct. 1596 descripta " ; the first word is illegible. In the bottom right-
MANUSCRIPT MAPS BY PONT, THE GORDONS, AND ADAIR. 583
liand corner is an illegible note mentioning Anand. Clyde, Tweed, and
Tintock. The general appearance of the map is rough, but the detail
is neatly done; many names read from the north. (1)22x15.
(2)19|xl4i-. (.3)2. (4) c. 2|.
35. This sheet bears two maps. It is ruled in red ink in squares of
about 1 inch sides. (1) 20jx 15f.
A. Title, "Nidisdaile." [T. P.]. End: "Nidisdale." []T. P.]. A
detailed map in rough script, much scarcely legible. There are two
patches, on one of which the work is in small neat print. (2) 16^ X 15|.
(3) .. (4) c. 3.
B. In the bottom left-hand corner is a map, inverted and cancelled,
of the district from Selkirk to Eubersla-w, and from Hawick to Ancrum.
It is a detailed map in rough manuscript. (2) 8| X 6. (3) .
(4) c. 2.
Manuscript Maps by Robert and James Gordon.
1. A Ptolemy style of map of Roman England, including part of
Ireland, and showing the eastward direction of the east coast of Scotland.
The work is in neat printing. (1)8x12. (2)6^x7-}. (3) .
(4) c. 60.
2.- A map of Scotland, north of Glenmore in detail, and outline of
east coast to Dunbar, showing the courses of the chief rivers, and the
positions of a few places. The work is in fine neat printing. The middle
part of the map is patched. (1) 13x13. (2) lOi X 1 1. (3) .
(4) c. 20.
3. A map of Scotland north of Loch Linnhe and River Dee, and
west of River Deveron. There is much detail in fine neat printing
The map includes most of the Orkneys. The sheet is made up of several
pieces patched together. (I)27|xl9i. (2)27fxl9i. (3)5. (4)
7 to 8.
4. End : " Straloch's mapp of Scotland." [E. S.], and " The West coast
from Glen Elg to Knap-dail." [R. G.]. An outline map of Scotland from
Tarbat Ness to Tay and Jura. There is detail on all the west coast, and
eastward as far as Lochs Rannoch and Tay, and also some along the Dee.
The work is beautifully neat ; the numerous mountains are small and
pretty. The sheet has been partly ruled with pencil lines from west to
east at f inch intervals. In Loch Linnhe is written, "All ye cost of
Lorn is according to Mr. Timothies . . ."; the remainder is illegible. (1)
19ix28|. (2)19-1x281 (3) 5-i-. (4) c. 6.
5. A detailed map including Glenmore, Lochs Arkaig and Garry, the
basins of the Nairn, Fiudhorn, and Spey, Lochs Ericht and Laggan, and
the River Spean ; also in outline Lochs Garry, Rannoch, and Tummel.
The work is very neat, but much faded, and in the Spey valley has been
done over with darker ink. The names read from the north. There
are multitudinous mountains of uniform pattern. (1) 38ix26;'r. (2)
38x24. (3)2. (4) 2 to 3.
584 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
On the back there is a map of the districts draining to Loch Eil.
As it is not possible to display this, I have made a copy of it, and the
copy is attached to the back of the mount of the map.
6. A map of Eastern Scotland, including basins of Don, Dee, Tay,
Forth, and Tweed, Much detail is shown, except in the lowlands
between Montrose and the Tay. There is detail between Glasgow and
Loch Lomond; and the west coast is partly drawn near Loch Etive.
The work is fine neat printing. The sheet is made up of many pieces
joined together, and also is patched. (1)22x27. (2)22x27. (3)6.
(4) c. 6.
7. Title, " A description of the East coast of Scotland drawn out of
Wagoner and sumqt corrected, but it not fully perfyt & yet hath many
errors." [R. G. or J. G.]. End : " "Wagoners east coast of Scotland."
[? R. G.]. A map of the east coast of Scotland from Strathy Point to
Coquet Island. There is but little detail, and only a few names appear,
in neat somewhat bold print. There are several lengthy script state-
ments about latitudes, directions, islands, etc. There is a scale of
"English & Frenche Leagues," about 4 = 1 inch. (1) 22ix8. (2)
221 x7|. (3) 12. (4) c. 12.
8. A map of the Mainland of Orkney, and Fair Isle. The work is
neat print. The paper is patched. (1) 6| x 6. (2) 5j x 3^. (3) ■ .
(4) c. 4.
9. Title, " Cathenesia descripta ex magna eiusdem charta quam
lustravit et descripsit Timoth. Pont. Opera R. Gordonii mense Aprili,
1642." [R. G.]. End : " Cathness." [R. G.]. There is much detail, in fine
neat print ; the names read from the east. The sheet is ruled in pencil
in squares of If inch sides. The scale "given is " Scala miliarium
Scoticorum communium." (1)12x8. (2)7^x11^. (3)24. (4)4^.
10. Title, "Sutherland, Strath Okel, & Strath Charron." [R. S.].
A map of the country draining to the Dornoch Firth, and the coast north-
wards to Dunbeath. The work is neat fine print. The paper is patched.
(I)10fxl4. (2)10x131. (3) 3f. (4) 4 to 5.
11. Title, "The draught of Edera Cheules, lying betuix Strath-
Navern and Assin, gathered out of Mr. Timothee Pont his papers, who
travayled and descry ved the same. By R. Gordon. 1636." [R. G.].
End : " Ederacheulis. M. T. P." [R. G.]. The work is neat, but the
map is vague towards where Cape Wrath should be. Two entries are
" Extream wilderness," and " Verie great plentie of wolfes doo haunt in
this desert places." There is much script on the back, " Noats of Mr.
Timothies anent Strathnavern &c." (1) 16 x 12^. (2) 16 x 12. (3) 1|.
(4) c. 2.
12. This sheet bears two maps. (1) 12 x 9i.
A. A map of Loch " Syinn " corrected to " Shinn," showing probably
all possible detail, in very neat print. There is a note on the abundance
of pearl in the Loch ; also one on the plentifulness and size of salmon
MANUSCRIPT MAPS BY PONT, THE GORDONS, AND ADAIR. 585
there, and their absence from the Kiver Turriff. (2) 5 X 7f . (3) .
(4) 2*.
B. End : " Assyin. M. T. P." [R. G.]. A detailed but inaccurate map
of Loch Assynt, Ben More Assynt, and Quinaig. The work is neat
print. Just north of Loch Assynt are shown Lochs " Inberboll " and
" Wairr," whose effluent is shown reaching the sea near that from Loch
Assynt ; this part of the map is extremely confused. (2) 6i X 9^.
(3)3. (4)c. 21
13. End: " Coygach." [E. S.]. An outline map of the west coast
from Loch " Owrin," that is Hourn, northwards to the River Kirkaig.
There is not much detail; the work is very neat print. (1) 12:^x8.
(2)12x8. (3)5. (4) c. 6.
14. Title, "Coygach and Loch Breyn drawin out of many imperfyt
papers of M. T. Pont." [R. G.]. A map of the west coast from Loch
Broom southwards to Loch Alsh. There is much neat detail, but the
map is very imperfect; Loch Torridon is not shown at all. (1) 14^7 X 8.
(2)13x8. (3)3. (4)c. 6.
15. End : " Loch Lung and Loch Dowi . . ." [R. G.] ; the rest of the
name has been cut away. The map includes all the Lochs opening into
Loch Alsh. There is little detail; the work is in neat print. (1)
6^X71. (2)61x7. (3) 2^. (4) c. 4.
16. Title, "A draught of the Firths of Tayne, Cromartie, & Inver-
ness, wt ye true distances as yey do ly." [J. G.]. The map is mainly
coast-line, with most of Loch Shin. There is little detail. The work is
small neat print and script. (1)11x12. (2) 10 x 10. (3) 3f. (4)
c. 5.
17. Map of the coast at the head of the Moray Firth, showing
Dornoch, Cromarty, and Beauly Firths. Only general detail on the
coast ; some parts of river courses are shown. The work is neat print.
(1)71x121. (2)7ixlO. (3) . (4)6.
18. End: "Part of Eos." [1 R. G.]. Map of Moray Firth and its
inlets, with detail between Tain and Inverness, and the northern half of
Loch Ness. The Beauly Firth has been drawn twice, but the second
drawing is less good than the first. In the top right-hand corner is a
small inset of the Ord of Caithness. The coast-line is strengthened by
fine horizontal shading. The work is neat small print. (1) 23x15 1.
(2)22xl5|. (3)2. (4)2.
19. Title, "The draught of ye river of Charron whiche falleth into
the head of the firth of Tayne in Eos. from Mr. T. Font's papers."
[R. G.]. End : " Stra-Charron." [i R. G.]. The work is very neat and
.fine. (1)12x16. (2)8xl4i. (3) c. 2. (4) c. U.
On the back there is a long table of distances in James Gordon's
script. There is also this note in Sir Robert Sibbalds script, " In ys
bundle 1. The Draught of ye River of Charron yt falleth into ye Firth
of Taine. 2. Ye mapp of Coygach. 3. a Mapp of Cathness with which
586 SCOTTISH GKOGKAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
is a paper qtaining the interpretation of severall Irish words. 4. Mapp
of Sutherland, Stra okel & Stra Charron. 5. Ye mapp of Coygach
& Lochbryin. 6. Ye Mapp of Assin by T. P. 7. Ye Mapp of Eddra-
cheules by T. P. 8. Mapp of Lochness & ye Land lying upon ye
head yrof. 9, Ye mapp of ye "West Isles by T. P."
20. Title, " Eosse." [K. S.]. A map of the peninsula between the
Firths of Cromarty and Tain. The work is neat print, slightly
faded. The sheet is incompletely ruled. The names read from the east.
(1) 9x9i. (2) 9x9|. (3) . (4) U.
21. A map of the district from Loch Monar to Beauly and Strath
Bran. An extremely confused and inaccurate map. Loch Fannich is
twice misplaced and cancelled, and the third placing is wrong. The
work is faded neat print. (1) 8xl2i. (2) 8x121-. (3) 3. (4) 3.
22. Map of Eiver Fiudhorn down to just below the junction of the
Fintack Burn. The work is fairly neat, in black ink over pencil. (1)
12|x8. (2) 121x71. (3) 1-1-. (4) c. 2.
23. Title, "Murray." [? E. S.]. End: "Murray. M. T. P." [E.G.].
A map of the district Irom Elgin and Loch Spynie to beyond the Eiver
Spey. There is much detail in fair print. (1) 6 x 9i. (2) 6 X 9:^.
(3) . (4) c. 3.
24. Map ,of the Eiver Avon down almost to its junction with the
Spey ; it includes Lochs Avon and Builg, and the headwaters of Don
and Xethy. There is much detail, in fine neat print. The map has
been irregularly cut out of a larger sheet. (1) 8x101. (2) 8x10.
(3) . (4) c. 3.
25. End : " Aberdeen, Banf, Murrey iV'c. to Invernes." [E. G.], and
" Era the north water to Eoss." [^E.G.]. A very detailed and beautiful
map of Aberdeen and the Mearns, and the country to the west, in-
cluding Glen More and the upper part of Loch Linnhe. " Eobertus
Gordonius a Strathloch describebat 1640." [E. G.]. The mapping round
the head of Loch Leven is cancelled. The work is in beautiful fine
print. (1) 21x27. (2) 14x26. (3) 6. (4) 6.
26. Title, "Strathbogie and Ainzie." [E. S.]. End: " Strathbogie
and ^nzie. E. G." [E. G.]. A detailed map including the Eivers Bogie,
Deveron above the junction of Isla, Eddich, and Spey below the junction
of Eddich, and the coast from Speymouth to Fordyce. The work is
very neat print. There are three scales given, at top and at bottom
1 in. = ^ mile, and also " Scala miliarium contractorum," 1 in. = 2 J- miles.
In each of the larger scales the numbering starts from 1. (1) 26i X 15^.
(2)26x15. (3)fand2j. (4) c. 11-.''
27. End: " Strath Done." [E. G.]. A detailed map of the river Don
down to just below the junction of the Sui Burn. The source of the
river is drawn on a separate paper, pasted in the north-east corner of
the map. Some of the work is in neat clear print, but some is less neat
and clear. There are some tables of distances in James Gordon's
script. (1) 12x18^. (2) 12xl5i. (3) 1^. (4) 1|.
MANUSCRIPT MAPS BY PONT, THE GORDONS, AND ADAIR. 587
28. This sheet carries two maps. (1) 18i X 22J.
A. End: " Marre from Kincairne Pueill to the Springis of Dee.
R. G." [R. G.], and " Brae of Marr or Strath Dee." [R. G.]. A detailed
map showing the Dee from its source to just below Kincharn. It in-
cludes also the Don from its source to Monimusk, the Bogie to just below
Rothiemay, the Feshie to its junction with the Spey, the Spey between
Ruthven and Kinrara, and the headwaters of Tilt and Tarff. It shows
many mountains and much woodland. The work is in neat fine print.
The names read from the north. The sheet is ruled with a stylus in
squares of about h inch sides. The scale is given on the sides of the
map, and the numbering is curious ; latitudinally the numbers run both
ways from 1, not 0, to 22 in the north and to 9 in the south ; and
longitudinally they run from 18 in the east to 58 in the west. The
sheet is made up of several pieces, and there is a patch near the mouth
oftheMuick. (2) 17^x2U. (3) 2. (4) c. 2|.
B. Title, " The Draught of Dee River fra Kincarne to Durris." [R. G.].
A detailed map extending in the north to " Craginhie " and the Hill
of "Fair," and in the south to " Cloch na Pin." The work is in neat
fine print. This map is pasted in the north-west part of the preceding
map. (2) 6x12. (3) 14. (4) U.
29. Title, "Part of Birss." [R. G.]. End : "Part of Birss." [R. S.].
A map of the River Dee from Birss down to Innerchat, showing in
detail the district on the north side of the river. The work is in neat
print. The map shows Loch Achlossin, which no longer exists.
(1) 6x8. (2) 6x8. (3) f. (4) c. f.
30. Title, "The draughte of the Birs wt. the nixt jmrts of the
river Dee." [R. G.]. A map of the river Dee between Glentanar Kirk
and Crathes, with the country on either side, and especially most of the
Feugh valley. There is very fair detail, in very neat print. (1) 7f X 12.
(2) 7fxl2. (3) If (4) 11
31. A map of the district along the north side of the River Dee near
Crathes and Durris, showing " Ye Lyne of Leys possession " and " Lyne
of Leys clayme." The scale is very uneven. (I)12xl4f. (2)12xl4i.
(3) . (4) i to 1
32. End : " Formarten and part of Marr and Buquhan observed R. G."
[R. G.]. A large and detailed map of River Don, lower part of Ythan
and Dee, and small part of Bogie. The work is very neat print. The
sheet is irregularly ruled in pencil squares, some about 1-^ inch sides,
and some h inch. The paper has been much patched and mended ; the
mapping of Bennachie is on a patch. For convenience in re-binding, the
small outstanding piece of Strathbogie has been moved from its normal
position. (1) 32x36. (2) 31|x36. (3) . (4) elf
33. Title, " Lower part of Bu . . ." [? R. S.]. The rest of the word
has been cut away. End : " Lower Part of Buquhan." [R. G.], and " Laich
of Buquhan." [R. G.]. The map has much detail; and shows the coast
from Boddam round to just west of Troup Head, and part of the Ythan
near Gight Castle. The work is in Robert Gordon's neat print, with
588 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
corrections in darker ink in James Gordon's more cursive script. The
sheet is ruled from west to east at f inch intervals. (1) 12x16.
(2) 111 X 15. (3) 11. (4) If.
34. Title, "Part of Aberdeen Shyre."[R.S.]. End: -^Buchan." [R. G.].
A detailed map of the coast from the Ythan to the Ugie, and the country
inland to their sources. The coast is continued in pencil round to
Pitsligo. The work is in neat print. The sheet is ruled with a stylus
into squares of i inch sides. (1) 21x171. (2) 20x17. (3) U.
(4) c, 1|.
35. A map of the coast from the Ythan to Inverugie. There is fair
detail along the " Croudan " River and the Fervie Burn, but little else-
where. The work is in large good print. The name " Buquhan Ness
pro " is applied to the headland on the north side of Peterhead Bay.
(1) 13x12. (2) 12^x12. (3) . (4) 4.
36. Title, " Lochabyre." [R. S.]. End : " Lochabre. R. G." [R. G.].
The map includes Glen More with its three lochs, and the River Spean
with Loch Laggan, in ink, and Lochs Garry and Arkaig in pencil. The
district to the north of Loch Leven has most detail, but there are some
serious inaccuracies. The work is in neat print. (1) 12|xlH.
(2) 12x111. (3) 5. (4) 41.
37. End: " Lochabre Glencooen. R. G." [R. G.]. A fairly detailed
map of the district round the north and east of Loch Linnhe, including
Lochs Lochy and Oich. The work is fairly neat print. (1) 15x14.
(2)13|xl3j. (3)2. (4)2.
On the back there is very rough mapping of the rivers and lochs of
the same district.
38. Title, " Map of Lochaber." [R. S.]. End : " Lochabyr." [E. G.].
Shows lochs and rivers connected with the inner part of Loch Linnhe,
the head streams and lochs of the Tummel, the south part of Loch Ness,
and Lochs Oich and Garry. There is moderate detail, the work being
neat print. (1)12x16. (2)12x15-^.. (3)4. (4) c. 4.
39. End: " Canty r." [E.G.]. Map of Cantyre southwards from
Tarbert. There is much detail in small neat print. (1) 8f X 4f .
(2)8x4i. (3)5. (4)5.
40. Title, "Athol . . . and Renna . . ." [R. G.] : the title is broken
away at the torn edge of the paper. End : " Atholl Rennach wt. all the
bordering Avaists." [] J. G.]. A map of central Scotland, from upper Spey
to Loch Tay, and from Spean Bridge and Roy to Braemar and Logie-
rait. It is mainly a map of mountains, rivers, and lochs, and shows
these in very fair detail. The work was first done in pencil, and has
many corrections. The ink work is mostly in very neat print, but some
of the corrections are a little rough. There is also some work in faded
ink, esjiecially about Loch Rannoch. There is a large patch, including
Glen Lyon and Loch Tay. (1) 12xl4i. (2) 12x14. (3) 3i.
(4) 3 to 4.
MANUSCRIPT MAPS LY PONT, THE GORDONS, AND ADAIR. 589
41. End : " Anguss. K. G." [R. G.]. A map of the River Tay and its
tributaries from Strowan and Weems to St. Andrews. Mainly the names
are only along the rivers, but there is fair detail near Dundee. The work
is in good script. (I)15ix22f. (2) 15 X 22i. (3) 2i. (4) c. 3.
On the back there is mapping of the country from Loch Tay to
Braemar.
42. End : " Brae of Angus." [R. G.], and " The height of Anguss.
M. T. P." [R, G.]. A detailed map of the Forfarshire rivers, from Clova
in the east to Isla in the west, and from the watershed in the north to the
" K. of Tannadis " and the sources of the southern tributaries of the Isla
in the south. The Isla is shown to just beyond Coupar Grange. The
work is in fine neat print. (1)151x14. (2)151x14. (3) U. (4)2.
43. End : " Glen Yla, Glen Ardle, Glen Shye, out of Mr. T. Font's
papers yey ar very imperfyt." [R. G.]. There is much detail round the
upper part of the Isla, but mere outline in the lower part. The work is
fine neat print. A note states, " It is 4 myl of month betuix ye head of
Glen Haitnach and Innerey in Braemar."
44. Map of North Esk River. The work is fine neat print.
(I)12x9i. (2)9x9. (3) . (4) 2^ to 31
45. End: " Mernis." [R. G.]. An outline map of the coast from
Aberdeen to Montrose, and the district inland. The lower part of the
Dee is shown, and the whole of the North Esk ; there are no hills, and
but few names. The work is in very neat print. (1) 14|x2H.
(2) 14xl7|. (3) If. (4)c. 2.
46. An outline map of the Firth of Tay and the coast to Fife-ness.
There are few names, in very neat print. In pencil the river course is
continued up to the junction of the Earn. (1) Qh X 15|. (2) 6^ X 15.
(3) . (4)2.
47. An outline map of the Tay estuary round to Fife Ness, con-
tinued in pencil to Leven, and thence in ink to Kirkcaldy. There is
some detail in Fife. The work is in neat print. (1) 7^x12. (2)
7 X 10. (3) 3. (4) 4.
48. End : " Loch Lomond &c." [R. G.]. A map of central Scot-
land, from the River Tummel to Glasgow, and from Loch Long to
Broughty Ferry. There is detail on the shores of the Firths of Tay
and Forth, near Loch Lomond, and between Loch Lomond and Glasgow;
the rest is in pencil outline. The work is in very neat print. The
paper is patched. (I)18ix25i. (2)18x25. (3)3. (4)3.
49. End : " Lennox Argyle." [R. G.]. The map includes the River
Forth down to Stirling, the River Clyde below Glasgow, Loch Lomond,
Gare Loch, Loch Long, Bute and the Kyles, and part of Cantire. The
Gare Loch is drawn twice ; one drawing is cancelled, and the corrected
drawing is not joined up to Loch Long. There is much detail in neat
print near Loch Lomond ; the rest is in mere outline. (1) 12| X 18f.
(2)9Axl8i. (3)5. (4) 5 to 6.
590 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
50. End: "Sterlinshyr & Lennox." [R. G.], and " Sterlingshyre, wt.
a part of the Lennox, and sum of Clydsdaill." [R. G.]. A map of
central Scotland, from tlie Clyde below Dumbarton to the Forth at
Saltcoats, and from Stirling to the Clyde above the Kelvin. There is
much detail in very fine neat print. A note, in James Gordon's
script, gives some directions and distances. (1) l'2h X 16. (2) 12;| x 16.
(3) . (4)c. 3.
5 1. A map of the basin of the River Forth, down to the opening of the
estuary near Alloa. The Bridge of Doun is drawn three times, two of
them cancelled. The names read from the east. The work is neat, partly
print and partly script. (1) 8 X Uk (2) 8 X 12|. (3) 2f. (4) 2i.
52. Title, " Keanrosse-shyre descrybed Oct. 25, 1642. Be Ja.
Gordon, at Keanrosse." [J. G.]. A sketch map in fairly neat script over
pencil, the rivers only sketchily drawn. The scale given starts from 1.
(I)8fxl4. (2)7ixl4. (3)1. (4) H.
53. Title, " Fyfe Shyre MDCXLII. Fifa Provincia Noviter delineata
Auctore Jacobo Gordonio Fo. R. G. a Strathloch." [J. G.]. A beautifully
finished and detailed map of Fife, with inset in north-west of St.
Andrews, and in south-east of Cupar Fife. (1) 17^x2U-. (2)
15|x20i. (3)2. (4)c. 21.
54. This sheet carries two maps. (1) ll^xl4i.
A. End : " Fyffe imperfect. M. T. P." [R. G.]" A fairly detailed
map of north Fife. The work is in neat print. A river is drawn from
Falkland to Shells, and along it is written, "There is no river betwixt
Shells and Falkland." Cupar Fife and Dundee are shown in the map,
but are not named. There is a note in Robert Gordon's script of the
defect of the map near Abernethy. (2) 10| x lU. (3) . (4) U.
B. Title, " Pt of the Par. of Abyrnathy." A small map to correct
the fault noticed in the previous map, and pasted in its bottom left-hand
corner. The work is in somewhat faded neat print. By its side, on the
larf^er sheet, is a note in Robert Gordon's script, " Rien est droit en
cestui Table." (2)5fx3. (3) . (4)3.
55. Title, "Birony of Ranfrew." [R. S.]. A map of the district
from the Clyde estuary southwards to Flatterstoun. It includes in the
north "Dumbritton," and in the south the sources of the Cart and the
Calder The south part of the map is without names. The work is in
small neat print. (1) 15J X 22. (2) 13* x 21^ (3) . (4) c. 2.
56. A map of the Clyde and Tweed basins. The Clyde is merely
in outline, with few tributaries, and but five place-names ; the Tweed is
in o-reat detail as far down as " Carhoorae," just below Kelso. (1)
12fxl4i. (2)12xl3i. (3)5. (4) c. 5|.
57. Title, "The Sherifdome of Etricke Forrest with the adjoyning
provinces." [R. G.]. End: " Etterik Forrest wt ye joyning provinces."
[R.Gl. A fairly detailed map of the River Tweed down to Coldstream,
with the Ettrick and the Teviot. The work is in very neat print.
(1)8X12. (2)8X12. (3)4. (4) c. 4f.
MANUSCRIPT MAPS BY PONT, THE GORDONS, AND ADAIR. 591
58. Title, " A description of the province of the Merche." [R. G.].
End: "The Mers." [R. G.]. A detailed map of the district between the
Firth of Forth and the Tweed, and inland from the coast to Selkirk.
The work is in fine neat print. (1) 11x12. (2) lOfxll. (3) 21
(4) 3^.
59. End: " Cuningham." [R. G.]. A map of the district from the
Clyde estuary southwards to Irvine. No hills are shown, and there is
little detail. There is a duplicate drawing of Lochs " Whinnoch," i.e.
Semple, and Kilburnin. The work is partly in neat print, and partly in
moderate script. (1) 9| X 7|. (2) 8| x 6. (3) 3. (i) c. 4.
60. End : " Cuningham." [R. G.]. An outline map of south-west
Scotland from Irvine round to the head of Solway. The southern two-
thirds of Ayrshire, i.e. the part that is not Cunningham, has much detail
in small neat print. (I)14ixl6|. (2) 12i x 15|. (3) 5. (4)3.
61. A map of the coast from Loch Eyan nearly to the head of
Solway. The eastern half is little more than outline : the western half
has much detail, in small neat print. (1) 7^ X 14f. (2) 6 x 14A. (3)
5. (4) 5.
62. Title, "Nithsdail, descryved according to Mr. Timothe Pont his
papers be R. Gordon, 1644, Mense Maie." [R. G.]. End : "Nithisdail."
[R. G.]. The sheet has been ruled with a sharp stylus from top to
bottom at | inch intervals. The work is detailed, in small neat print
(1)12X121. (2)111x11. (3)4. (i) U.
63. End : " Sulway fyrth Liddesdale Es . . ." [E. G.]. A map of the
head of the Solway Firth, with Annandale, Eskdale, Liddesdale, and the
Carlisle district. There is fair detail except in Annandale. The work is
in neat print. (1)12x12. (2)11x12. (3)3. (4)31.
64. A small map of Eskdale and Liddesdale, with much detail in fine
neat print. (1)11x14. (2)7xlU. (3)5. (4) c. 7.
Manuscript Maps by John Adair.
1. Title, " The Mappe of Orkney, with the harbours and Islands, auno
1682." The sheet is irregularly ruled into rectangles, and there is a set of
radiants from the centre of the sheet. The west is at the top of the map
and the names read from the east. (1) 28^ x 23f. (2) 23f x 18 (3)
c.2|. (4)2i.
2. Title, " The Mappe of Straithern, Stormont, & Cars of Gaurie,
with the rivers Tay & Ern, surveighed & designed . . . John Adair
Math: anno 1683." The hills are in wash; the other work is rather
faded. There is a set of radiant pencil lines from Perth. (1) 224x''8
(2)17|x26i. (3)11. (4)2.
3. Title, "A Mape of the countries about Stirling, authore Jo. Adair.'
The hills are in wash. The sheet is ruled in squares of 1^ inch sides
and these are numbered in the margins. (1) 22|x27| (2) 19 x
21f. (3)f. (4)0.1.
592 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
4. Title, " The Hydrographicall mappe of Forth from the entry to ye
Quensferry, authore Jo. Adair." The hills are in wash ; detail is mainly
on coast. The sheet is irregularly ruled with squares both correctly
orientated and oblique, and with numerous radiating lines. There are
little inset views of islands and headlands. The coast has been gone
over with a sharp stylus, as if for tracing. (1) 22|x27. (2) 18^ x
25i (3) WV (4) -2.
5. A map of Strath Devon and the district between the Ochils and
the Forth. The hills are shaded with a wash, and are outlined in red
ink. (1) 14|x20i. (2) 14xl9i. (3) h (4) Uneven, and much
less than given.
6. Title, "A Mapp of Clakmanan Shire.'" This is a "proof" of
the same map printed from an engraved plate. The hills are shaded
with hachures. (1)14x20. (2)14x19^. (3)^. (4) Uneven, and
much less than given.
7. Title, " The East Part of Fife surveyed & designed be John
Adair Math. 1684." The hills are in wash; most of the other work is
much faded. The sheet is ruled in squares of H inch sides. (1) 22it X
28. (2)21x26. (3) f. (4) c. 1.
8. Title, " Mappe of Wast Lothian comonly called Linlithgowshire,
authore Johanne Adair." The hills are in wash ; some of the work is
in Adair's neat style, rather faded, but some of it is untidy, in a brown
faded ink. The sheet is ruled in squares of lyV i^ch sides, and some of
these are subdivided into sixteen squares each. (1) 22ix27|. (2)
18fx23i (3)|. (4)c. 1.
9. Map of Midlothian. The hills are in Avash : the other work is
slightly faded. The sheet is ruled in squares of lyV inch sides, and these
are numbered in the margins. (1) 24x32. (2) 23 x 32. (3) .
(4)1.
10. Title, "East Lothian, authore Johanne Adair Math: Anno.
1682." The hills are in wash ; the other work is slightly faded. The
sheet is ruled in squares of li inch sides, and these are numbered in the
margins. Another set of similar squares, ruled obliquely on the sheet in
red ink, gives the proper orientation. (1) 22fx27f. (2) 19^x2U.
(3)i. (4)i. _ "
11. Title, "A mape of the wast of Scotland containing Clydsdail,
Nithsdail, Eanfrew, Shyre of Ayre, c'^' Galloway, authore Jo: Adair."
The hills are in wash ; the other work is somewhat faded. The sheet is
ruled in squares of 1 inch sides, and these are numbered in the margins.
(I)22|x27i. (2)17x19. (3)4. (4) c. 5.
12. Title, " The Sherifdome of Etrik Forest." A map of the district
between the River Tweed and the Borthwick Water. The hills are in
wash; the other work has somewhat faded. The sheet is ruled in
squares of ,^ inch sides. (1) 22| x 27|. (2) 22 X 19. (3) If (4) c. If
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE. 593
THE LEICESTER MEETING OF THE BRITISH
ASSOCIATION.
The British Association met at Leicester on July 31 and the following
days, under the Presidency of Sir David Gill, As already stated,
Section E (Geography) was presided over by Mr. Chisholm, whose
address we published last month. The other papers may be grouped
under headings according to the countries to which they refer.
Regional Survey work in Europe was represented by three papers —
one on the Land's End Peninsula by Mr. A. W. Andrews, one on the
district of Jaederen in Southern Norway by Mr. 0. J. R. Howarth, and
one on the Hinterland of the Port of Manchester, by Mr. J. Macfarlane.
An abstract of Mr. Andrews' paper follows : —
The Land's End peninsula consists of a granite plateau, of which the higher
part is from four hundred to eight hundred feet in elevation and aViout eleven
miles in length by four in width, extending in a south-westerly direction from
St. Ives to the Land's End. This largely consists of moorland covered with furze
and heather, but almost entirely bare of trees, owing to its wind-swept character.
The hills which rise from the plateau are generally undulating, and only here and
there assume bold shapes, though they are crowned by masses of granite boulders,
many of which are not inferior in size to the tors on Dartmoor.
The whole area is almost unpopulated and has few industries, though the old
mine shafts and adits made for prospecting purposes point to much greater
activity in former days. Almost the only industries which now exist are con-
nected with the granite, a small amount of the fine-grained moorland granite
being quarried, though it cannot hold its own against the cheaper sea-borne
Norwegian stone. There are also china-clay works, as at Towednack. It is
possible that the modern demand for tin, wolfram, and other rare minerals may
result in some of the old mines being reworked, but as yet very little has been
done on the plateau.
To the north and west of the plateau is a narrow coast plain, of less than a
mile in width, which was probably covered by the sea in Pliocene times to the
height of 340 feet. This is employed for agricultural and pastoral pursuits, but
the soil is poor and unproductive. The valleys which seam the plateau on these
sides are not well marked, and the streams are small. The coast is, as a nde, lofty,
with striking granite and greenstone cliflfs, and is almost harbourless, few coves
being accessible for even small fishing-boats. The only important centre of
population is in the neighbourhood of St. Just, where the Levant mine and that
newly reopened at Botallack employ a considerable number of miners. On the
south of the higher plateau the streams are longer and the valleys deeper, many
of them being thickly wooded. The soil is much richer, especially near Penzance,
where the greenstone predominates, and where industries such as the cultivation
of cauliflowers are of considerable importance, land being let at from £12 to £14
per acre. The climate is far warmer and milder, the region being largely sheltered
from winds.
The whole peninsula is separated from the rest of Cornwall by a neck of low
land. Though small, it has sufficient characteristic features to mark it oft' from
the rest of Cornwall, and is specially interesting as a type of a somewhat isolated
area of old rock, in that respect resembling the inland region of Charnwood
Forest.
VOL. XXIII. 2 U
594 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Mr. Howarth's paper, which was read after the President's address,
is officially summarised as follows : —
The district of Jaederen extends south of the port of Stavanger, on the Birkren
Fjord. South of this fjord is the principal of the few interruptions to the skjacr-
f/aard, or great fence of islands -which protects practically the whole coast of
Norway. At first this coast is unbroken, low, and shinoly, backed by a slightly
undulating coastal belt, bare and abounding in peat bogs, from the landward edge
of which hills rise abruptly. There then succeeds a coast with rocky prominences
alternating with sandy beach, and still practically without islands, which extends
nearly to the port of Egersund, when the characteristic steep, broken coast, with
many islands (though not so many as to the north of Stavanger), is resumed. This
intermediate stretch of coast belongs to a peculiar region, which is defined inland
by a sharp range of mountains to the north, and by mountains and the valley of
the Birkren River to the east. Beyond these boundaries is found the typical
scenery of Southern Norway ; within them the scenery is wholly individual in
character. The district is still hilly but less elevated, the hills rise in semi-
isolated clumps, and the whole is practically an unbroken tract of naked rock,
which reveals, to an extent dominating every other feature, and scarcely equalled
elsewhere in this intensely glaciated country, the work of the glacier which once
covered it. The perched blocks scattered all over it, the innumerable hollows
carrying little lakes, and the remarkable manner in which at many points huge
boulders are piled together and riven, all illustrate the action of the same force.
Moreover, the coast of this district demonstrates peculiarly well the upward move-
ment of the land which is traceable elsewhere. A succession of lowlands separated
by hfgh ridges indicates former small fjords ; an old beach may be traced at a
considerable distance inland ; and through the sand-dunes and marshes along the
shore high rocky eminences stand up, clearly once islands. But the rocks
immediately upon the coast show that at the period of glaciation the land stood
higher than it does now, and thus indicate an intermediate period of sinking. The
diverse physical characteristics of Jaederen exercise a notable effect on the distri-
bution of its population.
Mr. Macfarlane's paper dealt with the limits of the area served by
the Port of Manchester, and the character of the trade carried on.
The Kurdish Tribes of Asiatic Turkey formed the subject of a com-
munication by Mr. Mark Sykes, who emphasised the great variations
in the tribes included under this designation. The main points of this
paper may be gathered from the following abstract : —
From Uruma, in Persia, to Angora, in Asia Minor, there is scattered a nation
or a group of people who have sufifered considerable neglect at the hands of
history and science alike. These are the Kurds — nomadic, semi-nomadic, and
sedentary. Except that they are credited with a multitude of imaginary vices
and are looked on as ignorant savages, tliey receive but little attention from the
people either of Asia or of Europe. Fortune has enabled the author to make
certain investigations concerning these people, among whom he finds such startling
variety in physique, dress, and custom that he is unable to generahse on their
characteristics, save in a very diffident manner. He has distinguished and marked
on the map about 323 tribes and sub-tribes, which at a venture may be said to
contain a population of close on 2,000,000.
It is very difficult to say how the Kurds should be classified. As regards
THE LEICESTER MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 595
religion there are to be found among them .Sunni Moslems, Shias, Devil-
worshippers, Pagans, and Christians. As to language they are split up into a
variety of dialects, which are said to form two broad divisions, called respectively
Zaza and Kermanji. In regard to appearance and physique tliere are, again, tlie
most unexpected and astounding contrasts ; small, vviry, agile mountaineers in
Hakkiari ; tall, slim horsemen in Irak ; big-boned, heavily built, hook-nosed, and
clumsy men north of Lake Van ; stout, full-bearded men with regular features in
North Mesopotamia ; fair-haired and ruddy-complexioned men north and west of
Erzinjian ; and straight-featured, exceedingly handsome men in Kochkiri.
In respect of civilisation and mode of life we again find surprising contrasts.
In Irak the Kurds are generally shepherds, but in the northern mountains south
of Lake Van they are industrious agriculturists, some of whom build fine houses
and castles. North of Lake Van they are idle ; in the Dersiui they are more than
industrious ; in Mesopotamia they are ^Yllolly nomads ; in the western Taurus
they are often degraded and poverty-stricken ; in the valley of Erzinjian they are
capable and wealthy agriculturists.
Mr. H. T. Ferrar exhibited an outline map of the northern part of
the Etbai desert in Egypt, prepared in order to V)ring out the main
physical features of the country. The following points illustrated by
this map are worthy of note : —
1. Basins. — Floyer has drawn attention to the fact that the wadis
draining westward from the water-parting are centripetal. The map
shows three of these basins, viz., Qena, Edfu, and Kom Ombo.
2. Beheading. — As in South Africa, so here the gentler sloping
western wadis have been beheaded by the steeper eastern ones, e.g. Eod
Um el Farag by Wadi Dabur ; Wadi Zeidum by Wadi Dubbagh.
3. Mushels, i.e. the forking or branching of wadis owing to the
aggraded state of their beds, e.g. Wadi Abu Hamamid, Rod el Moghalat;
and more especially Wadi Hendosa and Wadi Abu Tiur, which have
the same source.
4. Arabic geographical terms, such as Gebel, Wadi, Eod, Kob, Talla,
Khor, Sowahil, Dahariah, Ghradir, Gait, Bir.
5. The history of the region, with special reference to (a) the Nubian
Sandstone escarpment ; (b) the age of the drainage system ; (c) indica-
tions of a former pluvial period; ((/) high-level gravels and alluvium;
(c) the wide distribution of celts.
Other papers dealing directly or indirectly with Africa included an
account by Mr. R. B. Woosnam of the Ruwenzori expedition in which
he took part, together with a description of the plant zones on the
mountain. Reference has been already made here both to the expedi-
tion generally and to the zones of vegetation (cf. page 546). Captain
Behrens read a paper on the jModern Explorer which referred especially
to recent survey work in East Africa and Uganda, and !Major Close one
on the Surveys of British Africa, a subject which has been treated of
elsewhere in this Magazine in a Note (p. 600),
Among the papers dealing with America may be noted an account
of the Jamaica earthquake by Dr. Vaughan Cornish. The paper was of the
nature of a preliminary account, for Dr. Cornish is to present a full
account of his results to the Royal Geographical Society at a later date.
596 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Mrs. Leonidas Hubbard, jr., gave an account of a Traverse of Two Unex-
plored Eivers of Labrador, which is summarised below : —
The journey across the north-eastern portion of the peninsula by way of the
Nascaupee and George Fvivers was undertaken by Mrs. Hubbard for the purpose of
completing the mission of exploration which in 1903 had cost Leonidas Hubbard,
jr., his life. She left North-west Eiver Post, near the head of Lake Melville or
Grosswater Bay, on June 27, 1905. The first task was the tracing of the
Nascaupee Eiver to its source. The river descends from its source at the height
of 1675 ft. above the sea by what may be termed a series of steps.
Five weeks of struggle with the rapids found the party encamped on August 2
on the shores of Lake Michikaman, a great interior lake ; and on August 10 the
final source of the Nascaupee River on the Height of Land was reached.
The source of the George River was located immediately beyond the Height of
Land in Lake Hubbard. It is a tiny stream as it first steals away northward ;
but in the 300 miles of its course it gathers force and volume till at its discharge
into Ungava Bay it is a great river 3 miles in width. The upper part of each of
the rivers consists of a series of lake expansions of varying sizes. Some 60 miles
from its source the George River drops from the plain of the lakes through three
narrow gorges, and flows in a distinct valley.
The most thrilling part of the journey was the descent of the last 132 miles of
the George River, where it flows in almost continuous rapids through country
becoming more and more mountainous, rugged, and barren, till in the last 50
miles the banks become gradually lower as the river nears the sea. The journey
of about 600 miles was made in sixty-one days, the party arriving at the Hudson
Bay Company's Post near L'ngava Bay on August 27.
Other papers dealing with American subjects were those by Professor
Spencer and Mr. M. Allorge. Professor Spencer gave an account of the
results of his work on the Recession of Niagara Falls, of which mention
is made in our June issue (p. 318), and Mr. Allorge described the
recently discovered cave of Atoyac, in Mexico, with special reference
to the relation between the passages and chambers and the structural
planes of the limestone.
Under Australasia may be noted a short account given by Dr. W. M.
Strong, of British New Guinea, which dealt both with the physical
features and with the economic geography,
A very interesting general paper was that by Professor Vidal de la
Blache on the " Geographical Evolution of Communications," a subject
upon which we have published several notes recently. Professor de la
Blache pointed out that man had originally no other means of travel and
transport than himself. But, whether for the purpose of adjusting
or hauling loads, of surmounting obstacles, or of venturing on the water,
he has had recourse to devices the invention of which points to varying
environments and a multitude of independent initiatives, the local flora
and fauna furnishing the material for this primitive apparatus. A great
step in advance was made in the adaptation of animal power to purposes
of transport, and this ensured the superiority of such countries as aflbrded
the opportunity for the recruitment by man of his best auxiliaries. This
kind of domestication had its origin at many difterent centres. The
horse was doubtless brought under man's control independently in many
THE LEICESTER MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 597
countries of Central Europe and Asia; the camel, in Central Asia; the
ass, in the Soudan, Upper Egypt, etc. The vast region of plains or
steppes, with bare uniform surface, which crosses Europe and Asia
in a diagonal direction, favoured the development of long-distance traffic,
as is proved by the numerous improvements in the wheel and cart which
were there introduced. But this ancient transport had to do rather Avith
human beings than with dead freight. To the domestication of the
horse we may attribute the origin of the great migrations which took
place in Central Europe from the close of the Neolithic Period onwards,
and which were destined to cease only with the definite crystallisation of
modern States. Even the interior traffic of later times originated in the
movement of distant products, such as jade, silk, and certain metals.
A short afternoon lecture by Mr. J. D. Rogers dealt with Explorers
and Colonists, and traced the various motives which have led men to
engage in exploration.
Professor Max Eckert read a paper on the subject of " Commercial
Geography," which is published in the present issue (p. 561).
In a joint meeting with Sections C (Geology) and K (Botany) Professor
Conwentz of Dantzig read a paper on the " Preservation of Natural Monu-
ments." He explained that the phrase " natural monuments" was new
in Germany as well as in England, but it should be recognised that there
can be monuments of nature as well as of art. The constant inroads of
cultivation and industrial undertakings upon primitive nature have led
and are leading to the disappearance of scientifically interesting and
even unique natural objects and types of scenery. A widespread feeling
has arisen that as much as possible should be done to prevent such
destruction, and this has recently led, not only to much local effort
directed to this end, but in Prussia to the institution of a special State
department under the Minister of Education for the purpose of directing
and co-ordinating such efforts. This department has no funds for the
purchase of land bearing natural monuments, but it is prepared to
direct, assist, and initiate all movements of the kind. Its efforts have
already (during the single year of its existence) met with consider-
able success. In the opinion of Professor Conwentz, procedure by
Government department is not the right method in this country ; we
should rather depend upon voluntary effort. He called attention to
various organisations which were doing work of such a character, and
suggested that their efforts might be co-ordinated under the auspices of
the British Association (see also p. 607).
Among papers in other sections dealing with geographical topics,
mention should be made of Sir David Gill's presidential address, which
included an account of the progress of the great African Arc of Meridian,
which, as has been mentioned elsewhere (p. 601), is now within fifty miles
of the southern end of Lake Tanganyika. In Section A (Mathematical
and Physical Science), the address of the President, Professor A, E. H.
Love, dealt with the subject of a dynamical theory of the figure of the
earth, and of the origin of continents and oceans.
At the meeting of the general committee on August 2, Mr. Francis
Darwin was elected president for next meeting, which is to take place at
598
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
Dublin from September 2 to September 9, 1908. The meeting in 1909
is to be held at "Winnipeg, Canada, where an influential local committee has
already been formed to forward the arrangements for what is expected
to be a very successful meeting.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Asia,
The Anglo-Russian Convention.— The accompanying sketch-map
shows the spheres defined by the recent Anglo-Russian Convention. As
MAP OF PERSIA SHOWING SPHERES OF EXPLOITATION
as defined in Anglo-Russian Convention, August 1907.
will be noticed, the spheres belonging to the two Powers are separated
by a neutral zone, in which each Power engages not to oppose concessions
sought by the subjects of the other.
Dr. Stein's Expedition. — Further communications have been received
from Dr. M. A. Stein concerning the progress of his official expedition
in Central Asia. They are dated from An-shi, in the north-west of
the Chinese province of Kansu, June 18. Dr. Stein started in the last
week of February towards the oasis of Sha-chou, better known by its
old name of Tun-huang, on the westernmost border of the Chinese pro-
vince of Kansu. The route taken through the intervening desert was
the same which Marco Polo followed, and his description of the route
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 599
was found thoroughly accurate in all its topographical details. The
ground traversed proved of considerable and varied geographical interest,
more than one-third of the route skirting the shores of a vast salt-
covered lake, indicating the extent of the Lop-nor marshes at a period
perhaps not very remote. Beyond, the detailed survey carried along the
route by surveyor Rai Ram Singh showed clearly that the well-marked
depressions between the slopes of the Kuruk-tagh and the Altyn-tagh,
in which the expedition moved, had once served for the passage of the
waters of the Su-le-ho and Tun-huang rivers down to Lop-nor.
Subsequently, Dr. Stein was able to survey, along a line of about
140 miles through the desert to the west of Tun-huang, an ancient
system of frontier defence corresponding to the extant " Great Wall " on
the Kansu border, the ruins of which were in a remarkable state of
preservation. In the Tun-huang region desiccation within historical
times has left as marked traces as in the Tarim Basin.
The expedition suffered much from the extremes of the desert
climate.
Dr. Sven Hedin's Expedition. — In our May issue (p. 261) an
account was given of Dr. Sven Hedin's journey to Shigatse, reached
in February last. A new report, dated July 25, gives some account
of the explorer's further movements, and reached this country early in
October. This report deals with Dr. Hedin's journey from Shigatse
to Tok-chen on the Manasarowar Lake. The results, Dr. Hedin says,
have been richer than in the first portion of the tour, for he has been
almost the whole time in inhabited country. These results include
203 sheets of maps, 410 specimens of rock in connection with geo-
logical profiles, 700 panoramas, a meteorological journal entered
three times daily, detailed measurements of the volume of water at
every river crossed, a collection of plants, and a great number of
sketches. The contributions made to the physical geography and
hydrography of Tibet include the measurement of one large lake,
Amtchok-Tso, the measurement of the heights of many peaks and
passes, and the correction of existing maps in a number of important
particulars. The route of Major Ryder and Captain Rawling between
Shigatse and Manasarowar was avoided as much as possible, and of the
eighty-four days spent on the march only two and a half were on the
Tasam, the high road they followed. At seven points Dr. Hedin
crossed their route, and wherever he came in contact with their map
he was filled with admiration for the excellent work they had done.
He regards their triangulation as the very best ever carried out in
Tibet. Following the northern bank of the Tsan-po (Brahmaputra),
and then the Ragha-Tsanpo, Dr Hedin crossed the gigantic mountain
range which is a watershed between the Brahmaputra and the self-
contained lakes in the heart of Tibet. Crossing by the Chang-lung-
podla, Dr. Hedin camped at the eastern foot of Targu-ganpi, one of the
most magnificent snow mountains of Tibet, and like Kailas (or Gang-
rimotche) regarded as holy by the people. He was in sight of Dangra-
yum-tso when fifty mounted men stopped him, and told him he could
go wherever he liked, only not to the holy lake. Consequently he
600 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
travelled to the south-west, to the source of the Ragha-Tsanpo. He
found that the map of the region was nothing like the reality. Xain
Singh's Mun-tso is situated not south but west of Dangra-yum-tso, but
four days south-south-west of the last there is a large lake, Shuru-tso.
He was not able to cross and measure this lake, as the ice was just
breaking up. To the south-west of the lake was a high snow-range,
a ramification from the head range. This last he crossed and reached
Amtchok-tso, which he sounded all over. He also measured Dok-chu,
the greatest of all the tributaries above Shigatse, and My-chu, a
tributary from the northern high range to the Ragha-Tsanpo, and its
north-east tributary Buchu. He was able, in fact, to get a clear idea
of the situation and power of all the different rivers in that part of
Tibet. Dr. Hedin reports with deej) regret the death, from apoplexy,
of his caravan hashl, Mohammed Tsa. The death occurred at Saka-
dzong, whither Dr. Hedin had sent the head caravan in advance, under
Mohammed Tsa. From Saka-dzong the exj^lorer went by the northern
track much used by brigands to Tradum, and thence, after a long
diversion southwards, to Tuksum, and Shamsang. Sending on the
main caravan to Tok-chen, he went up the Kub five short marches,
to where it comes out in three branches from three different glaciers of
very considerable size. Enormous moraines built up by the three glaciers
cover the country all round, and the present front and lateral moraines
are still gigantic.
Africa.
Lake Chad and the Yo River. — Lieutenant Seeker, an officer
in Northern Xigeria, has been lately engaged in a survey of the river
Yo, an important tributary of Lake Chad between Damjiri and Hadeija.
He reports that where the river is sufficiently shallow the natives are in
the habit of erecting fish dams, which gradually collect large masses
of weeds, and lead to the formation of large areas of marsh land, thus
diverting water which would otherwise flow into the lake. This fact,
in his opinion, may have something to do with the drying-up of the
lake. The river, in the regions studied by Lieutenant Seeker, is very
sluggish, the velocity when it is at its height not exceeding a mile an
hour. No rocks obstruct the bed, and with a very slight expenditure he
believes that it could be made readily navigable by steam launches from
Damjiri to Kano, at least in the period when it is full.
The Surveys of British Africa. — We have received the second
annual Beport of the Colonial Survey Committee, dealing with the
Surveys of British Africa. This Committee was constituted in August
1905, as an Advisory Committee, formed at the instance of the Secretary
of State for the Colonies to advise him in matters affecting the survey
and exploration of Briti.sh Colonies and Protectorates, more especially
those in Tropical Africa. It is the duty of the Committee to make
such recommendations as will ensure the rapid and economical prosecu-
tion of accurate surveys where these are required, and the rendering
of the results available as speedily as possible for use by the Home
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 601
Government, the Colonial Governments, and the public. The present
Report, which is illustrated by photographs and index maps, gives
not only a review of the work done during the past year, but also
an account of the present state of the Surveys of British Africa, and
of their history.
During the past year a total area of about 49,000 square miles has
been topographically surveyed in the field, this total being distributed
as follows: — Orange Eiver Colony, 8000 square miles; Cape Colony,
17,000 square miles; East Africa, 2400 square miles; Uganda, 250
square miles; Gold Coast (includes work previously in hand), 16,000
square miles ; S. Nigeria (partial), 5000 square miles. The results of
the Nigeria longitude expedition have been computed, and have proved
of satisfactory accuracy. The British South Africa Company has com-
pleted the measurement of the meridian 30" E. of Greenwich as far
north as a point within 70 miles of Lake Tanganyika. Geographical
exploration has been proceeding in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Cadas-
tral Surveys have also been in progress in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,
Gold Coast, Uganda, and East Africa. In the last-named Protectorate
an area of 870,267 acres was surveyed during the year, while in the
Sudan 578,000 acres have been surveyed during the year. Two
Boundary Commissions have been at work during the year. These
are, first, the Anglo-French Niger-Chad Commission, which is in pro-
cess of demarcating the frontier to the north of Northern Nigeria;
second, the Anglo-Congolese, Ugando-Congo Commission, which is
mapping the country in the neighbourhood of the meridian 30° E. of
Greenwich, from the parallel 1" S. to the Nile-Congo watershed. This
Commission has instructions to prepare a joint map and to come to an
agreement as to the geographical features. During the year also general
maps have been published of British Central Africa, the Gold Coast and
Northern Territories, and the Gambia. Boundary maps have been
published of the Anglo-Portugueese (Zambesi) frontier, and the Anglo-
German (Niger-Cameroon) frontier south of the Cross Eiver; provisional
sheets have been printed of the Anglo-German frontier east of Lake
Victoria. Topographical sheets have also been published of Orange
River Colony (military edition), the Cape Colony, East Africa, Gold
Coast, and Africa, 1 : 1,000,000, and 1 : 250,000 compilations.
The Pieport also contains a detailed account of the surveys now being
carried on in different parts of British Africa, with a historical sketch of
the origin of the survey, and a statement as to the maps at present avail-
able, which will be found exceedingly useful for reference. It is clear
from the Report that much is now being done to ensure the systematic
mapping of British Africa.
The Frontier of Liberia. — According to a note in the Times an
arrangement has been now come to betAveen the two republics of France
and Liberia as regards the Franco-Liberian frontier. The Times gives
the new frontier as follows : — The line starts ot a point on the Sierra
Leone frontier where the Makona river passes into British territory, and
follows that river upstream to about 8" 30'. It then dips somewhat
to the south towards the eighth parallel, to a great extent skirting the
602 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
edge of the Great Forest. It is then carried on in a slightly south-east
direction to the northern source of the Nuon or Western Cavalla, which
river it follows south to its junction with the main CaA^alla, which
forms the eastern boundary of the republic from the junction to the sea.
On the map this arrangement gives to France a large area of Liberian
territory, but it appears that, according to French survej^s, the Nuon and
main Cavalla have a more southerly direction than is shown on the
existing maps. As a reference to Sir Harry Johnston's Liberia (vol. i.
p. 311), will show, the new arrangement is practically that suggested
by France a couple of years ago, and involves the giving up by Liberia
of territory to the north of the Cavalla river, an area of about 2000
miles in the extreme upper basins of the St. Paul and Lofa rivers, as
well as a band of territory to the east of the Xuon river which has
hitherto ranked, theoretically at least, as Liberian. On the other hand
it gives Liberia a tolerably well-defined boundary from the geographical
standpoint, in place of the previous purely conventional one.
Polar.
The Scottish Arctic Expedition. — Dr. W. S. Bruce returned to
this country at the end of September from his second expedition to
Prince Charles Foreland, Spitsbergen (cf. pp. 319 and 491). Owing to
the fact that Dr. Bruce was obliged to change his plans because of the
very unfavourable season, the return of the expedition was somewhat
delayed, a fact which gave rise to some anxiety, happily speedily relieved
by the appearance of the party in good health and after the accomplishment
of some excellent work. We hope to publish here later a full account of
this work, in continuation of Dr. Bruce's previous paper (cf. p. 141),
but meantime the following brief summary of results will prove interest-
ing. As the result of the topographical surveys a detailed chart has
been constructed of the whole of the west coast of the Foreland on the
scale of 2 inches to a mile, while a similar survey has also been made
of the mountainous interior and of a part of the east coast, with the
result that the outline of the island is now for the first time accurately
known. In the neighbourhood of the south and north Base Camps more
detailed surveys have been made. New fossil-bearing beds have been
discovered which appear to be older than the Tertiary strata previously dis-
covered by Dr. Bruce. A number of birds have been collected, including
some species new not only to Prince Charles Foreland but also to Spits-
bergen. The collection of plants made by the expedition also includes
forms not previously recorded from the island. Frequent meteorological
observations were made during the party's visit to the island. There
still remains, however, some work to be done, and Dr. Bruce hopes to
return at some later date to finish this.
The Prince of Monaco's Spitsbergen Expedition, 1907. — His
Serene Highness the Prince of Monaco returned with his yacht Frincesse
Alice from Spitsbergen at the end of August, having completed the
hydrographical work in Cross Bay which he commenced last year. He
again chartered a small steamer, the Kvcdfjord, on board of which he had
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 603
a Norwegian party under Captain Isaacheu, who carried out a survey
chiefly of the region between Cross Bay and Magdalena Bay. The
Prince also carried out a number of investigations of the higher atmo-
sphere by means of kites and balloons. The ice and weather conditions
were extremely unfavourable and forced the Prince to leave Spitsbergen
rather earlier than he had intended. Dr. Jules Richard, Captain Bouree,
Dr. Portier, and Professor Hergesell were among those who accom-
panied the Prince as his scientific staff.
Mr. Harrison's Expedition. — Mr. A. H. Harrison returned to
this country in October, at the close of his Arctic expedition (cf. this
Magazine, p. 549). Mr. Harrison hoped at one time to remain another
year with the object of carrying out his original plan of investigating
the possible existence of land in the Beaufort Sea, but he has been
obliged to abandon this scheme. Although this problem still awaits
investigation, Mr. Harrison has done a large amount of useful work, not
only in the direction of surveying, but also in regard to the habits, etc.,
of the Eskimo, with whom he lived for about eighteen months.
Cruise of the "Belgica," July-September 1907.— H.K.H. the
Duke of Orleans (cf p. 209) on board his polar ship Belgica, has made
an interesting cruise this summer into the Kara Sea, accompanied by
Captain de Gerlache, Lieutenants Bergendahl and Eachlew (magnet-
icians), Dr. Eecaimer, surgeon and biologist, and Mi\ Stappers,
biologist.
The Belgica left Vardo on the 9th of July, and without meeting any
ice in the Barentz Sea entered the Matockkin Shar on the 13th.
Breaking belts of continuous ice still remaining in the Straits, she
penetrated Avithout difficulty into the Kara Sea on the 14th of July.
The ice looked very heavy to the north and east, but to the south-east
it was fairly open. During one day the ship worked her way in calm
and fine weather. On the 15th, however, a light wind came from the
NE. which developed on the 16th into half a gale. In a few hours
the ice closed around the ship which was beset near the coast about
72° 40'. For five weeks the wind continued northerly, mostly NE.,
and the pressure of the ice not relaxing, the Belgica remained beset for
the whole of this period. The ship drifted slowly first (two miles a day),
then faster to the SE. Throughout this trying period quite a number
of most interesting scientific observations Avere made and not of least
interest were the daily notes of the drift, which was to the SE. and
SW. On the 21st of August the Belgica was released, and came out
of the Kara Straits into the Barentz Sea again in a mass of drifting
floes. In the Straits for the last day the drift was 2i miles an hour.
During this drifting continuous meteorological observations were
made and many soundings and samples of water were secured, and the
biologist had his dredge or " tangle " out daily and collected many speci-
mens of the marine fauna, including especially asteroids and amphipods.
After her release, the Belgica tried to re-enter the Kara Sea by the north,
sailing along the west coast of Nova Zemlya, but owing to a severe
604 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
grounding on a rock, which seriously damaged the ship and obliged the
party to throw overboard the greater part of their coal, the Duke of
Orleans was forced to limit his voyage. In spite of this further mis-
fortune, however, the Belgica rounded the great ice cape of the north of
Kova Zemlya, and before turning homeward made a line of complete
oceanographical stations on the 78th degree between Xova Zemlya and
Franz-Josef Land. After a rather stormy passage the ship reached
Hammerfest on the 14th September.
General.
Centenary of London Geological Society. — This society cele-
brated its centenary at the end of last September, the Royal Scottish
Geographical Society being represented at the celebrations by its
President, Professor James Geikie. On Thursday, September 20, the
main proceedings began with the presentation of addresses by delegates
from foreign countries, and also by representatives of the Universities,
learned societies, etc., of Great Britain. In the afternoon Sir Archibald
Geikie, President of the Geological Society of London, delivered an
address on " The State of Geology at the Time of the Foundation of the
Geological Society," while in the evening a banquet was held at the
Hotel Metropole. On the following day visits were paid to various
museums, especially to the Museum of Practical Geology at Jermyn Street,
where a demonstration on the recently added model of Assynt in the
North- West Highlands was given by Dr. Peach. In the evening a dinnner
and conversazione were held. During the week prior to the celebra-
tions a number of excursions to places of geological interest in Great
Britain were arranged, especially for the benefit of the foreign delegates.
Commercial Geography.
The Nyasaland Railway. — In connection with the recent altera-
tion of name of the British Central Africa Protectorate (cf. p. 546) it is
of some interest to note the progress of the Shire Highlands railway,
v/hich is to be the outlet of this colony, so interesting to Scotland because
of its association with David Livingstone. The only natural outlet for
the region is the Shire river, which flows out of Lake Xyasa at about
1500 feet above sea-level. Both the Shire and the Zambesi are, how-
ever, much obstructed, and the colony is practically isolated for about
half the year. The primary object of the railway was to get over the
obstruction caused by the Murchison Falls, and to aff'ord regular
communication between Chiromo and the capital Blantyre, wnth ultimate
extension to Fort Johnston on the lake. When work was started,
however, it proved impossible to transport the heavy railway material
by water to Chiromo, and the company were therefore obliged to extend
the line downwards to Port Herald, thirty miles below Chiromo, and
sixty miles above Villa Bocage, which is in Portuguese territory and is
the real head of the perennially navigable section of the river. The
further extension of the line down to this last point will have to be
contemplated in the future. Port Herald is 210 miles from the sea-
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 605
port of Chinde, at the mouth of the Zambesi river. From the former
port the line rims in a northerly direction to Chirorao, where it crosses
the Shire river. Above this point it leaves the Shire valley for that
of the Kuo river. After the sixty-fourth mile this valley is again
quitted for that of the Tuchela, which is followed for ten miles. The
line then follows the Luchenza river almost to its source, reaching its
summit point of about 4000 feet above sea-level, whence the descent
is made upon Blantyre, 112 miles by rail from Port Herald. It is
expected that Blantyre will be reached before the end of the present
year.
Commercial Possibilities of West Africa. — In a paper read at
the Royal Colonial Institute in March of the present year, and printed
in the Journal of Proceedings of the Institute, Viscount Mountmorres
in a very interesting way draws attention to some of the possibilities
of British West Africa. He points out that with the exception of the
Senegal all the important rivers in the northern section of AVest
Africa are British at their mouths, and that Sierra Leone is capable of
being made one of the finest harbours in the world. Much of the
British territory then in this region is easy of access by shipping, a
great advantage in the development of a new country.
The physical features of the country may be summed up as
follows : — the Coast range follows the curve of the Gulf of Guinea,
and though sometimes rising direct from the sea, has generally between
it and the ocean a flat, monotonous plain, fringed by the white sand of
the foreshore. This plain is almost everywhere barren, arid, and
parched. Its rainfall is small, and the soil is either laterite rock or
bleak sand. Throughout the length of the plain are the lagoons, some-
times mere pools on the shore, but at other times vast expanses of
water, as for example the Great Lagoon, which stretches almost the
whole length of the Ivory Coast. Round the landward margin of
these lagoons there is usually luxuriant vegetation, but elsewhere the
coast-plain only produces rank tough grass. Within the coast range
is the really valuable region of West Africa. It consists of undulating
country, well watered and densely clothed with forest, with an abun-
dant rainfall, which falls at well-defined seasons. The subsoil is formed
of stiff" clay, through which laterite in some places and conglomerate in
others crops out. Whereas in other parts of West Africa the covering
of soil is very thin, here it varies in depth from three or four inches to
as much as three feet, and fifteen inches to two feet is a very common
thickness. The width of this forest belt varies greatly, from about two
hundred miles in the east of Sierra Leone, the west of Liberia, the east
end of the Ivory Coast and the west end of the Gold Coast, to thirty
or forty miles at the east of the Gold Coast, while at Freetown it thins
out to a point. Within the forest belt is the savannah country, a
down-like formation of grassland interspersed with clumps of scrub and
freely sprinkled with stunted trees and a certain amount of cotton
woods and baobabs. The subsoil is laterite, and the surface soil is very
scanty. There are no large rivers, and streams are few ; the rainfall
606 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
also is small and the seasons irregular. In other words, this region
resembles the coastal plain. Where there is sufficient water it is a
pastoral country rich in flocks and herds. The richest band is therefore
the forest belt which contains an enormous variety of valuable products.
Of its natives the author speaks very highly. As has also been done
in Madagascar, he further emphasises their profound, if empirical,
knowledge of agriculture, and the rapidity with which they learn new
methods from the white man, and compete successfully against him.
The current statements as to their haphazard method are due to
imperfect observation in most cases, and the methods adopted are those
which long experience has shown to be the only profitable ones.
Viscount Mountmorres gives it as his opinion that the development
of the natural resources must remain in the hands of the natives, and
that the white man should devote his energies first to teaching the
natives new methods and introducing new cultivated plants; and
second, to so improving the means of communication as to set free the
enormous amount of native labour now absorbed by porterage. When
this is done the trade will increase enormously, and there will be
large possibilities of profit for the white man in acting as trader in the
native products. In conclusion, the author pays a high compliment to
the efficiency and economy of the administration of British West Africa.
Personal.
Mr. Robert C. Mossman, F.R.S.E., of the Scottish Oceanographical
Laboratory, left Edinburgh on October 10th for Buenos Aires, to take
up his appointment there as director of the scientific reports of the
Argentine Meteorological Office.
We are informed that the Geographical Scholarship in the University
of Oxford has been awarded for 1907-8 to R. L. Thomi'SON, B.A., Keble
College.
EDUCATIOXAL.
Teachers desirous of giving lessons on the evolution of means of
communication will find some interesting illustrative figures in Viscount
Mountmorres's paper on West Africa, summarised on p. 605. In West
Africa at present all up-country produce has to be carried to the coast
on men's heads. The maximum load so carried by each man is seventy
to eighty lbs., and sixty lbs. is a fair average. The native carrier at best
does not do much more than twenty to twenty-five miles per day with
this load, so that it takes forty men a day to carry a ton of produce
twenty-five miles. That is, it would take forty men eight days to carry
a ton of produce from London to Liverpool. In other words, it takes
a far greater amount of labour to carry the produce to the coast than to
raise and prepare it, so that the bulk of the community is engaged in
transport rather than in productive labour. The improvement of the
means of communication would thus set free an enormous amount of
EDUCATIONAL. 607
additional labour which could be used in the development of the
country. Even a De Cauville tramway worked by human traction
would eftect an enormous improvement, for a native on such a tramway
can push a truck containing six hundred lbs. for nearly double the distance
that he can walk carrying a load ; that is, by this simple contrivance
he can do the work of eighteen men, and so enormously diminish the
cost of transport. Another very interesting point in the same paper
shows the danger of applying economic principles without consideration
of the local conditions. It has been found that in West Africa the
raising of the price of a commodity does not increase the supply of the
commodity, but diminishes it. The reason is that the native's wants
are very few, and if, for example, the price of rubber rises, he finds that
whereas the bringing of a pound of rubber would formerly keep him
for a month, now twelve ounces would be sufficient to keep him for the
same length of time, and therefore he brings only the smaller quantity.
At the Leicester Meeting of the British Association, as noted above
on p. 597, Professor Conwentz gave an address on a subject in which
he is greatly interesting himself — a subject which can only be somewhat
clumsily translated into English as the preservation of natural monu-
ments. Natural monuments are all natural objects of interest, especially
those which throw light upon the past history of the region in which
they occur. For example, in our own country, while the lower ground
has certainly been everywhere profoundly altered by man, there is
reason to believe that in many parts of the Highlands the vegetation
which now covers the surface has so covered it for countless ages, and
is in short a vestige of the primitive covering. Such an area is a
natural monument in Professor Conwentz's sense. Similarly morainic
heaps, erratics, ice-scratches, the alpine plants of the Scotch hills, the
flora of our sand-dunes, and so forth, all rank as natural monuments,
as objects of scientific interest which enable the geographer to recon-
struct past conditions. If, as most persons admit, it is of great
importance to preserve from the vandal the historic monuments of
a country, the Druidic circles, the Koman remains and so forth, it is
surely also of importance that the value of the natural monuments
should be understood and appreciated, and so far as possible preserved
from wanton destruction. To protect the rare alpines from the over-
zealous gardener, the rare and disappearing animals from the over-
zealous collector or the ignorant gamekeeper, these are objects worthy
of all encouragement. Professor Conwentz has published various
pamphlets in German, one of which has been sent to us, not only dis-
cussing the means to be adopted to ensure, so far as may be, the
preservation of such natural monuments, but also describing the more
important of these in parts of Prussia with the object of preserving
them against accidental destruction, and explaining their existence to
the public in general. We understand that there is a prospect that a
book or pamphlet may be published on similar lines here, with Professor
Conwentz's collaboration. The subject is one of great interest to
teachers and all persons engaged in Education.
608 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
NEW BOOKS.
EUEOPE.
Baedeker's Eastern Alps. Eleventh edition. Revised and augmented, 1907.
Price 10 marks.
Baedeker's Paris and Its Environs. Sixteenth revised edition, 1907. Price
6 marks.
Baedeker's Switzerland. Twenty-second edition, 1907. Pric( 8 marks.
Baedekei-'s Southern France and. Corsica. Fifth edition. Price 9 marks. Leipsic :
Karl Baedeker. London : Dulau and Co. New York : Scril)ners Sons.
The philosophic traveller may derive some profit from the comparison of the
varying numbers of the editions of the little red books which accompany him on
his journeys. For example, as will be noted above, while Switzerland is in its
twenty-second edition, and Paris in its sixteenth. Southern France is only in its
fifth. If the competition of other guides has some effect on the rate of sale of the
difi'erent volumes, yet in general it may be said that the number of the edition
enables us to gauge with approximate accuracy the extent to which any particular
country is frequented by English-speaking tourists. It is obvious, for instance, from
a mere comparison of the editions of the guides, that the Dauphiny is not fre-
quented by such travellers to the same extent as Switzerland, and personal
experience but confirms the deduction. In the guide itself, indeed, attention is
drawn to the fact that the French Alps are even yet much less visited than they
deserve to be. We think, however, that the new edition of Southern France tends
to discourage an increase of visitors by a more gloomy account of the hotels than
is justified by the facts. If English tastes and English ways are less considered
than in Switzerland, the adaptable tourist can yet be almost always certain of
finding cleanliness and tolerable food everywhere.
Another point which strikes the reviewer who is confronted with a collection
of "Baedekers" is the extraordinarily artificial nature, from the travellers'
standpoint, of political frontiers. For example, the tourist who crosses the Col
de Mt. Cenis on foot finds to his disgust that his guide fails him soon after he
has passed that wind-swept, mist-drenched plateau, and he is curtly referred to
Northern Italy for further information. In actual travel, of course, this means
that the loaded knapsack has to contain two guides — a serious consideration. But
even in this respect the guides are not consistent. As every one knows, accounts
of Chamonix and Upper Savoy are included in both Sivit::€rland and Southern
France, while the very title of the Eastern Alps indicates an indifl'erence to poli-
tical frontiers. Would it not be possible to carry out this policy on a bolder scale,
and discuss the Alps in a series of volumes, based upon the order in which
travellers usually visit them rather than upon political boundaries, much as is done
in Ball's Guides ?
AFEICA.
La Penetration Saharienne (1830-1906). Par Acgustix Berxard et X. Lacroix.
Alger, 1906. Pp. 195.
For many years the illusion was cherished in France that the Sahara and the
country to the south of it was rich, that it abounded in gold and possessed great
possibilities in the way of trade. This vision of wealth is now dispelled. The
Sahara is now known to be not a vast plain but a huge region with mountains.
NEW BOOKS. 609
plateaux, and depressions, yet only habitable where there is enough water to
form an oasis. For the curse of the country, its extreme aridity, is not due to
the quality of the soil, but to the meteorological conditions of the climate. The
Tuaregs live a nomad life in a state of semi-starvation and perpetual war, and the
whole population of the northern Sahara, with an area larger than France, only
amounts to 300,000. The economic value of the Sahara is extremely small, the
only articles of exchange being salt and dates. The value of the whole com-
merce from the Sudan to the sea by way of the Sahara is only valued at about
nine millions of francs ( J360,000), and is constantly diminishing. Yet to gain
this insignificant trade France has had to spend millions of francs and to deplore
the loss of many valuable lives.
In a very compact and yet highly readable form the two very competent
authors narrate the history of the French occupation of Algeria from 1830, when
Algiers was captured, down to the present time. Up to 1852 direct explora-
tion of the Sahara had yielded hardly any result, and the occupation of Algeria
only extended as far as Laghuat, or not quite 3 degrees south of Algiers. By
1864 French influence extended over nearly all the territory north of the Areg,
especially at imjiortant points like Tuggurt and Wargla, the latter of which lies
about 2 degrees south of Laghuat. It did not pass these limits till the end of the
nineteenth century. The period from 1864 to 1879 was one of stagnation, which
may partly be attributed to local insurrection and the war of 1870. The year
1881 was marked by two important events — the establishment of a protectorate
over Tunisia and the destruction of the Flatters expedition about lat. 24° N.,
when all the eleven European members of the expedition lost their lives, and only
a few natives escaped. This massacre naturally gave a severe blow to French
prestige in the Sahara, from which it took long to recover. The unfortunate part
of the business was that it need not have occurred. The mistake lay in trusting
the natives too much and not providing Colonel Flatters with an escort of French
soldiers. With a couple of hundred soldiers there would have been no danger,
and the expedition would have eftected its purpose. The next nine years form a
period of inaction, and it was not till 1890 that the penetration of the Sahara
received a new impulse. Now the French began to push up the Senegal and the
Niger in the direction of Timbuctu and Lake Chad so as to turn the fiank of the
Sahara. In this year a convention was signed, in which the British Government
acknowledged the zone of French influence to extend as far south as the line from
Say on the Niger to Barruwa on Lake Chad. Five years later Timbuctu was
taken, and in 1899 another convention was signed with Great Britain which
fixed almost definitely the limits of the French Colonial Empire in Central Africa.
Since that date the French have kept on occupying eff"ectively more and more
of the oases of the Sahara, thus reducing the power for mischief of the Tuaregs.
Various lines of railway have been studied, and in 1895 it was possible to travel
from Oran to Colomb by rail, a distance of 744 kilometers. In what direction
the line will be prolonged is not yet decided, and a decision indeed is difficult, for
the Sahara is so poor that no railway across it could ever be made to pay the
expense of its construction.
The Gambia Colony and Protectorate. An Official Handbook. By Francis Bisset
Archer, Treasurer of the Colony. London : St. Bride's Press, Ltd. Mafs
and illustrations. Price 10s. nd.
The Gambia has been an independent Crown colony since 1888. In this hand-
book the Treasurer of the Colony has prepared a full, lucid, and concise account,
VOL. XXIII. 2 X
610 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
historical, physical, political, economic, and personal. The work is divided into
nine jjarts. The first deals with the history and development of the Gambia, in
which the history of exploration and commercial adventure as well as the political
and administrative records are narrated with accuracy and judgment. The Gambia
affords a good illustration of the many vicissitudes through which the territories
in British West Africa have passed ; and the success there achieved is alike in its
record and in its promise a worthy monument of British enterprise, energy, skill,
and probity. INIr. Archer has divided his review of the past into four periods :
from the earliest records to the founding of Bathurst ; from 1820 to 1852 ; from
1852 to 1865; from 1865 to 1904.
The second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth parts are occupied with the geography,
topography, and administratiA'e system. In the third part there is an account of
the colony during the last decade which gives important details regarding the
economic aspects. " The colony is united," says the author in conclusion,
" prosperous, and free from endemic disease, and Bathurst, the seat of Govern-
ment, can now be compared favourably with any other town in the West Coast of
Africa. Both colony and protectorate would seem to have emerged from the
darkness of a troubled past into the dawn of a future which, it may reasonably be
hoped, shall never be seriously overclouded." Medical and sanitary science, it is
recognised, have contributed greatly to the possibilities of progress by reducing
the climatic disabilities of human efficiency.
The seventh part consists of an Euglish-Mandingo dictionary of some eight
hundred words and phrases in common use. This language is that principally
used throughout the colony and protectorate. The remaining parts are concerned
with the personnel of the Government departments ; information about the several
services ; financial and commercial details ; fiscal arrangements ; a local directory ;
and general information on the manifold aspects of life in the colony ; and finally
a list of officers and record of their services. The work is, therefore, not only
a record and account, but a useful reference book to the colony. A bibliography
might well be added in a new edition.
AMERICA.
Canada's Century. By R. J. Bassett, F.R.G.S. London : The Financier and
Bullionist, Limited, 1907. Price 6s. net.
This account of a prolonged business tour in Canada is an expansion and
exposition of the saying of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, " The Nineteenth Century was
the century of the United States ; the Twentieth Century will be Canada's
Century." Canada is at present much in our minds, and there is no lack of literature
concerning it : this book, however, pursues a plan of its own. It is not historical
nor descriptive nor political, and in one sense, perhaj^s, hardly geographical. It is
a statement of a business man- to business men, a statement of the resources of
Canada actual and potential. It deals with the cities of the Dominion, Quebec
and Montreal, Ottawa and Toronto, Halifax and St. John, Winnipeg and
Vancouver, Edmonton and Calgary : with the means of comnmnication, the
Canadian Pacific Railway, the Grand Trunk Railway, and the Canadian Northern
line, which is linking the manufactories of Ontario with the agricultural regions
of the North-West. The description of the docks and huge elevators of Port
Arthur leads to a long and careful analysis of the conditions of agriculture,
grain-growing, dairy-farming, mixed farming, cattle and horse ranching and fruit-
growing. On this agricultural survey follow a statement of the mineral resources
— iron and coal, gold and silver, copper and nickel — and a full exposition of
NEW BOOKS. 611
Canadian forestry and fisheries. Turning to the nascent manufactures of Canada
the writer details the etforts that are being made to use the unrivalled water
power of the country for the service of man. This is the most impressive part of
the volume, we are brought face to face with the great forces of nature. In the
words of Bacon "• nil aliud potest homo quam ut corpora naturaha admoveat et
amoveat : reliqua Natura intus transigit."
The book breathes a spirit resembling the optimistic confidence of the
Canadians themselves. Canada (so we are repeatedly told by the writer) only
needs for its develojiment strong and steady settlers and a wise and well-
administered outlay of capital, and these can be best supplied by the mother
country. The field is open now, but in a few years, if we hesitate and delay, it
will be occupied by foreigners. Let us act before it is too late I
The volume deserves careful perusal and consideration.
GENERAL.
Comparative Art. By Edwin Swift Balch. Philadelphia : Press of Allen,
Lane and Scott, 1906.
The title of this volume is more comprehensive than its contents, for in the
main the author is concerned with glyptic art alone, purely decorative ornament
being neglected. It would manifestly be impossible in 154 pages and without
the aid of a single illustration to go deeply into the matter of comparative art, and
the author has not attempted it. Without being slavishly methodical in the
selection of his material for discussion, he presents us with a readable and enter-
taining caitserie on the subject of his choice. He is animated by a desire to
throw a new light on the history of man by studying the art of as many races as
possible and so estimate the esthetic and mental similarities and divergencies
between them. Accordingly he takes a glance at the manifestations of glyptic
art ranging from the later palaeolithic to modern times, embracing the whole
world in his survey.
One of his principal conclusions, that art has originated spontaneously in
different centres, is not likely to be disputed. But another conclusion, " that man
did not spring from one stock in one locality, but that he evolved several hundred
thousand years ago in several difterent places in the world," will only be accepted
by those who already on other grounds maintain that hypothesis. For it is
evident that there is no logical connection between these two opinions. As the
author himself has shown, no art of the earlier palaolithic period has come to
light and some existing peoples seem to be devoid of any artistic impulses what-
ever. So far as our evidence goes we are therefore justified in assuming that in
the earlier stages of the human race, when it was gradually spreading over the
earth's sur&ce, it had not sufficiently developed in civilisation to produce any
objects which can be classed as artistic. Man may have been potentially artistic
from the beginning just as a normal infant is born with the potential faculty of
walking and of speech, though this latent power takes time to become perfect.
"With this in mind we are quite able to accept the proposition that art developed
spontaneously in difl'erent parts of the world, just as language may have done,
without conceding that the human race sprang from difl'erent stocks. It may
have done so, but this cannot be proved by anything we can learn from the com-
parative study of art since no known artistic relics reach back far enough in
time.
It may be questioned whether some of the author's generalisations are not so
large that they become practically useless for the ethnologist. Any art in which
612 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
the proportions of the human form are well preserved is classed as "AVhite Kace
Art," and under this heading he includes both Egyptian and Hindu art. And by
doing so he seems to think that he has disposed of the possibility of the ancient
Egyptians being of Semitic or Hamitic stock. In justice to the author it must
be said thiit be considers his conclusions as mere personal opinions which will
doubtless be changed by the acquisition of new facts.
VOr dans le Monde. Par L. De Launay. Paris : Armand Colin, 1907.
Price 3fr. 50c.
Professor De Launay of I'Ecole Superieure des Mines has written several
books on Geology in general, but in this one he confines himself to the important
subject of Gold. He considers it first from a geological, and then from a geo-
graphical, point of view, discussing next the mining and metallurgical extraction,
and the economics, of gold. In connection with the last he points out that
" during the past ten years two great political CA-ents have exercised an influence
more or less direct on the question of gold in such a manner as to interrupt the
normal evolution of the industry, increase its value, and favour its investment.
The first event was the conquest of the Transvaal by the P>ritish. This conquest,
which the capitalists of South Africa had, with more or less sincerity, favoured
or encouraged in the pretended interest of their industry, has, as was inevitable
and as was easy to be foreseen, paralysed for a long period its development. In
the first place we witnessed the complete stoppage of the mines during the two
years of the war (which began by being considered only a military promenade) and
the destruction of machinery and works, fortunately on a limited scale. But above
all the nett cost, which ought to have fallen at least one-third by a change of
government, has, including taxes, remained the same at the end of ten years
in spite of all the technical progress made in the interval. Instead of the feeble
taxes of the Boer Government, against which such a noisy campaign was directed,
the heavy and costly British administration has to be paid for ; charges have
been greatly increased ; the negroes have lost the habit of working in mines,
and the absurdly impracticable idea entertained for a moment of reducing their
wages by a sudden stroke of authority has caused a scarcity of labour which
could only be remedied by the introduction of Chinese, which led, at least in
the beginning, to much troiible. At the same time, the liquidation of the
enormous cost of the war has occasioned in the British market a diminution
of capital and a depreciation of prices which aftected every market in Europe.
Then the great industry of Gold became entangled in British politics. The
question of Chinese labour having been brought into the political arena and the
Liberal party having pronounced against it, credit has been refused, capital has
been withdrawn, progress has been arrested, and at the same time cost has been
increased. Finally, the result has been that the amount of gold which the Trans-
vaal ought to produce to-day has been very materially reduced. By a veritable
political paradox, what ought to have increased these troubles will probably
diminish them, for the Boers, beaten in battle in 1900, have recovered power in their
country owing to their electoral victory in the beginning of 1907, and the directors
of the mines have (in February 1907) hailed with satisfaction the accession of the
ministry of General Botha, the old military antagonist of Britain, only too glad
to welcome him as a relief from the follies of the so-called Liberals by means of
w^hich the British Government threatened to ruin them."' While it is always
useful to " see oorsels as ithers see us," it is a pity that Professor De Launay
did not visit the Transvaal and form his opinion from personal experience
there.
NEW BOOKS. 613
A Scientijic Geography. Book iv., North America. Book v., Africa. By Ellis W.
Heaton, F.G.S. London : Ralph HoHand and Co., 1907. Price Is. Gd. net.
each vol.
These manuals are called "Scientific" because in them stress is laid on
agricultural and industrial developments which are traced to their physical causes.
They are meant to prepare students for examination and are drawn up with skill
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are at least suggestive and the information given is accurate and clearly conveyed.
The plan of presenting the facts twice over, first in a general and then in a local
setting, is calculated to impress them on the memory. The maps are worthy of
special commendation, and an intelligent scholar will learn much from a careful
study of them. The books themselves are valuable rather as a help towards
testing and summing up previous study than as a means of teaching geography.
NEW MAPS.
EUROPE.
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614 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHTCAL MAGAZINE.
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TURKEY. General Stati' Map on Scale of 1 : 250,000 or about 4 miles to an inch.
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NEW MAPS. G15
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This new map is a most valuable contribution to the topography of South
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W. and A. K. Johnston, Limited, Edinburgh and London.
These sheets are a first instalment of a new map of the Gold Coast, which,
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NORTHERN NIGERIA. Political Map on Scale of 1 : 2,000,000 or 32 miles to an
inch. Compiled at the Intelligence Office, Zungeru. 1907.
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NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN NIGERIA. Outline Map on Scale of 1 : 2,000,000 or
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ORANGE RIVER COLONY. General Staif Map on Scale of 1 : 125,000 or about 2
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Rust. 1906. Price 2s. each sheet.
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AMERICA.
CANADA. Census Maps of the Provinces of Manitoba, Alberta, and Saskatchewan
on Scale of 1 : 792,000 or 12^ miles to an inch. James White, F.R.G.S.,
Geographer. 1907. Department of Agricultxire, Ottawa.
These maps are of si:>ecial interest as showing the very rapid development of
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616 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
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Scale 1 : 530,000 or Sh miles to an inch. 1907. Price 3 dollar.^.
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Dalmatia : The Land where the Hast meets the West. By Maude M. Holbach.
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Two Dianas in Somaliland: The Record of a Shooting Trip. By Agnes
Herbert. With 25 Illustrations, reproduced from Photographs. Demy 8vo.
Pp. vi + 306. London : John Lane, 1907. Pricel2s.6d.net.
Japanese Self-Taught : With English Phonetic Pronunciation. Edited by
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Hindustani Grammar Self-Taught. By Captain C. A. Thimm. Pp. 120.
London : ISIarlborough, 1907. Price 2s: Gd.
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Edited by Don M. de Zilva Wickreiiasixghe. Pp. 96. London : Marlborough,
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Bulgaria of To-Day. Published by the Balkan States Exhibition, Earl's Court.
Pp. XT + 299. London, 1907.
Things Seai in Egypt. By Clive Hollaxd. Small 4to. Pp. 252. With 50
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Over-Sea Britain : A Descriptive Record of the Geography, the Historical, Ethno-
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In Wildest Africa. By C. G. Schillings. Translated by Frederic Whtte.
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In the Strange South Seas. By Beatrice Grijishaw. With 56 Illustrations.
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Reise in das Moderne Mexico. Von ^NIietze Diener. 8 Bogen Oktav. Pp.
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Papers and Reports relating to Minerals aiid Mining, New Zealand. Welling-
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Report Department of Lands, New Zealand, 1906 and 1907. AVellington,
1907.
Publishers forivarding books for review will greatly oblige by marking the price
in clear figures, especially in the case of foreign books.
Ar^^<-^ ^^t/^-^^
THE SCOTTISH
GEOGRAPHICAL
MAGAZINE.
GEOGEAPHY AND STATECEAFT.i
By the Right Hon. Viscount Milner, P.C, G.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
Gold Medallist of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society.
There is one respect certainly — no doubt there are many others, but
they are less material to the present point — in which I am at a great
disadvantage compared with the distinguished men who have on previous
occasions delivered this Inaugural Address. My predecessors have all
been men who, either by virtue of their scientific eminence or of their
practical achievements as explorers, of the earth or air, might justly lay
claim to the title of Masters in Geography. I can advance no such
claim ; and, while I am deeply sensible of the honour of being permitted
to address this learned society, I am a little frightened at my own bold-
ness in availing myself of the opportunity which your extreme indulgence
has afforded me.
My excuse must be that, if I have no right to call myself a geographer,
I am at least a firm believer in the value of geographical studies, and in
their educational as well as their practical value. And so I venture
to offer myself as a witness on the side of your science in the controversy,
which is still going on, as to its right to a place among the recognised
branches of the higher learning. If that question were to be submitted
to a jury of men whose lives had been mainly devoted to affairs of State,
I should have no doubt as to the verdict. I do not say that the opinion
of men of this class should be alone decisive, but it is at least of some
value. And I am confident that there are very few of them who would
not agree with me in assigning to geography, as nov/ pursued and taught,
a high place among the studies which go to make up what the Germans
1 The Inaugural Address delivered before the Society iu Edinburgh on November 13, 1907.
VOL. XXIII. 2 Y
618 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
call Sfaats-trissenschaft, a term for which I know no exact English equiva-
lent, but which we may perhaps translate into " Political Science " or
" the Political Sciences."
Not that I have any wish to insist on including geography among
the political or moral sciences as distinct from the physical — if you will
forgive my using these somewhat clumsy and inadequate but still neces-
sary labels. Indeed it is one of the strong points about geography that
it is not easy to classify in this fashion. It possesses, as has been truly
said by one of its votaries, a synthetic value, or, to put it in simpler
language, it forms an important link in the great chain of knowledge,
and constitutes a meeting-point of the moral and physical sciences. It is
one of the corner-pillars, if I may so express myself, of the Temple of
Knowledge. You have only to think how closely it touches geology,
and for the matter of that, botany and zoology also, on the one side, and
history on the other. If I confine myself to-night to one of its aspects, I
must not be thought to ignore or undervalue the others.
So much to prevent misunderstanding. And now only one more
prefatory observation. The claim which I think geography can con-
fidently advance to-day to an honourable and important place among the
sciences could perhaps not have been advanced with anything like the
same force one hundred or even fifty years ago. For the right of any
study to such a place depends, I take it, on two things : the importance
of its subject-matter, and the manner in Avhich the study is conducted.
Now as to the importance of the subject-matter of geography there could
never be any dispute. But its methods were not always calculated to
command equal respect. When I think of the maps, the text-books, and,
worse still, the geograpliical lessons of my own childhood, I recall things
to which the term " scientific " could by no legitimate stretch of language
have been applied. Great indeed has been the progress in the methods
of geographical study during my own lifetime, though no doubt the
beginning of improvement dates further back. For something like a
century a series of eminent men, from Humboldt onwards, men imbued
with the highest scientific ideals, have been busy interpreting and
systematising the ever-increasing mass of geographical knowledge. If our
own country has been especially rich in great explorers, other nations, and
above all the Germans, have helped to raise the status of geography by a
philosophic treatment of the neAv as well as the old material. And it
cannot now be long before geography obtains on all hands that full
recognition as a science to which its modern developments so amply
entitle it.
But I am not going to attempt to trace the history of those develop-
ments to-night. My humbler task is to try and illustrate the value of
geographical knowledge, and of the geographical habit of mind, in the
sphere of government and administration. We have had quite recently
a brilliant example of what that knowledge and that habit of mind,
when wedded to history and to a practical experience of great affairs, are
capable of producing, in the lecture on " Frontiers " which was delivered
at Oxford some ten days ago by Lord Curzon. Or, to take another
instance, which touches more nearly the field of my own personal experi-
GEOGRAPHY AND STATECRAFT. 619
ence, there have been few State papers published this year which rival
in interest Lord Selborne's " Review of the Present Mutual Kelations of
the British South African Colonies.' The memorandum, in which the
present High Commissioner discusses those relations, is substantially
a plea, and a very earnest and effective plea, for Federation. It -would be
quite beyond the scope of this address to examine that plea in detail, but
there is one point about it to which I wish to call attention, because it is
so apt an illustration of the subject we are considering to-night. The
point to which I refer is the great importance which is attached, and
rightly attached, in this memorandum to purely geographical considera-
tions. The argument for Federation, strong in any case, on racial,
economic, and other grounds, becomes absolutely irresistible when you
consider the physical conformation of the country. I am not thinking
merely of the contiguity of the several States. Two countries may be
contiguous and yet sharply divided by some natural obstacle. Over and
over again in history such obstacles have delayed or prevented the
political union even of kindred communities. But in the case of South
Africa there are no such obstacles at all. In only one instance, that of
the Basutoland enclave, does the political boundary correspond to any
extent with natural facts. Basutoland is bounded for more than half its
circumference by formidable mountain barriers, and has in all respects a
more homogeneous character than any other South African territory.
But almost all other South African frontiers are, from the geographical
point of view, quite negligible, indeed in some cases quite absurd. They
are the result of historical accidents, not to say of political blunders ; in
some cases, perhaps, of justifiable political expedients, but never of
physical factors of any real importance. No doubt there are striking
physical contrasts between different portions of South Africa. I shall
have to refer to them presently, and they greatly reinforce my argument,
for no statesmanship can be successful which fails to take account of
them. But they stand in no relation whatever to the political divisions.
Indeed it would almost seem as if a perverse destiny had chosen to unite
the disparate, as it has certainly sometimes divided the wholly similar
and consanguineous, in carving out the strange amorphous lumps of
territory which constitute the South African States.
In saying this I must not be regarded as contending that it is any
longer possible altogether to ignore these political divisions. History
has her rights as well as geograph}', and we cannot escape from the
consequences of the accidents, the blunders or the devices of the past.
" Le mieux est I'ennemi du bien," and in attempting at this time of day
a complete fusion of the South African States, even assuming such a
fusion to be desirable, statesmen might easily imperil the success of that
strong movement towards closer union which, wisely directed, is bound
to be productive of most beneficent results. But I will say no more on
this point. To do so would be to allow mj^self to be draAvn into a
political discussion wholly alien to my present object. That object is
merely to consider some of the most striking physical idiosyncrasies of
South Africa, and to consider them as illustrating the necessity of con-
stant close attention to the geographical factor on the part of statesmen.
620 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
I fear that the limits of my time will hardly allow me to do more than
take a very cursory glauce at those idiosyncrasies, and that my theme
may suffer in intelligibility and in interest from excessive compression.
But there are at least a good many of my hearers who will be able to
fill up from their own knowledge some of the many important features
of the landscape w^hich I must pass by unnoticed in my breathUss dash
from the slopes of Table Mountain to the southern shores of Tanganyika.
For that; and nothing less, is tlie extent of territory which has to be
passed under review. I see that that distinguished traveller, Mr. E. F.
Knight, in his recently published book on Over-Sea Britain, defines South
Africa as " all Africa to the south of the Congo basin." I do not know
that in a strictly geographical sense that is not rather too liberal a
definition. To my mind the southern edge of the basin of the Zambesi
is a better dividing line, from the point of view of physical conditions,
than the southern edge of the basin of the Congo. But there can be
no doubt that, politically and administratively, South Africa does at
present straddle on right up to the latter point. And this, indeed, is
one of the greatest drawbacks of British South Africa — its unmanage-
able shape, the great interminable Avedge driven from south to north
into the heart of the continent with such inadequate outlets to east and
west. You go from latitude 34° to latitude 8°, from a climate of South
European mildness to the heart of the Tropics, a distance of more than
two thousand miles ; but for three-fourths of the distance on one side,
and for more than two-thirds on both sides, you are flanked by foreign
states. Where was geography when we refused to look after Namaqua-
land and Damaraland, and did not think it worth while to give thirty
thousand pounds for Delagoa Bay? The courage, the enterprise and
the farsightedness of individual Britons have indeed done wonders to
counteract the laches of national policy. Livingstone, Rhodes, John
Mackenzie — to name only the foremost — have left their mark upon the
political map of Africa to a far greater extent than even the ablest and
most energetic officers of the British Crown. But the shouldering of
national responsibilities by private citizens, however splendid as a
display of human courage and energy, is not without its drawbacks.
Our vast South African dominion bears in its configuration, no less than
in its haphazard administrative arrangements, the traces of the un-
scientific spirit in which Governments have trifled with the problems
which only systematic governmental action can adequately solve. The
extension of British authority from the Orange River to Tanganyika has
been accomplished by the most extraordinary series of makeshifts in the
history of the world. Many of the resulting tangles will, no doubt, be
straightened out by federation, when it comes. But, behind the question
of the federation of British South Africa properly so called, complicated
in itself, yet at least engaging the thoughts of all the ablest men whom
the country possesses, lies the question of the future of her vast tropical
annexe — not South Africa at all in a geographical sense, though now
administratively tagged on to her — and that is a matter to which no
one, whether in South Africa or in Great Britain, seems disposed to give
the slightest attention. Yet for geographers it is surely full of interest.
GEOGRAPHY AND STATECRAFT. 621
The causes which have led to the phenomenally rapid advance of the
outposts of Empire in Southern Central Africa and the consequences
involved in it are so striking an illustration of the interaction of geo-
graphical and political influences that I venture to direct your attention
to them for a few minutes.
The dominant physical fact about South and South-Central Africa is
the great irregular tableland which constitutes so large a portion of it,
and which carries the climate of the temperate zone into the heart of
the tropics. The great average elevation of the country, with its vast
stretches of undulating but not often monntainous high land, is the cause
of most of the distinctive features of its life. Historically, economically,
politically, nothing is really intelligible as long as the significance of
that primary fact is not fully grasped. In South Africa men of European
race thrive and multiply exceedingly in latitudes which are generally
fatal or debilitating to the white man. Their splendid physique is due
to the bracing air oF these large expanses of lofty open country. But
inasmuch as the high tableland is not the whole of South Africa, but
is flanked and intersected by regions of lower altitude, which are
tropical or sub-tropical not only in latitude but in climate, the white
race is here iziextricably intermingled with coloured races, equally
prolific, equally at home in the country, which show no signs of succumb-
ing to the European impact. Indeed in one respect the Bantu tribes,
or at any rate the finest of them, have the advantage over men of
European origin, for they seem to flourish alike in the lower and the
higher altitudes ; whereas, except in the extreme south, the white man
is never at his best on the low ground. From this intermingling of
alien races, ranging from the most highly civilised to the almost
barbarous, have arisen social and political problems of the greatest com-
plexity, and all South African history is woven on that woof.
But I must not be led astray by the innumerable topics of interest
which the high plateau suggests. My present concern is with a single
feature of it — the fact, namely, that it is most easily ascended from the
southern end. Even the central and northern portions are, as a rule,
more accessible from the south, despite the greater distance, than they are
over much shorter distances from the east and west. For from the west,
though the slopes are favourable, the intense aridity of the country makes
progress difficult or impossible, and on the east there is a tremendous
mountain barrier to be climbed. No doubt that barrier is not and
never was impassable, and in recent times it has been crossed by no
fewer than three lines of railway, the existence of which will greatly
affect the course of future development. But even with the railway,
and much more before the railway, the approach from the south was
incomparably easier and more natural than from the east. It is like the
difference between climbing a steep ladder and walking up a compara-
tively easy flight of steps. Add to this, the fact that the European
settlers of the south had their base in a favourable climate (for only on
the extreme south and south-west is the low-lying coast-belt temperate
and healthy for men of white race), while the European settlers on the
east had their base on a hot and humid shore. And bear in mind,
622 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
further, that the settlers of the south belonged to sturdy Teutonic races,
in whom the tendency to expansion was still strong, while the settlers
on the east, if they could be called settlers at all, belonged to a small
nation in wliich, despite its glorious })ast, the exploring and colonising
impulse was exhausted.
There you have, of course only in the broadest outline, the causes
which led to the colonisation of South Africa from the south, the forward
pressure of European immigration, if I may so express myself, on vertical
rather than on horizontal lines. It was up the series of lofty terraces
which lead from the south and south-west to the centre of the great
plateau that Europe first invaded South Africa, and then spread, as it is
still spreading, its colonists to right and left over the most eligible
portions of it. It was a great continuous northward movement, no
doubt with a considerable lilt, especially in its early stages, to the east,
that is to the better watered and therefore more fertile side of the
tableland, but still in its general direction a broad wave sweeping
steadily towards the Polar Star. On and on, " with painful steps and
slow," went the pioneers of European civilisation, until they could just
discern on the far horizon the constellations which had shone over the
heads of their fathers in their ancient home — strange constellations to
most of them who had looked up since infancy at Achernar and Canopus
and the Pointers and the Southern Cross.
At first, as I have said, in the days of the ox- waggon, the movement
was very slow. It took two centuries before the most northerly outpost
of continuous European settlement had reached the edge of the tropics,
and even then that settlement was very thin and partial, with great
bordering expanses of wilderness or of barbarism, and with long distances
between the principal centres of population — all circumstances tending
to estrange the settlers from the old European lands, the cradles of their
race, and even from one another. But the great point is that by the
middle of last century, just two hundred years after Van Eiebeeck had
established the first permanent settlement at the foot of Table Mountain,
the invasion from the south had got a real grip of the centre of the great
tableland and was twelve hundred miles on its way to the heart of
Africa, while the European planters in the east had little more than a
nominal hold even of the coast-land and had made no impression on the
elevated interior of Africa at all.
And then came the railway, by far the most potent of modern
inventions in transforming the life of mankind, potent and revolutionising
everywhere, but most of all in thinly peopled and newly settled
countries, and, among these, of incomparable potency in South Africa
owing to the vast distances which separate its chief centres of European
settlement, and to its almost total lack of navigable waterways. Great
as is the influence of the iron road everywhere, and innumerable as are
its effects, there is no portion, I believe, of the whole habitable globe in
which its importance, compared with that of all other factors, is so great,
so overshadowing, as in South Africa. But for the first twenty or thirty
years railway development in South Africa, which then moved at a snail's
pace compared with the tremendous rush of recent years, was busy in
GEOGRAPHY AND STATECRAFT. 623
linking up the coast ports with comparatively near and long-established
inland places. If it followed the course of northern expansion at all, it
followed it at first for a special reason, namely, in order to get at those
centres of mineral wealth which happened — a most momentous fact —
to be situate far inland, far to the north, right on the line of that advance
of which I have been speaking. And so it came about that when, some
five-and-twenty years ago, the great scramble for Africa began ; when
the European nations which were already in possession of long-neglected
strips of the African coast woke up, and fresh European nations dashed
forward to secure the yet unappropriated parts of it ; when one and all,
old occupants and new comers, began to push on their boundaries with
might and main from every available starting-point, until they met and
not infrequently collided in the centre — at this critical juncture the
railway from Cape Town was already at Kimberley, upwards of five
hundred miles on the way to the north, and, more important still, on the
crown of the tableland, with the great gradual climb already accom-
plished, and hundreds upon hundreds of miles of comparatively level
going in front of it. By virtue of that railway, coming from the oldest
British port and passing in its whole course through settled British
territory. Great Britain had a big start in the race for Southern Central
Africa, just as by virtue of her occupation of Egypt she had a similar
start in the race for the Northern Central regions, which contain the
head-waters of the Nile.
Continuous settlement for twelve hundred miles from south to north
and a railway, not indeed so far advanced as that, but still far advanced,
and above all, having overcome the chief difficulty of all railways from
the coast to the centre of Africa, the great climb ; these were the ad-
vantages which the owners of the southern littoral possessed as compared
with those of the eastern and western coasts in their converging move-
ments towards the centre of the sub-continent. And thus British
authority was pushed forward from the southern extremity of Africa up
more than a third of its whole length before other Powers, advancing
from the east and west, brought their frontiers together in front of it
and so finally barred the road for any further advance. From Cape Town
to the furthermost point of North-Eastern Rhodesia is more than two
thousand miles as the crow flies, and I need not say how many more as
the traveller has to go. But the whole breadth of Africa at that point
is only about seventeen hundred miles, and the distance from the borders
of North-Eastern Rhodesia to the nearest point on the sea-coast is only
about four hundred. No doubt it is true that this distant protruding spur
of our vast South and South-Central African dominion has been approached
rather from the east, by the Zambesi and Shire Valleys, than up the
central plateau. But it is also true that our authority in that corner
would hardly have been established, and could with difficulty be main-
tained, if the country between the four lakes Nyassa, Tanganyika,
Bangweolo, and Mweru were not connected at its south-western angle
with that huge oblong block of British Colonies and Protectorates and
Spheres of Influence which now stretches from Cape Town to Katanga.
And to the boundary of Katanga at any rate we have got by the direct
624 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
northward movement, though the distance thither is just twice as far
that way as it is from either the eastern or the western coast.
That is the story in its simplest form. Of course in its details it is
vastly more complicated. And there is one detail of such importance
that even in this hasty review I must just refer to it. When the
scramble for Africa began in the early eighties Great Britain, owing to
past misunderstandings and mistakes, and to a policy which, among
other things, ignored geography, and tried to separate the inseparable,
had lost control of the more important — eastern — half of the northward
march of European colonisation, and its most advanced posts were no
longer on British territory. In 1882-83 the Boer Republic on our right
flank had pushed far ahead of the furthest limit of British authority and
was some four hundred miles nearer to the centre of Africa. And the
fear was that foreign Powers, availing themselves of the split between
Boer and Briton, might use the Transvaal to bar the road to the further
advance of British influence and civilisation. It was under the impulse
of that fear that Rhodes made the great dash, or rather the series of
great dashes, to the north, which have resulted in the extraordinary
elongation of the British portion of South Africa.
First came the march of the pioneers into Mashoualand in 1890
which interposed a belt of British settlement between the northern
Transvaal and the Zambesi. Then followed in 1893 the Matabele
AVar and the subjection of the whole country up to that river. These
events gave us the great region now known as Southern L'hodesia.
But Rhodes could not rest content with the boundary of the Zambesi.
He was haunted by the thought of the rapidity with which all the
vacant spaces of the world were being appropriated by one European
Power or another, and he was bent on preserving as large an area as
possible for his own countrymen. And so, before his death in 1902,
despite failures of his own seeking and interruptions for which he was
not to blame — despite the Raid and the Rinderpest, the Matabele
Rebellion, and the great Boer War — he had succeeded in acquiring
certain large trading and administrative rights beyond the Zambesi up
to the very confines of the Congo Free State, and in inducing the
British Government to throw its aegis over them. These are the
countries now known as North-Western and Xorth -Eastern Rhodesia,
and, like Southern Rhodesia, virtually incorporated in the British
Empire, though no doubt in a much more rudimentary stage in respect
of development and administration. It had taken more than two
hundred years to carry European authority from Cape Town to
Kimberley. It took less than twenty to advance it from Kimberley
northwards to a distance twice as great — a colossal achievement which
we OAve to the energy, the daring, and the geographical imagination of a
single man.
And all the time the railway was being pushed forward with un-
exampled speed, as it has been since his death — not much less than a
hundred miles a year on an average. Indeed, Avithout the railway
following close behind, anything like effective occupation would have
been impossible. It is the fa.shion just now to decry the rapid extension
GHOCJKArHY AND STATECRAFT. 625
of railways through these thinly peopled and as yet unproductive
regions, and to condemn them if they do not pay in a commercial
sense. And no doubt the railways of Rhodesia, though they have been
constructed with remarkable economy, will be some time before they
can stand that test. But then it is an absurd test to apply to railways
in a country where thei'e are no other means of communication, where
they are the only roads, the indispensable conditions alike of economic
progress and of civilised government, where they are creating the
development which it is their ultimate destiny to serve. Were the
Eoman roads expected to pay in a commercial sense 1 If railways were
never to be built into the wilderness, the wilderness would remain
what it was for all the centuries before railways were invented to
conquer it.
And now perhaps enough has been said to enable us to make a fair
estimate of this latest stage in the European invasion of Africa from the
south, to realise the causes of its feverish haste, the boldness of its
conception, and at the same time its inevitable defects. It has been
a movement along natural lines, but unduly accelerated by accidental
political causes. But for the scramble for Africa, even the restless
genius of Rhodes might not have gone so fast or so far. And while it
is impossible not to admire the spectacle of this private citizen — for
after the end of 1895 he ceased to be even Prime Minister of the Cape
— undertaking and financing a great enterprise of State, ensuring the
concurrence of a reluctant Government by saving it all expense, and
paying his way by a mixed appeal to the speculative instincts and the
patriotic ambitions of his countrymen, it is no disparagement to him to
say that this is not the best imaginable way in which an Empire can be
built. He followed the only lines possible under the circumstances.
He spent his life in the task. Our gratitude is due to him for the vast
opportunities which he created or preserved for us. But Southern and
Northern Rhodesia alike will long bear the traces of the strange
expedients which had to be adopted in getting them started, and a great
many problems will have to be solved before either of them can be
satisfactorily fitted into the framework of South Africa or of the
Empire.
Oil the future of Southern Rhodesia I have no intention to dwell. By
however complicated a process, it is bound some day to become a part
of self-governing South Africa. But its great tropical annexe presents
features of different character, and sooner or later we shall have to
apply Mr. Haldane's prescription and do a little thinking about them.
And when we do, a strange tangle of interests, and a difficult choice of
alternative courses, will come up for consideration. First of all there
are native rights, and in one part of the country at least — in Barotse-
laud — the yet surviving, if truncated, authority of a native monarch
who is one of the most meritorious of his kind. Then there are the
commercial and administrative rights of the Chartered Company, the
real rulers of the land. But they are not absolute rulers, for the
Imperial Government has, through the High Commissioner, very wide
and substantial if somewhat indefinite power of control. And lastly.
626 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE,
there rises in the distance the vision of a Federated South Africa, which
may wish to sweep away all of these, and to govern the whole region
free from any interference, as Tombuland and Pondoland are governed
by Cape Colony, and as Zululand is governed by Natal.
And no doubt there is much to be said for this solution, Avhich is
likely to commend itself, when the time comes, to any British Govern-
ment, because it would be such a saving of trouble. But there is also
much to be said against it, especially from the South African point of
view. If I were a South African statesman there are certain considera-
tions connected with the gravest of all South African problems which
might give me pause. South Africa has got her own native population
to digest. It is not that they are absolutely so very numerous. The
country could easily carry a much larger population, not only of whites
but of blacks, and would economically, at least for the present, be all
the better for a greater supply of black labour. But if not absolutely
very numerous, they at any rate greatly outnumber the whites, and they
are increasing, to all appearance, quite as fast. Can it be to the interest
of South Africa to annex to herself another great region peopled wholly
by blacks, and thus permanently to increase the disproportion of the two
races within her confines 1 It may be said that the healthy high plateau
continues beyond the Zambesi, that white men Avill be able to make
their permanent home there in appreciable numbers, and that therefore
the distinctive features of South African life will be reproduced in those
distant regions, and the whole country from the Southern Ocean to the
Congo basin assume in time a more or less homogeneous character. For
my own part, I greatly doubt the likelihood of such a result. The power
of altitude to counteract the effects of latitude is an interesting question
about which no man can as yet afford to speak very positively. I can
imagine a Johannesburg on the Equator. I think it quite possible that
there are in British East Africa considerable tracts which will carry a
permanent white population. But one has yet to be satisfied that, with
the exception of a few favoured spots, the same can be said of North-
western or North-Eastern Rhodesia. They seem rather to present the
distinguishing features of a tropical colony or plantation, and such a
colony is ever an ill-assorted yokefellow for those of the European self-
governing type. Southern Rhodesia, or at any rate a certain portion of
it, is already on the border-line between the two. Northern Rhodesia
seems decidedly to cross that border line. The present association of
the two appears to be in the nature of a political accident or makeshift
and not to be based on essentials. If that is so, it would not appear to
be inevitable, it may even be thought unnatural and undesirable that,
when Southern Rhodesia is drawn, as she ultimately must be, and ought
to be, into the South African group of States, she should carry her
northern annexe along Avith her.
On the other hand, there is no doubt the question of access. The
region beyond the Zambesi is only accessible to us either through foreign
territory on the east or through what will presently be a self-governing
Dominion, like Canada, Australia, or New Zealand, on the south. There
would be something anomalous in the position of a Crown Colony or
GEOGRAPHY AND STATECRAFT. 627
Protectorate Avhich could not be reached directly from the sea or from
some region of similar status to its own. Moreover, the railway which
Avill ultimately traverse this country from end to end is a continuation
of the great Trunk Line of South Africa. There are thus, no doubt,
considerations of great weight on either side, and we have perhaps cause
to be grateful that, for the time being, Rhodesia is still in the possession
of the Chartered Company, and that there is no need to settle the diffi-
cult question of its future distribution and administration in a hurry.
The system of extending the bounds of Empire by the agency of Chartered
Companies is open to many objections. There has been much in the
methods of this particular Company, especially during its earliest years,
Avhich it is impossible to regard with approval. But the British South
Africa Company has at least two great claims on our gratitude. It has
kept a large and valuable portion of the Dark Continent under the
British fiag, and it has built up, in a remarkably short space of time, an
administration which, if far from perfect, is at least competent, honest,
and humane. Government by means of a company is necessarily a
transient form of government. But in the case which we have been
considering, it is a valuable stop-gap, valuable in maintaining a tolerable
condition of affairs and affording time to work out with deliberation, and
with a fuller knowledge than we yet possess of all the conditions of one
of the least explored of habitable lands, the best permanent arrangements
for its welfare.
And now I see that, starting from certain wide general considerations,
I have been led to dwell, at perhaps excessive length, on a single, limited,
and remote, though not unimportant or uninteresting, problem. But I
venture to hope that in my method of approaching it I may to some
extent have illustrated my main proposition, which is the inextricable
association of your science with the art of statesmanship, and that in any
views which I have propounded or suggested, be they right or wrong,
I may at least not have off"ended against the spirit of scientific geo-
graphy.
THE STUDY OF THE WEATHER AS A BRANCH OF
NATURE KNOWLEDGE.!
By Marion I. Newbigin, D.Sc. (Lond.).
( TFith Illustrations.)
In endeavouring to suggest to you methods of studying the weather in
schools as a part of nature knowledge, it may be well to begin by con-
sidering very briefly the aims which should inspire a course in nature study,
for our methods will be naturally largely influenced by our aims. The
object of such a course is, I take it, twofold. We want in the first
1 A lecture delivered to a class of teachers in connection with the University of Aberdeen
on May 11, and also at the Outlook Tower, Ediubiirgli, on October 30, 1907.
628 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
instance to train the powers of observation and develop the intelligence,
with the view not only of making better citizens, but also of increasing
the happiness of life ; and in the second place we want to give an insight
into the methods of science. To show that the methods of science are
everywhere in essence the same, and to suggest that, owing to the fact
that the further scientific research is carried, the more obvious it becomes
that nature is orderly and uniform, and that there are therefore few series
of phenomena too trivial to be worth study by some one — these in my
opinion are points of great and increasing importance. Again, even
elementary education is incomplete unless it succeeds in imparting some
flavour of real enthusiasm for science, and that for two reasons. First,
because the time when scientific pursuits could be regarded as a luxury
for the few has passed, and the stability of the modern community
depends, literally and absolutely, upon a widespread sympathy with the
aims of science, if not upon a widespread knowledge of its contents. AVe
must " educate our masters " if we are even to hold our position as a
nation. The conditions of modern life make it impossible for the
scientist, even if he would, to hold himself contemptuously aloof from
the rest of the community ; he must explain himself sufficiently to justify
his continued existence. As a mere matter of domestic policy, nature
study in schools is thus justifiable. In the second place, we have also
to I'emember that with cheap literature and the spread of public libraries,
the results of scientific research are becoming available to the general
public in a way to which in past generations there w-as no parallel.
Take for example the case only of a public library. In Edinburgh, not
so many years ago, in spite of the abundance of scientific societies, tlie
great bulk of the citizens might live and die without ever having seen a
purely scientific journal, hardly perhaps even a purely scientific book.
Now they are taxing themselves in order that on the tables of the
Eeference Room of the Public Library all the leading scientific
journals may be spread out, and that the shelves of that library may
contain a good selection of modern books of science, which are there not
only for the use of the citizens, but for that of an}' sojourner within the
city. Surely no child, therefore, should be permitted to leave school
without a knowledge of the alphabet of science, without some apprecia-
tion of the value of the heritage to which be has been born and of the
best ways of utilising this heritage. If, as we are beginning to realise,
the town child should have a general knowledge of his native town, of
its buildings, its traditions, its mode of government and so on, he should
surely have also some knowledge of the patient, continuous, self-denying
■work being carried on there and elsewhere in the name of science. Even
from the purely scientific point of view this is desirable ; for example,
there can be no doubt that if the last generation of citizens had been ration-
ally trained in the study of the weather, the Ben Xevis Observatory
would never have been closed.
If, however, I am right in thinking that our aim in nature study
should be rather to arouse interest than solely to instruct ; if we are to
look to the future rather than to the immediate school life, Ave reach the
important corollary that we must from the first resist the temptation to
STUDY- OF THE WEATHER AS A 15RANCH OF NATURE KNOWLEDGE. G2t)
be thorough. Personally, I should be disposed to say — don't be afraid
to be scrappy. We may lay it down as an axiom that it is not possible,
even if it were desirable, during the short school life, to teach botany,
zoology, astronomy, meteorology and a dozen other sciences properly, and
one should be very careful not to make the attempt. Be content to open
doors, to give peeps of attractive vistas. Personally, I am sometimes
appalled on reading the innumerable little books on nature study which
appear in such numbers nowadays, and in reflecting on the risk which an
incompetent person runs of utterly sickening his pupils with such books.
One wants to aim simply, I think, at giving the child the impression that
there is a great deal of interest in, for instance, the weather, or the
common plants, and if possible — and on this I should lay great stress — of
at least hinting at the means which exist for the further study of these
subjects in the form of local or general societies, of reference libraries, of
museums and so forth, so that if possible, at the critical stage Avhen
compulsory school attendance ends, the pupil may have interest enough
to read or to observe for himself. But above all things, I should say,
beware of attempting to gather iruit, in the form of examination results,
before there has been time for a full root-development.
When we come to practical detail, I suppose most of you, as practical
teachers, have felt that the supreme difficulty is to find what we may
call a jumping-ofF point. I heard the other day an interesting story of a
little girl who objected strenuously to going to school because, as she
said with much force, " They don't teach me anything I want to know."
This is probably a condition that frequently occurs, but in the teaching
of such subjects as arithmetic and spelling we have behind us the driv-
ing force of parents and relatives, who say, with a truth that even the
child recognises, that adult life is impossible without a certain amount
of knowledge. In nature study in general we have not as yet this
advantage, and have even to allow for the fact that the parent in the
background is probably saying, " Tadpoles and dandelions are all very
well, but that won't help you to earn your living." It is therefore very
important to include in the course subjects about which the child does want
to know, in which there is an initial interest to help us over the drag
at the start. Now the weather is our basal subject of conversation,
interests us at every turn of life, and as even the child feels this interest,
the subject is one well worthy of the attention of teachers of nature
study. Again, the uncertainty of our weather has become a provei'b,
the difiiculties of forecasting not less so, and yet when we study weather
in detail we find that, although we can say very little as to the possible
weather next week, and almost nothing as to its probable course next
month, yet the annual series of changes which make up the climate of a
locality take place in orderly sequence, and almost all the elements of
the total are more or less fixed and constant. The fact that from one
point science means the finding of order in apparent chaos may thus be
well brought out. One must not also forget that the child is eminently
practical and utilitarian, and we are not only all naturally interested in
weather, but in a maritime country it is of great practical importance.
In a coast town like Aberdeen one has the coastguard stations as an
630 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
evidence of this practical interest, and one can even hope to shoAv that
coastguard station, Nautical Ahnanach, and Meteorological Society form a
sequence, illustrating the fact that science is merely enlightened and
developed common sense and common experience.
How should we begin to study the weather 1 One would naturally, I
think, begin with the common facts of daily experience, and would point
out that Avhat primarily interests us is the changefulness of the meteoro-
logical conditions. The temjjerature may be high to-day and much
lower to-morrow, the air may be calm one day and in rapid movement
the next, dry at one time and saturated with moisture at another, while
the sky may be clear or covered with the clouds which portend rain. In
other words, the most obvious variations are those in the temperature,
the humidity and amount of movement of the air, and in the condi-
tion of the sky. Of these variables, one which can be very readilj*
observed is that of the direction of the wind, and our senses enable us
also to appreciate with a certain general accuracy its amount. Two facts
then about British weather it is very easy to observe, first, that calms are
somewhat rare, or in other words that our climate is predominantly
windy, and second, that winds of a westerly direction predominate. The
direction of growth of trees in exposed situations, the arrangement of
shrubberies, etc., in parks and gardens, our common use of the term
"west end," to mean the part of a town which is relatively smokeless,
and thus to windward of the factories, are all ways in which one can
drive home this fact. I need, however, hardly say that the class should
be allowed to draw the deduction that west winds are commonest for
themselves, on the basis of their own observations, before one proceeds
to point out how it lies at the base of much of our common life.
Again, it is easy to lead the class to see that the air is in spring at
least colder with an easterly than with a south-westerly wind, that our
heaviest rainfalls usually come with westerly winds, and thus to prepare
the way for the conclusion that there is some connection between the
different phenomena which make up the series we call weather. Very
little observation will, however, show that although the variables are
connected, the connection is not very close. It is more likely to rain
with a high wind than with a light one, the rain will probably be heavier
if the wind be westerly than if it be easterly, a south-west wind means
generally a warmer day than a north-east one, and so on : one can draw
up a series of probabilities, but they will not be more than probabilities
There is some connection, but not a very close connection, between these
different factors, and the probabilities point to the conclusion that there
is some other variable element which we have not considered which is
affecting all the others. This element is of course pressure, and one
should, I think, endeavour to drive home the fact that while, within
reasonable limits, our senses give us no information as to the variations
of pressure, yet these variations when measured by a barometer give us
more information about the probable course of the weather than any
direct observations we can make. To put the matter in another way,
man, ever since he was man, has watched the sky and the clouds, has noted
the direction of the wind, has distinguished between cold and heat,
STUDY OF THE WEATHER AS A BRANCH OF NATURE KNOWLEDGE. 631
dryness and damp, but not until the invention of the barometer could
he find a rational connection between these diOerent phenomena. Nov
the most weather-wise individual without a barometer is no match
for one less sagacious, but furnished with the information which that
instrument only can give. Without labouring detailed explanations of
the barometer, I should be disposed to tell stories of Toricelli and Pascal,
of de Saussure on Mont Blanc, and of the latest Arctic and Antarctic
explorers, in the hope of stimulating the imagination, of driving home
the great truth that before so commonplace an occurrence as the flying
of storm-cones at a coastguard station can take place, countless genera-
tions of men must have lived and Avorked. Our nature study does little
if it does not make clear into how great a heritage every child of a
civilised nation is born, if it does not drive home the lesson that not
only the great men but all the unknown generations of patient toilers
have, in their degree, contributed to build the temple of knowledge,
have heJped to make life easier for us their heirs.
Some form of barometer is so common an article of furniture that
there should be no difficulty in arranging that some members at least
of the class should read it ^ ^
every day and record their \ \
readings over considerable ^^ »^^ ^''^ '^ ^
periods of time. Where
this is feasible I should be
disposed to recommend that
the pupils, at least some-
times, be induced to go and
read the barometer at a coast-
guard station, or at any other
place where there is a publicly
exposed instrument, for this
adds greatly to the importance
of the readings in their eyes.
It is a very simple matter to
plot the readings on squared
paper, so as to obtain a curve,
and the pupils should be made
to add to each day's readings
a note on the direction and
amount of the wind, the
condition of the sk}^, occur-
rence of rainfall, and so on. I show here three sets of readings chosen
for three periods during the last winter. The figures are taken from
the meteorological maps furnished by the Meteorological OflSce daily
to the Times.
I have taken first the period from Sunday, January 6, to Thursday,
January 10, inclusive (Fig. 1). It will be remembered that this was a
period of fine dry weather which followed the stormy period with which
the year opened. As the diagram shoAvs, the barometer varied during
the time from 30"1 inches to 30'3. Now, as I have shown in the diagram,
632
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
the meau barometric pressure iu Aberdeen duriug January is only 29'7
inches, so that the barometer was high during the period, and varied
comparatively little, though on the whole it was falling. During the
whole period the winds were light, swinging to south and to north of
west. Further, if we had allowed the children to add notes on the
temperature as determined by their own feelings, we should probably
have found that while they were all agreed that Monday, January 7,
was warmer than usual, and Tuesday, January 8, was much colder, the
opinions about the other days would vary. This would naturally lead
to the deduction that though we can estimate temperature by our senses,
yet our estimates have only a very generalised accuracy, and that they
require to be checked by a thermometer. This can be bought so cheaply
that there is no excuse for not having one outside, to be read in connec-
tion with the barometer. If the readings of this were added to the
barometric readings, and compared with the mean, we should at once
perceive that the temperature had been high throughout the week, and
that it was highest with a south-westerly wind and lowest with a
north-westerly wind. This would naturally lead to the display of an
orographical map of the British
Islands, and the demonstra-
tion of the fact that in order
that the south-west wind may
reach Aberdeenshire it must
blow over not only the warm
seas to the south, but tilso
over the high ground of the
Grampians. As the moving
current of air rises over these
mountains it expands, cools,
and precipitates much of its
moisture ; as it descends from
the crest to the low ground it
is warmed and dried by com-
pression, and therefore the
winter temperature of Aber-
deenshire, where south-west
winds largely predominate,
is higher than it would other-
wise be. In other words, the
wind sweeps down from the
Grampians with something of
a foehn effect.
To compare with this period I have taken another period just pre-
ceding it (December 30 to January -i), which illustrates quite another
type of weather (Fig. 2). Throughout this period the barometer first
dropped rapidly and then rose suddenly. As it dropped the thermometer
rose, and as it rose the temperature fell. With the low barometer stormy
Avinds occurred, and the week was also distinguished by precipitation,
which took the form of sleet, snow, rain, etc., according to the tempera-
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STUDY OF THE WEATHER AS A BRANCH OF NATURE KNOWLEDGE. 633
ture. A point to which one would draw special attention is the fact that
the boisterous winds veered from south-west to north-west, and then as
the stormy period passed by, swung round to south-west again.
At the risk of wearying you I add a third chart illustrating a
different series (Fig. 3). During the period January 21-25 the barometer
was very high throughout, but you will notice here that, while the tempera-
ture fell with a rise of pressure, it fell still further towards the close of
the period with a fall. This brings out the fact that there is no necessary
direct connection between changes of pressure and changes of temperature.
In this period winds with an easterly component occurred, and these
were accompanied by a comparatively low temperature. An interesting
fact is the occurrence of a comparatively low temperature on January
24 accompanied by a south-west wind, usually our warmest wind.
Observations of this kind should be taken over a considerable period,
and the scholars should be taught to plot them after some fashion similar
to that shown. As shown on the diagrams, pressure and temperature
may be plotted on the same square, and notes on wind and the state
of the sky added. As to the deductions to be drawn, the first and
most obvious is, of course, that a high, steady barometer means settled
weather, accompanied by light winds and little precipitation. With such
a barometer the temperature may be high in summer and unusually low
in winter and spring, but this varies much with the quarter from which
the wind blows. On the other hand, a low or changing barometer means
unsettled, more or less rainy weather, often with strong winds. It is easy
to show that the greater
and more rapid the
drop the stronger the
wind, and that fre-
quently a heavy rainfall
precedes the drop of
the barometer to its
lowest point, and pre-
cedes also the develop-
ment of stormy winds.
It is also not difficult
during much of the
year to find periods
which exemplify the
fact that, while a high
barometer is often a
steady barometer, vary-
ing little for several
days, a low barometer
is always unsteady, and
the greater the drop the more rapid the return to a more normal position.
It must always be a question for the individual how far it is necessary
to explain the meaning of the barometer and its graduation, but in my
opinion it would be a great mistake to do this at too early a stage.
After a good many curves had been constructed it would of course be
VOL. XXIII. 2 z
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Fig. 3.
634 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
easy to explain the meaning of the term " mean height," and one might
draw a line across the page to show the mean height for the month or
for the year. The annual mean for Great Britain being 2 99 inches
(Aberdeen 29 '85 inches) it is convenient to allow the children to regard
■all pressures much below 29*9 as low, and all those much above as high.
In addition to the obvious points named above, one might without
difficulty get them to see that winds with a westerly component are by
far the commonest with us, and that generally the south-west wind,
which is a comparatively warm wind, is commoner in Avinter, while in
summer the cooler west or west-north-west wind tends to predominate.
If the observations are begun in winter it is also not difficult to show
that frequently, though not invariably, in stormy weather the wind veers
from south-west to north-west, and back to south-west when the storm
is past, and that a rise of temperature frequently precedes a storm, and
a fall the clearing and settling of the weather.
I should be disposed to continue the observations for some time at
this level, in order to accustom the pupils to take an intelligent interest
in atmospheric phenomena, and to realise the basal facts as regards
variations in pressure and temperature. The temperature observations
should be continued long enough, in spring and autumn especially, to
show the slow upward creep in spring to the July maximum, and the
equally slow downward creep to the January minimum. Pressure on
the other hand reaches its maximum in May or June when east winds
predominate, and its minimum in the region of Aberdeen in the stormy
month of January. With or without the help of actual observations of
rainfall one would try to lead the class up to the deduction that, if most
of our rainfall comes with high winds or storms, and these come with
periods of low pressure, then the months of highest pressure will be the
months of least rainfall, and the months of lowest pressure will be the
months of highest rainfall. I should lay great stress upon the necessity
of leading up to deductions of that kind, because, as already pointed out,
the great value of the study of the weather is that it serves to show that
science means finding order in what looks like chaos, and there is a
widespread impression that the amount and time of fall of our rainfall
are phenomena wholly outside natural law.
Sooner or later, however, one wants to go further than this, and
to show in detail how the minor constantly occurring fluctuations of
weather in our country are all parts of a great series of phenomena
affecting vast tracts of the earth's surface.
In the first place, the analogy of the punctured bicycle tyre or the
open gas tap will enable one to explain that air, or any gas when free
to move, tends always to flow from a region of high pressure to that of low.
With this as a basal foundation, one may allow the scholars to draw for
themselves the deduction that if at Aberdeen there is a strong wind blowing,
and the barometer at the same time shows that the pressure is low, then
we know that the air forming this wind is flowing from some region of
high pressure into the area of observation. Let us take, for instance, the
conditions prevailing on January 25 as shown on the accompanying
map (Fig. 4). In passing, one may point out that such a simple form of
STUDY OF THE WEATHER AS A liRANCH OF NATURE KX0\VLED(;E. 635
Fig. 4.1
map is readily drawn on the blackboai'd. Such maps are published d;iil y
in the Times, and also by the Meteorological Office, and a first lesson on
such a map would naturally be given after
barometric readings have been taken for
some time. On showing the map, one
would simply point out that great numbers
of people have for the particular day been
also reading their barometers, and that the
lines are drawn through places where the
pressure was equal at the time of observa-
tion. On the particular date at which this
map was drawn, the pressure was high ofl"
the west coast of Ireland, 30"5 inches, and
comparatively low, 29'9 inches, off the
coast of Norway. The result was that a
strong wind appeared off the coast of
Aberdeenshire, this wind having a north-
west direction. Some acute observer would
doubtless at once point out that the analogy
of the bicycle tyre is insufficient, because
obviously the air is not moving direct
from the region of high pressure to that
of low. The reason is, of course, the fact
that the earth is a rotating body. How
far it is possible to explain the cause of the resultant deflection to an
elementary class is a difficult question, but it seems to me that in the
first instance one should be content to emphasise the fact of the deflec-
tion. When the fact had been thoroughly grasped one might venture
upon an explanation, but I should not personally be disposed to lay
much stress upon it. The fact of importance is certainly that, in the
northern hemisphere, if the wind is at your back, the lower pressure is
at your left hand, or conversely that the wind blows roughly at right
angles to a line joining the regions of high and low pressure. Jn
other words, the wind is roughly parallel to the isobars, or lines of
equal pressure. This, known as Buys-Ballot's law, should be perfectly
familiar, and the class should be able to answer without hesitation such
questions as : — If the pressure is low in the Hebrides and high over
Denmark, what will be the direction of the wind in Aberdeenshire ? If
the wind is east at Aberdeen, where is the pressure high and where is it
low"? and so on. The matter should be returned to at difi"erent periods
until all the members of the class appreciate the fact that, when they
know the direction of the wind in their own neighbourhood, they know
something about the distribution of pressure in the surrounding regions.
When the pupils have become familar with rough weather charts
drawn on the blackboard to illustrate the relation between pressure and
wind, one would proceed to show what other points one may learn from
such charts. Let us take one of those for one of the days in January which
1 In this aud the following charts, the dark wash indicates low pressure, and the lighter
high.
636
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE
Weathkr Chart, WEDSEsnAV, Jan. 2, V
we have already studied (Fig. 5). On January 2, a day when the wind was
fresh or strong over much of the British area, we find on the chart that
the pressure at Aberdeen was
only 2 8 '6 inches, while in the
south of England it was 2 9' 4
inches. In other words, between
Aberdeen and Hastings, a dis-
tance roughly of 450 miles,
there was a difference of pres-
sure of yV of ^^1 inch. That
is, in travelling between these
two places we should find that
every 5 6 miles caused the baro-
meter to fall Y^y of an inch.
We express this by saying that
on that day there was a north-
ward gradient of -^\ of an inch
in 56 miles. The result on
the principles already discussed
is that the wind was south-
westerly to west at Aberdeen,
and as the gradient is un-
usually steep, the wind was
Fig. 5.
almost everywhere strong. The gradient posts on a railway cutting will
help to make clear the meaning of the term gradient. One would also
point out that a north or north-west gradient is the commonest one in
Britain, or in other words, the air is, generally speaking, piled up to the
south or south-east of England, and is thinner to the north or north-
Avest of Scotland ; and the result is that our winds are generally westerly
in direction, the air travelling northwards being deflected to the right
owing to the effect of the earth's rotation. With the conditions on
January 2 Ave may compare those on December 30, when the winds
were light over the British area generally ; the gradient was only ^V of
an inch in about 120 miles, that is, less than half that of Jan. 2, and was
north-westerly rather than northerly, the result being that the southerly
component of the wind Avas more marked. These examples serve to
show that the intensity of the Avind depends, other things being equal,
on the amount of the gradient, a steep gradient meaning a strong wind.
The Aveather map for almost any day Avill afford materials for a lesson
of this kind, and Avill serve to drive home the fact that the local condi-
tions are interesting, both because they are a part of the whole, and
because they enable us to draw certain conclusions as to the conditions
existing in other regions.
As well as drawing charts on the blackboard, the teacher may very
easily shoAV the class hoAv to construct these by giving them a blank map
of Great Britain and a fcAv barometric readings in addition to the local
one, and then allowing them to draw lines connecting the places of equal
barometric height, putting in a feAv arrows to show the theoretical
direction of the Avind. If such a map is made and compared with an
STUDY OF THE WEATHER AS A BRANCH OF NATURE KNOWLEDGE. 037
actual weather chart, it will be seen that the local conditions may at
any given spot considerably modify the actual winds.
When in this way we have succeeded in giving some general know-
ledge of the relations between the variations of the barometer and the
amount and direction of the wind, we want to take some further steps
in advance. Why does the barometer swing up and down ? If the
pressure, as a general rule, is higher in the south of England than in the
north of Scotland, how is it that we have sometimes east winds in the
north of Scotland ? Why is the barometer sometimes steady for days,
while at other times it oscillates continually 1 We want to encourage
the asking of such questions. If the observations are begun during the
colder season of the year, it is unlikely that they will be continued for
long without including what the meteorologist calls a cyclone, and the
opportunity may be taken for a general discussion of the meaning of
cyclones. Instead, however, of beginning with a definition which would
probably entirely fail to interest the class, it is, I think, possible to devise
means of getting at the facts indirectly. The observations of the
barometer have shown us, so far, that a falling barometer generally
means wind, and a rapidly falling barometer strong wind, because the
air rushes in to fill the space indicated by the low glass. Let us take the
period from December 30 to January 3 as an example of a period of low
and changing barometer (see Fig. 2, p. 632). You will notice that, as has
been already pointed out, this was a period also of strong and changing
w^nds. Now, on the principles already discussed, this means that the region
of low pressure is changing its position. For example, on January 2 the
wind was south-west at Aberdeen, therefore the pressure must have been
low to the north-west of Scotland. On January 3 the wind Avas north-
west, therefore the pressure must have been low in the region of Scandi-
navia. We shall find by observation that stormy periods are always
periods of changing winds, and we therefore draw the first deduction
that storms mean the existence of an area of low pressure which is con-
tinually changing its position. Once again, a further examination of
our diagram will show that on this occasion the barometer began to
fall distinctly before the storm developed itself. The drop was at first
sloAv, and gradually increased in rapidity as the storm approached. If
we had been in communication with a school on the west coast of Scot-
land, we should have found that the barometer there dropped before ours
did, and if Ave had been also in communication with a school on the
west of Ireland, we should have found that their barometer fell still
earlier, and in both cases the earlier fall meant an earlier development
of stormy Avinds. We might then sum up by saying that during the
period December 30 to January 4 a storm swept across Ireland, over
Scotland, and then across the North Sea to Norway. But we could
express the same thing in other words by saying that a Avave of low
pressure swept over this region. Continued observation would then
convince us that when there is a very low barometer at Aberdeen this is
not an isolated phenomenon. As a general rule, before the barometer
drops at Aberdeen it has already dropped some point to the west of us.
After it has turned to rise at Aberdeen, it is still falling at some point
638 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
to the east of Aberdeen. Such moving areas of low pressure are called
cyclones, and as a general rule cyclones reach us from some point to the
west and travel to some point to the east. As they travel to the north-
east or east, the cyclonic areas gradually die away.
The exact sequence of events may be more clearly made out by the
study of the weather maps for the period. On Tuesday. January 1, a
very well defined approximately circular area of low pressure lay
over the west coast of Ireland, which on the two following days
gradually passed over towards Norway (see Fig. 5, p. 636). Now into
a circular area of low pressure of this kind the winds swing counter-
clockwise, therefore when the cyclone passes to the north of the point
of observation the wind will veer from south-west to north-west,
returning to south-west as the influence of the storm area passes
completely away. It is ea-sy to realise that this must be so if one
thinks again of Buys-Ballot's law. If the area of low pressure is to the
north-west of the point of observation, then by this law the wind will
be south-Avest. When the area of lowest pressure shifts to the north of
the point, the wind will be west, while as the area of low pressure passes
over to the north-east the Avind naturally becomes north-west. The maps
show this well, but I should urge that the pupil's attention be repeatedly
draAvn to the fact of its occurrence in the case of storms before one
offers an explanation. If difficulty is then found in explaining the shift,
the simj^lest way of making matters clear is to make one pupil represent
the moving cyclone while another member of the class revolves so as to
keep his left hand to the moving boy. The wind is always in his back.
The attention of the class should also be drawn to the fact that the
temperature usually rises as the cyclone approaches, and heavy rain
often precedes the fall of the barometer to its lowest point. As the
glass turns to rise, the weather clears, becoming finer but colder. To
put the matter in another way — if the glass is steadily dropping, while
the temperature is mild, it is probable that there will be rain, followed
or accompanied by strong winds. These points are very easily observed.
If the centre of the disturbance passes through the point of observation,
then its passage may be marked by a squall accompanied by heavy rain-
fall, after which the glass begins to rise. Of this, the " clearing shower "
as it is called, we had some pretty examples last winter. It not
infrequently happens, however, that the whole series of phenomena does
not present itself in so typical a form as in the particular case illustrated.
Especially in winter time it sometimes happens that one depression
follows hard on the heels of another, and thus the rise of the barometer
and the fall of temperature are more or less marked. If after the
passage of one cyclonic area the temperature rises suddenl)', then another
disturbance may be expected.
I have chosen for this first example a disturbance whose centre
passed very near Aberdeen, so that its effects were well marked there.
But there are frequent winter cyclones which pass along other tracks
and affect the Aberdeen area in quite another fashion.
I have represented an example on the accompanying diagram ( Fig. 6).
You will notice that on November 4, 1906, the glass at Aberdeen was
STUDY OF THE WEATHER AS A BRANCH OE NATURE KNOWLEDGE. G39
low and falling, the temperature high, the sky overcast, and the wind
easterly and boisterous. On Monday, November 5, the glass had fallen
much further, the temperature had
fallen with a backing of the wind
to the north-east and the rainy
conditions continued. By Tuesday
the barometer had risen and the
temperature had markedly fallen
with a further backing of the wind
to the north-west, while at the same
time the sky cleared. The weather
maps show that the cause of these
changes was a very well marked
depression which swept up from
the Bay of Biscay, affected the
south of England and the Channel
strongly, and gradually died away
as it reached the North Sea. In
this case, the area of low pressure
passed to the south of the point of
observation, and, as may be readily
understood, on reflecting that if
the left hand be made to follow
the moving centre the wind will
always blow on the back, the wind
necessarily changed from south-
east to east, north-east and finally
north-vrest. Now in the case of the earlier observations, the point of obser-
vation was usually such that the majority of the cyclones passed to the
north of the observer, and therefore the change from south-west to north-
west was regarded as the normal one and Avas called " veering," while the
other series of changes from south through east to north-west was regarded
as abnormal and was called " backing." But again I should say, do not
attempt such explanations until after the facts have been observed, and
seize the points of human interest as the basis of the lesson. Let the
pupils, for example, deduce for themselves the conclusion that when there
is a big winter storm in the Channel, then the wind at Aberdeen changes
from a south-easterly direction to a north-westerly one, but on the other
hand, when there is a storm off the north or north-west of Scotland, the
wind swings from south-west to north-west. Once they have observed
this for themselves they will, I think, be delighted to have the reason
shown to them.
Throughout the winter months in any normal winter both types of
cyclone occur only too abundantly, and the class should be taught to
pick out the more distinct of them from their regular series of observa-
tions, and draw their own conclusions as to their path across the country.
At the end of the winter one might show the class a storm-chart,
or even allow them to construct such a chart on the basis of their
own observations, to show the normal tracks of the winter storms, and
Fig. 6.
6iO SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
to emphasise their frequency off the west of Ireland and Scotland, in the
south of England, and so on. There is of course no reason why, at any
rate at first, the academic term cyclone should be employed at all. That
a storm is in essence a moving area of low pressure into which the strong
winds blow in the reverse direction to the hands of the clock, and which
usually reaches us from some point of the western Atlantic, is all that
is needed in the first instance. Later, when meteorological maps had
become thoroughly familiar, if this stage were reached, it would be time
enough to point out that while all our storms are due to cyclones, we
cannot tell if an advancing cyclone is or is not sufficiently well developed
to produce a true storm. Some meteorologists recommend that the
pupils be ultimately allowed to attempt forecasts for themselves.
Personally, I should be disposed to be content if I succeeded in suggest-
ing how it is that forecasts are possible, to the limited extent to which
they are as yet possible. The suggestion has been made for America,
where the weather is perhaps somewhat more dependable than here.
One would also, of course, correlate the results both with the history
and geography lessons, and point out the connection between the history
of Britain and the storm- tracks which all but engirdle it, the lessons
which the race has learned in those tempest-tossed narrow seas, the
meteorological meaning of the Channel Tunnel scheme, Avhich is so largely
influenced by the Channel cyclones, and so forth. All these are points
which would certainly interest the class, as being subjects in which their
elders are also interested, and in which really important people like
coastguards, sailors, and so forth are concerned
At the close of a winter of such carefully kept observations one
should be able to get the class to make for themselves a series of
deductions like the folloAving : —
We had this winter a number of storms (number stated) in which
the wind veered from south or south-east to south-west and then to
north-west. It was warm and rainy at first when the wind Avas slowly
shifting from south to south-west and while the glass was falling, but
when the glass began to rise and the wind went round to the north-west
it was colder and drier. We had another series of storms in which the
wind backed from east through north to north-west. There was not
then generally so much rain before the barometer fell to its lowest point
as in the other case, but after it began to rise the weather was again
colder and clearer. These deductions having been made, one could by
the help of weather maps say something on the general subject of
cyclones.
If, by the help of a home-made rain-gauge, one had also measured
the rainfall, it would be possible to make clear the fact that the rainfall
is usually heavier when the centre of the cyclone lies to the north than
to the south of the observer, and the other fact of interest that the
greater part of our rainfall is cyclonic, that is, would give definiteness
to the common fact of experience that strong winds and rain generally
go together with us. One might even succeed in reaching the conclusion
that, as we get most rain when the cyclone passes to north-west of us,
then the wettest parts of Britain will be those Avliich have most storms
STQDY OF THE WEATHER AS A BRANCH OF NATURE KNOWLED(iE. G41
passing them in this direction, i.e. will lie to the west and north-west.
This fact, taken in conjunction with the fact that the mountains of
Britain lie to the western side, explains the peculiarities of the British
rainfall. It seems to me that once the interest of the class had been
aroused in meteorological phenomena, occasional geography lessons v/hich
would bring out the peculiarities of the climates of Britain would be
probably greatly appreciated.
The making of maps to illustrate rainfall, isobars, storm-tracks, and
so forth, would almost certainly be found more interesting than the
ordinary types, and can be done very simply, while they will be much
clearer if coloured.
But though, at any rate in winter, storms are only too frequent
with us, other conditions also occur. Is there nothing to observe
during a period of calm, settled weather? Let us look first at a
diagram for such a period constructed on the basis of daily readings
of barometer and thermometer (Fig. 3, p. 633). On Monday, Jan. 21, the
weather was clear, the temperature normal, the pressure high, the wind
south-westerly and light. On Tuesday the temperature had dropped, the
wind had gone round
to the SSE., the sky
was dull, and the
barometer had risen
to a great height.
On the next day
(Wednesday, January
23) with a change of
wind, the temperature
had dropped still
further, and the bar-
ometer was still very
high. The reading
marked is that for 6
P.M., but at ten o'clock
in the morning in
Aberdeen the glass
was actually above
31 inches and only
slightly below the
" record " for the
British Isles, while
during the same day
it apparently reached
an actual "record"
in Eussia. Thursday showed a very marked drop of pressure as
well as of temperature, and Friday an increase of wind, a further
drop of pressure, and a slight rise of temperature. Throughout the
whole period, as the diagram shows, the pressure was very markedly
above the average, so that until its close the conditions were what is
called anticyclonic. The weather charts make clear what was actually
Fig. 7.
642 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
happening. On Tuesday, January 22 (Fig. 7), it will be seen that an
area of high pressure embraced the south of Scandinavia, Denmark, and
included the whole of Scotland and a large part of England. At the
same time an area of considerably lower pressure occurred over the
Bay of Biscay. Into the area of high pressure the winds were swing-
ing in a clockwise fashion, and therefore with a prevailing eastern
direction, which varied from pure east over the south of England to SSE.
over the north-east coast of Scotland, Xow the east wind in winter
is sweeping across the cold snow-covered plains of Central Europe, and
therefore it is much colder than the south-east wind which comes from the
warmer parts of Europe. In consequence, you will notice that Aberdeen
was then warmer than the south-east of England, and much warmer
than Holland. Once again, while Scotland and the greater part of
England were under the influence of the clockwise whirl of the anticyclone,
Ireland and tlie seas off the south and west of England were under the
influence of the counter-clockwise whirl of the region of lower pressure.
As the gradients between the two regions are steep Ave find, first, that
the Channel and ocean are more or less stormy, and second, because
the ocean in winter is warmer than the Central European plain, and
because the winds here are oceanic, that the temperatures at the west
were much higher than those to the east. On the following day the
anticyclone had spread more and more over Britain, pushing the area
of lower pressure to the south, as it Avere, and the regime of easterly
winds in consequence spread more and more over the south of England
and over France, with the result that a wave of cold spread more and
more over this region, while at the same time the warm region Avas
being pushed to the north, so that at the Faeroe Islands it was very
much Avarraer than at London. The temperature at Aberdeen was
34° as compared Avith 28° in southern England and 45° in the Faeroe
region. On Thursday the anticyclone shoAA'ed signs of disappearing, and
the AA^eather Avas influenced by the appearance of a depression to the
north. The presence of areas of high pressure over the west coast of
Europe and over Ireland produced, hoAvever, cold and snoAv over much of
the British area, especially to the south.
Apart from the special peculiarities of this period, Ave may deduce
one or two general facts as regards Avinter anticyclones. First, the
Aveather chart shoAvs very clearly that an anticyclone to the north of
any given spot means winds with an easterly component, which in
Avinter and spring are cold and dry. They are cold because of their
origin, and dry because they form part of an anticyclonic or descend-
ing circulation. It is these anticyclonic Avinds Avhich tend to occur
especially in spring, and Avhich, because of their dryness, produce on
most people a definite and disagreeable physiological eifect. Although
there is a popular superstition that they are commonest in east and
north-east Scotland, the position of the anticyclones in the early part
of the year is such that, in point of fact, they are commonest in the
south-eastern part of England. Secondly, the chart shows that if an
anticyclone is to the south or to the south-east of a given spot, the
winds Avill have a westerly component, and the cold will be less than
STUDY OF THE WEATHER AS A liRANCH OF NATURE KNOWLEDOE. 64.":
in places further south. In other words, it fretjuently happens during
an anticyclone of southern position, that places to the nortii and north-
west are considerably warmer than places to the south and south-east.
I need not take up your time by pointing the effects of this fact upon
the winter climate of western and north-western Britain, as compared with
eastern and south-eastern areas. The diagram (Fig. 3), however, shows
another point, and that is, that even apart from the east winds there is a
tendency for the temperature in a winter anticyclone to be low. This is
because the air sweeping out of an area of high pressure has been dried by
compression, and such dry air allows radiant heat to pass through it very
rapidly. During a winter anticyclone, especially in February or late in
January, when the sun has considerable power, the almost windless air
may feel comfortably warm during the day, but no sooner does the sun
go down than rapid radiation begins, and we have the severe night
frosts characteristic of winter anticyclones. The length of the winter
night and the shortness of the winter day means relatively little absorp-
tion and very rapid radiation. A winter anticyclone then means clear,
keen frost, with often cloudless sky and sunny days, and bitterly cold,
starry nights. Further, as the ground radiates heat very rapidly, it
usually happens that low-lying places, and especially narrow valleys,
become clothed in a dense mantle of fog due to the cooling of the
air nearest the ground below saturation point. This effect is greatly
assisted by the calmness of anticyclonic weather, and is the reason
why places slightly elevated above the sea and above valley floors
are best suited for winter resorts.
In the same connection one might
point out that because over much
of the continent of Europe the
winter weather is typically anti-
cyclonic, it is clear that winter
resorts in the Alps, for instance,
must be mountain regions and not
in deep valleys, for there is not
sufficient wind to sweep away the
damp fog that accumulates on the
bottom of the valleys. Speaking
generally, anticyclonic periods are
less well marked in Scotland, and
especially in north-west Scotland,
than in south and south-east Eng-
land, and the chart of storm-tracks
gives us the reason. It shows that
the climate of Scotland is strongly
influenced by depressions arising
from the region round Ireland, which,
as it were, push away the anticyclones.
The weather chart for December 20 (Fig. 8 ) shows another anticyclone,
and it is again interesting to note how the position of the area of high
pressure is chilling down the south of Eng'and and the greater part of
Weatiief! f'iiAUT, TiiiiiHriAV, Dec.
Fig. 8.
644
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
France, while the western shores are comparatively warm. Again also,
you will notice that Aberdeen is influenced by the Avestern conditions, so
that it is actually warmer there than in the south of England. On the
other hand, on May 6, when there was a northern anticyclone over
Iceland, the temperature at Aberdeen (46°) was 20° lower than that of
London (66°), which was influenced by an area of low pressure over Ireland.
Somewhat different conditions are shown by the weather charts at
the end of March. It will be remembered that there prevailed then
over the greater part of the British area a type of warm, calm, dry
and sunny weather, unusually mild for the season. I show here the
chart for March 21 (Fig. 9), which has some interesting features. The
chart shows that over the greater part of England the weather is under
the influence of an area of high pressure lying to the south. The
Avinds were largely west or south-Avest, the temperature Avas high,
and the sky clear and sunny. Ireland and much of Scotland, espe-
cially the Avest, was, on the other hand, under the influence of an
area of Ioav pressure lying near Iceland, and there causing storms.
The influence of the cyclone A\^as shown in the cloudy sky, and in the
lower temperature off the north-west Avhere the Avinds Avere Avest or
north-Avest. Later, the anticyclone extended its sphere of influence, so
that much of the British area Avas embraced by it.
These examples may serve to shoAv that the anticy clonic condition is
very different from the cyclonic. While in the case of a cyclone the air
streams in from the surrounding regions to
fill up the central depression, in the case of
an anticyclone it is streaming gently out-
wards, forming light Avinds which sweep
round the centre in a clockwise spiral. Now^
in the case of the cyclone the entering air
rises as it enters, and is thus expanded and
cooled, often beloAv the saturation point, so
that Ave have the characteristically heavy
cyclonic rainfall. In the anticyclone the
air that SAveeps out of the centre is re-
placed by descending air, Avhich is thus
Avarmed and dried by compression. The
result is that an anticyclonic period is a
period of characteristically Ioav precipitation.
Again, Avhile a cyclone is a moving area,
an anticyclone is more or less stationary,
remaining until it is displaced by an ad-
vancing cyclone. The anticyclonic periods
are thus periods of settled Aveather and
steady l)arometer. In detail, hoAveA^er,
the character of the Aveather during an
anticyclone depends greatly upon the season, and upon its position.
The very cold period of predominating east Avinds AA'hich occurred in
the middle of April Avas, for instance, due to the preA'alence of an
anticyclone over the northern part of our area.
Fig. 9.
STUDY OF THE WEATHER AS A BRANCH OF NATURE KNOWLEDGE. G45
In summer, from whatever quarter the light winds blow, they come
from regions baked more or less in the summer sun. The nights are
too short, in the early part of the summer, for much radiation to occur,
and the long day means that the earth is baked in the welcome heat.
The only disadvantage is that these periods are in summer apt to be
periods of long-continued drought, for rain does not come until the anti-
cyclone is displaced by the approach of a depression from the west.
When anticyclones prevail comparatively late in the season, as in
September, the rapid radiation and heavy dew at sundown is often
very striking, and still later, of course, the warm days are often closed
by a sharp night frost. The warm weather of the summer of 1 906 was the
result of a succession of anticyclones, the hot spell at the end of August
being due to a well-marked anticyclonic system over western Europe.
As a general rule, however, much of Scotland is less liable to anti-
cyclones than the south of England both in summer and in winter, and
as on the low ground a long-continued anticyclonic period soon becomes
oppressive, we find that in summer many of the inhabitants of the south
of England quit it for those parts of Scotland where they may feel the
cooling effect of those slight cyclonic depressions which advance from
the west and bring with them north-westerly or westerly Avinds and
showers.
It will be seen from the above that there are few periods, either in
summer or in winter, when it is not possible to give interesting lessons
on the weather, and that by a judicious graduation and combination of
observation and direct instruction it is possible to make the main points
as regai'ds cyclones and anticyclones clear to an elementary audience. Eor
the sake of completeness, I should like to add a short discussion of the
factorswhich determinethe relative prevalence of cyclones and anticyclones
in our area. This wider view of the subject cannot be so directly related
to the pupil's own observations as the preceding, but it would, I think,
afford material for occasional useful lessons. It is a fact of common
experience that our winters tend to oscillate between two types : — the
very cold, still, frosty anticyclonic type which, when it occurs, is almost
always much better marked in southern England than in Scotland, and
the stoi'my, warmer type when snow and severe continuous frost are
rare, but when storms are frequent. Similarly, our summers tend to
oscillate between the very hot, still type, with long drought, again not
usually well marked throughout most of Scotland, and the more or less
blustery, cooler, and more rainy type, which is more or less constant
in the north-west. Now what has been already said will make it clear
that this simply means, that on the whole cyclonic disturbances are more
frequent, both in winter and in summer, across the northern and western
parts of these islands than in the other parts. Again, if this is the case,
then it is obvious that the mean barometric pressure must be lower to
the north and west than to the south. I have already explained that
this is so, and Dr. Buchan's maps bring out the point very clearly.^ In
1 See Journal of Scottish Meteorological Society, xi. (189S) : 'The Mean Atmospheric
Pressure and Temperature of the British Islands,' by Dr. Buchan.
646 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
the colder mouths of the year the mean gradient is north-westward that
is, the lowest pressures occur to the north-westward where the cyclonic
areas most frequently pass. In the warmer months, on the other hand,
when the paths of the cyclones are further to the north, the gradient
becomes northward, that is, the isobars run approximately east and west.
In order to explain these facts and the orderly progression of our weather,
it is necessary to look beyond our own narrow area to the surrounding
continents and oceans.
If we take a chart showing the isobars for the eastern part of the
northern hemisphere during January, a typical winter month (see
Hann's Meteorological Atlas), we find that there is an area of markedly
low pressure to the south-west of Iceland, while the pressures over the
North Atlantic generally are low. At the same time the pressure is
high over Asia, this belt of high pressure extending also over the
greater part of the continent of Europe, except the north and extreme
west, while another region of high pressure occurs in mid-Atlantic to
the south-west of the Azores. It will be noted that much of the
British area falls into the northern area of low pressure, while the
southern part comes into the debatable area. As a result of this
arrangement of isobars the prevailing wind is south-west, the winds
whirling out of the mid-Atlantic area of high pressure into the Icelandic
area of low pressure. We need not stoj) here to show that our charac-
teristically mild winter climate is due to this predominance of warm winds
in winter, but may repeat that this represents the mean condition. In
point of fact our winter weather is determined by the constantly renewed
conflict between cyclonic and anticyclonic conditions. The great area
of high pressure over the continent of Europe and Asia is, as it were,
constantly striving to spread itself over the British Islands, and when it
succeeds we have calm, cold weather with slight precipitation, and sun-
shine or fog according to the local conditions. On the other hand, the
Icelandic area of low pressure is constantly, as it were, throwing off
moving areas of low pressure, or cyclones, and these travel with vary-
ing degrees of rapidity over one or other of the storm-tracks which
cross the British Islands, and bring with them strong winds, relatively
high temperature, and heavy rainfall. Now the passage of these cyclonic
areas is favoured by an extension of the Icelandic area of low pressure
over the northern part of Great Britain, and the result is that our
winters swing between two types according to the extension of the
areas of high and low pressure. If the continental area of high pressure
encroaches upon our area we have the cold clear type ; if the northern area
of low pressure, the boisterous warmer type. If the details are complex
this main fact is simple, and does not seem beyond the reach of even the
school child.
If we now glance at a chart showing the distribution of pressure
in July, we shall note some very marked differences in the position of
the isobars. The area of Ioav pressure in the vicinity of Iceland is no
longer marked, but on the other hand the pressure has fallen greatly
over the continent of Asia, now heated with the powerful summer sun.
At the same time the region of high pressure in the Atlantic has become
STUDY OF THE WEATHER AS A BRANCH OF NATURE KNOWLEDGE. 6-47
more northerly iti position, and much more marked. The normal wind
is now that of a more Avesterly type, which sweeps out of the Atlantic
anticyclone towards the lower pressures in northern Europe and Asia, is
cooler than the south-westerly wind of winter, and has thus a markedly
tempering effect on the summer heat. The uniformity of this type is
interrupted first by cyclones, which in summer are usually of a mild
type, often bringing the summer rainfall in the shape of thunderstorms,
and at other times marked by rain and moderate winds, but only rarely
by storms. At other times, as already explained, our typical summer
weather is interrupted by anticyclones, producing unusual heat and
drought, and lasting until displaced by some minor cyclonic disturbance
from the west. Such is the usual trend of British weather throughout
the year, markedly regular in its irregularities. A few words may,
however, be said as to the spring. In the region of Aberdeen, as over
Great Britain generally, the highest mean barometric pressures occur in
spring, especially in April and May, the period also when the gradient is
least. This means that in these months the weather is predominantly
anticyclonic, cyclones being of minor importance. Therefore, for the
reasons already explained, this is the time when we tend to have cold
dry, disagreeable east winds, but it should be clearly understood that it
is largely their anticyclonic character that gives these winds their
unpleasant qualities. All the characters of anticyclonic weather are
often well shown in spring. AVe have the clear sky, Avith fog in valleys,
especially in the evenings and mornings, the bitter dry wind, the warm
sun, and the sudden drop of temperature when the sun goes down.
My aim in this lecture has been both to show what there is to teach
in connection with weather, and to suggest methods of teaching it. As
is the case in practically all the sciences, the great difficulty is to combine
in a rational way the method of direct observation and of instruction
so as to give the taught something in the way of a practical appreciation
of the subject. If I may recapitulate my suggestions, I should say begin
first by the most general and simple observations of wind and sky, sun-
shine and rain. Then introduce the barometer, and get a series of
observations sufficient to answer a series of cpiestions, such as : —
does the barometer move or not ? much or little 1 does the wind
affect it 1 the temperature 1 rain ? At first, at any rate, I should
be disposed to let the class take observations for a school week at
irregular intervals rather than continuously, and then let them com-
pare different Aveeks until they gradually acquired some notion of the
meaning of average height. After the interest had been aroused, it
would be a good plan to give a series of more detailed lessons, and
gradually introduce the consideration of cyclones and anticyclones, the
reading of weather charts, and so forth. One would naturally take
advantage of outstanding meteorological events as texts — a great storm
such as that which wrecked the Berlin, a long frost, our late fine Easter :
any one of these would form an interesting starting-point. As I have
tried to show also, the subject may be correlated in many different ways
with the ordinary geography lesson, or even with history, for climate
has had much to do in making the British what they are, and climate is
648 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
merely the average succession of weather. Especially, however, I should
lay stress upon the attempt to employ meteorological phenomena as a
stimulus to the imagination, and I should urge the value of introducing
in occasional lessons conceptions which in their entirety may be beyond
the reach of the class, but of which they can be made to understand
enough to greatly interest them. 1 have great faith in Anatole France's
dictum that a child's feelings may be intensely roused by subjects which
are, strictly speaking, beyond his intellectual reach. I should strive to
make clear, for instance, something of the romance of a meteorological
map, to picture the many patient observers, widely separated from one
another, who day by day records each his quota of facts — facts whose full
significance the individual cannot at the time fully see, but which he
registers in the certain knowledge that they will fit into a clear and
coherent whole. Man now no more than ever he could can alter the
the course of the winds, but within limits he has now so far conquered
nature that he can tell whither they come and where they Avill go, he
has conquered time and space so far that he can send warnings of com-
ing changes. Here surely are facts which are worth knowing, sugges-
tions which are worth making. Again, though the meteorological map
is an extraordinary triumph of scientific skill, it has still many gaps.
The meteorologist is still groping after that perfection of his methods
which will enable him to prophesy without fear of error, and his science
has not the frigidity of perfection, but the perennial interest of an
evolving organism. In our own British weather maps so apparently a
trifling matter as the opening of the cable to the Faeroes and Iceland
has greatly increased the value of the forecasts.
I do not wish to claim for the study of the weather any monopoly
of merit, but only to suggest that if I am right in my statement of the
aims which should prompt the teacher of nature study, it is a branch
which is well fitted to carry out these aims.
Teachers will find the following useful in connection with the study of weather:
The chapters on British Weather and British Climates in INIackinder's Britain and
the British Seas ; Some Facts about the Weather, by Marriott ; the publica-
tions of the Scottish Meteorological Society ; of the Royal Meteorological Society ;
of the Meteorological Office (cf. this Magazine, p. 266), and also Synions's Meteoro-
logical Magazine. The general subject is discussed in the ordinary text-books of
meteorology, as Dickson's, Buchan's, Davis's, and others.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL
SOCIETY.
A Meeting of Council was held on the 12th November, when the under-
mentioned ladies and gentlemen were elected Members of the Society : —
Charles Ker, M.A., C.A. Horace F. Munro.
W. W. Naismith, C.A. Mrs. Malloch.
John Armour Brown. James W. Drummond.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. G19
D. M. Maclay.
Captain C. H. Brown.
John Henry Luis.
Farquhar Macrae, M.B., CM.
Andrew D. Barnett.
Robert L. Scott.
W. J. K. Shaw.
J. H. Irons.
Wm. T. Oldrieve (H.M. Principal
Architect for Scotland).
Colonel Charles S. Noble.
Louis Liebenthal.
William Sturrock, M.A.
H. Brantwood Muff, B.A., F.G.S.
J. A. S. Barrett, M.A.
Mrs. Dallas.
A. E. Scougal (H.M. Senior Chief
Inspector of Schools).
Frank W. Michie, H.M.I.S.
J. D. Monro.
Miss Hislop.
Miss F. F. Falconer.
S. M. Murray (Editor, Educational
Neivs).
Miss Nisbet.
Thomas W. Paterson.
Simon B. Henderson.
James Boyd.
James W. Lowber, Ph.D., Sc.D.,
F.R.G.S.
A. C. S. Scrimgeour.
Thomas D. Cochrane, S.S.O.
T. Wemyss Fulton. M.D., F.R.S.E.
R. G. Watling.
.John H. Stewart.
Colin R. Crombie.
Charles E. Marshall.
Arthur Law.
Mrs. Mary H. M'Intosh.
Duncan Brown, CM.
G. M. Broth erston.
Mrs. MacLaren.
Wm. N. Turnbull.
Mrs. A. F. Imlach.
James Russell Austin.
Miss G. T. Finlayson.
H. Moncrieff Steele, CA.
William Grant, M.B., CM.
Andrew Bell, M.A.
Frank Spence, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E.
Robert Black.
William Wallace Anderson, M.A.
William Davidson, F.F.A.
Diploma of Fellowship.
The Council conferred the Honorary Diploma of Fellowship on
J. Scott Keltie, LL.D., Secretary of the Eoyal Geographical Society,
and on Colonel J. de Schokalsky, President of the Physical Section of
the Imperial Geographical Society of Russia.
They also conferred the Ordinary Diploma of Fellowship on James
W. Lowber, Ph.D., D.Sc, F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S., ex-President and ex-
Chancellor Austin, Texas, U.S.A., and William Gray Leiper, C.E.,
•Assistant Surveyor to the London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway,
Members of the Society, subject to the prescribed conditions being
complied with.
The Annual Business Meeting.
The Annual Business Meeting was held on 12th November in the
Society's Hall, Professor James Geikie, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., President
of the Society, in the Chair.
Major Forbes, the Secretary, read the Report of Council, which
stated that 105 new members had been added, 45 had died, and 139
had resigned, making the membership at October 31st 1773 compared
with 1852 a year ago. Of this number 1204 are on the Edinburgh list,
373 on the Glasgow list, and 133 and 96 on the Dundee and Aberdeen
VOL. XXIII
3 A
650 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
lists respectively. Forty-four reside abroad and 103 in England. Of
the total 270 are life members. There are 22 teacher associates.
During the past session 227 books, 57 pamphlets, 104 reports, 13
atlases, 305 map-sheets and charts had been added to the library. The
number of volumes borrowed by members was 1612, and the library
was, as usual, much consulted by non-members in search of geographical
information. The Council desires to record its thanks to foreign and
Colonial Governments for the official publications they have presented
to the library ; to the Treasury, for the revised Ordnance Survey maps
of Scotland, both in outline and colour, as each of the revisions now in
progress is published ; and also to the undermentioned private donors of
books and maps, viz. : — Prince of Monaco, Ralph Richardson, Julius
Girard, Colonel P. Durham Trotter, C. G. Cash. Members of the
Glasgow centre will again have the advantage of the arrangement made
with the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow, whereby that society's
very complete library at 207 Bath Street, Glasgow, will be available to
them without extra payment. The private room at 207 Bath Street,
presently rented, has been retained for the exclusive use of members of
the Glasgow centre.
Mr. James Carrie, Honorary Treasurer, submitted the financial state-
ment, which showed a revenue of £1875, and an expenditure amounting
to £1893. Last year, he said, there was a deficiency of about £255, and
this year, although that sum had not been entirely wiped out, it had
been reduced to £18.
The Chairman moved the adoption of the Report. He thought it
was highlj'^ satisfactory, and said a good deal for the management of the
Society that they had been able to clear off such a large deficit without
diminishing the attractiveness of the Society. He pleaded for some
recognition and endowment of the Society by the Government. They
spent a good deal of money solely on geographical education, and when
the Government was now recognising the necessity for more geographical
teaching in schools and colleges, he thought the Society had some claim
on them.
Dr. Dods seconded, and the Report was adopted.
Professor James Geikie was re-appointed President, and the follow-
ing members of Council who retire by rotation were re-elected : —
D. F. Lowe, M.A., LL.D., George Smith, LL.D., CLE., VV. B. Blaikie,
F.R.S.E., Captain D. Livingstone Bruce, Colonel T. Cadell, V.C, C.B.,
Colonel Wardlaw Ramsay, John Kerr, LL.D. (Edinburgh) ; R. S. Allan,
A. Crosbie Turner (Glasgow) : I. Julius AVeinberg,J.P., F.R.S.G.S., A. B.
Gilroy, and Sir George W. Baxter, LL.D. (Dundee).
The following members of the Society were elected to fill vacancies
on the Council : — The Right Hon. James P. Gibson, Lord Provost of
Edinburgh, Professors Alexander Darroch, M.A., and T. Hudson Beare,
B.A., B.Sc, M.LC.E., of the University of Edinburgh, W. S. Bruce,
LL.D., Scottish Oceanographical Museum (Edinburgh); The Hon. Sir
William Bilsland, Lord Provost of Glasgow (Glasgow) ; R. B. Don,
Robert Sinclair, M.D. (Dundee); Professor J. A. Thomson, M.A., and
William Smith (Aberdeen).
PROCEEDINGS OF THE KOYAL SCOTTISH GKOGRAI'HICAL SOCIETY. 651
The Chairmen of the Glasgow and Dundee centres were re-elected.
Mr. William Smith was elected Chairman of the Aberdeen centre in
room of Professor J. Arthur Thomson, M.A., who has resigned.
7 7 O
Lectures in December.
Mrs. Fanny Bullock Workman, F.R.S.G.S., Officier de I'lnstruction
Publique de France, will lecture before the Aberdeen, Dundee, Edin-
burgh, and Glasgow centres, on the 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th respec-
tively. The subject of her address will be " Exploration and Climbing in
the Nun Kun Massif, Himalaya." The Lecture will be illustrated with
lantern views. The Christmas Lecture will be delivered by Mr. William
C. Smith, K.C., in Glasgow on the 21st, Dundee 23rd, Edinburgh 26th,
and Aberdeen 27th, on the "Mountains of Scotland," illustrated with
OBITUARY.
Admiral Sir Francis Leopold McClintock.
We regret to record the death of Sir Leopold McClintock, which
took place at his residence on Sunday, November 1 7.
In our August issue, p. 434, we noted the fact that the Council of
the Royal Geographical Society recently addressed a letter to the
deceased Admiral on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the sailing
of the Fox. This letter recapitulates in large part the claims of Sir
Leopold to the gratitude and respect of all geographers.
Born in 1819, Sir Leopold McClintock received his training in Arctic
work in the Enterprise, \xi\dier Sir James Clark Eoss (1848-9), and in the
Assistance, under Sir Erasmus Ommaney (1850-1). During the latter
cruise he made a great sledge journey of 760 miles in 60 days. In the
spring of 1852 he was put in command of the Intrepid, one of a fleet of
five vessels sent in search of Franklin. The Intrepid, which had to be
abandoned during the expedition, wintered off Melville Island, and
McClintock surveyed and charted the west coast of Prince Patrick
Island and the vicinity, accomplishing a sledge journey of 1210 geo-
graphical miles in 105 days. Three years after his return he was put in
charge of the Fox, the yacht fitted out by L.ady Franklin to search for
her husband. From this expedition he returned in 1859 with indubit-
able evidence of the fate of Franklin and his companions. The results
of this expedition were detailed in The Voyage of the Fox in the Arctic Seas.
Admiral McClintock subsequently rose high in his profession, and
received from various learned societies and universities gratifying
evidence of the appreciation in which his countrymen held his services. ^
As the letter to which we have drawn attention above points out.
Admiral McClintock was specially noteworthy in connection Avith the
improvements which he effected in Arctic sledge travelling, of which he
was indeed the pioneer.
652 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Europe.
Report on the Progress of the Ordnance Survey. — We have
received the usual Annual Report, bringing the account of the progress
of this Survey up to March 31, 1907. As regards the Cadastral Survey
of Scotland on the 1 : 2500 scale, we note that the second general
revision is now in progress in the Counties of Ayr, Kirkcudbright, and
Wigtown. The total area of the revised maps published is 1 1,8.35 square
miles, of which 693 square miles have been published during the year.
Details in regard to this as well as the other revisions will be found in
the list of New Maps published in this Magazine every second month.
As regards the maps on the scale of six inches to a mile, it is noted that
the revised maps are, for the cultivated districts, being reduced from
the revised maps on the 1 : 2500 scale, and are produced by heliozinco-
graphy, except in the south and west of Inverness-shire, in Deeside, in
the west of Ross-shire, in Sutherland and Caithness, where the altera-
tions have generally been so small that the revision is being carried
out on the copper plates. In uncultivated districts the revision is
made direct on the original 6-inch maps. Publication follows as soon
as possible that of the 2o-inch maps. The total revised area published
on this scale is 25,566 square miles, of which 1590 square miles have
appeared during the year.
Of the maps on the scale of one inch to a mile, 2587 square miles
were revised and drawn last year, and 3442 square miles were engraved
The coloured 1-inch map is being prepared and published as the
revised 1-inch sheets and the separate hill-plates become available.
The preparation of separate hill-plates has been continued, and last
year 7623 square miles were engraved, and 3938 square miles published.
The drawing of the map on the scale of two miles to the inch has
been temporarily suspended, but it is hoped that some sheets will be
published during the forthcoming year. In the town surveys the re-
survey and revision of Aberdeen, Dundee, and Ayr on the 1 : 500 scale
has been completed at the expense of the corporations.
During the financial year under report the total sales of Ordnance
Survey maps amounted to £31,341 gross and £22,852 net, showing
a net increase over those of the preceding year of £952. As regards
the arrangements for distribution a change has been made in that
the previously existing agencies have been confined to the sale of the
6-inch and larger scale maps, while the sale of the small scale maps
to the trade has been placed in the hands of a wholesale agent, Mr.
T. Fisher Unwin, who also supplies the agents with these maps. This
arrangement has now been extended to Scotland. The Edinburgh
agents, Messrs. Menzies and Co., having resigned their agency, they
have been replaced by Messrs. W. and A. K. Johnston in Edinburgh, and
Messrs. J. Smith and Son in Glasgow.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTE!?. 653
Asia.
Bennett Island. — It will be remembered that the expedition com-
manded by M. Koltschak, which went in search of Baron Toll's party,
found at Bennett Island some relics of that ill-fated party, including a
note-book, some geological specimens, and abandoned instruments. In
the Proceedinijs of the Russian Geographical Society M. Koltschak pub-
lishes some account of the island, based partly upon the exploration
conducted by the relief party, and partly on Baron Toll's notes. The
article, which appears in Russian, is abstracted in La G^ograj^hie for July
15, from which Ave extract the following : — Bennett Island has the shape
of a rectangular triangle, with an area of 200 square kilometres. The
south and east sides have each a length of 15 kilometres, and the north-
west side one of 23 kilometres. The island rises fairly rapidly to a
height of 300 metres, and has two considerable elevations — Mount Long,
the highest point, rising to 500 metres, and occupying the south-western
angle, and Mount Toll, occupying the whole of the north and north-
east of the island. The latter forms an abrupt crest, cut bj^ deep valleys
which carry away the torrents arising from the snow and ice fields. The
openings of these torrents are the only places where it is possible to
effect a landing, for elsewhere the cliffs fall sheer to the sea. The
narrow beaches are covered with ice, through which the streams wear a
passage. On the southern coastline structures having the appearance
of glaciers descend from the ndvd of Mount Toll, but they show no sign
of movement. The most westerly has a width of 1 kilometre, and ends
at the sea in an ice-cliff varying in height from 3 to 15 metres. The
other ice-streaTn is smaller ; neither shows any signs of morainic deposits.
The valley which descends from the hill near Cape Emma, at the south-
western angle of the island, seems formerly to have contained a glacier.
The eastern border of the island forms a series of hills of 150 metres in
height, Avhich are covered with a meagre tundra vegetation. The island
seems to consist of Cambrian rocks, overlaid by sheets of basalt. In the
valleys the bones of mammoths and other Quaternary mammals occur,
but living game-animals are rare.
Upper Burma. — We have received from Dr. Hans Wehrli a
reprint of a paper on the economic geography and the distribution of
the population in Upper Burma and the northern Shan States, which
originally appeared in the JFissenschaftlkhe Beilage z. Jahresbericlit d.
Gconr. Eihnofjr. GeseUschaft. (Ziirich, 1905-6). The paper is illustrated
with maps and plates, and gives a comprehensive account of the regions
mentioned.
Upper Burma is situated between 19" and 27° N. lat., so that the
region of most economic importance, the great depression, has a tropical
climate. Like India, Burma is under the influence of the summer
monsoon. The year consists of a dry and relatively cold period, from
November or December to February, a hot period from March to the
654 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
middle of May, aud finally the rainy season from May to October. In
the plain the mean temperature varies from 26° to 27° C, and while on
the coast and in the delta the difference between the months of extreme
temperature is only 4° to 5% in Upper Burma it varies from 11^ to 12°.
The rainfall of Burma is very unequally distributed. The coastal
districts of Tenasserim and Arakan have an annual fall exceeding
4000 mm., the delta region a mean annual total of 2000 to 3000 mm. ;
in the dry plains of Upper Burma the total fall is only 400 to 1000 mm.,
while the rainy region of the north has a total exceeding 1500 mm.
The causation of this distribution is obvious. The rainiest region is on
the western slope of the coastal chain, where the direct influence of the
monsoon is felt. Upper Burma, on the other hand, is protected by the
same mountain chain from the influence of the rain-bearing wind. In
this dry depression the amount of rain varies considerably, and thus
disastrous droughts often arise. The sources of the Irawadi, the only
economically important stream in Upper Burma, are placed in the humid
territory in the north-west, a fact which explains its great volume of
water. The Sal win, on the other hand, rises in a region sheltered from
the rain-bearing winds by the chain of Kachin, and has therefore a
smaller volume in spite of its longer course.
Inl901the total population of Burma was 10,500,000, of which Upper
Burma included 3,600,000. Of the total population of Upper Burma
3,243,000 were Burmas, that is about nine-tenths of the total popula-
tion of the province. The remainder are made up of Shans, Chiugpaws
(Kachin), Chins, Palaung, Chinese aud Hindoos, with a numerically
insignificant European element. The characteristics of the diff"erent
native races are discussed by the author in detail. For the most part
the population is occupied in agriculture and the pastoral industries.
While in the delta and on the coastal region of Lower Burma rice is
naturally the chief cultivated plant, in the more varied conditions of
Upper Burma a greater variety of plants occur. Among these may be
mentioned such cereals as millet, maize, wheat, sesame, with some rice,
cotton, sugar-cane, sugar-palm, indigo, tobacco, tea. The forests contain
such valuable trees as teak, rubber, Acacia catechu, etc. The flocks
consist of zebu and buffaloes, bred as draught animals or beasts of burden,
and not for their flesh or milk.
As regards the population, the most widely distributed form of settle-
ment is the village, which usually contains less than 200 inhabitants.
The houses are built of wood and are placed on piles. The mean
density of population in Upper Burma and in the Shan States is only
seventeen per square kilometre, but the distribution is very irregular.
In consequence of political changes, fresh adjustments are now taking
place, but formerly the rainy region had a low density and the dry
regions a high. The reasons for this curious distribution are complex,
but among them may be noticed the fact that the rainy regions of the
north were favourable to e.otensive cultivation, which does not demand a
dense population, while regions of a naturally low rainfall where irriga-
tion is practised must be regions of intensive cultivation and denser
population.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
655
Africa.
The Frontier of Liberia. — In connection with our note on this
{ .Banilajijiuj
! '>Matotakcb'\
yyri>^
E R ;R A ,
! '-.Ge^Sii;'
'ftiZibemw 1 laorassu: "-^^f^) . .^ ,.^,^ „ . ,
IjccuuTta/
Zinta,
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June
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?Jici
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Vcwgina o \ Hcauaia/'^
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i^a^itoffbujjt
subject in our last issue, p. 601, we now publish a sketch-map showing
provisionally the new frontier line.
Polar.
Expedition to the Arctic. — Dr. Frederick A. Cook, who was
believed to be arranging for an expedition to the Antarctic region (cf.
p. 384), suddenly changed his plans, and has started for the North
Pole. A message from Etah, Greenland, Avas received from him in New
York during October, according to which he intends wintering in
Greenland 30 miles to the north of Peary's last winter quarters, with
the object of making an attempt on the Pole. He proposes to go via
Buchanan Bay and Ellesmere Land and northward through JSTansen
Strait over the Polar Sea. Meantime Commander Peary is delaying
his departure till next year.
656 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
The Anglo-American Polar Expedition. — In the Bulletin of the
American Geographical Society for October, and in the Geograjjhkal Juut nal
for November, illustrated accounts are given of the Mikkelsen-Leffingv ell
Expedition, which amplify the previous brief notices available (cf
p. 548). In regard first to the loss of the ship, the fuller account shows
that it sprung a leak on January 27. In spite of constant work at
the pumps the water gained, and on April 3 it was decided to abandon
the vessel. A few days later the crew moved ashore, and in May, as it
had become evident that repair of the damage was impossible, the ship
was broken up for building material. The whole of the stores weie
taken on shore without loss.
On March 3 the first sledging party left the ship, but the con-
ditions were so unfavourable that a return had to be made, and it was
not until March 17 that Mr. Leffingwell, Mr. Mikkelsen, and Mr.
Storkerson finally set out with a lighter equipment than on the first
attempt. This party returned to the camp at Flaxman Island on May
15, so that the statement that Captain Mikkelsen himself was at
Herschel Island (near the mouth of the Mackenzie river) in April must
have been an error.
Owing to the bad state of the ice the sledge party was compelled to
skirt the coast from Flaxman Island to about long. 149° W., where
they struck seawards. After passing the edge of the land floe, about
four miles from the shore, they crossed a belt of young ice, but as they
proceeded northwards came more and more into a region of old floe
ice, Avith rounded-off hummocks, the highest of which were about 30
feet above water-level. The soundings showed that the Continental
Shelf extends some 43 miles from land. After reaching about 72°
N. lat. the party turned, and succeeded in obtaining sufficient soundings
to warrant the construction of a diagram to show the slope of the
sea-bottom. Owing to the westward drift of the ice the shore was
struck considerably to the west of the point at which it had been
quitted in the northward march, and Avas then followed eastward to the
camp. The westward drift of the ice occurs Avith easterly winds, but
on the other hand there is little or no drift to the east with westerly
winds. The floe ice appeared to the observers exceedingly old, and
has the appearance of having been formed in a land-locked sea. An
obstruction to the eastward seems necessary to explain the absence of
an eastward drift with a westerly wind, but yet the shape of the
Continental Shelf, as shown by the soundings, and what is already
knoAvn of the conditions to the north of Herschel Island, seem to leave
very little room for new land. The Eskimo reports as to land to the
north of Pt. Barrow, Captain Mikkelsen is now disposed to regard as
based only upon the appearance of old floe ice, and he considers that
the same explanation applies to the island reported to the north and
west of Harrison Bay.
Meteorological and tidal observations have been taken by the
expedition, and Mr. Leffingwell has also made considerable alterations
in the map of the coastal region. Captain Mikkelsen also details his
plans for next season, which include soundings along the edge of the
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 657
Continental Shelf from Demarcation Point, fifty miles we&t of Herschel
Island, to the longitude of Cross Island. He does not expect to return
to the United States until the autumn of 1909.
Commercial Geography.
The Agricultural Development of Madagascar. — In the issue
of the Itevue Gciiende des Sciences for August 30, M. Leblond discusses,
in a much more hopeful spirit than has hitherto been prevalent, the
present condition of agriculture in Madagascar, and its future possibili-
ties. In 1897 some samples of the soil were analysed in Paris, and a
most unfavourable report was given of that of the central plateau, with
the result of discouraging enterprise in that region. According to
M. Leblond, this report has been accepted too readily without considera-
tion of the local conditions influencing fertility, and the effect of the
report has been increased by a current misconception in regard to the
climate of the central plateau. It is always stated that the coastal
region in Madagascar has a tropical climate, while that of the plateau is
temperate. In point of fact, however, the plateau has two distinct
seasons, one of which is hot and damp, and the other cold and dry, while
the typical temperate climate has a relatively dry warm season and a
cold and damp winter season. The plateau climate, therefore, in spite
of the mean temperature, must be regarded as tropical in type. This
point is of great importance in agriculture. Further, the limits of the
seasons are not sharply defined, and as periods of drought occur in the
hot season, only land which is capable of irrigation should be cultivated.
It is the want of careful consideration of these and similar points which
has so far led to such unhappy results in Madagascar. Under proper
conditions, the author considers that there is a future for coffee, sugar-
cane, in certain places the cocoa-nut palm, cotton, and especially rubber,
in addition to the staple rice. Madagascar is rich in rubber-producing
plants, but the wild rubber is collected by the natives in a destructive
manner, and the natural reserves are already in consequence largely
exhausted, while as yet almost no successful plantations have been estab-
lished. For agriculture on the large scale labour is necessary, and this,
the author believes, must be sought in India or China, particularly in
the latter country, for the Chinese readily intermarry with the native
women, and settle in the country. As for cultivation on a small scale,
this must be left to the natives, and M. Leblond considers that the
Malagasy's capacity for profitable agriculture has been greatly under-
estimated. Though he will not labour in large plantations, yet when
allowed to cultivate in his own Avay, that is, by planting valuable species
in small groups, as the constantly varying conditions allow, he is exceed-
ingly successful, rapidly adopts improved methods, and has nothing to
fear from European competition. Thus the French colonists cannot
compete with the natives in rice cultivation, who have also learnt to
produce vegetables at a cheaper rate than their instructors. The con-
ditions of soil and climate appear to be such that it is only the laborious
native methods Avhich are likely to be successful at present, for there is
658 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
a remarkable absence of uniformity in the surface, and the constant
variations render large-scale methods difficult.
EDUCATIONAL.
An article on " The Relation between the Geographical Position and
the Productive Capacity of Land," by Dr. E. J. Russell, in the Journal
of the Manchester Geographical Society, may be recommended to the
notice of teachers as suggesting ways in which regional survey may be
utilised to form an introduction to commercial geography. The paper
is mostly based upon observations made in Kent and Surrey, and is
illustrated by photographs taken in this region, but any district would
furnish similar examples. The author considers first the relation of the
topography of a land-surface to its water-supply, and shows that the
possibility of any cultivation, or the particular crop which can be grown,
is determined primarily by the question whether the water-supply is
excessive, deficient, or adequate. While these points are determined in
the first instance by topography, the nature of the soil and subsoil are
of much importance in any particular case. After a brief note on the
effect of wind, the author passes on to consider the complex factors
which determine the temperature of any particular area, with special
reference to the warming effect of the proximity of a river valley.
Though in themselves these temperature differences may appear very
trifling, yet their effects are of great importance to the cultivator in a
region of intensive cultivation. To make this effect clear Dr. Russell
gives tables of jmces of early fruit and vegetables on successive days,
showing that a day's difference in ripening may make very considerable
diflference in the prices obtainable. On the other hand, though it would
seem from the tables of temperatures that a south slope is much more
profitable than a northern one, yet in point of fact, with some crops, the
slower, steadier growth on the northern slope may yield a harvest which,
in its abundance and longer duration, more than compensates for the
lower prices, due to the fact that it is put upon the market at a later
stage than the crop from the southern slope. The subject is thus one
of considerable educational value, in that it shows what a number of
geographical deductions can be made from the mere fact of observation
that a particular locality can grow earlier crops of fruit and vegetables
than the surrounding districts, and also illustrates the delicacy of the
adjustments which make this profitable.
Teachers will find an interesting article on the teaching of Map
Projections, by M. Charles Duchesne, in the Bulletin de la Society Royale
de Geographie d'Anvers (xxxi. 1907). The article consists of two parts,
first an exposition of the theory of cartographical representations, and
second a discussion on the question of the need of teaching this to
school pupils, and the best methods of doing it. The first part need not
concern us here, though those specially interested in the subject may find
EDUCATIONAL. 659
it useful to refer to. As to the second, the author considers that some-
thing should certainly be said on the subject of map projections by all
teachers of geography, but that, on the other hand, care should be taken
not to say too much in regard to the mathematical theory. Every time
a new map is used the teacher should recall to the class the defects of
maps in general, and of that presented in particular. For this purpose it
is highly important that the projection should be stated at the foot of
each map — a precaution still too often neglected by cartographers and
publishers. The pupils should have a general acquaintance with the
more commonly used projections, and as those most commonly used are
not the simplest, no attempt should be made to teach them to construct
the network for themselves, for this induces a preference for the simpler
types. Care should also be taken to avoid giving the impression that
one projection is absolutely better than another. The relative value of
each depends upon the purpose for which the map is to be used.
Further, the pupil should be perfectly clear that when the region studied
does not extend over more than 10", the question as to the best
cartographical method does not present itself, for the results obtained are
virtually identical with all methods. They should be also taught that
the number of jjossible methods is infinite.
In Sir George Goldie's address in our January issue, p. 10, and in
the Educational Notes in the same issue, p. 49, reference is made to the
fact that the new regulations for the Civil Service Examinations excluded
the subject of geography. It is highly satisfactory to note that as the
result of the campaign started by eminent geographers, the Civil Service
Commi.ssion now announces that after next year geography, treated
scientifically, will be added to the list of subjects included under the
head of natural science, of which four may be taken up, in the open
competitive examinations for clerkships in the Upper Division of the
Civil Service.
NEW BOOKS.
EUROPE.
A Book of the Cevennes. By S. Baring-Gould, M. A. London:
John Long, 1907. Price (is.
We suppose there must be still a considerable number of people who would
be glad to hear of a fresh place for summer quarters, where there is no golf-
course and where the motor fiend has not yet penetrated, and to them we may,
on the recommendation of Mr. Baring-Gould, suggest the Cevennes, a mountain
tract west of the river Rhone and north of the Gulf of Lyons ; and those of our
readers who are acquainted with his works on Devon, Cornwall, Brittany, the
Riviera, etc., will admit that Mr. Baring-Gould is an authority of experience on
this particular subject. To most English readers the Cevennes recall only the
well-known Travels with a Donkey in the Cevennes, by Robert Louis Stevenson :
but, as Mr. Baring-Gould explains, the volume now before us deals with the
Cevennes proper rather than the Upper Gevandau and Lozere, through which the
660 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
donkey travelled. This volume is in no sense merely a guide-book, although it
fulfils the conditions of a good guide-book in many ways. It describes in detail
the natural features, geography, products and resources of the region, and gives
grai3hic descriptions of the former and present inhabitants, but the special charm
of the work will be found in the many historical episodes and anecdotes which
the writer has collected with much erudition and patience and has set forth in
vigorous and picturesque language. Of these the chapters devoted to the grue-
some story of the tavern of Peyrabeille and the sketch of the history of the
strange religious movement known as the Camisards are particularly good
examples. The book is well furnished with excellent illustrations, eight of
which are in colour, and is heartily recommended to our readers.
Isle of Man Illustrated. Eighth edition. By Eev. John Imrie.
Bournemouth : Mate and Sons, 1907. Price Is.
This is a finely illustrated account of this popular resort, showing by its photo-
graphs that within the circumference of the island there are charms for all tastes —
for those who prefer peaceful country scenes no less than for those who like crowds
and movement.
Macdonald's Commercial Gazetteer of Great Britain and Ireland. Edinburgh :
Macdonald and Co., x.d. Price 3s. 6d.
This volume, of convenient form and size, contains three railway maps of
England, Scotland, and Ireland respectively, and consists of the gazetteers from
the firm's trade directories of the three countries. The articles are concise and to
tlie point, and, so far as we have tested them, seem to be accurate.
The Greatness and Decline of Borne. 2 Vols. By Guglielmo Ferrero. Trans-
lated by Alfred E. Zimmern, M.A. London : William HeinemaiiU, 1907.
As the author says in the preface, these volumes contain an account of the age
of Cassar from the death of Sulla to the Ides of jNIarch, one of the most momentous
periods of the world's history. Signor Ferrero has not been content with being a
mere chronicler of events. He has endeavoured, as he indicates, to trace and
deal with the often obscure conditions which led to events of importance. His
purpose has been to show that history has been at all times influenced by incidents
which seem triflirg when they occur, but which have been the real starting-points
of great social upheavals. Thus he has sought to demonstrate that the Roman
world-conquest, amazing as it was, was the effect of a gradual transformation
which is going on in the world in all ages, "the growth of a natioi alist and
industrial democracy on the ruins of a federation of agricultural aristocracies."
With the object of making this clear, the first four chapters have been
dedicated to a rapid view of the history of Rome from the earliest times, showing
how even the patrician was originally but a peasant not above putting his hand
to the plough, and how the simplicity of the people was pieseiA-ed by the stern
discipline of the family life. We have a picture of the great proletarian rising
under Marius, whose relationship to Cttsar eave the latter his liberal tendencies ;
the conservative reaction under Sulla ; the crushing of Sertorius in Spain by
Pompey, and the masterful Avay in which Ctesar, although differing in politics,
joined forces with Pompey and gradually overshadowed him.
Signor Ferrero differs in many points from other historians in his interpreta-
tion of the events of this period. His views, for instance, on Caesar's motives for
the war against the Snevi and Helvetii in the first Gallic war are so divergent
NEW BOOKS. 661
from many previous opinions tljiit he hus devoted an article in the Appendix to
elucidating his standpoint. He considers that C;esar perceived that the Helvetian
war was a blunder, and in order to retrieve his position he declared war against
Ariovistus. In the interesting account of the death of Ca'sar the author suggests
that while he was a great genius, perhaps the jireatest the world has ever seen,
and a distinguished soldier, he was not a great statesman. In this Ferrero differs
from so great an authority as Mommsen, who thought that Ci'sar was what he was
because "he was an incomparable statesman. '■'"
If we have a word of criticism, it is that in style the book is heavy and difficult
to read, but this is partly the result of so much compression. Also we think
that the use of modern current political terms is apt to mislead and to tempt the
reader to imagine that there is more similarity between the periods than there
really is. But Signor Ferrero has given us a book of very high merit, which has
the added interest of being the exposition of the views of a cultured Italian on the
ancient history of his great country.
Les Falaises de la Manche. Par Jules Girard, ^lembre de la Societe de
Geographie. Paris : Ernest Leroux, 1907.
After a chapter on the physiography of the shore on the French side of the
English Channel the author considers the littoral abrasion. He points out that
" the' current which enters the Channel reaches first Cape d'Antifer and then
follows the length of the coast. This current of the incoming sea is more energetic
than that of the outflowing sea; firstly, because of its impetus, and secondly,
because it is generallj^ favoured by the predominant SW. wind. Although its
origin cannot be directly established, it causes an erosion of the coastline which
during storms can occasion terrible ravages. . . . From the summits of the clifts
the littoral current is easily distinguishable owing to the milky tint which colours
it. It carries with it the light materials dissolved by erosion, such as chalk
sandy mud, and impalpable particles of clay. This white tint is the opposite of
the blue colour of the sea." M. Marchal estimated that 5,424,000 cubic metres of
material are annually removed by erosion along 338 kilometres of the French
coast. The Eaglish coast has suffered similarly, for during a period of thirty-three
years (1867-1900) 16,745 hectares were lost. Kent has been reduced to the extent
of 19 square miles. On the Suffolk coast, between the estuary of the Thames
and the Wash near Dunwich, erosion between 1880 and 1902 proceeded at the
rate of 0'24 metres per annum, but from 1902 to 1904 at that of 9'30 metres.
These catastrojjhes are generally sudden, several thousands of cubic metres some-
times falling down at one time. The author discusses the nature of the rocks
attacked by the sea and the method of its attack and their destruction, also the
attempts successfully made to keep ports clear of accumulations of shingle, and to
reclaim land from the sea for agricultural purposes. His last chapter deals with
the modificatioas of the coastline, and, referring to that of England, he shows that
the products of the erosion of the cliffs of Kent and Sussex, etc., are partially
deposited in the great estuary of the Thames, which arrests the movement of the
sands. The leading fact disclosed by ancient chronicles is the invasion of the
Thames estuary by these sands. It is believed that, previous to the rupture of
the Straits of Dover, the estuary of the Thames formed a gulf less subject to the
movements of the current than after the rupture. This estuary is being constantly
filled with more or less moving banks, leaving, it is true, channels facilitating
navigation but subject to destruction by winter storms. The ports'on^the English
coast which were used by the Romans are now found far inland, and Pevensey,
where the army of William the Conqueror landed from nine hundred ships, is
662 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
now more than a mile from the coast. The place-name is here spelt "Pr^vensay,"
and we maj^ remark that it was a flourishing seaport till about the fifteenth
century, when coastal changes rendered its harbour unnavigable. The author
makes the interesting suggestion that Dieppe " probably owes its name to the
English word deep, applicable to its deep port in olden times.'' The place-name,
we may add, is still pronounced "Deep" by English sailors. In 1530 a storm
filled the port with shingle. M. Girard's study of the shore of the English
Channel has been particularly minute on the French side, and his work is
illustrated by many fine reproductions of photographs. A good general bathy-
metrical map of the English Channel would have been useful to locate places
mentioned in the text and in order to understand more clearly the action of the
marine currents.
The Shores of the Adriatic: The Italian Side. ' By F. Hamilton Jackson, R.B.A,
London : John Murray, 1906. Price 21s. net.
This is a very valuable contribution to the library of the arcbfeologically and
artistically inclined ti-aveller, treating as it does of a comparatively little visited
part of Italy. The Italian side of the Adriatic seems to have been almost
neglected alike by the tourist and the student, and very few books in English have
dealt with it. Our French and German neighbours, however, have not been so
neglectful, and Mr. Jackson is careful to own his indebtedness to them in the
compilation of his very elaborate work. This volume is a highly trustworthy
guide in everything appertaining to the artistic and picturesque to be seen in the
cities, towns, and villages on the Italian Adriatic coast, particularly in church
architecture. It is written in quite a Euskinian vein, and is, moreover, beauti-
fully illustrated. We hope to see another similar volume from the same pen.
T}ie Central Alps, Part I. {including those portions of Switzerland to the north of
- the Bhone and Rhine Valleys). By the late John Ball. A new edition,
reconstructed and revised by A. V. Valentine-Eichards. London : Long-
mans, Green and Co., 1907. Price 6s. 6d. net.
The above forms the first part of the second volume of the revised edition of
Ball's Alpine Guide, and those who have used the revised edition of the first
volume, published as The Western Alps, will cordially welcome the appearance of
this part. The general plan on which the revision has been accomplished is the
same as in vol. i., but the maps, taken from Eavenstein's maps of Switzerland and
the Eastern Alps, are a great improvement on those in that volume.
The great charm of Mr. Ball's work is that he belonged to the period before
climbing was jiurely a sport ; in his day it was closely akin to scientific geography.
He was profoundly interested in physical geography, in geology, in botany, and
not only in the problem of how to get to the top of difficult mountains. The
method of revision still leaves this old charm, though the members of a geo-
graphical society may be forgiven for regretting that this aspect has not been even
further emphasised. For example, the visitor to the Oeschinen See would surely
find his interest greatly enhanced by a note on its origin, and a reference to the
very interesting paper by Herr GroU, of which an account was given here
(vol. XXI., p. 268). Again, it would surely not be impossible to substitute for
such an indefinite expression as "forest of pines" a note on the exact species of
pine, remembering that the ordinary tourist calls the spruce fir a pine ; while in
view of the interest which is being taken in the study of tree-limits in the Alps,
some of Mr. Eichards' colleagues could surely have furnished useful notes in the
case of particular peaks or areas.
NEW BOOKS. 063
But the editor may justly retort that all this is outside the sphere of a guide-
book for the modern climber, and the geographer should not appear ungrateful foi
the excellent topographical and geological notes which have always been the
feature of Mr, Ball's works, and are here retained.
Sveneska Turistforeningens Arsskrift, 1906 and 1907. Stockholm : Wahlstrum
and Widstrand.
Sweden : A Short Handbook. Stockholm: Centraltryckeriet. 1900.
Swedish Life in Town and Country. By O. G. von Heidexstam. London : George
Newnes. Price 3s. 6d. net.
Resembling in general features the similar publications of the other Scandi-
navian kingdoms, the Year Book of the Swedish Tourist Union is specially
characterised by the abundance of its excellent illustrations. In the two volumes
before us these number altogether 512, of which 48 are full-page plates and of
themselves give an not inadequate idea of the scenery and inhabitants of the
eastern portion of the peninsula. Very different though it be from that of the
Norwegian coasts, this scenery has much beauty and interest of its own, and will
be appreciated by all visitors who do not constantly insist upon making invidious
and unnecessary comparisons. Among numerous articles of interest in these two
volumes (all unfortunately in Swedish) special reference may be made to Mr. Per
Stolpe's short description of Dalsland scenery, in which the relation of the land-
scape to the geological structure is discussed and illustrated, and to Mr. J. E.
Ljungqvist's interesting study of a Gothland Moor. One would like to see the
further and fuller biological accounts which he indicates as in progress.
The Short Handbook, written in English, and issued by the above Association,
gives a very good general account of Sweden and its resources, the last thirty pages
dealing with the country from the point of view of those purjDOsing to travel in it.
A sketch-map shows the lines of railway.
The title Sivedish Life in Town and Country expresses very accurately the
scope of the third of the above books. In this little volume a great deal of
information is very compendiously presented, and, so far as we have tested it, it
seems very accurate. The writer evidently knows the life of Sweden from the
inside ; and unpretentious as the work is, it is much more instructive than the
literature which the returningsummer tourist too often feels mysteriously impelled
to publish.
The Russian Peasant. By Howard P. Kexnard, jNI.D. London : T. Werner
Laurie, 1907. Price 6s. net.
This monograph on the Eussian Peasant is fi-om the pen of one who has had
very exceptional opportunities of studying him, for Dr. Kennard tells us he has
lived with him in all parts of European Russia, and has studied him in peace and
in war, while now he is engaged in helping him in the more trying and fearful
conditions of famine. It is not claimed that this work is exhaustive ; on the
contrary, we learn that it is a precursor of a " deep comprehensive critical study
of the Peasant and the Peasant question" which is promised for a future day.
In the meantime, we may observe that the picture of the Eussian Peasant por-
trayed in this book is as lurid and almost repulsive as could well be imagined, and
we might add, that according to Dr. Kennard the prospects of improvement are
almost non-existent. It is indeed a miserable and a shocking story, with hardly
an incident or a ray of hope with which to relieve the gloom of the situation
of to-day.
664 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAI. MA'iAZINE.
AFRICA.
Tloo Dianas in Somaliland. By Agnes Herbeft. London: John Lane.
Neve York : John Lane Company, 1907. Price 12s. 6d. net.
When the writer of a book of 300 pages begins with an apology or semi-
apology for writing it, the reader is apt to be depressed with the feeling that
there are some weary hours before him ; and when the real reason is given in
five words, " Simply I want to write," the feeling of depression is by no means
alleviated. But we do not proceed far with a perusal of this work before we
find that no apology whatsoever is needed for its appearance. It is true that of
late years we have had a plethora of books on " big shoots," and it is equally true
that there is a good deal of sameness in the accounts of the exploits of the writers.
But this work has a peculiar interest, for it contains the narrative of a shooting
expedition in Somaliland, engineered from beginning to end by two young ladies,
of one of whom at any rate, i.e. Miss Herbert, the authoress, we may say that her
literary skill is in no way inferior to her prowess as a shikari. From the start to
the finish the ladies showed quite as much pluck and skill as any of their mascu-
line predecessors, and by their deliberate abstention from unnecessary slaughter,
with most tempting opportunities to add to their collection, they showed a
sportsmanlike moderation and consideration which are deserving of all praise and
imitation.
The "big shoot" was not always an easy matter or free from danger, and
demanded from them both much fertility of resource and promptitude of decision,
as well as sang-froid and deliberate courage. For one example of this we may
refer our readers to the description of their first encounter with lions, when the
authoress might easily have lost her life, and was saved only by the coolness and
courage of her companion. The same courage and coolness were frequently dis-
played in different circumstances, as, for example, when a Somali chief refused
to allow the ladies to get water at a place in the desert when their supply
had become exhausted. On this occasion the chief struck at Miss Herbert
with his spear, but the blow was warded off by one of her followers, and
she had to tap her rifle "significantly" ere water could be obtained. Much
might, and perhaps should, be said as to the skilful management of the Somali
followers, the judicious handling of the desert tribes with whom they frequently
came into contact, and other features and incidents of the expedition, Imt for
these we must refer our readers to the book itself. We have, we trust, said
enough to indicate that it is well worth reading, both for its literary merit and
for the intrinsic interest of the narrative of an adventurous and successful sporting
expedition.
Liberia. By Sir Harry Johnston, G.O.M.G., K.C.B., D.Sc. In two volumes.
London : Hutchinson and Co., 1906.
We have delayed reviewing these two beautiful and costly volumes in the
hope of publishing here an extended article on the geography and resources of the
Republic of Liberia, based upon Sir Harry Johnston's epoch-making work.
Limitations of space have meantime prevented this, but as we hope that room for
such an article may yet be found, we restrict ourselves here to merely calling the
attention of those iuterested to this beautifully-illustrated book, which sum-
marises what is known in regard to the Republic, and is specially rich in its
accounts and descriptions of the Flora and Fauna of the region.
NEW BOOKS. 665
In Wildest Africa. By C. G. Schillings. Translateil by Fredkric Whyte.
London : Hutchinson and (Jo., 1907. Price 24.s. 7Ut.
Encouraged by the enthusiastic welcome which was everywhere accorded to
his former work, With Flashlight and Rifle, Herr Schillings has now published
two more volumes, in which he gives us further details of his sporting experiences
in Equatorial East Africa. This supplement of his story will doubtless be
received as cordially as the commencement, which we noticed at some length in
the issue of this Macjanine for August 1906. As in With Flashlight and Rifle
there is no consecutive narrative in this work ; it consists of a number of sketches
and descriptions of scenes and incidents scattered over several years, and con-
cludes with a detailed description of the apparatus with which the author was
able to produce the three hundred curious and often admirable illustrations,
which are the distinctive feature of the work. With regard to them he assures
us that they have been reproduced from the negatives without retouching of any
kind, and it is of course in this fact that their special and unique value lies. The
photographs have to be carefully examined ere they can be properly appreciated,
and this after an attentive perusal of his description of the apparatus and the
many difficulties and dangers which are incidental to its manipulation. We need
hardly say that Herr Schillings is an enthusiast in his art, although he describes
his own achievements with becoming and almost exaggerated modesty. He
anticipates great improvements and far greater success for those who will follow
in his footsteps.
As in his former work, there is in these two volumes a vein of sadness, as Herr
Schillings contemplates the gradual and indeed rapid extinction of some of the
finest species of wild animals ; and he again passionately pleads alike to Govern-
ments and to sportsmen that, ere it is too late, efiective measures should be taken
to limit the numbers of certain animals allowed to be killed, and to institute
preserves or sanctuaries, where big game shall be kept alive and perpetuated for
the delight and instruction of coming generations. That this can be done success-
fully is proved by the good results of the rules for the preservation of big game
enforced by the British authorities in their African territories, and by the success
of the Yellowstone Park in America. It would seem as if Herr Schillings had
more particularly in his mind the unsportsmanlike wholesale slaughter of wild
animals by the Boers and by some of his own countrymen, and we are glad to see
that in one passage of his book he states that in German Africa the authorities
have begun to adopt British methods for the preservation of big game. Un-
doubtedly Herr Schillings in these interesting volumes writes for sportsmen in
the first instance, but his book will appeal to many others besides sportsmen.
The lover of scenery will find in these pages many a beautiful and skilful word-
picture descriptive of the boundless African veldt, which will charm and delight
his taste. The student of natural history will find in them a treasury of interest-
ing, novel, and instructive facts, ascertained and recorded at first hand, on the
accuracy of which he may depend. The ordinary reader will learn what one
feels when one is within a few yards of a lion in the dark, or when one is being
charged by an enraged rhinoceros.
Things Seen in Egypt. By Clive Holland. London : Seeley and Co., Ltd., 1908.
Price 2s. net.
In writing this little work on Things Seen in Egypt,Mx. Clive Holland has followed
the precedent of his Things Seen in Japan, which we noticed in the issue of this
Magazine for February 1907. Here we again have fifty very pretty photographs of
VOL. XXIII. 3 B
666 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
various objects and scenes in Egypt, and a pleasantly written letterpress, which does
not pretend to be instructive, far less exhaustive. The book will be welcomed as a
souvenir by those who are familiar with the wonders of Egypt, and to those who
have not travelled so far it will serve as an excellent introduction to other more
elaborate works which deal with the land of the Pharaohs.
Die Halbinsel des Sinai in Hirer Bedentnng nach Erdkunde vnd Geschichte auf
Grund eigener Forschung an Ort und SteJle dargedelU. Von Professor Dr. E.
Dagobert Schoenfeld. Bei-lin : Dietrich Eeimer, 1907.
The author having concluded a journey in the Sudan in 1903, thought that it
was waste of material to disband his caravan, and so decided to go on and study
the Sinai Peninsula. The main object of his journey on this occasion was to
follow the wanderings of the Children of Israel. He has produced a readable
book which will gi\re the reader a good idea of the people and country.
The illustrations are satisfactory.
A Woman's Trek from the CajK to Cairo. By Mary Hall. London : Methuen
and Co., 1907. Price IGs. net.
As the first woman of any nationality who accomplished the entire journey
from the Cape to Cairo, INIiss Hall achieved a feat of which she and her sex may
well be proud. Starting from Cape Town in 1904 and proceeding to Bulawayo
and Salisbury, she went to Beira and sailed to Chinde, whence, sailing up the
Zambesi and the Shire, she reached Blantyre, where she says the most interesting
feature is the Church of Scotland Mission founded in 1875. Then she pushed on
to Lake Nyasa, over which she sailed to Karonga in eight days, passing Kota Kota
with its Universities' Mission, Likoma with its Anglican Cathedral, and Living-
stonia with its United Free Church of Scotland Mission. Traversing the
Tanganyika Plateau she reached Fife, and then Kawimbe with its London
Missionary Society's Mission. From Abercorn she crossed to Bismarckbiirg and
entered German East Africa.
Oar German friends will naturally be much interested in Miss Hall's chapters
on their East African Colony. They will also be pleased with the manner in
which she registers her grateful thanks to all the German officers with whom she
came in contact, adding that her task would have been impossible Avithout their
thorough co-operation, kindness, and hospitality. Touching at Udjidji, where
Livingstone was met by Stanley, she notes that the hut Livingstone occupied has
disappeared, but that the mango tree they planted to commemorate the historic
meeting still flourishes.
At Kanyinya she found a Eoman Catholic Mission of White Fathers and con-
versed with them in German and received much kindness. These Fathers go to
Central Africa for life, or until incapacitated for further service. On reaching
Karinya she passed beyond the protecting arm of the German Government, regard-
ing which, she says, "I shall always feel the deepest gratitude for the efficient aid
it afforded me."
After a trip on the Uganda Railway she returned to the Victoria Nyanza and
reached Entebbe, the seat of the Uganda Government, and visited the French
Mission. She next proceeded to Kampala, the native capital, and was hospitably
entertained at the Ladies' House of the Church Missionary Society, inspected
that Society's fine hospital, and worshipped in the Anglican Cathedral. She also
saw the King of Uganda, a boy of ten, playing enthusiastically at football. Her
route after this was to Butiaba, on the Albert Nyanza via Hoima, tlie capital of
Uayoro, with its Church Missionary Society's Mission. From Butiaba she sailed
NEW BOOKS. 667
along the Albert Nyanza till she entered the Nile and went down to Nimuli, from
which (as the river is not navigable) she made her "final tramp" to Gondokoro,
the most northerly station of the Uganda Protectorate and the limit of the first
navigable stretch of the Nile south of Khartum. From Gondokoro she steamed
down to Fashoda (now called Kodok) and reached Khartum, which she hailed with
delight after months of privation and spare living.
Arriving at Cairo, she brought to a close her eventful journey, during which
she had found that the Dark Continent, when administered by conscientious
European officials, opened up by railways and steamers, and evangelised by
Christian Missions, is not now so dark as it once was. Her volume contains
sixty-four illustrations and two good maps, with a portrait of the intrepid
authoress, who is shortly to give our Society the privilege of hearing from
her own lips an account of one of the most remarkable journeys on record.
GENERAL.
Modern Lithology. By E. H. Adyje. Edinburgh and London : W. and A. K.
Johnston, 1907. Frire lOs. net.
The author of the Twentieth Century Atlas of Micro-Petrography has attempted
to improve upon his former work by issuing a small volume bearing the above
title and illustrated by coloured plates made from actual rock-sections. The idea
is good, though some of the plates are not quite successful. Those of them which
exhibit sections as seen in ordinary light — those, that is to say, in which com-
paratively low tints are used — are generally good. The Arthur's Seat basalt, the
luxulyanite, the Plauen syenite, and the Wolkenburg andesite are such, and
represent very faithfully the appearance of sections of these rocks. But no one
has ever yet succeeded in reproducing on paper the brilliant polarisation colours
of the second and third orders, and Mr. Adye's " Heidelberg Granite," his " Micro-
cline," and others, are crude. They also represent sections many times thicker
than those in ordinary use ; a section in which the quartz shall show a blue of the
second order must be nearly one-tenth mm. in thickness.
The text throughout is concise and accurate, but we could wish that the author
had put more method into his teaching. He should not forget that the chief
characteristic of modern lithology is systematised classification and nomenclature.
The glossary is a useful feature of the book, though like the text it is not so
modern as it might be. We notice, for example, the omission of many useful
terms introduced by Brogger, such ■Afileucocratie, melanocratic, aschistie, etc., while
there is also no mention of the entire vocabulary originated by Cross and others
in America.
Nevertheless the book can be recommended to students of petrology, to be
studied in conjunction with sections of the rocks which it describes.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
We have received the following new books, which will be reviewed in due
course : —
Murray's Handbooh for Egypt and the Sudan. Edited by H. E. Hall, M.A.,
F.R.G.S. Eleventh edition. With ^^8 Maps and Plans. Pp. xiv + 613. Frice Us.
London : Edward Stanford, 1907.
The Mineralogy of the Faroes, arranged Topographically. By James Currie,
M. A., F.R.S.E., President, Geological Society of Edinburgh. Pp.68. Geological
Society, Edinburgh, 1907.
A Woman's Trek from the Cape to Cairo. By Mary Hall. With 64 lUus-
668 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
trations and 2 Maps. Demy 8vo. Pp. xvi + 424. Price 16s. 7ieL^- London?:
Methuen and Co., 1907.
Across Persia. By E. Crawshay Williams. With Illustrations and jNIaps.
Demy 8vo. Pp. xii + 348. Price 19,8. Gd. net. London: Edward Arnold, 1907.
Across Widest Africa: An Account of the Country and People of Eastern,
Central, and Western Africa, as seen during a Twelve Months^ Journey from
Djibuti to Cape Verde. By A. Henry Savage Landor. Royal 8vo. Two
Volumes. Pp. Vol. i. XYi + 396; Vol. ii. xii + 511. Price 42s. net. London:
Hurst and Blackefet, 1907.
From the Niger to the Nile. By Lieut. Boyd Alexander, Rifle Brigade.
In Two Volumes. Large Medium. With 250 Illustrations and Maps. Pp.
Vol. I. XV + 358 ; Vol. ii. xi + 395. Price 36s. London : Edward Arnold, 1907.
The Private Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai. Duhash to Joseph Francois
Dupleix: A Record of Matters Political, Historical, Social, and Personal, from
1736^0 1761. Edited by Sir J. Frederick Price, K.C.S.I., assisted by K. Ran-
gachari. Volume ii. Demy 8vo. Pp. xxx + 433. Price 4s. Superintendent,
Government Press, 1907.
Das Mittelmeergebict : Seine Geographische und Kulturelle Eigenart. Von
Alfred Philipson. Demy 8vo. Pp. 261. Preis 7 m. Leipzic : B. G.
Teubner, 1907.
Egypt and'Jhe Si(dan. Handbook for Travellers. By Karl Baedeker. 24
Maps and 76 Plans. Price 15.s\ Leipzig : Karl Baedeker, 1907.
The Polarity of Matter : An Introduction to Physics. By Alex. Clark, M.A.
Crown 8vo. Pp. viii + 134. Price3s.6d.net. London : Gall and Inglis, 1907.
The Boa Entrada Plantations, S. Thome, Portuguese West Africa ( " La
Perle des Colonies Portugaises"). Translated from the original Portuguese by
J. A. Wyllie, F.R.G.S., Lieut.-Colonel Indian Army. Quarto. Pp. 63. Illus-
trated, Presented by Mr. Monteira de Mendon^a.
Also the following Reports, etc. : —
Adminidration Report of the Marine tStirvey of India for 1906-1901 . Bom-
bay, 1907.
Meteorology in Mysore for 1906. Fourteenth Annual ^Report. By James
Cook, M.A., F.R.S.E. Bangalore, 1907.
Report on Administration of the Meteorological Department of the Government
of India in 1906-1907. Calcutta, 1907.
The Travancore State Manual. By V. N. Aiya, B.A. Three Volumes. Tri-
bandrum, 1906.
Gazetteer of the Chenab Colony, 1904. Vol. xxx l''''. Lahore, 1907.
Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore. By L. S. S. O'Malley, I.C.S. Cal-
cutta, 1907.
Baluchistan District Gazetteer. Vol. v. Quetta-I*ishir District. By R.
HuGHES-BuLLER, I.C.S. Ajmer, 1907.
Central Provinces Gazetteer. Edited by R. V. Russell, I.C.S. Three
Volumes. Allahabad, 1907.
General Guide to the British Museum {Natural History) : lid. Guide to the
Galleries of Mammals (B.M.) : 6d. Gtiide to the Galleries of Reptilia aiul Am-
phibia {B.M.): 6d. A Guide to the Fossil Invertebrate Animals in the British
Museum: 6d. A Guide to the Fossil Repitiles, Amphibians, and Fishes in the
British Museum : 6d. List of British Seed-Plants and Ferns {Department of
Botany, B.M.) : 4d. London : The Tru.stees, British Museum, 1907.
Publishers forwarding books for review will greatly oblige by marking the price
in clear figures, especially in the case of foreign books.
184
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE. 669
EOYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.
REPORT OF COUNCIL.
Twenty-third Session, 1906-1907.
The Council has the honour to submit the following Report : —
Ordinary Membership.
The changes which occurred during the Session in the number of members
were as foUows : —
Number on 1st November 1906, . . . . 1852
New members added, ..... 105
1957
Deduct by Death, ..... 45
„ Resignation, .... 139
Number of ordinary members remaining on Roll on 31st
October 1907, . . . . . .1773
Of this number, 1024 are on the Edinburgh list, 373 are on the Glasgow list,
133 and 96 are on the Dundee and Aberdeen lists respectively. In addition to
those on the lists named, 44 members reside abroad, and 103 reside in England.
Of the total number of 1773 members, 270 are life members.
Teacher Associate Members.
Number 1st November 1!)06, .... 31
Resignations, ...... 9
22
Eight of the Teacher Associates who resigned did so to rejoin as ordinary
Members.
Meetings.
The Society's Anniversary Meeting was addressed by The Right Hon. Sir
G. D. Taubman Goldie, P.C, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D., President of the
Royal Geographical Society. Thirty-six ordinary meetings were held, nine of
them in Edinburgh, nine in Glasgow, nine in Dundee, and nine in Aberdeen.
These meetings were addressed by Sir W. Martin Conway, M.A., F.S.A.,F.R.G.S.,
Major A. St. Hill Gibbons, F.R.G.S., Prof. J. Arthur Thomson, M.A., His Serene
Highness the Prince of Monaco, Prof. Sir W. M. Ramsay, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D.,
C. G. Seligmann, M.B., Prof. George Adam Smith, M.A., D.D., LL.D., T. G.
Longstaff, M.B., F.R.G.S., H. M. Cadell, B.Sc, Prof. D'Arcy W. Thompson, C.B.,
M.A., Marion I. Newbigin, D.Sc. (Lend.), Charles J. Wilson, F.R.S.G.S., R. N.
Rudmose Brown, B.Sc.
Medals Awarded.
The Livingstone Gold Medal of the Society for 1906 was awarded to Sir
George D. Taubman Goldie, the "Founder of Nigeria," in recognition of his
services in extending civilisation and commerce in Africa.
670 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.
The Society's Gold Medal for 1906 was awarded to H.S.H. the Prince of
Monaco for his important researches in Oceanography. The Society's Silver
Medal for 1906 was awarded to Sir W. M. Eamsay, in recognition of his
valuable work in connection with the Ancient Geography of Asia Minor.
The Society's Magazine.
The Scottish Grographicnl Magazine has, as usual, been published throughout
the past session monthly, with maps and illustrations.
The Council is glad to acknowledge its obligation to the contributors of articles,
and to the following gentlemen who have rendered valuable assistance to the
editors : — Hon. John Abercromby ; J. G. Bartholomew ; W. S. Bruce ; H. ]M.
Cadell ; S. H. F. Capenny ; Dr. A. S. Cumming ; James Currie ; L. Geddie ; Dr.
R. N. Felkin ; H. B. Finlay ; Professor James Geikie ; Dr. John Gunn ; John
Laidlaw ; Rev. Robert Mackenzie ; R. C JSlossman ; James Murray ; Dr. J.
Harvie Pirie ; J. R. Reid ; Ralj^h Richardson ; Kenneth Sanderson ; E. H.
Shackelton ; Dr. George Smith ; C. W. A. Tait ; W. A. Taylor ; W. B.
Wilson.
Library axd Map Department.
Daring the past session 227 books, 57 pamphlets, 104 reports, 13 atlases, 305
map-sheets and charts have been added to the Library. The number of volumes
borrowed by members was 1612, and the Library was, as usual, much consulted by
non-members in search of geographical information.
The Council desires to record its thanks to foreign and colonial governments
for the official publications they have presented to the Library ; to the Treasury,
for the revised Ordnance Survey Maps of Scotland, both in outline and colour, as
each of thejevisions now in jjrogress is published ; and also to the undermentioned
private donors of books and maps, viz. : — Prince of Monaco ; Ralph Richardson ;
Julius Girard ; Col. P. Durham Trotter ; C. G. Cash.
Glasgow Centre.
Members of the Glasgow Centre will again have the advantage of the arrange-
ment made with the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow, whereby that
Society's very complete Library at 207 Bath Street, Glasgow, will be available
to them without extra payment.
Members desirous of exercising this privilege must exhibit their Membership
Cards for the current Session to the Librarian at 207 Bath Street, in order that
their names may be registered, and they must conform generally to such regula-
tions as may from time to time be laid down by the Royal Philosophical Society.
The private room at 207 Bath Street, presently rented, has been retained for
the exclusive use of Members of the Glasgow Centre.
Glasgow, Dundee, and Aberdeen Centres.
The Council has again the pleasure to acknowledge the services rendered by
the honorary officials of the Glasgow, Dundee, and Aberdeen Centres for their
continued successful conduct of the business of the Societj%
Finance.
The Council begs to submit the Annual Financial Statement.
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INDEX: VOL. XXIil.
In thefolloiving Index the Alphabetical Order is adhered to throuyhout. Titles
of Papers are in deeper type. Contraction, rev.= Review in the Magazine.
Abbe, Cleveland, on the Climate of
Alaska, 47.
Abruzzi, Duke of, on his Expedition to
Riivvenzori, 95.
Abyssinia and British East Africa : Sport
and Travel (Hindlip), rei\, 329.
Adair, John, Manuscript ^Nlaps by, 591.
Adriatic, The Shores of the (Jackson),
rev., 662.
Adye, E. H., Modern Lithology, 616;
rev., 667.
Aflalo, F. G., Sunshine and Sport in
Florida and the West Indies, 391.
Africa, Abyssinia and British East (Hind-
lip), 167; rer., 329.
Across Wildest (Landor), 668.
• British, Major Close on the Surveys
of, 595.
Surveys of, 600.
• — - Central, designated the Nyasa-
land Protectorate, 546.
On the Frontier of the
Western Shire. By H. Crawford Angus,
72.
East, Abyssinia and (Hindlip),
rev., 329.
Central, Return of the British
Museum Expedition from, 380.
East, "Verb. Sap."' on Going to,
167.
Dr. Wollaston Expedition, 96,
546.
German South - West, Climatic
Changes in, 316.
West, Rainfall of, 380.
In Wildest (Schillings), 616; rev.,
665.
North, Stanford's Compendium
(Keane), 560.
Portuguese East (Maugham), rev.,
109.
West, S. Thome (Mendonca),
668.
• South, A Guide to (A. S. and G. G.
Brown), rev. , 328.
The Natives of British Central
(Werner), 167 ; rev., 328.
VOL. XXIII.
Africa, The Transition of British. By Major
A. St. HiU Gibhons, F.R.G.S., 122.
West, At the Back of the Black
Man's iSlind : or, Notes on the Kingly
Ofhce in (Dennett), 167 ; rer., 202.
Commercial Possibilities of,
605, 606.
African Colonies, South, Lord Selborne on
the Present Mutual Relations of the,
619.
Races, South, Notes on the Tradi-
tions of the (Hall), 560.
Afrique Centrale, A Travers 1' (Lemaire),
112; rev., 273.
Agra and Oudh, District Gazetteer of the
United Provinces of (Nevill), 168.
Report on the Administra-
tion of the United Provinces of, 280.
Aguilera, J. G., Les Volcans du Mexique,
rev. , 25.
Akin-Higgins, Captain A., Diploma of
Fellowship conferred on, 543.
Alaska, Climate of, 47.
Glacial Erosion in, 381.
Railway Routes in, 321.
The (xeography and Geolog}' of
(Brooks), rev., 46.
Alexander, Boyd, From the Niger to the
Nile, 668.
Alexander-Gosling Expedition, Return of
the, 159.
Algeria, Peopling of, 488.
Alhambra. The (Calvert), 167 : rev., 322.
Allen, B. C, Assam District Gazetteers,
392.
Allorge, M., on the Cave of Atoyac,
596.
Alps, Baedeker's Eastern, 392 ; rev.,
608.
The Central (Ball), 504 : rev., 662.
Alpiijarra, Description of. 312.
America, British North (Hill-Tout), 224 ;
rev., 498.
South, Carl Skottsberg Expedition
to i-he Extreme South of, 490.
Cultivation of Rubber in, 211,
213.
3C
674
INDEX
American Ethnology, Twentj- - fourth
Annual Report of the Bureau of
(Holmes), 504.
Amerique du Sud, A travers Y (Dele-
becque), 167 ; I'ei:, 330.
Amir, Under the Absolute (Martin), 166 ;
rei: 438.
Amundsen, Dr. Roald, awarded Patron's
jSIedal of the Royal Geographical
Society, 264.
return to Christiania, 99.
Anderson, Dr. John, referred to, 468.
R., on the Geology of Japan,
545.
William, Third and Final Report of
the Geological Survey of Natal and
Zululand, 392.
Anderssen, Dr. Gunnar, on the History
of the Scandinavian Flora, 314.
— — on the Structure and Topo-
graphy of Graham Land, 208.
Andrews, A. W., on the Lands End
Peninsula. a!)3.
Angus, H. Crawford, On the Frontier of the
Western Shire, British Central Africa.
72.
Antarctic Expedition, Proposed Belgian,
263, 383.
1907, The British. By E. H.
Shackleton, 372.
Plans of the British, 160.
British, 435, 490.
Dr. Charcot's, 491.
Dr. F. A. Cook's proposed,
384, 655.
■ — - Scottish National, Recovery of
Float, 100, 159.
Swedish, Account of Graham
Land based on the Researches of the,
208.
Life in the, Photographs bj' the
Scottish Antarctic Expedition, 7-ev.,
332.
Stations, Argentine's Meteorological
and Magnetical, 96, 209.
Appalachians, From Trail to Railway
through the (Brigham), 336; i-et-.,
439.
Arab and Druze at Home (Ewing), 166 ;
rev. 324.
Aran Islands, The (Synge), 336; rev.,
438.
Archer, Francis Bisset, The Gambia
Colony and Protectorate, rev., 609.
Arctic Expedition, Mr. Harrison's, 549.
Duke of Orleans', Results
obtained, 99, 603.
Mikkelsen, 160, 318, 548.
Commander Peary's, 97, 491.
. Lieut. -Colonel Sergeyeff's Pro-
posed, 99.
Wellman, 263, 384, 549.
Arctowski, Henryk, Proposed Antarctic
Expedition, 263, 383.
Argentina, Modern (Koebel), 560.
Progress of, 384.
Argentine Repuljlic, Forty Years in the
(ShaM), 392 ; rev. 556.
Argentine's Meteorological and Magnetical
Antarctic Stations, 96, 209.
Arkaig, Survey of Loch, 348.
Art, Comparative (Balch), 167; rev., 611.
Asia, Central, French Archaeological Ex-
pedition to, 42.
M. Kozlow, Proposed Expedi-
tion to, 488.
Aspinall, Algernon E. , A Pocket Guide to
the West Indies, 168 ; rev., 439.
Assam District Gazetteers (Allen), 392.
Atlases, New, 1()5, 274, 447.
Athens : Notes on a Recent Visit. By
Ralph Richardson, F.R.S.E. , 422.
Aunet, Biard d', L'Aurore Australe, 391 ;
rer. , 497.
Australasia, The "Lloyd" Guide to
(Plate), 168; rev., 496.
Australasian Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, Address to the : Adelaide
Meeting, 1907. By T. W. Fowler, 337.
Australe. L'Aurore (d'Aunet), 391 : rer.,
497.
Australia, Population of, 548.
The Dead Heart of: A Review, 19.
The Natives of (Thomas), 56; rti:,
332.
The Real (Buchanan), 279; rev.,
557.
Western, The Vegetation of : A Review,
363.
Australian States, Handbook of the,
392.
Western, Year-Book (Eraser), 56,
224.
Australien. West, siidlich des Wende-
kreis. Die Pflanzenwelt (Diels), rev.,
363.
Auerbach, Prof. Bertrand. on the Peopling
of Algeria, 488.
Bacon's Atlas of the British Isles, rer.,
447.
Baden - Powell, Major B. F. S., The
Science Year Book and Diary for 1907,
56; rtr., 277.
Baedeker, Karl, The Dominion of Canada,
with Newfoundland and an Excursion
to Alaska, 166.
.Eastern Alps, 392 ; rev., 608.
Egypt and the Sudan, 668.
Soutliern France and Corsica,
279; rev.. 608.
Paris and its Environs, 560 ;
rev., 608.
Rhine from Rotterdam to Con-
stance, 7-ev., 104.
Switzerland, 504: rev., 608.
Baichis, M. de. on the Fauna and Flora
of Spitsbergen, 383.
Baillie-Grohman, W. A., The Land in
the Mountains : Tyrol, 391 ; rev.,
552.
Balaton, Survey of Lake, 157.
INDEX.
675
Balcb, E. S., Comparative Art, 167 ; rev.,
611.
Balfour, Andrew, Second Report : Well-
come Research Laboratories at the
Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum,
rev., 108.
Ball, John, The Central Alps. o04 ; rev. , 662.
Banda, The First Expedition of the
Portuguese to (M'Clymont), rev., 272.
Bangalore, Report on the Administi-ation
of the Civil and Military Station of
(Fraser), 224.
Baring-Gould, S., A Book of the Cevennes,
504; re I'., 659.
Baro to the Niger, Construction of Rail-
way from, 492.
Bartholomew, J. G. , Atlas of the World's
Commerce, re?;., 165, 279, 441.
Baskerville, Beatrice C, The Polish Jew :
his Social and Economic Value, rev.,
333.
Bassett, R. J., Canada's Century, 560;
rev., 610.
Bath and Bridgewater Districts : Geo-
graphical Distribution of Vegetation in
Somerset, (Moss), rer., 436.
Bathymetrical Survey of the Fresh-Water
Lochs of Scotland. Under the Direction
of Sir John Murray, K. C. B. , F. R. S. , D. Sc. ,
etc., and Laurence PuUar, F.R.S.E. ,
346.
Bayley, Stanhope, The Sacred Grove, and
other Impressions of Italy, 167; rev.,
323.
Beacom, Major J. H. , Irrigation in the
United States, rer. , 484.
Beanly and Conon, The : The Rivers of
Scotland. By Lionel W. Hinxman, B.A.,
F.R.S.E., 192.
Beazley, C. Raymond, awarded the Gill
Memorial of the Royal Geographical
Society, 265.
The Dawn of Modern Geography,
56 ; rev., 441.
Becke, Louis, Sketches from Normandy,
56 ; 7-ev., 215.
Behrens, Captain, on the Modern Kx-
plorer, 595.
Belgian Antarctic Expedition, Proposed,
263, 383.
Belgium, Origin of the River System of
North, 378.
Bell, Gertrude Lowthian, The Desert and
the Sown, 166 ; rev., 324.
Dr. Robert, awarded the CuUum
Medal, 160.
Bengal District Gazetteers, o&, 280, 504.
Benguela-Katanga Railway, 432.
Bennett Island, Description of, 653.
Ben Nevis Observatory, Government and
the, 488.
Berkshire, Highways and Byways of,
(Vincent), 167; rev., 388.
Bernard, Augustin, La Penetration
Saharienne, 168 ; rev., 608.
Binger, Captain, Du Niger au Golfe de
Guinee par le pays de Kong et le Mossi,
223.
Bird, The Life of Isaljella (Mrs. Bishop),
(Stoddart), rer., 333.
Bishop, Mrs., The Life of Isabella Bird
(Stoddart), rev., 333.
Blache, Prof. V. de la, on the Geographi-
cal Evolution of Communications, 596.
Black Mans Mind, The, 202.
Blagden, C. O. , Pagan Races of the Malay
Peninsula, rev., 33.
Bogoslof Islands, Prof. D. S. Jordan on
the, 46.
Bombay Presidency, Report on the
Administration of the, 336.
Books, New, 51, 103, 268, 322, 388, 437.
493, 552, 608, 659.
Received, 55, 112, 166,223, 279, 335,
391, 504, .559, 616, 667.
Bort, M. Teisserenc, on Observations of
the Trade Winds, 264.
Bowles, Mrs. Henry, Sark : The Gem of
the Channel Islands, 336 : ret., 437.
Bradley-Birt, F. B., The Romance of an
Eastern Capital, 56.
Brazil, Through the Heart of (Glass),
rev., 440.
United States of (Sphere), 616.
Bridgewater District. Geographical Dis-
tribution of Vegetation in Somerset,
Bath, and (Moss), ?vr., 436.
Brigham, Albert Perry, From Trail to
Railway through Appalachians, 336 ;
rev., 439.
Briquet, A., on the Origin of the River
System of North Belgium, 378.
Britain and the British Seas (Mackinder) ;
rev., 215.
Over Sea (Knight), 61ti.
British Antarctic Expedition, 1907, The.
ByE. H. Shackleton, 372.
Antarctic P]x))edition, Plans of the
New, 160, 435, 490.
Association for the Advancement of
Science, York, Report of the, 280.
The Leicester Meeting of the,
593.
Central Africa, On the Frontier of the
Western Shire. By H. Crawford Angus,
72.
The Natives of (Werner) ;
rev., 328.
— — Colonies, Historical Geographj' of
the (Rogers), 280 ; rev., 496.
Isles, The, A Scientific Geography
(Heaton), rev., 104.
Bacon's Atlas of the, ?-er., 447.
Rainfall, 1906 (Mill), 560.
Brooks, Alfred, I'he Geography and
Geology of Alaska, rev., 46.
Broomhall, Marshall, The Chinese Empire,
336.
Brown, A. Samler and G. Gordon, A
Guide to South Africa, 7-ev., .328.
■ Professor Charles W. , The Jamaica
Earthquake, 536.
676
INDEX.
Brown, R. N. Rudmose, B.Sc, The Mergui
Archipelago : Its People and Products,
463.
Expedition to the Mergui Archi-
pelago Pearl Fisheries, 95, 157.
Lecture cancelled, 157.
Bjown's Comprehensive Nautical Almanac
for 1907, rec, 55.
Browne, J. Penman, Diploma of Fellow-
ship conferred on, 261.
The Upper Ituri, 86.
Bruce, Colonel 1)., on the Cause of Fever
at Malta, 41.
William S. . F.R. S.E. , Prince Charles
Foreland, 141.
Dr. W. S., Expedition to Prince
Charles Foreland, .319, 490, 602.
W. S., receives the degree of LL.D. ,
161.
referred to, 58.
Bruges, Harbour of, 385.
Buchan, Dr., on Thunderstorms in .Scot-
land, 265.
Dr. Alexander, Obituary. By Hugh
Robert Mill, D.Sc, 427.
Buchanan, Alfred, The Real Australia,
279 ; rec, obi.
J. Y., referred to, 58.
Budge, E. A. Wallis, Cook's Handbook
for Egypt and the Sudan, 168 ; rev.,
438.
Bulgaria of To-day (B.S.E.), 616.
Burma, Expedition to the Pearl Oyster
Fisheries of, 95, 157.
New Volcanic Island off, 206, 263.
Report on the Administration of,
1905-6, 112.
- — - Upper, Economic Geography and
Distribution of Population in, 653.
Burnley -Campbell, Lieutenant- Colonel,
Journey Round the World, 435.
Burrard, Colonel, on the H3-drography of
the Sangpo, 545.
Cadell, Henry M., B.Sc, F.R. S.E. , Some
Old Mexican Volcanoes, 281.
■ Lecture by, 157.
Cairo, A Woman's Tiek from the Cape to
(Hall), rev., 666.
Calvert, A. F., Cordova: A City of the
Moors, 559.
— — Moorish Remains in Spain,
167 ; rev., 322.
The Alhambra, 167 ; rev., 322.
H., on his Journev in ^Vestern Tibet,
43.
Cambridge : A Concise Guide to the Town
and University (Clark), rev., 51.
Canada and the New Canadians, New,
(Kennedy), 392.
Atlas of (White), rev., 448.
Geological Survey of, 224.
Summary Report of the Geological
Survey Department of, 224.
To-day (Hobson), rev., 275.
with Newfoundland and an Excursion
to Alaska, The Dominion of (Baedeker),
166.
Canada's Century (Bassett), 560; rev.,
610.
Canadian Rockies, Camp Fires in the
(Hornaday), rev., 110.
Waters, Survey of Tides and Currents
in (Dawson), 280.
Cape Colony, Notes and Otservations on
an Expedition in the Western. By Lieut.
J. A. G. Elliot, 393.
of Good Hope (Kilpin), 336.
to Cairo, A Woman's Trek from the
(Hall), 667; rev., 666.
Capri, The Book of (Trower), 335; rev.,
437.
Carli, Dr. F. , on Technical Education and
Economic PLxpansion, 210.
Cash, C. G.. F.R.S.G.S., Manuscript Maps
by Pont, the Gordons and Adair, in the
Advocates" Library, Edinburgh, 574.
Ceresolc, Alfred, the Montreux-Bernese
Oberland Railway, 280.
Cevenncs, A Book of the (Baring-Gould),
504; rev., 659.
Ceylon, Handbook and Directory and
Compendium of Useful Information
for, 1906-7, The (Ferguson), 224.
in 1903-5, describing the Progress
of the Island since 1803 (Ferguson),
224.
Rubber Cultivation in, 211. 213.
Exhibition, The, 224.
Chad, Lake, Variations of, 431.
Chamberlin, Prof., referred to, 7.
Chamonix and the Range of Mont-Blanc,
A Guide to (Whympor), 391.
Charcot, Dr., Plans of Antarctic Expedi-
tion, 491.
Chevillon, Andr^, Un Crepuscule d'Islam,
55; rev., 109.
China, A Mission in, (Soothill), 223 ; rev.,
325.
Chine novatrice et guerriere, La (D'OUone),
56 ; rev., 219.
Chinese Empire, The (Broomhall), 336.
Chisholm, George G., M.A., B.Sc, Geo-
graphy and Commerce, 505.
referred to, 563.
Clark, Alex., The Polarity of Matter,
668.
Henry Martyn, Ordinary Diploma
of Fellowship conferred on, 41.
John Willis, Cambridge : A Concise
Guide to the Town and University,
rev., 51.
Clarke, Butler, Modern Spain, 1815-1898,
56; rev., 214.
Close, Major, On the Surveys of British
Africa, 595.
Cobham, Claude Delaval, A Handbook of
Cyprus, 392 ; rev., 494.
Cofre de Perote, Volcano of (Ordoiiez),
rev., 26.
Colombia, Proposed Inter-Oceanic Canal
through, 317.
INDEX.
677
Colorado River, The Vagaries of the. By
J. W. Redway, F.R.G.S., 360.
The Grand Canon of, as a Typical
Example of the Ei-osive Power of Water,
51.
Colvin, Sir Auckland, The Making of
Modern Egypt, rev., 52.
Commerce, Atlas of the World's (Bar-
tholomew), rev., l(i.">, 270, 4:41.
Geography and. By George G. Chis-
holm, M.A. , B.Sc. . 505.
Commercial Geography, The New Fields of
Geography, especially. By Prof. Dr.
Max Eckert, 561.
Compton, Herbert, Indian Life in Town
and Country, rev. , 108.
Congo Free State, Cultivation of Rubber
in, 211, 213.
The Rubber Slave Trade on the
(Morel), 391 ; rev., 558.
The Truth about the (Starr), 504.
Congolese, La Questione (Corsoldi),
392.
Congress of Orientalists, International,
435.
Conon, The Beauly and : The Rivers of
Scotland. By Lionel D. Hinxman, B.A.,
F.R.S.E., 192.
Conte, Paul le, on the Cultivation of
Rubber, 212.
Conwajs Moncure D., My Pilgrimage to
the Wise ^Men of the East, 56 ; rei\,
271.
Conw-entz, Prof., on tlie Pi-eservation of
Natural Monuments, 607.
Cook, Dr. F. A., Proposed Antarctic
Expedition, .384, 655.
Rev. J. A. Bethune, Sunny Singa-
pore, 280 ; rev., 554.
Cook's Handbook for Palestine and Syria,
167; rev., 4.38.
Coorg, Report on the Administration of,
112, 224.
Cordova : A City of the Moors (Calvert
and Gallichan), 559.
Cornoldi, Aristide, La Questione Con-
golese, 392.
Corsica, Baedeker's Southern France and,
279 ; rer., 608.
Cossacks and Cossackdom. By V. Din
gelstedt, 239.
Council, Report of, 669.
Crooke, William, Natives of Northern
India, 279; rev., 389.
Cruickshank, J. W. and A. M., Christian
Rome, 104.
Cuba, Exploration of the Sierra Maestra
of, 547.
Currie, James, Mineralogy of the Faeroes,
667.
Cvigic, Prof., on Human Settlements in
the Servian Countries, 212.
Cyprus, A Handbook of (Hutchison and
Cobham), 392; rev., 494.
My Experiences of the I.sland of
(Stewart), rev., 215.
Uainkli.i, S. , on the Volcanic Deposits of
the Upper Reaches of the Aniene, 314.
Dalmatia : The Land where the P^ast
meets the West (Holbach), 616.
Damaraland, Climatic Changes in, 316.
Dauphinot, G., on the E]conomic Develop-
ment of .Japan, 5.')0.
Dawson, W. Bell, Survej' of Tides and
Currents in Canadian Waters, 280.
Day, David T. , Mineral Resources of the
United States, 1905, .392.
Delebecque, .J., A Travers I'Amerique du
Sud, 167 ; rev., .330.
Dennett, R. E., At the Back of the Black
Man's Mind, 167 ; rev., 202.
Desert and the Sown, The (Bell), 166 ;
rev., 324.
Deutscher Kolonial-Atlas, Reiner's Gros-
ser, reA\, 166.
Diagram Company referred to, 13.
Dicey, Edward, The Egypt of the Future,
167 ; rev., 274.
Dick, Stewart, The Heart of Spain : An
Artist's Impression of Toledo, 112 ; rev.,
215.
Diels, Dr. L., Die Pflanzenwelt West
Australien siidlich des Wendekreis, rev. ,
363.
Diener, M. , Reise in das Modern Mexico,
616.
Dingelstedt, V., Cossacks and Cossackdom,
239.
Discoveries and Explorations in the Cen-
tiiry (Roberts), rev.. 111.
Doflein, Dr. Franz, Ostasienfahrt, rev., 51.
D'Ollone, Capitaine, La Chine novatrice
et guerriere, 56 ; rev., 219.
Dubh Lochan, Survey of An, 355.
Duchesne, C, on Map Projections and the
Teaching of Geography, 658.
Duffart, M. Ch., on the World's Produc-
tion of Rubber, 47.
Dyke, John C. Van, The Opal Sea, 168 ;
rev., 33.3.
Eakba, Survey of Lochan na h-, 350.
East and its Aftermath, The Truce in
the Far (Weale), 335 ; rev., 494.
Loch, Survey of, 351.
My Pilgrimage to the W^ise Men of
the (Conway), 56 ; rev., 271.
To-morrow in the (Story), 336 ; rev.,
554.
Eastern Capital, The Romance of an
(Bradley-Birt), 56.
Eckert, Prof. Dr. Max, The New Fields of
Geography, especially Commercial Geo-
graphy, 561.
Edinburgh under Sir Walter Scott (Fyfe),
56; rtv., 388.
Variations in ^lean ^lonthly Tem-
peratures in, 265.
Educational, 49, 101, 161, 212, 266, 320,
385, 438, 492. 551, 606, 658.
Edwards, William Seymour, on the Mexi-
can Highlands, 280 ; rev., 555.
678
INDEX,
Egypt, A Report on the Work of the
Survey Department in (Lyons), 56.
and the .Sudan (Baedeker), 668.
Cook's Handbook for (Budge),
rev., 438.
Murray's Handbook for (Hall),
667.
The Etabi Desert, 595.
of the Future, The (Dicey) 167 ; rev.,
274.
Militar}' Report on, 56.
Proposed Raising of the Assuan Dam,
319.
The Making of Modern (Colviu), rev.,
52.
Things Seen in (Holland), 616; rev.,
665.
Egyptian Sudan, The (GifiFen), 223 ; rev. ,
330.
Egyptian-Turco Frontier, New, 44.
Eiszeit und Urgeschiclite des Menschen
JPohlig), 391 ; rev., 557.
Elizabethan Seamen, Voyages of the
(Payne), 391 ; rev, 558.
Elliot, Lieut. J. A. G. , Notes and Observa-
tions on an Expedition in Western Cape
Colony, 393.
Entz, Dr., on the Investigations of Lake
Balaton, 158.
Erythrea, Italian Colony of, 315.
Espinosa, A. de, The Guanches of Tene-
rife, 560.
Europe, A Cruise Across (Maxwell), rev.,
105.
Ewhe - Sprache in Togo, Lehrbuch der
(Seidel), 223; rev., 558.
Ewing, William, Arab and Druze at Home,
166 ; rev. , 324.
Eyre, Prof. Gregory on his Expedition to
Lake, 19.
Fawns, Sydney, Tin Deposits of the
World, with a Chapter on Tin Smelting,
504 ; rev., 559.
FiBroes, Mineralogy of the (Currie), 667.
Ferguson, J., Ceylon Handbook and
Directory and Compendium of Useful
Information for 190G-7, 224.
Ceylon in 1903-1905, describing
theProgress of the Island since 1803, 224.
Fernow, B. E., on his Exploration of the
Sierra Maestra of Cuba, 547.
Ferrar, H. T., on the Etabi Desert, 595.
Ferrero, Guglielmo, The Greatness and
Decline of Rome, 336 ; 7-ev., 660.
Field -Path Rambles (Miles), 392; rev.,
553.
Florida and the West Indies, Sunshine
and Sport in (Afiialo), 391.
Forbes - Lindsay, C. H., Panama: The
Isthmus and the Canal, 279 ; rev., 499.
Formosa, .lapanese Rule in (Takekoshi),
224 ; rev. , 553.
Foureau, F. , Documents Scientifiques de la
Mission Saharieiinc, vi v. 43.
Fowler, T. W., Address to the Austra-
lasian Association for the Advancement
of Science, Adelaide Meeting, 1907, 337.
France and Corsica, Baedekers Southern,
279 ; rev., 60S.
Production of Cereals in, 210.
Results of Census in, 314.
Francis, W. , Madras District Gazetteers :
Vizagapatam, 392.
Fi-anklin Research Expedition, Fiftieth
Anniversary of the, 434.
Eraser, John Foster, Red Russia, 336 ;
rev., 553.
Malcolm A. C, Western Australian
Year-Book, 66, 224.
Stuart, Report on the Administration
of the Civil and Military Station of
Bangalore, 224.
French Antarctic Expedition , Plans of, 491 .
Geographical Societies, Twentieth
National Congress of, 161.
Freshfield, Douglas, on the Civil Service
Commissioners and the FLxclusion of
Geography, HlO.
Frew, John, M. A., B. Sc. , and Frederick Mort,
M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S., The Southern High-
lands from Glasgow, 367.
Fricker, Dr. Karl, referred to, 343.
Friesland, Three Vagabonds in (Tomalin),
223 ; rev., 324.
Frye, Elexis E., First Steps in Geography,
279; rev., 335.
Fyfe, W. T. , Edinburgh under Sir Walter
Scott, 56 ; rev., 388.
Gabhar, Survey of Loch nan, 356.
Gallichan, W.'M., and A. F. Calvert,
Cordova : A City of the Moors, 559.
Gambia Colony and Protectorate, The
(Archer), rev., 609.
Gannett, Henry, Statistical Abstract of
the World, 336.
Geddes, Thomas, Ordinary Diploma of
Fellowship conferred on, 41.
Qeikie, Professor James, D.C.L. , LL.D.,
F.R.S., Old Scottish Volcanoes 449.
Geistbeck, Prof., on Methods of Geo-
graphical Teaching, 551.
Geographical Association, Annual Report
of the, 100.
Congress, Italian, 100.
Ninth International, 101, 549.
• Evolution of Communications, 596.
Ideals. By Sir George Taubman Gol-
die, F.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D.. 1.
Notes, 41, 95, 157, 205, 261, 312, 377,
431, 488, 545. 598, 652.
Photography. By John Thomson, 14.
Errata. 95.
Societies, Twentieth National Con-
gress of French, 161.
Society, Royal, Annual Awards of
the. 264.
Teaching, Prof. Geistbeck on Methods
of 551.
Geographic, Atlas Universel (Schrader),
rev., 166, 448.
INDEX.
679
Geographies, The Oxford (Herbertson)
391 ; rev., 558.
Geography, A Junior Course of Compara
tive (L'Estraiige), 223; rec, 334.
A Scientitio (Heatou), .".04 ; rev., 613
A Study in Regional : The Swiss
Valais. By Marion I. Newbigin, D.Sc,
(Lond.), 169, 225.
• and Commerce. By George G. Chis
holm, M.A., B.Sc. , 505.
and Statecraft. By the Right Hon.
Viscount Milner, P.O., G.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
617.
and the Foreign Otiice, 10, 49, 385, 657.
■ and the Value of the Study of the
Weather, 266.
Chair of, 4(», 387.
Elementary Studies in (Mackinder),
168 ; rev., 335.
especially Commercial Geography,
The New Fields of. By Prof. Dr. Max
Eckert, 561.
First Steps in (Frye), 279 ; rev., 335.
in Liege University, Teaching of, 492.
-in War (May), 167.
R. H. Whitbeck on the Teacliing of , 321 .
Tlie Dawn of Modern (Beazley), 56 ;
rev., 441.
Geological Society of London, Centenary
of, 261, 604.
Georgia, Tlie Altamalia Grit Region of the
Coastal Plain of, 162.
Ghuilbinn, Survej' of Loch, 354.
Gibbons, Major A. St. Hill, F.R.G.S., The
Transition of British Africa, 122.
GifFen, J. Kellv, The Egyptian Soudan,
223; rev., 330.
Gilbert, G. K. , on the Erosion of the
Gorge, Niagara Fall, 318.
Gill, Sir David, on the Progress of the
great African Arc of ^Meridian, 597.
Girard, J., Les Falaises de la Manche,
rer.. 661.
Glasgow, The Southern Highlands from.
By John Frew. M.A., B.Sc, and Frederick
Mort, M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S., 367.
Glass, Frederick E., Through the Heart of
Brazil, rev., 440.
Goeldi, Prof, Emile A., resigns from the
Directorship of the Museum of Natural
History, Para, Brazil, 320.
Goldie, Sir George Taubman, F.R.S., D.C.L.,
LL.D., Geographical Ideals, 1.
— Hon. Diploma of Fellowship con-
ferred on, 41.
on the Civil Service Commis-
sioners' Decision regarding Geography
and the Foreign Office, 385, 656.
Gordon, .Janaes, Manuscript Maps by, 583.
Robert, Manuscript Maps by, 583.
Graham Laud, Structure and Topography
of, 208.
Gravesend: The Watergate of London with
its Surroundings (Philip), 168.
Gre}-, Sir Edward, and Geography in the
Foreign Office, 49.
Greely, A. W., Handbook of Polar Dis-
coveries, 223; rev., 500.
Greenland, Duke of Orleans' Expedition
to North-East, 99.
Gregory, J. W., The Dead Heart of Aus-
tralia : A Jouruey round Lake Eyre in
the Summer of 1901-1902, rev., 19.
referred to, 342.
Grimshaw, B., In the Strange South Seas,
616.
Guiana, British, Bluebook, 1905-1906, 56.
Prof. Heilprin on the Results of
his Expedition to, 51.
French, Resources of, 546.
Guyane Frangaise, Notice Historit^ue sur
La (Richard), 392.
Gwynn, Major C. W. , awarded the Cuth-
bert Peek Fund of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society, 265.
Halkin, .Jos., on the Geographical Teach-
ing in the University of Liege, 492.
Hall, H. R., Murray's Handbook for Egypt
and the Sudan, 667.
Mary, A Woman's Trek from the
Cape to Cairo, 667 ; rev., 666.
R. N. , A Guide to the Great Zimbabwe
Ruins, 392,
Notes on the Traditions of South
African Races, 560.
The Prehistoric Gold Mines of
Rhodesia, 392.
Harper, R. M. , on A Phytogeographical
Sketch of the Altamaha Grit Region of
the Coastal Plain of Georgia, 162.
Harrison, A. H., Arctic Expedition, 549,
603.
Colonel, referred to, 88.
Harz, The (Hoffmann), 168.
Hattersley. C. W., Uganda by Pen and
Camera, 112; rev., 274.
Haussasprache, Die (Seidel), 223 ; rev.,
5.58.
Hawaii, Ostmikronesien, und Samoa (Kra-
mer), rev,. 111.
Heath, T. , and the Meteorology of Prince
Charles Foreland, 154.
Heaton, Ellis W., A Scientific Geography :
The British Isles, rev., 104.
■ A Scientific Geography, 504 ;
rev., 613.
Hedin, Dr. Sven, Expedition in Central
Asia, 159, 261, 599.
Heidenstam, 0. G. von, Swedish Life in
Town and Country, rev. , 663.
Heilprin, Professor Angelo, Death of, 492.
on Results of Expedition to
British Guiana, 51.
Henry, Prof. A. J., on the Climatology of
the United States, 493.
Herbert, Agues, Two Dianas in Somaliland,
616 ; rev., 664.
Herbertson, Dr. A. J., and F. H., The
Oxford Geographies, 391 ; rev., 558.
Hergesell, Prof., on Observations of the
Trade Winds, 264.
680
INDEX.
Hermann, Paul, Island in Vergangenheit
and Gegenwart, 7)60.
Highlands from Glasgow, The Southern.
By John Frew, M.A. , B.Sc. , and Frederick
Mort, M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S., 367.
Hill-Tout, C, British North America, 224 ;
rev., 498.
Hindlip, Lord, Abyssinia and British
East Africa : Sport and Travel, 167 ;
rev., 329.
Hindustani GrammarSelf-Taught(Thimm),
616.
Hints to Travellers : Scientific and General
(Reeves), rer., 275.
Hinxman, Lionel, W., B.A., F.R.S.E., The
Rivers of Scotland: The Beauly and
Conon, 192.
Hobson, J. A., Canada To-day, rev., 275.
Hofi'mann, Han.s, The Harz, 16S.
Hogarth, D. 8., Kinglake's Eothen, rev., 55.
Hoke, Prof., on Social Geography, 101.
Holbach, M. M., Dalmatia : The Land
where the East meets the West, 616.
Holdich, Sir Thomas, Tibet, the Mysteri-
ous, rev., 217.
Holland, Clive, Things Seen in Egypt,
616; rev., 665.
Things Seen in Japan, rev., 10,5.
Holmes, W. H., Twenty-fourth Annual
Report of the Bureau of American
Ethnology, 504.
Hornaday, William T., Camp Fires in the
Canadian Rockies, rev., 110.
Hornsb}^ M., The QiiCf« Newspaper Book
of Travel, 280 ; rev. , 446.
Howarth, C. J. R , on the District of
Jaederen, 594.
Hewitt, Dr., referred to, 19.
Hubbard, Mrs. Leonidas, on Unexplored
Rivers of Labrador, 596.
Huber, Dr. J., appointed Director of the
Museum of Natural History, Para,
Brazil, 320.
Hiickel, M., on the Development of Waj^s
of Communication, 102.
Hudson Bay and the Arctic Islands, Re-
port on the Dominion Government Expe-
dition to (Low), 168.
Hulbert, Homer R., The Passing of Korea,
55 ; rev., 268.
Huntington, Ellsworth, Investigations of
the Lake of Pangong, 206.
Hutchison, Sir J. T., A Handbook of
Cyprus, 392 ; rev., 494.
Immigrant, On the Trail of the (Steiner),
223 ; rev., 334.
Imrie, Rev. John, Isle of Man Illustrated,
rev., 660,
India (Loti), rev., 105.
Administration Report of the Marine
Survey of, 224,
Administration Report on the Rail-
ways in, 1906, 504.
General Report on the Operations of
the Survej' of (Longe), 224.
India, Imperial Gazetteer of, 336.
Natives of Northern (Crooke), 279 ;
rev., 389.
Rainfall of, 112.
Reports of Officers of the Survey of
1904-1905 (Longe), 504.
The Imperial Gazetteer of, rev. , 554.
The Royal Tour in (Reed), 504.
The Tourist's (Reynolds-Ball), 112 ;
rev., 324.
Indian Life in Town and Country (Cromp-
ton), rev., 108.
Mirror, The East and West (Villiers),
112; rev., 501.
Pictures and Problems (Malcolm),
168; rev., 327.
Insttumentenkunde fiir Forschungs-Reis-
ende (Miller), rev., 500.
I Ireland, Cause of the Poverty of the Fauna
01, 3/ 1.
Iron Ore in, 384.
Island in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart
(Hermann), 560.
Isle of Man Illustrated (Imrie), rev. , 660.
Italian Charts, Old, 205.
Geographical Congress of 1907, 100.
Ital\-, The Sacred Grove, and other Im-
pressions of (Baylej'), 167 ; rev., 323.
Ituri, The Upper. By J. Penman Browne,
j M.E., 86.
Jackson, A. V. Williams, Persia, Past
and Present, rev., 216.
F. Hamilton, The Shores of the
Adriatic : The Italian Side, i-ev., 662.
Jamaica Earthquake, The. By Professor
Charles W. Brown, 535.
Eartliquake in, 96.
with a Kodak, Through (Leader),
504 ; rev., 556.
Japan, Economic Development of, 550.
Geology of, 545.
The Future of : A Review, 374.
The Future of (W. Petrie Watson),
280; rev., 374.
Things Seen in (Holland), rev., 105.
Japanese Self-Taught (Shand), 616.
Jai-dine, F. L. , referred to, 473.
Java, Cultivaticm of Rubber in, 211, 213.
Johnson, Clifton, Hif;hwa\s and Byways
of the Mississippi Valley" 223 : rev., 3.30.
Johnston. Sir Harry H., G.C.M.G , K.C.B.,
The Niger Basin and Mungo Park, 58.
Lecture by, l.")7.
Liberia, n v., 664.
referred to, 9.
Johnston's M.P. Atlas, nv., 165.
Multum in Parvo Atlas, rev., 166.
Jordan, Life and Adventure beyond
(Robinson Lees), rev., 107.
Prof. D. S. , on the San Francisco
Earthquake and the Bogoslof Islands,
46.
JoruUa, Volcano of, 291.
Katanga-BenOcUELa Railwav, 432.
INDEX.
681
Keane, Prof. A. H., Bradshaw's Through
Routes to the Chief Cities of the World,
391.
North Africa : Stanford's Com-
peudium, 560.
Keltie, J. Scott, Honorary Diploma of
Fellowsliip conferred on, 649.
The Statesman's Y ear-Book,, 392;
rev., 503.
Kemp, Miss E. G., Diploma of Fellowship
conferred on, 543.
Kennard, Howard P., The Russian Pea-
sant, 560 ; rev. , 663.
Kennedy, Howard Angus, New Canada
and the New Canadians, 392.
Khartoum, Wellcome Research Labora-
tories at the Gordon Memorial College
(Balfour), rev., 108.
Khotan, Ancient : A Review, 568.
(Stein), 391 ; rev., 568.
Kilpin, Ernest F. , Cape of Good Hope,
336.
Kinglake's Eothen (Hogarth), rev., 55.
Knight, F. T., Over-Sea Britain, 616.
Koebel, W. H., Modern Argentina, 560.
Koltschak, M. , on his Expedition to
Bennett Island, 653.
Konakry to the Niger, New Raih\ay from,
320.
Korea, The Passing of (Hulbert), 55 ; rev.,
268.
Kozlow, M., Proposed Expedition to Cen-
tral Asia, 488.
Kramer, Prof. Dr., Hawaii, Ostmikron-
esien und Samoa, rev., 111.
Kumaon-Garhwal Watershed, 29.
Kumm, H. Karl, The Sudan, 168; rev,,
Labrador, Mrs. Hubbard on Unexplored
Rivers of, 596.
Trail, The Long (Wallace), 560.
Lacroix, N. , La Penetration Saharienne,
168 ; rev. , 608.
Laggan, Survey of Loch, 351.
Landon, Perceval, Under the Sun, rev..
272.
Ijandor, A. H. Savage, Across Wildest
Africa, 668.
Lange, Gunnar, The River Pilcomayo, 560.
Languedoc, Distribution of the Population
of Lower, 377.
Launay, L. de. L'Or dans le Monde, 391 ;
rev., 612.
Leader, Alfred, Through Jamaica with a
Kodak, 504; rev., 556.
Leblond, ]\I. , on the Agricultural Develop-
ment of Madagascar, 657.
Lees, Rev. S. Robinson, Life and Adven-
ture beyond Jordan, rev., 107.
Leiper, Wm. G. , Ordinary Diploma of
Fellowship conferred on, 649.
Lemaire, Commandant, A Travers
I'Afrique Centrale, 112 ; rev., 273.
Leonard, A. G. , The Lower Niger and its
Tribes, 56; rev., 202.
L'Estrauge, P. H., A Junior Course of
Comparative Geography, 223 ; rev., 334.
Liberia, New Frontier, 601, 655.
(Johnston), rev., 664.
Limnologia : Studio Seientitieo dei Laghi
(Magrini), 336; rev., 500.
Lithology, Modern (Adye), 616 ; rev.,
667.
Lochy, Survey of Loch, 347.
Basin, Survey of Lochs of the, 346.
District, Notes on the Biology of the
Lochs in the. By James Murray, 358.
Longe, Colonel F. B., General Report on
the Operations of the Survey of India,
224, 504.
Longstaff, T. G. , Lecture by, 156.
Loti, Pierre, India, rev., 105.
Lotus Land : Being an Account of the
Country and the People of Southern
Siam (Thomson), rev., 273.
Low, A. P., The Cruise of the Neptune,
168 ; rev., 390.
Lowber, James W. , Ordinary Diploma of
Fellowship conferred on, 649.
Liinu da Bhra, Survey of Lochan, 356.
Lyall, Sir Alfred, Asiatic Studies referred
to, 32.
Lyons, H. G., A Report on the Work of
the Survey Department in Egypt, 56.
M'Clintock, Admiral SirF.L., Obituary
notice, 651.
Sir Leopold, Letters from Sir George
T. Goldie, 4.34.
M'Clymont, James Roxburgh, The First
Expedition of the Portuguese to Banda,
rev., -212.
Macdonald, R. M., Diploma of Fellow-
ship conferred on, 261.
Macdonald's Commercial Gazetteer of
Great Britain and Ireland, rev., 660.
Macfarlane, J., on the Hinterland of the
Port of Manchester, .393.
Mackay, Alexander, Oi'dinary Diploma of
Fellowship conferred on, 41.
Mackinder, H. J., Britain and the British
Seas, rev., 215.
Elementary Studies in Geo-
graphy: Our Own Islands, 168; rev.,
335.
Letter to the Time.'i, 49.
on (Geographical Education, 11.
Mackinnon, Sir William, referred to, 9.
MacLaren, M., on the Geysers of New
Zealand, 207.
Macmillan, Hugh, Rothiemurchus, 336 ;
rev., 437.
Madagascar, Agricultural Development
of, 657.
et D^pendances, Guide-Annuaire de,
280.
Madan, A. C, Wisa Handbook : a Short
Introduction to the Wisa Dialect of
North-East Rhodesia, rev., 274.
Madras District Gazetteer, 56, 168, 280,
392.
682
INDEX
Madras Presidency, Report on the Ad-
ministration of the, 168.
Magrini, Dott. G. P., Limnologia : Studio
Scientifico dei Laghi, 336 ; ret\ , 500.
Sig., on the Investigation of the
Lagoons of Venice, '261.
Malaj' Peninsula, Cultivation of Rubber
in, 211.
Pagan Races of the (Skeat and
Blagdon), rtv., 33.
Peninsula, The Pagan Races of the, 33.
^lalaya, British (Swettenham), rev., •221.
Malcolm, Ian, Indian Pictures and
Problems, 16S ; m\, 327.
Mallik, Manmath C, Impressions of a
Wanderer, 167 ; rev., 445.
Malta, Colonel Bruce on the Course of
Fever at, 41.
Manchester, Hinterland of the Port of,
593.
Map Projections and the Teaching of
Geography, fJ.iS.
Maps by Pont, the Gordons, and Adair,
in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh :
Manuscript. By C. G. Cash, F.R.S.G.S.,
574.
New, 163, 214, 277, 446, 613.
Maroc, un Crepuscule d'Islam (Chevillon),
55; rev., 109.
Martin, Frank A., Under the Absolute
Amir, 166 ; rev., 438.
Matterhorn, A Guide to Zermatt and the
(Whymper), 391 ; rev., 493.
Maugham, R. C. F., Portuguese East
Africa, rev., 109.
Maxwell, Donald, A Cruise Across P]urope,
rev., 105.
Maj'^, Colonel E. S. , Geographv in War,
167.
Mendonga, M. de, S. Thome, Boa En-
trada Plantations, 668.
Mercalli, G. , I Vulcani Attivi della Terra,
391.
Mergui Archipelago, The, Its People and
Products. By R. N. Rudmose Brown,
B.Sc, 463.
Fauna, Flora, Inhabitants, 467.
Pearl Fisheries, Expedition to
the, 95, 157.
Mesopotamia, The Irrigation of (Will-
eocks), 112.
Meteorological
Atmosphere.
Monaco, 113.
Mexican High
280 : rev.. .V),).
Volcanoes, Some Old. By
M. Cadell, B.Sc, F.R.S.E., 281.
Mexico. Description of tlie Cave of Atoyac,
596.
Reise in das Moderne (Diener), 616.
The Volcanoes of, 26.
Mexique, Les Volcans du (Aguilera), rev.,
25.
Mikkelsen, Captain. Arctic Expedition,
160, 3 IS. 548. 6.i6,
Researches in the High
By H.S.H. The Prince of
mils, (In the (Edwards),
Henry
Miles, Walker. Field-Path Rambles, 392 ;
rtr., 55.3.
Mill, Hugh Robert. B.Sc, Dr. Alexander
Buchan, 427.
British Rainfall, 1906, 560.
Miller, Prof. VV., Instrumentenkunde fur
Forscliungs-Reisende, rei., 500.
Milner. The Right Hon. Viscount, P.O.,
G.C.B., G.C.M.G., Geography and State-
craft, 617.
Mississippi Valley, Highways and Bj'waj's
of the (Johnson), 223 ; rev., 330.
Mittelmeergebiet, Das (Philipson), 668.
Moffat, C. B., on the Cause of the Poverty
of the Fauna of Ireland, 377.
Monaco, H.S.H. Prince of, 57.
Meteorological Researches in
the High Atmosphere, 113.
Expedition to Spitsbergen, 602..
Lecture bv, 41.
Moncrieflf, A. R. Hope, The World of
To-day, 56; rev., 277.
Mont-Blanc, A Guide to Chamonix and
the Range of (Whymper), 391.
Montreux-Bernese Oberland Railwaj', The
(Ceresole), 280.
Moon. The Place of Origin of the : The
Volcanic Problem. By Professor William
H Pickering, 523.
Morel, G. D., Red Rubber : The Rubber
Slave Trade on the Congo, 391 ; rev.,
558.
Morena, Dr. F., awarded Founders
Medal of the Royal Geographical
Society, 264.
Mort, Frederick, M.A.. B.Sc, F.G.S., and
John Frew, M.A., B.Sc, The Southern
Highlands from Glasgow, 367.
Moss, C. E., awarded the Back Bequest
of the Royal Geographical Society, 265.
On the Geographical Distribu-
tion of Vegetation in Somerset, Bath
and Bridge water District, rev., 436,
504.
Mossman, R. C, appointed Director of
Scientific Reports of the Argentine Me-
teorological Othce, 606.
Mountmorres, Viscount, on the Commer-
cial Possibilities of West Africa, 605,
606.
Miickel, M., On Methods of Communica-
tion on Land, 267.
Murray. James, Notes on the Biology of
the Lochs in the Lochy District, 358.';
Sir John, K.C.B, F.R.S.. D.Sc. etc.,
and Laurence Pullar. F.R.S.E., Bathy-
metrical Survey of the Fresh-Water
Lochs of Scotland, 346.
referred to, 9,
Xaxsen, Fridtjof, Northern Waters, 280.
on North Polar Problems, 432.
on the Results obtained during
the GjHa Oceanographical Cruise, 99.
The Norwegian North Polar
Expeditiou, Scientific Results, rev., 222.
INDEX.
683
Natal Government Raih\ays, 392.
and Zululand, Third and Final
Report of the Geological Survey of
(Anderson), 392.
Nathorst, Dr. A. G., Expedition to Prince
Charles Foreland, 144. 1.54.
Nauhcanipatepetl, Volcano of (Ordofiez),
rev. , 26.
Nautical Almanack, Brown's Comprehen-
sive, rev., 55.
Neptune, The Cruise of the (Low), rev.,
390.
Nevado de Toluca, Volcano of, 286.
Nevill, H. R. , District Gazetteer of the
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh,
168.
Newbigin, Marion I., D.Sc, (Lend.), The
Study of the Weather as a Branch of
Nature Knowledge, 627.
The Swiss Valais ; A Study in
Regional Geography, 169, 225.
Lecture by, 41.
Life by the rSea-Shore, 223 ;
rev., 334.
New Guinea, British, 280.
Physical Features of, 596.
Zealand, Chamois in, 383.
Facts about, 168.
• M. MacLaren on the Geysers of,
207.
■ Papers and Reports relating to
Minerals and Mining of, 112.
Progress of the Geological Sur-
vey of, 207.
Niagara Falls, Erosion of the Gorge, 318,
596.
Nigerand its Tribes, The Lower (Leonard),
56; rev., 202.
au Golfe de Guint-e par le Pays de
Kong et le Mossi, Du (Binger), 223.
to Konakry, New Railway from the,
320.
to the Nile, Fi'om the (Alexander),
668.
Basin and Mungo Park, The. By Sir
Harry H. Johnston, G. C.M.G., K.C.B., 58.
Nigeria, Construction of New Railwajsin,
491.
— — Northern, Survey of the River Yo,
600.
Nile, From the Niger to tlie (Alexander),
668.
Nordenskjold, Baron, referred to, 144.
Normandy, Sketches from (Becke), 56 ;
rev., 215.
Norway, Handy Guide to (Willson), »-er. ,
104.
• Southern, 0. J. R. Howarth on the
District of Jaederen, 593.
Norwegian North Polar Expedition, The
(Nansen), rev., 222.
Nyassaland : British Central Africa Diarv,
1907,280.
Progress of Railways in, 604.
Protectorate, British Central Africa
Protectorate designated the, 546.
Obituary, 427, 651.
O'Connor, Captain W. F., Folk-Tales from
Tibet, with Illustrations by a Tibetan
Artist, and some Verses from Tibetan
Love-Songs, rtv., 219.
O'^Ially, L. S. S. , Bengal District Gazet-
teer : Darjeeling, 504.
Omerod, R. T. , On Variations in Mean
jSIonthly Temperatures in Edinburgh,
265.
Opal Sea, The (Van Dyke), 168 ; rev., 333.
Or dans le Monde, L' (Launay), 391; ret'.,
612.
Ordnance Survey, Progress of the, 652.
Ordonez, Ezequiel, Volcano of Nauhcani-
patepetl or Cofre de Perote, rev., 26.
Orleans, Due D', A travers la Banquise du
Spitsburg au Cape Philippe, 112 ; rev.,
440.
Duke of, Kara Sea Expedition, 603.
Results of his Arctic Expedi-
tion, 99.
Ossian, Survey of Loch, 353.
Ostasienfahrt (Dollein), rtv., 51.
Ostmikronesien und .Samoa, Hawaii
(Kramer), rev.. 111.
Ottweiler, Dr. , on the Rainfall of German
West Africa, 381.
Oudh, District Gazetteer of the United
Provinces of Agra and (Nevill), 168,
280.
Oxford University Geographical Scholar-
ship Award, 1907, 606.
Pack, Fjred. .J., Diploma of Fellowship
conferred on, 261.
Palestine and Syria, Cook's Handbook
for, 167 ; rev., 438.
Panama : The Isthmus and the Canal
(Forbes-Lindsay), 279 ; rev., 499.
Pangong, Lake, Investigation of, 206.
Pantocsek, Dr., on the Investigations of
Lake Balaton, 158.
Paris and its Environs, Baedeker's, 560 ;
rev., 608.
Park, The Niger Basin and Mungo. By Sir
Harry H. Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., 58.
Centenary at Selkirk, Unveiling
the Panels at the Mungo, 41.
Pattack, Survey of Loch, 350.
Payne, Edward John, Voyages of the
Elizabethan Seamen, 391 ; rev., 558.
Pearson, Prof. H. H. W., on Climatic
Changes in Damaraland, 316.
Pear}', Commander R. E. , Expedition to
the Arctic, 97, 491.
Nearest the Pole, 504.
Pelliot, M., Results of his Expedition, 43.
Pentield, Frederic Courtland, Wander-
ings East of Suez, 336; rev., 495.
Penman-Browne, J., The Upper Ituri, 86.
• Diploma of Fellowship con-
ferred on, 261.
Persia, Across (Williams), 668.
English and Russian Spheres of
ExploratioJi in, 598.
684
INDEX.
Persia Past and Present (Jackson), rev.,
216.
Perthshire Natural History Museum,
Illustrated Handbook to the (Rodger),
112; rev., 215.
Philip, Alex. J., Gravesend : The Water-
gate of London, with its Surroundings,
168.
Philip's Handy Volume Atlas (Raven-
stein), rei-., 279.
Progressive Atlas (L'Estrange), 7'ev.,
166.
Philipson. A., Das Mittelmeergebiet, 668.
Photography, Geographical. By John
Thomson, 14.
Pickering, Prof. William H., The Place of
Origin of the Moon : The Volcanic
Problem, 523.
Pilcumayo, Tiie River (Lange), 560.
Pillai, The Private Diary of Ananda
Ranga (Price), 668.
Plate, A. G., The "Lloyd" Guide to
Australasia, 168; rec. , 496.
Pohlig, Hans, Eiszeit uud Urgeschichte des
Menschen, 391 ; rev., 557.
Polar Discoveries, Handbook of (Greely),
223 ; re r., 500.
Expedition, The Norwegian North
(Nansen), rev., 222.
Problems, Dr. Nansen on, 432.
Pole, Nearest the (Peary), 504.
Polish .Jew, The (Baskerville), rev., 333.
Pont, Tiniothj-, Manuscript Maps by, 577.
Popocatepetl, Volcano of, 307.
Portuguese East Africa (Maugham), 7-ev.,
109.
to Banda, The First Expedition of
the (M'Clymont), rev., 272.
Price, Sir J. F., The Private Diary of
Ananda Ranga Pillai, 668.
Prince Charles Foreland. By William S.
Bruce, F.R.S.E., 141.
Dr. Bruce's Expedition to,
319, 490, 602.
Fauna, 147 ; Flora, 149.
Proceedings of the Royal Scottish Geo-
graphical Society, 39, 95, 156, 261, 543.
648.
rullar, Laurence. F.R.S.E., and Sir John
Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S.. D.Sc, etc.,
Bathymetrical Survey of the Fresh-
Water Lochs of Scotland, 346.
Punjab District Gazetteers, 56, 280.
Ramsay, Sir W. M., Lecture bv, 41, 95,
157.
Ratzel, F. , referred to, 562.
Reclus, Elist-e, referred to, 4.
Red Lochan at Tulloch, Survev of the,
657.
Redway, J. W., F.R.G.S., The Vagaries of
the Colorado, 360.
Heed, Stanley, The Royal Tour in India.
»504.
Reeves, G. A., Hints to Travellers:
Scientific and General, rev., 275.
Reiner's Grosser Deutscher Kolonial-
Atlas, rev., 166.
Reis, Heinrich, Economic Geology of the
United States, rev., 439.
Reynolds-Ball, Eustace, The Tourist's
India, 112; rev., 324.
Rhine from Rotterdam to Constance
(Baedeker's), rev., 104.
Rhodesia, A Grammar of the Bemba
Language as spoken in North-East,
(Shoeffer), 167 ; rer., 559.
General Handbook for, 224.
Illustrated Handbook of North -
Eastern, 224.
The Prehistoric Gold Mines of (Hall),
392.
Richard, Henrj^ Notice Historique sur
La Gu3'ane Francaise, 392.
on the Resources of French
Guiana, 546.
Richardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E., Athens; Notes
on a Recent Visit, 422.
Rivers, W. H. R., The Todas, rev., 270.
Rivers of Scotland, The : The Beauly and
Conon. By Lionel W. Hinxman, B.A. ,
F.R.S.E , 192.
Roberts, Charles G. D. , I)isct>veries and
Explorations in the Century, rev., HI.
Rodger, Alex. M., Illustrated Handbooli
to the Perthshire Natural History
Museum, »-er., 215.
Rogers, L. D. , Historical Geography of
the British Colonies, 280 ; rev., 496.
Rome, Christian (Cruickshank), rev., 104.
Glaciation and Volcanic Deposits
near, 314.
The Greatness and Decline of
(Ferrero), 336; rev., 660.
Rotch, A. L. , on Observations of the
Trade Winds, 264.
Rothiemurchus (Macmillan), 336; rev.,
437.
Row, Prescott, Lvonesse : A Handbook
for the Isles of Scilly, 168.
Roval Geographical Societv, Annual
A-vvards of the, 264.
Scottish Geographical Society, Pro-
ceedings of the, 39. 95, 156, 261, 543,
648.
Annual Business Meeting,
649.
Letter to Secretary for
Scotland, 543.
Rubber, M. Ch. DufiFart on the World's
Production of, 47.
Rudy, Charles, Companions in the Sierra,
336 ; rev., 553.
Russell, Dr. E. J., on the Relation of
the Geographical Position and the Pro-
ductive Capacity of Land, 658.
Major -General, Letter to the
Twies, 49.
R. v., Punjab District Gazetteer, 56.
Russia, Red (Eraser), 336; rev.,5oii.
Russian Peasant, The (Kenncrd), 560 ;
rev., 663.
INDEX.
685
Ruwenzori, Duke of Abruzzi on his Ex-
pedition to, Of).
Plant Zones on ISIount, 546.
Sahakienne, Documents Scientifiques de
la Mission (Foureau), rev., 43.
La Penetration (Bernard and La-
croix) 168 ; rer., 608.
Salton Sea, luvestigation of, 432.
Samoa, Hawaii, Ostmikrouesien und
(Kramer), rer., 111.
San Francisco Earthquake, Professor D.
S. Jordan on the, 46.
Sangpo, Hydrography of the, 545.
Sark : The Gem of the Channel Islands
(Bowles), 336 ; rev., 437.
Scandinavian Flora, History of the, 314.
Schillings, C. G., in Wildest Africa, 616;
rev., 665.
Schlichter, Dr., referred to, IS.
Schoenfeld, Professor Dr. E. D., Die Hal-
binsel Sinai, 223 ; rer., 666.
Schokalsky, Colonel J. de, Honorary
Diploma of Fellowship conferred on,
649.
Schweden, Winter in, 224 ; rev., 324.
Science Year-Book and Diary for 1907,
The (Baden-Powell), 56 ; rer., 277.
Scilly, A Handbook for the Isles of,
Lyonesse (Tonkiu and Row), 168.
Scotland, Bathymetrical Survey of the
Fresh-Water Lochs of. Under the Direc-
tion of Sir John Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S. ,
D.Sc. ,etc., and Laurence Pullar, F.R.S.E.,
346.
The Rivers of : The Beauly and
Conon. By Lionel W. Hinxman, B.A.,
F.B.S.E., 192.
Thunderstorms in, 265.
Transactions of the Highlaud and
Agricultural Society of, 336.
Twenty-fourth Annual Report of
the Fishery Board for, 56.
Scottish National Antarctic Expedition,
Recovery of Float, 100, 159.
Volcanoes, Old. By Professor James
Geikie, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., 449.
Sea-Shore, Life by the (Newbigin), 223 ;
rev., 334.
Seeker, Lieut., on the Survey of the River
Yo, 600.
Seidel, A., Die Haussasprache, 223 : rev.,
558.
Lehrbuch der Ewhe-Sprache in
Togo, 223 ; rev., 558.
Selborne, Lord, on the Present Mutual
Relations of the South African Colonies,
619.
Seligmann, C. S., Lecture by, 95.
Selungs, Characteristics of the, 475.
Sergeyeff, Lieut. -Colonel, Proposed Arctic
Expedition, 99.
Servia, Distribution of Cities and Villages
in, 212.
Shackleton, E. H. , The British Antarctic
Expedition, 1907, 372.
Shackleton, E. H., Antarctic Expedition,
160, 435, 490.
Shand, W. J. S., Japanese Self-Taught,
616.
Shaw, Arthur E., Foity Years in the
Argentine Republic, 392 ; rev. , 556.
Dr. W. N. , on Atmospheric Circula-
tion, 100.
Sherring, C. A., Western Tibet and the
British Borderland, the Sacred Country
of Hindus and Buddhists, rrr., 28.
Shire, On the Frontiers of the Western,
British Central Africa. By H. Crawford
Angus, 72.
Slioetfer, Rev. Father, A Grammar of the
Bemba Language as spoken in North -
East Rhodesia, 167 ; rer., 559.
Sierra, Companions in the (Rudy), 336;
rev., 553.
Nevada, Description of, 312.
Simpson, J. J., Expedition to the Mergui
Archipelago Pearl Fisheries, 95.
Sinai, Die Halbinsel (Schoenfeld), 223 ;
rev., 666.
Singapore, Sunny (Cook), 280 ; rev., 554.
Skeat, W. W., Pagan Races of the Malay
Penin.snla, rev., 33.
Skottsberg, Carl, Expedition to the ex-
treme South of South America, 490.
Smith, Prof. George Adam, Lecture by, 95.
Captain G. E., awarded the Murchi-
son Bequest of the Royal Geographical
Society, 265.
W., jr., referred to, 58.
William C. , Lecture by, 651.
Sociological Papers, 504.
Somaliland, Two Dianas in (Herbert), 616 ;
rev., 664.
Somerset, Bath, and Britlgewater District,
Geographical Distribution of Vegetation
in (Moss), rev., 436; 504.
Soothill, W. E., A Mission in China, 223 ;
rev., 325.
Sorre, Max, on the Distribution of the
Population of Lower Languedoc, 377.
South Seas, In the Strange (Grimshaw),
616.
Spain and her People (Zimmerman), rer.,
103.
Modern, 1815-1898 (Clarke), 56 ; rev.,
214.
Moorish Remains in (Calvert), 167 ;
?-ei-.,322.
The Heart of (Dick), 112 ; rev., 215.
Spencer, Prof. J. W. W., on the Erosion
of the Gorge, Niagara Fall, 318, 596.
Spitzberg au Cape Philippe, A travers la
Banquise du (DOrleans), 112 ; rev., 440.
Spitsbergen, Fauna and Flora of, 383.
Prince of Monaco's Expedition to,
602.
Sprague, Miss B.. on the Flora of an Island
in the River Orchy, Dalmally, 157.
Stanford's Geological Atlas of Great
Britain and Ireland (Woodward), 7-ev.,
448.
686
INDEX.
Starr, Prof. Frederick, The Truth about
the Congo, 504.
Statesman's Year-Book, The (Keltic), 392 ;
rev., 503.
Stein, M. Aurel, Ancient Kliotan, .391 ;
rev., 56S.
Results of his Expedition, 42, 578.
Steiner, Edward A., on the Trail of the
Immigrant, 223 ; rev., 334.
Stewart, B., My Experience of the Island
of Cyprus, rev., 215.
Stoddart, Anna M. , The Life of Isabella
Bird (Mrs. Bishop), rev., 333.
Story, Douglas, To-morrow in the East,
336 ; rev. , 554.
Strachoy. Sir Richard, Tibetan Journey
referred to, 30.
Strathcona, Lord, i-eferred to, 9.
Strong, Dr. W. M., on the Physical Fea-
tures of British Xew Guinea, 596.
Sudan, The (Kumm), 168 ; rev., 327.
Almanac, 112.
Cook's Handbook for Egypt and the
(Budge), 168; rev., 438.
Egypt and the (Baedeker), 668.
Murray's Handbook for Egypt and
the (Hall), 667.
The Egyptian (Giffen), 223 ; rev., 330.
Suez, Wanderings East of (Penfield), 336 ;
rev. , 495.
Sun, Under the (Landon), rev., 272.
Surface, Prof., on the Industrial Situation
in the Southern United States, 47.
Sutherland, Rev. A. M., Diploma of
Fellowship conferred on, 543.
Sweden : A Short Handbook, rev., 663.
Swedish Antarctic Expedition, Account of
Graham Land based on the Researches
of the, 208.
Life in Town and Country (Heiden-
stam), rev., 663.
Swettenham, Sir F., British Malaya, rev.,
221.
Swiss Valais, The : A Study in Regional
Geography. By Marion I. Newbigin,
D.Sc. (Lond.), 169, 225.
Switzerland, Baedeker's, .504 ; rer., 608.
New Railways in, 265.
Railway Schemes in, 385.
Sykes, Mark, on the Kurdish Tribes of
Asiatic Turkey, 594.
Synge, J. M., Tlie Aran Islands, 336 ; rev..
438.
S\'ria, Cook's Handbook for Palestine and,
" 167 ; rev. , 438.
Takekoshi, Yosabcro, Japanese Rule in
Formosa, 224 ; rev., 553.
Tamil Grammar Self-Taught (Wickrema-
singhe), 616; rev., 'I'rl.
Tarr, Prof. Ralph, on Glacial Erosion in
Alaska, .381.
Tate, Prof., referred to, 20.
Teacher Associates, Admission of, 40.
Tenerife, The Guanchesof (Espinosa), 560.
Thimm, Captain C. A., Hindustani Gram-
mar Self -Taught, 616.
Thomas, N. W., The Natives of Australia,
.56 ; rev., ,332.
William S., Hunting Big Game with
Gun and Camera, 167 ; rev., 3.35.
Thompson, P. A. , Lotus Land : Being an
Account of the Country and the People
of Southern Siam. rev., 273.
Thomson, John, Geographical Photography,
14.
Errata, 95.
Joseph, referred to, 9.
Tibet and the British Borderland, Western,
28.
the Sacred Countrj' of Hindus
and Buddhists (Sherring), rev., 28.
Folk Tales from (O'Connor), rei-., 219.
H. Calvert on his Journey in Western,
43.
the Mysterious (Hoklich), rev., 217.
Tin Deposits of the World, with a Chapter
on Tin Smelting (Fawns), 504 ; rev. . 559.
Todas, The (Rivers), rev. 270.
Tomalin. H. F. , Three Vat^ahonds in Fries-
land, 223; rev., 324.
Tonkin, J. C, Lyonesse : A Handbook for
the Isles of Scilly, 168.
Travel, The Queen Newspaper Book of
(Hornsby), 280 : >•«»■., 446.
Treig, Survej' of Loch, 354.
Trower, Harold E., The Book of Capri,
335; rev., 437.
Turco-Eg3'ptian Frontier, New, 44.
Turkestan, Chinese, E. Huntington's Ex-
pedition to, 206.
■ M. Pelliot's Archjeological Ex-
pedition to, 42.
Eastern, Dr. Stein's Expedition to,
42, 598.
Turkey, Asiatic, Kurdish Tribes of, 594.
Tj'rol : The Land in the Mountains (Baillie-
Grohman), 391 ; rev., 5.52.
UoANDA by Pen and Camera (Hattersley),
112; rev., 274.
Ungulata : Guide to the Great Game
Animals in the Department of Zoology,
British Museum, 504.
L'nited States, Climatology of the, 493.
Development of Instruction in
Meteorology throughout the, 214.
— — - — — Economic (Geology of the (Ries),
rev., 439.
Irrigation Projects in the, 484.
Irrigation in the (Beacom), rev.,
484.
Mineral Resources of the, 1905
(Day), 392.
Prof. Surface on the Industrial
Situation in the Southern, 47.
Venice, Investigation of the Lagoons of,
261.
INDEX.
687
Villiers, J. A. J. de, The East and West
Indian Mirror, 112; rer., 501.
Vincent, James Edmund, Highways and
Byways of Berkshire, 167 : rrc, 388.
Volcanic Problem, The : The Place of Origin
of the Moon. By Prof. William H. Picker-
ing, 523.
Volcanoes, Old Scottish. By Prof. James
Geikie, D.C.L., LL.D.. F.R.S., 449.
Vulcani Attivi della Terra, I (Mercalli),
391.
Wallace, Dillon, The Long Labrador
Trail, 560.
Wanderer, Impressions of a (Mallik), 167 ;
rev., 445.
Watson, W. Petrie, The Future of Japan,
280 ; rev. 374.
Watt, Andrew, appointed Secretary of the
Scottish Meteorological Society, 385.
Weale, B. L. Putnam, The Truce in the Far
East and its Aftermath, 335; rfv., 494.
Weather as a Branch of Nature Knowledge,
The Study of. By Marion I. Newbigin,
D.Sc. (Lend.), 627.
as an Introduction to Geography,
Value of the Study of, 266.
W^ehrli, Dr. Hans, on the Distribution of
Population in Upper Burma, 653.
Wellman, Walter, Arctic Expedition. 263,
384, 549.
Werner, A., The Natives of British Cen-
tral Africa, 167 ; rev. 328.
West Indies, A Pocket Guide to the
(Aspinall), 168; rev., 439.
Sunshine and Sport in Florida
the(Aflalo), .391.
. Loch, Survey of, 350.
Whitbeck, R. H.,"on the Teaching of Geo-
graphy, 321.
White, .James, Atlas of Canada, rev. , 448.
Whymper, Edward, A Guide to Chamonix
and the Range of Mont-Blanc, 391.
. . A Guide to Zermatt and the
Matterhorn, ,391 ; rev., 493.
Wickremasinghe, M. de Zilva, Tamil
Grammar Self-Taught, 616 ; rev., 272.
Willcocks, Sir William, The Irrigation of
^Mesopotamia, 1 12.
Williams, E. Crawshay, Across Persia,
668.
Willing's Press (4uide and Advertisers'
Directoi-y and Handl)ook, 112.
Willis, Dr. J. C, on the Cultivation of
Rubber, 212.
Willson, Thomas B. , Handy Guide to
Norway, rev., 104.
Wilson, Charles J., Lecture by, 41.
Winterbottom, J. E. , Tibetan Journey re-
ferred to, 30.
Wisa Handbook (Madan), rev., 274.
Woeikow, Prof. A., on the Distribution of
Population over the Globe, 161.
Wollaston, Dr., on Plant-zones on Mount
Ruwenzori, 546.
Return to England, 380.
referred to, 96.
Woodward, Horace B., Stanford's Geo-
logical Atlas of Great Britain and Ire-
land, rev., 448.
Woosnam, R. B. , referred to, 595.
W^orkman, Mrs. Fanny Bullock, Lecture
by, 651.
World, Bradshaw's Through Routes to the
Chief Cities of the (Keane), 391.
of To-day, The (Moncrieff), 56;
rer., 277.
• Statistical Abstract of the (Gan-
net), 336.
World's Commerce, Atlas of the (Bartholo-
mew), rev., 165, 279, 441.
Yo, Survey of the River, 600.
Zerda, Dr. Novoa, on an Inter-Oceanic
Canal through Colombia, 317.
Zermatt and the Matterhorn, A Guide to
(Whymper), 391 ; rev., 493.
Zimbabwe Ruins, A Guide to the Great
(Hall), 392.
Zimmermann, J., Spain and lier People,
rev., 103.
688
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PORTRAITS.
The Right Hon. Sir G. T. Goldie,
H.S.H. The Prince of Monaco, .
Sir W. M. Ramsay,
The Right Hon. Viscount Milner,
Frontispiece.
. 113
. 617
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Et'KOPK.
View near Fioanay, Val de Bagnes,
Spruce, with the leader destroyed
by goat.s, .....
Mayen du Revers. Val de Bagnes,
Asia.
Interior of a Chinese Tea Hong,
Ancient Arch at Kew-yung-kwan,
Nankow Pass, ....
JakunType, Bukit Prual, Selangor,
Selungs, Cantor Island. .
Selung Boa, .....
Selung Houses, Cantor Island,
The Main Street of Mergui, .
Bokpyin, .....
Afkk'A.
Group of Pigmies and Balesse,
Balesse Hut in the Ituri Forest,
Group of Shilluks, ....
The CoiiHtana^, the first steamer
placed on the Zambesi,
Mediaeval Portuguese Fort at
Mombasa, ....
Pemba Station on the African
Transcontinental Railway,
Settler's first Residence,
Typical dry river-bed,
Zwartfontein, .....
Dutch Family at Zwartfontein,
Jakhals Toren and distant Tulbagh
Mountains, ....
Voren-tae-zyn-kolk (Buslimansland),
A Rond-davel, witli threshing-tioor
in foreground, ....
View amongst tlie islands on the
Orange River, near Uppington,
Pont across the Orange River —
Uppington,
Koker boom, .....
In the Sand-dunes.
America.
Citlaltepetl or Peak of Orizaba,
Nevado de Toluca from City
Toluca, ....
of
PAGE
18S
189
236
14
17
35
468
471
473
480
482
88
91
93
125
132
135
138
395
396
397
398
406
411
417
418
419
420
281
287
Panorama of Lake of Patzcuaro
from Las Balcones, . . . 287
Lower Crater Lake, Xevado de
Toluca, ... 289
Upper Crater Lake, Xevado de
Toluca, 290
Basaltic Scoria containing heads of
Maize, 292
Midday halt at Rancho Nuevo, . 293
Distant View of Volcano of JoruUo, 293
Tropical Vegetation on Cone of
JoruUo, 296
Panorama of Sierra Madre as seen
from Mata de Platano, . . 296
Volcancito del Xorte from ESE., . 298
Remains of a Hornito on lavafield
ofJorullo, .... 298
JoruUo from NW. , showing " Mal-
pays," central cone, . . 299
Cone of JoruUo from Mata de
Platano, 299
Native huts at Mata de Platano, . 299
Peak of Orizaba from Gulf of Mexico
near Vera Cruz, . . . 300
Party preparing to descend from
Summit of Orizaba, . . . 300
In the Pine Forest on Orizaba, . 302
Foot of sntjwline on Orizaba, . . 304
View of Popocatepetl and Ixtacci-
huatl 100 miles distant, . . 304
Native guides on summit of Orizaba, 305
Sierra Negra from foot of snowline
on Orizaba, .... 306
Author and guide Augustin in cave
on Orizaba, .... 306
Crest of Popocatepetl from Tlamacas, 309
Sulphur Ranch of Tlamacas, . . 309
Arctic.
Filling the Balloon and stopping up
small holes, . . . .118
The instruments coming safely on
board, . . . . .118
End of experiment, the balloon re-
j turning on board with the bas-
I kets for the instrument.?, . . 118
MAPS AND DIAGRAMS.
689
Terminal Ice-face of a Spitsliergen
glacier, .....
Norwegian Party's Camp on Spits-
bergen, .....
Flying a kite, .....
Scottish Part}' leaving Princesse
Alice for Prince Charles Fore-
land, .....
Officers and crew, Princesse Alice .
Vogel Hook from NW., disco\ered
by Barents, ....
121
121
121
122
122
142
(Scottish Party's Camp on west coast
oae mile south of Vogel Hook,
West coast view of highest moun-
tains of Prince Ciiarles Fore-
land, .....
Prince Charles Foreland — 10 miles of
east coast from Vogel Hook, .
Prince- Charles Foreland — about 30
miles of west coast from Vogel
Hook,
148
153
154
154
MAPS AND DIAGRAMS.
Europe.
The Canton Valais, . . .170
Diagram illustrating the Mean
Annual Rainfall of Valais, . 176
Diagram illustrating the Mean
Annual Temperature of Valais, 178
Diagram illustrating the Mean
Monthly Temperatures of three
Stations in the Valais, com-
pared with those of Kingussie, 179
Diagram illustrating the Mean July
Temperature of Valais, . . 180
Diagram illustrating the Mean Janu-
ary Temperature of Valais, . 180
Diagram illustrating the Woods of
the Valais, .... 186
Map of the Beauly and Conon
Basins, ..... 192
Diagram illustrating the course of
the Beauly and Conon Rivers, 193, 198
Diagram illustrating the Mean
Elevation of the surface of
Switzerland, .... 229
Diagram illustrating the Isoh3'pses
of Tree Limit, .... 230
Diagram illustrating the Isohypses
of snowline, .... 230
Diagram illustrating the Isotherms
at a height of 1500 m. in July, 231
Diagram illustrating the Isotherms
at a height of 1500 m. in Janu-
ary, 231
Sections across the Val de Bagnes
showing the position of the
Alps, 234
Diagram showing Southern High-
lands as seen from Springburn,
Glasgow, 369 !
Diagram showing Southern High-
lands as seen from Ruchill
Park, Glasgow,
Diagram showing Mean Tempera-
ture of the British Isles,
631, 632, 633
Weather Charts of the British Isles,
635, 636, 641, 643,
Asia.
Sketch Map showing the position of
the various Groups related to
the Mon-Annam family, .
New Turco-Egyptian Frontier, 1906,
Map of Persia showing Spheres of
Exploitation, ....
Afric.4.
The Niger Basin, . ' .
The Western Shire Highlands,
Illustrating Lieut. Elliot's Expedi-
tion in NW. Cape Colony,
Sketch Maj) showing new frontier
line, Liberia, ....
America.
Central Mexico, ....
Geological Map of the Volcano of
Jorullo, .....
Sketch Map and Section of Jorullo,
Map illustrating the Vagaries of the
Colorado River,
Arctic.
Prince Charles Foreland and Port
of West Spitzbergen,
General.
Map of the Globe on zenithal pro-
jection, .....
Map of the Earth on globular pro-
jection, .....
371
639
644
36
45
598
66
78
403
281
291
294
360
152
525
528
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