SHAKESPEARE
STUDY PROGRAMS
THE COMEDIES
CHARLOTTE PORTER & HELEN A. CLARKE
Authors of "The Tragedies"
Editors of the "Pembroke Shakespeare"
the "First Folio Shakespeare"
Poet Lore, etc.
BOSTON: RICHARD G. BADGER
TORONTO: THE COPP CLARK CO., LIMITED
Copyright, 19x4, by Richard G. Badger
All Rights Reserved
THE GORHAM PRESS, BOSTON, U. S. A.
pm
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
The Shakespeare Study Programs appeared originally
in Poet Lore. They have met with marked favor, and
have been reprinted as the back numbers went out of
print. The steady demand for these programs prompts
the present issue in book-form. Several new programs
have been added, and those reprinted have been revised.
The references in this volume are to the "First Folio
Edition" of Shakespeare, edited by Charlotte Porter.
"Criticism is the endeavour to find, to know, to love,
to recommend not only the best, but all the good that
has been known and thought and written in the world.
. . . It shows how to grasp and how to enjoy; . . .
it helps the ear to listen when the horns of England blow."
— GEORGE SAINTSBURY, "History of Criticism."
CONTENTS
PAGE
The Comedie of Errors 9
The Two Gentlemen of Verona 24
Taming of the Shrew 29
res Labour's Lost , 38
Much Adoe About Nothing 54
A Midsommer Nights Dreame 64
-The Merchant of Venice 78
The Merry Wives of Windsor 85
As You Like It 91
4Twelfe Night 101
The Tempest 114
The Winter's Tale. . 129
SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
THE COMEDIE OF ERRORS
In the Summer of 1594 a translation of a Latin Farce
by the Roman Dramatist, Plautus, was made ready for
publication in London. It may even have been published
then, for, although the title page date is 1595, then, as often
now, the issue was made in advance of date. Circulation
in MS., moreover, now unusual, was then common.
This translation was registered, at any rate, for publi-
cation, June 1 6, 1594, as "A Booke entitled Menaechmi,
being a pleasant and fine conceited comedy taken out of
the most wittie poet Plautus, chosen purposely from out
the rest as being the least harmful and most delightful."
Six months later, Shakespeare had made an English
Farce out of this Latin one. He invented several new char-
acters, arranged many new situations, and put a good
deal more life-likeness in the relations of the characters,
while yet it may be seen that his new play, "The Comedie
of Errors," was directly drawn from the old one by
Plautus.
The first record we have of Shakespeare as an actor be-
fore Queen Elizabeth relates to the performance in Christ-
mas week of this same year of "twoe severall comedies."
This record in the Accounts of the Treasurer who paid
out the money for the Plays acted before the Queen, runs
as follows:
"To William Kempe, William Shakespeare, and Rich-
ard Burbage, servaunts to the Lord Chamberleyn upon
9
io SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
the Councelles warrant dated at Whitehall xv. die. Mar-
cij 1594 [1595], for twoe severall comedies or enterludes,
shewed by them before her Majestic in Christmas tyme
laste paste, viz., upon St. Stephen daye, [Dec. 26,] and
Innocente's day, [Dec. 28,] xiii11 vi8 viijd and by way
of her Majesties rewarde vi11 xiij8 ivd in all xx11."
It is fair to infer that the "Comedie of Errors" was
one of these two comedies, for on the evening of the 28th
of December, 1594, there arose a sudden necessity to hire
an entertainment to take the place at Gray's Inn, one of
the great Law Schools of London, of a Play by the stu-
dents which had gone to pieces. In lieu of this amateur
play, for which a great stage had been built in their
Hall, it is recorded that the great throng assembled were
forced, first, to "content themselves with ordinary danc-
ing and revelling, and when that was over, with a Com-
edy of Errors like to Plautus his Menoechmus, which
was played by the players." That these "players" were pub-
lic players is shown in the Gray's Inn account of these
Christmas festivities by another reference to this "com-
pany of base and common fellows" who were "foisted" in
"to make up our disorders with a play of Errors and Con-
fusions."
Since this substitution of the "players" Play for the
Play by the young gentlemen students was unexpected,
we can be sure it was not made for this occasion. It
seems obvious that whatever comedy was specially de-
signed by Shakespeare and his fellow actors for their
Christmas performances before the Queen at Greenwich,
would be apt to be chosen for a sudden repetition at
THE COMEDIE OF ERRORS n
Gray's Inn the same evening. And of course for such
an institution of scholarly gentlemen as Gray's Inn, a
farce based on Plautus would be likely to be thought ap-
propriate.
So Mrs. Charlotte Stopes argues, who brought into
association these facts and dates. She brings out also,
another curious incident or two concerning what we may
take to be the earliest performances of "The Comedie of
Errors." One is that the mother of the Earl of South-
ampton,— the young nobleman who was Shakespeare's pa-
tron and to whom the Poet dedicated "Venus and Adonis"
and "Lucrece," — was then acting officially for her late
husband. Thus it fell to her care to make up his accounts
as Treasurer of the Chamber, and she it was who wrote
this particular notice of the acting of Shakespeare before
Queen Elizabeth. Others acting as Treasurer did not
find it worth their while to include the Actors' names in
their accounts. This notice of hers is the first and last to
mention names in this way. Her son, being a Gray's Inn
man, would have been in a position to suggest the substi-
tution of Shakespeare's Play and as a friend of Shake-
speare's would desire to do so.
The other incident of biographical interest is that the
Gray's Inn students were much mortified by the uproar
which caused the failure of the program of their chief of
Revels called "The Prince of Purpoole," and made it
necessary for them to call in common players. The result
of their desire "to recover their lost honor with some grav-
er conceipt" was to give Jan. 3d, a learned Dialogue
called "Divers Plots and Devices." Bacon aided largely
12 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
in this stately affair. In its course six Councillors one
after the other deliver speeches on enrollment of Knights
and Chivalry, the glory of War, the study of Philosophy,
etc. The scorn felt for Shakespeare's "Comedie" and the
contrast with this rival specimen of academic dramatics
is significant.
Out of the comparatively simple plot of Plautus, Shake-
speare developed an amusing complexity of situations.
These appear upon studying the progress of the story, Act
by Act, as follows:
ACT I
THE ARRIVAL OF CERTAIN STRANGERS IN EPHESUS
What has the arrest of the "Marchant" Egean to do
with the rest of the Story? How soon does any connec-
tion appear?
The reference in scene ii, to the occurrence taking place
in scene i, suggests a somewhat odd chance coincidence in
the arrival from Syracuse on the same day of both of
these strangers. By this casual reference the seemingly
unrelated scenes are so innocently linked together that
it rather blinds than opens the eyes of the audience to the
deeper links of connection. It also acts at once as a warn-
ing to Antipholus, and explains why he also is not ar-
rested under the same law from which Egean suffered.
The merchant who gives Antipholus this warning does
not appear to be at all an intimate friend. Yet he seems
to have met the stranger upon his arrival. Is this ac-
counted for? What office does the scene show that he
THE COMEDIE OF ERRORS 13
bears toward him? How recent an institution is the
Bank and Letter of Credit for travellers? Was the lack
of such facilities long filled in the way here exemplified?
Do these two men keep the appointment they made to
meet at five o'clock? Why is it made? Does it serve
any need of the Play?
The reference to Ephesus as a town given over to sor-
cery and witchcraft assists in giving the impression that
the time of the Play falls within the Christian era, when
the ancient customs of the Pagan inhabitants gave the
City a bad repute of this particular kind. Was it derived
from Plautus? Note whether sorcery and witchcraft are
included in his account of the discreditableness of Ephesus.
What conclusions may be gathered as to Shakespeare's
account of it from a comparison with the corresponding
passage in Plautus (This extract is given in Note on I,
ii, 102-107 in the "First Folio" Edition of Shakespeare's
Play). Show how this statement is useful in throwing
light upon the character of Antipholus as well as on
events.
The first complication in scene ii arises from mistaking
Dromio of Ephesus for Dromio of Syracuse; but notice
that this error is accounted for by the second source of
the errors of the play — belief in witchcraft.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is the audience as much in the dark over the first mysti-
fication as Antipholus is? Should it be? Is the play the
better or worse for not being clear? If both Dromios are
made to look exactly alike how can the audience know?
i4 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
ACT II
ANTIPHOLUS THE STRANGER DINES AT HOME
Notice how the last scene of the preceding Act is
cleared up by the first scene of the present Act.
Are the errors of Act II the results of those of Act I?
The errors of Act I affect but a very few characters, but
in Act II how many? A new source of complication is
brought forward in this Act, also. Show what it is, and
how it both adds to the interest of the Play as a story and
to the confusion begun by the mistaken identity and the
witchcraft elements of the Plot.
The fooling dialogue of Scene ii gives the action pause.
Is it therefore useless, or a dramatic mistake? The ease
with which the right master and man fall into this talk
after the earlier cross-purposes with the wrong man, seems
to betray the fact that they do belong together. They
are so readily familiar that the cross-purposes making up
the plot seem to be no longer troublesome either to them-
selves or the audience. The interval of reassurance makes
the return of strangeness more unaccountable. Anti-
pholus is also now reassured about his gold, and the
earlier cross-purpose seems only a jest.
Why does the mention of Dromio's name (II, ii, 156)
cause both master and man to exclaim? Why should it
not have led them to guess the truth ?
Would this scene with Adriana and Luciana have been
equally mystifying and skilful if the right master and man
had not been together?
THE COMEDIE OF ERRORS 15
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
In the debate between the sisters upon patience in mar-
riage is Adriana or Luciana the more justifiable? Has
their argument anything to do with the plot? Is charac-
ter interest or plot interest of the first importance, and
how are they apportioned in this play?
Is Adriana's argument that she is bound to share mor-
ally herself in the infidelity of her husband sophistical?
Or has it a core of sound ethical value?
ACT III
ANTIPHOLUS THE NATIVE INVITES FRIENDS TO DINE
WITH HIM
How far are the errors of Act III new? From which
element of the plot, mistaken identity, or the domestic dif-
ficulties of the native-born Antipholus do they arise?
What effects are gained by bringing together in this
Act the right pairs of master and man?
The closed door between the two groups, one within
the house, the other without, is the only barrier to such
an exhibition of the double resemblances as would clear
up all difficulties immediately. Is the humor of the situa
tion the better for this slightness of the barrier, or is it
rendered altogether too unlikely by it? Notice also the
narrow escapes from meeting and being seen together
which masters and men are constantly making and the
skill of the stage movements so that, for example, while
clear L^
itua-
A
16 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
one pair of twins is in the house, the other pair is abso-
lutely unable to come there, and make clear the main
cause of the errors.
What relation to the subordinate cause of the errors,
i. e., the domestic difficulties of Antipholus the Native —
has the new source of difficulty and bepuzzlement — the
gold chain? Bring out the relation of the dialogue (III,
i> 23-35), between Antipholus and the friends he invites,
to the welcome they find and discuss later. The irony of
his confidence in welcome, at least, which is precisely
what is lacking, is peculiarly true to such disappointments
in life. For the fun and naturalness gained by it, there-
fore, the carefully planned arrangement of the dialogue to
lead up to it, does not seem to be artificial. What would
have happened to the plot if the plan proposed to force the
door with a crow-bar had been carried out? Since the
dramatist was so daring as to cause it to be suggested, it
was incumbent upon him at once to devise something to
prevent it from being done. The way in which he has
accomplished this through Balthazar, puts both Anti-
pholus and his guest in an estimable light. Show its effect
upon the present scene and upon both the character-inter-
est and the scenes to come in which the Courtisan figures.
What expense does Antipholus refer to (III, i, 169) ?
Is Luciana's advice so good that it accounts for the
attraction she has for Antipholus the Stranger? Or do
you think she is attractive in spite of it?
Is the dialogue in this Act between the right master and
man as good as that in Act II? Has it other excuse for
being besides punning and fooling? Examine its value
THE COMEDIE OF ERRORS 17
as compared with the other in introducing a new and
amusing error, and educing puns that are suggested by
this, and therefore not independent of the plot.
This Act closes with two new incidents of use in the
sequel: What are they?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Why has Shakespeare chosen to make Antipholus the
Stranger abhor Adriana, and be attracted to her sister
instead? What is the result for the plot? Is it a mis-
take that the promised match between Luciana and the
Stranger is not consummated at the close of the play?
Is the reference then made to it the best imaginable?
Hlow, if so, is it reconcilable with the more rapid matches
at the close of other plays, e. g. Oliver and Celia in "As
You Like It?"
ACT IV
COMPLICATIONS GROW
The errors of the early Acts begin simply and proceed
by begetting other errors and beginning, also, with but
one of the twin masters and one of the twin men-ser-
vants proceed by involving every one in each of the two
Antipholus groups. In this Act others outside the main
groups are continually being interwoven in the net of
complications. In which Act did these larger social com-
plications arise, and how are they carried on in the present
Act. Show how by means of these larger circles of com-
i8 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
plication, e. g., the arrests, the visits of the Courtisan to
Adriana in the attempt to get back her ring, the con-
jurring scenes, etc., the confusion becomes extreme. And
then show, also, how by the very means of these larger
circles of complication the clearing up process is brought
forward. To whom is the suggestion due that Antipho-
lus the Native has gone mad? What fitness is there in
that, especially in its being broached by a minor character?
Trace the relation of the Goldsmith, his delays and his
debts to the Plot. How does it come about effectively
that in this Act the wrong master and man are together,
the opposite of what has prevailed, earlier? Show how in
the eagerness of Adriana to send the gold and the grief
over what she jealously suspects to be the cause of it, a
tragic situation is reached. In which scene is the most
complex confusion reached.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is the confusion of identity, the domestic discord or
the bewitchment and supposed lunacy the most powerful
factor in the plot of error. Which is the most comical and
which the most tragic moment in this Act?
ACTV
SOLUTIONS MAKE ALL THE STRANGERS FEEL AT HOME
The climax of bewilderment being reached in the evi-
dence that the same man is both out of the Priory and
THE COMEDIE OF ERRORS 19
in it, solutions follow. Trace the steps by which this is
accomplished.
Why is the attack upon Antipholus the Stranger as-
signed to the Merchant who is the Goldsmith's creditor
instead of to the Goldsmith? Is it by chance or is there
some reason for it? Why did not Antipholus explain
that he had the chain through no option of his own ? By
means of the Merchant drawing his sword and detaining
him, the scene with Adriana at the close of the preceding
Act when his flight prevented her from having him bound
as a mad man is carried on again, and refuge in the Priory
forced upon him.
Why does the Abbess blame Adriana first because she
did not find fault with her husband and then because she
did ? Is her sudden harsh turn against her explicable not
45 personal inconsistency or womanly prejudice, but as
due to a gleam of insight? What clew to the case does
Adriana's meekness afford? Or else of the relationship of
the Abbess to the twins? Why does she so peremptorily
keep the man from his wife ? Is not this conduct devised
to mystify the audience rather than the characters?
Notice that the Abbess is more of a surprise in her re-
lation to the plot than the condemned Egean is. The Ab-
bess episode balances at the close of the Play the Egean ]
episode at the opening of the story. Trace the links of con-
nection with the main action of each and their relation to
each other, showing how they bind into an absolute unity a
peculiarly symmetrical plot. Why do the two Dromios ...
end the Play instead of the main characters?
20 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is this Play the better or worse farce for the serious do-
mestic situation and the pathos of the long separation of
the shipwrecked family?
VI
CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT
In what sense can there be said to be a development of
character in "The Comedie of Errors?" If no progress
can be traced in the standpoint of any one character of the
Play, save possibly in that of Adriana, is there yet not to
be seen a gradual bringing forward of the traits inwardly
differentiating the two pairs of twins, and stamping the
personality of Adriana and Luciana and even in a slighter
degree of the Goldsmith, the Creditor Merchant, Egean,
and the Abbess?
Show what you deem this to be in each character, and
by what means the result in each is effected.
Is Antipholus the Stranger of a gentler and more pious
spirit than Antipholus the Native? What signs of this
impression can you cite? Was Antipholus the Native pop-
ular in Ephesus? What calling had he followed? Why
do we learn more of Antipholus the Stranger at once than
of his brother? In what respects does this suit the plot
and the circumstances?
Which Dromio do you think the wittier? Is one more
a house servant and less of a personal attendant and pro-
THE COMEDIE OF ERRORS 21
fessional fool than the other? Why, do you think, is
Antipholus the Stranger made to beat his man so often?
Is his quick temper, or a sort of horse-play fun at the
bottom of it? Or is the ancient custom as to body ser-
vants exemplified?
Which Antipholus has been the more independently
reared and is this signified in their characters? It has
been supposed that Antipholus the Native married at the
Duke's bidding for money and not for love. What rea-
son does the Play give for this supposition? Is Adriana's
jealousy a reason, or is he fonder of her than she realizes?
Which of the Sisters do you like best, and why?
Why would Antipholus the Native be better mated
with one than the other? In what respects of character
would Luciana be apt to attract Antipholus the Stranger
more than Adriana would? Are there signs to show that
Adriana and her husband are the more stalwart pair?
Show how admirably the riper characters of the father
and mother set off the qualities and relationships of the
younger group.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
The resemblances of the twins externally are counter- ,
balanced by diversities that are internal, so that the pos-
sibilities of confusion may be said to be only skin deep,
Does this add to the improbableness of the plot sufficiently
to make it a questionable quality of the plot that the
characters are so much differentiated, or does it serve
rather to enrich the Play and make it far more interest-
22 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
ing? Are there signs of character in Adriana and her
husband going to show that they are destined to be hap-
pier in their relation to each other than ever before?
VII
SHAKESPEARE'S DEPARTURES FROM PLAUTUS
The omissions and changes Shakespeare made from
Plautus's plot are almost as important in lending his Play
a new effect as the additions and entirely original inven-
tions.
Notice the entire omission of the borrowed cloak taken
from his wife, Mulier, by Menaechmus and given to the
Courtisan, Erotium; also, of the character of the para-
site, Peniculus, by means of whom as a spiteful informer
the wife is told of her husband's relations with Erotium
and the dinner he proposes to take with her. Instead of
Mulier's father, Senex, Shakespeare creates the noble
Egean, the father of the Twins. Introducing his plot
with the incident of his arrest, he, closes it with the still
more notable character of the mother whom he gives an
important part to play in the happy solution of the diffi-
culties and the re-union. The part of the Duke and the
trade relations of the two cities, the city in Sicily as in
Plautus, the other Ephesus, instead of Epidamnum, as in
Plautus, are ingenious changes of an external sort. What
is effected by them ? The different treatment of the din-
ner incident which causes the husband to mean to dine at
home, until he finds he cannot, when with others he in-
THE COMEDIE OF ERRORS 23
vites the courtisan to dine with them at an Inn, lends a
different color to the story. What do you think it effects
as to character, amusingness, and unity with the plot of
mistaken identity ? The courtisan's open visit to the
wife and direct effect upon the plot is in strong contrast
to the intrigue of which the wife is informed by a third
person. Bring this out, and show what the influence is.
Compare the argument of Plautus (For this see "First
Folio Edition" of "Comedie of Errors," p. 76) with the
opening scene wherein Shakespeare causes Egean to tell
the story out of which the Play grows. In what respects
is this an improvement? (See Extract from Ten Brink,
P. 183).
What is accomplished by the addition of the twin ser-
vants?— the two Dromios? (for special assistance in a
comparative appreciation of Shakespeare's farce and that
of Plautus see Introduction also Sources in the "First
Folio Edition of this Play).
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is the complexity of Shakespeare's plot over that of
Plautus a disadvantage? If not, how does this fact agree
with the common saying that simplicity in Art is the high-
est Art?
Are the farcical interest and the character interest car-
ried on too far not to be seen to be inconsistent interests?
Or is the secret of the Art of the Play the reconciliation
and harmony of the farcical and the serious?
THE TWO GENTLEMEN OF VERONA
The unusual in this Comedy is due to its reflection of the
ideals and manners of Chivalry in Love and Friendship as
loyally professed by Valentine and Silvia and outraged by
Protheus.
The plot is extremely simple and is carried on by means
of causing its main characters successively to dominate in
their influence upon the action.
ACT I
VALENTINE VERSUS PROTHEUS AND JULIA
Valentine's reasons for travel and those of Protheus for
staying at home separate the two friends. Compare Val-
entine's preference of Honor, and that of Protheus for
Love, with the opening of "Loves Labour's Lost" and
"Much Adoe."
Show how the rest of the action, after the separation of
the friends to suit this double thesis of life, depends upon
illustrating the effect of Protheus's love upon Julia's for-
tunes, and of Valentine's quest of honor upon the fortunes
of Protheus. Notice how it happens that his own decep-
tion has a direct influence upon his father, so that his
departure to join Valentine is as much due to his own
lack of firmness in his desire to stay on Julia's account, as
to Valentine's initiative in going.
24
THE TWO GENTLEMEN OF VERONA 25
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is Valentine's or Protheus's the more influential char-
acter upon the course of events thus far?
ACT II
VALENTINE AND SILVIA
Tell the story of this Act.
Explain the courtship scene with which this Act opens
as illustrating the service of love in systems of Chivalry.
(For hints on this see Introduction to the Play in "First
Folio Edition" also Note on II, i, 97).
Contrast the earnestness of Valentine's nature in this
devotion to Silvia with the fickleness of Protheus.
The two servants, Speed and Launce, may be compared,
their contrasts to each other shown, and their general re-
semblance to a similarly contrasted pair — the two Dro-
mios in the "Comedie of Errors."
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is the love of Protheus for Silvia a reflex influence from
Valentine's extreme enthusiasm?
Why does Lucetta distrust Protheus?
ACT III
THE FALSE FRIEND
What effect has the arrival of Protheus at the Milan-
ese Court? How does the new-comer manage to domi-
nate this Act? Point out the skill of Protheus in making
his disclosure to the Duke seem to be reluctantly wrung
26 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
from him against the friendship he feels for Valentine and
only because of a sense of duty toward the Duke.
What does this delicacy accomplish toward his own
courtship of Silvia? If he had seemed eager to tell his
friend's secrets would not the Duke distrust him and sus-
pect some self-interest on his part ? What did his mention
of Thurio's suit do for himself ?
Compare the nature of the two friends' talk ; how that
of Protheus gives a better impression of himself than is
true, that of Valentine, a worse. Show the consistency
in wile of Protheus in his conduct toward the Duke,
Thurio, Silvia, and Julia. Why does it succeed ? Where-
in is it likely to fail?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is Protheus impossibly false as a character? Or is his
duplicity an exemplification of the facility toward evil
of this kind that is natural to an extremely impressionable
nature which lacks stability?
In what does Valentine's superiority consist? Are the
maxims for the treatment of women which he gives the
Duke due to artificial system learned from others or a
part of his own experience?
ACT IV
SILVIA AND JULIA
Tell the story of the Act. All the main characters and
one new one have their parts in the next steps in the plot ?
What are those parts?
THE TWO GENTLEMEN OF VERONA 27
Valentine's fate and its result.
Silvia's determination and its effect. Notice how her
call upon Eglamoure for knightly service brings the ac-
tion into the province of Chivalry again.
Julia's office in the schemes of Protheus.
Is this Act dominated in its drift by the two women?
How do they put their impress upon events?
Show how the villain Protheus is instrumental in
bringing these two women together, and how this is equiv-
alent to uniting against his evil policy, the good forces of
the Play. The loyalty of Silvia to Julia considered as
offsetting the falsity of Protheus to Valentine.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is the most actively beneficial episode in this Act also
the most charming.
ACT V
VALENTINE, SILVIA AND JULIA VERSUS PROTHEUS
i
What are the results of Silvia's flight?
Why does outlawry bring out the superiority of Valen-
tine?
Does it serve also to bring out the inferiority of Pro-
theus ?
How does outlawry serve to defeat the purposes of the
Duke and Thurio and bring about the conquest over them
of Valentine?
28 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
How does Thurio's nature inure to the credit of Val-
entine's with the Duke?
Does outlawry here represent the injustices of civic
life? To what degree? Or the natural life beneficent
and innocent of Arden Forest in "As You Like It?" To
what degree is this true?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Why did Julia swoon? Was the repentance of Pro-
theus genuine? — and natural? What does Valentine
mean by his forgiveness of Protheus and his proof of it —
"All that was mine, in Silvia, I give thee?" could he give
her, personally, against her will, in Chivalry? Or in true
love? How could he mean anything then, but proving
by this entrusting of her to his friend his belief in his
loyalty and purity?
Why is Silvia silent? (See Introduction to the Play
in "First Folio Edition," also Selected Criticism and
Notes on V, iv, 91, for hints on these latter queries).
THE TAMING OF THE SHREW
A Play or mask within the Play is not uncommon in
Shakespeare. A Play outside the Play especially distin-
guishes the arrangement of this Comedy.
Perhaps it serves to indicate that the theme of the tam-
ing of a wife is crude and primitive folk-farce, particu-
larly suited to the taste of the drunken tinker before
whom it is played.
Shakespeare's handling of the tinker's subject, however,
like other rude and homely matters taken up by an acute
mind is such as to fasten deeper attention and to overgo
a tinker's appreciation.
THE PLAY OUTSIDE THE PLAY
The effect of the Induction in dramatic presentation is
not easy to estimate. Since there is no direct connection
between it and the Play itself what do you see that it
could be made to do for the action ? Is it like a frame for
a picture adapted to give the theme remoteness? Is this
appropriate? Is it otherwise a mere cause for confusion?
Or is it intended to add one more thread of amusement?
Why does Shakespeare in "The Shrew" drop the tinker
interregnum dialogue recurring regularly in "A Shrew?"
May Shakespeare, therefore, be cited as finding only a
limited use for "the Play outside the Play," deeming
it in the way later ? How has he arranged for its gradual
29
30 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
disappearance from attention? Is there a stage reason
alone enough to account for it? (See suggestions in Notes
on I, i, 266, and IV, iii, i, "First Folio Edition"). Com-
pare the Tinker scenes in the version of 1594. (For these
see Extracts in Sources, pp. 105-110, in "First Folio Edi-
tion"). Do the Slie of "A Shrew" and Christophero Sly
of "The Shrew" differ as characters? As to their opinion
of the Play: Are their between-the-act dialogues ma-
terially different?
What is the relation to the source and what has been
altered from the old tale.
The local Warwickshire touches in the Induction and
their explanation. (For these see "Story of the Induc-
tion" in the Play).
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Ought the Induction play to be left out? How might
it be made more effective by special treatment on the
stage? Should the additional scenes be interpolated as
was the stage custom, or should Shakespeare's diminishing
notice of them be adopted to produce the most artistic
effect?
II
THE DOUBLE PLOT OF THE MAIN PLAY
In "A Shrew" and "The Shrew" : Show how the story,
with respect to the Taming scenes, is the same substan-
THE TAMING OF THE SHREW 31
tially, with comparatively minor differences, except for
the characterization. But with respect to the Bianca
scenes it has been expanded and altered. This suggests,
most naturally, that the part Shakespeare did not write
or answer for in "A Shrew" was merely the Bianca scenes,
and that his task in "The Shrew" was to cut out and re-
write the scenes that were not his so as to be unhampered
with the disharmony of the two parts of the plot as it ap-
pears in the Quarto of 1594.
The story of the Play as it now stands consists of an
interweaving of the Taming story and the story of
Bianca's Courtship in such a way that while they keep
their separateness of necessity, they balance better in in-
terest and are more continually brought to bear upon each
other from time to time. What are their points of con-
tact in each Act ? The sisters with relation to their father
and their suitors in Act I : How does this initiate the ac-
tion ?
With relation to each other and the Music Master in
Act II : How does this separate the action into two lines
of Courtship.
After Katherine's marriage in Act III the interest di-
vides between the Taming of Katherine and the Court-
ship of Bianca.
In Act IV two or three points of contact are arranged
by means of the journey and what two characters?
In Act V how is contact both objective and moral ob-
tained?
Alternative interest in the Bianca Courtship after
Kate's marriage and taming is attained by the elaborate
32 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
scheme to make Lucentio the most successful suitor and
the droll surprises and difficulties met with in the process.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is the lack of unity in the Play sufficiently remedied
by enriching the Bianca counterplot and arranging for al-
ternate interest first in the plot and then in the counter-
plot, or is the original difficulty irremediable?
In which story is plot or else character the supreme in-
terest?
Is the Bianca story or the {Catherine story the more en-
tertaining? Why?
Ill
BIANCA AND HER SUITORS
Lucentio's errand in Padua, his breeding and relations
to his servant qualify him as quite the conventional hero
of a romantic love-story. How does he compare with the
young noblemen of "Loves Labour's Lost ?" What part of
the study of Philosophy does he specially desire to take up
and how does his temper toward learning fall in with
theirs?
What light does Bianca on her appearance throw upon
herself? Through the testimony of her sister and her
father and the two suitors what else is to be gathered ?
Her effect upon Lucentio: The parallelism with "A
Midsommer Nights Dreame" (I, i, 156, and see p. 134 in
the First Folio Edition of "The Shrew") not appearing in
"A Shrew," considered as indicative of the favorite method
THE TAMING OF THE SHREW 33
of Shakespearian lovers in falling in love at first sight.
{Catherine's effect upon Tranio, lost upon Lucentio, in
his daze over Bianca, leads to what plan of action? How
does the part Hortensio and Gremio play in this rein-
force the plot, and combine them all to instigate Petru-
chio to woo Katherine? How does the contest for the
best sale of Bianca when Katherine is out of the way lead
to a new plot? The money-contest of the suitors, judged
by the father is supplemented by the mock teaching-con-
test of the lovers of which Bianca herself is the judge.
Show how this constitutes the second step in the action
and what complications and simplifications it prepares.
Lucentio's studies in the hedonistic Philosophy he pro-
fesses and its victory over Music and Hortensio.
What is Bianca's contribution to the gossip excited by
{Catherine's wedding, and what impression does Act III
give you altogether of Bianca's character? Is the bad re-
port of it in Act IV, made by Hortensio, as the Musician,
Lisio, with Tranio, quite fair to her?
The abusive opinion and jealousy of Hortensio as-
sisted by the supposed Lucentio narrow down the uncer-
tainties of the courtship so as to concentrate interest on
the new scheme of the supposed father. How is this
worked out ? Explain the conflict with the arrival of the
true father, and the amusing counter-play.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Why does Lucentio's suit excel that of any other in
interest?
Is Bianca wrong in acting independently of her father?
34 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
IV
THE SHREW AND HER TAMER
Does the Shrew justify her reputation on her first ap-
pearance? What is said of her compared with what she
does then and in Act II ? Why is Petruchio's first approach
with a combat of wit and a great bluff of compliment
effective? Is Kate really impressed by it, or only fearful
that she is being fooled? How do you account for her
denial of him and his suit to her father in Act II and her
mortification when he does not arrive till late in Act III?
Does Petruchio's speech to the others and before them
(II, i, 328-350) account for the change? His arrival at
the wedding in such shabby attire and with so wretched
an appearance as to retinue, with his sorry horse and man-
servant contrasts strongly with the promises held out in
this speech. What is the effect on Kate and why does it
serve his purpose?
Is Kate's entreaty to stay, or her action in showing her
bridegroom the door the climax of the wedding scene?
What is the point in the stage business of Petruchio's
speech warning others not to touch his chattel? Is she
really being befriended by the bystanders when she de-
clares they must go "forward to' the bridall dinner" or is
she so entirely alone in her opposition to Petruchio's com-
mand to go, that his speech is the keenest satire upon her
defencelessness in every direction but through him?
Is Petruchio's conduct at home and the servants' com-
ment upon it such as to make Kate's two entreaties expli-
cable?
THE TAMING OF THE SHREW 35
What light docs Petruchio's own account (IV, i, 183-
207 ) of his method throw upon it ?
In the eating and haberdasher scene (IV, iii) what is it
Kate learns — merely that she cannot command by force
and can have what she wants by another method? What
is the secret of her tractableness in Scene v?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Are Katherine and Petruchio the most interesting char-
acters in the Play? Why?
Is their prominence due to their personal attractiveness
or to the Dramatist's skill?
THE TRIPLE MARRIAGE AND THE MORAL
Why should the Play not end with Act IV?
What does Act V add?
Is the quality of the table-talk in keeping with the plot
and characters?
The husbands' talk and wager turns on what point,
obedience to the husband, or agreement of husband and
wife as mutually to their interest?
Show the drift of Kate's expression of the moral of
the Play, and state your own way of looking at it.
t
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Did Petruchio and Kate give an impromptu perform-
ance of conjugal felicity, or one decided upon beforehand?
36 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
Was Kate quick-witted enough to guess there was money
in it, or was she really, once of a different mind and re-
formed.
VI
THE FOLK ORIGIN OF THE TAMING
Trace the antiquity of this schooling of a wife, and the
resemblances and contrasts in the chief variants of the
story (for help in this see Sources in "First Folio Edi-
tion").
Is there any progress to be discerned in the degree of
bodily force deemed expedient?
Is any such scheme of the marriage-relation compatible
with advanced civilization, or is it peculiar to crude no-
tions of life in a taming age?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is the folk-legend indicative of an inherent relation in
marriage of the male and female natures, or is it merely
an expression of established custom and legalized institu-
tion upon gaining for each the aims and line of conduct de-
sired ? If so, is the result of the process to gain a ground
of mutual compromise and accommodation and a division
of labor in joint life which will enable the process itself to
fall into disuse.
Is co-ercion of others consistent with a high grade of
individuality?
Did Petnichio play the Tamer in a "Pickwickian sense"
THE TAMING OF THE SHREW 37
and the whole thing being a bit of acting, did Kate see
through it, finally, and play her part too?
The use of finesse in the Play (see Introduction to the
Play "First Folio Edition").
Does Shakespeare's way of handling the characters and
the process of taming materially differ from the way pre-
vailing both in the crude folk tales and in "A Shrew?"
Does he suggest that in both Petruchio's and Kate's
case they are merely bent upon their own individual emo-
tions until closer relation makes them join forces?
What is the modern bearing of Shakespeare's way of
putting the story?
Partnership and co-operation versus autocratic rule:
Are the administrative advantages of the latter consonant
with the good will and continual psychical development
furthered by the former?
Does the intellectual advantage rest with the user of
force or with the mind that accommodates itself to force
by gaining its ends by stratagem and other indirect poli-
cies?
Is coercion as wise as persuasion which has no such pen-
alties to pay?
LOVE'S LABOUR'S LOST
Shakespeare makes us laugh in "Loves Labour's Lost"
at the futility of the attempt of ascetic and academic men
to shut out love and women from their schemes of life
and study.
His early work in putting the past history of England
into dramatic form may possibly have suggested to him to
put more recent history on the stage by means of this
Comedy. Light as it is, the point of it is to satirize the
monastic and exclusive element in current educational
schemes. Fictitious as the story is, it touches upon names
and incidents belonging to actual history. So familiar
were these actual happenings of the day to his audience
that it could especially enjoy these veiled allusions to
them.
The main idea of the plot of the Comedy — the* 'Acad-
eme," was one that had a bearing upon various similarly
named educational projects of that time in England.
One such scheme was drawn up about 1570, by Sir
Humphrey Gilbert, Sir Walter Raleigh's half-brother,
for the "education of her Majeste's Wardes and others
the youths of nobility and gentlemen." This plan was, like
Shakespeare's arranged for a "three yeeres terme" (I, i,
20) and at the end of "every three years" some book was
to be published which would represent the fruit of the
Academy's study during that period. Merely the title
of this scheme — "Queen Elizabethes Achademy" may have
38
LOVE'S LABOUR'S LOST 39
suggested Shakespeare's "Achademe" (I, i, 17). Of
course, however, both Gilbert's and Shakespeare's adop-
tion of the name are examples of the appropriation by
educational groups of the classic academes of the Philoso-
phers of Athens and their student followers. Another
educational plan "for the bringing up in vertue and learn-
ing of the Queenes Majestis Wardes," was devised by
Sir Nicholas Bacon, in 1561. Later, in the reign of
James I, the establishment of the "Academe Royal" by
Bolton, is an example of the early vogue of the name,
which has since become familiar everywhere, for educa-
tional and learned institutions.
A less important element in the formation of the plot
is the allusion to current French politics which the situa-
tion of the characters of the Play suggests.
A King of Navarre and a Princess of France con-
ferring in treaty over a disputed province and a claim of
allowance for services rendered is an incident constituting
a reference to a state of things in France then closely con-
cerning England. The succession to the throne of France
of Henry of Navarre, the champion of the Huguenots of
France, was long contested. England was friendly to
Navarre, the object of her foreign policy being to coun-
terpoise the power of Spain and the Catholics of France,
with whom Queen Elizabeth's most formidable rival,
Mary Stuart, was allied in interest.
No king of Navarre was ever named Ferdinand. Yet
by making an entirely fictitious hero a king of Navarre
and the suitor of a princess of France, the relationship of
Henry of Navarre to dominance in France was suggested
40 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
in an unobjectionable and amusing way. And the death
of the King of France introduced at the close of the Play,
involving the prospect as a probability that the hero might
then succeed to the throne of France, could scarcely fail
to remind Shakespeare's audience of the actual struggle of
the King of Navarre for the French crown, and also of
the fact that on the death of the French King in August,
1589, Navarre then became heir presumptive, and after
the battle of Ivry in 1590 Spain delayed but could not
long obstruct his complete success.
In 1593 the most important cities of the Kingdom
yielded him allegiance and in the Spring of 1594 Paris
herself opened her gates to him. These dates 1589-1594
indicate the time, also, when "Loves Labour's Lost" is
likely to have been timely in these references, and yield a
clew to its date of composition.
The effect of these allusions to French political affairs,
made more piquant by the downfall of Spain in her politi-
cal opposition both to England and the party of Henry
of Navarre, was intensified in Shakespeare's Play by the
names given to Navarre's lords. Berowne, as the name
appears in the Folio, is an English spelling of the French
name Biron, to which it is changed in modernized editions
of Shakespeare. Longavill is an English equivalent of
Longueville, and Dumaine or Dumane of De Mayenne,
names which also are changed in the modernized editions,
although not consistently. All these names are associated
with Navarre's struggles in France. The Marechal de
Biron and the Due de Longueville fought prominently on
Navarre's side. The Due de Mayenne, brother of Henry
LOVE'S LABOUR'S LOST 41
of Guise, fought on the opposite side. The Due d'Alen-
cpn long a suitor for the hand of Queen Elizabeth, is
mentioned as the father of Rosaline.
Another veiled reference to a Russian suitor of the
Queen's seems to be made in the incident introduced in
the last Act. This scene of the wooing of the King and
his lords when disguised as Russians makes fun, perhaps,
of an actual embassy of Russians to the Court of Eliza-
beth, in 1583, when the Queen had arranged to put upon
Lady Mary Hastings the suit which the Czar Ivan had
originally hoped to proffer to the Queen herself. (For in-
formation upon these and other incidents of the period
that may be used in the plot see Sources, pp. 106-116 also
Notes in the "First Folio Edition" of this Play).
ACT I
THE VOW AND ITS FIRST ANTAGONISTS
The theme of the Comedy — the exclusion of love for
the sake of winning fame for learning, is made clear by the
first speaker. The opposition Love will make to this is
next expressed through another speaker, and then em-
bodied in a practical example. Bring out the argument,
in full, on both sides, as expressed by the King and his
lords, on the one side, and by one lord who is less subser-
vient on the other side. What does Berowne object to
in the King's idea about study and fame? He says,
practically, that fame is a mere expression of opinion,
and that as anybody can give anyone the name of be-
42 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
ing learned or the name of being anything, fame may
be given by those who have very little notion of any real
knowledge. Superficial knowledge is knowledge of names
but real knowledge is that which names mean. In a
word, we but dull our minds and blind our eyes in poring
over the outsides of things, unless we study to understand
life and act a beneficent part in it.
As children we are rightly put to task work in order
to get the means to go on independently using life and all
the products of life including books, in order to minister
toward independent thought and life. But to start in
with rules and restrictions when we are older and life it-
self is opening before us, is like climbing over a house to
unlock the gate before it. Their artificial arrange-
ments are not fitted to meet actual experience. Actual
experience is bound to laugh at their exclusion of life.
How does the message brought by Costard and Clowne
bear on the argument? The fooling seems to be the dom-
inant interest in Scene ii. Is it, nevertheless, only the
vehicle by which the theme is developed? Show how
also not alone by the confession Armado makes but also
by the words in which he expressed it, the theme of the
conflict of Love against the vow foreswearing it is made
clear. Notice, too, that the symptom, so to speak, of the
labour of Love or Cupid as opposed to the Herculean la-
bor of "warre against your owne affections" is at once
made evident in Armando. This symptom is the desire
to write a Sonnet. In what way, then, does it appear from
the Story of Act I, that witness will be borne to the suc-
cess of love's labor over the vow of the Achademe?
LOVE'S LABOUR'S LOST 43
Does the sprightliness of the second scene obscure the
scheme of the play advantageously or disadvantageously?
ACT II
THE EMBASSY versus THE VOW
How is it made apparent that the effect of the Em-
bassy of France to Navarre will be on the side of Love
against the Vow ? The ladies' remarks upon the students
of the Achademe throw light upon themselves and the
drift of the story as well as upon their subjects. Show
what may be gathered from their speeches? What does
the Princess gather from them?
The King does not invite the Princess to his Court, and
declares he will not violate his vow. Nevertheless he does
do so. In what respect ? Boyet's observation of him goes
still farther. What is this? And how does it seem to be
justified ? Is Boyet's conclusion that "Navar is affected,"
more a means of telling the Audience what is about to
happen, than comment on what is to be seen? Or is it
of use to show the Actor of the King's part how he must
bear himself? How does it fit with the name and scheme
of the Play that Boyet who thinks the King has already
fallen in love should be called Cupid's grandfather?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Why does the Princess discount Boyet's remarks and
accuse him of joking? Does she give any clew to her own
feelings ?
44 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
ACT III
THE CLOWN AS A LETTER-CARRIER
Why is it in keeping with the Play that Berowne should
be the first of the Lords to be foresworn?
In making Armado the keeper of Costard, the Clown's
breaking of the vow has already been satirized by the
King's own act. Armado now takes his next turn at mak-
ing Costard's sentence a hollow mockery by sending him
as a messenger to Jacquenetta, How is this first letter-
carrying made to lead to a second, doubling the mockery
and promising new confusions?
Has Moth anything to do with the scheme of the Play?
Who is the "Boy" of whom Berowne speaks repeatedly
in his speech concluding this Act? What is the bearing
of the reference to him upon the Play?
How is the joke of the rhyme in which the Boy got
the better of his Master by selling him the "Goose" to be
explained? It is commonly supposed that the interpola-
tion from the Quarto, i. e., the lines put between brackets
in the "First Folio Edition" (p. 31) are necessary. It
is better however, to leave them out, as they are left out
in the Folio text, if it is understood that the Boy Moth,
repeats 11. 91-92, after Armado has said them. Then
Armado begins the "lenvoy" with the intention that the
Boy will also repeat that and that being the end, turn the
laugh on himself by calling himself the Goose. But the
Boy is too clever. He says it ends where it should. Cos-
tard declares the Boy has sold him, and both laugh to the
bewilderment of Armado. If the Page added the "len-
LOVE'S LABOUR'S LOST 45
voy" as the Quarto puts it the joke would already have
been turned against him. The explanation has to be
very elaborate and the poor little joke is too thin to stand
it, if both texts be followed. It is easy to see that the
repetition by the Page of 11. 91 and 92, on the stage, con-
fused the hearer who set it down for the publisher of the
Quarto, and also that the repetition would be a part of
the stage business and the lines might not appear twice
therefore in the MS. of the Play itself. The question
growing out of this is — Ought not the bracketed part of
the text to be left out?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Why does Berowne say that he loves "the worst of all"
(III, i, 193) ? Is this true? Does he think it true? Does
it refer to her looks, or her disposition, or her brain ? Is it
said of her because she is the cleverest, and does Berowne
really share the common prejudice of the male against a
superior woman or only pretend to ?
ACT IV
BEROWNE HEARS SOME SONNETS AND THE KING RECEIVES
A LETTER
Does the Princess guess the truth of the matter when
Costard delivers the wrong letter for Rosaline?
What relation has the second scene of Act IV to the
Play? Of what use to the preceding action, and to the
present? Of what use are all these new characters to the
Plot? One has been before heard from, but is he of the
46 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
most or least use here? Are they of use to the story in
any other way, later? In what respects do their tricks of
speech and affectation of learning suit the aim of the
Comedy? Show how the Sonnet-writing is made the
means of unmasking the lovers to each other and all of
them to Berowne. Are the sonnets suited to the charac-
ters of the writers? Contrast the King's and Berowne's
in this respect. Does the King suspect Berowne before
Jaquenetta brings her letter? Why does Jaquenetta say
it was treason? Would Berowne have confessed if he
were not forced to? After having so unmercifully fol-
lowed the example of the others in condemning them for
doing what each was equally involved in, the climax of
forced confession from him is more amusing than if any
one of them had unmasked him, as Longaville did Du-
main, the King Longaville, and Berowne the King.
What special fitness was there in making Dumane find out
that the torn letter was in Berowne's hand and bore his
signature ?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is Berowne's speech to "salve" their "perjury" (IV,
iii, 309-383) the moral of the piece? If so why should
not the Play end here? How does Berowne's final speech
in this Act foreshadow the conclusion of the Play ?
ACTV
SPORT IS BY SPORT OVERTHROWN
What were the main events of the last Act and of this
one, and how do they bear upon one another?
LOVE'S LABOUR'S LOST 47
Why is the revenge planned by the Princess both fair
and prudent? Are the men more in earnest than they
seem ? Do the women seem less in earnest than they are ?
Which man first draws a lesson from being outwitted,
and how is it justified? Show how this lesson suits the
trend of the Play, and advances upon the outcome of the
preceding Act. To whom is Berowne's line (V, ii, 477)
— "Speake for yourselves, my wit is at an end" — ad-
dressed? H'ow is the King brought to confusion? Is
the Princess too hard upon him? Why does Berowne
scoff so fiercely at Boyet?
Is the presentation of the Nine Worthies too absurd in
itself to mix well with the courtliness, learning, and elab-
orate wit of the rest of the Play? Note Berowne's de-
fence of it (V, ii, 569-571) and his rebuke to the King for
despising it? The Princess's defence of it and its corres-
pondence with that of Theseus for the show of the "base
mechanicals" in the "Midsommer Nights Dreame." How
does Berowne's humility in accepting the parallel with
their own wit-overthrown mask agree with his boisterous
jeering at the mask of the Nine Worthies later? How
does the attitude of the ladies toward it compare with
that of the men and what comment upon it does it consti-
tute in your opinion ? How does it all prepare the way for
the sudden sad message, and also for the decision of the La-
dies to rebuff love that is not serious ? What special point
is there in the kind of trial Rosaline and her mistress each
specially propose for Berowne and the King? Has it any
relation to what has just been shown of each of them in
their attitude towards others with respect to the humble
48 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
performers of the Mask of the Nine Worthies? What
makes wit an unalloyed pleasure?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is the serious ending of this Comedy a disappointment ?
Is seriousness an ending artistically called for by this plot,
or only morally called for? Compare with the serious
strain in the "Comedie of Errors." What does the con-
tradictory little final dialogue between Winter and
Spring add to the significance of the Play?
VI
THE WIT OF THE PLAY
Tli is has been called by Armitage Brown, "A Comedy
of Conversation"; and the quibbles in which the Play
abounds have been supposed by Dr. Johnson to give the
Author "such delight, that he was content to sacrifice rea-
son propriety and truth" for their sake. How far do
these observations justly apply to the Play?
In what degree is the extravagant banter of the Play
itself an imitation of current fashions of speech and itself
an object of ridicule?
Its relations to Lyly and Euphuism. (See Extracts from
Ward and from Landmann in "Selected Criticism," in
First Folio Edition of the Play).
Make a study of the lesser and larger wit of the play,
showing how the former is merely incidental to the latter.
LOVE'S LABOUR'S LOST 49
In what respects is the whimsical talk of the Play suited
to certain groups and to special characters, so that there
is more variety in it than appears at first.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Does the master wit of the Play consist in any one class
of fun, as verbal conceits in the punning line; practical
jokes; Euphuism, so-called; banter in speech and retort,
versemaking and sonneteering, learned quips, or in the
use of all these combined in a way to bring out the point
of the Play — the clash of natural with artificial methods.
Is wit or purpose dominant in the Play?
Which is the wittiest scene? Is it also the most mor-
ally significant?
VII
THE CHARACTERS
Three groups of characters appear in the play — the
main group belonging to the Court; the learned group,
Armado, the schoolmaster, and the Curate ; and the native
group, Costard, Jaquenetta, Dull, and Moth. The two
latter subordinate groups add much to the Play. Show in
what respects: as to Plot interest what do they add? As
to merriment and significance? Is the morality and wit
of the Play contributed to by them ? Are they of interest
in themselves, apart from their relation to the other char-
acters? Are Costard and Jaquenetta the only happy
50 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
lovers in the Play? Why?
Is the King, kingly? In what respects, do you think,
does he evince youth and inexperience? When does he
begin seriously to be in love? Is the Princess justified in
disciplining him? How much of her discipline is due to
the event that cuts short the Play? Judging from his
character, do you think he will stand the "twelvemonth"
test?
Is Berowne the oldest as well as the deepest and wisest
of the men? How does he show all this?
Why does Rosaline discipline him? Is she in insight
superior to him as the Princess is to the King? Are the
other court ladies equally wise in the probation period
they allot?
Are all the men — Costard included — so much a prey
to a sort of foppery of expression and love of animal spirits
as to be properly subject to the satire the play provides
for them? Are the women more sane in this respect, de-
spite their wit, or not?
Is Shakespeare apparently on the women's side?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is Costard the bumpkin the best actor in the Mask of
the Worthies? Why? Why is Jaquenetta the least and
Moth the most discomfitted of the third group of char-
acters ?
Dowden says the women of the Play "have not the en-
tire advantage on their side ." What do they lack? He
also says, to bear this out, that "Berowne is yet a larger
LOVE'S LABOUR'S LOST SI
nature than the Princess or Rosaline." What has this to
do with their relative advantage in the Play itself, as
Shakespeare shows it?
Who are the critics of the falseness of artifice in the
Play? Is Berowne on the women's side in the criticism
which gives them their advantage?
VIII
THE MORAL OF THE PLAY
Is there a moral against the current educational methods
and the affectations social and literary of Shakespeare's
time? The monastic and aristocratic elements in educa-
tion considered as opposed to the progress of Women and
the People. Show the general conditions of education pre-
vailing after the Middle Ages, and the new spirit of the
Renascence making itself felt, also the degree in which
this appears in this plot. If Shakespeare's spirit, as mani-
fested in this Play, had been more influential practically,
do you think a different road would have been taken?
(For hints upon this line of thought see Introduction in
the "First Folio Edition"). How far is Berowne to be
taken as the spokesman of Shakespeare ? Note what Pater
says of him as "a reflex of Shakespeare himself," and
trace the truth of this as concerns the fact that he is never
"quite in touch" with the level of the understanding
shown by others of the Play, and state the bearing this has
upon the Moral of the Play. (See Pater's "Appreciations"
or extract from same in "Selected Criticism," pp. 242-248,
"First Folio Edition").
52 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
Why does so frolicsome a Comedy end so seriously?
Does that make it funnier?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is there really a moral in the Play in favor of nature
and sincerity or is it merely read into it?
Is Dowden right, who says "there is a serious intention
in the play," or Barrett Wendell who says : "like modern
comic opera, such essentially lyric work as this has no pro-
found meaning; its object is just to delight, to amuse;
whoever searches for significance in such literature misun-
derstands it."
In comparison with other comedies of Shakespeare, is
a serious undercurrent discernible in all of them, but none
in this?
IX
("THE
PRINCESS") UPON EDUCATION OF MEN AND WOMEN
Summarize story and outcome of Play and Poem in
comparison and in contrast. Does Shakespeare's exposi-
tion of the contemporary view of education account for
the condition Tennyson criticises? If so, are women to
blame for it? If not, how much does this modify Tenny-
son's criticism of the educational exclusion that is the
scheme of the College in "The Princess?" Shakespeare
seems to point his moral against his male characters for
LOVE'S LABOUR'S LOST 53
their exclusiveness, Tennyson against his women char-
acters? Which one goes the deeper? Wherein do they
agree and disagree? How may they be made to supple-
ment each other? Has Tennyson's poem presented any
phase of the question touching upon popular interest in ex-
clusive educational schemes? Is Shakespeare, considering
his time, the more democratic in his views of life, as
shown by this Play, in comparison with those brought out
in Tennyson's Poem. Why does Shakespeare leave the
women in moral and actual command of the situation ?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is co-education the right conclusion to draw from the
exposition by the Poets of educational restraints and the
relation of men and women to life?
What ideals of life as to Nature and Education must
be included in educational schemes? Why does the Play
not end with as many marriages as there are lovers? Is
it possibly because Shakespeare did not mean to bring for-
ward love between man and woman as if it were the only
thing in life but as the typical experience of life that
should open up the depths of knowledge not of love alone
but of death and suffering in relation to it.
MUCH ADOE ABOUT NOTHING
The title of this Comedy broadly describes its character,
and is based upon the Double meaning of ffiotfajng." The
events that constitute the plot are the result of "note-ing"
or overhearing and so taking note of events which are de-
ceptive in some way. Hence, in all the "note-ing" that
takes place, there is, after all "nothing," and the whole
amusing plot constitutes much ado about nothing. The
letter "h" in Nothing was often silent in Elizabethan pro-
nunciation. The "h" in "Moth" in "Loves Labour's
Lost" is another example.
Noting or overhearing as a factor of the plot is intro-
duced also in "Loves Labour's Lost." It is one of several
links in workmanship with that Play and its use there
may have suggested the production of a Play almost alto-
gether built, as this is, on overhearing or taking critical
notice such as Benedicke and Beatrice take of each other.
The part of the plot that is based on an already existent
story does not develop this noteing element particularly.
For that reason it is the likelier that it is a device of
Shakespeare's to make up his Comedy.
ACT I
CLAUDIO NOTES HERO WITH FAVOR AND IS NOTED WITH
DISFAVOR
The Story of Act I results, on the arrival of the Prince
and his suite, in making it known that Claudio has noted
54
MUCH ADOE ABOUT NOTHING 55
Hero as "the sweetest Ladie" that ever he "lookt on."
Show how it also comes out in Scene i that a noting of a
severer kind has passed between Benedicke and Beatrice.
The two kinds of special interest — the openly admiring
noting of Claudio, and the captious notice of each other
shown by Beatrice and Benedicke, initiate the two chan-
nels of action in which the plot will run. The normal
sex-agreement of the one pair of characters is varied by
contrast with the more unusual sex-warfare that asserts
itself humorously both in Beatrice and Benedicke. Bring
out pertinent examples of their defiance of love and mar-
riage.
What is to be gathered of Hero and her point of view
from this Act? How much from others, from little from
herself? And how much from her of others? Contrast
with hers the witness given of herself by Beatrice. Is
Claudio taciturn, too, when compared with Benedicke?
What noting goes on in scene ii? Is it in accordance
with what has already taken place between Claudio and
the Prince? What additional noting comes out in Sc. iii.
Is this in accordance with Scene i or Scene ii? Act I
closes with a sense of some confusion which Act II is re-
quired to clear up. In addition to the inconsistency, no-
tice Don John's enmity to Claudio, and its menace of
disaster.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is the inconsistency of the last three scenes misleading
and puzzling rather than alluring to the curiosity of the
reader ?
56 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
Could it be made more interesting on the stage by the
way of enacting the part of Brother Anthony?
ACT II
THE PRINCE PLOTS FOR TRUE NOTING AND HIS BROTHER
FOR FALSE
i
Tell the story of the masked ball. What new light is
thrown, first, on the characters and, then, on the plot by
means of these fragmentary bits of dialogue heard as the
revellers pass on and off stage together.
Is Don John really misled as to his Brother's intentions
toward Hero?
What does Hero herself think?
Does Don Pedro himself show that he is acting for an-
other— that the god, Love, dwells beneath his visor?
The modernized edition spoils one of the references to this
office in which the Prince labors for Love and does a labor
of love in whose disinterestedness some doubt is expressed.
By changing Love to Jove (in II, i, 92) a literal correc-
tion is made in accord with the legend referred to, but in
entire destruction of the point made by the Prince, if
Shakespeare means to adapt the allusion to his special
purpose. Note also Benedicke's name for Claudio (II,
iii, 34). What is your opinion of this? (See Note on
II, i, 91, in "First Folio Edition" ). Compare another in-
stance where the Prince shows that he is acting for Cupid
(II, i, 358-367). Is Don Pedro the most active spirit in
the plot? Show how in Acts I and II, it is made clear
MUCH ADOE ABOUT NOTHING 57
that the plot will consist in the prevalence of either a
favorable or unfavorable influence upon the happiness of
the characters. Who represents each influence?
Notice that the favorable influence in its first action in
favor of Claudio's happiness is misunderstood, discounted
and disbelieved in several directions. Is Claudio led to
distrust of the Prince by others or by his own jealousy?
In the second action of the favorable influence initiated
by the Prince, which of the characters share? Does the
unfavorable influence work against Benedicke's happiness?
What is Borachio's place in the action of the unfavora-
ble influence?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Noteing or overhearing is itself nothing or has a large
element of the deceptive in it. How is it made to work
well in Benedicke's case? Is the element of truth the only
one that is effective?
ACT III
THE NOTE-ING IS NOTED
Show that the action taking the Story on consists in
the "note-ing" already planned being enacted and being
noted as true. How does this work with Beatrice in
Scene i?
In Scene ii the unfavorable influence makes its prep-
aration to carry on the plot disastrously by the same
58 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
method. How is this made clear?
In Scene iii the "note-ing" is as effective for evil as that
in scene i, is for good. But a counter influence is brought
to bear upon it which consists in "noteing" the falsity of
the first "noteing." Show how this is arranged and prom-
ises to solve all difficulty. But the marriage is shown next
to be in active preparation, and then the promise of inter-
vention in time to frustrate Hero's disgrace is in scene v
itself frustrated by the bestowal of all Dogberry's
"tediousness" upon Leonato and by his own impatience.
Show the place in the action of the hurrying on of scene
iv, and the tediousness of scene v, and of both on the
humor of the Play.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Are the Prince and Claudio justified in the action they
propose ?
Is the element of chance, which both destroys the false-
ness of the evidence by means of Borachio's talk, and pre-
vents it from being known by Dogberry's, especially fit-
ting? Why?
ACT IV
HERO IS REPUDIATED AND BEFRIENDED
Does Claudio's demeanor in the repudiation scene be-
tray the violence of love?
What is to be inferred from the Prince's words and
MUCH ADOE ABOUT NOTHING 59
those of his bastard brother Don John?
Is it natural for Leonato to be convinced and to know
his daughter no better?
Why is the Friar on her side? Notice how the Friar
represents the Church as Dogberry does the Law. As in-
stitutional forces of civic life, outside the circle of the
central group of characters, they intervene in the action of
the drama when it is properly amenable to outside influ-
ences and civic instrumentalities. And both are brought
into the sphere of the Play by a means in sympathy with
the artistic method belonging to it. Observe how Dog-
berry is made humorously to desire to have everything
noted down, and how the Friar has come to the conclu-
sion that Hero is innocent "by noting of the Ladie." With
the Friar on her side, Hero and her one staunch friend —
Beatrice are enabled to follow a policy of resistance to
her disgrace and of re-establishment, first, of her good fame
and, then, of her happiness. How is this brought about?
The share of the Friar in rallying her friends to be loyal,
and the share of Beatrice in instituting a counter-move-
ment to the accusation combine to what effect? How
does it suit with the scheme of the action that the love of
Benedicke and Beatrice here attains its climax?
What does scene ii accomplish for the plot?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
I
t
Is the injection of tragedy at this Fourth Act into the
Comedy effective? Does it change the character of the
Comedy or merely intensify it?
60 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
Does Beatrice ask an unreasonable deed of Benedicke
when she says "Kill Claudio"? Suppose it were to prove
true, instead of to be prevented as may be already guessed,
by the defeat of Don John's false witness and evil influ-
ence: Is Beatrice justified in refusing Benedicke if he will
not kill his friend because it shows "there is no love" in
him?
ACT V
THE DOUBLE WEDDING
The valor and humor of the two old men against the
two young ones has especial value in restoring the comic
vein. How does this somewhat belated loyalty of Leonato
act upon our sympathy with him? Does the forbearance
of Claudio and the Prince toward the two men raise our
esteem of them or lead to further dislike?
What effect has the mock heroics of their ineffective
challenge on Benedicke's earnest championship of Hero?
Is the Prince's satiric speech (V, i, 208-209) to be inter-
preted as complimentary to Benedicke? Notice Claudio's
next speech in comment upon it, and explain the implica-
tions intended.
What does Leonato mean by blaming Borachio less than
the three nobles? How far do you think him justified — the
relations of master to man at the time being considered?
Was Margaret to blame? Why did she not make the
cheat known? (Cf. V, iv, 5-7 with V, i, 311-314). Is it
worth while to spend much time on making all minor
details clear?
MUCH ADOE ABOUT NOTHING 61
Is Claudio's consent to a second marriage creditable,
natural, or a clumsy expedient which only the entire hol-
lowness of the whole plot of false noting as to Hero ren-
ders endurable? Can you imagine any way of acting the
part of Claudio that would make it seem attractive?
Do you find it in character at the wedding that one
couple says so little, the other so much?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is the ending of the Plot happily contrived in too forced
and unreal a way?
Which is the most stirring scheme in the Play and
why?
Which is the funniest, and is it possible to say why?
THE CHARACTERS
Does this Play succeed in giving so extremely definite
and varied an impression of the characters that it is chief-
ly notable for that ? To bring out this idea of the plot as
successful less in itself than because it illuminates the qual-
ity and humor of the characters, compare with the "Com-
edie of Errors" or any of the Plays where events figure
more prominently. Show how the events of this Play
may be said to be created by the Characters. The Prince
and his Brother (and their tools on each side who lend
themselves to their plans with Dogberry, the highly un-
conscious, and the Friar, the highly conscious character)
by being what they are constitute the diverse means of
62 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
influencing the whole turn of events. These persons may
all be considered with reference to what they are them-
selves, in character, and through that, in relation to the
other characters of the Comedy.
BENEDICKE AND BEATRICE, CLAUDIO AND HERO
These two loving couples reveal their special characters
most vividly by means of their contrasting and supple-
mentary relations to each other. Show how Benedicke
and Beatrice do not throw Claudio and Hero too much in
the shade by their superior brilliancy, because through the
love of the minor couple their own love is enabled to rip-
en. Is their character heightened or lessened in wit and
individual interest by love?
The minor characters: Show how the adversity of the
family brings out the heroic element lying unobserved in
Brother Anthony of the "dry hand," and kindles his phil-
osophy into something martial.
The merry maids, Ursula and Margaret and their light-
hearted parts in the plot.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Beatrice "is a tarter, — and, if a natural woman, is not
a pleasing representative of her sex." She "will provoke
her Benedicke to give her much and just conjugal castiga-
tion," says Campbell. Is he right, and will Benedicke
feel so? — or is Swinburne right, who says she is "a de-
cidedly more perfect woman than could properly or per-
MUCH ADOE ABOUT NOTHING 63
missibly have trod the stage of Congreve or Moliere" and
who speaks of her "light true heart" ?
Is the superficial Claudio worthy of Hero?
Are the faults in the plot of the Play, such as are neces-
sitated by the design of using the characters themselves
and their "noting" of one another as the source of events,
and, therefore, in the last analysis not faults, a study of
their relation to the design leading us, as Hartley Cole-
ridge puts it, never to censure Shakespeare without finding
reason to eat our words?
A MIDSOMMER NIGHTS DREAME
Having read "A Midsommcr Nights Dreame" as a
whole, if it be not already fresh in the mind, or, if pos-
sible, having seen it acted, then consider more carefully the
characteristics of its dramatic structure, studying the plot
and progress of the story as it is unfolded act by act, also
the sources, the characters, and so forth, as suggested in
the following study.
ACT I
THE CROSSED LOVERS
Sum up the incidents and characters introduced in the
first Act and ascertain which are most important in influ-
encing the rest of the story.
It may be noticed that Theseus and Hippolyta and their
marriage festivities are personages and events which make
up a decorative external sort of frame for the whole play,
but that the centre of the action takes its start, primarily,
from the conflict of Hermia's love for Lysander with her
father's choice of Demetrius, and, secondarily, from the
clash of Helena's love for Demetrius with his suit for
Hermia. Show how the brisk bit of dialogue between
Hermia and Lysander (I. i. 141-166) implies the forth-
coming plot. For example, it may be shown that 'to be
cnthrall'd to love' (the first folio reading is love instead
64
A MIDSOMMER NIGHTS DREAME 65
of low, which was an emendation of Theobald's,*) and to
have 'sympathy in choice' made as 'momentary as a sound,
swift as a shadow, short as any dream,' is to be the fate
of all the lovers in the play, except Theseus and Hip-
polyta, and to constitute the substance of the action.
Consider what relation the second scene has to the story.
Is it more extraneous to the movement than the scene
presenting the Duke and his bride? It is linked to the
crossed lovers group, on the one side, by the part the chief
of the 'rude mechanicals,' Bottom, is to assume with
Titania, although this does not appear in the first Act, and
Shakespeare's intention to do something special with this
character is only shadowed forth here by its prominence.
On the other side it is linked to the ducal group still more
superficially, merely by the rehearsal of a piece to be
played at the wedding. It may be contrasted with the
preparation in 'Hamlet* for a piece similarly played before
the Court, but which had a vital connection with the action
and characters which is lacking here. Can there be said
to be an artistic design, however, though of a more external
sort, in the contrast between the Court scene and the
rehearsal scene, and the realistic offset the latter scene
supplies to the fairy fantasies that are to follow in the
next acts? For instance, it may be shown that the mer-
riment the clownish scene provides balances the dignity of
the ducal scene. His audience, having put a yoke upon the
dramatists by requiring a clown, his genius is betokened
here by his making it an artistic advantage.
*See foot note in First Folio edition.
66 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
POINTS i. 'The ancient privilege of Athens/ I. i. 49.
What was the position of the father toward the family in
Attica? 2. 'On Dian's altar to protest,' i.gS. Did the
service of Diana offer women a respite from masculine
dictation? Compare the myth of Iphigenia's salvation by
Diana. 3. 'To that place the sharp Athenian law cannot
pursue,' i. 172. What Grecian states had laws more
lenient to women? 4. What traces can be found in his-
tory or legend of the victory of Theseus over the Ama-
zons, and the rise of a new civic order on the ruins of a
matriarchate ? 5. The story of Pyramus and Thisbe (see
Chaucer's 'Legend of Good Women' for an early English
use of the story). 6. Explanation of allusions to Phoebe,
Cupid, Ercles, etc.
ACT I
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Upon what does the interest centre in Act I? In the
marriage of Hippolyta and Theseus, or the love affairs of
the four lovers?
Is Hermia, whose determination not to be forced to
marry starts the plot, the best-drawn character in the first
Act?
ACT II
THE FAIRIES' QUARREL
Show how in this Act a new agency of a fairies' quar-
rel is devised and set forth.
Point out how this is made to crystallize in Oberon's
scheme for revenge on Titania, and also how, in the course
A MIDSOMMER NIGHTS DREAME 67
of disentangling their own love-snarl, it is made to develop
the conflict between the crossed lovers. This, it may be
emphasized, is the second step in the movement, as Her-
mia's and Helena's love was the first, and these two main
factors of the action are taken up together in this act.
Are the other two groups which were introduced in
the first act, the Duke's party and Bottom's set, inter-
woven with the new fairy group in any way in this Act r
See if the new fairy element now shows any disposition
in the person of Oberon to smooth out the difficulties of
the mortals.
Oberon's intentions, however, were one thing, and his
deeds another. Through Puck as his instrument, his
jealousy at once begins to make matters worse instead
of better for the lovers. Notice the delicate appropriate-
ness of Oberon's means of influence, namely Puck and
the two flowers, the first being 'Cupid's flower,' — Love in
idleness — the second 'Dian's bud,' introduced later to cor-
rect the influence of the first. The first flower assists
in the development of a plot which is to enact the 'mo-
mentariness* of 'sympathy in choice.' The cross-purpose,
fostered by Puck's mistake, seems to provide the compa-
ratively grosser sort of merriment for this Act which Bot-
tom and his friends supplied for the first; and the dainty
humor and sprightly novelty attending the introduction
of the fairies on the scene, the description of their quar-
rel, and the foreshadowing of the influence they are to
have on the next stages of the story, may be shown to
occupy the chief place in the plot at this period, the
crossed lovers, who predominated in the first Act, now
68 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
falling into a relatively subordinate position.
POINTS i. Robin Goodfellow and the traditions about
him. 2. Fairies and changelings. 3. The stories of
Theseus's loves. 4. Explanation of allusions to nine men's
morris, old Hiems, etc. 5. Account of theories as to mean-
ing of references to the imperiall votresse, a little westerne
flower, a mearemaide on a dolphins backe, etc. War-
burton says the mermaid was meant for Mary Queen of
Scots. N. H. Halpin thinks that by Cynthia is meant
Queen Elizabeth; by Tellus, Lady Douglas; by the lit-
tle 'western flower,' Lettice, wife of Walter, Earl of Es-
sex, while Cupid is Leicester. (See "First Folio Edition"
for particulars). 6. Explain use of 'Lob,' II. i. 15;
'wodde,' 200. 7. 'The starres shot madly from their
Spheares,' i. 159. Look up Ptolemaic system of astron-
omy for explanation of the idea. Compare "Merchant of
Venice," V. i. 71-75, and notes on same in "First Folio
Edition" of that play. 8. What is "Love in idleness"?
(See Introduction to "First Folio Edition" of "A Mid-
sommer Nights Dreame" for- references to this flower in
Chaucer's poem of "The Flower and the Leaf." Com-
pare "The Taming of the Shrew," I. i. 156. 9. What are
"Cankers" in the musk rosebuds? II. ii. 4.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is it probable that the various passages in this act said
to allude to current incidents were so intended? In that
case what effect do they have upon the beauty of a Play
set in Athens?
Is the interest of this Act a divided one?
A MIDSOMMER NIGHTS DREAME 69
ACT III
CROSS-EFFECTS OF OBERON's SPELL
Analyze the scenes constituting this Act. Observe that
scene i. takes up Bottom and his fellows, the group not
as yet brought into relation with the fairy group, and
initiates them in the magic of fairy land by means of the
new but appropriate head Puck bestows upon Bottom.
Why is Bottom picked out for this favor? The 'ass-head'
as a symbolic piece of stage furniture. Show how this
transformation makes the mismating of Titania with Bot-
tom more gross and obvious to the audience ; also how this
is the next direct effect of Oberon's revenge.
Notice that scene ii. takes up the cross-effect already
worked upon Lysander by Puck's mistake, instead of on
Demetrius, as Oberon intended, and sets forth its further
effects upon Helena and Hermia. The dialogues between
the two pairs of lovers now overheard by Oberon makes
the error clear, and so enables him to take the first step
in clearing up the tangle. Meantime, the poet and his
audience agree with Puck that they are so far 'glad it so
did sort, As this their jangling' is esteemed 'a sport/
POINTS i. Explain 'It shall be written in eight and
sixc,' III. i. 23-4. 2. The custom in Shakespeare's day
as to the women's parts. Would it have been as amusing
to the audience then as it would be to us when Quince
says 'Robin Starveling, you play Thisbies mother'? 3-
Pyramus and Thisbe. This may have been derived from
Ovid, or from Chaucer's "Legend of Good Women," or
70 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
C. Robinson's "Handful of Pleasant Delights." (1504.)
4. Explain 'Two of the first like coats in heraldry,' III.
ii. 220. 5. Describe the personal appearance of the hero-
ines from the references made.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is Puck or Bottom the presiding genius of this act?
Does the jangling between the two women belittle
them as heroines, and is it, therefore, a blot upon the beau-
ty of the play?
ACT IV
Trace throughout this act the smoothing-out process.
Why does Oberon himself release Titania while Puck
is made to minister to the other victims of the charm?
Is Oberon's explanation of the Fairy Queen's sudden
change of heart about the changeling quite satisfactory,
or does it simply appear so by a sort of artistic sleight-of-
hand characteristic of Shakespeare in small touches at the
close of a plot?
Show how poetically suitable as a stage effect the en-
try of Theseus and his huntsmen is, — shedding the first
rays of morning on the night-enchanted lovers.
Why is Bottom made to waken last? Perhaps because
he helps to denote the prose of broad daylight. Show
what relation scene ii. has to the completion of the smooth-
A MIDSOMMER NIGHTS DREAME 71
ing-out process.
POINTS, i. 'I was with Hercules and Cadmus once,'
IV. i. 126. What relation had Hippolyta to these Greek
heroes? 2. Account of May-day rites. 3. Traditions of
St. Valentine. 4. Rites of Midsummer Eve.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Why is the choice of Hermia's father for her no longer
supported by the Duke? Does this imply a criticism on
the inconsistency of allowing men their choice, and their
brides none, with which Shakespeare was in sympathy, or
is this only apparent to some modern minds?
ACT V
THE THREEFOLD MASK
If the central action of the play be considered as vir-
tually concluded with the fourth Act, what office is per-
formed by the fifth Act ?
Notice that in it the three groups of characters consti-
tuting the play — the court group with the lovers; the
'rude mechanicals' and their 'tedious brief scene,' and
the fairy train — are in this Act all brought upon the
stage, the whole spectacle being set in the palace at
Athens, in celebration of the wedding festivities of the
ducal pair, which, as before noticed, is used as a sort of
decorative frame for the play as a whole.
Examine the working-out of this unified presentation of
72 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
all the personages. How are we to account for the sil-
ence of the women who were made to do so much towards
the institution of the action? Show the poetic reasons
for the entrance of Puck and the fairies last of all, and
when the stage is empty.
POINTS, i. Explanation of all mythical allusions. 2.
Account of theories as to meaning of 'The thrice three
muses,' etc., V. i. 59. 3. What is a 'Bergomask dance'?
4. The date and occasion of the play: This play appears
in Meres's list of 1598 and in the Quartos of 1600. Ti-
tania's description of the unseasonable weather (II. i. 92,
foil.) may refer to the year 1594. Note that Chaucer in
the 'Knight's Tale' speaks of the tempest at Hippolyta's
home-coming. Many critics have believed that the play
was written on the occasion of some marriage in high life,
but they do not agree as to whose it was.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Upon what does the interest of the last Act centre?
How does the ending suit the various threads of the Play ?
Is Theseus or Hippolyta the wiser critic of 'the story
of the night' ; and which of them is the wiser critic of the
play of Pyramus and Thisbe ?
SOURCES OF THE PLAY
I. WHERE SHAKESPEARE FOUND SUGGESTIONS FOR HIS
MORTALS
In Plutarch's 'Life of Theseus' will be found passages
which furnished Shakespeare with some points for his
A MIDSOMMER NIGHTS DREAME 73
drama. Chaucer's 'Knight's Tale' is also said to have
given him material. The editor of the "First Folio Edi-
tion" suggests in the introduction that a reading by
Shakespeare of a poem in his day supposed to be Chau-
cer's, 'The Flower and the Leaf,' gave him an important
hint for his plot. Examine for yourself, and state what
indebtedness you find in any of these sources. In I. i. 20,
Theseus says to Hippolyta, 'I woo'd thee with my sword.'
Compare this with the account given in Chaucer. Ac-
cording to another version of the story Hercules gave
Hippolyta to his kinsman Theseus in marriage. Com-
pare 'The Two Noble Kinsmen' and the 'Knight's Tale'
with Shakespeare's 'Dreame.'
2. WHERE SHAKESPEARE FOUND SUGGESTIONS FOR HIS
FAIRIES
The models in literature from which Shakespeare drew
may have been 'Huon of Bordeaux,' where he got little,
however, but the name Oberon. The name Titania may
have been derived from Ovid's 'Metamorphoses.' The
Fairy Queen in Shakespeare's day usually went by the
name of Queen Mab. Puck's characteristics seem to have
been derived from the little tract of 'Robin Goodfellow,
His Mad Pranks and Merry Jests.' Rolfe, in the notes to
his edition of the play, says that White argues that this was
probably written after "A Midsommer Nights Dreame."
Ward thinks that the entire machinery of Oberon and his
court may have been derived from Greene's 'Scottish His-
tory of James IV,' and that Titania may have been sug-
gested by Chaucer's 'Wife of Bath's Tale/ He prob-
74 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
ably owed his fairies in great measure to tradition or folk-
lore. The folk-lore of England was originally made up
of Teutonic elements, which have been modified by Dan-
ish and Norman invasions, by remnants of old Keltic
belief, and by the introduction of Christianity, which last
degraded the good fairies into mischievous elves. (See
Hazlitt, 'Fairy Mythology of Shakespeare/ HalliweH's
'Illustrations of the Fairy Mythology of Midsummer
Night's Dream,' also Poet-Lore, April, 1891, 'Fairy-lore
in Midsummer Night's Dream.')
3. SOLAR ORIGIN OF THE FAIRIES
According to some authorities the Teutonic mythology
was of cosmic origin. In the fairies may be seen many
reflections of cosmic characteristics. Oberon and Titania
are fairies of the night, and the old battle between light
and darkness shows itself in the mad pranks which they
play on unsuspecting mortals. But as the daylight comes
they are obliged to flee. Puck reflects the characteristics
of a wind god. (See Cox, 'Myths of the Aryan Nations;'
also Korner, 'Solar Myths in Midsummer Night's Dream,'
Poet-Lore , Jan., 1891). Compare his character with that
of Hermes in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes (Shelley's
Translation).
SYMPOSIUM OF OPINION ON THE CHARACTERS
I. THE LOVERS
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
I. Hermia and Helena are hardly worth considering,
but if anything Helena is to be preferred to Hermia
A MIDSOMMER NIGHTS DREAME 75
because she is so humble, and shows no sign of jealousy of
Hermia, 2. If Hermia had been more dignified when she
found that both the lovers had turned their attention to
Helena, she would better have carried out the promise of
her character in the first Act when she declared she would
rather die than wed the man chosen by her father.
2. HIPPOLYTA AND THESEUS
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
I. The only indication we have of the character of
Hippolyta is in the last act, where she is so bored by the
play of 'Pyramus and Thisbe.' Does this show stupidity
on her part or exceptional development? 2. Do you
agree with Dowden that there is no figure in the early
drama of Shakespeare so magnificent as Theseus? His
insistence in Act I. that Hermia should obey her father
against her own inclinations is certainly not very praise-
worthy, but might be excused on the score of the times
in which he lived. 3. His complaisance toward Quince
and his companions has been considered an indication that
he was a most perfect gentleman; does he not rather
conceitedly patronize them?
3. THE FAIRIES
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
I. Have the Fairies any idea of morality? 2. Oberon
was perfectly justified in wishing to get the changeling
76 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
from his wife, and shows himself worthy of becoming a
mortal for insisting on his rights as a husband. 3. Titania
is the most developed woman character in the play, be-
cause she insists on her individual right to the change-
ling. 4. Is Puck a more developed fairy than Ariel in
'The Tempest'?
4. THE PLAYERS
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
I. Is Shakespeare making fun of the stupidity of Quince
and his companions, or is he gently satirizing the stage
and the exaggerated style of writing for the stage which
prevailed at this time? 2. If the last is true, is not Shake-
speare in the last act making fun of the audience, as well as
of the players, who with a superior air pass judgment upon
the play and indulge in very lame wit, while the real
meaning of it quite escapes them.
SYMPOSIUM OF OPINION ON FAVORITE PASSAGES
Every member of the class or club should bring in a
short paper giving his favorite passage in the play and why
he likes it, including his criticism of the metre, of the
metaphors and similes, and the thought contained.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
I. Which characters in the play are original with Shake-
speare? 2. What is to be thought of Shakespeare for
A MIDSOMMER NIGHTS DREAME 77
bringing together in one play Greek mythology, English
folk-lore, and English workmen of his own age? Does
this commixture of elements make the Play seem un-
natural or incongruous? Has he skilfully harmonised
these diverse elements by giving the Play its dream-like
character? 3. That this play is charming cannot be dis-
puted. Is its chief charm its humor, its fancy, its dra-
matic construction, or subtle developments of character?
THE MERCHANT OF VENICE
Sufficiently indirect use of contemporary political events
in a Play was a cause of popularity without seeming dan-
gerous to the State.
As "Loves Labour's Lost" is an early example of a plot
woven out of masked allusions to current topics, so even
as definitely plotted a comedy as "The Merchant of
Venice" here and there worked in an animating shred of
contemporary reference.
After Dr. Roderigo Lopez, the Queen's physician, was
accused by Don Antonio of Portugal, and executed June
7, 1594, on the charge of being bribed by the King of
Spain to poison Queen Elizabeth, the story of a Shylock's
defeat and the rescue from his clutches of an Anthonio
had just enough relevance to be popular without definite-
ness enough to be obtrusive.
ACT I
SHYLOCK'S "MBRRIB BOND"
Why is Anthonio sad? Is it presentiment? Is it, de
spite his unselfish willingness to furnish forth Bassanio
to sue at Belmont for Portia, some sense of loss in friend-
ship through this love ? Anthonio and Bassanio may be con-
sidered as examples of that devoted friendship illustrated
by Valentine's feelings towards Protheus in "The Two
Gentlemen of Verona."
78
A MERCHANT OF VENICE 79
The group of young and gay courtiers circling about
the two friends bring them into brighter relief.
Unlike Protheus, though perhaps younger and less
wrapped up in the sense of friendship than Anthonio is,
Bassanio is worthy of such regard. Do the "faire speech-
,less messages" he has received from Portia's eyes and his
praise of her as "nothing undervalued to Brutus's Portia"
tell the cause of his quest better than what is said of her
wealth? Notice that even what he says of that is as a
mere grace of her person: "her sunny locks Hang on her
temples," etc. (I. i. 177-181).
What reasons had Shylock for hating Anthonio ?
Does Anthonio's demand that he lend the money to him
as an enemy justify the terms of the bond?
Is Bassanio right in distrusting, and wrong in accepting
such a bond?
The long pedigree of Jewish and Christian antipathy
and its illustration in this bond by the characters that are
its exemplars.
What is to be gathered of Portia in this Act before she
meets again with Bassanio?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Are Anthonio and Shylock more individual than typi-
cal?
Does the Act close with assurance of good luck or fore-
boding of bad?
Is Bassanio a fortune hunter?
Is he to blame for what follows?
8o SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
ACT II
PORTIA'S CASKETS
Why is Jessica's story intertwined with Portia's ? Wha
dramatic purposes does it serve? Are Jessica and Launo
alike justified in leaving Shylock? Why? (See Intro
duction to the Play in First Folio Edition for suggestion)
Is the Jew's lament for his daughter although piteous, in
adequate.
Is the choice of the gold and the silver by the Mooi
and Spaniard significant of their natures?
What reason is there to find in the symbolism and th<
persuasion to choice each suitor employs that Portia'!
father has used the wisdom of a seer in prescribing th<
choice from the three caskets?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Do you like Jessica? Why? In what ways are Portij
and Jessica alike in the generousness of love though oppo-
site in circumstances?
Is Jessica's elopement to blame for her father's joy in
the wreckage of Anthonio's ships and his final exaction oi
the bond? Was it introduced in the Plot for this pur-
pose?
ACT III
BASSANIO'S LUCK AND ANTHONIO'S LOSS
Shakespeare's creed of love as engendered in the eyes
may be illustrated by passages in many other plays as well
as this. What is meant by it?
A MERCHANT OF VENICE gi
Is Bassanio's daring in venturing so much for his chance
with Portia itself a sign of his fitness, or the reverse?
How is his casket significant of this test-stone^i e ad-
venturousness ?
Is the match of Nerissa and Gratiano an irrelevance to
Portia's and Bassanio's courtship or an enhancement of
their happiness? Show how the two points of climax in
event and feeling balance absolutely but do not sacrifice
each other? Are Shakespeare's experiments in bold juxta-
position of extreme fortune and happiness and utterly ir-
retrievable devastation anywhere so poignant as the arriv-
al of Anthonio's letter at the betrothal of Bassanio and
Portia?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is the secret of Bassanio's adventurousness the supreme
honor in which he holds love? Nothing else being of so
much consequence, he yields everything to love. Does
Jessica, also?
The "manners" of Portia, according to Gildon, "are
not always agreeable or convenient to her Sex and Quali-
ty; particularly where she scarce preserves her modesty
in the expression." What is to be thought of this?
Is Anthonio's letter characteristic of his nobleness as a
friend, or is it too insistent upon bringing Bassanio to him,
since to send such a letter was equivalent to fetching him ?
Is it Portia's best warrant as a noble bride and wife
that she appreciates Anthonio's message and friendship ?
82 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
ACT IV
t
THE LUCK REDEEMS THE LOSS
By means of Bassanio's luck in winning Portia's love
and hand Shylock is finally defeated of his malicious pur-
pose. Portia considered as the embodiment of Bassanio's
luck and the instrument bringing Shylock to confusion.
Does it matter whether the law-point is disputable or
not since the traditional stories on which the Play is built
up afford the opportunity for its use?
Does Shylock get Justice, since he had refused mercy?
Illustrate the legal knowledge and studies of Italian
women of the Renaissance affording a parallel for Por-
tia's sagacity and leadership. (For hints see pp. 256-260
in "First Folio Edition.")
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Do you think Shylock is wronged?
Does Shylock so preponderate the Play as to destroy its
balance, and outweighing all other characters make them
insignificant?
Are Actors justified in acting the Play so as to dwarf
the Love plot and cut out Act V as needless?
Is Portia the proper counterpart in consummate char-
acter creation to Shylock? To whom does, if properly
played, the ultimate interest of the Play belong?
Why does this position belong to no other character's
part?
A MERCHANT OF VENICE 83
ACT V
THE RINGS
What is the business of Act V?
How is it linked to the preceding Act? Since reunion
and rejoicing are not alone the business of the plot; since
recognition and declaration to the two husbands, and to
Anthonio, especially, are needed, as well as to the others,
of the part played by the wives in solving the difficulties
of the plot, the Ring scenes constitute the due dramatic
conclusion of the Play. Note that the threat of quarrel
over the reluctant but requisite giving away of the rings
in the preceding Act makes a deceptively serious difficulty.
It is happily to be solved as a result of the wives' preced-
ing action. This difficulty and this solution at this final
stage of the plot constitute a little character play that is
an epitome of the action. The whole is the more happily
and amusingly solved that the Audience is wise and the
characters still in the dark are really perplexed.
Point out the value of the exchange of Rings as made
clear in these two ways, by bringing out the characters of
Gratiano, Bassanio, and especially of Anthonio as peace-
maker; and by bringing out to them the fact that to the
wives' love and skill the victory over the difficulties they
suffered is due.
Are the rings the sole test of this?
What other news adds to the general denouement of
all difficulties?
Is the summing up of the Play a victory of love and in-
84 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
telligcnce over hate and narrow-mindedness?
Show how the rings symbolize this, and music and
moonlight provide the proper atmosphere for its operation.
The appropriateness of the moonlight for a calm out of
strife, brought about by women, is matched by the fitness
of music and the reference to the harmony of the spheres
to suggest that earth-harmony to which Portia was pre-
siding Angel.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is any incident of Act V without relevance to the plot ?
Is the Play the nobler or the weaker dramatically for
the poetic and symbolic influence shed upon it by Act V?
THE MERRY WIVES OF WINDSOR
If this Comedy was written, as tradition reports at the
bidding of Queen Elizabeth in order to show Falstaffe in
love, it is interesting to see that Shakespeare confines his
love-making to mercenary motives, and by causing him to
make love to two at once renders him as a lover merely a
cheat.
So keeping the word of promise to the ear, he obeys by
breaking it to the sense. To show Falstaffe as a lover
amounts to showing him as no lover at all.
In this sense, the Play might be called a courteous sa-
tire upon the Queen's request.
THE STORY OF ACT I
How Falstaffe falls into trouble, turns away his fol-
lowers and begins a new enterprise: How do his follow-
ers take revenge? What light upon this opening of the
story do scenes i. and iii. show?
What is the underplot as shown in scenes ii. and iv and
a part of scene i?
Do they appear to have anything to do with each other?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Which of her suitors does Anne prefer? Which is to
be preferred ?
8S
86 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
Is the grievance of Shallow against Falstaffe a necessity
of the plot to show the fat knight in love, or an episode in-
troduced out of Shakespeare's grudge towards Sir Thom-
as Lucy? (See pp. 117-119, 138-141, etc., "First Folio
Edition.")
THE STORY OF ACT II
THB MERRY WIVES AND FORD LAY PLOTS
In Act II a third under-intrigue that of Ford with
Falstaffe is added to the two before introduced.
Show how the Merry Wives reveal their separate per-
sonalities in their reception of the duplicate letters, and
their plot to dupe Falstaffe.
Contrast their two husbands as their natures and mari-
tal relations are shown by their different manner of taking
the information given them by Nym and Pistol. Ford,
considered as Shakespeare's first study of jealousy. How
does he compare with Leontes?
How does Ford assist in the plot of the Play?
What pertinence to Ford's jealousy is there in the allu-
sion to Queen Elizabeth's Sonnet? (II, ii, 199-200).
The Sources of the Merry Wives' intrigue and what
Shakespeare has done with them. (See "Sources," First
Folio Edition). How is the Duel scene related to the
underplot?
What characters belong in common to plot and coun-
terplot ?
THE MERRY WIVES OF WINDSOR 87
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Does Falstaffe show any material differences in charac-
ter as he appears in this Play, in comparison with the
way he appears in "Henry IV?"
THE STORY OF ACT III
THE DOUBLE DUPERY
Contrast the feelings of Falstaffe before and after the
Buckbasket episode?
In which scene is Ford the worst duped ?
Give an account of Dame Quickly 's relations to the
intrigues, and show how her multitudinous offices as go-
between interfere with each other so that she is "slacke"
in one of her errands. What is the effect of her slackness
on the contradictions in the time of the action. (See Dur-
ation of the Action, in "First Folio Edition" X- Are they
only seeming contradictions? The Sources of the Ford
intrigue and what Shakespeare has done with them.
Anne and her father and mother as characterized in
this act, with relation to the suitors.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is Anne the only character one can thoroughly sympa-
thize with?
Are the situations such as owe their fun largely to coin-
cidence, like those in the "Comedie of Errors," or to a
88 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
teeming variousness in the human naturalness of all the
characters?
THE STORY OF ACT IV
FORD'S ENLIGHTENMENT
Why is the Old Woman of Brentford trick a climax
upon that of the Buckbasket?
Falstaffe's wish that all the world might be cheated is
true to the method of the Play. Show in exemplification
of this, how a fourth intrigue grows out of the third, and
is introduced as late as this fourth Act. How is the joke
of the Host against Dr. Caius and Sir Hugh Evans
avenged ? Is this reference to the "three Cozen Jermans"
that are said to run away with the Host's horses, liklier to
be an allusion seriously made to a real event or to make
use of it as an entirely fictitious intrigue and practical joke
in the Play? Is this mock happening such as could be
clear by the method of enacting it and one entirely conso-
nant with this Comedy as a farce-mosaic of laughable
tricks? (See pp. 120121, 179-180, also Note on IV. iii. 6).
Discuss probabilities. The turn taken in the plot: Show
how all combine against Falstaflfe; also the place of this
intrigue in making material for Act V.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Has the "Merry Wives" any serious or tragic moments
such as belong usually to Shakespeare's Comedies ?
THE MERRY WIVES OF WINDSOR 89
Compare the jealousy of Ford with the jealousy of
Adriana in the "Comcdie of Errors." Which exemplifies
the riper treatment and why ?
THE STORY OF ACT V
THE DEFEAT OF MERCENARY LOVEMAKING
Make clear the ins and outs of the Fairy trap, first for
its actors, then for the dupes? Can the apparent incon-
sistencies in the wearing of green or white and the men-
tion of "Quickly" for "Queene" be accounted for on the
supposition that everybody is deceived except Nan and
Fen ton? (See Notes on V. v. 421, 205-209).
The compliments to Queen Elizabeth in the Play:
What are they and how is their appropriateness to the
Plot made good?
Consider the "humors" of the Welsh and French
speeches and episodes as exploitations and developments
of the similar humors of Fluellen and the Frenchmen of
"Henry V."
The fairy scenes and effects of this Play compared with
those of the wedding night feast at the end of "A Mid-
sommer Nights Dreame."
What indications are there in the Falstaffe of "Henry
IV." that he is superficially affected by the Puritanism
about him? Is he any more deeply affected by it in the
present Play? What is the difference in his appearance in
this Play with respect to Puritanic morals: Is he more
affected by them, at the last, when he is so grossly their
90 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
victim, or have they grown, and put him out of date in
England except as an atavism?
Have Page and his Wife any loftier standpoint as to
mercenary love than Falstaffe himself? Is Fenton's
speech (V. v. 225-235) the moral of the last Act or
is Ford's (237-238) ?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is the main design of the Play to "cure Ford of his un-
reasonable jealousy," as Rowe says, or to dupe and re-
form Falstaffe? Is the total aim sport to laugh over "by
a Countrie fire?" Is it a Comedy of irony turned against
all mercenary motives in love?
AS YOU LIKE IT
I
THE DRAMATIC CONDUCT OF THE PLAY: THE WRESTLING
MATCH
How much of the situation existing in the play comes
out in Act I. i.? And what action takes place?
The strained relation existing between the brothers
Orlando and Oliver is revealed through Orlando's con-
versation with Adam and with his brother Oliver. The
situation at court is also revealed through the conversation
of Oliver with the wrestler Charles, and also the loving
relation existing between Celia and Rosalind; thus we
are at once put into the possession of three emotional or
passional causes for action — Oliver's hatred of his younger
brother, the younger Duke's hatred of his older brother,
and the love of Celia for Rosalind. Of these causes for
action only one bears any fruit in this scene, namely, Oliver
arranges with the wrestler to kill Orlando. What are
the connections existing between sc. ii. and sc. i.? First
there is a picture of the loving relationship existing be-
tween Rosalind and Celia (already mentioned by Oliver
in sc. i.) which reveals very subtly differences in their
natures. The action set going by Oliver in sc. i. is con-
summated in the wrestling match, but with a result differ-
ent from that hoped for by Oliver, thus leaving Oliver's
hatred still present as a cause of action. Out of the
wrestling match what further passional and emotional
91
92 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
causes of action are set up? Duke Frederick's hatred for
Orlando is aroused because he learns he is the son of a man
he had considered his enemy, and action against him is
the immediate result. Orlando is warned by Le Beau
that he is not safe at the court. The Duke's hatred of
his brother bears further fruit in its extension to Rosalind.
The meeting of Rosalind and Orlando brought about by
the wrestling match gives rise to a fresh emotional force in
their budding love for each other. In Sc. iii., the state of
Rosalind's heart as to Orlando, hinted at in sc. ii., is
fully revealed; the Duke's hatred takes shape in his sen-
tence of banishment or death, giving rise to a new direc-
tion for action, and the emotion of Celia's love for Rosa-
lind bears fruit in her determination to go with Rosalind
into banishment.
II
LIPB IN THE FOREST OF ARDEN
In Act II. how are the elements of action, character
delineation and emotion intermingled?
Sc. i. gives us a picture of the banished Duke and his
followers in the Forest of Arden, already prepared for in
Act L, introduces us to the personality of the Duke, and
in the conversation with the lords prepares us for coming
delights in the personality of Jaques. It does not advance
the action, at all. In sc ii., the result of Celia's act in
going with Rosalind is shown in the bad Duke's conster-
nation, who determines that they shall be found, thus start-
ing another thread of action to be developed later. Sc.
AS YOU LIKE IT 93
iii. the passional cause of action in Oliver's hatred of
Orlando reaches a crisis; Orlando is obliged to flee to
save himself from death. Sc. iv. shows Celia and Rosa-
lind arrived at their journey's end in the Forest of Ar-
den, and making arrangements with a shepherd for a
comfortable little house to rusticate in ; thus is closed the
thread of action started by the Duke in banishing Rosa-
lind. In the conversation of their new companions, Corin
and Silvius, we learn of the love of Silvius for the scorn-
ful Phebe, which is another emotional impulse to action,
later blending itself with the plot. In sc. v. we meet
Jaques, already mentioned, and get another glimpse of
the pleasant company in the forest, but they are still quite
detached from the active elements of the play. Sc. vi.
shows us how far Orlando and Adam have gone in their
flight, and sc. vii. presents again the good Duke's court,
develops further the personality of Jaques, and prepares
us, through his conversation about the fool whom he had
met in the forest, for the contact of one of the threads of
action with the element of inaction represented by this
good Duke's forest court, while in the sudden breaking
in upon them of Orlando it is brought into contact with
another of the threads of action.
Ill
LOVE IN THE FOREST OF ARDEN
At the opening of Act III. what results have been
brought about by the action so far? Everybody in the
play except Oliver and the bad Duke has arrived in the
94 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
Forest of Arden. In sc i. of Act III. the hatred of the
Duke is still active as a force, and Oliver through this
means is also sent off to finally bring up in the Forest
of Arden. The Duke's attitude as a motive force having
worked itself out in its relation to Orlando and Rosa-
lind, the emotional cause of action in the love of Rosalind
and Orlando is free to develop, and the remainder of Act
III. is devoted chiefly to the presentation of the situation
between the lovers, which, owing to the disguise assumed
by Rosalind, gives rise to the charming inconsistencies
attending the wooing of a proxy Rosalind who is in reality
Rosalind herself. Around these central lovers, whose
characters Shakespeare unfolds, revolve other interesting
personalities. Touchstone meets his fate in Audrey. Phebe
still scorns Conn and perversely falls in love with Gany-
mede. The action is only advanced to the extent that
Rosalind learns the state of Orlando's mind while he still
remains in ignorance as to hers.
IV
HATRED BECOMES LOVE IN ARDEN
Are there any fresh elements or developments in Act
IV.?
Sc i. merely continues the love-making of Act III.
Sc. ii. gives another glimpse of the good Duke's court ; in
sc iii. the love of Phebe bears fruit in a letter to Gany-
mede, and Oliver finds his way to the forest. The bad
Duke's intentions toward Orlando in sending Oliver after
him are, however, frustrated by the sudden change of heart
AS YOU LIKE IT 95
of Oliver wrought through his brother's saving his life,
and, hatred being thus killed in him, a fresh emotional
impulse to action is born in him and he falls in love with
Aliena, though this fact does not come out until the next
act.
V
LOVE WINS IN ARDEN
How are all the threads unravelled in Act V.? In
sc. i. Touchstone pursues his own love-affair to its con-
summation entirely aside from any connection with the
plot. In sc. ii. the love of Oliver and Aliena results in an
arrangement for the wedding the next day, and Rosalind
seizes that occasion as a fit time and place to throw off her
disguise, give herself to Orlando, and satisfy Phebe that
she can't have Ganymede. And finally the bad Duke's
hatred makes one last effort; he comes with an army to
the Forest of Arden to put his brother to the sword, but
meets an old religious man and experiences a change of
heart, and, instead, restores to his brother his kingdom.
Thus love conquers on every hand.
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
What is the chief element of interest in the play, —
action, situation, or character portrayal.
VI
CHARACTER STUDIES
i. The relation of the character-grouping to the plot.
Note the symmetrical division of the characters; over
96 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
against a bad Duke is a good Duke. Contrast their actions
throughout the play. Contrast also the two brothers, Or-
lando and Oliver. What are the resemblances between
the characters of Oliver and Duke Frederick? — between
Orlando and the banished Duke? Is Orlando's rebellion
against his brother's injustice or the banished Duke's ac-
ceptance of his brother's injustice the more to be praised ?
Compare his attitude with that of Prospero under similar
circumstances. Whose repentance is the more sincere,
Oliver's or Duke Frederick's? Note that Oliver has lost
all when he repents, while the Duke gives up everything
just as he is about to realize his aim. Is the repentance
of the usurping Duke merely a ruse of Shakespeare's to
bring the play to a happy ending? In Lodge's story he
does not repent, but is proceeded against by his brother.
Contrast Jaques and Touchstone. Is Jaques's melancholy
affected? What is the main difference between Rosalind
and Celia? Which is the more the friend of the other?
(For valuable suggestions on these points see 'Characters
in "As You Like It,'" Poet-lore, Vol. IV. pp. 31 and
81, Jan. and Feb., 1892.)
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Which is the better philosopher, Jaques or Touchstone,
and which is more closely related to the philosophy of the
play?
The characters of the two Dukes are not developed;
they are merely walking gentlemen, whose office it is to
keep the play in motion.
2. The Lovers of the Play.
AS YOU LIKE IT 97
The Different Kinds of Love in 'As You Like It.' Ex-
amples of love at first sight in Shakespeare. Note Orlan-
do's surprise at the suddenness of Oliver's and Celia's love.
Was his own less sudden? Consider Hymen's song and
Jaques's remarks in the last scene as descriptive of the
various couples. Does the comic element of the play, as
represented by Touchstone, discredit sentiment in the
play? Notice the madrigal in Lodge's novel (given in
Poet-lore, Vol. III., in the article on Lodge, Dec., 1891),
and consider whether Shakespeare has borrowed anything
from it in characterizing Rosalind's wooing? Contrast
Lodge's Montanus as a lover with Shakespeare's Silvius.
Is Montanus too much of a "tame snake" to be natural?
Or does this constancy in love make him a superior figure?
Is it a sign of Silvius's inferiority that love has its own
way with him? Can love be true that changes if it is
unrequited ?
Are those actors right, do you think, who play Oliver
as guessing who Ganymede is when she swoons ? Is Ros-
alind's conduct unwomanly? Is her disguise unlikely?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
It is best for the man to love the most; and therefore
has Silvius and Phebe's unequal love-match a better chance
for happiness than Rosalind's and Orlando's?
VII
THE PASTORAL ELOPMENT
The Rise of Pastoral Poetry, and Shakespeare's Use of
it in 'As You Like It*
98 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
Compare Spenser's 'Shepherd's Calendar,' Fletcher's
'Faithful Shepherdess,' etc. Point out any differences you
find between Shakespeare's and Spenser's pastoral poetry.
Modern literary use of the pastoral element, Words-
worth's 'Michael.' Is the pastoral life of literature al-
ways artificial ? Can a progress toward realism be shown ?
The humor of the play. Discuss in particular the humor-
ous comments on contrasts between court and country
life. Compare modern instances of the refinements and
artifices of city life and the crudeness of work and pleas-
ure in the country.
Special Points. — I. The Forest of Arden: Is it in Eng-
land, France, or Shakespeare's imagination? 2. "Old
Robin Hood of England." What are the legends con-
cerning him? 3. The archaic words in the play. (See
Prof. Sinclair Korner's' Shakespeare's Inheritance from the
Fourteenth Century,' in Poet-lore, Vol. II., p. 410, Aug.,
1890.)
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Is the opposition shown in the play between life at
court and in the country truly shown to be to the advan-
tage of the country.
VIII
THE MORAL ELEMENT
The moral side of the Play consists, according to the
Introduction in the First Folio Edition, in its persuasion
toward an Arden of the disposition, or a spirit of happy
good will toward all men. How far does this cover the
lesson of the Play?
AS YOU LIKE IT 99
What is to be thought of the idea in the 'Ethics of "As
You Like It" ' (Poet-lore, Vol. III., p. 498, Oct., 1891),
that Touchstone's opinion of a shepherd's life (III. ii.)
is the key-note of the play ? Are the references to fortune
in the play significant? Dr. F. J. Furnivall says: "What
we most prize is misfortune borne with cheery mind, the
sun of man's spirit shining through and dispersing the
clouds which try to shade it. This is the spirit of the
play." Of this Dr. Ingleby says: "The moral of the play
is much more concrete than this. It is not how to bear
misfortune with a cheery mind, but how to read the les-
sons in the vicissitudes of physical nature." C. A. Wurtz-
burg says: "The deep truths that may be gathered from
the play are the innate dignity of the human spirit, before
which every conventionality of birth, rank, education,
even of natural ties, must give way." Give arguments
drawn from the play in favor of or against all of these sug-
gestions. Is it an evidence of Shakespeare's intention to
be a moral teacher that he altered the fate of Duke
Frederick?
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Has the play any moral that is not gently satirized in
it?
IX
THE SOURCE OF THE PLOT
Shakespeare's Variations from Lodge.
Compare Lodge's 'Rosalind' with 'As You Like It/
ioo SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
(For this story, see "Shakespeare's Library" or Extracts
in Notes and Comment in Sources in "First Folio Edi-
tion").
Is the story better without the parts Shakespeare leaves
out (e. g., Adam's proposal to Rosader to cut his veins and
suck the blood ; his nose-bleed ; the incident of the robbers
accounting for Aliena's sudden love, etc. ) ? Why is the
"Green and gilded snake" added? Isn't the "lioness"
enough? Is Rosader or Orlando the finer character, and
why? The new characters introduced — Audrey and Wil-
liam— considered as embodying real instead of ideal pas-
toral life. Do Shakespeare's changes affect the plot, the
characters, or the moral of the story? (For an examina-
tion of the plot of the play, see 'An Inductive Study of
"As You Like It," ' in Poet-lore, Vol. III., p. 341.)
A Sketch of Lodge's Life and Work. (See 'An Eliza-
bethan Lyrist: Thomas Lodge,' in Poet-lore, Vol. III., p.
593, Dec., 1891.)
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Is Shakespeare's framing of the plot of 'As You Like It'
not to be admired, because it is borrowed ?
X
THE MUSIC OF THB PLAY
This may consist of a brief paper on the subject illus-
trated by a program of the songs with the old and more
modern settings. (See New Shakespeare Society's Papers,
on this subject; 'Shakespeare and Music,' by E. W. Nay-
lor.)
TWELFE NIGHT
The winsomeness of this poetic comedy rightly makes
the reader or the hearer hesitate to count its petals or scrut-
inize the stages of its growth, which are marked by its
acts as symmetrically as leaf buds are ranged about a
stalk. And yet, one may find that to take note of such
beautiful orderliness in the delicate structure and spright-
ly blossoming of the poet's design enhances the apprecia-
tion of its artistic quality. Regarding it first as a whole,
sum up the stages of the action, first; then the caprices
;ts allusions denote; then the characters; and finally the
poetic fancy and wit exhaled by the whole play like a
fragrance.
THE STORY OF THE PLAY
r\
Act I. scene i. puts us in possession of what facts con-
cerning the Duke and Olivia? What do we learn from
the conversation of Viola and the Captain in scene ii., and
what course does Viola decide upon? What do we dis-
cover from scene iii. in regard to the state of things in
Olivia's household? In scene iv., what relation has been
established between the Duke and Viola? What three
new characters are introduced in scene v., and what is
the event of the scene? Act II. scene i.: What is learned
101
102 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
of Sebastian and his intentions? In scene ii., what are
shown to be the feelings of Olivia? In what previous
scene was this prepared for? Does scene iii. advance the
story at all? What is it taken up with? Does scene iv.
advance the story ? Of what scene is it almost a repetition ?
If it does not advance the action, what does it do? Of
what previous scene is scene v. the result? What pre-
vious scene leads up to scene i. of Act III? and of what
scene is it in purpose a repetition? What new turn is
given to affairs in scene ii., and through whom is it
brought about? Whose doings do we get a glimpse of
in scene iii? Of whose plot do we see further develop-
ments in scene iv? What other issues in the progress of
events come to a climax in this Act? Act IV. scene i.:
Describe the complication of affairs which arises in this
scene. What previous scenes do we see the result of in
scene ii ? and what happens that will bring about a change
in the situation? What important event occurs in this
scene iii ? Act V. scene i. : Describe how in this scene all
the complications are unravelled, and by what means all
the characters are brought upon the stage. What do you
think of the device to call Malvolio upon the stage? Does
it not seem rather clumsy, or do you think it a further
humorous touch that Viola should have to depend on Mal-
volio to find her 'woman's weeds again'?
What becomes evident after tracing the events of the
play through in this way? That the interest of the play
does not depend so much upon the story itself, as, first, up-
on the amusing situations resultant from the story, and,
second, upon the scenes which introduce the characters in
TWELFE NIGHT 103
Olivia's household who are really not at all concerned in
the development of the plot, but who are the occasion of
many added amusing situations.
What constitutes the real interest of the two short
scenes between Sebastian and Antonio? Their bearing,
mainly, on scene iv. of Act III. By means of them we
are shown that Antonio has an enemy in Orsino, and thus
his arrest is prepared for, also how Antonio gives his purse
to Sebastian, the real purpose of the arrest being to bring
about a reason for Antonio's requiring his purse again
from Cesario, whom he takes for Sebastian, and so to
add complication to the situation arising from the resem-
blance between the brother and sister.
What are the situations which the story gives Shake-
speare a chance to develop ? On the one hand, is the Duke
pouring out his love for another woman to his supposed
page, who is in love with him, and thus giving rise to the
series of scenes between the Duke and Viola. On the oth-
er hand, is the supposed page pressing his master's suit to
a woman who loves the supposed page, and thus giving
rise to the series of scenes between Viola and Olivia. Out
of this love of Olivia for Viola grows the absurd situation
of Viola's being obliged to fight a duel, which is made
still more ridiculous through the circumstance of her
challenger being a fool. Out of Viola's resemblance to
her brother and her disguise grows the absurd situation
of Olivia's claiming her as a husband, and that of Sir
Andrew taking for his unwilling duellist the all-too-will-
ing Sebastian.
To these situations which naturally result from the
104 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
story, Shakespeare has added in Olivia's household a set
of characters whose personality is such that amusing situ-
ations are multiplied. Thus we may say that the play is
one of situation rather than of action, since whatever of
action there is in it leads to situation, and whatever of
character there is in it leads also to situation.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
I. If attention is constantly given to creating humorous
situations, will character-development necessarily suffer?
2. Do you agree with the Shakespearian critic Verplanck
that this play bears no indication either of an original
groundwork of incident, afterwards enriched by the addi-
tions of a fuller mind, or of thoughts, situations, and char-
acters accidentally suggested, or growing unexpectedly out
of the story, as the author proceeded ?
II
THE WHIMSICAL AND OTHER ALLUSIONS IN THE PLAY
Pick out and explain the curious allusions in the play,
noticing that these may be classed as geographical, mytho-
logical, astrological, or referable to persons or customs of
the time, or books of the day. For examples of the latter
class, note Sir Toby's 'diluculo surgere' (II. iii.), for
'Saluberrimum est dilucolu surgere,' an adage from Lilly's
Grammar, doubtless one of Shakespeare's text-books at the
Edward VI. School in Stratford ; and Viola's 'Some Mol-
lification for your giant sweet lady' (I. v.), — an allusion
TWELFE NIGHT 105
to the innumerable romances whose fair ladies are guard-
ed by giants ; for Maria, being very small, Viola ironically
calls her giant, and asks Olivia to pacify her because she
has opposed her message. (For Shakespeare's education
and school-books, see Bayne's remarks on this subject in
Brit. Encyc. art. Shakespeare.) The whole incident of
the 'possession' of Malvolio, and the visit of Sir Topas,
probably alludes to a tract published in 1 599 by Dr. Hars-
nett, — 'A Discovery of the Fraudulent Practices of John
Darrel,' — in which is narrated how the Starkeys' chil-
dren were possessed by a demon, and how the Puritan min-
ister, Mr. Darrel, was concerned in it. For examples of
allusions to contemporary customs, see Sir Toby's mention
of dances no longer known, — 'Galliard,' 'Coranto,' etc.
As an example of allusions to persons of that time, Sir
Toby's reference to 'Mistress Mall's picture,' — Mary
Frith, born in 1584, died in 1659, a notorious woman who
used to go about in man's clothing and was the target for
much abuse. Astrological allusions: 'Were we not born
under Taurus?' 'That's sides and hearts,' which refers to
the medical astrology still preserved in patent-medicine
almanacs, where the figure of a man has his various parts
named by the signs of the Zodiac. 'Diana's lip' (I. iv.),
'Arion on the Dolphin's back' I. ii.), are examples of
mythological allusions. Of the geographical allusions
there are two kinds, the real and the sportive,— Illyria, an
example of the one, the 'Vapians' and the 'Equinoctial of
Queubus,' of the other. Go on through the play classi-
fying and commenting on the allusions. What was a
'catch' ? Give an example.
106 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Are the odd allusions in the play a result of the cor-
rupt text, ignorance, ridicule of learning? Or are they
introduced to give a lively and contemporaneous effect?
Ill
THE DUKE AND SEBASTIAN
How does the play set off these two lovers against each
other? Which has the more constant nature? Note the
evidences of the Duke's restlessness and changeableness ;
how soon he tires of the music he calls for, of the clown's
song (II. iv.). Is his first speech to Viola, on woman's
constancy before the song, consistent with his second,
after it? Is his own report of himself true, — 'Unstaid
and skittish in all motions else Save in the constant image
of the one beloved'? Is Olivia's unattainableness the
main source of her desirableness for him? How is it
with Sebastian? Does his loyalty in love seem to be of
the sort that suffers impairment when he can win love
easily? The Duke craves excess in music in order that
his 'appetite may sicken and so die;' Sebastian wishes
'to steep his soul in Lethe.' Do you think Sebastian and
Viola alike in more than appearance ? Which is the quick-
er-witted? Is the Duke's amicable acceptance of the in-
evitable and transference of his love to Viola in keeping
with his character? Do you think Viola shows promise
of special facility for preventing the moody Duke from
tiring of her? Note that he calls her his 'fancy's queen.'
TWELFE NIGHT 107
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Is the Duke important chiefly as the inspirer of Viola's
devoted love?
IV
VIOLA AND OLIVIA
In what respects are the situations of Viola and Olivia
alike ? When the play opens, both are mourning the loss
of a brother, and while this is made to point out the indi-
viduality of Olivia, after the first few lines we hear little
more of Viola's grief. Can you suggest any reason for
this? Does Viola's love for the Duke absorb her any
more than Olivia's love absorbs her when she comes to
feel the same? Viola and Olivia are also alike in giving
their love without solicitation; but Olivia woos directly,
Viola, in disguise, implies her love, and though her in-
nuendoes are all understood by the audience, they are
unappreciated by the Duke. What justification can be
made for the unblushing love-making of Olivia ? It could
be justified by her rank, which was so much higher than
that of the supposed page that advances should come from
her. What signs are there that Viola's love was superior
to Olivia's? Olivia's seems to have been founded on
external liking, else she would not have been as satisfied
with Sebastian as with Cesario; while Viola's, though it
may have had no deeper foundation, was signalized by un-
selfishness, for she used every eloquent art of which she was
io8 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
capable to urge her master's suit. Notice in the first scene
between Viola and the Duke how she tries to get out of
going to Olivia, doubting her own ability, etc. Do you
think she really doubted it, or that it was difficult for her
on account of her own love for the Duke? Notice in the
scene with Olivia her woman's anxiety to see her rival's
face. What do you think instigated her remark, 'Excellent-
ly done, if God did all.' Was it a sudden touch of jealousy?
It was clearly not the proper thing for an ambassador
pressing his master's suit to say. How is it with the rest of
the interview? Is her sarcastic tone judicious? Does it
pique the nonchalant Olivia? Does her eloquence later,
when she is assured of Olivia's obstinacy, reflect her own
feelings for the Duke? What effect does it have on
Olivia? Is it well-calculated to arouse her interest? In
Act II. scene iv., which do you think had the right con-
ception of woman's love, — the Duke or Cesario? What
do you think of Olivia's saying that 'Love sought is
good, but given unsought is better'? Which of the two
characters show the more humor? Notice Viola's readi-
ness in parrying questions that trench upon her sex. Olivia,
on the other hand, can hold her own in a bout of wit
with the fool, but she is perhaps not so quick-witted as
Viola. We can imagine Viola at once seeing through
Malvolio's attempt at pleasing Olivia, instead of taking
him for mad, as Olivia did.
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Which is the best lover, the Duke, Sebastian, Olivia, or
Viola?
TWELFE NIGHT 109
V
SIR TOBY AND MARIA, AND THEIR BUTTS OR DUPES
Show how the droll situations of the play are mainly
contrived by some of the characters in order to make others
their laughing-stocks. Who are Sir Toby's butts? Is Sir
Toby attached to Sir Andrew, or does he only make use
of him for profit as well as fun? (See Sir Toby's reply
to Fabian (III. iii.). Other instances to the same effect?
Why does Maria join forces with Sir Toby? Is she in
fact the leader of the scheme, or is Fabian's story of its
origin true? What part does the fool play in the game,
and why? Note his private grudge against Malvolio. Is it
a dramatic mistake that even the heroine is made the butt
of these merry-makers? Trace Fabian's part in the duel-
ling plot against Sir Andrew and Viola. Do these plots
recoil in any way against the plotters ? Sir Toby and Sir
Andrew both get some home-truths from Malvolio while
they are eavesdropping, while for Fabian and Maria these
thrusts of Malvolio's are just as good fun as that which
the knights enjoy better. How does some of the later fun
recoil against Toby and Sir Andrew? Are the Puri-
tans made fun of in Malvolio's person?
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Are the characters least scathed by the fun for that
reason superior to the others?
no SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
VI
MINOR CHARACTERS
The fun of the play is capped by the presence of a par-
ticularly clever fool whose function of making every one
the butt of his wit makes one of the least important of the
characters represent the special drollery of the whole play.
The only grudge he bears is against the man who does
not appreciate fun — who calls him a 'barren rascal.' De-
scribe the passages in which he particularly shines. Of
the minor characters the fool is minor only through
his station and unimportance in the plot; he really occu-
pies much space in the play and in fact pervades it. How
is Antonio connected with the plot? What traits of his
does the play bring out? Is his fondness for Sebastian
unnatural? How is he concerned in the foolery of the
play? Is he necessary to the plot? As the fool represents
the merry-making spirit of the play, so Malvolio stands
for the dupes of it. Does any one sympathize with him?
Who shows the clearest understanding of his faults? (I.
v.). What signs are there in the play of Malvolio's being
a Puritan? Is there any evidence against it? Is Maria
right, for example, when she says, 'The Devil a Puritan
he is or anything constantly but a time-server,' etc. ? That
the character of Malvolio was generally taken on the
stage as a portrait of the Puritan, and that Shakespeare
must have known it would borrow some of its popularity
from being so .considered, seems not to be denied ; on the
other hand, it may hardly seem to be proven that Shake-
TWELFE NIGHT „,
speare thought he was drawing a genuine Puritan. Show
Malvolio's character, his connection with the other char-
acters and with the plot and the foolery of the play, and
state the argument for and against Shakespeare's meaning
to make fun of him as a Puritan.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is it a defect in the play that the fool, who has less to
do with the plot, is more important than Antonio, who
has somewhat more to do with it? Does it show that the
main interest of the play is in comic situation rather than
in character or dramatic motive?
VII
THE POETIC FIGURES IN THE PLAY
Observe the various figures used throughout the play, as
to whether they are drawn from nature or from other
sources ; for example, the first speech of the Duke bristles
with metaphor. Note that he speaks of music as thcfood of
love, and bids the musicians play on that the appetite may
have a surfeit, images drawn from physical nature; then
that the music came o'er his ear like the sweet sound that
breathes upon a bank of violets, stealing and giving odor.
We should expect here some continuation in the language
of sound ; but the Duke continues as if he had said wind
instead of sound, and then wind is personified, for it
breathes instead of blows on the bank of violets, and it
ii2 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
steals their odor and gives it to him, — the music is so
sweet that it seems as if its sounds came laden with the
scent of violets to his ear. Here sound is personified at
first as merely breathing, then it takes on moral attributes
and steals and gives. Pick out and explain other figures
in the same way. Which of the characters use the most
beautiful imagery? Are there any who use none at all?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is there any special fitness in the imagery used to the
character using it? Docs the imagery used help you to
form an opinion of the characters?
VIII
THE WIT OF THB PLAY
What are the main causes of amusement in the play?
The audience, notice, is not kept in the dark one instant
about any of the characters. Thus one of the sources of
amusement lies in the fact that while the audience occu-
pies somewhat the attitude of omnipotence, it has the
pleasure of observing the characters of the play living their
lives in the purblind way usual to mortals. Lessing said
that a comedy should make us laugh at vices, but the vices
must be those of characters who have good qualities also.
Does 'Twelfe Night' answer to this description? Ana-
lyze the causes why the fun of the play is funny.
TWELFE NIGHT 113
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Which of the characters cause amusement as the result
of circumstances over which they have no control? How
do each of these cause amusement unconsciously? Which
of the characters cause amusement through a conscious
intention of making fun?
THE TEMPEST
Until a few years ago no one had succeeded in finding
the Play or Novel on which the European part of the plot
of "The Tempest" was founded.
An early German Play, "The Fair Sidea" had been
brought forward on account of some resemblances to
"The Tempest" Yet it is obviously not its source but
rather an imitation or variant indirectly drawn from a
similar foundation story.
Edmund Dorer, a special student of Spanish Literature
first called attention (Jan. 31, 1885,) to the story more
closely resembling "The Tempest" than any other, as it
occurs in a collection of tales by Antonio de Eslava, called
Las Noches de Invierno, or "Winter Nights," published
in Madrid in 1609.
Like other such collections of stories, such as the Italian
collection of Bandello, and the French of Belleforest, used
by Shakespeare, Eslava's collection was translated, and, in
default of the original from one of the later editions, as
translated into German in 1683 (Noches de Invierno
Winternachte aus dem Spanischen in die Deutsche sprach
versetzet) a summary of this story was given in English
for the first time as a satisfactory source of "The Temp-
est" in the "First Folio Edition" of the Play (see pp. 85-
93 and Introduction ; also for an extract and summary of
"The Fair Sidea," pp. 94-95).
What may be called the American half of the plot evi-
"4
THE TEMPEST u5
dently owes suggestions to pamphlet accounts of the storm
and wreck and other experiences met with by Sir Thomas
Gates, Sir George Sommers and others during their voy-
age of discovery to the Bermudas in 1610 (see pp. 92, 99,
and Notes pp. 114, 125-127, etc., for extracts.)
Gonzalo's speech, too, follows pretty closely a passage
in Florio's Montaigue. (For this passage see Note on
II. i. 153-160).
ACT I
THE SCHEMES OF PROSPERO.
The first scene shows the storm in progress. Is there
any clew given to the reader that it is a magic tempest?
What is Prospero's main object in having the ship's crew
and passengers cast upon his island? Is it to wreak ven-
geance on his enemies, to work the charm of love between
Ferdinand and Miranda, or by means of that to reinstate
himself? In what way would this love work to his ad-
vantage? Notice the natural way in which the reader
is put in possession of the necessary information about the
past of Prospero and Miranda. Warburton says of this
that it is the finest example he knows of retrospective nar-
ration for the sake of informing the audience of the plot.
How much of the plot is permitted to come out in this
act? Why does Prospero so repeatedly urge Miranda's
attention? Is she abstracted, is he, or is she already be-
ginning to be drowsy? Why was Ferdinand the first to
quit the ship? Since Prospero already knows, why does
u6 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
he ask Ariel what time it is?
POINTS. I. Explain the nautical terms. 'Master's
whistle.' In Shakespeare's time naval commanders wore
great whistles of gold. A modern boatswain's badge is a
silver whistle suspended to the neck by a lanyard. Holt ex-
tols the excellence of Shakespeare's sea-terms, but makes an
exception of Gonzalo's 'cable,' which he says is of no use
unless the ship is at anchor, and here it is plainly sailing; to
which Furness replies, Shakespeare anchors Gonzalo's
hopes on the boatswain's 'gallows complexion,' and the
cable of that anchor was the hangman's rope. 2. 'Wash-
ing of ten tides.' An allusion to the custom of hanging
pirates at low-water mark. (See Notes I. i. 67 First
Folio Edition). 3. Compare this storm with that in
'Pericles,' — 'Do not assist the storm,' etc., with 'Per.'
III. i. 51-60. 4. Explain 'To trash for over-topping,' I.
ii. 98, which is a blending of two metaphors. Trash re-
fers to the habit of hanging a weight round the neck of
the fleetest of a pack of hounds, to keep him from getting
ahead of the rest; and 'overtopping' to trees shooting up
above the others in \ grove, which have to be lopped, to
keep them even. 5. What does Prospero mean by saying,
'Now I arise'? Simply, now I get up, and now my for-
tunes change? 6. 'Still vex'd Bermoothes.' Bermudas,
spelled in several ways in Shakespeare's time, and called
'still vex'd,' from accounts of tempests prevailing there.
7. 'Argier.' The name of Algiers till after the Restora-
tion. 8. 'One thing she did.1 What? Afce we anywhere
told what?
THE TEMPEST n7
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Does the long monologue of Prospero in this act de-
tract from its dramatic force? Did the arrangement of
Shakespeare's stage make this convenient. (See descrip-
tion of the threefold stage of the Globe Theatre in "An-
thonie and Cleopatra," pp. 172-173). Is the monologue
rightly disused in modern plays? Why? Compare Ibsen's
plays in this respect.
ACT II
THE COUNTERPLOT
Tell the story of Act II, showing how its main event
is the conspiracy of Antonio and Sebastian against Alonzo
and Gonzalo. Is the issue left undecided long, so that it
threatens the result? How and why does Ariel prevent
the success of it? Might it not have been to Prospero's
advantage to have the King killed, since Ferdinand would
then succeed to the throne of Naples? Did Ariel's inter-
vention kill the plot? What light is thrown on the char-
acters by scene i. of this act ? Do you think it is intended
to be shown that Gonzalo is prosy and tiresome, although
good, or only that the lower and more frivolous characters
find him so? Which is the likelier, that Shakespeare in-
tended the dialogue about Gonzalo's ideal commonwealth
to be a satire upon it, or favorable to Utopian schemes?
Which comes out the better at last in the wit-combat, —
the quick Antonio and Sebastian, or the thoughtful Gon-
zalo ? Is Sebastian's solicitude about Claribel a sign of a
ii8 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
kindlier nature than Antonio's ? Are there any indications
that Antonio's mind is more alert than Sebastian's?
What purposes of the action or plot are served by the in-
troduction of Claribel? Is the King's grief as great for
the daughter as for the son? How does his paternal af-
fection compare with Prospero's? Compare Antonio's
speech, suggesting the murder to Sebastian, with similar
speeches in Shakespeare ( Macbeth 's, King John's, Oliver's
in 'As You Like It,' Claudius' in 'Hamlet'). In the sec-
ond scene of this act, how far is a second counter-plot
foreshadowed ?
POINTS, i. The jokes of Act II: their explanation (i.
e.f 'dollar' and 'dolour,' the 'eye of green,' etc.). 2. When
were watches first used in Europe? 3. Tell the story of
^Eneas and Dido. 4. What myth is alluded to in 'his
word is more than the miraculous harp'? 5. Gonzalo's
Commonwealth — its origin from Montaigne. It is com-
monly supposed that Shakespeare must have borrowed this
reference from the translation. He may have taken it
directly from the French. 6. Show the bearing of Sebas-
tian's phrase, 'I am standing water,' with its context.
(That is, at the turn of the tide between ebb and full.) 7.
'The man i' the moon,' and the folk-lore about it. 8.
Natural history on the island. Poet-Lore, April, 1894.
Notes and News).
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Is it a defect in the action of the play that the danger
arising from the most important counter-plot is allayed
so soon?
THE TEMPEST n9
ACT III
NEW PLOTS AGAINST PROSPERO
What new turns are given events in Act III ? Scene i
continues Ferdinand's love-making, and shows no hind-
drances there to Prospero's plans; but scene ii develops
Caliban's plot, and scene iii shows Sebastian and Antonio
making ready to carry out the purpose which had at first
been defeated. Give an account of the scene in Act II
which leads up to this plot in connection with its sequel
in this act. Ariel is baffled in his attempts to breed con-
tention between the conspirators by Trinculo's good na-
ture, but finally he leads them off with his music. Scene
iii represents Alonzo and his courtiers bewildered and
tired by their fruitless tramps through the island, and in
just the temper to be confused by the dumb-show and the
harpies. Note the dependence placed, throughout 'The
Tempest,' on the effect of 'solemn and strange music.'
Antonio's plot, being resumed, is blocked by Ariel's magic
show and his accusation. Note how the supernatural
quality of the scene makes his speech affect their con-
sciences as if they were themselves accusing themselves,
and how it drives them into mental disorder. Dr. Buck-
nill, a specialist in brain disease, who has commented on
Shakespeare's knowledge of such maladies, explains that
Alonzo's frenzy leads him by an imaginative melancholy
to the idea of suicide, while the madness of Antonio and
Sebastian expresses itself in the idea of desperate fight.
POINTS, i. What is a 'catch/ a 'tabor'? Give an ac-
120 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
count of the music in the play, and show the fitness of its
different effects on the different characters. 2. Explain
the allusions, 'unicorns,' 'one tree, the Phoenix throne,'
'mountaineers,' with 'wallets of flesh,' etc. 3. What is a
harpy? Give an account of the mention of harpies in
Virgil (JEneid, Book III), and 'Paradise Regained' (Book
II). What appropriateness to the purpose in this 'quaint
device'?
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Do the counter-plots introduced in this act mainly affect
events or character?
ACT IV
THB CONFUSION OF THE PLOTTERS
Show how the story of Act IV consists in the smooth-
ing down of all that disturbs Prospero's designs, and fore-
shadows the complete reconciliation of the last act. The
lovers, whose readiness to fall in with Prospero's plan has
made his task light so far as they are concerned, could
only imperil his and their future by a premature union;
and Ferdinand, having stood the test of hard work, is now
induced, by an awed and holy mood, produced by art, to
keep his good resolutions. Describe the mask, and show its
meaning and fitness for Prospero's purposes. Wljy is
Prospero so disturbed at the reminder of so paltry a plot
as that of Caliban and his associates? Is it likely that
these drunken fellows could frame any plot that would
be but as gossamer before his art? Is it natural that so
low a creature as Caliban should show more intelligence
THE TEMPEST 121
than Stephano and Trinculo in disregarding Ariel's 'stale'
set to catch them ? How do you explain his superior cau-
tion? Describe the device employed by Prospero and
Ariel to rout these plotters. Would it be effective on an
English stage?
POINTS, i. Explanation of classical allusions. 'Hy-
men's lamps,' 'Phoebus' steeds,' Ceres, Iris, Juno, etc.;
'dusky Dis,' 'Paphos,' etc. 2. The botany of Act IV.
What is 'stover,' 'furze,' gorse? 3. Was Prospero's 'line'
a lime-tree or a clothes-line? 4. Explanation of the jokes
of the act. 5. Natural history on the island again: the
'blind mole,' 'barnacles,' 'apes,' 'pard,' etc.
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Why is the punishment devised for the lesser plotters
corporal and for the greater ones psychical?
ACTV
PROSPERO'S TRIUMPH
Sum up the results consummated by Prospero's magic.
Note Gonzalo's account of the play, and show the ethical
results, and Ariel's part in Prospero's course of reconcilia-
tion. Explain how, if Prospero had regained his duke-
dom, and yet, if 'all of us,' as Gonzalo says, had not found
ourselves, the triumph would have been material, not
ethical. Show how this effect is enhanced by the plan to
awaken dismay and remorse in the minds of the evil-doers
and how the climax in Prospero's triumph is reached by
the victory wrought in his own mind when he determines
122 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
to take part with his 'nobler reason 'gainst his fury* in
order to restore his enemies to themselves. What indica-
tions are there in the play that Prospero was high-strung
and spirited, — a revenge-loving Italian ? Trace the effects
of remorse on each of the ill-doers. Is there any reason to
suppose that Antonio, Stephano, or Trinculo are repent-
ant ? Is it out of character for Caliban to be ?
POINTS, i. The 'Faerie* of the play. Compare with
that of 'Midsummer Night's Dream/ (See 'Fairy-lore of
Midsummer Night's Dream,' Poet Lore. Vol. Ill, p. 177,
April, 1891.) Victor Hugo notes the contrast as fol-
lows: '"Midsummer Night's Dream" depicts the action
of the invisible world on man; "The Tempest" symbo-
lizes the action of man on the invisible world.' (See also
the 'Supernatural in Shakespeare's "Midsummer Night's
Dream." ' in Poet Lore, Vol. V, p. 490, October, 1893;
in Shakespeare's 'Tempest,' p. 557, November, 1893.)
2. The duration of the play. Explain how it follows
the 'unities'; and in this connection show the probable
equality of 'three glasses' to three hours, and Shakespeare's
mistake. (Shakespeare's use of nautical terms, approved
by all seamen, seems to be here at fault in supposing a
'glass' equal to one, instead of to a half, hour.)
3. The game of chess and its pertinence here: Be-
cause so wise a father would have taught his daughter so
intellectual a game; because Queen Elizabeth was fond of
it, and it was par excellence a 'royal game'; or because
Naples was the source and center of the chess furore at
just this time?
4. Where is the scene of the 'Tempest' laid? Is the
THE TEMPEST 123
island real or unreal ? (The main conjectures for a known
place are Hunter's that it was Lampedusa, and Elze's
that it was Pantelaria. Both argue that each island was so
situated in the Mediterranean, between Milan or its port
and Algiers, whence the sailors landed Sycorax, as to suit
the requirements. Elze further urges the name of a town
on the opposite African coast, Calibia, as suggesting Cali-
ban's name. For an argument that the island is vaguely
placed in the Mediterranean to suit the Old World plot
and yet by many details made suggestive of the New
World, see Introduction to 'The Tempest' in First
Folio Edition.)
5. The influence of the New World on the writing of
'The Tempest,' and all allusions traceable to it. (See
Notes of same edition for extracts from pamphlets on
America, etc.)
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
What constitutes the interest in 'The Tempest,' —
character, dramatic situations, movements, plot, poetry, or
moral purpose?
VI
CHARACTER STUDIES
I. PROSPERO AND HIS SERVANTS
With the first word Shakespeare introduces Prospero
as one who can raise and calm such a tempest as scene i
describes, and the magician admits the power Miranda
ascribes to him. Show from the story what his plans and
124 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
motives were likely to prove. Would a sense of his own
former neglect of duty be likely to embitter him against
his brother or make him excuse him ? Does heThow signs
of either? Prospero's magic, his gajrment, books, staff.
How far is his magic in accord with the popular notions
of such art? (See 'Prospcro and Magic,' Poet Lore,
Vol. Ill, p. 144, March, 1891.)
Show Ariel's qualities. What caused his first impa-
tience? Is Prospero unnecessarily harsh and imperious
with him ? Aside from the popular supposition that spirits
or familiars obeying magicians were always reluctant to
serve longer than one hour (and, therefore, says Scot's
'Discovery of Witchcraft,' 'the magician must be careful
to dismiss him'), how can you explain this quarrel, — as a
dramatic expedient giving occasion for telling Ariel's
story, or revealing the characters of both Prospero and
Ariel? Note, also, its further use in introducing Pros-
pero's second servant, Caiman, and his story. How do
you explain Ariel's irrelevant rejoinder: 'Yes, Caliban,
her son'; and Prospero's angry, 'Dull thing, I say so,'
etc.? Do you think Moulton right in supposing that
Prospero governs 'this incarnation of caprice by outca-
pricing him'; Rolfe, in supposing that Prospero is irri-
table because under the strain and suspense of conducting
affairs within three hours perfectly, and upon which ac-
curacy hangs his future and the happiness of his daugh-
ter? This was also his only chance of retrieving his own
past error.
Contrast Ariel with Caliban. Show the skill of Caliban's
first appearance as some slow-moving thing, half of water,
THE TEMPEST I25
half of earth, in contrast with Ariel's second appearance
as a nymph. What may be learned of Caliban's traits
from Miranda's speech (as in the Folio, but by various
editors given to Prospero) : 'Abhorred slave,' etc.? Do
you think this speech should be given to Prospero? What
signs are there of Caliban's having a good mind? Do you
think Prospero's tyranny over Caliban altogether justi-
fied? Is Caliban's penitence consistent with his nature?
How far does Ariel proceed independently of Prospero?
Is he really fond of him ?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is there any bond of love between Prospero and his ser-
vants? Do the relations between them illustrate the im-
possibility of gratitude?
2. THE LOVERS
Is the love of Ferdinand and Miranda an enchantment
caused by Prospero, or an emotion he can help, but not
cause? If not caused by him, does Shakespeare depart
from magic to the detriment of the play? Would it be
better, for example, if a love philter was introduced for
consistency's sake? (For literary use of the love philter,
see Tennyson's 'Lucretius.') Does it reflect against Ferdi-
nand's courage that he was first to quit the ship? Are Mi-
randa's speeches about her grandmother (I, ii, 140) and
to Caliban inconsistent with the maidenly innocence as-
sumed to be characteristic of her? Do you consider her
126 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
talk with Ferdinand (III, i) in character? Is she unduti-
ful to her father? Unmaidenly in her speedy declaration
of love (III, i, 67, 89, 94-106, no) ? Should she be rep-
resented as ignorant or innocent of the world, or as in
love? Describe the characters and relations to each other
of the lovers from all that is given about them. Compare
with Florizel and Perdita in 'The Winter's Tale.'
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Are Miranda and Ferdinand undeveloped characters
whose relation to each other is more important to the play
than they themselves are?
3. THE MINOR CHARACTERS
Which is the most important of the lesser characters
and why? Is Gonzalo blamable at all under the circum-
stances for following the command to turn Prospero and
Miranda adrift? Why is Gonzalo of better cheer than
his companions? What do you think of his philosophy in
itself and as an index to his character? Is his knowledge
superior to that of his companions? Does he suspect the
evil intent of Antonio and Sebastian? Show how his
frankness and loyalty came out in Act III, and how his
uprightness is rewarded in Act V. Do you think it sig-
nificant that he closes the play? Francisco considered as
the least important personage in the play: should his
speech describing Ferdinand's swimming be given to Gon-
zalo? The sailors considered as examples of Shakespeare's
THE TEMPEST I2?
skill in outline portraits. Are Stephano and Trinculo
more highly developed types than Caliban? Would the
play be better if they were left out?
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is Gonzalo more like Polonius in 'Hamlet' or Kent in
'Lear'?
VII
A STUDY OF ARTISTIC DESIGN
THE SYMBOLISM OF 'THE TEMPEST'
Did Shakespeare typify himself as Prospero? Pros-
pero (says Montegut) alludes to his own age, and inti-
mates that the time has come for retirement to private
life. What indications can you find that Prospero images
Shakespeare ? If he is so interpreted, what parts may Ariel
and Caliban be supposed to play? Is the history of the
Enchanted Island and the transformation wrought a par-
allel with the history of the Stage and the transformation
Shakespeare wrought? According to Montegut, Caliban
stands for Marlowe, Ariel for the English Genius which
Shakespeare frees from its barbaric prison. Dowden
('Mind and Art of Shakespeare') fancies Prospero as the
great artist lacking at first in practical faculty, cast out
therefore from practical worldly success ; but bearing with
him Art in her infancy, the child Miranda, finds at last an
128 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
enchanted country where his arts can work their magic,
subduing the grosser appetites and passions (Caliban),
and commanding the offices of the imaginative genius of
poetry (Ariel). He supposes Ferdinand to be Shake-
speare's heir as a playwright (Fletcher). Lowell ('Arnong
my Books') considers that the characters do not illustrate
a class of persons, but belong to universal nature. — Imagi-
nation embodied in Prospero; Fancy in Ariel; brute
understanding in Caliban, who, with his wits liquor-
warmed, plots against his natural lord, the higher reason ;
Miranda, abstract Womanhood ; Ferdinand, Youth, com-
pelled to drudge till sacrifice of will and self win him the
ideal in Miranda. Browning makes an incidentally inter-
esting contribution to this subject by symbolizing in Cali-
bmn rudimentary theologizing man, in his poem 'Caliban.'
(See Poet Lore, Vol. V, p. 562, November, 1893.)
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
i
Is 'The Tempest* an allegory? Is it in any sense an
autobiographical play? Does its symbolism have much in
common with that of modern symbolistic plays, such as
Maeterlinck's 'Joyzelle,' for example? In what respects
may it be said, do you think, as Maeterlinck himself has
informed us, that 'Joyzelle' grew from 'The Tempest?'
THE WINTER'S TALE
CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION WITH GREENED 'PANDOSTO'
AND THE 'ALKESTIS' OF EURIPIDES
SHAKESPEARE'S INDEBTEDNESS TO GREENE
The story of 'Pandosto' falls into two distinct divisions;
first, the story of Pandosto and Bellaria; second, the story
of Dorastus and Fawnia. Compare each of these two
stories with the two stories interwoven in the play, noting
all the analogous passages and the use Shakespeare has
made of them. (For Greene's 'Pandosto' or 'History of
Dorastus and Fawnia' see 'Shakespeare's Library,' or pp.
118-125 and Notes in First Folio Edition.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Do Shakespeare's borrowed and additional archaisms
and his confusion of names and places show carelessness?
Is his continuation of the story merely a playwright's de-
vice to join the two parts of the plot and make a good
stage piece end happily? (As to Coast of Bohemia see
Poet Lore, April, 1894), also in "First Folio Editl'on>"
pp. 176-177-
129
130 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
II
THE RESEMBLANCES TO THE 'ALKBSTIS' OF EURIPIDES
In Greene and in Shakespeare the King wishes the
Queen's death because he is uncomfortable so long as she
lives, and he prefers his comfort to aught else, taking it as
his conjugal right and royal prerogative. (See ii. 3, I and
204.) The Queen, understanding this, says, "My life
stands in the level of your dreams, which I'll lay down."
To her she says, "can life be no commodity" when love,
"the crown and comfort of her life," is gone. So Alkestis
(see any translation of Euripides, in Bohn edition, literal
prose translation, vol. i. p. 223) says she "was not willing
to live bereft" of Admetos, therefore she did not spare
herself to die for him, "though possessing the gifts of
bloomy youth wherein" she "delighted." This point of
correspondence may have occurred to Shakespeare and sug-
gested his continuation of Greene's novel. Admetos' image
of his wife, that he would have made by the cunning
hands of artists, is possibly a prototype of the statue of the
Queen in 'The Winter's Tale,' the piece "newly per-
formed by that rare Italian master, Julio Romano." Com-
pare also, Herakles' trial of Admetos with Paulina's trial
of Leontes (v. i) ; and Herakles' restoration of the un-
known Alkestis to her husband with Paulina's bringing the
statue of the Queen to life.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is Shakespeare's use of a striking incident from the
'Alkestis' too close not to have been suggested by it? Does
THE WINTER'S TALE 131
it show his intention to portray in Hermione a new
Alkestis?
Ill
SHAKESPEARE'S ORIGINALITY IN WORKING OVER HIS
MATERIAL
Note Shakespeare's departures from Greene and their
significance. Do they serve two ends, — make the play
more effective for stage representation, make the characters
stronger? Does he make Leontes more attractive than
Greene does in the first part of the play? Does he make
him worse or better than Pandosto in the second part?
What is the sole trace left in Shakespeare of the father's
guilty passion for his daughter ? Garinter, in Greene, dies
without any cause. See Shakespeare's explanation of this,
also his use of the news of Mamillius' death to strike
shame to the king's heart. Greene makes the king relent
as soon as he hears the oracle. Contrast Shakespeare's
conduct of the scene at this point.
Notice the difference in his treatment of the character
of the cup-bearer. Does he make it his chief care to
enhance the character of the Queen? Note the new char-
acters introduced, — Paulina, Antigonus, Autolycus, the
clown (in place of the wife in Greene). Conjecture any
reason for his different names. The introduction of
Autolycus makes the play more amusing on the stage, but
is his part as well planned as Capnio's for leading up to
the denouement? Greene lets his mariners off alive after
they set Fawnia afloat. Shakespeare wrecks his, and makes
132 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
a bear cat Antigonus, to what end? What docs Shake-
speare gain by prolonging the life of Hermione?
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Does Shakespeare's remodelling of Greene's story show
chiefly a higher ideal than Greene's of womanhood and
of love?
IV
THE ALKESTIS STORIES IN LITERATURE
The sacrifice of the Queen to ease her husband, and
the final restoration, being the two main points of con-
tact with Euripides' version of the story, compare with
these the stories of Alkestis told by William Morris in
'The Earthly Paradise,'— 'June' ; 'The Love of Alcestis,'
by Emma Lazarus, in 'Admetos,1 — 'Poems,' vol. i.; by
Robert Browning in 'Balustion's Adventure;' by Long-
fellow in 'The Golden Legend.' See also articles in
Poet-lore, — 'The Alkestis of Euripides and of Browning,'
July, 1890; 'Old and New Ideals of Womanhood'; 'The
Iphigenia' and 'Alkestis Stories,' May, 1891; 'Longfel-
low's Golden Legend and its Analogues,' February, 1892.
In comparing, note first general resemblances, then slighter
points of resemblance and of difference.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is development in literature of the ideal of womanhood
away from self-sacrifice and toward self-development?
Is woman's task for the future a reconciliation of them ?
THE WINTER'S TALE 133
V
THE OUTCAST CHILD IN CULTURE-LORE AND FOLK-LORE
A few of the outcast children in culture-lore are Krish-
na, Zeus, Paris, Oedipus, King Arthur, Claribel's child in
the 'Faerie Queene' (canto xii.), etc. For the stories in
folk-lore, see the English Folk-lore Journal. For the solar
theory of the origin of this story, see Cox, 'Mythology of
the Aryan Nations.'
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Collier says that Shakespeare changed Greene's pretty
description of turning Fawnia adrift in a boat because he
had used much the same incident in "The Tempest." Does
Shakespeare's new treatment of Greene's "pretty incident"
add dramatic force and moral purpose to the play?
VI
CHARACTER STUDIES
i. PAULINA; LEONTES; HERMIONE
Note Paulina's likeness to Emilia in "Othello." Jeal-
ousy in Shakespeare: Resemblances in Leontes to Post-
humus ("Cymbeline") and to Othello. "The jealousy of
Leontes," says Dowden, "is not a detailed dramatic study
like the love and jealousy of Othello. It is a gross mad-
ness, which mounts to the brain and turns his whole nature
134 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
into unreasoning passion." Is Hermione more highly de-
veloped than others of Shakespeare's suspected wives, —
Desdemona, Imogen ? Likeness or superiority to Alkestis,
Compare with Queen Katharine in 'Henry VIII.' Is she
hard, having made her husband do penance for sixteen
years? "Deep and even quick feeling never renders Her-
mione incapable of an admirable justice," writes Dowden,
"nor deprives her of a true sense of pity for him who so
gravely wrongs both her and himself."
2. THE YOUNG LOVERS
Notice the high and pure character of their love as
shown in the facts that Florizel did not find it fitting to
buy pcdler's "knacks" for Perdita, — a trait not in Greene.
Her independent and uncringing nature as shown in an-
other little touch of Shakespeare (sec IV. iv. 492-497).
Compare these two lovers with Ferdinand and Miranda
in "The Tempest."
3. THE ORIGINALITY OF SHAKESPEARE'S AUTOLYCUS
For suggestions see Poet-lore, April, 1891. ('Notes
and News.') Compare the Hermes of the Homeric Hymn
with the Autolycus and Sisyphos of mythology, also the
folk-lore tales of the master-thief (Cox). To discuss the
probable originality with Shakespeare of a conception
which is one of the universal inheritances of the Aryan
race is futile ; the type existed, and Shakespeare's part was
to make an individual of the type.
THE WINTER'S TALE 135
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Is Leontes' jealousy too gross and unfounded to be
likely?
Is Hermione, not hard, but slow to be satisfied, because
her love is noble?
Is Mamillus not too precocious to be natural?
VII
A STUDY OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PLOT
Has Shakespeare welded the two parts of the story to-
gether in such a way as to unify the plot ? Does Autolycus
contribute anything to the development of the plot ? How
does it compare with "Julius Caesar" or "Macbeth," for
example, in the construction of the plot? Is the move-
ment more rapid in the last half of the play or in the
first? Note the expedient introduced by Shakespeare to
bridge over the lapse of time between the first part and
the last part; compare with other examples of the same
sort in Shakespeare.
QUERY FOR DISCUSSION
Does the dramatic interest of 'The Winter's Tale' suf-
fer because the plot is of less importance than the inci-
dents and characters.
136 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
VIII
SHAKESPEARE'S WORKMANSHIP IN "THB WINTER'S TALE"
The versification is that of Shakespeare's latest group
of plays, Dowden says, "No five-measure lines are
rhymed and run on lines, and double endings are numer-
ous." Give examples of the construction of the lines
from "Love's Labour's Lost" as an earlier play, "Mer-
chant of Venice" as a riper play. It has been said that
the difficulties of style in the play are accounted for by the
endeavor of the author to reflect the changing moods of
Leontes. Compare with Prospero's diction and construc-
tion in "The Tempest." Give examples of these.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Does the lawlessness of poetic workmanship in "The
Winter's Tale," together with the looseness of the dra-
matic construction, show a deterioration from the ripe
power of Shakespeare's middle period, or that practised
artistic mastery which is free from art by means of per-
fect art?
IX
PERDITA'S GARDEN
The flower-imagery of "The Winter's Tale" compared
with other flower-scenes in Shakespeare, — in "A Midsom-
THE WINTER'S TALE
137
mer Nights Dreame" and "Hamlet." The classic and
folk-lore allusions. The pastoral element in "As you
Like It" and "Winter's Tale."
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
The rustic scenes have little bearing on the play; are
they necessary to Shakespeare's art in order to throw a
clear light on the character of his protagonists?
THE ETHICS OF "THE WINTER'S TALE"
"The Winter's Tale" gives examples of meritorious ac-
tions losing their virtue with the progress of ideas ; for ex-
ample, the civic virtue, allegiance to the king, is what
Leontes depends upon in his talk with Camillo, with An-
tigonus, and the other lords. Note Camillo's reason for
not poisoning Polixenes to order, — that it is risky to kill
a king even at command of a king. That such a reason
would be considered small moral support to-day appears,
for example, in the indignation or amusement expressed in
the newspapers on the German Emperor's address
to his army on the soldier's duty of obedience. In Shake-
speare's day a king had taken matters in his own hands in
the trial of his wife, much as Leontes did (see "Henry
VIII".). The moral significance of Hermione's patience
under accusation appears in the long reparation she re-
quires. Paulina is made to speak for her during her se-
138 SHAKESPEARE'S COMEDIES
elusion. What arc the "secret purposes" which Shake-
speare makes her subserve? Observe that, if the fulfilment
of the oracle and the restoration of the child were all
Paulina anticipates, there would be no use in her remon-
strances against a second marriage and in her goading the
king to remorse.
QUERIES FOR DISCUSSION
Does Shakespeare's ideal of love and constancy, as re-
vealed in 'The Winter's Tale/ imply that second marriages
are offences against the first. Has the objection Paulina
makes to his re-marriage such a cause or is it a necessity of
the plot?
Does the way of telling "The Winter's Tale" indicate
the passing away of aristocratic and the formation of demo-
cratic ideals, and the dawning change in the status both of
woman and the commoner?
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