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BASED ON

COMMUNITY

BUR.T O N

SHOP PROJECTS

BASED ON

COMMUNITY
. PROBLEMS

MYRON G. BURTON, A.B., M.S.

DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL AND MANUAL-TRAINING

INSTRUCTION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF

KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI

BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON
ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO

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GINN AND COMPANY- PRO-
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A.

Table of Contents

PAGE

Title Page 1

Contents 3, 4, 5, 6

Preface 7, 8, 9

Community Problems 10, 11, 12

Suggestions to Teachers 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19

Instructions to Students 20, 21, 22, 23

Introduction to Section 1 24

Match Box , 25, 26, 27, 28

Necktie Rack 29, 30, 31, 32

Hand Loom 33, 34, 35, 36

Box Kite 37, 38, 39, 40

Coat Hanger 41, 42, 43, 44

Broom Holder 45, 46, 47, 48

Bench Hook 49, 50, 51, 52

Seed Corn Rack 53, 54, 55, 56

Feed Scoop 57, 58, 59, 60

Bracket Shelf 61, 62, 63, 64

Suggestions for Community Research 65, 66, 67

Review Questions and Problems 67

Introduction to Section II 68

Bread or Meat Board 69, 70, 71, 72

Camp Stool 73, 74, 75, 76

Book Rack 77, 78, 79, 80

Drawing Board 81, 82, 83, 84

Windmill 85, 86, 87, 88

Child's Swing 89, 90, 91, 92

Fly Trap 93, 94, 95, 96

Milking Stool * 97, 98, 99, 100

Harness Rack 101, 102, 103, 104

Flower Trellis 105, 106, 107, 108

Suggestions for Community Research 109

Review Questions and Problems 110, 111

2O65927

PAGE

Introduction to Section III 112

Sleeve Board 113, 114, 115, 116

Water Wheel 117, 118, 119, 120

Window Box 121, 122, 123, 124

Miter Box 125, 126, 127, 128

Picture Frame 129, 130, 131, 132

Dishcloth Rack 133, 134, 135, 136

Book Shelves 137, 138, 139, 140

Sled 141, 142, 143, 144

Saw Horse 145, 146, 147, 148

Hatchet and Hammer Handle 149, 150, 151, 152

Suggestions for Community Research ..... 153

Review Questions and Problems 154, 155

Introduction to Section IV 156

Wash Bench 157, 158, 159, 160

Nail or Screw Tray 161, 162, 163, 164

Candlestick 165, 166, 167, 168

Hand Mirror 169, 170, 171, 172

Flower Pot Stand 173, 174, 175, 176

Bird House 177, 178, 179, 180

Wagon Jack 181, 182, 183, 184

Seed Corn Tester 185, 186, 187, 188

Evener and Singletree 189, 190, 191, 192

Farm Gate 193, 194, 195, 196

Suggestions for Community Research 197

Review Questions and Problems 198, 199

Introduction to Section V 200

Shoe Polishing Box 201, 202, 203, 204

Tabouret 205, 206, 207, 208

Foot Stool 209, 210, 211, 212

Folding Game Table 213, 214, 215, 216

Stepladder 217, 218, 219, 220

Automobile Creeper 221, 222, 223, 224

Shop Tool Case 225, 226, 227, 228

Work Bench 229, 230, 231, 232

Cow Stanchion 233, 234, 235, 236

Chicken Brooder 237, 238, 239, 240

Suggestions for Community Research 241

Review Questions and Problems 242, 243

PAGE

Introduction to Section VI 244

Porch Swing 245, 246, 247, 248

Jardiniere Stand 249, 250, 251, 252

Tool Chest 253, 254, 255, 256

Piano Bench 257, 258, 259, 260

Magazine Rack 261, 262, 263, 264

Telephone Stand and Stool 265, 266, 267, 268

Medicine or Shaving Cabinet 269, 270, 271, 272

Cedar Chest 273, 274, 275, 276

Writing Desk 277, 278, 279, 280

Library Table 281, 282, 283, 284

Suggestions for Community Research ..... 285

Review Questions and Problems 286

Supplement 287

Chapter I. Mechanical Drawing —

Introduction and Definitions 288 to 290

Drawing Outfit 291 to 294

Lettering 295, 296

Problems 297 to 307

Chapter II. Tool Processes —

Squaring Stock 308 to 312

Gauging 313, 314

Boring 314, 315

Sandpapering 317 to 319

Nailing 321 to 323

Rafter and brace cuts 324, 325

Reading and Writing Dimensions 325

Lumber Measure 325, 326

Chapter III. Varieties of Timber —

Introduction 327 to 330

Hardwood Trees 331 to 340

Softwood Trees 340 to 343

Lumber and Methods of Sawing 343 to 346

Drying and Shrinkage of Lumber 346, 347

Chapter IV. Wood Finishing —

Painting 348, 349

Cabinet Finishing 349, 350

Staining 350, 351

Filler 351, 352

Wax Finish 352, 353

Shellac Finish 353 to 355

Varnish Finish 355 to 357

Care of Finishing Materials 357

PAGE
Chapter V. Principal Joints Used in Woodwork 358 to 371

Chapter VI. Tools and Tool Sharpening —

Saws 372

Rip Saws 372, 373

Cross-Cutting Saws 373, 374

Saw Filing 374, 375

Care of Saws 375

Planes 375

Parts of the Plane 376 to 378

Sharpening Planes 379

Sharpening Chisels 381

Sharpening Knives 382

Care of the Sharpening Equipment 382

ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF PROJECTS.

PAGE PAGE

Automobile Creeper 221 Jardiniere Stand 249

Bench Hook 49 Library Table 281

Bird House 177 Magazine Rack 261

Book Rack 77 Match Box 25

Book Shelves 137 Medicine or Shaving Cabinet.269

Box Kite 37 Milking Stool 97

Bracket Shelf 61 Miter Box 125

Bread or Meat Board 69 Nail or Screw Tray 161

Broom Holder 45 Necktie Rack 29

Camp Stool 73 Piano Bench 257

Candlestick 165 Picture Frame 129

Cedar Chest 273 Porch Swing 245

Chicken Brooder 237 Saw Horse 145

Child's Swing 89 Seed Corn Rack 53

Coat Hanger 41 Seed Corn Tester .185

Cow Stanchion 233 Shoe Polishing Box 201

Dishcloth Rack 133 Shop Tool Case 225

Drawing Board 81 Sleeve Board 113

Evener and Singletree 189 Sled 141

Farm Gate 193 Stepladder 217

Feed Scoop 57 Tabouret 205

Flower Pot Stand 173 Telephone Stand and Stool. . .265

Flower Trellis 105 Tool Chest . .253

Fly Trap 93 Wagon Jack 181

Folding Game Table 213 Water Wheel 117

Foot Stool 209 Wash Bench 157

Hand Loom 33 Windmill 85

Hand Mirror 169 Window Box 121

Harness Rack 101 Work Bench 229

Hatchet and Hammer Handle. 149 Writing Desk 277

PREFACE

MODERN educators have come to realize that the only avenue
of approach to the child's mind is through the light of his
experience, therefore recent text-books are being so
arranged as to utilize the things with which the child comes in
contact outside of school as well as in the classroom in guiding
him into new fields of knowledge.

Under the old school the plan of the text-book was to arrange
the subject-matter in a logical and scientific way, giving but little
consideration to the immediate interest of the child, or to the
natural steps of his development. This so-called logical arrange-
ment placed the paramount consideration on a skillful organiza-
tion of the great store of racial subject-matter, and was no doubt
quite satisfactory to the learned scholar or the mature mind pro-
vided with a broad field of experience.

A more vital consideration of the natural unfolding of the
child's mind has created a great interest in what has been called
the "psychological" arrangement of subject-matter. The psycho-
logical order of presentation means that the subject-matter is to
be constantly handled and shaped in accordance with the develop-
ing thought of the child. This thought of course cannot be iden-
tical in any two children, due to their unequal ability and unlike
experiences. This psychological plan of presentation, followed to
the extreme, may result in random thought with but little central
idea, thus following no particular channel, and consequently fail-
ing to arrive at any definite goal.

Ironclad advocates of the old school of logical thinking (for-
tunately but few of them are left at present) maintain that but
little consideration should be given to the individual student, but
that the mathematically correct and absolutely sequential logic of
the subject should be the master in prescribing the order of pro-
cedure in all school tasks.

On the other hand, over-enthusiastic champions of the
psychological doctrine are too prone to ignore the logical side en-
tirely and allow their efforts to be wasted in rambling, and thus
really give their students absolute command of nothing which will
function in future adjustments.

These two extremes are the paths which lie open to any
author when he undertakes the preparation of a text-book. While
the logical arrangement has been almost slavishly followed in

some of the old line subjects, it has asserted itself only to a very
limited extent in the newer industrial lines. There have, however,
been a few attempts at text-books and courses of study which have
required students to follow a prescribed course in an absolute way,
thus . leaving no opportunity for the development of individual
tastes, initiative and self-reliance. By far the greater risk, how-
ever, has been in the opposite extreme. Since there have been no
definite standards nor prescribed courses by which industrial
efforts can be measured, many teachers have neglected to check
up their work with sufficient rigor. On account of the newness
of handwork as a public school undertaking, there are as yet a
great many difficulties to be confronted in following the natural
development of the child and thus prescribing projects which will
set forth the very best training for his particular case. Much of
the indefinite, inaccurate, slipshod sort of work which is being
done under the name of Manual Training apologizes for its exist-
ence by claiming that it is following the psychological trend.

Superintendents who have been accustomed to maintaining
a high ideal of excellence in all their work have been not a little
annoyed by the chaotic unmeasurable results in their industrial
classes, but they have been told by the experts along the theoret-
ical side of the work that the child should be allowed to unfold in
his own way. Then when the class has been intrusted to an in-
experienced, perhaps meagerly trained teacher, the superintendent
sees that the fine theory of the psychological expert brings about
intangible standards and indefinite results in the hands of the less
capable teacher.

If handwork is to be made a real school problem, and is to
have its highest educational value, it certainly must conform to
the same rules of pedagogy which govern the other subjects. The
mind does not undergo any transformation because the child hap-
pens to be in the shop or to have a saw or hammer in his hand.

In the preparation of this text, which is based upon many
years of personal instruction and observation of all types of
schools in several states, the effort has been to find a sane medium
between the logical and psychological methods of presentation.
Those who are familiar with the subject are well aware that there
is a science in mechanics and a correct way to execute the most
common and universal tool processes, and that there are funda-
mental principles' as well defined as the principles of mathematics
or the sciences. These mechanical processes and principles rep-
resent the best of the experiences of ages gone by, and if the learn-
er expects to develop with economy of time and effort, he should

profit by the racial experience and acquaint himself with the very
best ways which time has demonstrated for carrying out the uni-
versal processes and principles.

On the other hand the experience of the child must be studied
and respected. His apperceptive powers constitute the only means
by which we can be hopeful of his interpreting his surroundings.
With this idea in mind this text has been designed to deal with
the logical principles in a psychological way. Paradoxical as this
may seem at first glance, a careful investigation of the text will
reveal the fact that every project gives an opportunity for the pre-
sentation of mechanical principles to be employed in the making
of a project which will appeal directly to the child's interest. Un-
limited opportunity is offered for the development of the child's
original taste and initiative in such portions of the projects as
will permit of modification without violation of the principles.

In order to meet this widely varying condition of mind, in
every section of the text a very extensive list of projects has been
presented and kindred ones suggested, thus making it possible to
claim the interest and attention of students of either city or coun-
try environment, and also care for the needs of those who are urg-
ing the making of practical things.

The preparation of this text was undertaken only after many
years of teaching experience, and innumerable conferences with
industrial instructors and other educators in various parts of the
country.

As the text is submitted to the verdict of his fellow teachers,
it is the sincere hope of the author that it will find a place where
it may offer its share of real and tangible assistance to every con-
scientious influence which is earnestly endeavoring to give to our
youth a form of education which will fit them for lives of useful
service.

COMMUNITY PROBLEMS

GREAT captains of industry, professional men and those who
are giving their attention to various practical lines have
recently raised a great criticism on the public schools be-
cause, as they claim, the things taught in school fail to empower
the students to meet the demands of business life. Even our
strongest advocates of the cultural doctrine are ready to admit
that these criticisms are not entirely without foundation. Mod-
ern educators are beginning to see that too many of our school
problems have no vital connection nor practical application in
community life, so in recent years there has been a great wave of
enthusiasm sweeping over the country for a more utilitarian policy
in our public schools. Rather than concoct mathematical conun-
drums or enigmas of language, which serve only as mental gym-
nastics in the classroom, it is just as cultural and far more eco-
nomic to take some of the great problems of the community and,
through typical projects, teach the students how to investigate and
find a solution to the things which they will soon be called upon to
control.

As soon as a student leaves school he ceases to make problems
for the sake of keeping himself busy in their solution. The process
is now reversed and he is not only brought face to face with ready-
made problems calling upon him for a solution, but is surrounded
beyond escape by a class of community problems which demand
the full exercise of his capabilities. An unsuccessful meeting of
these community problems and an incorrect solution may mean his
loss of social standing, professional failure, financial reverse, moral
disgrace, or possibly absolute extermination.

The fact that all students, regardless of ability and condition,
will, in a very few years, be compelled to undergo this adjustment,
makes it unnecessary to make any argument to show why com-
munity problems should constitute a vital portion of the school
curriculum.

The industrial work through its Manual Training, Agricul-
ture, Home Economics and other practical lines, offers a most ex-
cellent opportunity of employing the students' natural interest and
the inherent disposition toward activity in working out projects
which are typical of the great community problems. For illustra-
tion : the great problem of sanitation is demanding universal at-
tention and no one could claim a liberal education without under-

standing the theories, and being able to follow the modern rules of
sanitary living. The theory of sanitation may be taught in an old
line physiology class, but it can be made to function not only in
methods of thinking, but in the formation of habits of action, in
the class of Home Economics.

The community demands that a boy be taught proper care
and respect for neat and orderly arrangement in his home life.
An unlimited amount of advice on this subject may avail but lit-
tle. However, if the boy is given the experience of making some of
the practical things, such as a coat hanger, a broom holder or other
equipment required to carry out these theories, he is practically
sure to have the ideas everlastingly instilled into his nature.

A perusal of statistics showing how rapidly civilization is
becoming centralized in our cities makes it necessary for the com-
munity to concern itself with the problem of showing in an effect-
ive way how the boy may become interested and profit by remain-
ing on the farm. No amount of theory or poetry regarding "low-
ing herds," "sighing boughs" and "sweet-perfumed meadows" will
prove effective in the solution of this problem unless the boys are
taught how to approach the subject of agriculture and make it
pleasant as well as profitable. This sort of interest can be in-
culcated only by the early experience in doing realities in agricul-
ture and agricultural mechanics. The boy who makes and uses a
seed corn tester will have a better comprehension of seed testing
than a boy who merely reads of the value of seed selection.

Throughout this text the prevailing idea is to present only
such projects as may be made typical of some community prob-
lems which are worth while. To be sure there are certain projects
which in themselves are designed particularly to appeal to boyish
tastes (the kite, for example) , yet this project is replete with possi-
bilities for the study of the great modern subject of air-craft, and
by studying some of the references following the introductory
statement an unlimited interest can be aroused.

The introductory statement at the opening of each lesson is
intended to give some conception of the community problem from
which the project is taken. It is not the intention to take up these
various discussions in such a way as to give the child a complete
comprehension of the great value of the community problem, but
merely to introduce the idea and offer a few references for out-
side reading which the teache>* may use as his time and inclina-
tion may dictate.

There is being much said these days about the idea of cor-
relating the industrial work with the particular activities of local
interest. This is sometimes misunderstood by the inexperienced,
who think that in a community where a certain occupation pre-
vails this occupation should be taught to the exclusion of all others.
There can be no greater mistake than this, if our grammar grade
students are to have a well-rounded education. It may even be
said that the fact that a certain occupation prevails may be argu-
ment for its receiving less attention in the school, for the students
will no doubt get an opportunity to come in contact with what it
has to offer without much school assistance. Of course in purely
vocational work the opposite view of this question might prevail,
but in these days of a constantly shifting population we must not
think that every boy who lives within the shadow of a blacksmith
shop is destined to become a blacksmith.

The greatest obligation of the school is to give to each student
such training as will enable him to find his proper place in his
environment, and throughout this text it has been the design to
draw a sufficient number of typical projects from the community
interest to appeal to the widely varying inclinations and tastes of
individual students and at the same time to guide them sufficiently
so that their time will not be wasted in aimless effort.

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS

THE following suggestions to teachers are intended to give a
broad conception of the underlying principles upon which
this text is founded, and to offer means by which it can be
made most effective in the hands of the students. It is not the inten-
tion to curtail the possibilities, nor any of the originality or initi-
ative of the teacher, but rather to relieve him as much as possible
of the drudgery and minor detail which falls to the lot of one who
must be a constant source of information and advice to his classes.

In practically all other school subjects the teacher has the ad-
vantage of placing in the hands of his students some sort 'of liter-
ature from which they may gather the essential facts of the sub-
ject-matter. In proper justice to the industrial instructors, as well
as to the students, these classes should be provided with some
means by which they may gather pertinent information and direct
these activities by their own powers of research. This will con-
serve the teacher's time and energy, allowing it to be devoted to
the more important function of studying the case of each indi-
vidual student, and then prescribing work suitable to serve his
need.

This book is arbitrarily divided into six sections and each sec-
• tion presents ten projects in detail and offers suggestions for three
or four times as many more. It is not the idea that any one stu-
dent should be required to make every project in each section,
but rather to set forth an abundance of work from which the
teacher may direct the choice of the student after considering his
personal taste and individual needs. But little attempt is made to
grade the projects of each section and present them in the order
of the sequence of processes, but rather to offer a series of projects
which present kindred principles or which offer an opportunity of
appealing to the varying tastes of the students. The sections,
however, are sequential from the standpoint of difficulty. When
a student has completed one project, by careful consideration of
the finished product and the capability of the student, the teacher
should advise him regarding what project he is next to undertake.
In making this selection the wishes of the student should have
careful consideration and also the selection should be made in such
a way as to give him further training on the particular processes
which he did not do satisfactorily in his last lesson. For illustra-

tion: if in making the matchbox the student has not shown suffi-
cient ability in the use of the coping saw or in planing parallel
edges, he might be given the whiskbroom holder for his second
lesson and be encouraged to undertake a design which would re-
employ these principles.

It will be observed that in each section there are offered proj-
ects of such a nature as to appeal to the interest of any boy, wheth-
er of the city or of the country. There are also projects of purely
boyish interest from the standpoint of amusement, as well as some
things which will be of value to him in his room.

The introduction to each section should be carefully perused
so the instructor may have a fairly clear idea of what it embodies.
He should also acquaint himself with the processes involved in
each project before allowing a student to begin it. A student who
has not sufficiently mastered the work of one section should not
be allowed to pass to the next, but should be given further work
either from the regular lessons set forth or from the "suggestions
employing similar principles" until he has proven his capability
of undertaking the more advanced section. It is not absolutely
necessary that all the students of the class be working on projects
from the same section at the same time ; in fact, too much emphasis
cannot be laid upon the matter of giving to each student the work
best adapted to his personal development regardless of what the
other members of the class may be doing at that time.

On the opening page of each lesson is given a halftone illus-
tration to enable the student to visualize the essential points of
the thing which he is about to make. The illustrations will also
be found valuable in guiding the students and the teacher in mak-
ing selection of lessons to be undertaken. The bill of material is
given in detail on the same page with the cut, so that as the
student thinks of each piece on the bill he may glance at the illus-
tration and thus see its exact application in the finished product.
This does not necessarily mean that the stock must be furnished
to the student in the number and dimension of pieces given in the
bill. It may sometimes be convenient and desirable to furnish the
stock in bulk, from which the student is to cut the necessary bill.
No definite instructions can be given on this point because of the
widely varying conditions in different schools.

The kind of wood suggested for each lesson is not necessarily
the only kind which is suitable, but in most of the projects con-
siderable latitude is possible, and such material as is available may
be used. But if a substitution is made the student should be told,

so he may familiarize himself with whatever kind he is using. In
order that the student may have an opportunity of knowing about
the tree, its characteristics, nature, function, etc., and may also
have certain guiding points in its identification, the references to
the supplement are given in each lesson. Students should be re-
quired to turn to this supplement and read the discussion of the
particular kind of wood which they are using. This reading may
be done outside of the shop period or at any other time which the
teacher may dictate. It should not, however, be allowed to go by
unobserved.

On this same page of each lesson will be found an "intro-
ductory statement." The purpose of the introductory statement
is to help the student to realize that there is a great community
problem in which he should be interested, and that the project
which he is about to undertake is a means toward the solution of
this problem. Any student will approach his work with greater
enthusiasm, wiser judgment and consequently better educational
value if he sees that it is a reality, or that it is typical of some of
the activities which are going on about him. It is not the purpose
of the introductory statement to do anything more than to arouse an
interest by suggesting that the community problems exist, as but
little space can be devoted to a general discussion of these prob-
lems. However, references are given to government bulletins,
text-books, magazines and other sources of information to which
the student may turn for broader information on the subject. It
is urgently advised that these references be followed as far as at
all possible, because they will thus unfold a vast field of practical
industrial information to the students. Many of these publica-
tions can be had without expense and the others can be purchased
at a reasonable price; they should therefore be secured for the
library and made the nucleus of the equipment for industrial re-
search. It will be found an excellent plan to assign various topics
to different students for special reports. This will also supply ma-
terial for supplementary reading and furnish themes for compo-
sition work.

The entire design of the book is not merely to set forth a few
plans and drawings for the construction of shop projects, but to
give the work the broadest possible application, and thus develop
the most points of contact with the various industrial activities of
the community.

On the second page of each lesson will be found a simple work-
ing drawing for the making of the project as shown in the photo-

graph. These working drawings have been so constructed as to
be free from unnecessary technicalities, and to leave as much lati-
tude as possible for the exercise of the judgment of the student.
In fact, it has been the effort to make the drawings absolute only
in so far as the principles are concerned. On the latter portion
of the page will be found "suggestions for original designs." It
is not the thought that these suggestions shall cover all of the pos-
sibilities which might enter into the construction of the lesson, but
they are intended to show the student opportunities and to give
him different types upon which he may base his judgment for an
original idea. Many teachers may choose to have their students
make complete working drawings of their own. In this case it
would be well to study the working drawing set forth in the lesson
and discuss the various ideas given under the suggestions, point-
ing out very carefully just which parts will permit of variation
without violation of principles. After this sort of consideration
(and not before) the students might be called upon to prepare
their own working drawings.

The entire spirit throughout this text is to make only absolute
principles ironclad, and to leave the way open for every point which
will admit of the introduction of the personality of the student.
The teacher may quite frequently, particularly if he has had good
training and long experience, have other methods that are just as
good and possibly even better for his particular class than those
set forth in the book, and in such instances he should most cer-
tainly feel at liberty to weave his own suggestions into the product
of the shop. There are so many possibilities in the various lines
of mechanics that no text-book can presume, nor would it be de-
sirable to pretend, to set forth all of the possible and proper ways
• of doing a piece of work.

On the third page of each lesson will be found "working
specifications." The purpose of these specifications is to guide the
student so he will undertake his work systematically and will fol-
low his efforts consistently. No attempt is made to show him how
to perform each operation nor to "feed him with a spoon" on
processes where the exercise of his own capability is most desir-
able. However, for each process there are references to the sup-
plement, where there will be found, clearly set forth by halftone
illustrations and simple discussion, definite methods of performing
each operation. It is the idea that where a student is capable of
doing the work without assistance it would be detrimental to his
best progress to offer him unnecessary aid. However, it is very

essential that a means of relief should be available if occasion
arises where a student is in need of such help. This will be found
a great assistance to the teacher who, when he finds a boy incor-
rectly performing any process, may simply direct him to turn to
the supplement and correct his error. This will place the boy on
his own resources, will develop his power of research and instill
habits of self-reliance. It is needless to say that the teacher's time
will be thus saved to an extent which will increase his capacity
many fold. These references will apply also to the subject of tool-
sharpening, wood-finishing and drawing.

There is such a wide difference of opinion regarding the rela-
tion of drawing to shop work that it is difficult for a text-book to
be so prepared as to conform to the ideas of all instructors. For
that reason, while throughout this book working drawings are
presented, yet in the supplement considerable attention is devoted
to the subject, and sufficient material is offered for the average
teacher to be able to direct such work in mechanical and shop
drawing as should accompany the industrial subjects in the grades
for which this text is intended. There is no limit to the amount
of geometric construction which may be offered in mechanical
drawing work; however, in order to make this work as practical
as possible, abstract problems have been reduced to the minimum
and the production of shop drawings has been emphasized. It is
left to the option of the teacher as to whether this drawing work
is to be taken up as a separate subject and given a specific period
per week, or whether it should be given as a part of the shop work
and each student be required to prepare his own drawings for each
project before undertaking it.

For the staining and the finishing of the models only a few
suggestions are given, for it is felt that this matter should be left
very largely to the taste of the student and the judgment of the
teacher who best understands local conditions. Instead of giving
specific instructions for the finished work on each lesson, refer-
ences are made to the supplement for the kind of finish which
would be appropriate. The matter of color and number of coats
and fineness of polish is merely suggested and left for its final de-
cision to the instructor in charge.

Under the heading, "Original Projects Employing Similar
Principles," there will be found a number of suggestions which
will furnish additional kindred work which may be utilized as
local conditions suggest. There may be adept students or those
who wish to work extra hours for whom these suggestions will be

found quite beneficial. No attempt is made to furnish drawings
or illustrations, but simply a few guiding suggestions are given
for the purpose of directing the attention of the student to the
principles which should be observed. For undertakings of this
character it will be necessary for the students to work out their
own designs and make their complete working drawings. These
projects will offer possibilities for home work, for contests on out-
side efforts and for the making of things which may be used in
school exhibits or auction sales, which are sometimes resorted to
in assisting to raise money. Students should be encouraged to give
considerable attention to these original projects, but care must be
exercised on the part of the teacher to prevent violation of princi-
ples, and the students should be led to see that their originality
must cover only such points as will admit of modification without
destroying the function of the article. For illustration, in mak-
ing a T-square, the shape, length, width and thickness of the head,
also the dimensions of the blade, are largely matters of personal
choice, but that the edges of the blade and of the head must be
perfect, straight lines, and must be set at right angles are absolute
principles which the originality of the maker cannot in any way
modify. In almost every project there are some such absolute
principles which are inviolable, and these (and these alone) are
the things upon which this text endeavors to be ironclad.

The review questions and problems found at the close of each
section are given as an aid to the teacher in developing the correla-
tion between the industrial work and the other subjects, particu-
larly with the arithmetic. These problems are not all arithmetical,
however; they deal with number conception, not with the idea of
presenting the problems under a classified head, as they are often
found in arithmetic, but so arranged that they will test the judg-
ment of the student and make him feel that he is dealing with real
questions rather than that he is handling problems which were
made only for the sake of furnishing him something to do. These
problems will serve as a guide in preparing as many others as the
time and needs of a particular class may dictate.

The "suggestions for community research" constitute the con-
necting link between the work of the shop and the activities of
the home and the community. The teacher should lay great em-
phasis upon this work, for there is no other way by which so much
community interest can be aroused as by having all of the students
constantly on the alert to gather information from the activities
about them and carry it into the schoolroom. Parental support

can be most heartily enlisted and the good will of the community
acquired by having the students enter into this co-operative plan
of civic development.

The reference work indicated in this text wrill give the stu-
dents a margin of technical information which they may impart
to their parents and neighbors in return for their practical ideas
and experience, and thus every factor of the community will profit
by the encouragement of this research work. This movement is
replete with possibilities in connection with reports and discus-
sions in which both students and patrons might participate, in
parent-teachers' clubs, farmers' institutes and other community
gatherings. There is no way more sure nor more economic in
making a good citizen of a boy than to develop his interests in
community problems during the period of his plastic age.

INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

IN undertaking this shop work you will find many things which
are a little different to the regular recitation work to which you
have been accustomed in the other subjects. Here you will
have a chance to learn by doing as well as by thinking, and also
to use some of the experience which you have had at home and
elsewhere. There are so many activities going on about you that
you are constantly meeting with many different kinds of material ;
the purpose of this work will be to help you to understand those
things.

Shop work is not merely to furnish you employment for your
hands, but to teach you to think as well as work, for skillful work
comes only from hands that are properly guided by the mind.
There are so many valuable and interesting things presented in
these lessons that you have a chance to select such things which
you desire to make. But before making your selection you should
discuss it with your teacher. After you have made a selection and
commenced a piece of work, complete it to the very best of your
ability before leaving it. Sometimes a student wants to leave a
piece of work before it is done; this disposition encourages very
bad habits and is sure to develop a boy into an unsuccessful busi-
ness man if it is continued. Always complete a task when you un-
dertake it, even though you may find some portions of it a little
difficult.

In every lesson there are illustrations showing you just how
the finished product will appear. The bill of material tells you
exactly what lumber, hardware and other supplies are necessary
in making the article. The material may not be furnished to you
in exactly the number of pieces and sizes given in the bill, but with
a little thought you will be able to cut the required pieces from
stock lumber. In cutting from stock always be very careful to
avoid wasting material. Always read over the bill and look at the
picture and see if you can tell for which portion of the article each
piece is intended.

The introductory statement on the first page should be very
carefully read, for this will give you an idea of the purpose of the
thing which you are to make and you will thus see that it is valuable
from a practical standpoint. The references given at the bottom
of the page are of great importance, not so much in training your

hand as in teaching you to think accurately and to understand
some of the great questions which are so important to men who
are running the affairs of the world. If you have access to a good
library you will be well paid for the effort of looking up all these
references and studying them in detail. It would be an excellent
plan to keep a notebook and write notes on such articles as are of
particular interest. This information will be quite valuable in a
very few years, when you are called upon to earn your way in the
world and compete with men who are carrying on the activities of
your community.

On the next page of each lesson you will find complete work-
ing drawings showing the shape and dimensions of every piece.
You must not expect to understand a drawing perfectly at the first
glance; it will require careful study of every drawing to be able
to make your work as it should be. If you do not understand how
to read drawings, turn to the chapter on mechanical and working
drawings and study this chapter very carefully, for it will enable
you to understand just how the drawings are made. All shop
drawings are made on the same principles. The purpose of this
chapter is to explain those things to you.

On the lower portion of this drawing space is given a number
of ideas which you may use if you desire. This does not mean
that the ways given on this page are the only ways in which an
article can be made, but these are some of the ways which are quite
often used. In many of the lessons you may be able to pick out
some original plan which you will desire to use; it would be well
for you to discuss your plan with your teacher, or possibly your
parents, or some one who has had experience, and find out the good
and poor points in your plan. If you work out a plan of your own,
it would be very desirable for you to make a complete working
drawing before undertaking the work. Your teacher will no doubt
advise on this matter-

The working specifications on the next page are intended to
assist you in making each part. These specifications do not at-
tempt to tell you everything which you are expected to do. You
are left to think for yourself. The references given in parentheses
refer to the chapters in the supplement at the close of the book.
If you are told to perform any sort of tool operation and do not un-
derstand it, turn back to the supplement and you will find an ex-
planation, and possibly illustrations showing you exactly how this
particular process should be executed. You should study these
explanations very carefully and perform the processes according-

ly. Do not fail to look up all of the references so you can be sure
that you are handling your tools properly.

The suggestions for optional projects employing similar prin-
ciples are intended to awaken your thought and to furnish you
something to do during outside periods or home work. The prin-
ciples which you gather from these lessons should be made valu-
able to you in your practical everyday life. If you will think very
carefully you will notice that each suggestion guides you in the
making of things which will be quite useful; they are of course
not exactly like the things which you have made in the shop, but
they employ the same principles, and you should be able to make
them without any difficulty.

The real value which you get out of this work will depend
very largely upon your ability to make useful articles about your
home. The making of any one project in itself might not be of
any great importance to you, but what you learn in making that
thing may save you a great many dollars. Keep this in mind and
try to learn as much as possible from whatever you are making;
you can do this only by giving it your best attention and doing it
the very best you know how. Some -students have the habit of go-
ing to the teacher and asking whether a piece of work is 'good
enough.' No piece of work is good enough unless it is the very
best that you can do. Keep in mind that if you expect a piece of
work to be beautiful and perfect when completed it must be cor-
rectly done from the very start. A little error in the beginning
of a piece of work is quite likely to be evident when the thing is
finished. The time to commence being careful is when you begin
the project.

Another important thing which you are to learn from this
work is the value of having a place for everything and keeping
it in its proper place. There is no one subject in school which will
give you such an excellent opportunity to show that you have
habits of orderly arrangements. Always keep your tools in the
proper place on your bench. See that your tools are kept sharp
and clean. When you are through with your bench, remove the
scraps, put the tools in the proper places and brush the dust from
your bench. A business man would not want to employ a young
man who has careless habits. The only way to develop habits of
neatness and care is to practice such things in all of your work.

Be sure that you do not overlook the suggestions for com-
munity research. These suggestions will guide you into some of
the most interesting things in connection with your school work.

There will be a great many things found out in this research work
which will be worth while to enter in your notebook. You may
not now see the value of keeping a notebook, but you will appre-
ciate it after a few years.

The questions and problems are intended to point out to you
some things worth remembering. So even though some of these
questions and problems may seem a little difficult, it will be well
worth your while to think about them and find the solution. It is
not the things that are easiest done that give us most strength, so,
even though some of the things may be difficult, approach them
with a good will and determination and you will soon be quite
proud of the results.

You should equip yourself, if possible, with a bench and some
tools in some sort of shop so that you could do work at home. It
does not require a separate building nor very much space; a cor-
ner in the garage, tool shed, barn or basement would answer very
satisfactorily. You could make your own bench, following the
instructions given in this text, and it would not require very much
expense to equip yourself with the necessary tools. You no doubt
could find some of the tools about your home ; they would probably
be satisfactory if put in good condition. Remember that one of
the principal things in the use of tools is to have them sharp and
free from rust, and kept where you can find them without loss of
time. From time to time you could add a few tools to your stock,
and in the course of a year or so be well supplied with the neces-
sary tools for ordinary tasks.

Your parents would no doubt rather pay you for making a
screen window or repairing a door or doing some other such task,
and allow you to have the money for tools, than to have a mechanic
come and do it. Possibly you may never care to become a car-
penter or a woodworker of any sort, but nevertheless it will always
be quite valuable to you to be able to handle tools with skill and to
have a knowledge of good work when you see it.

A knowledge of the different kinds of wood and how they are
finished will also be quite valuable to you. This information may
save you a great many dollars in the purchase of furniture some
time during your life.

INTRODUCTION TO SECTION I

IN this section will be found an introduction to elementary tool
processes and the simpler hand tools. The laying out tools, such
as the ruler, try-square and marking gauge are introduced. The
plane, hammer, saw, coping saw, brace and bit, screwdriver, wood
file and sandpaper are brought in with easy applications of their
use.

The projects of this section are all soft wood models and should
thus give the student but little difficulty in executing tool proc-
esses. While not all of the projects are identical in processes set
forth, yet they are so planned and presented as to deal with such
principles as the student should master early^ in his work.

It is strongly advised that each student be required to make
his own working drawings after making a careful study of those
given and of the suggestions for optional design.

The assembling work throughout this section will be found
very simple, consisting of no mortise and tenon or other difficult
joints. The staining and polishing is largely optional, but can
be very satisfactorily done by referring to the references in the
supplement, where detailed instructions are given for this work.

The home research work following this section is not limited
to the interest aroused by these projects, but is based on a broad-
er view, which may be derived from the references. As many
as possible of these should be given careful study and some dis-
cussion in class.

Before a student is ready to leave this section he should be
able to read and interpret simple working drawings. He should
be able to make accurate measurements with the ruler, to use
the try-square in scoring and in testing edges, to regulate and
adjust his plane and to plane a straight edge. He should have
but little difficulty with the marking gauge and should have had
sufficient experience with the ripsaw and cross-cutting saw to be
able to use them without developing incorrect habits. He should
have acquired sufficient judgment to be able to use a hammer,
boring tools and screwdriver in simple assembling work.

If the student has acquired a high ideal of excellence in this
first section, and understands that each process must be executed
to the very best of his ability before undertaking another one, the
particular processes covered by the section need not be a matter of
deep concern.

MATCH BOX

MATERIALS.
Basswood (Chap. III., Par. 31),

1 pc. lA"x4"x8i/2" S 2 S Back.
3 pcs. ^"x2i/4"x9" S 2 S Sides,

front and bottom.
1 pc. sandpaper 2"x2".
20-3,4" No. 18 brads.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

We all know that it is an excellent plan to have a place for
everything and then see that things are kept in their proper places.
A great deal of valuable time can be saved by being able to find
what you want when you want it.

Some things can be carelessly laid about without any great
danger, but this is not true of matches ; if left in an improper place
they may be the cause of great damage.

This match box will be very valuable for home use in furnish-
ing a handy and safe place in which to keep the supply of matches.
It should be hung on the wall, not too close to the stove or heat pipes
and high enough to be out of the reach of small children.

If we could know how many buildings are destroyed by fire
every year because of carelessness, we would understand why every
one should do his part in preventing this needless waste.

References :

"How Matches Are Made," Industries of Today, by Lane. Ginn Co.,

Publisher.

"American Inventions and Inventors," by Mowry. Silver-Burdett Co.
"The Match" — Stories of Useful Inventions, by Forman. The Century

Pub. Co.

Fire Prevention, Crocker. Dodd, Mead & Co.
Protection Against Fire, Bird. Kurd & Houghton.
Fire Department Journal, New York City.

MATCH BOX

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL DESIGN

HoJ

No.2

Ho.3

No.4

MATCH BOX SPECIFICATIONS

THE BACK.

Select the best side of the back piece for the working face.
As this material is furnished S 2 S (planed or smooth on two sides),
you will not need to plane the surface. Mark this, the Working
Face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2) .

Plane one edge perfectly straight (Chapter II., Paragraph
4). Gauge the exact width on both surfaces (Chapter II., Para-
graph 6) ; carefully plane to the gauge lines.

Lay out the design which you are to use for the back. If
you are to use the one given in the working drawing, be sure to
make the measurements carefully, and lay it out very accurately.
Saw out with the coping saw, smooth the edges with the wood file
and sandpaper.

THE SIDES.

Two of the pieces 14" by 21/4 "x9" are for the sides. If you do
not wish to use the design given in the drawing, draw a design of
your own before attempting to lay out the sides. Plane one edge
of one of the pieces of material perfectly straight, and use this for
a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Make all measure-
ments from this edge and lay out the design for the side. Saw out
with the coping saw and smooth the edges as you did the back piece.
Make the second piece exactly like the first.

THE BOTTOM AND FRONT.

The piece I4"x2i/4"x9" is large enough to make both the bot-
tom and front of your match box. Plane one edge perfectly straight
and square (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Plane one end perfectly
square (Chapter II., Paragraph 5) ; measure and cut the length of
the bottom. Gauge the width of the bottom (Chapter II., Para-
graph 6) . This, you will notice, is exactly the same as the width of
the side.

THE FRONT.

Plane one edge of the front for a working edge (Chapter
II., Paragraph 4) . Square one end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5) ;
measure and cut the length of the front. Be sure to cut it perfectly
square. Gauge the width of the front piece and plane to the
gauge line (Chapter II., Paragraph 6) . Lay out, cut and smooth the
half-circle in the front piece.

ASSEMBLING.

Test the two sides to be sure they are exactly the same
width. Try the front piece, and see if it is just as long as the back
piece is wide. Make sure that the bottom is perfectly rectangular
and exactly the same width as the sides. The match box is to be
assembled with plain butt joints (Chapter V., Paragraph 60)
fastened with brads. The edges, however, should be spread with
a very little glue. Do not use too much or it will spread out and soil
the outside surfaces of the joints. You will have to be very care-
ful in driving the brads to prevent splitting out (Chapter II., Para-
graph 21).

FINISHING.

When the match box is completely assembled, clean it all
over. It may be necessary in some places to take off a very thin
shaving with a sharp plane. With the sandpaper and wood file
make sure that the edges are perfectly even and all the surfaces
free from glue, tool marks or soiled places. The match box should
have a finish of some sort, which you may choose for yourself. It
might be stained a desirable color (Chapter IV., Paragraph
54), and shellaced (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57). If you wish it to
be the natural color of the wood, it should be given one or two coats
of shellac.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

COMB CASE.

1. A very pretty comb case may be made after the same
fashion as this match box. It would have to be wider so the box
would receive a long comb.

LETTER BOX.

2. In using this plan for a letter box, it would be necessary
to make the box deeper and wider to provide room for long let-
ters and papers. The material should be thicker.

WRENCH OR GREASE BOX.

3. In the tool shed or garage a box of this kind will be found
a great convenience in furnishing a place for the wrenches, oil
can or grease box.

WHISK BROOM HOLDER.

4. A very satisfactory whisk broom holder could be made
by leaving out the piece which forms the bottom, making the
front a little wider and setting the sides so they would be some-
what closer together at the bottom than at the top.

NECKTIE RACK

MATERIALS.

Basswood (Chap. III., Par.

31).

1 pc. %"x4%,"xI6y2" S 2 S

Back.
1 pc. 3/8"xli/2"x 8" S 2 S

Brackets.

1 pc. i4"xl^"xl4i/2" S 2 S

Cross rod.

2-34" No. 6 R. H. brass
screws.

2 screw eyes, No. 114.
6-1" brads, No. 17.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

It is a very great convenience to keep the things of daily use
where they can be had without any loss of time or patience. Suc-
cessful business men say that the boy who learns to be careful
and orderly in his daily habits has learned the greatest secret of
business success.

While the necktie rack provides a handy place for one's ties,
so they can always be found when wanted, it also helps to keep
the ties smooth, free from wrinkles and in good condition for
wear.

Do not forget that the value of this article, like most all con-
veniences, depends upon what use you make of it. Try to make it
so perfectly that in appearance as well as in service it will be an
attractive article for your room.

References :

Handicraft for Handy Boys, Hall. Lathrop, Lee & Shepard Co., Boston.
Boys' Make at Home Things, Bailey. Frederick A. Stokes, Pub.
The Boy Craftsman, A. Neely Hall. Lathrop, Lee & Shepard Co., Boston.
Trees That Every Child Should Know, Rogers. Doubleday, Page & Co.

NECKTIE RACK

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SUGGESTIONS FOR ORlGltML PESIGH

No. I

No. 2

Ma. 3

NECKTIE RACK SPECIFICATIONS

THE BACK.

The piece 3/8"x43/4"xl6l/^" is for the back of your necktie rack.
It is furnished S 2 S, so it will not be necessary for you to plane
your surface; however, you can sandpaper it to make it perfectly
smooth and clean (Chapter II., Paragraph 17). If you have made
an original design for the back you should lay out your design on
this board and then cut it out. If you are following the drawing
given, first plane one edge of the board perfectly straight and
square for a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Square
one end, plane it perfectly smooth with the block plane (Chapter
II., Paragraph 5). Measure the length which the back is to be;
square off this end and plane smooth with a block plane.
Gauge the width and plane to the gauge line (Chapter II., Para-
graph 6) . With your lead pencil and ruler, or pencil and finger,
gauge a pencil line all around the edges for the chamfer (Chapter
II., Paragraph 7-8) .

The Brackets.

Lay out a design for the end brackets. This design should
be laid out carefully on a piece of paper before you attempt to
draw it on your material. The suggestion for original designs
will give you a number of ideas from which you should be able
to work out something of your own. This design should be drawn
freehand, or with the use of a ruler and compasses. It might be
well to cut out one bracket, and use it for a pattern in laying out
the other one to make sure that the two are exactly alike. These
brackets may be cut with a coping saw. The edges and surfaces
must be made perfectly smooth with a wood file and sandpaper.

THE FRONT STRIP.

Plane one edge perfectly straight and smooth (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 4), gauge the width with the marking gauge (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 6). Carefully plane to the gauge line. Cut
it the proper length and shape the ends.

ASSEMBLING.

The brackets are to be fastened to the back piece with glue and
brads from the back side. Test with a try-square and be sure that
the brackets stand straight up and down, and exactly the same dis-

tance from each end. The front piece is to be put on with two round
head screws. You should bore a hole through the front piece for
the screws. Make the holes just large enough to receive the body
of the screw. With a brad awl, make holes to start the screws into
the brackets. When the screws are tight, they should stand with
their eyes either straight up and down or straight across. When-
ever screws are used as a part of the decoration of a piece of
work, care should be taken to have the screw slots all stand
parallel or in straight lines.

FINISHING.

You may stain your necktie rack a desirable color (Chapter
IV., Paragraph 54). Be sure to stain the back side as well as the
front side on all pieces. In this way you can prevent warping.
It also makes the work much neater in appearance. Finish with
shellac (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57) or wax finish (Chapter IV.,
Paragraph 56) . Insert the two screw eyes, as shown in the draw-
ing.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

RIBBON RACK.

1. This same idea might be used to make a very pretty rib-
bon rack; if desired the back might be shaped or carved with
some decorative design.

TOWEL ROD.

2. By constructing the back and sides of heavier material,
possibly %" or 3/4", and using a round rod, which might be a piece
of 94" dowel, a very satisfactory towel rod could be made.

TOWEL ROLLER.

3. By making a round tenon on each end of the rod and
making the holes in the brackets large enough for it to turn easily,
a towel roller may be constructed.

PAPER RACK.

4. By making the side brackets considerably longer, and
using two or three strips across the front, and providing a bot-
tom, this same plan can be used in making a paper or magazine
rack to hang on the wall.

HAND LOOM

MATERIALS.

Basswood (Chap. III., Par.

31), or any soft wood.

2 pcs. 3/4)"xl3/4"xl2" S 2 S

Ends.
2 pcs. %"xli/2"x!3" S 2 S

Sides.
8 dozen 1" No. 17 brads.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

One of the oldest and most important of all industries is the
art of weaving. Before people understood how to make cloth in
this way clothing was made principally from hides of animals,
and even after the process of weaving was begun it had to be done
entirely by hand on very rude looms.

Cloth is made by various ways of plaiting threads; these
threads usually run at right angles to each other and are known
as warp and woof threads. The warp threads extend the long
way of the cloth and are therefore parallel with the selvage edge;
the woof threads extend across the warp threads from one selvage
edge to the other.

This hand loom may be used to illustrate the principle of
weaving by which all of our clothing is made today. You will find
it very interesting to look up some of the following references re-
garding this very important industry :

References :

What Can Be Done in a Hand Loom, by Mabel Priestman, in American

Homes and Gardens Magazine, June, 1909.

Cotton Weaving, by R. Marsden. Geo. Bell & Sons, New York, Pub.
Hand Loom Weaving, Mattie Phipps Todd. Rand-McNally, Pub.
"The Textile Industry" — The Origin of Invention, Mason. Charles Scrib-

ner's Sons, Pub.

Silk, Its Origin and Culture, The Corticelli Mills, Florence, Mass.
The Silk Worm and Its Silk. Belding Brothers & Co., Chicago, 111.
Silk and Silk Manufacture. Cheney Brothers, South Manchester, Conn.
How the World Is Clothed, Carpenter. American Book Co.
The Tree Book, Rogers. Doubleday, Page & Co.

2-Voc.

IZf-

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL DESIGN

No. I

HAND LOOM SPECIFICATIONS

ENDS.

As the material is furnished S 2 S, you will not need to
plane the surfaces. Plane one edge of the end pieces (%"xl%"x
12") perfectly straight and square (Chapter II., Paragraph 4).
With the marking gauge, gauge the width of this piece on both
surfaces (Chapter II., Paragraph 6) . Carefully plane to the gauge
line. Plane one end perfectly square (Chapter II., Paragraph 5).
Measure the length and square off the other end. In small pieces of
material a wood file is often used instead of the block plane in
smoothing the ends. •

SIDE STRIPS.

Plane one edge of the side strips perfectly straight and
square (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). With the marking gauge,
gauge the width on both surfaces, and plane carefully to the gauge
line (Chapter II., Paragraph 6). Square one end (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 5). From this end measure the length and square the
other end. Make the two side pieces exactly the same length and
the same width. The side pieces may be nailed on to the ends, as
shown in the first suggestion for original design, but it will be
very much stronger if you will follow the drawing in gaining, or
notching, the end pieces into the side pieces. These gains should
be cut so that the side pieces will exactly fill them.

ASSEMBLING.

This piece of work is to be assembled with glue and brads.
Use a very little glue and spread evenly so it will not spread out,
and soil the outside surfaces of your work. Test it with a try-
square, and be sure that you assemble the work perfectly square.
After the work is completely assembled, clean and smooth all the
surfaces with the wood file and sandpaper (Chapter II., Para-
graph 17). Do not destroy the corners in sandpapering. Fine
workmen are always careful to respect the corners of their work,
taking great care not to rub them off with the sandpaper.

FINISHING.

This piece of work should be finished with shellac. You may
stain it if you desire, but it is not necessary. Shellac will keep
the wood clean and free from dirt (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57).

When the finish is thoroughly dry, with a pencil and finger, gauge
a line (Chapter II., Paragraph 8) for the brads on each end piece.
Set the compasses with their points as far apart as the distance be-
tween the brads, and step off the spaces on each line. The sharp
points of the compasses will make convenient holes in which to start
the brads. Drive the brads into the end pieces, as indicated in the
drawing. These brads are to hold the warp thread for the weaving.
The brads must be very carefully driven, exactly the same distance
apart, so they will stand in a straight line.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

QUILTING FRAMES.

1. The plan of a rectangular frame made of strips can be
used in making simple quilting frames. The frame should not be
permanently assembled, but fastened at each corner by a large
nail, or wooden pin dropped through holes in the strips. There
should be several holes in each strip so the size of the frame may
be adjusted.

CURTAIN STRETCHERS.

2. Curtain stretchers may be made on this same plan of a
rectangular frame. Some arrangements should be made for ad-
justing the size of the frame. This may be done by providing a
long slot in one end of the strips, and assembling them with small
bolts fitted with butterfly nuts. Each strip should have a straight
row of small brads near its edge upon which to fasten the curtains.

BOX KITE

MATERIALS.

Pine (Chap. III., Par. 48) or any
soft wood.

4 pcs. 5/16"x5/16"x30" S2S Cor-

ner strips.

2 pcs. 5/16"x5/16"x23" S2S Cross
braces.

5 pcs. 5/16"x5/16"xl2" S 2 S

Braces.
Paper and string not furnished.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

Almost everyone has had some experience with kites, but
most people consider them merely interesting toys without realiz-
ing how much can be learned by studying different kinds of kites,
how and why they fly and what these principles mean in modern
inventions.

We all remember what Benjamin Franklin learned from his
kite experiment, but in the last few years much more has been
accomplished in the line of airships, most of which has been due
to a knowledge of the science of kite flying.

There are many different styles and kinds of kites, but they
all mount the air by the same general principles. By a little care-
ful study and experimenting you can learn to make kites and fly
them in a scientific and accurate way.

References :

The Construction and Flying of Kites, Miller. Manual Arts Press,
Peoria, 111.

Kitecraft and Kite Tournaments, Miller. Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 111.

Kitecraft. School Arts Book, February, 1910.

Flying Machines, J. H. Alexander. David Williams Co., New York.

Building and Flying an Aeroplane, Hayward. Popular Mechanics Book
Dept., Chicago.

Flying Machines, The Boys' Book of Inventions, Baker. McClure, Phil-
lips Co.

Santos Dumont and His Airship — Stories of Inventors. Doubleday,
Page & Co.

The Aeroplane, Boys' Book of New Inventions. Doubleday, Page & Co.

Practical Aeronautics, Hayward. American Technical Society, Chicago.

Our Native Trees, Harriet Keeler. Chas. Scribner's Sons.

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BOX KITE SPECIFICATIONS

THE CORNER STRIPS.

You will probably have to rip your kite strips from stock.
If you do, select the best surface for a working face (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 2). Plane one edge perfectly straight and square for
a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). With the marking
gauge set to the proper distance, gauge the width of the strips on
both surfaces of the material (Chapter II., Paragraph 6).

NOTE : — If your material is quite thin and soft, you may be
able to split it after gauging it very deeply on both surfaces; if
not, use a knife or saw. Plane the edge. In planing a thin strip
you must be very careful to use a sharp plane set to take a very
thin shaving or you may break the strip.

In like manner prepare all of the strips. Cut the four cor-
ner strips exactly the same length.

NOTE : — This kite is to be so assembled that it can be taken
down and rolled up when not in use. The two side frames are
fastened permanently with glue and brads, but these frames are
attached to each other only by the bottom and top stretchers.
These stretchers each have a brad driven in the end, and extend-
ing far enough to enter small holes in the side cross rails, thus
holding the kite in shape.

SIDE CROSS RAILS.

Make the four side cross rails the required dimensions. (Be
sure they are exactly the same length). Fasten them to the cor-
ner strips with small brads; cut short blocks about %" long, and
glue them on the side cross rails against the corner strips to
reinforce the joints. Do this on all the joints. Make the two
side frames exactly the same size.

THE PAPER COVERING.

Select a good tough paper (not too heavy). Cut a strip long
enough to go entirely around the kite frame, allowing 2" for lap-
ping. Cut it about l1/^" wider than called for in the drawing so
it may be turned over %" on each edge. Lay the paper flat on the
floor, or on a long table, spread an even coating of glue along each
edge, covering a margin of about %". Lay a string perfectly
straight the full length of the paper about %" from the edge, and
fold the glued edge over the string, thus forming a very strong

margin for the paper. Prepare both edges of each piece in
similar manner.

Determine the length required to cover the kite frame and
glue the ends of each piece of paper togther, forming a complete
circular band of each. Be sure the two are exactly the same size.

ASSEMBLING.

With a brad awl bore a small hole in the center of each side
cross rail to receive the brads. Drive a brad in one end of one
of the stretchers, place the side frames inside the paper bands,
and with one end of the stretcher in its proper place, spread the
kite into its desired shape and measure the length to cut this
stretcher. Cut it long enough so that when in position the paper
will be stretched perfectly smooth. In like manner cut the sec-
ond stretcher. Insert brads in the second end of each stretcher.

THE BRIDLE.

Attach the bridle to the corner strips, as indicated in the
drawing; the strings may be simply tied around the corner strips
in small notches to prevent slipping. A more substantial way of
attaching the bridle is to use a piece of small, flat braid moistened
in glue and wrapped around the corner strips so as to form loops
to which the bridle may be attached.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.
PLAIN KITE WITH TAIL.

1. The plain flat kite with two or three sticks, may be made
as shown in suggestions Nos. 1 and 2. This kind of kite requires
a tail, which serves as a balance, and prevents darting. The
bridle should be attached to each of the sticks a short distance
from the central point; these strings are all brought together and
tied a few inches from the face of the kite. The flying string is
attached to this bridle.

TAILLESS KITE.

2. The tailless kites are very interesting and the most diffi-
cult to make; they cannot be made flat like the kites which have
tails, but must be considerably bowed, as shown in suggestion No.
3. The paper covering should be very loose. The bridle is at-
tached on the outside of the bow; that is, so the wind blows
against the rounding side of the kite as it goes up.

COAT HANGER

MATERIALS.

Poplar (Chap. III., Par.

42) or any soft wood.

1 pc. %"x4%"xlS" S 2 S

Hanger.
1 pc. Cop. Bess, rod 5/32"

x8" Hook.
1 Cop. washer 5/32".

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

A coat hanger should be more than simply a place to hang a
coat; it should be so shaped as to keep the coat from wrinkling.
This design provides a support for the collar, which is often
omitted in a shop-made coat hanger. Notice in the picture that
the top is not a continuous curve. If you will experiment by
hanging the coat on a hanger made with a continual curve, and
then on a hanger made like the illustration, you will see how much
more satisfactorily this shape protects the form of the shoulders
and collar of the coat.

A pole such as a dowel rod or a broomstick furnishes the most
convenient arrangement for a wardrobe, because it will hold a
great many coat hangers like this without crushing the garment.
This pole is simply a horizontal rod placed at the convenient
height and so none of the garments will touch the wall when they
are hanging in position.

References:

Home Occupations for Boys. George W. Jacobs & Co.
Handy Book for Boys, D. C. Beard. Chas. Scribner's Sons.
Educational Woodwork for Home and School. Park-Macmillan Co.
The Boy Mechanic, Windsor. Popular Mechanics Co., Chicago, 111.
Boys' Useful Pastimes, Griffith. Book Supply Co., Chicago.
Timber and Logging, How the World is Housed, Carpenter. American
Book Co.

CO AT HANGER

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGIHflL PESIGH

NQ O CHpForJrousers

No. 4-

COAT HANGER SPECIFICATIONS

If this piece of material is furnished S 2 S, it will not be neces-
sary for you to plane the surface, for it will be smooth enough for
you to lay out your work. Select the best surface, and make it the
working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2) ; plane one edge perfectly
straight and square (Chapter II., Paragraph 4) for a working edge.
Plane one end perfectly square with the working edge and the
working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 5) . It will not be necessary
for you to plane the other edge, nor the other end, but you should
make all measurements from the working edge and working end.
With a lead pencil, carefully lay out the work on the working face.
You will see in the drawing that some of the curves are to be laid
out with the compasses; some of these may be drawn free hand.
You may use your own ideas in laying out this piece of work, but
it is most important that you make the two sides of the coat
hanger alike. Whatever curves you use must be the same on both
sides. With the turning saw, or coping saw, saw as laid out. With
the drawing knife, or wood file, carefully round all the curved edges
of the coat hanger.

In the front view, as shown in the drawing, the inside line in-
dicates where the round edge begins. You may leave a well-defined
line here on each surface of the work, or round it down, making a
perfect, continuous curve, as you see fit. Sometimes the under side
of a coat hanger is not rounded ; you may leave these edges square
if you like. Be sure that you remove all irregularities, making the
coat hanger perfectly smooth.

THE HOOK.

You are to make your own hook from a piece of bessemer rod.
(If you do not care to do this, you may purchase a screw hook from
a hardware store). You will find it a very interesting piece of
work to make your own hook. It is not a difficult task, and if you
are careful you can easily do it. If your shop is provided with an
iron cone, or a vise anvil, you can readily bend the bessemer rod the
desired shape. If you do not have the cone, you might be able to
find a small piece of old iron pipe, or other cylinder, which would
answer very well. A round (cylindrical) piece of hard wood might
be prepared on purpose for this work. Grasp the rod (near the
end) firmly with the pliers, and form the hook by wrapping it
around the cylinder. A few light blows with the hammer will com-

plete the bending. Do not hammer the rod unnecessarily, as this
will bruise and disfigure it.

Bore a hole in the coat hanger large enough to allow the rod
to turn easily. Put the washer over the lower end of the rod, and
with a few light blows of the hammer, rivet it in position. If this
work is carefully done the coat hanger will turn on the hook, thus
making it quite convenient in the hanging of garments.

FINISHING.

With a clean piece of sandpaper, remove all tool marks, and
finish with shellac (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57). The wood part
should be given three or more coats, and when the last coat is per-
fectly dry it should be rubbed smooth with a piece of well worn
sandpaper, moistened with linseed oil.

In the suggestions for original designs you will see ways of
making coat hangers out of very small pieces of material. Nos. 3
and 4 can be made from narrow strips of material, but they require
careful work in making the joints. No. 3 is joined with a dowel;
No. 4 is a half lap joint.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

SKIRT HANGER.

1. In modifying this plan to make a skirt hanger it would
be necessary to change it only in length ; it may be made as much
shorter as desirable.

SKIRT OR COAT HANGER MADE FROM A HOOP.

2. A very satisfactory skirt or coat hanger may be made
from an old wooden hoop by attaching the hook, shaping the wood
properly and covering it neatly with a remnant of silk, cretonne
or any other suitable material. The hoop is sometimes wrapped
with cotton batting before it is covered to give it a rounder ap-
pearance.

BROOM HOLDER

MATERIALS.

Yellow Pine (Chap. III.,

Par. 48) or any soft

wood.

1 pc. %"x3i/2"x9i/2" S 2 S

Back.
1 pc. %"x3"x8" S 2 S

Hanger.
2-11/2" No. 10 F. H. B.

screws.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The most usual place to find a floor broom is leaning some-
where in a corner with its weight resting on the straw. This
helps to explain why so many brooms have their straws bent out
of shape and in a poor position to do good work. If a damp broom
is left standing with the weight on the straw it will quite likely be
bent and when dry will remain in that unsatisfactory shape.

This illustration shows a broom holder which not only fur-
nishes a place where the broom should always be found, but also
avoids the difficulty just explained.

Some people claim that a broom should hang with the straw
down in order to prevent any moisture which might be in it from
draining into the body of the broom. This is not an important
matter, for a broom should never be wet enough to drip when
hung up.

References :

Brushes and Brooms, International Encyclopedia.

How to Make Common Things, J. A. Bower. E. S. Gorham, Pub.

Manual Training for Common Schools, Allen & Cotton. Manual Arts
Press, Peoria, 111.

Handwork for Boys, Pabst.

Broom Corn, Young Folks' Cyclopedia of Common Things, by Champlin.
Henry Holt & Co.

The Book of Useful Plants, Julia Rogers. Doubleday, Page & Co.,
New York.

The Basket Maker, Luther W. Turner. Atkinson, Mentzer & Co., Chi-
cago.

The Story of Lumber, Sara W. Basset. Penn Pub. Co.

BROOM HOLDER

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SUGGESTIONS FOR

No.3

No.4

BROOM HOLDER SPECIFICATIONS

THE BACK.

As this material is furnished S 2 S, it will not be necessary
for you to plane the surface. It should, however, be carefully
smoothed with sandpaper (Chapter II., Paragraph 17). Select
one surface for a working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2).
Plane one edge perfectly straight and square with the working
face; mark this the working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4) ;
prepare a working end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5). From the
working end measure and cut the length given in the drawing.
Carefully gauge the width on both surfaces (Chapter II., Para-
graph 6) ; plane to the gauge line. With a lead pencil and ruler
(Chapter II., Paragraph 7), or with the lead pencil and finger
(Chapter II. , Paragraph 8), carefully gauge for the chamfer. As
this chamfer is to be cut entirely around this piece of material,
you must gauge for it on all edges and entirely around on the
working face. Form the chamfer by planing to these gauge lines
(Chapter II., Paragraph 19). In planing a chamfer always be
sure to leave sharp, well-defined corners. Do not give it a rounded
appearance.

THE HOLDER.

Prepare a working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2) ; plane
one edge perfectly straight and square and mark it the working
edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Plane one end perfectly square
with the working face and working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph
5). In laying out your design, make all measurements from the
working face and the working edge. Carefully lay out your
chosen design on the working face. This may be partly laid out
with the compasses and finished freehand. Be sure the two sides
are alike. With the turning saw, coping or compass saw (if you
have curves in your design) cut out the shape of the holder. Care-
fully smooth all of the edges with the wood file, and finish them
with sandpaper. Make sure that you remove all tool marks and
leave the edges perfectly square.

ASSEMBLING.

This piece of work is to be assembled with glue and screws.
Locate the holes for the screws, bore through the back piece with
a bit large enough to allow the screws to go through easily (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 9) ; also bore the hanging hole. Use a smaller

bit and bore in the holder to receive the screws. Be sure the
holder stands perfectly square on the back piece.

FINISHING.

When your work is assembled, with a sharp steel scraper
(Chapter II., Paragraph 16) remove all rough places, pencil or tool
marks. Sandpaper with a very fine, clean piece of sandpaper. Stain
the work the desired color (Chapter IV., Paragraph 54). Finish
with two or more coats of shellac (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57) .

In small pieces of work like this all back parts should also be
stained and shellaced.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

TOOL RACKS.

1. This principle of using a back, with some special sort of
holder attached, may be employed in a great many different styles
of tool racks. By making the back very much longer and using
a strip with a number of suitable holes in it for a holder, a very
convenient rack may be provided for such tools as files, bits,
screwdrivers and chisels.

PANTRY WALL RACK.

2. A back made as long as desirable and provided with hooks,
dowel pins, or even nails, will furnish a convenient rack for many
things which are usually kept in the pantry. The particular style
of hook or hanger may be selected to suit the articles to be hung.

HAT RACK.

3. By making the back a little more elaborate, and perhaps
adding some artistic effect in the way of a suitable design, a very
satisfactory hat rack may be provided. The hangers may be made
of wood, or some pleasing style of hook may be purchased.

BENCH HOOK

MATERIALS.

Yellow Pine (Chap. III., Par. 48)
or any soft wood.

1 pc. ys'^a/^'xlO" S 2 S Base and

blocks.
4-11/2" No. 10 F. H. B. screws.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

While most work benches are provided with a vise in which
to hold small pieces of material, yet a bench hook provides a very
satisfactory means of holding small pieces of sawing in the ab-
sence of a vise; it also serves a great many purposes for which a
vise cannot be used.

The bench hook should be kept hanging either on the leg of
the bench or in some other convenient place, where it can always
be had when needed. The proper use of a bench hook will prevent
sawing the bench top or marring it with the chisel, for this bench
hook is made wide enough to provide a good surface on which to
do chiseling.

The bench hook shown in this lesson provides the sawing
space on the right-hand side. If the hook is to be used by a left-
handed person, the block should be set on in such a way as to
leave the sawing margin on the left-hand side of the bench hook.
A bench hook could be made with one right and one left-hand side.

References:

The Amateur Mechanic's Workshop. G. P. Putnam's Sons.
Elementary Woodworking, Edwin Foster. Ginn & Co.
The Handy Boy, A. Neely Hall. Lathrop, Lee & Shepard Co.
The First Book of Forestry, Ernest Thompson Seton. Doubleday, Page
& Co.

BENCH HOOK

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SUGGESTIONS FOR. ORIGIHAL DESIGH

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BENCH HOOK SPECIFICATIONS

THE BASE.

If your material is furnished S 2 S (surfaced on two sides) it
will not be necessary for you to plane the surface. Select one sur-
face for the working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2) ; plane one
edge perfectly straight and square with the working face. Mark
it the working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Plane one end
perfectly straight and square with the working face and the work-
ing edge. Mark this the working end (Chapter II., Paragraph
5). Measure the length (14") from the working end; at this
point square a line on the working face, square it around, and plane
the end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5).

(NOTE : — The remaining material is to make the two blocks.)
Gauge the width 4i/£" on both surfaces (Chapter II., Para-
graph 6) ; plane to the gauge line; leave all corners square and
sharp.

THE BLOCKS.

The two blocks are to be just alike (2*4 "x4"). From the
working edge gauge the width of one of the blocks (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 6) ; from the other edge gauge another line on the
same surface. Fasten the material in the vise, and with a ripsaw
rip between the two gauge lines. Plane to the gauge line on each
block. With the try-square, carefully test each block on all edges
and all corners; make them perfectly square.

ASSEMBLING.

This is to be assembled with glue and screws (or with dowels
if you care to follow the idea given in the Suggestions for Original
Designs No. 2). If you use screws, bore through the block with
a bit large enough to allow the screws to pass through (Chapter
II., Paragraph 9). Countersink these holes so the heads of the
screws will be slightly below the surface of the block. Hold the
blocks (one at a time) in their proper positions, and with a brad
awl, reaching through the holes, in each block indicate on the base
where to bore for the screws. With a brad awl, or a small bit,
make holes in which to start the screws. Spread a thin, even
coating of glue on the side of the block which is to join the base.
Fasten the blocks in place with screws. When the screws are
tight they should stand with their slots in the same direction. It
is a general principle of mechanics that wherever screws show
the slots should stand in line.

52
FINISHING.

When the work is assembled, clean it with sandpaper, mak-
ing sure to remove any surplus glue that may have spread out of
the edges of the joints. It may be necessary to plane the outside
edges of the joints to make them perfectly even. Bore the 1/4"
hanging hole, as indicated in the drawing (Chapter II., Paragraph
9). Finish with shellac (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57). This
bench hook is a very serviceable article and should be used on
your bench for sawing or chiseling purposes.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

WALKING STILTS.

1. The principle of planing material straight and square, and
of assembling with screws may be employed in a great many dif-
ferent articles about the home. For exercise and amusement it
may be applied to the making of stilts. Plane two strong strips
of any kind of sound material straight and smooth. They may be
made as long as desirable, but should not be made too high for
first experience. Prepare two triangular blocks by first making
a rectangular block about four by eight inches, then sawing it di-
agonally. Fasten these blocks to the uprights (at the same
height) with screws through the uprights into the blocks. A
piece of strap iron or leather may be used to form a loop to help
hold the foot in place.

SWING BOARD.

2. After planing a board straight and square, it may easily
be made into a swing board by providing notches for the rope.
These notches can be best prepared by boring a hole very close to
each end (perhaps within 1" or li/£" of the end) and sawing out
a sort of "V" shaped notch to the hole.

SEED CORN RACK

MATERIALS.

Yellow Pine (Chap. III., Par. 48) or
any soft wood.

1 pc. y8"x2"x36" Rough or S 2 S
10 nails, lOd common.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

People who are interested in agriculture, or in fact in the
growing of any sort of plants, are beginning to realize the value
of planting only good seed. In order to produce excellent, high-
yielding corn it is necessary to use seed from that sort of corn
plant. Men who have made a scientific study of corn tell us that
seed corn should be very carefully selected, taking into consider-
ation not only the size, shape, kernel depth, variety and vitality
of the ear, but also the proper characteristic of the mother plant.
Seed corn should be very carefully stored during the winter
where it will be free from rats and mice, dampness and other
conditions which render it unfit for use.

This lesson shows you how to make a very convenient rack
to hold ten or twenty ears. When it is filled with the selected
corn it should be hung from a rafter or other timber in the barn
or shed loft.

References :

U. S. Bulletin No. 229, The Production of Good Seed Corn.

U. S. Bulletin No. 409, School Lessons on Corn.

U. S. Bulletin No. 313, Harvesting and Storing Corn.

U. S. Bulletin No. 298, Food Value of Corn and Corn Products.

Book of Corn. Prof. J. R. Steward, Muncie Normal, Muncie, Ind.

The Book of Corn, Herbert Myrick. Orange-Judd Co., Publishers.

U. S. Bulletin No. 81, Corn Culture in the South.

U. S. Bulletin No. 199, Corn Growing.

The Tree Doctor. Davey.

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SEED CORN RACK

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESIGh

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No. 2

SEED CORN RACK SPECIFICATIONS

As one of the principal things for you to learn in this lesson
is to plane a long strip of material so it will be perfectly straight
and square, you should perform each operation very carefully. If
your material is furnished S 2 S, it will not be necessary for you
to surface the sides; if not, first plane one surface smooth and
straight for your working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2).
Plane one edge perfectly straight and square with the working
face (Chapter II., Paragraph 4) ; mark this the working edge.
With your try-square lay out, and with the back saw or panel saw
saw one end perfectly square with the working face and the work-
ing edge; mark this the working end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5).
With your marking gauge (held against the working edge) gauge
the width on each surface (Chapter II., Paragraph 6). Careful-
ly plane to the gauge line. From the working end measure the
desired length and square off the end. Lay out and chamfer the
upper corners, as indicated in the drawing.

This chamfer may be cut in a miter box, if your shop is pro-
vided with one, or you may lay out the regular half-pitch cut
(Chapter II., Paragraph 24) with the large steel square, and from
this cut set the T-bevel and use it in laying out. These marks
should be squared across the edges with the T-square. Fasten the
material in the vise, or hold it on the bench hook (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 5), and saw off the corners as laid out.

Bore the hole for the hanger (Chapter II., Paragraph 9).
Lay out positions for the nails 3" apart. To do this gauge a pencil
line (Chapter II., Paragraph 7 or 8) in the center of the working
face. Set the compasses with the points 3" apart; step off the
spaces on the pencil line to mark places for the nails. Holes should
be bored with a small bit before attempting to drive the nails.
Make sure that all the holes are bored at the same angle (Chapter
II., Paragraph 12).

ASSEMBLING.

With a sharp steel scraper, or a keen plane set to take a very
thin shaving, remove all pencil or tool marks. Be sure to leave
the corners perfectly straight and sharp. From the back side
drive a nail through each hole (these nails will incline upward).
Settle the heads slightly into the wood by one or two careful blows
with the hammer. This will prevent the nail from pushing out
when the corn is put in.

56
FINISHING.

Although a fine finish is not required on a piece of work of
this kind, yet it would be well to give it a coat of shellac (Chap-
ter IV., Paragraph 57) or paint (Chapter IV., Paragraph 52).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

CLOTHESLINE POLE.

1. The principle of planing out a long, straight strip of ma-
terial can be applied to a great many projects. The clothesline
pole is such a strip cut to a desirable length, usually about 7 to 9
feet long. It should have a "V" shaped notch sawed in one end
to receive the clothesline.

TEN-FOOT POLE.

2. A ten-foot pole will be found quite convenient about the
farm where measurements must occasionally be made. It con-
sists of a straight pole, neatly planed, with the dimensions for feet,
halves and quarters plainly marked. For convenience and accuracy,
the last foot might be marked off in inches. A rod-pole could just
as easily be made if desired.

PLUMB BOB.

3. A plumb bob, or plumb rule as it is sometimes called, is a
very handy tool where any kind of building work is going on. The
only essential principle in its construction is the matter of getting
the edges perfectly straight and parallel, and of gauging the test-
ing line exactly in the middle. It should have a "V" shaped, or
circular, fork in the lower end large enough to allow the weight
or plummet to swing freely.

If desirable, and one is willing to exercise sufficient care, a
very satisfactory spirit level may be made by getting a small level
tube from the hardware store, and installing it in one edge of the
plumb bob. The protecting plate over the tube may be made of a
small piece of sheet brass, or it too may be purchased.

FEED SCOOP

MATERIALS.

Poplar (Chap. III., Par.

42) or any soft wood.

1 pc. 7/8"x5l/2"x6i/2" S 2 S

Back.
1 pc. li/8"xli/8"x5i/2" rough

Handle.
1 pc. galvanized 10"xl5"

Body of Scoop.
5 dozen " No. 18 brads.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

Handy equipment is a great help in making everyday tasks
lighter and more pleasant and much of this equipment can be pro-
vided without any particular expense.

In every home there are a number of purposes for which neat,
well-made scoops would be convenient. The purpose for which the
scoop is to be used will determine its size and shape. For house
use, in salt, sugar or flour, the smaller neat size would be more ap-
propriate ; for use on the farm, in the barn or poultry house, larger
and heavier scoops should be provided for handling ground feed
and small grain. Such scoops could be made so as to serve as an
approximate measure and thus enable one to feed accurate portions
in making up rations.

References :

Tin Truth. Follansbee Brothers Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.

Tin — Source, Production and Manufacture. International Encyclopedia.

Tin, in Stories of Industries, Chase and Clow. Educational Pub. Co.

The Story of Iron, Elizabeth Samuel. The Penn Pub. Co.

U. S. Bulletin No. 99, Insect Enemies of Shade Trees.

-10'

Tin or Galvanized '-IN -i - 1~

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL Ptt/GN

Tin

SAL T OR SUGAR SCOOP

Sides of Wood

SheetMefal

DUSTPAN WITH LONG HANDLE

FEED SCOOP SPECIFICATIONS

THE BACK.

Plane one surface of this piece perfectly straight and smooth
for a working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2) ; plane one edge
straight and square for a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph
4). Square and saw, if necessary, and plane one end square with
the working face and working edge for a working end (Chapter
II., Paragraph 5) . Measure and cut this piece the required length.
With the compasses set to the proper radius, lay out the curve for
the top edge of this piece, saw out with the coping or compass saw,
and smooth with a sharp block plane or wood file. Locate and
bore the hole for the handle (Chapter II., Paragraph 9).

THE HANDLE.

In shaping a handle of this kind it is well first to make the
material perfectly square (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2 and 4) ; next
plane off the corners, making an octagon ; then the corners should
be planed off until the shape approaches a cylinder. A sharp
Jcnife may be used to make the curved shape to the handle. You
must depend upon your eye and judgment very largely in shaping
such a handle. Do not attempt to take deep shavings ; cut away but
little at a time, and keep turning the handle from side to side so you
may be able to keep the curves the same on all sides.

THE BODY OF THE SCOOP.

The body of this scoop is to be made of galvanized sheet iron ;
it will require a piece 10" long, and wide enough to form the bot-
tom plus the two sides (15"). With the square lay out an exact
rectangle of this size, square pencil lines across it indicating
where it is to be bent to form the corners ; be sure these lines are
just wide enough apart to receive the back which you have al-
ready made. With the compasses lay out the curves indicating
where the corners are to be cut off. With tinner's snips, or an
old pair of heavy shears, cut out the shape of the body as laid out.
Place the sheet of galvanized iron between two straight-edged
boards with the pencil line (for the corner bend) exactly even
with the edge of the board; clamp in the vise and bend the sheet
iron to a right angle. A few light blows with the hammer will
complete the angle and make it perfectly square. Bend the other
side in like manner.

ASSEMBLING.

Glue the handle into the back ; the end which extends through
may be split and wedged, then sawed off even and planed smooth

with the surface. Fasten the sheet iron body in position by nail-
ing it with small brads (Chapter II., Paragraph 21).

FINISHING.

Sandpaper the wood parts perfectly smooth (Chapter II.,
Paragraphs 16 and 17) and give them one or two coats of shellac
(Chapter IV., Paragraph 57). With a file or piece of emory or
sandpaper rub off any rough or sharp edges of the sheet iron
which may be exposed in such a way as to cut one's hands.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

SOIL SCOOP.

1. In connection with the class work in agriculture, where
there will be a number of experiments calling for the handling of
soils, a few scoops made in this way will be found very convenient.
Discarded tin cans, such as baking powder, coffee or fruit cans may
be used. Cut one end to the desired shape for the point of the scoop,
the other end need not be removed ; a wooden end should be shaped
to fit this end snugly ; it should be fastened in position (in the inside
of the scoop) with brads into its edge ; a screw through the wood
(and the tin end) into the end of the handle will hold it firmly in
place.

DUST PAN.

2. A very convenient dust pan, which has the advantage of
serving also as a sort of pail in carrying out the dust, can be made
very easily in accordance with the Suggestions for Original Design.
The two wooden sides are placed as far apart as one would de-
sire the width of the dust pan to be and a continuous piece of
sheet iron is bent around them and fastened with brads. A piece
of heavy, stiff wire is bent and placed in holes in the sides to serve
as a bail and a long handle of desired length is to be attached to
this bail.

WATERING OR FEED TROUGH FOR CHICKENS.

3. Following this same principle of construction a very satis-
factory watering or feed trough for chickens may be made. Take
a sheet of galvanized iron or tin of the desired size and turn up
the two sides as far as the required depth of the trough; prepare
wooden ends of the proper dimensions, and fasten them into posi-
tion by brads driven through the metal. If it is to hold water, the
brads must be very close together; the wood parts should be
painted.

BRACKET SHELF

MATERIALS.
Yellow Pine (Chap. III.,
Par. 48) or any soft
wood.

1 pc. 78"x6i/4"x21 V2" S 2 S

Top.
1 pc. 7/8"x7^"xl9i/2" S 2 S

Back.
1 pc. 7/8"x5"xlO" S 2 S

Brackets.
12-6d finishing nails.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The bracket shelf is one of the best-known and oldest forms of
equipment found in the home. This article of furniture admits of
more variations in size, function and style than possibly any arti-
cle found in house equipment. The old-fashioned long mantle above
the fireplace was one form of bracket shelf. Other numerous forms
serve various purposes, such as a place for the family clock, or in
some instances a sort of "catch-all" for things which have no bet-
ter place.

In designing a bracket shelf you should consider very carefully
for what purpose it is to be used, and first of all make it sufficiently
substantial to serve its purpose properly, then consider the point of
making it attractive in appearance.

References :

Woodworking for Beginners, Wheeler. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York.
Elementary Woodwork, F. H. Selden. Rand-McNally Co., Chicago.
Beginning Woodwork at Home and in School, Van Duesen. Manual Arts

Press, Peoria, 111.
Woodworking for Amateur Craftsmen, Griffith. Popular Mechanics Co.,

Chicago.
Our Trees, How to Know Them, Emerson & Weed. Lippincott Co.,

Philadelphia.

BRACKET SHELF

I I
I I
U

"iTi

Zl'

V5
//»'" 1

T J
.4^--

'•is»;

l£-2 p

J__

l^-2J

_f_

16"-
•19"-

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL DESI6H

No.2

No. 3

No.4-

flo.6

No. 7

No. 8

BRACKET SHELF SPECIFICATIONS

THE BACK.

Select one surface for a working face (Chapter II., Para-
graph 2). Plane one edge perfectly straight and square with the
working face. Mark this the working edge (Chapter II., Para-
graph 4). Plane one end exactly square with the working face
and the working edge. Mark this the working end (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 5). Gauge the width (Chapter II., Paragraph 6) on
both surfaces ; plane to the gauge line. Measure and cut the length.

THE TOP.

Plane one surface for the working face (Chapter II., Para-
graph 2) . Plane one edge perfectly square with the working face
and mark it the working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Plane
one end exactly square with both the working face and the work-
ing edge for the working end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5) ; measure
and cut the length. Gauge the width (Chapter II., Paragraph 6)
on both surfaces and plane to the gauge line.

THE BRACKETS.

In the working drawing a very simple design is given for the
brackets. Suggestions for Original Designs will give you a number
of ideas from which you will be able to work out a design of your
own. Make a drawing of your design. After you have worked out
a design that is acceptable, use the %"x5"xlO" piece to make the
brackets. Plane one surface perfectly smooth and mark it the work-
ing face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Prepare a working edge (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 4). Plane one end exactly square with the work-
ing face for the working end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5). Note: —
This board will be sufficiently long to make both brackets by re-
versing the pattern and using the material with economy. Lay out
one bracket ; carefully saw out this bracket with the turning, coping
or compass saw. With a wood file and sandpaper make the edges
perfectly smooth. Use this bracket for a pattern in laying out the
second one. Make the second bracket exactly like the first.

ASSEMBLING.

This work is to be assembled with brads. Be sure to set the
brackets perfectly square and an equal distance from the ends. In
driving the brads be very careful not to briuse the work with the
hammer (Chapter II., Paragraph 21). With a nail set drive the
heads a little below the surface so the holes can be puttied.

64
FINISHING.

When the work is all assembled give it a final cleaning and
smoothing with a sharp steel scraper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16)
and finish with sandpaper (Chapter II., Paragraph 17). Be sure
that all of the corners are left sharp and well defined. Bore the
holes through which the hanging screws are to be placed. These
holes should be 16" from center to center in order that the screws
will strike the studding in an ordinary plastered wall.

If you do not expect your shelf to support a very heavy load,
perhaps one screw at each end will be sufficient. Use your own
judgment in this matter.

FINISHING.

Give the bracket shelf a ooat of stain of desirable color (Chap-
ter IV., Paragraph 54). Finish with shellac (Chapter IV., Para-
graph 57) or with wax (Chapter IV., Paragraph 56).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

SHELF WITH TOWEL ROD.

1. By shaping the brackets so they will be a little wider at
the lower end, and boring a hole about half or two-thirds through
the thickness of each bracket, a rod for hanging a towel may be
added. This rod may be made stationary, or one of the holes may
be slotted so it can be lifted out, if desired.

SHELF WITH DRAWER.

2. By designing the brackets properly a neat, shallow drawer
may be constructed to fit between them; such a drawer should be
carefully made, and so designed as to be in harmony with the gen-
eral idea of the bracket shelf. The towel rod might also be added ;
for a lavatory not provided with a shaving cabinet, such a shelf
would be very convenient.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMMUNITY
RESEARCH

DID you ever think how much valuable information you may
gather from the things which lie all about you ? The people
of your neighborhood are daily doing hundreds of things
which you may sometime be called upon to do. You should there-
fore be interested in these activities and store up all the knowl-
edge and experience you can.

There are farmers who, for a great many years, have been
dealing with the problems of raising crops and farm animals and
who, by this experience and hard work, have learned a great many
things which they would be glad to tell you. These things would
not only be as interesting as any of the stories studied in school,
but they would possibly be quite valuable later on in helping you
to make a living.

The carpenters, blacksmiths, masons, painters and other me-
chanics have gathered a great store of knowledge and acquired
considerable skill by spending many years in careful practice at
their trades. While it would be impossible for them to give you
any portion of their skill, because this can be obtained only by
actual practice, yet they can tell you many things which will be
worth while for you to know.

Throughout your life you will be compelled to use a great
many different kinds of equipment in the way of tools, imple-
ments, furniture, and even houses, barns and bridges, so the more
you can know about the materials of which such things are made,
how they are produced and their care and use, the more intelli-
gently will you be able to deal with them.

These suggestions for research work are to guide you in find-
ing out by observation and inquiry some of the practical things
which every boy should know. It is particularly important that
you should learn how to approach men in a genteel and polite
manner and learn to talk with them intelligently about different
lines of work. Almost any intelligent and right thinking man is
not only willing, but glad to offer advice and information to a boy
who is earnestly trying to learn. Of course nobody likes a meddler
nor one who asks foolish questions out of idle curiosity or impu-
dence. Whenever you are visiting a man's place of business to
gather information, remember that he is doing you a favor and
that you should not fail to appreciate it and to thank him for it.
One of the best ways to get courteous treatment is to be thoroughly
a gentleman yourself.

3-Voc.

1. Make a list of all the hardwood forest trees (those that
shed their leaves each year) that you can find in your commu-
nity. Perhaps your father or some man whom you know in the
neighborhood, who is familiar with the different kinds of trees,
will be willing to go with you on a tree-examining excursion.
When a tree has once been named and pointed out to you, study
it very carefully so you will be able to recognize trees of its kind
afterward. Notice the size of the tree, the general shape of the
trunk and the branches, the nature of the bark, the color and
exact shape of the leaves, and any flowers, fruit or nuts which
it may bear. You cannot hope to remember the different kinds
of trees unless you study their characteristic features.

2. On your tree excursion did you find any damaged, un-
healthy or otherwise disfigured trees? What seemed to be the
cause of the improper condition of the tree? The matter of car-
ing for trees and of doctoring them has become quite a science;
you will find it very interesting to see how the tree surgeon cuts
out the rotten portions and fills the cavity with cement, very
much as a dentist treats a tooth. Perhaps you can find where
some work of this kind is going on or has been done in your com-
munity. It is not a very difficult task, and by carefully studying
the references given in this text you might be able to undertake
some simple work of this kind with the help of your father or
teacher. Make a list of all the influences which damage shade
trees and suggest whatever remedies you can find for these diffi-
culties.

3. Do you know of any one near your school who has a loom
for weaving carpets or rugs? If you do, visit the place and find
out all you can about weaving. Notice particularly how the
stripes and the figures are woven. Do you know of anything pro-
duced in your locality which is used in the making of any kind of
cloth? Some communities furnish a great deal of material from
which the clothing of the world is made; other communities pro-
duce principally food materials. You will find it interesting to
list and classify the products of your community. Possibly there
are some articles manufactured in your city which are neither
for food nor clothing, but which serve as equipment in aiding in
the production of both. A wagon factory, for illustration, pro-
duces neither food nor clothing, but its wagons are very important
in handling material for each.

4. Visit a number of farmers and ask them to explain to
you how they select their seed corn. You will probably find that
a large majority of them simply go to the crib and pick out the

ears which they consider the best. Can they in this way know
much about the mother plants which produced the chosen ears?
From the references given, of what value is the knowledge of the
mother plant? By careful inquiry from a number of farmers,
find the average yield of corn per acre in your neighborhood. If
the average acre yield throughout the United States last year
was twenty-six bushels, was your community above or below the
average? The farmers will no doubt be interested in finding
some way of increasing their yield.

5. What hand tools do you have in your home? Are they
kept sharp and in good condition for use? Visit a carpenter's
shop and ask the carpenter to let you examine his stock of tools ;
talk to him about the care and use of tools, and see whether you
think that your tools, in their present condition, would be satis-
factory for a man who is working at the carpenter's trade. What
have you learned from this visit which you think is worth while?

6. Did you ever see a broom being made? While most
brooms are now made by machinery, yet it is not uncommon to
find a broom maker who does his work largely by hand. Perhaps
you will have a chance to visit such a shop. If you do, find out
all you can about "broom straw." Is there any broom corn raised
in your neighborhood? If not, find the reason; would it be a
profitable crop in your locality?

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS.

1. What is meant by a Working Face, a Working Edge, a
Working End?

2. What is the purpose of the Marking Gauge? How should
it be used? In what other ways can gauging be done?

3. How can you tell whether the edge of a piece of material
is perfectly straight?

4. In what order would you give the dimensions of a piece of
lumber?

5. What tools do you use in laying out work? Name as
many as you can.

6. Name all the cutting tools which you have used thus far.

7. What is meant by assembling a piece of work? How
many different means of assembling have you used?

8. What is the purpose of staining a piece of work? What
is the purpose of shellac ? Why is paint preferable on work which
is exposed to the weather?

INTRODUCTION TO SECTION II

BY the time the student has reached this section he should be
able to understand the three regular views of the working
drawing. The purpose of this section is to review and de-
velop the principles and processes set forth under Section I.
There will also be found the introduction of some processes which
have not been previously set forth. The use of dowels in gluing
up work is introduced and should be carefully impressed because
of its common application. This work will make a very severe
test of the pupils' ability in planing edges perfectly straight and
square.

This section also offers some easy exercises which can be
successfully carried out by less skillful students. For the more
adept students there will be found certain exercises which, while
they do not introduce any difficult joints, will call for very accu-
rate thinking, particularly in the assembling work. This will be
found especially true in the flytrap lesson.

Students should not feel that they are able to omit the refer-
ences to the supplement. These references should be continually
studied in order that each student may have before him constant
ideals for the use of tools, and thus avoid forming any bad habits.
It is very much easier to form correct habits at the start than it
is to reform them after the incorrect habits have been established.

If the students have not been required to do tool-sharpening
in Section I, they should be led to see the importance of this work
by this time. They should be required to turn to the supplement
and study the methods of sharpening chisels and planes. Stu-
dents must learn quite early that it is impossible to do good work
with dull tools.

This section offers an opportunity to do some very excellent
work in finishing. The bread-cutting board is especially adapted
to this purpose, and it will be found very interesting and attract-
ive, as well as valuable from the practical standpoint, to have the
students work out a fine shellac finish on this piece of work.

If the students have not been enthusiastic about the prepara-
tion of their own drawings, by making the drawing board as pre-
sented in the instructions, an interest may be aroused. The mak-
ing of a T-square is not presented in the regular lesson, however ;
it can be readily made from the illustrations given with the draw-
ing board and it will be found very interesting, particularly for
the more skillful students.

BREAD OR MEAT
BOARD

MATERIALS.

Black Walnut (Chap. III., Par. 44)

or Gum (Chap. III., Par. 37)

or any dark wood.

2 pcs. l"x234"xl4l/2" S 2 S

Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29) or

Maple (Chap. III., Par. 41)

or any light-colored wood.

lpc:i"x5"xl4i/2" S2S
1 pc. 14 "x 10" dowel rod.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The cutting of bread or meat, which must take place in every
home, calls for some sort of cutting board. The size and shape of
the board are not important features, but there are a few points
which should be carefully observed. The boards should be made of
some kind of hard wood, preferably maple or birch, but there are
a number of other kinds of wood that will be very satisfactory.
Wood used for this purpose should be free from any natural odor
and as close-grained as possible so as to be non-absorbent. The
board should have no cracks or decoration which would make it
hard to keep clean. A board made of several pieces glued together
is most satisfactory because it is less likely to warp.

References :

Maple, Maple Sugar and Syrup, U. S. Bulletin No. 252.
Familiar Trees, Mathews. Appleton Pub. Co., New York.
Timber and Timber Trees, Laslett. Macmillan Co.
Wood Finishing, Staining, Varnishing and Polishing, Hasluck.

BREAD OR MEAT CUTTING BOARD

•s

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL DESIGN

•3

MO. I

No.2 No. 3 No.4

STEAK Of? FISH PLANK

BREAD OR MEAT-CUTTING BOARD
SPECIFICATIONS

This board is to be made by gluing together the three boards,
as you will note from the illustration the light-colored piece is to
be used in the middle with a dark piece on each edge.

THE LIGHT-COLORED PIECE.

As this material is furnished S 2 S, and as you will have to
resurface it after it is glued up, it is not necessary to plane the
surface now. Select the best surface and mark it the working face
(Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Carefully plane one edge perfectly
straight and square with the working face (Chapter II., Paragraph
4) . With the marking gauge or pencil and ruler gauge the width of
the board (shown in the drawing), (Chapter II., Paragraphs 6
or 7). Carefully plane to the gauge line. It is not necessary to
cut the length of this board at this time. That can be done after
the work is assembled.

THE DARK-COLORED PIECES.

Plane one edge of each of the dark strips perfectly straight
and square (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Lay the boards in posi-
tion on your bench top, and press them closely together to make
sure that the joints will fit perfectly. If they do not fit perfectly,
determine what the difficulty is, and with a sharp plane, set to
take a very thin shaving, plane them until they will make a very
tight joint. These boards are to be joined with dowels, as indi-
cated in the drawing. Locate the points where the dowels are
to be and lay out for them (Chapter II., Paragraph 18) ; careful-
ly bore for the dowel (Chapter II., Paragraph 13). Cut the
dowels the right length (make sure they are not too long or the
work will not assemble properly).

ASSEMBLING THE WORK.

Glue the dowels in one edge of the center piece. Spread an
even coating of glue on the edges which are to be joined. Care-
fully drive one dark piece down on the dowels. In like manner
dowel the other dark-colored piece on the other edge. Place the
material in a clamp, and tighten it securely ; leave it until the glue
has had time to dry (at least twelve hours).

SURFACING THE BOARDS.

Both surfaces of the board are to be planed perfectly smooth
(Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Plane the board to the desired width
(make sure that the dark-colored pieces are exactly the same
width). Square the boards the desired length. Lay out and cut
the desired shape of the board. With the lead pencil and finger
gauge entirely around the board on both surfaces for the chamfer
or the round (Chapter II., Paragraph 8). Carefully plane to the
gauge line, using the block plane for the end grain work (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 19). When the desired shape is completed, fin-
ish the surface of the board with a steel scraper (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 16). Do the final smoothing of the surface with very
fine sandpaper (Chapter II., Paragraph 17). The round edges
may be sandpapered as you would sandpaper a cylinder (Chapter
II., Paragraph 15). Bore the hanging hole (Chapter II., Para-
graph 9) .

FINISHING.

The board should be given the desired finish with shellac
(Chapter IV., Paragraph 57).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

DOUGH BOARD.

1. This plan of constructing a wide board by joining several
narrow ones may be used in making a mixing board for dough.
The boards should be perfectly fitted so there will be no cracks;
the size of the board is immaterial, however it should be large
enough for practical service, perhaps as much as 16"xl8" or 18"x20".
It should have cleats on each end to prevent warping; it
would be well to have them fastened with a tongue and groove
joint. Basswood, poplar or maple would be suitable wood.

CHOPPING BOARD.

2. A heavy, smooth board is often needed for chopping meats
or vegetables. This board should be made of some kind of hard
wood, such as oak or maple. It should be joined perfectly, with-
out rough places or indentations of any sort. A large staple
might be driven in the face side near one edge, and left extending
1/2" or %,"; by placing the point of a long kitchen knife in this
staple the knife could be held steady while the chopping was be-
ing rapidly and safely done.

CAMP STOOL

MATERIALS.

Yellow Pine (Chap. III., Par. 48)
or any soft wood.

4 pcs. %"x li/2"x22i/2" S 2 S Legs.

2 pcs. %"x li/2"xl3i/2" S 2 S Top

strips.

3 pcs. y2rxl2" dowel rod.

1 pc. canvas for seat 15"xl6".
11/2 dozen 8-oz. carpet tacks.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The value of a camp stool can be fully realized only at crowded
gatherings, picnics or camping parties, and yet occasions often
arise in almost any home where a camp stool is convenient, particu-
larly at lawn or porch parties. In designing a camp stool you should
keep in mind the fact it is to be used for a seat and will likely have
pretty rough usage; it should therefore be strong enough to stand
the strain.

The plan given in this lesson is the standard way of making a
simple camp stool. The method given in the suggestions allows the
stool to close perfectly flat, but in order to do this it is necessary to
leave out one of the cross rods between the legs.

References:

Harper's Camping and Scouting. Harper & Bros., Pub., New York.
The Outdoor Handy Book, D. C. Beard. Chas. Scribner's Sons.
The Field and Forest Handy Book, D. C. Beard. Chas. Scribner's Sons.
Boat Building for Amateurs, Adrian Neison. Frederick Drake Pub. Co.,

Chicago.

Timber, Bulletin No. .10 of U. S. Forestry Service.

Book of Woodcraft, Ernest Thompson Seton. Book Supply Co., Chicago.
Harper's Outdoor Book for Boys. Harper & Bros., New York.

CAMP STOOL

TT r-r— H-

U l-i-

PETJIL OF LEG JOltIT
H 13"

SUGGESTIONS fOR ORIGINAL PESIGN

CLOSIV VIEW

CAMP STOOL SPECIFICATIONS

LEGS.

If you are cutting this material from stock, saw out a piece a
little longer than the length of the leg shown in the drawing.
Select the best side and mark it the working face. If it is S 2 S
it will not be necessary to surface it (Chapter II., Paragraph 2).
Plane one edge for a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4).
With the marking gauge, gauge the width of the leg on both sur-
faces of this board (Chapter II., Paragraph 6). Carefully rip
just outside the gauge line and plane to the gauge line (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 4) . Again prepare a working edge on the stock material,
and in like manner lay out and make the four legs.

CROSS PIECES AND JOINTS.

In similar manner rip out and plane to dimensions the two top
cross pieces. The legs are to be joined to the cross piece with a
round tenon construction (Chapter V., Paragraph 69) . This tenon
should be made 1/2"* %" °r even %" diameter. You may select a
size which is the most convenient for the size of bit with which
you expect to bore the hole. Locate the points where the holes
are to be bored and bore the holes (Chapter II., Paragraph 9).
Lay out and shape the round tenons (Chapter V., Paragraph 69).

Cut the legs the exact length as given in th'e drawing. Lay
out and bore for the cross dowel rods (Chapter II., Paragraph 9).

ASSEMBLING.

Assemble with glue. If desired brads may be driven through
the leg in the stationary joints of the dowels, also into the top
pieces. Be careful not to nail, or get any glue, on the dowel joints
which are supposed to turn. With a sharp steel scraper (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 16) remove all pencil or tool marks.

FINISHING.

If you desire to change the color of the wood, stain the de-
sired color (Chapter IV., Paragraph 54) ; finish with one or two
coats of shellac (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57).

THE TOP.

The top is to be made of canvas. This is to be tacked on the
outside of the top rail. The canvas should be turned under about

W or %," on each side of the seat. This will give it strength. It
should also be turned under slightly where it is tacked to prevent
raveling and give it a neat appearance. Be careful to get it equal-
ly tight on each edge.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

FOLDING CHAIR.

1. A folding camp or porch chair can be made on almost ex-
actly the same principles as the camp stool. The leg pieces should
be considerably longer, with one pair extending high enough to
form the back; from this back braces should run down to the
rear legs, and be joined with a long dowel which would rest in
notches in the legs, thus providing means of adjusting the angle
of the chair. The canvas would extend from the top round to the
front one, forming both seat and back. Arms may be provided
if desired.

FOLDING COT.

2. A folding cot, particularly adapted to outdoor sleeping or
camping trips, may easily be made by using exactly the plan of
the camp stool. The material should be heavier and the legs con-
siderably longer; the cross rails between the legs would need to be
about 6 feet long- to provide sufficient length to the cot.

SAW BUCK.

3. In localities where wood is no longer used for fuel the
saw buck has gone out of existence, but in some places there is
enough wood to be sawed by hand to make it still worth while. It
consists of a pair of strong legs (each made "X" shape, like the
camp stool) fastened together at a distance of about 2*/2 or 3 feet
with a heavy stretcher. This stretcher may consist of one piece
rounded on the ends to enter holes in the legs, or it may be made
of strips nailed on each side of the lower portion of the legs. The
limbs, or pieces of wood to be sawed, are placed in the saw buck
and, because of its "V" shape, are held perfectly solid at a con-
venient height to be sawed. Sometimes a temporary buck is made
by driving stakes in the ground in an "X" shape over a small log,
which thus braces them.

BOOK RACK

MATERIALS.

Chestnut (Chap. III., Par.

35) or any hard wood.

1 pc. 5/8"x5^"x28" Bottom
and ends. S 2 S.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

A small bookrack for use on a library or study table is very
important in order to keep the books in shape for ready use. The
length of the bookrack depends upon the number of books which
it is intended to hold. The bookrack should be made of some
kind of cabinet wood such as oak, walnut, cherry, mahogany or
gum. It should be given a finish which will correspond with the
finish of the furniture with which it is to be used. Innumerable
designs have been worked out for bookracks, but you should try
to put as much originality as you can in your piece of work. It is
better to undertake a simple design and do it well than to attempt
a difficult style and leave it showing marks of carelessness and
inexperience.

References :

Handwork in Wood, Wm. Noyes. Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 111.
Essentials of Woodworking, Griffith. Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 111.
Instructions for Amateur Bookbinding. Craft Materials Guild, 119 La-

Salle St., Chicago.

Harper's Indoor Book for Boys. Harper & Brothers, New York.
Seasoning of Timber, Bulletin No. 41, N. Y., 1902.

(O'QO _J

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SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL DESIGN

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VARIOUS METHODS Or FASTEN ING EMPS

No. 4-

BOOK RACK SPECIFICATIONS

THE BASE.

The entire material for the book rack may be cut from one
piece of stock, %"x51/4"x28". Select the best side of the material
and plane it perfectly smooth for the working face (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 2). Plane one edge for a working edge (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 4). Prepare a working end (Chapter II., Paragraph
5) ; with the marking gauge (Chapter II., Paragraph 6) or with
ruler and pencil (Chapter II., Paragraph 7) gauge the width of
the base on both surfaces.

Since the ends and base are to be exactly the same width, you
may gauge the full length of the piece of material ; carefully plane
to these gauge lines. Measure the length for the ends ; with the try-
square, square across the working face, cutting off pieces the right
length for the ends (Chapter II., Paragraph 5).

THE ENDS.

If you do not expect to use the design given in the working
drawing, make a drawing of your own. This drawing should first
be made on paper. Lay out and shape one of the ends; use it for
a pattern in laying out the other ; make the two exactly alike.

MORTISING.

A wide mortise is to be cut in each end piece to receive the
tenon on the end of the base (Chapter V., Paragraph 66). (Other
methods of joining the ends and base are shown in the sugges-
tions. Use one of these methods if you desire.)

ASSEMBLING.

Assemble with glue and, if it seems necessary, two or three
small brads may be driven through each end piece into the tenons
(Chapter II., Paragraph 21). This, however, will not be required
if the joints fit perfectly.

FINISHING.

All broad surfaces should be carefully gone over with the
steel scraper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16) . All surfaces should be
carefully sandpapered. Use great precaution not to round any of
the sharp corners (Chapter II., Paragraph 17). Stain the book

rack the desired color (Chapter IV., Paragraph 54). If desirable
the book rack may be given a coat of filler (Chapter IV., Para-
graph 55). It may be finished with a wax polish (Chapter IV.,
Paragraph 56) or with shellac (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

POST CARD RACK.

1. In using this plan for making a post card rack the mate-
rial should be somewhat thinner, perhaps %" or even a little less.
One of the fine cabinet woods should be used, such as walnut,
cherry or mahogany. The base should be very much shorter than
in a book rack; 4 or 5 inches would probably be long enough for
an average-sized card rack.

FOLDING BOOK RACK.

2. A very convenient folding book rack may be made by con-
structing a rectangular frame of the desired size for the base;
this frame may be joined at the corners with the cross-lap joint;
the end pieces should be made just wide enough to go inside the
frame, and should be joined to it with a small piece of dowel rod, or
a round head screw on each side. If these screws are properly
placed the ends, when folded, will lie flat inside the rectangular
frame, and when open will stand perpendicular, resting against
the cross rails of the base frame.

DRAWING BOARD

MATERIALS.
Basswood (Chap. III., Par. 31) or White Pine (Par. 48).

3 pcs. 7/8"x6"x26" S 2 S Top.
1 pc. 14" dowel 12" long.

2 pcs. 7/8"xli/2"xl6" S 2 S Cleats.
10-1 i/i" No. 10 F. H. B. screws.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The subject of drawing is continually growing in importance.
When we think that before any piece of building or construction
work can be undertaken it must first be drawn in perfect detail,
then we begin to realize that this is a subject with which every-
body should be somewhat familiar.

Every boy should be able to understand and to make simple
working drawings. In order to make these drawings a drawing
board is necessary.

The size of a drawing board depends upon the size of the draw-
ings one intends to make; about 16 or 18 inches wide by 22 or 24
inches long is a very convenient size for ordinary work.

References :

Mechanical Drawing for Schools, Book 1. Atkinson, Mentzer & Co.

Mechanical Drawing for Schools, Book 2. Atkinson, Mentzer & Co.

Problems in Mechanical Drawing, C. A. Bennett. Manual Arts Press,
Peoria, 111.

Practical Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught, Chas. Westinghouse. Fred-
erick Drake Co., Chicago.

Architectural Drawing, Edminster. David Williams Co., New York.

Practical Lessons in Architectural Drawing, Tuthill. David Williams
Co., New York.

Junior Course in Mechanical Drawing, Thome.

Elements of Mechanical Drawing, Titsworth.

Elementary Course in Mechanical Drawing, Chase.

A Practical Course in Mechanical Drawing, Willard. Pop. Mech. Co., Chi-
cago.

DRAWING BOARD

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SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESIGH

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SCREW HOLES SLOTTED BATTENS DOVETAILED T-SQUARE

DRAWING BOARD SPECIFICATIONS

The drawing board is to be made by gluing together three
pieces (more pieces may be used if the material is narrow). As
this board must be surfaced after it is completed, it is not neces-
sary to plane a working face. Select the best side and mark it
the working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2) . Plane the best edge
of the first board perfectly square for a working edge (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 4). Plane one edge of the second board in like manner
(Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Gauge the width on both faces (Chap-
ter II., Paragraphs 6 or 7). Plane to the gauge line. Plane the best
edge of the third board in like manner, then lay all of the boards in
position on your bench top and examine the joints to see that they
will fit perfectly.

THE DOWELS.

By studying the drawing you will notice that the boards should
be so assembled that the grain is reversed. Carefully lay out the
dowels (Chapter II., Paragraph 18) ; bore for the dowels (Chapter
II., Paragraph 13). Cut the dowels the required length. Be sure
not to have them too long, as they will hinder the assembling. Glue
the dowels into one board, then spread a thin coating of glue on the
edges which are to come into contact, being sure that the boards
are assembled with their face side up. Make both dowel joints in
like manner and clamp securely.

THE BATTENS.

Select the best side for the working face (Chapter II., Para-
graph 2). Plane one edge for a working edge (Chapter II., Para-
graph 4). With a marking gauge, gauge the width (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 6) and carefully plane to the gauge line. Square one
end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5) ; lay out and cut them the proper
length. Smooth these ends with the block plane (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 5). Lay out for the chamfer (Chapter II., Paragraph
8). Carefully plane to the gauge line. The battens should be
fastened on with screws, as indicated in the drawing, or, if pre-
ferred, by the dove-tail method, indicated in No. 2 of the sugges-
tions. If fastened on with screws, it is well to have the holes
slotted slightly so, if the board shrinks or expands, the screws may
slip in the slots and thus not bend the board out of shape.

ASSEMBLING.
»

When the glue is dry carefully plane both surfaces of the
drawing board and fasten the battens to the under side. Care-

fully plane and test the working surface of the drawing board
(Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Plane one edge perfectly straight
and square (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). With a large steel square
square each end and finish with the block plane (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 5). The surface of the drawing board should be care-
fully finished with a steel scraper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16)
and smoothed with fine sandpaper (Chapter II., Paragraph 17).
It should be finished with one or two coats of shellac (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 57).

T-SQUARE.

If you desire to make a T-square, you may easily do so by fol-
lowing the suggestions given in the drawing. The blades should
be long enough to reach across your drawing board and the head
should be 10" or 12" long. The blade should be about %" thick and
the head about %". The blade and head must be assembled at a
perfect right angle, or the T-square will be worthless. The top edge
of the T-square must be a perfectly straight line.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

MOLDING BOARD.

1. In connection with work in clay modeling and experiments
with concrete a molding board is very necessary; such a board
will afford a smooth working surface upon which to mix and mold
the materials, and will also protect the desk or table tops. This
board can be made any size, depending upon the material available
and the projects to be worked out upon it. It should be about 1"
thick, free from cracks and provided with strong battens on the
under side.

PLASTERER'S HAWK.

2. A plasterer's hawk will be found a very convenient article
of equipment in conducting experiments with cement and plaster-
ing materials; it may also be made to serve a practical purpose
about the home or farm. White pine is the most suitable wood
for this project. The board should be made about 12" square and
need not be more than 1/2" or %" thick ; it should be reinforced by
having another board, somewhat smaller (perhaps about 9"
square), fastened to its bottom side with the grain running at
right angles (this will add strength and prevent warping). A
cylindrical handle about 4" or 5" long is fastened to the bottom
side.

WINDMILL

MATERIALS.

Basswood (Chap. III., Par. 31) or

White Pine (Chap. III.,

Par. 48).

2 pcs. %"xl34"x 9" S 2 S Fans.
1 pc. 7/8 "X 7/8"x21" S 2 S Shaft

and upright.
1 pc. bright tin 5"x7".
2-13,4" No. 10 R. H. blue screws.
6-1" No. 17 brads.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

In certain countries where the power of the wind is used in
irrigating and in doing certain lines of work of this kind the wind-
mill gets considerable study and attention. Most of us give but lit-
tle thought to the direction or power of the wind, except when we
occasionally see it turning a large fan on a wind pump.

This windmill which you are to make serves also as a weather
vane and will thus indicate the direction as well as the force of the
wind. Men who are studying the subject of flying machines have
given great study to the same principles by which you are to con-
struct this windmill.

The following references are worthy of careful study :

References:

Land of Dikes and Windmills; Cur Little Dutch Cousins, McManus. L.

C. Page & Co.
Windmills in a Country Below the Sea, Carpenter's Geographical Reader.

American Book Co.

Harper's Outdoor Book for Boys. Harper & Brothers, Pub.
Harper's Machinery Book for Boys. Harper & Brothers, Pub.
Mechanical Toys Which a Boy Can Make, Geo. F. Johnson. Longmans,

Green & Co.

First Book of Forestry. Ginn & Co.
History of Lumber Industry. U. S. Bulletin No. 34.

WIND MILL

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIBltiAL DESIGN

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WINDMILL SPECIFICATIONS

THE FANS.

As this material is furnished S 2 S, you will hot need to plane
the surface. Select the best surface and mark it the working
face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Plane one edge for a working
edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Prepare a working end (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 5). Measure and cut the length of the fan, as
shown in the drawing. In like manner prepare the other fan. Be
sure these pieces are exactly the same size.

A study of the drawing will show you that these two pieces
are to be put together with a cross-lap joint, crossing exactly at
their middle (Chapter V., Paragraph 62). When the two pieces
have been perfectly fitted, lay out the curves for the fan blades.
This may be done with the compasses, or the curves may be drawn •
freehand. With the lead pencil and finger, gauge lines on the edges
of each fan blade (Chapter II., Paragraph 8). Take the pieces
apart, and with a sharp knife carefully whittle away the wood to
the gauge line, forming a graceful curve.

ASSEMBLING THE FAN.

When the fan blades are completed, fasten the cross-lap joint
with small brads. These brads must be driven near the corners
of the joint so as not to be in the way of boring the hole through
the center. Locate the center (where the blades cross) and bore
a hole (Chapter II., Paragraph 9) large enough to allow the screw
to turn very freely.

NOTE: — When the windmill gets wet the wood will swell,
and unless all holes, in which screws are to turn, have been bored
apparently larger than necessary the joints will not turn.

THE SHAFT AND UPRIGHT.

As the shaft and the upright are to be the same size, this
piece of material should be planed the proper size before it
is cut to length (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3 and 4).
You will notice that the end of the shaft is to be ripped
to receive 'the tin tail. Gauge for the ripping on both sides of the
shaft (Chapter II., Paragraph 6). Fasten the material in the vise
and rip in the same manner as in sawing a tenon (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 14) . Locate and bore the hole (Chapter II., Paragraph
9) for the screw which is to fasten it to the upright.

THE TIN TAIL.
With lead pencil and ruler, lay out the shape of the tail. The

tin may be cut with tinner's snips; if you do not have them, an
old pair of shears will do very well. Fasten the tail in position by
driving a few brads through the shaft and the tin.

ASSEMBLING.
These parts are to be assembled with screws.

FINISHING.

As this article is to be used out of doors, a coat of paint would
be a good protection for it (Chapter IV., Paragraph 52). If de-
sirable you may give the woodwork a coat of stain (Chapter IV.,
Paragraph 54).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

HEAT WHEEL.

1. A paper heat wheel may be made on the same plan as
shown in suggestion No. 2. Cut a perfect square of any kind of
stiff, tough paper (not cardboard), mark the diagonals and cut on
these lines from each corner toward the center; turn in the alter-
nate corners, causing the wheel to take the shape shown in sug-
gestion No. 2. Thrust a pin through each of these corners and
the exact center of the wheel. Remove the pin and put it through
these same holes from the other side; that is, so the head of the
pin will be on the plane smooth side of the wheel; thrust the pin
into the end of a small, softwood stick; the wheel can be made to
stand in position -by fastening the opposite end of the stick in a
hot air register ; the passing of the hot air will turn the wheel.

CIRCULAR TIN WHEEL.

2. An easily constructed and very successful wind wheel may
be made of a circular piece of tin. Almost any diameter will do,
but about six or eight inches will be most convenient. Cut out a
perfect circle of tin, find the center, and with the compasses lay
out a small circle (about an inch and one-half in diameter) ; on
the outside circumference step off equal spaces about one and one-
half inches; from these points cut straight lines toward the cen-
ter just to the inside circle; punch a smooth hole in the center;
fasten to the end of a stick with a screw or a nail; twist each of
the blades of the wheel so they will all stand at the same angle.
It may require a little experimenting and adjusting to get them
set so the wheel will turn satisfactorily.

CHILD'S SWING

MATERIALS.
Yellow Pine (Chap. III., Par. 48).

2 pcs. %"x6"xl2" S2S Bottom.
2 pcs. %"xlV2"xl2" S 2 S Bottom

battens.

7 pcs. 7/8"xli/8"xl2" S 2 S Rails.
1 pc. 1/2" dowel 30" long.
8-1 V2" No. 10 F. H. B. screws.
20 ft. %" cotton rope (sash cord) .

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

This lesson presents an easy but attractive and substantial
way of making a swing which can be put up in the house or on the
porch.

The seat may be upholstered with denim, canvas or imitation
leather if the swing is to be used entirely indoors ; the upholstering
would not be desirable for outdoor use. If intended for outside
use the seat should be reinforced with cleats, as indicated in the
suggestions ; the wood parts should also be well painted to protect
them from the weather.

By using heavier material and making all the parts propor-
tionately larger, and substituting small chain for the rope, a very
excellent playground swing may be had.

References :

Rope. Upson Walton Co., Cleveland, Ohio.

Minnesota Bulletin No. 136, Rope and Its Uses on the Farm.

Minnesota Bulletin No. 33, Some Knots and Splices.

Flax, Hemp and Other Fiber Plants — Sixty Lessons in Agriculture.
American Book Co.

Fiber Plants, the Book of Useful Plants, Rogers. Doubleday, Page & Co.

Cotton, Flax and Hemp; How the World Is Clothed, Carpenter. Ameri-
can Book Co.

Playgrounds and Parks; Health in Home and Town, Brown. D. C.
Heath & Co.

Public Playgrounds, Day Allen Willie, St. Nicholas Magazine, May, 1909.

The School Playground, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 1912, No. 16.

Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds, U. S. Bulletin No. 134.

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CHILD'S SWING SPECIFICATIONS

THE BOTTOM.

The material for the bottom will probably be furnished in two
pieces; if so, they should be joined with the dowel joint (Chapter
V., Paragraph 72) . Select the best surface of one board and mark
it the working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). NOTE:— It will
not be necessary to plane it now, for it will have to be replaned
after the two pieces are glued together. Prepare a working edge
(Chapter II., Paragraph 4). In like manner prepare the other
bottom piece. Lay out (Chapter II., Paragraph 18) and bore
(Chapter II., Paragraph 13) for the dowels. Make the glue joint
and clamp securely. Leave the work clamped while you proceed
with the other parts.

THE SIDE AND BACK STRIPS.

You will probably have to rip these strips from a wider board.
If you do, select a working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2) ; .pre-
pare a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). With the mark-
ing gauge, gauge the width on both surfaces (Chapter II., Para-
graph 6). Rip just outside the gauge lines. Plane to the gauge
lines. In like manner prepare all the strips. NOTE: — In getting
out a number of pieces from stock, be sure to prepare a working
edge on the stock each time before attempting to lay out the re-
quired piece. Cut all the strips the required lengths, as shown
in the drawing. Locate the places where the holes are to be bored.
The holes for the dowels should not be bored entirely through.
The holes for the rope should be bored through (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 9). Round the ends of each piece, and chamfer the cor-
ners, as shown in the drawing. Note that these chamfers do not
extend the entire length of the strips, therefore you cannot make
them with a plane. Lay them out (Chapter II., Paragraph 8) and
cut them with a knife. Smooth with a wood file and sandpaper.

THE DOWELS.

Dowels are to be used for the upright rails between the strips.
Cut the required number the length indicated in the drawing.
NOTE : — Dowel rods and small strips can be conveniently sawed in
the square cut of a miter box.

COMPLETING THE BOTTOM.

After the glue has had twelve to twenty-four hours to hard-
en, remove the clamps and plane both surfaces (Chapter II., Para-

graphs 2 and 3) . In making this piece the desired shape it would
be well first to cut it perfectly square, after which you can easily
and accurately lay out the required shape. Bore the holes as re-
quired (Chapter II., Paragraph 9). If desired, battens about li/2"
wide may be used on the under side of this bottom piece. They
will add considerable strength and prevent warping.

ASSEMBLING.

Glue the ends of the dowels into their proper positions in the
side and back strips. Do not assemble with the rope until the fin-
ishing is completed.

FINISHING.

With fine sandpaper remove all rough places. Stain the de-
sired color (Chapter IV., Paragraph 54) and finish with two or
three coats of shellac (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57). Assemble
with the rope. Tie knots on the lower side of the bottom to pre-
vent the rope from pulling out.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.
PLAYGROUND SWING.

1. A very suitable playground swing may be made of small
chains fastened to a strong seat board with two eye bolts, as shown
in suggestion No. 1. This sort of swing has the advantage of the
seat board being held permanently in position. The use of the
chain also makes it durable for outside service.

BOX SWING.

2. A very simple and easily constructed swing may be made
of a small dry goods box. Select a box which is made of sound
material, and cut it the shape shown in suggestion No. 2. It may
be hung with strips of wood or a small rope or chain, which should
be attached to cross battens extending entirely across the under
side of the box. One pair of ropes or chains, as the case may be,
might be attached to the box near the top to prevent tilting over.

FLY TRAP

MATERIALS.
Basswood (Chap. III., Par. 31).

8 pcs. 3/8"xl"xl2i/2" S 2 S Sides.
8 pcs. %"xl"x 71/2" S 2 S Cross

pieces.
5 pcs. i/2"x34"x9" S 2 S Top pcs.

8 pcs. l/I"x34"x9" S 2 S Trim.
3 dozen 1" brads.

3 dozen 1/2" brads.

11/2 dozen %" corrugated nails.

1 yard 24" screen wire.

9 dozen small tacks.

1 piece 5/32" Bessemer rod 8"
long.

2 screw eyes No. 114.

1 pair 3/4"x%" brass hinges.
1 small clasp.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

Recent investigation has proven that the common housefly is
a very dangerous enemy to human life. The fact that it spreads
disease and is in every way undesirable is sufficient reason why
everybody should be as careful as possible to prevent its increase.
One of the most successful ways to wage war on flies is to screen
our homes so as to shut them out, and then leave no uncovered gar-
bage pails or any other feeding places for them.

In cities where everybody has been interested in disposing of
flies the results have been very encouraging. School children have
helped wonderfully by engaging in fly-catching contests.

You can do a great practical good for your own home and
community by making this flytrap carefully and using it through-
out the fly season.

References :

The House Fly as Disease Carrier, L. 0. Howard. Published by F. A.

Stokes Pub. Co., New York.

U. S. Bulletin No. 459, and U. S. Bulletin No. 679, House Flies.
Insects ar.d Disease, Doane. Henry Holt & Co.
Our Household Insects, Butler. Longmans, Green Co.
Household Insects and Methods of Control, Bulletin No. 3, Ithaca, N. Y.
U. S. Bulletin No. 155, How Insects Affect Health.
Fly Traps and Literature. International Harvester Co., Chicago.
Winter War on Flies, Willard Price, Technical World, February, 1915.
Our Insect Friends and Enemies, John Smith. J. B. Lippincott Pub. Co.

FLY TRAP

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SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESI6H

*-6LAss FRUIT JAR
WITH OPENING In LID

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-HOOPS OF

'FENCE WIRE

FLY TRAP SPECIFICATIONS

THE SIDE STRIPS.

You will probably have to rip your material from stock;
select the best surface of your stock for a working face
(Chapter II., Paragraph 2) ; plane one edge for a working edge
(Chapter II., Paragraph 4). With the marking gauge, gauge the
width of the strips on both surfaces of the stock (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 6). Rip just outside the line; plane to the gauge lines.
Prepare all the side strips in like manner. Saw them the required
length. Notice that on two sides of the fly trap, the side strips
are narrower than on the other two sides. This is done so the four
sides will be equal when assembled. Miter the lower end of each
strip, as shown in the drawing.

THE SIDE CROSS RAILS.

Rip out and plane the side cross rails in the same manner in
which you have made the side strips. Cut all these rails the re-
quired length, as shown in the drawing. They may be easily and
accurately sawed in the square cut of a miter box.

ASSEMBLING THE BODY OF THE TRAP.

Each side is merely a rectangular frame. Lay two side strips
flat on your bench top with the two cross rails in such position as
to form a frame; make the angles square and fasten with corru-
gated nails (Chapter II., Paragraph 23). Assemble all sides in
like manner. Cut screen wire the. proper size and cover the in-
side of each frame; fasten the screen wire in position with small
tacks. Assemble the four frames box fashion; they should be
joined with a plain butt joint (Chapter II., Paragraph 60) at each
corner; fasten with brads (Chapter II., Paragraph 21).

THE LID.

The lid is a square frame (with a cross bar in the middle for
the handle) joined at the corners with plain butt joints (Chapter
V., Paragraph 60), fastened with brads. Square the stock for the
lid (Chapter II., Paragraphs 1, 2, 3 and 4) ; cut each piece the re-
quired dimensions; assemble as explained; cover with screen
wire. Strips of wood l/i" thick are to be used as a trim on the lid,
to cover the tacks and add to the appearance of the work; miter
this trim at each corner (Chapter V., Paragraph 64) ; fasten it on
with brads.

96
THE INSIDE WIRE PYRAMID.

In order to cut the screen wire for this piece you should make
a pattern of paper; if you will draw four triangles (each of the
size of one side, as shown in the drawing) adjoining each other,
you will have a correct pattern. Allow about an inch to make the
lap ; bend into proper shape ; with a piece of the wire weave the open
corner securely together; place in position and fasten with tacks.
These tacks may also be covered with a trim just as you did the
lid.

THE HANDLE.

Bend the wire to form the handle; attach with two screw
eyes. Fasten the lid in position with two small hinges and put on
the fastening. Plane off uneven places if there are any. Stain
some dark color (Chapter IV., Paragraph 54).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

1. A very satisfactory and convenient fly trap may be made
of any ordinary glass fruit jar, as shown in the Suggestions. The
entire central portion of the lid is cut out. A slender cone is made
of screen wire with a small opening at the point. This cone may
be attached to the lid by having a number of small holes punched
around the opening in the lid, through which a small wire can be
so woven as to bind the cone securely. A thin piece of wood, with
four tacks or small nails, so driven as to extend slightly above the
surface, will make a satisfactory base. In a trap of this kind the
flies may be easily killed by pouring in boiling water.

2. An all-metal fly trap can be made from the lid of an old
paint bucket, a few scraps of heavy fence wire and a piece of
screen wire. The screen wire is rolled into a cylinder just as large
as the bucket lid, which is to form the top. The screen wire cylin-
der is woven to the rim of the lid through small holes, as indi-
cated in the drawing. A hoop of fence wire of the same diameter
as the lid is attached to the other end of the cylinder, to hold
it in shape. The inside cone of screen wire is attached to a second
hoop of the same size as the first. The cone is placed in
position, and if properly made will fit so closely that it will not re-
quire fastening. Small pieces of wire may be attached to form
legs about a half-inch long. A sheet of tin, or an old pie tin will
answer for a base.

MILKING STOOL

MATERIALS.

Beech (Chap. III., Par. 32) or any
hard wood.

1 pc. Ii/2"x9^"x 91,4" S 2 S Top.
4 pcs. I^"xli/4"xl2" S 2 S Legs.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The milking stool is usually such a rude, unsightly piece of
equipment that it gets but little consideration and is often found
dirty and poorly cared for. In the modern dairy many of the old-
fashioned, dirty and unsightly pieces of equipment are giving
way to things which are more convenient and more satisfactory
from a sanitary standpoint.

This lesson shows how to make a milking stool on the same
principles which any other stool should be made. The fact that
it has four legs keeps it from falling over and getting unnecessar-
ily soiled, also provides it with greatest strength. The height of
the stool can be made to suit the desire of the one who is to use it.

This plan of making a stool is universal and can be used in
making a bathroom, kitchen or office stool. Of course in making a
high stool it would be necessary to provide cross rails to brace
the legs.

References :

4— Voc.

U. S. Bulletin No. 689, A Plan for a Small Dairy House.

U. S. Bulletin No. 413, Care of Milk on the Farm.

U. S. Bulletin No. 602, Clean Milk.

U. S. Bulletin No. 363, The Use of Milk as a Food.

U. S. Bulletin No. 32, Silos and Silage.

Minnesota Bulletin No. 130, Feeding Dairy Cows.

Forest Planting and Farm Manacement, U. S. Bulletin No. 228.

MILKING STOOL

I- -«*•-- 1

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SUGGESTIONS FDR OKIBIHAL DESIM

Cane

Ho. 3
KlTCHEH STOOL

MILKING STOOL SPECIFICATIONS

NOTE: — This project can be made to serve either as a milk-
ing stool or a bathroom stool. If it is to be a bathroom stool it
should have very careful workmanship, and should be painted
white or enameled.

THE TOP.

Select the best surface of the piece which is intended for the
top and prepare a working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). If
you are to use the design of top shown in the drawing, you will
find it convenient first to make the material perfectly square, and
then follow the directions for laying out an octagon given in
Chapter 1, Problem 14. Saw out the octagon and plane all the
edges perfectly square. The top edge may be rounded or cham-
fered (Chapter II., Paragraph 19). The holes which are to re-
ceive the legs are to be bored with a %" or 1" bit, whichever you
may have in the shop. Determine the angle which you wish to
use (this can be done with the eye). Then set the T-bevel. Hold
the T-bevel in such a position as to keep the bit at the proper angle
while boring the holes (Chapter II., Paragraph 12). Do not bore
the holes entirely through. In making a milking stool the holes
are sometimes bored entirely through so the legs can be wedged
in from the top side and sawed off even with the top.

THE LEGS.

In making the legs, first plane the material perfectly square
(Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3 and 4). They are to be made oc-
tagon shape by planing away the corners. These corners should
be gauged with the lead pencil and finger (Chapter II., Paragraph
8) . Carefully plane to the gauge line. The top end of each leg is
to be rounded so it will enter the hole in top board. This may be
done with a knife and finished with a wood file and sandpaper
(Chapter II., Paragraph 15).

ASSEMBLING.

Spread a little glue on the rounded ends of the legs and drive
them into their places. When the work is all assembled, thorough-
ly clean it with a steel scraper and sandpaper. The bottom ends
of the legs may be laid out the desired shape by setting the stool on
a table top or level floor and laying out with the compasses ; or this
may be done by laying a ruler flat on the floor, and marking on the
top edge of it all around the legs ; saw on these lines.

100

FINISHING.

If it is to be used for a milking stool it should be given a coat
of paint of any desirable color (Chapter IV., Paragraph 52). If
it is to be used for a bathroom stool it can be made very attractive
by giving it two coats of white paint, and one coat of white enamel.

It is sometimes thought desirable to make a milking stool
with only three legs so that it will sit level on an uneven surface.
If you care to do this, follow No. 1 in the suggestions given.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

COOKING STOOL.

1. It is usually desirable to have the school kitchen equipped
with stools. These can be made on the same plan used in the con-
struction of the milking stool. The top should be round, of the
desired size, possibly 10" or 12" in diameter; the legs may be
round, octagonal or square. They should be about 18" long. There
should be two cross rails between each pair of legs, as shown in
suggestion No. 3. White enamel makes a very desirable finish for
a stool of this kind.

OFFICE STOOL.

2. An office stool may be made on the plan already given with
the height changed to suit individual needs. The solid top may
be used, although a more desirable plan is to construct a frame of
four pieces neatly joined with dowels, as shown in suggestion No.
3. This frame may have a bottom woven of cane or may be cov-
ered with a patent imitation of leather, which can be purchased
at any f'irniture store.

101

HARNESS RACK

MATERIALS.

Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29) or any
strong wood.

1 pc. %"x2iA"xl5^" S2S Back.

1 pc. %"x2i4"xl4" S2S Front
brace.

2 pcs. 7/8"x2i/4/'x8" S 2 S Side
braces.

1 PC. %"x6!/2" dowel rod.
12-6d finish nails.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

If you visit a great many barns you will no doubt find that
some people are very careless in their methods of caring for the
harness. It is not uncommon to see harness laid on the barn floor,
thrown carelessly in a corner or poorly hung on a nail, which is
insufficient. Such methods not only cause considerable waste of
time in handling the harness, but also bring about unnecessary
damage.

The purpose of this harness rack is to provide a simple and
easily made hanger which can be fastened to a wall or post and
furnish a hanger which will keep the harness in good condition
and always ready for use.

References :

Manufacture of Leather in Packing House Industries. International

Library of Technology.
Leather; Stories of Industries, Vol. 2, Chase & Clow. Educational

Pub. Co.

By-Products of the Meat Packing Industry. Swift & Co., Chicago.
Tanning and Preparation of Leather, Champlin's Cyclopedia of Common

Things (p. 425). Henry Holt & Co.
Great American Industries, W. F. Rocheleau. A. Flanagan Pub. Co.,

New York.

How We are Clothed, Chamberlain. Macmillan Co., New York.
American Inventions and Inventors, Mowry. Silver, Burdette & Co.,

Chicago.

How the World is Clothed, Carpenter. American Book Co., Chicago.
The Farm Wood Lot, U. S. Bulletin No. 276.

102

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESIGH

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WOODEN PINS

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•

NO. 3
HOOKS OF STRAP I RON

103

HARNESS RACK SPECIFICATIONS

THE BACK PIECE.

As this material is furnished S 2 S, it will not be necessary
to surface it. Select the best side and mark it the working face
(Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Plane one edge for a working edge
(Chapter I., Paragraph 4). With the marking gauge, carefully
gauge the width (Chapter II., Paragraph 6) and plane to the gauge
line. Square one end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5). Lay out the
length of the back piece, and cut this end perfectly straight.
Chamfer the end as shown in the drawing.

THE FRONT BRACE.

Select the best surface and mark it the working face (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 2) . Plane one edge perfectly square for a work-
ing edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). With the marking gauge,
set exactly as it was when you gauged the back piece, gauge the
width (Chapter II., Paragraph 6) ; plane to the gauge line. Notice
that the lower part of this piece is to be cut on an angle. About
a third-pitch cut will be suitable for this angle. You may set your
T-bevel to this angle (Chapter II., Paragraph 25). Lay out the
angle on one edge of the material. With the try-square, square
this line across the working face, and lay out the angle on the other
edge to correspond with the first edge. Place the material in the
vise and carefully saw on the lines. Measure the length shown
in the drawing, and form the other end.

SIDE BRACES.

Select the best surface of the piece from which the side braces
are to be made, and mark it the working face (Chapter II., Para-
graph 2). Plane one edge for a working edge (Chapter II., Para-
graph 4). Gauge the width, as shown in the drawing (Chapter
II., Paragraph 6) ; plane to the gauge line. This brace is also to
be cut at an angle. This may be done after the work is assembled
if you choose. At the other end these braces are to be cut square.

THE DOWEL.

Measure and cut the dowel the length shown in the drawing.

ASSEMBLING.

Nail the side braces in position shown in the drawing. Put
the front brace in its position; nail through the side braces into

104

it, making sure that you are holding it in such a position as to
make the bottom end fit snugly against the back piece. With the
try-square, test to make sure that the side braces are exactly at
a right angle to the back piece. While holding in this position
nail through the front brace into the back piece at each edge. Do
not nail near the center because the nails will interfere with the
boring for the dowel. Bore for the dowels with the bit inclined
slightly up. This will give the pin an upward tendency. Notice
that the pin extends through the brace and back piece. If neces-
sary you may split the back end of the pin and wedge it to make
it perfectly secure. Bore the hole for the screw upon which the
harness rack is to hang (Chapter II., Paragraph 9). If you think
necessary, you may bore another hole in the bottom of the back
piece and thus provide room for two screws. This hanger may
be placed on a post or on a flat surface.

FINISHING.

Carefully scrape and sandpaper all surfaces. The top out-
side edges of the side braces should be chamfered and slightly
rounded. This may be done with a pocket knife and wood file and
finished with sandpaper. This piece of work may be finished with
a coat of paint (Chapter IV., Paragraph 52) or it may be stained
(Chapter IV., Paragraph 54) and shellaced (Chapter IV., Para-
graph 57).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.
HARNESS RACK WITH DOWELS.

1. A very easily constructed harness rack may be made by
boring a number of holes slightly on an angle, and driving in large
dowels or wooden pins as hangers. A heavy board may be used
for the base, or the holes may be bored directly in a post or beam
of the barn.

HARNESS RACK WITH METAL HOOKS.

2. Very substantial hooks may be made out of heavy strap
iron or pieces of buggy tire. These pieces of metal should be cut
the desired length then have two or three holes drilled near one
end. These holes should be countersunk to receive the screw
heads. Each piece should then be bent to form the hook, as shown
in drawing No. 3.

105

FLOWER TRELLIS

MATERIALS.

Yellow Pine (Chap. III., Par. 48) or any
soft wood.

1 pc. 7/8"x2"x 5" S 2 S Upright.

7 pcs. y8"xl"x30" S 2 S Cross strips.

2 pcs. %"x5"x 71,4" S 2 S Brackets.
2l/2 dozen 6d finishing nails.

2 pieces soft iron wire 50".
16-%" staples.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

In a great many cities prizes are being offered and other in-
ducements set forth to encourage people to keep their lawns clean
and make their shrubbery attractive. It is not uncommon to see
an otherwise beautiful rosebush or trailing vine showing neglect
on account of the lack of some sort of support. A flower trellis
made after the fashion shown in this lesson can be used to over-
come this difficulty. In making a flower trellis you should con-
sider the size, shape and weight of the bush for which it is in-
tended and make it sufficiently strong and otherwise suited to that
particular kind of bush. It is well to make the trellis larger than
required so it can be used year after year. By making it of good
material and doing the work accurately, then painting it, it can
be made to add very much to the appearance of one's lawn or
garden.

References :

U. S. Bulletin No. 185, Beautifying the Home Grounds.

U. S. Bulletin No. 91, Lawns and Lawn-making.

U. S. Bulletin No. 248, The Lawn.

New York Bulletin No. 2, The Flower Garden, Ithaca, N. Y.

Beautifying the Home Grounds; Sixty Lessons in Agriculture. Buffum

& Deaver.

Our Garden Flowers, Keeler. Book Supply Co., Chicago.
Practical Forestry. Gifford.

106

FLOWER TRELLIS

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SUGGESTION FOR ORIGINAL DES1GH

HO. I

NO. 2

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107

FLOWER TRELLIS SPECIFICATIONS

THE UPRIGHT.

As this material is furnished S 2 S, it will not be necessary
for you to plane the surface. Select the best surface for the
working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2) . Plane one edge perfectly
straight as a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). With a
marking gauge, gauge the width the entire length on both surfaces
(Chapter II., Paragraph 6) . Carefully plane to the gauge line. Pre-
pare one end for a working end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5) . Measure
and cut the length (if desired the bottom end may be left consider-
ably longer than indicated in the drawing so it can be pointed and
driven in the ground. It is preferable, however, to drive heavy
stakes into the ground and to fasten the flower trellis to it with
nails or screws. This will avoid battering the top end in the driv-
ing process).

THE CROSS STRIPS.

If you are cutting this material from stock it will be neces-
sary to rip out the cross strips. In this case select the best surface
of your stock for the working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2).
Carefully plane one edge for a working edge (Chapter II., Para-
graph 4). With a marking gauge, lay out the width (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 6). Rip just outside the gauge line, and plane to the
line. Again prepare a working edge on the stock material, and in
the same manner lay out and rip the second strip. Continue this
process until all the strips are provided. If the strips are provided
properly ripped, all you will need to do is to prepare a working edge,
and gauge the width as already indicated.

ASSEMBLING.

Notice that the strips are to be gained into the upright their
full size. Measure and lay out the spaces between the strips.
With a try-square, square across the working edge of the upright
where the gains are to be cut. Be very careful not to lay out the
gains too wide, or the strips will not fill them and the joints will
be bad. If your strips have been perfectly prepared they will be
the same width, and the gains will all be cut exactly alike. If there
is any variation, it will be necessary for you to test each strip to see
that it will fit the gain laid out for it. t In sawing for gains, saw
just inside the pencil lines. With the marking gauge, gauge

108

the depth of these gains on both surfaces of the up-
right. Do not gauge beyond the pencil lines, for this will leave
an ugly mark on your upright. With the back saw, saw down to
the gauge line, and with a sharp chisel cut out the wood between
the saw kerfs. The bottom and top strips are to be cut a little
shorter than the others so as to give the rack a pleasing shape;
use your own judgment in this matter. The strips are to be
fastened in place with nails (Chapter II., Paragraph 21).

THE BRACKETS.

Lay out the brackets in any suitable design. Saw them out
with the compass saw or coping saw, and carefully smooth the
edges with a wood file. Fasten the brackets into position with
nails, making sure they are perfectly square so as to make the
strips stand square across the upright. The wire should be fas-
tened with staples on the outer ends of the strips.

FINISHING.

As this flower trellis is to be used out of doors, where it will
be exposed to the weather, it should be well painted (Chapter IV.,
Paragraph 52) or given a good oil stain.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

A METAL TRELLIS.

1. A very durable flower trellis may be made by bending a
long piece of iron pipe to form a half -circle, or any other desired
curve. The ends of the pipe should be driven in the ground deep
enough to cause it to stand perfectly rigid. This framework
should be neatly covered with poultry netting. With this style of
trellis fancy and ornamental shapes may be worked out if desired.

BENT WOOD TRELLIS.

2. A very interesting trellis may be made by ripping a wide
board almost its full length, and spreading the strips into some
pleasing shape, as shown in suggestion No. 3. A bolt should be
put through the board edgewise to prevent splitting. The wood
for this sort of trellis must be carefully selected. It must be
straight grained; elm would probably be the most suitable.

109
SUGGESTIONS FOR COMMUNITY RESEARCH.

No. 1. Do you know of a pattern-maker's shop in your com-
munity? If you do, visit it and ask the pattern-maker to show
you the kind of drawings from which he works. Ask him to tell
you how his blue prints are made. How much per week can a pat-
tern-maker earn in your community? Is the pattern-maker's
trade as important now as years ago? Find out all you can about
this trade and decide whether it would be a promising occupation
for a boy to learn. Is it likely that machinery will entirely take
the place of handwork in pattern-making?

No. 2. Is the force of the wind used to do any kind of work
in your neighborhood? Why is this true?

No. 3. Does your school have an outdoor playground equip-
ment ? Why ? What portion of an outdoor playground equipment,
which would be suitable for your school, could be made in the
manual training shop?

No. 4. What measures are being taken in your home to dis-
pose of house flies? Find out how the garbage and other waste
matter about your home is disposed of. Do you think this is be-
ing done in the very best way to prevent the increase of flies?
Discuss this question with your parents. Take home your fly trap
and catch as many flies as possible. You would find it interest-
ing to talk to your local physician about some of the causes and
means of preventing typhoid fever.

No. 5. If possible, visit a dairy farm and get some one to
tell you what improvements have been made in dairying in the
past ten years. If you keep cows at your home, do you use the
most modern methods of dairying? Why? Ask your parents for
their opinions on these matters.

No. 6. Visit a harness shop and find out from the proprietor
whether the demand for harness-makers is increasing or decreas-
ing. How much per week does the average harness-maker earn?
Would this be a good trade for a boy to learn? Why?

No. 7. How many different kinds of flowers, trees and
shrubs (not counting garden vegetables) are you raising in your
yard at home? What advantages are there in trimming shrubs
and tying them neatly on well-made trellises ?

No. 8. Visit a sugar camp and learn all you can about mak-
ing maple sugar. How many kinds of maple grow in your com-
munity ?

110
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS.

1. Why are dowels used in gluing together the edges of
boards? How should the grain be turned in gluing together sev-
eral narrow boards?

2. How may a piece of work be assembled without the use
of nails, brads or screws?

3. How many feet of lumber in your drawing board? What
would be the cost of this material at $60.00 per M.?

4. How much is the labor on your drawing board worth,
counting the time which you have spent on it at 15 cents per hour?
Figure any other project which you have made.

5. Make inquiry regarding any wind pump in your neigh-
borhood and find out how many hours' work per week it saves the
owner; at that rate how long will it take for the pump to pay for
itself?

6. If the material for a book rack costs 15 cents, and you
can sell it when completed for 65 cents, for how many hours'
work would you be paid, counting your time worth 12 i cents per
hour?

7. Why should a bread or meat board be free from cracks
and perfectly smooth on all of its surfaces? Name four or five
kinds of wood which would be suitable for such a board. Name
some kind of wood which you think would not be suitable for this
purpose. Why?

8. What features must receive careful attention in making
a T-square?

9. What effect does dampness have on wood? How can wood
which is to be exposed to the weather be protected?

10. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of
a three-legged milking stool? Of a one-legged stool?

11. How would you make a suitable finish on a kitchen stool?

12. What are battens, and why are they used ?

13. What are some of the advantages of a flower trellis made
of iron pipe and wire?

14. How can you tell a rip saw from a cross-cutting saw?

15. What are some of the advantages in keeping tools sharp?

16. How many tops for camp stools, as given in this sec-
tion, can be cut from a square yard of canvas? What will be the
cost of one stool top at the price charged at your local dry goods
store?

Ill
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS (Concluded).

17. Why are the hanging holes in a bracket shelf bored ex-
actly 16 inches apart?

18. When screws form a part of the decoration on a piece of
work, what should be their position?

19. About how many average-sized ears of corn, as raised
in your community, are required to make a bushel?

20. In buying material less than one inch thick, how is the
thickness considered? If it is more than one inch thick?

21. What are the regular widths of screen wire carried by
your local hardware store? Find out the price per yard.

22. How is small rope like that used in the child's swing les-
son usually sold, by the yard, bundle or pound? About how many
yards of such rope are required to make a pound?

23. How can you test to make sure that holes are being bored
perpendicularly ?

24. How can you test to make sure that a number of holes are
all being bored at the same angle?

25. What is meant by the "set" in a saw? Why is it necessary?

26. In sawing gains, on which side of the mark would you
saw? Why?

27. In gauging the width of a piece of material, why should
you gauge it on both surfaces?

112

INTRODUCTION TO SECTION III

BY the time this section is reached students should be pretty
thoroughly familiar with the more common elementary tool
processes and should have but little difficulty in interpreting
the working drawings. The use of the ruler, try-square and
marking gauge in simple laying out work should be undertaken
with considerable confidence.

The projects of this section will be found somewhat more
difficult than those of the preceding sections, not so much in the
matter of the introduction of difficult joints as in awakening and
testing the judgment of the student in problems of assembling.
No effort is made to give specific directions step by step for the
assembling even of some of the more complicated projects, such
as the water wheel and dishcloth rack. The matter of "getting
together" the parts of a piece of work after all are correctly made
presents the greatest possible opportunity for the exercise of the
initiative of the student. The latitude which is left in this por-
tion of the specifications is for the purpose of encouraging con-
structive thought.

The introduction of some hardwood projects will make a test
of the students' ability along the line of certain tool processes
which they may have performed with ease on soft wood. The
fact that hard wood offers greater difficulties must not be made
an excuse for less perfect work.

The simple miter joint is introduced in connection with the
miter box lesson. Considerable emphasis must be laid upon this
principle, for it has almost unlimited application in future work.
Students should learn to lay out and cut this joint without the
use of a box; when a knowledge of how to obtain the angle has
been acquired, the assistance of the box may be employed in
practical work.

By the time students have reached this stage in their work
they should be taking considerable interest in finding home appli-
cations for the principles mastered at school; self-reliance will be
greatly improved by the efforts on practical problems which are
not under the constant dictation and supervision of the teacher.

An appreciation of the value of the drawing work must be
instilled; whether the subject is given at a regular period or is
studied incidentally with the shop work, it must have very careful
and constant consideration.

113

SLEEVE BOARD

MATERIALS.

Yellow Pine (Chap. III.,

Par. 48) or any soft

wood.

1 pc. % "x5 "x24" S 2 S
Top.

1 pc. 7/8"x534"x20" s 2 S
Base.

2 pcs. 7/8"x4 "x 7" S 2 S
Blocks.

8-li/2" No. 10 F. H. B.
screws.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

This sleeve board offers a solution to the problem of pressing
the sleeve of a garment without causing a crease. Some house-
keepers consider a sleeve board a very important piece of equip-
ment. It can be used in a number of ways in ironing and press-
ing. The pressing board may be covered with heavy muslin or
whatever padding the user may desire.

References :

Educational Woodworking for Home and School, Park. Macmillan Co.,
New York.

Training in Woodwork, Tate. Northwestern School Supply Co., Minne-
apolis, Minn.

American Boy's Workshop, Kelland. Book Supply Co., Chicago.

U. S. Bulletin No. 173, A Primer of Forestry.

114

SLEEVE BOARD

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SUGGESTION FOR ORIGINAL PESIGN

N0.2-LARtt IRONING BOARD

THE TOP.

Although this material is furnished S 2 S you should plane
the surface with a sharp plane set to take a very thin shaving.
Select the best surface for a working face (Chapter II., Paragraph
2). Plane one edge perfectly straight and square for a working
edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Prepare a working end (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 5) ; lay out and cut length of the top piece, as
shown in the drawing. With the compasses set to the proper
radius (shown in the drawing) lay out the shape of the top. With
the compass saw cut the curves and with a rip saw finish sawing
out the top. Carefully plane all the edges and make sure they are
perfectly square with the working face. The round ends may be
finished with a wood file.

THE BASE.

Select the best surface for the working face (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 2). Prepare a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph
4). Lay out and cut the base the shape and dimensions shown in
the drawing. Make sure that the edges are planed perfectly
square ; finish the ends with a wood file and sandpaper.

THE BLOCKS.

Select the best surface for a working face (Chapter II., Para-
graph 2). Prepare a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4).
Cut the two blocks rectangular, the size shown in the drawing;
with the compasses lay out the curve on one of the blocks (with-
out changing the radius of the compasses) ; lay out the curve on
the other block in the same manner. With the compass saw, saw
out the curve in each block. Compare the blocks to make sure
they are exactly the same size.

ASSEMBLING.

This piece of work is to be assembled with screws. Be sure
to bore the holes in the top and the base large enough to allow the
screws to pass through freely (Chapter II., Paragraph 9). Coun-
tersink the holes so the screw heads will be slightly below the sur-
face when they are driven in. In assembling this piece of work
be very careful to have the top board stand exactly straight over
the center of the base board.

116
FINISHING.

With a sharp steel scraper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16) re-
move all pencil or tool marks from all parts of the work. Smooth
perfectly with a clean piece of fine sandpaper (Chapter II., Para-
graph 17). Give the work one or two coats of shellac (Chapter
IV., Paragraph 57). Shellac the bottom of the base, the under
side of the top and the inside of the blocks; these parts may not
show, but shellacing them will prevent warping.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

SIMPLE PRESSING BOARD.

1. A simple pressing board to be used on the table can be very
easily made of almost any kind of lumber. If two or more pieces
are needed to make the required width, their edges should be
neatly joined. Two or three battens should be attached with
screws on the bottom side ; a heavy piece of asbestos or a suitable
metal stand for the iron might be fastened on the top side. The
board should be covered with some suitable material.

FOLDING IRONING BOARD.

2. Suggestion No. 2 presents an idea for a folding ironing
board; this board is hinged to one pair of legs, leaving it free to
raise at the pointed end. The notched strip across the bottom
makes it possible to adjust the height and also to close it completely.

117

WATER WHEEL

MATERIALS.

Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29) or any
hard wood.

8 pcs. Wxl3/i"x4i/2" S 2 S Paddles.
2 pcs. 5/8"x4i/2"x4i/2" S 2 S Wheels.
Ipc. li/8"xli/8"x 6" Cylinder.
2 pcs. %"x2"xl5" S 2 S Sides.
1 pc. %"x2"x 7" S 2 S Top.
1 pc. %"x2"x 5" S 2 S Bottom.
8-6d finishing nails.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

For hundreds of years water power has been used in driving
the machinery of civilized man. When the invention of the steam
engine was proven a success it was so general in its use that it
threatened to take full place of water power. However, it has
been proven that water power is very economical, and it is there-
fore being used in some of the largest power plants in the world.
The great plants at Niagara Falls and Keokuk, Iowa, and in a
great many other places, all depend on the same principle — that
water flows down hill.

The water wheel given in this lesson will help you to under-
stand in a simple way one of the earliest forms of using the force
of water to turn a wheel. By experimenting with it in currents
of water of different depth and different speed you will gain a
great deal of information regarding water power.

References :

Boys' Book of Inventions, Roy S. Baker. McClure, Phillips.

Toys and Toymaking, George F. Johnson. Longmans, Green & Co.

Manual Training Toys for the Boy's Workshop, Moore. Manual Arts
Press, Peoria, 111.

Water Wheels, Young Folks' Cyclopedia of Common Things, Champlin,
Henry Holt.

The Conservation of Water, John Mathews. Small, Maynard & Co.,
Boston.

Damming the World's Greatest Rivers, Rogers. Scientific American Sup-
plement, August, 1912.

Harper's Machinery Book for Boys. Harper & Brothers, New York.

U. S. Bulletin No. 150, Clearing New Land.

118

WATER WHEEL

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL VESI&H

THE PADDLE.

If the material for the paddle is furnished in one long strip,
you should make it the desired thickness and width before cutting
off the separate pieces. Square this stock in the regular way
(Chapter II., Paragraphs 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5). If the material is
furnished you in short pieces, first plane out one paddle the de-
sired dimension. To do this select the best surface and mark it
the working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Square one edge
for a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Gauge the width
(Chapter II., Paragraph 6). Plane to the gauge line. Square
one end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5) ; measure and cut the length.
In like manner prepare the other paddles.

THE PADDLE WHEEL.

The paddle wheel consists of two disks, which should be laid
out with the compasses and sawed out with the coping or compass
saw. Be sure to make the two wheels exactly the same size.
After they are sawed out, file the edges perfectly smooth. Bore
the center holes on the point where the compass rested in draw-
ing the circles (Chapter II., Paragraph 9). The paddles are to
be inserted in the paddle wheels by gains or dados. These should
be cut at equal distances around the circumference of the wheels
so the paddles will stand the same distance apart. Carefully lay
out these gains equally distant. Gauge their depth with the use
of the pencil and finger (Chapter II., Paragraph 8) . Saw the gains
down to the gauge line and chisel them out with a very sharp
chisel.

CYLINDER OR AXLE.

You are to plane a cylinder or axle which will fit the holes
which you have bored in the paddle wheels. To plane this cylin-
der, first plane the stick perfectly square, then plane off the cor-
ners, making it an octagon. Again plane off the corners and con-
tinue planing off corners until it is as nearly round as possible.
It can then be smoothed with a wood file and finished with the
sandpaper (Chapter II., Paragraph 15). A round tenon is to be
cut on each end of the axle (Chapter V., Paragraph 69) .

THE FRAMEWORK.

As this material is furnished S 2 S, it will not be necessary
to plane the surface. Select the best surface and mark it the

120

working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Prepare a working
edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Lay out the two side pieces
and make them the dimensions shown in the drawing. You
will note from the drawing that these two side pieces are to be
fastened in position by a bottom and top rail.

ASSEMBLING.

Place the paddle wheel in position and see that it will turn
very easily. You must remember that wood swells when it gets
wet, and unless the turning joint is given considerable freedom
it will not turn after the wood swells. Make it loose enough to
allow a small brad to pass entirely around in the joint when the
work is assembled. Carefully nail the frame together and test
again to see that the wheel will turn very freely.

FINISHING.

In as much as this piece of work is to be used in the water, it
should have some sort of finish which will protect it. The easiest
and best method of finishing it is to give it a good heavy coat of
linseed oil and allow it to soak into the wood.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

WATER MILL.

1. Make a water wheel as shown in this lesson, but let the
axle extend about an inch beyond the frame on one side. Cut
out a wooden pulley about 2i/^" or 3" in diameter and fasten it
firmly on the extended axle. Groove the edge of the pulley. Con-
struct a framework to hold as many wheels or pulleys as you de-
sire; connect them to your water wheel with strong cord used as
a belt.

CORN STALK WATER WHEEL.

2. A simple water wheel which will furnish considerable
amusement can be easily and quickly made of corn stalks. Select
a corn stalk as nearly cylindrical as possible; cut a piece about
6" or 8" long for an axle. From another piece of stalk prepare
eight or ten thin strips of the outside hard part about %" wide
and 3l/£ " or 4" long. These pieces are to be used for paddles. In
the center of the axle piece cut slits equally distant all around;
insert one end of each of the paddle pieces to form a complete
wheel.

Cut two forked limbs and smooth the forks inside to form
bearings for the axle. Drive the forks into the bed of the stream
just far enough apart to receive the ends of the axle.

121

WINDOW BOX

MATERIALS.

Poplar (Chap. III., Par. 42)

or any soft wood.

Ipc. 7/8"x63/4"x35" S2S
2 pcs. 7/8"x6"x37" S 2 S
2 pcs. 7/8"x6"x 6i/2" S 2 S
21/2 dozen 6d finishing nails.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

In cities where there is but little opportunity to come in touch
with the beautiful green fields and bright flowers of the country,
much has been done to give a cheerful and beautiful effect by en-
couraging the growth of plants and flowers in window boxes. Re-
gardless of the surroundings, a pretty window box filled with
growing plants adds considerably to the beauty of the home.

This box can be made of almost any kind of lumber. Even
waste material from a dry goods box can be used if first-class ma-
terial cannot be had. It should be carefully and neatly made then
given at least two coats of good paint as a protection to the wood.
Various ways have been devised for fastening window boxes in
position; sometimes a small brace bracket is used under the box.
An easy and simple way is to use small screen door hooks, thus
fastening each end of the box to the window casing, allowing the
weight of the box to rest on the window sill.

References :

A Garden City in a Country Village, Bessie M. Weed.

U. S. Bulletin No. 408, School Exercises in Plant Production.

U. S. Bulletin No. 218, The School Garden.

The Flower Garden, Bulletin No. 2, Ithaca, N. Y.

Lessons With Plants, Bailey. Macmillan Pub. Co.

U. S. Bulletin No. 157, The Propagation of Plants.

U. S. Bulletin No. 94, The Vegetable Garden.

122

WINDOW FLOWER BOX

— 36-

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGIHAL PESIGH
MO.I No.2 No.3

N0.4-

No.5

.HO. 6

Rustic Box

, ' [
'" •^XN/N/'NXv'

As this material is furnished S 2 S, it will not be necessary
to resurface it.

THE SIDE PIECES.

Select the best surface of one of the side pieces and mark it
the working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Plane one edge
perfectly straight and square for a working edge (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 4). With the marking gauge (Chapter II., Paragraph
6), or with the lead pencil and ruler (Chapter II., Paragraph 7),
gauge the width, as shown in the drawing; gauge on both sur-
faces. Carefully plane to the gauge line. Square one end (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 5). Measure the length, and in like manner
square the other end. Prepare the other side exactly like this one.

THE BOTTOM.

Select the best surface of the bottom piece and mark it the
working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Prepare a working
edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Gauge the width on both sur-
faces (Chapter II., Paragraphs 6 or 7). You will have to think
carefully in determining the width of the bottom piece. The di-
mension in the drawing is from outside to outside of the box; it
therefore includes the width of the bottom piece and the thickness
of the two sides. Square one end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5).
Measure and lay out the proper length. Notice that this bottom
piece is to be cut enough shorter than the side pieces to receive
the end pieces, therefore the bottom piece will be the thickness of
the two ends shorter than the side pieces.

THE ENDS.

Carefully square the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 1, 2, 3,
4 and 5). Lay out and cut one end the desired size. (Notice that
the length of the end pieces is determined by the width of the
bottom.) In like manner prepare the other end. Carefully com-
pare the two end pieces to make sure they are exactly the same
dimensions and perfectly square. NOTE : In any kind of box con-
struction the opposite sides must be exactly the same length and
all corners must be perfectly square or the box will not be rec-
tangular when assembled.

ASSEMBLING.

This work is to be assembled with nails (Chapter II., Para-
graph 21). Finishing nails are recommended, because they have

124

small heads and will therefore enable you to do a neater piece of
work (6d common nails or slender-bodied box nails would be satis-
factory, but they must be carefully used so the heads will not dam-
age the appearance of the work) .

FINISHING.

After the box is assembled, with a sharp block plane set to
take a very thin shaving, plane the outside of all the joints slight-
ly, if necessary, to make them perfectly even. Finish with a sharp
steel scraper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16). Sandpaper the en-
tire surface (Chapter II., Paragraph 17). Inasmuch as this box
is to hold dirt and will thus be kept moist almost constantly, it
should have at least two coats of good paint, both inside and out.
Paint it any desirable color (Chapter IV., Paragraph 52).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

PORCH FLOWER BOX.

1. A porch flower box should be made the size and shape to
suit the place for which it is intended. Where one side of the box
is against the wall, the shapes shown in suggestions Nos. 2 and 3
are desirable. If both sides of the box are exposed, as is the case
when used on a porch balustrade, the shapes shown in Nos. 4 and
5 would be preferable.

RUSTIC FLOWER BOX.

2. A rustic flower box is always attractive and is not diffi-
cult to make. Prepare a strong, substantial box of the desired size ;
collect a number of limbs about li/a" in diameter; leave on the
bark; rip them in two lengthwise and nail them to the box, cover-
ing it completely.

125

MITER BOX

MATERIALS.

Poplar (Chap. III., Par. 42)

or Yellow Pine (Chap.

III., Par. 48).

1 pc. li/2"x33/4"x24i/2" S2S
Bottom.

2 pcs. 7/8"x4"x24"i/2" S2S
Sides.

10-li/2" No. 10 F. H. B.
Screws.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The use of the miter joint occurs so often in so many differ-
ent kinds of construction work that every one needs to know how
to lay out and cut a miter, but for the sake of speed, accuracy and
convenience, where a number of miter joints are to be cut it is
well to be provided with a miter box. An all-steel patent miter
box can be bought from any tool dealer, but they are quite ex-
pensive.

The wooden miter box shown in this lesson is very inexpen-
sive because it can be made of scraps of almost any kind of lum-
ber. Its value depends upon its being sawed exactly on the true
miter of 45 degrees.

If correctly made, this miter box will enable you to construct
picture frames, window screens, and any other sort of rectangular
frame.

References :

Elements of Construction, King. American Book Co.

The A, B, C of the Steel Square, Hodgson. The National Builder, Chi-
cago.

Steel Square and Its Uses, Wm. Radford. David Williams Co., New
York.

The Steel Square Pocketbook, Stoddard. David Williams Co., New
York.

U. S. Bulletin No. 423, Forest Nurseries for Schools.

126

MITER BOX

o-/fofe

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(Di 1

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESI6J1

PICTURE FRAME CLAMP

127

MITER BOX SPECIFICATIONS

THE BOTTOM.

As this material is furnished S 2 S, it will not be necessary
for you to resurface it. Select the best surface of the bottom
piece and mark it the working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2).
Plane one edge perfectly straight and square for a working
edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). As this piece of material is
thicker than you have been accustomed to handling, you
will have to take great care to make it perfectly square.
Gauge the width on both surfaces (Chapter II., Para-
graphs 6 or 7) and plane to the gauge line. Be sure that both
edges are perfectly square or your work will not assemble properly.

THE SIDE PIECES.

Select the best surface of one of the side pieces and make it
the working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Prepare a work-
ing edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). With the marking gauge
or the lead pencil and ruler gauge the width, as shown in the
drawing (Chapter II., Paragraphs 6 or 7). Plane to the gauge
lines. Square one end for a working end (Chapter II., Paragraph
5). Lay out and cut the length. Prepare the other side in like
manner.

ASSEMBLING.

The two side pieces are to be fastened with screws to the
edges of the bottom piece, making the bottom edge perfectly
even. In assembling this work it would be advisable to put in
one screw pretty close to the end of each side piece to hold the
sides in proper position while you lay out the angle where
the miter box is to be sawed. Then finish putting in the screws.
Be careful not to place any of them where they will be in the way
of the sawing. If you prefer, the miter box may be assembled
with nails instead of screws, however it will not be so strong.

LAYING OUT THE ANGLES.

The miter box should have one perfectly square cut. Lay it
out with the large steel square, with the large blade held care-
fully on one edge of the box; with a sharp lead pencil lay out
a square line across the top edge of each side piece. With the try-
square square these lines down on the sides.

Lay out the half-pitch cut forming a letter "X" across the
box. Lay out the half -pitch cut as explained (Chapter II., Para-

128

graph 24) . You must make sure that this is accurate or your
miter box will be absolutely worthless. When the angles are laid
out on the top edge of the two side pieces with the try-square,
carefully square them down. Sawing these angles is the most
particular part of your miter box construction. You should saw
part way from one side and then turn the box around and saw
from the other side. In sawing from the second side let the point
of the saw follow in the cut made while sawing from the first
side. By sawing very carefully you will be able to follow the
lines.

FINISHING.

With a sharp steel scraper remove all tool marks or rough
places (Chapter II., Paragraph 16) ; finish with sandpaper (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 17). If desirable, the miter box may be given
one coat of shellac. This will keep it clean and in good condition
(Chapter IV., Paragraph 57) . NOTE : Sometimes a miter box is
made with one side wider than the other; in assembling such a
box the sides are made even at the top, thus allowing one side to
extend slightly below the bottom. This part can be held in the
vise or against the edge of the bench top to hold the box solid when
in use.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

PICTURE FRAME CLAMP.

1. In assembling any kind of mitered frame a clamping de-
vice is very necessary. In the suggestions you will see the plan
for a clamp which has a number of advantages. It can be used on
almost any sized picture frame by adjusting the hand screws. It
also affords an opportunity to resaw the miter joints if any of
them require it.

129

PICTURE
FRAME

MATERIALS.

Oak, plain or quartered

(Chap. III., Par. 29).

2 pcs. %"x2"x22" S 2 S
2 pcs. 5/8"x2"xl8" S 2 S
12-1 Vi" brads.
2 screw eyes, No. 114.
Wire picture cord, 28".

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

Ever since pictures have been used as a means of decoration
in the home of man the problem of providing suitable and artistic
frames for their protection has been a matter of much study. A
great many men spend their entire time making designs for pic-
ture frames and framing materials.

It would be almost impossible to give any rules which would
serve as an absolute guide in designing all kinds of picture frames,
but there are a few general principles which may be kept in mind.
Frames should not be gaudy nor over decorative so as to detract
from the picture. They should harmonize in size and color effect
with the tone of the picture contained.

In order to become expert in the art of picture framing one
would need to make a very careful study of interpretation of pic-
tures.

References :

Picture Framing in Design and Construction in Wood, Noyes. Manual
Arts Press, Peoria, 111.

How to Study Pictures, Chas. H. Caffin. The Baker-Taylor Co., New
York.

Picture Study in Elementary Schools, Wilson. Macmillan Co., New York.

A Child's Guide to Pictures, Chas. H. Caffin. The Baker-Taylor Co.,
New York.

The Book of Art for Young People, Conway. Adam & Black, publish-
ers, London.

Famous Pictures, Barstow. The Century Co., New York.

How to Enjoy Pictures, Emery. Book Supply Co., Chicago.

Mounting and Framing of Pictures, Hasheck. Book Supply Co., Chicago.

U. S. Bulletin No. 358, Second Primer of Forestry.

5-Voc.

130

PICTURE. FRAME

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SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL P5SIGH

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STRIPS USED TO FORM RABBET

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JOINTS SOMETIMES USED

131

PICTURE FRAME SPECIFICATIONS

PREPARING THE STOCK.

Although your material is furnished S 2 S, it will be neces-
sary for you to resurface it lightly with a very sharp plane. This
will remove the marks of the machine planer with which it was
originally dressed. Select the best surface and smooth it as di-
rected for the working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Care-
fully plane one edge for a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph
4). With the marking gauge (Chapter II., Paragraph 6), or with
the ruler and pencil (Chapter II., Paragraph 7), gauge the width
on both surfaces ; carefully plane to the gauge lines.

FORMING THE RABBETS.

In picture frame material it is necessary to form a rabbet to
receive the glass and the picture. If you have a regular rabbet
plane, use it for this work ; if not, you may use the grooving side
of your matching plane; that is the side of the plane which has
the single blade. Try this on a scrap of material until you see
just how it can be done; a little experimenting will enable you to
do it satisfactorily.

CUTTING THE LENGTH OF SIDES AND ENDS.

If you have some special picture which you desire to frame,
you should measure it and cut the lengths of your pieces to suit it.
If not, you may follow the sizes given in the drawing.

The frame is to be joined at the corners with mitered joints;
these are to be cut in the miter box which you have made. If you
did not make the miter box ana there is one provided in the shop,
you may use it or lay out the half pitch cut (Chapter II., Para-
graph 25) and then saw this angle by hand. This will be a little
difficult, but if you are careful you can do it perfectly. After lay-
ing out the half-pitch cut once it is well to set the T-bevel to this
angle and lay out the other pieces from the T-bevel. Remember,
that in a rectangular frame opposite sides must be exactly the same
length. The least variation will throw the frame out of square and
ruin the joints.

ASSEMBLING.

The joints are to be assembled with brads driven through the
outside corners. This must be done with extreme care; you must
not attempt to use large brads (Chapter II., Paragraph 21).
NOTE : Before attempting to nail together the joints of the picture
frame, lay it flat on your bench top or some other level surface to
make sure that the joints will fit. This will determine whether

132

opposite sides are exactly the same length and whether the joints
are cut at a perfect half -pitch.

Sometimes in assembling a mitered frame mechanics nail to-
gether three joints, and if the last joint does not quite fit, they
bring it as close together as possible, clamp it on the bench top
with a scrap board under it and saw through the joint. The clamp
holds the material from slipping, and the sawing through the joint
makes it fit ; it can then be brought together perfectly.

NOTE : In the miter box lesson a very excellent clamp for as-
sembling frames is shown. This clamp makes it possible for a
saw cut to be made in any joint that may require it.

FINISHING.

After the frame is assembled, with a very sharp steel scraper
(Chapter II., Paragraph 16), carefully smooth the outside sur-
face; smooth all of the joints perfectly. If desirable, the outside
corners of the frame may be slightly rounded or chamfered to suit
your taste. With a piece of fine sandpaper (Chapter II., Paragraph
17), carefully smooth all of the surfaces. Stain the frame a desir-
able color to correspond with the picture with which it is to be
used (Chapter IV., Paragraph 54). The picture frame should be
given a coat of filler (Chapter II., Paragraph 55) ; one or two coats
of shellac may be substituted, if you do not have the filler. Finish
with shellac (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57) or with wax (Chapter
IV., Paragraph 56).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

FLY SCREEN.

1. The principle of a rectangular frame, assembled with plain
mitered joints, is frequently and practically applied in the con-
struction of a window screen. Measure a window at home and
make a screen for it ; stock ?/8"x2" or 21/4" is heavy enough for an
average sized screen ; any kind of soft wood is suitable ; join with
corrugated nails ; after the screen wire is tacked on, trim with thin
strips or flat moulding.

HALL RACK.

2. A very attractive hall rack may be constructed on almost
exactly the same principles as the picture frame ; it should be made
considerably heavier, and might have two or more cross mullions.
The central frame should contain a mirror; artistic hooks of a de-
sirable size and design should be properly placed on the frame and
mullions.

133

DISHCLOTH RACK

MATERIALS.

Poplar (Chap. III., Par. 42) or any
strong wood.

1 pc. 5/8"x6i/2"x 7" S 2 S Back.

2 pcs. 5/8"x3 "x 7" S 2 S Top and bot-

tom.

5 pcs. 7/8"x %"x21" S 4 S Hanger.
1 pair tight pin hinges l%"xl" (with

screws) .

6-1%" No. 10 R. H. blue screws.
1 screen door hook and eye.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

Standards of cleanliness and sanitation demand that dish-
cloths should be properly cared for by being washed and dried.
This means that some convenient method should be provided for
thoroughly airing and drying the dishcloths. The old-time method
of stretching a line across the room did the work very satisfac-
torily but was extremely inconvenient.

This dishcloth rack provides the means of hanging dishcloths
in good condition and yet does not take up unnecessary room, be-
cause it can be unhooked and allowed to hang down out of the way
when not in use. This rack should be hung on the wall near the
stove or heat pipe.

References :

Home-Made Fireless Cooker, U. S. Bulletin No. 296.

How to Make an Ice Box, Radford's Details of Construction. Radford

Architectural Co., Chicago, 111.
North American Forests and Forestry, Brucken. G. P. Putnam's Sons.

134

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DISHCLOTH RACK

SUGGESTIONS FOP ORIGINAL PES16N

No. I

[ ^-Pffjifio/7 When Closed

135

DISH CLOTH RACK SPECIFICATIONS

THE BACK.

Select the best surface of the back piece, and mark this the
working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2) , as it is already S 2 S you
will not need to resurface it. Prepare a working edge (Chapter
II., Paragraph 4). Lay out the design for the back (if you care
to, you may make an original design for this piece) and saw it out;
carefully plane all of the edges, making them perfectly square.
Locate and bore the hole for the hanging screw (Chapter II., Para-
graph 9) ; if desired, two screws may be used in order to hold the
back perfectly solid ; they should be placed one above the other so
as to strike a stud when fastened to the wall.

THE TOP AND BOTTOM PIECES.

Select the best surface of the top piece and mark it the work-
ing face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Carefully plane a working
edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). With the compasses set at the
proper radius ; lay out the shape of the top piece. In like manner
lay out the bottom piece. With the coping or compass saw, saw
just outside the line. With a sharp block plane, or wood file, make
these edges perfectly smooth and square with the working face.
Notice that the length of the bottom piece must be exactly the
same as the width of the back piece to which it is to be fastened
with hinges. Hinge the bottom piece onto the back, as illustrated
in the drawing. In setting a hinge, a gain should be cut in each
piece deep enough to receive the hinge leaf, so it will be level with
the wood.

THE HANGER STRIPS.

You will probably have to rip these strips from stock. To do
this, select a working face on your stock (Chapter II., Paragraph
2) , plane a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4) ; gauge the
desired width on both surfaces (Chapter II., Paragraph 6) . Rip
just outside the gauge lines, and plane to the lines. In like man-
ner rip out and plane the required number of strips. In prepar-
ing one of the hanger strips, first plane it perfectly square, the de-
sired size (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3 and 4) , then plane it to the
proper taper. With the lead pencil and finger, gauge for the cham-
fer on each corner (Chapter II., Paragraph 8). As the chamfer
does not extend the full length of the strip, you cannot complete it
with the plane. You will have to use a pocketknife or drawing-

136

knife. Chamfer all of the corners equally so the end will be an
octagon in shape. Be sure to leave the corners distinct and
straight. In like manner prepare all the hanger strips. Near the
larger end of each hanger strip bore holes for the screws (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 9). Be sure the holes for the screws are large
enough to allow the screws to pass through freely.

ASSEMBLING.

Notice that the center hanger strip is to be made stationary
by having two screws. Each of the other strips will have but one
screw. Fasten the center strip first, then place the other strips
in position and lay out for the boring. Bore through the top with
the same sized bit with which you bored through the hanger strips.
Use a smaller bit to bore in the bottom piece, for the screws must
tighten in it. After all the work is assembled, make sure that all
the strips will spread easily. If they will not, remove the screws,
and very slightly plane any of the strips which are too tight.
When raised ready for use, the rack is to be held in position by
a small hook and screw eye, as shown in the drawing; this hook
should be sufficiently tight to hold the hangers rigid in a hori-
zontal position; it may be tightened or loosened by turning the
screw eye. It will require careful work to get this project proper-
ly assembled. You may have to experiment and adjust it some-
what.

FINISHING.

With a sharp scraper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16), wood file
and sandpaper, remove all pencil or tool marks ; see that the work
is perfectly smooth all over. It should be finished with shellac
(Chapter IV., Paragraph 57).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

WASH CLOTH RACK.

1. Suggestion No. 1 shows a very convenient plan of construct-
ing a hanger which is particularly suited to the lavatory for a
wash cloth rack. For this purpose it should be finished with white
enamel.

DISH TOWEL RACK.

2. No. 2 in the suggestion presents a simple plan for a folding
rack. This will be particularly suitable in places where room is
limited. It should be made of hard wood and neatly finished.

137

BOOK SHELVES

MATERIALS.

Yellow Pine (Chap. III., Par. 48) or Oak,

plain or quartered (Chap.

III., Par. 29).

5 pcs. %"x734"x33" S2S Shelves.

2 pcs. %"x73/4"x52" S 2 S Sides.

3 dozen 6d finishing nails.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

To insure proper protection and arrangement of books, they
should be kept in some sort of bookcase or shelves. Since a book-
case is rather expensive, a very satisfactory substitute can be
provided by neatly made shelves. If desired these shelves may
be provided with curtain rods and a curtain to protect the books
from the dust.

While cabinet wood is preferable for this purpose, yet if the
workmanship is carefully executed a very satisfactory shelf can
be made from soft wood, particularly of yellow pine. The stain
and finish should be made to correspond with the other furniture
of the room in which the shelves are to be placed.

References :

Easy to Make Furniture, Crater and Holt. The National Builder, Chi-
cago, 111.

Woodworking for Amateur Craftsmen. The National Builder, Chicago,
111.

Bench Work in Wood, Goss. Ginn & Co.

Wood and Forest, Noyes. Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 111.

138

-32-

BOOKSHELVES

w
$

•frH

£ih -i

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESIGN

NOJ

139

BOOK SHELVES SPECIFICATIONS

THE SIDES.

Select the best surface and mark it the working face (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 2). Prepare a working edge (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 4.) On a long piece of material of this kind
planing the edges will require very careful work. With the mark-
ing gauge (Chapter II., Paragraph 6), or with the pencil and ruler
(Chapter II., Paragraph 7), gauge the width of the side pieces on
both surfaces; carefully plane to the gauge lines. Be sure that
all edges are perfectly square. In like manner prepare the second
side piece.

Lay out the bottom and top ends of one side piece, as shown
in the drawing, or according to your own design. If you use an
original design, first draw it on paper, then lay it out on your ma-
terial. Carefully saw just outside the lines. With a wood file
and block plane finish the edges, making them perfectly square
and smooth. Make the second side just like the first.

Lay out the spaces for the shelves with the try-square ; square
these lines across the working face ; lay out the gains on each side
piece (Chapter V., Paragraph 61). The width of the gains is de-
termined by the thickness of the shelves, for they must fill the
gains snugly. It is well to lay out the gains a very little smaller
than required, so you may thin the ends of the shelves slightly
with a steel scraper, if necessary, in assembling. Use this piece
as a pattern in laying out the gains on the other side piece. These
gains must be exactly the same distance apart, or the shelves will
not be level when the work is assembled.

THE SHELVES.

Select the best surface of one shelf, and mark it the working
face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Plane one edge for a working
edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Gauge the width on both sur-
faces (Chapter II., Paragraphs 6 or 7) ; carefully plane to the
gauge lines; square one end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5). Lay out
and cut the length, as indicated in the drawing. Prepare all the
shelves in the same manner. If you desire you may change the
length to suit your needs, but be sure all the shelves are exactly
the same length.

SURFACING.

Before the work is assembled, each piece should be carefully
resurfaced with a sharp plane set to take a thin shaving. This

140

will remove the marks left by the planing mill. All surfaces must
then be finished with a sharp steel scraper to remove plane marks
(Chapter II., Paragraph 16) ; the final smoothing should be done
with very fine sandpaper (Chapter II., Paragraph 17).

ASSEMBLING.

This work is to be assembled with finishing nails driven
through the outside surface of the side pieces. Be very careful
not to bruise the material. The nails should be uniformly spaced
so, if the places where they are driven show, they will not mar
the appearance of your work. Use the hammer as shown in Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 21. With a nail set drive all nails slightly be-
low the surface of the wood. The holes may be filled with putty,
colored to match the stain you intend to use; or by careful work
you may be able to cover them satisfactorily by putting a tiny
drop of glue in each hole and sandpapering over it, allowing the
wood dust to mix with the glue and fill the hole.

FINISHING.

With a piece of fine sandpaper remove all pencil and tool
marks. Stain the desired color (Chapter IV., Paragraph 54). If
your book shelves are made of oak, a filler should be used (Chap-
ter IV., Paragraph 55). Finish with shellac (Chapter IV., Para-
graph 57), wax (Chapter IV., Paragraph 56), or varnish. (Chap-
ter IV., Paragraph 58).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

PANTRY SHELVES.

1. The plan of shelf construction presented in this lesson is
very suitable for the construction of shelves in the pantry. The
length and spacing of the shelves should be determined by local
conditions.

HARDWARE CABINET.

2. For small hardware, such as nails, screws and sundries, a
very simple but serviceable cabinet may be prepared by construct-
ing a series of shelves on the plan given in this lesson. For the
sake of economy, discarded cigar boxes could be used for drawers,
the shelves being conveniently spaced to suit them.

141

SLED

MATERIALS.
Poplar (Chap. III., Par. 42)

2 pcs. s^-xS^/'xSG" S 2 S
Runners.

2 pcs. l"x2"xlli/2" S2S
Cross braces.

Ipc. 3/8"x9i/2"x22" S2S
Top.

4-6d finishing nails.
_ 1 dozen 11/4" brads.

2 pcs. 5/16"x40" soft iron
rod or 2 pcs. %"x40"
strap iron for soles.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The sled represents one of the earliest used and simplest
methods of hauling". Wherever there is snow the sled is used in
a great many ways. Perhaps its most important use is in the lum-
ber regions, where it provides an easy means of hauling immense
loads of logs. The sled also furnishes a great means of sport and
it has a number of modifications, such as skees, toboggans and
the common hand sled, with which every boy is familiar.

References :

Library of Work and Play, Foster.

Scientific American Boy at School, A. Russel Bond.

A Back Yard Toboggan Slide, The Boy Craftsman, Hall. Lathrop, Lee

& Shepard, Boston.
Winter Sports, Library of Work and Play, Miller. Doubleday, Page &

Co., New York.
Boy's Book of Sports and Outdoor Life, Thompson. The Century Co.,

New York.
Ice Boats, Sleds and Toboggans, Scientific American Boy, Bond. Munn

& Co., New York.
The Outdoor Handy Book for Playground, Beard. Chas. Scribner's Sons,

New York.

142

Bl— ^r/sf- -H*S

rr.il'f //i/^Jiri

ffii*"i"~~/qr>fc

35f-

SLED

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESIGH

i Bos COASTER

HEAVY PRAY OR FARM SLEP

143

SLED SPECIFICATIONS

RUNNERS.

As this material is furnished S 2 S, it will not be necessary
for you to replane it. Select the best surface of one piece and
mark it the working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Plane one
edge perfectly straight for a working edge (Chapter II., Para-
graph 4). Gauge the width of the runners (Chapter II., Para-
graphs 6 or 7). Plane to the gauge line. Lay out the shape of
the front and of the rear curves ; with the coping or compass saw
saw just outside these lines. Smooth the edges with a block plane
and wood file; make the edges perfectly square. In like manner
make the second runner.

Lay out the mortises (Chapter IV., Paragraph 67) for the
cross braces. These mortises should be laid out on both surfaces
of each runner so you may chisel part way from one side, and
the remainder from the other side. Be very careful not to get
the mortises too wide; the thickness of the cross braces must fill
them snugly. Lay out the holes for the hand holds. To make the
hand holes, bore two holes with the %" or 1" bit the proper dis-
tance apart to make the hole the desired length ; with the compass
saw saw from one hole to the other, and smooth with the wood
file.

THE CROSS BRACES.

Square the stock for one of the cross braces (Chapter II.,
Paragraphs 2, 3 and 4). Lay out the tenon (Chapter V., Para-
graph 67) the exact size of the mortise which you have cut in the
runner. Form the tenon by sawing just outside the gauge line
(Chapter II., Paragraph 14) ; make a tenon on each end. Prepare
the second brace in the same manner as the first. Be sure the
braces are exactly the same length between shoulders.

THE TOP.

The top is to be made of one wide board, although it may be
made of strips if preferred. If furnished S 2 S, it will not be
necessary to resurface this piece of material. Plane one edge per-
fectly straight and square (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). With the
pencil and ruler, gauge the width (Chapter II., Paragraph 7) ;
plane to the gauge line. Lay out the desired curves for the two
ends. Saw them out with the coping or compass saw, and smooth
the edges with the wood file.

144

ASSEMBLING.

Assemble the sled by driving the cross braces into the mor-
tises, and fastening each with a nail driven through the top edge
of the runner into the tenon. Space the top properly on the cross
braces, and with small nails, nail down through the top into each
cross brace. Space the nails uniformly (Chapter II., Paragraph
21).

THE SOLES.

The soles of this sled are to be made of round iron rods. Flat
soles are sometimes used, but the round soles are preferable if
carefully put on. With a gouge or chisel, slightly groove the rear,
and also the front curved portion of each runner. You should also
groove the top edge of each runner where the short turn of the
iron lies. Bend the rods the desired shape; this can be done by a
little careful work with a hammer and vise. When the rods are
the desired shape they will be held in position by the grooves
which you have just cut in the runners. NOTE : Flat strap iron
may be used for the soles, if you prefer ; it should be fastened with
screws. Bore a %" hole in the front of each runner to fasten the
rope. Sometimes a round cross rail is put in the front of a sled
at this place. It is usually undesirable in a coasting sled, but if
you care for it, it may be put in at the time the sled is assembled
by having it prepared and the holes bored.

FINISHING.

Paint or stain the sled the desired color. This will add to its
beauty (Chapter IV., Paragraph 52). As a sled is exposed to con-
siderable moisture, paint is the most serviceable finish. However,
a good oil stain will be satisfactory. An enamel paint will give a
beautiful and lasting finish.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

BOB COASTER.

1. The bob coaster shown in the first suggestion affords an
opportunity of employing the sled principle in a very elaborate
project. However, there is none of the construction that is par-
ticularly difficult. The steering device should be made of iron
pipe. It may be necessary to have this part of the work made at
a plumber's shop. The rest of the project will be very clear from
the drawing.

145

SAWHORSE

MATERIALS.

Beech (Chap. III., Par. 32) or
any hard wood.

1 pc. li/2"x334"x36i/2" S2S
Saddle.

4 pcs. 7/8"x33/4"x25" S2S

Legs.

2 pcs. 7/8"x5i/2"x 9" S 2 S
Braces.

24-li/2" No. 10 F. H. B. screws

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The sawhorse, sometimes called a trestle bench, is used to
hold material in a convenient position for sawing or for assem-
bling work. In handling long boards, usually two trestles of the
same height are used. They should be perfectly rigid so as to
hold the material solid while the work is being done.

The sawhorse shown in this lesson is a convenient size for
shop use. By observing the picture you will note that there is a
little notch block fastened on the sawhorse near one end ; this is to
serve as a substitute for a vise when you wish to do planing. If
you do not have a work bench at home you can easily make a
sawhorse like this and thus be able to do a great many pieces of
work about your home. If properly cared for it should be serv-
iceable for many years.

References :

The Young Mechanic, John Lukin. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York.
The Jack of All Trades, D. C. Beard. Chas. Scribner's Sons.
Practical Forestry, Fuller.

146

SAW HORSE.

—36"

Screws

h iff H

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGIML PESIGH

No.l

SUITABLE FOR LONG HORSE

No.2

NOTCHED LEG ADDS STRENGTH

147

SAW HORSE SPECIFICATIONS

THE SADDLE.

As this material is furnished S 2 S, it will not be necessary to
resurface it. Select the best surface, and mark it the working face
(Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Plane one edge perfectly square
Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Gauge the width (Chapter II., Para-
graphs 6 or 7) and plane to the gauge line. Square one end (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 5) . Measure, and cut the length. The gains to
receive the legs should not be laid out until after the legs have been
made.

THE LEGS.

If the material is furnished S 2 S it will not be necessary to
resurface the legs. Plane one edge perfectly square for a working
edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Gauge the width (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 6) ; plane to the gauge line. Cut the length about 25"
long (this will give a chance to recut the legs after the work is
assembled) .

CUTTING GAINS IN THE SADDLE.

The gains are to be cut in the saddle to receive the legs. These
should be cut so the legs will fit them perfectly. Hold one leg at
the proper slant (this is a matter for your judgment, after a study
of the drawing) and set the T-bevel. With the T-bevel lay out the
gains on the saddle. Gauge the depth of the gain on the top face
of the saddle. Notice that on the bottom face of the saddle the
gains lose their depth and come just to the lower edge of the mate-,
rial. Saw to these lines, and with a sharp chisel carefully cut
away the wood. In like manner prepare all the gains.

ASSEMBLING THE LEGS AND SADDLE.

Fasten the legs in place by means of screws. The holes in the
legs should be large enough to receive the body of the screws
freely, but not loosely. Countersink the holes so the heads of the
screws will come level with the surface.

THE BRACES.

Prepare the stock for the braces the proper width (Chapter
II., Paragraphs 2, 3, 4). Spread one pair of legs to their proper
position, and be sure that both legs stand at exactly the same
angle with the saddle. Hold a piece of the brace material in posi-
tion, and mark its shape by running a lead pencil along the outside

148

of each leg. With the T-bevel, test these two lines to make sure
they are the same angle; if they are not exactly the same, make
them so, and set the T-bevel. Saw out the two braces, making
them exactly alike. Bore holes for the screws (Chapter II., Para-
graph 9) .

In fastening the braces in position, regulate the angle of the
legs so they exactly fit the braces. NOTE: With a keen block
plane, plane the ends of the braces until they are exactly even with
the outside of the legs. There may be some little variation. Also
saw off the top of the legs exactly even with the top of the saddle,
and finish with a block plane. Set the saw horse on a level floor,
and with a pair of compasses, or with a ruler and lead pencil, mark
a line parallel with the floor entirely around each leg; saw off the
bottom of the legs to this line.

NOTCH BLOCK.

The notched block on the top of the saw horse is not neces-
sary for sawing purposes, but is quite convenient for holding small
pieces of material for planing and other tool operations.

For shop work saw horses are often used in pairs. However,
the one horse will give very good satisfaction for small work be-
cause the saddle is wide.

FINISHING.

With a sharp scraper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16), or sandpa-
per, remove all pencil and tool marks from the work, and finish
'with a coat of shellac (Chapter II., Paragraph 57).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

TABLE TRESTLE.

1. The plan of making a trestle, as shown in Suggestion
No. 1, will be very suitable as a support for a portable table. The
height may be determined by individual needs. A pair of such
trestles, with a wide board top, will afford a convenient portable
table for picnics, lawn parties or outdoor home canning work.

NOTE: There is almost no limit to the application of this
trestle principle. It may be used in the construction of temporary
stages and platforms, movable laboratory equipment, and many
other purposes about the home and school.

149

HATCHET AND
HAMMER
HANDLES

MATERIALS.

Hickory (Chap. III., Par.

39).

1 pc. ll/8" x !<%" x 14i/2"
rough (split).

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

Everybody is more or less familiar with the use of a ham-
mer, for there is possibly no one tool which is so generally em-
ployed in all kinds of work. The handle is usually the first part
of the hammer to wear out or break, and while a new handle can
be purchased at a very reasonable price, yet it is quite convenient
for a boy to be able to make a hammer handle. Most hammer
handles are broken by carelessness or abuse; this is not likely to
occur if one has had the experience of making a few handles.

Hammer handles should be made of clear, straight-grained
hickory, and if the material is properly selected a hand-shaved
handle is usually far superior to the machine-made handles which
are on the market.

References :

U. S. Farmer's Bulletin No. 347, The Repair of Farm Equipment.
The Lathe and Its Uses, Stories of Industries. G. P. Putnam's Sons.
The Repair of Farm Equipment, Scientific Am., June 5, 1909.
Farm Conveniences. Orange-Judd Co., New York.

150

HAMMER HANDLE

HtV

!«- -3--4

-t
T"

t?4"

£-"-"3 w-

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESI6H

Sole Leather

Afe/

CHISEL HANDLE

F/LE HANDLE

No. 3

MALLET

151

HATCHET AND HAMMER HANDLE
SPECIFICATIONS

The material for your hammer, or hatchet handle, is rough on
all sides, because it is split out of the log. The purpose in furnish-
ing split material is that you may get your handle perfectly straight
grained. The hammer handle cannot be laid out with a marking
gauge and try-square in the same way that you lay out most pieces
of work, because the completed handle does not have straight and
parallel edges. If you have a drawing knife in the shop, it will be
found the most convenient tool with which to do most of the cut-
ting.

It would be well to square this stock to the largest size shown
in the drawing (Chapter II., Paragraphs 1, 2, 3, 4). In any kind
of shaved work you must be very careful not to cut against the
grain, or the wood will tear and be very rough. This is particularly
true in making a handle. After you get the stock squared, so it is
thick enough for the thickest dimension of the drawing, and wide
enough for the widest place, you should then block it out with the
drawing knife or plane, or pocket knife, by cutting away the cor-
ners and making it approach the shape of the handle. You must
be very careful not to cut it too small at any point, or to allow any
of the shavings to cut in too deeply by following the grain.

Making the final shape of the handle is largely a matter of
judgment, and you will show your skill by shaving out the handle
to the desired shape, and bringing it to the dimensions at all of the
points shown in the drawing.

FINISHING.

After you have made the shape of the handle, and have it
almost the desired dimensions, it should be finished with a sharp
steel scraper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16) ; it may be scraped with
a pocket knife, or a piece of glass. The purpose of the scraping is
to remove all marks made by the cutting tools, and to make the
surface perfectly smooth all over. In the scraping process it may
be necessary to scrape part way from one direction, and the re-
mainder from the other direction, to avoid tearing the grain. The
final smoothing should be done with fine sandpaper, sandpapering
the direction of the grain. After it is completed give it a good
coating of linseed oil.

152
FITTING THE HANDLE INTO THE HAMMER OR HATCHET.

The handle should be carefully shaved, and fitted into the
eye of the hammer or hatchet, whichever it may be. In shaving
the handle, make it fit the eye snugly at all points, taper it suffi-
ciently so that it will reach through the eye and extend a little on
the other side. After it has been well fitted, and driven in per-
fectly tight, examine it carefully to be sure that the hammer or
hatchet hangs properly on the handle. Then either split or saw
the end of the handle which extends, and drive in hard wood
wedges to hold it securely in position. Saw the handle off even
with the tool, and finish smoothly with a wood file. The other end
of the handle may be sawed and slightly rounded, and smoothed
with the wood file and sandpaper. When the handle is entirely fin-
ished, it should have a final coating of linseed oil. An occasional
coat of linseed oil on hammer handles will cause them to wear
smoothly.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

MATTOCK OR PICK HANDLE.

1. The principle of the shaved handle can be applied to a great
number of tools about the shop, home or farm. The mattock or pick
handle is almost identical with the hammer handle, except in size.

CHISEL OR FILE HANDLE.

2. A very excellent chisel or file handle may be hand-shaved.
The size and detail of shape are largely matters of personal taste.

HOE OR RAKE HANDLE.

3. The hoe or rake handle differs from the other handle prob-
lem but little, except in length.

153

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMMUNITY RESEARCH.

No. 1. Are there any mills of any kind run by water power
anywhere in your community? Make inquiry and find out some
of the advantages and disadvantages connected with the use of
water power.

No. 2. What kind of flowers should be selected for a window
flower box? What kind of dirt would you select and how would
you prepare it for a window flower box?

No. 3. Visit a shop or hardware store and examine a patent
miter box. What advantage does this miter box have over the
wood miter box which you made in the shop? How does it com-
pare with your handmade box in price?

No. 4. Examine the picture frames in your home and see if
you can tell of what kind of wood they are made. How are the-
joints made?

No. 5. Visit a carpenter's or cabinet-maker's shop and ask
the man in charge to show you the different kinds of planes which
he uses. You may be able to find some of the old-fashioned wood
stock planes in your community. By inquiry from some of the
carpenters, find out what advantages modern all-steel planes have
over the old-fashioned wooden planes.

No. 6. For what practical purposes have you seen sleds used
in your neighborhood? Which will run more easily on snow, a
sled or a wagon? Discuss this matter with some of the teamsters
in your community and get their opinions.

No. 7. Make a very careful search about your home to see
how many articles you can find which are made of hickory; ex-
amine each one carefully and explain why hickory is selected for
that particular purpose. Do you know of any objections to the
use of hickory for frame material in a house?

No. 8. At what season of the year should shade trees be
trimmed? From the study of the references and inquiries which
you may make of practical men, what do you think would be the
result of trimming shade trees very closely during the hot, dry
summer months?

No. 9. Examine the ironing board used in your home to see
whether it folds easily. If you find any faults in its construction,
remedy them.

No. 10. Visit an art store or gallery and study the pictures ;
note the kind of frames used on the different pictures. Ask the
person in charge to explain why different types of frames are
used on certain pictures.

154
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS.

1. Why is it necessary to square the stock before attempting
to lay out work which is made up of circles or curves ?

2. In assembling with screws, how large should the hole in
the first piece of material be ?

3. What are the important principles to be observed in mak-
ing a rectangular box?

4. How do you lay out the angle in making a miter box?

5. What are some of the advantages in the use of corrugated
nails?

6. Name and explain the construction of three pieces of work
which could be assembled satisfactorily with corrugated nails.

7. How deep should the gains be cut in setting a hinge?

8. How can you adjust a screen door hook that is either too
tight or too loose?

9. In building shelves, what is the advantage of the gained,
or housed, joint?

10. Why will a sled with round soles coast more readily than
one with flat soles?

11. Why should the saddle of a long trestle be turned edge-
wise?

12. What is the advantage of a notched block on a saw horse?

13. Why is a shaved hammer or hatchet handle stronger and
better than one turned by machinery?

14. How many board feet of material in the Sleeve Board?
What is the cost of the material (including the screws) ?

15. Counting your time at 121/2 cents per hour, what is the
work on your Sleeve Board worth?

16. Count your time and material and estimate the value of
each article made in this section.

17. If you should repeat any project which you have already
made, how much time do you think you could save without slight-
ing the work? Why is this true?

18. If you should undertake to make a dozen of any one les-
son, would it require twelve times as long as to make one? Why?

19. How would you manage your work if you had the task of
making six window screens all just alike? What are the advan-
tages in doing it as you suggest? Why would you not make one
complete before cutting the stock for any of, the others ?

20. Why can a factory, which is making articles by the thou-
sand, produce them much cheaper than a man who simply makes
one or two by hand ?

155

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS (Concluded).

21. At what angle do you cut the pieces in making a picture
frame or window screen?

22. Haw many paddles are necessary on a water wheel?
Why?

23. Why should the inside of a flower box be painted?

24. How many board feet of material required to make the
book shelves?

25. What would be the difference in expense of oak and pine
in the material for the book shelves?

26. Are hatchet and hammer handles made exactly the same
shape? Can you explain the difference?

27. What is the advantage in making a dish cloth rack so it
will fold?

28. How much time was required to make the dish cloth
rack ? What was the cost of the material ?

29. Can you explain why some articles are rather expensive
even though they do not contain much material?

30. What two things must be considered in figuring the cost
of a completed article?

156

INTRODUCTION TO SECTION IV

THIS section presents a number of modifications and develop-
ments of tne elementary tool processes and principles set
forth in the earlier sections. Students who have success-
fully accomplished the work of the first half of this book, or its
equivalent, are sufficiently grounded in the fundamentals of shop
work to be able to exercise considerable judgment not only in the
choice of projects to be undertaken, but also in incorporating
original ideas and personal tastes in the designs.

The projects of this section are so varied in nature and func-
tion, as well as in amount and expense of materials, that there
should be no difficulty in appealing to the immediate interest of
every member of any class. While the projects do not all present
the same mechanical principles, yet they deal with forms of con-
struction which the students should be capable of handling.

Some students will desire to make some of the smaller proj-
ects, which give an opportunity for artistic expression. The can-
dlestick, vase and hand mirror are particularly suitable for prac-
tice along this line. A study of the references given under these
lessons will guide to the proper conception of motive and design.
Other students of a more practical turn of mind may be interested
in making projects which will be useful about the home or farm ;
such lessons will, of course, necessitate a little more expense on
account of the amount of material used, but when the value of
the finished article is considered the making of usable projects is
quite economical.

No attempt is made in this section to introduce principles of
cabinet construction; however, the simple box type is employed
in some of the projects and the fundamental principles of making
opposite sides exactly equal and of assembling parts perfectly
square should be carefully impressed.

In practical drawing work students should be able to make
a simple sketch and to prepare regular three-view drawings of
projects to be undertaken in the shop.

Before leaving this section all students should appreciate the
value of keeping their tools in good order and should be able to
sharpen the edge tools, such as chisels and plane blades, with
considerable skill.

157

WASH BENCH

MATERIALS.

Cypress (Chap. III., Par.

46) or any soft wood.

Ipc. 7/8"xl3l/2"x35i/2" S2S

Top.
2 pcs. 7/8"xll3/4"xl8i/2" S2S

Legs.
2 pcs. 7/8"x4"x34" S2S

Skirt boards.
21/2 doz. 8d finishing nails.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

Although washing machines are quite generally used, the
washtub has a place in home laundry work, and for that reason
it is necessary to provide some sort of bench for it.

The wash bench shown in this lesson is a convenient size to
accommodate one tub and leave some room at the side for other
purposes. The slot in the top of the bench is to serve as a hand
hold, enabling one to move it from place to place with the use of
one hand. The height of the bench is largely a matter of choice
with the person who is to use it. The general plan of this bench
is the same as should be used in constructing a substantial bench
for other purposes. The length, height and width can be changed
to suit the purpose for which the bench is intended.

References :

U. S. Bulletin No. 607, The Farm Kitchen As a Workshop.

With the Men Who Do Thinsrs, A. Russel Bond.

U. S. Bureau of Forestry, Bulletins No. 22, 30, 36.

The Story of Lumber, Bassett. The Penn Pub. Co., Philadelphia.

L58

. rH • i I

WASH BENCH

\ ;
\ i

\ 1 1

SU66E.ST10NS FOR OR/SINAL PESISH

Jr^/ve tore// «»? OUTSIDE USE

* *•

jsiikJ

CAMP OR PICNIC TABLE WITH BEHCH LEGS DRIVEH INTO THE GROUND

159

WASH BENCH SPECIFICATIONS

THE LEGS.

As this material is furnished S 2 S, it will not be necessary
to resurface it. Select the best side for the working face (Chapter
II., Paragraph 2). Prepare a working edge (Chapter II., Para-
graph 4). Prepare a working end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5). Lay
out the shape and dimension of one of the legs as given in the draw-
ing. Carefully cut this leg to these lines. Be sure that all edges are
planed perfectly straight and square. In like manner lay out, and
make the second leg. Do not cut the gains in the top ends of the
legs to receive the skirt board until after the skirt board has been
prepared.

THE SKIRT BOARD.

Square the stock for the skirt board (Chapter II., Paragraphs'
1, 2, 3 and 4) . Lay out and cut the skirt board the desired shape
and dimension as given in the drawing. In like manner prepare the
second skirt board. Notice that the gains in the top ends of the
legs are to be cut just wide enough and deep enough to receive the
skirt board.

You may lay out these gains, making them just that size. The
depth of the gains may be laid out with the marking gauge by set-
ting it to the thickness of the skirt board. Saw out these gains,
using the back saw to saw down to the gauge line, and the rip saw
to rip them down. Prepare all four gains in the same manner.

THE TOP.

Select the best surface for the working face (Chapter II., Para-
graph 2) ; prepare a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4) ; pre-
pare a working end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5) . Lay out and make
this the size indicated in the drawing. If inconvenient to get a
board wide enough to make the top in one piece, two or more pieces
may be used by joining them with dowels (Chapter V., Paragraph
72). By using battens on the under side, the top may be made of
strips with uniform cracks left between them.

The hole in the top of the bench will afford a place for the hand
in picking it up. This will make it possible to handle the bench
easily with one hand. Lay out and cut this hole. You may easily
do this by boring two 1-inch holes the correct distance apart, and
sawing out between them with a compass saw (Chapter II., Para-
graph 9).

160

ASSEMBLING.

The bench is to be assembled with nails. The skirt boards
are to be nailed in position on to the legs. This might be done
first. With the steel square, test carefully to make sure that the
legs stand exactly at right angles to the edge of the skirt board.
Nail both skirt boards securely in position, carefully testing all
angles to see that they are square. The top is to be nailed down
through into the skirt board, and into the ends of the legs. See
that the top is evenly divided, letting it extend the same distance
on each end, and on each edge. Nail it in position, being very
careful not to bruise it with the hammer (Chapter II., Paragraph
21) . In any kind of work where the heads are to show, nails should
be uniformly spaced.

FINISHING.

With a sharp steel scraper remove all pencil and tool marks.
The nails may be set and puttied, if so desired. As this bench is
to be used for laundry purposes, it will no doubt often be wet, and
for that reason will need a coating of paint to protect it against
the moisture (Chapter IV., Paragraph 52). If you are not sup-
plied with paint, it might be given a coating of oil stain (Chapter
IV., Paragraph 54). This will serve the purpose very well. A
coating of shellac might be added; it will help to harden the sur-
face, thus making it more durable (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57) .

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

OUTDOOR STATIONARY BENCH.

1. The principles of bench construction can be applied in an
unlimited number of ways for practical purposes. Suggestion No. 1
shows a very serviceable plan for the construction of a strong out-
door bench for any kind of general service about the barn or dairy.

PICNIC BENCH.

2. It is often necessary to construct a bench and table for
camping, picnic or lawn festival purposes. The idea given in the
suggestion will be found very practicable. It represents a very
easy and economical plan, for the stakes are simply driven into the
ground ; thus the bench does not require much material in the way
of braces.

161

NAIL OR SCREW TRAY

MATERIALS.

Poplar (Chap. III., Par. 42)

or any soft wood.
2 pcs. y2"x&A"xIG" S 2 S

Bottom.
2 pcs. !/2"x3i4"xl6i/2" S 2 S

Sides.
2 pcs. i/2"x3i/4"xlli/2" S 2 S

Ends.
1 pc. i/2"x5"x!6" S2S

Middle partition.
4 pcs. i/2"x3"x 5i/2" S 2 S

Partitions.
2i/2 doz. li/2" Brads.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

Nails and screws of various sizes are almost constantly in
demand for odd jobs about the home and the farm. For this rea-
son every home should be provided with some sort of convenient
place to keep a few nails and screws for emergencies. It is not
uncommon to find a large box containing a promiscuous lot of all
sizes of nails, screws and other small hardware usually quite
rusty and dirty. This method of caring for those things render
them almost worthless for good workmanship.

The purpose of this lesson is to present a means of keeping
nails and screws handy for use and also making it possible to
have them classified and kept in separate bins. The tray may be
divided into as many compartments as desirable. It is well to
have one tray for nails and a separate one for screws.

References :

Nails and Screws, How We Are Housed, Carpenter. American Book Co.
Nail Making, Stories of Industries, Chase and Clow. Educational Pub.

Co.
Every Man His Own Mechanic, Barnard. Fredrick A. Stokes Co., New

York.

6-Voc.

162

HAIL & SCREW TRAY

1
I

1 1
II

1
|

II '

1 |

(--

LI i

.1 1

•16'

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIQIHAL D5SI6H

'— M--N

\ H ;

1
1

"if"

}.,

M
II

fio.i
PEEP TRAY

tio.2

KNIFE

163

NAIL OR SCREW TRAY SPECIFICATIONS

As this material is furnished S 2 S, it will not be necessary for
you to resurface it.

THE SIDES.

Select the best surface of one of the side pieces for a working
face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Square this stock (Chapter II.,
Paragraphs 4, 5), and lay out the side the size and shape shown
in the drawing. Carefully cut this piece, and plane all the edges
perfectly straight and square. In like manner prepare the oppo-
site side. Compare the two sides to make sure they are exactly
the same width and length.

THE ENDS.

Square the stock for one of the ends (Chapter II., Paragraphs
2, 3, 4, 5) . Lay out and cut one end the size and shape shown in
the drawing. In like manner square the other end. Make sure
that the opposite ends are exactly the same length and width.

THE HANDLE PARTITION.

The main central partition is also to serve for the handle, so
it must be laid out wide enough to extend sufficiently above the
side pieces to form the handle, as shown in the drawing. Square
this piece of stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5). Lay out
and make it the shape and dimensions shown in the drawing. (If
you care to, you may modify the design for the handle) .

THE BOTTOM.

The bottom may be made of two pieces of material, in which
case the joint should come exactly under the central partition. This
will prevent the joint from showing from the top side of the work
when it is completed ; it should, however, be carefully done. Square
the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5) ; lay out and execute
the dimensions shown in the drawing.

THE PARTITIONS.

Square the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5) for the
partitions. Plane the material the right width; the lengths of
these partitions may be cut after the rest of the box is assembled.
This will give you a chance to measure the length of each parti-
tion, and make it fit perfectly, even if there happens to be a little
variation.

164

ASSEMBLING.

The box is to be assembled with brads (Chapter II., Para-
graph 21). Nail the end pieces on to the ends of the bottom piece.
Make sure that th,ey are exactly even at the outside edges so that
when the side pieces come on, they will strike the bottom piece and
also the ends. If they are not exactly even, plane them so. Nail
the side pieces in position, making sure they are perfectly square
with the ends. Test frequently with the try-square in assembling
the work. Nail the handle partition in position, and test with
the try-square to make sure it stands perpendicularly.

In cutting the short partitions, make them just long enough
to fit snugly between the handle partition and the sides. Do not
try to force them or they will spread the box out of shape. These
partitions are to be fastened in position by nailing through the bot-
tom and sides. The first two may be nailed through the handle
partition ; the last two will be difficult to nail, although a small brad
may be toe-nailed in the top edge of each, if desirable (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 22).

FINISHING.

With a keen block plane go over the outside of your work and
plane off any joints that may be uneven. Finish with sandpaper
(Chapter II., Paragraph 17). Stain this piece of work any desir-
able color (Chapter IV., Paragraph 54). If the wood is left un-
stained, it will soon become soiled, and will not be neat in appear-
ance. Finish with shellac (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

KNIFE AND FORK BOX.

1. By leaving out the cross partitions, and changing the gen-
eral design slightly to suit personal taste, a very convenient knife
and fork box may be constructed on this plan.

SEWING TRAY.

2. The principles set forth in this tray lesson may be em-
ployed in making sewing trays, particularly adapted to the needs
of school classes. By leaving out all the partitions, and changing
the size of the tray as local needs might demand, a very satisfactory
receptacle for sewing materials may be provided.

165

CANDLE-STICK f|

MATERIALS.

Oak, quartered (Chap. III., Par. 29
and 51).

Ipc. 7/8"x43/4"x43/4" S2S Base.

1 pc. Ii/2"xli/2"x4%" S 4 S Up-
right.

1 pc. %"xli/2"x4" S2S Han-
dle.

1 pc. %"x2"x2" S 2 S Top.

l-li/2" NO. 10 F. H. B. screw.

6-34" No. 17 Brads.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

In these days of modern means of lighting, gas and electricity
have completely supplanted the old-time use of the candle. This
old-fashioned way of lighting a home entirely by tallow candles
and of doing all our reading by such a light would now seem im-
possible, and while we never expect to return to this plan of
equipment, yet the candle-stick is a very popular and unique bit
of decoration in a modern home because of its historic interest.

The candle-stick presented in this lesson is the plain mission
style; it is intended to present simplicity of design. It will be
found quite appropriate for a Christmas or birthday present.

References :

The Chemical History of a Candle, Michael Farraday. Harper & Bros.,

Pub.
The Candlestick, Design and Construction in Wood, Noyes. Manual

Arts Press.

The Application of Ornament, Lewis F. Day.
Design in Theory and Practice, Ernest A. Batchelder.
Copper Work, Augustus Rose. Atkinson, Mentzer & Co., Chicago.

166

CANDLE STICK

4£- H

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL DESIGN

167

CANDLE STICK SPECIFICATIONS

THE BASE.

Even though this material is furnished S 2 S it should be care-
fully surfaced either with a very keen plane, or with the steel
scraper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16). In selecting the face side of
this class of material, select the side which has the most beautiful
grain appearance. Square the stock for the base (Chapter II., Para-
graphs 2, 3, 4, 5) . Lay out and execute the dimensions of the base
as indicated in the drawing. Make sure that all edges are perfect-
ly straight and square and that the base is absolutely square when
completed. All edges must be smooth. On the end grain you will
find this just a little difficult; it will require a very sharp block
plane, and much careful work. Be sure you do not splinter out the
edges as you plane the end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5).

THE UPRIGHT.

Although this piece of material is furnished S 2 S you should
carefully resurface every face of it with a steel scraper (Chapter
II., Paragraph 16) . The corners must be left perfectly distinct and
sharp. This is a straight line design, and if you should round the
corners of the upright, it would destroy the design of your candle
stick. Cut the upright the desired length. If you have a miter
box you will find it convenient for making this square cut. If not,
be sure to square it on all sides with the try-square and cut care-
fully to the line.

THE TOP.

Boring the hole in this top piece is a very delicate operation.
If you have a Forstner bit, it can be used for this purpose. If not,
an ordinary bit, if very sharp, will do the work satisfactorily, if
you will be very careful not to bore too rapidly. You can take
further precautions to prevent splitting by laying this small piece
on a scrap block of the same width, then tightening the two slight-
ly in your vise. Do not attempt to bore this hole entirely through
from one side (Chapter II., Paragraph 9) . After the hole is bored,
lay out and cut the material the size given in the drawing. Finish
the edges carefully with a wood file, or a block plane and sandpaper.
Make sure that all edges are perfectly square, and that the corners
are sharp and distinct.

THE HANDLE.

Square the stock for the handle (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2,
3, 4). Lay out the shape of the handle as shown in the drawing,

168

or any other design which you may desire. Whatever design you
use should have well-defined lines to correspond with the general
idea of the design of the candle stick. With the coping, or com-
pass saw, saw out the shape of the handle. Carefully finish with
the wood file and sandpaper, leaving all edges distinct and square.

ASSEMBLING.

This piece of work is to be assembled with screws and brads.
Fasten the upright to the base by a large screw up through the bot-
tom of the base. Bore the hole in the base large enough for the
screw to pass through freely (Chapter II., Paragraph 9). Make
sure this hole is bored exactly in the center of the base. You can
locate this center by drawing pencil lines across the bottom from
one corner to the other. Countersink this hole freely so the screw
will go slightly below the level of the baseboard. Also be sure that
the upright stands perfectly square when it is in position. Fasten
the top to the upright with four small brads in the corners. Make
sure that it projects equally on all sides of the upright.

The handle is to be fastened to the base and upright with
brads; holes should be made for the brads (with a very fine brad
awl) entirely through this piece of material, for it is very delicate.
You will have to use a fine-pointed nail -set to finish driving these
brads.

FINISHING.

The finishing on this piece of work is very important ; it must
therefore be done with great care. Stain it the desired color
(Chapter IV., Paragraph 54) ; finish with shellac (Chapter IV.,
Paragraph 57) or wax (Chapter IV., Paragraph 56).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

VASE.

The vase shown in the photograph will be found a very inter-
esting companion piece for this candle stick. You should make a
working drawing of your own for this piece of work. It will be
suitable for dry flowers, or to contain a small, glass vase of water
for a bouquet of fresh flowers.

169

HAND MIRROR

MATERIALS.

Mahogany (Chap. III., Par. 50),

Walnut (Chap. III., Par. 44),

Cherry (Chap. III., Par. 34),

Gum (Chap. III., Par. 37).

1 pc. 3/4"x6i4"xll" S2S
1-5" D bevel plate mirror.
1 pc. rattan i/8"x!6".

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

A small mirror is a convenient article for the dressing table
or the traveling bag. While there are innumerable kinds of hand
mirrors on the market, yet a hand-made one will be very much
appreciated because of its special personal interest.

This mirror should be made from one of the finer cabinet
woods, such as mahogany, gum, cherry or walnut. It must be
carefully executed so as to be free from all tool marks and must
have a fine finish or it will not be appropriate for the purpose in-
tended. This piece of work well done will make an especially at-
tractive gift.

References :

Glass Manufacture, Walter Rosenhain. D. Van Nostand Co.

The Making of Plate Glass, Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.

A Visit to a Glass Factory, How the World Is Housed, Carpenter. Amer-
ican Book Co.

Silvering Glass, C. C. Baly. Scientific Am. Sup., January 11, 1908.

Mirrors, Young Folks' Cyclopedia of Common Things, Champlin. Henry
Holt & Co.

Materials Used in Silvering Glass. Scientific Am. Sup., February 11,
1905.

170

HAND MIRROR

SUGGESTIONS FORORIGIHAL PESIGH

No.3

171

HAND MIRROR SPECIFICATIONS

Since this piece of material must be completely surfaced as
one of the last operations, it will not be necessary to resurface it
now. Prepare a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4) and a
working end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5). Make all measurements
from the working edge and working end, and lay out the entire
shape of the mirror.

With your compasses lay out the opening which is to be cut
to receive the mirror plate. (It would be well to measure the mir-
ror which you are to use to make sure that it is exactly the size
shown in the drawing). This opening for the mirror plate should
be cut as the first operation. If you have an expansive bit, this
hole can be easily cut with it. If you do not have one, lay out
the circle very carefully with the compasses, and with a sharp-
pointed knife trace this compass mark, cutting it as deeply as you
can conveniently; then with a sharp chisel cut away the wood in
the central part up to this line. This will have to be done with
extreme care, or you will chip out the edge beyond the compass
line and completely spoil the appearance of the work. Continue
cutting this compass line deeper and deeper as you cut away the
material in the central part, until you have reached the desired
depth. By studying the drawing you will notice that this line
should be cut back at an angle to receive the small piece of rattan
which holds the mirror in position.

After you have cut the opening the required depth and shape
to receive the mirror, saw out the other curves with a compass
or coping saw. You should be careful to have the edges perfectly
square. As all of these edges are to be rounded, the first opera-
tion would be to chamfer them equally all the way round. To do
this, gauge on all surfaces and all edges, using the pencil and finger
(Chapter II., Paragraph 8). This chamfering can be most satis-
factorily done with a sharp sloyd knife or pocket knife. This whit-
tling, however, must be done with great care, or you will split out
beyond the gauge line and mar your work. After the chamfering
has been completed, you should go entirely around the work again,
cutting away the remaining corners of the chamfer. This causes
the edge to approach the rounded shape. After as much work has
been done with the pocket knife as convenient, the wood file should
be used to complete the rounding. Ail edges should be made per-
fectly round and smooth. This portion of the work cannot be hur-
ried and must be carefully completed, after which all edges should
be sandpapered. The plan used in sandpapering a cylinder (Chap-

172

ter II., Paragraph 15) could be successfully used. All tool marks,
rough places and irregularities must be removed.

FASTENING THE MIRROR IN POSITION.

Cut a piece of blotting paper, or any other soft paper, the exact
size of the mirror; lay it in the bottom of the opening before put-
ting in the mirror; this will prevent the mirror from becoming
scratched. Press the mirror firmly in position, and cut the piece
of rattan long enough, so that when it is laid around the outside
edge of the mirror in position, it will fit perfectly tight. A little
glue should be placed in the joint which is to receive the rattan;
it should then be pressed closely in position. The work should be
left undisturbed for several hours for the glue to harden. Use but
little glue or it will ooze out and mar the surface of the work; if
any glue gets on the surface, it should be removed before it hardens.

FINISHING.

After all tool marks have been removed, and the work has
been made absolutely smooth, it should be finishad with shellac.
As this piece of work is made of fine cabinet wood, it possibly will
not be desirable to stain it. The French polish will be a very suit-
able finsh (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57) . In rubbing the work with
sandpaper or pumice stone and oil, be very careful not to rub the
glass, for these materials will scratch it. Do not leave this piece
of work until a beautiful polish is made.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

ROUND MIRROR.

1. A round mirror, as shown in the illustration at the open-
ing of this lesson, will be found very convenient as a part of a
traveling bag equipment.

ELLIPTICAL MIRROR.

2. An elliptical mirror may be made using the plan given in
this lesson. The ellipse may be laid out after the manner suggested
in supplementary problem P in the chapter on mechanical drawing.

173

FLOWER POT STAND

MATERIALS.

Yellow Pine (Chap. III.,

Par. 48) or any soft

wood.

2 pcs. 7/g"x5i/4"x35" S 2 S
Shelves.

1 pc. 7/8"x5l4"x44" s 2 S

Top.

2 pcs. 7/<j"x4i/2"x36" S 2 S
Legs.

3 pcs. 7/8"x4i/2"x35i/2" S 2 S Back 2 pcs. 7/8"x2i/2"x3" S 2 S Brack-
shelf, ets.

2 pcs. 7/8"x41/2"x24" S 2 S Legs. 5 dozen 6d finishing nails.

2 pcs. 7/8"x3"x5i/2" S 2 S Brack- 4 small castors.

ets. 8-1/2" corrugated nails.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

Many homes are made more cheerful and beautiful by keep-
ing a few pots of growing plants and flowers. Unless some spe-
cial way is provided to care for them there is considerable incon-
venience connected with the task.

The purpose of this flower pot stand is to provide a substan-
tial and satisfactory stand upon which the flower pots may be
placed where there will be no danger of their being knocked over.
It will also give the flowers a chance to be seen and to be moved
about conveniently.

This stand can be made any size to suit the room and the pur-
pose for which it is intended. A very large stand would be suit-
able for outdoor or porch use, while a smaller and more neatly
made one would be required for inside service. If the stand is
placed on castors it will be found a great convenience in moving
it from place to place for the purpose of sweeping or accommo-
dating the plants to the sunlight.

References :

U. S. Bulletin No. 113, Experimental Gardens and Grounds.
Garden Making, Bailey. The Macmillan Co., publishers.
How to Know Wild Flowers, W. S. Dana. Chas. Scribner's Sons.
Plants, J. M. Coulter. Appleton Pub. Co., New York.

174

FLOWER POT STAND

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESIGN

Ho. I

175

FLOWER POT STAND SPECIFICATIONS

THE LEGS.

As this material is furnished S 2 S it will not be necessary for
you to plane the surface. Select the best side for a working face
(Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Prepare a working edge (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 4). This angle for the legs is known as the half pitch
cut (Chapter V., Paragraph 75). This cut should be laid out as
explained in Chapter II., Paragraph 24. Cut all the legs the di-
mensions shown in the drawing.

THE SHELVES.

It will not be necessary to resurface this material. Prepare
a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4) and a squared end
(Chapter II., Paragraph 5). Cut the material the width and length
shown in the drawing. Make sure all the shelves are exactly the
same length.

THE TOP.

The top shelf should be long enough to project at each end,
as shown in the drawing. Since the ends of the top piece will be
exposed, they should be block planed (Chapter II., Paragraph 5),
and finished with sandpaper.

The side shelves should also have the ends block planed and
sandpapered.

THE BRACKETS.

Lay out one of the larger brackets the desired shape. (If you
wish you may make an original design.) With the coping or com-
pass saw, saw it out and with the wood file or block plane make all
edges perfectly straight and square. Be sure that the angle of
the bracket is a perfect right angle ; test it with the square. Using
this as a pattern, lay out and cut the other large bracket exactly
like it.

In similar manner design and make the required number of
small brackets.

ASSEMBLING.

The front legs are to be joined to the rear legs with corrugated
nails (Chapter II., Paragraph 23) .

The shelves are to be fastened in position by nailing through
the legs at each end of the shelf. Lay out and place the shelves
carefully so they will stand parallel ; nail them in position (Chap-

176

ter II., Paragraph 21). The top is to be nailed down through into
the legs. Th2 side shelves may be toe-nailed (Chapter II., Para-
graph 22) .

Test with the square to make sure that all angles are perfect,
then nail the brackets in position. If properly made and nailed,
these brackets will brace the stand securely.

Bore the holes for the castors. The castors need not be put
on until after the finishing is done; if they are put on before, care
must be exercised not to get any stain on them.

FINISHING.

With a sharp steel scraper remove all pencil or tool marks and i
make sure that the surface is perfectly smooth. The nails may
be driven slightly below the surface with a nail set. The holes
can be filled with putty. Stain the desired color (Chapter IV.,
Paragraph 54). Finish with one or two coats of shellac (Chapter
IV., Paragraph 57) or a coat of varnish (Chapter IV., Paragraph
58). NOTE: If the flower pot stand is to be used out of doors,
one or two coats of paint (Chapter IV., Paragraph 52) will be pref-
erable to the shellac or varnish, although a good coating of oil stain
would stand considerable outside wear.

. Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

RUSTIC FLOWER POT STAND.

1. A rustic flower pot stand is particularly suitable for the
porch or lawn. Suggestion No. 1 presents an idea for a combina-
tion stand and flower box. This idea may be modified in a great
many ways which will suggest themselves when the work is under-
taken.

PYRAMID STAND.

2. The shape of a flower pot stand may be modified to suit
one's personal taste. In suggestion No. 2 the idea of arranging
the flowers in a pyramid is presented.

177

BIRD HOUSE

1 pc. galv. iron I2"xl4". Roof.

MATERIALS.

Basswood (Chap. III., Par.

31) or any soft wood.

Ipc. %"x8"xl4i/2" S2S

Bottom.
2 pcs. %"x5i/2"xlOi/2" S 2 S

Sides:
2 pcs. %"x6"x8" S 2 S

Ends.

1 pc. 3/4"x3l,4" dowel rod.
1 PC. I4"xl5" dowel rod.
21/2 dozen 11/2" brads.
1/2 doz. %" No. 6 R. H. screws.'

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

Most people enjoy the presence of song birds, but many peo-
ple do not realize what a great benefit they are to the production
of farm and fruit crops. The Government and various societies
are spending considerable time in an effort to educate the public
to a proper appreciation of bird life. The days of the thoughtless
killing of song birds have gone by and now no boy can claim to
be a manly fellow if he insists upon being destructive to bird life.

This bird house will provide a safe place for the shelter of
desirable birds and their nests. When completed it should be
mounted upon a pole or on some building where it will attract the
birds.

References :

U. S. Bulletin No. 609, Bird Houses.

Song Birds and Water Fowls, Parkhurst. Chas. Scribner's Sons, Pub.
Bird Portraits, Ernest Thompson Seton. Ginn & Co.
What I Have Done With Birds, Gene Stratton Porter. Bobbs-Merrill Co.
A Watcher in the Woods. Dallas Sharp. Century Pub. Co.
U. S. Agricultural Bulletin No. 133, Birds as Weed Destroyers.
U. S. Agricultural Bulletin No. 630, Some Common Birds in Their Rela-
tion to Agriculture.

Our Native Birds, Lange. Macmillan Co., publishers.
Bird Life, Frank Chapman. Appleton Pub. Co., New York.
The Bird, Its Form and Function, C. W. Beebe. Holt Co., New York.
U. S. Bulletin No. 493, The Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture.
Bird Neighbors, Blanchan. Book Supply Co., Chicago.
Handbook of Birds, Frank Chapman. Book Supply Co., Chicago.

178

BIRDHOUSE

DETAIL OF ROOF

THIRPPITGH

-ID"-

14'

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL DESIGfi

HO. I N0.2

LIMB OF TffEt SPLIT AND HOLLOWED SMALL PAINT KEG

179

BIRD HOUSE SPECIFICATIONS

THE BOTTOM.

As this material is furnished S 2 S it will not be necessary for
you to resurface it. Plane a working edge (Chapter II., Para-
graph 4) and a working end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5). Lay out
and cut the material the size shown in the drawing. Lay out the
chamfer (Chapter II., Paragraph 8) and plane to the gauge line.

THE SIDES.

It will not be necessary for you to resurface this material.
Prepare a working edge (Chapter II., Paragraph 4) and a work-
ing end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5). Lay out and cut the material
the size indicated in the drawing. NOTE : If you prefer, you need
not bevel the top edge of the board to receive the roof until after it
is assembled. Prepare the two sides exactly the same length, and
make sure they are perfectly square.

THE ENDS.

Square the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5). Cut
the ends the exact shape and size shown in the drawing, making
sure that the edges are perfectly straight, and that the ends are
absolutely square. The detailed drawing of the roof construction
will show you that this roof is to be third pitch (Chapter V., Para-
graph 76, also Chapter II., Paragraph 25). Lay out and cut the
two ends the required pitch. Test the two ends to make sure they
are exactly the same shape and size.

The size of the door in the bird house is considered an impor-
tant matter if you are building your house for any special kind of
bird. (A study of the references given will furnish you some
valuable information on this subject.) Lay out and cut the door.

ASSEMBLING.

Assemble by nailing the side pieces on to the end pieces, as
shown in the drawing. Test to make sure that the angles are per-
fectly square and that the edges are all even at the bottom. Care-
fully plane the side pieces to the same bevel as the gable ends. This
will make sure that the roof will fit perfectly on the sides. Be sure
the house is perfectly square, then fasten the bottom in position by
nailing through into the side and end pieces.

180

ROOF.

The roof is to be made of tin or galvanized sheet iron. This
will be a rectangular piece of tin large enough to make the two sides
and long enough to turn down on each end to form the finish, as
indicated in the drawing. If you do not have tinner's snips in your
shop, this piece of sheet iron may be cut with an old pair of shears.

Fasten the roof in position with four small screws, as shown
in the drawing; the use of screws will make it possible to remove
the roof, when the bird house should be cleaned out for the new
season.

PERCH PINS.

The perch pins are to be of dowels fastened to the house by
inserting them in small holes. The corner posts are fastened in
position by screws put through from the bottom.

FINISHING.

This house will be exposed to sun and rain, and it should there-
fore be well painted (Chapter IV., Paragraph 52) . If you have no
paint, oil stain may be used. The roof may be painted or left, as
desired. When completed the house should be put up on a build-
ing, on a tall pole or in a tree.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

RUSTIC BIRD HOUSE.

1. By splitting an old limb of a tree and hollowing out the
inside and re-assembling it, a very attractive rustic bird house can
be made.

KEG BIRD HOUSE.

2. In suggestion No. 2 you will find the drawing for a very
easily constructed bird house. It is made of a small paint keg,
with a piece of galvanized iron arranged in conical shape for a roof.

DOLL HOUSE.

3. The principle of construction of the small house, set forth
in this lesson, may readily be employed in the making of a doll
house suitable for primary or kindergarten work. The size of the
house may be governed by the material available. One side or end
should be movable so the interior may be seen when desired. Other
modifications of these principles will suggest themselves during
the progress of the work.

181

WAGON JACK

MATERIALS.

Beech (Chap. III., Par.

32) or any hard

wood.

Ipc. l%

Base.
2 pcs. %"x33/4"x25"

Sides.
1 pc. 7/8"x3i4"x30"

Lever.

3-%"x3" carriage bolts
3-%" washers.
1 pc. soft iron rod

5/16"x4 ft.
~ 1 pc. %" strap iron 12"

long.
4.3,4" No. 8 F. H. B.

screws.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The necessity of keeping a wagon, buggy or other vehicle
constantly greased demands that some sort of handy jack should
be in the tool shed or barn. There are a great many patent lift-
ing jacks on the market, but not every barn is supplied with such
equipment.

This wagon jack can be made of scrap material, and usually
odd bolts can be found in the tool shed, and thus all of the ma-
terial may be provided without any expense. If possible it should
be made of some kind of hard wood, although almost any straight-
grained lumber will do. It should be painted or well oiled with
linseed oil.

References :

Handy Farm Devices and How to Make Them, Cableigh. Manual Arts

Press, Peoria, 111.
Agricultural Apparatus and How It Is Made, Soils and Fertilizers,

Quear.

Life on the Farm, Shepard. Book Supply Co., Chicago.
Making the Farm Pay, Bousfield. Book Supply Co., Chicago.
The Young Farmer, Hunt. Book Supply Co., Chicago.

182

WAGON JACK

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESIGN

}

No.l

183

WAGON JACK SPECIFICATIONS

THE BASE.

As this piece of material is furnished S 2 S i t will not be neces-
sary for you to resurface it. Select the best surface for the work-
ing face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2) ; prepare a working edge
(Chapter II., Paragraph 4) ; prepare a working end (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 5) . Lay out and execute the dimensions of this piece
as shown in the drawing. Make sure that the edges are all per-
fectly square, and that the corners are chamfered at a regular half-
pitch cut. This can be done with a miter box, if you care to, or you
may set the T-bevel to the half -pitch cut (Chapter II., Paragraph
24) and use it in laying out; and cut with a back saw.

THE SIDE PIECES.

Square the stock for the side pieces (Chapter II., Paragraphs
2, 3, 4, 5) . Lay out and make the two side pieces the dimensions
shown in the drawing. Notice that these pieces are to be shoul-
dered on to the base piece leaving 1/2" thickness at the bottom. This
sort of joint will afford great strength against a downward pres-
sure, for it will relieve the bolts of considerable strain. Lay out
these joints with the marking gauge and saw them down just as
you would saw a tenon (Chapter II., Paragraph 14) .

THE LEVER.

Square the stock of the lever (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3,
4, 5) ; lay out and execute the dimensions of the lever as shown in
the drawing. In forming the notches in the top part of the lever,
it would be well to bore holes equally spaced at the proper distance
from the edge, and then saw into these holes, thus forming the
notches. The piece of strap iron on the front of the lever is to
protect it from wear. You can drill the holes in the strap iron
with an ordinary drill bit used in a brace. Countersink the holes
with an ordinary rose countersink.

ASSEMBLING.

The two side pieces are to be fastened to the base with bolts, as
indicated in the drawing. It might be well to put the two side
braces in position, and fasten them with two or three small brads,
making sure that the joints fit snugly on the top edge of the base.
Then bore for the bolts through all three of the pieces at once, test-

184

ing with the try-square to make sure that you are boring perpen-
dicularly (Chapter II., Paragraph 11). Do not bore entirely
through from one side (Chapter II., Paragraph 9).

Drive the bolts in position, place a washer on each, and run
the nuts on perfectly tight.

The hole for the lever bolt might be bored in like manner by
clamping the lever in position between the two side pieces. This
can be done by putting them in the vise. When you are attempting
to bore through all these pieces of material at one operation, care
must be exercised to bore the hole perpendicularly (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 11).

THE IRON ROD.

The rod may be bent by fastening it in the vise at about 1"
from the end, carefully bending it over. A few careful blows with
the hammer will help to form a perfect right angle. In like man-
ner another short crook must be bent on the other end. Measure
to find the middle of the rod and make the middle bend. By care-
fully working with this rod you will be able to adjust it so it will
fit perfectly.

FINISHING.

When the wagon jack is completed, with a sharp steel scraper
(Chapter II., Paragraph 16), or wood file and sandpaper, remove
all pencil or tool marks, and give it one or two coats of linseed oil.
This will make it wear smooth, and will protect it against moisture.
It may be painted if desired (Chapter IV., Paragraph 52).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

FRICTIONAL WAGON JACK.

1. Suggestion No. 1 shows a very convenient form of wagon
jack which has the advantage of catching at any point, for the rod
holds by friction, rather than by a notch as is usually the case. The
portion of the rod which does the holding should be mashed slightly
so as to present a flat surface and edge. It may require a little ex-
perimenting to get it shaped to hold satisfactorily.

NOTCHED-BRACE WAGON JACK.

2. Suggestion No. 2 shows still another method of providing
the wagon jack with a means of holding in position. This notched
brace is attached to the lever by means of two small pieces of strap
iron, one on either side, as shown in the drawing.

185

SEED TESTER

MATERIALS.

Yellow Pine (Chap. III.,

Par. 48) or any soft

wood.

2 pcs. 7/8"x4"x37" S2S

Sides.
2 pcs. 7/8"x4"xl6" S2S

Ends.
9 pcs. 7/8"x4"xl5" S2S

Bottom.
6 pcs. 7/8"x3i/2"xl8" s 2 s

Legs.

2 pcs. 7/8"x3i/2"x4'8" S 2 S
Rear standards.

1 pc. 7/8"x3i/2"x38" S 2 S

Stretcher. .

10 pcs. 7/8"x2"x36" S 2 S
Corn racks.

3 pcs. 3^'x %"x3G" S 4 S
Inside strips.

100-lOd common nails.
9 dozen 6d finishing nails.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

Before men thoroughly understood the reproduction of plants
from seeds, it was thought that any kernel of corn which appeared
to be of good size and shape would be satisfactory for seed pur-
poses. It has been proven that while we may be able to judge
most of the qualities of a kernel of corn by examining it, we can-
not always definitely tell about its vitality.

References :

Testing Seed Corn; The Book of Corn, Myrick. Orange-Judd Co.

U. S. Farmer's Bulletin No. Ill, Farmer's Interest in Good Seed.

U. S. Farmer's Bulletin No. 415, Seed Corn.

U. S. Farmer's Bulletin No. 400, Profitable Corn-Planting Method.

Minnesota College of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 24, Seed Testing.

Development of the Corn Plant, J. R. Steward, Muncie, Ind.

U. S. Bulletin No. 414, Corn Cultivation.

U. S. Bulletin No. 253, Germination of Seed Corn.

186

SEED CORN TESTER

187

SEED CORN TESTER SPECIFICATIONS

THE SIDE PIECES.

Plane one edge of each of the side pieces perfectly straight
and square (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Prepare a working end
(Chapter II., Paragraph 5). Lay out the dimensions of the side
pieces and cut them, making sure that the opposite sides are exact-
ly the same length and width. In like manner square the stock
and prepare the two end pieces.

THE BOTTOM.

The bottom is to be made up of narrow strips, and as the box
is to hold moist dirt or sand, it will not be well to fit the joints too
closely, as they must have room to swell. It will not be necessary
to joint the edges of the strips which are to form the bottom. Nail
together the two sides and the two ends, forming the frame. Cut
the pieces for the bottom just long enough to fit snugly inside the
frame. Put in a sufficient number of strips to make a solid bottom.
Nail through the side pieces into the ends of the bottom pieces.

THE LEGS.

Square the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5). Lay
out, and make pieces the dimensions for the legs, as shown in the
drawing. Notice that the two rear legs extend above the box to
form a rack on which to hang the seed corn racks. Fasten the legs
in position by nailing through them into the box, and by nailing
the edges together, "pig trough" fashion.

THE CORN RACK.

The corn rack consists of strips through which lOd nails are
driven at an angle ; each nail to support one ear of corn. This pro-
vides room for 100 ears, thus making it possible to test at least
one bushel of corn at one time.

Prepare the ten strips and insert the nails as shown in the
drawing. It will probably be necessary to bore for the nails to
avoid splitting the strips. The boring should be done at a definite
angle (Chapter II., Paragraph 12).

INSIDE LEVELING STRIP.

On the inside of the tray you are to nail leveling strips which
will receive the brads for the dividing string. Nail these strips in
position as shown by dotted lines in the drawing. Drive small

188

brads into the top edges of these strips to receive the string which
divides the tray into equal spaces, as shown in the drawing.

FINISHING.

It is not necessary for the seed corn rack to be given a cent
of any sort of finishing material. However, it will be much more
durable if well painted (Chapter IV., Paragraph 52) .

THE USE OF THE SEED CORN TESTER.

The seed corn tester is used to make a germinating test of
seed corn. The tray of the tester should be filled with fine sand;
level with the top of the strips. The strings should be stretched,
as shown in the drawing. Choice corn should be selected, two ker-
nels taken from near the butt of the ear, two from near the middle
of the ear, and two from near the tip of the ear. These six ker-
nels should be planted in a row in one of the little divisions of the
tester marked out by the string. This ear should then be hung
on the strip on the nail which corresponds in number to the divi-
sion in which the kernels are planted. In like manner the entire
corn tester should be filled ; it should be kept in a warm place, and
the sand moistened frequently for a few days until the kernels
sprout, and send the little corn plants above the surface. You can
then tell the. exact vitality of each ear by noticing the sprouts put
forth by the kernel taken from that ear. Sometimes it will be
found that the kernels near the butt will grow well, while those
in the middle of the ear will grow only moderately well, and those
near the tip very poorly. In this case the ear should be discarded,
or only the butt portion used for seed. Only ears of strong vital-
ity should be used for seed.

After the seed corn tester has been used to test out the corn
for the spring planting the tray may be filled with dirt and used
to raise tomato, cabbage or other plants for early spring planting.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

SAND TABLE.

1. A sand table for the use of primary classes may be pre-
pared in the same manner in which the tray of the seed corn tester
is made. It may be made as wide and long as local needs may de-

mand' SOIL BINS.

2. In connection with the work in agriculture, some sort of
storage bin is required in caring for the samples of soil which must
be kept on hand. By making the legs very much longer, several
bins may be installed, one above the other.

189

EVENER AND SINGLETREE

MATERIALS.

Hickory (Chap. III., Par. 39) or Straight-
grained Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29) .

Singletree —

1 pc. 2"x2%"x35" rough or S 2 S

Evener —

1 pc. 2i/8"x43/4"x48" rough or S 2 S

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

Singletrees are in constant use both in cities and on the farm
or wherever any kind of team work is being done. Singletrees
are frequently broken, and although they can be purchased on the
market, yet since they are so simple in construction it is well for
a boy to be able to make them.

The best material for this purpose is clear, straight hickory;
a good quality of ash or oak may be used.

One great advantage in a farmer boy's being able to handle
tools comes from the fact that he can spend his odd hours or rainy
days in making things which will save him considerable expense.

References :

Modern Blacksmithing and Wagon Making, Holmstrom. Fredrick Drake

Co., Chicago.

Farm Buildings, H. V. Van Hoist. The National Builder, Chicago, 111.
The Gasoline Engine on the Farm, Putnam. Norman Henly Pub. Co.,

New York.
Electric Light for the Farm. Schneider, Spon & Chamberlain, New

York.

Home Water Works, Lynde. Sturgis & Walton, New York.
Suggestions for Home Blacksmithing, Library of Work and Play, Slef-

fel. Doubleday, Page & Co.

190

DOUBLETREE OREVENER

i 'is en:

\^r

"S?

--«-

-/7-

SINGLETREE

-17-

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGIHAL DESIGN

3 C

191

DOUBLE TREE OR EVENER SPECIFICATIONS

Plane one surface of the material perfectly smooth and mark
it the working face (Chapter II., Paragraph 2). Plane one edge
perfectly straight and square for the working edge (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 4). Square one end (Chapter II., Paragraph 5). Gauge
the width which the evener must be at the widest point (Chapter
II., Paragraph 6 or 7) ; measure and cut the desired length. Lay
out the width at each end; measure carefully and locate the mid-
dle; with a lead pencil square a line across the workiri; face at this
point.

You will notice from the drawing that the front side of the
evener is to be perfectly straight, with the corners chamfered,
while the rear side is to be tapered, or rounded, just as you may
see fit. Lay out these lines for the taper on the rear side, saw
them out with the rip saw, and finish with the plane; round this
edge slightly, as shown in the drawing.

On the front side lay out the chamfer (Chapter II., Paragraph
8). This chamfer may be cut with the drawing knife (if you have
none use a pocket knife and complete it with a small plane). Lo-
cate and bore the holes as shown in the drawing (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 9).

FINISHING.

With a sharp steel scraper remove all pencil marks and rough
places ; finish with one or two coats of linseed oil.

SINGLETREE.

Although the singletree does not have any perfectly straight
surfaces it will be well to prepare a working face and working edge
from which to lay out dimensions (Chapter II., Paragraphs 1, 2,
3, 4) . Lay out the tapered shape of the singletree, and saw it out
with the rip saw. With the drawing knife or plane cl^mfer the
corners, and plane the singletree to the proper shape.

192

FINISHING.

With the wood file or sharp steel scraper remove all tool marks.
It may be smoothed with sandpaper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16).
When all tool marks have been removed, finish with one or two
coats of linseed oil.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

THREE-HORSE EVENER.

1. In the Suggestions for Original Design the idea of a three-
horse evener is presented. The evener is very similar In construc-
tion to the doubletree presented in the lesson. The principal dif-
ference is that the hole for the king-pin is bored at one-third the
distance from the end, thus giving the single horse sufficient lever-
age to equal the team.

NECK YOKE.

2. The problem of making a neck yoke is very similar to that
of shaving and shaping the form of a singletree. Of course the
length and shape of this project will not be the same but the prin-
ciples of construction are almost identical.

193

FARM GATE

MCA'CIK L

MUXCIB. IX!)

MATERIALS.

Yellow Pine (Chap. III., Par. 48).

7 pcs. %"x4"x!2' S 2 S 2 pcs. 7/8"x4i/2"xl2' S 2 S

5 dozen 8d common nails. 6 pcs. %"x4"x 5' S 2 S

28-i4"x2^4" carriage bolts, with washers and nuts.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

In visiting farms throughout the country it is not uncom-
mon to find the large gates in bad repair. Many a farmer has
been dragging or carrying a gate open and shut for several years
when a few minutes' work would so repair the gate as to cause
it to swing freely on its hinges.

The purpose of this lesson is to show how a large gate can
be constructed so as to have the greatest strength and the long-
est endurance. The size of the gate is determined by the open-
ing for which it is intended, but the principle of the construction,
such as the bracing and bolting, should not be neglected.

References :

U. S. Bulletin No. 126, Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings.
Concrete Fence Posts. Atlas Portland Cement Co., Chicago.
Concrete for the Farmer. Universal Portland Cement Co., Chicago.
Studies in Concrete, in Soils and Fertilizers, Quear, Muncie, Ind.
Ideas for the Handy Farmer. Scientific Am., May 29, 1909.
Stables and Outbuildings. Country Life in America, April, 1906.
Gates, Fences and Bridges. Orange-Judd Co., New York.
Farm Conveniences. Orange-Judd Co., New York.

7— Voc.

194

FARM GATE

SUGGEST/MS FOR ORI6IHAL DESIGN

FOR EXTRA WIPE GATE.

WIRED To PREVENT SAGGING

195

FARM GATE SPECIFICATIONS

In making a farm gate it is not customary to use absolutely
first-class and clear material. Sound material, although it may
have some knots, is very satisfactory. It is not good economy to
use strictly clear selected stock for a gate.

THE SLATS.

On the drawing, it will be noticed that the bottom and top
slats are 41/2" wide, while all the others are only 4" wide. These
slats are a little wider than the others in order to give greater
strength to the strip which must withstand the most strain.

Plane the edges of all the slats perfectly straight and square
(Chapter II., Paragraph 4) ; cut the slats the proper length.

THE UPRIGHTS.

Cut the six upright pieces exactly the same length ; plane their
edges; shape their tops.

ASSEMBLING.

If you do not have a long pair of saw horses on which to build
your gate, you may lay the material flat on the floor very satisfac-
torily. On the upright pieces, lay out the spacing of the strips.
Although this work is to be assembled with bolts, you will find it
convenient to assemble it by driving one nail through the upright
into each slat. The nails must not be driven near the centers
where the bolts are to be, or they will interfere with the boring.
When all of the slats and the uprights have been properly assem-
bled, make sure the gate is perfectly square ; test in several places
with the long steel square ; measure the length and cut the braces.
These braces should be made to fit very accurately.

NOTE : They are to be bolted through each slat. Sometimes
braces are housed; that is, notches or footings, as they are some-
times called, are cut in the uprights to receive the ends of the
braces.

If you care to make your gate for some particular opening at
home, measure the opening, and change the dimensions of this
drawing to suit your need.

BORING.

In boring for the bolts it will be well to bore until the point of
the bit begins to show through on the opposite side of all the holes ;

196

then turn the gate, and complete the boring from the opposite side
(Chapter II., Paragraph 9). Another plan of boring the holes
which might be used would be to have a scrap piece of material on
the opposite side to prevent splintering (Chapter II., Paragraph 9) .
Insert a bolt in each hole, put on the washers, run the nuts on very
tight. Prepare the latch slide as shown in the drawing.

FINISHING.

The gate should be given one or two coats of paint (Chapter
IV., Paragraph 52).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

EXTRA WIDE GATE.

1. It is sometimes desirable to provide a very wide gate. This
is most satisfactorily done by the use of a double gate, as shown
in the suggestions. This suggestion also presents another method
of bracing which is very satisfactory. In hanging the double gate
a short post extending only a few inches above the ground should
be set in such a position that when the gates are closed one or both
of them may be hooked to it at the bottom.

WIRING A GATE.

2. It is not uncommon to find a gate cheaply and poorly made
without a brace. Such a gate can be very much improved by hav-
ing a wire put on it, as indicated in the drawing. This wire is a
complete loop extending from the top of the hinge side to the lower
front side of the gate. A small iron rod, or bolt, is used to twist
the wire, as indicated in the drawing; the wire tightens as it is
twisted, and thus raises the front side of the gate. A gate so re-
paired will give good service for a long time.

197

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMMUNITY RESEARCH.

No. 1. How many different sizes and kinds of nails can you
find used about your home or farm ? You will find it interesting to
collect one of each and acquaint yourself with these sizes. Learn to
identify as many nails as possible by sight. You will be surprised
to see how many people are unable to tell the number of a nail by
looking at it.

No. 2. See if you can find any of the old-fashioned iron cut
nails about your home. Possibly by tearing up a chest or box
which was made many years ago you will be able to find some of
them. See if you can find out why cut nails have gone out of use
and why the wire nails have taken their place. What advantages
have modern wire nails? What is the price per pound of 2d, 8d
and 16d nails at your local hardware store?

No. 3. Make inquiries of some of the older people of your
community and find out how their homes were lighted years ago.
See if you can find an old-fashioned candlestick, candle mould or
grease lamp anywhere in your community. Find out how the old
handmade candles were made. If you can find any of these old-
fashioned articles in the community, it would be interesting to
take them to school for general discussion.

No. 4. Are growing plants and pot flowers considered health-
ful in a living room ? Get the opinion of your parents on this sub-
ject; see what you can find out fry the study of the references
given in this text.

No. 5. How many different birds of your community can
you recognize by sight? How many can you recognize by hear-
ing their songs? Are the people of your community friends to
the birds? Inquire from a number of people and make a list of
the benefits which they recognize as coming from the birds. You
will be surprised to learn what an incorrect impression a great
many people have regarding birds.

No. 6. Study as many as possible of the references given and
make a list of all of the birds which are beneficial to us. Make
another list of the ones considered harmful.

No. 7. For what purpose have you seen a wagon jack used?
On most machinery greasing or oiling is done without removing
the wheels. Why is it necessary to remove a wagon or buggy
wheel to grease it?

No. 8. What is the attitude of the farmers in your com-
munity on the question of testing their seed corn? How do you
think it could be proven that it pays to test seed corn?

198
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS.

1. In building a bench, what is the purpose of the Skirt
Boards ? Do you know of any other article on which Skirt Boards
could be used in similar manner?

2. What are the essential principles in making a Nail Tray?
What changes would be desirable in constructing it for knives and
forks?

3. What points should be given special attention in a piece
of work like the Candlestick, Vase or Hand Mirror?

4. What is the purpose of the brackets in the Flower Pot
Stand?

5. Name three other articles in which some form of brackets
may be used.

6. What is the advantage of a metal roof on a bird house?

7. Name three or four kinds of wood which would be suit-
able for a wagon jack.

8. Name three kinds of wood which would not be suitable
for a wagon jack. Why are they unfit for this purpose?

9. How many board feet of material are required to make
the Seedcorn Tester?

10. What kind of material would you select for an Evener
or Singletree? What are the qualities of wood required for these
articles ?

11. How many feet of material are required to make the
Farm Gate?

12. Figuring the cost of the material plus the cost of labor,
for how much must your Farm Gate be sold to make a profit of
50 cents?

13. Why should the bottom and the top slats of a Farm Gate
be especially strong?

14. What would be the size of the smallest single board from
which the Wash Bench could be made? The size and shape of the
scraps after cutting to avoid waste?

15. Suggest two articles, either of which could be made from
these scrap pieces.

16. What kind of wood would you select for a Hand Mirror?
Why?

17. What was the most difficult process found in making the
Hand Mirror?

18. What kind of joints are used in making the Flower Pot
Stand?

\ 199

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS (Concluded).

19. If by testing your seed corn you find that one-third of
it is useless as seed, in what ways have you profited by knowing
this?

20. What points should be considered in deciding the sort of
finish to use on an article?

21. What method would you use in fastening a bird house
on the top of a pole?

22. Name and explain all of the different joints which you
have used thus far.

23. What points should be given special attention in work-
ing out original designs in any piece of work?

24. Why should a drawing be made before attempting to
lay out any piece of work?

25. Name and explain all the laying out tools which you have'
used thus far.

26. How many different cutting tools have you used?

200

INTRODUCTION TO SECTION V

THE work of this section offers wide opportunity for the ex-
ercise of the originality of each student. If the tool proc-
esses already set forth have been duly mastered, and if the
work of design and drawing has had proper attention, students
should have a fund of experience and judgment from which to
derive ideas for modifications of the work to suit individual taste.

The projects vary very much in difficulty in order to provide
for the speedy and adept students as well as for the less capable
ones. This latitude can, of course, be carried a great deal farther
by introducing more or less difficult features in connection with
each project as the needs of a particular student may require.

This section is so designed as to make possible a general re-
view of practically all the principles previously set forth. The all-
important principle of squaring stock is, of course, brought out
in every lesson; this must not be neglected simply because the
work has passed its elementary stage. The mortise and tenon
joint is introduced in its simplest applications; it may be modi-
fied and developed as individual needs may suggest.

By giving a little thought to the selection of projects from
this section it will be possible to present a sequential review of
many of the most important processes and principles of elemen-
tary bench work. The simple butt joint, miter, half-lap, mortise
and tenon, dowel, and tongue and groove are all found in their
most common application in this section.

Students should not be allowed to leave this section until
they have acquired considerable skill with all the more common
tools and until they are thoroughly grounded in the idea that
there can be no such method as "cut and try" in good work.

201

SHOE-POLISHING BOX

pcs.
pcs.
pc.
pc.

MATERIALS.

Cypress (Chap. III., Par,

46) or any soft wood.

2 pcs. 7/8"xl2"xl3l/2w

Legs.
1 pc. 7/8"x 9"xl7i/2"

Side.

1 pc. 7/8"x 6i/2"xl7i/2"

Side.

2 pcs. 7/8"x 7"xl9"
Top.

Ipc. 7/8"x3i/2"xl7i/2"

Drawer front.
2 pcs. 7/8"x 2i4"xl2"

Drawer sides.
14" (3-ply) xlO"x!5" Bottom and drawer bottom.

%"x 3g"xl2" S 4 S Drawer carriers.
Ii/2"x23/4"xl0" Foot rest. 2-1" No. 12 F. H. B. Screws.

7/8"x2i/4"xl4"

pair !1/^"x21/2" brass butts.

%," drawer pull.
21/2 dozen 8d finishing nails.
1 dozen 6d finishing nails.

2 pcs. 3/4"x3/4"xl2" S 4 S

Bottom cleats.
2 pcs. %"x%"xl5" S 4 S

Bottom cleats.
2 dozen 11,4" brads.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

A shoe-polishing box is very convenient in caring for the shoe
brushes, polishing materials and polishing cloths.

The box given in this lesson is large and strong and has sev-
eral attractive features, and yet it is not difficult to construct. As
it is not supposed to be a piece of living room furniture it is not de-
signed in accordance with all the principles of regular cabinet work.

References :

How to Make a Hundred Useful Things for the Home, Bingham. The

Century Co., New York.

Home Decoration, Chas. F. Warner. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York.
Forest Planting, Jarchow. Orange-Judd Co., New York.
Practical Forestry, Fuller. Orange-Judd Co., New York.

202

SHOE POLISHING BOX

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203

SHOE POLISHING BOX SPECIFICATIONS

THE ENDS.

Square the stock for one of the end pieces (Chapter II., Para-
graphs 1-5). Lay out and make the end as shown in the drawing.
With the wood file and block plane, carefully smooth all of the edges
to make them perfectly square. In like manner prepare the second
end piece. Make sure these two pieces are exactly the same size in
every way. Always keep in mind that in any kind of rectangular
box construction, opposite sides must be identical in size and shape.

SIDES.

Notice that the front side is divided info two parts ; the upper
part furnishes the front of the box, while the lower portion pro-
vides the front of the drawer. The rear side of the shoe polishing
box in one wide piece. Square the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs
1, 2, 3, 4, 5), lay out and make these side pieces.

THE TOP.

Square the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5). Lay
out and make the two pieces which are to form the top; be sure
that they are perfectly square, and that the two edges which are to
be hinged together fit perfectly.

ASSEMBLING.

The side pieces are to be nailed on to the end pieces. Be sure
to make them perfectly even on the outside. Use finishing nails
and drive them carefully (Chapter II., Paragraph 21). The bot-
tom of the shoe polishing box is to be made of one piece of 1/4"
three-ply material. This bottom is to be fastened in position by
small strips nailed on the inside of the ends and sides. It may be
well to fasten these strips and the bottom in position before the top
is put on. Fasten the stationary side of the top by nailing it down
through the side pieces. Make sure it projects exactly the same at
each end, and that it is parallel with the edge of the box. Hinge
the other half on to this piece. Be very careful to cut neat gains
in which to bed the hinges, so that the joint will be tight when the
box is closed.

FOOT PIECE.

Square the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) for
the foot piece. Lay out and execute the shape of this piece of ma-
terial. Much of this piece of work can be done with the drawing
knife. Finish with the pocket knife and wood file. Fasten this

204

piece in position with screws. It must not be fastened too near the
outside edge, or it will strike the edge of the box when it is being
closed.

THE DRAWER.

Plane out the drawer sides and the back piece, making sure
they are exactly the same width. Assemble with nails and test
with the try-square to make sure that it is perfectly square. Nail
a three-ply bottom on to this drawer frame. Turn the box upside
down and nail the drawer carriers in position. Do not nail the
drawer carriers too tight, or the drawer will not work well.

FINISHING.

With a sharp block plane smooth any joints which may not be
perfectly even. With a steel scraper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16),
remove all pencil and tool marks. Set all nails slightly below the
surface; putty the holes; smooth with fine sandpaper (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 17). Stain the desired color (Chapter IV., Paragraph
54) ; finish with shellac (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57) or varnish
(Chapter IV., Paragraph 58). When the finish is dry, add the
drawer knob.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

MORTISED AND TENONED SHOE POLISHING BOX.

1. Suggestion No. 1 gives a plan of construction which will
make a very excellent shoe polishing box. This is a much more
difficult design but is worth while because of the excellent cabinet
principles involved.

SIMPLE SHOE POLISHING BOX.

2. Suggestion No. 2 shows a very simple plan for the con-
struction of a shoe polishing box. It is assembled with plain butt
joints. This plan of simple box construction is correct in every
detail, and at the same time has no particular difficulties.

MEASURING CRATE.

3. The principle of plain box construction can be applied in
innumerable ways. A very practical problem is found in working
out proper dimensions, and making a peck, half-bushel or bushel
crate.

205

TABOURET

MATERIALS.

Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29), plain or
quartered.

4 pcs. Ii/2"xll/2"xl8" S4S Legs.

2 pcs. 7/8"x6 "xll" S2S Shelf.

2 pcs. y8"x6i/2"xl3" S 2 S Top.
1 pc. 1/2" dowel 24" long.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

A tabouret is a very useful article as a stand for a flower pot,
vase or any other ornament. There are a great many styles of
tabouret construction, many of which are equally good; the size,
shape and general design are largely matters of personal taste.

In working out a design for your tabouret be sure it is suffi-
ciently substantial for the purpose for which it is intended. Do
not undertake a form of construction which is too difficult for you ;
a simple design well made is much better than a difficult one poorly
constructed.

The staining and polishing should be made to correspond with
the furniture of the room in which it is to be used. In any piece of
household furniture the finish is a very important part of the work
and should be given considerable time and attention.

References:

The Tabouret, Noyes, Construction and Design. Manual Arts Press,
Peoria, 111.

Part One, Mission Furniture, Windsor. Popular Mechanics Co., Chi-
cago.

Furniture Repairing, Taylor. Book Supply Co., Chicago.

TABOURET

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SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESI6H

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207

TABOURET SPECIFICATIONS

THE TOP.

This top is to be made of two pieces with the edges glued and
doweled together. It is inconvenient to get a board wide enough
to make this in one piece ; furthermore, a glued up top is much bet-
ter because it does not warp so badly. In gluing up the top, you
should arrange the boards so as to match the grain as nearly as
possible. Plane the edges which are to come together until they
fit perfectly (Chapter II., Paragraph 4). Lay them on your bench
top, and test to make sure that the joint will be perfect. Lay out
and bore for the dowels (Chapter V., Paragraph 72; Chapter II.,
Paragraphs 13 and 18). Clamp securely, and leave the glued joint
at least twelve hours to harden.

THE SHELF.

The shelf board is to be glued up in the same manner as the
top. Prepare this piece so the glue joint can harden at the same
time with the top.

THE LEGS.

Although the legs are furnished S 4 S, you should go over them
with a sharp plane set to take a very thin shaving to make them
perfectly square and smooth. Finish with a steel scraper (Chap-
ter II., Paragraph 16). Lay out and cut the length of the legs as
shown in the drawing (the legs may be cut in a miter box if you
have one which you can set at the desired angle). Shape the top
end of the legs very carefully ; if you have no miter box, this may
be done with a back saw and finished with a wood file.

SHAPING THE TOP.

When the glue is thoroughly dry, with the compasses lay out
the circular top. Saw this out with a compass saw or turning 'saw.
With a wood file carefully square the edge all the way around.
This must be perfectly done, for the edge of the material cannot
be well finished unless all tool marks are removed.

Notice that the legs are to be gained into the top about half
their thickness. Lay out these gains the exact width so as to re-
ceive the legs and make the joints fit snugly. Saw these gains the
required depth ; with a very sharp chisel cut out the wood, making
each gain smooth and square. Fasten the legs in position with
dowels as shown in the drawing.

208

SHAPING THE SHELF.

The shelf is to be made perfectly square with the corners cut
off where it fits against the legs. These joints are to be fastened
with dowels.

ASSEMBLING.

Assemble all joints with glue, and clamp securely. Clean off
any surplus glue.

FINISHING.

When the work is all assembled, give it a final cleaning with
a sharp steel scraper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16) and sandpaper
(Chapter II., Paragraph 17). Remove all pencil, tool marks or
rough places. Stain the desired color (Chap. IV., Paragraph 54).
This piece of work should have a good coat of filler (Chapter IV.,
Paragraph 55). Shellac may be substituted for the filler; it may
then be given a French polish (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57), or
varnish finish (Chapter IV., Paragraph 58).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

STRAIGHT T4BOURET.

1. Suggestion No. 1 shows a very simple yet pleasing design
for a straight tabouret.

STRAIGHT-KEYED TABOURET.

2. The tabouret shown in suggestion No. 2 presents the idea
of the keyed mortise and tenon construction. This is a very popu-
lar idea, the design of which may be modified to suit one's taste.

TABOURET WITH SLANTING LEGS.

3. Suggestion No. 3 introduces the idea of slanting legs in
tabouret construction. This feature makes the keyed mortise and
tenon construction a little more difficult.

STAND TABLE.

4. The idea of a four-legged round-top tabouret, presented in
this lesson, with very little modifications, can be employed in mak-
ing a very pleasing round top card or game table. The stock for
the legs should be somewhat heavier than for the tabouret. Such a
table should be about 28" or 29" high.

209

FOOT STOOL

1 pc. tape to match 78" long.

3 dozen tacks to match.

5 dozen carpet tacks, 8-oz.

4 castors.

MATERIALS.
Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29).

4 pcs. 134"xl34"xlO;/ S 4 S
Legs.

2 pcs. %"xiy2"x!5" S 4 S
Cross rails.

2 pcs. 34"xli/2"xl2" s 4 S
Cross rails.

Any soft wood.

2 pcs. 7/8"x2"xl5"
Top cross rails.

2 pcs. 7/8"x2"xl2"
Top cross rails.

2 pcs. % "x5"x!4" Top.

1 pc. upholstering mate-
rial 17"x21". Top cover.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

A foot stool is one of the most useful and comfortable little
articles of household furniture. Its variations in design are in-
numerable, ranging from the mere cushion or floor pillow to very
heavy and elaborate cabinet work.

The stool given in this lesson is one of the standard ways of
constructing a stool, seat or even a straight chair. You should
therefore master its principles because you will employ them
often in future work.

The upholstering presents a problem which is not particu-
larly difficult, but calls for careful effort. On account of the great
expense of leather, other upholstering materials have been de-
vised which are much less expensive and yet very satisfactory,
being both dust-proof and durable.

References :

Problems in Furniture Making, Crawshaw. Manual Arts Press, Peo-

ria, 111.

Mechanical Training for Common Schools, Allen.
A Boy's Workshop, Cragin.
Upholstering and Cabinet Making, Hodgson. Book Supply Co., Chicago.

210

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SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESI6N

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211

FOOT STOOL SPECIFICATIONS

LEGS.

Although the legs are furnished S 4 S, they will need to be
planed slightly with a sharp plane set to take a very thin shaving,
and finished with a sharp steel scraper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16) .
The ends of the legs might be cut in the miter box, and finished
with a wood file. Be sure all the legs are cut exactly the same
length. This piece of work is to be assembled with mortise and
tenon joints (Chapter V., Paragraph 66). Measure and lay out
the mortises as shown in the drawing. Examine the legs in pairs,
and be sure that the mortises are all properly laid out before be-
ginning to cut any of them, then cut them.

THE BOTTOM CROSS RAILS.

The cross rails should be resurfaced and finished with a steei
scraper (Chapter II., Paragraph 16). Lay out the tenons exactly
to fit the mortises you have cut in the legs. Saw out the tenons
(Chapter II., Paragraph 14). In laying put the lengths of the
cross rails, be sure the opposite sides are exactly the same length.

THE TOP CROSS RAILS.

In like manner cut the top cross rails of the soft wood material.
You will notice that all of the relish is on the top side of the top
rails ; this is arranged in this manner to avoid cutting the mortises
so close to the top ends of the leg. Make sure that these rails are
exactly the same length between shoulders as the corresponding
bottom rails.

ASSEMBLING.

All joints are to be glued. Put the cross rails in their proper
position and assemble one pair of legs; clamp them to make sure
the joints fit closely. Test with the try-square to be sure they
are perfectly square. In like manner assemble the other pair of
legs. Glue the end rails in their proper positions, thus completing
the assembling of the stool frame. Clamp securely. In any glued
up piece of work of this kind, be very careful that it is in line in
every direction; sight through to see that all the cross rails stand
parallel.

THE TOP.

The top is to be made of soft wood. It will not be necessary
to surface it because it is to be covered with upholstering material.
These pieces are to be nailed in position between the top cross rails.

212

Be sure that the stool is perfectly square when the top is nailed
in position.

FINISHING.

The finishing should be done before the upholstering is put on.
With a sharp steel scraper and sandpaper remove all tool marks,
pencil marks or rough places (Chapter II., Paragraph 16). Stain
the work the desired color. As this is a piece of furniture, it should
be very carefully finished. After staining the desired color (Chap-
ter IV., Paragraph 54), add a coat of filler (Chapter IV., Paragraph
55) ; finish with shellac (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57), or varnish
(Chapter IV., Paragraph 58).

UPHOLSTERING.

After the finish is thoroughly dry, do the upholstering. A
few layers of cotton batting should be used to give the rounded
appearance, and to form the cushion before the upholstering mate-
rial is put on. This batting should be evenly spread over the top
of the stool. Carefully stretch the upholstering material, and tack
it with carpet tacks on the under side of the top rail. Be very
careful about cutting out around the corners to make it fit the legs
neatly ; tighten it evenly in every direction to avoid wrinkles. Trim
with the tape and ornamental upholstering tacks as indicated in
the photograph.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

SIMPLE FOOT STOOL.

1. Suggestion No. 1 shows a plan of constructing a very sim-
ple mortised and tenoned foot stool. It may be upholstered, or have
a hardwood top, as desired.

BRAIDED TOP STOOL.

2. A very pleasing stool or seat can be easily constructed in
accordance with suggestion No. 2. The top is to be braided of cord
of some suitable quality.

STRAIGHT CHAIR.

3. The principles set forth in the construction of this stool are
very similar to those employed in the construction of a simple,
straight chair. One pair of legs would have to be sufficiently long
to extend above the seat, and provide the back. Other modifica-
tions should be worked out in your drawing before undertaking
the work.

213

FOLDING GAME TABLE

MATERIALS.
Chestnut (Chap. III., Par. 35) or any soft wood.

Top.

Sufficient number of pieces to make I4"x31"x31" S 2 S
2 pcs. %"x2 "x30" Top braces.

Legs.

Leg braces.

Center braces.

Cross braces.

2-21/2" No. 12 R. H. Blued Screws.
" Brads.

4 pcs. 13/8"xl3/8"x27"
2 pcs. 13/8"xl3/8"x 9"

1 PC. 13/8"xl3/8"xl8"

2 pcs. 1 "x3iA"x25"
12-134" No, 10 F. H. B. Screws.

3 pr. Hinges.

36-1/2" No. 6 F. H. B. Screws.
3-13.4" No. 12 F. H. B. Screws.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The need of some sort of small, easily handled table quite fre-
quently arises in connection with games or sewing work. A fold-
ing table which will occupy but little space when closed and can
readily be moved from the house to the porch or lawn is a handy
article of household furniture.

This table is sufficiently large to be quite serviceable, and while
it cannot be expected that a folding table will be as rigid as one
which is permanently built, yet if carefully constructed it will be
reasonably solid.

References :

Home Furniture Making, G. A. Raeth. Fredrick Drake Co., Chicago.
Mission Furniture — Part III., Windsor. Popular Mechanics Co.

214

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FOLDING GAME TABLE SPECIFICATIONS

THE TOP.

As the top is to be made of several pieces glued together, you
should prepare it first in order that the glue may have plenty of
time to dry. The edges of these boards must be perfectly fitted.
These should be joined with dowels, but the dowels are sometimes
omitted. However, the top will be very much stronger if the dowels
are used. As this material is furnished S 2 S, and since it will be
necessary to resurface it after it is glued, you will not need to re-
surface it now. Carefully plane the edges of all the pieces (Chap.
II., Par. 4) . Lay the pieces in position on your bench top and press
them closely together to see whether all the joints fit perfectly.
When they are properly fitted, lay out and bore for the dowels
(Chap. II., Par. 18). Glue the top. Clamp it and leave it to dry
for at least twelve hours. All surplus glue should be cleaned off
before it hardens.

THE SKIRT BOARDS.

The skirt boards serve as battens to hold the top perfectly
straight. Square the stock for these pieces very carefully (Chap.
II., Par. 2, 3, 4). Resurface them on all sides. Cut them the re-
quired length and shape at the ends. You will note from the draw-
ing that the skirt boards are to be fastened with screws. You will
also observe that these screws are buried in the edge of the skirt
board about half its width. In spacing the screws arrange them so
that none will strike the joints in the top. These holes must not
be bored too deep or they will allow the screws to extend entirely
through the top.

THE LEGS.

Although the material for the legs is furnished S 4 S, you
should test them carefully with a try-square and resurface them
on all sides, making them perfectly square. (Chap. II., Par. 2, 3, 4.)
Cut them the required length. The legs should be tapered slightly
as indicated in the drawing. If desired, the corners may be cham-
fered (Chap. II., Par. 8). The legs are to be fastened with cross
rails with mortise and tenon joint (Chap. V., Par. 66). The exact
size of these mortises is not important. It is therefore not given
on the drawing. It should be about %" or 1/2". You might suit it
to the size of the bit and chisel.

THE CROSS RAILS.

The cross rails are to join the pair of legs firmly. Plane these
pieces the exact width shown in the drawing. Form the tenons on
the ends to fit the mortise in the legs. (Chap. II., Par. 14.) Notice
that these cross rails are not the same length. One is made enough
shorter than the other so that this pair of legs will fold between
the opposite pair.

216

ASSEMBLING.

Assemble the two pairs of legs by gluing the tenons in their
proper mortise. When they are assembled they may be bored and
pinned (Chap. V, Par. 66), or two small nails may be driven into
each tenon.

The skirt board should be fastened to the top with glue and also
with screws as already indicated.

Each pair of legs is to be attached to the top with three hinges,
as shown in the drawing.

CENTER BATTEN.

The center batten is for the purpose of receiving the two braces.
It should be cut just long enough to fit between the two cross rails
of the legs when the table is folded. It is fastened at the top with
screws, as indicated in the drawing. It should also be glued.

THE BRACES.

The purpose of the braces is to lock the legs in position when
the table is standing. The study of the drawing will show that they
pivot on the screws so as to turn and allow the table to fold. They
also hold the legs in position when the table is folded. These braces
should be very carefully made and adjusted, for much of the
strength of the table depends on the accuracy with which they are
placed. The two very long screws are to be used to attach these
braces.

FINISHING.

With a sharp steel scraper, remove all tool marks and other
rough places from the surface of the table. Smooth with fine
sandpaper (Chapter II., Paragraph 17). Stain it the desired color
(Chapter IV., Paragraph 54) ; finish with shellac (Chapter IV.,
Paragraph 57) or varnish (Chapter IV., Paragraph 58).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

SEWING TABLE.

1. A sewing table for home use may be made on the same
plan as this folding game table. It would be desirable to make it
considerably longer, and perhaps use a little heavier stock in con-
structing the legs.

PAPER HANGER'S TABLE.

2. The principle of a folding table is practically employed in
making a paper hanger's pasting table. Such a table is usually
about 18" wide and about 8 feet long. Each pair of legs should
have cross braces, and there should be some means of bracing and
fastening it rigid when in use.

217

STEPLADDER

MATERIALS.

Yellow Pine (Chap. III., Par. 48) or any
soft wood.

2 pcs. %"x45/8"x5' 2" S 2 S Sides.

4 pcs. 7/8"x5i/2"xl6i/2" S 2 S Steps.

1 pc. 7/8"x7"xl7" S 2 S Top.

2 pcs. 7/8"xl3/4"x5' S 2 S Legs.

1 pc. 7/8"x2i4"xl5" S 2 S Top strips.

2 pcs. 3/8"xli/2"x3' 4" S 2 S Leg brace.

2 pcs. 3/8"xli/2"xl5" S 2 S Leg brace.
1 pair Ii4"x3" hinges with screws.

4 dozen 6d finishing nails.

3 dozen 114" brads.
l-Va" screw eye.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

One of the handiest articles about the home, particularly in
housecleaning and fruit season, is the stepladder.

This stepladder is so designed as to present the greatest pos-
sible strength and the most serviceable features. While it is not
unduly heavy, yet it is sufficiently strong to stand many years of
hard use. The top step is made wide enough to provide a satisfac-
tory place to set a basin of water or a paint bucket.

The method of attaching the legs with hinges affords strength
which can hardly be provided by any other means. In the sug-
gestions you will see some other ideas for ladder construction, but
they are not so substantial as those given in the working drawing.

References :

Seven Hundred Things for Boys to Do. Popular Mechanics Co., Chi-
cago.

Modern Carpentry and Joinery, Hodgson.
The Handy Man's Book, Hasluck. Book Supply Co., Chicago.

218

STEP LADDER

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESIGN

METHOD OF FASTENING LEGS AHP STEPS

FOLP/NG STEP LAVPER STOOL

219

STEPLADDER SPECIFICATIONS

THE SIDES.

Square the stock for the side pieces (Chapter II., Paragraphs
2, 3 and 4) ; lay out and cut them the dimensions shown in the
drawing. Make sure that the two side pieces are exactly the same
size. (The opening cut in each side piece makes the stepladder
somewhat lighter without making it any weaker; it also improves
the appearance of the ladder) . Lay out the spaces for the gains.
Notice that the steps are to stand level when the ladder is open.
It will be well to set the T-bevel to this angle and use it in laying
out these gains. Be sure not to lay out the gains any wider than
the thickness of the step material or the joints will not fit snugly.
Lay out and cut these gains (Chapter V., Paragraph 61).

THE STEPS.

Plane the edges of the steps to the angle shown in the draw-
ing. You should use the T-bevel again as you did in making the
gains. Cut the top step the correct size; cut the bottom step the
correct length. You will notice that the stepladder is a little nar-
rower at the top than at the bottom. For this reason the steps
are not all the same length, and in order to get the length of each,
you should assemble the work as follows: Nail the top and the
bottom steps in their respective positions. Make sure that the
sides are perfectly straight and measure the length of each of
the other steps separately. The steps are to be fastened in posi-
tion by nailing through the side pieces. Use finishing nails and
set them slightly below the surface.

THE LEGS.

Square the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3 and 4) . Make
the legs the dimensions shown in the drawing. Notice that the
legs are attached to the stepladder with two hinges, and that the
hinges are planted on a cross rail which is nailed to the side pieces,
and also down through the top. This makes a very strong piece
of construction. Prepare this piece and nail it firmly in position.
Hinge the legs in position with screws, making them exactly even
with the outside of the side pieces.

With the ladder in a closed position, and the legs exactly even
with the side pieces their full length, you can nail the cross braces
on to the legs. Be sure that the cross braces are straight; fit all

220

the joints accurately. This will not only add to the appearance,
but to the strength of your ladder. The ladder is to be kept from
spreading when in use by a small rope fastened to a screw eye,
as indicated in the drawing.

FINISHING.

With a sharp plane set to take a very thin shaving, go over
the edges of the steps, if necessary, and plane them down to the
exact width of the side pieces. Plane any other joints which may
not be absolutely even. Smooth with sandpaper, putty the nail
holes; stain it the desired color (Chapter IV., Paragraph 54) ;
add a coat or two of shellac (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57). If
the stepladder is to be used mostly out of doors, it would be well
to give it a coat of paint (Chapter IV., Paragraph 52).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

STEPLADDER WITH BOLTED LEGS.

1. A stepladder may have the legs attached with two small
bolts, as shown in the suggestions. This is an easy method of con-
struction, but not so substantial as the method presented in the
lesson.

STEPLADDER STOOL.

2. A handy folding stool, which will also serve the purpose of
a short stepladder, can be easily made in accordance with the idea
presented in the suggestions.

221

AUTOMOBILE CREEPER

MATERIALS.
Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29).

4 pcs. 3/8"xl%"x38" Slats, hard wood.

2 pcs. %"xl%"x30" Slats, hard wood.

3 pcs. %"x2"x!6" Cross pieces, hard wood.
1 pc. %"x4"xlO" Head piece, soft wood.

4 dozen 6d box nails. 30" gimp.
11/2 dozen 8-oz. tacks. 12 uph. nails.

1 set castors. Enameled muslin, 10"xl5".

4-3/16"xll,4" stove bolts. 8 screws, %" No. 8.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

People who have had any experience with automobiles know
that it is sometimes necessary to get under the car to do some sort
of cleaning, adjusting or repair work. This is always an incon-
venient and unpleasant task, not only because it is uncomfortable,
but because it soils one's clothes so badly.

This "automobile creeper" furnishes a very handy solution to
the problem of providing a way to get under a car easily and quick-
ly with least damage to the clothing.

It is not the intention to make this a piece of cabinet construc-
tion, but nevertheless it should be accurately laid out and carefully
executed. Because a piece of work is to be used at the barn or
garage is no reason why it may be incorrectly or carelessly con-
structed.

References :

Automobile Handbook, Elliott Brookes. Fredrick Drake Co., Chicago.
Automobile Catechism and Repair Manual, Swingle. Fredrick Drake

Co., Chicago.

Care and Operation of Automobiles, Hall. Am. Tech. Society, Chicago.
The Gasoline Automobile, Longheed and Hall. Am. Tech. Society, Chi-
cago.

222

AUTOMOBILE CREEPER

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL DESIGN

i
t
i

TOOL SHELF \\

1 1

1 foil

;

; i

i i

I I

i i

1 1

i i

[ g

7"^z J//^/7 EITHER SIPE Of? BOTH

CE*

ill

223

AUTOMOBILE CREEPER SPECIFICATIONS

BOTTOM CROSS PIECES.

Square the stock for the bottom cross pieces (Chapter II.,
Paragraphs 2, 3 and 4). From the end view you will notice that
these pieces are to be curved out on the top edge to receive the
slats. Cut them the required length; lay out one and saw it out
with a compass saw; smooth with a wood file; use this one for
a pattern, lay out and make the others just like it.

*
THE SLATS.

Square the stock (Chapter II. , Paragraphs 2, 3 and 4) and
make the slats the dimensions shown in the drawing.

THE HEAD REST.

The head rest is to have a solid wood base upholstered with
enameled muslin. Plane out this wood block for the base a little
less than the dimensions shown in the drawing. Upholster it
neatly, covering it with enameled muslin; it may be padded with
excelsior or cotton batting, whichever is most convenient. Trim
with gimp and upholstering nails.

ASSEMBLING.

Space the bottom cross braces properly, nail the slats in posi-
tion ; make sure they are square with the cross braces.

Fasten the upholstered head rest in position with screws or
nails from the bottom side of the slat into the wood base of the
rest.

Attach the castors to the bottom cross rails, as shown in the
drawing. These castors are to be fastened with stove bolts.

FINISHING.

Finish with a 'coat of good oil stain (Chapter IV., Paragraph
54) . A good coat of shellac or hard varnish will keep the stain
from rubbing off.

224

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

AUTOMOBILE CREEPER WITH TOOL SHELF.

1. In the suggestions will be found an idea for adding a shelf
for the purpose of holding tools. This shelf may be added on
either side of the creeper ; if desired two shelves may be used, one
on each side.

225

SHOP TOOL CASE

4 pcs. 7/8"x2i/2"x22" S 2 S

Door battens.
2 pcs. 7/8"xl3/4"x33"

Door braces.
2 prs. T hinges

screws.

2 spring catches.
6 dozen 6d finishing nails.
12 dozen 2d lath nails.

S 2 S

with

MATERIALS.

Yellow Pine (Chap. III., Par.
48) or any soft wood.

3 pcs. 7/8"xlO"x36i/2" S 2 S
Side and partition.

2 pcs. 7/8"xlO"x48i/2" S 2 S
Bottom and top.

3 pcs. 3/8"xl3/4"X35" S 2 S
Casing strips.

1 pc. 3/8"x 13/4"x48i/2" S 2 S
Top casing.

2 pcs. 7/8"x9"x24" S2S
Shelves.

1 pc. 7/8"xli/2"x48" S 2 S

Rabbet strips.
30 pcs. 3/8"X4"x36" S 2 S

Beaded ceiling, back and

doors.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

In the shop, barn, garage or tool shed it is very convenient to
have some sort of tool case on the wall. This plan of caring for
tools not only keeps them in good condition, but also saves room.

This shop tool case is very simple in construction; it may be
built of almost any dimensions you may desire. It would be well
for you to measure the space which you have for a tool case and
then build your case the proper size to fit the space.

This case illustrates the principle of making a simple batten
door ; you will also notice a brace extending from one batten to the
other; this is to prevent sagging. If you have any sagging doors
about your home buildings you should straighten them and put in
braces as illustrated in this lesson.

References :

S--YOC.

A Boy's Workshop. David Williams Co., New York.

Jobbing Work for the Carpenter, Crussell. David Williams Co., N. Y.

Saw Filing, Grimshaw. Book Supply Co., Chicago.

Hand Saws — Their Use and Abuse, Hodgson. Book Sup. Co., Chicago.

226

SHOP TOOL CASE

II 7-

3$-

1 1

L._ioF

._]

^._j__

* i

JLI -^—

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESIGN

SAW RACK

A54C/T
OF MILS OR MITELS

BRACE RACK OF VOWELS

CHISEL RACK

?>J

TRY SQUARE RACK

|o o o © u o o I

BIT RACK

227

SHOP TOOL CASE SPECIFICATIONS

THE SIDES.

A study of the drawing will show you that the shop tool case
is made very much like a box ; it is then cased in front and doors
are hung to the casing.

Square the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3, 4 and 5) and
prepare the side pieces the dimensions shown in the drawing. If
you are making this case to fit some particular place, you should
follow the sizes of your own drawing. Be sure that the two sides
are exactly the same size in every way. Square the stock (Chap-
ter II., Paragraphs 2, 3, 4 and 5).

TOP AND BOTTOM.

Prepare the top and bottom the dimensions given in the.
drawing. These two pieces must be made exactly the same size.

ASSEMBLING.

Nail this framework together with plain butt joints (Chap-
ter V., Paragraph 60) and test with a large steel square to make
sure it is perfectly square. You might nail a brace temporarily
across the front edge to hold it perfectly square while you turn
it over on the tressels, and put on the back of beaded ceiling. The
case must be kept perfectly square while the back is being put on,
for if it is crooked it will remain in that shape when completed.
The middle partition should be cut exactly the same length as the
outside pieces, less the thickness of the top and bottom, and nailed
in position through the bottom and the top.

THE SHELVES.

Square the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3, 4 and 5) ;
prepare the shelves the dimensions shown in the drawing. (If
you prefer these shelves may be put in with a gained joint (Chap-
ter V., Paragraph 61) or they may be made adjustable by insert-
ing screw eyes or screws into the side pieces to support them).
You will note in the drawing that only one side is equipped with
shelves. The other side may be similarly equipped, if desired.

THE CASING.

Square the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 3, 4 and 5) ; pre-
pare the casing the proper dimensions. Nail this casing in posi-
tion, making it exactly even with the outside of the case all around.

228

THE DOORS.

The doors are to be made of beaded ceiling nailed on cross
strips called battens. Prepare these battens the proper size. Also
prepare the brace strips which are to extend diagonally between
the battens. Plane off the groove from the edge of the first piece
of beaded ceiling (this will give it a firm edge to receive the
hinges). Make sure that the battens stand perfectly square when
the first strip is nailed into position; keep the work square as the
ceiling strips are added. The doors, when completed, may be re-
sawed at bottom and top to fit the opening perfectly. Fasten them
in position with T-hinges, as shown in the drawing. The doors
should be provided with spring catches, or a lock, if desirable.
Add the rabbet or bumper strip, against which the doors close at
the top.

FINISHING.

When the work is completed go over it with a sharp plane and
smooth any joints that may not be perfect. Set the nails a little
below the surface of the wood and fill the holes with putty. Fin-
ish with paint (Chapter IV., Paragraph 52) or stain (Chapter
IV., Paragraph 54) . NOTE : In the suggestions will be found a
number of ideas for tool racks for shop tool cases. By following
these suggestions you should be able to work out a great many
other convenient racks and hangers which you may fasten in your
tool case or on the doors in such shape as you find desirable and
convenient for your particular set of tools.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

SEWING CABINET.

1. A sewing cabinet particularly adapted for school use may
be made on a plan very similar to the shop tool case. Each student
should be provided with a tray or box in which to keep all sewing
materials. A cabinet of this kind fitted with shelves to accommo-
date the size and number of the trays will be a valuable piece of
equipment.

DRAWING BOARD CABINET.

2. A very serviceable cabinet, for the protection of drawing
boards in the mechanical drawing department, can be easily con-
structed on the principles given in this lesson. The cabinet should
be made deep enough to receive the full width of the boards when
standing on end.

229

WORK BENCH

4 pcs. hard wood Ii/2"x3i/2"x24" Legs.

2 pcs. hard wood Ii/2"x6"x31" Stretchers.

1 pc. hard wood I1/^"x3i/4"x32" Vise jaw.

1 pc. hard wood l!/2"x6"x29" Vise jaw.

MATERIALS.
Maple (Chap. III., Par. 41).

1 pc. hard wood I%"xl2"x

50" Top.
1 pc. hard wood %"

50" Tool trough.
1 pc. hard wood %"

50" Back brace.
1 pc. hard wood %"xli/4"x

50" Tool rack.
4 pcs. hard wood li/2"x3i/2"

x21" Top and base

pieces.

1 pc. soft wood y8"x3i/2"xl2i/2"

16-%"x6" square head bolts with washers and nuts.

9-2i/2" No. 16 F. H. B. screws.

12-li/2" NO. 1.0 F. H. B. screws.

1 steel vise screw %" with nut, complete.

6-8d finishing nails.

4-1" No. 12 F. H. B. Screws.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

In every home there are so many odd jobs to be done that it
is worth while to have some sort of work bench. The material re-
quired for the construction of an excellent bench is not expensive,
and if properly used it would soon save you enough to pay for it.

A work bench should be absolutely solid and rigid so it will not
shake when you are attempting to do careful work.

The bench shown in this lesson is so constructed as to be strong
and solid; the bolted joints can be tightened from time to time if
necessary ; the wide stretchers between the pairs of legs 'are held
by two bolts at each end and are thus made absolutely rigid.

References :

Handy Man's Work Shop and Laboratory, A. Russel Bond.
U. S. Bureau of Forestry, Bulletins Nos. 97, 117, 130, 138, 145.
Handbook in Woodwork and Carpentry, King. American Book Co.
Manual of Carpentry and Joinery, Riley.

230

^•«*

-4sr—

•^H1*

WORKBENCH

-ft

«0

5^53

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESIGN

fly

FARM WORKBENCH

231

WORK BENCH SPECIFICATIONS

THE TOP.

The heavy portion of the top of the work bench may be one
wide board or it may be made of several pieces glued together, de-
pending upon the manner in which your stock is furnished. Pre-
pare the top the dimensions shown in the drawing. Notice that
it is to be rabbeted to receive the board which forms the tool
trough. If you do not have a rabbeting plane, this may be done
with the grooving side of a matching plane, and finished with a
sharp chisel. Prepare the board for the tool trough, as shown in
the drawing.

THE LEGS.

Square the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3, 4 and 5) for
the legs. Cut the four legs, making sure they are all the same
length. Any variations will make your bench unlevel.

THE BASE PIECES.

Prepare the two base pieces as shown in the drawing; make
sure that they are perfectly square so the legs will rest upon them
with a good joint. In like manner prepare the two top cross
braces.

STRETCHERS.

Square the stock (Chapter II., Paragraphs 2, 3, 4 and 5) ; cut
the two. stretchers (the braces between the two pairs of legs) as
shown in the drawing.

ASSEMBLING.

As this bench is to be assembled with draw bolts, you will
have considerable boring to do. This is a very particular process,
therefore you must do it carefully. Notice that the legs are fas-
tened into the bottom and top pieces with bolts, and that the bolt
heads are sunk into the top brace about an inch. You should
therefore bore into the places with a bit large enough to allow the
bolt head to enter. Then finish the boring' with a bit the right size
for the body of the bolts. It will require a socket wrench to
tighten the bolts when their heads are below the surface. If you
cannot secure a socket wrench, you may be able to tighten them
by using a nail set, and driving the nuts which are in the holes.
In boring for all these bolts be sure that you hold the bit perpen-
dicularly (Chapter II., Paragraph 11). In the stretchers the holes

232

for the nuts do not go entirely through. This gives the bench a
little neater appearance than if those holes showed on the front
side of the stretcher. Assemble the frame of the bench and tight-
en all the nuts securely. NOTE : The top is held in position with
large screws put through from the bottom side of the cross brace
of the legs. These screws are sunk in the wood in order to make
them reach.

THE VISE.

This bench may be equipped with an iron vise if you care to
purchase one. You can readily make the wooden vise shown in
the drawing, and you will find it a very satisfactory one. It is
held in position by large screws fastened into the bench top, and
into the leg braces.

TOOL RACK.

The tool rack on the rear of the bench may be prepared for
whatever tools you desire it to hold.

FINISHING.

When the bench is completed, with a sharp steel scraper re-
move all lead pencil marks and rough places; give it a good coat
of linseed oil or shellac (Chapter IV., Paragraph 57).

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

FARM WORK BENCH.

1. For general purpose work about the farm a long bench is
often required. The idea shown in the suggestions will be very
suitable, yet inexpensive, for the construction of such a bench. A
very valuable feature may be added by purchasing a small ma-
chinist's vise, and attaching it to the rear end of this bench. Such
a vise will be found very useful in a great many odd jobs about
the farm.

233

STANCHION

MATERIALS.

Beech (Chap. III., Par. 32) or any
hard wood.

2 pcs. li/8"x2l/2"xlOi/2" S 2 S Ends.
2 pcs. Ii/8"x2i/2"x49" S 2 S Sides.
2 pcs. chain 12".

1 pc. small anchor chain 14".

2 angle irons with screws.
2 eye bolts 5/16"xl%".

1 pc. 5/16" soft iron rod 16" long.
1 strap hinge, 21/2" pin measure, with

screws.
2-3/4" staples.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

In studying the various problems of dairying it has been
found a great benefit not only to improve the sanitary conditions,
but also to provide for humane treatment of the stock. The stan-
chion has been worked out as a solution to the problem of tying
the cows securely and at the same time giving them all possible
freedom.

The stanchion given in this lesson has been so designed as
to present both strength and convenience; it is to be held in po-
sition by chains fastened at the top and bottom. This will make
it possible for the cow to raise and lower her head or to turn
from side to side and still not be able to pull back from her posi-
tion.

References :

U. S. Farmer's Bulletin No. 106, Breeds of Dairy Cattle.

U. S. Farmer's Bulletin No. 143, Beef and Dairy Cattle.

U. S. Farmer's Bulletin No. 55, The Dairy Herd, Its Function and Man-
agement.

U. S. Farmer's Bulletin No. 42, Facts About Milk.

U. S. Farmer's Bulletin No. 74, Milk as Food.

U. S. Farmer's Bulletin No. 29, Souring and Other Changes in Milk.

U. S. Farmer's Bulletin No. 413, Care of Milk and Its Uses in the Home.

U. S. Farmer's Bulletin No. 457, Production of Sanitary Milk.

Building the Dairy Barn, James. James Manufacturing Co., Ft. Atkin-
son, Wis.

Barn Plans and Outbuildings, Shawver. David William? Co., New York.

Twentieth Century Practical Barn Plans, Radford. David Williams Co.,
New York.

234

A—

COW
STANCHION

HINGED
DOTTOM EW VIEW

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESW
^^OPEN n ^ CLOSED

i fi rirrrffM

\gj joj jc| ',0; [o ,o; /

STANCHION AND SECTION OF STALL

235

COW STANCHION SPECIFICATIONS

SIDE RAILS.

Square the stock for the side rails (Chapter II., Paragraphs
2, 3 and 4) ; your stock will probably be furnished in two pieces,
each long enough to make one side rail and an end rail. By squar-
ing each piece its full length you will thus prepare the sides and
ends at one operation.

Cut the side rails the lengths shown in the drawing. NOTE :
Notice that the end rails are to join one side rail with mortise and
tenon joints ; the other side rail is movable, being attached to the
bottom rail with a hinge. Lay out and cut the mortises in the
first side rail (Chapter V., Paragraph 66). Cut the second side
rail, as shown in the drawing.

THE END RAILS.

As the stock has already been squared, cut the pieces the re-
quired length; lay out and cut a tenon at one end of each (Chap-
ter II. , Paragraph 14). Cut the other end of each, as shown in
the drawing.

ASSEMBLING.

Assemble the mortise and tenon joints (they may be draw
bored and pinned if desired (Chapter V., Paragraph 66). These
corners are to be reinforced with angle irons. These angle irons
are to be bedded into the wood until they are level with the sur-
face. Lay them out carefully (be sure to calculate the length of
each gain properly) ; with a sharp chisel cut the gains into which
the irons are to fit; fasten the irons with screws.

Fasten the second side rail into position with a strong hinge.

THE EYE BOLT.

Each eye bolt should have a washer on the outside; none will
be required on the inside, for the bolt goes through the angle iron,
thus helping to hold it rigid. Each eye bolt should be supplied
with a few inches of chain by which the stanchion is to be hung
when in use.

THE FASTENING.

The fastening consists of a movable loop of iron rod which
can be raised and lowered as needed to hold the hinged side rail.

236
THE ANCHOR CHAIN.

The small anchor chain should be fastened with staples; its
purpose is to keep the hinged side rail from falling when the
stanchion is open.

FINISHING.

This piece of work does not require a fine finish. However,
if given a good coat of linseed oil it will be protected against mois-
ture. The oil will also cause the wood to wear smooth.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

STATIONARY STANCHION.

1. A stationary cow stanchion may be easily provided, as
shown in the suggestions; the movable side of the stanchion con-
sists merely of a slat pivoted on a bolt. The stanchion is held closed
by a pivoted block at the top, as shown in the drawing. The sta-
tionary stanchion is not as satisfactory as the movable stanchion
presented in this lesson.

CHICKEN YARD GATE.

2. The principles involved in the construction of the cow stan-
chion may be employed in making any kind of strong rectangular
frame, such as would be needed in building a gate for a chicken
park or garden. This frame should be assembled with mortise
and tenon construction, and it would be well to have the joints re-
inforced with angle irons in exactly the same manner as the cow
stanchion. In constructing the gate it will be desirable to use a
diagonal brace. The entire framework could be covered with
pickets or poultry net, as might be desired.

237

CHICKEN BROODER

MATERIALS.
Cypress (Chap. III., Par. 46) or any soft wood.

8 pcs. 7/8 "x 61/2 "x20" S 2 S
7 pcs. 7/8"x 4i/2"x25" S 2 S

3 pcs. % "x 61/2 "x25" S2S
2 pcs. %"x 2"xl8" S 2 S
2 pcs. 7/8"x 6"x25" S2S
2 pcs. 7/8"x 7"xl2" S 2 S

1 pc. 7/8"xlO"x30" S2S

4 pcs. 3/8"x 134"X20" S 2 S

2 pcs. 7/8"x 2"xl2" S2S

2 pcs. 7/8"x2"xl8" S 2 S
7 pcs. 7/8"x 2"x 4' S 2 S
6 pcs. 7/8"x 2"x25" S2S
1 gross small staples.

1 pc. fly screen 12"xl8".

3 pair screen door hinges.
1 pair tight pin butts.

3 screen door knobs.

Sides and roof.

Back, back door and roof.

Bottom.

Bottom battens.

Front.

Roof.

Roof strips.

Roof door battens.

Front door step.

Runway.

Runway and door.

10 ft. 12" poultry net.

1 yard 24" poultry net.

6 doz. 6d fin. nails.

6 doz. 8d fin. nails.

1 doz. 1/2" corrugated nails.

References :

U. S. Bulletin No. 41, Fowls, Care and Feeding.

U. S. Bulletin No. 51, Standard Varieties of Chickens.

U. S, Bulletin No. 141, Poultry Raising on the Farm.

U. S. Bulletin No. 287, Poultry Management.

U. S. Bulletin No. 182, Poultry as Food.

U. S. Bulletin No. 236, Incubators.

The Practical Poultry Keeper, Lewis Wright. Cassel & Co., Publishers.

Minnesota Bulletin No. 8, Poultry Houses.

Poultry Houses, Foster. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York.

Poultry Architecture, Fiske. Orange-Judd Co., New York.

238

CHICKEN BROODER

-'^

h-- -24

239

THE CHICKEN BROODER SPECIFICATIONS

THE BOTTOM.

This little house is to be built very much like a plain box.
Notice that the bottom is provided with battens. This is for the
purpose of holding it up off the ground slightly, and also to pro-
tect the bottom from warping. The bottom may be made of any
number of boards; it will not be necessary to join their edges.
Nail the bottom boards on the battens, then cut the bottom the
size shown in the drawing.

THE ENDS.

The ends must be made of several boards. They may be cut
the proper length and toe-nailed together (Chapter II., Paragraph
22), or they may be fastened with corrugated nails (Chapter II.,
Paragraph 23). Make these two ends, then lay out and cut the
gables third-pitch (Chapter II., Paragraph 25). Be sure the two
ends are exactly the same size in every way. With the compasses
lay out the ventilator holes. Bore a hole to start and saw them
out with the compass saw.

FRONT AND BACK.

Prepare the front and back sides. They may be made of sev-
eral boards nailed together.

THE ROOF.

If possible the front portion of the roof should be one wide
board ; the rear portion, which receives the door, may be made up
of several pieces, provided small strips are tacked over the cracks
in the same manner in which the door cracks are protected. The
door is fastened in position by hinges at the top, as shown in the
drawing.

THE REAR DOOR.

The rear door is for the purpose of cleaning out the house.
It is not expected to be used to put in chickens ; this is to be done
at the top door. Notice that this small door also has battens to
keep it from warping.

THE FRONT DOOR.

The front door is a mitered frame (Chapter V., Paragraph
64) assembled with corrugated nails (Chapter II., Paragraph 23).
It is covered with screen wire and trimmed with small binding
strips. The ventilator holes should also be covered with screen
wire. This makes the house rat proof.

240

THE RUNWAY.

The frame of the runway is made up of strips fastened with
plain butt joints (Chapter V., Paragraph 60). In cutting the ma-
terial for this runway care should be exercised to cut opposite
sides the same length so it will be square when completed. The
door of the runway is a mitered frame construction, the same as
the front door to the house; it is also fastened with corrugated
nails (Chapter II., Paragraph 23). The entire runway should be
covered with poultry net, 1" mesh. The door to the runway and
both doors to the house should be hung with screen door hinges.
This will insure their holding shut without any fastenings and
will also allow them to stand open when desired.

ASSEMBLING.

Assemble the bottom ends and sides with plain butt joints
(Chapter V., Paragraph 60). Nail all the joints securely, testing
frequently with the try-square to make sure that all angles are
right angles.

FINISHING.

As this work is to be exposed to the weather, it should be
finished with one or two coats of paint (Chapter IV., Paragraph
52). In this lesson no suggestions are offered for original de-
signs ; there are, however, a great many ideas which will no doubt
occur to you in the construction of this piece of work. The size,
shape of the house and the runway may be made to suit your
needs.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

HALF-BARREL CHICKEN BROODER.

1. An inexpensive and easily constructed chicken brooder may
be made by sawing a sugar barrel into two equal parts. The
hoops should be driven on very tightly and nailed securely before
the sawing is begun. This will make sure that the two parts will
hold their cylindrical shape. The door is provided by sawing out
a notch, or by sawing off one stave a few inches shorter than the
others.

DOG KENNEL.

2. By changing a few of the features of the chicken house,
and making the house considerably larger, a very satisfactory dog
kennel may be provided.

241

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMMUNITY RESEARCH.

No. 1. Examine the under side of a couch or an upholstered
chair, or, if convenient, visit a place where upholstering work is
done and find out how the springs are held in position. Why is
leather, or some of the imitations of leather, more sanitary than
the old-fashioned cloth coverings for upholstering work in the
home?

No. 2. Examine the furniture in your home and see if you
can tell of what kind of wood each piece is made. In making this
examination do not scratch the front of the furniture, but examine
hidden edges and the back parts where you can see the natural
wood without destroying the finish.

No. 3. Is any of your furniture veneered? Of what kind of
wood is the veneering made? To what kind of wood is it glued?

No. 4. What kind of tool case or other method of caring for
the tools do you have in your home? Why should a tool case be,
kept perfectly dry? See if you can find out, by inquiry, where
the rust comes from that gets on the metal parts of a machine or
on tools which are exposed to the weather. What will be the final
result if a piece of metal is continually left exposed to rust?

No. 5. What are the advantages in hitching a cow in a
stanchion rather than with a halter or rope?

No. 6. Make inquiry in your community and find out what
influences are most harmful to young chicks. How can these in-
fluences be overcome? Does the chicken brooder provided in this
section solve any of those problems? ,

No. 7. What advantages can you see in painting a chicken
brooder, window flower box or flower trellis?

No. 8. Is there any advantage besides appearance in keep-
ing a house properly painted? Make inquiry from your father
or other men who have had experience and find out whether they
think it is really economical to neglect properly painting a house.

No. 9. Of what kind of wood are shingles made? Why is
this particular kind of wood selected for the purpose? Inquire
from some of the older men of the community and find out what
sort of wood was used for the old-fashioned hand-split clapboards.
Why did that kind of roof go out of use in your community?

No. 10. Find out how many trades or occupations are repre-
sented by patrons of your school. How many of them use some
sort of hand tools in their work? Which trades are most promis-
ing for young men to enter? Why?

242

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS.

1. What likeness in construction did you notice in the shoe
polishing box and the wash bench?

2. What were the principal points of difference between these
two articles?

3. What do you consider the most difficult process in the con-
struction of the tabouret ?

4. How do you determine the color of stain and kind of finish
to use on an article of household furniture?

5. What sort of material would you recommend for uphol-
stering? Why?

6. What points must be given special attention in upholster-
ing work?

7. What are the principal difficulties in planning and making
a folding table?

8. Why should the steps of a stepladder be gained into the
side pieces ? By what other methods may they be fastened ?

9. What is the advantage of attaching the stepladder legs

with hinges rather than small bolts ?

t
10. What is meant by ball-bearing castors? Explain why

they are the most satisfactory.

•11. What points must be given careful attention in making
a batten door?

12. How would you design and construct a tool rack for
chisels ?

13. What is the purpose of the wide stretchers between the
legs of the work bench?

14. Why are draw bolts better than lag bolts in constructing
a work bench?

15. What sort of wood would you select for a work bench?
Why? Name two other kinds which would be suitable.

16. What is the purpose of the angle irons in the cow stan-
chion ?

17. Name two or three articles in which angle irons might
be used to reinforce the joints.

243

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS (Concluded).

18. Would white pine or bass wood be suitable for a cow
stanchion? Why? Name four kinds of timber that would be
suitable.

19. Name and explain at least three important problems that
must be considered in designing a chicken brooder.

20. Why are screen door hinges particularly suitable for a
chicken brooder door?

21. Why should a chicken brooder have a floor?

22. Estimate the number of board feet in each article in this
section; find out local prices per hundred and figure the cost of
lumber for each.

23. Figure the cost of the labor, counting your time at 121/2
or 15 cents per hour, on each article which you have made in this
section.

24. Add the cost of labor to the cost of material (do not for-
get to include the cost of hardware and sundries) and estimate the
value of each article which you have made.

25. Make a list and classify all the tools which you have used
thus far? Which are laying out, and which are cutting tools?

26. Make a list of all the different kinds of timber which you
have used thus far. Describe each and tell all you can about its
nature and properties.

27. Which tool have you found the most difficult to keep
sharp ?

28. What kind of oil should be used on an oil stone? Is lin-
seed oil suitable for this purpose?

244

INTRODUCTION TO SECTION VI

THIS section is intended only for students who have had suffi-
cient training in bench work to enable them to understand
working drawings, to originate simple designs with some
taste and judgment and to handle the principal tools with such
skill as to avoid wasting material. The matter of preparing the
stock, of laying out and executing ordinary processes should fur-
nish no difficulty.

Throughout this section no references will be made to the de-
tail of simple processes in the supplement; students who have not
mastered those elementary principles should continue their work
in an earlier section of the text.

The projects set forth in this section deal with cabinet prin-
ciples in an elementary way, employing them in a widely varying
list of ideas, in order to appeal to the taste of all students. Some
of these lessons afford an opportunity to develop a high degree
of skill in the art of wood finishing, and while it is sometimes a
little difficult to provide satisfactory conditions to do fine varnish-
ing work, yet the results will be very gratifying if such arrange-
ments can be made.

In as much as the articles presented in this section will be-
come a part of the student's home equipment and should last an
indefinite number of years, each student should be urgently ad-
vised to use only the very best of carefully dried cabinet lumber.
While the quartered oak is a little more expensive than plain oak,
yet its advantages, in the way of beauty and permanency of the
work, make it much to be preferred.

245

PORCH SWING

MATERIALS.
Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29).

14 pcs. 3/8"xl7/8"x3' 6"
Slats.

7 pcs. 3/8"xiy8"x3' 8"
Slats.

8 pcs. %"xl%"x 8"
Arm slats.

6 pcs. %"x3"x 24"
Arm and curved back
pieces.

2 pcs. 7/8"xli4"x 17"
Upper arm pieces.

2 pcs. %"x2"x 17" Lower arm pieces.

4 pcs. l-l/16"x2"x 11" Arm supports.

2 pcs. Ii/8"x2l/4"x4' 3" Sills.

4 pcs. 7/g"x2"x 22" Bottom supports.

1 Set chains.
36-6d fin. nails.

4-lVi>" No. 10 screws, oval head.
15 dozen li/j," No. 16 oval-headed
hobnails.

2 dozen " No. 17 wire brads.

18-1/2 " corrugated nails.
4 eye bolts.
2 ceiling hooks.
2 No. 5 screw eyes.
6-14 "x2i/&" carriage bolts.
2-i4"x3i/£" carriage bolts.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

In planning a porch swing one of the most important features
is that it shall be comfortable; it should also be attractive and so
constructed as to be durable.

The design given in this lesson has been used by one of the
largest swing manufacturing concerns in the country for a num-
ber of years and it has proven to be correct in every detail. You
will observe that the sills are especially heavy and that the swing
is so hung as to throw the weight upon these sills.

References :

Outdoor Furniture, Good Housekeeping Magazine, June, 1914.
Simple Rustic Work, Louis Suead. Harper's Bazaar, May, 1912.
Garden Furniture, The Craftsman Magazine, June, 1913.

246

SUGGESTIONS FDR ORIGINAL PISIGN

ATTACHED ToSwiNG WITH ANGLE IRON

FOOT REST

247

PORCH SWING SPECIFICATIONS

THE SILLS.

Plane the sills perfectly square and smooth and cut them the
length shown in the drawing.

THE BOTTOM.

Cut the four bottom supports the proper length. You will
notice, from the dotted lines shown in the end view, that the sup-
ports are to be curved on the top side. Lay out this curve freehand
and cut it out with the drawing knife. Do not curve these pieces
too deeply, or it will weaken them. Nail these bottom supports
upon the sills in their proper position. These pieces are to be cov-
ered with slats, placed side by side, making a solid bottom.

THE ARMS.

Notice that the bottom and top arm rails are to be plowed to
receive the slats. This can be done with the grooving side of your
matching plane. If the plane does not cut the opening wide enough,
you might lay it out with the marking gauge, and cut it wider with
the chisel. Cut the arms the desired length, and assemble them
with corrugated nails. Space the slats properly, and fasten with
nails at the bottom and top in the cross rails.

THE BACK.

Notice that the back pieces are curved. This is to give them
the proper shape to make a comfortable seat. Lay out these curves
free-hand, and cut out one of the pieces. Use this one for a pat-
tern ; cut the others exactly like it. Assemble by nailing the slats
in position. Observe that these slats are not put closely together,
as in the bottom, but they are spread as shown in the drawing.

ASSEMBLING.

The arms are to be fastened to the bottom by means of bolts.
The back is fastened in position by means of bolts through the
arms. The arms are nailed through into the bottom supports, and
are also bolted to the back.

Lay out the brackets free-hand and saw them out with a com-
pass saw. These brackets are to be fastened in position under the
arms with screws. Insert the eye bolts in the ends of the sills.

248

The swing is to be hung with the chain fastened through the screw
eyes. The small anchor chain is fastened to the back to prevent
tipping over.

FINISHING.

When the swing is all assembled, go over and examine it care-
fully to see that there are no rough places or nails extending. Make
sure that it is perfectly smooth all over and give it a coating of
stain. You must use a good grade of stain, as it is exposed to the
weather ; it must have a good quality of oil stain which will neither
rub off nor fade.

In the Suggestions there are some ideas for a swing of a little
easier construction; however, you will note that this swing would
not be so comfortable on account of the back being perfectly
straight. The suggestion for a foot rest is a very excellent one.
This foot rest can be attached to any swing; it is to be fastened to
the front sill by means of two heavy angle irons.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

PORCH CHAIR.

1. The plan of construction used in this porch swing can be
very readily modified, so as to provide an excellent porch chair.
The back and seat need not be changed, except in length. Some
plan should be devised to provide suitable legs securely braced.

PORCH ROCKER.

2. The porch chair may be easily converted into a porch
rocker with the addition of suitable rockers.

LAWN SEAT.

3. A lawn seat may be constructed on a plan almost identical
with the porch swing. Rustic seats are especially suitable for
lawns and parks. The general idea for such a seat may be gath-
ered from the principles and proportions presented in this lesson.

249

JARDINIERE STAND

MATERIALS.

Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29), plain or quar-
tered.

2 pcs. 7/8"x4i4"x35" S2S Uprights.
2 pcs. %"x2%"xZ5" S 2 S Uprights.
4 pcs. 7/8"x63/4"xl4" S 2 S Sub. base

and top.

4 pcs. %"x3"x3" S2S Base blocks.
2 pcs. 7/8"x8%"x9i/2" S2S Base and

sub top.

2 dozen 6d finishing nails.
16-114" No. 10 F. H. B. screws.
1 pc. I4"xl2" dowel rod.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

This stand is intended to be used as a piece of room or porch
furniture. It should therefore be constructed with great care, for
its value depends very largely upon the neatness and beauty of its
workmanship. It will serve as a suitable receptacle for a flower
pot, vase or small piece of statuary.

In working out your design, you will find the straight line
effects are most satisfactory; attempts at elaborate design or
scroll effects are likely to have a cheap appearance. In designing
any piece of cabinet work you should consider the style of fur-
niture of the room in which it is to be used.

References :

The Wood Finisher, Maire.

The Up-to-Date Hardwood Finisher, Hodgson. Fredrick Drake Co.,
Chicago.

Woodworking for Schools on Scientific Lines, Bailey and Pollitt. Man-
ual Arts Press, Peoria, 111.

250

JARDINIERE STAND

SUGGESTION FOR ORIGINAL PES/GN

251

JARDINIERE STAND SPECIFICATIONS

THE BASE AND SUB-BASE.

As this sub-base calls for a very wide board, it will be neces-
sary for you to join two boards with dowels. Cut the sub-base the
exact size shown in the drawing, and make sure all the edges are
perfectly straight and square.

Where the end grain of wood is exposed in cabinet work, it
should be very carefully finished. Do this with the block plane and
finish with fine sandpaper. The small corner blocks under the sub-
base must be perfectly straight and project evenly on all sides.

Prepare the base; it may also be necessary to glue up this
piece. Be sure it is perfectly square when finished.

THE UPRIGHT.

The upright is to be a boxed column, made up of four boards
glued together. The edges must be perfectly straight and square,
so the joints may be perfect. NOTE : It would be a very excellent
plan to join these corners with miter joints, if you are skillful and
patient enough to do it well. Fasten the column together with glue
(small finishing nails may be added, if necessary).

THE TOP AND SUB-TOP.

The top is to be made up of two pieces joined with dowels. Be
sure this piece is perfectly square when completed.

FINISHING.

When the work is completely assembled, with a sharp steel
scraper smooth all surfaces perfectly. With a fine-pointed nail set,
set the nails slightly below the surface. NOTE : These holes may
be filled with putty made the same color as the stain you expect
to use, or with a little glue and wood dust made by the sandpaper-
ing. Sandpaper carefully ; as this is a straight line design, it would
not be in harmony with itself if any of the corners were rounded or
marred in any way. Stain it the desired color. It should be given
a coat of filler, and finished with shellac, or varnish. NOTE : This
will be an excellent piece of work on which to practice the rub var-
nish finish, because all its surfaces are broad and flat, and there are
no complicated parts to offer unsual difficulties.

252

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

PEDESTAL.

1. The general idea for the construction of a pedestal, as
shown in the Suggestion, is a very popular one. It admits of a
great many variations in design. As a rule the graceful straight
line effects will be found most pleasing in elementary work.

HALL TREE.

2. The principle of constructing a base to support a tall,
slender upright is employed in making a hall tree. As a rule the
central upright is a solid piece of material from l1/^" to 2V£" square.
The box construction of upright, as shown in this lesson, may be
used if desired.

253

TOOL CHEST

MATERIALS.

Redwood (Chap. III., Par.

49) or any soft wood.

4 pcs. 7/8"x 9i/2"x35" S2S

Top and bottom.
2 pcs. 7/8"xlOi,i"x35" S 2 S

Sides.
2 pcs. 7/8"xlOi/i"xl8" S 2 S

Ends.
2 pcs. % "x 4"x36"

Bottom trim.

2 pcs. 7/8"x4"x21"
4 pcs. 7/8"x2"x36"
4 pcs. 7/8"x2"x21"

2 pcs. i/2"x3/4"xl7"
1 pc.

3 pcs

Bottom trim.

Lid and top trim.

Lid and top trim.
Till support.

"x 53/4"x32" Till bottom.
"x3%"x32" Till sides, ends and partitions.

1 mortise lock.

8 doz. 6d finishing nails.

4 doz. li" brads.

1 pair hinges, with screws.
8 chest corners, with screws.
1 pair handles.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

A good strong box is necessary in moving tools from one place
to another; for convenience such a box should be fitted with
handles. For this purpose there is nothing better than the old-
fashioned tool chest. It will also furnish an excellent place to
store extra tools which are not in every day use.

The tool box given in this lesson is built on the plan which
for many years has been recognized as the standard tool chest
design. There are a great many different styles of handy tool
chests prepared particularly for different kinds of tools; you will
find it interesting to work out a plan which will be fitted to your
need.

References :

Saws in the Filing Room. Atkins Saw Co., Indianapolis, Ind.
How to Sharpen Tools. Pike Manufacturing Co., Pike, N. H.
The Story of Carborundum as a Sharpening Material. Carborundum

Co., Niagara Falls.
Carpentry, Townsend. American School of Correspondence, Chicago, 111,

254

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SUGGESTION FOR ORIGINAL PESIGH
HAHDY TOOL CABINET METHOPS OF FASTENING CORNERS

"- gzr;

Ho.2

255

TOOL CHEST SPECIFICATIONS

THE SIDES.

Square the stock; lay out, and make the sides the dimensions
shown in the drawing1. Be sure these sides are exactly the same
width and length. They must also be perfectly square on all cor-
ners, or your box will not be square when assembled.

THE ENDS.

Square the stock; lay out, and make the ends the exact size
shown in the drawing. Be sure these ends are exactly square and
the same size.

THE BOTTOM.

It will be necessary to make the bottom out of two or more
pieces. These pieces should be joined with a tongue and groove
joint made with the matching plane, or they may be joined with
dowels if you prefer this method.

ASSEMBLING.

Join with a plain butt joint. (If you care to take the trouble,
you may use the dovetail method shown in the suggestions) . Nail
through the sides into the ends, making the outside corners exactly
even. Test with a large steel square, and hold the framework per-
fectly square while you nail on the bottom. The bottom is to be
nailed down through into the sides and edges. Make the bottom
even on all edges. If it is not exactly even, plane it so.

THE TOP.

Prepare the wide board for the top either by matching or
doweling, as you did the bottom.

THE BINDING STRIP.

The binding strips should be planed perfectly straight and
square, the width shown in the drawing. They are to be joined
with mitered joints. Cut them in the miter box, or lay them out
the half -pitch cut and set the T-bevel. The length of each piece
must be measured separately, taking the measure from the place
where it is to be fastened ; in this way you can be accurate. Fas-
ten the trim to the lid, make it exactly even on the top. The top
trim on the body of the box is put a little below the edge, thus

256

forming a rabbet to receive the lid. The base trim should be
mitered around the box in a similar manner. The trim is to be
nailed through the box from the outside. (If you desire, screws
may be put in from the inside of the box into the trim. In this
case the screws should be countersunk so as to be even with the
surface) .

THE TILL.

The till is a small box on the inside of the chest. Notice that
it rests on strips tacked on the inside of each end. This till should
be provided with openings for hand holds.

HINGING THE LID.

Fasten the lid to the box with hinges. It may be necessary to
refit it slightly in order that it may work easily after the hinges
are in position. Test it, and plane wherever necessary to make it
work easily. Cut the mortise and set the lock.

FINISHING.

With a sharp block plane, or sharp steel scraper, remove any
pencil, tool marks, or rough places in the work. Be sure that all
the surfaces are perfectly clean. Smooth with fine sandpaper;
stain the desired color; finish with shellac or varnish. When the
coating is dry, fasten the brass corners in position.

In the Suggestions for Original Design you will find a drawing
showing a handy tool cabinet to be carried from place to place.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

BOY'S TRUNK CHEST.

1. The plan of construction given in this lesson may be em-
ployed in building a strong box, or trunk chest, which a boy may
find quite serviceable in his room.

CAMP CHEST.

2. On camping trips there is a demand for a strong box which
will answer the purpose of a shipping crate, and will also serve in
camp as a cupboard. This plan of construction will be found quite
satisfactory. It would probably be necessary to make such a chest
considerably larger, and equip it with a number of divisions which
would answer as shelves while it was serving the purpose of a camp
Cupboard.

257

PIANO BENCH

MATERIALS.

Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29),

plain or quartered.

2 pcs. ll/8"x8"x36l/2" S 2 S

Top.
2 pcs. 7/8"x3i4"x35" S 2 S

Side rails.
2 pcs. 7/8"x3i4"xl4" S2S

End rails.
4 pcs. I%"xl%"xl6" S 4 S

Legs.

Base pieces and angle blocks.
Stretcher.
Trim.
Trim.

3 pcs. 2i/2"x3i/4"xl7" S 4 S
Ipc. Ii/4"x4i/4"x32" S2S
2 pcs. i/2"xi/2"x35" S4S
2 pcs. l/2"xi/2"xl6" S4S
1 pc. 1/2" dowel 12" long.

1 dozen 11/4" brads.

2 dozen 6d finishing nails.

3 dozen li/2" No. 10 F. H. B. screws.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

In recent years the piano bench has almost entirely taken
the place of the piano stool; the bench is preferred for several
reasons, not only because it is more pleasing from the artistic
standpoint, but also because it is more serviceable. The bench
affords room for two people and is thus convenient for duet work
or for teacher and pupil.

Benches are often so constructed as to furnish a receptacle
for music; the one given in this lesson is not so designed, but if
desirable you can easily make it in this way by adding a bottom and
hinging the top.

The kind of wood and style of finish for a piano bench should
correspond as far as possible with the piano case. This is a piece
of work which calls for great care and skill in every detail, for no
one would want to use a piano bench which showed evidence of
poor workmanship.

References :

The Expert Wood Finisher, Kelly. The National Builder, Chicago.
Elements of Handicraft and Design. Benson.

9-Voc.

258

PIANO BENCH

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3UG6ESTIONS

70P FASTENED
WITH SCREWS.

NO.I

H0.2

259

PIANO BENCH SPECIFICATIONS

THE TOP.

As the top is to be made of two pieces glued together, you
should prepare it first, in order that the glue may have ample time
to dry. These edges must be perfectly fitted and joined with
dowels.

THE LEGS.

Although the legs are furnished S 4 S, you must go over them
with a keen plane, and make them smooth and perfectly square;
they must then be finished with a sharp steel scraper. Cut them
the desired length, being careful to make allowance for the tenons;
cut a tenon 1" square on each end.

THE RAILS.

Square the stock, and carefully plane the rails to the di-
mensions shown in the drawing. These rails are to be joined at the
corners with mitered joints. They should be cut in the miter box.
Be sure the opposite side and opposite ends are exactly the same
length. All joints must fit perfectly. On a piece of work of this
sort ill-fitting joints would render it absolutely worthless.

CORNER BRACE BLOCKS.

These blocks are to be fastened on the inside of the railing
with glue and wood screws. This operation must be carefully done
to avoid spreading and damaging the joints at the corner. If this
is carefully done, the framework will present a very solid corner
into which the mortises are to be cut to receive the tenons of
the legs. Lay out and cut these mortises.

THE BASE PIECES.

Square the stock for the base pieces. Lay them out the de-
sired shape, saw them out with the compass saw, and carefully
finish with a wood file. This portion of the work must be accurately
done, and edges must be left perfectly square and smooth. Lay
out and cut the mortises for the legs; be sure to make them the
same distance apart as the mortises in the top rail. Lay out and
cut the mortise for the stretcher.

THE STRETCHER.

Square the stock, lay out and make the stretcher according to
the drawing. (Be careful to cut it long enough to allow for the

260

tenon at each end). Lay out and make the tenon on each end to
suit the corresponding mortises in the leg bases.

ASSEMBLING.

Glue all of the tenons in their proper mortises ; make sure that
all angles are perfectly square; test frequently with the square.
Clamp securely in such a way as to bind all joints. Remove all sur-
plus glue.

Putting on the top might be left until the glue is thoroughly
hardened and the clamps removed. Resurface the top and cut the
shape and dimensions shown in the drawing. Make sure that all
the edges are perfectly square. The top is to be fastened to the
rails by screws from the under side, as shown in the drawing ; make
sure that it projects evenly on all sides ; use enough screws to bind
it firmly to the rail.

THE TRIM.

The small trim strips are to be fastened to the lower edge of
the rail. They are to be made even with the rail; however, if let
down a very small fraction of an inch they will hide the leg joints.
Miter these strips at the corners; fasten them in position with
brads and glue.

FINISHING.

With a sharp steel scraper refinish the entire surface of the
piano bench. Remove all pencil and tool marks. Smooth with fine
sandpaper. Give special attention to smoothing all places where
end grain is exposed.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

OTTOMAN.

1. Suggestion No. 1 presents an idea of bench construction
which is particularly suitable for an ottoman. It may be uphol-
stered with leather, tapestry, or some other suitable material.

CRAFTSMAN PIANO BENCH.

2. Suggestion No. 2 presents a general idea for a craftsman
piano bench. A number of modifications are possible in a design of
this sort. Care must be exercised to avoid rude and clumsy ap-
pearance in any of the craftsman or mission designs.

261

MAGAZINE RACK

MATERIALS.

Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29), plain or
quartered.

4 pcs. I%,"xl%"x40" S 4 S Corner

posts.

2 pcs. 7/8"x8l4"x30" S2S Top.
2 pcs. %"x41/^"x25" Rear cross

rails.

4 pcs. %"x4i/2"xl2" Side cross
rails.

5 pcs. 1/2"X41/4"X33" Panel strips.

6 pcs. %"x6 "x25" Shelves.
1 pc. 1,4" dowel 24" long.

7 li/2" No. 10 F. H. B. screws.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

This magazine rack is constructed on principles which would
be suitable not only for a magazine or newspaper rack, but for
a music cabinet or bookcase. It is very strong and substantial,
being assembled with mortise and tenon joints throughout; of
course this form of construction will call for very careful and
accurate work.

If a closed cabinet is desired instead of the open rack, this
plan can easily be modified by making the panels wide enough to
fill the space between the corner posts. A panel door could be
made to correspond with the remainder of the work and thus a
completely closed-in cabinet would be provided.

In the suggestions for original design a very simple idea is
presented. A rack made on this plan would be much less work,
but it would be neither so artistic nor so substantial as the one
presented in the regular lesson.

References:

Library Furniture, in Adventures in Home Making, Shackleton. John

Lane Pub. Co., New York.
Furniture for the Craftsman, Paul D. Otter. David Williams Co., New

York.

262

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SUGGESTIONS FOR OKIGIHflL DESIGN

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263

MAGAZINE RACK SPECIFICATIONS

THE CORNER POSTS.

Although these posts are furnished S 4 S, it will be necessary
for you to resurface them with a keen plane, making sure that they
are perfectly square. Finish with a sharp steel scraper. Cut them
the required length ; lay out and cut all mortises for the rails.

THE TOP.

The top is to be made by gluing together two or more boards.
These edges must be perfectly planed and joined with dowels.
Clamp the boards securely ; leave at least twelve hours for the glue
to harden.

THE CROSS RAILS.

Square the stock for the cross rails; lay out and make them
the exact shape shown in the drawing. These rails are to be joined
to the corner posts with mortise and tenon joints; in cutting the
length be sure to allow for the tenons; lay out and cut all of the
tenons to correspond with the mortises in the corner posts. Lay
out and cut the mortises for the panel strips.

THE PANEL STRIPS.

The panel strips are to be fastened into the bottom and top
cross rails with mortise and tenon joints, so they will have to be
prepared before the other work is assembled. Resurface these
pieces and finish with a steel scraper. Make sure that the edges
are perfectly square, and that they are all exactly the same size.
You will have to exercise great care in cutting the length of the
panel pieces so they will make good joints when the work is assem-
bled. They must be long enough to fit snugly between the cross
rails when they are assembled. Test them.

THE BOTTOM AND SHELVES.

The bottom and shelves are to be formed by gluing up two or
more boards with dowels, in the same manner in which you glued
up the top. When the glue is thoroughly hardened remove the
clamps, and surface these boards on both sides. Finish with a steel
scraper and fine sandpaper.

ASSEMBLING.

In assembling this work, assemble one side at a time. (Glue
all mortises in tenon joints) ; test all angles frequently with the

264

square. Place the bottom and top rails properly on one of the side
panel pieces; then assemble with the two corner posts. In like
manner assemble the other side. Glue the three panel pieces into
the rear bottom and top rail, then glue these rails into their proper
mortises. NOTE: If you are using the dowel method of fasten-
ing the shelves, they will have to be put in at this time. If not,
they can be put in after the back is assembled. Clamp securely.
If you do not have a sufficient number of clamps to clamp the en-
tire work at one time, it would be well to clamp up one end section
and allow the glue to harden, then clamp up another section, allow-
ing it to harden before undertaking the back. The top may be
fastened in position by screws put in on an angle on the inside of
the side rail (as shown in the preceding lesson) , or by short dowels
in each post, extending almost through the top piece.

The shelves and bottom are to be fastened in place with small
nails driven through the panel pieces ; if desired, short dowels may
be used in the corner posts.

FINISHING.

When all the work is properly assembled go over it with a
sharp steel scraper, making all surfaces perfectly smooth. Finish
with very fine sandpaper. Stain the desired color (it should have
a coat of filler ; shellac may be substituted) . Finish with shellac or
varnish.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

MUSIC CABINET.

1. With very slight modifications this magazine rack may be
converted into a very excellent music cabinet. Instead of strips, it
should be provided with tight panels. A door should be constructed
of similar panel design.

UMBRELLA STAND.

2. The plan of four corner posts with mortise and tenon cross
rails may be effectively used in designing an umbrella stand.

CRETONNE-COVERED CABINET.

3. A very pretty cabinet may be afforded by using this same
plan of construction, and lining it on the inside with cretonne. Such
a cabinet would be particularly suitable for a sewing room at home.

MATERIALS. Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29).

Stand: Stool:

2 pcs. %"x9i/4"xl9" S 2 S Top. - 2 pcs. %'

3 pcs. %"x4%"x!5" S 2 S Top rail. 4 pcs. %'

4 pcs. Il/2"xli/2"x30" S 4 S Legs. 4 pcs. Ii/2"xll/2"xl8"
3 pcs. l/£"x2i4"xl5" Trim. 3 pcs. 3/^"x2^"xlO"

2 pcs. 3/4"x6i/2"xl3" Shelf (soft wood). li/2 dozen li/2" No.
1 pc. %"xli/2"x!5" Front edge of shelf. 10 F. H. B. screws.

3 pcs. 34"x2%"xl5" Lower cross rails and stretcher.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

It is often desirable to have the telephone on a stand rather
than on the wall; in this case it is well to provide a stand and
stool on purpose for the use of the 'phone.

The one given in this lesson is so planned that when the stool
is not in use it hangs under the stand. In this position it is out
of the way and still always ready for immediate use. The illustra-
tion shows two views, one with the stool in front of the stand
ready for use and the other with the stool hanging in position.

References :

Modern American Telephony in All Its Branches, Smith. Fredrick

Drake Co., Chicago.

Telephone Hand Book, Victor Laughter. Fredrick Drake Co., Chicago.
Drake's Telephone Hand Book, Moreton. Fredrick Drake Co., Chicago.
Wireless Telephone and Telegraph, Chas. Ashley. American Technical
Society.

266

TELEPHONESTAHD&STOOL

TOP i

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SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESIGH

267

TELEPHONE STAND AND STOOL

SPECIFICATIONS
THE STAND.

TOP.

The top of this stand is to be made by gluing together two
pieces. This must be done with a dowel joint. Clamp up the work
securely, remove all surplus glue, and leave it at least twelve hours
for the glue to harden.

THE CORNER POSTS.

Although this material is furnished S 4 S, it will be necessary
for you to resurface it, making it perfectly square. Finish with a
sharp steel scraper. Cut the required lengths, lay out and cut the
mortises to receive the rails.

THE TOP RAILS.

Notice that there are top rails only on three sides ; the front is
left open to form a shelf.

The top rails are to be joined to the legs with mortise and
tenon joints. Square the stock for the rails, and make them the
width shown in the drawing. Cut the required length, allowing
for tenons. Lay out and cut the tenons. Be sure that the lengths
of the opposite side rails are the same between shoulders. Test
each tenon in the mortise for which it is intended; they must fit
snugly. The tenons must not bind sidewise, or they may split the
posts.

THE BOTTOM CROSS RAILS.

The bottom cross rails are to be joined to the corner posts
with mortise and tenon joints. Square the stock, and make these
pieces the dimensions given in the drawing. Lay out and make
tenons. Test each tenon in its proper mortise.

THE SHELF.

The shelf takes the place of a front cross rail. The shelf is
made of soft material, but it should have a front edge of hardwood.
It may be made by gluing up pieces, the same as you have glued
up the top. Remove the clamps from the top, and surface it on
both sides ; cut it the size shown in the drawing.

ASSEMBLING.

In work of this kind you will find it convenient to assemble
one pair of legs at a time. Glue the joints, test with the square to

268

make sure the legs stand perfectly square with the cross rail.
Clamp securely and leave for the glue to harden. In like manner
clamp the opposite pair of legs. When these two are well set, put
in the back cross rail and the stretcher between the lower cross
rails and assemble. The top is to be fastened in position with
screws, either with strips or the angle screws. When the top is
fastened securely in position, put in the shelf and fasten it by nail-
ing through the side rails. Be very careful in the nailing process
not to bruise the work. With a sharp-pointed nail set, drive the
nails slightly below the surface of the wood.

THE BINDING STRIP.

This small strip is tacked to the lower edge of the top rail
around three sides of the stool, and thus forms a carrier to hold
the stool, and also gives a sort of panel appearance to the top rail ;
it should fit the corner posts snugly.

THE STOOL.

The stool is to be built almost exactly as the stand has been
built, except that it has a top rail entirely around. Prepare each
part and assemble the stool in a similar manner to which you have
constructed the stand.

FINISHING.

When both pieces of work have been properly assembled, go
over them with a sharp steel scraper, and remove all pencil and tool
marks. Be sure the corners are all sharp and distinct. Wherever
the end grain is exposed it must have special attention to make it
perfectly smooth. Stain the desired color, and finish with shellac
or varnish.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

KITCHEN TABLE.

1. This plan of constructing a table, with the rails tenoned into
the legs, has a great many applications in practical work. By using
heavier legs, and changing the size of the top as desired, a very
servicable kitchen table may be constructed.

CHAFING DISH TABLE.

2. With very slight modifications this stand could be converted
into a satisfactory chafing dish table. It should have a small cabi-
net in which to keep the chafing dish and utensils. This could be
easily prepared by using a very wide skirting board with a shelf in
the bottom ; the cabinet should be provided with a dustproof door.

269

MEDICINE OR SHAVING CABINET

11/2 doz. 6d finishing nails.

2 doz. 11/4" brads.

8 screw eyes, No. 114.

MATERIALS.

Poplar (Chap. III., Par. 42) or any
soft wood.

Ipc. 7/8"x5l/2"xl8" S2S Top.
2 pcs. 7/8"x43/4"x24" S2S Sides.
Ipc. 7/8"x43/4"xl5" S2S Bottom.

1 pc. 7/8"x3i4"xl5" S 2 S Apron.

2 pcs. i/2"x3%"xl5" S2S Shelves.
Ipc. !4"(3-ply)xl5"x20" S2S Back.
Ipc. i4"(3-ply)xlO"x!5" S2S Door

panel.
2 pcs. 7/8"x3i/i"x20" S 2 S Door side

styles.
2 pcs. 7/8"x3^"xl4" S 2 S Door cross

rails.

1 pair 11/2" hinges.

1 small cupboard catch.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

In every home it is very important that some place be pro-
vided for the care of medicines and various home remedies; a
small, neat cabinet with a close-fitting door is most suitable for
this purpose.

There is no standard size for a medicine cabinet/ for it is often
desirable to make it to fit a certain space in the bathroom or
wherever it is to be used. It would be well for you to measure
your space at home and then make your cabinet to fit.

This lesson presents the principles of a mortised and tenoned
door, and since this is such an important piece of construction, you
should give it special attention. A door made of one wide board
or with battens is not so good nor so neat for small cabinet work.

There are so many uses for various kinds of wall cabinets,
such as shaving cabinets, china cabinets, built-in bookcases and
the like that you should master these principles.

References :

Cabinet Work and Joinery, Hasluck.

Elementary Cabinet Work, F. H. Selden. Rand-McNally Co., Chicago,

111.
Inside Finishing, King. American Book Co., Chicago, 111.

270

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271

MEDICINE OR SHAVING CABINET
SPECIFICATIONS

THE TOP.
Square the stock, lay out and make it the proper dimensions.

THE SIDES.

Square the stock, lay out and make the side pieces the size
shown in the drawing. Although the material is furnished S 2 S,
these pieces should be carefully surfaced, and finished with a steel
scraper.

THE RABBET.

The side pieces and the top are to be rabbeted to receive the
back. If you rabbet them with a plane this will cut away the mate-
rial to the end of each piece, and when the work is assembled will
leave holes, which will have to be neatly filled. If you desire, you
can cut these rabbets only as far as required, by laying them out
with a marking gauge, and carefully cutting them with a pocket
knife, first scribing deeply on one gauge line, and then on the other
until the rabbets are completely cut out.

THE BOTTOM.

The bottom is to be made the width of the sides, less the
thickness of the back. You will notice in the drawing that the
back laps down upon the bottom. Square the stock and make this
piece.

THE BACK.

The back piece should be furnished in one board of three-ply
material. You will notice that this is made up of three thin pieces
glued together. The grain is reversed; this makes a very strong
board. You need not cut it to size until the frame is assembled.

THE BOTTOM SKIRT BOARD.

The bottom skirt board joins the side pieces with a plain butt
joint. Square the stick and make the piece the required size.

ASSEMBLING.

This work is to be assembled with nails driven through from
the outside. These nails should be carefully set with a sharp-
pointed nail set. Make sure that the cabinet is perfectly square in
every way when the back is nailed in position.

272

THE SHELVES.

The material for the shelves should be planed to the exact size
shown in the drawing. You may make the shelves adjustable if
you wish, allowing them to rest on small screw eyes.

THE DOOR.

The door is to be put together with mortise and tenon joints, as
indicated in the drawing. The door material is to be plowed or
grooved to receive the panel, which is of 14", three-ply. This plan
of making a door is a very excellent one ; you should exercise great
care and learn to do it well. Practically all doors for fine cabinets
are made in just this manner. Study the drawing very carefully
and execute each piece accurately. Assemble the door with glue.
You should not glue the panel ; it will be less likely to warp if left
free to contract or expand with changes of temperature. Clamp
the door, and allow it to stand at least twelve hours for the glue to
harden. When it is thoroughly dry, with a sharp plane, plane all
surfaces, and finish with a steel scraper and sandpaper. Plane the
edges to make it exactly fit the cabinet. Put on the hinges and the
spring catch.

FINISHING.

Medicine cabinets are usually finished white. To do this give
it two coats of white paint, allowing each to dry thoroughly, and if
you desire to have a very beautiful finish, one or two coats of white
enamel. If you prefer, you may stain it the desired color and finish
with shellac or varnish. It is customary to finish both the inside
and outside of a small cabinet like this. NOTE : If this is to be
used for a shaving cabinet you will find it very convenient to have
a mirror in the door panel.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

CHINA CABINET.

1. By enlarging this cabinet as one's needs may require, and
providing it with glass doors, a china cabinet could be made.

BOOK CASE.

2. The plan of the china cabinet will require but little modifi-
cation in making a book case.

SCHOOL LOCKERS.

3. Inexpensive school lockers may be constructed on the plan
given in this lesson; the size and shape could be determined by
local needs.

273

CEDAR CHEST

MATERIALS.
Red Cedar (Chap. III., Par. 45) .

Sufficient number of pieces to make :
2 sides z/^xliy^xte" S2S
2 ends ^'xliy^'xlS" S2S
2 pcs. 3/4"xl7"x43" S 2 S Top and bottom.

2 pcs. i/2"xl"x43" S 4 S Lid trim.

2 pcs. V2"xl"xl8" S 4 S Lid trim.

4 pcs. 23/4"x3"x3" (Glued) S 4 S Legs.

5 pcs. sheet copper 2"x6" for trim.
34 tacks to match.

1 pr. hinges with screws. 4 castors.

5 doz. 114" brads. 1 pr. copper handles with screws.

5 pcs. ^"x!2" dowel. 1 doz. li/j," No. 10 F. H. B. screws.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

For a great many years cedar chests have been popular for
storing furs, woolens, linens and other fine fabrics where they
would be free from moths. Red cedar wood contains a peculiar,
everlasting odor which seems to be very unpleasant to insects, at
least they will not go about it. This unusual quality, connected
with the fact that it will last indefinitely, has made it a very valu-
able wood.

Red cedar is rather a difficult material to work on account of
the knots, however these knots do not lessen its value; in fact,
when properly finished, they add to its beauty and fragrance.

References :

The Story of Red Cedar. Red Cedar Chest Co., Statesville, N. C.

274

CEDAR CHEST

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CORNER STRIP

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275

CEDAR CHEST SPECIFICATIONS

PREPARING THE STOCK.

As it is practically impossible to get wide boards of cedar, it
will be necessary for you to glue up narrow boards in forming the
bottom and top, and also the sides and ends. On account of the
knots (a feature which adds beauty and value to the wood), you
will find it rather difficult to plane. You must have your plane very
keen, and make up your mind to be extremely patient. Square the
edges and join them with dowels, making a board of sufficient width
for the bottom. In like manner glue up material for the two sides,
the two ends and the top. When the glue is thoroughly hardened,
with a sharp smoothing plane resurface the boards. It will pos-
sibly not be necessary to plane them anywhere except on the joints ;
the remainder of the surfacing can be done with a sharp steel
scraper.

THE SIDES.

Lay out and cut the two sides the dimensions given in the
drawing. Be sure they are absolutely square, and exactly the same
length and width. Prepare the two ends, and compare to see that
they are exactly the same size. You will notice that the side pieces
are to be rabbeted to lap over on the ends (this sort of joint is not
absolutely necessary; you may join them with a straight butt joint
if you desire). The rabbet will not be difficult to make. It is to
be laid out with a marking gauge, or a straight edge and sharp-
pointed knife; it may be cut down with the back saw, and cut out
to the gauge line with a chisel. All the corners are to be formed in
the same manner.

ASSEMBLING.

Assemble your box by nailing through the side pieces into the
ends, using small finishing nails or brads. The bottom is to be
nailed through into the sides and ends ; see that it projects evenly
on all sides and at both ends. Test frequently to make sure that
the box is perfectly square when the bottom is nailed on.

The triangular strips are glued in each corner to reinforce the
joints. They may also be bradded, but this must be very carefully
done to avoid disturbing the joints. You should lay the box flat on
the side, while driving small brads into the side pieces; then turn
it on to the ends when you nail into the end pieces.

THE LEGS.
The legs are to be made the desired shape, and fastened one

276

on each corner with screws from the inside through the bottom,
as shown in the drawing.

THE LID.

The lid is to be bound on both ends, and on the front edge with
a narrow strip which extends a little below the lower edge of the
lid, as shown in the drawing. This strip is to be joined at the cor-
ners with a mitered joint. It is fastened to the lid with brads
driven straight through. Hinge the lid to the back edge of the box ;
make sure that it fits perfectly and works easily.

THE HANDLES.

The handles are to be made the desired shape, and to be fas-
tened with screws from the inside of the box.

THE ORNAMENTAL TRIM.

The ornamental trim is of art copper; it may be cut any
shape you desire. Some simple design, as shown in the drawing,
will be found most pleasing.

FINISHING.

With a very sharp steel scraper, remove all pencil or tool
marks and make every surface perfectly smooth. Finish it with
shellac or with rub varnish. Do not stain it, and do not use shellac
or any kind of finish on the inside. Leave the natural wood ex-
posed on the inside in order to get the full benefit of its fragrance.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

COVERED BEDROOM CHEST.

1. A very much cheaper, and fairly satisfactory, chest may be
provided where red cedar is too expensive. This chest may be
made of any sort of wood. It should be well constructed, and may
be neatly lined on the inside with imitation of cedar paper. On
the outside it should be neatly covered with cretonne, denim or
some other suitable material.

WINDOW SEAT CHEST.

2. A chest built on the plan shown in Suggestion No. 2 will be
found very suitable for a window seat. It may be upholstered or
furnished with cushions. It should be finished to correspond with
the furniture of the room in which it is to be used.

277

WRITING DESK

MATERIALS.
Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29).

4 pcs. Ii/2"xll/2"x32" S4S

1 pc.
rail.

2 peg.
rail.

3 pcs.

S2S

Legs.
Back

7/8"x4"x28" S 2 S Front
7/8"x5%"x20" S2S Side
Bot-

3/i"x6i/2"x28" S 2 S

torn (soft wood) .
1 pc. 7/8"x7"x32" S2S Top.
3 pcs. 7/8"x5%"x32" S 2 S Lid.
1 pc. i/2"x7"x32" S2S Back

of paper holders.

4 pcs. i/2"x2i/2"x7"
4 pcs. i4"x2i/2"x8i/2"
1 pc. i/2"x3"x32"

Sides of paper holders.

Front of paper holders.

Base of paper holders.
2 pcs. -yi"x2V2"x20" Bottom cross rails.
1 pc. %ffxBy4>"x2S" Stretcher.

i/2 doz. li/2" No. 10 F. H. B. screws. 2 doz. 6d fin. nails.
l!/2 doz. •%" No. 6 R. H. blue screws. 1 pc. I4"xl2" dowel rod.
1 pair hinges.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

The writing desk or study table is one of the most useful arti-
cles of furniture found in a boy's room, and the fact that a boy has
made his own table always adds considerable to its value.

This writing desk is so designed as to provide ample room
inside to care for stationery and valuable papers. If desirable this
space could be divided with partitions so as to classify papers more
easily.

The mortise and tenon joints will require careful work, but
when completed will be well worth all the effort. The principles
set forth in this lesson are employed a great deal in all kinds of
desk and table construction, so you should endeavor to master
them.

References :

Part II, Mission Furniture, Windsor. Popular Mechanics Co., Chicago.

278

Id _

WRITING DESK

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL DESIGN

SHELVES ANPP/GEON HOLES

Mi6HT HAVE PRAWER HERE

279

WRITING DESK SPECIFICATIONS

THE LEGS.

Although these legs are furnished S 4 S, it will be necessary
for you to plane them with a very sharp plane, testing to make
sure that they are perfectly square. Finish with a sharp steel
scraper. In cutting the length of the legs note that the lid of the
writing desk slants forward, and thus the front pair of legs is not
so long as the rear pair. Observe that the lower edges of the side
rail are perfectly square with the legs. These side rails are to
join the legs with a mortise and tenon joint. If you will make
the bottom end of the legs the working end, and make all meas-
urements from these points, in locating the mortises, you will
have no difficulty on account of the slant of the top. Lay out and
cut the mortises.

THE CROSS RAILS.

Square the stock and make the cross rails as indicated in the
drawing. Notice that the back cross rail is the same width as the
widest portion of the side cross rails (5^"). Form all tenons to
fit their respective mortises.

Square the stock and make the lower cross rail. Cut the
tenons, making sure that the distance between shoulders is the
same as in the top cross rail.

THE STRETCHER.

The stretcher is to join the lower cross rails with a mortise
and tenon joint. Study the drawing carefully in getting the length
of this piece. Notice that it will have to be longer than the top
cross rail, because it does not stand between the legs, but is be-
tween the bottom cross rails.

ASSEMBLING.

Assemble one side at a time. Glue all tenons in their places.
Test to make sure that the legs and rails stand perfectly square.
Clamp securely and allow the glue to harden. When you have
assembled the right and left ends of the writing desk, put in the
front and the rear rail and also the stretcher. Glue them in posi-
tion and clamp them securely, making sure that all angles are per-
fectly square. (The plan of gluing and clamping a piece of work,
part at a time, will usually insure satisfactory results.)

THE TOP.

A portion of the top is perfectly level. This may be fastened
with angle screws, or with blocks screwed on from the under side.

280

THE LID.

This is to be made of two or more pieces glued and doweled
together. In order that the lid may fit perfectly, it may be neces-
sary to plane the top ends of the front leg and edges of the side
rails. Do this very carefully, and lay the top in position to see
that it fits properly. It will have to be beveled slightly at the top
edge where it is to be hinged to the stationary portion of the top.
The hinges must be gained into the wood, so as not to leave a
crack at this joint.

THE BACK AND LETTER POCKETS.

The back piece, which holds the letter pockets, is attached to
a small base strip. The uprights and the main back piece are
nailed through from the bottom of this bas"e strip. This part may
all be assembled independent of the remainder of the desk, and
then fastened to the desk top with two screws in the bottom of
each letter pocket; -in this position the screws will not be seen.

THE FINISHING.

When the work is all assembled, go over it with a sharp steel
scraper and remove all pencil and tool marks; finish with fine
sandpaper. Stain the desired color and finish with shellac or rub
varnish.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

DRESSING TABLE.

1. By using this same plan of construction provided with a
level top, and adding a wide central mirror, with a small mirror
hinged on each side, a pleasing dressing table may be made.

SERVING TABLE.

2. This plan of construction, with a very few modifications,
will be suitable for a serving table.

281

LIBRARY TABLE

MATERIALS.
Oak (Chap. III., Par. 29).

4 pcs. I"x7%"x49" S2S

Top.
2 pcs. y8"x5^"x48" S 2 S

Top side rails.
2 pcs. 7/8"x5i/4"x28" S 2 S

Top end rails.
2 pcs. I%"xl%"x2G" S 4 S

Leg cross rails.

1 pc. I"x8"x48" S2S

3 pcs. 5/8"x4i/4"x24" s 2 S

2 pcs. 7/8"x4i/2"x26" S 2 S

4 pcs. 3i/2"x3i/2"x30" S 4 S
2 pcs. 5/8"xli/2"x26" S 4 S
8 pcs. I"xl"x5" S2S

Shelf.

Drawer sides and ends.

Draw carrier supports.

Legs.

Drawer carrier.

Corner blocks.

1 pc. (3-ply) I4"xl5"x20" drawer bottom.

2 doz. li/2" No. 10 F. H. B. screws.
1 doz. li/2" brads.

li/2" doz. 11,4" brads.

1 pc. is^xis/^xr for knobs.

1 pc. y±" dowel 27" long.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

There is probably no one piece of furniture which is more
popular than the library table; it has a function in every home
and adds a touch of comfort and refinement which no other arti-
cle can quite furnish.

The modern straight line design makes it possible to produce
substantial and artistic effects in handmade furniture. The li-
brary table offers excellent opportunities to carry out these de-
signs.

The design presented in this lesson will be found very pleas-
ing in all its proportions and the construction has been worked
out to avoid difficult and elaborate processes.

References :

The Practical Cabinet Maker and Furniture Designer, Hodgson.

Drake Co., Chicago.
Windsor's Mission Furniture. Popular Mechanics Co., Chicago.

282

LIBRARY TABLE

TOP SET ON
WITH SCREWS

-48" *j

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL PESIGH

283

THE LIBRARY TABLE SPECIFICATIONS

THE TOP.

The top is to be made by gluing together a number of pieces.
This must be done with great care. Be sure that the edges are
perfectly jointed. Assemble with dowels. Clamp securely and
leave for at least twelve hours for the glue to harden.

THE LEGS.

Although the legs are furnished S 4 S, it will be necessary
to resurface them with a very sharp plane and finish with a sharp
steel scraper. Lay out and cut the mortises as indicated in the
drawing.

THE TOP RAILS.

The top rails are to join the legs with mortise and tenon
joints. Square the stock, lay out and make the rails. Form the
tenons to fit the mortises in the legs. Be sure that the rails for
opposite sides are exactly the same length between shoulders.

LOWER CROSS RAILS.

The lower cross rails are to join the legs with mortise and
tenon joints. Square the stock and cut these tenons to fit the
mortises in the legs. Test each tenon in the mortise for which
it is intended.

ASSEMBLING.

Assemble one end at a time. Glue the tenons into the mor-
tises, clamp securely, testing frequently with the square. It would
be well to allow this section to harden before continuing the as-
sembling. In like manner assemble the second end.

It will be noticed that the front cross rail has an opening cut
for the drawer. This should be done before it is assembled.
Complete the assembling of the frame by gluing the two cross
rails in position and clamping.

THE SHELF.

Square the stock and prepare the shelf, which is to serve as a
stretcher, and brace the lower end of the legs. This shelf is set
into the cross rails, and is fastened to them with screws from the
lower side. Be sure that the legs stand perfectly square with the
top rail when these screws are inserted.

284

THE TOP.

Remove the clamps from the top and plane it perfectly smooth.
Finishing the top is the most important part of this piece of work ;
it must be done perfectly. Use the steel scraper to make sure all
plane marks, and rough places are removed. It will be observed
that notches are cut in the corners to allow the legs to extend
through slightly; this must be done with great care, for these joints
will be exposed. The top ends of the legs should be rounded, or
chamfered, and perfectly smoothed before the top is fastened on.
When the top is perfectly fitted, it should be fastened in position
with screws.

THE DRAWER.

Prepare the drawer front so it will fit snugly into the opening
left for the drawer. Rabbet the ends to receive the side rails, as
shown in the detail in the drawing. Prepare the back and side
rails. The side rails are to be plowed to receive the 14" three-ply
bottom.

ASSEMBLING THE DRAWER.

The drawer should be assembled with nails. The side pieces,
are to be nailed into the rabbet formed at each end of the drawer
front. Test to make sure that it is perfectly square, when the bot-
tom is nailed in.

DRAWER CARRIER.

The drawer carriers are rabbeted strips nailed entirely across
the lower side of the table top ; small strips nailed on the sides of
the drawer slide in these rabbets. Adjust these carriers so the
drawer will work smoothly.

THE KNOBS.
The knobs are to be made of wood, shaped to suit your taste.

FINISHING.

When the work is entirely assembled, go over it with a sharp
steel scraper and finish with very fine sandpaper. Stain it the de-
sired color; give it a coat of filler, or shellac and finish with rub
varnish.

Optional and Home Projects Employing Similar Principles.

1. SCHOOL COOKING TABLE.

2. LABORATORY TABLE.

3. SEWING TABLE.

285

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMMUNITY RESEARCH.

No. 1. Examine the methods of hanging porch swings in
your community and see what advantages and disadvantages you
observe in each.

No. 2. Examine the finish on the furniture in your home.
Can you determine how it was made? Call at a local furniture
store and ask the clerk to show you some waxed furniture and
some that has a rub varnish finish. Ask him to explain the ad-
vantages of each.

No. 3. In designing any piece of furniture, the most impor-
tant point to consider is, that it shall be useful for the purpose
for which it is intended, and second that it shall be pleasing in
appearance. Ask your local furniture dealer to show you the
points of advantage in different styles of chairs, tables and other
furniture. Examine the furniture in your home and see whether
it is all well designed.

No. 4. What will be the result if a wide board is laid flat
upon the ground and left for some time? Which way will it
warp? You will find it interesting to experiment with a worth-
less board in this manner, noticing which way it warps; turn it
over and note the results after a few days. This may help you
to understand the action which often takes place if you stain or
shellac only one side of a thin board.

No. 5. Perhaps you can find some piece of construction work
about the school, or at home, in which the joints have opened
slightly. What does this indicate regarding the condition of the
lumber when the piece of work was constructed?

No. 6. Do you know of any batten doors about the buildings
of your neighborhood? Examine these doors to see whether or
not they are properly braced. What remedy can you suggest for
a batten door that is beginning to sag? Have you tried it?

No. 7. For what purposes have you seen cedar wood used?
Examine as many wood fence posts as you can find and see what
sort of timber they are. Remove some of the dirt from around
the post and scratch the post with your pocketknife to determine
how deeply it has rotted. What kind of timber shows the great-
est endurance? It may be necessary for you to inquire how long
some of these posts have been in the ground.

286

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS.

1. Mention two or three points which should have careful
consideration in designing a porch swing.

2. Name three kinds of wood which would be suitable for a
porch swing.

3. What is meant by straight line designs in furniture ?

4. Give two reasons why quartered oak is preferable to plain
sawn oak for furniture construction.

5. Why is quartered oak more expensive than plain sawn
oak?

6. About what per cent, would you have to add to the price
of a plain oak piano bench to equal the price of the same bench
made of quartered oak?

7. How is a fine varnish finish produced ?

8. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of a
wax finish?

9. What are the important properties that make red cedar a
very valuable wood?

10. For what purposes have you used three-ply material in
your shop work? What advantages has it over a single board of
equal thickness ?

11. What kind of woods require a filler in producing a fine
finish? Why is this true?

12. Estimate the number of board feet in each article which
you have made from this section. Find out the price per hundred
and figure the cost.

13. How could you tell what price to ask if you were offering
a shop-made article for sale ?

14. If by taking a course of training as a mechanic a boy can
increase his wages from $7 to $12 per week, how much would his
increase be for a year? If his course cost him $750, how long would
it take for his increase in wages to repay the entire expense ?

15. Suppose John and Harry are two boys of equal age, abil-
ity and opportunities; John quits school and goes to work at $8
per week ; Harry continues in school and after four years of indus-
trial training goes to work at $15 per week. After Harry has been
at work ten years (John fourteen) how much has each earned?
Suppose it cost Harry $200 per year to remain in school, after re-
turning that money, how much has he profited over John ? Which
boy's future is most promising?

287

SUPPLEMENT

288

CHAPTER I
MECHANICAL AND SHOP DRAWINGS

THE subject of drawing is very important in all lines of in-
dustrial work. A photograph, picture or perspective draw-
ing shows how a thing will appear, but does not give di-
mensions nor show the detail of how it is made. A workman who
is going to execute a piece of work in the shop must know the
exact size and shape of every part. In order that the man who
is designing the work may give correct ideas to him the science
of mechanical drawing has been developed.

When you first look at a mechanical drawing it seems very
complicated; it is not expected that you should be able to tell im-
mediately just how it is constructed. It requires considerable
thought and study to understand a mechanical drawing well
enough to undertake the work. In fact, you must use your imag-
ination a great deal, but after you have studied a few mechanical
drawings they will soon become quite clear. There are just a few
things which you need to know about the subject of drawing in
order to interpret mechanical drawings correctly, because there
are certain recognized and established ways of representing cer-
tain ideas. These established ways are called conventions and you
should acquaint yourself with these conventions so you will un-
derstand exactly what they mean.

HEAVY LINES.

Heavy, solid, black lines are used to denote edges of material
which stand in plain view.

Very heavy lines are also used for border lines.

DOTTED LINES.

In looking at an object there are of course a great many parts
and lines which you are unable to see from any one view. In a
picture these would not be presented at all, but in mechanical
drawing the hidden parts are represented by dotted lines. At
first they may have a tendency to confuse you just a little, but if
you will remember that dotted lines always represent parts which
lie back of the parts represented by the heavy line, you will soon
learn to understand mechanical drawings.

289

DIMENSIONS.

One of the most important things about a mechanical draw-
ing is the fact that it gives dimensions, that is, it tells the exact
size of every part. In order that you may understand perfectly
the point from which the measurements are taken, broken lines
are used with little arrow heads at each end to show you where
the dimensions start and end. To illustrate, if you see a broken
line with a figure 12" somewhere in the line, that means that in
the finished article it is 12 inches from the point represented by
one arrow head to the other.

CIRCLES.

Circles and curves are usually indicated in mechanical draw-
ings by having the diameter (marked D) or the radius (marked
R) given. The point where the compass should rest when the
circle is drawn is also indicated. In measuring distances between
circles the measurements are taken from the center of one to the
center of the other.

SCALE.

Mechanical drawings are usually drawn to some definite
scale, because it is not often practical to make a drawing the same
size as the object, unless the object is very small. By drawing to
scale, we mean that the drawing is a certain fractional part of the
size of the complete object. For illustration, 1" is sometimes used
to represent 1 ft. or i" or 4" for a foot. Of course, if the drawing
is for some very large piece of construction, such as a house or a
bridge, small fractions of an inch will be used to represent a foot ;
if the drawing deals with some smaller article, as a chair or foot-
stool, 1", 2", 4", or even 6", may be used to represent a foot. It
must be remembered, however, that the dimensions given on the
drawings always refer to the sizes of the completed article and not
to the size of the drawing.

VIEWS.

In mechanical or shop drawing it is customary to give three
views of the thing which is to be built, and of an ordinary piece
of work the three views will be sufficient. However, if the thing
is very complicated it may then be necessary to make more than
the three views. But the three regular views, known as the plan,
front elevation and end elevation, are the ones that are commonly
presented. These are the regular views used throughout this text.

10-Voc.

290

PLAN.

The plan of an object simply shows how it would appear if
looked down upon directly from above. Of course it would be im-
possible to get in a position where you could see all of an article
exactly as shown in the plan, for the plan represents it as seen
in parallel lines, that is, as though you were looking straight down
upon every part at the same time. All parts which would be in
view from this position are indicated by solid black lines in the
drawing; of course there would be many underneath and hidden
parts to be shown by dotted lines.

FRONT ELEVATION.

By the front elevation we mean the representation of the
article as seen from straight in front, when it is (sitting) on its
natural base. The front elevation is seen at right angles to the
plan; the hidden parts are represented in their proper positions
by dotted lines.

END ELEVATION.

By the end elevation we mean the appearance of the article
from the right end, exactly at right angles to the plan and to the
front elevation. Of course in the end elevation the black lines
would represent the parts which would stand in plain view as
seen from the end, and the dotted lines would represent the hidden
or unseen parts in their proper positions. You will notice that
this principle is true of each view. These three views of an ob-
ject should be sufficient to enable one to form a clear idea of the
full construction. Learn to study the drawings very carefully in
order to get the desired information; this is exactly what every
mechanic who works at any line of construction work must do.
If you will provide yourself with the proper equipment and work
out the following lessons in Mechanical Drawing you will then
understand these principles pretty thoroughly. This is an im-
portant part of industrial work, for you should learn not only to
read drawings, but to prepare simple working drawings for any-
thing which you may desire to make. Throughout this book the
photographs at the opening of each lesson will give you a clear
idea of the appearance of the object presented and the working
drawings will show you its exact construction.

291

THE DRAWING OUTFIT.

The drawing outfit need not be expensive, but it should be
good enough to enable you to do accurate work; you can make
your own drawing board and T-square by following the instruc-
tions given in this text.

The following illustration shows rather a complete outfit,
some of the articles may be omitted in your early work:

Figure 1.

THE DRAWING INSTRUMENTS.

Drawing instruments are furnished at prices ranging from a
few cents up to many dollars; your work will not demand a very
expensive set, but it should contain at least the following tools of a

very substantial quality.
(See Figure 2.)
One ruling pen.
One steel spring bow
pencil.

One steel spring bow
pen.

One plane divider.
Compasses with fixed
needle point, pen and
pencil points.

Box of leads.

The other instruments sometimes found in the drawing set
are very convenient but not absolutely necessary for your early
work.

Figure 2.

292

THE DRAWING BOARD.

A drawing board is simply a plain, smooth board with at
least one absolutely straight edge. It should be made of some
kind of soft wood which will easily receive the thumb tacks;
either white pine or basswood is generally used.

The size is not material, although a board about sixteen
or eighteen inches wide by twenty-two or twenty-four inches
long will be found satisfactory for school use. (See Figure 3.)

TRIANGLES,

You should have two triangles, one 8-inch 45-degree (See
Figure 4) and one 8-inch 30x60-degree (See Figure 5). The
triangles are to be used (resting on the top edge of the T-square,
properly held) to draw all vertical and oblique lines. Triangles
are made of various kinds of material, but the transparent ones
will give best satisfaction.

Figure 4.

Figure 5.

THE T-SQUARE.

The purpose of the T-square (which must have a perfectly
straight blade) is to draw parallel horizontal lines; it should
never be used to draw vertical lines. Its position is always against

293

the lefthand edge of the board; it is not to be shifted about
from one edge to another. The top edge of the square is to serve
as a straight edge in ruling lines; the bottom edge is not to be
used. (See Figure 6.)

Figure 6.

RULER OR SCALE.

The ruler, or scale as it is usually called, is a triangular box-
wood rule with the various fractional parts of an inch accurately
marked. (See Figure 7.) An ordinary flat ruler may be used,
but it is difficult to make absolutely accurate measurements with
such a scale. You will observe that the inch marks do not con-
tinue to the extreme ends of the triangular scale; this is done to
make sure that if the ends are damaged accurate measurements
will not be hindered. The scale is to be used only in making
measurements ; it should never be used in ruling lines.

U\AA.\A.\A\\\.\,\.^\\\.\A\A>\A.\A.\.\\AAA\.\AA\A.\.\\t\A,\AAA \\.\AA\. \AA\V\A.\\.\A.\\

Figure 7.

THE IRREGULAR CURVE.

The irregular curve is used in drawing designs
which employ curves that cannot be laid out with
the compass. (See Figure 8.) It is not absolutely
necessary, particularly in your early work, but it
will be a great help in later work when you wish to
lay out graceful designs.

Figure 8.

294

OTHER ARTICLES NEEDED.

One-half dozen thumb tacks with which to fasten the drawing
paper to the board.

One rubber eraser.

One bottle of waterproof black drawing ink.
One penholder and fine pen-point.
Supply of drawing paper.

One drawing pencil. For this work you will need to use a very
hard lead pencil; about No. 4H will be satisfactory. The pencil
must be kept sharp ; some draftsmen sharpen their pencils on both
ends, making one point very slender and round while the other
point is sharpened chisel shape; some prefer to have two pencils
for this purpose. The round point is used in locating points and
making measurements; the chisel point is used in drawing lines.
You should have a small piece of fine sand-paper upon which to rub
the pencil point in keeping it very keen.

PRACTICE EXERCISE.

Cut your drawing paper to some convenient size; it is not
material what size you use, but it would be well to decide upon the
size you expect to make your plates or drawings and have them
all uniform in size and shape; this will make your work neat and
systematic, and will aid you considerably in taking care of
the drawings when you have a number of them completed. The
paper is to be fastened onto the drawing board with thumb tacks.
To do this fasten one of the upper corners of the paper by push-
ing the thumb tack through it into the board, then hold the
T-square with the head firmly against the lefthand edge of the
drawing board and set the paper exactly straight with the upper
edge of the T-square; insert thumb tacks at each corner to hold
the paper perfectly smooth; push the tacks in such a position
that the tendency is to tighten the paper without crimping it.

With your scale and round-pointed lead pencil lay out small
dots one-half inch apart from bottom to top along the lefthand
edge of your paper; hold the T-square in its proper position and
rule a horizontal line across the paper through each of these
points. These lines should be exactly parallel.

Lay out similar dots on the top line; hold your T-square in
its proper position, and with one of your triangles resting exact-
ly upon the upper edge of the T-square, rule a vertical line
through each of these points. It will require a little care to hold

295

the T-square and triangle in their proper positions while draw-
ing vertical lines. In slipping the triangle from one point to an-
other, be very careful not to allow the square to get out of posi-
tion.

If these lines are properly drawn your paper will be laid out in
half -inch squares; you might use the other edge of your triangles
and draw oblique lines.

MARGINAL OR BORDER LINES.

Drawing sheets are usually laid out with a very heavy line
ruled around the edge, thus leaving a margin entirely around the
drawing. You can decide about the width of your margins when
you are determining the size and shape of your sheets.

INKING.

After drawings are laid out with the lead pencil, they are
inked to make them clear and permanent. The inking is done
with the ruling pen, found in the set of drawing instruments. Do
not dip this pen into the ink, but with your steel pen or the quill
which is in the cork of the ink bottle put a little ink between the
nibs of the ruling pen. The width of the line made by the ruling
pen can be changed by loosening or tightening the small set-
screw on the side of the pen. Always test the pen on a scrap of
drawing paper or on the margin which is to be cut off of your
drawing. Use the pen in much the same manner in which you
used the pencil in ruling the lines; however, you must be careful
not to allow ink to get on the edge of the triangle or T-square. The
only way to become skillful at this process is by careful practice.

Be sure to clean your pen thoroughly before laying it away.

LETTERING.

There is nothing which adds to the general appearance of a
drawing so much as neat, attractive lettering. This does not
mean that fancy and elaborate decorative lettering is advised,
but that on all drawings the lettering should be clear and easily
read; the style and spacing of letters should be uniform. The
matter of slant is not important so long as it does not vary in the
same drawing.

For all practical purposes lettering must be speedily as well
as neatly done, so it is neeessary to develop skill in making let-

296

ters freehand. Rule lines to guide you in the height of the letters,
but train your eye and hand to space and execute the letters and
figures without any further guide. Become familiar with some
one form and style of letter and practice it until you can make
that alphabet speedily and well. (See Figure 9.)

The following types are given to assist you in acquiring
form; you should practice them over and over. You should fre-
quently lay out and execute complete letter sheets the same size
and style as your other drawing plates.

ABCPEFGHIJKLMNOPQR
STUVWXYZS

abcdefgh ijklmnopqrsiu vwxyz
I23456789O

HIDDEN PART

LINE OF OBJECT

DIMENSION

BORDER LINE

Figure 9.

PROBLEMS IN CONSTRUCTION.

The following problems in construction will give you prac-
tice with the drawing instruments and will help you to under-
stand some of the most important principles of mechanical draw-
ing. The directions for the drawing are given in such a way as
to allow you to think for yourself; the supplementary problems
should also be worked out if time will permit, for they are in-
tended to give further application of the principles set forth in
the regular problems.

WORKING DRAWINGS.

The matter of how working drawings are prepared for the
shop is clearly explained in plate V. You should give this plate

297

careful study, for it sets forth the principles upon which all the
working drawings of this book are made.

For practice in this part of your drawing work use the shop
projects, and after studying the drawings furnished, together
with the suggestions, prepare working drawings of your own, em-
ploying original ideas as much as you can without violating any
principles of construction. You will have to discuss these points
with your teacher.

PROBLEMS

(See Plate I., Page 299.)

Problem No. 1 — To Bi-Sect a Given Line.

Let line AB be the given line. With a pencil compass set at
a distance greater than one-half the length of line AB, using A
as a center, draw an arc below and one above the line ; using B as
a center, with the same radius, draw arcs above and below the
line, intersecting in points C and D respectively. Rule a line to
connect points C and D. Point O, where this line intersects line
AB, will be the point of bi-section (half way between points A
and B).

In shop practice a line is usually bi-sected by measurements
made with the scale, or dividers.

298

Problem No. 2 — To Erect a Line Perpendicular to a Given Line at
a Given Point.

Let AB be the given line and P a point within the line to
which the perpendicular is to be erected. With the compasses
set at any convenient radius, using P as a center, draw an arc
cutting the line AB on each side of point P. Mark these points
C and D respectively. With the compasses set at any radius some-
what greater than PD, using D as a center, draw an arc above the
line AB; with the same radius, using C as a center, draw an arc
intersecting the first arc. Rule a line E to P. This is the required
perpendicular.

In shop practice this perpendicular would be erected by plac-
ing a triangle on the T-square and drawing the perpendicular line
through the required point.

Problem No. 3 — From a Given Point Outside a Line to Drop a
Perpendicular to the Line.

Let AB be the given line and P the point outside the line.
With the compasses set at any convenient radius, using P as a
center, draw an arc cutting the line AB at points C and D. With
the compass set at any convenient radius greater than one-half
of CD, using D as a center, draw an arc above the line AB. Using
C as a center, with the same radius, draw another arc, intersect-
ing the first arc at point E. Rule a line passing through points
P and E to the line AB. This will be the required perpendicular.

In shop practice this perpendicular would be drawn by the
use of a triangle resting on the T-square.

Problem No. 4 — Through a Given Point to Draw a Line Parallel
to a Given Line.

Let AB be the given line and P the given point. With P as
a center and the compasses set at any convenient radius great
enough to cut the line AB, draw an arc cutting line AB at point
Q. With Q as a center, and the same radius, draw an arc cutting
the line AB at R (it will pass through the point P) . Set the com-
passes with a radius equal to RP, using Q as a center, draw an
arc cutting the first arc at point S. Rule a line through points
P and S. This is the required line.

In shop practice this parallel line, if horizontal, would be
drawn with the T-square; if vertical, with the triangle resting
on the T-square.

299

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Plate I.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS.

Problem A — To Erect a Perpendicular and the End of a Given Line.

Draw a line AB. Assume a point P, any convenient position outside this
line. With P as a center, and a radius equal the distance from P to B, draw
a circle passing through B and cutting the line AB at the point C. Draw a
line from C to P and extend it to intersect the circumference at F. Draw the
line FB. This will be the required perpendicular at the end of the line.

In regular shop practice the perpendicular at the end of the line will be
drawn with the triangle.

Problem B— To Bi-Sect Any Given Arc.

With the compasses draw any arc AB. Connect points A and B with a
straight line. This straight line is called a chord. Bi-sect this chord with a
perpendicular line (Problem 1). This perpendicular line will also bi-sect
the arc.

Problem C — (Test Problem).

With your T-square draw a horizontal line AB. From any point P in
this line erect a perpendicular with one of the triangles. Test the accuracy
of this perpendicular by the method given in Problem 2.

Problem D — (Test Problem).

With your T-square draw two parallel horizontal lines and with your
triangle draw two vertical parallel lines. Test both pairs of lines (Problem 4)
to determine whether or not they are accurate.

300

Problem No. 5 — To Divide a Given Line Into Any Number of
Equal Parts.

Let AB be the given line, which, for illustration, we will di-
vide into six equal parts. Draw the line AH at any convenient
angle to line AB. Lay off six equal parts on line AH. This may
be done by setting the dividers at any convenient distance and
beginning at A mark off the required number of parts. Letter
these points C, D, E, F, G, H; from H draw the line HB. From
the other points in line AH draw lines parallel to line HB, cutting
line AB ; letter the points of intersection M, L, K, J, I. These lines
will divide AB into the required six equal parts.

In shop practice these parallel lines would be drawn by the
use of triangles.

Problem No. 6— To Bi-Sect Any Angle.

Let ABC be the given angle. With B as a center, at any con-
venient radius draw an arc cutting AB and CB and letter these
points D and E respectively. With any convenient radius greater
than one-half of DE, using D as a center, draw an arc. With the
same radius, using E as a center, draw an arc intersecting the
first. Letter this point of intersection F. Draw a line connecting
points F and B. This is the required bi-section ; that is, it divides
the angle into two equal parts.

Problem No. 7 — To Construct a Triangle Having Its Three Sides
Given.

Let lines AB, CD and EF, respectively, be the given sides
with which to construct a triangle. Draw a line OP equal to the
line AB. Set the compasses to a radius equal to CD; using point
P as a center, draw an arc above the line OP. Set the compasses
to a radius equal the line EF. Using the point 0 as a center, de-
scribe an arc, cutting the first arc at point Q. Connect point Q
to points O and P. This will be the required triangle.

Problem No. 8 — To Transfer An Angle.

Let ABC be the given angle. Draw any line EF. On the
given angle, using B as a center, and any radius, draw an arc
cutting the sides of the angle at M and N. With the same radius,
using E as a center, draw an indefinite arc, cutting the line EF at
P. Now on the given angle set the compasses to a radius equal
NM. Using P as a center, draw an arc cutting the first indefinite
arc at point Q. Draw the line ED through the point Q. DEF
will be the required transferred angle.

301

PROBLEM 5

\-'\ \ \

\ \ \ \ N

\ \ \ \ \ \
/ J K L M B

PROBLEM 6
"A

PROBLEM 7
B

PROBLEM 8

Plate II.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS.

Problem E — A Circle Contains 360 Degrees.

Draw any circle and with a T-square draw a horizontal diameter passing
through point O, the center. At point O draw a vertical diameter. These
four angles will be right angles. How many degrees will each contain?

Problem F— Draw a Right Angle (With the T-Square and Triangle).

Bi-sect this angle by method in Problem 6. How many degrees in each
of the small angles? This angle is called a half -pitch cut (Chapter II, Par.
24. Chapter V, Par. 75).

Problem G — Draw a Circle With Point O as the Center.

Around point O how many 30-degree angles can be constructed? Draw
them. How many 45-degree angles? Draw another circle and divide it into
45-degree angles.

Problem H — Draw an Equilateral Triangle, One Side Being Given.

Draw the line AB the length of the given side. With the compasses set
to the radius AB, using A as a center, draw an arc. With the same radius,
using B as the center, draw an arc intersecting the first arc. Letter this
point of intersection C. Join C with A and with B. This will be the desired
equilateral triangle.

302

Problem No. 9 — To Construct a Triangle Having Given One Side
and the Two Adjacent Angles.

Let line AB be the given side, angle CDE and FHG the two
adjacent angles. Draw line'XY equal to AB. Using X for the
vertex, draw the angle KXL equal to the angle CDE. Using Y
for the vertex, draw the angle MYN equal the angle FHG (this
should be done by the method of transferring angles already giv-
en). Produce the sides of the angles thus constructed until they
meet at point Z. ZXY will be the required triangle.

Problem No. 10 — To Inscribe a Circle in a Given Triangle.

Let ABC be the given triangle. In order to inscribe the cir-
cle it will be necessary to find the center. To do this bi-sect any
two angles (by the process already learned). Bi-sect the angle
ABC with the line HB. Bi-sect the angle ACB with the line GC.
These bi-sectors will intersect at the point K. Using K as a cen-
ter and a radius equal to the perpendicular distance to any side
of the triangle, draw the required inscribed circle.

Problem No. 11 — To Circumscribe a Circle About a Given Tri-
angle, Or to Describe An Arc Or Circumference Through
Three Given Points Not in the Same Straight Line.

Let ABC be the vertices of the triangle (three points not in
a straight line). Bi-sect any two sides of the triangle (by the
process already learned). Side AB will be bi-sected by the line
FG ; side BC by the line DE. Produce these perpendicular bi-sectors
until they intersect at point K. Point K is the center of the re-
quired circle. Using K as a center, with a radius equal to the
distance AK, draw the required circle through A, B and C.

Problem No. 12 — To Construct an Equilateral Triangle Having
the Altitude Given.

Let line AB be the given altitude. Through the extremities
of this line draw parallel lines, CD and GH perpendicular to line
AB. With A as a center, and any convenient radius, draw the
semi-circle CD. With C and D as centers, using the same radius,
draw arcs, cutting the semi-circle at points E and F, respectively.
Draw AE and AF; produce them to cut the line GH. AGH is the
required equilateral triangle.

303

PROBLEM 9

Y .

PROBLEM 10

PROBLEM II

PROBLEM 12

Plate III.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS.

Problem I— The Sum of the Three Angles of Any Triangle Is Equal to 180
Degrees (the Total Angles on One Side of a Straight Line), Having Two
Angles Given, to Find the Third Angle of Any Triangle.

Let MNO be one of the angles, QRS the second, to find the third angle
of the triangle; draw a straight line AB. At any point P in this line transfer
the angle MNO, making the vertex fall on P. Let the line AP form one side
of the angle. In like manner transfer the angle QRS, letting the vertex R
fall on point P; letting PB form one side of the angle. The remaining
angle would be the required angle.

Problem J — To Construct a Triangle Having Two Sides and the Included Angle
Given.

Let MN and PQ be the two sides, and RST the given angle. Draw the
line AB equal to the side PQ; transfer the angle RST making its vertex on
point B. Prolong the side of the angle the length of the side MN, mark this
point C; connect C with A. This will be the required triangle.

Problem K—

(Test problem in actual measurement). To find the largest circle that
can be drawn in an equilateral triangle with one side given.

Draw the equilateral triangle of given size (Problem 7); inscribe the
circle (Problem 10). Measure the diameter with the scale.

Problem L — To Inscribe a Square in a Given Circle.

In the given circle draw two diameters at right angles to each other (T
square and triangles). Connect the points where these diameters cut the cir-
cumference; this rectangle will be the required square.

By drawing and actual measurements find the largest square that can be
cut from a circular board 9 inches in diameter.

304

Problem 13 — To Inscribe a Regular Hexagon in a Given Circle.

With A as a center, draw any circle. With the T-square draw
the diameter of the given circle, cutting the circumference in points
F and C. With the compasses set to the same radius with which
the circle was drawn, using C as a center, draw arcs B and D above
and below the diameter, respectively. With F as the center, and
the same radius, draw arcs G and E. Connect these six points with
straight lines, thus forming the required hexagon.

Problem 14 — To Construct an Octagon in a Given Square.

Let ABCD be the given square.. Draw the diagonals AD and
BC intersecting at point E. With the compasses set to a radius
equal to DE (one-half the diagonal), using D as a center, draw an
arc intersecting the square at points G and F. Using B as a cen-
ter, and the same radius, draw an arc intersecting the square at
points H and I; using A as a center, draw an arc intersecting at
J and K. Using C as a center, draw an arc intersecting at L and
M. Draw lines from M to I, from G to J, from H to L and K to

F, thus forming the required octagon.

Problem No. 15 — To Draw an Ellipse When the Two Axes (Di-
ameters) Are Given.

Draw the major axis AC; draw the minor axis BD perpen-
dicular to AC at its middle point. Make BO equal to OD. With
O as the center and a radius equal to OC, draw the circle A, E, F,

G, P, C. With O as a center and a radius equal to OB, draw the
circle IKNRT. Draw a number of radii from 0, cutting both the cir-
cumferences. These radii may be drawn with the use of the 60
and 45-degree triangles. From the point where these radii in-
tersect the inner circle draw horizontal lines (with the T-square) .
From the point where these radii intersect the larger circle draw
vertical lines (with the triangle). Where these vertical and hori-
zontal lines intersect will be points in the required ellipse. Lo-
cate a number of such points. Usually about four or five will be
sufficient in each quarter of the circle. Draw a freehand curve
touching all these points.

Problem 16 — To Construct an Ellipse With the Use of a Trammel.
Draw the major and the minor axis as explained in Problem
15, letting AC be the major axis and BD the minor axis. Prepare
a strip of cardboard, or paper, having a straight edge, and mark
off EG equal to one-half the major axis and FG equal to one-half
the minor axis. Place this slip of paper in a number of positions,
keeping point E on the minor axis and F on the major axis. Point
G will thus locate a number of points in the desired ellipse. Con-
nect these points by means of a freehand curve.

305

PROBLEM 13

PROBLEM 14-

PROBLEM 15

PROBLEM 16

Plate IV.

Problem M— SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS.

To draw a line tangent to a circle at a given point on the circumference.

With O as a center and any radius draw a circle; let P be the given point
on the circumference. Join point P with the center O; through point P draw
a line AP perpendicular to OP. This is the required tangent.
Problem N —

To draw angles of given number of degrees by use of the triangles.

Draw a semi-circle and by using the 45-degree and the 30-degree trian-
gles divide it into angles of 15 degrees. Use your triangles in various com-
binations and draw as many different angles as you can.
Problem 0 —

Draw a right angle triangle with the altitude equal to the base; this
forms what is known as a half-pitch angle, or cut-in rafter or brace construc-
tion (Chapter II, Paragraph 24, and Chapter V, Paragraph 75).

Draw a right angle triangle with the altitude equal to two-thirds of the
base; this forms the third pitch cut (Chapter II, Paragraph 25, and Chapter
V, Paragraph 76).

Draw a right angle triangle with the altitude equal to one-half of the
base; this forms the quarter-pitch cut (Chapter II, Paragraph 26, and Chap-
ter V, Paragraph 77).
Problem P—

Shop method of drawing an ellipse (with a string) when the two diam-
eters are given.

Draw the longer diameter AB, at its middle point O draw the shorter
diameter CD perpendicular to AB; make OC equal to OD. (The lines must
cross at the middle point in each.)

With the compasses set to a radius equal to OA, using C as a center,
drp'/v arcs cutting AB in points X and Y.

Drive a small brad in point X, and another in point Y, another might be
temporarily driven in point C; tie a string around the three brads; remove
the brad from point C, insert the point of a lead pencil and swing it around,
thus drawing the required ellipse.

306
EXPLANATION OF PROJECTION DRAWING.

You have already been told that in shop drawings we use
three views, the plan which represents the appearance of the ob-
ject as seen from above; the front elevation, its appearance as
seen from straight in front; and the end elevation, as seen from
the right end.

At first it may seem a little difficult to understand these views.
A careful study of Plate V will make the matter clear. In the
upper half of this plate you will see a perspective drawing of a
bracket shelf, represented as though it were surrounded by a glass
box. On the top side, marked plan, you will see a drawing repre-
senting the portion of the bracket shelf which would appear on
this piece of glass, if the parts directly below were projected upon
it; the dotted lines represent the underneath parts. On the front
side, marked front elevation, you will see a representation of the
front of the bracket shelf projected. On the end, marked end ele-
vation, there is a representation of the end of the bracket shelf
projected.

If the top portion of the imaginary glass box should be raised,
as though it were hinged on the line AB, and the end portion were
opened as though it were hinged on the line BD, the three draw-
ings would stand in the positions shown on the lower half of this
plate. This explains how the three regular views of any article
are made, and just how they should be arranged on the paper.

If the left end of an article is entirely different to the right,
another end elevation would be given showing the detail of the
left end. If the second end is not shown it is always understood
to be identical with the end elevation which is shown.

For further practice in mechanical drawing, you should make
practical application of all of the principles which you have learned,
by constructing regular three-view drawings of the articles which
you are to make in the shop. Further problems dealing with the
subject of shop drawings are not given here, because any of the
lessons presented throughout the text may be used as models and
types, for development of as many plates dealing with shop prob-
lems as the time of the class and the inclination of the teacher may
direct.

307

PLAN

fWNT ELEVATION

EWELEMTIOH

Plate V.

308

CHAPTER II
TOOL PROCESSES

SQUARING STOCK.

Paragraph 1. In undertaking any piece of work the very
first thing to do is to square the stock, that is, prepare a working
face, a working edge an/1 a working end, from which measure-
ments are to be taken.

PREPARING A WORKING FACE.

Paragraph 2. A working face is to be planed perfectly
smooth and straight. This process is called surfacing. To do
this, fasten the board in the tail vise on your bench. See that

your plane is sharp and
properly adjusted. (Chap-
ter VI.) Start your cut
with the plane in the posi-
tion shown in Figure 11.
Notice that the left hand
rests firmly upon the knob
of the plane, where some
pressure must be used to
keep the sole of the plane
level with the surface of
board. With the right
hand push the plane for-
ii. ward, causing it to take a

thin, even shaving as it
comes to the position shown

in Figure 12. In this posi-
tion the plane sole is resting
flat on the surface of the
board. The plane should
continue in a forward mo-
tion until the shaving has
been taken the full length
of the board, then the plane
will be in the position
shown in Figure 13. In
this position the downward
pressure should be on the
right hand so that the sole Figure 12.

309

Figure 13.

of the plane will continue
to lie level with the surface
of the board. If the for-
ward end of the plane is
allowed to tilt downward
at the finish of the stroke,
a thicker shaving will be
taken off at the end, thus
causing the board to be un-
level. In surfacing a wide
board it will be necessary
for the plane to pass over
several times in order to
smooth the entire surface.

TESTING THE SURFACE WITH A SQUARE.

Paragraph 3. With your
try-square blade (which is
perfectly straight) held irt
the position shown in Fig-
ure 14, you may test the
surface to make sure that
it is even. Push the square
along the entire surface of
the board carefully, watch-
ing to see that it fits closely
upon the surface all the
way across and that light
cannot shine under it at
any point. When the edge
of the square blade will

touch every point on the surface of the board as it passes, the
working face is prepared. Mark this face with the letter "X,"
for you will want to refer to it from time to time in handling this
piece of material.

Figure 14.

310

Figure 15.

PREPARING A WORKING EDGE.

Paragraph 4. After the working face is completed the next

step in squaring stock is to prepare a working edge. This is done

by planing one edge at a perfect right angle to the working face.

To do this place the ma-
terial in the vise with the
edge up, as indicated in
Figure 15; with the long
plane (a jack-plane or a
jointer) plane the edge the
entire length of the board.
In starting and finishing
the cut at each end be care-
ful to hold the plane so it
will be level with the edge
of the board, as already
shown in Figures 11 and
13. In planing a working

edge be careful to hold your plane exactly level, that is, it must

not be tilted to either side. Let the entire sole of the plane rest

on the edge of the board. Test the

edge with the try-square, as shown

in Figure 16, holding the handle of

the try-square firmly against the

working face. Be sure to turn

your work toward the light so you

can determine accurately whether

the square exactly fits the edge.

In testing with the square, some

mechanics prefer to hold the ma-
terial on the level with the eye, as

shown in Figure 17. In this posi-
tion one can see whether light

shines under the square blade at

any point as it is being pushed

along. Push the square from one

end to the other so as to test the

edge of the material its entire

length. If it does not perfectly fit the square, plane down the high

edge until it does.

Figure 16.

311

Also test the edges by
sight, as shown in Figure
17, making sure that it is
perfectly straight as well
as square. You should train
your eye so you will be able
to determine accurately
when an edge is straight,
ability to judge lines, an-
gles and measurements by
sight is a great advantage
Figure 17. to a mechanic. You may

also test it with a long steel

square, as shown in Figure

18. The edge of the large

steel square is a perfect

straight line, it can therefore

be used to test the accuracy

of your planing. When you

have made sure that the edge

is perfectly straight and

square with the working face

its entire length, mark this

the working edge. This is in-
dicated with two short paral-
lel lines (||).

PREPARING A WORKING END.

Paragraph 5. After you have prepared a working face and
a working edge, the next step in squaring stock is to prepare a
working end. To do this means to make one end of the material

perfectly square with the
working face and also with
the working edge. If the
end of your material has
been sawed reasonably
square you may be able to
plane it perfectly square by
the use of the block plane.
If not, you will have to saw
it first. To do this, square
a line across the working
face, holding the handle of
the try - square firmly

Figure 18.

Figure 19.

312

against the working edge,
as shown in Figure 19.

Then hold the try-square
handle firmly against the
working face and square
this line across the working
edge, as shown in Fig-
ure 20. With the back
saw carefully saw it just
outside this line. This
may be done by hold-
ing the material on the

Figure 21.

terial is damaged by splinters being
torn out. Plane only part way across
from one edge and then plane from
the other edge. In preparing a
working end, test with the try-
square frequently to be sure that it
is exactly square with both the work-
ing face and the working edge.

Figure 20.

bench hook, as shown in
Figure 21. With the block
plane smooth this end until
it is perfectly square.
Fasten the material in the
vise with the end extending
only a few inches above the
bench top; handle your
block plane as shown in
Figure 22. Do not attempt
to push the plane entirely
across the board ; if you do
you will find that the ma-

Figure 22.

313

GAUGING LINES WITH THE MARKING GAUGE.

Paragraph 6. The marking gauge is used to draw lines
parallel with the working edge. By the use of the thumbscrew
the marking gauge can be set to gauge lines at any distance from

the working edge. To set the marking
gauge use the ruler and measure from the
head of the gauge over to the marking
point, then tighten the thumbscrew. When
the gauge is set to the desired distance, the
line should be drawn by pushing the mark-
ing gauge the length of the material, care-
fully holding the head of the gauge firmly
against the working edge, as shown in
Figure 23. Note that the gauge should be
tilted from you somewhat so the point will
not enter the wrood too deeply. A me-
chanic does not attempt to pull a mark-
ing gauge, because in so doing it is almost
impossible to hold the head firmly against
the working edge.

Figure 23.

GAUGING LINES WITH LEAD PENCIL AND RULER.

Paragraph 7. It is sometimes more desirable to gauge a line

with a lead pencil and ruler than with the marking gauge. With

the left hand hold the ruler at the desired distance from the end,

that is, if you wish to gauge a line l1/^" from the working edge, with

the thumb and finger hold the ruler
at that distance. Then as the
finger drags against the working
edge it will serve as the head of the
marking gauge (shown in Figure
24), and keep the pencil at exactly
the same distance from the edge.
The pencil should be held firmly
against the end of the ruler, then
by sliding the ruler the length of
the material, with the finger held
firmly against the working edge,
the line will be drawn parallel with
the working edge. The motion
may be either toward or from you,

Figure 24. &S 3™ Ch°°Se-

314
GAUGING LINES WITH LEAD PENCIL AND FINGERS.

Paragraph 8. It is sometimes quite convenient to gauge lines
without the use of a ruler or marking gauge, but simply by the use
of the pencil and fingers. This is particularly true in gauging lines

which are a short distance from the

M| working edge, as in laying out a cham-

fer. To do this hold the pencil and ma-
terial as shown in Figure 25, allowing
the second finger to drag against the
working edge of the material, serving
the same purpose as the head of the
marking gauge, while the thumb and
forefinger hold the pencil rather rigidly,
thus causing it to make a line equally
distant from the working edge as it is
being drawn along on the material. In
this process the pencil may be either
pushed or pulled. It requires a little
practice to be able to do this skillfully,
but when the skill is once acquired it is
Figure 25. a great convenience.

BORING ENTIRELY THROUGH MATERIAL.

Paragraph 9. In boring a hole through a piece of material
which is likely to have both sides subject to view, it is necessary
to take some precaution to prevent the bit from splintering the

wood when it comes
through the board. This
splintering can be avoided
by placing a scrap of ma-
terial back of the board and
boring through the board
into the scrap, as shown in
Figure 26. Another plan is
to bore almost through
from the face side, and just
as the point of the bit be-
gins to show on the oppo-
site side, remove the bit
Figure 26. and start on the opposite

side, making sure that the

bit point starts exactly in the tiny hole which it has formed while
boring from the other side.

315

BORING TO DEPTH.

Paragraph 10. In boring for mortises, and sometimes in other
lines of work, it is necessary to bore holes to a given depth. This is
a little difficult unless you have some way of measuring, for it is

inconvenient to remove the
bit and measure the depth
of the hole. Sometimes the
shop is provided with a bit
gauge, which can be at-
;tached to the bit and ad-
justed to allow the bit to
bore any desired depth. If
you do not have a bit
gauge, a very satisfactory
substitute can be formed
by boring a hole through

Figure 27. &1Iiy scraP block, then saw-

ing it off to the length

which will leave the bit protruding as far as you want the depth
of the hole to be. Then leave the block on the bit while the bor-
ing is done (See Figure 27), and you will not be required to pay
any attention to the depth, simply bore until the block strikes the
face of the material.

BORING PERPENDICULARLY.

Paragraph 11. It is quite frequent-
ly necessary to bore holes perpendicularly
into a piece of material. To do this it is
necessary to hold the bit constantly at a
right angle to the material in every di-
rection. To be- sure that you are doing
so, it is well to have the try-square handy,
and when you start the bit, test the posi-
tion by holding the try-square as shown
in Figure 28. You should also test fre-
quently with the try-square while boring
the hole.

316

BORING AT A GIVEN ANGLE.

Paragraph 12. It is sometimes nec-
essary to bore holes at a definite angle.
To do this determine the desired angle
and set the T bevel. In starting the bit
hold the properly set T bevel in such a
position, as shown in Figure 29, so the
bit will stand exactly parallel with the
blade of the T bevel. Keep the T bevel
handy so that you can test frequently
during the boring and thus keep the
angle constant. It is hardly safe to de-
pend upon the eye in particular work if
you are attempting to bore at an angle.

Figure 29.

BORING FOR DOWELS.

Paragraph 13. In bor-
ing in the edge of material
for dowels, it is well to
square a line across the
surface of the board as a
guide to determine when
the bit is held exactly per-
pendicular to the working
edge. The material should
be fastened in the vise as
nearly straight up and
down as possible and at a
convenient height for the1
boring, as shown in Figure

30. The brace should be held so that it will be perfectly firm and
so the bit will constantly stand in a straight line with the line
which is squared on the working face of the material. Of course
it is necessary to watch carefully to hold the bit 'in line in the
other direction so it will not run out sidewise on the board.

NOTE: Another very good way of testing to make sure the
boring is being done perpendicularly is to use the try-square as
shown in Paragraph 11. It should be held with the handle against
the edge of the board, the blade will then indicate the proper posi-
tion for the bit.

Figure 30.

317
SAWING A TENON.

Paragraph 14. In forming tenons for mortise and tenon
joints, the tenon should be sawed to the gauge line, as shown in
Figure 31. The material should be fastened in the vise at an

angle; this will make it
more convenient for start-
ing the saw. In sawing wide
tenons it is sometimes con-
venient to saw part way
from one edge, and then re-
verse and saw from the
other edge, thus enabling
one to follow the lines more
accurately. Sometimes the
back saw is used for this
purpose, but the large saw

Figure si. is more desirable for larger

work.

SANDPAPERING A CYLINDER.

Paragraph 15. In shop work it is sometimes necessary to
make a cylinder without the use of a turning lathe. This is done
with a plane and sandpaper. After all plane marks have been re-
moved as nearly as possible
with a wood file, then the
cylinder is ready for sand-
papering. To sandpaper a
cylinder, fasten it in the vise
so that it extends beyond the
end of the bench, as shown in
figure 32, then with a long
piece of sandpaper cut in a
strip of any convenient width,
sandpaper the cylinder, mak-
ing it perfectly round. The
sandpaper should be grasped
near the ends and then pulled
back and forth over the cylinder very much like a belt would move
around a wheel. By turning the cylinder frequently and continu-
ing this process on all sides it can be made almost perfectly round.

Figure 32.

318

Figure 33.

THE USE OF A STEEL SCRAPER.

Paragraph 16. The purpose of the steel scraper is to finish
and to produce a fine surface on the board by removing all tool
marks and other blemishes. It is practically impossible to finish

the surface of a board with
a plane without leaving
plane marks; for this rea-
son a very sharp scraper
must be used as the final
cutting tool. The steel
scraper should be used as
shown in Figure 33. No-
tice that the scraper is held
between the thumb and
finger in such a way as to
throw it in a small curve.
This has a tendency to raise
the corners and prevent
their marring the work.
Sometimes a scraper is so made as to fit into an iron frame which
is equipped with handles; this sort of cabinet scraper enables one
to work much faster than with a small hand scraper, shown in
the illustration. In the shop where considerable resurfacing is to
be done, such a scraper should be provided.

The scraper should be kept very sharp. The cutting edge should
be as nearly straight as possible, with the exception of the cor-
ners being slightly rounded to prevent scratching. The scraper
may be sharpened with a file ; the angle at which it is to be sharp-
ened varies and is not of vital importance. After filing the
scraper some men use the tang of the file or some other smooth
piece of steel and rub it along the sharp edge of the scraper to
turn the edge out slightly; this makes it cut more readily. You
will have to experiment with this tool in order to sharpen it so
it will do good work. The scraper should always be used in the
direction of the grain, never across the grain, and it should be
used to finish all surfaces of cabinet or other fine work.

NOTE: As a rule beginning students are inclined to neglect
the use of the scraper, thinking that they can produce a satisfactory
surface with a plane and sandpaper. In order to avoid this mistake
you should learn to use the scraper early in your work, and practice
it until you appreciate what an important tool it is when you are ex-
pecting to do fine work. Of course its value depends largely upon
its being kept properly sharpened.

319

SANDPAPERING A SURFACE.

Paragraph 17. In sandpapering a surface, the purpose is
to make it absolutely smooth. Sandpapering should not be begun
until the surface has been made as smooth as possible with a

plane or a scraper. Sandpaper must
not be used to remove the roughness
left from the saw nor any other im-
perfection in the work. This must be
removed by a cutting tool. A piece of
fine sandpaper should be wrapped
around a block, as shown in Figure
34, then the block should be grasped
firmly with the thumb and fingers,
holding the sandpaper in position,
while the block is pushed back and
forth in the direction of the grain.
(See Figure 34.) The sandpaper-
ing block should never be pushed
across the grain. If sandpaper is
used crosswise of the grain it will
leave ugly marks which can scarcely
be removed. So, as a rule, you should
adopt the motto of "never sandpaper across the grain." Beginning
students are inclined to rely upon sandpaper too much. Fine work-
men use sandpaper only for the final finish on the piece of material.
They make the cutting tools do most of the work which a beginner
attempts to do with sandpaper.

Sandpaper is made in a great many grades or degrees of fine-
ness, ranging from 00, which will probably be the finest you will
require, to No. 3. No. 1 will probably be about the roughest you
will need. Most of your work will be done with No. 0. Many
students waste sandpaper by throwing it away when it is still
valuable. You should not take a new piece of sandpaper until the
old one is entirely worn out. In fact, a piece of sandpaper does
better work after it has made several strokes across the board,
because its first roughness is then worn down and it is smooth
enough to leave a fine finish on the board. Worn sandpaper should
be saved in the shop, for it is useful in polishing tools, where sharp
sandpaper would be too rough and would scratch them.

NOTE: Somewhere in the shop there should be a box into
which the partly worn sandpaper should be thrown; it would not
only be handy for use, but would save expense.

Figure 34.

320

Figure 35.

LAYING OUT FOR DOWELS.

Paragraph 18. It is very necessary that the laying out for

dowel boring should be absolutely
correct, otherwise the two edges will
not join perfectly when the assem-
bling is attempted. The edges to be
joined with dowels should be careful-
ly gauged with the marking gauge.
After determining the distance apart
which the holes are to be, a line
should be squared across both boards
at one operation in the manner
shown in Figure 35. To do this,
fasten the two pieces in the vise with
their gauged edges even. With the
try-square and lead pencil square
lines entirely across both edges. In
boring the holes be sure that the bit
point starts exactly where the pencil
line crosses the gauge line. The bor-
ing should be done as indicated in Figure 30 in this chapter.

LAYING OUT AND PLANING A CHAMFER.

Paragraph 19. The chamfer is
a very important feature in a
great many lines of mechanical work.
You should learn to make a chamfer
accurately. To do this a chamfer
must be carefully gauged. This gaug-
ing should be done with a lead pencil
and ruler or with a lead pencil and
finger, as already shown in Figure
25, if you are able to do this accu-
rately. After the gauging is done
the board should be clamped in the
vise and planed to the gauge lines.
In planing the end grain the block
plane will be found most convenient,
although if you have no block plane
Figure 36. the larger plane may be successfully

used if you do it carefully. Planing with a block plane is shown in
Figure 36. Notice that the plane is held at an angle, but that it
is pushed straight across the board (not an upward motion). Thus

321

it makes what is called a "shirring cut." This causes the plane to
cut smoothly. The fingers on the left hand rest against the board as
the plane slides along, and thus enable one to hold it at a constant
angle. If the block plane is pushed entirely across the board in
cutting the chamfer, care must be exercised not to tear out splin-
ters of the farther edge of the board. This splintering process
can usually be avoided by chamfering the ends first and making
the side chamfer later, or by planing part way across from one
edge and the remainder from the opposite edge. When a chamfer
is well formed its edges should be sharp and straight, and should
not have a rounded appearance.

THE USE OF THE BENCH HOOK.

Paragraph 20. The bench hook is used in holding small pieces
of material while they are being sawed, as already shown in Figure
21, Paragraph 5. Place the bench hook in such a position that one
block rests against the edge of the bench. This will cause the
other block to stand in a convenient position to receive the ma-
terial to be sawed. Place the material against the block and grasp
the bench hook with the left hand, with the palm of the hand rest-
ing on the material to be cut. The sawing should be done close
to the block on the bench hook, thus when the cut is finished it will
saw into the exposed portion of the bench hook and prevent
splintering the material on the opposite side. The bench hook
should also be used for chiseling purposes so as to avoid abusing
the bench top.

DRIVING NAILS OR BRADS WITH A HAMMER.

Paragraph 21. In driv-
ing nails or brads, the
hammer handle should be
grasped in about the posi-
tion indicated in Figure
37. A mistake frequently
made is that -of holding
the hammer handle too
close to the head of the
hammer. With this sort of
hold it is impossible to
strike an accurate blow.
Another error is in taking
hold of the handle too close
to the end. This also makes it impossible to be accurate. The

ll-Voc.

322

position shown in the cut is the most desirable for ordinary work ;
you should cultivate the habit of holding a hammer handle in about
this position. Notice that the handle is held just high enough that
when the nail is driven level with the wood, the hammer handle
will stand almost level. If you hold the hammer handle too high
or too low the face of the hammer will not strike the nail head
squarely and will either bend the nail or slip off the head and bruise
the wood. The position for the left hand shows how the material
should be held in place until the nails fasten it. In nailing any
sort of fine work you should exercise great care not to miss the nail
nor to strike it after it is driven level with the wood.

TOE-NAILING.

Paragraph 22. The process of toe-nailing is quite frequently
used, particularly in rough construction work, where one piece of
material joins another with a butt joint. This process does not

occur very frequently in

shop work, however you
should be familiar with it,
for it is often used in gen-
eral repair work. One
piece of material should be
made to fit perfectly
against the other piece
with a straight butt joint,
and should be held in posi-
tion while the nails are
driven at an angle, as
shown in Figure 38. If
you are working with very
hard wood, it is sometimes
a bradawl and make a small hole in which to

Figure 38.

necessary to use
start the nail.

In fine work, where you should be particular not to bruise the
material with your hammer, it is necessary to finish driving your
nail with a nail set. The illustration shows one nail which has
been driven and set; a second one ready for the set, and a third
one in the process of driving. This one, which is only partly
driven, will give you an idea of the angle at which the nail should
be driven.

In house construction the studding are toe-nailed to the wall-
plate, as illustrated in this cut.

323

THE USE OF CORRUGATED NAILS.

Paragraph 23. It is sometimes necessary to join two pieces
of material with a straight butt joint where toe-nailing would not
be satisfactory, or, at least, inconvenient. For this purpose the

corrugated nail has been de-
vised. A corrugated nail is
simply a wavy piece of sheet
steel sharpened at one end.
These nails vary in length
and width. Figure 39 shows
an illustration of these nails
and how they are used. The
two pieces of material are
brought together in a per-
fectly fitting butt joint, then
the nail is driven across the
joint standing practically at
right angles to the line of the
joint.

The illustration shows a mitered joint fastened with two cor-
rugated nails, one entirely driven and the other in the process of
driving; it also shows the square joint being made in a similar
way. By driving two or three corrugated nails into such a joint
a very strong piece of work can be made. Sometimes two nails
are driven from one side, the work is then turned over and two
or three are driven from the other side; this is done only where
great strength is required. You will notice that the corrugated
nails show even when they are entirely driven; for this reason
they are not used in fine work, unless the joint is of such a nature
that the nail can be driven from the wrong side. They are used
considerably in the making of window screens and in various
lines of cheap construction which do not demand a cabinet finish.
The great advantage of the corrugated nail is strength and speed
in construction.

Figure 39.

324

LAYING OUT HALF-PITCH RAFTER OR BRACE CUT.

Paragraph 24. In laying out the half -pitch cut (Chapter V,
Paragraph 75) use the large steel square, as shown in Figure 40.
Lay the square on the working face of the material in such a way

that the same figure on the
, blade and on the tongue are
exactly even with the work-
ing edge of the material.
Note: One side of a
carpenter's square is 24
inches long — this arm is
called the blade; the other
arm is usually 16 inches

Flgure 40 long and is spoken of as

the tongue. For illustra-
tion, if you take figure 12" on the blade of the square and make it
exactly even with the working edge, also make figure 12" on the
tongue of the square exactly even with the working edge. When
the square is in this position you can mark along either the tongue
or the blade and the angle will be exactly 45 degrees or the regu-
lar half-pitch cut. It does not matter what figures you use, but be
sure you use the same figure on the blade and tongue, 4 and 4, 6
and 6, or any two numbers will give exactly the same angle.

LAYING OUT THE THIRD-PITCH BRACE OR RAFTER CUT

Paragraph 25. In laying out a third-pitch brace or rafter
cut (Chapter V., Paragraph 76), lay the steel square on the work-
ing face of the material in such a position that the figure on the

tongue is equal to one-third
of twice the figure on the
blade. (See Figure 41.)
For illustration, if on the
blade you have the figure
12", on the tongue you
should have the figure 8" (8
being one-third of twice 12,
which is 24) . By marking
along the blade of the
square you could lay out
the lower end, or foot, of a third-pitch rafter. By marking along
the tongue of the square you could lay out the top cut.

Figure 41.

325

LAYING OUT THE QUARTER-PITCH BRACE OR RAFTER

CUT.

Paragraph 26. In laying out a quarter-pitch cut (Chapter
V., Paragraph 77), lay the steel square on the working face of
the material in such a position that the number of inches indi-
cated on the blade will bo
twice the number on the
tongue, and make these fig-
ures exactly even with the
working edge. (See Fig-
ure 42.) For illustration,
if on the blade you make the
number 8" even with the
working edge, on the

Figure 42 tongue make the number 4"

even with the working

edge. Then by marking along the blade of the square you will lay
out the angle of the foot, or lower end of the quarter pitch rafter
or brace. By marking along the tongue of the square you could lay
out the angle for the top cut.

READING AND WRITING DIMENSIONS OF LUMBER.

Paragraph 27. In stating the dimensions of lumber, the
thickness is always given first, then .width, and last, length. In-
stead of writing out the word inches, the sign — two dots (written
") — is generally used, and for feet, one dot (written '). Instead
of writing the word "by," as in the expression 2" by 4", the sign
x is used, and it should be written 2"x4". Thus, in describing
a piece of material which is l/^-inch thick, 3 inches wide and 23
inches long, it will be written ViTx3"x23". The expression
would be read, i/2-mcn> by 3 inches, by 23 inches. This rule of
giving first thickness, then width and then length is universal in
all lines of woodwork ; always name dimensions in this order.

LUMBER MEASURE.

Paragraph 28. In measuring the distance from one city to
another we use the mile as the unit. In measuring grain we speak
of so many bushels. Coal is measured by the ton. We are all,
more or less, familiar with these various units of measure. In
measuring lumber the board foot is used as the unit. So you
should become familiar with the board foot. In speaking of the
price of lumber, it is generally given at so much per thousand, or

326

so much per hundred board feet. A board foot means a piece of
material an inch thick, 12 inches wide and 12 inches long. The
surface of a board foot would be one square foot, that is, it would
measure 12" each way. Of course we do not buy lumber cut in
units of this size, so it is necessary for us to learn how to figure
the number of board feet in any irregular-shaped piece of ma-
terial. To do this you might think of how many board feet a piece
of material would make if cut up into pieces the size of the unit.
If you had a block of wood 2" thick, 12" wide and 12" long, you
can easily see that it could be ripped into two board feet. If it
were 3" thick it would make three; if it were 4" or 5" thick it
would make four or five board feet, etc. It is also easy to see that
a board 1" thick and 12" wide would contain as many board feet
as it is feet long. If it were 10 ft. long it would of course con-
tain ten board feet.

If the material is more than one inch thick, the thickness is
always considered in figuring the board feet. If it is less than
one inch it is considered an inch thick ; this means that if you are
buying material which is more than one inch thick, you are
charged extra for it, but if it is less than one inch you do not
usually get any reduction on that account. This may not seem
quite fair when you are buying material, but as much of the thin
lumber is made by planing down one-inch boards, you must pay
for the material wasted in the planing, therefore you are charged
for material one inch thick.

There are several ways to think of the problem in figuring
the number of board feet in any piece of material, but they all get
the same results.

A simple rule which is practical and easy is to multiply the
thickness by the width by the length, all being expressed in inches,
and divide by 1x12x12, the dimensions of a board foot.
This makes a simple problem in cancellation. With thickness
times width times length (in inches) above the line, and 1x12x12
below the line, you could then complete your problem by the
method of simple cancellation and the answer will be the number
of board feet. For an illustration, if a piece of material is 2"x4"x
16', we would write above the line 2x4x16x12 (notice that the 16
is feet, therefore we must multiply by 12 to reduce it to inches),
and 1x12x12 below the line—

N 3

327

CHAPTER III
VARIETIES OF TIMBER

A GREAT many men have spent almost their entire lives
studying the nature of timber and still find there are new
things to learn. You cannot expect to master the subject
during your study of this text. However, if you will study the
various references given you will learn a great many interesting
things about timber. Whenever you are handling any kind of
lumber you should think that it was once a part of a living tree.
A tree, like any other living thing, is a great mystery. It is hard
indeed to explain just how it produces its timber, but if you will
study the function of every part of the tree — the roots, bark,
trunk, leaves, etc., you will gather some idea of how it acquires
its properties. We all know that most plants, like the various
grains, vegetables and flowers, grow up and produce their fruit
and then decay. Such plants must grow again from the seed the
following year, thus making no use at all of the old stalk of the
year before. Now, just why certain plants continue year after
year to build a strong body upon which to support their branches,
leaves and fruit, is hard to explain; but the fact that tree plants
do produce a magnificent body that can be sawed up into valuable
timber is a characteristic which makes the forests of so much im-
portance.

There are so many different kinds of trees that it would be
almost impossible to make a list and offer a description of all of
them. Our very best authorities on trees and timber say it is
almost impossible to describe a tree so accurately that it can be
recognized. However, there are a few characteristics with which
you should become familiar, for they will guide you very much in
an effort to distinguish the trees. While you may never be able
to identify every single tree found in the forest, yet it will be
worth while to you to identify the more common forest trees.

If you should walk on the streets in a strange city you would
see a great many people whose names you would never be able to
call, but if you understood race characteristics you would be able
to tell when you met a strange man whether he was a negro or
a white man, whether he belonged to the Japanese or the Amer-

328

ican race, or at least you could form a judgment as to the great
class of people to which he belonged. This same general classifi-
cation is true in the matter of trees ; while you might not be able
to give the individual name of every tree, you could probably tell
to what general class or family it belonged.

Our American trees are usually classified in two general
classes. Those that shed their leaves every year (the deciduous
trees) are called broad-leaved or hardwood trees; those that do
not shed their leaves but remain green are called evergreen or
softwood trees. The terms hard and soft wood are misleading,
because the timber of some of the so-called hardwood trees is
really very much softer than the timber of some of the so-called
softwood trees. When we use the term hard or soft wood we
should keep in mind the fact we do not mean hard or soft for tool
operations, but that it refers to the general classification of those
that do or do not shed their leaves.

The beauty of our forests is due mostly to the hardwood
trees, which take on so many different colors and hues at differ-
ent seasons of the year. We are all familiar with the beautiful
green which is first seen in the spring and summer, then we know
how the leaves change into red, yellow and gold, thus producing
such beautiful effects before they drop off in the fall.

Of the hardwood trees the most important are the oak, wal-
nut, elm, hickory, maple, beech, basswood, hackberry and syca-
more. Of the evergreens, or softwoods, the most familiar are the
pine, fir, hemlock and cedar. There are, of course, a great many
more in each of these classes, but the ones enumerated are the
most commonly found and best known. You will find it very in-
teresting to study the trees of your own community and list them
into the two general classes of hard and soft wood. You should
study the general characteristics of the different kinds of trees,
and when a tree is once pointed out to you, acquaint yourself with
its characteristics so you will be able to recognize trees of that
kind when you see them again. Many people who are not very
familiar with standing trees are able to recognize timber when
it is sawed and planed. It will be well for you to study not only
the standing timber of your community, but also the different
kinds of lumber as you handle them in the shop or at home.

Standing trees are identified by their general size and shape,
by the appearance of the bark, color and shape of the leaves and
the shape and position of the branches, and possibly most of all
by the kind of flowers, fruit or nuts which the tree may bear.
Some kinds of trees have such features that they may be easily

329

and quickly recognized. The shellbark hickory is known for its
rough, loose bark. The beech tree can be unmistakably identified
by its smooth bark. The elm is known for the graceful curves of
its long branches. Other kinds of trees have peculiarities of their
own.

Men who handle material in the shops must recognize the
different kinds of wood without seeing the leaves, bark and the
standing trees. In identifying timber in this way it is necessary
to consider other features rather than those which can be studied
in the forest. If you are unable to see the trees, then you must
identify the wood from its color, weight, odor, nature of grain,
etc.

Some woods are extremely dark, while other woods are very
white. Ebony (which is an imported wood) is very black —
almost jet black, while bass wood is a very light-colored wood.
Black walnut is one of the darkest-colored woods which grows
throughout the United States. Of course there are a great many
shades of colors in wood, ranging from the dark walnut to wood
as light as basswood or holly.

Weight is also a feature which is of considerable importance
in identifying wood. Some woods are very heavy; hickory and
white oak are the heaviest native timbers. White pine and bass-
wood are very light in weight. When you attempt to acquaint
yourself with any kind of wood, consider carefully the weight.
Of course, it would be impossible to state accurately how much a
given size of any kind of wood should weigh, because this de-
pends very largely upon the amount of moisture it may contain,
yet judging from weight you will be able to identify timber pretty
accurately.

The odor of the wood is often an important factor in enabling
one to identify it. Nearly all of the soft woods have a very dis-
tinct fragrance which is quite familiar, for it smells considerably
like turpentine, although of course not so strong and disagree-
able. Various cedars are noted for their odors. The red cedar,
of which chests are made, is very valuable because of its peculiar
and lasting fragrance. You should always notice whether or not
wood has a peculiar odor if you are trying to identify it. It will
not take you long to become familiar with the odor of black wal-
nut, pine, oak, basswood, and some of the other more common
woods. However, it is impossible to describe these odors suffi-
ciently to enable you to identify them; you must learn them by
experience.

330

The shape and feature of the grain is also of great assistance
in enabling one to identify wood. The broad, prominent figure in
the grain of yellow pine is quite familiar to every one who has ever
handled that kind of wood. Oaks also have a very peculiar grain
which is easily recognized. It is the attractive display and beauty
of the grain which gives value to most of our cabinet woods. In
some woods grain figure is not an important characteristic; bass-
wood and white pine do not usually have distinct grain effects.

The very nature of the wood fiber and its strength also serve
as a pronounced guide in identification. Some woods have very
open pores. This is particularly true of chestnut. Other woods
are very close grained, as may be seen by examining a piece of
hickory or hard maple. Some woods are very flexible, and can be
bent repeatedly without cracking. The elm, hickory and mulberry
show this quality. Other woods are very brittle and will snap in
two on slight bending. Some woods have a high power of resist-
ing tool process and are planed and sawed with great difficulty,
while still other woods are easily cut. Any boy who has had ex-
perience whittling with a jackknife knows that white pine or bass-
wood will whittle more readily than a piece of hard maple, hickory
or oak. You can oftentimes identify a piece of wood by attempt-
ing to whittle it. All of these various characteristics must be care-
fully studied when you are attempting to identify any piece of
wood. It is not a matter of guessing, but a matter of judgment.
Whenever you are using any kind of material in the shop you
should assure yourself that you know what sort of wood it is. If
you are unable to identify it, make inquiry until you find its name
and then study its characteristics until you are sure you will recog-
nize that same kind of wood when you see it again.

You will find it an excellent plan to save a small specimen of
each kind of wood (no more than an inch wide, a quarter of an
inch thick and an inch or two long, would serve very convenient-
ly) . The name of the wood might be written on the specimen. It
could then be kept as a standard with which to compare and
identify woods. Of course, in making up a set of specimens you
should make sure that the one which you select is true to the type
and not discolored or unusual in any way. The United States Gov-
ernment has taken the pains to prepare a set of samples of the dif-
ferent kinds of timber of commerce growing throughout the
United States. Practical information regarding this matter can be
had by addressing the Department of Forestry Service, Washing-
ton, D. C.

331

THE HARD WOOD OR BROAD-LEAVED

TREES

OAK.

Paragraph 29. The most important hardwood trees are the
oaks. The oaks have been called the "Royal Family" of American
woods. This reputation has been given this class of trees on account
of their broad application, their unusual durability, their great
strength and unequalled beauty. Oak wood can be used for all kinds
of constructive work, almost regardless of conditions. It has been
performing satisfactory service for more than 2,000 years, so me-
chanics feel that oak has passed the experimental stage. A few
years ago, when practically all constructive work was of wood, the
important timbers, such as sills, beams and all foundation work,
were made almost entirely of oak. This wood was selected because
of its strength and durability. There is no other wood so broad in
its application. This is true not only on account of its great adapt-
ability, but because it grows in almost every part of the United
States. The tree reaches a very large size, which makes it suitable
for most any kind of heavy construction work.

On account of its attractive beauty, as well as its durability,
oak has become the leading cabinet wood, and because of the great
demand for choice oak in cabinet construction it has almost gone
out of use for ordinary rough building work.

THE OAK FAMILY.

The oak family is usually divided into two broad classes. They
are known as the "White Oak Family" and the "Red Oak Family."
The Government recognizes more than forty different species of
oaks growing in the United States and they all belong to one of
these two general families. The white oak, which is the most im-
portant of the oaks, is often spoken of as "the king" of hard woods.
It is the standard timber of commerce; it is usually taken as the
standard in measuring the strength of any other timber. Much of
the beautiful quartered-oak which we see in fine cabinet work is
white oak. While it is true that there are so many different classes
and kinds of oak, they are all alike in one respect — that is, all oak

332

trees bear acorns. That is about the only single characteristic
that is pointed out as common to all oak trees.

The broad class of oaks, known as the "White Oak Family"
(there are probably twenty-five different kinds of oak in this fam-
ily) , all produce their acorns in one year.

The red oaks require two years to produce acorns. This is
the most important distinguishing feature between these two great
families, although they can usually be told by the leaves. All trees
belonging to the white oak family are recognized by their round-
lobed leaves, the type of which is shown in Figure 43. The red
oaks are known for the sharp-pointed lobes of their leaves, as

Figure 43.

Figure 44.

shown in Figure 44. This is a family likeness which is found in
practically all of the trees of the red oak family. These two char-
acteristics will enable you to determine whether an oak tree be-
longs to the white or red oak family. On account of there being
so many different kinds of oak and because they have so many dif-
ferent local names, you will probably not be able to recognize any
great number of them and give them a specific name, although you
should be able to determine whether or not a tree is an oak and to
which one of the general families it belongs. The following table
is a classification of oaks which is generally accepted as correct:

333

THE WHITE OAKS.
(Acorns ripen in one year.)

White oak,

Valley oak,

Brewer oak,

Sadler oak,

Pacific post oak,

Gambel oak,

Post oak,

Chapman oak,

Bur oak,

Overcup oak,

Swamp white oak,

Cow oak,

Chestnut oak,

Chinquapin oak,

Dwarf chinquapin oak,

Durand oak,

Rocky Mountain oak,

California blue oak,

Engelmann oak,

Rocky Mountain blue oak,

Arizona white oak,

Tourney oak,

Netleaf oak,

California scrub oak,

Live oak,

Emory oak.

THE RED OAKS.
(Acorns ripen in two years.)

Red oak,
Pin oak,
Georgia oak,
Texan oak,
Scarlet oak,
Yellow oak,
California black oak,
Turkey oak,
Spanish oak,
Blackjack oak,
Water oak,
Willow oak,
Laurel oak,
Blue jack oak,
Shingle oak,
White leaf oak,
Highland oak,
Myrtle oak,
California live oak,
Canyon live oak,
Woolly oak,
Price oak,
Morehus oak,
Tanbark oak,
Barren oak.

Although the oak timber throughout this country has been
cut in great abundance, and has been wasted to a very large extent
in clearing up the ground for agriculture, there is still an abun-
dance of oak in almost every part of the United States, and the
Government is taking steps to conserve our present standing tim-
ber. Lumbermen are also beginning to realize that every portion
of the tree should be used, and thus waste is not going on as rapid-
ly as in years gone by.

The use of veneer is also doing much to save the supply of
oak. The veneer is merely a very thin layer of fine cabinet wood
glued on the surface of some cheaper material. This gives the
finished board the appearance of solid cabinet wood, but allows the
cheaper- wood to be substituted for the bulk of the work. Veneering

334

is prepared in several ways. Some is rotary cut ; that means that
the log is turned over on a lathe and the veneering cut in large,
thin sheets, very much as you would unroll paper. Another
method is sawing. Some of the finest grade veneers are sliced
with a very thin, sharp knife. A great deal of oak is used in mak-
ing various veneers. You will find it interesting to examine some
of your furniture at home to determine whether it is solid oak or
merely overlaid with veneer.

While the oaks are the most important of all hardwoods, it
must not be thought that the other woods deserve no considera-
tion. There are a great many other excellent hardwoods growing
in this country, and we should acquaint ourselves with some of
the most important ones.

ASH.

Paragraph 30. There are a great many different kinds of ash
called by various names, such as black ash, blue, white, red, green,
prickly and water ash. They are all very similar in general appear-
ance and characteristics. Ash is very hard and strong. It is also a
very heavy wood. It is stiff, white and tough, splits readily and
shrinks moderately and takes on a good polish. It is used quite ex-
tensively in the manufacture of agricultural implements, also in
building, particularly in the construction of floors. In carpentry
work it is sometimes used for inside finish, stairbuilding and panel
work. Ash is used in shipbuilding, construction of wagons, car-
riages and cars. Much ash is also used for the making of tool
handles and in hoop factories. Many people are unable to dis-
tinguish ash from oak, although by making a careful study of the
grain you will be able to recognize the difference.

BASSWOOD.

Paragraph 31. Basswood is sometimes called American linden,
lin, bee or lime tree. Basswood is very important among the timbers
of commerce because it is still plentiful and very cheap. The wood
is very light both in weight and color and is also soft and lends
itself easily to tool processes. While it is not a strong wood, it is
rather stiff, is of a fine texture and holds its shape well, al-
though it shrinks considerably in drying. Basswood is used very
much in various lines of carpentering, in the manufacture of
furniture and in almost all kinds of woodenware. Because it is
soft and easy to cut, it is convenient for carved work and for toy
construction. It is used in car and carriage bodies. The bass-
wood tree grows rather large, therefore the boards can be ob-

335

tained in broad widths. The tree grows in almost all the eastern
portions of the United States. The so-called "white basswood"
is a variety of basswood found most abundant in the Allegheny
region. The tree does not grow to a very large size, but the wood
is beautiful, clear and almost white in color.

BEECH.

Paragraph 32. The beech tree is pretty generally known by
its smooth bark of gray color. Practically everyone is familiar with
the small, triangular nuts which the beech tree bears. Beech is a
very strong wood and was once used for house construction, al-
though it is now used principally in lathe work, in the construction
of handles, certain parts of furniture and plane stocks. Beech wood
is heavy, stiff and hard and has rather a coarse texture. It is
very light brown in color with a pronounced figure of the grain,
which, when once learned, can be easily recognized. Beech is not
durable when exposed to the weather, shrinks and checks badly in
drying, but when it is thoroughly dry it holds its shape well and
takes on a beautiful polish.

BIRCH.

Paragraph 33. The United States produces several varieties
of birch trees, although it is hardly worth while to attempt to dis-
tinguish between them. The birch is easily recognized by its smooth
bark. The outer bark cracks open and rolls back, leaving the inner
bark of almost ivory appearance. It is this feature which makes it
easily recognized. Every schoolboy knows that birch bark was
valuable to the Indians in the construction of canoes. Wood of
the birch tree is all of a fine texture, almost white in color and
very hard. It is a beautiful wood and takes on a finish which
causes it to resemble cherry somewhat, yet it is not so rich in
color. When once thoroughly dried it holds its form well, al-
though it shrinks badly during the drying process. Birch wood
does not stand exposure to weather ; for that reason it is used most-
ly for inside work, such as finishing lumber or cabinet work. It
is recently gaining an important place in woodturning; shoe lasts,
wagon hubs, and shoe pegs are usually made of birch. Consider-
able birch is used in the various lines of woodcarving. Birch is
frequently used as an imitation for mahogany, and if properly
treated a very excellent imitation can be effected because of the
similarity in grain and general appearance.

336

CHERRY.

Paragraph 34. Cherry was once a rather plentiful wood, but it
is now becoming very scarce, and for that reason so expensive that
it is not in very general use. Our cherry lumber comes from
what is commonly known as wild cherry trees. These trees produce
a small black fruit with rather a bitter taste. In most parts of
the country the larger cherry trees have been cut, and only the
small trees can be found, and they are usually rather rare. The
wood of the cherry tree is rather a reddish-brown in color; it is
heavy, hard and strong and of a beautiful grain texture.
Cherry holds its shape almost perfectly and takes a magnificent
finish ; for this reason it is very valuable for cabinet purposes, al-
though its scarcity no longer permits its being used in larger
pieces of furniture. It has been quite popular for inside finish,
particularly in moulded and carved work.

CHESTNUT.

Paragraph 35. Chestnut wood is not a very valuable cabinet
wood. It is light in weight, has very open pores, is rather soft and
does not possess very great strength. It shrinks very badly and
checks considerably in drying; however, when thoroughly dry it
holds its shape reasonably well. Chestnut is durable even when ex-
posed to the weather. By people who are not thoroughly familiar
with timber it is sometimes mistaken for oak, although it does not
compare with oak in beauty or in value. The standing chestnut tree
can be recognized by its long leaves and also by the familiar nuts
which it bears. Chestnuts are known throughout all parts of the
country.

ELM.

Paragraph 36. Perhaps the most popular of all shade trees is
the elm. This is true because of its size and the great beauty and
grace of its branches. It is a very hardy tree and rather rapidly
growing. Elm warps very badly and splits readily, but is one of the
hardest and toughest woods when thoroughly dried. It is only
moderately durable when exposed to weather conditions. It is capa-
ble of taking a high polish when completely dry. It is used princi-
pally in the construction of agricultural implements, boats, ship-
building and also for the construction of cars and wagons. Because
it bends so readily and is tough it is an excellent wood for the use of
coopers. It is also used in the construction of cheap furniture.
Sometimes elm is mistaken for oak, however there is little excuse
for such an error, for the color and grain of the wood can be easily

337

recognized if a little care is exercised. There are a number of
different kinds of elms ; their general characteristics are similar.

GUM.

Paragraph 37. Sweet or red gum and the sour or black gum
are the two kinds common to the United States. The most impor-
tant is the sweet gum, which is perhaps more commonly known as
red gum. It is sometimes spoken of as satin walnut. The wood is
heavy and of a red brown color. It is very fine grained but not hard,
although rather stiff and strong. Gum wood presents a great
difficulty in shop work on account of its tendency to warp. It re-
quires careful handling, but if properly cut and seasoned it holds
its shape reasonably well. It takes a beautiful polish. Fine
veneers are oftentimes cut from gum. It is also used consider-
ably in the manufacture of furniture. On account of its beauti-
fully marked grain it is sometimes used as a substitute for Cir-
cassian walnut.

HACKBERRY.

Paragraph 38. Hackberry is a timber which grows in nearly
all parts of the eastern United States and is usually a tree of
medium size, but in some localities, particularly in the lower Missis-
sippi valley, it grows to be a large-sized tree.

The wood is of a yellowish white color with moderately fine
texture. It is hard and strong and quite tough. It takes a good
polish and has a handsome appearance, although it has not been
adapted to general use for furniture making.

HICKORY.

Paragraph 39. For many years hickory has been one of the
best known of all of our native timbers. The most familiar variety
is the shell-bark hickory, so named from the tendency of the tree to
shed its outside rough bark. The wood is very strong, heavy and
hard and is probably the toughest wood that grows in this country.
On account of its straight grain it splits straight and readily
and this makes it of great importance in the making of shaved
handles and certain parts of wagons and carriages. The wood of the
hickory tree is almost white in color. It must be carefully dried to
prevent shrinking and checking. It dries slowly because of its com-
pact nature. Hickory does not stand well under exposure to
weather conditions. It is very badly attacked by insects and will
be rendered completely worthless by them if great care is not ex-
ercised.

338

LOCUST.

Paragraph 40. There are several varieties of locust trees, but
they are all very similar in their characteristics. They are known
principally for their tough wood and coarse texture. They are very
hard and strong and will stand exposure to weather conditions al-
most indefinitely; for this reason locust is the leading timber for
fence posts. In recent years, in many parts of the United States,
much has been done to raise locust trees for use as fence posts. The
locust tree can be recognized by the beauty and grace of its foli-
age. At the period of its blossom the beauty and fragrance of its
flowers render it unmistakable.

MAPLE.

Paragraph 41. There are a number of different kinds of maple,
known as the broad leaf maple, silver maple, red maple and sugar
maple, sometimes called hard or rock maple. This is perhaps the
most important maple of commerce. The wood is very hard, strong,
stiff and tough and extremely fine in texture. In color it is a
creamy white, sometimes having streaks of lightbrown, particu-
larly in the heart. The grain is often quite wavy, from which is
derived the beautiful effect called "bird's-eye" or curly maple. It
shrinks moderately, works well and holds its shape. It wears
smoothly without tearing up and will stand almost any amount
of hard use. It does not, however, stand well under exposure to
weather conditions, therefore it is used principally for inside
work. It is our most valuable wood for floors, counter tops and
other pieces of woodwork which must be subjected to hard wear.
It is also used for finishing lumber in panels, stairways, ship and
car construction. It is used a great deal for tool handles, piano
framework and shoe lasts. It is almost always selected where an
unusually hard wood of beauty and stability is required. Maple
trees are quite popular as shade trees.

POPLAR.

Paragraph 42. Poplar is sometimes known as whitewood or
tulip, but in the lumber form is more often spoken of as yellow pop-
lar. It was once one of our principal timbers of commerce. Only a
few years ago large poplar trees were abundant and poplar boards
could be had in almost any width. The wood is very soft and easily
worked, has a fine texture, straight grain, light of weight, of a light-
yellowish color, without a very pronounced grain. It checks but lit-
tle in drying, does not warp badly and is one of the most durable

339

woods for outside exposure. It has been abundantly used for
weatherboarding of houses and other construction work where it
is exposed to weather conditions. On account of the scarcity it
is no longer used in larger construction work, but is used almost
exclusively for paneling and in the making of drawers and other
inside work in cabinet construction.

SYCAMORE.

Paragraph 43. The sycamore tree is usually a familiar tree,
known by its very large size, huge trunk and the striking feature of
its white bark. This whiteness of bark is seen particularly in the
upper branches. The wood of the sycamore tree is rather difficult to
work because it is almost always cross-grained; it is very hard
to split. It shrinks only moderately, but warps and checks con-
siderably; however, when thoroughly dry, it holds its form well.
Sycamore wood is only moderately hard and heavy, but rather
tough and stiff; it was once used almost exclusively in the mak-
ing of tobacco boxes. It is used in the making of drawers and
bottoms of cabinet work. When sycamore is thoroughly dry and
well finished it takes a magnificent polish, and for that reason is
used considerably for inside finish.

WALNUT.

Paragraph 44. Native walnut is divided into two general
classes, black walnut and white walnut. The white walnut, or but-
ternut, is of little importance among the timbers of commerce, but
the black walnut is possibly our most valuable native cabinet wood.
Black walnut once grew in abundance in almost all of the Mississippi
basin, where the forests were practically filled with large and
beautiful walnut trees. In the days of the early settlement of
these regions the settlers felt that the logs had but little value and
consequently piled and burned thousands of feet of this very valu-
able timber in order to clear the ground for agricultural purposes.
Black walnut was also used very largely for fence rails, and much
of it for firewood. On account of this great waste it is now al-
most entirely destroyed ; what is left is used only for the finest of
work, such as in gunstocks, tool handles and veneer for cabinet
work. The name black walnut is derived from the color of the
wood, for it is almost always very dark, at least a beautiful rich
chocolate brown. The grain and figure of the wood are usually
very pronounced. The most beautiful veneer comes from the
cross-grained logs and knots. The wood shrinks but slightly in

340

drying and does not warp badly and takes on a beautiful polish.
The beauty of walnut seems to increase with age. On account of
its scarcity it has almost entirely passed off the lumber market.
While there are a great many other kinds of hardwood trees
which furnish more or less timber for commerce, the ones already
enumerated are the most important because they are abundant and
therefore the most common in general use. Most of the other
hardwood trees belong to some of the families already mentioned.

SOFT WOOD OR EVERGREEN TREES

In most parts of the United States the hardwood forests have
been so nearly exhausted that much of the timber of commerce
now consists of some of the evergreen trees.

CEDAR.

Paragraph 45. There are a great many differenet kinds of cedar
but they have certain characteristics which are pretty generally
common. They are usually lightweight wood, soft and stiff and of
rather fine texture. The wood seasons rapidly, shrinks and checks
but little and is very durable even when exposed to weather condi-
tions. Cedars are very valuable for shingles. They are also used
abundantly for posts and ties. The two general classes of cedar
are the white cedar and the red cedar. The red cedar is used
principally in cabinet work for veneer. It is also used abundantly
in the making of lead pencils, for which purpose alone many
millions of feet are cut every year.

One of the most popular purposes for which red cedar has been
used for many years is the building of chests in which to store furs,
woolens and other fine fabrics. This wood contains a sort of frag-
rant oil which makes it proof against moths and all kinds of insects.
The fact that this fragrance is apparently everlasting makes the
wood very valuable for this purpose.

There is probably no wood that will outlast red cedar, and al-
though there are specimens of cedar wood taken from work con-
structed more than three thousand years ago, they show no signs
of decay. The Bible speaks of the "Cedars of Lebanon" from which
Solomon's temple was constructed, and frequent references are
made to the cedar as a type of permanence and wisdom. The famous

341

cedar spoken of in the Bible is not the same as our native red cedar,
but it is of the same family and the woods possess many of the same
characteristics.

CYPRESS.

Paragraph 46. Cypress is a wood that is very similar to the
white cedar. It is a light wood of rather open pores. The boards
can be had in great widths, because the trees grow very large. The
wood is soft and lends itself easily to tool processes. It is used for
various kinds of construction work which do not require great
strength.

HEMLOCK.

Paragraph 47. Hemlock is a wood of light reddish-green color,
free from rosin pockets, but of very coarse fiber and usually cross-
grained. Although very splintery and frequently defective on ac-
count of wind shakes, yet when sound it is a stiff and rather strong
timber. It shrinks and warps badly and is not very durable, how-
ever it is used considerably for rough framing and for sheathing.
The increasing cost of the better woods has forced hemlock into
pretty general use for rough work in many localities.

PINE.

Paragraph 48. There are so many kinds of pine, and the term
is used so generally in speaking of all of them that it is almost im-
possible to give a clear idea of the nature of the wood without di-
viding it into separate classes.

There are two general classes of pines, the hard and the soft
pines; the hard pines are also called yellow pine, while the soft
pines are spoken of as the white pine.

HARD PINE.

Hard pine wood is stiff and quite strong, very resinous, shrinks
moderately, seasons rapidly, works well, but is not so durable as
soft pine when exposed to weather conditions. It does not hold
paint well but takes a fine varnish finish and for that reason is used
quite extensively in cheaper grades of inside finish work.

While the term Hard Pine is used in the carpenter's trade to
refer to any kind of pine other than white pine, yet there are about
ten distinct varieties, of which only five are of any great importance
to the building trade.

342

The Long Leaf Southern Pine, also known as Georgia pine,
grows to a very large size, and furnishes a very hard and strong
wood ; it is one of the most agreeable to work and is therefore quite
popular in construction work.

The Short Leaf Southern Pine is very much like the Loblolly
pine. It grows in Missouri and Arkansas, and is also found in
North Carolina and Texas.

The Loblolly Pine grows to a very large size; it is frequently
confused with the long leaf pine, but its timber is coarser, lighter
and softer. It is found in several of the southern states.

Yellow Pine, sometimes called Bull Pine, forms extensive
forests in the Pacific and Rocky Mountain regions. The wood is
very variable, with wide sap wood. Most of the hard pine of the
west is of this variety.

Norway Pine is the northern hard pine ; it grows in the north-
ern states and Canada. This variety does not form forests but
grows in small groves, usually with white pine; its timber is fine
grained and of a very light color, it is largely sap wood and is not
durable..

SOFT PINE.

Soft Pine, white pine, pumpkin pine or sugar pine are names
which are used in different localities in referring to the soft variety
of pines.

White pine lumber is very valuable because of its many excel-
lent features; it is of uniform texture, works easily without split-
ting, seasons well and shrinks but little, does not warp badly, holds
paint well, and is very durable. White pine was once used con-
siderably for all kinds of outside work, such as weatherboarding
and shingles, but the advancing price has caused it to pass almost
completely off the market of general building materials. It is now
used only for finer construction work and for pattern making.

REDWOOD.

Paragraph 49. Redwood is a very important member of the
cedar family ; it is famous for its magnificent size. It grows thick-
ly along the coast in California. The wood is very light in weight
and of a red color. It has great durability against weather condi-
tions. It is being rapidly converted into lumber and used for
weatherboarding and general construction work.

MAHOGANY.

Paragraph 50. Although Mahogany is not a native wood and
you may never have a chance to see a standing tree, or even a log

343

of this kind, yet it is used so much in all kinds of fine furniture that
you should know something about the nature of the timber.

There are several different varieties of Mahogany found in dif-
ferent countries, but the most commonly known Mahogany used in
cabinet work grows in Central America. The trees do not grow in
groups, but are found scattered throughout the tropical forests.
They grow very large and tall and in certain seasons of the year can
be distinguished by their fiery appearance above the other tree tops.
Mahogany hunters, as the men are called, who go out and locate the
trees, climb high in the other trees and look about over the forest
until they can see the top of a mahogany tree in the distance. The
difficult work of cutting a road through the dense undergrowth then
begins and it is often quite a while before the tree is even reached.
Cutting the logs and getting them out to a shipping point is another
hard task, so there is little wonder that the lumber is expensive.

Mahogany is hard and serviceable, does not shrink nor warp
to any noticeable degree, will hold its shape and form indefinitely,
does not split nor check, is somewhat difficult to work because of
the cross-grained nature, but will last indefinitely even under try-
ing conditions. It is a close-grained wood, and usually has very
marked and beautiful figures in the grain. This is the particular
feature by which it is best known, and connected with the rich, dark
red color makes it so familiar either in solid form or veneer in fine
furniture, particularly piano cases.

LUMBER AND METHODS C7 SAWING.

Paragraph 51. While it is impossible to understand
just how, and why, the tree plant produces a large and strong
body, yet by careful study men have been able to find out much
about how a tree grows. We cannot at this time make a full ex-
planation of the tree and its manner of growing. The references
regarding trees will help you to an understanding of these matters.
We are concerned now in thinking of trees from the standpoint of
lumber. In order that we may thoroughly understand the nature
of lumber, we must remember that the tree grows by adding a
layer of woody fiber to its trunk or stem every year. A tree grows
very rapidly during the early spring, and continues its growth
throughout the summer while the leaves are on. When the leaves
have fallen off it indicates that the tree has practically ceased its
growth for the season, and through the cold weather it does not
add to its woody fiber as it does through the spring and summer.
This will help you to understand how it is that a tree produces a

344

ring of growth around its body every year. When the tree is cut
down the end of the log shows a great number of rings, each ring
representing the growth of one year. By counting these rings one
can determine the approximate age of the tree.

It is important that we learn something about these rings be-
cause they have much to do with the nature of wood. When a
log is sawed into boards these rings form the figure which we
often speak of as the grain. In quarter sawed material there is
another very beautiful kind of figure in the grain, which is caused
by the rows of cells known as medullary rays. They extend from
the heart to the bark of the tree.

PLAIN SAWING.

The most common method of sawing logs into lumber is what
is called plain sawing, or slash sawing. This is really a matter of
slicing the log into the required sizes, as shown in the following
illustration :

PLAIN SAWIHG

EFFLGT OF WARPlhG

This is the most economical way of sawing logs, for it gives
the greatest possible amount of lumber with the least waste. There
are, however, some disadvantages in this method of sawing, par-
ticularly if the lumber is to be used for fine cabinet work. Plain
sawed lumber usually warps very badly. If you are to understand
why this is true, you will need to know something about the cause
and effect of warping of lumber.

345

In a living tree there is always considerable moisture in the
form of sap. When the tree is cut down the sap, of course, ceases
to circulate, and the moisture in the log begins to evaporate. As
the log dries, all of the concentric rings, representing the annual
growths, become a little shorter and thus cause the log to crack.
If it has been sawed into boards it will, of course, dry even more
rapidly, causing the portion of the rings in each board to shorten
considerably, and thus bend or warp the board, as shown in the
illustration. You will observe that the edges of the board warp
from the heart of the log, and you can readily understand why this
is true if you will stop to consider the cause of the warping. You
will notice that the plank in the central portion of the log does not
bend, but the shortening of the rings causes it to become thinner
on each edge.

QUARTER SAWING.

In order to overcome this tendency to warp, another method
of sawing has been devised. This method also adds great beauty
to the appearance of the boards by exposing the medullary rays.
This method is called quarter sawing. It takes its name partly
from the fact that, in the process of sawing, the log is usually cut
into quarters as the first operation. There are a number of differ-
ent methods of quarter sawing, but they all have the same pur-
pose in view, that of cutting the boards as nearly as possible in a
direct line from the bark to the heart. The following illustration
shows four different methods of quarter sawing:

METHODS OF QUARTER MW/ttG

346

Figure A represents the method which makes each board per-
fectly quartered. By studying this illustration you will observe
that this is a very wasteful method, because there are so many
wedge-shaped pieces that cannot be used. The method shown in
Section B produces fairly good results, but is not so perfect as
shown in Figure A. This is also a wasteful method on account of
the great number of small pieces left. The method shown in Sec-
tion C produces very good quartered effect, although you will ob-
serve there are a good many boards which are not cut directly
from the bark to the heart. This is one of the more common
methods of producing quartered oak lumber. The irregular pieces
left at the corners are usually cut into stock of some other char-
acter.

Illustration D represents still another method of quartering;
it does not produce perfect effects and is rather troublesome to do.

You should keep in mind the fact that quartering is a method
of sawing, and that it is in no way related to any particular kind of
timber. Any sort of log can be quartered, although oak, which is
our chief cabinet wood, is the most familiar. This is an excellent
method of sawing any kind of wood which has an unusual tendency
to warp. It would no doubt be in more common use if it were
not for the fact that it necessitates some trouble and waste in
handling the material.

DRYING AND SHRINKAGE OF LUMBER.

As lumber changes its size and shape in giving up its moisture
or sap, it must not be used in any sort of fine construction until it
has been sufficiently dried to make sure that it will hold its shape
when completed. In order to make sure that lumber is properly
dried, or cured, as it is often called, great attention must be given
to this matter. After coming from the sawmill, it is usually dried
in the open air for a while. To do this the lumber is piled on strips
in such a way that the air can circulate freely on all sides. Green
material, fresh from the log, should be left piled in this way for
a considerable time. To produce an excellent quality of cabinet
material it is well to have the lumber air-dried for many months.
It is then taken to a dry kiln, which is merely a room prepared for
the purpose of continuing the drying process. Different methods
of drying are used in different kilns. Steam is sometimes turned
into the dry kiln, after- which the steam is turned off, and dry air
is introduced and the temperature is continually raised until it
reaches as much as 175 and 180 degrees, where it is left for a num-
ber of days. A number of methods have been devised for the pur-

347

pose of hastening the drying process. It is not desirable, however,
to dry a board too rapidly, for there is danger of the outside sur-
face becoming dry while the inner portion of the board still con-
tains moisture which, upon drying, will cause the board to crack.
A point not generally understood by people who are inexpe-
rienced in handling lumber is the fact that a board may be prop-
erly kiln dried, and yet not remain so if it is improperly treated.
If lumber is stored in a damp room it will absorb more or less
moisture, and will become unfit for cabinet work. This makes it
very necessary that any stock of material that you may have on
hand for your manual training work should be kept in a room
which is perfectly dry. A very excellent plan for the storage of
cabinet lumber is to provide racks or hangers from the ceiling.
This keeps it up where it will be out of the way, and at the same
time free from moisture. You cannot hope to get good results,
however perfect your material may be furnished, if you store it in
a damp basement room. This tendency to absorb moisture from
the atmsophere makes it necessary that any piece of cabinet con-
struction should have its surface properly protected by being well
finished, with filler, varnish or some other suitable protection, as
explained in Chapter IV.

348

CHAPTER IV
WOOD FINISHING

PAINTING.
Paragraph 52.

THERE are a great many different methods and processes of
wood finishing, but they all have about the same purpose in
view, that of bringing out and protecting the beauty of the
wood. On any kind of woodwork which is exposed to outside
weather conditions, some sort of paint is the common method of
beautifying and preserving. A great many kinds of painting ma-
terial have been used, and they are mixed in various ways to suit
different special purposes, and while much of this is technical in-
formation, which belongs to the painters' trade, yet there are a
few general rules regarding painting which can be easily under-
stood. Wood exposed to the rain and snow, sunshine, wind and
other weather conditions, if unprotected, will not last long. It
absorbs moisture and swells, then shrinks when it is dried, and is
constantly changing its shape and soon begins to decay. The pur-
pose of the paint is to fill the tiny pores on the surface and pro-
vide a waterproof covering for the wood. Linseed oil and white
lead have for many years been used as the principal ingredients
of paint. Of course there are many other substances which have
been added to change the color and the nature of the paint. Cer-
tain kinds of drying material and other secret preparations have
been added, but the principal elements in the paint are still oil
and lead.

Linseed oil is an oil pressed from the seeds of the flax plant;
this oil is used either raw or boiled. The raw linseed oil is gen-
erally used in the first or prime coat on woodwork. The prime
coat of paint is usually a thin coat, principally of oil, containing
only a little lead ; it should be evenly spread and well brushed into
the pores of the wood.

It requires about three coats to do a first-class job of paint-
ing. The second coat contains considerably more lead and color-
ing material. The second coat should not be added until the first
coat has become thoroughly dry. This coat should also be evenly
spread. After the second coat has become thoroughly dry the
third coat is usually added.

349

The third coat is often mixed with boiled oil, because this
gives a little more gloss and a nicer appearance than the raw lin-
seed oil. Sometimes a drier is added to the second and third coats
of paints.

There are a great many kinds of excellent ready-mixed paints
on the market, and for one who is not experienced and skilled in
the mixing of paints it is much better to buy a ready-mixed paint
and use it in accordance with the directions than to attempt home
mixing.

CABINET FINISHING.

Paragraph 53. We have just learned that paint is used princi-
pally on outside work or on things that are to be exposed to mois-
ture and weather conditions. For cabinet work, all lines of furni-
ture and inside work, other styles of finishing are used. Since paint
covers the surface of the wood entirely, the natural beauty of the
grain of the wood is lost, and for that reason paint is not used in
furniture work. Other styles of finishing are used which will pre-
serve and at the same time bring out the natural beauty of the
wood.

It requires even more skill to produce a fine finish than it
does to do painting. Many men spend their entire time and
thought in wood finishing, so you must not expect to do beautiful
work in a careless, thoughtless manner. If, however, you will
give the matter your very best attention and be careful in every
step, you will soon be able to produce some very beautiful finishes.
In producing any sort of finish it is very necessary that you should
consider the nature of wood. All wood is porous; that is to say,
the surface presents a great many tiny pores, mouths or openings,
which are ready to drink up anything which touches it. You
have no doubt noticed when a little water, grease or ink is spilled
on a bare board that the moisture is quickly absorbed and the
board is stained. This is because the liquid enters the pores of
the wood and carries whatever coloring matter it may contain
into the surface of the wood. Men have taken advantage of this
principle in all kinds of wood finishing, and you must thoroughly
understand this in order to be able to produce a satisfactory fin-
ish. Before taking up the detail of the preparation of the finish,
we must think about the condition of the wood before any of the
finishing material is applied. Some people have the idea that the
finish will cover up tool marks, rough places and other imperfec-
tions in the wood. This is not at all true, for any defect in the
work will quite likely show more distinctly after the finish is put

350

on than before, so it is absolutely necessary that the surface of
the wood should be made as perfect as possible before any of the
finishing material is added. To do this, broad surfaces should be
carefully smoothed with a scraper, as explained in Chapter II,
Paragraph 16. The surface should then be carefully sand-
papered with a very fine sandpaper, perhaps 00, as explained in
Chapter II, Paragraph 17. If there are any holes where nails
have been set, or any other openings which must be covered, they
should be filled with putty made the desirable color so as not to
show. They can sometimes be filled with glue mixed with some
of the wood dust which comes from the sandpapering. The mat-
ter of patching defects in the wood is quite a problem ; it requires
skill and practice to do it perfectly.

GETTING THE DESIRED SHADE OF COLOR BY STAINING
OR DYEING THE WOOD.

Paragraph 54. After the surface of the wood has been made
perfectly smooth and absolutely all imperfections removed, the next
thing to do is to decide upon the desirable color. If the natural
color of the wood is wanted no staining nor dyeing will be required.
There are a great many kinds of stains and dyes on the market,
many of which are good while others are worse than worthless.
The stains which are recommended to give satisfactory results
with one coat, thus producing all of the steps of wood finishing,
are not to be relied upon for satisfactory work.

Some wood dyes are mixed with water, some with alcohol,
some with oil and turpentine. The ivater dyes are very cheap,
but are not highly recommended because the water soaks into the
wood and raises the grain very badly, leaving the surface very
rough when it is dry. This is hard to overcome by inexperienced
workmen.

The spirit dyes, as a rule, give rather satisfactory results,
because they do not fade as badly as some of the other dyes. They
penetrate the wood deeply, but, like the water dyes, they raise the
grain considerably and cause the surface to be rough. It is also
rather difficult to get an even, smooth color, for they are likely to
leave blotches and spots in the stain.

The oil stains are very easy to use and can be handled by the
inexperienced finisher with very satisfactory results. The oil
stains do not penetrate so deeply and consequently do not raise the
grain so badly. The oil stains are usually rubbed with a rag after
being applied; this rubs off the surplus and allows the natural
beauty of the grain to stand out in a very desirable way.

351

In mixing or preparing a stain of any sort you should first
try it on a scrap of the same kind of wood upon which you expect
to use it. Never test the stain on your piece of finished work.
After the stain has become thoroughly dry, which may require
several hours, examine the wood carefully and see that it is per-
fectly smooth. If the grain has been raised it may be necessary to
go over it very lightly with sharp sandpaper, but you must be very
careful not to sandpaper too hard or you will cut through the stain
in places. If the article is not yet the desired color, another coat-
ing of stain may be added, but the desired color must be obtained
before the next process of wood finishing is undertaken.

FILLER.

Paragraph 55. We have already learned that the surface of a
piece of wood is porous and that it is ready to absorb any sort of
liquid which is applied. The stain which we have been discussing
penetrates the wood through the pores and changes the color a little
deeper than merely on the surface, but inasmuch as the stain is
very thin, or as the painter would say, has "no body," it does not fill
the pores of the wood, therefore even though the desirable color
has been obtained on a piece of wood, the surface still presents in-
numerable open mouths ready to drink up any other liquid which
at any time might touch it. The next step in our finishing process
is to fill all of these tiny pores, and to do it without destroying the
color or the beauty of the surface. A great many different kinds
of filler have been devised, for different kinds of wood require
different kinds of filler. Some wood has very large open pores —
chestnut, for example — other wood is very close grained and has
tiny pores, maple being a good example. Of course we would not
expect that chestnut would require the same kind and quantity of
filler material as maple. We must take into consideration the na-
ture of the wood to be filled in order to determine the kind of filler
to be used; the principles are so similar that it is not difficult to
get a general idea of the process.

Wood filler is simply some sort of pasty material which can
be made sufficiently thin to enter the pores. Then when the liquid
dries the body, or^substance of the paste remains in the pores and
fills them up level with the surface. Various materials are used
for this paste. In the cheaper fillers such material as starch is
used, but in the better fillers a harder material, such as silex or
ground stone, is employed. This is possibly the best filler, because
the silex is composed of tiny crystals of stone which presents a
great many sharp corners. If we could examine this filler with

352

a microscope we could probably see that it is made up of
innumerable crystals. The liquid of the filler would carry these
crystals down into the tiny pores of the wood, then when the wood
shrinks the crystals would be held fast because of their rough
shape. This is the reason that ground stone makes such an ex-
cellent filler, because it makes the surface of the board so hard
and solid that it is almost impossible for it to absorb any other
liquid. Fillers are mixed with different sorts of material, some-
times oil and turpentine; sometimes a little alcohol or gasoline is
used. The liquid is not a very important portion of the fillers be-
cause its principal purpose is to thin the filler so it will enter the
pores of the wood. In your work you will find it best to use a good
brand of ready-mixed filler and follow the directions for its use.

The filler should be applied with a stiff brush and it should be
well rubbed. Since the filler is not to remain on the surface, you
do not have to give any attention to avoiding brush marks. After
the filler has stood for a few moments, or until it begins to lose its
gloss, it is then time to rub it off with a piece of burlap or coarse
cloth, rubbing first crosswise of the grain, to rub as much as pos-
sible into the wood, then afterward rub in the direction of the
grain until all of the surplus is removed from the surface. A
sharp stick should be used to remove the surplus filler from the
corners and angles of your work. Always be sure that all of the
filler on the surface is rubbed off before leaving a piece of work.
If the filler is allowed to dry over night it will become hard and
it will be almost impossible to remove it. After the filler has had
time to become thoroughly hard, which usually requires several
hours, you are then ready to take up the next step of your finish-
ing process.

The work thus far (getting the desired color by staining or
dyeing and stopping the pores by rubbing in the filler) might be
called the foundation work of any sort of wood finish. No differ-
ence what sort of finish you desire, these steps should be carefully
executed. After you have reached this place or completed the
foundation work you should then decide what sort of finish you
are going to make. There are three general classes which will be
of interest to you : the wax finish, varnish finish and the shellac
polish. Regardless of which you use, if you expect fine results the
foundation work should be done as already explained.

WAX FINISH.

Paragraph 56. The wax finish produces a soft, mellow luster
which has but little gloss. It is a popular finish for hardwood floors,

353

and particularly mission furniture. Wax finish is easily and cheaply
applied and does not require any great skill. It can easily be re-
newed from time to time without much trouble. The wax used
for this purpose is principally beeswax which has been melted in
turpentine. Sometimes other ingredients are added, but these are
the principal elements. The wax may be applied with a soft rag
and should be rubbed evenly over the surface. While it does not
require any great skill nor care, yet it should be evenly spread,
and one should avoid leaving bits of the wax in the angles or cor-
ners of the work. After the wax is allowed to dry a few minutes
it should be rubbed to a polish with another dry, clean cloth. If
a little higher polish is desired a second coating of wax may be
added and polished in similar manner.

Wax is sometimes applied immediately after the stain with-
out the use of a filler. This will give only fairly good results and
will not be durable for the reasons already explained regarding
the open pores of the wood. If a first-class wax finish is desired
it would be better to add one coat of shellac to the foundation coat.
Allow this shellac to dry at least twenty-four hours, then sand-
paper it perfectly smooth by adding a few drops of oil to a piece
of well-worn sandpaper and carefully rubbing the surface. When
the entire surface has been made perfectly smooth, then the wax
should be applied, as already explained. One objection to a wax
finish is the fact that it shows finger marks rather badly, and on
work which is subjected to continual wear must be renewed occa-
sionally in order to retain its beauty and luster, but the renewing
is so easily done that the objection is not serious.

SHELLAC FINISH.

Paragraph 57. The shellac finish is one of the hardest of all to
produce. This is a finish which is known as the French polish.
This should be undertaken only on small pieces of work where a
very fine polish is desired and where there is ample time to give
to the task. A fine French polish cannot be obtained in a few
minutes. The foundation coat must be applied as already ex-
plained, then a good coat of shellac should be brushed on with a
soft brush.

Shellac is a sort of resinous substance which is gathered from
the bark of certain trees of India. This substance is dissolved in
alcohol and then applied very much like varnish. The best grade of
shellac is mixed with pure grain alcohol; this makes it rather ex-
pensive, so wood alcohol, which will do very satisfactorily for
ordinary work, is usually substituted. Denatured alcohol is very

12-Voc.

354

frequently used, but it sometimes happens that denatured alcohol
fails to dissolve the shellac because the substance used in the de-
naturing process will not dissolve shellac, and for that reason
when it is added the shellac settles in the bottom in a sort of ropy
substance and it is impossible to get satisfactory results with it.
It is best to use wood alcohol unless you can buy a quality of de-
natured alcohol prepared on purpose for shellac work.

After the first coat of shellac is added it should be allowed at
least twenty-four hours in which to dry and harden. By care-
fully examining the surface you will then find that it is somewhat
rough. It should be made perfectly smooth before another coat-
ing of shellac is added. A few drops of linseed oil should be
placed on a piece of sandpaper and then the shellaced surface
should be carefully rubbed in the direction of the grain. The pur-
pose of the oil is to prevent the rubbing from causing the shellac
to become sticky. The linseed oil also helps somewhat in building
up a polish. When the surface has been rubbed perfectly smooth,
it is then time to begin the more difficult portion of building up
the French polish.

A French polish is rubbed on with a rag. A "rubber"
is made by twisting a piece of soft cloth into a wad and
then covering it over with a small piece of cheesecloth about five
or six inches square. The inside portion of this wad is saturated
with the shellac, then by twisting it in the square of cheesecloth
the shellac will be allowed to ooze through onto the surface of the
work. The "rubber" is occasionally dipped into linseed oil and
then rubbed over the surface of the wood in a circular motion.
As the rubber is gripped the shellac oozes through and mixes with
the linseed oil and a beautiful polish is built up. The rubber must
be kept in constant motion while it is on the surface; if it is
allowed to stand still it will stick and mar the polish very badly.
The skill in this work is shown by being able to rub the surface to
a perfect finish without leaving any uneven or marred spots. The
rubber is opened from time to time and the inside portion is
dipped into the shellac. Care must be exercised not to have too
much shellac on the rubber or the work cannot be satisfactorily
done. It will require several hours to rub even a small surface
no more than a foot square to a beautiful rich polish.

A very excellent shellac finish is very often produced by ap-
plying the shellac with a brush and rubbing it down in the same
fashion as a rub varnish. If you desire to do this instead of
rubbing on with rag rubber, as explained, apply the second coat
with a brush, allow it to dry about twenty-four hours and rub it

355

down with sandpaper and oil in exactly the same way that the
first coat was rubbed. Apply a third or even fourth or fifth coat,
carefully rubbing down each coat before the next is added. In
this way a complete smooth layer of shellac will be built on the
surface of the board. For a final rubbing it is well to use ground
pumice on a rag moistened with linseed oil. This is very much
finer than sandpaper and will produce a more beautiful polish.
By "spiriting off" with a piece of cheesecloth which has been very
slightly moistened in alcohol, the surface may be rubbed to a mag-
nificent gloss. This requires some skill, because if the rag with
which the final rubbing or spiriting off, as it is sometimes called, is
done is a little too moist with alcohol the entire surface will be de-
stroyed. This final polishing rag must be so nearly dry that it
will seem only the least bit moist when touched to the back of the
hand. It will require a great deal of experimenting and patience
to produce a satisfactory finish with shellac. It is well worth your
while to attempt it ; do not be satisfied until you get good results.

VARNISH FINISH.

Paragraph 58. The varnish finish is one of the best known of
all wood finishes. Some of the very cheapest furniture is treated
with an inferior grade of varnish. The customary way of finishing
inexpensive furniture is to brush on a thin coat of cheap varnish
and allow it to dry and consider the job finished. Such a surface is
always unsatisfactory for it is easily marred and does not present
any great beauty. To prepare a satisfactory varnish finish, the
foundation must be built up as has been previously explained.
That is, the wood must be made a desired color with the stain or
dye, and the filler must be applied so as to fill all the pores of the
wood. Sometimes a cheaper grade of varnish is applied instead of
the filler.

There are a great many kinds of varnish; some of which are
very cheap and worthless and with which no amount of skill and
painstaking would produce satisfactory work. They scratch
easily and leave a white, dusty mark when scratched. You can
always tell cheap varnish by scratching it with a piece of metal
and noticing the white scratch and the dusty appearance. The
finest grades of varnish do not leave such a scratch. The best
varnish is made of copal gum which is imported. This gum is
dissolved in turpentine. A good grade of varnish is expensive
but will prove cheaper in the point of service than some of the
less expensive varnishes. Varnish should be evenly and carefully
spread with a soft brush and with a long smooth stroke. It

356

should be thin enough to flow smoothly from the brush. Great
care should be exercised not to allow the varnish to run down the
corners nor to accumulate in the angles or low places of the work.
Varnish can not be rebrushed after it begins to dry.

Varnishing should be done in a room which is clean and per-
fectly free from dust. The temperature should be about 75 to 80
degrees. Varnishing can not be done with satisfactory results in
a cold room, neither should the varnish be allowed to chill until
perfectly dry. You can not do satisfactory varnishing in your
manual training shop where dusty work is being done. There
should be a separate room free from dust and dirt and of even
temperature if you expect to do varnishing. When the first coat
of the varnish has had ample time to dry (which should be sev-
eral days) , then it can be rubbed down ready for the second coat.
Varnish may feel dry to the touch after it has been on a few
hours, but this does not mean that it is thoroughly dry. A sec-
ond coating of varnish should not be added until the first coat is
absolutely dry. This will require from four to seven days, de-
pending upon the kind of varnish and drying conditions.

The first coat of the varnish should be rubbed smooth. This
should be done with ground pumice stone and water. A rag should
be dipped in water and then in the powdered stone, and rubbed on
the surface of the varnish. If the varnish is satisfactory the
water will not damage it. The rubber for this purpose is often
made by taking a strip of cloth about an inch wide and rolling
it up very much as a tape line would be rolled. A string is then
tied around it and this pad is used for the rubbing purpose.
Sometimes linseed oil is used as a rubbing liquid.

When the first coat has been rubbed smooth then the second
coat should be applied. This coat is added in the same manner
as the first coat, carefully brushing the varnish smooth and
avoiding the possibility of its running or accumulating in the
corners. The second coat should be given from five to seven days
to dry, after which it should be rubbed down exactly the same as
the first coat was rubbed. A third or fourth coat may be added
if desirable, and each coat should be carefully rubbed. The final
coat should be rubbed with the pumice stone and oil or water
until it is perfectly smooth. If a high gloss is desired, such as is
found on a piano or automobile bodies a finer rubbing material,
such as rotten stone and water or oil, should be used. The careful
rubbing with rotten stone will bring out a magnificent finish. You
will observe that it takes considerable work to produce a beauti-
ful varnish finish. One reason why so many people fail is because

357

they are not willing to spend the time and the effort necessary.
Sometimes varnish finish is left just as it comes from the brush
without any rubbing. Possibly this is the varnish with which
you are the most familiar. This leaves a sort of cheap-looking
gloss on the surface and is not to be recommended for a fine piece
of cabinet work.

If you will follow these directions you should in a little while
be able to produce a surprisingly beautiful finish, but it will re-
quire thoughtful, painstaking efforts.

CARE OF FINISHING MATERIALS.

Paragraph 59. One important point in producing a fine finish
is to have the materials in good condition. No one can produce satis-
factory finishes with dirty, stiff brushes, and finishing materials
which have been exposed to dirt and dust. All finishing materials
should be kept carefully closed. Bottles and cans of paint should
always be closed as nearly air tight as possible when not in use.
Brushes should be kept in some sort of liquid which would keep
them soft. Shellac brushes may be cleaned in alcohol. Brushes
may be kept in fairly good condition by keeping them in a can of
water. It is not satisfactory to leave the brushes where they will
dry and become hard, for they are thus not fit for use. When
you are through using a brush and do not expect to use it soon
again the best plan is to wash it in warm water and soap, then
allow it to dry with the hairs straight, and it will be in good con-
dition the next time it is needed.

All rub rags and papers which are covered with finishing
materials should be gathered up and burned immediately after
you are through with them. It is unsafe to throw dirty rub rags
on the floor or in a corner somewhere and leave them. They are
quite likely to take fire by what is called spontaneous combustion.
So always gather and throw your rub rags into the stove or fur-
nace or put them somewhere out of the way where they will not
set fire to a building. This may seem like a small point but it is
extremely important.

There should be some place in your manual training shop
where you have a rack, table or safe for all staining materials. The
staining and filling should be done at this staining table or staining
rack. There should be separate places for all materials and they
should always be kept in their proper places. A brush which is
intended for one color should not be used in another color. The
shellac brush should not be dipped into the stain. By having your
staining and filling apparatus properly cared for you will be able
to do this work without any difficulty.

358

CHAPTER V

THE PRINCIPAL JOINTS USED
IN WOODWORK

PLAIN BUTT JOINT.

Paragraph 60. The plain butt joint
is the simplest and most frequently used
joint found in woodwork. This joint con-
sists of one piece of material sawed per-
fectly square and brought against the sur-
face of another, to which it is fastened by
means of nails or screws.

This joint is used in innumerable
ways. It is employed in all kinds of cheap
box construction, in the making of bins,

trays and almost every project which belongs to the box type.

The plain butt joint also occurs quite frequently in various parts

of house framing and in bridge construction.

GAINED OR HOUSED JOINT.

Paragraph 61. The gained or housed
joint is very similar to the plain butt joint
except that in one piece of material (B) a
gain, or dado, is cut the full size of the end
of the other piece (A), This makes it
possible for the end of the one piece to
enter the gain and be supported on each
side. This joint is usually assembled with
nails or screws. It has an advantage over
Figure 46. the plain butt joint in that it affords

strength against downward pressure, for it does not depend en-
tirely upon the nails or screws for its support.

This joint is used frequently in installing partitions in trays
and boxes. It is used in various kinds of shelf construction, in
building permanent shelving in store buildings, and in installing
shelves in cabinet work, such as bookcases or china cabinets. To
lay out this joint cut the end of the piece of material A perfectly

359

square. With the try-square square a line across the face of the
material B. Square another line across the face of the material
B sufficiently distant from the first line to provide room for the
thickness of material A. On each edge of material B gauge the
depth of the gain, with a lead pencil and finger. If a marking
gauge is used, do not gauge farther than is necessary and thus
mar the edge of material B. With a try-square square the two
lines on the edges to the gauge line. With a back saw saw on the
two lines which are on the face of the material to the gauge line
(it is well to saw on the inside of the mark so as to make sure the
material A will fill the gain tightly) . With a keen-edged chisel cut
out the portion between the sawed lines, test with the edge of the
try-square to make sure that the bottom of the gain is perfectly
level. Assemble by bringing the end of the material A into the
open gain, and nail through from the outside of the material B.

CROSSLAP JOINT.

Paragraph 62. The crosslap joint is
sometimes called a half lap, because in
making this joint the material is lapped by
cutting out half the thickness from one
piece, and the other half from the other.
This joint is employed in various kinds of
construction work where pieces of material
running in different directions must cross.

TO LAY OUT THE CROSSLAP JOINT.

Figure 47.

In preparing a crosslap joint the first

step is to make both pieces of material perfectly square. Then
square a line across the working face of one of the pieces of ma-
terial A at the position where the crosslap is to come. Lay the
other piece of material B across the first piece with its working
edge exactly even with the first line squared across, and with a
sharp-pointed knife measure the width of the gain which is to
be cut in A. At this point, with the try-square, square a second
line across A. If this has been properly done the two lines will
be just far enough apart to receive the width of the piece B.
Square these lines down on each edge of A. With the marking
gauge set to the depth which the gain is to be cut, carefully gauge
the depth of the gain on each edge of the material. Exercise
great care not to gauge beyond the pencil lines which are squared
on the edges. With a back saw, saw on the two lines down to the

380

gauge line. It is well to saw on the inside of the mark in order
that the gain may not be too large. With a sharp chisel cut out
the material between the two sawed lines, chiseling part way from
one edge, and the remainder from the other edge to avoid splinter-
ing out. When the gain is cut in A, place B in the gain, and with
the sharp point of a knife lay out the width of the gain to be cut
in B. With the try-square carefully square these two lines across
and also on both edges. With the marking gauge set exactly as
it was when you made A, gauge the depth which the gain is to
be cut in B. In making the piece B your gauging should be done
not from the side on which your gain is to be cut, but from the
opposite side in order to leave sufficient material to fill the gain
which is cut in A. Cut this gain in the same manner in which
you cut the gain in A. After the joint is assembled it may be
well to plane both surfaces very carefully with a sharp plane set
to take a very thin shaving.

END HALF-LAP JOINT.

Paragraph 63. The end half -lap joint
is very similar to the crosslap joint. It
takes its name from the fact that the ma-
terial is cut in such a form that one piece
laps over the other.

This joint is used in various kinds of
frame construction. It is occasionally
used in the making of cheap door frames
or window screens. This joint is also
sometimes used in making the corners of

Figure 48.

sill construction in small buildings.

TO LAY OUT THE END HALF-LAP JOINT.

See that both pieces of material are perfectly square on all
sides and on the ends which are to form the joints. Square a line
across the face of piece A as far from the end as the width of
piece B. Square this line down on each edge of piece A. With
the marking gauge set to one-half the thickness of the piece,
gauge the depth which the lap is to be cut. Gauge on both sides
and across the end. With the back saw, saw down to the gauge
line. Place the material in the vise and rip out this corner. When
the first piece is finished (it should be carefully smoothed with a
sharp chisel) lay it on piece B, and with the sharp point of a knife
indicate on the working face where the line is to be squared

361

across. Square this line down on both edges. With the marking
gauge set at the same depth as it was when piece A was laid out,
lay out the depth which the lap is to be cut in B. Bear in mind
that the amount of material left on in B must be sufficient to fill
the opening cut in A. For that reason the marking gauge must
be used, not from the side from which the gain is to be cut, but
from the opposite side. Gauge on both edges and the end. Saw
out this lap in the same manner as you did in A. Carefully
smooth with a sharp chisel. Assemble with glue or with nails or
screws as the nature of the work may demand.

PLAIN MITER JOINT.

Paragraph 64. The plain miter joint
is the most frequently used in the con-
struction of various kinds of rectangular
frames, such as picture frames, window
screens, frames of moulding in various
trimmed work, panel work, and almost
every kind of construction in which the
rectangular frame is employed. The miter
joint is very easily constructed, for it is
usually sawed in a miter box. If a miter

box is not available, this joint can be laid out by the use of the
steel square. It is the regular half -pitch cut shown in Chapter
II., Paragraph 24, and in Paragraph 75 of this chapter. The
T-bevel should be set at the 45 degree angle. This is done by
laying out the 45 degree angle with the steel square or compasses
and setting the T-bevel on the line thus laid out.

TO LAY OUT AND EXECUTE THE MITER JOINT.

Make sure that the material is perfectly square. With the
T-bevel perfectly set, working from the working edge (on piece
A) , lay out the 45 degree angle. With the try-square, square this
line down on each edge of the material. Hold the material in the
bench vise or with the bench hook, and carefully saw these lines.
If the material is of such a nature that it can be reversed, the
other piece of material (piece B) may be turned around in such
a way as to make the one cut answer for both pieces. This, how-
ever, cannot be done if the material is of such a nature as to have a
face side, which must be up, as in the case of moulding. In this
case it is necessary to make another cut in the same way in which
this cut was made, except on the opposite end of the piece of ma-

362

terial. Assemble the joint with glue, or with glue and brads, or
with corrugated nails, as the nature of the work may demand.

MITERED HALF-LAP JOINT.

Paragraph 65. The mitered half -lap
joint is not used as commonly as the half-
lap or mitered joint. However, it is some-
times desirable where the face of the work
should show the appearance of a mitered
joint, and a little more strength is desired
than can be secured with the plain miter.
This joint consists in half the thickness of
the material being made into a miter joint
Figure 50. while the remaining portion is cut to form

a half lap.

This joint may be used in making window frames, small panel
doors and almost any other sort of rectangular frame construc-
tion. It is sometimes used in picture frame construction, though
not commonly, because the edge of the picture frame is in view
and the half -lap joint would be rather unsightly. To lay out the
half-lap joint be sure the material is exactly square. Piece A may
be first cut in the miter box or laid out with the T-bevel and cut
with the back saw at the regular miter cut (as shown in Para-
graph 64) . With the marking gauge set to one-half the thickness
of the material, gauge the depth to which the lap is to be cut. At
exactly the point where the inside of the miter starts square a
line across one face of the material A. With a try-square, square
this line down to the gauge line. With the back saw carefully
saw out as indicated by the line just described. With a keen
chisel smooth this work. Lay this joint in position on piece of
material B and, with the sharp point of a knife, mark the point
where the miter is to start. With the T-bevel lay out this miter.
Square these lines down on both edges. With the marking gauge
set exactly as it was when piece A was laid out, gauge the
depth which is to be cut away in material B. Saw this miter
down to the gauge line. (Notice that in this case you do not saw
more than one-half way through.) Saw out this triangular piece
as already laid out. Smooth with a keen chisel. If properly
executed these two pieces of material should fit perfectly at a
right angle. Assemble with glue and brads or as the nature of
the work may demand.

363

BLIND OR CLOSED MORTISE AND TENON.

Paragraph 66. The closed mortise
and tenon joint is one of the oldest and
most commonly employed joints of wood-
work. It is formed by cutting an opening,
or mortise, in one piece of material B and
shaping the end of another piece of ma-
terial A to enter this opening. This joint
is usually assembled by the use of a wood
pin, which gives it great strength in every
Figure oi. direction. It was formerly the most im-

portant joint in house, barn and bridge construction, because
houses were originally built with large timber in the frame. This
joint is not common in modern house construction because the
large timbers have gone out of use. It is, however, used consider-
ably yet in mill and bridge construction where timbers are em-
ployed.

TO LAY OUT THE MORTISE AND TENON JOINT.

Be sure that the material is perfectly square. In laying out
mortises a special gauge is generally used. This gauge is similar
to an ordinary marking gauge, except that it has two points, both
of which are adjustable. Set the mortising gauge so the two
points will be as far apart as the size desired for the mortise and
so the head of the marking gauge will be as far from the first
point as the distance you desire the mortise from the working
face. From the working face gauge the width of the mortise on
the working edge of piece B. Determine the width which the
mortise is to be and with a try-square, square these lines. In a
blind mortise or tenon joint the depth of the mortise is not laid
out, but you should determine how deep the mortise is to be and
use a bit-gauge or some other device to determine how deep to
bore. As the wood is to be cut away in forming the mortise,
select a bit which will bore a hole about the size between the gauge
lines. Bore as many holes as convenient without over-reaching
the layout. With a sharp chisel cut out the wood to the gauge
line. Be sure that the sides of the mortise are cut down exactly
perpendicularly in every direction. Determine the length of the
tenon and square a line this distance from the working end of
material A on the working face.

In most projects the length of the tenon is determined by the
nature of the work, the strength required, etc. With a try-square

364

and lead pencil carefully square this line on both faces and edges
of material A. With the mortising gauge set exactly as it was in
laying out the mortise, gauge the width of the tenon across the
end and down the edges to the square line. Hold material on the
bench hook and with the back saw, saw down to the gauge line.
Place the material in the vise and saw the tenon as illustrated in
Chapter 2, Paragraph 14. If there is to be a relish on one or both
sides of the tenon, lay out this relish and saw out with the back
saw. Test the tenon to make sure that it exactly fills the mortise ;
pare with a keen chisel until it will enter the mortise without any
danger of splitting. Remove the tenon from the mortise and
bore a hole which is to receive the fastening pin. Bore this hole
first through piece B, which contains the mortise, then in the
tenon bore a hole a tiny bit closer to the shoulder than in the
mortise. This will have a tendency to pull the tenon tightly into
the mortise when the pin is driven. This process is called draw
boring. It was always used in the framing of buildings in order
to make sure that the joint would be as tight as possible when
assembled.

THROUGH MORTISE AND TENON JOINT.

Paragraph 67. The through mortise
and tenon joint is very similar to the
pinned mortise and tenon joint, with the
exception that the mortise is cut entirely
through the material B and the tenon A is
allowed to extend so as to be exposed a
short distance on the opposite side. This
form of mortise and tenon construction is
frequently used in cabinet work, where the
Figure 52. exposed end of the tenon is treated in a

decorative manner. This mortise and tenon joint is a little more
difficult than the blind mortise and tenon because the joint is ex-
posed on the opposite side and the mortise must fit the tenon per-
fectly in order to show good workmanship. This joint is laid out
exactly like the blind mortise and tenon except that the mortise
is laid out on both sides of the material B. In cutting, the work
is done from both sides to avoid splintering out and to be sure
that the mortise will be accurately cut and that the tenon will fill
it properly. The tenon must also be formed with great care so
as to make sure that it will properly fill the mortise.

365

THE OPEN MORTISE AND TENON JOINT.

Paragraph 68. The open mortise and
tenon joint is used in the construction of
rectangular frame work which employs
heavy timbers. This joint, however, is not
in very common use. It is very similar to
the end half-lap joint, but is a little more
complicated.

In laying out the open mortise and
tenon joint the tenon piece A will be laid
Figure 53. out an(j cut m the same manner as in cut-

ting the tenon for the blind mortise and tenon joint. The mortise
piece B is laid out with a mortising gauge in the same manner
as any other mortise except that, since it is at the end of the ma-
terial, instead of being bored and chiseled out it can be ripped
down with the rip saw and cut out with a chisel.

ROUND TENON.

Paragraph 69. The round tenon is
used in joining materials where there is
no great strain sidewise. It is rather
easily constructed, but is not so substan-
tial or rigid as the blind mortise and tenon,
and for that reason it is not so common.
It is used in wheel construction where the
spoke joins the felly. It is frequently used
on the end of materials where the principal
Figure 54. pressure is downward with but little strain

sidewise. For instance, in the legs of the camp stool.

TO LAY OUT THE ROUND TENON CONSTRUCTION.

Decide the length the tenon is to be and square a line entire-
ly around the material that distance from the end (piece A) . De-
termine the diameter of the round tenon and set the mortising
gauge with the two points as far apart as the desired diameter.
Set the gauge with the head at the proper distance from the first
point to lay out the tenon in the center of the material. Carefully
gauge the tenon on the edge of the. material. With the rip saw
saw down to the squared line in the same manner in which you
would saw any tenon. With the two points exactly the same dis-
tance apart set the head of the marking gauge so as to lay out

366

the tenon the proper distance from the working edge and gauge
the width of the tenon on each side of the tenon already sawed.
Again saw down to the shoulders. This will form a square tenon.
Find the center of this square tenon by drawing the diagonals on
the end. Set the compasses and on the end of the square tenon
lay out a circle the size of the desired round tenon. With a pocket-
knife carefully cut away the corners and make the tenon round
to the size indicated on the end. It should be finished with a
wood file. In this joint the mortise is to be merely a round hole
(piece B). It is bored with a brace and bit of the proper size. It
might be well to bore this hole before the tenon is completed so it
can be tested from time to time to make sure that it is made the
exact size to fill the mortise snugly. This joint may be assembled
with glue or a small brad may be driven through B into the tenon,
as the nature of the work may indicate.

KEYED MORTISE AND TENON.

Paragraph 70. The keyed mortise
and tenon joint is a very old one. It was
formerly used only in heavy construction
work or where great strength was re-
quired. In recent years, however, it has
found its way into a great many kinds of
cabinet construction, where it is used for
its artistic effect as well as for strength.
There is no joint which will present great-
Figure 55. er strength than the keyed mortise and
tenon. If it is properly proportioned it will withstand almost any
kind of strain and cannot be torn apart until the material is split
and almost absolutely destroyed. In the keyed mortise (B) and
tenon (A) construction the laying out and execution are very simi-
lar to the through mortise and tenon, except that the tenon is cut
very much longer so as to extend a sufficient distance to have a
mortise cut in it and allow a key (C) to be used.

Lay out the mortise and the tenon as explained in Paragraph
66. Allow the tenon to extend through the mortise far enough to
receive the mortise for the key and still leave sufficient wood to
give the necessary strength. In designing the keyed mortise and
tenon joint it is necessary to take into consideration how much
strength will be required. In cabinet and artistic work of course
strength is not an important point. Then one must consider the
general appearance of the work. It is quite common to see rather

367

heavy keyed tenons on a piece of work which is not subjected to a
great strain, but because of the massive appearance which is desired
throughout the work large tenons and keys are used. This is a
matter of judgment and no definite rule can be given. Note: In
cutting the mortise for the key and in preparing the key, be sure
that the key tightens in such a way as to hold the two pieces of
material closely together. The key must not tighten laterally or
it will split the end of the tenon. It is well for the key to fit rather
loosely this way, but to bind very snugly in the other direction.
The size and shape of the key is a matter of taste. The key is
sometimes cut in a scrolled or artistic form.

LAPPED DOVE-TAILED JOINT.

Paragraph 71. The lapped dove-tail
joint is simply a lapped joint in which the
farther end of the tenon is wider than the
portion that is next the shoulder. This
makes it impossible for the joint to pull
apart without splitting the material. The
lapped dove-tail joint is not very common
because it is rather difficult to construct
and presents but few advantages, which
Figure oc. are hardly sufficient to justify the efforts

required in making it. It is very suitable in installing mullions
or cross ties in any sort of large frame work. The dividing strips
in large window screens would offer an opportunity for the ap-
plication of this joint.

TO LAY OUT THE LAP AND DOVE-TAIL.

The angle at which the dove-tail is cut is not material. What-
ever angle is decided upon should be set on the T-bevel. The ma-
terials should be planed exactly square. On piece A cut the lap
joint the same as when making an end half -lap (Paragraph 63).
Then with the T-bevel lay out the angle of the dove-tail on the
working face. With the back saw, saw down the shoulder and
rip down the lines laid out with the T-bevel just as you would
saw out a tenon. Lay this piece of material across the piece B in
the desired position. With the sharp point of a knife indicate the
width for the gain. With the T-bevel lay out the gain on the
working face. (Sometimes this gain is laid out merely by mark-
ing on each side of the tenon. It is more desirable, however, to

368

lay it out with the T-bevel in order to have it absolutely accurate.)
Square these lines down on both edges of material B, with the
marking gauge set exactly as it was used in laying out the tenon,
gauge the depth which the gain is to be cut. Saw down to the
gauge line, then with a sharp chisel pare out the gain. Assemble
this joint with glue, brads, nails or screws as the nature of the
work may indicate.

DOWEL JOINT.

Paragraph 72. In making up wide
boards, such as table tops, drawing boards,
or any other cabinet construction in which
it is impractical to use one wide board,
dowels are frequently used. The purpose
of the dowels is to reinforce the glued
joints. Dowels may be placed in the joint
at any distance apart. In work subject to
great strain the dowels are frequently
Figure 57. placed within a few inches of each other.

In other work they are placed farther apart. This must always
be a matter of judgment. The size (diameter) of the dowel de-
pends upon the thickness of the board to be joined. In %" or 1"
material, 14" or %" dowels are commonly used, extending li/2" or
2" into the edge of each board. Dowels are usually covered with
glue, thus when the edges of the board are glued together a very
strong joint is made.

TO LAY OUT AND BORE FOR DOWELS.

See Chapter II., Paragraphs 18 and 13. Saw short pieces of
dowels just long enough to fill the depth of the holes in board A
and extend enough to fill the holes in board B. Put some glue on
the dowels and drive them into board A. Then to make sure that
the dowels are not too long, measure the distance they extend and
measure the depth of the holes in board B. Cover the dowels with
glue, also glue the edges which are to join. Make sure that the face
side of the two boards are turned in the same direction ; dr;ve the
boards together. After the boards are driven together they
should be clamped very tightly with a steel clamp. If you have
no steel clamp, substitutes may be made by nailing some blocks
at convenient distances apart on any rough piece of material and
tightening with wedges. Dowel joints should be clamped twelve to
twenty-four hours to give the glue a chance to harden.

369

TONGUE AND GROOVE JOINT.

Paragraph 73. The tongue and
groove joint is very commonly used in
joining the edges of boards. This joint is
found in all kinds of flooring and ceiling.
It is also used somewhat in joining boards
in cabinet construction, such as in table
tops, counter tops and in other places
where wide boards are needed. It is not
common to prepare a tongue and groove
joint in the shop; material is usually pur-
chased with the tongue and the groove already made; this is par-
ticularly true in flooring and ceiling. While the tongue and
groove joint is not commonly made by hand, yet there are fre-
quently occasions where it is necessary to do a little of this kind
of work. For this reason the shop should be provided with a set
of matching planes for the purpose of cutting the tongue and
groove. One plane is so constructed as to cut the tongue while
the other is formed to cut the groove (these planes are sometimes
so constructed that the same plane does the work of both, one
side being used for the tongue and the opposite side for the groove

TO PREPARE TONGUE AND GROOVE.

First, see that your material is planed perfectly straight and
square on the edges. Then place the material in the vise exactly
as though you were going to plane the edge, and with the match-
ing plane (which must be firmly held against the working face)
plane a groove (B) on one edge of each piece of material. Plane a
tongue (A) on the opposite edge of each piece. This joint can be
assembled with glue or treated as the nature of the work may de-

mand' HALVED SPLICE.

Paragraph 74. The halved splice is
used for the purpose of splicing materials
in length. This joint is very similar to the
half -lap joint except that the material con-
tinues in one direction rather than at right
angles. In preparing this joint see that
the material is planed perfectly square.
Lay out the half -lap as explained in Para-
graph 63. Assemble with glue and brads,
or nails and screws, as the nature of the
Figure 59. work may demand.

370

SIMPLE HALF-PITCH CUT.

Paragraph 75. In house or roof con-
struction the cutting of rafters is a very
essential matter. In simple roof work this
is not difficult. Most roofs follow the regu-
lar standards of pitch, the most common
being half, third and quarter-pitch. By
the pitch of the roof is meant the relation
of the elevation of the roof to the width of
the building. A half -pitch roof is one in
Figure GO. which the elevation of the rafters is one-

half the width of the building. To illustrate: if a building is 12
ft. wide the elevation of the rafters would be one-half of 12, which
is 6 ft. To lay out the half -pitch cut a steel square should be
used, as explained in Chapter 2, Paragraph 24. In cutting the
brace for a door or any other purpose the half -pitch cut would be
laid out in exactly the same way.

THIRD-PITCH CUT.

Paragraph 76. A third-pitch roof is
one in which the elevation of the rafters
is one-third the width of the building. To
illustrate: if a building is 18 ft. wide a
third-pitch roof would be one in which the
elevation to the point of the rafters would
be one-third of 18 ft., which is 6 ft. To
make this cut a steel square should be
used, as indicated in Chapter 2, Paragraph

Figure 61.

QUARTER-PITCH CUT.

Paragraph 77. A quarter-pitch roof
is one in which the elevation of the rafters
is one-fourth the width of the building.
To illustrate: if the width of the building
is 24 ft., the elevation of a quarter-pitch
roof will be one-fourth of 24, which is 6
ft. This cut for a rafter would be laid out
as indicated in Chapter 2, Paragraph 26.

Of course in roof construction there
Figure 62. are a great many other rafter problems

which arise, such as the cutting of valley, hip and jack rafters.
As this information belongs purely to the carpenter's trade, it

371

is not worth while taking it up here. The matter of getting the
length of rafters is a simple problem which can be easily figured
out in the arithmetic class by figuring the hypotenuse of a right
triangle, in which the elevation is the altitude and one-half the
width of the building is the base. Of course the carpenter has
rules by which he is able to get the length of a rafter by the use
of the steel square.

372

CHAPTER VI
TOOLS AND TOOL SHARPENING ;

SAWS.

Paragraph 78. There are a great many kinds of saws, each
of which is constructed for some sort of special work. It is not
necessary that you should learn all about the different kinds of
saws ; however, there are a few points regarding the more common
ones with which you should become familiar.

The ordinary hand saws, or panel saws, as they are sometimes
called, are in most common use, and for that reason you will need
to know about them. Hand saws are divided into two general
classes, those that cut in the direction of the grain, called rip saws,
and those that cut across the grain, known as cross-cutting saws.
The principal distinguishing feature between the two classes of
saws is the shape of the teeth, each having the teeth so shaped
and filed as to perform its particular work most satisfactorily.

A mistake frequently made by beginners is that of attempt-
ing to use a rip saw for cross cutting purposes. On account of
the shape of its teeth and the angle at which they are filed, a rip
saw will not do satisfactory work in cutting across the grain of
wood. You will understand this better after studying the illustra-
tion and the discussion which follows, and also making some prac-
tical experiments in the shop.

The cross-cutting saw is sometimes taken for ripping pur-
poses. This is not such a bad mistake, for a cross-cutting saw will
do fairly good work in the direction of the grain, although it will
not cut so rapidly as the rip saw. In ripping material which is
very knotty or cross grained a cross-cutting saw will often give
very excellent results. On account of its being so necessary for
you to select a saw which is fitted for the particular work which
you expect to do, you must be able to distinguish between the
cross-cutting and rip saws.

RIP SAWS.

Paragraph 79. The following illustration (Figure 63) shows
the appearance of the teeth of a rip saw. The size of the teeth
is somewhat exaggerated so you may be able to recognize the

373

essential features. At first glance you possibly would not distin-
guish the difference between the shape of these teeth and the
teeth of a cross-cutting saw ; therefore you must examine the illus-
tration carefully, studying the appearance of the teeth from all
the different views which are given.

RIPSAW

HEEL

POINT

SIDE VIEW OF TEETH

EttDVIEW

EDGE VIEW

Figure 63.

In order that saws may run easily, and cut a wide enough
groove, or kerf, as it is called, to allow the blade to run freely, the
edge of the blade which has the teeth is usually a little thicker
than the back edge of the blade. The teeth also are given "set";
that is, half the teeth (alternating) are turned slightly toward one
cdde while the remaining half are turned toward the other side.
This plan of setting the teeth has the effect of enabling the saw to
cut a kerf sufficiently wide for the blade to run through smoothly.

Rip saw teeth are not given much set. However, they should
have a little set, as shown in the end view of Figure 63. By exam-
ining a rip saw in the shop, noticing the set, the shape of the teeth,
and experimenting with it, you will see clearly why it should
always be used only for ripping purposes.

CROSS-CUTTING SAWS.

Paragraph 80. The teeth of cross-cutting saws, instead of
being filed square across like rip saw teeth, are filed at an angle,
so that the cutting edge of each tooth approaches the wood very

374

much in the manner of a keen knife blade. This is the feature
which makes it possible for a cross-cutting saw to sever the fibers
of wood and make a smooth cut across the grain. Figure 64 shows
you the shape of the teeth of a cross-cutting saw.

CROSS CUTTING SAW

HEEL

POIHT

EDGE VIEW

Figure 64.

You will observe that the front, or cutting edge, of each tooth
leans slightly backward toward the heel of the saw. The side view
shows that the teeth are beveled. This is done by filing them half
from one side and the other half from the opposite side. The teeth
are also given more set than was found in the rip saw. This may
be seen from the edge and end view. A careful study of the char-
acteristic features of cross-cutting saws, together with a little
thoughtful experimenting in the shop, will enable you to under-
stand these points fully.

SAW FILING.

Paragraph 81. Saw filing is a very technical piece of work.
It should not be attempted without considerable study; it is not
to be expected that elementary students should file their own saws
in the shop. This work should be done by the teacher or an expert
saw filer. An inexperienced student is likely to damage a saw
almost beyond repair in his early attempts at filing. NOTE : If it

375

is thought advisable to attempt sawfiling in ths school there should
be a saw or two put aside for this purpose and used for practice
work. No student should be permitted to attempt the work on
any of the regular shop saws until he has acquired sufficient skill
to be able to do it without danger of damage to the saw. It is not
the purpose of this discussion to give detailed illustrations and in-
structions on the technical subject of saw dressing. A careful
study of some of the references given in this text will offer valu-
able assistance along that line.

CARE OF SAWS.

Paragraph 82. All saws should be kept perfectly clean, free
from glue, rust or anything else which would give the sides of the
saw a rough surface. Saws should be wiped frequently with an
oiled rag (do not use linseed oil) . If any spots of rust appear they
should be rubbed off with powdered emery, pumice stone, or with
a piece of well-worn sandpaper and a little oil. Care should be ex-
ercised never to allow the teeth of a saw to strike against any
kind of metal, such as the vise jaw, a nail or a screw. If it is
necessary to saw a board which is covered with dirt, cement, or
any other substance which is likely to dull the saw, the board
should be carefully cleaned along the line where the saw cut is to
be made before the work is attempted. It is very much easier and
cheaper to keep shop saws sharp and in good order by proper care
than to have them re-sharpened.

PLANES.

Paragraph 83. A plane is one of the most important tools
which you must learn to handle. There are a great many differ-
ent kinds and sizes of planes designed for different sorts of special
work. In their principal features they are very similar. They all
consist of some sort of sharp cutting blade firmly fastened in a
suitable stock provided with a convenient handle. The planes in
most common use, and no doubt the ones which you will find in
your shop, are the block plane, smoothing plane and jack plane.
In carpenter work and in cabinet-making there is frequently a
need for a very long plane, known as a jointer. The only advan-
tage which such a plane has over your bench plane, or jack plane,
as it is sometimes called, is in length. The extra long stock of the
jointer makes it especially suitable for planing straight edges on
long strips for the edges of boards, which are to be dowled, or for
fitting long doors which must be planed perfectly straight.

376

THE JACK PLANE.

Paragraph 84. The old-fashioned jack plane, which was for-
merly used for all sorts of general purpose work, has almost en-
tirely gone out of use. The jack plane was constructed with a
large open throat, the blade was ground somewhat rounding so it
could be set to take a very thick shaving without causing the
corners of the blade to tear the wood. This plane was used to
dress weather boarding, flooring and all sorts of heavy work, in
the early days when all planing was done by hand. Now, this sort
of planing is done by electric or steam power, so the old-fashioned
jack plane has practically gone out- of use. The word, however, is
still used frequently in referring to the ordinary general purpose
bench plane. This is the plane with which you will do a large por-
tion of your work. An illustration and explanation will be given
in this discussion.

THE SMOOTHING PLANE.

Paragraph 85. The smoothing plane is shorter than the jack
plane, but is otherwise very similar in construction. It is used on
small work and to plane broad surfaces. The fact that it has a
short stock makes it possible for it to follow the indentations on a
surface and thus smooth it perfectly.

BLOCK PLANE.

Paragraph 86. The block plane is very much smaller than
the smoothing plane. Besides its size, it has certain other fea-
tures which distinguish it from other planes and adapt it to the
particular class of work which it is intended to do. Block planes
are usually made almost entirely of iron. The particularly char-
acteristic feature is the method of putting in the blade. A block
plane blade has its bevel on the top side and the blade is not pro-
vided with a break bit. The purpose of this plane is to smooth the
end of a board. You can readily see that since its purpose is to
cut across the grain, it would not require a bit for the purpose of
breaking the shavings.

PARTS OF THE PLANE.

Paragraph 87. The following illustration shows a modern
iron plane, which is typical of the present-day method of plane con-
struction. This is a No. 5 bench plane, which you have just learned
is frequently called a j«ack plane. In size and general construction
it is adapted to almost any kind of general purpose work for which

377

you will require a plane in the shop. It is long enough to render
good service as a jointer and for the class of smoothing work which
you will need to do it will be very convenient.

While this style of plane has a great many different parts,
there are really only a few with which you need to concern your-
self. Such parts as the handle, the knob and the bottom or sole,
are so evident that they are not pointed out to you in the illustra-
tion. You should study Figure 65 with your bench plane before
you and thus thoroughly familiarize yourself with the nature and
function of each of the parts which are pointed out in this illus-
tration.

Figure 65.

Arrow No. 1 points out the clamp iron, the purpose of which
is to hold the blade, or bit, firmly in position. Notice that this
clamp is fastened by a little lever at the top. To loosen the clamp
for the purpose of removing the bit the little lever should be
raised. This portion of the plane is frequently broken by begin-
ning students because they attempt to force down the lever when
the blade is not in its proper position. It should not require much
force to push down the lever ; if you are having such difficulty with
your plane make sure that the plane blade is resting properly in
its position and that there are no chips under it. If the lever still
refuses to operate properly, the little screw which holds the clamp
in position may be slightly loosened. However, this screw should
not often require adjusting.

Arrow No. 2 points out the plane blade, or plane iron, as it is
sometimes called. This plane iron is composed of two parts, firmly
clamped together by a set screw. If you remove the clamp and

378

take out the plane iron you will find that the cutting blade is
clamped in the stock, with the bevel on the bottom side of the
blade; the cap iron, or break bit, as it is more properly called, is
fastened to the blade on the top side. Before separating the break
bit from the cutting blade, you should notice the manner in which the
two blades are adjusted. If the plane is set for fine finishing work
the edge of the break bit will come very close to the edge of the
cutting blade (perhaps within 1/64 of an inch) . If the plane is set
for rougher work, where it will be required to take a thick shaving
in planing away stock, then the break bit will be considerably far-
ther from the cutting edge, perhaps as much as 1/16 of an inch, or
even more. A little experimenting will enable you to adjust the
break blade properly for any kind of work which you may care to
do. You should be very careful when putting the break blade in
position to avoid striking it against the cutting edge of the blade.

Arrow No. 3 points out the adjusting lever. The purpose of
this lever is to adjust the plane blade so that it will extend through
the throat of the plane evenly at each side. If one corner of the
bit extends too far through, push the lever the proper direction to
adjust it. By examining the sole of the plane and watching the
movement of the blade as you move the adjusting lever you will
learn just how to control it.

Arrow No. 4 points out the adjusting nut which regulates the
depth of the plane blade and thus controls the thickness of the
shaving to be cut. By turning this bronze nut either to the right
or to the left, the blade will be raised or lowered. You will have to
experiment with your own plane in order that you may know just
how to adjust the blade with this nut.

A mistake frequently made by beginners is in attempting to
cut too thick a shaving; where a thick shaving is removed the
wood is not left perfectly smooth. You should adopt the rule of
keeping your plane blades very sharp and set to take only a very
thin shaving. This will insure good work and the proper use of
the tool.

In laying down a plane it should be laid on its side rather than
on its sole. In laying it on the sole there is danger of nicking the
extreme cutting edge of the bit which is extending through the
throat. If, after thoroughly studying these points regarding your
plane, you are, for any reason, unable to get satisfactory results,
you should consult someone who is thoroughly familiar with plane
construction. It is not well for you to attempt the adjustment of
any of the parts other than those already explained.

379

PLANE SHARPENING.

Paragraph 88. As it is impossible to do satisfactory work
with a dull plane, you must learn to sharpen your plane blades.
This is not a difficult task, and if thoughtfully approached will give
you no trouble. It should be a source of great satisfaction for you
to be able to keep your tools in excellent shape. In plane sharp-
ening there are just a few points which you should bear in mind —
first, a plane blade should be perfectly square on its cutting edge.
Test with the try-square to make sure this is true. The extreme
corners should be rounded very slightly to prevent them from
scratching the wood unduly when the plane is used. This matter
of rounding the blade is such a small point that you need give it
but little attention. You should rather take precaution not to
round the blade too much. Adopt the rule of testing the blade
with a try-square and making it straight while whetting.

The plane blade should be sharpened at a continuous bevel,
that is, the angle of sharpening should not vary and should not be
rounded in the least. It will require some practice to be able to
bevel a plane blade in this manner.

GRINDING.

Paragraph 89. For a great many years grinding on a grind-
stone has been the standard method of sharpening chisel and plane
blades. If your shop is equipped with a grindstone you will find
it convenient for this purpose. Be sure to use water on the stone
while grinding. The purpose of the water is to wash away the
little particles of steel as they are ground from the edge of the tool.
If water is not used this steel will imbed itself in the face of the
stone and will thus hinder the grinding process. The water also
serves another very important purpose. It prevents friction, and
thus avoids heating the plane blade. Never grind an edged tool
on a dry grindstone. The surface of the grindstone must be kept
smooth and straight, in order that plane blades and wide chisels
may be squarely ground. If it is necessary to grind a cold chisel,
screw driver, punch, or any irregular shaped tool, it should be done
on the side of the grindstone to avoid abusing the face. In grind-
ing a blade, hold it at a constant angle in order to give it a true
bevel, as has been explained. This angle will vary, depending upon
the kind of work for which the blade is being sharpened. If you
expect to do considerable rough work on hard and knotty material,
the plane blade should not be ground too thin ; that is, there should
be a thicker bevel than if you were preparing it for soft wood or

380

fine finishing purposes. A very satisfactory angle for a general
purpose plane is about 27 or 30 degrees. When you remove the
blade from the -stone to examine it, be sure to put it back in posi-
tion at exactly the same angle.

You cannot completely sharpen a blade on a grindstone. When
the bevel has been completed and all of the nicks have been ground
out, you will find the cutting edge is very rough and will possibly
be turned up slightly in the form of a wire edge. This indicates
that the grinding is done and that you should finish sharpening the
plane blade on a whetstone.

WHETTING.

Paragraph 90. The final sharpening of the blade must be
done on a fine whetstone of some sort. This may be a natural
stone or an artificial stone made of carborundum. For the finishing
work use a stone of fine grit. See that the face of the stone is per-
fectly clean and use plenty of oil during the whetting process. Do
not use linseed oil on any kind of whetstone. It will not only fail to
give satisfactory results, but will render the stone unfit for use. Use
machine oil, which may be thinned with kerosene. The oil on the
whetstone is to serve the same purpose as the water on the grind-
stone.

Grasp the plane blade
firmly with the right hand ;
let the fingers of the left
hand rest on top of the
blade, as shown in Figure
66. Whet with a backward
and forward motion cover-
ing the entire length of the
stone. Be sure to keep the
angle constant. In order to
do this you must not use a
rocking motion. Some me-
chanics whet a blade with
a rotary, or circular motion,
but this plan is not to be
recommended, for it is less likely to produce a true angle and a
perfectly square cutting edge. Examine frequently to see that the
whetting is being done on the extreme point, or cutting edge of
the bevel ; that is, the whetting will be done at a little greater angle
than the grinding is done. When a very fine wire edge appears,

Figure GG.

381

lay the blade flat on its straight side and draw it across the stone,
using great precaution not to raise the opposite end of the blade,
but to keep it perfectly flat. (See Figure 67). After the edge

__ has been made as keen as

possible on the oil stone
give it a few strokes, strop-
ping fashion, on a piece of
leather, which should be
kept in the shop for that
purpose. If this has been
properly done, the plane
blade should be keen
enough to shave. If you
have not secured such re-
sults it will be well to find
the difficulty and try it
Figure 67. again.

BEVELING ON A CARBORUNDUM STONE.

Paragraph 91. If your shop is not equipped with a grind-
stone, you will be able to get very satisfactory results by the use
of a rather coarse carborundum stone. This is merely a whetstone
with coarse grit which enables it to cut very rapidly. It should be
used in the exact manner of the whetstone just explained. In pur-
chasing a carborundum stone for the shop it is best to provide a
stone which has coarse grit on one side and fine on the other. This
makes it convenient to use the coarse side of the stone in cutting
down and forming the desired bevel on a chisel or plane blade. The
stone may then be turned over and the final whetting completed,
as already explained.

SHARPENING CHISELS.

Paragraph 92. Chisels are sharpened in almost exactly the
same way as plane blades. The length of the bevel of the chisel
will depend on the kind of work which it is to do. For heavy mor-
tising or work in hard wood, a chisel should not be ground too thin,
or it will not stand the strain. For working soft wood it is very
desirable that chisels be ground to a long, thin bevel. This makes
it possible for them to cut very smoothly. The bevel should be
formed on the grindstone or carborundum stone at a constant
angle, as already explained. The wire edge should be removed and

382

the final cutting edge produced on a fine whetstone, after which
the chisel should be stropped on leather in the same manner as the
plane blade.

SHARPENING KNIVES.

Paragraph 93. Sloyd knives, pocket knives, butcher knives,
and in fact almost all tools which belong to the general type of
knives, may be sharpened in the manner already explained. These
tools are, however, beveled on both sides; the shape and length of
the bevel is determined in each case by the kind of work which is to
be done with the tool.

CARE OF SHARPENING EQUIPMENT.

Paragraph 94. Somewhere in the shop there should be a defi-
nite place to keep the sharpening stone. A small table, or shelf
on the wall, is very satisfactory for this purpose. The shelf or
table should be at a convenient height and the stone should be
either imbedded in the shelf top, or there should be small cleats
so nailed as to form a receptacle for the stone to hold it reason-
ably solid when in use. The stone should not be carried about
from bench to bench or place to place in the shop. The sharpen-
ing should all be done at the bench or table provided for that pur-
pose. A can of suitable oil should be kept near the stone. A small
try-square should hang at a convenient place so it can be readily
used to test the blades which are being sharpened. A piece of
leather to serve as a, strop should be securely glued to a strip of
wood and should form a part of the sharpening table equipment.
The importance of tool sharpening makes it necessary that pro-
visions be made to encourage students in undertaking the work.
They will not be enthusiastic about sharpening their tools, unless
suitable sharpening equipment is provided, and kept in good con-
dition.

UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY

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