GIFT OF
,•
.
Shoe Industry
By
FREDERICK J. ALLEN. A.M.
Investigator of Occupations for The Vocation Bureau of Boston
and Author of
"Business Employments," "The Law as a Vocation,"
and Other Vocational Studies
PRICE, $1.25
PUBLISHED BY
Tht Vocation Bureau of Boston
6 BEACON STREET
Copyright, 1916, by
THE VOCATION BUREAU OP BOSTON
THE CHAPPLE PRESS LOSTON
PREFACE
THIS book is the story of a great and highly
organized industry. It is the result of two
years' careful investigation and extensive
supplementary study. Representative factories,
manufacturing all varieties of boots and shoes, have
been studied in every department and operation,
through periods varying from one to six weeks in
each. Information has been secured from manu-
facturers, officials, department heads, and opera-
tives, in every grade of service. The work of the
factory and the processes of shoemaking are
described as actually observed by the investigator.
Thus the book has been built up out of the in-
dustry itself. All available published material,
both domestic and foreign, has been examined, but
this volume is unique as an original study. More-
over the manuscript has been read critically and
approved by many authorities in the industry, both
by those who have given information and by others,
and by economists and labor union officials.
The conditions and methods presented are those
that are general and prevailing in this country.
The great natural divisions of the industry are
treated in their logical order, from its historical
setting and the development of shoe machinery to
the distribution of the finished product of the factory.
Employment conditions are treated at length and
valuable supplementary material is added. Im-
(3)
333544
! • v
4 ;\ ,r.: PREFACE
portant statistical material is given throughout the
chapters. An explanation of the terms used in
shoemaking is made the final chapter, for consul-
tation by the reader as may be found necessary.
Numerous charts, diagrams, and illustrations are
included.
The book graphically presents extensive inside
information gathered for permanent use.
It is the purpose of this study to give the nature,
history, magnitude, operations and processes, em-
ployment opportunities and demands, and the
future of the industry, both for those already in
it and for other persons, and their advisers and
teachers, who may be considering employment in
this field of manufacture.
Acknowledgment is due and heartily made to the
hundreds of persons in the industry who have
freely given information and suggestion in the
course of this study. Grateful acknowledgment is
made for special help, in most cases for a critical
reading of the manuscript or proof sheets of the book,
to the following persons and companies whose names
are here used by permission:
MR. THOMAS F. ANDERSON, Secretary of the New
England Shoe and Leather Association.
MR. ELDON B. KEITH, Treasurer, MR. CHARLES
E. MOORE, General Superintendent, and MR.
HARRY DUNBAR, Leather Buyer, of the George
E. Keith Company.
MR. PRESCOTT I. HERSEY, Vice-President of the
Regal Shoe Company.
MR. CHARLES M. LAWRENCE, Assistant Manager
and Superintendent of the Thomas G. Plant Com-
pany.
PREFACE 5
MR. WINFIELD L. SHAW, Labor Supervisor of the
William H. McElwain Company.
MR. CHARLES T. CAHILL, Advertising Manager of
the United Shoe Machinery Company.
MR. FRANK W. SELDEN, Superintendent of the
Hervey E. Gup till Company.
Rice and Hutchins, Incorporated.
The Allen-Foster- Willett Company.
The Thompson-Crooker Shoe Company.
MR. ARTHUR D. ANDERSON, Editor of the Boot and
Shoe Recorder.
MR. FREDERICK E. ATWOOD, Editor of American
Shoemaking.
MR. FRED A. GANNON, Editor of the Lynn Daily
Item and author of writings upon the shoe in-
dustry.
PROF. CARROLL W. DOTEN, Department of Eco-
nomics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
The Vocation Bureau.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE 3
CHAPTER I
HISTORICAL SKETCH
Ancient and Mediaeval Shoes 25
A Recent Discovery of Ancient Shoes 26
The London Cordwainers' Company 26
The Moccasin of the American Indian 27
The First American Shoemakers 27
An Indenture Paper 28
The Value of Shoes in Colonial Times 32
Ancient Shoe Laws 33
The Itinerant Shoemaker 33
The First Shoe Shops
A Shop of a Century Ago 3
Ebenezer Breed and the Shoe Tariff
The First Shoe Factories 39
A Division of Labor in the Factory: "Teams" and "Gangs" 40
A Quotation on the "Contract System" 41
The Attitude of Early Shoemakers toward the Shoe Factory 42
Organization in the Factory System 43
Specialists 43
The Magnitude of the Industry Today
Boots and Shoes, Including Cut Stock and Findings — Value
for Leading States: 1909 and 1899 47
Table I — General Statistics. Summary for the Three
Branches of the Shoe Industry for the United States.
Census of 1909 48
Table II— Boot and Shoe Cut Stock 49
Table III— Findings 50
Table IV — Exports of Boots and Shoes from the United
States during the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1914, as
Reported by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com-
merce, Department of Commerce 51
(7)
8 Table of Contents
Page
^| CHAPTER II
SHOE MACHINERY
The Invention of Shoe Machinery 55
Three Stages of Development 56
The Wooden Peg: 1815 56
The Rolling Machine: 1845 57
The Howe Sewing Machine: 1852 58
The McKay Sewing Machine: 1858 58
The Goodyear Welt Machine: 1862-1875 59
Edge-Trimming and Heel-Trimming Machines: 1877 59
The Lasting Machine: 1883 60
The Pulling-Over Machine 61
Joseph L. Joyce 61
Power in Shoe Manufacture 61
The Development of the Shoe Shank 62
Operating a Complicated Machine 63
The Leasing System 63
The Care of Machinery 64
The Standardization of Machinery 67
CHAPTER III
LAST-MAKING
Definition 71
The Shaping of the Last 71
Last Material 72
Hand Last-Making 72
Modern Last-Making 73
The Model Last 74
The Use of the Last-Lathe 74
Devices for Reducing Last in Use 75
The Storage of Lasts 75
CHAPTER IV
PATTERN-MAKING
Definition 79
The Pattern Designer 79
The Pattern Model 80
The Trial Shoe 81
The Number of Patterns to a Shoe 81
Pattern Material 81
Making Patterns 82
The Standardization of Lasts and Patterns . . 82
Table of Contents 9
Pag*
PATTERN-MAKING — Continued
The Storage of Patterns 83
Positions in the Pattern-Making Department 83
The Pattern Maker 83
The Price of Patterns 83
CHAPTER V
LEATHER
Its Nature 89
Tanning 89
American Leather Manufacturing 90
The Increasing Shortage of Leather 91
Leather Substitutes 92
The Tannery Divisions of Hides and Skins 93
A Side of Leather. 94
Divisions of Leather in Shoe Manufacture 94
The Varieties of Upper Leather 94
Kid 96
Calfskin 97
Side Leather 98
Sheepskin 99
Coltskin 99
Sole Leather 99
The Cut-Sole Industry 101
Leather, Tanned, Curried, and Finished — Value of Pro-
ducts for Leading States: 1909 and 1899 103
Table V — Imports of Hides and Skins (Except Fur Skins)
into the United States During the Fiscal Years Ending
June 30, 1913 and 1914, by Principal Countries, as Re-
ported by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 104
CHAPTER VI
THE DEPARTMENT OF SHOE MANUFACTURE
The Business Departments 109
The Executive Officers 110
The General Offices 110
The Factory Offices 110
Chart of the Business Departments of Shoe Manufacture 111
Factory Service and Office Service 112
The Factory Departments 112
The Modern Shoe Factory 113
Chart of the Factory Departments 114
10 Table of Contents
THE DEPARTMENT OP SHOE MANUFACTURE — Continued
Chart of Factory Management 115
The Typical Factory 116
CHAPTER VII
METHODS IN SHOE MANUFACTURE
The Chief Methods 123
Illustrations of Methods Now in Use 124
Cross Section of a Goodyear Welt Shoe 125
Cross Section of a McKay Sewed Shoe 126
Cross Section of a Standard Screwed Shoe 127
Cross Section of a Pegged Shoe 128
The Turned Shoe 129
The Lace Shoe 129
The Different Stages in Goodyear Welt Manufacture 130
Table VI — Census Statistics Showing the Number of
Boots, Shoes, and Slippers Made in the United States
for the Year 1909 by Each Method of Manufacture. . . 132
CHAPTER VIII
THE UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT
The Importance of Detail in Shoe Manufacture 135
Action Upon Receipt of an Order 136
Chart of the Upper Leather Department 137
The Day Sheet 138
A Typical Shoe Tag 139
A Typical Shoe Factory Day Sheet 140
The Upper Leather Room 141
Measuring Upper Leather 141
The Leather Sorter 142
The Lining Sorter 143
The Positions in a Sorting Department 143
The Lining and Cloth-Cutting Section 144
Positions in the Lining and Cloth Cutting Section 145
The Cutting Room 145
The Hand Cutter 145
The Clicking Machine 148
The Counting, Marking, and Skiving Department 152
Skiving 152
Nicking 153
Dicing Out Straps 153
Table of Contents 11
Pag*
THE UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT — Continued
Positions in the Skiving Department 153
Assembling Department 153
Positions in the Assembling Department 154
Time and Pay Statistics in the Cutting Department 154
Table VII — Average Rates of Wages per Hour, Average
Full-Time Weekly Earnings, and Average and Classified
Full-Time Hours per Week in the United States, by Years,
1910 to 1914— Cutting Department 156
Table VIII — Average Rates of Wages per Hour, Average
Full-Time Weekly Earnings, and Average Full-Time Hours
per Week, by States, 1914— Cutting Department 158
CHAPTER IX
THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT
Definition 163
Variations in Stitching Room Processes 163
The Number and Divisions of the Parts to be Stitched . . 164
The Divisions of This Department 164
The Lining Department : 164
Chart of the Stitching Department 165
Positions in the Lining Department 166
The Tip Department 166
Perforating 167
Positions in the Tip Department 168
The Closing and Staying Department 169
Positions in the Closing and Staying Department 170
The Foxing Department .' 170
Positions in the Foxing Department 171
The Top Stitching Department 172
Positions in the Top Stitching Department 173
The Button Hole Department 173
Positions in the Button Hole Department 174
The Vamping Department 175
Positions in the Vamping Department 175
The Toe Closing Department 175
Positions in the Toe Closing Department 176
Operating Stitching Machines 176
Table IX — Average Rates of Wages per Hour, Average
Full-Time Weekly Earnings, and Average and Classified
Full-Time Hours per Week in the United States, by Years,
1910 to 1914 — Fitting or Stitching Department 17S
12 Table of Contents
Page
THE STITCHING DEPABTMENT — Continued
Table X — Average Rates of Wages per Hour, Average Full-
Time Weekly Earnings, and Average Full-Time Hours per
Week, by States, 1914— Fitting or Stitching Department 182
CHAPTER X
THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT
Its Nature 187
The Preparation of Sole Leather Parts 187
The Division of Bottom Stock Fitting 188
The McKay Insole Department 188
Positions in the McKay Insole Department 189
The Welt Insole Department 189
Channeling 189
Slashing 190
Wetting 190
Randing 190
Reinforced Insoles 190
The Canvas Reinforcement 191
Positions in the Welt Insole Department 191
The Outer Sole Department 192
Positions in the Outer Sole Department 192
The Counter Department 193
The Toe Box Department 193
The Heel Department 194
The Processes of Making Heels 194
Positions in Heel Making 195
Employees in the Sole Leather Department 196
Table XI — Average Rates of Wages per Hour, Average
& Full-Time Weekly Earnings, and Average and Classified
& Full-Time Hours per Week in the United States, by Years,
1910 to 1914— Sole Leather Department 197
Table XII — Average Rates of Wages per Hour, Average
Full-Time Weekly Earnings, and Average Full-Time Hours
per Week, by States, 1914 — Sole Leather Department. . 198
CHAPTER XI
THE MAKING DEPARTMENT
Its Nature 201
The Lasting Department 202
The Pulling-Over Machine 202
Toe and Heel Wiping 202
Table of Contents 13
Page
THE MAKING DEPARTMENT — Continued
The Upper Trimming Machine 205
Positions in the Lasting Department 205
The Welt Bottoming Department 205
Welting 206
Welt Beating 206
Sole Laying 206
Rough Rounding 206
Heel Seat Nailing 209
Sole Sewing 209
Channel Laying 210
Leveling 210
Welt Finishing 210
Other Finishing Processes 210
Positions in the Welt Bottoming Department 213
The McKay Bottoming Department 217
Processes Connected with the McKay Method 217
Positions in the McKay Bottoming Department 218
The Heeling Department 221
Blind Nailing 221
Slugging 221
Heel Trimming 221
Positions in the Heeling Department 222
The Turned Shoe Department 222
Lasting the Turned^Shoe 222
Positions in the Turned Shoe Department 225
The Standard Screw, Pegged, and Nailed Departments . . 226
Work in the Making Department 229
Table XIII — Average Rates of Wages per Hour, Average
Full-Time Weekly Earnings, and Average and Classified
Full-Time Hours per Week in the United States, by Years,
1910 to 191^— Lasting Department 230
Table XIV — Average Rates of Wages per Hour, Average
Full-Time Weekly Earnings, and Average Full-Time Hours
per Week, by States, 1914 — Lasting Department 234
Table XV — Average Rates of Wages per Hour, Average
Full-Time Weekly Earnings, and Average and Classified
Full-Time Hours per Week in the United States, by Years,
1910 to 1914 — Bottoming Department 236
Table XVI — Average Rates of Wages per Hour, Average
Full-Time Weekly Earnings, and Average Full-Tune Hours
per Week, by States, 1914—Bottoming Department 240
14 Table of Contents
Page
CHAPTER XII
FINISHING, TREEING, PACKING, AND SHIPPING
Additional Departments 247
Finishing 248
The Tip Repairing Department 248
The Treeing Department 249
Embossing 250
Ironing 260
Inspecting 251
Positions in the Treeing Department 251
ThePacking Department 251
Positions in the Packing Room 252
The Shipping Department 252
Positions in the Shipping Department 253
Table XVII — Average Rates of Wages per Hour, Average
Full-Time Weekly Earnings, and Average and Classified
Full-Time Hours per Week in the United States, by Years,
1910 to 1914— Finishing Department 254
Table XVIII — Average Rates of Wages per Hour, Average
Full-Time Weekly Earnings, and Average Full-Time Hours
per Week, by States, 1914 — Finishing Department —
Other Employees, all Departments 256
CHAPTER XIII
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS AND SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
The Sex Division of Employees 261
The Divisions of Employees Among Departments 262
Sfcoe ftfoniifftfit.iirft Highly Spp.p.mlizfto' T 263
oeasons. • •, i * .* n r ........... goo^
Shoemaking a Trade 364
Entering Upon Work m a Shoe Factory 264
Promotion „.,.. i ,..,.,.„ 2SL
Securing Skilled Labor 265
Schools and Courses for Shoemaking — 266
Quotation from a Report upon Industrial Education in
Shoe Manufacture 267
The Shoe Superintendent 271
The Shoe Foreman 272
The Quality Man and the Quantity Man 273
The Efficiency Engineer 274
Table of Contents 15
Page
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS AND SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
— Continued
The Monotony of Shoemaking 275
Quotation upon Efforts in Some Factories to Lessen
Monotony 276
Social Service in the Shoe Factory 277
Quotation from a Government Study of Social Service . . 277
General Sanitary Conditions Observed in Boot and Shoe
Factories 280
Piece and Time Payment 283
The Best Paying Processes 283
Wages and Variation in Employment 284
Table XIX— Average Full-Time Hours per Week, Rates
of Wages per Hour, and Full-Time Weekly Earnings, and
Per Cent, of Employees Earning each Classified Rate of
Wages per Hour in the Principal Occupations in 1914. . 286
Variation in Number of Employees, Total Pay Rolls, and
Bi-weekly Earnings per Employee 288
Sex and Age Distribution of Wage Earners in the United
States by Leading Industries: 1909 289
Table XX — Sex and Age Distribution by Leading Indus-
tries : 1909 290
The Shoe Repairing Industry 292
Earnings in the Repair Shop 295
The Shoe Factory Chemist 295
CHAPTER XIV
AN EXPLANATION OP THE TERMS USED IN SHOEMAKING
The Need of Knowing These Terms 299
Acid-tanned 300
Adjustment 300
Aloft 300
Anatomic 300
Arch 300
Assembling 300
Backstay 300
Back Strap 300
Bal 300
Ball 301
Beading 301
16 Table of Contents
AN EXPLANATION OF THE TEEMS USED IN SHOEMAKING
— Continued
Beating Out 301
Bellows Tongue 301
Belting 301
Bench-Made 301
Bend 301
Blackball 301
Blacking the Edge 301
Blind Eyelet 301
Blocking 302
Blucher 302
Boot 302
Bottom Filling ' 302
Bottom Finishing 302
Bottom Scouring 302
Box 302
Brogan 302
Broken Arch 302
Brushing 302
Buckram 303
Buffing 303
Button 303
Button Fly 303
Cabaretta 303
Calfskin 303
Calking Machine 303
Carton ...... 303
Case 304
Channel 304
Channel Screwed 304
Channel Stitched 304
Channel Turning 304
Chrome-tanned 304
Clicking 304
Closing On 304
Collar 304
Colonial 304
Combination Last 304
Congress Gaiter 305
Copper Toe 305
Counter.., 305
Table of [Contents 17
Pa8e
AN EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS USED IN SHOEMAKING
— Continued
Cravenette 305
Creasing Vamp 305
Crimping 305
Cushion Sole 305
Custom-Made 305
Cut-off Vamp 305
Dicing or Dinking 305
Dom Pedro 305
Dressing 305
Edge Setting 305
Edge Trimming 306
Embossing 306
Eyelet 306
Fabric 306
Facing 306
Fair Stitch 306
Filler 306
Findings 306
Finish 306
Fitting 306
Fitting Room 307
Form 307
Foxing 307
French Size Marking 307
Gaiter 307
Gem Insoles 307
Golf Shoe 307
Goodyear Welt 307
Gore 307
Grading 307
Half-Sole 307
Heel 307
Heel Scouring 308
Heel Seat 308
Heel Shaving 308
Hemlock Tanned 308
Inseam Trimming 308
Insole 309
Inspecting 309
Ironing Uppers 309
*2
18 Table of Contents
Page
AN EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS USED IN SHOEMAKING
— Continued
Lace ; 309
Lace Stay 309
Lap Stone 309
Last 309
Lasting 309
Leveling 309
Lift 309
Lining 309
Low-cut 309
McKay Sewed 309
Measurement 310
Moulding 310
Naumkeaging 310
Oak-Tanned 310
Oxford 310
Pasted Counter 310
Pattern 310
Pegging : 310
Perforating 310
Polish 310
Pressing 310
Pulling Lasts 310
Pulling Over 311
Pump 311
Quarter 311
Rand 311
Relasting 311
Repairing 311
Rolling 311
Rough Rounding 311
Royalties 311
Rubber Cement 311
Rubber Shoes 311
Sample 312
Sandal 312
Screw Fastened 312
Shank , 312
Shank Burnishing 312
Shanking Out 312
Table of Contents 19
Page
AN EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS USED IN SHOEMAKING
— Continued
Size 312
Skiving 312
Slipper '. 313
Slugging 313
Sneaker 313
Sock Lining 313
Soft Tips 313
Soles and Sole Leather 313
Sole Laying 313
Sorting 313
Split 313
Spring 313
Stamping 313
Stay 313
Stitch Separating 313
Stitched Aloft 313
Stock Keeping 314
Stripping 314
Style 314
Tan 314
Tanning 314
Tap 314
Tempering 314
Tip 314
Tongue 314
Top 314
Top Facing 314
Top Lift 314
Top Stitching 314
Treeing 315
Trimming Cutting 315
Turned Shoe 315
Turnover 315
Upper 315
Vamp 315
Vamping 315
Viscolizing 315
Welt 315
Welt Beating 315
20 Table of Contents
Pagt
AN EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS USED IN SHOEMAKINQ
—Continued
Welting 316
Wheeling 316
Width 316
SHOE AND LEATHER BIBLIOGRAPHY 317
SHOE AND LEATHER JOURNALS 319
ALPHABETICAL INDEX . . 320-3
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
1. Frontispiece
Interior of a Shoe Shop in the Civil War Period.
A Modern Interior.
2. An Old Time Shoemaker 29
3. An Old Time Shoe Shop Placed beside a Modern Factory 37
4. Facsimiles of Early Royalty Stamps 67
5. A Side of Leather Divided as to Quality 95
6. A Typical Modem Shoe. Factory, Manchester, N. H. . 117
7. Cross Section of a Goodyear Welt Shoe 125
8. Cross Section of a McKay Sewed Shoe 126
9. Cross Section of a Standard Screwed Shoe 127
10. Cross Section of a Pegged Shoe 128
11. A Goodyear Welt Shoe in the Different Stages of Manu-
facture 131
12. A Typical Shoe Tag 139
13. A Typical Shoe Factory Day Sheet 140
14. A Skin Showing how Patterns Are Placed in Cutting. 147
15. Operating the Clicking Machine 149
16. Operating the Rex Pulling Over Machine 203
17. Operating the U. S. M. Co. Lasting Machine 207
18. Operating the Goodyear Welt Sewing Machine 211
19. Operating the Goodyear Rough Rounding Machine . . 215
20. Operating the Goodyear Stitching Machine 219
21. Operating the Sole Leveling Machine 223
22. Operating the Heeling Machine 227
91)
THE SHOE INDUSTRY
CHAPTER I
HISTORICAL SKETCH
23
CHAPTER I
HISTORICAL SKETCH
Ancient and Mediaeval Shoes. The sandal was
the first known form of footwear. It was the uni-
versal type among all early peoples, as It is now in
all warm countries. Pictures of ancient Egyptian
sandal makers of 1495 B. C. have been found in
Thebes, showing methods something like those of
the modern hand shoemaker who sat upon a low
bench or form and held his work upon his knees,
earliest known form of footwear varied from a
strip of leather fastened underneath as a protection
from the ground to coverings ornamented with gems
and gold. Sandals of papyrus and of leather were
in quite general use in ancient times. The Teutonic
tribes of the north of Europe wore a leather protec-
tion upon the leg below the knee. The Romans
adapted this custom by attaching the leg covering
to the sandal, at first leaving the toe open and later
closing it, thus making a complete boot. Such a
boot or shoe was worn throughout the Middle Ages.
In this period the shoe became one of the most im-
portant and conspicuous articles of dress, and its
length varied with the social or political standing
of the wearer. Thus a prince wore a shoe thirty
(25)
26 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
inches long; a baron, one of twenty-four inches;
a knight, one of eighteen, and so on.
A Recent Discovery of Ancient Shoes. "The
two-thousand-year-old footwear exhibit in the
museum of the United Shoe Machinery Company,
which was recently taken from excavations made on
the site of the ancient city of Antinoe, established
A. D. 130, impresses the observer with the fact that
ancient shoemakers were by no means lacking in
skill. In looking at the exhibit, one is amazed to
see the modern effects of many of the samples. The
shoes are splendidly preserved, and some of the
knitted sandals have the appearance of having been
given only a few weeks' hard wear. Attempts at
ornamentations show rosettes made of leather, and
made up in a variety of designs."*
The London Cordwainers' Company. In the
year 1272 King Henry III granted an ordinance
which established the Cordwainers' and Cobelers'
Company of London, as it was first known, and
gave it power to supervise the trade generally "for
the relief and advancement of the whole business,
and to the end that all frauds and deceits may here-
after be avoided." While "cordewaner," a word
originating from the use of leather coming from
Cordova in Spain, was the name used generally for
the shoemaker of the time, the term included also
workers in the associated trades, such as leather
curriers, tanners, purse and pouch makers, and
*Prom American Shoemaking, for November 7, 1914.
HISTORICAL SKETCH 27
girdlers. The "cobeler" became later the worker
in old leather, or merely the shoe repairer.
The Cordwainers' Company has become simply a
guild, but one of the oldest and most honored in the
city of London.
Marry, because you have drank with the King,
And the King hath so graciously pledged you,
You shall no more be called shoemakers;
But you and yours, to the world's end,
Shall be called the trade of the gentle craft.
—George-a-Greene, Old Play, 1500.
The Moccasin of the American Indian. The
American Indian made rawhide leather by simple
processes, and sewed pieces of it into a foot covering
called a "moccasin." The white men who first
came brought shoes from the mother countries and
for many years continued to import them; but the
pioneers also wore the moccasins of the native,
sometimes making them, as well as hunting
shirts and leggings, from leather tanned by the
Indian.
The First American Shoemakers. The first shoe-
makers in this country settled in Massachusetts,
Thomas Beard and Isaac Rickerman coming to
Salem in 1629, and Philip Kertland to Lynn in 1635.
Tke-advent of each of these men was heralded as
an important event and special favors were granted
to them. TThey brought the methods of a trade
still primitive though ancient in Europe. They
used the leather apron, lap stone, hammer, wooden
28 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
pegs, hand-made thread, boot- tree last, such as
thousands of cobblers use even in this day of ma-
chinery. John Adam Dagyr, a Welshman, came to
Lynn in 1750. He was a master-craftsman, and
Lynn, which had already become the leading shoe
town in the Colonies, advanced still more rapidly
in the industry. Dagyr was the first organizer of
the industry in this country. The more ingenious
colonists learned to make shoes by hand, often
serving an apprenticeship of seven years, and the
trade gradually passed far beyond its European
stages. From these simple beginnings sprang the
great industry of American shoemaking.
An Indenture Paper. Following is a copy of the
original agreement by which boys were apprenticed
to the shoemaking trade in the early part of the last
century. The original is now in the possession of
Mr. Charles Wellesley Allen, Brooklyn, N. Y.
"THIS INDENTURE, WITNESSETH,
"That John Goedersoon, now aged fourteen
years, eight months and twenty-seven days,
by and with the consent of his step-father, John
Wright, and his mother, Mary Wright, hath
put himself and, by these presents, doth vol-
untarily and of his own free will and accord,
put himself Apprentice to Frederick Seely of
the City of New York, Cordwainer, and after
the manner of an Apprentice to serve from the
day of the date hereof for and during, and until
the full end and term of six years, three months
HISTORICAL SKETCH 31
and three days next ensuing during all which
time the said Apprentice shall his master faith-
fully serve, his secrets keep, his commands
everywhere readily obey.
"He shall do no damage to his said Master
nor see it done by others, without letting or
giving notice thereof to his said Master. He
shall not waste his said Master's goods nor lend
unlawfully to any. He shall not contract matri-
mony within the said term; at Cards, Dice, or
any unlawful game he shall not play, whereby
his Master may have damages. With his own
goods nor the goods of others, without license
from his said Master. . . . He shall neither
buy nor sell. He shall not absent himself, day
or night, from his said Master's service without
leave, nor haunt ale-houses, taverns or play-
houses; but in all things behave as a faithful
Apprentice ought to do, during the said term.
"And the said Master shall use the utmost
of his endeavors to teach, or cause to be taught
or instructed, the said Apprentice in the trade,
or mystery, of a Cordwainer, and procure and
provide for him sufficient meat, drink, washing,
lodging and clothing fit for an Apprentice, during
the said term of service and four quarters of night
schooling during the said term.
"And for the true performance of all and
singular the Covenants and Agreements afore-
said, the said parties bind themselves each unto
the other firmly by these presents. IN WIT-
NESS WHEREOF the said parties have inter-
changeably set their hands and seals hereunto.
Dated the sixth day of August, in the thirty-
fifth year of the Independence of the United
32 THE SHOE INDUSTKY
States of America, and in the year of our Lord
eighteen hundred and eleven.
"Sealed and delivered in the
presence of L. Cowdrey.
"FREDERICK SEELY,
"JOHN GOEDERSOON,
"MARIA WRIGHT,
"JAHAN WRIGHT."
i The Value of Shoes in Colonial Times. In spite
of the abundance of wild and domestic animals
whose skins might serve as leather in Colonial times,
the prices of leather and of rough hand-made foot-
wear were comparatively high. Leather of the finer
sort was still imported from England. Shoes were
the product of quite laborious processes and of con-
siderable skill and ingenuity. They might be
purchased by labor on the land or in the forest, by
the barter of other goods or by hard English shillings.
In the law of 1720-21 Pennsylvania fixed the maxi-
mum price at which shoes should be sold at retail
in the colony, as "six shillings and six pence for a
pair of good, well-made men's shoes," five shillings for
women's shoes, and proportionately less for children's
shoes. This law fixed the price of leather also/
With many persons, especially children and youth,
shoes were little or seldom worn, appearing only on
special occasions. Often the Colonial family walked
bare-foot to church on Sunday morning, each mem-
ber carrying his shoes in his hand until near the
church door when they were put on the feet.
HISTORICAL SKETCH SB
Ancient Shoe Laws. The law makers of the
Colonies from the beginning set regulations over the
activities and employments of the people. The
Province of Pennsylvania in 1720-21 made it a crime
for a tanner of leather to become a currier or a shoe-
maker. Section 7 of the law reads as follows:
"And be it further enacted by the authority
aforesaid that no person occupying or using
the mystery of the shoemaker, shall make or
cause to be made any boots, shoes, or slippers
for sale but of leather well and sufficiently
sewed with good thread well twisted and made
and well waxed. Nor shall mingle the over-
leather, that is to say part of the overleather
being of neats leather and part of calves leather.
Nor shall put into any boots, shoes, or slippers
for sale, any leather made of sheepskin, bulls
hide, or horses hide; or into the upper leather
of any shoes or slippers, or into the inner part
of any boots (inner part of the shoe excepted)
any part of any hide from which the sole leather
is cut, called the neck, shank, flange, powle, or
cheek, upon paying a forfeiture of all such shoes,
boots, and slippers, to be divided and applied
in the manner directed by this act."
The same Act provided that shoes sold above the
prices fixed by Provincial law or above the rates
set from time to time by the mayor, aldermen, and
justices of the courts, should be subject to forfeiture.
The Itinerant Shoemaker. The Colonial shoe-
maker often traveled from house to house or village
34 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
to village, as a journeyman, doing repair work and
making new shoes for all the members of a family.
The market for home-made shoes was limited in
those days, and many of the shoemakers practiced
other arts, such as sharpening knives, saws, and
axes, mending furniture, repairing clocks, cutting
hair, and pulling teeth. The traveling cobbler >
with his kit of simple tools and with the rough and
heavy leather of the period, was a welcome dis-
penser of service and of news and gossip among the
colonists.
The First Shoe Shops. No change of importance
from either home work or itinerant employment
occurred in shoemaking in the colonies until about
the middle of the eighteenth century, when the
more enterprising cobblers began to employ others
and work became more and more confined to local
shops. Hand processes continued, with some sub-
division of labor, one man cutting, another sewing,
another fastening on the bottom of the boot with
pegs, and so on. Often in the home or little shop
the hand sewing was done by girls and women
whose hands were more deft for such a process.
Poor lone Hannah,
Sitting at the window, binding shoes !
Faded, wrinkled,
Sitting, stitching, in a mournful muse!
Brighte-eyed beauty once was she,
When the bloom was on the tree.
Spring and winter
Hannah's at the window, binding shoes.
— "Hannah Binding Shoes" Lucy Larcom.
HISTORICAL SKETCH 35
The New England shoemakers led in the industry.
There were a few Dutch shoemakers in New
York, but scarcely any in agricultural communities
of the South. The market of the New England
maker, therefore, included all the colonies scattered
along the Atlantic coast. In many cases the pro-
prietor of the shop made weekly or monthly trips on
foot or with an ox-cart to a village or larger com-
munity to dispose of his shop-made goods, and shoe
traffic gradually arose.
Often the shop was closed altogether in the sum-
mer, when work upon the land was necessary or
fishing for those situated along the sea coast.
Frequently the home served as a shop, the family
receiving shoe materials from the manufacturer or
from the village storekeeper who acted for the manu-
facturer or tanner.
A Shop of a Century Ago. "Probably the oldest
shoe factory now standing in this country is the
Putnam shop, near the Newburyport turnpike, in
the town of Danvers, Mass. It was built before
the Revolution. It was one of the buildings on the
old Putnam farm, the birthplace of General Putnam
('Old Put') of Revolutionary fame. It was men-
tioned in the first United States census of manu-
facturing, taken in 1786, and it was then evidently
a factory of importance. It is still in excellent
state of preservation. Some of the tools that were
used by its occupants are still preserved.
"The early tools are of wrought iron. The pat-
3*
36 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
terns are of board. Cutters who are used to hand-
ling thin patterns of today would think these board
patterns very coarse. Lasts saved in the old shop
are clumsy. The books show that they cost from
twenty-five cents to one dollar a pair, the price being
determined by the style. Apparently, the last-
makers of old well knew how to capitalize style.
"All the shoes made in this old shop were made by
hand. The shoemakers were paid from fifteen to
twenty-five cents a pair for their labor, and they
earned from five dollars to ten dollars a week, the
rise and fall of their wages being determined chiefly
by the way that orders came in. At first shoes made
in this shop were sent in ox-wagons to Boston.
Later they were sent in horse wagons. They were
packed in barrels."*
Ebenezer Breed and the Shoe Tariff. Following
the Revolution the break between the Colonies and
the Mother Country encouraged American indus-
tries in many lines. American shoemaking, how-
ever, still suffered from the competition of imported
shoes. The habit of wearing English-made shoes
was hard to break and many of the well-to-do people
continued to demand them.
At this crisis, in which an industry of great possi-
bilities seemed likely to be restricted and confined
mainly to the cheaper lines of product, appeared the
first great leader of American shoe manufacture,
Ebenezer Breed. Breed was born in Lynn, of
•From Boot and Shoe Recorder. Boston.
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HISTORICAL SKETCH 39
Quaker parentage, and here learned the shoe trade.
While still a young man he removed to Philadelphia,
then the Nation's capital. Here he gained the
friendship of prominent people, including members
of the National Congress. He proposed a protective
tariff on boots and shoes, and on this suggestion
Congress passed a shoe tariff act in 1789.
Breed was a wholesale boot and shoe merchant,
and prospered greatly after the passage of the act.
He was recognized as a leading American and was
feted at home and abroad, visiting France and
England.
Through misfortune in personal affairs, Ebenezer
Breed lost his business and property and his eyesight.
He died in the almshouse of his native town of
Lynn.
The following has been said of him:
4 'The man who was so powerful as to build
up a great wall of protection about the entire
American shoe trade spent his declining days
quietly and peacefully in an almshouse, for-
gotten by nearly everyone but the Quakers."
The First Shoe Factories. Soon after the Revo-
lution shoemakers who wished to increase their
output or had ambition to became manufacturers
or employers, engaged other shoemakers to work
for them on a larger scale than formerly, thus
establishing the factory system and introducing a
distinction between capital and labor in the industry.
40 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
The early manufacturers devoted themselves
more and more to buying materials in quantities and
to selling the products of their factories. Larger
and larger factories were erected. In many cases
shoemakers took materials from the factory and made
shoes at home, each in his little shop.
A Division of Labor in the Factory: * 'Teams"
and "Gangs." It was known that workmen were
usually expert in particular operations, for instance,
in cutting and fitting uppers, or in preparing soles,
or in sewing the sole to the upper. This fact pro-
duced a division of labor. Shoemaking in factories
during this period, until the introduction of machin-
ery, was marked, also, by the custom of having
what were called "teams" of workers. A team
consisted of a number of workers, each performing
a particular process, the whole team producing an
entire shoe. On the other hand, a team might con-
sist of a group of men all experts upon a single
process. Such a team was known usually as a
"gang." A gang of bottomers, for instance, often
went from factory to factory, or from employer to
employer, having a contract with each to bottom
all the shoes in process of making.
The team or gang system gradually passed largely
out of use after the introduction of shoe machinery.
The term is still used in some factories, especially
in the making or bottoming room. In one factory
only, however, among the many investigated in
obtaining material for this book, was there found a
HISTORICAL SKETCH 41
gang working as in earlier times. This was a team
of six men making an entire shoe of high quality
for a fine class of trade.
A Quotation on the "Contract System." The
following quotation gives an interesting picture of
the contract system and team work:*
"With the advent of the McKay machine
came new methods, new systems, and new styles.
"The contract system was the popular way
of making shoes. The manufacturer had a room
in the shoe district, where he cut the uppers and
kept his stock; he would then enter into a con-
tract with some man to fit them. When uppers
were fitted he would again make another contract
with some firm to bottom them. Thus it will
be seen that very little equipment was needed
to manufacture shoes. All the room required
was for cutting and packing. Our large and
modern factories of today, with their splendid
equipment of almost humanly intelligent ma-
chinery and skilled operators, giving employ-
ment to thousands of men and women, and
turning out annually 3,000,000 pairs of shoes,
was never the dream of the old-time shoe-
maker.
"Many evils grew from the contract system.
It was a common thing for those men who had
charge of the contract fitting and bottoming
rooms to underbid each other, and he whose
bid was the lowest got the work. He saw to
it, however, that his margin of profit remained
*G. P. Lawrence, in American Shoemaking, Boston, January 16, 1915.
42 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
the same, for he would cut the piece price of his
employees enough to make up the difference,
and thus his margin of profit remained the same.
"Labor organizations did much to correct
this evil.
"Prices for bottoming ranged from twenty-
seven and one-half to forty-five cents a pair.
Contractors wanted the lion's share for their
profit, and got it.
"The McKay sewing machine and a few stock
fitting machines were all the machines used
at the time of the five-handed team, and they
were operated by foot power.
"Stock fitting was a simple operation, con-
sisting of rounding and channeling and counter
skiving (no moulding) . Five men were required
to build a shoe. A bench six feet long and four
feet wide, with two shelves in the center, two
men on each side and one at the end, a laster,
beater-out, trimmer, edge setter and bottom
finisher, constituted the team, and twelve pairs
of lasts were given to each team."
The Attitude of Early Shoemakers towards the
Shoe Factory. The typical shoemaker had long
been his own master. He worked in his little shop
at home as he pleased, doing perhaps farm work or
engaging in some other occupation a part of the year.
He objected to serving any other master than him-
self, and believed that obedience to a foreman was
a surrender of his personal rights and liberties.
He was reluctant to submit to factory hours, from
seven o'clock in the morning until six at night, and
HISTORICAL SKETCH 43
to exacting factory regulations. He opposed in like
manner the introduction of labor-saving machinery.
The general industrial growth of communities
was, however, an irresistible though a slowly coming
tide. Progressive methods of employment and the
introduction of machinery gradually broke down
all opposition. The individual shoemaker or cobbler
has survived to the present day, but will probably
disappear with this generation.
Organization in the Factory System. Factories
were divided into the natural divisions or depart-
ments of shoemaking. Men were set apart to
organize and train employees. Superintendents and
foremen or overseers of departments appeared.
Systems were worked out for the procuring and care
of raw materials, for making shoes in quantity, for
moving them in the processes of making from one
factory room to an other, for having each lot handled
and finished as a unit, and for disposing of factory
product through agencies established in market cen-
ters, and through traveling salesmen. Thus factory
organization produced also business organization.
Specialists. Modern factory and business or-
ganization calls for specialists in each department.
The large shoe manufacturing firm of today has a
specialist in leather buying, another in procuring
lasts and patterns, another in charge of miscel-
laneous supplies, another as manager of sales, another
as factory manager or in charge of a factory de-
partment, another as financier, another for ad-
44 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
vertising, and so on through all the great divisions
of the firm's activities.
The Magnitude of the Industry Today. The
growth of the shoe industry in this country has been
marvelous. The greatest gain has taken place
within the last twenty years, since the invention
and wide-spread use of the more important shoe
machines. Although full statistical information is
given in the census tables included in this volume, a
few illustrative figures and facts may be presented
here. According to the Census of 1909 there were
in thirty-one states of the Union 1,918 factories
making shoes and allied products. The capital
invested in the industry was $222,324,000, and the
number of employees was 215,000. Eight hundred
and sixty of the factories were in Massachusetts.
There has been a constant increase in the industry
since that time, especially in invested capital and
employees. The persons connected with shoe manu-
facture probably now number nearly 250,000. The
leading states in their order are, Massachusetts,
Missouri, New York, New Hampshire, Ohio, Penn-
sylvania, and Illinois.
Boston is the leading center of the world in the
shoe and leather trade; Chicago, in trade in
untanned hides.
Lynn, the first home of the industry in this country,
has long been the leading city in the manufacture
of shoes and shoe material. Sixty-five per cent, of
the manufactures of the city are in these lines. It
HISTORICAL SKETCH 45
has over two hundred shoe factories, employing
18,000 people and $18,000,000 in capital, and pro-
ducing goods to the value of $47,000,000 annually.
Brockton, Mass., ranks second in the industry,
with eighty-six per cent, of its manufactures in shoes.
It has seventy-five factories, employing about 14,000
people and a capital of over $14,000,000, and pro-
ducing shoes worth $40,000,000 annually.
Other cities in the order of magnitude of shoe
manufacture are, St. Louis, Mo., Haverhill, Mass.,
Boston, New York, Manchester, N. H., Cincinnati,
Rochester, N. Y., and Chicago.
The exportation of shoes has come mostly within
twelve or fifteen years, and has grown very rapidly
within this time. The Massachusetts North Shore
district, for example, now sends abroad more than
ten million dollars' worth of shoes each year.
The United States is not only leading the world
in making shoes, but is finding markets increasingly
in all countries.
The New England Shoe and Leather Association
has recently issued a circular from which the follow-
ing statements are drawn:
New England produces fifty-seven per cent,
of the boots, shoes, slippers and cut-stock and
findings, and a large percentage of all the leather
made in this country.
It has 1,000 shoe factories and cut-stock
and findings establishments, principally in
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine.
46 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
In these industries $111,000,000 capital is
invested, 100,000 wage-earners are employed,
and the annual value of product is approximately
$300,000,000.
It has about 175 establishments for the pro-
duction of leather, representing $45,000,000 of
invested capital and $45,000,000 annual value
of product.
It also leads in the manufacture of rubber
goods, Massachusetts alone annually producing
$50,000,000 worth of rubber boots and shoes
and miscellaneous articles.
Massachusetts is virtually the birthplace of
the tanning and boot and shoe industries of the
United States, and has possessed these allied
industries for nearly three hundred years.
In the boot and shoe and cut-stock and find-
ings industries, it has about 875 establishments,
with more than $90,000,000 invested capital,
83,000 wage-earners and annual value of pro-
duct of $236,000,000.
It has sixty-three cities and towns in which
the shoe manufacturing industry is carried on.
It has one county, Essex, which produces
one-seventh of the combined boot and shoe
and leather product of the United States.
Brockton, the leading city in which men's
shoes are manufactured; Haverhill, the foremost
slipper manufacturing city, and Lynn, the
world's greatest women's footwear center, are
notable examples of Massachusetts' shoemaking
activity.
More than 3,000,000,000 pairs of shoes have
been shipped from Boston in the past forty-
five years.
(47)
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CHAPTER II
SHOE MACHINERY
(53) *4
CHAPTER II
SHOE MACHINERY
The Invention of Shoe Machinery. The inven-
tion of shoe machinery, from about the middle of
the last century, has revolutionized shoe manu-
facture. The story of the patient development of
one machine after another, until the dexterity of
the human fingers has been equalled, reads like a
romance. Most of these machines have been in-
vented by shoeworkers themselves, often after long
toil and study of particular processes. Inventive
genius and mechanical skill have been granted about
7,000 patents on shoe machinery since the establish-
ment of the United States Patent Office in 1836.
Sometimes there have been a score or more on a
single machine, to protect it as it has been built up
part by part. New patents are constantly being
granted, nineteen being announced in one week in
November, 1914, during the preparation of this
chapter.
In making an ordinary shoe today there are one
hundred and seventy-four machine operations, per-
formed upon one hundred and fifty-four different
machines, and thirty-six hand operations, or alto-
gether two hundred and ten processes. About three
(65)
56 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
hundred different machines are used in the manu-
facture of all kinds of footwear, and the number of
processes is considerably increased.
Three Stages of Development. There are three
conspicuous stages of development in the invention
and use of shoe machinery.
The first stage is that of the upper-stitching
machine, by which the top parts of the shoe are
machine-sewed instead of being sewed by hand.
The second is that of the sole-sewing machine,
by which the soles are attached to the uppers with
a machine instead of by hand.
The third stage is that of machine-welting, in its
modern form. This is an improved method of
sewing on the sole, so that the shoe is flexible, as
was the old hand-sewed shoe.
Other machines are subordinate to these in
general importance, and mark steps of advance-
ment in minor processes and features of shoe manu-
facture.
An account of the more important machines used
in shoe manufacture is given herewith, in the
order of their invention. As we shall meet these
in operation in our study of factory departments,
some knowledge of each machine will help our
understanding of a process and of the running of
the machine as an occupation.
The Wooden Peg: 1815. Heels were fastened
to shoes by hand-made wooden pegs as early as the
sixteenth century. Preceding the use of shoe ma-
SHOE MACHINERY 57
chines came the machine-made peg in 1815. Up
to that time the bottom of the shoe had been fastened
to the upper by sewing with heavy thread or "waxed
ends," and in the case of some heavy boots by
copper nails. This sewing was a slow, hard process
and was necessarily done by men. The invention
of the shoe peg was a great gain. The first pegs were
whittled out by hand in imitation of the nail. When
pegs were properly driven, piercing both the outer
and inner sole, with the upper leather well drawn
in between the two, the result was a great improve-
ment in strength and durability over the old method.
But the pegged shoes were less flexible than the sewed
shoe, and many persons still asked for shoes made
by the old method.
A pegging machine was invented in 1833, but
none came into general or successful use until about
1857. The pegging machine and the McKay
machine revolutionized the industry, but did not
put an end to hand shoemaking, which has con-
tinued to the present day, yet with a constantly
diminishing importance. The great gain, of course,
was the large increase in the number of shoes made,
with a lowering of the retail price and a widening
shoe market.
The Rolling Machine: 1845. The first machine
to be widely used in shoemaking was the rolling
machine for solidifying sole leather, which was
introduced about 1845. Formerly the shoemaker
was obliged to pound sole leather upon a lapstone
58 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
with a flat-faced hammer, to make it firm and dur-
able for the shoe bottom. This was a laborious
process, and sometimes took a half hour for what
can be done between the strong rollers of the machine
in one minute.
The Howe Sewing Machine: 1852. About the
year 1851 John Brooks Nichols, a Lynn shoemaker,
adapted the Howe sewing machine to sew the
uppers of shoes. John Wooldredge, also of Lynn,
was the first to use the machine, in 1852. This
adaptation really introduced the era of machine
shoemaking, doing away with the slow process of
hand sewing. The process had been called "bind-
ing," and the handsewers were called * 'binders."
Much of this work had been done in the home, and
the introduction of this machine made the industry
more distinctly a factory industry, marking the first
period of development.
The McKay Sewing Machine: 1858. In 1858
Lyman R. Blake, a shoemaker of South Abington,
now the town of Whitman, Massachusetts, invented
a machine which sewed the soles of shoes to the
uppers. This was improved by Robert Mathies
and manufactured by Gordon McKay, a capitalist
and manufacturer. It became known as the McKay
sewing machine.
These machines were first used in the factory of
William Porter and Sons of Lynn in 1861 or 1862,
and were run by foot power. The McKay machine
ushered in the second period of development in shoe
SHOE MACHINERY 59
machinery, and has done more than any other to
modernize shoe manufacture.
The Goodyear Welt Machine: 1862-1876. In
1862 Auguste Destouy, a New York mechanic,
invented a machine with a curved needle for sewing
turn shoes. This was later improved by as many
as eight different mechanical experts employed by
Charles Goodyear.
The machine was afterwards adapted to the
sewing of the welt in the bottom of the shoe, with
patents in 1871 and 1875, and became the famous
Goodyear welt machine. This marks the third
great period of development in shoe machinery.
McKay and Goodyear were not themselves
originators; they adapted and promoted the in-
ventions of shoe worker and mechanic. Other
inventions no doubt lacked such promoters and were
lost to the industry.
Edge-Trimming and Heel-Trimming Machines:
1877. Edge-trimming and heel-trimming machines
were introduced about the year 1877, and soon
played a very important part in shoe manufacture.
Previous to the introduction of these machines hand
trimmers, or "whittlers," as they were called, re-
ceived very high wages, sometimes double those of
lasters who were also highly paid. Considerable
opposition was offered to the trimming machines,
but their speed, uniformity of work, and saving to
the manufacturer made their adoption and uni-
versal use|inevitable.
60 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
The Lasting Machine: 1883. Though several
attempts had been made to invent and operate last-
ing machines, yet long after it was possible and
profitable to sew shoes by machinery, it was still
necessary to last them by hand. Shoe operatives
in all lines opposed the introduction of machinery,
feeling that it would reduce their numbers, shorten
the period of employment each year, and make them
more dependent upon the manufacturer.
Foremost in this opposition to machinery were the
hand lasters. They were strongly organized, and se-
cured a very high wage, ranging from twenty to thirty
dollars a week or more at a time when earnings on
most processes were low as compared with present day
wages in the shoe factory. The lasters boasted that
their trade could never be taken away from them.
Jan Ernest Matzeliger, a young man destined to
accomplish what seemed impossible, came to Lynn
from Dutch Guiana. He was the son of an engineer
and himself an expert machinist. In a Lynn shoe
factory he learned to operate a McKay machine and
heard the boast of the hand lasters.
Matzeliger began to work secretly on a model
for a lasting machine. The first model was a failure,
as was also a second. A third, however, was so
satisfactory that money was advanced to the in-
ventor for a fourth, in 1883. Matzejiger died while
working upon this, but it was completed by other
men, and became the foundation of the modern
consolidated lasting machine.
SHOE MACHINERY 61
The old lasters said that this machine sung to them
as it worked, "I've got your job! I've got your job!"
Some of the motions of the machine are like those
of the hand and fingers, drawing the parts of the
leather into place and fastening them by tacks.
The hand worker lasted perhaps fifty pairs of shoes
a day; the machine operator lasts from 300 to 700
pairs in a day of ten hours.
The Pulling- Over Machine. This improvement
was introduced early in the present century. The
pulling-over machine prepares the shoe for the
lasting machine. It centers the upper upon the
last, draws the sides and toe into place with pincers
which work like fingers, and temporarily fastens
these parts with tacks for lasting. "It is the acme
of shoe machinery intricacy and accuracy, and
years of study, and over $1,000,000 were spent in its
development."*
While his amount seems large it probably means
a saving to the shoe manufacturers of the United
States of four times the amount each year.
Joseph L. Joyce. Joseph L. Joyce was a shoe
manufacturer of New Haven, Conn., and a friend
of Goodyear and McKay. From 1860 to 1890 he
obtained many patents which greatly improved shoe
machinery and the art of manufacturing.
Power in Shoe Manufacture. Hand and foot
power were first used for shoe making. In 1855
William F. Trowbridge, at Feltonville, Mass., now
*From A Primer of Boots and Shoes. The United Shoe Machinery Company.
62 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
a part of Marlboro, first applied horse power to shoe
manufacture. Soon after this steam or waterpower
was in use in all factories. In 1890 the electric
motor was introduced, and has gradually taken the
place of the steam engine.
The Development of the Shoe Shank. As an
indication of the development of a minor part of a
shoe and of the simple machinery necessary for its
manufacture, and as an example of a subsidiary
industry, the main facts in the growth of the shank
industry are here presented.
Primarily the shank is that part of the sole between
the heel and the ball of a shoe. In shoemaking the
shank is a reinforcement placed between the outer
and inner soles of a shoe in that part extending from
the heel to the ball of the foot. Its purpose is to
give shape or style and elasticity to the shoe.
Fifty years ago the hand shoemaker used hard
scraps of leather for shoe shanks, trimmed to the
desired shape. Thin pieces of wood, molded to
shape on primitive machines, soon came into use,
and later strips of leather board. From 1877 to
1885 a single firm in this country had a monopoly
of molded shanks. About 1885 numerous patents
were granted on shanks and on machinery for pro-
ducing them. One form was a strip of flexible
steel with leatherboard cover or casing. All the
kinds of shanks described are in use at the present
time, according to the kind and grade of shoes to be
manufactured. There is, however, a constant ten-
SHOE MACHINERY 63
dency to use shanks of the better quality, for shoes
sell better and keep their shape better with the more
durable shank reinforcement.
The use of prepared shanks is universal, and the
world's supply is produced mainly in this country.
There are machines large and small, simple and
complicated, for making the various lesser parts of
a shoe and its accessories, such as heels, counters,
tips, eyelets, buckles, nails, thread, laces, polishing
brushes, and so on, as well as machines for manu-
facturing the various items of factory equipment.
Operating a Complicated Machine. In some
factories it is necessary, and in all factories advisable,
that the operator of a modern, complicated shoe
machine should understand its parts thoroughly,
and be able to make the adjustments and simple
repairs that may be needed at any time. The
worker who has mechanical ability may learn to
adjust and repair his machine by actual experience
in running it.
The mechanically expert operative is able to keep
the machine running to its full capacity and to
lengthen its period of efficient wear. He is thus
worth more to the factory, and has increased earning
power under the prevailing method of piece work.
The Leasing System. The leasing system of
shoe machinery was introduced in 1861 by Gordon
McKay, when it was found difficult to sell to manu-
facturers the Blake machine for sewing uppers and
soles together. Such machines were costly and the
64 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
capital of most shoe manufacturers was small at
that time. The leasing system, on a royalty basis,
enabled the manufacturers to have the advantage
both of the machine and of unreduced capital for
manufacture.
The Care of Machinery. Owing to the unusual
conditions just described in the shoe industry and
through the leasing of machinery, there was early
developed by the machine manufacturing company
a force of men who were trained in the care of ma-
chinery, and located at convenient centers, so as to
go wherever machinery trouble existed. With the
evolution of the shoe machinery business, and the
various machines used in the bottoming of shoes
under centralized control, relatively few factories
maintain a force of special mechanics, and these are
generally for the purpose of millwrighting and con-
struction. At the present time a large force of ex-
pert "roadmen," as they are called, is located in
all the large shoe manufacturing centers, and in
these agencies or branch offices from which they
travel there is constantly maintained an immediately
available supply of the many machine parts which
are liable to wear or breakage. These parts are all
numbered and catalogued, so that as soon as a part
breaks or a machine goes out of adjustment, a
telephone message brings to the factory the re-
quired machine part. This service has been expanded
to cover the instruction of operators upon the ma-
chines when set up in the factory.
SHOE MACHINERY 65
The Standardization of Machinery. Because of
standardization of machinery and processes and
through co-operation between the manufacturer of
shoe machinery and the shoe manufacturer, the
growth of the industry during the last twenty years
has surpassed all former periods. Today, manufac-
turers, large and small, can secure machinery by
leasing it, and nearly all factories are conducted
entirely on this basis.
This fact will make our study of the industry
easier. We shall be studying operations on standard
machines, used quite generally in this country and
in many factories in other countries. We must
remember, however, that improvements are con-
stantly being made, that a process may be entirely
changed on any day, and that the most skillful
operatives of machines are in constant demand
throughout the country.
67
CHAPTER III
LAST-MAKING
(69)
CHAPTER III
LAST-MAKING
Definition. The last is the wooden form which
determines the size and shape of the shoe. Last-
making is not a part of shoemaking, but is a necessary
preliminary process or set of processes, as is also
pattern-making. The last-maker is a wood worker.
In early times the hand shoemaker fashioned his
own last, a single form for both right and left feet,
with rough proportions. Only within about thirty
years have separate forms been used for right and
left lasts. With advance in methods of shoemaking
last-making has become a definite separate industry,
and last factories have been established in most of
the great shoe centers of the country. The last
item in the cost of shoe manufacture varies greatly,
according to changes in the style of foot wear.
The Shaping of the Last. The last is modeled
from the human foot. The shape of the last is de-
termined by careful measurements of the foot
modified by the use or kind of wear expected, by the
prevailing demands of style, the peculiar processes
of manufacture, and the special materials used.
The last must have a "mean" form, adaptable to the
varying shapes of the foot upon which the shoe is to
*5 (71)
7£ THE SHOE INDUSTRY
be worn. In the case of shoes meant for special pur-
poses, such as walking or dancing, special forms are
used. There are, also, sectional and national
differences of form; for instance, the prevailing
English styles are somewhat broader and flatter
than the American; while in American lasts the
waist line, or measure over the instep, is less than
in English styles, giving a closer fit in that part of
the shoe and preventing the foot from sliding forward
in it.
Last Material. Lasts are made of wood or iron.
Iron, however, is used less and less in this country
except in repair shops. It is still used extensively in
England. The wooden last has a plate of iron upon
the heel, as a base for nailing on the heel of the shoe,
and lasts used in making the McKay shoe, whose
entire sole is nailed on, have a plate of iron over
the bottom of the last. In England the wood used
for lasts is mostly beech, whose close and strong
fibre allows a smooth, firm surface, however the
grain may be cut. In this country the wood gen-
erally used is maple, which cuts easily and presents
a smooth, hard surface when kiln-dried, as all woods
must be for last-making. The hollow forms used
by traveling salesmen, in the store window for dis-
play, and in the home for keeping shoes in shape
when not being worn, are made of light bass wood.
Hand Last-making. It is interesting to review
the processes used in earlier hand last-making, as
they show not only the older features of a skilled
LAST-MAKING 73
trade but also the work that is still necessary in a
modern industry. The tree trunks brought from
the forests were sawed into suitable lengths for
lasts. The lengths were "blocked" or split into
triangular pieces large enough to afford each a last
when cut down. The pieces were then cut down
with the bench knife into shapes approaching that
of the finished last, and were cut to the desired length.
The roughly formed last was then rasped and
scraped until all surplus wood was removed. Holes
were drilled or bored for the insertion of hooks to
draw the last from the completed shoe. The last
was finished by sandpapering and rubbing down.
Modern Last-Making. Because of the increase
in the numbers of shoes manufactured and the
multiplication of styles, it long ago became necessary
to produce lasts faster than could be done by hand.
Early in the last century, about the year 1820, we
find the last-making machine, or last-lathe, long
antedating the use of shoe machinery. The last-
lathe is a modification of the wood-turning lathe.
Instead of producing symmetrical forms the lathe
is made to yield forms of irregular shape, like that of
the human foot. The lathe has been but little
changed in later years. Its chief features are what
are known as the model end and the cutter end.
The blocks from which the lasts are to be turned
are brought from the forests in the rough, sometimes
cut by hand and sometimes by a lathe into shape
approaching that necessary for the last. Before
74 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
being utilized they are kiln-dried for six or seven
weeks, to prevent the finished last from shrinking.
The Model Last. The making of the model from
which other lasts are to be made is the most difficult
process connected with the industry. An old last
is sometimes built over by adding thicknesses of
leather in places, or a paste of glue and sawdust, and
by cutting down the wood in other places to produce
the measurements necessary for a desired style.
Sometimes the model is entirely new, made by hand
to meet the required measurements. A standard
size is used, a number seven or eight in men's shoes
and a four in women's shoes. From these, by
adjustments of the lathe, sizes and widths are graded
up and down, usually five sizes each way. Three
models are generally made use of for children's
lasts.
The Use of the Last-Lathe. The standard
model last is clamped in the model end of the lathe,
and the rough block of kiln-dried wood from which
the last is to be turned is set in the cutter end of
the machine. When the machine is put in motion
the model swings against a model wheel, at the same
time that the last block is forced solidly against
the cutter wheel. As both the model and the block
revolve, the model wheel guides and regulates the
knife which cuts the block, from toe to heel, into an
exact duplicate of the model, except for projections
at either end which are cut down on the heeler or
shaving machine. The last is then placed upon a
LAST-MAKING 75
*
polishing wheel for the processes of finishing. The
bottoms are tested by a sole pattern of the desired
size, and the size and width are stamped on them.
Metal heels or entire metal soles are also attached.
The lathe machine works so accurately that the
slightest imperfection or variation in the model is
reproduced in the finished last. A machine turns
out about fifteen pairs of lasts an hour.
Devices for Reducing Last in Use. There are
various methods of making a part of the last remov-
able or reducing its length, so that it may be more
easily drawn from the finished shoe or inserted in a
shoe. The earlier and a still common method is
to saw out a portion of the instep of the last, leaving
what is called the block last. Formerly by having
variously shaped substitutes for the part sawed out
modifications of styles were effected. Another
form is the Arnold hinged last, the last being cut
entirely in two, a v-shaped portion cut out of the
instep, and the two parts joined by a hinge, so that
the heel swings up freely. Some firms make a busi-
ness of remodeling or building over lasts for shoe
manufacturers to meet changes in style. And old
lasts are sometimes steamed to restore their shape
and fulness.
The Storage of Lasts. The lasts when made, or
when returned from factory use, are usually stored
in bins, by styles and sizes, in a room convenient
to the lasting or making room. They are also some-
times stained different colors to indicate different
76 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
styles or different widths of the same style. When
required for use they are taken from the bins, in
sets according to lots of shoes to be made, placed
upon the shoe racks, and started on their way through
the factory.
One person, very frequently a boy, usually has
charge of the storage room. He must be thoroughly
familiar with the lasts in his care, and able to select
quickly such as may be called for each day.
To become a last maker one must have mechanical
ability to learn any or all of the few processes in-
volved. The work is interesting but requires the
constant attention of the operator, as the slightest
error or inaccuracy would result in an imperfect last.
The operator has a fairly constant occupation, as
the last factory runs more steadily through the year
than does the shoe factory, and experience and skill
are an asset to the last worker. His earnings run
higher than those of the average shoe worker.
CHAPTER IV
PATTERN-MAKING
07)
CHAPTER IV
PATTERN-MAKING
Definition. Patterns are the forms or shapes j
used in cutting the various parts of the upper portion
of the shoe. While a sole pattern is sometimes
used, the sole is generally blocked or died out in the
rough, being trimmed to shape in a later process.
Pattern-making had advanced from a very rude
beginning to processes requiring the highest skill
and adaptation to modern styles. In early days
patterns were made of paper. Sometimes tissue
paper was wet and placed upon the last, marked in
lines where the joints of the upper should be made,
and cut in these lines when dried and removed
from the last. There was no allowance for grad-
ing in sizes, and separate lasts were used for the
various sizes.
The Pattern Designer. In a modern shoe factory
there is a person called the designer, who makes a
constant study of styles . He receives the suggestions
of the traveling salesmen, who are always on the
watch for novelties in style and fashion. He seeks
information from every source as to the permanency
of old styles, the popularity of the new, and of changes
in dress and custom that are likely to demand still
<79)
80 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
other styles in foot wear. The designer is in close
touch with salesmen, manufacturers and depart-
ment heads in his own factory. He sometimes acts
as superintendent of the pattern-making depart-
ment. Upon his skill and judgment depend in
large measure the volume and permanency of trade
secured by his company. He should have high
artistic skill and knowledge of shoemaking. The
ordinary designer must be familiar witli about
25,000 different designs.
Frequently after a study of styles, the designer,
the sales manager, and the factory manager confer
on the most economical styles to be made.
There have already been established a few factories
for the designing and making of shoe patterns, to
sell to the manufacturer.
The Pattern Model. In making a model for
patterns the last is taken as a basis. With due con-
sideration of the shape and style of the shoe, the
material to be used, and the use to which the shoe
is to be put, the pattern is made to conform to the
proportions of the last. The last-maker and the
pattern-maker work together to a definite end of
utility and style.
Sample patterns are submitted to the manufac-
turer for approval, after which the pattern-maker
draws plans for his model. The sets of model
patterns are cut in sheet iron by hand. Patterns are
reproduced from them in sheet iron or in card-
board by the pattern|machine. The standard size
PATTERN-MAKING 81
of the model is seven in men's shoes, and four in
women's, and by gradations above and below these
numbers, as in last-making, other sizes are obtained.
From the model the pattern-maker produces
such quantities in each size as may be desired in a
factory.
The Trial Shoe. Sometimes a shoe is made as a
trial or sample of a new style. This is taken out by
the salesman and shown to the trade. If sufficient
orders are placed on this particular shoe, patterns
are made and the shoe is manufactured in quantities.
The Number of Patterns to a Shoe. The number
of patterns necessary for the ordinary shoe varies
according to the kind or style of shoe. The button
boot, for example, has the following parts, each re-
quiring a separate pattern: Two quarters, two
linings, button-piece, button-piece lining, top stay,
vamp, foxing, tip, back-stay, vamp-lining, button-
stay, backer for button holes, and marker for button
holes. Other kinds of shoes have a larger or smaller
number of parts.
Pattern Material. Sheet iron has long been used
for patterns, and is still largely used for those of lin-
ings and the cloth parts of shoes. "Junk-board" or
heavy card-board, made by grinding up old news-
papers, is gradually taking the place of sheet iron,
some factories using it altogether. Zinc, also, is used.
Wooden patterns are sometimes used for the soles
of shoes, by which the soles are shaped upon a sole-
rounding machine.
82 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
Making Patterns. The iron model is clamped
to the bed of the grading or pattern-making ma-
chine. This machine operates by a system of
levers, so that the model is reproduced in junk-
board or iron, just as in last-making the last is de-
termined by the model. By lengthening or shorten-
ing the levers sizes above and below the model are
produced. Junk-board patterns are then bound
with strips of metal which are smoothed at
the corners and soldered at the joints. The
patterns are then stamped with size numbers,
widths, and styles. Sometimes various colors
of the junk-board are used to indicate different
widths.
The Standardization of Lasts and Patterns.
There has been considerable effort in recent years
to standardize patterns for those parts of the shoe
which change least in shape from season to season.
This is accomplished largely, of course, through
permanent forms in corresponding parts of the last,
especially the parts back of the ball of the foot. A
reduction in the number of patterns used by the
cutter or of the dies required for a full run of
sizes, when dies are used, is a great gain in shoe
manufacture.
The constant increase in the cost of shoe material
makes it all the more necessary to reduce cost in
some other line. This reduction can be accom-
plished in part by reducing varieties in form, or by
a standardization of patterns.
PATTERN-MAKING 83
The Storage of Patterns. The patterns when
made in quantities are stored in racks or pigeon
holes, according to sizes and kinds, in a pattern
room which is convenient to the cutting room of the
shoe factory.
Positions in the Pattern-Making Department.
The positions in this department are: the Designer,
or superintendent of pattern-making; an assistant
designer, in very large establishments; the model
grader, who does hand work; the power grader,
who runs the pattern-making machine; the truer-
up, who levels the metal pattern; the binder, who
puts the steel border on the card board pattern;
the finisher, who solders and smooths the binding;
and the stamper, who places the necessary numbers
upon the pattern.
The pattern boys have charge of the patterns in
storage, taking them to the cutting room and bring-
ing them back and placing them in their proper spaces
after use.
The Pattern Maker. The pattern maker may be
a person skilled in some of the operations of shoe-
making. He should at least be familiar with its
general processes, and should have good mechanical
ability. The occupation, like that of the last-
maker, is less crowded than most of the divisions
of the work in the shoe factory.
The Price of Patterns. "It is figured in a gen-
eral way that a manufacturer of women's shoes
should spend at least one-half of one per cent.
84 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
of the gross volume of his business for patterns.
That is, if he is doing a business of $1,000,000
annually, he should spend at least $5,000 for
new patterns. It is quite likely that some
manufacturers are spending a larger percentage
than this. In the last few seasons, a number
of manufacturers have had to increase their
expenditures for patterns, because patterns
have become much more important in the mak-
ing ' of shoe styles than they ever were before.
While complaints are common that too much
money is spent for patterns, yet the pattern
bills are among the smallest that a manufac-
turer has to pay. They are nowhere nearly
as expensive as lasts, nor as costly as the
trimmings that are used to put style into
shoes.
"Sometimes it pays a manufacturer to buy
a new set of patterns just for the purpose of
getting out a new style in footwear. For in-
stance, supposing a manufacturer buys a new
set of patterns, at twenty dollars, and livens up
his line during the dull spell of between seasons,
and gets orders for one hundred cases of shoes
made according to the new patterns. His profit
is five cents a pair, and his total profit is $180.
Surely it is worth while to spend twenty dollars
to make $180. Of course, the real cost of the
patterns depends upon the number of times
they are used. They may be thrown aside at
the end of the month to make way for new
patterns. In that case their cost will figure
high. But if they are used through a season,
and are carried over to the next season, then their
real cost figures down pretty low. But the main
PATTERN-MAKING 85
point, in dealing with the pattern department,
is not to consider chiefly what they cost, but
chiefly what they bring in the way of new and
additional orders."*
•American Shoemaking. Boston, March 6, 1915.
CHAPTER V
LEATHER
(87) *6
CHAPTER V
LEATHER
Its Nature. Leather is the skin of an animal,
tanned or otherwise preserved, shrunk, and tough-
ened. The skins of beast, bird, fish, or reptile may
be made into leather. Leather in some form has
been used from time immemorial for clothing, foot-
wear, harness material, and other articles for human
use.
Tanning. Tanning consists in converting animal
skins or hides into leather by the use of astringent
acids. In earlier times these acids were derived
from vegetable products, such as the bark of the
hemlock tree, oak tree, willow, and chestnut. The
bark was finely ground and steeped in water, form-
ing a strong solution or liquor in which the skins
were placed in vats, after the removal of hair and
surplus flesh. The action of the acid toughens the
skin, condenses it and hardens the albuminous
matter in it, thus preserving it from decay. The
most common kinds of bark used have been the
hemlock and the oak. Some months are required
in the process, and the longer the time taken usually
the better is the quality of the leather produced. In
later years mineral substances, of which chrome
(89)
90 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
alum is a characteristic example, have come into
quite general use for tanning. This mode is called
chrome tanning. The acid processes require a short
time for tanning in comparison with the bark pro-
cesses, but demand careful attention to prevent
injury to the leather. They afford various effects
in the coloring of leather. Such leathers are usually
finished dry or with only a light application of oil.
The bark-tanned leathers go through various lengthy
oiling processes, according to thickness and the
purposes for which the leathers are designed.
Chrome tanning has transformed the shoe and
leather industries.
American Leather Manufacturing. The American
leather industry has grown from small beginnings
along with shoe manufacturing. The first leather
used was imported from England. The colonists
also used Indian tanned deer skins.
The first tanner to settle in this country was
Francis Ingalls of Lincolnshire, England, who came
to Lynn in 1629. Philemon Dickerson, an English
tanner, came to Salem in 1637. The tanning of
leather was carried on at the same time probably
in New York, Pennsylvania, and the Southern
Colonies. In 1800 William Rose, another English
tanner, was induced to come to Lynn by Ebenezer
Breed, who had done so much to promote American
shoe manufacture by means of the protective tariff
on shoes. Rose became "the father of the American
morocco manufacturing industry."
LEATHER 91
Shortly before the War of the Rebellion, machinery
was introduced into the tanning industry, and today
machinery is used in the place of hand labor in all
its branches. Machinery and the chrome process
have given American tanners leadership in the
leather producing industry.
American tanneries treat annually about 20,000,-
000 hides or heavy varieties of leather, and about
100,000,000 skins or lighter varieties. They import
annually more than $50,000,000 worth of untanned
skins from Europe, Africa, India, China, Siberia,
Australia, and South American countries. American
tanners produce about $300,000,000 worth of
leather. Of this the greater part is used in the
manufacture of boots and shoes. A much smaller
part is used for upholstering, automobiles and furni-
ture, harnesses, bookbinding, machinery belting,
trunks and bags, card cases, pocketbooks, gloves,
and novelties.
The Increasing Shortage of Leather. In recent
years the leather-producing animals the world over
have been either actually decreasing in numbers,
as in the great West of this country, or have not
increased as rapidly as has the demand for leather.
The population of the various countries of the
world increases steadily and the wearing of shoes
becomes more widely a custom in the less civilized
countries, as in the case of the countries concerned
in the Spanish War, and new uses are steadily found
for leather. Such a generally increasing demand
92 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
tends to raise the price of leather and of leather
products. Any lessening of freedom in the com-
merce of the world, as in the case of the European
war, tends also to bring about higher prices in
leather products as in other imported articles.
Leather Substitutes. As a result of the growing
shortage of leather, the use of leather substitutes
is becoming more and more common in the shoe
industry. First and chief among substitutes for
upper leather are the fabrics, white canvas being
most used. The fabric top does not stretch, affords
a good-looking shoe, and would find an increased
demand even if there were no shortage of leather. It
has become a fashion in some localities to have the
top of the woman's shoe match the dress. This
can be done easily by the use of fabrics, as well as
by fancy leathers. Among substitutes for sole
leather, leatherboard has been widely used. This
consists of fibers of hard leather, waste paper, rags
and wood pulp, rolled into hard sheets by machin-
ery. It is cut and handled in the same way as
sole leather, and is used in particular in making the
bottoms of the cheaper grades of shoes. Wooden
heels cut in block are widely used in the making of
slippers and the lighter kinds of shoes. Waterproof
felt is also coming into use more and more for the
sole of the shoe. Celluloid and even oilcloth prod-
ucts are sometimes used for toe boxes. It has long
been the custom in shoe manufacture to make
heels of pieced leather. One of the latest substi-
LEATHER 93
tutes is "hideite leather." This is a leather fiber
product consisting of soft leather skivings or
remnants pressed into sheets. Rubber is used
more and more extensively for the bottoms of
shoes, and is in increasing demand on the part of
the public.
The Tannery Divisions of Hides and Skins.
According to the size, the general divisions made
in the tanneries are three, as follows:
First, * 'hides." This is the term used for skins
of full-grown or large animals, such as cows, oxen,
horses, the buffalo and the walrus. These animals
yield thick, heavy leather for shoe soles, machinery
belting, or other uses demanding strength and
durability. An untanned upper leather hide usually
weighs from twenty-five to sixty pounds; a sole
leather hide, from forty to seventy pounds; hides
weighing from seventy or seventy-five pounds up
are used for the heavier kinds of belting.
Second, "kips," skins of the smaller beeves,
weighing from fifteen to twenty-five pounds.
Third, "skins" of such small animals as calves,
sheep, goats, and dogs.
The skins of other animals are used for leather.
The kangaroo, for instance, provides one of the
best leathers used in shoemaking. Upper leather
is made mainly from cow hides, kips, and large
calfskins.
Because of the greater demand for thin leathers,
thick hides are often split into thin layers by ma-
94 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
chinery. This is done by passing the hide through
a set of rollers between which is a keen knife, which
divides the parts into any desired thickness. The
outer parts of the leather, on the hair side, are the
most valued, and are called "grain" leather. The
inner parts are made into a variety of different
kinds of leather by special treatment. Various
kinds of finishes are given, such as seal grain, glove
grain, oil grain, buff, satin, russet, or plain.
A Side of Leather. The larger skins are generally
cut along the back into two halves or sides. The usual
names for the parts of each side are, head, shoulder,
bend, and belly. The "bend" is the best portion
of the back, behind the shoulders, the firmest leather
of the entire skin. This part is devoted to the best
uses and the higher grades of shoes, other parts to
lower grades.
Divisions of Leather in Shoe Manufacture. In
shoe manufacture leather is divided into two
general classes, upper leather, and sole leather. The
upper leather includes the outer parts of the shoe
above the sole and leather when used for linings.
Sole leather includes that used for the outer and
inner soles, heels, counters, and rands. Upper leather
is usually measured by the square foot; sole leather,
by the pound.
The Varieties of Upper Leather. There are five
chief kinds of upper leather, as follows : Kid or goat,
calfskin, side leather, sheepskin, and coltskin or
horsehide. There are also other kinds, such as
96 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
kangaroo, chamois, buckskin, pigskin, and a few
special and fancy leathers.
Kid. Kid is the name for leather made from the
skins of full-grown goats, coming mainly from the
mountains of India, Europe, and South America.
There are over sixty recognized varieties of goat-
skins. According to its tanning and finishing, kid
is classed as glazed, mat, royal, cadet, patent,
suede, bronze, pebbled or morocco, etc.
"Glazed kid," from the French "glace kid," is
polished after tanning, and its glossy surface is ob-
tained by burnishing on the grain side. It is pro-
duced in various colors. Glazed kid is used for the
uppers of shoes.
"Mat kid" has a dull, soft, black finish, from
treatment with beeswax or olive oil.
"Patent" leather is produced by applying a coat
of varnish to the finished surface of the skin.
"Enamel" leather has a hard, glossy finish on the
grain side, being boarded and varnished.
"Suede" leather, a French term, means "Swedish"
finished. It is finished on the flesh side with a dry,
napped surface. It is produced in a great variety
of colors and used extensively in making slippers,
and to some extent in light shoes.
"Bronze kid," or calfskin, is leather finished with
a form of cochineal dye. This is a method long
known and used especially for women's fancy shoes.
"Vici kid" is a name first used by Robert Foederer
of Philadelphia, about 1885, and in common use now
LEATHER 97
for chrome tanned kid dressed with a mixture of
soap and oil. This term became a trade-mark, and
refers generally to the better grades of kid leather.
Other kinds of kid are in less general use. They
are finished in particular ways, according to effects
desired. "Kangaroo kid," for instance, is kid fin-
ished in imitation of the genuine kangaroo.
"Chamois" is oil-tanned leather made from the
skins of chamois and other small animals. It is a
very pliable and washable leather when genuine.
Calfskin. Calfskin is the leather used most
extensively in shoemaking. It is the lightest, most
pliable, serviceable, and satisfactory of all the
skins of the neat animals. Its main sources are
the farms of the United States, Canada, South
America, and European countries. It is finished in
many forms, of which it is necessary to mention
only a few, as box, gun metal, patent, wax, willow,
boarded, velvet, ooze, and Russia. Kips, the
middle weight skins already spoken of, and calfskins
overlap in qualities and uses. The calfskin is never
split, but is generally shaved to a uniform thickness.
The different names applied to calfskin, as in the
case of kid, refer to particular kinds of treatment
in tanning and finishing the leather, and the terms
correspond in the main with those already given
for kid. A few special terms for calfskin are the
following :
"Box calf" is a proprietary name. It is a chrome
tanned calfskin "boarded," that is, treated by
98 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
rubbing with a board to raise the grain, giving a
peculiar rough surface. Box calf is a waterproof
leather of black or tan color, and is regarded as
the best material for rough out-of-door wear.
"Buckskin" is primarily deer skin tanned in oil.
In recent usage it means any soft leather, especially
cowhide, finished in a white, grayish, or yellowish
color.
"Gun metal" is chrome tanned leather, either
calf, veal, or side, with gun metal black finish, or
with a bright finish. Gun metal leather is used
very extensively in shoe manufacture.
"Wax calf" is finished on the flesh side with a
waxlike surface. French calf, also, is finished on
the flesh side.
"Willow calf" is a fine, soft, colored, chrome
tanned skin.
"Ooze" is a proprietary term applied to the velvet
of soft finish skin.
"Russia" is a colored calfskin finished and per-
fumed with birch oil, which gives it a characteristic
appearance and odor.
Side leather. Side leather is cow hide, either bark
or chrome tanned, with the skin cut down the back
into two halves. The sides are split to reduce to
thickness appropriate for shoe tops and finished in
various forms with dry, oiled, smooth, or boarded
surfaces, in imitation of the various finishes of calf-
skin. It is used largely in the cheaper grades of
men's and boys' shoes.
LEATHER 99
Sheepskin. Sheepskin is used chiefly for shoe
linings and outer parts where the wear is light.
Coltskin. Coltskin and the better part of the
horsehide have firmness of texture and suscepti-
bility to high polish. They are used in the form of
patent leather and in dull finish, mainly for men's
high-grade shoes.
Sole Leather. Sole leather includes the heavier
and thicker kinds of leather from the skins of
mature, neat animals, such as are suitable for use
in the bottoms and heels of shoes. It is tanned and
finished so as to produce a firm, solid texture rather
than great pliability.
Sole leather is tanned from
Green hides generally ranging between forty and
seventy pounds, with an average of about fifty-five
pounds.
Dry hides generally ranging between sixteen and
thirty pounds, with an average of about twenty to
twenty-two pounds.
Previous to ten years ago sole leather hides were
tanned in liquors extracted from hemlock or oak
bark, or a combination of the two, and the tanned
leather received its name according to the tanning
material used; namely, oak leather was tanned in
oak bark liquors; hemlock in hemlock bark and
leather tanned in the combination of the two was
called union. As the supply of bark diminished in
the various sections where tanneries were located
tanners were obliged to substitute other tanning
100 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
materials, such as barks, nuts, and extract made
from various foreign and domestic woods, so today
leather is tanned in the combination of several
materials and the finished product is designated
according to the color of the leather which it re-
sembles. Leather having a light color, resembling
the color of old oak is called oak. That which has
a more reddish shade is called union and that which
has a very dark red shade is called hemlock. Oak
leather is used largely in high grade men's and
women's shoes and for the finding trade. A large
percentage of the union leather is bought by con-
cerns which make a business of cutting soles, and
these are sold to be used in the manufacture of
women's shoes. Hemlock is used in the manufacture
of medium and lower priced men's shoes. There is
also a very large export business in this class of
leather.
A very small percentage of sole leather hides is
now being tanned by a chrome process, the basis
of this tannage being bichromate of soda. It is
practically the same process as that used in tanning
chrome upper leather. Very heavy hides are gen-
erally used for leather tanned in this process because
of the fact that the tannage does not swell the hides
as does the vegetable process and it is necessary to
get a hide averaging from eighty to ninety pounds
in order to obtain the required thickness. This
process produces a piece of leather which has a pearl
gray color in its natural state and when water-
LEATHER '';*>'10i
proofed is of a dark greenish shade. The leather is
used in the natural state for soles on cheap outing
shoes and waterproofed for heavy storm shoes.
Oak tanned leather is the best kind of sole leather,
as is indicated always by its market price. It has
a light, creamy tan color, and is both firm and
flexible. Hemlock tanned is of a lower grade than
oak or union tanned leather. Chrome tanned sole
leather is dense, hard, and durable, but has hardly
passed beyond its experimental stage.
Hides, from which sole leather is made, vary
according to climatic conditions in various quarters
of the world. Animals living in warm climates have
a thick and tough skin with thin hair; those living
in cold climates have a thick coat of hair with
light weight skin.
The cost of sole leather makes a large item in the
general costs of shoe manufacture, and leather
substitutes are used chiefly for sole leather.
Some other leather terms and varieties of leather
not necessarily included in this chapter will be found
in Chapter XIV on shoemaking terms.
The Cut-Sole Industry. The great development
of the shoe industry in recent years has produced
not only dealers in all kinds of leather and shoe
supplies, but special manufacturers of the various
materials required by the shoe factory. As in the
case of the automobile, shoe manufacture may be
made almost a matter of assembling prepared
parts.
K)2 Tn£ SHOE INDUSTRY
The industry connected with the preparing of
sole-leather parts is especially extensive, including
cut soles, insoles, counters, heels, top lifts, taps,
box toes, and rands. All these parts are now pro-
duced in highly specialized factories, and furnished
to the shoe manufacturer at the lowest cost, in
great numbers in uniform size and quality. Some
of the largest manufacturing companies, however,
have subsidiary factories in their plants for the
production of such parts, but the smaller factories
are compelled to buy them from the independent
manufacturer.
Most of the lines of industry connected with the
cutting of sole leather center in the United States,
and there are no factories at all outside this country
for cut-soles, heels, top pieces, and rands. There
are forty cut-sole factories in this country, which
do an annual volume of business of $40,000,000,
supplying the home and foreign markets.
LEATHER, TANNED, CURRIED, AND FINISHED— VALUE
OF PRODUCTS FOR LEADING STATES:
1909 AND 1899
MILLIONS OF DOLLARS
PENNSYLVANIA
WISCONSIN
MASSACHUSETTS
NEW JERSEV
NEW YORK
MICHIGAN
ILLINOIS
WEST VIRGINIA
DELAWARE
OHIO
CALIFORNIA
VIRGINIA
NORTH CAROLINA
KENTUCKY
MARYLAND
TENNESSEE
INDIANA
MISSOURI
(103)
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(105)
CHAPTER VI
THE DEPARTMENTS OF SHOE
MANUFACTURE
(107)
CHAPTER VI
THE DEPARTMENTS OF SHOE MANUFACTURE
The Business Departments. The business side
of modern shoemaking has definite and numerous
divisions. There are the usual officers: President,
vice-president, treasurer, superintendent or general
manager, employment manager, welfare manager,
office manager, and other heads of departments
and divisions, with their many assistants. The
functions and the duties connected with all these
divisions are such as are found in the general busi-
ness world, and are described in the volume upon
Business Employments. From fifteen to twenty per
cent., or nearly one-fifth of the persons connected
with the shoe industry, are employed upon its busi-
ness side.
The accompanying chart, on page 111, gives a list
of the usual business departments and shows their
three-fold nature, — of executive control, maintenance
of business, and maintenance of manufacture. The
two divisions of employment and social service are
in a sense independent of the three major divisions,
or supplementary to them. The employment depart-
ment deals with all questions of the hiring, training,
and discharge of employees; the social service
(109)
110 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
department, with all questions of their general
welfare.
The Executive Officers. The executive officers
are those who work out and control the general
plans and policies of the company. They may or
may not be stockholders. They are responsible
to the stockholders for the success of the com-
pany.
The General Offices. The general offices are
concerned in building up the business side of
manufacture and reach out into the field of trade.
These offices take charge of the orders received from
shoe dealers, of correspondence, bookkeeping, and
the credits and collections of the company. They
have charge of purchasing and caring for materials
used in manufacture, and of the large and important
functions of advertising and of selling manufactured
goods.
The Factory Offices. The factory offices are those
concerned closely with manufacture, touching the
factory at every department. These offices are
often separate from the others and placed as near
the factory departments as possible. They take
charge of tags made from the orders received by
the order department and follow them through the
factory. They provide a schedule of the time in
which shoes shall be made or passed from room to
room. They maintain supplies for all factory
purposes, pay employees, and supervise the costs of
manufacture.
CHART OF THE BUSINESS DEPARTMENTS OF SHOE
MANUFACTURE
STOCKHOLDERS
EXECUTIVE OFFICERS
DIRECTORS
PRESIDENT
VICE-PRESIDENT
TREASURER
SUPERINTENDENT
Office Manager
1
1
GENERAL OFFICES
FACTORY OFFICES
Order Department
Advance Information Dep't
Correspondence Department
Tag Department
Bookkeeping Department
Dispatch Department
Credit and Collection Dep't
Supply Department
Sales Department
Upper Leather Office
Purchasing Department
Schedule Department
Receiving Department
Pay Roll Department
Publicity Department
Cost Department
Mailing Department
1
4
Messenger Service
(111)
112 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
Factory Service and Office Service. Factory
service does not necessarily lead to office service.
In general the two fields of employment are quite
separate. Boys and young men, however, are
sometimes taken into the business offices of a com-
pany, usually as messengers, and given at the same
time factory training, such as observation of processes
and routine of manufacture. Less frequently the
plan is followed of giving six months' training in an
office and then the same period in the factory. The
purpose in such double training is usually to prepare
young men to act as assistants to superintendents
or heads of departments. Sometimes, on the other
hand, employees in factory departments who show
clerical ability also are taken into the factory offices,
where there is always need of a practical knowledge
of the work of the factory.
The Factory Departments. In the following chap-
ters the present volume treats of actual shoemaking,
or of factory departments and processes. There are
six general divisions in the modern shoe factory.
These are shown by the following chart upon factory
departments. They are: the Upper Leather depart-
ment, the stitching department, the sole leather
department, the making department, the finishing
department, and the treeing, packing, and shipping
department. These are each minutely subdivided
into factory rooms, sections, or departments, as will
appear in the following pages. The last division,
treeing, packing, and shipping, in a large factory, are
DEPARTMENTS OF SHOE MANUFACTURE 113
each separate departments, making eight in the major
divisions rather than six. In large factories we find
numerous additional departments of which the
chief ones are shown in the second division of the
diagram, or heel department, box toe department,
box factory, and printing department. There may
be sub-divisions, also, in this second group, accord-
ing to the magnitude of manufacture. A large
company, indeed, may produce all its materials in
the endeavor to lower the cost of every item that
enters into shoemaking.
Other names are used for some of these divisions,
usually according to locality; for instance, the
stitching department is sometimes called the fitting
department, the making department, the bottoming
department, and the sole leather division is called
the stock-fitting division. The word "room" is very
generally used for "department" for the sake of
brevity in speaking.
The Modern Shoe Factory. The modern shoe
factory, in which are found the many offices and the
factory departments just enumerated, has become
quite typical in general form. The width of the
factory is a very important consideration. Build-
ings are constructed with a width of about fifty
feet, as single long buildings, or having wings of
the same width, and less often in hollow squares,
maintaining the same width throughout. This con-
struction allows plenty of daylight along the middle
of each room from the two sides. As good light
CHART OF THE FACTORY DEPARTMENTS
FACTORY DEPARTMENTS
Upper Leather Department
Stitching Department
Sole Leather Department
Making Department
Finishing Department
Treeing Department*
Packing Department
Shipping Department
ADDITIONAL DEPARTMENTS IN
LARGE FACTORIES
Heel Department
Box Toe Department
Box Factory
Printing
*Treeing, Packing, and Shipping may be treated separately or as one department.
(114)
CHART OF FACTORY MANAGEMENT
FACTORY MANAGER
Superintendents
Foremen and Forewomen
Assistants Floorpeople
Operatives throughout Departments
Messengers
(115)
116 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
is necessary to accurate work, it is essential that
rooms be constructed in this way.
In length, factories vary from about two hundred
feet up to several hundred feet. The most common
form is the long, single building, with capacity for
a few hundred or perhaps a thousand employees.
Some factories have small wings or adjacent struc-
tures. The plan followed by some very large manu-
facturing companies of extensive wings or units
affords great length of rooms with floor space all
well lighted from two sides, sometimes up to a
quarter or a half mile in length. Such plants employ
four or five or more thousands of people, and turn
out from ten to twenty thousand pairs of shoes
daily.
The Typical Factory. The typical factory has four
floors for its six major departments. The sole leather
department occupies the first or basement floor.
The upper leather and stitching departments occupy
the fourth or upper floor. The making department
occupies the third floor. The finishing, packing,
and shipping departments are upon the second floor.
The business offices are usually divided between the
second and third floors. The factory offices are
usually placed as near their factory departments
as possible.
In the very large factories, or in the case of a
plant consisting of several factories, there are usu-
ally central administrative offices, while the factory
offices are in the various buildings of the plant.
117
DEPARTMENT OF SHOE MANUFACTURE 119
Some large factories now have as many as seven
or eight floors. In such buildings the general plan
already given is followed. The sole leather depart-
ments are on the basement floor; the upper leather
departments occupy the top floor. Shoes in process
of making pass downward continually to the packing
and shipping rooms on the first floor. Height is
sought only when the length of the building is
limited for providing needed floor space. Indeed,
the long, low building or plan of separate buildings
is preferable in many respects, giving less move-
ment of manufacture up and down, less crowding
of employees, better light and ventilation, and less
intense jar and rumble of machinery, all tending
to improve conditions of employment.
On the other hand, from the standpoint of the
manufacturer, the closest working arrangement of
rooms consistent with free movement and safety,
is the better, since it brings smaller overhead charges,
less expensive administration and oversight, and a
quicker passage of the shoe from its beginning to its
completion. Location and available building space,
however, are the usual factors that determine the
departure of a factory plan from the general and
natural four-floor division.
The most modern shoe factories are built of steel
and concrete, with the outer walls largely given up
to window space, as may be seen in the accom-
panying illustration.
CHAPTER VII
METHODS IN SHOE MANUFACTURE
(121) *8
CHAPTER VII
METHODS IN SHOE MANUFACTURE
The Chief Methods. The chief methods in manu-
facturing shoes, developed mostly with the intro-
duction of machinery, are as follows:
The Goodyear Welt,
The McKay,
The Turned,
The Standard Screw,
The Pegged,
The Nailed.
The distinctions indicated in these terms arise
from the methods of attaching the sole of the shoe
to the upper, which has always been the most
important problem of the shoemaker. Prior to the
introduction of shoe machinery, all sewing upon
shoes, the attaching of the bottom to the upper as
well as sewing together the parts of the upper, was
done by hand. In the beginning of the factory
industry people often took parts from the factory
to their homes for hand stitching.
The first improvements consisted of the use of
wooden pegs and nails, leading to the use of the
"standard screw." In the chapter upon the history
of shoemaking we have noted inventions which have
(123)
124 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
dealt with the attaching of the sole to the upper —
that of August Destouy in 1862, a machine with a
curved needle for sewing turned shoes; that of
Lyman R. Blake, adapted by Gordon McKay,
introduced in 1862 for the same purpose, and since
known as the McKay sewing machine; and that
of Charles Goodyear, who adapted the Destouy
machine for turned shoes to the sewing of welts
in 1871, known as the Goodyear Welt machine.
Illustrations of Methods Now in Use. Upon the
following pages are presented diagrams and descrip-
tions of the methods now in use in shoe manufac-
ture. Most factories confine themselves to one or
two of these methods, one manufacturer being
known as a maker of Goodyear Welt shoes, another
of McKay shoes, and so on. The lighter grades of
shoes and those worn by women and children are
Goodyear Welt, McKay, and turned. Many of
the heavier grades, and especially shoes for outdoor
wear, such as are worn by farmers, fishermen, and
soldiers in some countries, are of the pegged and
standard screw. The McKay method has been
very extensively used in medium weight and cheaper
shoes for many kinds of wear. The Goodyear Welt,
however, has been used more and more extensively
in the medium and better grades and is the leading
process in importance at the present time.
-WELT 1 ^CQRK rUUNST--- STITCH UNITING
< OUTSOLE INSOLE. UPPER
AND WELT
LIP OF INSOLE—*'
Cross Section of a Goodyear Welt Shoe
This diagram shows the ingenious method em-
ployed in constructing this now widely worn type
of shoe, which is perfectly smooth inside. The tacks
used in lasting are all withdrawn and a machine
with a curved needle sews the welt and shoe upper
to the insole without going inside the shoe. The
heavy outsole is then stitched to the welt. The
thread used is of the strongest linen and thoroughly
waxed. It makes the most durable and comfortable
type of shoe, and one on which the outsole can
readily be renewed.
The excellent qualities and popularity of the welt
shoe have led to many imitations of it in the McKay
method.
(125)
/ ^CHANNEL?"
^•CLINCHING POINT
o LASTING TACK.
BLASTING TACK.
^STITCH «1M*KAY MACHINE
UNITING OUTSOLE AND INSOLE.
Cross Section of a McKay Sewed Shoe
While this is a sewed shoe, it differs radically from
those made by the Goodyear Welt process, inasmuch
as the lasting tacks and a line of stitches appear
inside. It is the method very generally employed
in making the cheap and medium grades of shoes.
(126)
UPPERy
UNINGv
BLASTING TACK.
STANDARD SCREW.
CLINCHING POINT of LASTING TACK.
Cross Section of a Standard Screwed Shoe
In making this type of shoe the tacks used in
lasting are driven away in and clinched against the
steel bottom of the last. The heavy outsole is tacked
in place and fastened by means of screws. The
metal which forms this fastening is in the form of
wire with continuous screw thread. When the
screw reaches the inside of the shoe, the machine
automatically cuts it off and feeds to the next
fastening. This method makes a strong but stiff
shoe.
(127)
UPPER
LINING
> VUSTIN6 TACK.
X^PEG.
CLINCHING POINToj LASTING TACK.
Cross Section of a Pegged Shoe
This type of shoe differs from the Standard
Screwed shoe only in the sole fastening, which is
of wood, in the form of a shoe peg. The machine
which drives the fastening forms the peg from a
coil of calendered beech wood, which, as it is required
by the machine, is cut into individual pegs which
are driven by the machine and cut off inside the
shoe. It is a method of manufacture which was
very generally used in the early part of the last
century, but which has been largely replaced by
other methods.
The nailed shoe has nails in place of wooden pegs.
(128)
METHODS IN SHOE MANUFACTURE 129
The Turned Shoe. The "turned" or "turn"
method is used in making fine shoes and slippers for
women and children. The shoe is made wrong side \
out and then turned right side out. The sole is fas- !
tened to the last and the upper is drawn over it, wrong
side out, and sewed to it through a channel cut in the
edge of the sole. The seam does not show upon the
finished shoe. The chief difference between the turn
shoe and the welt or McKay is the absence of an in-
sole. Only good leather of pliable quality can be used
successfully in making this kind of a shoe, which is
distinguished always for lightness and flexibility.
This method was extensively used for light weight
footwear before the introduction of machinery. The
chief process has simply become a machine process.
The Lace Shoe. The items shown in the analysis
of the lace shoe are as follows:
Tongue and tongue lining, welt, welting thread, top
facing, back stay, top, eyelet stay, foxing, laces,
eyelet stay, top, back stay, bobbin thread, vamp,
toe box, eyelets, top thread, outer sole, tip, inner
sole, eyelet lining, doubler, steel shank, top-lift,
heel, heel pad, lining, counter.
The McKay method of manufacture led in
1909, with 41.5 per cent, of the total production;
the machine or hand-welt method was second,
with 32.3 per cent. ; and the turned product ranked
third, with 16.3 per cent., followed by the wire-
screw or metal-fastened, with 7.9 per cent., and the
wooden pegged, with 2 per cent.
130 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
The McKay method also predominated for three
of the four classes of boots and shoes and for the
two classes of slippers for which separate figures
are presented. Infants' shoes and slippers were
chiefly turned, while for "all other kinds" the
machine or hand-welt methods show the largest
number.
The Different Stages in Goodyear Welt Manu-
facture. The various parts of the Goodyear welt
shoe as they are brought together in the making
are shown in the illustration upon the following
page. They are:
1. A last.
2. An upper.
3. An insole.
4. Shoe lasted and ready to have welt sewed on.
5. Welt partially sewed on.
6. Welt entirely sewed on and shoe ready to
have outsole laid.
7. An outsole.
8. Shoe with outsole laid and rounded.
Channel lip turned up ready to be
stitched.
9. Shoe with sole stitched on.
10. Shoe with heel in place.
11. Heel trimmed and shoe ready for finishing.
A Goodyear Welt Shoe in the Different Stages of
Manufacture
(131)
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CHAPTER VIII
THE UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT
(133)
CHAPTER VIII
THE UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT
The Importance of Detail in Shoe Manufacture.
It is the purpose of this and the following chapters
to present actual factory processes and employment
opportunities in their order. Most shoe operators
are restricted to work on particular single machines
and processes. In a few cases, especially in the
smaller and older factories, an operator may per-
form several related processes; or, in other words,
several related or consecutive processes may be
combined in one or done on a single machine.
An average style shoe in the making must pass
through over one hundred different pairs of hands
and about one hundred and fifty different machines,
involving over two hundred processes, according to
the methods of particular factories. It is clear, then,
that the details of manufacture are of the highest
importance, and that every factory department
must observe absolutely the specifications of each
lot of shoes.
The divisions shown in the following chart are
the natural divisions of the upper leather department,
as will appear in this chapter. Trimmings and lin-
ings need not be separately presented at length.
(135)
136 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
Pattern making, which has been treated separately
in Chapter IV, is sometimes made the first division
of the upper leather department, where patterns
find their chief use.
It may be said here, also, that the general plan
and system of this department and of the other
departments of shoemaking are the same in all
factories, and that practically the same machines
are in use everywhere, but that details and minor
processes are so numerous that variation in them
is to be expected. It will not be wise or necessary,
then, to go into the minutest details of manufacture
in these pages. Only processes and methods that
are general or typical need be presented.
Action upon Receipt of an Order. The making
of a pair of shoes begins simultaneously in the cutting
department and in the sole leather department.
When an order is received in a modern and well-
organized factory the order department records in
the order book all the details regarding the samples
upon which the order was secured. The shoe must
be made upon these specifications in its course
through the factory, and when finished it must
conform to them.
In the order department each lot is given an order
number. Tags bearing this number and the details
regarding the preparation of the shoe upper, with one
tag for each two dozen shoes, are sent to the foreman
of the cutting room. Other tags containing details
about the sole leather to be used are sent to the
CHART OF THE UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT
UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT
Sorting Department
Trimming, Cutting, and D inking Department
Lining and Cloth Cutting Department
Upper Cutting Department
Counting, Marking, and Skiving Department
Assembling Department
(137)
138 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
foreman of the sole leather department. A third
lot of tags is prepared for the direction of the foreman
of the making or bottoming room, where are brought
together, for assembling, the various parts of the
uppers prepared in the cutting and stitching roopas
and of the bottoms prepared in the sole leather room.
The methods of making out the tags or tickets
which are used as guides in the various rooms of
the shoe factory vary in some factories. A clerk
in the cutting room, for instance, may prepare them
upon an order sent to him from the order department.
In all cases, however, the essential points given in
the tags are the same. The tag specifies the sole,
heel, upper, kind and quality, the stitching, the style
of last, bottom finishing, treeing, and packing.
On the following pages is presented a typical tag
used in the shoe factory.
The Day Sheet. The despatch department has
charge of the passing of work into the factory and
of following it up through the factory. From the
tags received by the order department the despatch
office prepares schedules or bulletins called day
sheets. These sheets show accurately the details
of each and every lot of shoes passing into the factory
on a given day and also the scheduled time when the
last lot of each day's work should pass a given point
in the factory. The day sheet contains also supple-
mentary information showing the exact quantity
of each of the various special items of product com-
posing a particular day's work. The sheets are made
READ THIS TAG T.PJT.CKET.
*_«•*.». !1». *"*• *W *"•"•
WhenShlp DaU of Order
Stitch Ho. Peri.
Toagu BTtStay
Ca*eN ftwrtor *
utpL&L Pn.|Width| l|l4|2|24J 3J34J4 44 6 | 64 6
64 7|74|8
OHUMrtfe 7MBP *
TaiBpUa. M iE
20 26
30
35| 40J45 60 1 65 60
66 70J75 80
Tfc*,ff ....J _
1
1 1 1
1
NT"* fctolag {a
***** "~ fRIMMmG~T]cKET."~
Pn.|widU»| l|upa|tt| 3J34 4 J44 «|«]«)«|T 74(8 t«p*" *«T
| |lOJ16 20J26 30 38|40|46 |»165|«0|«|70 75J80 DM.** ffid,SU7
*.L. iS
1 1 1 1 1 1
Pn.|.Wldtt I.|l4|2|24|3|3l|4 44 6 | 54 6
64 7|74 8
CUTTING AND FITTING BOTTOMING 10 15 20 26
30
35|«|« 60J55 60
66 70J76 80
Had
1 1 1
Patten ; Latt
It»
LINJNG TICKET.
Lining Out Sole
. Ira Tff-r-
'TopPao. Slip
It. inel* CateNo. - Vp.Linl
*a
Sock Lining Ho.
aurttt St. Tap
Couater P». | WldU, 1 1 14
,2J24| 3J34J4 J44|6J64|6
64 7|7i 8
Vamp StHeel 1 10 u
20 25
30 1 36 1 40 *5 j 50 66 60
65 70|76|80
folai StShg
. rs.ruo> _, 1. .,.
II f 1
1 1
Tip StMge
uST SOLE LEATHER TICKET.
nfa, StK
TopPo. *&*
Crater Shank
Tongue Monogram
Label Sock Lining
Sole Heel Slip
l_ ' fcj""»
2 24
3
34|4 44|5|6i|6j64J 7J7JJ8
FOXING TICKET
Can Ho. End P
: 10 16
20 26
30
35| 40 15 50 55 60
66 70 75 80
1
J_- ^
1
Stitch No. BackStay
INSOLE TICKET.
Bad Last
Pn. ) Width] l jl^j !j j^| j |jj| 4 J14| 5 I 5, | 6 J6J| 7 |7J| g CaeeHo.
| |lo|l6 20 25 30 35|40|s5|50J5
60|65 70i76 80
2 24
3
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III II I |
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20 26
30
36J40 46 50 55J-60
65 -70 75 80
1 II
CiMNo. TIP
Pat. Ho.
STRAP TICKET.;
Pn. |width| l|li| 2 1 24 3|34|4J«|5 &
(6 6i| 7J7«| 8 Ttapw
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60|6S 70|75|80 *•*•
I III II II
i I i t i . »• «»I|i
2 J24J 8 J3i| 4 44 6 | 64 6
64 T 74 8
20 25
30 1 36 1 10 -45 50J56 60
66 70 75 80.
I J
|
II II
A Typical Shoe Tag
(139)
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(140)
THE UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 141
in duplicate. One set is kept in the office and upon
it are checked off records of the work as it proceeds
through the factory. This sheet also contains the
name of the customer for whom the shoes are being
made, their price, and the name and commission
of the salesman. Other sets go to the various
factory rooms as guides and records of the day's
work. The sheet used in the cutting room contains
the specifications which constitute the cutting in-
structions, such as the kind of the upper stock and
linings to be used, the price, and the number of
square feet. -On this sheet are recorded, also, all
the details of the work of cutting as the cutting is
done. The use of the day sheet is quite universal
in shoe manufacture and it has done much to pro-
mote efficient methods. On page 140 is presented
a typical shoe factory day sheet.
The Upper Leather Room. The upper leather
room is that division of the upper leather department
in which leather stock is measured and sorted for
the cutting room. The department includes the
care, sorting, and cutting of the leather and other
materials that enter into the upper of the finished
shoe, and has three divisions, leather, linings, and
trimmings, each being usually called a department
or room.
Measuring Upper Leather. About two hundred
different kinds of upper leather are now in use.
They usually come from the wholesale houses or
store rooms of the factory in boxes to the upper
142 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
leather room. There they are taken from the
boxes, counted, measured upon a machine, and
stamped with the number of square feet in each
piece. The machine used in measuring the upper
leather is very sensitive to heat and cold, and must
be adjusted every morning for the day's use. It
records the exact number of square inches in the
skin. The operator of it must be very careful
and trustworthy. Upper leather constitutes a large
part of the cost of shoe manufacture, and its econ-
omic use is absolutely essential in a factory.
The Leather Sorter. Leather sorting follows
measuring and is equally important. The cutting
room tags calling for particular kinds of leather for
particular lots of shoes are given to the leather
sorter. He must be able to judge by experience
exactly the amount and quality of leather required
to cut each order, though the quantity may be
figured in the office. He tests its quality by doubling
a skin along the back and passing his fingers over
the folded edge. He rolls the skins selected or
sorted for each lot of shoes into a bundle, attaches
the ticket which he has used, and sends the bundle
to the cutter. The leather sorter must himself
have served several years' apprenticeship as a cutter,
so as to become used to the kinds, feel, and cutting
value of leather. After sorting, the upper leather
is sometimes weighed out by thickness into lots of
definite weight, and placed on shelves in the room
until needed for orders from the cutting room.
THE UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 143
The Lining Sorter. There is usually, also, a sorter
of the various kinds of cloth, such as twills and
drills, used for the linings of shoes. These are in-
spected for their weave, strength, and chemical
qualities. They are inspected both for acceptance
by the factory and for grades for particular kinds
of shoes. They are marked and labeled and put
away in grades corresponding to intended uses.
The lining sorter must usually have had training
in a textile school.
The Positions in a Sorting Department. In the
small factory one or two persons only may be em-
ployed in the work of measuring and sorting leather.
Very many shoe factories, however, in which large
and valuable quantities of stock are used daily, have
a fully organized sorting department.
The positions in a modern sorting department
are as follows:
1. The Inspector, who examines the material
selected by the sorters for particular uses, to see that
it is rightly chosen.
2. The head sorter, who has charge of sorting.
3. Several or more leather and lining sorters.
4. One or two weighers of the sorted lots of
leather.
5. Men who put up the work called for by the
cutter's tags, selecting the leather according to the
price given upon the tag, and placing the bundles
in their proper places for passage into the cutting
room.
144 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
6. Girls who figure the allowances of leather
called for by the tags and keep the cutters' accounts.
This work must be accurately done and demands
considerable ability.
The Lining and Cloth-Cutting Section. The
cutting of cloth tops and linings was formerly done
largely by hand. The hand worker places a pattern
upon the cloth and cuts quickly around the edge
of the pattern with a knife. He may cut the cloth
in the single piece or in layers, up to eight thick-
nesses. Such cutting is never accurate, and with
the increased use of textiles in shoemaking it proves
too slow a method. The dicing or dinking machine
is being used more and more for the cutting of cloth
parts. The die made in the shape of the usual pat-
tern is accurate, and from twenty-four to forty
thicknesses of cloth may be cut by it at one time,
increasing the work of the section many fold. The
cost in cases of die cutting is reckoned at about
one-tenth of that by hand cutting. Hand dicing or
dinking is in practice to some extent.
As has been pointed out, the dieing or dinking
section works entirely according to the specification
of tags for each lot of shoes. Lots go through the
room in pairs varying from one hundred and eight
to one hundred and fifty in number for hand cutting,
and about four hundred for machine dieing. The
usual lining parts to be cut or died out are, quarter
lining, top band, inside stay, fly lining, back stay,
and tip.
THE UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 145
Patterns and dies are selected not only for each of
these parts but for the particular style of shoe called
for.
The Positions in the Lining and Cloth Cutting
Section. The usual positions connected with the
cutting of cloth tops and linings are, the Foreman,
the hand cutters, the machine dinkers, the hand
dinkers, the pattern boy, the cloth and lining folders,
the piece sorters, the inspectors, the cripple cutter,
and the stock man. There may also be an instruc-
tor, to aid the foreman in teaching new employees.
After about one year's service on cloth and linings
cutters may go to the outside or leather cutting
room.
The Cutting Room. The cutting room is that
division of the upper leather department in which
the leather is cut, by hand or with a die, for the upper
parts of the shoe. It is the most important section
of the large department. The cut parts finally go
to the assembling room along with the linings from
the lining room, and are there put together ready
for the stitching room.
The Hand Cutter. Cutting the upper parts of
the shoe by hand was the method preceding the
introduction of machinery, and is still in use, especi-
ally in the smaller and older factories, or in factories
that handle small skins. It is an expert process
demanding years of practice for the finest work,
and has been so satisfactory that it gives way but
slowly to the use of machinery. The particular
146 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
advantage of hand cutting, in addition to the more
economical use of leather, is that the hand cutter is
more likely to place his pattern so that the different
parts of the skin may be cut according to the quali-
ties needed for the different parts of the shoe.
With the improvements in the tanning of leather so
that more uniform qualities are obtained, and with
the increased demand for speed in cutting, large
establishments are tending gradually to the use of
machine dicing.
Hand cutting is done upon hard wood blocks
made especially for the purpose, or thick "cutting
boards" arranged at a convenient height for the
workman to stand before them. He uses a short-
bladed, keen edged knife. It is a part of his training
to know how to keep his board smooth and oiled
regularly and his knife sharp.
The leather cutter is sometimes called "outside
cutter," to distinguish him from the cutter of linings
and trimmings.
The cutter receives a bundle or lot of leather with
its tag from the sorting room, and the patterns
called for by the tag from the pattern room. He
lays out his patterns conveniently at hand in the
order of large, medium, and small. He places one
skin at a time upon the block. Placing a particular
pattern upon it, so that the part selected is best
suited to the corresponding part of the completed
shoe, he draws his knife skillfully around the metal
edge of the pattern. This involves several or more
A Skin Showing how Patterns are Placed in Cutting
(147)
148 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
motions, with the dangers of cutting away from the
pattern and of cutting the fingers. The cutter
uses his patterns alternately, or with variation of
sizes and positions, so as to cut the skin most eco-
nomically. Usually the waste parts are very small
and unsuited to other purposes in the factory, except
for such trimmings as back straps and vamp stays.
They are generally sold to be consumed in making
leather substitutes, or for the oil they contain. The
cutter lays out all his cut parts in lots and marks
the upper piece by pattern, size, width and style.
He ties up these lots with the tag and a sticker
attached showing the case number, the number of
pairs, and the size.
The work of the cutter is checked up in the sorting
room, making an exact efficiency record for each
workman, and the totals of cutting are placed upon
the cutting room day sheet.
The outside cutter learns his trade by work upon
cloth and linings or by service in leather cutting in
a small factory.
The Clicking Machine. As has already been
indicated, large shoe factories are coming to use
machines for cutting leather, in some factories both
the hand method and the machine method being
found side by side. The machine, which performs
a process formerly thought impossible except by
hand, has a cutting board or block like that of the
hand worker. A strong arm or beam swings from
side to side over this block. A skin is placed upon
Operating the Clicking Machine
149
THE UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 151
the block and the operator of the machine sets a
die upon the leather, just as the hand worker would
place a pattern upon it. He then swings the arm
of the machine over the die, which is pressed through
the leather by the automatic action of the machine.
The arm then returns automatically to its full
height. Dies may be used alternately as in hand
work, so as to cut the skin economically. They are
made in various designs and sizes, with one die for
each design and size. Thus it will be seen that
machine cutting calls for a very large number of
dies. Each is about three-quarters of an inch in
height, so that the operator can see clearly where
he is placing it upon the leather, and of such light
weight as not to injure the leather. Cutting is done
upon one thickness only. One movement of the arm
of the machine, guided by the operator, accomplishes
what it would take the hand cutter considerable
time to do in passing his knife entirely around the
edge of the pattern. All pieces cut by a die must
be identically the same, while in hand cutting there
would necessarily be some variation in size. The
dies used for the vamps mark the location of the toe
cap and Blucher foxings that may be added later.
The cut parts are treated as in hand work, and sent
on to the next operations.
The die cutting machine is called the "clicking
machine," and is one of the most important recent
innovations in the making of shoes. An illustra-
tion of this machine is on page 149.
THE SHOE INDUSTRY
The Counting, Marking, and Skiving Department.
In a small factory many of the minor operations of
shoemaking are done in some part of the rooms in
which the related major processes are performed.
Such minor operations may employ but few people.
In the larger factories, however, they become very
important because of the large number of shoes
made daily. They then employ many persons and
are carried on in separate rooms and departments.
Such is the department in which the counting,
marking, and skiving of the pieces coming from the
cutting room are done. The cutter, or some other
employee in the cutting room, has marked only
the top piece of each lot. In this department girls
untie the lots, count them to see that the number
called for by the tag is present, and mark the size
upon each part. The employees of this department,
except for a machinist who has charge of the ma-
chines, are regularly girls and women. The entire
department is sometimes called the skiving depart-
ment, from the chief process in it.
Skiving. The edges of the upper leather which
are to show in the finished shoe are "skived," or
beveled to a thin edge which can be folded in so as
to give a more finished appearance to the completed
shoe. This work is done by girls upon skiving
machines. Such edges on thick leather are some-
times stained the color of the leather itself instead
of being skived. The skived edges are covered with
THE UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 153
a coating of cement, and placed in a machine which
folds and presses them at the same time.
Nicking. All curved edges of upper leather parts
are nicked or cut with little notches by girls upon
nicking machines. This is done so that such parts
may be folded in evenly and smoothly in stitching
the shoe. Sometimes edges which will show in the
completed shoe are scalloped.
Dieing Out Straps. Straps for Oxford shoes and
button flies are usually died out by hand, by the use
of a mallet, in this department, rather than by the
cutter in the cutting room, where, being the smallest
parts, they cause some delay in cutting.
Positions in the Skiving Department. The posi-
tions in the skiving department are, the Forewoman;
floor girls, who give out work, gather it up, and
check it off as it leaves the room; counters and
markers; skivers; nickers and scallopers; edge stain-
ers, and the machinist.
Assembling Department. The upper parts of
the shoe come on trucks from the skiving room to
the assembling department. Here are many boxes
in which the lots are placed according to numbers,
with four tags for each order, the tag for the outer,
upper part of the shoe, for linings, for trimmings,
and for tip. In each box are placed all the parts
necessary for the complete upper, by adding to each
lot what its tag calls for. Linings are marked upon
a stamping machine with size, width, and case
number. When all parts have been assembled they
154 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
are divided for the various sections of the stitching
room. For instance, quarter linings, top bands,
button flies or side stays go to the tip-stitching sec-
tion; tips go to the tip-stitching section; and the
outside parts, vamps, vamp linings, and tongues,
go to the vamping section.
Positions in the Assembling Department. The
positions in the assembling department are, the
Foreman, floor girls, girls for casing up, for stamping
linings, and for arranging tags in order of precedence,
and a stock boy.
Time and Pay Statistics in the Cutting Depart-
ment. At the end of this and other chapters on
factory departments are presented statistics selected
from Bulletin No. 178 of the United States Bureau
of Labor Statistics, showing average wages, weekly
earnings, and hours per week in boot and shoe manu-
facture throughout the country from 1910 to 1914,
and by states for 1914.
The figures here given are for a selected number
of establishments, but may he regarded as repre-
sentative of the entire industry, as according to the
census of 1910 more than ninety-seven per cent, of
the total number of employees in the industry were
found in the states from which the information was
secured.
Among other things, it will be observed by Table
VII, on pages 156 and 157, that hand cutters, whose
work is more exacting than that of machine cutters,
received in 1914 thirty-six and three-fifth cents per
THE UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 155
hour, or $19.66 a week; while machine cutters re-
ceived thirty-two and one-half cents per hour, or
$17.93 per week. It will be seen, also, that male
skivers in 1914 received twenty-nine and nine-
tenths cents an hour, or $16.13 a week; while female
skivers received twenty and nine-tenths cents an
hour, or $11.30 a week. In Table VIII, on page 159,
may be seen the variations of earnings in these
operations in the great shoe manufacturing centers
of the country.
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Time Hours
Ocoupati<
Cutters, vamp and
Massachusetts.
Missouri
New York . . .
Ohio
Other States .
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Massachusetts
Missouri
New Hampshir
New York
Ohio
Other States . .
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M assachusetts
Other States . .
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CHAPTER IX
THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT
(181)
CHAPTER IX
THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT
Definition. The stitching department is that
division of the factory in which the outer parts of
the upper of the shoe, the linings, and the trimmings
are sewed together upon machines, ready for putting
upon the last. In some factories this division is
called the "fitting-room." Female employees gen-
erally work in this department, but at present men
are being employed more and more on the vamping
machines and other heavy parts of stitching. In a
factory having 5,000 employees about 1,400 are
found in the stitching department. The machines
used in the stitching room are similar to the ordinary
sewing machine used in the home.
Variations in Stitching Room Processes. Methods
and details in the stitching department differ more
than in the cutting and other departments of the
shoe factory, because of the many parts composing
the upper of the shoe. There are more processes
involved in the making of women's shoes, with the
constant striving after style and effect, than in men's
shoes, in which plainness and serviceable qualities
are desired. Processes may be modified, also, in
making children's and infants' footwear. Different
(168)
164 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
kinds of shoes, as high, low, and pumps, require
variations in the methods of sewing the various
parts of the upper. Altogether the stitching depart-
ment involves a large number of processes of minute
detail and possibility of variation. The generally
prevailing methods are here presented.
The Number and Divisions of the Parts to be
Stitched. For the uppers of an ordinary pair of
button boots, as an example, there are forty-four
different pieces of material. The stitching is done
upon many of these parts simultaneously before the
upper is ready for lasting. The size is marked upon
every part. The linings and the trimmings are
given to one division of operators, the outsides to an-
other, and the vamps and tips to still another
division. All these parts meet again when each
has been sewed, and are inspected and sent on to
the lasting room.
The Divisions of This Department. The natural
divisions of this department are shown in the follow-
ing chart. They are, the Lining department, the
tip department, closing and staying, foxing, top
stitching, or closing on and top stitching, and the
button hole, vamping, and toe closing department.
The Lining Department. In the lining depart-
ment various parts of the lining are pasted and
sewed together in preparation for the top stitching
department, where the lining as a whole will be
sewed to the upper of the shoe. Each operation
here spoken of may be a single process or may
CHART OF THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT
STITCHING DEPARTMENT
Lining Department
Tip Department
Closing and Staying Department
Foxing Department
Top Stitching Department
Button Hole Department
Vamping Department
Toe Closing Department
(165)
166 THE SHOE INDUSTBY
represent several minor processes. First the lining
is closed or sewed in a seam, and taped, or stayed
up and down the heel. The top band is sewed on.
The button fly, which has a reinforcement in the
man's shoe, is also stitched on. A lining is stitched
upon the tongue for some shoes. The vamp lining
is cemented merely to hold it in place for later
sewing. Labels are stitched on the lining of the
inside of the heel for Oxford shoes, and on the inside
of the top of the lining for boots. The more common
kinds of boots, for instance, are, the button, the
Polish, the Blucher; of low shoes, the Oxford and
the pump.
Positions in the Lining Department. The usual
positions in the lining department of the stitching
room are, the Superintendent, the forewoman, the
inspector, operators on the closing of linings, on
the staying of linings, on sewing of top bands, and
on attaching labels, the floor girls, and a cripple
girl who attends to all imperfect work.
The Tip Department. The tip department is
that section of the stitching room in which the tip
receives special preparation for its place in the com-
plete upper, and in which it is sewed to the vamp.
Tips come from the cutting room tied in bunches
separate from the other parts of the shoe. In the
tip department they are skived, perforated, and
fitted with linings according to use on particular
vamps, or, in other words, on shoes of particular
styles. Usually a box to give reinforcement and style
THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 167
to the tips is cemented inside of it before the lining
is inserted, and before the tip is stitched to the
vamp. The tip may be skived and folded in,
perforated, nicked, scalloped, or plain, each process
involved belonging to this department. The lining
is cemented in, taped over seams, and pressed
firmly in place upon a machine, and the whole is
top-stitched on a machine, through leather and
lining, just below the line of perforation. Then
the tip is stitched above the perforation to the vamp
of the upper; and this part of the upper is ready for
the vamping department.
Perforating. Perforating deserves special mention
since it gives style to the tip, and is of itself an
interesting process and a good example of intricacy
in shoe making processes. A series of ornamental
perforations is stamped by a combination of small
dies upon the "power tip press" or upon the "per-
forating machine." The holes thus stamped take
particular styles which are known in the shoe fact-
ories by numbers. For instance, perforation "num-
ber 69" consists of a large hole and a small one
alternating in a line near the edge of the tip, over the
top, thus: OOOOQ, and "number 70" consists of a
large hole alternating with two small ones, thus:
o o o o o o o. The size of the holes may vary. If you
will look at the tip of your shoe you will probably
find one of these styles or a variation of them.
The machine feeds itself automatically, dicing the
full perforation accurately at one stroke for each
168 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
tip, as the tips pass through in line upon a moving
band of paper, which prevents dulling the die.
This machine is used also for perforating larger parts
of shoes, such as vamps, foxings, and ornamental
"winged tips."
Positions in the Tip Department. The positions
in the tip department are numerous and may be
shown more clearly, as will other departments having
many positions in the following pages, by a numbered
list as follows, using the terms which are common
in the factory:
1. The Superintendent, in a large factory.
2. Forewomen.
3. Quality Inspector.
4. Lining Closers.
5. Stayers.
6. Toe Piece Ironers.
7. Tapers.
8. Reinforcers.
9. Tip Markers.
10. Toe Lining Reinforcers.
11. Tip Pressers.
12. Vamp Pressers.
13. Vamp Perforators.
14. Box Cementers.
15. Stitchers of tongue to vamp.
16. Tip Perforators.
17. Tip Blackers.
18. Stitchers of tip and vamp.
19. Floor Girls.
THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 169
20. Cripple Girls.
21 . "Hustle Girls," who look up the dates upon the
tags and keep orders moving in their proper sequence.
The Closing and Staying Department. The clos-
ing and staying department deals with cementing,
sewing, and securing the seams of the top of the upper,
the part above the foxing and toe of all kinds of
shoes, following the work done upon the linings and
tips. First, the button fly is pressed, then closed
or sewed to one quarter, and the two quarters of
the top are sewed together. The top piece is ce-
mented on the inside of the large quarter, which
bears the button fly, and the quarter is stayed. The
top of the button Oxford is ironed out at the heel
seam, and a reinforcement ironed upon the button
fly. The Blucher Oxford is nicked and pressed. A
paper reinforcement is ironed upon the inside of
the top of the circular pump. Bows of various
kinds and colors are made by machines for Oxfords,
and fastened upon them by a machine which drives
a metal reinforcement into the bow. Canvas stays
are put in the top of Oxfords. A long vamp is re-
inforced for eyelets, and a stay is cemented in when
blind eyelets are to be inserted. Perforations are
sometimes covered with imitation reinforcements
on the inside, or stitched around the outside. Per-
foration upon the top has tape placed on the inside
and stitched underneath. Buckle straps and instep
straps are attached to some styles of shoes.
There are many such operations in this division
170 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
of the stitching department, according to the par-
ticular kinds of shoes made in a factory. Each
style is kept separate in going through the depart-
ment. Stitching machines are now made for use
upon certain styles and parts of shoes only, special-
ization in machinery extending to the most minute
parts of processes throughout the factory.
Positions in the Closing and Staying Department.
The usual positions in this department are as follows :
1. Forewomen, or assistants to foreman.
£. Inspectors.
3. Teacher for new help.
4. Closers.
5. Label Girls and Cementers.
6. Button Fly Pressers.
7. Button Fly Reinforcers.
8. Stayers.
9. Toe Piece Reinforcers.
10. Cementers and Pressers.
11. Floor Girl.
12. Checker Girl, who checks off all numbers of
lots so that it may be known when the parts are
all done and have gone to the next department.
The Foxing Department. The foxing department
is one of the smallest divisions of the stitching room.
The foxing is a little piece of upper leather below
the quarters on each side of the heel, put on all kinds
of boots and Oxfords. Foxing is used on both the
high and the low styles of footwear. It is both
plain and ornamented, according to the style and
THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 171
quality of the shoe. Back straps and fly stays are
stitched upon the quarters to which the foxing is
attached, and then the foxing, ornamented with
perforations in this department, if need be, is
stitched upon the quarters, sometimes with one row
of stitching and sometimes with two rows. The
operations are the same with canvas as with leather
uppers. The work when done and checked off on
the day sheet goes to the top stitching department.
The ordinary Polish shoe, not the Blucher, and
the Oxford shoe, both Blucher and common, have a
long vamp and no foxing.
Several related or similar operations, also, are
performed in the foxing department, such as sewing
loops at the top of the back of the shoe, on men's
shoes, and sewing on buckle straps.
Positions in the Foxing Department. The usual
positions here are these:
1. Forewomen, or assistants to foreman.
2. Teacher.
3. Inspector.
4. Perforators.
5. Back Strap Stitchers.
6. Side Stay Stitchers.
7. Binders.
8. Button Fly Face Stitchers.
9. Foxing Stitchers.
10. Floor Girls.
11. Cripple Girls.
12. Checker Girls.
•11
172 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
The Top Stitching Department. The top stitching
department is the division of the stitching room in
which the tops, the leather upper part, coming
from the foxing department, and the linings, from
the lining department, are sewed together. Quarters
and linings are first matched upon tables and tied
together in bundles, according to tag numbers.
This work is done by floor girls, who give the bundles
thus matched to the machine operators. In some
factories vamps are sewed on at the same time as
the tops and linings are sewed together.
The methods of the department vary, as in other
sections of the factory, according to the style of
shoes being made. Generally the top and lining
are put together back to back, or wrong side out,
and stitched along the edge of the top. Then the
top is turned and the seam is pounded out so that
the edge of the leather on the right side comes out
true and flat. Then this part goes to the top stitcher,
who sews it all around except at the bottom where
the vamp is still to be attached. The side of the
quarter on which buttons are to be sewed on the
button shoe is pinked or notched upon the edge in
case of a raw edge of the lining and the leather sewed
together. Usually in the case of canvas shoes vamp-
ing is done in this department before top stitching.
More men are found in this department than in
the other divisions of the stitching room because
the work is sometimes heavier and more exacting,
calling for considerable strength when followed
THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 173
from day to day, as well as for skill. The parts
must be sewed, carefully turned and thoroughly
beaten, and sewed again in finished form, making
altogether, perhaps, the most difficult work of the
stitching room, and the department is the largest
division of the stitching room.
Positions in the Top Stitching Department. The
positions in this section are the following:
1. Forewomen.
2. Teacher.
3. Inspector.
4. Operators of closing on machines.
5. Operators for turning and pounding top.
6. Top Stitchers.
7. Vampers.
8. Floor Girls.
9. Cripple Girls.
The Button Hole Department. The button hole
department includes the making of button holes
and the inserting of eyelets. The tops of button
and of lace shoes come from the top stitching de-
partment to this department. The small quarter
under the button fly is pinked, and the fly is marked
for button holes by means of a perforated pattern
through which the places for buttons are marked by
hand with a pencil or yellow crayon. Then the
button holes are inserted by a power machine which
cuts the hole and works it around at the same time.
In eyeleting the upper is marked by hand for the
eyelet. Then the eyelet is inserted on a machine.
174 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
A machine has recently come into use which inserts
eyelets in both sides of the top at the same time.
In the case of "blind eyelets" a hole is stamped
through the leather, lining, and reinforcement.
The leather is then held back by the operator and
eyelets are stamped through the lining and the re-
inforcement, the leather only showing on the outside
of the hole. In some factories blind eyelets are
inserted as a single process on an automatic machine.
In men's high lace shoes hooks are inserted by a
machine above the rows of eyelets. Raw edges are
blacked or colored so as to make the edge of the
lining resemble the leather.
Pairs of tops are now examined for matching and
are tagged by sizes ready for vamping.
Positions in the Button Hole Department. The
usual positions in the button hole section are as
follows :
1. Forewoman.
2. Teacher.
3. Inspector.
4. Quarter Pinkers.
5. Button Hole Makers.
6. Button Hole Workers.
7. Machine Eyeleters.
8. Button Hole Finishers.
9. Button Hole Trimmers.
10. Operators for Cording the cloth button shoe.
11. Edge Blackers.
12. Girls for Matching and Tagging pairs.
THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 175
13. Floor Girls.
14. Cripple Girls.
The Vamping Department. The vamp is the
lower, front part of the shoe upper. It is the most
important part of the upper and should be cut from
the best of leather. The "cut off vamp" extends
only to the shoe tip. The whole vamp extends from
toe to heel with a seam at the heel only. Vamping
consists in stitching the vamp to the quarters of
the top. While some vamping may be done in the
top stitching department, the process itself is an
important one, and is a separate section in a factory.
Vamps are first centered by being folded and marked
in the center of the throat. Then the vamp is
stitched to the quarters, each style of shoe calling
for its special process. Usually leather parts only
are sewed, the lining being held back.
Vamping is the most painstaking work of the
stitching room and the best paying. Judgment and
carefulness are absolutely essential to the operator.
Three-fourths of the vampers are men. Hand
strength is necessary in the heavier kinds of vamping,
to pull and hold parts in place while they are being
stitched, and to guide the work through the machine.
Positions in the Vamping Department. The few
positions of the vamping department are, the
Superintendent, foreman, man instructor, inspector,
vampers, floor girls, cripple girls, and checker.
The Toe Closing Department. The toe closing
department is the final division of stitching. The
176 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
toes of all linings are made in two pieces. When
the toe closing department is reached tops and
linings have been stitched together and vamps have
been sewed to the tops. In the toe closing depart-
ment the leather vamp is held back and the two
parts of the toe lining, one being laid flat upon the
other so as to avoid a thick seam, are double stitched.
This is a quick and easy operation.
Several other processes best done at this stage of
shoemaking are performed in this department.
In button shoes the side of the top which is to bear
the buttons is marked for the buttons through the
holes of the other side, by hand. Then the buttons
are sewed on by a machine operator. Then comes
the process of barring, or inserting a few stitches
on a machine just below the buttons and above the
vamp. Button Oxfords are fully buttoned, high
button shoes only part way, in preparation for
lasting. Laced shoes are laced by hand or on a
machine. Lots are made ready by tags and numbers
for the lasters.
Positions in the Toe Closing Department. The
positions in this division are, the Superintendent,
forewoman, inspector, toe closers, markers for but-
tons, button sewers, operators of barring machines,
girls for buttoning and lacing shoes, floor girls,
cripple girls, and packers who sort cases of lots of
shoes for lasting.
Operating Stitching Machines. The stitching
department deserves special mention on account
THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 177
of its magnitude, intricate processes, and peculiar
machines.
Machine operators in the stitching room generally
learn on inside work, as linings, or by work upon
cheaper leather parts, or by low grade work. In cer-
tain seasons of the year there is a transfer of operators
from department to department, according to need.
Some operators know how to run a number of ma-
chines, frequently being taught to run a second
one as if just entering the factory. The difficulty
of handling a power sewing machine, as of a power
machine in general, is to know when to start and
when to stop the machine. On all machines the
start is made by pressing the toe, and the stop by
pressing the heel. Sometimes a factory has a special
room where not only the processes of stitching take
place but all other processes as well, for the making
of special "hurry orders" of shoes.
Some automatic machines produce in operators,
especially in the case of girls, the particular move-
ment of the machine so that the operator responds
to the motion, swinging or jumping the entire body
or exhibiting a nervous, spasmodic action. This
is especially noticeable in running the barring ma-
chine in which the part bearing the needle rises and
springs toward the operator at each operation, and
upon machines having an eccentric movement.
In such cases operators are usually transferred in
time to different or less injurious machines or
processes.
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CHAPTER X
THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT
(185)
CHAPTER X
THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT
Its Nature. As the upper leather department is
sometimes called upper stock fitting, so the sole
leather department is often called bottom stock
fitting. It deals with the preparation of the bottom
parts of the shoe. These are :
1. Soles.
2. Insoles.
3. Counters.
4. Toe Boxes.
5. Heels.
The Preparation of Sole Leather Parts. These
parts may all be prepared in specialized factories
and sold to shoe factories, or large shoe concerns
may themselves have special departments for the
preparation of these parts from the sides of sole
leather. Briefly, in either case the sole leather is
dampened by dipping it in water to make it cut
more easily, and the desired parts are cut out in the
rough by means of dies in "dieing-out machines."
The shoe factory, when buying such parts, usually
buys them in this condition. The cut parts are then
made to conform nearly to the desired shape for
shoemaking by rounding them in the * 'rounding
*12 ( 187 )
188 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
machine." This machine uses a pattern of the
required shape and by means of a knife cuts around
the sole in conformity with the pattern. The
outsole is passed through a heavy rolling machine
to press the fibers very closely together, so as to
increase the wear of the shoe as did the hammering
of the old time shoemaker. The sole is then passed
through a splitting machine which reduces it to an
even thickness. The insole, or innersole, is made
in the same way as the outersole but of lighter
leather. These and other parts of the shoe bottom
will be spoken of again in the following pages.
The Division of Bottom Stock Fitting. There
are three important divisions in the bottom stock
fitting or sole leather department. That dealing
with the divisions of the insole depends upon two
special methods of shoemaking as described in
Chapter VIII. The three divisions are the following :
1. McKay Insole Division.
2. Welt Insole Division.
3. Outer Sole Division.
The McKay Insole Department. In the making
of McKay insoles material is usually bought in
roughly blocked form. Since light leather is used
regularly for the inner sole in this method of shoe-
making the blocks are first dipped in a solution of
glue, so that when dried they will become somewhat
hardened and strengthened. They are then died
out or dinked upon a machine in sizes and widths,
with a full set for each style of shoe to be made.
THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT 189
They are cased up by girls, according to the accom-
panying tags.
Positions in the McKay Insole Department. The
few positions here are, the Foreman, girls for dipping
the insoles in glue, dinkers or operators of dieing
out machines, girls for casing up soles, and a checker
girl.
There may be other operations in this division,
such as "stitch slashing" and reinforcing the heels
of insoles.
The Welt Insole Department. Inner soles made
by the welt method are of two kinds, leather and
reinforced. The all-leather sole must be of good
quality, and at least of a standard thickness. The
reinforced sole may be of poorer quality and thinner,
yet of a fixed standard. In such soles the leather
is reinforced or strengthened by a covering of can-
vas cemented firmly upon it. For welt insoles the
leather is bought in full side stock, that is, uncut,
and in the rough block form. The soles are first
dinked out as in the McKay division, and sizes are
stamped upon the heels by hand. Then the heel
seat is cut across in a machine to indicate the posi-
tion of the front of the heel. Girls usually perform
this operation because of their quickness of hand.
One person may cut the heels of 10,000 insoles in a
day. This is a good illustration of a process in which
scarcely more than one simple motion is involved.
Channeling. The purpose of the welt method
is to give a smooth, even inner sole in the finished
190 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
shoe. To effect this the sole must be either pasted
in or attached on its under surface. The latter
is accomplished by passing the insole through the
Goodyear channeling machine which makes in-
cisions, or a double "lip," with two knives acting
at the same time. A slit about one-half inch deep
is cut from within along the edge of the insole.
Then the channel thus made is opened up on a lip-
turning machine, forming a ridge around the outer
edge. The welt is later sewed to this lip or shoulder.
Slashing. The welt inner sole is sometimes
slashed or cut across the ball of the foot on the under
side, to make it flexible.
Wetting. Leather inner soles are passed through
heavy rollers, in which they are wet and compressed
at the same time. They are now sorted and packed
to go to the lasting room.
Randing. The rand is a strip of leather made
thin at one edge. It is attached to the heel part of
the sole, or later to the heel itself, so as to fill what
would otherwise be an open space between the
sole and the heel.
Reinforced Insoles. The. reinforced insole is
characterized by lightness and strength. Soles
which are to be thus treated are first died or stamped
out as in other cases. They are channeled with a
single lip which is turned up to indicate the place
of the canvas reinforcement. They may be slashed
and dampened as in the case of the leather sole.
They are then dried under a large fan or in a blower,
THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT 191
having been cemented by a brush on the surface
inside the lip.
The Canvas Reinforcement. A large roll of can-
vas of suitable width is run through a cement box
and over a great reel, one side of the canvas only being
wet with cement. The canvas dries upon the reel,
is taken off in a roll, and cut in the proper rein-
forcement lengths, which are later fitted by hand
upon the leather insole inside of the lip and "formed"
or rubbed thoroughly into the space by a machine.
The surplus canvas is then trimmed off at the edge
of the lip. The soles are then cleaned, inspected,
sorted, and packed up for the lasting room.
Positions in the Welt Insole Department. The
positions in this department, including those already
indicated and several others which may be found
in most factories, are as follows:
1. The Superintendent.
2. Foremen.
3. Assistant Foremen.
4. Quantity Man, who makes a study of the
volume of work done in the department.
5. Quality Man, who inspects work for quality.
6. Dinkers and Stampers.
7. Heel Markers and Cutters.
8. Channelers.
9. Slashers.
10. Lip Cutters.
11. Lip Turners.
12. Toe Cutters.
192 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
13. Wetters and Cementers.
14. Heel Counters.
15. Randers.
16. Canvas Cutters.
17. Canvas Attachers.
18. Canvas Formers.
19. Canvas Trimmers.
20. Sorters and Packers.
21. Floor Boy.
The Outer Sole Department. The treatment of
outer soles is largely like that given to inner soles.
The main processes are much the same with a few
additional processes and features. Outer soles are
first cut into the rough block form and are then
dinked out, or "rounded" by being cut by pattern
upon a machine. Sizes are stamped upon the heel.
They are shanked out and the heel seat is smoothed
by a machine. They are then wet and moulded
upon a high pressure machine to the shape of the
shoe bottom, being at the same time hardened by
the pressure. A feather edge is given to the fore-
part and heel seat of the soles which are to be treated
by the McKay process. Channels are cut and
turned in those to be treated by the welt
process.
Positions in the Outersole Department. The
positions in this department, from the superintendent
down, are practically the same as those of the insole
department, on page 191, with the exception of
cementers and canvas workers.
THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT 193
The Counter Department. As has been said
already, small parts of the shoe, such as the counter,
toe box, and heel, presented briefly at this place, are
largely manufactured in special factories and pur-
chased in quantity by the shoe companies. Large
factories, however, or shoe manufacturing companies
operating a number of factories, usually have de-
partments for making their own counters, toe
boxes, heels, and other minor parts. Opportunities
for employment in the specialized factories depend
mainly upon the magnitude of manufacture, the
large number of parts turned out daily requiring
little skill but many hands in the making.
The counter is a stiffening in the back part of the
shoe between the leather and the lining, and lasted
with the rest of the top to the bottom of the shoe.
Its purpose is to prevent running over at the heel.
It is made of sole leather, leatherboard, leather
fiber, or similar substance that may be easily worked
and yet left firm after treatment, and sometimes of
metal in the case of heavy shoes.
The counter is died out and its edges skived thin.
It is treated with shellac or glue and moulded into
shape.
The Toe Box Department. The toe box is a re-
inforcement placed in the toe of the shoe to give
permanency of shape or a distinctive style. It is
usually made of sole leather, but it may be made of
leatherboard, pasteboard, canvas, linoleum, cellu-
loid, or of other materials which can be easily worked
194 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
and made to retain their shape. The box is died
out, skived upon the part above the toe, soaked in
shellac or gum so as to be stiff when dry, and usually
moulded to the desired form, ready for use in the
lasting room.
The Heel Department. In Chapter XIV, upon the
terms used in shoemaking, an explanation is given
of the heel and its varieties. So it is necessary
here to speak only of the materials and processes of
its manufacture.
Heels are usually made of the poorer parts of sole
leather, including the remnants from counters and
toe boxes, leatherboard, "hydite," or other leather
substitutes, and of wood.
The Processes of Making Heels. The leather
is first "fitted," which consists of skiving and rolling.
It is skived by being run through a machine to give
it an even thickness, and rolled to make it hard
and firm. It is then weighed and given to the
cutter. Each operator on the cutting or dinking
machine has five or six dies and cuts the leather
as economically as possible into various sizes for
heel lifts. These are then sorted by hand into
four grades, and put into bins according to sizes,
ready for "heel building." The heel builder receives
a tag calling for so many heels of a certain size and
gets from the bins the lifts required by the size.
The lifts are placed one upon another, by a grada-
tion of sizes, up to the height necessary for the heel.
The pile is pasted or glued and a nail is driven
THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT 195
through by a machine to hold it firmly together.
Many of these piles, or heels in the rough form,
are put upon boards and placed in the flat press
where they remain for twenty-four hours under
high pressure. They are then put into a com-
pressing machine which moulds them into any de-
sired shape. After this rands are tacked upon them,
when not first attached to the heel seat, so that
they will fit closely upon the heel seat of the sole
of the shoe. Then the front part or breast of
the heel is cut off smoothly, as this can be done
better before the heel is attached. Heels are then
sorted, gauged for height, trimmed upon their edges,
put into bags, and stored away until called for by
the making department. A top piece, or lift of
superior leather is put upon the heel later in the
making department.
Positions in Heel Making. The usual positions
in a heel factory or in the heel department of a
modern shoe factory are as follows :
1. The Superintendent.
2. Assistant Superintendent.
3. Foreman.
4. Assistant Foreman.
5. Skivers.
6. Rollers.
7. Cutters.
8. Weighers.
9. Heel Lift Sorters.
10. Heel Lift Gangers.
196 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
11. Heel Builders.
12. Flat Press Men.
13. Rand Makers.
14. Rand Tackers.
15. Compressors.
16. Heel Sorters.
17. Heel Repairers.
18. Lumpers.
Employees in the Sole Leather Department. The
heavier processes in this department and the larger
machines require men as operators, -but the many
lighter processes and the handling of small parts
make possible the employment of large numbers
of boys and girls and women. In the average
factory this department usually has about an even
division of male and female employees, standing
next to the stitching room in its proportion of the
latter.
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CHAPTEK XI
THE MAKING DEPARTMENT
(199)
CHAPTER XI
THE MAKING DEPARTMENT
Its Nature. This department is called also the
bottoming department and the "gang" room, the
last name arising from the earlier custom of work
in this department under the gang system. Here
the uppers of shoes, prepared in the cutting room
and stitching room, and the soles, fitted in the sole
leather room, are brought together, lasted, and
made into shoes ready for finishing. This depart-
ment falls into natural divisions as follows:
1. The Lasting Department.
2. The Welt Bottoming Department.
3. The McKay Bottoming Department.
4. The Heeling Department.
5. The Turn Shoe Department.
6. The Standard Screw, Nailed, or Pegged De-
partment.
These divisions are not clearly drawn and through
them all runs the large general method of bottoming,
modified only by the variations necessary for attach-
ing uppers to the bottoms of certain styles and kinds
of shoes, as has been already explained at length
in Chapter VIII upon "Methods in Shoe Manu-
facture." There are many processes in the making
201
THE SHOE INDUSTRY
room, about fifty, for instance, following through
any one method, and many more made necessary
by the multiplication of methods.
The Lasting Department. There are two methods
of lasting, by hand and by machinery. The first,
like most other processes in shoemaking, is giving
way rapidly to the machine method.
Adjusting the upper of the shoe to the last is the
beginning of the work done in the bottoming depart-
ment. The box toe is put in its proper place between
the lining and the upper, and the counter in its place
at the heel, between the lining and the upper. Then
the upper is drawn over the last upon which has
already been tacked the insole, which conforms
exactly to the shape of the last, and is tacked to
hold it in place.
The Pulling Over Machine. As the parts of the
shoe have been cut to conform to the shape of the
last they must be accurately attached upon it.
The pulling over machine has pincers which act
exactly like the human fingers. These pincers
grasp the leather at various points around the toe
and draw it closely against the wood of the last
upon the inner sole. By an adjustment of levers all
parts of the upper are drawn in evenly and tacked
securely in place.
Toe and Heel Wiping. The toe and heel are
the most difficult parts to last properly. These are
drawn in by a series of wipers upon the lasting
machine, so evenly that no wrinkles are left, and
Operating the Rex Pulling Over Machine
203
THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 205
held in place by a strip of tape, fine wire, or by tacks.
Tacks except at the heel, where they are clinched
on the inside, are driven only part way in so that they
may later be withdrawn to leave the inside of the
shoe perfectly smooth, the distinctive feature of the
welt method.
The Upper Trimming Machine. The surplus
upper leather drawn over the bottom at the toe and
heel and sometimes at the sides of the shoe, is re-
moved upon the upper trimming machine in which
a knife cuts the extra parts away very smoothly
and evenly, while at the same time a small hammer
pounds the leather smooth along the sides and toe
of the shoe.
The shoe then passes to another machine by which
the leather and counter around the heel are beaten
into conformity with the last, making the entire
bottom ready for the welt bottoming processes.
Positions in the Lasting Department. The chief
positions in this department are, the Superintendent,
foreman, operators of the pulling over machine, the
lasting machine, and the trimming and pounding
machines.
The Welt Bottoming Department. The welt
method of bottoming is coming increasingly into
use because of producing a smooth inside bottom
of the shoe, and because of the ease with which a
welt shoe can be repaired after being worn. After
the lasting operations the shoe is ready to receive
the outsole.
*13
206 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
Welting. First the welt which is distinctive of
this method of shoemaking is attached. The welt
is a narrow strip of leather so prepared that it may
be sewed first to the lip of the inner sole and to the
upper leather and later to the outer sole, no stitching
passing entirely through the bottom of the shoe as
in the McKay method. The welt extends in front
of the heel entirely around the shoe. This process
was a very difficult one in the days of hand shoe-
making, but as performed upon a machine it becomes
simple and rapid. It is claimed, indeed, that this
particular machine process has been the leading
factor in the great development of shoe manu-
facturing in recent times. After this process the
surplus parts of the lip, upper, and welt are trimmed
off by the inseam trimming machine.
Welt Beating. The next process is welt beating
upon a machine in which a small hammer with rapid
strokes beats the welt down evenly at the side of the
shoe. The insole and the welt are now coated over
with rubber cement. At the same time the outsole
receives a coating of cement.
Sole Laying. When this has dried slightly the
process of sole laying takes place. The sole is put
in place and pressed firmly upon the shoe and welt
in the sole laying machine, remaining in the machine
a sufficient length of time for the cement to set firmly.
Rough Rounding. Next comes the trimming of
the sole and welt so that they will extend a uniform
distance from the upper leather. This process is
Operating the U. S. M. Co. Lasting Machine
207
THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 209
called rough rounding and is one of the most im-
portant, exacting, and arduous processes found in
the entire factory. A machine gauges the distance
at which the cutting shall be done from the last,
cutting usually wider on the outside of the shoe
than on the inside and reducing the width of the
shank. In any lot of shoes, large or small, passing
through the hands of the rough rounder there must
be the same variation of margin according to size
and design.
The rough rounding machine cuts also a little
slit or channel along the edge in the bottom of the
sole. This channel was formerly cut by hand. Its
purpose is to allow a covering for the stitching
that follows.
Heel Seat Nailing. The process of rough round-
ing deals simply with that part of the shoe in front
of the heel to which the welt has been sewed. The
heel portion of the outsole is next fastened by nailing
securely through to the inner sole. The surplus
leather around the heel is now trimmed off on the
heel seat rounding machine, which cuts a channel
also. This channel is opened evenly to provide
for stitching.
Sole Sewing. The outsole is now stitched to the
welt entirely around the shoe upon the outsole
lockstitch machine, a process very similar to welt
sewing. This stitching, however, is finer and very
durable. It shows on the upper side of the welt
around the finished shoe.
210 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
Channel Laying. The lip of the channel is now
cemented upon a machine, partly dried, and is
rolled smoothly and evenly back into place upon the
channel laying machine, completely covering the
stitches which would otherwise show on the bottom
of the shoe.
Leveling. The shoe is passed beneath a vibrating
roller under heavy pressure in the automatic sole
leveling machine. The roller passes completely
up and down each side of the shoe, canting first
to the right and then to the left and removing
every unevenness on the bottom.
Welt Finishing. The edge of the fore part of the
shoe was left in a slightly rough condition after the
process of rough rounding. This roughness is now
smoothed away upon the trimming machine, which
has a set of rapidly revolving cutters. The edge
and welt of the shoe receive a coat of blacking,
and the stitches showing on the upper side of the
welt are separated upon a machine so as to present
an even appearance. The indentations thus made
are burnished upon a machine. The edge of the
shoe is burnished upon the edge setting machine
by means of two rapidly vibrating hot irons. The
surface of the top lift of the heel is leveled upon the
top lift sanding machine, and the breast is scoured
on a rapidly revolving disk.
Other Finishing Processes. From this point on
there are various processes of finishing the heel and
the bottom of the shoe, which may be performed in
Operating the Goodyear Welt Sewing Machine
211
THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 213
the bottoming department or in a separate finishing
department. Some of these, such as tip repair-
ing, are quite separate from the work of the
bottoming department. The more important of
the finishing processes may be presented here.
The heel and the edges of the shoe are blacked or
covered with the dressing suitable to the leather
used on shoes other than black, and finished on
burnishing machines. The bottom of the shoe is
buffed upon revolving rollers covered with sand-
paper, to remove the marks of handling in various
processes. It is then buffed to a finer degree on the
Naumkeag buffing machine upon a pad of rubber
covered with fine emery paper, revolving still more
rapidly than the first buffing machine. The bottom
of the shoe is now "hard finished" by receiving coats
of stain or other material, and by polishing. In
some cases the bottoms are blacked in whole or in
part, and some receive a dull finish on the forepart,
while the whole is thoroughly polished upon re-
volving brushes.
Positions in the Welt Bottoming Department.
The more usual positions in the welt bottoming
department are as follows:
1. The Superintendent.
2. Foreman.
3. Assistant Foreman.
4. Tack Pullers.
5. Welters.
6. Inseam Trimmers.
214 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
7. Welt Scarfers.
8. Welt Beaters.
9. Shank Nailers.
10. Bottom Fillers.
11. Welt Cementers.
12. Sole Cementers.
13. Sole Layers.
14. Heel Seat Nailers.
15. Rough Rounders.
16. Channel Openers.
17. Goodyear Stitchers.
18. Channel Cementers.
19. Channel Layers.
20. Wheelers.
21. Randers.
22. Levelers.
23. Heelers.
24. Sluggers.
25. Heel Shavers.
26. Heel Breasters.
27. Edge Trimmers.
28. Heel Scourers.
29. Heel Jointers.
30. Edge Setters.
31. Burnishers.
32. Blackers.
33. Buffers.
34. Hard Finishers.
35. Polishers.
36. Floor Persons.
Operating the Goodyear Rough Rounding Machine
215
THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 217
The McKay Bottoming Department. The McKay
bottoming department is that division in which the
upper is attached to the sole by a machine which
sews directly through the outsole, upper leather,
and insole. The upper parts come to the McKay
room from the lasting room; the outer soles come
from the sole leather department, having been kept
in humidifiers so as to be moist and ready for
use.
Processes Connected with the McKay Method.
First the toes of the uppers, already upon the lasts,
are buffed upon an emery wheel which grinds off the
surplus leather and nails, so that the outer sole
will lie even upon the shoe. The outer sole is then
"layed" in place and nailed or tacked in the toe,
shank, and heel upon a machine. The lasts are now
pulled or withdrawn from the shoe by hand, and
the McKay stitching process is performed upon the
McKay machine. This is a very particular and
exacting process and is found in most shoe factories
at the present time. For comparison between this
and other methods the reader is referred again to
Chapter VII.
The usual processes following the McKay stitch-
ing are, Heel seat nailing on a machine, channel
lifting or opening and cementing, wetting the bot-
tom of the shoe upon a brush revolving in water,
channel laying upon a steel roller which by a cor-
rugated lip draws the channel in smooth, beating
out the bottom on a machine and by hand to make
218 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
it smooth and give it proper lines, drying, and heel
attaching.
Before relasting McKays and sending them on
to finishing, the bottom lining must be inserted, a
work generally done by girls. Linings of thin
leather or leather substitute, which were dinked out
in the upper cutting department, are selected by
sizes. The inside of the bottom of the shoe is
cemented by a brush, and the linings are inserted
by hand and smoothed down by means of a stick.
Wooden lasts or "followers'* are now inserted upon
a machine.
Positions in the McKay Bottoming Department.
The positions in this department are generally as
follows :
1. The Superintendent.
2. Foreman.
3. Buffers.
4. Sole Layers.
5. Last Pullers.
6. McKay Stitchers.
7. Heel Seat Nailers.
8. Channel Lifters.
9. Cementers.
10. Bottom Wetters.
11. Channel Layers.
12. Inside Bottom Cementers.
13. Lining Inserters.
14. Lasters.
15. Floor People.
Operating the Goodyear Stitching Machine
219
THE MAKING DEPARTMENT
The Heeling Department. The heel is now at-
tached to the shoe upon the heeling machine. The
shoe is placed upon a jack in the machine and an
arm bearing the nails is swung automatically over
the heel, driving the nails through the heel, outsole,
upper leather, and insole, where they are clinched
upon the inside.
Blind Nailing. The heads are left extending far
enough outside the heel to receive the top lift.
This is made from the best of leather, and is sub-
jected to great pressure to harden it. Previously
prepared, and with a coating of glue, it is now placed
in position, with the shoe still in the machine, and
driven down over the protruding nails. This is the
process of * 'blind nailing."
Slugging. Short nails, or "slugs," of brass or
other metal are now driven into the top lift by the
slugging machine, to increase the wearing qualities
of the heel.
Heel Trimming. The top lift is made in the
exact size of the finished heel, and is a guide for the
operator of the trimming machine, which by means
of a rapidly revolving knife cuts away all the sur-
plus leather on the outside. The breast or front
is trimmed evenly across on the "heel-breasting"
machine. The outside of the heel is scoured or
smoothed by rolls covered with sandpaper, on the
heel scouring machine.
Heel trimming, like the rough rounding of the
sole, is an exacting process, calling for strength and
222 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
/
skill. It sometimes produces in the operator what
is called "broken wrist," or a weak wrist, as the
shoe, held firmly in both hands against the knife
of the machine, must be turned nearly through an
entire circle, both turning and twisting the wrist
joints. When the effect upon the operator be-
comes marked he usually changes to some other
process.
Positions in the Heeling Department. The
chief positions in this small department are, the
Superintendent, the foreman, and the operators
of the nailing, slugging, and trimming ma-
chines.
The Turned Shoe Department. The turned shoe
or slipper is made with an ordinary upper, usually
of light weight, and with a single sole of flexible
quality. Soles are prepared or fitted in this depart-
ment one day in advance of their use. The main
processes in the preparation of the soles are the
following :
The soles are channeled and placed in humidi-
fiers over night. In the morning the shank is trimmed
out, the heel scarfed or trimmed off, and the sole
is moulded into shape.
Lasting the Turned Shoe. In lasting the sole
is placed upon the last upside down, and the upper
is drawn over the last, inside out. The counter is
put in wrongside out. All parts are tacked care-
fully in place.
The sewing of the upper to the sole now takes
Operating the Sole Leveling Machine
223
THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 225
place upon a special turn shoe machine. Tacks
are withdrawn and the selvage trimmed off, and a
small steel shank is sewed in the space between
the heel and the ball of the front. The last is then
withdrawn and the shoe is turned by hand over the
toe upon an iron support. The last is then put
back in the shoe and the lining smoothed out around
the heel part, which is then leveled and prepared
for the heel which is to be added, either of leather,
leather substitute, or of wood. This is glued,
clamped on firmly and left to dry, and finished later.
Usually three nails are inserted to hold it perma-
nently. A lining or heel piece is inserted for smooth-
ness.
Positions in the Turned Shoe Department. The
usual positions in this department are as follows:
1. The Superintendent.
2. Foreman.
3. Inspector.
4. Stock Fitter.
5. Laster.
6. Stitcher.
7. Tack Puller.
8. Trimmer.
9. Shank Soler.
10. Second Laster.
11. Heel Laster.
12. Leveler.
13. Finisher.
14. Heeler.
226 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
15. Cover Sewer, who sews a cover over white
shoes to keep them clean while passing
through the various processes of the de-
partment.
16. Floor Boys.
The Standard Screw, Pegged, and Nailed Depart-
ments. Various kinds of heavy working shoes are
manufactured by the standard screw method, by
pegging, or by nailing the outsole and insole to-
gether, thus fastening the bottom of the shoe to the
upper. By the first method a wire with screw
thread upon it is driven through the bottom and
automatically cut off by the machine, piece after
piece, rapidly around the bottom. This is practi-
cally a wire sewing in place of McKay stitching.
The pegged shoe is made in about the same manner,
a machine inserting wooden pegs instead of the
sections of wire. The use of pegs was once very
general, but is now gradually giving way to other
methods. Nails when used are generally clinched
on the inside. These three methods give strong
and firm but inflexible and heavy bottoms to foot-
wear.
The other processes connected with these special
kinds of footwear are similar to the general processes
of welt and McKay manufacture. Finishing does
not, however, call for so high a degree of per-
fection.
Aside from the operators of the special machines
used for inserting the wire screws, pegs, and nails,
Operating the Heeling Machine
227
THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 229
the positions in general are the same as in the welt
and McKay departments.
Work in the Making Department. In the early
days of American shoe factories the bottoming of
shoes was quite generally let out to men on con-
tract, as has been indicated earlier in this volume.
Such contract work was performed by gangs of men
who went from factory to factory. And we find the
gang system in use to a degree in factories at the
present time. It is easier, for instance, for several
men to work together upon a process or group of
processes involving operations that must be done
together in a very brief space of time, working at
one bench or upon a complicated machine.
This department involves the heaviest and most
exacting processes of shoe manufacture, and the
major processes are regularly performed by men,
who in the main must be strong and active. Boys,
girls, and women assist in the minor processes and
in the handling of materials.
In the bottoming or making room the machines
are always ranged along the sides of the room,
next to the windows, so that there may be good
light for the many intricate operations necessary.
Shoes in process of making are arranged upon racks
along the inner spaces of the room.
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CHAPTER XII
FINISHING, TREEING, PACKING, AND
SHIPPING
(245)
CHAPTER XII
FINISHING, TREEING, PACKING, AND SHIPPING
Additional Departments. In a large shoe factory
the magnitude of manufacture calls for separate
departments of considerable size for the finishing
and treeing of the shoe, and for the packing and
shipping of the completed product. There will be
found in especially large establishments, also, various
other departments, or even small factories, manu-
facturing particular supplies or doing particular
work. Such are departments or factories for the
manufacture of leather parts of shoes, for the prep-
aration of accessory materials, and for the provision
for work that would otherwise have to be given to
outside companies or individuals. We have already
spoken of the heel, toe box, and counter depart-
ments and factories. The second division is seen
in cases where the great shoe manufacturing cor-
poration conducts its own sawmill and factories
for the making of wood shipping cases and paper
cartons in which shoes are sent out to the trade.
An example of the third division is the printing de-
partment or shop now being added to many factories
because of the great cost of printing the many busi-
ness forms necessary for office and factory use, and
247
248 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
because of the continual increase in the output of
advertising material.
All such factories, departments, and shops provide
numerous opportunites for employment according
to the trades involved, but with little interchange of
labor between them and the shoe factories except
where the manufacture of shoe parts is involved.
Then, of course, it is a matter of employment in a
subdivision of the shoe industry.
Finishing. It has already been said that in a
large shoe manufacturing establishment the finishing
processes detailed in the preceding chapter would
constitute a separate department. In a small
factory, however, the only part of the finishing that
would be distinctly separate from other operations
is tip repairing.
The Tip Repairing Department. In the passage
of the shoe through the factory we have seen the
vamp, the linings, the toe box, and the tip brought
together in the completed toe of the shoe. Some-
times, also, oiled paper is added as a protection
against injury in the handling of the shoe. All of
these parts give a thickness of about one-half inch
to the toe of the ordinary shoe. In lasting so many
thicknesses it is especially hard to draw the tip
evenly over the last without injuring the leather
of the tip. This danger is considerably increased
by the use of patent leather, which is easily broken
or scarred, for tips. The use of patent leather is so
general that tip repairing is a problem of consider-
FINISHING, TREEING, PACKING, SHIPPING 249
able magnitude in all factories. In the general
handling to which a shoe is subjected in passing
through the various departments of the factory,
tips are likely to be scratched and broken. In the
case of ordinary leather scratches, scars, or other
marks can be quite easily disposed of by rubbing
down, by hand or upon machine brushes. But
patent leather, having a varnished surface, is re-
paired with greater difficulty. If the injury is con-
siderable the old enamel or varnished surface is
sandpapered entirely off, and a new coat of varnish
is applied by hand. This is allowed to dry and is
polished, giving usually an entirely fresh and perfect
surface. This work is mainly a hand process,
usually done by women, though recently a tip
repairing machine has been introduced in some
factories.
Tip repairing calls for careful observation, pains-
taking application to a process often requiring con-
siderable time upon a single shoe, deftness of touch,
and good judgment.
The Treeing Department. Treeing is the method
of making the shoe conform perfectly to the shape of
the last, and of restoring the finish belonging to the
leather, after its passing through many hands.
The last is removed in this department, or before
reaching this department, to allow for the processes
of treeing. The shoe is first examined for tacks or
other imperfections inside. Bottom linings or heel
pads are put in by girls, when this has not been done
*15
250 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
in the making room. The shoe is then placed upon
the tree arm, there being several arms revolving
upon a machine, so that one shoe may be worked
upon while others are drying. The department is
sometimes called the treeing and dressing room.
Nearly every kind of leather or shoe material requires
a distinct method of handling and of dressing or
finishing. Dirt or other materials that have ad-
hered to the surface of the shoe in making are
removed by a brush which is adapted to the surface
of the leather, or by washing with different cleaners.
Then an oil lubricator or dressing is applied to fill
the pores of the leather. The covers of fabric shoes
and of shoes made of delicate shades of leather are
removed by hand, cutting with a knife closely
around the sole so that no trace of the cover remains
and no injury results to the shoe. The operator
may have to restain some leathers as well as to fill
the pores with oil, so as to bring out the richest
effect of the surface. There are many special
processes in various factories, according to particular
styles of shoe and kinds of finish used.
Embossing. Then on the bottom of the shoe or
upon the lining at the top a trade-mark or the name
of the maker of the shoe is embossed or stamped.
Ironing. When the surface of the upper has been
fully restored the shoe is ironed upon the tree to give
it perfect and permanent form. Rubbing over with
the warm or hot iron is a very important and careful
process, and is done regularly by men.
FINISHING, TREEING, PACKING, SHIPPING 251
Inspecting. Slight repairs not made before the
processes of treeing are made after it, and the shoe
is inspected before passing out of the department.
Shoes intended for samples or display in store win-
dows have a wooden form placed in them, rather
than a last, to keep them in shape.
The "treeing man" should be familiar with the
nature and tanning of leather, and with the processes
of shoe making, so that he may correct defects in
leather or poor workmanship in the earlier processes
of the factory.
Positions in the Treeing Department. The posi-
tions usually found in treeing and dressing are the
following:
1. The Superintendent.
2. Foreman.
3. Instructor.
4. Inspectors.
5. Embossers.
6. Toe Crease Stampers.
7. Lacers.
8. Repairers.
9. Treeing Men.
10. Floor Boy.
11. Cripple Boy.
The Packing Department. The great advance in
shoe manufacture during the last half century is
seen not only by studying machinery and processes,
but by observing the excellent condition in which
boots and shoes are sent out to the trade. Before
252 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
the use of special cartons, which is distinctive of the
present day, shoes were tied in bundles or packed
loose in barrels and boxes, often reaching the
customers in wrinkled and battered condition.
Now a single pair, except in the case of heavy and
cheap grades, is packed in a pasteboard box or
carton.
For packing, shoes are first brushed upon the heels
and bottoms, inspected, and placed out on tables
in pairs by sizes. The labels on the ends of the car-
tons are stamped in a machine with style, stock
number, size, width, kind of leather, or other dis-
tinguishing term. Then the shoes are wrapped in
tissue paper and placed carefully in cartons, which
are packed securely in wooden or fibre-board cases,
usually with thirty-six pairs to a case, ready for
shipment.
Positions in the Packing Room. The work of
this room is done mainly by girls and women, and
the few positions are, the Superintendent, foreman,
brushers, inspectors, carton stampers, packers, and
floor girl.
The Shipping Department. From the packing
room shoes are sent to the shipping department
where they are placed in "assembling aisles" in
alphabetical arrangement, according to the names of
customers orders and styles. Copies of original
orders as received by salesmen are kept in the ship-
ping department, and shoes are checked off upon one
set as they come from the packing room, another
FINISHING, TREEING, PACKING, SHIPPING 253
set of orders being used for shipping. The cases of
shoes are sent out to the freight offices accompanied
by bills of lading as the time for filling each order
approaches, and shipment is made so that the goods
will reach each customer on a specified day.
Foreign shipments require a great amount of
detail, since they must have a different form for
bills of lading and different weights and measures.
Large shipments go out by freight, small ones by
express, and by parcel post.
After the bills of lading which are to go with ship-
ments are made out, special tags bearing full par-
ticulars about each shipment are sent to the book-
keeping department so that the proper charges may
be entered in that department.
Positions in the Shipping Department. The po-
sitions of the shipping department are as follows:
1. The Superintendent.
2. Foreman.
3. Checkers.
4. Assemblers.
5. Men for casing up, sealing, nailing, and stack-
ing goods.
6. Truck Boys.
7. Shippers.
8. Clerks and Assistants.
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(257)
CHAPTER XIII
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS AND
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
(259)
CHAPTER XIII
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS AND SUPPLEMENTARY
MATERIAL
The Sex Division of Employees. In a shoe
factory making both men's and women's shoes of
the ordinary kinds, substantially the following per-
centages of labor are found :
Male employees, sixty-nine per cent.
Female employees, thirty-one per cent.
Boys under eighteen years, one-seventh or
fourteen per cent, of male employees.
Girls under eighteen years, one-twenty-fifth
or four per cent, of female employees.
These percentages may be given as fairly exact
for the average shoe factory and for the boot and shoe
industry as a whole. In factories making mostly
heavy shoes or men's wear, however, the proportion
of male employees runs somewhat higher than the
sixty-nine per cent, and that of female employees
lower than the thirty-one per cent. On the other
hand, in factories making women's, children's, and
infants' footwear, there will be found some increase
in the percentage of female employment with a
corresponding decrease in the male.
(261)
262 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
In studying the departments of shoe manufacture
we have seen that the more difficult processes and
the operation of heavy machines are given regularly
to male employees. This is especially true in the
cutting department, in some divisions of the stitch-
ing department, in the sole leather department, in
the gang room, and in treeing. On the other hand,
the lighter processes and the simpler machines are
regularly given to girls and women, especially in
stitching, finishing, dressing, and packing.
Further statistical information upon employment
in the shoe industry, in comparison with other
leading industries, is given in Table XX on page 290.
The Divisions of Employees Among Departments.
To enable a factory to work as a whole with all
operatives in all manufacturing departments equally
busy each day, the division of employees among
departments must have about the percentages
following:
In the cutting room, twelve per cent, of all
operatives.
In the stitching room, twenty-seven per cent.
In the sole leather room, twelve per cent.
In the gang room, twenty-three per cent.
In finishing, eight per cent.
In treeing and dressing, ten per cent.
Small numbers of employees, making perhaps
seven or eight per cent., are found in minor depart-
ments of the factory.
At the same time the business offices employ from
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 263
fifteen to twenty per cent, of the total number of
people connected with the industry.
Shoe Manufacture Highly Specialized. Shoe
manufacture has become more and more highly
specialized in recent years. Each factory can pro-
duce a larger output with smaller costs when making
only a single or a few kinds of footwear. The large
American market has greatly aided in this special-
ization; an increased trade abroad, in about ninety
different countries at the present time, makes it
still more profitable -for the American shoemaker
to devote his plant to a single line of product in the
assurance that he will find a steady market. We
find, then, factories, for example, making men's
heavy work shoes, leg boots, walking shoes, or shoes
for dress wear; and other factories making foot-
wear for women, children, and infants, exclusively.
At the same time we find the long list of factories
manufacturing special parts and findings.
Seasons. One of the chief objections to entering
into shoe manufacture is the fact that it is a sea-
sonal employment. The busiest seasons are the fall
and winter; the least busy season is the summer,
with an average idle period of from three to eight
weeks, coming usually in or around the month of
July. As has been said earlier, the progressive shoe
manufacturers are making great efforts to obtain
orders far enough in advance, and to study trade
conditions, so that a year's steady employment may
be provided for the factory. Large concerns capa-
264 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
ble of ^handling extensive contracts may do this more
easily; the small concern with a limited trade must
adjust its output to its volume of trade and suffer
usually from an idle season.
In a few rare cases factories having large contracts
or accumulations of orders make a twenty-four
hour day, with three full shifts of employees work-
ing in eight-hour periods.
Shoemaking a Trade. Shoemaking is a trade,
with many specialized divisions. Some of these
divisions, such as the simpler operations in the
various rooms, are distinctly unskilled trades;
others, like cutting, welting, and trimming edges,
are highly skilled trades. The first kind calls for a
very brief period of learning, sometimes a few days
only ; the other division includes processes requiring
in many cases, several years for learning.
The operator may learn several related processes,
but in the large factory he remains essentially a
worker or an expert in one.
Entering Upon Work in a Shoe Factory. In a
small shoe establishment, and quite regularly in a
country town, inexperienced persons may be taken
in to learn most processes. Persons thus learning
branches of shoe manufacture quite often enter the
large factories as experienced operators. In the large
factories, especially in the great shoe centers, inex-
perienced persons are taken in only for the minor
processes, and more often in the stitching than in
other departments. There is quite a steady move-
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 265
ment of the more highly skilled shoe operatives from
factory to factory, and from one shoe center to
another.
Promotion. The operator who can perform several
processes in shoemaking is usually kept upon the
process in which his work is most needed at any
time. Frequently a worker showing a special
aptitude for an advance process is put forward to
learn it, and given permanent promotion if he be-
comes expert in it. There is not, however, such
a gradation of operations in the departments of the
shoe factory as to offer promotion regularly or to
the many. The most conspicuous promotion is that
of a workman who comes to understand the work
of a room fully, with ability to direct others, to the
position of assistant foreman or foreman.
Securing Skilled Labor. "The desirability of
securing employees that are skilled in their respec-
tive branches of work is appreciated in every in-
dustry, and in none more so perhaps than in the shoe
industry. The truth of this assertion is evidenced
by the methods of securing employees in different
shoe manufacturing centers.
"In some of these centers shoe manufacturers co-
operate through their local association in keeping
records as to the workmanship and character of
their employees which have some bearing upon
future employment. In other places each factory
may have a bulletin board on which it makes known
the classes of employees that are desired, but in
266 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
both cases the kind of an operator that is wanted
is specified, and this in itself is an indication of the
desire of the concern to engage a skilled employee for
that particular operation.
"We are sometimes told by thoughtless persons
that the amazing improvement in shoe machinery
that has been witnessed in the last fifty years has
practically eliminated the skill of the shoe operative.
It would perhaps be more proper to say that the larger
use of vastly improved machinery, subdividing the
labor of shoemaking as it has, has simplified shoe-
making to the extent that it is much easier to manu-
facture skilled employees in the shoe factory of today
than it was in the shoe factory of fifty years ago,
when it was necessary to teach the shoe operative
much more of the shoemaking art than he needs to
know at the present time."*
Schools and Courses for Shoemaking. In several
large shoe centers private schools for shoe workers
have been established. The work upon which
operators learn usually consists of low grade shoes
made by the school for factories, on a contract
basis, or upon shoes manufactured from materials
of second quality, bought at a low price from
supply factories or from shoe factories. Persons
wishing to learn a process of shoemaking are
taken on rather as helpers at first in that process,
giving their time and paying a fixed tuition, such as
thirty or sixty or eighty dollars, without special
* Superintendent and Foreman, Boston, August 26, 1914.
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 267
regard to the time required for learning. The time
spent in learning, however, may run from one to
seven or eight months. Operators run the same
machines, though sometimes second hand, as are
used in the shoe factory, and generally become
capable of entering factories as fairly efficient
workers.
A few towns and cities, in co-operation with shoe
and leather manufactures, have established courses
in shoe and leather subjects in the public school
system. These courses, however, are mainly at-
tended by persons already working in factories and
leather houses and seeking additional training to
increase their efficiency and earning capacity.
The instructors are superintendents and experts
in the trade who have been given special training
for teaching. The establishment of such courses
marks a great advance in the shoe and leather
industries.
Superintendents and foremen sometimes conduct
classes at the factory for employees under them.
Quotation from a Report Upon Industrial Educa-
tion in Shoe Manufacture. The report of the Com-
mittee on Industrial Education of the National
Boot and Shoe Manufacturers' Association, at the
annual convention of the. association in New York
on January 13, 1915, contains the following:
"The subject of industrial education in the
shoe manufacturing industry, which was referred
to the undersigned Committee, is in our opinion
268 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
a matter of great importance to our trade — so
important indeed that, disturbed by the prevail-
ing business conditions, in common with the
other manufacturers in our country, we have
been unable to give to it the careful investigation
that it deserves. This report, therefore, may be
considered as merely one of progress, designed
to lead to a broader investigation of the subject
later.
"That there is need of higher efficiency, based
on a broader knowledge of, and a greater en-
thusiasm for, the work in which they are engaged
on the part of the employees in our American
shoe factories, and especially the young begin-
ners in the industry, is sufficiently obvious to re-
quire no argument.
"This same need has been recognized in many
other manufacturing industries, not only in this
country, but in many foreign countries, and in
the case of several of the latter notable progress
has been made during the last ten or fifteen years.
"We therefore find that not only is industrial
education of various grades being generally
carried out in the older countries, like England,
France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Switzer-
land, and Denmark, but that even the great
Orient countries, just now awakening from
their centuries of conservatism, and incidentally
opening up encouraging vistas of future trade
opportunities for our United States manufact-
urers— China, Japan, and India — are also ser-
iously taking up this question of higher efficiency
in industry. Canada, one of the most progress-
ive of all the world's countries, has established a
National Commission for the investigation of
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 269
this question, and its report will be awaited with
much interest by the friends of modern educa-
tion.
"The more active campaign along this line in
the United States has extended over the last ten
years, and already has brought forth some valu-
able results. At the present time the National
Society for the Promotion of Industrial Edu-
cation is making an exhaustive national survey
of the field, somewhat similar to that under-
taken by Canada; and naturally the conclusions
that may be reached by this organization will
have a far-reaching influence on the future of
industrial education.
"In so far as our American shoe industry is
concerned we find that some excellent prelim-
inary work already has been accomplished by
one of our leading organizations, the New
England Shoe and Leather Association.
"This Association had the merits of the Ger-
man and English system of continuation, or
part-time, industrial instruction brought to its
attention by representatives of the Boston
School Committee, and arranged to co-operate
with that Committee in the establishment in
1910 of what we understand was the first shoe
and leather continuation school in the United
States.
"The first class brought together numbered
thirty-nine pupils, representing twenty-nine dif-
ferent concerns in various branches of the allied
shoe and leather trade, mainly boys and young
men between the ages of fifteen and twenty,
employed in offices, warehouses, and manufac-
turing departments, etc., of the shoe factories,
£70 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
tanneries, and other establishments. Since that
time, there have been graduated from this school
more than two hundred pupils, each of whom
has received an official certificate of his tech-
nical ability, and in this way there has been laid
a splendid foundation for the larger scheme of
industrial education that is now being consid-
ered by the Association.
"The working method of this Boston Shoe
and Leather Continuation School Class, briefly,
is the holding of a series of two-hour sessions on
two afternoons a week, covering a period of
twelve weeks.
"The School Committee provides the class-
room and the instructor, who, of course, has
specialized in this particular branch of in-
dustry; and the Association and the trade it
represents co-operates by furnishing competent
lecturers, and other experts, who from time to
time give the pupils formal or informal talks on
the subjects in which they are experts.
"Incidentally various trips of inspection are
made to nearby shoe factories, tanneries, and
other plants, the result being that the boys not
only acquire a broad idea of the fundamentals of
tanning and shoemaking, together with its rami-
fications of foreign-trade extension, advertising,
and general efficiency, but, what perhaps is as
important as anything, they graduate with an
interest and enthusiasm for their chosen voca-
tion that will mean more than half the battle
for them in their future life.
"This lack of real interest on the part of so
many young beginners in our industry, which
springs largely from the existing narrow vision
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 271
of their work that lies before them, in any one
department of it, is one of the greatest handi-
caps to both the youths and to the manufacturer
who employs them; and if the continuation
school did nothing more than inspire them with
a real interest in what they are doing day by day
for a livelihood, it would well repay all that it
costs.
"There is no charge for tuition in the Boston
Shoe and Leather Continuation School, except
that non-resident pupils are charged a nominal
fee, so that the only expense entailed is the four
hours or so per week of the pupils' time that the
employer donates to the good cause.
"In conclusion your Committee would
strongly recommend:
"First. — The establishment of shoe and leather
continuation schools, similar to the Boston
School, in every shoe manufacturing city and
town in the United States that is in a position
to support one, in this way possibly laying a
foundation for a broader scheme of industrial
education in the trade.
"Second. — That the National Boot and Shoe
Manufacturers' Association establish a Standing
Committee on Industrial Education to make
a careful survey of the question and report to
each annual meeting; and
"Third. — That the Association co-operate in
every feasible way with the National Society
for the Promotion of Industrial Education."
The Shoe Superintendent. The superintendent
of a shoe factory or of a department or room must be
first of all a manager. He need not necessarily have
272 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
exact knowledge of processes, but he must know
much of resources, materials, equipment, employees,
and of methods of efficiency and improvement in
employment conditions. He must be able to work
through subordinates and yet keep a firm and help-
ful hand on the activities of manufacture.
The superintendent usually comes to his position
from the business side of the industry. Young
men are trained for this work in some factories by a
period in office service, of from six months to several
years, followed by service in the factory long enough
to make them familiar with the general features of
manufacture.
The superintendent may be a member of the
firm or corporation, a stockholder, or simply an
employed officer. His salary, as in other great lines
of manufacture in present times, may vary from some
hundreds of dollars in a small factory or department
to many thousands of dollars in the great corpor-
ation.
The Shoe Foreman. The shoe foreman, on the
other hand, rises from the bench or is promoted from
the machine. He must have intimate knowledge of
processes and be able to train employees in them;
he must be able to select operators for his depart-
ment and to make their work efficient; he must be a
master of method, of handling men at work, and of
maintaining discipline in his room, tactful, firm,
friendly with all, yet not forfeiting their obedience
and respect.
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 273
The position of the foreman is exacting. He
stands between the superintendent and the operator
and is responsible for the work of his department.
He must keep every employee occupied and the work
passing through on schedule time. His pay is usually
about the same as that of the most expert operators
in his room, varying from $15.00 upwards a week,
reaching $50.00 or $60.00 in some cases.
Forewomen are employed in divisions of the
stitching room or in small departments in which
the employees are mostly girls or women.
The superintendents and foremen of a factory
usually hold weekly meetings for the discussion of
topics of mutual interest and helpfulness.
Assistant superintendents and foremen receive
salaries graded below the amounts given, accord-
ing to the responsibility and service demanded.
There is considerable change of foremen among
shoe factories, more, probably, than of other officers
or employees. In every shoe journal advertise-
ments like the following are constantly appearing:
"POSITION WANTED as foreman of sole
leather room. Experience on welts, turns, and
McKays, and can operate all machines. Also,
expert on new economy insole. Best of refer-
ences. Address, - — , care of American Shoe-
making."
The Quality Man and the Quantity Man. Some
factories have, in addition to superintendent and fore-
men, a person whose special duty is to examine all
274 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
work being done in" a department for its quality of
workmanship and another person who observes all
work for its quantity, so that each room is held up
to the standard set by the factory both in grade and
volume of product. These persons are practically
assistants to the foremen, yet responsible to the
factory management only. With them, the fore-
man can give his time more fully to training and
supervising employees. On the other hand such a
multiplication of supervisors, — superintendent, fore-
man, and inspectors, — is likely to bring uncertainty
as to authority and confusion of oversight.
The quality and quantity men have about the
same rank and pay as foremen.
The Efficiency Engineer. Some large concerns
employ a person skilled in efficiency methods. His
work in the factory consists in studying methods
and processes so that the best results may be ob-
tained with the least expenditure of time, with the
least wear of machinery, and with the most econ-
omical use of materials possible. When his duties
deal with the operations of manufacture he is usually
called an efficiency engineer. He is a specialist in
work belonging more naturally to the foreman, and
attended to by the foreman or his assistant in the
smaller establishments.
The efficiency engineer must have a very accurate
knowledge of the nature of machine operations, of
the qualities of materials, of the factory schedule, of
the mental and physical qualities of the operative,
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 275
of the effect of monotony and routine, and of the
value of encouragement and incentive for the
worker.
The Monotony of Shoemaking. Like those of
many other kinds of manufacture the machine
processes of shoemaking are monotonous. The hand
processes are in general of a lighter and less wearing
nature, and are not so distinctly characterized by
monotony. Operating an automatic machine, how-
ever, upon which materials or parts of shoes must be
placed and controlled in an unvarying time period, is
depressing and wearing for the operator. In a sense
he becomes a part of the machine until he may
almost seem to have little mental or physical activity
aside from it.
There are several possible offsets to monotony in
shoe manufacture. One is an incentive to speed,
which, while in itself a wearing element for the
workman, has a speeding up effect upon him in the
case of payment by piece. He works faster, and
in many cases accomplishes a full day's work in
less than a full day's time, thus gaining for him-
self some hours of the working day to spend out-
doors or at home. It is a common thing to enter
the gang room of a shoe factory, for instance, to-
wards night and find some machines idle because
the operators upon them have performed their work
on the lots of shoes passing through the room on that
day.
A second offset is found in the advantage to the
276 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
operator of learning to run more than one machine,
so that at times he may be transferred from one to
another.
It is a relief and often a pleasure to the mind of
the worker to have to handle leathers and other shoe
materials of high grade and finish.
Another means of lessening monotony lies in the
operator's being able to care for his own machine,
to understand its parts, or to suggest improvement
upon it. This kind of ability, which is much sought
after in the shoe factory, often leads to promotion
and to work upon more important machines.
Quotation Upon Efforts in Some Factories to
Lessen Monotony. The following quotation indi-
cates the tendency of the present time to ameliorate
the effects of monotony:
"In some German factories the routine of the
day is broken by a recess in the morning and
in the afternoon. In a western factory, which
makes supplies for the shoe trade, there is a
morning and afternoon recess for employees.
Lunch is served during the recess. Some of the
employees work as waitresses. In a number of
shoe factories there are now rest rooms for
women.
"In some high-class American manufacturing
establishments, the grounds about the factories
are made attractive. When an employee looks
out the window, he sees a cheerful prospect.
This breaks the monotony of his task. It is
possible that the American shoe factory system
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 277
requires too steadfast an application of the.
worker to his machine. The enthusiasm with
which shoemakers demand factory legislation,
particularly short working hours, is a sign that
this is so. Perhaps shoemakers would be more
steady and more efficient if they had ten or
fifteen minutes of recess in the morning and in
the afternoon. The idea may seem radical,
perhaps preposterous; but it's pretty certain
that something will be done the next few years
to break up the monotony of the task of
shoemaking."*
Social Service in the Shoe Factory. Some large
factories conducted under modern conditions take
measures for the occupational and social welfare of
their employees. They provide classes for training,
in some features, at least, of the work of the factory ;
separate rooms for rest and recreation, dancing, and
social clubs for male and female employees; libraries
equipped with books and magazines relating to shoe
manufacture, and with general literature; restau-
rants conducted on a co-operative basis, or at low
rates, so that employees may afford to patronize
them; medical attendance and equipment; and some-
times elaborate parks and playgrounds.
Quotation from a Government Study of Social
Service. The best summary of social service, or
welfare work, as it has long been called, in
the shoe industry, is to be found in the report
upon Employers' Welfare Work, published by the
* American Shoemaking, Boston, October 18, 1913.
278 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
Bureau of Labor Statistics at Washington in 1913,
as follows:
"The Shoe Co.,
has done much to improve working conditions
for its 5,000 employees. The huge factory is
built in the form of a hollow square, so that all
the workrooms are well lighted. On the top
floor, where the shoe leather is cut, the roof has
saw-tooth skylights to increase the light. The
ventilation throughout the building is admirable,
and every effort is made to keep down dust. The
lavatories are very sanitary and clean. Indi-
vidual lockers of perforated iron are placed
about in the workrooms near the machines, and
are turned over to employees on their making a
small deposit — enough to cover the cost of the
key. There is a check-room for umbrellas and
wet garments. Separate elevators are installed
to transport the women employees to the upper
floors. The company has a lunch counter for the
employees, where food is sold at cost. Em-
ployees who bring their lunches eat them in the
workrooms.
"Apart from good workroom conditions the
company conducts recreation work — the name
it gives the usual welfare work. The ground
around the building has been converted into a
noonday-rest park for the employees, with a
beautiful, trim, green lawn and flowers. There
is besides a roof garden covering over half of
the roof space. Part of this is reserved for
women and part for men, with separate stair-
ways leading to each section. A dance hall
for women open at noon and on special oc-
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 279
casions in the evening, a pool room and bowling
alleys for men, open every evening after work-
ing hours until ten o'clock, give the much-
needed amusement. The men pay a small fee
for the use of the tables and the alleys. A
handsomely furnished reading room, with at-
tractive ferns and flowers from the company's
greenhouse, has been opened to the employees.
There is a branch station of the City Public
Library here, besides books owned by the com-
pany and numerous weekly and monthly
periodicals.
"A woman physician, constantly in at-
tendance, has the medical care of the employees
under her supervision. There are rest rooms
and an emergency hospital, with a nurse regu-
larly employed, in the building. Twice a week
an oculist spends the forenoon at the factory
and may be consulted free by the employees.
He fits them with glasses at very reduced prices.
"The company, with the aid of employees'
dues, maintains the Relief Fund Department.
Out of this fund, sick, accident, and death
benefits are paid. There is at present over
$5,000 in the treasury. The dues are ten cents
each week for adults and five cents for employees
under twenty years of age, and they are de-
ducted from wages by the paymaster's de-
partment. In case of sickness or accident the
members receive $7 and $3.50 a week. No
member can draw benefits longer than seven
weeks in one year. Benefits do not become
due until the member has been incapacitated
one week, except in case of severe injury. At
death $100 or $50 is paid the beneficiaries of
280 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
the deceased, according to the amount of the
weekly dues. A medical examiner is employed
to report upon the condition of disabled members
and to decide upon the members' claims for bene-
fits. The administration of the relief fund is
entirely in the hands of the company, and all
the receipts of the fund are held by the com-
pany in trust for the relief department."
General Sanitary Conditions Observed in Boot
and Shoe Factories.* The general sanitary con-
ditions, dangers, and injurious processes in shoe
factories have been clearly presented in the report
of the Massachusetts State Board of Health for
1912, upon the Hygiene of the Boot and Shoe In-
dustry in Massachusetts. As this State has always
been the center of the industry in this country, and
as its factories, some six hundred in number, are
typical of the American shoe factories, the facts
presented in this report may be considered fairly
typical of the industry at the present time. The
following is taken from the report:
"The construction, location and interior con-
ditions of the shoe factories of Massachusetts
vary so widely, even in the same community,
that it is difficult to formulate general state-
ments which would be applicable to all of them.
Not a few of these factories are located in small
country towns and are operated by employees
descended from generations of shoemakers.
* Hygiene of the Boot and Shoe Industry in Massachusetts State Board of
Health, 1912.
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 281
These factories are generally isolated and, be-
cause of the absence of neighboring structures,
quite well lighted. On the other hand, in the
cities, where all available space is utilized, the
buildings are at times crowded together, im-
pairing the lighting conditions of the workrooms.
It should be remembered, however, that, unlike
the textile industry, the operatives in shoe factor-
ies work at machines or at benches placed along
the sides of the rooms near the windows. The
only exception to this may be found in the
stitching rooms, where the operatives work in
all parts of the room. This room, however,
was as a rule found well lighted in all estab-
lishments visited.
"It is to be noted that the modern buildings
constructed for the shoe industry have been so
placed that neighboring structures cannot shut
out natural illumination. This feature of con-
struction has proved a valuable asset to those
who have constructed these buildings. Note
has already been made of the use of electricity
as an artificial illuminant.
"The laws of Massachusetts require that all
factories be kept clean and well ventilated, and
these laws are well observed.
"The odor of leather is inseparable from the
art of making shoes, as is the odor of wool and
of cotton in the textile industry.
"One of the most vexing problems that has
arisen in the inspection of shoe factories has
been the maintenance of proper toilet facilities.
This question, by no means common to the shoe
industry, can only be met through repeated
inspections and the education of the manu-
17*
282 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
facturer. It is not that the manufacturer is
not willing or does not desire to maintain proper
toilet facilities, but he is oftentimes careless
and leaves this part of the work to others who
fail in their duty. A decided improvement in
these conditions has, however, been noted. "
Conditions in 483 Factories, as to Light, Ven-
tilation, and Water-closets:
Light:
Excellent 30
Good 441
Moderately bad . . . 2
Distinctly bad ... 10
483
Ventilation :
Excellent 7
Good 468
Moderately bad ... 3
Distinctly bad ... 5
483
Water-closets :
Excellent 6
Good ... . . .415
Moderately bad ... 7
Distinctly bad .... 55
483
For further information on health conditions in
shoe manufacture, the reader is referred to the re-
port from which the preceding quotation has been
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 283
made. In that report he will find an exhaustive
discussion, with numerous diagrams, of the injurious
features of the occupation. There is danger in
operating most machines, which can, however, be
avoided with due care on the part of the operator;
there is danger, also, from the fumes of naphtha,
from cement used in the stitching room and making
room; and while dust removers are in general use,
under the compulsion of state legislation, there is
considerable menace to the health from dust which
is produced by nearly all processes of work upon
the bottoms of shoes, such as edge trimming, bottom
scouring, buffing, and bottom finishing.
Piece and Time Payment. Two-thirds, or about
sixty-six per cent, of the processes of boot and shoe
manufacture, are paid for on a piece basis, usually
at a fixed rate per dozen pairs. Such processes are
those in which good work can be done at high rate
of speed, and in which the possibility of increased
earnings produces a larger volume of work from
the shoe operator. On the other hand, where
accuracy and care are required, as in the cutting
room, and where work is of a routine nature, as in
shipping, pay rests upon a time basis.
The Best Paying Processes. Some of the
best paying processes in the factory are, cutting,
stitching, lasting, wiping in, welting, rounding,
trimming, and edge setting. The pay in these
processes ranges from $15.00 to $35.00 or more per
week.
284 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
Wages and Variation in Employment. Wages
have been given in statistics at the ends of the
chapters on factory departments. Additional fig-
ures are presented in the following tables, and pay
is so associated with variation in employment that
the two are properly treated together. The material
here given is drawn from "Wages and Hours of Labor
in the Boot and Shoe Industry: 1907 to 1914,"
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Wash-
ington, 1915.
Following are explanatory statements from the
report:
"This report, based on information obtained
from representative establishments, shows the
full-time weekly earnings, the full-time hours of
labor per week, and the rates of wages (or
earnings) per hour in the principal occupations
of the boot and shoe industry of the United
States. Figures relating to full-time hours of
labor per week and rates of wages (or earnings)
per hour are presented for the years 1907 to
1914, inclusive, and for full-time weekly earn-
ings for the years 1910 to 1914, inclusive.
"In addition, this report presents material
relating to the variations in the amount of em-
ployment furnished by this industry in the year
ending in February, 1914.
"Earlier reports of this bureau have pre-
sented wages and hours of labor in the industry
from 1890 to 1913.
"Summarized briefly, the average full-time
weekly earnings of the employees in this indus-
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 285
try in 1914 were the same as in 1913, eight
per cent higher than in 1912, six per cent higher
than in 1911, and nine per cent higher than in
1910.
"The average full-time hours of labor per week
in 1914 were one per cent lower than in 1913,
two per cent lower than in 1912, and three per
cent lower than in 1911 or 1910.
"The average rates of wages (or earnings)
per hour in 1914 were one per cent higher than
in 1913, nine per cent higher than in 1912, ten
per cent higher than in 1911, and twelve per
cent higher than in 1910. Owing to the reduction
of hours, the increase in full-time weekly earn-
ings between 1910 and 1914 was not so much
as in rates of wages per hour.
"A summary of the rates of wages and hours
of labor in 1914 in the principal occupations
of the industry is presented in the table fol-
lowing."
"In this table it is seen that in 1914 the average
full-time weekly earnings of males engaged in
the industry, represented by twenty-seven
specific occupations, varied from $15.37 for
assemblers to $27.68 for Goodyear welters.
"The average full-time weekly earnings of
females in 1914, represented by ten specific
occupations, varied from $9.12 for treers or
ironers, hand, to $13.14 for vampers."
The average earnings of shoe factory employees,
as given in the census, vary from about $375.00 per
year to about $530.00 per year, according to local
conditions in the differ ent shoe manufacturing states.
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288
THE SHOE INDUSTRY
The accompanying graphic chart is based upon
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three representative establishments throughout the
country.
APR. MAY JUNE JUUr
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Biweekly Earnings Per Employee*
In some establishments the regular pay-roll
period covers two weeks. Of this twelve-day work-
ing period the factories whose number of employees
and pay roll were the basis of the preceding chart,
were in operation 11.4 days. This was in the pro-
portion of ninety-five per cent, of the working days
of the year ending in February, 1914, or 48.4 weeks,
leaving the equivalent of an average idle period of
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It will be observed by the chart that the number
of employees does not vary greatly throughout the
* Wages and Hours of Labor, 1907 tol!914— Boots and Shoes. U. S. Depart-
ment of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 289
year from the normal of one hundred per cent., but
that the pay roll and earnings do vary considerably,
according to seasons, being highest in March,
August, December, the latter part of January, and
February, and lowest in April, July, September,
October, and the early part of January. In the
busy season individual earnings are at a maximum;
in the dull season, with fewer hours, they are at a
minimum.
Sex and Age Distribution of Wage Earners in the
United States by Leading Industries: 1909. Table
XX shows, for the forty-three leading industries,
the number and percent, of distribution, by age and
sex, of wage earners as reported for December 15,
or the nearest representative day. It does not
include salaried persons. As a means of judging
the true importance of the several industries as em-
ployers of labor, the average number employed for
the entire year is also given in each case, this number,
in the case of seasonal industries, being much smaller
than the number on the representative day. The
per cent, of distribution for all industries combined,
based on the average number employed, is also
presented.
In all industries combined, seventy-eight per cent,
of the average number of wage earners were males
sixteen years of age or over, 19.5 per cent, females
sixteen years of age or over, and 2.5 per cent, chil-
dren under the age of sixteen.
The industries for which the largest proportions
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(391)
292 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
of males sixteen years of age or over are shown are
those in which the work is of a nature requiring
considerable physical strength or a high degree of
skill.
The proportion of women and children, naturally
is larger in those industries in which the processes
require dexterity rather than strength.
The importance of the shoe industry as a field of
employment, in comparison with the other staple
industries, may be seen by this table.
The average number of wage earners employed
in the industry during the year is 93.7 per cent, of
the total number employed on the day taken by
the Census Department as properly representative.
Of those sixteen years of age or over, 62.6 per
cent, are males, and 33.3 per cent, are females.
The percentage under sixteen is 4.1 of the whole
number.
The Shoe Repairing Industry. Besides the repair
work done by the individual shoe cobbler in every
community, repairing has become an important and
well organized shop industry in recent years. A
brief and comprehensive statement of this develop-
ment is the following, from American Shoemaking
for June 12, 1915:
"The industry of repairing shoes has grown
swiftly in the last few years, and now is of such
size that it may be recognized as a special
branch of the great shoe industry. There are
about 45,000 shops in this line, and they do a
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 293
business of about $100,000,000 annually. Be-
sides there are many retail stores that have
repair departments. Of the 45,000 shoe repair-
ing shops, about 18,000 are equipped with
machinery. The machinery of the modern
repair shop corresponds to that of the factory,
save that it is simplified. Necessarily, it is
simple because it often must be operated by
unskilled workers, or at least by workers who
have had scant experience in operating shoe
machinery. Commonly, the machines are all
set on one motor-drive shaft, along one side of
the repair shop. There is a lock-stitch machine
at the head of the shaft. This machine has
about 260 parts. It is easy of adjustment, and it
is capable of good all-around work, such as
changing quickly from a woman's flexible sole
shoe to a boy's stiff-soled shoe. It will stitch
anywhere from four to sixteen stitches to the
inch. Along the shaft there are machines for
finishing the sole after it is sewed on. Among
these machines are levelers, sanders, trimmers,
edge setters, stitch cleaners, burnishing rolls
and polishing brushes. Besides there are tool
boxes, shelves for the work, and fans.
"The largest of the modern shoe repairing
shops handle from 60,000 to 70,000 pairs of
shoes a year. They employ from twenty-five to
thirty-five men. They use a tag system, some-
thing like that of the regular factories. They
subdivide the work. In the small shops, one or
two men may do all the work. One man may
run all the machines on the shaft, operating
one after the other. Or, seven men may work
at one time on the machines on one of the
294 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
longest of the shafts, say one of the twenty-two-
foot shafts.
"The main thing in the modern shoe repairing
business is to build up patronage. Salesman-
ship is as necessary to success in it as is good
workmanship. Somebody must go out and
convince customers that they should have
their shoes re-soled, or otherwise repaired.
This selling work may be carried on in big
cities, small cities, in towns, or out in the
country.
"In the business district of one large city some
bootblacks put some repair machines in their
back shop. One of them went among the offices
of the neighborhood asking for shoes to be
repaired. He offered to give tickets good for
six free shines with every pair of shoes that he
re-soled. By this means a repair business was
built up among occupants of the offices suffi-
cient to keep four men employed. Besides,
the shoe shining business flourished.
"In the small cities and towns, the repair
men send agents in autos, or on motorcycles,
along the highways, to call at door after door
and collect shoes to be repaired and returned.
In some western communities the steam laun-
dries have started shoe departments, and their
wagons collect shoes to be shined or repaired,
and to be returned with the regular basket of
laundry.
"The rapid increase in the repair business
has probably cut into the sale of new shoes.
But it has opened a new field for enterprising
men in the starting of repair shops, and in selling
goods to repair shops."
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 295
Earnings in the Repair Shop. In the small
shop, employing few workers, and doing mostly
hand repairing, the earnings may vary from two
to five dollars or more a day. In the large shop,
in which repair work is done mainly by machinery,
the operative earns about the same as he would
in the same processes in the shoe factory. Employ-
ment in repairing is fairly steady through the year
in most communities, but it is somewhat reduced
in the large town or city during the summer season.
The Shoe Factory Chemist. There are numer-
ous chemical companies which produce the materials
used in tanning leathers and in finishing shoes. In
recent years, however, some large shoe factories
have drawn chemists from such establishments or
from other sources to work steadily in the factory.
The duties of such chemists are twofold: To examine
all leathers purchased to see that they have been
properly tanned and cared for, and to examine all
finishing materials, to see that they are of the right
quality. A few factories have laboratories in which
the chemist makes finishing materials from formulas
which can be purchased or from his own or the fac-
tory formula.
The salary of the shoe factory chemist, whose
service is of high value in shoe manufacture, ranges
from $20 or $25 a week upwards.
CHAPTER XIV
AN EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS
USED IN SHOEMAKING
(297) *18
CHAPTER XIV
AN EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS USED IN
SHOEMAKING
The Need of Knowing These Terms. For an
intelligent reading or study of factory departments
and processes it will be found necessary to know
the meaning of the chief technical terms used in
connection with leather and shoe manufacture.
An explanation of a process in popular language
only would prevent an exact and clear understand-
ing of its nature. It is well to describe industry
to one who wishes to enter it, either temporarily or
as a life occupation, in such a way as to show it in
its real setting and to use "shop language" as far
as may be necessary to a right presentation of it.
One should, if possible, see a machine in operation
and hear the workman who operates it explain the
working of the machine. The language of the trade
is simple but expressive, and not at all difficult to
understand. Throughout the pages of this book
processes and machines are spoken of in technical
terms and explained in popular language, so as to
give the reader who may not be able to visit the
factory an accurate and helpful picture of modern
shoemaking. Terms relating mainly to leather are
(299)
300 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
given in Chapter V on Leather. Herewith, in
Chapter XIV, is presented an explanation of the
more common terms used in shoemaking.
Acid-tanned. Tanned by a mineral acid, instead
of by a vegetable substance such as the bark of
certain trees and plants.
Adjustment. The fastening by which the shoe is
adjusted to the foot, such as button, strap and
buckle, webbing or lacing.
Aloft. (See "Stitched Aloft").
Anatomic. Referring to the conformity of the
shoe to the natural shape of the foot.
Arch. The bony framework of the foot between
the heel and the toes. The "broken arch" is a
settling of this part of the foot due to a yielding
of the muscles and ligaments. An "arch-support"
is a mechanical contrivance placed in the shoe
beneath the arch of the foot to keep it in its natural
position. The term arch is used also for the cor-
responding portion of the shoe bottom.
Assembling. Putting together the various parts of
the shoe as they come from separate departments
of the factory. It includes the tacking of the
inner sole to the last, inserting the toe box and
counter of the shoe, and putting the upper part
of the shoe on the last.
Backstay. A strip of leather covering and strength-
ening the back seam of a shoe on the outside.
Back Strap. The strap or loop by which the shoe
is pulled on the foot.
Bal. An abbreviation of Balmoral, the original
English name for the shoe. A front-laced shoe of
THE TERMS USED IN SHOEMAKING 301
medium height, as distinguished from shoes ad-
justed by other fastenings, and also from other
patterns of shoes, such as Blucher or Oxford.
Ball. The fleshy part of the foot back of the toes,
or the corresponding part of the shoe or of the
last.
Beading. Folding in the skived edges of the upper
leather; or making an impression by a wheel
around the sole of the shoe above the heel. Fre-
quently called "seat wheeling." Sometimes re-
ferring to the beads placed on the vamps of
women's slippers.
Beating Out. The term used for leveling the bot-
tom of the shoe.
Bellows Tongue. A wide folding tongue sewed to
the sides of the top for the purpose of making it
water tight, as in the case of heavy shoes for
working or tramping.
Belting. That part of bark tanned cowhide, rubber,
or canvas used for machinery belts.
Bench-Made. Applying to shoes made by hand at
the cobbler's bench.
Bend. The main or best portion of a side of
leather.
Blackball. A mixture of grease and lamp-black
used by hand shoe workers to polish the edges of
soles and heels.
Blacking the Edge. Dyeing the edge of the sole
or welt after the shoe has passed through the
making room.
Blind Eyelet. An eyelet inserted on the inner side
of the eyelet facing, the hole on the outer side
being left raw-edged.
302 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
Blocking. The cutting of a sole into rough or
approximate shape, suitable for rounding. Also
cutting top or vamp into form suitable for the use
of the pattern.
Blucher. The name of a high shoe or half boot
originated by Field Marshall Blucher of the
Prussian Army in the time of the first Napoleon.
Its distinguishing feature is the extension of the
quarters forward to lace across the tongue. The
name now applies to any shoe having this ex-
tension.
Boot. A term usually and properly restricted to
high-cut foot wear with tongue of firm leather,
and sometimes laced, as in hunting boots. Form-
erly high footwear with no fastening. Often re-
stricted to women's high-cut shoes.
Bottom Filling. The filler for the low space in the
bottom, between outer and inner sole, in the fore
part of the shoe, as ground cork or tarred felt.
Bottom Finishing. The final polishing, buffing, and
other processes applied to the bottom of a com-
pleted shoe.
Bottom Scouring. Sandpapering the parts of the
sole in front of the heel.
Box. A reinforcement placed in the toe of a shoe
to preserve its shape, made of leather, leather-
board, canvas stiffened with glue or shellac, or
other material. Called also "box toe."
Brogan. A heavy pegged or nailed work shoe of
medium height.
Broken Arch. (See Arch).
Brushing. Finishing the edge, heel, or bottom with
a polishing brush.
THE TERMS USED IN SHOEMAKING 303
Buckram. Canvas stiffened with glue and used as a
toe box or as a backing for shoe fabrics.
Buffing. Scouring off the outer or grain side of
leather. See bottom scouring.
Button. The use of the button as a shoe fastening
is of quite recent date, having increased very
rapidly since about 1907. At the present time
women's shoes have about one-half of the but-
toned type. The latest tendency is to seek orna-
mental effects through the use of special ma-
terials for shoe buttons.
Button Fly. The strip of leather in the front of the
top of a button shoe having the button holes.
Cabaretta. A tanned sheepskin of superior quality
and finish.
Calfskin. Skins of neat cattle, up to fifteen pounds
weight. For trade convenience such are called
"calfskin," those weighing from fifteen to twenty-
five pounds, "kips," and all above twenty-five
pounds are called hides. Calfskin makes a strong
pliable leather highly susceptible to polish and to
a dull, velvet or "Suede" finish, or to a patent
leather finish. It has long been in use for all kinds
of shoes.
Calking Machine. An appliance to shape the inner
sole of a shoe in conformity with the bottom of
the foot.
Carton. The pasteboard box in which each pair of
shoes is packed. A comparatively late develop-
ment in the trade. Formerly pairs of shoes were
fastened together with strings at the heel; after
that they were sometimes wrapped in pairs in
ordinary paper. Standard sizes of cartons are
304 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
now generally used, for convenience in packing in
cases and for uniformity in size when the cartons
are placed upon shelves in the shoe store.
Case. The box in which shoes are packed for ship-
ment. Men's shoes are usually packed twelve
pairs in a case; women's, twenty-four to thirty-
six pairs.
Channel. A slanting cut around the edge of the
sole for convenience in stitching the top to the
bottom of the shoe. The lip of the channel or
the raised portion is cemented down after the
stitching so as to preserve the stitch from immedi-
ate wear. Channeling means preparing the chan-
nel for the stitch.
Channel Screwed. The bottom held to the upper
by wire screws fastening in the channel.
Channel Stitched. The soles fastened to the uppers
by stitches which are concealed in the channel.
Channel Turning. Raising the lip of sole leather,
or channel, so that the stitching can be done be-
neath it.
Chrome-tanned. Tanned by the use of bichromate
of potash and muriatic acid.
Clicking. Cutting the uppers of shoes by a ma-
chine.
Closing On. Stitching the lining and outside to-
gether at the top, wrong side out.
Collar. A narrow strip of leather stitched around
the outside of the shoe at the top.
Colonial. A woman's low shoe with wide tongue
and ornamental buckle.
Combination Last. One having an instep of differ-
ent width from that of the ball. Also a last that
THE TERMS USED IN SHOEMAKING 305
will allow both low and high shoes to be made
upon it.
Congress Gaiter. A shoe having rubber goring for
adjustment at the ankles.
Copper Toe. A copper outer boxing to protect the
toe in children's shoes.
Counter. The stiffening in the back or heel part of
a shoe to support the heel and prevent the shoe
from running over, usually made of leather, leather-
board, felt, or canvas stiffened with shellac or paste.
Cravenette. A proprietary name for a closely
woven cloth used in shoe uppers.
Creasing Vamp. Making hollow grooves or wrinkles
across the front of the vamp.
Crimping. Shaping any part of the upper to con-
form to the last.
Cushion Sole. An elastic or padded inner sole,
usually of felt.
Custom-Made. Made by hand to special order and
measurement.
Cut-off Vamp. One cut off at the tip and stitched
to the toe cap, not extending under the tip be-
yond the tip stitching.
Dicing or Dinking. Cutting soles or other parts
of the shoe with machine and die.
Dom Pedro. A heavy single-buckle shoe with
bellows tongue, usually of a cheap grade.
Dressing. A process for restoring the finish of the
upper. Also used for the materials for cleaning
and polishing the shoe.
Edge Setting. Finishing and polishing the edge of
the shoe.
306 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
Edge Trimming. Cutting the edge of the shoe
smoothly to conform to the shape of the last.
Embossing. Stamping or carving figures and trade-
marks on leather.
Eyelet. A small ring of metal set in the lacing hole.
The eyelet hole is sometimes worked with thread.
Fabric. A general term for the cloths used in shoe-
making.
Facing. The leather used around the top of the
shoe and down the eyelet row, inside.
Fair Stitch. The stitching sometimes run around
the edge of the sole to give the McKay the ap-
pearance of the welt.
Filler. A light, hollow, wooden form used to keep
a shoe in shape. Called also "form."
Findings. The small parts or accessories of a shoe,
practically everything except leather and lining,
such as laces, polishes, cement, nails, brushes,
thread, and numerous other incidental articles
used in the making and care of shoes.
Finish. Polishing, buffing, or other final treatment
of the soles of shoes.
Fitting. The selection and adjustment of ready-
made shoes to the foot of the wearer. In the old
days of hand work, shoes were made to individual
measurement. Such is still the case with the-
"custom shoe" where the added cost can be
afforded. The factory-made shoe, of typical form,
throws upon the salesman in the retail store the
problem of fitting. Some adjustment can be pro-
vided by stretching the upper or by moving but-
tons, but it is chiefly a problem or right selection
from standard patterns.
THE TERMS USED IN SHOEMAKING 307
Fitting Room. The department of the factory in
which the various parts of the upper of the shoe
are stitched together, before going to the lasting
room.
Form. (See heel.) Used also for the bench of the
hand shoemaker.
Foxing. That part of the upper extending from
the sole to the lacing or adjustment in front, and
to about the height of the counter in the back,
being the full length of the upper. More simply,
the lower part of the quarter.
French Size Marking. A cipher or secret method
of marking concealing from the customer the exact
size of the shoe. Many varieties of this system
are in use.
Gaiter. A term now applied mainly to a separate
ankle covering.
Gem Insoles. A cloth-reinformed leather insole for
welt shoes.
Golf Shoe. A low shoe with rubber sole used for
out-door sports.
Goodyear Welt. The method of attaching the sole
to the upper by the use of a narrow strip of leather
called the welt.
Gore. A rubber elastic used on both sides for the
adjustment of a Congress shoe.
Grading. The sorting of soles for uniform thick-
ness in the edges of finished shoes. Also selecting
skins for shoes of different prices.
Half -Sole. Half of a complete sole used under the
front part of the out sole.
Heel. The leather or other material attached to
the back part of the sole, or "heel seat," to give
308 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
a desired height above the ground. The chief
varieties are named after their style or shape.
Their height is usually expressed in eighths of an
inch. Heels are made in layers or lifts of leather,
of wood, of leatherboard, and of substitutes for
leather. The breast of the heel is its front face.
The French heel is extremely high with a curved
outline; the Cuban, high with a straight outline;
the military, like the Cuban but lower; the spring
heel is very low and formed by inserting a slip of
leather between the out sole and the heel seat, so
that the out sole forms the heel; the flange heel
is made flaring toward the bottom. In women's
fabric shoes heels are often covered with the same
material as the upper. The "pitch" of a heel is
its direction or inclination under the foot. Heels
are attached to the heel seat by nails and cement-
ing. The nails inside the shoe are covered by a
small piece of felt or other substance called the
heel pad.
Heel Scouring. Sandpapering the outside surface
of the heel.
Heel Seat. The rounded part of the sole on which
the heel is fastened. Heel seat nailing consists
in nailing this part of the sole; heel seat trimming,
smoothing this part.
Heel Shaving. Shaping the heel by shaving off the
surplus leather.
Hemlock Tanned. Preserved by the use of hem-
lock bark.
Inseam Trimming. Cutting off surplus leather
from the seam which fastens the upper to
the bottom in the turn shoe and in the
welt.-
THE TERMS USED IN SHOEMAKING 309
Insole. The inner sole of a sewed shoe, which is
first placed upon the last. The inner soles are
attached to both the upper and the out sole.
Inspecting. Examining shoes for imperfections.
Ironing Uppers. Smoothing the upper with a hot
iron.
Lace. A string of leather or fabric used in adjusting
and holding the shoe to the foot.
Lace Stay. A strip of leather reinforcing the eye-
let holes.
Lap Stone. An iron plate or stone upon which the
cobbler beats sole leather or seams or folded edges
with a flat faced hammer.
Last. The wooden or metal form upon which the
shoe is constructed, and which gives the shoe its
distinctive shape.
Lasting. Stretching the upper tightly over and
making it conform to the last. Assembling and
pulling over the parts of the upper on the last.
Leveling. Shaping the sole to the bottom of the
last by the use of heavy rollers or moulds.
Lift. A single thickness of the material used in the
heel.
Lining. The inside part of the upper, made of
fabric or of thin, light-weight leather.
Low-cut. A general term applying to such low
shoes as Oxford, pump, tie, colonial, slipper, and
sandal.
McKay Sewed. A mode of shoemaking named
after the inventor. After the upper is lasted upon
the inner sole the last is removed and the outer
sole is attached by a thread passing directly
through the upper and inner sole. The out sole
310 I'HE SHOE i
is generally channeled and the lining is put over
the inner seam, on the inside of the shoe. This
mode has lowered the cost of making medium-
priced shoes. It is a less satisfactory mode than
the welt process.
Measurement. Taking the dimensions of the foot
for custom made shoes. The chief points of
measurement are, the ball of the foot, the waist,
the instep, ankle, and total length.
Moulding. Shaping the sole to conform to the
bottom of the last.
Naumkeaging. Smoothing up the bottom of the
shoe with fine sandpaper after buffing on course
sandpaper.
Oak-Tanned. Preserved by means of oak bark.
Regarded as the best tanning of sole leather.
Oxford. A low-cut shoe in lace, strap, or button,
made in men's, women's, and children's sizes.
This style is said to have been first worn in Oxford,
England, over three hundred years ago.
Pasted Counter. Made of two pieces of sole leather
pasted together.
Pattern. Metal or cardboard model or form by
which any part of the shoe upper is cut.
Pegging. Attaching the outer sole with pegs.
Perforating. Making decorative holes around upper
parts. Also the term for the work done on the
edges of the upper after skiving and folding.
Polish. Ladies' and misses' front-laced, high-cut
shoe, originating in Poland.
Pressing. Applying a flat-press to heels and
soles.
Pulling Lasts. Removing lasts from shoes.
THE TERMS USED IN SHOEMAKINC 311
Pulling Over. Drawing the upper over the last and
tacking it into position.
Pump. A shoe cut below the instep and having no
fastening.
Quarter. The rear part of the upper when a full
vamp is not used.
Rand. A strip of sole leather made thin on one
edge and placed around between the heel and
the sole, to fill empty space and balance the
heel.
Relasting. Putting lasts in shoes from which the
original lasts have been drawn.
Repairing. Filling cracks in patent leather on the
finished shoe. Any cobbling work.
Rolling. Passing leather between rolls to make it
firm and durable. Also, polishing shoe bottoms
on a roll bearing a brush.
Rough Rounding. Shaping the outsole to the last,
and channeling also in the welt-channeled shoe.
One of the hardest of processes.
Royalties. Sums based on production paid by shoe
manufacturers for the use of machines when
hired of the machine companies or for protected
processes.
Rubber Cement. A powerful, quick-drying solution
of rubber, often used in leather shoemaking and
shoe repairing.
Rubber Shoes. Footwear in considerable variety
from the sandal to the hip length boot. The
low rubber overshoe is the most common. Rubber
footwear consists of fabric coated with rubber.
Rubber heels and soles are used more and more
on shoes of leather or fabric tops.
312 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
Sample. In the shoe trade a single shoe to show
the character of an entire lot. As a rule samples
are made up by factories twice a year, in the
spring and fall, and carried by the traveling sales-
men on their routes. Shoes are then made in the
factory from the orders received upon each sample.
Sandal. A woman's or child's strap slipper.
Screw Fastened. Having the bottom attached to the
upper with wire screw nails, as in some heavy shoes.
Shank. A strip of metal or other material used
between the inner and outer sole, between the
heel and the ball, to stiffen the sole of the shoe.
Also, this part of the shoe.
Shank Burnishing. Polishing the black shank part
of the shoe with a hot iron. Shanks are finished
in black or in colors.
Shanking Out. Thinning and smoothing the shank
part of the shoe.
Size. The length measure of the shoe on standard
widths. The length is expressed by numbers or
the French cipher and the widths by letters.
American and English sizes vary by one-third of
an inch. The American size system runs from
0 to 13 J, and then starts over again at 1. The
infants' size runs from 0 to 5; children's from
5 to 11; misses', from 11 J to 13^ and then to 2 in
the second series; women's, from 2J to 8; little
men's, from 8 to 13 J; youths', from 1 to 2; boys',
from 2£ to 5|, and men's from 6 to 12. Larger
sizes are made on special orders.
Skiving. Cutting sole leather to a uniform thick-
ness. Shaving upper leather, especially, to a thin
edge, in the cutting or stitching department.
THE TERMS USED IN SHOEMAKING 313
Slipper. A name for low footwear, other than rub-
ber, without special means of fastening to the foot.
Slugging. Driving slugs, or short nails, in heels.
Sneaker. A rubber-soled canvas shoe for out-door
wear.
Sock Lining. The lining which covers the McKay
insole.
Soft Tips. Having no box toe under the tip.
Soles and Sole Leather. The pieces of heavy
leather, mainly, from neat animals and used in
the soles of shoes.
Sole Laying. The preliminary process of attaching
the out-sole in position for stitching, nailing, or
pegging.
Sorting. The process of arranging out-soles or upper
leather by grades.
Split. A layer of a hide which has been cut into
thicknesses.
Spring. The deviation from a straight line at the
toe or arch of a shoe.
Stamping. Putting size and width on the inside of
the shoe, or the name on the bottom, or marks
on the carton.
Stay. A piece of leather used to strengthen a part
or seam.
Stitch Separating. Marking indentations between
stitches to make the stitching conspicuous.
Stitched Aloft. Sewed without channeling, so that
the stitches show on the bottom. The name
comes from the manner of the holding of the
shoe in the process, bottom up.
*19
314 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
Stock Keeping. Caring for stock in storage, fol-
lowing sales, and keeping a supply on hand.
The manufacturer must know how his styles are
selling and how large his supply must be to keep
ahead of his trade. Accurate and proper stock
keeping is very important in shoe manufacture.
Stripping. Cutting hides into strips wide enough to
make soles of a desired size.
Style. The shape, model, or material determined
by standards in use or in fashion, or by forms
which manufacturers desire to put upon the
market. A particular pattern or design, applying
to the shoe as a whole or to any part which may be
given special distinction.
Tan. From the Norman-French word for oak
bark. A yellowish brown color given by the bark
used in tanning, finished without applying special
colors.
Tanning. Converting hides and skins into leather
by astringent acids or mineral substances.
Tap. An outer half sole.
Tempering. Softening leather in water.
Tip. The toe piece stitched to the outside of the
vamp. Often of different leather than that of the
rest of the shoe, as "patent tip."
Tongue. A narrow piece of leather placed beneath
the lacing or other fastening of a shoe.
Top. The part of the upper above the vamp.
Top Facing. The leather or band of cloth around
the inside of the shoe top.
Top Lift. The outer piece of leather in the heel.
Top Stitching. Sewing across the top and down
the side.
THE TERMS USED IN SHOEMAKING 315
Treeing. Shaping the shoe, smoothing it in the
treeing room.
Trimming Cutting. Cutting stays, facings, and
other small parts of the shoe upper.
Turned Shoe. A woman's fine shoe, of flexible
sole, with upper stitched to the sole wrong side
out, the shoe being then turned right side out.
One of the three chief methods of shoemaking
at the present time.
Turnover. The gross amount of sales in com-
parison with the gross amount of stock.
Upper. A collective term for the parts above the
sole and heel of a shoe.
Vamp. The front or lower part of the upper. A
"cut-off" vamp extends only to the tip. A
"whole vamp" extends to heel without a seam.
The vamp is the most important part of the upper
and should be made of the best leather.
Vamping. Sewing the vamps to the top.
Viscolizing. A patent method of making sole
leather waterproof by treating it with oil emul-
sions.
Welt. A narrow strip of leather sewed to the upper
and insole, having the edge of the welt extending
outward so that the outsole can be attached by
sewing through welt and outsole around the out-
side. This is the most modern and best method
of shoemaking. "Goodyear Welt" is a welt
sewed by the Goodyear welting machine.
The three chief kinds of sewed shoes, from
methods used in making, are the welt, the McKay,
and the turned shoe.
Welt Beating. Flattening out the welt, after sewing.
316 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
Welting. The material used for the welt. Also
sewing the welt to the shoe.
Wheeling. Running a corrugated wheel around
the edge or bottom of a shoe, to give finish or to
imitate stitching.
Width. More properly the girth of the ball, waist,
and instep of the foot or last. Widths vary in
quarter inches of these measurements from "double
narrow" to "double wide," through the series
of sizes.
SHOE AND LEATHER BIBLIOGRAPHY 317
SHOE AND LEATHER BIBLIOGRAPHY
AARON, CHARLES F. FROM PASTURE TO PULLEY. New York
Leather Belting Co., New York, 1907.
AMERICAN SHOEMAKING DIRECTORY. Rogers and Atwood
Publishing Co., Boston, 1916.
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS STATE BOARD OF
CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION FOR 1911. Public Docu-
ment No. 40, Boston.
BENNETT, HUGH GARNER. THE MANUFACTURE OF LEATHER.
Constable and Company, Ltd., London, 1909.
BOLLES, ALBERT S. INDUSTRIAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED
STATES. The Henry Bill Publishing Co., Norwich, Conn.,
1878.
DOOLEY, WILLIAM H . A MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING AND LEATHER
AND RUBBER PRODUCTS. Little, Brown, and Company,
Boston, 1912.
DREIER, THOMAS. THE STORY OF THREE PARTNERS. United
Shoe Machinery Co., Boston, 1912.
EMPLOYERS' WELFARE WORK. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS,
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, MISCELLANEOUS SERIES: No. 4,
Washington, 1913.
FOOTWEAR OF SOLDIERS, THE. United Shoe Machinery Co.,
Boston, 1914.
GANNON, FRED A. SHOE MAKING OLD AND NEW. Fred A.
Gannon, Lynn, Mass., 1911.
GOLD, GUY D. THE SHOE CITY READER. The New American
Association, Brockton, Mass., 1913.
GOLDING, F. Y. THE MANUFACTURE OF BOOTS AND SHOES.
Chapman and Hall, Limited, London, 1902.
GOODYEAR WELT SHOES: How THEY ARE MADE. United Shoe
Machinery Co., Boston, 1911.
HANSON, WILLIAM C., AND WILLIAM W. WALCOTT. HYGIENE
OF THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY IN MASSACHUSETTS. State
Board of Health, Boston, 1912.
HATFIELD, C. B. BOOT AND SHOE PATTERNS. Superintendent
and Foreman, Boston, 1899.
318 THE SHOE INDUSTRY
HILL, HERBERT, AND HENRY YEOMAN. A MANUAL OF BOOT
AND SHOE MANUFACTURE. Boot and Shoe Trades Journal,
London.
How TO DRESS A STORE WINDOW. The Boot and Shoe Recorder
Publishing Co., Boston, 1908.
JORISSEN, DR. FRANZ. DIE DEUTSCHE LEDER-UND LEDER-
WAREN-lNDUSTRiE. Text dreisprachig : deutsch, englisch,
franzosisch. Druck und Verlag: Vereinigte Verlagsanstalten
Gustav Braunbek und Guten Verg-Druckerei Akt.-Ges.,
Berlin, 1909.
LIBRARY OF FACTORY MANAGEMENT, THE. Six volumes.
A. W. Shaw Company, Chicago, 1915.
MUNSON, EDWARD L. THE SOLDIERS' FOOT AND THE MILITARY
SHOE. Agents U. S. Cavalry Association, Fort Leaven-
worth, Kansas, 1912.
PRIMER OF BOOTS AND SHOES, A. United States Machinery
Co., Boston, 1914.
PROCTOR, H. H. THE MAKING OF LEATHER. G. P. Putnam's
Sons, New York, 1915.
NICHOLS, FRED HAMMOND, COMPILER. THE BUILDING OF A
SHOE. Thos. P. Nichols and Son Co., Lynn, Mass., 1912.
REDFIELD, HON. WILLIAM C. The New Industrial Day. 1914.
SHOE AND LEATHER LEXICON, THE. Boot and Shoe Recorder
Publishing Co., Boston, 1912.
WOMEN IN THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY IN MASSACHUSETTS.
WOMEN'S EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL UNION, BOSTON.
Bulletin No. 180, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1916.
SMALL, FREDERICK L. COMPREHENSIVE ACCOUNTING METHODS.
The L. and S. Printing Company, Boston, 1914.
STORM, DONALD T. FIFTY LESSONS IN ADVERTISING. Boot
and Shoe Recorder Publishing Co., Boston, 1911.
TECHNOLOGY OF BOOT AND SHOE MANUFACTURE, THE. The
Burlington Publishing Co., Limited, London.
UNEMPLOYMENT. American Labor Legislation Review, Vol.
IV, No. 2, New York, May 19, 1914.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR IN THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. Department of Labor,
Wages and Hours of Labor Series, Washington: No. 4, 1890
to 1912; No. 13, 1907 to 1913; and No. 19, 1907 to 1914.
SHOE AND LEATHER BIBLIOGRAPHY 319
WAGE-EARNING WOMEN IN STORES AND FACTORIES. VOL. V,
REPORT ON WOMEN AND CHILD WAGE-EARNERS IN THE UNITED
STATES. Senate Document No. 645, Government Printing
Office, Washington, 1910.
WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SALESMAN. Boot and Shoe Re-
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WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES AND
FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. De-
partment of Labor, Workmen's Insurance and Compensation
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SHOE AND LEATHER JOURNALS
AMERICAN SHOEMAKING, weekly. Boston.
BOOT AND SHOE RECORDER, weekly. Boston.
COAST SHOE REPORTER, monthly. San Francisco.
JOURNAL OF AMERICAN LEATHER CHEMISTS' ASSOCIATION.
Easton, Pa.
HIDE AND LEATHER, weekly. Chicago.
THE LEATHER MANUFACTURER, monthly. Boston.
MODERN SHOEMAKING, weekly. Boston.
NEW ENGLAND SHOE AND LEATHER INDUSTRY, monthly. Boston
SHOE AND LEATHER FACTS, monthly. Philadelphia.
SHOE AND LEATHER REPORTER, weekly. Boston.
SHOE RETAILER, weekly. Boston.
SHOE REPAIRER AND DEALER, monthly. Boston
THE SHOEMAN, semi-monthly. Boston.
SHOE TOPICS, weekly. Boston.
SUPERINTENDENT AND FOREMAN, weekly. Boston.
WEEKLY BULLETIN OF SHOE NEWS. Boston.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
Acid-tanned, 300
Adjustment, 300
Anatomic, 300
Antinoe, city of, 26
Apprentice, in last century, 28
Arch, 300
Assembling, 300; department,
153; positions, 154
Astringent acids, 89, 99
Automatic machine, 177, 275
Backstay, 300
Back strap, 300
Bal, 300
Ball, 301
Barring machine, 177
Beading, 301
Beard, Thomas, 27
Beating out, 301
Bellows tongue, 301
Belting, 301
Bench-made, 301
Bend, 301
"Binding," 34, 58
Blackball, 301
Blacking the edge, 301
Blake, Lyman R., 58, 124
Blind nailing, 221
Blind eyelet, 301
Blocking, 302
Blucher, 164, 302
Boot, 302
Boots and shoes, value of prod-
ucts for leading states, 1909
and 1899, 47
Boston Continuation School,
269-271
Boston School Committee, 269,
270
Bottom filling, 302
Bottom finishing, 302
Bottom scouring, 302
Bottom stock fitting, 188
Box, 302
Box calf, 97
Box factory, 113
Box toe department, 113
Breed, Ebenezer, and the shoe
tariff, 36, 39, 90
Brockton, 45, 46
Brogan, 302
Broken arch, 302
Brushing, 302
Buckram, 303
Buckskin, 98
Buffing, 303
Business departments of
shoe manufacture, 109; the
usual officers, 109; chart of,
111
"Business Employments," the
volume upon, 109
Business organization, 43
Button, 303
Button fly, 303
Buttonhole department, 173;
positions, 172
Cabaretta, 303
Calfskin, 97, 303; special terms,
97, 98
Calking machine, 303
Canvas reinforcement, 191
Carton, 303
Case, 304
Census, first United States, 35;
of 1909, 44
Census statistics: Boots and
shoes, value for leading states,
47; table I, general statistics,
48; table II, boot and shoe cut
stock, 49; table III, findings,
50; table IV, exports of boots
and shoes, 51 ; leather, value for
leading states, 103; table V,
imports of hides and skins, 104,
(321)
322
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
105 ; table VI, number of boots,
shoes, and slippers made by
each method of manufacture,
132; table VII, average wages
per hour, weekly earning, and
hours per week, by years,
cutting department, 156, 157;
table VIII, average wages
per hour, weekly earnings,
and hours per week, by states,
cutting department, 158, 159;
table IX, wages, weekly earn-
ings, and hours, by years,
fitting department, 178-181;
table X, wages, weekly earn-
ings, and hours, by states,
fitting department, 182, 183;
table XI, wages, weekly earn-
ings, and hours, by years, sole
leather department, 197; table
XII, wages, weekly earnings,
and hours, by states, sole
leather department, 198; table
XIII, wages, weekly earnings,
and hours, by years, lasting
department, 230-232; table
XIV, wages, weekly earnings,
and hours, by states, lasting
department, 234, 235; table
XV, wages, weekly earnings,
and hours, by years, bottom-
ing department, 236-239;
table XVI, wages, weekly
earnings, and hours, by states,
bottoming department, 240-
243; table XVII, wages,
weekly earnings, and hours,
by years, finishing depart-
ment, 254; table XVIII,
wages, weekly earnings, and
hours, by states, finishing
department, and other em-
ployees in all departments,
256, 257; table XIX, hours,
wages, weekly earnings, and
employees, in the principal
occupations in 1914, 286, 287;
variations in number of em-
ployees, payrolls, and earn-
ings, 288; table XX, sex and
age distribution by leading
industries, 1909, 290, 291
Central administrative offices,
116
Chamois, 97
Channel, 304
Channeling, 190
Channel laying, 210
Channel screwed, 304
Channel stitched, 304
Channel turning, 304
Chemist, 295
Chrome-tanned, 90, 100, 304
Cities, leading, 44, 45
Clicking, 304; machine, 148;
illustration, 149
Closing on, 304
Closing and staying department,
169; positions, 170
Cobbler, 27, 34, 292
Collar, 304
Colonial, 304
Colonial times, 32
Coltskin, 99
Combination last, 304
Congress gaiter, 305
Copper toe, 305
Cordova, 26
Cordwainers' Company, Lon-
don, 26
Counter, 138, 305; department,
193
Counting, marking, and skiving
department, 152
Cravenette, 305
Creasing vamp, 305
Crimping, 305
Cripple girls, 169
Cross section, of a Goodyear
welt shoe, 125; of a McKay
sewed, 126; of a standard
screwed, 127; of a pegged, 128
Cushion sole, 305
Custom-made, 305
Cutter, 36, 145-148, 191, 195
Cutting room, 145
Cut-off vamp, 305
Cut-sole industry, 101, 102
Day sheet, 138, 141; typical,
140
Dagyr, John Adam, 28
Designer, pattern, 79, 80, 83;
assistant, 83
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
323
Destouy, Auguste, 59, 124
Detail in shoe manufacture, 135;
number of processes, 135, 136
Dickerson, Philemon, 90
Dicing, 305
Dicing out straps, 153
Dinking machine, 144
Dom Pedro, 305
Dressing, 305
Dry hides, 99
Edge setting, 305
Edge setting machine, 210
Edge trimming, 306
Efficiency engineer, 274
Efficiency methods, 274
Embossing, 250, 306
Employment conditions and sup-
plementary material, 261-295
Employment department, 109;
manager, 109
Employees, six division of, 261;
processes given to male, 262;
deivisions among departments,
262; records, 265; average
earnings of, 285; chart of
variations in number, 288
Enamel leather, 96
European war, 92
Executive officers, 109, 110
Eyelet, 306
Fabrics, 92
Facing, 306
Factory departments of shoe
manufacture, 112; chart of,
114; additional, 247, 248
Factory hours, 42
Factory management, chart of,
115; offices, 110, 116
Factory manager, 80
Factory service and office ser-
vice, 112
Fair stitch, 306
Filler, 306
Findings, 306
Finish^ 306
Finishing department, 112
Finishing, treeing, packing, and
shipping, 247-257
Fitting, 306; department, 113;
room, 307
Foreman, 145, 154, 189, 272,
273; assistant, 273
Forewomen, 166, 168, 173, 174;
273
Form, 25, 307
Foxing, 307; department, 170;
positions, 171
French size marking, 307
Gaiter, 307
"Gangs," 40
Gem insoles, 307
General manager, 109
General offices, 110
Golf shoe, 307
Goodyear, Charles, 59
Goodyear welt machine, 59;
channeling machine, 190;
stitching machine, illustra-
tion, 219
Goodyear welt shoe, 124, 125;
welt, 307
Gore, 307
Grading, 307; machine, 82
Green hides, 99
Gun metal, 98
Hand cutter, 145-148
Hand processes, 275
Half sole, 307
Heel, 307; department, 113,
194; processes, 194; positions
in department, 195
Heel breasting machine, 221
Heeling department, 221; po-
sitions, 222; machine, 227
Heel seat, 308; nailing, 209, 217
Heel scouring, 308; machine,
221; shaving, 308
Heel trimming, 221
Heels fastened by pegs, 56
Hemlock tanned, 89, 99-101,
308
Hides and skins, tannery divi-
sion of, 93
Indenture paper, 28
Industrial education, quotation
from a report, 267
Ingalls, Francis, 90
Inseam trimming, 308
Insole, 187, 309
324
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
Inspecting, 251, 309
Inspector, 143, 166, 168, 173
Instruction of operators, 64
Ironing, 250, 309
Journeyman, 34
Joseph L., 61
Kertland, Philip, 27
Kid, 96; varieties, 96, 97
Labor, distinction between capi-
tal and, 39; division of in the
factory, 40; securing skilled,
265
Labor statistics, U. S. Bureau of,
154, 284
Lace, 309; shoes, 129; stay, 309
Lapstone, 57, 309
Last, 309
Last, 36, 71, 309; shaping of, 71;
material, 72; lathe, 73; model,
74; devices for reducing, 75;
Arnold hinged, 75; storage,
75; worker, 76; standardiza-
tion, 82
Lasting, 309; department, 202;
positions, 205; machine, illus-
tration, 207
Last-making, 71-76; hand, 72;
modern, 73; machine, or
lathe, 73, 74
Lasters, hand, 60
Leading industries, 289-292
Leasing system, 63, 67
Leather, its nature, 89; tanning,
89; American manufacturing,
90; increasing shortage of,
91, 92; substitutes, 92, 101;
hideite, 93; a side of, 94, 95;
divisions of in shoe factories,
94; varieties of upper, 94;
sole, 99; oak, hemlock, union,
99-101; tanned, curried, and
finished, value for leading
states, 102
Leatherboard, 92
Leather sorter, 142
Leveling, 210, 309
Libraries, 277
Lift, 309
Lining, 309; department, 164;
positions, 166
Lining and cloth-cutting section,
144; positions, 145; sorter, 143
Linings, 135, 153, 164, 166, 172,
218
Low-cut, 309
Lynn, first home of the industry,
44,46
Machine, upper-stitching, 56;
sole-sewing, 56; McKay, 41,
57, 58; welting, 56; pegging,
57; rolling, 57; Howe sewing,
58; Goodyear welt, 59; edge-
trimming and heel-trimming,
59; lasting, 60; operating, 63
Machinery, introduction, 43, 60;
invention of shoe, 55; devel-
opment, 56; care of, 64;
standardization, 67; in tan-
ning, 91
McKay bottoming department,
217; processes, 217; positions,
218
McKay, Gordon, 58, 59, 63,
124
McKay insole department, 188;
positions, 189
McKay sewed, 309; illustration,
126
Making department, 112, 113,
201-243; divisions, 201; work
in, 229
Massachusetts State Board of
Health, 280
Mathies, Robert, 58
Matzeliger, Jan Ernest, 60
Measurement, 310
Measuring upper leather, 141
Mechanics, 64
Medical attendance, 277, 279
Methods in shoe manufacture,
123-132; per cent, of each in
total production, 129, 130
Middle Ages, 25
Moccasin of the American In-
dian, 27
Model grader, 83
Modern shoe factory, 113-119
Monotony of shoemaking, 275
Moulding, 310
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
325
National Boot and Shoe Manu-
facturers' Association, 267,
271
National Society for the Promo-
tion of Industrial Education,
269, 271
Naumkeag buffing machine, 213
Naumkeaging, 310
New England Shoe and Leather
Association, 269
New England shoe and leather
production, 45, 46
Nichols, John Brooks, 58
Nicking, 153
North Shore district, 45
Novelties, 91
Oak-tanned, 89, 99-101
Office manager, 109
Ooze, 98
Operations, machine, 55: hand,
55
Outer sole department, 192;
positions, 192
Oxford, 164, 310
Packing, 112; department, 251;
positions, 252
Pasted counter, 310
Patent leather, 96, 248, 249
Patent office, United States, 55
Patents on shoe machinery, 55
Pattern, 79; designer, 79; sample,
80; model, 80; number to a
shoe, 81; material, 81; mak-
ing, 82; standardization, 82;
storage, 83; price, 83.
Pattern-maker, 80, 81, 83
Pattern-making, 79; depart-
ment, 80; machine, 83; posi-
tions, 83
Peg, wooden, 56; machine-
made, 57
Pegging, 310
Pennsylvani
Pennsylvania, 32, 33
Perforating, 167, 310
Piece and time payment, 283
Polish shoe, 164, 310
Porter, William, and Sons, 58
Power grader, 83
Power machine, 177
President, 109
Pressing, 310
Printing department, 113
Processes, number of in making
an ordinary shoe, 55; best
paying, 283
Promotion, 265
Pulling lasts, 310
Pulling over, 311
Pulling over machine, 61, 202;
illustration, 203
Pump, 166, 311
Putnam, General, 35
Quality man, 191, 273
Quantity man, 191, 273
Quarter, 172, 311
Rand, 311
Randing, 190
Rebellion, War of the, 91
Receipt of an order, 136
Reinforced insoles, 190
Relasting, 311
Relief fund, 279
Repair shop earnings, 295
Repairing, 311
Repairing industry, 292
Revolution, the, 35
Rickerman, Isaac, 27
"Roadmen," 64
Rolling, 311
Romans, the, 25
Rose, William, 90
Rough rounding, 206, 311; ma-
chine, illustration, 215
Rounding machine, 187, 188
Royalties, 311
Royalty stamps, facsimiles of
early, 65
Rubber, 93; cement, 311; shoes,
311
Russia calfskin, 98
Sales manager, 80
Salesman, traveling, 79 "
Sample, 312
Sandal, 25, 312; ancient Egyp-
tian makers, 25, 26
Sanitary conditions, 280-283
Schools and courses for shoe-
making, 266-271
Screw fastened, 312
326
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
Seasons, 263, 289
Sex and age distribution of wage-
earners, 289
Shank, 312; development, 62;
burnishing, 312
Shanking out, 312
Sheepskin, 99
Shipping, 112; department, 252;
positions, 253
Shoe factories, first, 39
Shoe factory, entering, 264
Shoe foreman, 272, 273; assist-
ant, 273
Shoe and Leather Association,
New England, 45
Shoe industry, magnitude of the,
today, 44; capital invested,
1909, 44; number of employ-
ees, 1909 and now, 44
Shoe laws, ancient, 33
Shoe manufacture, department
of, 109; power in, 61; highly
specialized, 263; report upon
industrial education in, 267
Shoe repairing industry, 292-295
Shoe superintendent, 109, 166,
168, 271; assistant, 273
Shoe tag, 136, 138; typical, 139
Shoe tariff, 36
Shoemaker, 25, 43; itinerant, 33
Shoemakers, first American, 27;
New England, 35; Dutch, 35;
attitude of early towards the
shoe factory, 42
Shoemaking, American, 28; era
of machine, 58
Shoemaking a trade, 264; monot-
ony of, 275; offsets to monot-
ony, 275; efforts to lessen
monotony, 276
Shoe shop of a century ago, 35;
old time beside a modern fac-
tory, 37
Shoe shops, first, 34
Shoes, ancient and mediaeval, 25,
26; English-made, 36; value
of in Colonial times, 32
Size, 312
Skin showing how patterns are
placed in cutting, 147
Skiving, 152, 312; positions in,
153
Slashing, 190
Slipper, 313
Slugging, 221, 313
Sneaker, 313
Social clubs, 277
Social service, 109, 277-280;
quotations from a government
study, 277
Sock lining, 313
Suede leather, 96
Soft tips, 313
Sole laying, 206, 313; leveling,
210; sewing, 209
Sole leather department, 112,
116, 187-198; employees, 196
Sole leveling machine, 210; il-
lustration, 223
Soles, 187
Sorter, 142, 143
Sorting, 310
Sorting department, positions,
143
Spanish War, 91
Specialists, 43
Speed, 275
Split, 93, 313
Spring, 313
Stamping, 313; machine, 153
Stages in Goodyear welt manu-
facture, 130; illustration, 131
Standard screw, pegged and
nailed departments, 226
Statics (see Census)
States, leading, 44, 45, 47
Stay, 313
Stitch separating, 313
Stitched aloft, 313
Stitching department, 112, 113,
116, 163-183; processes, 163;
number of parts, 164; divi-
sions, 164; chart, 165
Stitching machine, operating, 176
Stock keeping, 314; fitting, 42
Stripping, 314
Style, 314
Subsidiary factories, 102
System, factory, 39; quotation
on contract, 41 ; organization,
43, 63, 67
Tan, 314
Tanners, American, 91
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
327
Tanning, 89-91, 99-101, 173,
314
Tap, 314
Teacher, 173
Teams, 40
Tempering, 314
Terms used in shoemaking, 299-
316
Teutonic tribes, 25
Thebes, 25
Time and pay statistics in the
cutting department, 154
Tip, 314; department, 164, 166;
positions, 168; repairing de-
partment, 248
Toe box department, 193
Toe boxes, 187
Toe closing department, 164;
175; positions, 176
Toe and heel wiping, 202
Tongue, 314
Top, 314; facing, 314; lift, 314;
stitching, 314; stitcher, 172,
173
Top stitching department, 172;
positions, 173
Training classes, 277
Treasurer, 109
Treeing, 112, 315; department,
249; positions, 251
Trimming cutting, 315
Trimmings, 135, 153, 164
Trowbridge, William F., 61
Turned shoe, 129, 315; depart-
ment, 222; lasting, 222; posi-
tions, 225
Turnover, 315
United Shoe Machinery Com-
pany, 26
Upper, 315
Upholstering, 91
Upper leather department, 112,
116, 135-159; chart of, 137
Upper leather room, 141
Upper trimming machine, 205
Vamp, 175, 315
Vampers, 173
Vamping, 164; department, 175;
positions, 175
Viscolizing, 315
Vice-president, 109
Wages and variation in employ-
ment, 284
Welfare manager, 109
Welt, 315; beating, 206, 315;
finishing, 210
Welt bottoming department,
205; positions, 213
Welt insole department, 189;
positions, 191
Welting, 316
Wetting, 190
Wheeling, 316
Width, 316
Willow calf, 98
Wooldredge, John, 58
14 DAY USE
RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED
LOAN DEPT.
This book is due on the last date stamped below, or
on the date to which renewed.
Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.
REC'D LD
APR 1 0 1963
1983
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