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Pramcston 1994
SHAMANISM: A LEG OF THE STOOL
by John M. Johnson
Submitted to;
br. Jun Ho-dJin
Asicr Religions and Christian, Miission
and
, Dr. Marlin L. Nelson
Strategies for World Evangelization
The Asian Center for Theological Studies
May 17, 1983
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INTRODUCTION
Btetirst glance the titie of this paper "Shamanism : A Leg
of the Stool" may seem strange indeed. It is based on a
thought expressed by Kyung Cho Chung in his book, Korea
Tomorrow. Author Chung said that "although religion in Korea
has always reflected foreign influences ... it was likened
to a three-legged stool based on shamanism, Buddhism and
Confucianism.(1) Chung did go on to say that the general
belief of the Korean people wasS Shamanisn. Eugene A. Nida
refers to this type of religious frame work as a
multireligion in his book Religion Across Cultures. Several
examples of this three-legged stool concept could be cited
but here two will suffice. Homer B. Hulbert in his book The
Passing of Korea which was written at the turn of the century
makes the following statement.
As a general thing, we may say that the all-
round Korean will be a Confucianist when in
society, a Buddhist when he philosophises and
a spirit-worshipper when he is in trouble.
Now, if you want to know what a man's religion
is, you must watch him when he is in trouble.
Then his.genuine religion willcome, out, if he
has .any«. ,it.is for this reason that I
conclude that the underlying religion of the
Korean, the foundation upon which all else is
mere superstructure, is his original spirit-
worship. In this term are included animisn,
Shamanism, fetichism and nature-worship
generally.(2)
In 1961 Charles Allen Clark in his study of Religions of
Qld Korea voiced a Similar idea. "Confucianism was the
religion of state and, as such, a charge upon the national
revenues. Buddhism throughout Korea's history was a state
cult or a semi-state cult. Shamanism has been often
condemned publicy, as noted above, and has always been
despised by the literati, and more or less shamefacedly
practised by everyone, yet it had ha more vitality than them
allo™(3)
Because of the limited scope of this paper a long
historical survey of the Korean people will not be given.
However, a few basic facts should be pointed out. During the
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from 668-1392 AD), Buddhism reigned supreme, directi:i , the
way of life on the peninsula. Then Lo was durine the Ya
Dynasty (1392-1910) that Confucianism was the guiding force.
Refore and even during the times marked off by these three
long lasting dynasties. inspite of governmental persecution,
shamanism existed, influencing the Korean world.
"Particularly after 500 years of the Yi Dynasty, during which
Confucianism was worshiped while Buddhism was rejected, it is
Confucianism and Shamanism that rule over the minds of
Koreans, and form their personality today.(4)"
The general purpose for this paper is to provide some
information about shamanism and how it has made itself
evident in Korea. This general purpose will be looked at in
the first two sections of this paper, those being "The
Shamanism Found in Korea" and "Shamanism's Relationship with
and Role in Society",
The specific purpose of this paper will be to look at
Christianity's response toward shamanism and seek to find
that common thread, the point of contact, so that the already
effective evangelism taking place on this peninsula can
become even more effective. The last section will also
contain a strategy for reaching the people group consisting
of Korean shamans. This strategy will be based on the ten
point strategy planning model provided by Dayton and Fraiser
in their book Planning Strategies for World Evangelization.
As a note of information, from time to time throughout
this paper in quoted material the term Musok will appear in
place of shamanism. This author chose to use the term
Shamanism because of its general acceptance by both Korean
and Western scholars.
It must be understood from the outset of this paper that
this writer is neither a Korean nor an expert by any stretch
of the imagination on the Korean people. It is however this
writer's primise that foreign missionaries can never be truly
effective until they gain at least a basic understanding of ©
the world to which they have come. Shamanism is a big part
of the Korean world, if not the key element.
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Parepatk THE SHAMANISM FOUND IN KOREA
A Description of Korean Shamanism
For centuries shamanism has existed on the Korean
peninsula. There is today a great deal of speculation about
when shamanism arrived and who brought it. suffice it to say
that most scholars point to the similarities between Korean
shamanism and Siberian shamanism and propound that their must
be a connection. Dr. Charles Allen Clark states, "we have
taken it for granted above that there is a history of the
direct connection of Korean shamanism with that of Siberia,
but vohere-Dsrlittlevin thevway of written records to prove
it."(5) It should also be noted that Korean shamanism has
absorbed a great deal from the taoist books of China.
In an article under the head of "Intangible Cultural
Property Musok: Folk Religion of Korea" Alan C. Heyman in his
opening paragraph writes:
Korean folk art has been passed on down
through the centuries largely unrecorded, thus
making it difficult--almost impossible in some
instances--to find primary source material
relating to it. However, its living form
embodied in Musok, the folk religion of Korea,
often somewhat mistakenly referred to as
"Shamanism" for lack of a better terminology,
has miraculously managed to survive--though in
rather threadbare remnants for the most part--
throughout the many social and political
upheavals that have taken place down through
the ages.(6)
But what of this folk religion that has "miraculously
Managed to survive?" How can it be defined? Many are the
writers and researchers that have sought to do this.
The Twentieth Century £::c opedia eli ous fe) ed
defines shamanism as "a religion that postulates a universe
in which not only human beings have souls or spirits, but
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lower animals and the inanimate. .. . as well. The problems
of life are adjustive to havin, a proper relationship with
Bee Sworld of “the ‘spirits. (7)
C. A. Clark quoting from the Encyclopedia of Religion and
Ethics defines shamanism thusly: "it is a primitive religion
of polytheism or polydemonism with strong roots in native
worship, and generally with a supreme god over all."(8)
Edward’ R, Canda, A fulbright scholar in oriental
Philosophy speaks of shamanism in this way. "Shamanism is
primarily concerned with the bringing together in harmony and
maximum mutual fulfillment of the person, the society and the
non-human environment."(9)
One final definition seems helpful. This definition is
provided by professor Kin Tae-Gon who points out the
difficulty of accurately defining Korean shamanisn.
Ecstasy, trance, and possession, which have
been generally regarded as peculiar
characteristics of shamans, often occur in the
wonder-working power displayed by the founders
of new religions and in the so-called
communion or union with God in some Christian
churches. Therefore it seems untenable to
define the characer of Shamanism with these
phenomena as the-only criteria. ... ditis
very difficult to define Korea Shamanisn.
Without a definition as the premise, it is
impossible to describe Korean Shamanism. For
convenience's sake, therefore, this writer
will describe Korean Shamanism, mainly the
phenomena it presents, on the basis of
phenomena which are recognized internationally
as Shamanistic. As "mu" who are as shamans,
the religious phenomena involving "mu" will be
regarded as Shamanism.(10)
Because an exact definition is so hard to come by an
examination of the characteristics, world view, folk beliefs,
.nd the kinds of gods that are worshiped will prove helpful.
Characteristics
The characteristics of Korean shamanism provide insight
into the type of thinking that shamanism has produced in the
Korean people. Tongshik Ryu foints out four specific
characteristics. They are: 1) dependence on others, 2)
conservatism or stagnancy, 3) near-sighted realism and 4)
pleasure-amusement.(11)
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characteristics have had up.» the basic personality of ‘the
Koreans. Their depedence upon others has promoted the idea
that man has little or no control over his destiny--fatalisn,
in other words. “Making no decisions by himself, a person
just lets*the witch take charge of eliminating calamities and
calling Gor “blessings or fortunes. Enspite of “the fact that
2t 2S higrowm life and destiny, he does not take
responsibility himself for it but he depends on others such
as gods or witches."(12)
This then leads to the second item conservatism or
stagnancy. "One who can not take responsibility and make
ethical decisions can never be expected to bring forth any
reformation in himself and his social surrounding."(13)
Near-sSsighted realism means that man's total concentration.
. « anterests and’ desires... . are focused on the today of
his: Life. The question is asked "what about fortune-tellers
that play a part in Korean shamanism?" Tongshik Ryu answers
thas Dysisayang, "it. is not for’ the future but for the. present
that they) go to fortune’ tellers. phamanism . ..-« does not
plan for the future."(14)
The three previous items lead to the final one that of
pleasure-amusement. Fatalism and a present-centered approach
bring a person’ to the idea of "drink, eat and be merry." The
present moment and its enjoyment are key.
World View
There seems to be some debate among scholars with regard
to the world view of shamanisn. Edward Canda feels that
Shamanism operates within a dualistic frame of reference.
He goes on to say: "(Shamanism). . . extensively deals with
the magical manipulation of objects for human benefit. ..
This is not to say that shamanism never transcends
dvalism."(15)
Dr. Hahm Pyong-Choon in the article "Family and Life
Cycle" brings out the “idea*the man is free of "dualistic
obsessions." Hahm has a great deal to say about the world
view of Korean shamanism. A great deal can be learned by
underscoring here some of Dr. Hahm's comments.
Many of the fundamental assumptions of western
culture have no counter parts in the world-
view of Korean shamanism. The shamanistic
world view, posits no god at-or as-the center
of the ‘universe. Hume:: existence is not
thought to be assigned meaning by a
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series of stages in the ‘development! of human
perfection.(16)
: Dr. Hahm goes on to make several very clear cut statements
= about "the shamanistic man." Collated from several pages of
: material Hahm's references to "the shamanistic man" could
look something like this.
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The shamanistic man:
--comes into the world as an integral part of the rhythm
of nature.
--has been in this world since the beginning of life and
remains ‘here after death.
--is so closely intertwined with the terrestrial forces of
nature, in fact, that man without nature would be
impossible, and nature without man irrelevant.
--lives in and with nature, and has with it a reationship
which is neither amicable nor antagonistic.
--does not fear annihilation by nature, and thus does not
consider it necessary to dominate it.
--lives best by flowing with the rhythm of nature but he
is not a abject slave to its rhythms.
--attains the fullest life by becoming as completely
‘human! as possible.
--does not consider perfection as consisting of obedience
to divine commands, nor of godliness and divinity-which he
considers dehumanized, nonhuman conditions,
--has no god who emcumbers his life with demands for
absolute perfection therefore he never feels that his life
has become and endless sequence of foibles and failures.
--fails to be enchanted by the dichotomy of spirit against
body and the notion that one is somehow superior to the
other is a alien to him as the idea that the two are
hostile to each other.
--recognizes human faculties such as intelligence, wisdon,
logic, reason,’ mind, spirit, soul and so forth, these are
inseparable from the overall biological process-=
particularly the senses.
--feels that the human soul and body are not discrete and
separable. They constitute a continuum, a mutually
overlapping, interpenetrating, and conjunctive whole.(17)
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Over a period of twelve years Dr. Kim Tae-Gon researched
and interviewed a shaman frre: the Seoul area. Her name was
Miss Mun Tok-Sun. Much of -.ne information that he gained
from this source was provide by avestionaire. Dr. Kim's
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shaman are very enlightening. Although at time the views of
this particuler shaman differ from the views expressed by Dr.
Hahm one must keep. in mind Dr. Kim's objective. "The object
of my research is a comprehensive understanding of shamanism
as transmitted through a traditional typical shaman."(18)
(italics belong to this author) As Dr. Hahm was looking a
Shamanism overall, Dr. Kim will be looking a shamanism
through -the..eyes of just one of it practioners.
Dr. Kim Tae-Gon's report breaks shaman Mun's world view
down into a divine view a human view, a other worldly view, a
cosic view and a religious view. What follows is an attempt
to summerize what was recorded. (For complete detail read
"Shamanism in the Seoul Area" Korea Journal 1978, pp 45-47)
Divine View
The divine view held by shaman Mun was as follows: (The
god mentioned is the shamanistic god that shamans believe
in.)
1. Gods shape is the same as humans but god is invisible
to human eyes.
2. Only shamans can see god.
3. God is almighty and can do anything he wishes.
4. The function of god is to feed human beings and to
protect children so they grow up in good health.
5. Since god is an inexpressibly great and sacred being
man is always fearful.
6. There is a hierarchy of gods. (This point will be
returned to later.)
7. Each god has his own responsibilities.
8. God is not only transcendental but almighty as well.
Human View
1. Samsin, (the god that usually stays at the end of the
inner house), created man by borrowing flesh from the
mother and bone from the father.
2. The child cannot maintain good health unless Samsin
takes care of it.
3. After age seven, Chilsong gods have to extend one's
life span.
4H, A person's death could be interpreted to mean that
Since one's assigned life span had expired, the king of
Hell, Yama, has sent his messenger to take hin
underground.
Other World
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1. When a man dies he goe: to another world, although the
dead body is buried under the ground.
2aernes world «s ‘called. [sung and the other world which is
kindof a utopia is called Chosunge.
3. After death a man goes to the next world where he meets
Yama for the final judgement of the deeds he did while
here on earth.
He Phe other world is divided into two regions, one being
paradice (Kungnak) and the other being hell. Hell) is a
kind of dungeon under the earth, where a number a snakes
and serpents are moving in darkness.
5. The location of the other world is not clearly known.
6. In that world new life will start again and if someone
has lived a virtuous life he will resurrect as a human
being in the other world.
7. If a child dies before speaking it will be resurrected
in the other world because it never told a lie.
Cosmic View
1. The cosmos is divided into three worlds which each have
sun, moon and stars.
2. These three worlds are the celestial world, the world
of this earth and the world underneath this world.
Religious View
1. Believes in shamanistic gods.
2. Buddha is worthy and can be prayed to.
3. Christianity is to be hated because it is so different.
4. Since the shaman god has a hatred for Christians, a
Shaman will be punished by her god if she only talks to
them.(19) .
Again it must be pointed out that the above views were the
views of only one woman. They are included in this report
not because they present the exact view held by every shaman
and shamanistic person throughout Korea, but instead because
they merely give the reader some sort of general overall
frame of reference--a starting point.
Folk Beliefs
Sitamanssm 13 a religion of fear. it is the belief of the
people that the land, air an: sea are teeming with spirits.
Both the animate and the inanime’c« iiave spirits. These
spirits for the most part are out to disrupt man's existense.
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Only a very few of these spirits have man's best intentions
at heart. Myths, legends and stories abound up and down the
peninsula and have had (and still have) a great deal of
attention paid then.
Spencer J. Palmer has this to say about shamanistic
folklore.
Shamanistic rolklore was, based.on faith in
superhuman spirits who revealed their will to
human beings, often through the use of
mediums. Both happiness and disaster was
bestowed by the activity of these divine
spirits. Through them humans could exercise
wonderful power. Evil spirits could be cast
out and disease could be healed. Once a man
acquired this power he was said to be able 1)
to see all the past,- the present, and the
future, 2) to see a thousand miles distance,
3) to fly a hundred miles in a second and 4)
to call forth and rain and the clouds.(20)
Shamanism has been called the religion of the women and
children in Korea. At a latter point this idea will be
returned to but it is mentioned here to bring out the
following idea. "Korean folk-tales frequently have to deal
with a situation where a gentleman is ill, but will have
nothing to do with the spirits. His wife, however, holds the
opposite opinion, and, unknown to her lord, smuggles ina
"mudang", or "pansu", to exercise the deamon of disease."(21)
As a general rule things that are not understandable are
feared and or worshiped in Korea. .. more feared than
worshiped. The idea that ghosts were at work in many
instances when no other reason could be found was not
unfamiliar. In the book Modern Transformation of Korea Yi
Kyu-Tae writes of this very idea.
The ancient, animistic folk religion of Korea
so thoroughly permeated the minds of Koreans
until recently that ghostly action could be
blamed for almost any untoward with a high
probability that such an explanation would be
believed . . . illegitimate children were
often blamed by their unmarried or widowed
mothers on 'rape' by a ghost.(22)
Before leaving this section -n folk beliefs and going on
to the closely related section of the kinds of gods that are
worshiped two, folk ideas of many which abound in Korea even
today should be mentioned. Palmer sites a few of these of
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which one will mentioned. The second folk idea came to this
author by means of discussion with a young Korean woman.
a. One never enters a house by going straight
in from the gate to the door. Inside the gate
is atscreenewith a picture of a tiger or a
dragon to frighten the spirits. One goes
around the screen and sometimes around two or
three of them before he arrives before the
house door, walls within walls.(23)
b. When a person died his clothes were put
upon the roof or stuck into the eves of the
home along with a bowl of rice. This was so
the departing spirit would be well fed and
clothed for the trip into the next world. The
birds in fact came and ate the rice but when
the bowl was empty the family was satisfied
that the spirit had been pleased.
Folk beliefs with regard to the shaman will not be
examined here but will be considered instead in the section
that pertains to the shaman.
Kinds of Gods Worshiped
It has been said the deamons, spirits, gods, imps and
sprites touch the Korean at every point in his life from
birth to death. Korean antropologist Kim Tae-Gon has
classified the types of gods that infest the Korean world in
two ways: natural gods and human gods. Natural gods seem to
come out of nature worship and human gods come out of the
ideas of ancestor and hero worship. This antropologist puts
the number of Korean gods at 273 and he breaks them down as
follows:
1. Natural gods
(1) Heavenly gods
a. Heaven god
b. Sun god
ec. Moon god
d. Star god
(2) Earth gods
(3) Mountain gods
(4) Road gods
(5) Water gods
a. Water gods
b. Dragon gods
(6) Fire gods
(7) .Wind gods
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Tree gods
Stone gods
Direction gods
Gate gods
Warrior gods
Demons
Hades gods
Disease gods
Animal gods
Agricultural gods
Birth gods
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2. Buman gods
(1) Royal gods
a. King god
b. Queen goddess
c. Princess goddesses
(2) Commander gods
a. General god
b. General's wife goddess, other goddesses
) Lord gods
) Madam goddesses, Bride goddesses
) Shaman ancestor gods
)
)
)
)
Buddhist gods
Taoist gods
Miscellaneous gods
Others (24)
Kim Tae-Gon goes on to say that punishment is the means by
which these gods get the attention of man. "Rather than
providing man with guidance through rational revelation,
these gods convey their wish to man by subjecting him to
painful punishment. Therefore there is also the feeling of
is fear between man and the gods because of the punishment even
ge though they are good hearted diety (sic)." (25)
BS It might prove interesting to look at some of the Korean
a+ gods by name and "occupation". Below then is a listing that
= has been compiled from the various sources refered to in the
bibliography. This could be thought of as a glossary of the
se Korean gods, but it must be remembered it is far from
complete. The gods are organized in more or less a
hierachical frame of reference.
1. Taegam, also known as T'tojutaegam( Ty tH ys
He is the protector and overseer of the home,
particularly of the building ground. He is the most
important god of traditional homes. His special
attributes are to bestow wealth and prosperity on the
hnone.- "He is closely dnde~. {fied as the god of the
housewife. He occupies t... foundation of the home.
2. Chesok( Ane )
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He 18 the highest cod of heaven. He has been
domesticated by the mudang cult to be one of the highest
gods of the hone. Especially he is known as the god of
fertility and longevity and protector of decendants. He
is closely identified as the god of the children.
3. Songjo, also known as Songiu( “44 )
He has become one of the highest gods of the
traditional home. He is chiefly identified with the house
master who occupies the highest place in the hone.
H. 0 Rang Chane«Koon( 2° +z )
These are the five-point generals. The names of these
five are as follows:
a. Chung Chei Chang Koon, the green general of the
eastern sky
b. Chuk Chei Chang Kook, the red general of the
southern sky
ec. Paik Chei Chang Koon, the white general of the
western sky
d. Heuk Che ha ook, the black general of the
northern sky
é. ang Chej C ook, the yellow general of the sky
zenith
5. Samsin( SY )
The god of- the inner house in charge of fertility.
6; Chilsons(= 4% ~* )
The seven star.god. He is the god in charge of
extending one's life span.
7. Yama(%>b, “See )
The king of hell by whom everyone will be judged.
8. Sansin( tY¥ )
imeae are the mougvash gods;* This spirit is.lord of
everything on or within the mountains, its trees and
minerals, its birds and its animals. He is often pictured
as a Old man seated upon a tiger.
9. Sunghwangdang( 2% S )
These are the gods of the mountain passes.
10. Chunsin( *% )
These are the gods over the villages located ina
plain.
11. Dragon Spirits( £% )
He is 20erd of all oceans, rivers, lakes; and’wells. He
is supposed to reside more particstarly in certain
bottomless lakes or ponds. aithough he is lord of the
waters, he can soar up ir . the heavens.
12. Tokeibi( Lm v/ )
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These are spirits who take delight in tormenting
people. They cause the iron kettle cover-which is larger
than the kettles to fall down inside, They misplace
articles so that they must be hunted for, and make general
nuisances of themselves.
=
13. Deunsin( =t% )
These are floating spirits or tramps. These are
unattached, unclean spirits of various sorts, people who
have died violent deaths etc.
14. Sonkaksi( ¢ %«, )
One of the most malignant spirits. He is the spirit of
a young girl who died just, before her marriage.
15. Kwisin or Kweesin( Fe )
These are the spirits of disease and disaster.
(The two main sources from which this partial listing was
drawn were: "Shamanistic Thought and Traditional Korean
Homes" by Lee Jung-Young, and Religions of Old Korea by C.
A. Clark.)
One god that is neither mentioned by Kim Tae-Gon in his
breakdown of the 273 gods nor in the partial listing above
was the god Hananim. Translated this would mean the one
"Great One", "Koreans universally say that Hananim sends the
harvest, that he sends the rain, that by his grace we live
and breathe". (26)
In times of mortal danger, almost the first
cry of the Korean is to Hananin. Hananim
seems to dominate their lives, since his name
ne CONTI nually on their lips, but curious to
note, they never seem to really worship hin,
unless we except the rain ceremonies. They
say he sends the harvest, yet in the fall they
offer their sacrifices not to him, but to the
gods of the Hatis, or to the house gods, or to
the ancestral tablets. He seems to be
everything to them, and then again he seems to
be nothing, judging from the way in which they
disregard him when all goes well.( 27)
Hurbert wrote in 1906 the following regarding Hananim:
The Koreans all consider this being to be the
Supreme ruler of all tl. aniverse. He is
entirely separated from and outside the
eireLles of various spirits and deamons that
Pipers
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infest all nature. - The Korean never
attempted to make any pi:'sical representation
of Hananin. He has never been worshiped by
the use of idolatrous rites. ° “ As a rule
the people do not worship Hananin. He is
appealed to by the Emperor only.(28)
Many scholars believe that the Korean's understanding
behind Hananim has been one of the vital factors in
eye
Christianity"s ripid ‘rowth in Korea. This will be discussed
aweyx «
Dr. Jun Ho-din in his unpublished paper "Shamanism in
Korea and Its Influences on the Korean Church" wraps up this
section very succinctly and bridges the gap between this
section which has attempted to describe Korean shamanism and
the next section that will look at the practitioners of
Korean shamanisn.
- e« »« Korean shamanism has many gods,
consequently the customs, the way of living
and the way of thinking of Koreans are deeply
associated with these gods. So many gods and
spirits made the people feel the necessity of
a mediator between gods and man, Koreans
believe that man's birth and death, rise and
fall, happiness and disaster and disease
affecting him all depend on the will of gods.
This viewpoint of gods necessarily demand for
the mediating roles of (the) shaman.( 29)
The Practitioners
The shaman is the religious specialist within shamanisn.
They could not be viewed as either the priest or doctor but
they could possibly be viewed as "a priest and doctor in
embryo",
The priest beseeches favor of gods (or
spirits), the shaman believes himself able to
command spirits, and is not seldom spirit
embodied. The functions of a shaman are
summed up in the securing of good for those
who retain his services and averting of evil
from them.jorThis, Gneludec tne: airection of
ceremonials, arrangement of dances and feasts,
Healing Of the siek, guarding from sorcery,
securing rainfall and ‘ivining.(30)
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The ecstatic experience and specifically the trance seem
to be key elements of distinguishing a Shaman. ara
Through his advancement in the use of techniques of Soe enes;
the shaman is able to help others in dealing with the spirit
world. The shaman is able to control the time and manner of
his ecstatic experience so that it performs a religious and
social function."(31)
It seems that the term for the religious specialist in
Korean shamanism varies from place to place. Halla Pai Huhm
in her book entitled Kut: Korean Shamanjst Ritualssays
In northern Korea, a female shaman is called mansjin and
the male shaman is called mugyok or paksu. In Hamgyong
provinces, a female shaman is refered to as osimi and a
mugyok as t'osaebi. In the southern region of Korea the
name used shaman is talgollae, and on Cheju island it is
Simbang. In the eastern seaboard region, shamans are
simply called mudang. (32)
Throughout the remainer of this paper the term mudang or
sometimes the spelling mootang will be used for the Korean
shaman, unless otherwise indicated.
According to recent statistics what has been historically
true in Korean shamanism, that there are more women as
practitioners than men, continues to be true today. Of the
100,000 mudangs some 85% of them are women.(33) Because of
this fact the pronouns she and her will be used when refering
to the mudang. The 15% of men involved in shamanism are
labeled paksoos who do the same work as the mudang or as
pansus who are blind diviners.
The shaman can be classified by function in four separate
ways.
ie e of exorcism co ial hose who
only exorcise, These shamans are devoid of
magical power and at only in an offical
capacity at exorcisms.
2. Type of divination comprising those who can
only divine, These shamans having magical
power, communicate with the spirit world but
cannot officate at exorcism because they lack
the. function cof \an officiant. Corresponding
to pure fortune tellers they are widely
distributed throughout the country.
3. Type of exorcism and divination comprising
those who can both exorcise and divine, These
Shamans can display at will both magical power
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Ss s These chanters are sub-divided
according to the degree of magical power they
display.(34)
The amount of magical power and therefore the shaman's
ability to "reach" the spirit world and communicate her
desires or the desires of her clients could be seen as a
Simplier breakdown of the shaman's actions by function.
"Seen along this line, Korean shamans can be divided into
charismatic shamans who are engaged mainly in displaying
magical power and prietly shamans who, having not a bit of
Magical power, are engaged mainly in performing the function
of an officiant."(35)
It is because of this emphasis on magical power in Korean
shamanism that the Korean shaman differs from other shamans
around the world. As has been mentioned earlier one of the
key elements of shamanism is the ecstatic experience. LG is
the possession of the spirits which gives the shaman power
and it is that possession which is chiefly sought on the
peninsula.
Legends are many with regard to the shaman. One common
legend about the origin of the shaman says that a holy
mother, who was married to a nobel man, had eight daughters.
The mother instructed these daughters in the various skills
and techniques pertaining to shamanism. Later these girls
spread throughout the country. (36)
These legends about shamanism have been classified in the
following manner by Lee J. Y. who is a Korean anthropologist.
1. The ancestors of mudang are not
selfordained priests. Mudang are heavenly
ordained.
2. The second characteristic is the kingly
origin of mudangs.
3. The third characteristic is their close
association with mountains.
4. They had passed through tragedy or at least
related with unfortunate events.
5. The predominace of women.(37)
The mudang in Korea is generally held in low esteem by the
people. She has many strikes against her to begin with, two
of which are that (1) she is generally a women and (2) she is
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generally uneducated. In Youngsook Kim Harvey's book "Six
Korean Women" she points out several of the folk beliefs
regarding shamans.
1. Koreans believe that spirits in search of
human being to possess and use as mediums tend
to gravitate toward those individuals whose
maumn ("heart" or "soul") has already been
"fractured" and made vurnerable by some
psychological distress.
2. Koreans also believe that all potential
shamans experience sinbyong ("possession
sickness") of varying duration, during which
time they may behave in ways that can cause
them to be mislabeled as insane.
3. Koreans believe that recruits can become
permanently crazy if shamans officiating at
their naerjim-kut ("initiation rite for
shamans") fail to guide properly the entry
into and possession of their bodies by their
possessing spirits.
4. If suecessfully initiated, Koreans believe
that their conjugal and familial relationships
will inevitably disintegrate. (38)
5. Koreans regard recruitment into the shaman
role as an unfortunate (or even the most
unfortunate) act of predestination over which
human beings have no control. They point as
evidence of predestination by super natural
ordination to the afflictions that befall
potential shaman-recruits and that defy
natural explanations or convential remedies.
6. Koreans believe that the victim can be
relieved of their afflictions only if the
assume the shaman role.(39)
The shaman is generally viewed in society as someone takes
advantage of the poor and weak. "This negative view,
however, does not prevent people from seeking the services of
shamans but perhaps only fosters an ambivalence towards them
as a social category."(40)
How does, one become a shaman? Shamanism in general holds
that one can become a practitioner.in one of three ways: C1)
"by spontaneous vocation, (the call or election); (2) by
hereditary transmission of the shamanic; and (3) by personal
request, or more rarely, by the will of the clan. (41)
C.A. Clark points out that "The Koreans all firmly believe
that when a mootang dies, her spirit lays hold upon some one
and that person has no volition in the matter. Pie ws pa wats
force her to serve them.(42) This lack of choice has
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previously been mention as has the "force" used by the
Sipser asi.
Simbyong then is the leverage used by the spirits.
Simbyong is illness either mental or physical caused by the
SpLriies < Simbyong will last as long as necessary, folk
beliefs would indicate, to conuince the victim of the need to
accept the shaman role, or it is terminated when the
resistinenvictinfdiéesivs Si Simbyong can -last.twenty years or
longer, its symptoms (flaring up intermittently) .(43)
Simbyong from start to finish might look something like
Ena ss
(1) Origin - This experience originates more
often from gradual ailment without a
particular cause than from suggestions ina
dream or external impact.
(2) Dietary habits - They cannot eat rice and
incline to an unbalanced diet, drinking water
cup after cup and shunning fish and meat,
thereby showing symptoms of indigestion.
(3) Physical conditions - They grow lean and
weak, feeling tingling pains in the limbs or
falling into convulitions, feeling pains in one
side of the head, the chest, or in one arn,
falling ill with bloody excrement, or feeling
heavy in the chest or on the shoulders,
(4) Mental conditions = They become insecure
and have more dreams, in which they see sacred
scenes of their contact with gods. Such
dreams become more frequent, and they grow
less and less conscious, so that they finally
become unable to distinguish dreams from
reality, seeing phantom of gods and hearing an
illusory sound even in waking hours. Growing
worse, they go insane and wander around.
(5) Process of symptoms - Although in some
cases they show signs of mental troubles from
the beginning, physical ailment comes first in
most cases and it develops into mental
disorder.
(6) Period of illness - Eight years on the
average. The longest period of 30 years was
reported. :
(7) Remedy - Medical treatment is impossible,
and they even believe that it will bring about
an adverse effect. Their mental illness, they
believe, can be cured completely only when
they become a shaman through a mediumist
exorcism. The ailment recurs when they quit
their function as a shaman.(44)
= faa
It is believed then that the cure for simbyong only comes
after a ceremony has been held to invite the spirit to take
possession of the troubled person.
The initiation rite which marks the transition
from the afflicted victim to the shaman is
Called naerim-kut, a rite in which the
possessing spirits are officially invited to
descent (naeri-da) and enter into the novice.
Thereafter, the relationship between the
Shaman and the possessing spirits is
explicitly transactional: the shaman provides
the spirits with access to human beings and
theirvaffairs andsasrincturn relieved) of: the
afflictions which had plagued her before
assuming the role and which can again plague
her and/or her family if she neglects her
role. When the shaman is not sufficiently
dutiful) tov the spirits; they retaliate; when
the spirits are insufficiently protective of
the shaman, she challenges their right to
possess her.( 45)
Following the naerim-kut the Korean woman enters into a
new phase of life. At this point the neophyte has been
called by the spirits to become their medium. She has
responded. It is at this point thateformal’ training’ begins.
There is a great deal that must be learned. Generally the
Shaman who lead the naerim-kut will become the teacher for
the neophyte.
In actuality the neophyte becomes an apprentice. During
this time she "learns relevant myths and rituals. He becomes
aquainted with sacred pharaphernalia. He tests and improves
his ability to enter trance at will, prognosticate and
cure. (46)
It should be noted that there is no set amount of time
that the "student" has to go through before she becomes of
full-fledged shaman. It varies according to their
involvement in shamanism before their naerim-kut.
Miss Mun, the shaman who was interviewed by Kim Tae-Gon,
gave a great deal of information about what kind of training
took place during her three-year apprenticeship. Just after
she was possessed she became a fortune-teller but she didn't
have any power to perform the kut.
Miss Mun had to assist her superior while she
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was performing her ritual, learn how to
prepare food for kut, and memorize the
shamanistic epic by hearing it. After
spending a month like this she put on shaman's
clothes and performed some simple ritual (sic)
under the supervision of her superior shaman,
When Miss Mun put on shamanistic clothes, she
felt obsessed with god and jumped, singing
Shaman songs. When she got her confidence in
performing kut. . . She set up herself as an
independent shaman. (47)
According to statistics the average age that a women
becomes a shaman is from 35 to 40. Some 65% of the near 40
thousand goverment registered shamans became shamans at this
time. The other 35% it was recorded became shamans between
the ages of 40 to 60.(48)
"The apprentice, having mastered the kut craft, builds and
alter, usually in one of the rooms of her home, installs an
image of the spirits, places the kut tools, and after offers
supplications and prayers morning and evening."(49) The
Shaman is now "in business" so to speak.
Practices and "Tools of the Trade"
At the turn of the century Horace Allen wrote a very
interesting discription of a Korean shamanistic ceremony
describing the ceremony graphically he writes of the "jolly
racket" made by the mudang:
As they dance, beat their tom-toms and drums
and utter their peculiar calls, a stanger can
hardly believe other than that that particular
house is giving a family "hop" and that some
one sts: "calling vof HY sim igoodt old: style,: so
naturally, too, as in make one feel like
joining inthe “swing your parters, éc., that
the calls seem to mean. This only illustrates
the contrariness of things oriental to the
occidental mind however, for there is no
merry-making in this house, There is music,
dancing and calling out; but instead of being
im imbmth i tiris tin. -sadness,e1t- is done by :a
paid, female exorcist who is trying by her
incantations to drive out the small-pox or
other evil spirits from the person of some
suffering member of the family. The family,
if poor, may have pawn their clothing to pay
for this treatment, and while they may get
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meet es
some pleasure from the music and dancing they
are much more concerned in the results they
hope to obtain.(50)
The general name for the Korean ceremony is called a kut.
There are different types of kuts and they are broadly
classified below:
1. Pison: These are performed in a very short
period of time and can be performed by
ordinary females other than shamans.
2. P'tudakkori: These are performed by either a
Shaman or a fortune-teller and require three
or four hours, the performer personally
playing musical instruments and chanting songs
in a recitation tone.
3. Greater kut: These are performed by shamans
with musicians playing a variety of
instruments while the shaman performs songs or
dances. A greater kut usually lasts from one
to several days.(51)
As a help to the non-Korean reader's understanding of the
far reaching scope of the kut on lives of those who believe,
the following list of kut rituals and their occasions has
been included. These are the major kut rituals from the
Seoul area. .
Hoju kut--performed when the spirits have appeared in a
Shaman-to-be;
Naerim kut--performed to consecrate the god which has
appeared;
Chinjok kut--performed annually by the shaman;
/Ch'onsinmaji kut--peformed annually for the peace, health,
and good luck of the requesting families;
Seasonal kut--for example, kkotmaji kut in spring, immaji
kut in summer, Sin'gokmaji kut in autumn, and sibaesari
Kut invewinter;
/Samsinmaji kut--performed for a childless family to pray
forthe birth of sacchild;
Songjubaji kut--performed when a house is built;
Ant'aek songjubaji kut--performed when the head of the
housenoid is 27,317,417 )1,01,and TT years old;
Hotchangp'uri kut--performed for a person suffering a long
illness against which all medication has been ineffective;
yPiudakkori kut--performed when a person is suddenly taken
by illness or bad luck has struck the family;
/ {ae nori kut--performed for a businessman's good luck;
Sanmaji kut--performed at a mountain for good luck in
general;
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Yonggungmaji kut--performed aboard a boat in a river;
Yongsin kut--performed at a shrine on a riverbank;
Chin chinogwi kut--performed within the thirteenth or
forty-ninth day of the death of a person;
Noggoji kut--performed in the field when a person has died
by drowning or has met an accidental death in the
mountains;
Mamabaesong kut--performed on the thirteenth day after
contraction of Smallpox;
Taedong kut--performed jointly by a greater neighborhood;
Todang kut--performed jointly by a neighborhood, ata
Shrine, when available;
vsonghwang kut--performed when there has been an illness
resulting from a disturbance of the earth, arousing the
g0d of the trees, god of water, god of stone, god of
Garth; 2odor tron, and the like;
Korj kut--performed for the good luck of a traveling
Salesman;
P'tungnong kut--perforned for a bumper harvest, accompanied
by farmer's music;
Taehonnye hoch'tam kut--performed on the third anniversary
of one's death by way of ending the mourning period;
Nara kut--performed by the state in the palace, praying to
3 state gods, that is, the heavenly god, the mountain god,
i and the dragon god, for the peace and prosperity of the
State and the people; and
Chedangmaji kut--performed at the state shrine for the
guardian god of the state.(52)
The setting of the ceremony and the various tools
impliment should be examined before the actual sequence of
the rite--the standard program--is looked at. "First,
ceremonial tables are dedicated to the god, along with a
variety of flowers and shaman tools, are set in place on the
wooden floor of the hall in which the kut is performed...
In accordance with the kut program, the shaman sings in front
of the table, and performs shaman dances and a variety of
other acts. Musicians, sitting close by, play accompanying
music."(53)
In the performance by the mudang, she may be accompanied
by any number of musical instruments. The most popular
instruments used in Korean shamanism are the drum (changgo),
the flute (p'iri), a kind of clarinet (taegum), the cymbals
(chegum) a gong and the fiddle (haegum). Other tools used by
the mudang might be:
1) Bells-At the end of a Y-frame hang seven
bells which have one meter of yellow satin
string. ‘The bells are chiefly used for
initiation.
2) Fan-the Big Dipper is painted on yellow
é 300 pert “2
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a
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be ia sthed ronan
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Korean paper which is 31 ecm in diameter,
2) Samji Ch'ang (three-branched spear)-105 cn
total length: 80cm of wooden stick and 24 cn
of three iron spear branches,
4) Unwolto-105 em total length: 44 ecm of sword
with 61 em of wooden handle.(54)
The description of the "standard" kut to follow appears in
full in the article "Shamanism in the Seoul Area", Because
of lack of space and keeping with the scope of this paper
this writer has sought to condense the material.
1. Pujone Kori: involves. the. shamanistic act
of chasing out the devil.
2. Kamang Kori: involves the shamanistic act
of responding to god.
3. Malmyong Kori: involves the act for
blessing the souls of ancestors.
4. Sangsan Kori: the act for the god of the
high mountain.
5. t:uolsang tors: the,act.for.the god.of small
pos.
6. Taegam Kori: the act for the high ranking
officals.
Oa Pulsa.Chesok fori: .the.act for the Buddhist
chesok deity. .
8. Hogu Kori: the act for food.
9... 50nfZ 10 Korisc the.act.for the god of
residence,
LO. shOnuUne kort. tne act for military heros.
Tihs, Chtangbu Kori: the.act.for.actor.
12. Twitchon Kori: the last act.(55)
During these rites the mudang actually believes herself to
become identified with the spirits. "To this end, the shaman
dons the costume of a spirit, thereby assuming its
identity."(56) Therefore it is not uncommon for the shaman
to change some part of her outer garment between each kori.
"The musical activities, however, are the main events in the
Shamanistic exorcism.(57) A large part of the music consists
of the mu-ka, the shaman songs.
How much preparation goes into the production of one of
these kuts?
A major kut involves several days of
preparation, .the ritual ,itself,.lasting from
Evenc FO sien enous. The shaman endures
intense emotional and physical stresses, is
ae shigne
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able to memorize and recite long chants,
performs dancing, singing, and even feats of
trickery and acrobatics. All the while she
must maintain a rapport with the audience in
order to facilitate their healing catharsis.
iniiorder to méet:.all ‘of these) requirements,
the shaman must maintain a condition which is
at once ecstatic and disciplined.(58)
Cne item that should not be overlooked is the mugun.
Mugum has been called "the dance in shaman's clothing". This
is the time when the "customers" get a chance to dance. The
wine has been passed and everyone is ready to dance, The
various stages of this mugum could be looked at like this.
The dance may last from 5-10 minutes.
line The ‘sponser .of “the kut, the dady of the
house (kiju) is urged to dance.
2. The mansin selects the appropriate costume
fom elLhe thady of the:yhouse . « .\0 ‘and dresises
the women while the musician begins to tap the
drun.
3. Once dressed, the lady of the house draws
out some money and sets it either on the
offering tables or on the drun.
4. She bows low to the floor.
5. The drummer begins a slow four-beat pattern
and the woman begins to dance,
6. The drum beats pick up speed and the
woman's dance does also.
7. When the woman reaches the end of her
strength she collapses to the floor in another
head-to-the-floor bow.
8. A mansin removes the costume and shakes it
over the woman's head asking the possessing
spirit to provide good fortune.(59)
Why do the Korean women participate in the mugum?
According to the shaman's thinking this is a time, when the
spirit is entertained and is given a chance to "play". This
way the spirit will work for one's benefit rather than one's
detriment. Even more important than that: ". . .. the mugun
is considered a key element in the "healing" worked by kut.
As a step in the process of the mansin's cure the mugum is
the point at which the beneficiary is brought into most
direct contact with the forces mustered on her or his
behalf."(60)
Before Leaving this diseussion of the kuts and some of the
assorted elements which can make them up it should be said
that although their is a great deal of tradition in the kut
Ses
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and in the way "things are done" their can be seen a gradual
eransivion in ali areas of the kut, in music, dances and
song. (61)
One other practice within the world of the shamanistic man
is the use of fetiches,. "The belief in many spirits leads
people to attempt to localise them by means of some physical
emblen. they Go NOt think (Unau tne fetich is the spirit
itself, but that it fastens upon the fetich and can always be
found when necessity demands."(62)
That thought was written long ago but it remains true even
today. Pujok(talisman) are still used. It should be pointed
out again that within Korean shamanism the god is not revered
fer tie poa*s sake but instead “the purpose of the ritual is
~Haemeatoa make “offering »to him)(theigod) and gain his favor so
that the devotee's wishes may be granted.(63)
A good example of where fetishes might be found and used
would be in the home. Most of the Korean household spirits
mentioned earlier have different fetishes associated with
them. Some of these are pieces of paper with red Chinese
eharacters painted eon them, an old hat, a fish head, ora
straw oaddali «
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Fart. If SHAMANISM: ITS RELATIONSHIP AND ROLE IN
SOCIETY
Shamanism's Relationship with Society
Shamanism has had a long-standing relationship with the
Korean society. The relationship with the society has been
strongly resisted by the government, strongly influenced by
other religions and strongly tied to the home.
In 1917 it was predicted that shamanism was on the way out
and that it would "disappear with this generation". And yet
Shamanism remains as a firmly entrenched way of life.
Statistics can be interesting tools. They can be
manipulated to report almost anything. thts writer has
collated some general statistics from this decade and the two
previous decades. The findings are interesting even if they
are from three different sources. They do seem to present a
trend--that shamanism is still strongly "dug-in" in Korea.
In 1963 these were the figures that were being tabulated
by the ministry of Health and Social Affairs. The number of
Shamans in business with licences was 21,345. Included in
this tabulation were witches, fortune-tellers, phrenologists,
palm-readers, physiognomists and sutra-chanters. Again it
should be stressed that these were licenced practitioners,
These figures estimated the total number of people involved
with "the superstitious businesses" were about 8 million
people based on the assumption that each religious specialist
met on average of one person per day.(64) It should be noted
that no attempt is made to suggest that there might be other
practicing shamans who were not licenced.
In 1973 data published by the Kyung-Shin Hoe, an
organization comprised of mudangs and fortune-tellers claimed
a total membership of 48,980 but estimated that there were
actually 208,424 practitioners around the country. It was
Suggested that a mudang might service 100 to 200 households
or regular clients. No attempt was made at arriving at any
estimate of the total number of believers.(65)
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A report published by The Korean Religious Institute in
June of 1981 indicated that the total number of shamans with
government approved licences was 39,124. Those without
licences were estimated in be in the neighborhood of 60,000
which would put the total number of Shamans around the
100,000 mark. These figures indicated that the total number
of believers across the country was 2,195,370. Taking those
figures given then, the number of believers divided by the
number of mudang we come up with the average number of people
serviced by each individual mudang. With regard to these
Statistics the average number of clients the mudang serves in
56 persons.(66) That number seems very low to this writer.
Comparing these figures is like trying to compare apples
with oranges. It is impossible. It would seem logical that
we need to have some common denominator to get a real picture
and even then it won't be a real picture but just a far-
fetched estimate. Using the idea that each shaman is visited
by one client per day per year we arrive at the following set
of figures for the years in question. (It must be held in
mind that the 197.3 figures will be.a.little higher because
the number of shamans supplied comes from the shaman
association itself.)
Shamans Estimated Believers
1963 2ylag 3D t5190;925
1973 48,980 hier s 1.00
1981 39,124 14,280,260
What shall be done with these figures? Nothing of .any
great lasting valve. It would seem that some place within
the government recording system some standardized figures
would exist. These figures would not be totally accurate,
but they would be more informational than the little
"SCrapings" that this writer has been able to come up with.
If one thought that the Korean government's feelings
toward shamanism were ambivalence and antagonism, one would
not be far from the truth. A Handbook of Korea for 1978 has
very little to say about shamanism. Shamanism is described
and the concluding thought is this. Te 1) « Sneamanism stilt
persists in obscure nooks of Korea today."(67)
Traditionally the government has been opposed to
Shamanism, this was especially seen during the Yi Dynasty.
The pervasiveness of shamanism in Korean life
and history is nowhere more dramatically
evident than in the nationwide and systematic
persecution launched by the neo-Confucianist
government of the Yi Dynasty throughout its
LONE. PER 2 Ns It periodically barred shamans
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from the ‘capitor and, “In’1413; confiscated
books from shamans and burned then. In
addition shamans were designated Ch'onmin
("outcasts") by government decree.(68)
Today as mentioned earlier the Korean government is trying
to help the people see a distinction between shamanism as an
unscientific system of superstititions and the shamanism that
B2storzacally holds a’ lerge portion of Korean history.
Koreans are being taught to reject the former and accept the
latter with these "teachings" going on the government is even
going further.
The present Korean government has mounted a
renewed campaign to eradicate shamanism from
Korea. Police raids on shamanistic ceremonies
are a common place occurrence, and a primary
objective of the government-sponsored Saemaul-
undong ("New Village Movement") is to
eliminate traditional religious practices
which are shamanistic in nature. Government
newsreels deSinated to disseminate information
on public health single out the shaman as a
target of ridicule and attack.(69)
The government's feeling of antagonism toward shamanism
can be understood if the highly negative views expressed by
Kim Jong-il are studied and believed. Ina listing entitled
"The Social Influences of Shamanism" Kim Jong-il reports that
Shamanism has indeed had some sour effects upon the Korean
world.
1. Shamanism strongly emphasizes the belief in
demons. People are therefore afraid of
spirits.
2. Shamanism tries to make people insecure,
therefore the people are weakened.
3. The people become dependent upon spirits in
Shamanisn.
4. Shamanism disturbs the people and hinders
them from understanding God in the right way.
5. Shamanism tries to make people give up
easily and be lazy.
6. Shamanism promotes a defeatest attitude
among the people.
7 Maggio, “faith “and luck“ are stressed.
Instead of hard work the people depend on
Spirits:
do. There *is “a lack “of tradition.
ssatosgasis ‘ BOLbBRG
tions ' (9 bed anaes :
¢ 1.6 oe8 Gaur
des he
te enon by id! AO,
) ngewila? Hod fon tgerd
>i | SEI oa
{ newwo8 Yoomd ee hig
ae
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be tsue res cemnn yl
jt at (*ineaevoN eas
943g Byokat oy dened
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etatinesetb he
-29-
9.° There’ ista.laek of morals.
10. Shamanism takes away people's hope in the
LUGtU res
11. Shamanism destroys society and cultural
development.
ic. DHere is) a@ lack of matdonalisn.
13. Shamanism makes people fear social crisis
and therefore people become tied financially
to shamans.
tus be Gestroys the traditional family life.
15. Shamanism places an emphasis upon the
individual and therefore concepts such as
righteousness, love and mercy are absent.(70)
Has shamanism actually had such a negative impact upon the
Korean society? It would seem so, As the above statements
have made plain, shamanism has really had an effect upon the
thinking of the Koreans. Some other thoughts in regard to
the social topics of marriage, sex-roles, kinship, ethics,
and truth follow:
16. In Korean shamanism marriage is not just
the union of two individuals but of two
families. The most significant aspect of
marriage is to create a new life.
17. Korean shamanism considers sex-roles to
have been biologically defined and ordained.
18. To the shamanistic man, a man without a
family is a most wretched human. Kinship
gives meaning to life, protects one fron
loneliness, and is the best assurance of one's
humanity.
19. In Korean shamanist thinking, that
behavior which is most "human" is judged to be
good, and that behavior which is inhuman is
considered evil.
20. In Korean shamanistic thinking, truth is
never absolute. It is relative and must be
qualified by the particular equities of any
given situation.(71)
Four other ideas that are expressed of how shamanism has
been influential in developing the Korean society are:
21. Shamanism tends to be a religion of self-
interest therefore it stimulates selfishness.
Its concerns are to realize the desires of the
individual, the groups and the family.
22 sonamanusmeehnas wi thiisni Gt. no attitude .of
——
7
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erg atte
=30=
self-denial. leas moncerned: with: isatisfying
desires, not denying then.
ag ji vwohanand sm lacks! the spirit of
independence. Man doesn't have to take
responsibility for failure: nor’ can he take
responsibility, for siwecess.
24. Shamanism makes the society too
conservative.(72)
All three of the sources that the above twenty-four
comments came from were written by Christian authors. Thas
may indicate why the ideas are covered with a shade of
negativisn.
Shamanism's stance toward other religions has mainly been
one of syncretism--blending in with foreign religions--to
form a new religion that may have within it doctrines which
contradict. This has never seemed to bother the Korean
shamanistic believer.
Looking at the various religions as a whole one shaman
said that they consider it presumptuous to equalize shamanisn
with Confucianism, and they would like to elevate shamanism
to the level of other legitimate religions such as Buddhisn,
Taoism, and Christianity and they resent the social stigma
attached to shamans and their practices. Shamanism, she
contends, is the only true native Korean religion. . .(73)
This comment indicates the interwoven quality between
Shamanism and Confucianism. According to this shaman the
man's religion, Confucianism rules the roost. She only hopes
that shamanism, the women's religion will be given its
Figwerul place: ifs the: “heady ofs the! house".
Confucianism which ruled in Korea for about 500 years in
the recent past has formed the Korean's thoughts and
concepts. In Korea "the family-centered ideas, the view of
values in social life, and the manners of our wedding (sic)
and funerals are all Confucian."(74)
Shamanism and Confucianism have lived and worked side by
side for so long that the main religion in Korea has almost
become a hyphenated religion, Shamanistic-Confucianisn. The
ideas of which religion holds to what are mixed up in the
people's minds. An example of this is the memorial service
for the dead. "it is) their understanding and conception that
the memorial service for their ancestors is more than simple
worship of ancestors, that there is also the shamanistic
conception about the souls of the dead."(75)
If one looks more closely at what takes place in the home
and at the burial grounds when someone dies one can see much
more of this Shamanistic-Confucianism at work. The ceremony
for a person; who has just died’ is called the "invitation of
we, @
«baad 2.
Ho
can 4
a |
-31-
the sour", If the deceased iS a man, the invitation is made
to the spirit of the deceased by the man's oldest son,
Basically at -isS an invitation for” the soul to leave the area.
At the burial arounds, which have been chosen by the shaman
ai ver Gonsolting the Stars, another ceremony is held. At the
burial ground a meal is served the spirits of the ancestors
as well as to those family members who are alive and present.
Following the burial the whole family puts on white, white
being the color of mourning. Mourning the loss of a member
of the family may last several months, even years.
The ideas which go into making up Confucianism are these:
1. It is primarily interested in present-
centered realisn.
2. °itetis® selfishty Fanily centered:
3% There is-aviloess of subjectivity.
4. Conservative authority and tradition are
key.
5. The government is put above the people.
When these characteristic are meshed with the
characteristics of shamanism discussed earlier the
characteristics of the new hyphenated religion Shamanistic-=
Confucianism appear as: "1) dependency on others with
subjectivity lost, 2) stagnant conservatism, 3) selfish
realism, 4) factionalism, 5)bureaucracy of putting the
government above the people, and 6) pleasure-loving
amusement."(76)
In the opening paragraph to this section the idea was
expressed that shamanism has been traditionally tied to the
home. It has been said that shamanism is in fact the
religion of the home. Dr. Lee Jung-Young in his excellent
article entitled "Shamanistic Thought and Traditional Korean
Homes" makes some very significant statements about the
strong ties shamanism has with the traditional homes.
Several of these statements are:
1. The traditional Korean homes have not only
preserved a Shamanistic tradition but served
as shaman sanctuaries.
2. Since the homes are the domain of the
women, it is also the religion of women.
3. In the home the women are responsible for
Various Shamanistae rituals . . . The oldest
women in the home will be the "chief priest"
of the home during the ritual even though
professional Shamanesses are invited to
perform various rites. She is the symbolic
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have in society was
the Confucian ethic,
representative for the whole family.
4, Shamanism has been able to penetrate into
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through women and children at home.
5. Taegum is the most important god of
traditional homes. He is often known as the
god of wealth and blessing.
6. The shamanistic deities are ancestral gods
who bring the home and shamanism together.
i. the house is not only a sacred place but a
temple of shamanistic deities.
8. In most cases, there is no special room and
an altar is temporarily created for this
particular purpose. When the particular
ritual is over, the altar is removed and the
place is again used for ordinary purposes.
9. The homes reflect the iss mundi, where
both the sacred and the secular come together.
10. The combination of shamanism and
Confucianism and their religious practices are
understood as a strength rather than a
weakness of family life.(77)
In years past and even today the home has played
role in the continuation of shamanism.
were published in 1981 listed that there were 172 temples in
It is evident from that small number that
many homes actually do become places of worship.
Shamanism's Role in Society
Thinking specifically of the women who occupy the
religious specialist position they have very real
opportunities open to them that other women do not have.
Inspite of the fact that they are looked down upon in the
society they still have these opportunities.
that they gain superiority over their husbands.
Since the possessing spirits are often the
ancestral ghosts of the shaman's husband and
a big
The statistics that
One of these
eae
have existed here in Korea for as long as
it has it must have filled some need, provided some service.
Shown that one of the roles that it did
that of granting to women some status.
Whereas women were relegated to more of a servant role under
Shamanism provided for them a culturally
acceptable, face-saving escape. AS was already mentioned,
when the kut was held at a women's home she became the
representative for the family for the entire ceremony.
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Since, for those who believe in their reality,
spirits in general ere superordinate to human
bBePngs* hers. In so much as only the shaman
has*direect access’ tocthe spirits) invany
disputes between the shaman and other family
members, the spirits are likely to be in
coalition with the shaman.(79)
Another of these opportunities is based upon the monetary
incentives of being a shaman. "Today, with such social
constraints much more relaxed democratization of education,
industrialization, and urbanization, shamans can, by careful
strategy, use their economic resources to liberate their
children from social humiliation to some degree and motivate
them towards socially more acceptable life styles."( 80)
These aspects related to women, generally coming under the
caption of providing a niche in society for women may well be
why shamanism has had the staying power that it has had.
Although it is generally accepted that creeds and general
written formulas are missing in shamanism, culturally defined
answers to the mysteries of life have been provided down
through the years through oral tradition and the practice of
the kut. This could be seen as a second function of
Shamanism. This has been already discussed under the section
of characteristics of shamanism.
Three other ideas will be explored in regard to
Shamanism's role in society. These functions are the healing
function, the fortune-telling function and the entertainment
function.
The Healing Function
Korea has been and still is an agricultural society.
There are a great many places throughout the country, hard as
it is*to believe, where hospitais;j-clinics, doctors or
pharmacies cannot be found. Smail islands off the west coast
and mountain villiages are examples of places such as this.
In these secluded places what are the people to do? When
illness strikes or accident befalis a family member it is to
the mudang that they turn, Some areas are so isolated that
even a mudang may not be present. In some of these places
sun-kuh-ri (sun is an amateur; kuh-ri means "ritual") can be
found.(81)
The healing function is an important function to be
fulfilled in the eyes of the Koreans. What follows is the
discription of a healing kut as related by a western
onlooker.
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ehveken, “or pig;-0Or dog, and a generous neal
of rice and other things with this meat is
prepared. An awning is spread overhead
covering the courtyard of the house, and thick
grain-drying mats are spread over the ground.
When the meal is ready, it is placed upon a
small table and set out in the courtyard on
the mats, and then the drums begin to sound,
the pipes to wail and the Mootang to dance.
She holds in her hands the sword or trident,
or sometimes only a fan, and she postures and
dances, calling out to the spirits from time
to time and inviting them to join the revelry.
Faster and faster she goes, Swirling like a
dervish, leaping high in the ‘air. Her eyes
flash wildly. Even the sound of her voice
changes. People shrink away from her in fear.
Sometimes, to help her, one of her assistants
will take a basket and scrape upon it, making
a sound like that which the boys make on the
rocks along the river bank when they try to
entice fresh-water crabs out from under big
stones. On and on she goes, calling and
calling to the-spirits to come and join her,
begging them to come, cajoling them with all
sorts of promises, explaining the wonderful
feast that has been prepared, reminding then
of their friendship to her, teasing, joking,
pleading. Sometimes she gets absolutely
exhausted and falls down almost in a faint
without getting any results. She lies still a
while, and then arises and begins again, or a
companion takes her place and they serve
alternately, calling and calling. .'. .
Usually, sooner or later, a change comes, and
she announces that the evil spirit has come
out of the sick person and is partaking of the
feast. Then she must use some device to
persuade the spirit to go away after eating,
and not to go back into the person who was
ill. She does this sometimes by cajolery and
perhaps more often with guile. Among her
properties will be a small horse sometimes,
made of woven straw. She will beg the spirit
to mount the horse at the end of the meal,
and, when he has done so, she will seize the
horse, run out the door and throw it up into a
tree or into a stream. The poor, simple-
minded evil spirit cannot find his way back to
the same house again, so the sick person gets
well.(82)
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There has of recently been quite a lot written about this
function of Korean shamanisn. Some views expressed about the
healing function are: 1) The shaman is merely a folk-quack--a
deceiver of the people, but this view gives no real
explanation for the healings that have taken place. 2) The
shaman is a folk-therapist who uses her various dances,
trances, songs and ceremonies as merely tools in her therapy.
3) The shaman is a healed-folk healer, who has once been
mentally, physically or emotionally ill and who now drops
back on past experience to heal others.
The first of these views is a generally held folk-belief
by many Westerners today and was common among early
missionaries in Korea. In many writings the people who went
to the mudang were (and still are) refered to as "the
uneducated lower classes", Everything was written off to
superstitution and deception.
The second of these views is one view that is argued for
today. An example of this type of argumentation appears in
the article "Caught Between Ancestors and Spirits" by Dr.
Poaunmet eendall... Aiter giving afield report on. one kut that
he viewea, he arrived at the following conclusions:
i. .es ."therapy™, the kut rallied family
concern around Mrs. Kim and justified effort
and expense undertaken on her part. in SHOnt.,
the kut reaffirmed Mrs. Kim's right to
existance and her importance to her family.
2. the Kut coutd not change reality; it could
previde a revitalized "United Front" in face
of that reality and inject a note of optimisn
about the future.
SeeLne “cure® does not significantly alter the
underlying circumstances of the afflicition
(which the author attributed to poverty
compounded by the loss of her children).
Rather, the patient is introduced to a set of
practices that provide a means of periodic and
revitalized orientation. (83)
An author who would go along with the third view of the
Shaman as a healed folk-healer would be Edward Canda. He
Simply puts the thought this way: "Having experienced deathly
illnesses and been cured by accepting the shamanic vocation,
a shaman learns the art of curing others."( 84)
In recent years with the advances of medical knowledge
that have taken place on the peninsula much of the healing
function of the shaman has been reduced. However, the
healing aspect of shamanism still serves a purpose in the
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mind or the believer. "i. « Lhe: Deltevers. in shananisn,
like shamans, realize that illness can be cured by modern
medicine. Indeed, they rely upon it. But the shaman logic
addresses an issue which is normally cast aside as concidence
Or bad,» auck by) science: "Why me?" in short, science and
shamanism ask two different questions."( 85)
The Fortune-telling Function
In various places in Seoul and around the country fortune-
tellers can be found. Sitting on the sidewalk with their
back against a wall. Their books and plam charts are arranged
around them in a semi-circle of divination. Does the pansu
have a role to fulfill in the society? It would seem that he
does.
As an example in 1963 when there was a great deal of
governmental uncertainity and unrest in the society the
number of mudangs and fortune-tellers rose from the year
before by 15% from 18,202 to 21,345. The future was
uncertain and answers sought. (86)
Pansus are blind fortune-tellers. The name is from the
two Chinese characters pan(to decide) and su(destiny).( 87)
What kind of questions are answered for the clients of the
pansu? Thirty reasons, {and it would seem that there would
be many others), were listed in the book The Passing of
Korea. Fifteen were chosen to show the wide range of reasons
one naghti go to a pansy; |) Forfind out:
1. Whether he will receive a reward for good
conduct.
2. What will happen during the day, month or
year.
3. What will happen at the point of death.
4, What was the condition in a former state of
existence.
5. Whether he carries in his body the seeds of
great misfortune.
6. How to find a lost article or person.
7. Whether a journey will be prosperous.
S.A What is the: conditdion of <a distant: friend
or relative.
9. Whether he will be wealthy.
10. In what direction should he move when he
changes residence.
11. Whether he can repair his house without
suffering calamity.
12. When a son will be born.
13. Whether a son or daughter will have a
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happy life.
14. Whether it will be safe to cut down a
certain tree.
15. Whether he may move a grave with
safety.( 88)
The Entertainment Function
The life of the Korean has been a hard one. These days
things are changing very fast what with emphasis on
modernization. The emaeu 10 ent has done a great deal
for the rural people in this area. the L.V. bas almost
become away of life for Koreans--something that runs almost
constently when people are home. Most of this has happened
within the middle to late 1970's and early 1980's.
Shamanism has provided entertainment by means of the
dances, songs, instrumental music and puppet plays for most
Koreans.
A hiking trip to a popular mountain spot will
treat you to more of the same, (the gusty
sound of Korean folk singing) with the added
element of dance. Korean picnickers,
especially older ones, often bring along such
traditional Korean percussion instruments as
the changgo, an hourglass-shaped drum, and the
kkwang-gwari a small ear shattering gong, to
use on their way back down the mountain when
the stop to eat, drink, and be merry--being
merry in Korea inevitably means singing and
dancing.(89)
From the above account, obviously by a Westerner, one can
see many visible tools of shamanisn. i, is this writer's
opinion after having viewed many such scenes as this that the
dance forms would be shamanistic as well.
One particular dance that should be mentioned is the
chwado-kut or the farmers dance. This is a fast paced dance
that invoives a great deal of acrobatic skill on the part of
the dancers. "Besides being a great form of entertainnent,
farmers' music and dance are still considered by many to be
efficacious shamanistic tools. They are performed to purify
the village well, protect houses from thieves and fire, pray
to the mountain spirit for his blessing, ensure a bumper crop
ete."(90)
EE would seem then that there is a great deal of
entertainment that goes on while various other more serious
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matters are being taken care of. Maybe in regard to the real
work of the shaman the entertainment function is only
secondary, but it seems that the people place a high value on
a ae
The functions that shamanism has played in society are:
1) providing women a higher status in society; 2) providing
answers to the difficult questions in life;. 3) providing
healing; 4) providing fortune-telling; and 5) providing
entertainment. Invariably there are others. But it is
evident for a large number of Koreans that these functions
are not sufficient "attractions" to shamanism to keep them
from turning to Christianity. One Christian author hints
that maybe when Christianity arrived that Korea was passing
through a period of religious change.
Because shamanism has played and still plays such a large
roles in Society—--"a leg “of “the stool"--it is only natural to
assume that shamanism has also affected Christianity. In the
next section Shamanism's relationship with Christianity will
be examined.
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Part fit Shamanism's Relationship with Christianity
In 1984 the Protestant Church in Korea will celebrate its
centenial. For one hundred years, (and even before that with
the introduction of Catholicism in the late 1700's),
shamanism has had ample opportunties to "rub shoulders" with
Christianity. What has been shamanism's relationship with
Christianity? What has happened during the contacts and
confrontations? What doctrines and worship practices of
shamanism have found there way into the church? And what
does the church today have to say about shamanism?
Before looking back to the early days of Prostestant
Christianity in Korea, for reference it would be helpful to
get some sort of picture of Christianity in Korea today and
its relationship with shamanisn.
According to "Christian talk*® in Korea those who are
claimed by the Christian church would represent some 20% of
the population. This "Christian talk" would also say that
one of every three persons in Seoul is a Christian. It
really is very nard to’ cone: up with reliable figures. Also,
one should be careful in viewing governmental statistics
because all Protestant sects such as the Mormon Church and
the Unification Church are also included under the
overarching umbrella labeled "Christianity."
In 1979 The Missions Advanced Reasearch Center (Marc)
published the following statistics in regard the the
relligious composition of Korea,
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Christianity is growing in Korea. No matter where one
gets ones statistics they show growth. Mare statistics for
1974 for instance indicate that Protestant Christianity held
7.5% of the people's religious adherance. Also from those
Same statistics shamanism (and traditional religions) held an
80-90% following.(92) It should be mentioned that in the
1979 statistice only Christianity was mentioned, not both
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Protestantism and Catholicisn. in the 1974 statistics. some
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a5 prowing at the direct expense of the traditional
religions.
Shamanism: A Preparer of the Soil
The title or this section almost makes one think of the
Roman Catholic idea that other religions are preparatio to
Chins tical sty: . it muse be sSscated at the’ outset that a@ person,
by becoming the very best shaman or shamanistic believer,
will never get himself or herself any closer to Christianity
or personal salvation available only through Jesus Christ.
This idea cannot be accepted but it should be recognized that
an animistic society like Korea will more readily accept
Christianity than would a Mohamamandan society.
Hoy snearer in his work entitled Wildfire: Chureh Growth
in Korea says this about shamanism's role in preparing the
Korean people for the gospel.
When Protestant Christianity came to Korea, it
found no strong, organized religious
opposition but found instead that Shamanisn,
or animisim, had actually prepared the nation
to receive Christianity . . . While Shamanism
25,n0L, an. Organizea religion, it is’ one of
Salvation through a higher being, a religion
which holds that a person has no power in
himself but needs help from a higher being. .
- For centuries Korea had been plowed by
Shamanistic efforts to communicate with higher
beings, and when the seeds of Christianity
were placed in this rich soil, they flourished
and produced the fruit of Christian
disciples.(93)
Before going on with this widely accepted premise that the
cause of Christianity was advanced in Korea because or the
pre-existing belief in and need of a higher being, one
thought should be interjected.
As has been said previously, shamanism controls the
thoughts and actions of a great many people simply by fear.
mm siren Clark*s book A History of the Church in Korea, the
aucher quotes one of the early missionaries, Dr. J. S. Gale
as follows:
One thing that attracted the Korean to the
Gospels was that, as he read them, he found
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himself on familiar ground, for there were
stories of demons here and he Knew all about
demons. But the attractive thing about these
demons was that they were on the run, and he
was interested in finding out about a religion
that would have the power to put the demons on
the run for him, also.(94)
Several authors have refered to the fact that in the early
days of Christianity's involvement on the penisula that the
whole society was undergoing a great deal of change. The
people were having their needs go unfulfilled. In
Christianity they saw something that seemed to be a powerful
replacement to the religion of fear that they had clung to
ror so Jong. "In the more friendly and equally vivid
supernatural world of the Christian, the animist found a
congenial substitute for his dissolving world of
spirits."(95)
Shearer speaks of this dissatisfaction as being a present
reality. The Koreans today seem glad to find a high God of
love to replace the gods of fear that they have known in the
past. "IT have seen enough in this study and have had enough
experience to realize that animism has a most important
relationship to church growth in Korea."(96)
Turning again to the concept of a higher being, J. Spencer
Palmer posits that this is one of the key ways that shamansim
prepared the soil for Christianity. "The Korean will give
Christianity his undivided allegience when he is told that
the "Great One' whom he has reveared for thousands of years
is none other than the God of the Bible."(97) Palmer says
that in Christianity the Korean found the "mirror image" of
their own true god, Hananim. Palmer concludes this way:
Hananim was a point of contact with Korean
culture the like of which missionaries in
China did not have. As a personal
transcendent God, clearly the supreme deity of
the Korean people, Hananim was uniquely suited
to prepare the Korean people for belief in the
Christian God. Because of this, Hananim was a
concept upon which the Christian missionaries
working in Korea could rather easily agree.
Hananim has been a wonderful deity for the
Christians of Korea, considerably facilitating
their work.(98)
In the book Korea Tomorrow, this discovery was shared to
give the reader some similarities between Christianity and
Shamanism. To be sure the differences are marked; the
Similaarities are still striking. The discourse was shared
| ore
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as follows:
In Shamanism it is believed that the heavens
are living spirits sometimes beneficient but
usually maleficient. Shamanism (Shinkyo)
signifies on God (Hananim), which embraces the
idea of the supreme mind. A strong view of
personal sin and punishment is held. The
basis of thew shamanists! ethic is: ‘Don't
fight with your neighbor's children; love your
neighbor; fighting is a sin.'(99)
To this writer the idea that a strong emphasis is placed
upon personal sin does not seem to fit in with the fatalism
of Korean shamanism. It could be that what this author is
expressing is the "personal sin" of breaking with the
expressed desires of the spirits. If this is done according
to the shamanistic ways of thinking, punishment will
certainly follow.
The above mentioned ethic which includes the phrase "love
your neighbor" has a very familiar. ring to it. Could the
Koreans have possibly picked up on this idea too when
thinking about adopting Christianity?
The Power Struggle
In 1968 Shearer in his Master's thesis on "Animism and the
Chureh in Korea" came to the conclusion that " ... animisn
is not lacking in power nor does it seem to be on the decling
ia. Sitiiesn 1S powerful cyen in urban. settings..,<..«
Animism is not dead nor is the desire on the part of the
people to deal favorably and be dealt with favorably by the
spirits around them."(100)
As has been seen, Shamanism has perpared Korean's and
their ways of thinking toward the acceptance of Christianity.
However, shamanism also presents a force of rejection and
opposition to the gospel.
The author of the book Six Korean Women relates in her
final case study--a case study of a Korean shaman who became
a Christian--just how this woman came to Christ. The
following excerpt shows the power struggle involved between
Christianity and shamanisn.
Her eldest son was the first to be converted
to Christianity, followed by her husband and
other sons. Her own conversion came much
later after a protracted battle with the Devil
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for her soul. It had required the physical
destruction of her shamanistic altar by her
husband, sons, and Elders form their church
while she sat cowered and enraged, which led
to her conversion to Christianity as having
been far more horrifying than her earlier
experiences of being possessed by shamanistic
spirits.(101)
When this author was talking with a middle aged Korean
Christian woman about shamanism she wanted to know why I was
studying shamanism. She stated very strongly in her opinion,
(and she felt she was expressing the opinion of most Korean
Christians), that shamanism was of the devil. The power that
the shaman has been given her by Satan himself. She felt it
was important for me to know that shamanism and those who are
the practitioners of shamanism were under the control of the
Prince of Darkness.
This view would seem to concure with that of Deaconess
Chang, the converted shaman.
The mudang has traditionally been seen aS a person who is
in direct.oppositton to Christianity. Shearer quoting
Underwood, one of the first western missionaries to work in
Korea says "Shamanism is the most obstinate enemy that the
missionaries have to met in Korea."(102)
Shearer cites seven instances of the power confrontation
between Christians and mudangs. One of these was especially
interesting and is recorded below.
The conversion took place ina direct
confrontation by the mudang, arrayed in the
paraphernalia of her trade, against a group of
Christians gathered together in prayer. Of
further interest is that this group of
Christians contained a former p'tansu, who had
once been shown to have weaker power than this
mudang when she proved his capture of a spirit
in a bottle to be false. Now this former
p'ansu was a Christian and a member of the
congregation. When the mudang confronted the
assembled Christians with a defiant attitude,
the former p'tansu led out in prayer and the
whole congregation joined in agonized prayer
for the mudang. She could not contain
herself, threw down all her paraphernalia, and
ran to her home. At this time she did not
make a confession of Christ but was in agony
for many days. Christians.came. to. visit,
spoke to the mudang, and told her of the
forgiveness of sin in Christ. Eventually she
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bonfire. This mudang's name was Sinssi, which
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name of Simssi (ssi = honorific). Sinssi
became a strong Christian and a close friend
and helper of the missionary who wrote the
account.( 103)
It seems that very little study has been done in the area
of the power encounter. How Should it be carried out? This
whole area has a direct bearing upon how one presents the
gospel and lives out onets Christian role as witness. Should
it be handled by a toe to toe confrontation? Or should
Shamansism be tolerated until those religious specialists and
believers "come to their senses" and turn to Christ?
Dr. Jun Ho Jin gives some scriptural basis for the power
encounter between Christianity and shamanisn.
1. Levitecus 20:27 prescribes death to mediums
and wizards,
2. Deuteronomy 18:10-12 describes diviners,
enchanters, withches, charmers, consulters of
Spirits, wizards, and necromancers as
abominations to the Lord.
3. Romans 1:19-21 says that man has represses
the truth and the divinity of God.
4, The power of the Holy Spirit needs to be
substituted for the power of the shaman.
5. There ought to be emphasized a firm belief
in the evil power that the Bible teaches,
6. Ephesians 6:10=-11 encourages believers to
stand firm in His power and put on the armour
of God when doing the power encounter.(104)
These are biblical but they provide little practicle "how to
do -Lt* advice.
As will be elaborated on in the strategy section of this
paper, it would seem that the people group consisting of
Shamans would be a worthy target of evangelisn. To reach
that group it would seem likely that in many cases a direct
power confrontation would be necessary. This would be
difficult and maybe it is the reason that the shaman has
generally over looked in the past.
Notice below though just how much influence a converted
Shaman has in the church. How much more affective could a
converted shaman be among her peers, not to mention her
clients.
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Today, she is hearlded by her fellow believers
as a chosen one, saved by God from the very
clutch of Satan. The special designation
allows her to function much as she used to as
a shaman in ministering to those in need of
her potent prayers. She enjoys the prestige
and social support she recieves from her
fellow Christians and family members. .
a 105.)
Shamanistic Influences in the Church
Much of the information in this section and in the
following section was garnered by means of a questionnaire.
One hundred questionnaires were sent out to Korean pastors
and denominational leaders. The method used was not a simple
mailing, but instead almost every questionnaire was placed in
the hand of a missionary who then placed it is the hand of
the national leader. Being that in Asia everything of import
seems to go through a middle man, it was felt that the
questionnaire should follow that cultural pattern. This
could count for the high response of 48%.
The questionnaire was prepared in English. This writer
was fully aware that-this approach may well have skewed the
results because it limited those who could be surveyed to
only those persons who had some ability in English.
The cover letter and the questionnaire are included at the
back of this paper. On that questionnaire percentages of
each response appear for each question. In the body of this
paper references will be made to the results of the
questionnaire.
It would seem that if shamanism has had such an impact on
the society and is in fact "a leg of the stool" upon which
the Korean culture rests that it would also have had an
influence upon Christianity.
When one begins to look for specific influence of
Shamanism with Christianity, one tends to do so by thinking
negatively. This attitude has an inherent danger, that being
that when one finds a carry over one feels that it should be
eliminated to preserve the sanctity of the church. This way
of thinking destroys any possibility for the church to
develop a functional substitute,
A functional substitute is a practice developed by the
church to replace a socially accepted, socially required, or
socially needed way of coing things with a way of doing
things that does not violate the Scriptures or Christian
doctrine. This is a very sensitive issue because much of
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what Westerners feel is "right" may not be "right" in Korea,
or in Asia.fior.that matter. A functional substitute can be
thought of as taking a shamanistic practice and "baptizing"
Oh es
Shearer points out that in Korea the idea of ancestor
worship was one of the areas where the church needed to
develop a functional substitute. He reports that the early
missionaries ignored the issue. eA. ueed ss ene missionaries '
attutide toward ancestor worship was mistaken."(106)
Because ancestor worship had sociological implications in
the Korean world it would not simply die out. Titanic t
became a stumbling block for many Koreans in their attempt to
accept the gospel. Among the folk beliefs mentioned most by
the pastors who completed the questionnaire, ancestor worship
was considered a hinderance to the gospel.
A Korean Christian convert wrote that she
could not.put up.a spirit.table. for the.dead
as the pagans do, because most of them believe
the spirit of the dead comes back into the
tablet with power to give blessing or woe to
the household. The women had a religious
problem that must be dealt with. The way to
deal with such a religious problem caused by
prohibition of ancestor worship, is with the
funcitional substitute that does not
compromise the faith.(107)
On Chusok, a traditional holiday when the Koreans visit
the graves of their ancestors and offer thanks for the
harvest, and on aniversaries of the birth and death of the
ancestors, Korean non-Christians as well as Christians still
visit the grave site. What happens at the grave site of
these families are worlds apart. The animists who visit the
graves on these days offer food to the spirits and bow before
the grave requesting blessings and offering thanks. The
Christians go and have a memorial service with Scripture
reading and hymn singing. Flowers my be layed on the grave.
Just like the animists, the Christians bring food, but the
food is for them and they enjoy a fellowship meal together.
Through the use of the questionnaire, conversations with
Korean Christians and two specific sources, (those being: "
Shamanism in Korea and Its Influences on the Korean Church"
by Jun Ho. .Jdin;,.and. "Animism and-the,Church in Korea" by Roy
E. Shearer), the following list of influnces has been
developed. The list has been developed into two specific
areas which are doctrine and practice.
Doctrine
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1. Blessings
a. If one gives more money he will receive
more blessings from God.
b. .If one is good then he will be blest by
God.
ec. Prayer is a key to receiving blessings.
2. Tithing
a. If one does not tithe he will recieve
punishment.
3. Healing
a. There is a confusion between mental
dlilness and demon possession.
b. All iliness is. viewed.as a result of
one's spiritual condition. Some pastors say
that our illness comes from ghosts.
4. Belief in a Threefold World View
5. Thinking about the Bible as a book of
spiritual power.
6. The Pastor
a. He is viewed as a mediator between God
and the chruch.
b. Members believe that the prayer of the
pastor can cure those who are ill.
1e Belief in good spirits and bad spirits
(demons and angels).
Practice
16, Prayer
a. Prayers for blessing.
Bb. Prayers for_-expelling devils.
ec. Early morning prayer service.
d. Emphasis on fasting and prayer.
e. Emphasis that when someone is sick or
there is a pressing problem that a person
must go to the prayer mountain,
f. Long and loud prayers.
g@. Prayer for the sucess of a business
enterprise is stress,
2. Specific worship of the cross.
3. Little concern for the, living a practical
Christian lifestyle,
4. Ecstatic spiritualism
a. The emotional quality of Korean
services.
5. Prophesy (telling fortunes?).
6. Healing
a. Whenever someone becomes sick of is
injured most parisrioners immediately send for
the pastor or ch i Officers.
D, .8e pastor yisits the sick person daily.
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e. Healing is done by the "laying on of
hands."
7. Commeration of the ancestors birth and
death with a worship service.
8. Thank Offerings
a. Offerings for one’s birthday or
anniversary.
b. Offerings for the recovery from an
iviness.
e. Offerings for’ the birth of a child.
d. Offerings for the start of a business.
e. Offerings for a child getting into a
good school.
9. Funerals
a. Bowing to the dead person's picture.
b. The mourning service that takes place at
the grave site.
10. The launching of a Christian boat which
invoives the pastor.
11. The raising of the beam ceremony on a new
house.
12. Emphasis upon the "Bible woman."
13. Cleanliness and purity are emphasized.
14. People are very enthusiastic about living
a religious life.
As far as items of doctrine go it would seem that the
individual denominations need to take a long hard look at
just what the people in their denomination believe. The
concept of blessings seem to be one of the most talked about
areas in the church today. Of those pastors who responded to
the question on the questionnaire about influences of
Shamanism on the churen, more pastors listed this idea of
blessings as an influence than any other single subject.
It seems that a goodly percentage of pastors believe that
Korean seminaries are teaching something about shamanisn.
Are these seminaries teaching anything about shamanism's
influence upon the church? Are these schools informing these
future pastors of the danger present if their people begin to
think of them as their only mediators between themselves and
God?
And what of the carry over in regard to practices? Many
functional substituted have been developed. This is-the sign
of a healthy church. However, the danger of syncretism must
always be kept in mind. What about emphasized practices such
as healing or fasting? What are the peoples thoughts behind
bowing to a dead person's picture or thank offerings? These
are important questions. Are they being ask in the Korean
Church today?
Many of these items are very positive and are being used
for the the growth of the church in Korea and the glory of
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God. The home cell unit is an example of this.
Shamanism: How Does the Church Respond Today?
The church today seems to be growing more and more
insulated from the world of the shaman. Donald McGavran of
the School of World Mission refers to this as redemption and
lift. This process is under way in Korea. It seems that
second and third generation Christians have little if any
idea about shamanism except that it is evil. Most people
have very little idea how many Shamanistic believers there
are or even how many shamans there are.
The following statements represent the finding of the
questionnaire. It should be remembered that this
questionnaire was given to Korean pastors.
1. Most pastors view shamanism as something of Satan.
2. Most pastors feel that shamans are afraid of
Christianity.
3. Most pastors have confused ideas about how many
adherants there are to shamanism and about how many actual
shamans there are in Korea.
4, Almost all pastors said that the average Christian
would not be afraid of a shaman,
5. All but one pastor said that the average pastor would
not be afraid of a shaman.
6. Most all the pastors surveyed said they had heard a
sermon against shamanism.
7. Over half of the pastors surveyed said they had
preached a sermon against shamanisn.
8. About five out of every seven pastors said they
believed that Korean seminaries taught something about
Shamanism.
9. About one half of all the pastors stated that they felt
that the Korean church had adopted certain things in
worship, doctrine and practice from shamanisn.
10. Most pastors have never been actively involved in
‘witnessing to shamans.
ll. Over two out of every three pastors said that they did
not know of any Korean ministries directed toward specific
shamans. Of these who said "yes", only one name was
mentioned as someone who is doing specific work in this
area. His name: Kim Ki Dong
Shimkil Dong
Young Dong Po, Seoul
12. The pastors split down the middle with regard to
whether or not a person after confessing Jesus as Lord
could ever go back to a Shaman in a time of crisis.
13. Over half the pastors questioned stated that there
were some folk bel: ' that might hinder a shaman from
becoming a Christie
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14. Most pastors would describe shamans as a group of
people who have no awareness of the gospel.
15. Most pastors would describe shaman's attitude toward
the gospel as strongly opposed.
One of the questions on the questionnaire dealt with what
point of contact a pastor would use when witnessing to a
Shaman. As a possible conversation starter the following
ideas were listed. These are listed in question forn.
Who is the God Hananim?
Who created the world?
Who gives both blessing and disaster?
Who is the mediator between God and man?
Do you fear God?
Who has power over evil spirits?
Does God help humans?
What do you think about heaven?
ONAUM FWN FH
°
This writer was told of an instance in a rural community
that had one small church and one powerful shaman. In the
community there was a park and on a Sunday afternoon some
Christian young people went out to witness. As they tried to
witness they were confrnted by the question "What does
Christianity have to offer that shamanism does not have?"
They were told that their shaman was very great and if they
were ever in need some was more than able to help then. IBye
was because of this incident that the question, "What does
Christianity that shamanism can not offer", was included in
the questionnaire.
The responses to this question were many and varied,
however, almost all those who responded recorded salvation as
the obvious answer. Here are the responses,
Curtstianity offers .. «. «
Salvation by Jesus Christ alone,
Christ, the incarnate, who was resurrected from the dead.
peace with God.
ilove and truth to give away. Not our love and truth, but
the love and truth of Jesus Christ.
eternal hope.
the power to overcome the sinful life.
ethics and moral teachings.
a-doetrine of ereation,
spiritual association with God Himself.
love.
an example of a holy lifestyle.
the cross.
a purpose for living
service to others 4a- BOal {cr society.
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the deep fellowship of the Body of Christ.
Preaching from the pulpit seems to be the common method of
dealing with shamanism in Korea. One pastor did comment that
"We don't need to preach about shamanism in the church." He
gave no reason for his position. It could be assumed that he
felt that Christians already know that shamanism is evil and
that they will stay away for its influences in their lives.
However, this position does not provide the Christians with
any handles when they do have to confront the issue with
regard to a friend or family member. It also discourages
them from having any desire to witness for Christ to the
Shamanistic believer or the shaman.
Of the pastors who responded that they had either heard or
preached a sremon against shamanism, these were some of the
scripture references that they listed.
Exodus 20
Leviticus 18:1ff
Deuteronomy 6:4; 18:9-14
I Samuel 28
John 4:23
Acts 14:8-183 16:16-34; 17:16-31; 19:18-20
Romans 1: 18-23
Ephesians 5:5
Colossians 2:8
James 4:7
Revelation 21:8
~
It seemed to be the concensus of those who returned the
questionnaire and many others as well that very little is
being done in the area of evangelizing shamans. It seems
that some preaching is being done, but at present how many
Shamans find their way into a church? And if any did find
their way into a church would they or could they listen to
the message? There seems to be no coordinated effort to
reach the people group of shamans, The Mission Advanced
Research Center says about Korea:
- ss « the door -anone che non-Christians is
wide open. By recognizing specific target
groups and adjusting the approaches to meet
the felt needs as well as real needs the
Church has an excellent chance to evangelize
all the unreached in South Korea.(108)
this is precisely «* “shall be attempted in the final
section of this paper : th regarc to shamans.
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A Strategy for Reaching Korean Shamans
This strategy is based on the ten point planning cycle
prepared by Edward R. Dayton and David A. Fraser in their
book Planning Strategies for World Evangelization. The s
of their planning cycle are listed below.
1. Define the Mission.
2. Describe the People.
3. Describe the Force for Evangelisn.
4. Examine the Means and Methods.
5. Define the Approach.
6. Anticipate the Outcomes.
7T- Decide Our Role.
8. Make Plans.
Qo, Aet.
10. Evaluate.
Step 1. Definition of the Mission
The description put foward in this book of evangelism
worthy of note. "To evangelize is to communicate the gos
in such a way that men and women have a valid opportunity
accept Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior and become respons
members of his church"(p. 80).
This derinition is expanded further.
The nature of evangelism is the communication
of the good news.
The purpose of evangelism is to give
individuals and groups a valid opportunity to
accept Jesus Christ.
The goal of evangelism is to persaude men and
women to become desciples of Jesus Christ and
serve him in the fellowship of his Church (p.
62) 4
Finally some basic principles of evangelism are given
shed some light on the task.
1. The gospel, and not some substitute, must
be communicated.
2. The messangers who proclaim the gospel must
be authentic disciples of Jesus, Christ.
3. The message mus’ be pharsed in the language
and idioms, the th~ught forms and world view
of the listeners » are being ask to make a
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decision.
4, The means of communication must be suited
to the social structure and communication
patterns common to the people.
5. The witness to Jesus Christ must be
sustained long enough to be comprehensible to
the average person in the group being
evangelized.
6. Ultimately, a valid opportunity implies the
work and presence of the Holy Spirit (pp. 82-
83).
The goal of this endeavor is to come among the people
group of Korean shamans to increase their awareness of the
gospel, to increase the number of this people group in the
Korean Church and to make disciplers who will inturn win the
rest oft the people group. A second and related goal is that
the disciplers would also involve themselves in evangelizing
among their former clients who lie outside of the designated
people group, but who are nonetheless closely related to it.
Specific strategies for the achievement of these goals
will be given later.
In step 2 an attepmt will be made to describe the Shaman
people group. This will be an abriviated version of what
appears in the earlier portions of this paper. Before going
on to that, however, this writer found five specific problems
with Dayton and Fraser's book. These problems are germane to
our thinking about Korean shamans as a people group.
1. Korean Christians tend to think of themselves as a
homogenous unit--that there are no recognizable people
groups--they are all Koreans, The people group theory may
have trouble being accepted in Korea.
2. The book stresses that a church should be established
among the group. This is refered to as “the main
objective" of this approach (p. 102). The establishment
of a church among shamans in Korea is not practicle
becuase shamans tend to be so spread out. Also, it is not
necessary to establish a church among these people because
they should be incorporated into the many already existing
churcnes.
3. The book mentions Peter Wagner's missiological theory
that "priority should be given to peoples who are
currently responsive to the gospel" (p. 92). Shamans are
not responsive but are instead resistent. The principle
is a good one, but if in practice it means to avoid work
among this group totally because other areas are more
responsive, then it must be revised. The Korean Church
has over-looked the shaman and this could very weil be the
reason why.
4. Korean shamans are a hidden people even if they only
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fit part of the given description. ""Hidden peoples' are
those with no or virtually no practicing Christians. 2 I
evangelization is to be done, it will have to be done by
eross-cultural evangelists (E-2/E-3) evangeiism" (p. 97).
The main force for evangelism should be Koreans (E-1)
evangelisn.
5. A significant question is asked on page 103. "Do we
have individuals who have a strong desire and real
potential for serving in the new area?" This presents a
problem for most pastors, although they are not afraid of
the shamans, they do avoid the contact. There is a strong
social stigma against shamans. They are looked down upon
in societyand are viewed as demon possessed persons.
With these problems in mind let us move on to a
description of the people group.
Step 2. Describe the People
The strategy working group of the Lausnne Committee for
World Evangelization has given this definition of a people
group: A significantly large sociological grouping of
individuals who percieve themselves to have a common affinity
for one another {(p. 135).
This then shall become the starting point for the
discussion of Korean shamans as a people group.
Dayton and Fraser provided in their book an Unreached
Peoples Questionnaire. This writer completed the
questionnaire with regard to Korean shamans and it appears
below.
1. Name of the group of people: Korean Shamans,
2. Alternate name(s) or spellings: women: udang,
Mansin; men: pansu, paksu.
3. Country where located: South Korea.
4. Aproximate size of this group in this country:
100,000.
5. Vernacular or common language: Korean.
6. Lingua franca or trade language: Korean,
7. Name of the religious group found among this people:
Animism, with a heavy influence from both Buddhism and
Confucianisn.
8. In your oppinion what is the attitude of this people
toward Christianity? Strongly opposed.
People Distinctives
A number of different things contribute to create a
distinctive people or group, one that in some way shares a
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common way or life, sees itself as a particular group
having an affinity toward one another, and differs to some
extent from other groups or peoples. What would you say
makes the people you are describing distinctive?
Importance in each of the following areas will be given an
(H) for high, an (M) for medium, or an (L) for low.
Same language (H)
Common residential area (L)
Common political loyalty (L)
Similar social class (H)
Similar occupation (H)
Similar economic status (M)
Racial or ethnic similarity (H)
Shared hobby or special intrest (L)
Shared religious customs (H)
Discrimination from other groups (H)
Common kinship ties (L)
Unique health situation (H)
Strong sense of unity (M)
Distinctive legas status (H)
Similar education level (H)
Similar age (M)
Common significant problems (H)
9. What is the growth rate of the total Christian commnity
among this people group? There does not seem to be a
Christian community among this people.
10. In your opinion, what is the attitude of this people
to religious change of any kind? Somewhat closed.
11. In your opinion, what is the attitude of this people
toward Christianity? Strongly opposed.
Within this questionnaire was included the Engle Scale
to help determine a people's attitude toward Christianity.
Although what appears below is this writer's hypothesis,
the actual percentages are not the important thing. What
is amportant is the faet that the greatest portion of
Shamans appear as having an awareness of Christinaity and
just some knowledge of the gospel. They have an awareness
of a person called Christ and that there are Christians
who worship him. They also may know somethings about
Christ and his plan of salvation, but this knowledge is
most likely to be second hand and based on many
misconceptions and falsehoods.
The Engle Scale
Have No. awareness of Chrisbianity/=T«..<csccsecsvcss 00%
Have awareness of the existence of Christianity/-6...50%
Have some knowledge Of the PoSpel/=—5 .cccccssesnccce cc ANG
Moderstand tne Message Of LNG Gospel /=<4 ccc ccc es cee cD 5S
See the personal implcations of the gospel/-3........00%
Recognizes personal need that the gospel can meet/-2.00%
Are being ¢hallenged to réceive Christ/-1...cseseeee00%
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What are the felt needs
An understanding of the felt needs of a people will help
one tapper one's methods and strategies. Some of the felt
needs of the shaman are:
1. Because the shaman is the religious specialist for a
great many clients, she has a felt need to be the mediator
between the spirit world and this world. There is a great
deal of importance placed upon her power.
2. The rituals that she performs provide a culturally
acceptable service for her clients. She is important
because she fulfills a role in society.
3. Her beliefs in the many gods of the Korean world
provide even for her, the religious specialist, some amont
of fear. She must be careful not to overstep her "bounds"
or she will be punished by her god.
4. Socially she is an outcast and yet her outcast status
does not hinder her clients from coming to her in times or
need.
5. The governmant regards her as a quack and deciever of
the people, and yet the historical role of shamans is
recognized.
6. There is a need to speak to the issue of the
Supernatural. Emphasis is placed upon local gods and
goddessess, demons and evil spirits, and dead spirits.
Ancestors and ghosts are also other special areas that
need to be spoken to.
7. Morality is not stressed therefore guilt does not seem
to be an issue.
8. There is a need to live out this existence as
comfortably as possible. The present is important.
It is very probable that shamans have other felt needs as
well. Other ideas are mentioned in sections one and two of
this paper.
The "fit™ between the gospel and the shaman
This is a very difficult area to discuss as the following
statement highlights.
On the one hand, there must be the realization
that a change of allegiance to Jesus Christ is
a radical and deeply significant event. Jesus
is a challenge to the very center of a
people's world view and religion. fis word, he
allows no rival. There is thus a necessary
confrontation at the point of conversion. Yet
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'de-culturize' a person, removing him or her
from. tribe and. fanily, and forcing the
evangelist's culture as a part of the process
of conversion (p. 174).
This may well be one of the key areas that needs to be
thought through by those who are seeking to work with
Shamans.
Two questions are presented to aid in this discussion:
1. What social structures should be utilizea to proclaim
the love of God to shamans?
It is believed that the present day Church in Korea is
the key to evange1izing the people group. The pastor, as
the shaman's counterpart has a vital role to play. The
pastor must not only give his people the "dangerous side"
of shamanism from his pulpit (a tool of Satan, the shaman
is a demon possessed person), but he must also begiu to
teach his people that the person--the shaman--is loved by
God. Ways need to be developed by the Church for going
out of their way to show love to these persons. By
persistent Christian love through service maybe a hearing
for the gospel can be attained--even among shamans!
Athough it is recognized that because of the social stigma
and religious stigma attached to shamans is deeply
entrenched, the message of Romans 12:14-21 is clear.
Bless those who persecute you; bless and do
not curse then. Rejoice with those who
rejoice, weep with those who weep. Live in
harmony with one another; do not be haughty,
but associate with the lowly; never be
conceited. Repay no evil for evil, but take
thought of what is nobel in the sight of all.
If possible, so far as it depends upon you,
live peaceably with all. Beloved, never
avenge yourselves, but leave it to the wrath
of God; for it is written, "vengeance is mine,
Lawvili.~repay,acay thre Lord." No, "if your
enemy is hungry, feed him, if he is thirsty,
give him drink; for by so doing you will heap
burning coals upon his head." Do not be
overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good.
(RSV)
Another possible social structure that could be used to
reach this group of people is the family of the mudang.
This was the method used to convert the shaman, Deaconess
Chang, mentioned in the book Six Korean Women.
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2. Are there some commonly held cultural practices that
are clearly prohibited by the scriptures?
It would seem that the whole basis for the uniqueness
of this people group is to fulfill roles in society that
go against the teachings of the Bible. Examples could be:
a. Worshipping other gods.
b. Ancestor worship.
e. Shamans placing themselves as mediators
between the gods and the people.
d. The use of witches and wizards.
And yet are all the practices and functions performed
by shamans anti-Scriptural?
a. Providing status for women in society.
b. Healing.
ec. Entertainment.
The Korean Church will have to speak to these ideas.
Dayton and Fraser present a very important point that goes
along with these two questions.
Those whose interests are threatened (as was
the case with the silversmiths, led by
Demetrius of Ephesus, whose trade in images of
Diana was threatened by some many becoming
Christians) will rise up to oppose and subvert
the«gospel (p. 175).
It seems likely that some shamans will "revolt" against
the idea of some of their number turning to the "Christian
God." They will no doubt place a stronger emphasis upon the
idea that the god this is possession of the shaman will
inflict a heavy punishment upon any who desert the ranks.
Their interests will surely be threatened.
Step 3. The Force for Evangelism
In the discussion of the force for evangelism it must be
recognized that the most effective evangels among shamans
will be converted shamans themselves. This concept looks
very good on paper but there are some questions that need to
be answered by the Korean Church,
1. Onee a shaman converts to Christianity, because of the
Church's strong teaching that shamanism is a tool ofr
Satan, the mudang is encouragea to separate herself
entirely from it. Does the church need to restructure
it's approach to shamans?
2s it seems that a shaman's view of Christianity is mostly
"something to be feared." There also seems to be a slight
fTeeling-that it is "something foreign and therefore
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show other shamans that in Christianity there is nothing
to be feared?
3. The Church seems to hold a converted shaman in high
esteem, a trophey of grace. But what about her
relationship with other shamans? Has that relationship
been damaged permanently?
4. What about simbyang in reverse? Most shamans believe
that if they convert to Christianity that they will be
punished by the possessing god. What can a converted
Shaman say about this?
5. What about the status in society that a shaman
receives. Does the Church have anything that can give the
Shaman the same sense that she is needed?
And some other questions are:
6. The Korean Church has traditionally held a very
negative view of the Korean shaman. Can the Church reject
shamanism and yet love and seek to evangelize the shaman?
7. Is the Korean Church concerned enough about the shaman
that they will begin to teach about shamanism in their
seminaries, for the purpose of better equipping future
pastors to work among shamans?
8. Because shamnas are techinically a "hidden people"
(without an internal witness) persons from outside the
people group must be the initial force for evangelism. Is
the Korean Church prepared at present for such a ministry?
9. Today those few pastors who seem to emphasize the need
to work with shamans are viewed with some distrust and
skepticisn. Is this how the Korean Church will continue
to act?
10. In the Churen, what governing body is going to keep
alert to make sure sycretistic aspect of shamanism does
not "water down" the gospel message? Will this be
necessary? How will corrections be handled by the Korean
Church?
if, as thas wrater fees, that the initial force for
evangelism among shamans must come from within the Korean
Church, these questions need to be dealt with.
The Korean Church is a missionary sending Church. It is
now time that the Korean Church also begin to look among the
people groups up and down its own peninsula. Shamans happen
to be one such group and they are a significant one at that.
Pastors in the Korean Church are encouraged to start new
congregations. Some reports indicate that as many as three
new congregations are started every day. Why couldn't a
Similar emphasis be placed on the work among shamans? The
potential here is unlimited. They not only have contact with
other shamans but they also have contact with the largest
unreached section of the society--that 73% who-are locked in
traditional religions and secularisn.
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Step 4. Means and Methods
One of the conclusions of Roy Shearer in his paper
"Animism and the Korean Church" was this:
I believe there must be a more concerted
effort to win the animistic religious
practitioners. Whether the bulk of them have
any inclination to turn to Christ or not is
not known. But testimony of several of these
practitioners indicate a dissatisfaction with
their present way “Of iife. iIf° these religious
practitioners could be won to Christ, they
would become very effective witnesses in the
society that stilt holds their power in high
regard. (109)
How will this be done among shamans of Korea? If, as most
Koreans believe that the shaman's power has been given them
by Satan himself, what can be accomplished?
An interesting distinction was made by a Korean woman when
this writer ask her how she would witness to a shaman. She
stated that it would depend upon what kind of shaman she was
speaking with. She felt that a shaman who had become a
Shaman by the process mentioned in the paper, that of
personal demon possession by means of simbyong and then the
naerim kut, would be highly resistent. However, she felt
that a shaman who had become a shaman through heredity would
be much easier to witness to. What she seemed to be saying
was that a hereditary shaman has a tendency to be more of a
nominal shaman. If this is a valid distinction, one's means
and methods could differ according to the type of shaman one
is dealing with. The Korean Church needs to begin to seek
ways of making this distinction.
Three methods which might be effective among shamans are:
1) worship services in homes near the vicinity of a shaman
temple or the home of a shaman; 2) tracts and 3) the power
encounter.
With the following questions this writer is suggesting
some methods that might have an appeal to a Korean shaman who
may be nominal or not so nominal in her beliefs.
Worship Services
1. Could traditional Korean music be used with drums
(changgo), flutes (p'iri), clarinets (taegumn), fiddles
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2. Could traditional dance be included allowing those who
wished to participate to do so?
3. Could a Korean pastor actually have physical contact
with his audience?
4. Is the pulpit the only place where a sermon can be
preached from?
5. Could a pastor ever chant a sermon?
6. Could a pastor use illustrations that have their origin
in shamnaistic practices?
7. Is the church the only place that a Sunday morning
service could take place? Could a church continue its
regular Sunday/Wednesday schedule and have other services
near a shaman'ts home during the week? It would seem that
the home would be the key to this type of approach.
8. When it is time for the offering to be collected, could
the people be encouraged to place the money themselves on
the altar?
9. In the home worships located in close proximity to the
home of a shaman or a shaman temple, could Christian
healing be emphasized?
10. Could a pastor change his outfits (the color of his
outfits) when he is making a theological point in his
sermon: ie a red robe when he is speaking of sin, or a
white robe when speaking about the purity of Christ etc.
Tracts
1. Could material be Deaeeyce with the shaman solely in
mind as the audience?
2. It would seem that the major messages that need to be
presented are;
a. Who is Hananim?
b. Who is God's mediator?
ec. Does God help humans?
d. Jesus, the one who has power over demons.
3. To have the tracts use the art work of Kim Ki-chang in
telling the story of the gospel might be effective.
4, Christians are going to have to go to shamans with these
tracts. It should not be expected that unconverted shamans
will come to the church.
5. It is possible that the families of shamans might be a
good entrance to reach the shaman herself with the tract.
6. When presenting these tracts to the shamans themselves
women may be grated a better hearing.
The Power Encounter
1. When nesessary the power encounter should not be avoided
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2. Before the power encounter every effort should be made by
the church to, by acts of service and love win a hearing for
the gospel.
3. The base for the power encounter should always be prayer.
When the pastor goes forth to "do battle with Satan" he
should always have a support group of prayer warriors.
4, The pastor should not go alone , but he should not be
followed by a mob of people either.
5. Everything that the pastor does and says should be in the
name of our Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ.
6. It should be remembered that "the confrontation of Christ
with the spirits fit exactly into the Korean understanding of
illness, physical and mental. Possession of an evil spirit
is believed to be the cause of all illness."(110)
fe “ROorean Christians did net think of their conversion to
Christianity as changing from one religion to another, but as
a release from the power of the spirits."(111) Could the
Korean shaman feel this way also?
8. A shaman needs to be encouraged to destroy her fetishes.
It must be remembered that when a shaman destroys her
fetishes she is also parting with her means of making a
living. Does the Church have a responsibility here?
9. There will be a great deal of anguish and agony
experienced by the mudang “while the spirits within struggle
with the spirit of Chirst."(112)>:° It. is at this time that the
Church needs to be constantly in touch with the shaman,
10. Following the conversion sever doubts may set in
especially when illness strikes the shaman. Follow-up is
esstential. It is reported of the converted shaman,
Deaconess Chang, that "she feels that she is a pawn caught
mercilessly in the cosmic struggle between God and Satan,
neither of whom pays much attention to her own suffering.
But she is even more afraid of losing the support of her
family and church."(113)
Before leaving the discussion of means and methods Dayton
and Fraser make a comment that has a great deal to say when
one is thinking about working with Korean Shamans.
If we view a movement as Satanic, does that
preclude the acknowledgment that it might be
doing the kinds of things the Christian Church
Should be doing in meeting the needs of the
people? Perhaps one of the implications of
Jesus' words that we be as wise as serpents
and as harmless as doves is that we ought to
learn from the good examples of bad people
without adopting their values or evil motives
(ps 302).
Step 5. Analyzing the Strategy
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Dayton and Fraser speak of grand strategies, mid-range
strategies and short-range strategies. Thinking about
strategies should include these three aspects.
The grand strategy is to move a sufficient number (20%) of
shamans from the -5 range on the Engle Scale to the +3 range
so that converted Korean shamans will themselves become
propagators of the gospel among their own people and among
their clients. Hereditary shamans will be the initial people
to be reached because of their greater potential for
receptivity. Other shamans will be reached through converts
from the first group. Part of the underlying assumption is
that a separate church for converted shamans would be
impractical and unacceptable to the Korean Church.
The intermediate strategy is to develop programs of
education on the demoninational level, the seminary level,
and more importantly on the local church level so that Korean
pastors and laymen can themselves become the initial force
for evangelism. At this step as many converted shamans as
can be identified will be brought into the programming as
advisors and active witnesses.
The short-range-strategy is to gain the cooperation of the
denominations in Korea. This very paper will become a spring
board for discussion aaand decision. This paper will of
course have to be printed and published in Korean. This will
be done by Word of Life Press in Seoul, Korea.
It is the intent of this strategy that the grand strategy
will be in operation by January 1, 1990. The intermediate
strategy will be operational by March 1, 1986. The short-
range strategy will be completed by December 31, 1984.
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Step 6. Anticipated Outcomes
Anticipating outcomes is never an easy task but it is
exciting. ji*s a. bit like dreaming God* thoughts after Him.
There are two significant areas that need to be viewed
with regard to the outcomes of this strategy to work among
Korean shamans. They are: 1) What are the general
expectations if the strategy should succeed? and 2) How will
one know when a shaman has been converted? What will be some
outward manifestations of this inward change?
Below are listed several anticipated outcomes. They
follow somewhat of a chronological order.
1. At first the Korean Church will be very hesitant in
getting involved with this type of progran. Two things
seem to be in its disfavor. One is that the Korean Church
will feel that "we have never done this type thing before"
and the other is that this approach is proposed by a
foreigner, therefore it could be suspect.
2. The Korean Church will be won over by demoninational
leaders who-have been sold on the idea.
3. The Korean Church will seek to finance the program
totally by themselves.
4. The Korean seminaries will begin to include in their
programming classes on shamanism with special emphasis on
how to witness to shamans. Areas such as the power
encounter will also be stressed.
5. The Korean government will support the program because
it dovetails so well with the teachings and attitudes of
their Saemaul Movement.
6. The number of practicing shamans will gradually begin
to decrease,
7. The Korean population will sense the shift and begin
seriously to question their "old ways".
8. Converted shamans will become a central vehicle for the
evangelization of practicing shamans and shamanistic
believers.
9. Among the shamanistic community there will become an
aggressive anti-Christian movement.
10. The number of power encounters necessary for the
conversion of shamans will increase.
11. Also, the Church through a "if you are persecuted
falsely for my sake" attitude will win many practicing
Shamans and shamanistic believers over to the gospel by
acts of love and concern,
12. The Korean Church will grow at a faster rate than it
is growing presently.
13. The Korean Church will become a world leader in the
"how to" of effective witnessing among animists.
14. Many Korean missionaries will be sent to other
countries to witness to animists.
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around the world, and especially in Korea, will have
turned "to ‘Christ “as ‘Savior and Lord.
And how will one be able to identify a converted mudang?
1. She will destroy her paraphenalia and fetishes.
2. She will cease practicing her shamanistic activities in
the name of the god who possessed her.
3. She will cease fearing what Satan might do to her and
recognize that Christ by his death and resurrection has
gained power over Satan.
4. She will make a public confession of her faith.
5. She will be able to express in her own words the good
news of the gospel.
6. She will become involved in the life of a local
congregation.
7. She will become involved in home cell units.
8. She will seek to become a candidate for baptisn.
Step 7. Your Role
One of the considerations at the beginning of Step 7
said, "just because we have thought about reaching a people
does not mean that we are the ones whom God is calling to
reach them" (p. 395). .This is precisely the case with this
Strategy.
Because this planner is neither widely known by the
denominational leaders in Korea, nor is he ordained, nor does
he have the sufficient degree qualifications, this strategy
will have to be presented to the Korean Church by others
more qualified. It is also recognized that changes will have
to be made by those who are more "in the know" so that this
Strategy will be acceptable. This is both welcomed and
expected. A possible presenter of this program could be Dr.
Bong Ro who is with the Asia Theological Association and who
is himself a Korean.
This planner merely sees himself as an initiator, not an
active participant in future planning or organizing unless he
would be asked to do so at some future date by the Korean
Church. At this time it would not seem likely that that
would happen.
One suggestion made by Dayton and Fraser which shows this
planner's lack of activity in the process is presented below:
We may decide that the most effective avenue
to the consciousness of a people is ministry
that combines clear preaching of the gospel
(using native ana’»%gies and concepts) with
faith healing. In the society in question
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great deal of concern for health and sickness,
As the people come into the church, church
leaders might inaugurate a corps of Christian
healers, laying hands on those who, after
prayer and fasting, feel God is calling them
to such a ministry. They would then develop a
new set of Christians substitutes for the
traditional healer's rituals and paraphenalia
and provide a ministry of compassion for the
sick (pp. 416-417).
The Korean Church will be the motivating force behind this
program from beginning to end. Westerners and Western
mission organizations will not be involved unless
specifically requested, and this is not expected.
Step 8. Make Plans
Under this step two different aspects of planning need to
be considered. This first is making specific plans for the
evangelization process and the second is making specific
plans for the movement of the people toward the gospel and
even further, toward the propagation of the gospel.
The Evangelization Process
1. This strategy will secure the backing of two
organizations: The Asian Theological Association and the
Word of Life Press, by December 31, 1983.
2. Working jointly these two organizations will publish
this paper and strategy in Korean. This publication will
come out by March of 1984.
3. The publication of this paper and strategy will be
timed with other articles written by Korean Christians
dealing with the need for work among Korean shamans.
4. During the year of 1984 Korean denominations will be
encouraged to see what part they can play in this
Strategy.
5. Before May of 1984 churches will be requested to set
apart some "pioneers" in the area of evangelization among
Shamans in Seoul.
6. In January 1985 an interdenominational meeting will be
held among denominational leaders and resource persons to
discuss the possible outworkings of this type of strategy.
Before the meeting leaders in the field of animistic
studies and especially in the area of Korean shamanism
will be asked to prepare papers on various subjects
dealing with shamanisn. Tracts will also be prepared for
this meeting.
7. A standing committee will be appointed to coordinate
this strategy.
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8. Out of this consultation will also come the development
of a training school for the purpose of helping pastors
develop some skills to ewvangelize Korean shamans.
9. From this meeting these leaders will be encouraged to
take the ideas and plans discussed back to their churches
for further consideration and action.
10. Each denomination will be encouraged to develop a
means by which syncretism can be checked.
11. Seminary courses, pastor's training courses and lay
leader workshops will be developed denominationally to
Bive people accurate knowledge of shamanism and effective
tools for witness to shamans.
12. These seminary courses, pastor's training courses and
lay leader workshops will be underway and operational by
March 1, 1986.
13. Trainees in these programs will not "graduate" until
they have completed an on the job training experience with
a qualified instructor.
14. By March 1987 more than 5,000 seminarians, pastors,
and laypersons will have completed training in these
areas.
The Movement of Shamans Toward the Gospel
1. Before January 1985 through the work of some "pioneers"
some 5% of the total shaman community will have moved
from the -4 and -5 area on the Engle Scale to the +l area.
2. These converted shamans will take part in the
interdenominational meeting in January 1985 as
"shamanistic experts",
3. Between January 1985 and June 1985 these 5% will be
nurtured in the following areas:
an Lue TPinteye
b. The how and why of Christian prayer.
ec. The assurance of salvation--do you need to
fear?
d. What about healing?
e. The Christian role of a witness.
4. These shamans will then be encouraged to work as
witnesses among other shamans and former clients. They
will move to the +3 area on the Engle Scale. It should be
taken into consideration that shamans have little in the
way of any organization therefore this type of propagation
among other shamans and clients may prove to be difficult.
One pastor said that this type of strategy would work
better among Buddhist monks, because they have a good
organization.
5. At the same time Korean evangelists, pastors and
laypersons will be out witnessing to shamans as well.
Love and service to shamans will be emphasized to the
Korean Church.
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6. By March 1986 10% of the shamans left at the -4, -5
stage on the Engle Scale will have moved to the +1 stage.
This will be accomplished by converted shamans working
jointly with pastors and laypersons.
7. By March 1987 5% of this group will become active
propagators of the Gospel increasing the total percentage
of shamans at the +3 stage to 10%.
8. By December 1987 another 10% of shamans will have moved
from -4, -5 to the +l.
9. By January 1, 1990 20% of the shamans will be active
propagators of the Gospel and another 30% will be
attenders of local Christian congregations.
10. Also by January 1, 1990, because of the work of
converted shamans, pastors and laypersons, the total
Shamanistic community in Korea will be under 2,000,000
persons.
Et is estimated that the total cost. of this program. for
research, publication and printing, meetings, mailings, and
eoordination will cost about 50,000 dollars. Except for the
starting costs which will be jointly covered by the ATA and
Word of Life Press the total cost will be covered by the
Korean Church,
Step 9. Act
~
Action, of course means putting into practice what has
been planned on paper up to this point. An important concept
is mentioned by Dayton and Fraser when it comes to putting
ones plans into action.
When we plan, we begin with the goals, not the
resources, This should come last. After
deciding on the goal, we then move onto the
how, the means and methods. After deciding
what we believe are appropriate means and
methods, we analyze what resources are
necessary. However, when we begin to act, the
reverse is true. We must first start with the
resources, use them to carry out our means and
methods, then hopefully realize our goals (p.
466).
Planning to succeed is important and acting as though God
will help you succeed is also vitally important.
One other thing that should be noted as one thinks about
action is the following: "Tt is only in atttempting to act
that we can gain e€..,?rience,. Planning helps us to anticipate
‘the different kind of futures we may face, but our skill in
Ae ode. 1o ROL 3
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handling the unexpected and the wisdom that comes fron
experience can be gained only after we act (p. 473).
Step 10 Evaluate
Several questions need to be asked at the evaluation
stage of the cycle.
1. Did we reach the goals?
2. If we met the goal we originally set, why did we meet
it?
3. If we did not reach our goal, why did we not reach it?
Was the goal unrealistic? Is there a possibility that we
could reach it if we gave it more time and energy? Was
the goal inapproprite? Did we abandon it? What can we
learn because of not reaching the goal?
4, If we did reach the goal, did it have the desired
result? (pp. 480-81)
Several areas need to be evaluated, such as 1) means and
methods; 2) resources; and 3) personnel.
Other things need to be kept in mind during the evaluation
process.
Damouce we begin to act, it~ is’ very difficult-to stop*to
evaluate.
2. Evaluation only takes place when we plan to evaluate.
3. Evaluation should begin with goals, not with
resources.
4. The most difficult evaluation is personal evaluation.
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CONCLUSION
This study of shamanism as a leg of the stool upon which
the Korean culture rests is complete. This paper has come
full circle from a definition of the shamanism found in Korea
to a development of a strategy to reach the shamans in
particular and shamanistic believers as well.
In the past the Korean Church has grown remarkably well.
This study has indicated that one of the reasons for this
growth has been the presence of shamanism on this peninsula.
This is a recorded fact. It is also a fact that missionaries
and the Korean Church have struggled (and much of that
struggle has been for not), to convert any significant number
of shamans.
One paragraph ago this writer said that this study of
Shamanism was complete. In fact, this is not the case. This
study of shamanism will not be complete until it has inspired
the Korean Church to first of all begin to take shamanism and
Shamans seriously and secondly, to take the strategy offered
here and revise, adjust, and build upon it so that by 1990
20% of the total number of shamans presently in Korea will
become active propagators of the Gospel, to the glory of God.
ENDNOTES
1. Kyung Cho Chung, Korea Tomorrow, (New York: The
Macmillian Company, 1956), p. 28.
2. Honor B. Hulbert, The Passing of Korea, (Seoul,
Korea: Yonsei University Press, reprinted, 1969), p. 404.
3. Charles Allen Clark, Religions of Old Korea, (Seoul,
Korea: The Christian Literature Society of Korea, 1961), p.
178.
KR. Harold S. Hong, Won Yong Ji, and Chung Choon Kin,
ed., Korea Struggles for Christ (Seoul, Korea: Christian
Literature Society of Korea, 1966) pp. 149-150.
5. Clark, Religions, p. 175.
6. Alan C. Heyman, "Musok: Folk Religion of Korea",
Morning Calm, Winter 1982, p. 11.
7. Iwentieth Century Encyclopedia of Religious
Knowledge, 1955 ed., s.v. "Shamanism",
BusCLark, Religions, p.)\t73%
9. Edward R. Canda, "Korean Shamanic Initiation as
Therapeutic Transformation: A Transcultural View", Korea
Journal, (November, 1982): 13-25.
10. Kim T'ae-Gon, "Components of Korean Shamanism", Korea
Journal, (December, 1972): 17-25.
if. Hong, a_ Stru es, pp. 155-156.
ier cibids;,ipi0t5s5%
13... Pbids; ape$t56.
in. £bid.
15. Canda, "Shamanic Initiation", p. 14.
16. Hahm Pyong-Choon, "Part One: Family and Life-Cycle",
Korean Cultural Service, Winter 1981, p. 3.
of~ Ibid. ;opp.. 3=4G
18. Kim T'ae-Gon, "Shamanism in the Seoul Area", Korea
Journal, (June, 1978): 39-51.
9. Ibid.
20. Spencer J. Palmer, Korea and Christianity, (Seoul,
ppdats
+i Lo ;Aoew
i ‘
i ea): >. ae ¢
Aza
2 ta
c t ahha Ma rf my " ’
! a | nt LOLS, nll tah puke
fi 1a
cee) ad ite pba 0 sale
+i t : otfaaxat ‘oa oe
Ef 2(S80r, (aspen
f ; : Ow: i ooueat a ae
s . ' fs 3 recmmn eel) )
aa A
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eu Get... @. Pahl eit igor =
Phe i
‘ :
+> by o£ OF
(a: ¢0n0 a5gi* ,acedo
. rt #32. Re
“ag "ah me saeaadey
Korea: Hollym Corporation: Publishers), p. 90.
21. Hulbert, as Ca,.P. 406.
22. Yi Kyu-Tae, Mo n nsformation en, trans.
Sung Tong-Mahm, Kim Soon-Sin, Charles Goldberg, Park Nahn-
sreim, ( seoul,. Koreas Sejgong Publishing Co., 1970), p. 195.
23. Clark, eli ns, pe. 195.
Ppa. Kim. T*ae-Gon, "Components", .p. 22.
25. ibid.
Pew clark, Religions, p.-196,
2a. bid.
28. Hulbert, Passing Korea, pp. 404-405.
29. Jun Ho-Jin, "Shamanism in Korea and Its Influences on
the Korean Church", (Coursework Paper, Fuller Theological
Seminary, 1978), pp. 8-9.
30. The Ne chaff-Herzo n Q
Knowledge, 1911 ed., s.v. "Shamanism".
Se erenur Wok eecer, "A Study in Fertility. Cult for
Children in Korean Shamanism" (Doctoral Thesis, Yonsei
Oniversity, 1976) ;. Pp. 6.
32. Halla Pai Huhm, Kut: Korean Shamanist Ritual,
(Elizabeth, New Jersey: Hollym International Corp., 1980), p.
10.
33. Kim Jong-Il, Ne igions j ea, (Seoul, Korea:
me korean Religious Eustitute, 1981), p. 277.
34%. Kim T'ae-Gon, "Components", p. 18.
pe A cB ie
36. Lee Jung-Young, "Shamanistic Thought and Traditional
Korean Homes", Korea Journal, (November, 1975): 43-51.
37. Jun, “Shamanism Influences", p. 11.
38. Youngsook Kim Harvey, Six Korean Women, (St. Paul,
Minnesota: West Publishing Co., 1979), pp. 5-6.
25s, whbid 4, DDe4 250=251-.
4Q. Ibid.
mT an th and fuss ustrated fe opedia
of eselned? | git h Av e~«noad re
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D gurtadatiagus said
»
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sv. i +
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- ee a
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,1Pged Aaoweeswod) | a 7 AD pe
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d r e * bs ny
4 ws ‘ee withet Y- e h 2328 - =
. ’
7 a
a 1 jg2 AM Nets
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-"
e A
Er La
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,
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. Od _ —_
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L aad nati
ernatu , bono ied... S.V. "Shaman,
wo, bark 9 Rekbethors {ops «19a.
43. Harvey, Six Women, p. 237.
44. Kim Ttae-Gon, "Components", p. 21.
a5... Harvey, Six Women, p. 251.
WG. Canda, "“SHhamanie Initiation", p. 16.
iy. Kim T'ae=-Gon, "Shamanism in Seoul", p. 41.
48. Kim Jong-Il, Ne Pe LOns:. Ps 271 «
wo, HuUbM, Kut. pe. ot.
50. Horace N. Allen, "Mudang", Korean Repository, (April,
1896): 163-167.
51. Huhm, Kut, pp. 11-12.
Be. Lbid. opp e2h=22%
5a. EDid J pnep si t3si4.
54. Kim T'ae-Gon, "Shamanism in Seoul", p. 42.
55. Ibid., pp. 43-44.
56... Candag s"ShamanicyEinitiation", p. 20.
57. Kim T'ae-~Gon, "Shamanism in Seoul", p. 43.
58. Canda;, "Shamanic Initiation", p. 20.
59. Laurel Kendall, "Mugum: The Dance in Shaman's
Clothing", Korea Journal (December, 1977): 38-44.
60.5 Ibid. p.- 41.
G1. sHuhn; Kutsaup. 7400:
62. Hulbert, Passing Korea, pp. 411-412.
63. Heyman, "Musok", p. 15.
64. Hong, Kore tru Ss. De 150:
65. Chun Shin-Yong, ed., sulk Culture in Korea, Korean
Culture Series, No. 4 (Seoul, Korea: Si-Sa-Yong-O-Sa,
Puplienvers, Ine..,. 1982), p. 60.
66. Kim Jong-Il, Ne ippons, pe 277
=,
*
ny
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ke re pln te thd
mc. fey 2, “dnl
~ S TES “a ie RoW aie
@
“¢ esi as <
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ay
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wolasieaA} yon
AE
ox ,"nae “*
z
x UY A
Cc Ff y
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i
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enn
PENG 3 pa.
67. Kim Yung-Kwon, ed. A Hand k ea, (Seoul,
Korea: Korea Overseas Information Service, Ministry of
Culture and Information, 1978), p. 190.
eo. Harvey, Six Women, p. 10.
er sohed.', “Pe 1 tes
70. Kim Jong-Il, Ne HS Disw: 2 Tibis
71. Hahm, "Life-Cycle", pp. 4-8.
fa. dua, "Shamanism Infivences", p.. 13.
73. Harvey, Six Wovem, Pp. 23.
74. Hong, Korea Struggles, p. 151.
hoe Totae,: D.. V52'
oes Lotd..,.p.— TSe°
77. Lee Jung-Young, "Shamanistic Homes", pp. 43-48.
78. Kim Jong-I1, New Religions, p. 277.
79. Harvey, Six Women, p. 238.
SO, ‘Ebid. ,..P. 239...
81. Chun Shin-Yong, k C¢ ure, p. 66.
oe eGterk. Religions pp. 212.213.
83. Laurel Kendall, "Caught Between Ancestors and
Spirits: Field Report of a Korean Mansin's Healing Kut",
Korea Journal, (August, 1977): 8-23.
SA. Canda, “Shamanic Initiation", p. 15.
85. Soon Young Yoon, "Magic, Science and Religion on
Cheju Island", a Jou - (Mareh, 1976): 8-11.
S62" Hong; Korea Struggles, ps 151.
a7. Clark,’ Relizions, p..186.
88. Hulbert, Passin ore
5 Da Hee.
89. Gary Rector, "Insigh: on Music and Dance", ore
Quarterly, (Vol II. No. 4): 56-65.
90. Ibid.
{ +P, he
'*% Peo :hetmegetitl MG
iM ,eolviee ROoLIean
*. oe f sy
¥ ae
EL Eve 2 if
So AB ad sl “tioned ’
; : Be a) :
-—G-f ,Oq "2 Layo node o ty
oF >
cf .q ,*%ssc@ealtal dekaemed
¢
c
» «aX
> a fs
im F be i tt a
' ; ' : ow 1
mt) tne made , Bree
' ete to Fi ip & UF
7 a te. 3 eek, AL
e
if c ¥
2sGEs' « Tie 2s. ae
E iN i ; rr
faved" ,liebaee teased Gy,
to ¢xogeh bfort 2
Steshbovid G, EB, Liag, td., worra Christianity, vol. 2,
Eastern Asia (Monrovia, California: Mare Publications,
1979), p. i ie
B25 5 us istianij ou : ;
(Monrovia, Califorina: Mare Publications, 1974).
93. Roy E. Shearer, Lidfires u r ;
(Grand Rapids: -Wm. B. Eerdmans’ Publishing Co., 1966), p. 30.
oy. @iLen D.” Clark, 2_Bistory of the Church in Korea,
(Seoul: The Christian Literature Society of Korea, 1971), p.
42.
95. Alfred W. Wasson, "Church Growth in Korea" (New York:
International Missionary Council, 1934), p. 77.
96. Palmer, e nae Christianity, p.. 17.
Sie keds 4. Pow VOCs
98. Shearer, Wildfire, p. 218.
99. Chung, re ) POW, DPD. 29.
100. Roy E. Shearer, "Animism and the Church in Korea*"
(Master's thesis, Fuller Theological Seminary, 1968), p. 139.
101. Harvey, Six Women, p. 209.
102. Shearer, "Animism and the’ Church", p.s.101«
163...2bid.,..pp. 105=106%
104. Jun, "Shamanism Influences", pp. 19-20.
105. Harvey, Six Women, p. 234.
106. Shearer, "Animism and the Church", p. 91.
MOT LDiGs5 Ds “9'9'.
160. Liaad, s pn Asta. ps 60.
109. Shearer, "Animism and the Church", p. 140.
itis LOL ds is, ens
Pod an. D10 4
fier, PBId ss. Dis. VOT «
Liss. Harvey, Six Women, p.° 234.
fy
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allen, Horace N. "Mudang." ean Re (April
1896): 163-167.
Canda, Edward R. "Korean Shamanic Initiation as
Therapeutic Transformation: A Transcultural View." Korea
Journal] (November 1982): 13-25.
Chung, Kyung Cho. Korea Tommorrow. New York: The
Macmillian Company, 1956.
Clark, Allen D. A History of the Church in Korea. Grand
Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1971.
Clark, Charles Allen. i Ss d ea. “Seoul:
The Christian Literature Society of Korea, 1961.
Chun Shin-Yong, ed. Folk Culture in Korea. Korean
Culture Series, no. 4. Seoul: Si-Sa-Yong-0-Sa, 1982.
Hahm, Pyong-Choon,. “Part ones: Family and Life Cycle."
Korean Cultural Service (Winter 1981).
Harvey, Youngsook Kim. Six Korean Women. ot. Paul <
West Publishing Co., 1979.
Heyman, Allen C. "Musok: ~ Folk Religion of Korea."
Morning Calm (Winter 1982).
Hong, Harold S.3; Ji, Wong Yong and Kim, Chung Choon, ed.
Korea Struggles for Christ. Seoul: The Christian
Literature Society of Korea, 1966.
Huhm, Halla Pai. Kut: Korean Shamanist Ritual.
Elizabeth, New Jersy: Hollym International Corp., 1980.
Hulbert, Homer B. The Passing of Korea. Seoul: Yonsei
University Press, reprinted 1969.
Jun Ho-Jin. "Shamanism in Korea and Its Influences on the
Korean Church." Coursework Paper, Fuller Theological
Seminary, 1978.
Kendall, Laurel. "Caught Between Ancestors and Spirits:
Field Report of a Korean mansin's Healing Kut." ore
Journal (December 1977): 8-23.
Kim, Jong-Il. e igi s ea. seoult’ The Korean
Religious Institute, 1981.
Kim, T'ae-Gon,. "Components of Korean Shamanism." orea
Journal (December 1972): 17-25.
Kim, T'ae-Gon. "Shamanism in the Seoul Area." ore
Journal (June 1978): 39-51.
~~.
a
io 2
Suz
ip |
h Vl ee eed 2
Kim, Yung-Kwon, ed. A Handbook of Korea. Seoul: Korea
Overseas Information Service, Ministry of Culture and
Information, 1978.
Kinsler, Arthur W. WA ocuay in, Fertility Cult for Children
in Korean Shamanism." Doctoral Thesis, Yonsei
University, 1976.
Lee, Jung-Young. "Shamanistic Thought and Traditional
Korean Homes." e ou (November 1975): 43-51.
Baeao, David C...5.. ea. d LSstianity., .vol..2%
Eastern Asia. Monrovia, California: Mare Publications,
1979.
Ma fyt d Lc} n u at n
u ural, 1970 ea... S.vV. "Shaman".
Palmer, Spencer J. Korea and Christianity. Seoul:
Hollym Corporation: Publishers.
Rector, Gary. wInsight on Music and Dance." Korea
Quarterly (Vol II. no. 4): 56-65.
Shearer, Roy E. "Animism and the Church in Korea."
Master's Thesis, Fuller Theological Seminary, 1968.
Shearer, Roy E. Wildfire: Chureh Growth in Korea.
Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1966.
u hris nit i : ea. Monrovia,
California: Marc Publications, 1974.
The Ne chaff-Herzo ne fe) ia e Lous owl
1911 ed., s.V. "Shamanism."
enti Centur ne opedi igi °
7955 ed., S.V. ,"sShamansin."
Wasson, Alfred W. "Church Growth in Korea." New York:
International Missionary Council, 1934.
Yi Kyu-Tae. fe) rans ati ea. Trans. Sung
Tung-Mahm; Kim Soon-Sin; Goldberg, Charles; and Park Nahm
putek. Seoul: Sejong Publishing Co., 1970.
Yoon, Soon Young. "Magic, Science and Religion on Cheju
Island." Korea Journal (March.1976): 4-11.
_*
in ae
Sy
*
A ie &
La ke
-
at ben
areas
ed
Beet 21, 1983
Dear Worker for Christ in Korea,
My name is John M. Johnson. I am a student at the Asian
Center for Theological Studies ( yin
Seoul. I am presently working towards a Master of Divinity
degree.
The reason that I am contacting you is that I am working ona
project for two classes, Asian Religions and Christian
Mission and Strategies for World Evangelization. The project
is a study of Korean shamanisn. A great deal has recently
been written about shamanisn. I have read many books on the
subject. Now I need special help from Christian workers.
The purpose for my study is not just research on Korean
shamanism, but research to better understand the Korean
Shaman and to develop a strategy for evangelizing that group
of persons. As a foreigner I may very well not be the person
to attempt such a study, however, that is why I am asking for
your helpful insights and valubable suggestions.
Because I do not speak Korean fluently the attached
questionnaire has been prepared in English. It is hoped that
your responses would also be made in English. If that is not
possible your responses would still be greatly appreciated in
Korean. _
If you have any questions please phone me any time at 393-
1613.
Please return the attached questionaire to:
Mr. John M. Johnson
67-1, YunHee-Dong,
Sudaemoon-Ku, Seoul 120
It would be a great .help if this form could be mailed to me
no later than May 2, 1983.
Thank you in advance for your thoughtful consideration in
regard to this questionnaire.
In His service,
John M. Johnson
| eh ea ae .
a é ade ‘* -
8 nox pr th im ie
. ahh (¢
j hy i 7 V4
- : . {2o Al fo, 9
Lescevs biseW set: aki setae
ope" peingeede nee Aon to | WW
4 hese
| ‘aie
jnut Jee ok ybyae ye a0
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707 vaed StS |B gor eveb
y Yan tT ougteno 8 an”
dws TL " evod bude” » Gam ‘=
asve aidadulay bas nidate aot |
es
4 iit asarod seaqe doa 6:
- be1sgeiqd seed) aed @ tenaat
| shea e@ Oafe BI pital boqeo.
bivow sean seh he a ihe WON Bid,
tr 4)
uo bodoadta ea? Wie i) a
BI dot, a. Gio b c
x00 -omtauy: any
or” L088 ut-addms.
SHAMANISM OQUESTIONNATRE
1) What is the basic feeling of Christianity in Korea toward
shamanism?
O4% something to be tolerated.
26% something that is a part of the culture and
therefore not
openly opposed.
66% something of Satan.
Q4% other. If other, please describe.
2) How do you feel believers in shamanism feel about
Christianity?
_22% something to be tolerated.
26% something foreign, therefore something to be
32% something to be feared.
20% something to be used just in case shamanism does not
work.
other. If other, please describe.
3) How do you feel shamans feel about Christianity?
09% something to be tolerated.
24% something foreign, therefore something to be
58% something to be feared.
09% something to be used just in case shamanism does not
work.
other. If other, please describe.
4) In your opinion, how many adherants to shamanism are
there in Korea?
12% less than 1 million
27% between 1 million and 4 million
_17% between 4 million and 6 million
4ug more than 6 million
5) In your Opinion, how many shamans are there in Korea?
38% less than 20,000
30% between 20,000 and 50,000
12% between 50,000 and 100,000
20% more than 100,000
6) Would the average Christian be afraid of a shaman?
Yes _08% Noes 4.
7) Would the average pastor be afraid of a shaman?
Yes _02% No _98%
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8) Have you ever heard a sermon preached against shamanism
in Korea?
Yes _872 No. 13%:
9) Have you ever preached a sermon against shamanism?
Yes _57% No _43%
If yes, what scripture or scriptures did you use?
10) Do Korean seminaries teach anything about shamanism?
Yes -_73% No _27%
11) Does the Korean church have anything in worship, doctrine
or practice
that has come out of shamanisn?
Yes _51% No _49%
If yes, please list some examples.
12) What shamanistic doctrine would you use to start
witnessing to a Korean
shaman?
Have you ever done it? Yes _32% No _68%
13) Are there any special Korean ministries now doing
specific evangelism
with Korean shamans?
Yes _31% No _69%
If yes, please give name and address of a contact person,
if known.
14) Do you believe that a person who had professed Jesus as
Lord could ever
g0 back to a shaman in a time at crisis?
Yes _42% No _58%
15) In your opinion, what does Christianity offer that
Shamanism can't
offer? Please be specific.
16) Are you aware of any Korean folk beliefs that might
hinder a shaman from
becoming a Christian?
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Yes _60% No _40%
If yes, please list some examples.
17) Would you describe shamans as people who have:
61% no awareness of the gospel
26% some knowledge of the gospel
04% seen the implications of the gospel
09% a recognition of personal need for the gospel.
18. How would you describe the shaman's attitude toward the
gospel?
52% strongly opposed
24% somewhat opposed
20% indifferent
_02% somewhat favorable
02% strongly favorable
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