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A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF 
THE  CANADIAN  PEOPLE 


SiSiHBaHI^B 


A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF 
THE  CANADIAN  PEOPLE 


OTHER  WORKS  OF  DR.  BRYGE 

1.  MANITOBA :  Infanot,  Growth,  and  Present 

Condition. 

2.  THE   REMARKABLE  HISTORY  OF  THE 

HUDSON'S  BAY  COMPANY. 

3.  THREE  WESTERN  PIONEERS :  Mackenzie, 

Selkirk,  Simpson. 

(MAKERS  OF  CANADA  SERIES.) 

4.  THE  ROMANTIC  SETTLEMENT  OF  LORD 

SELKIRK'S  COLONISTS. 

5.  THE  SCOTSMAN  IN  CANADA : 

Vol.    I.    By  Dr.  Wilfred  Campbell. 

Vol.  II.    By  Dr.  Bryce— Western  Canada. 

6.  LIFE  OF  LORD  SELKIRK. 


SMALLER  WORKS  BY  DR.  BRYGE 

1.  THE  MOUND  BUILDERS. 

2.  EVERYMAN'S    GEOLOGY    OF  WESTERN 

CANADA. 

3.  A  PLEA  FOR  FORESTRY. 

4.  BOTANY   AND   AGRICULTURE   FOR 

SCHOOLS.    Parts  I.  and  II. 


Flag  of  Canadian  Government  Vessels.      Authorized  1870. 


Flag  of  the  Canadian  Mercantile  Marine.      Authorized  1892. 


CANADIAN    FLAGS. 


A  SHORT  HISTORY 


OF  THE 


CANADIAN  PEOPLE 


BY 

GEORGE  BRYCE,  M.A.,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Hon.  FroJe$9or  <^  Manitoba  Coll.,  Winnipeg;  A  Founder  qf 
Manitoba  Univ. ;  Viee-Pres.  Archceol.  Inttit.  of  America  :  Mem. 
Rojf.  Commn^  on  Tech.  Bdtuxition  ;  Mem.  Contervation  Commn. 
Iff  Canada;  Pret.  {(f  Royal  Society  of  Canada  f  1909 J;  Robertton 
Memorial  Lecturer  (1918) 


NEW  AND  REVISED  EDITION 


ILLUSTRATED 


LONDON 

SAMPSON  LOW,  MARSTON    &  GO.  LD. 

1914 


<< 


PRINTBD  BT 

HAZBLL,  WATSON  AND  VINBT,  LDi, 

LONDON  AND  AYLESBURY. 


PREFACE 

It  is  no  easy  thing  to  write  a  competent  and  reliable 
history  of  any  country  covering  four  centuries  of  time. 
Jacques  Cartier  discovered  Canada  about  forty  years 
after  Columbus  stumbled  upon  the  Continent  of  America. 

Further,  if  the  period  is  long,  Canadian  history  also 
presents  peculiar  difficulties  in  the  varied,  obscure,  and 
sometimes  uncertain  sources  of  its  development. 

Effort  after  effort  has  been  made  to  write  stories  of 
Canadian  life,  "  drum  and  trumpet  histories,"  accounts 
of  its  battles,  invasions,  startling  incidents,  and  amusing 
domestic  life,  but  these  do  not  make  up  a  comprehensive 
and  satisfying  history. 

Groing  to  the  other  extreme,  numerous  Canadian  writers 
have  collected  vast  vistas  of  dates  and  statistics,  "  dry- 
as-dust  "  compilations  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  ministries, 
dreary  chronicles  of  Parliament,  tedious  party  reminis- 
cences, and  sapless  condensations  of  legal  enactments. 

Few  can  read  and  profit  from  such  history.  Probably 
in  the  field  of  English  History  the  most  successful  work 
of  history,  in  a  useful,  compact,  and  attractive  volume, 
has  been  "  Green's  Short  History  of  the  English  People." 

While  Macaulay,  though  beautiful  in  style,  imagination, 
and  invective,  proves  biassed  and  unsatisfying,  Hallam 
too  prosy  and  serious,  though  accurate  and  just,  Froude 
plainly  one-sided   and    somewhat   inaccurate,    Green  is 


Qn>i  A  ^n 


vi  Preface 

simple,  judicious,  and  filled  with  the  spirit  of  his  age  and 
generation. 

The  author  in  a  former  edition  borrowed  Green's  name, 
in  his  writing  "  A  Short  History  of  the  Canadian  People." 

While  the  writer  knows  well  that  he  fell  far  short  of  the 
ideal  before  him,  yet  his  work  on  the  Canadian  People, 
which  for  some  time  has  been  out  of  print,  was  well 
received,  was  recommended  widely  by  Boards  of  Educa- 
tion, Normal  Schools,  Public  Libraries,  and  Booksellers, 
as  being  fair,  accurate,  and  as  the  first  attempt  to  systema- 
tize Canadian  history  and  to  trace  from  the  many  rivulets 
to  the  great  stream  of  Canadian  life,  the  chivalrous  French 
occupation,  the  United  Empire  Loyalist  early  settlement, 
the  coming  of  the  German,  Dutch,  and  other  European 
elements,  the  flow  of  English,  Irish,  and  Scottish  colonists, 
and  the  exciting  life  of  the  Canadian  and  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  fur-traders. 

For  some  time  the  English  publishers  have  been  asking 
for  another  edition  of  the  '*  Canadian  People,"  but  other 
public  duties  have  made  it  hitherto  impossible  to  bring 
the  matter  to  completion  by  the  author. 

Some  of  the  main  features  for  which  the  author  has 
been  complimented,  in  addition  to  his  grasp  of  the 
subject  and  Canadian  spirit,  are  (1)  A  just  story,  (2)  The 
lists  of  authorities,  (3)  The  text  of  the  British  North 
America  Act,  (4)  The  list  of  all  Dominion  and  Pro- 
vincial Governors,  (5)  The  useful  table  of  Canadian 
Annals,  (6)  A  good  Index  and  Map  of  Canada. 

These  having  been  found  useful  are  continued  and 
enlarged  in  the  present  edition,  and  a  number  of  illustra- 
tions are  given  for  the  first  time. 

In  this  edition  the  writer  has  great  pleasure,  while 
considerably  curtailing  and  even  dropping  the  misty  and 
somewhat   mythical  features   of   early   America   of   the 


Peeface  vii 

former  edition,  in  bringing  into  122  pages,  under  sixteen 
sections,  by  far  the  greatest  and  most  important  part  of 
Canadian  history — the  last  Twenty-^ve  years — which 
completes  the  history  up-to-date. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  the  author  to  issue  this  edition  during 
the  term  of  office  as  Governor- General  of  the  Duke  of 
Connaught,  who  has  already  kindly  received  the  gift 
of  four  of  the  volumes  written  by  the  author  on  subjects 
of  Western  Canadian  life.  It  is  the  imanimous  Canadian 
opinion  that  His  Royal  Highness  most  worthily  represents 
our  Gracious  Sovereign,  in  whose  eyes  Canada  is  proud  to 
be  "  the  brightest  jewel  in  the  British  Crown." 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

THE   GREAT  NEW  WORLD 

FAGB 

Section  I. — ^The  Old  Surmises 1 

„     n.— Search  for  the  Rich  Cathay     ...         3 
„    IIL — Jacques  Caji;ier  discovers  Canada    .         .         4 

CHAPTER    n 

THE  CANADIAN  DOMINION 

Section  I. — ^Name  and  Extent 16 

„     n. — Physical  Features  of  Canada   .         .         .19 
„   III. — Fixing  the  Boundaries     ....       26 

CHAPTER    in 

THE   CANADIAN  INDIANS 

Section  I. — ^The  Mound- Builders         .  .  .  .       34 

„     II.— The  Present  Indian  Tribes       .  .  .37 

,,    III. — Domestic  Life  of  the  Indians   .  .  .48 

„    IV. — Language,  Manners,  and  Customs      .  .      59 

„      V. — Social,  Political,  and  Religious  Organization      67 

CHAPTER   IV 

THE  FRENCH  COLONIZATION  OF  NEW  FRANCE 

Section  I. — The  French  Colonies  of  Acadia  and  Canada  .       75 


X  Contents 

CHAPTER   V 

THE   FBBNOH  BEGIMB  IN   CANADA  AND   AOADIA 

PAGE 

Section  I. — Governor  and  People  .  ".  .  .97 
„  II. — The  Church  and  Missionaries  .  .  .  103 
„    III. — The  marvellous  Opening  of  the  West       .     107 

„    IV.— Indian  Hostilities 121 

,,      V. — ^Wars  and  Truces  ending  in  the  Conquest  of 

1759 128 

„    VI. — The  French  Canadian  People  .         .         .148 

CHAPTER   VI 

BRITAIN  IN  AMERICA 

Section  I. — ^The  Revolting  Colonies     .         .         .         .162 

„     II. — Causes  of  the  American  Revolt        .         .174 
„    III. — The    Revolutionary    War    as    it    affected 

Canada  .......     183 

„    IV. — Rise  of  the  Loyal   British  Colonies         .     189 

CHAPTER   VII 

THE  LOYALIST   SETTLEMENT   OF   CANADA 

Section  I. — ^The  Coming  of  the  Loyalists  .  .  .  202 
„     II. — The  Friends  of  the  Loyalists  .  .  .216 

„    in.— The  Life  of  the  Loyalists         .         .         .229 

CHAPTER   VIII 

THE  king's   country — A  LAND   OF  DESIRE    (1796 — 1817) 

Section  I. — ^Effect  of  Simcoe's  Policy 
„     II.— From  Old  World  to  New 
,,    III. — Work  of  Noted  Colonizers 
,,    IV. — Political  and  Social  Life 
„      v.— The  War  of  Defence  (1812—1816) 


, 

.     236 

, 

.     242 

. 

.     245 

, 

.     262 

-1816) 

.     264 

^S 

s"^" 

CONTENTTS  xi 

CHAPTER   IX 

THE  BEMOTB   KINGDOM   OF  THE   FUB-TRADEBS 


PAQB 


Section  I. — The  Great  Fur-trading  Companies    .         ♦     282 
„     II.— The  Life  of  the  Traders  .         .         .288 

„   in. — Famous  Journeys  through  the  Fur-traders' 

Land 294 


CHAPTER    X 

THE  MAKING   OF  CANADA   (1817—1836) 

Section  I. — ^The  Great  Immigration  .  .  .  »  301 
„  II. — The  Family  Compact  and  its  Opponents  .  312 
„   in.— The  Struggle  for  Freedom       ,         .         .323 

CHAPTER    XI 

THE  BEBBLLIONS   AND   THE   NEW  CONSTITUTION 

Section  I. — Sedition  in  Lower  Canada  .  .  .  336 
„     n. — The  Rebels  in  Upper  Canada  .  .341 

„   III.— The  New  Constitution     ....     348 


CHAPTER    Xn 

PBOGBESS   IN   PBOVINCIAL  LIFE 


Section  I. — Growth  in  Population  ....  354 
„  n.— The  Stormy  Sea  of  Politics  .  .  .363 
„  III.— Keel,  Lock,  and  Rail  ....  376 
„  IV. — ^Field,  Forest,  Mine,  and  Sea  .  .  .  383 
„  V. — Commercial,  Educational,  and  Social  Pro- 
gress         388 

„    VI. — ^The  Federal  Union  accomplished      •         •  396 


xu 


Contents 


CHAPTER   Xni 

TWO   DECADES   UNDER  CONFEDERATION    (1867 — 1887) 

Section  I. — ^The  Affairs  of  State 

II. — Acquisition  of  the  Great  North-West 
III. — A  National  Highway 
IV. — Growth  of  a  Military  Sentiment 

V. — Literature,  Science,  and  Art    . 
VI. — Religion  and  Morals 


PIQB 

401 
410 
416 
422 
430 
439 


CHAPTER    XIV 

Canada's  greatest  quarter-century  (1888 — 1913) 

Section    I. — ^Under  Three  Sovereigns  .         .         .     447 

,,  II. — ^Viceroys  of  Canada  ....  450 
,,      III. — Canadian  Loyalty  ....     463 

„      IV.— Public  Men  of  the  Time         .  .  .468 

„  V. — ^Dominion  and  Provincial  Autonomy  .  479 
„  VL— Growth  of  Population  .  .  .  .482 
„  VII. — Organization  of  Western  Canada  .  .  486 
„  VIIL— Stirring  Pubhc  Events  .  .  .  .489 
„      IX. — International  Affairs       ....     506 

X.— The  Bugle  Call 609 

„  XL— The  Iron  Rail  and  Keel  .  .  .  614 
„  XII. — Trade  and  Resources  ....  518 
„  Xlll.r— Education  in  Canada  ....  626 
„  XIV. — Canadian  Literature  ....  634 
„  XV. — Science,  Art,  Religion  .  .  .  .  662 
„  XVI. — Canadian  Autonomy       ....     666 

Appendix  A.— Provisions  of  the  B.N.A.  Act  .  .  671 
,)  B. — ^Authorities  and  References  .  .  .  686 
>,         C. — Table  of  Canadian  Governors        .         .     590 


Canadian  Annals 
Index     . 


693 
613 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

Canadian  Flags         .....      Frontispiece 

FACIKQ  PAQB 

Jacques  Cartier  Monument,  St.  Malo  ...  4 

Indian  Chiefs 38 

Cha»iplain*s  Monument,  Quebec     ....  88 

Laval  Monument,  Quebec 102 

Wolfe's  Statue,  Quebec 144 

Lord  Dobchestee  (Sm  Guy  Carleton)  .         .        .  220 

Lord  Selkirk          .......  248 

Brock's  Monument,  Queenston  Heights         .         .  268 

Obelisk  of  Sir  James  Douglas,  Victoria       .         .  362 

Hon.  Joseph  Howe 366 

Sir  John  Macdonald's  Statue,  Toronto        .         .  400 

Lord  Strathcona  and  Mount  Royal      .         .         .  470 

Sm  Wilfrid  Laurieb 476 

Lady  Aberdeen 602 

Premier  R.  L.  Borden 632 

H.R.H.  The  Duke  of  Connaught  .         .        .         •  666 

xtii 


A    SHORT    HISTORY   OF 
THE  CANADIAN  PEOPLE 

CHAPTER    I 

THE   GREAT  NEW  WORLD 

Section  I. — The  Old  Surmises 

An  old  story  was  told  by  Egyptian  priests  to  the  wise 
Greek  Solon,  as  repeated  by  Plato — six  hun-  .  . 
dred  years  before  Christ — of  agreat  island  named 
Atlantis  which  lay  outside  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  or  Pillars 
of  Hercules  as  they  were  then  called.  They  related  that 
the  people  of  Atlantis  entered  the  Mediterranean  in  ships 
and  invaded  both  Greece  and  Egypt,  but  that  their  yoke 
was  thrown  off  by  the  brave  Greeks.  But  no  continent 
or  island  of  Atlantis  could  ever  be  found  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  story  has  usually  passed  as  a  myth.  If 
such  an  invasion  ever  took  place  it  was  more  likely  that 
these  hordes  of  desperate  mariners  were  Norsemen  coming 
in  their  ships  through  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  from  the 
north-west  coast  of  Europe.  With  the  usual  mythic 
mixture  the  Egyptian  story  stated  that  the  land  of  Atlantis 
was  destroyed  by  fire  and  earthquake. 

Shortly  after  the  Christian  Era  the  well-known  Roman 
writer  Seneca,  who  was  a  Spaniard,  and  accus- 
tomed to  look  out  upon  the  stormy  Atlantic  Thu?e! 
Ocean,  wrote  in  his  native  tongue  :    "  There 
shall  come  a  time  in  later  ages  when  Ocean  shall  relax 


2  *        *  '^  '  '       A  Short  Historv  oi* 

his  icfiaifis  and  a  vast  continent  shall  appear  and  a  pilot 
shall  find  new  worlds,  and  Thule  (probably  the  Orkney 
Isles)  shall  be  no  more  earth's  bound." 

The  Chinese  in  the  archives  of  their  Buddhist  monks, 

from  the  time  of  the  fourth  or  fifth  century 
Fimng~      ^^  ^^^  Christian  Era,  have  an  account  of  an 

expedition  across  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  a  land 
called  Fusang,  which  has  a  strong  resemblance  to  Mexico. 
They  state  that  copper,  gold,  and  silver  were  found  there, 
and  that  domestic  animals  such  as  horses,  oxen,  and  stags 
were  used  in  drawing  waggons.  The  people  of  Fusang 
lived  in  houses  supported  by  wooden  beams.  Since 
we  know  that  in  last  century  Japanese  junks  were  driven 
from  Japan  across  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  west  coast  of 
America,  the  possibility  of  such  an  expedition  from  China 
to  America  is  by  no  means  improbable. 
Another   legend   is   found   among   the   Welsh  dating 

back  to  the  twelfth  century  of  our  era  that 
Prince.  ^^^  ^^  their  princes,  Madoc,  sailed  across  the 

Atlantic  and  in  the  far  west  planted  a  Colony. 
One  of  the  Welsh  bards  in  the  fifteenth  century  before 
the  expedition  of  Columbus  had  sailed,  wrote 

Madoc  I  am  .  .  . 

No  lands  at  home  nor  store  of  wealth  me  please, 

My  mind  was  whole  to  search  the  ocean  seas. 

Less  traditional,  but  still  not  within  the  range  of  real 
history,  is  the  account  of  the  Norse  sagas  that 
Erikson.  after  taking  possession  of  Iceland  in  the  ninth 
century,  one  of  the  most  daring  sea  captains, 
Erik  the  Red,  was  banished  from  Iceland  as  an  outlaw, 
and  in  the  tenth  century  settled  in  Greenland.  Toward 
the  end  of  that  century  the  saga  relates  that  Leif  Erikson, 
son  of  the  old  outlaw,  visited  the  islands  along  the  east 
coast  of  North  America,  which  they  called  Helluland, 
Markland,  and  Vinland.  Attempts  have  been  made  to 
identify  these  with  Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
Massachusetts,  but  thus  far  all  the  American  discoveries 
of  the  Norsemen  are  in  the  region  of  mystery  and  doubt. 


THE  Canadian  People  3 

Without  question  the  expeditions  of  the  Crusaders 
from  the  west  of  Europe  to  Palestine  and  the  -»  orient 
east  beyond  the  Mediterranean  Sea  in  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  opened  up  the  Oriental 
world  with  its  treasures  of  spices,  jewels,  rich  fabrics, 
and  plenty  of  gold  and  silver  to  an  extent  hitherto 
undreamt  of  on  the  hard,  rocky  coast  of  Western 
Europe.  In  the  fourteenth  century  a  most  adventurous 
Englishman,  Sir  John  Mandeville,  voyaged  eastward 
through  Asia  to  the  far  country  and  left  in  his  printed 
book  an  account  of  Cathay  as  a  land  of  wonderful  riches, 
and  even  roused  the  imagination  of  Western  Europe  more 
than  the  story  of  Marco  Polo,  who  had  preceded  him  on 
his  eastern  journey,  had  done.  The  appearance  of  the 
printed  book,  as  had  been  made  possible  by  the  discovery 
of  printing,  stirred  up  the  interest  of  the  educated  classes, 
while  the  improvement  of  the  astrolabe — a  scientific 
instrument  used  for  taking  observations — and  the  in- 
vention of  the  mariner's  compass  showed  that  the  time 
in  the  mind  of  the  Creator  for  the  opening  up  of  the  New 
World  had  come. 

Section  11. — Search  for  the  Rich  Cathay 

To  Italy  belongs  the  intellectual  impulse  that  in  the 
fifteenth  century  led  to  the  discovery  of  ^^.^iM 
America.  Marco  Polo,  who  had  preceded 
Mandeville  on  his  Oriental  journey,  was  a  Venetian. 
Toscanelli,  a  native  of  Florence,  eighteen  years  before  the 
discovery  of  America,  had  maintained  in  Portugal  that 
there  was  an  open  sea  to  the  west  of  Europe  by  which  Asia 
could  be  reached.  Columbus,  who  succeeded — first — in 
reaching  the  western  continent,  belonged  to  Genoa. 
Americus  Vespucius,  who  succeeded  Columbus  and  gave  his 
name  to  the  new-found  continent,  was  a  Florentine .  John 
and  Sebastian  Cabot,  who  in  the  service  of  England  were 
first  to  reaich  the  continent  of  America,  were  from  Venice. 
Verrazano,  who  first  led  France  to  take  an  interest  in 
western  exploration,  was  from  Florence,  and  the  influence 


4  A  Short  History  oi' 

was  strongly  Italian  which  led  Vasco  da  Gama,  a  Portu- 
guese, after  the  discovery  of  America,  to  go  upon  his 
great  expedition  around  the  south  of  Africa  and  feast  his 
eyes  on  the  east  coast  of  Asia — on  the  longed-for  Cathay. 
*'  Viva  Italia  !  " 


Section  III. — Jacques  Cartier  discovers  Canada 

Francis  I.,  the  great  King  of  France,  could  not  remain 
a  silent  spectator  of  the  discoveries  being 
King.  '^°^  made  and  the  world-influences  being  gained  by 
Spain  and  Portugal  to  the  south  of  his  kingdom, 
and  by  England,  his  rival,  on  the  north.  More  in- 
terested in  European  politics  than  in  far-off  discovery, 
his  strong  desire  for  obtaining  treasure  was  to  carry  on 
his  ambitious  and  warlike  schemes  in  Europe.  He  too, 
with  the  glamour  of  a  rich  Cathay  before  his  eyes,  would 
send  out  an  expedition  to  bring  back  gold.  It  was  this 
that  led  Francis,  as  has  been  already  mentioned,  to 
send  out  Verrazano.  About  this  navigator  much  mystery 
gathers,  but  one  thing  is  clear — he  brought  back  no 
gold  or  diamonds  to  the  French  king's  treasury.  King 
Francis  next  looked  about  among  his  hardy  Breton  sea- 
men, who  had  for  many  years  been  crossing  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Baccalaos  to  visit  the  rich  fisheries  of  the  Newfound- 
land seas.  His  eye  fell  upon  Jacques  Cartier,  a  native 
of  Brittany. 

Trained  in  the  school  of  hardy  Breton  fishermen,  Cartier 
was  the  fitting  instrument  for  Francis.     Born 

CaTer!  ^^  ^^^*  ^^  ^^'  ^^^^'  ^^  ^  family  traceable  back 
for  some  time  in  that  locality,  the  young  cap- 
tain, with  the  reputation  of  having  acquitted  himself 
well  in  his  sea-going  expeditions,  was  plainly  suited  for 
the  task  imposed  upon  him. 

He  had  married,  in  1519,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five, 
Catherine,  daughter  of  Messire  Honore  des  Granches, 
chevalier  of  the  king,  and  constable  of  the  town  of  St. 
Malo,  and  so  was  brought  within  the  circle  of  royal 
influence.     The  young  navigator  had  been  presented  to 


4'^'!!^ 


'ir,^;'^?CA?TRR. 


Monument  of  Jacques  Cartieb 
AT  St.  Malo,  France 


THE  Canadian  People  6 

Philippe  de  Chabot,  grand  admiral  of  France,  and  had 
himself  proposed  to  go  on  an  expedition  to  Terre  Neuve. 

On  the  20th  of  April,  the  voyage  which  was  alike  to 
make  Cartier  famous  and  to  add  New  World 
possessions  to  France,  was  undertaken.     Cap-  ^g^^  ^^^ 
tains,  mates,  and  men  of  the  two  vessels,  of 
sixty   tons  each,   were   sworn   to  faithfulness   to   their 
commander,  Cartier,  by  Charles  de  Moiiy,  vice-admiral  of 
France.     Each  vessel  had  sixty-one  men,  and  a  good 
passage  awaited  them.     On  the  10th  of  May  a  prosperous 
voyage  had  brought  the  explorers  to  the  New  World,  at 
Cape  Bonavista  (48 J  N.  lat.)  in  Newfoundland.      The 
ice  was,  however,  so  heavy  that  the  vessels  made  a  rim 
for    a   neighbouring    harbour,    which   they   named    St. 
Catherine,  now  Catalina. 

On  the  21st  of  May,  running  before  a  west  wind,  they 
reached  an  island  called  by  them  "  He  des  Oiseaux," 
now  Funk  Island.  The  navigators  so  called  the  island 
because  of  the  vast  quantity  of  birds  upon  it,  and  they 
salted  for  use  four  or  five  tons  weight  of  this  game. 
Coasting  westward,  Cartier  explored  the  coast  of  Labra- 
dor, a  bleak,  rocky  shore,  of  which  he  says  :  "  This  land, 
I  believe,  is  that  which  God  gave  to  Cain."  The  inhabi- 
tants are  described  as  having  been  clothed  with  skins  of 
animals  ;  they  painted  with  red  colours  ;  their  boats  were 
made  of  a  wood  resembling  oak  ;  with  these  boats  they 
captured  large  quantities  of  sea-wolves. 

Coming  back  again  to  the  west  coast  of  Newfoundland, 
among  the  fertile  islands,  the  explorer  found  them  "full 
of  great  trees,  of  meadows,  of  fields  filled  with  wild 
wheat,  and  of  peas  which  were  in  flower  as  thick  and  good 
as  can  be  seen  in  Brittany,  which  seem  to  have  been 
sown  by  the  husbandman."  Going  south-west  along 
the  coast,  on  the  27th  of  June  the  Magdalen  Islands  were 
passed.  On  the  8th  of  July  the  ships  ran  up  the  GuK  of 
Chaleur,  and  the  sailors  traded  trinkets,  arms,  and  other 
merchandise  with  the  natives.  The  savages  consisted  of 
wandering  tribes,  living  chiefly  on  fish.  The  explorers 
declared  that  they  regarded  "  the  country  to  be  better 


6  A  Shobt  History  of 

than  Spain,"  and  that  it  was  covered  with  grain  and 
fruits,  "  red  and  white  roses,"  and  other  pleasant  flowers. 

On  the  24th  of  July,  ascending  the  Gaspe  headland, 
the  explorers  took  possession  of  the  country,  and  it 
became  the  property  of  France.  Cartier  erected  a  cross 
thirty  feet  high  ;  upon  this  was  fastened  a  shield,  on 
which  were  three  fleurs-de-lis,  with  the  words  "Vive  le 
Roy  de  France  "  cut  into  the  wood.  On  their  bended 
knees,  and  with  hands  joined  together,  the  explorers 
adored  the  sacred  emblem. 

On  the  return  of  the  Frenchmen  to  their  ships  they 
were  visited  by  the  chief  of  the  district  and  his  leading 
men,  who  expressed  dissatisfaction  with  the  cross  left 
upon  the  shore.  To  allay  the  fears  of  the  Indian  dele- 
gation, Cartier  made  each  of  them  presents  of  a  red 
"  tuque,"  a  "  say  on  de  couleur  "  (scarf),  and  a  shirt,  as 
also  a  metal  necklace.  On  St.  Peter's  Day  the  expedition 
had  advanced  up  the  great  river  of  Canada  to  a  point 
between  Anticosti  and  Gaspe.  All  were  now  anxious  to 
return  to  France.  On  turning  homeward  they  were  met 
by  a  heavy  storm,  which  drove  them  back  into  the  gulf, 
but  the  wind  changing,  they  passed  through  what  is  now 
.-g^  known  as  the  Straits  of  Belleisle  to  the  north 

of  Newfoundland,  and  arrived  safely  at  St.  Malo 
on  the  1 5th  of  September. 

On  the  16th  of  June,  1535,  Cartier  and  the  sailors 
Second  ^^^  were  to  accompany  him  on  the  second 
Voyage  of  voyage,  with  religious  rites  of  confession  pre- 
Cartier.  pared  themselves  for  another  expedition.  In 
the  cathedral  church  they  received  from  the  Bishop  of 
St.  Malo  his  benediction.  A  good  wind  on  the  18th  sent 
the  three  ships  to  the  west.  The  first  ship  of  the  little 
fleet  was  under  the  Captain-General  Cartier  himself. 
This  ship  was  the  Herminius  (Hermine)  ;  it  was  of  126 
tons  burden  ;  and  with  the  Captain  Frosmont  there  were 
De  Pont  Briand — a  companion  of  the  Dauphin — De  la 
Pommeraye,  Jean  Poulet,  and  other  gentlemen.  The 
second  ship  was  La  Petite  Hermine,  about  sixty  tons 
burden,  under  Captain  Jalobert ;  and  the  third^  of  about 


THE  Canadian  People  7 

forty   tons,   was   UEmerillon,   under   the   captaincy   of 
William  the  Breton. 

Good  fortune  accompanied  them  till  the  26th  of  May, 
when  they  suffered  severely  by  stormy  weather,  even  till 
the  25th  of  June,  when  they  became  separated  until  they 
met  at  "  He  des  Oiseaux  "  on  the  7th  of  July.  Discover- 
ing and  exploring  the  small  islands  along  the  north  side  of 
the  gulf,  it  was  on  the  14th  of  August  that  the  ship  left 
the  little  bay  on  the  Labrador  coast,  called  by  them  St. 
Laurent,  and  from  the  two  savages  taken  by  them  to 
France  learned  that  to  the  south  was  the  route  of  the 
previous  year,  by  which  they  might  reach  the  kingdom  of 
Saguenay,  and  beyond  that  Canada. 

On  the  15th  of  August  they  saw  to  the  south  a  large 
island,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  Assomption  Isle — 
called  by  the  Indians  Natiscotee,  and  which  has  become 
now  corrupted  to  Anticosti.  The  savages  stated  the 
river  to  be,  at  a  certain  distance  up,  of  sweet  water,  and 
that  its  source  had  never  been  discovered.  After  having 
discovered  and  named  Les  lies  Rondes  and  St.  John 
Islands,  on  the  1st  of  September  the  little  fleet  set  sail 
to  ascend  the  river  and  make  the  great  discovery  of 
Canada.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  they  met  four  boats 
from  Canada,  manned  by  Indians,  which  had  come  to 
fish  in  the  gulf. 

Pushing  up  the  river  past  the  mouth  of  the  gloomy 
Saguenay  they  came  to  an  island  three  leagues 
long  and  two  broad,  full  of  "  beautiful  and  large  discovered, 
trees."     From  the  abundance  of  filberts  ob- 
tained from  the  hazel-trees  in  the  island,  they  called  it 
**  He  aux  Coudres,"  and  here  they  recorded  Canada  as 
beginning.     Notwithstanding    the    fact    that    no    priest 
a<Jcompanied  them  here  or  elsewhere,  the  voyageurs  read 
the  service  of  the  mass,  and  conducted  all  their  dealings 
in  a  religious  spirit. 

Some  fourteen  islands  in  the  river  were  visited,  among 
which  are  Crane  Island,  Goose  Island,  Margaret,  Grosse 
Isle,  and  others,  and  at  last  the  island  of  Orleans  was 
reached.     Cartier  is  mistaken  in  the  size  he  gives  it,  it 


8  A  Short  History  of 

being  not  above  seven  leagues  long,  while  he  makes  it  ten. 
The  two  Indians  taken  to  France  on  the  first  voyage,  who 
now  accompanied  Cartier,  announced  themselves  to  the 
fleeing  inhabitants.  The  confidence  of  the  natives  re- 
stored, they  returned  to  the  ships  with  great  demonstra- 
tions of  joy  {dansans  et  faisans  plusieurs  ceremonies),  and 
bringing  quantities  of  eels,  fish,  with  several  loads  of 
coarse  grain,  and  many  large  melons.  Presents  of  small 
value  were  bestowed  on  them. 

On  the  following  day  the  Agonhanna,  or  lord  of  the 
country,  Donnaconna  by  name,  came  with  twelve  boats, 
of  which  two  pulled  up  alongside  the  French  ships.  With 
violent  gesticulations  the  Agonhanna  delivered  the  usual 
Indian  address.  The  returned  savages  of  the  first  voyage 
then  recited  the  good  treatment  they  had  received  in 
France.  The  ceremonies  of  introduction  past,  the  ex- 
plorers coasted  along  the  island,  and  at  the  upper  end 
of  it  found  the  mouth  of  the  little  river  to  afford  a  safe 
harbour.  This  they  named  Ste.  Croix.  The  RecoUets 
afterwards,  in  1617,  called  it  St.  Charles,  the  name  it 
still  bears.  The  bold  point  on  which  Quebec  now  stands 
was  the  abode  of  Donnaconna,  and  was  called  by  the 
people  themselves  Stadacona.  The  point  was  then 
plentifully  wooded  with  fruit  and  ornamental  trees.  On 
the  island  in  front  of  Ste.  Croix  being  explored  it  was 
named  by  the  explorers,  on  account  of  the  presence  of 
the  wild  grape  of  the  country,  "  LTle  de  Bacchus," 
but  the  name  of  Island  of  Orleans  has  quite  superseded 
this. 

After  many  consultations  with  Donnaconna  and  his 
people,  Cartier  determined  to  go  further  up  the  river. 
To  this  the  natives  were  very  much  opposed,  and  employed 
many  devices  to  dissuade  Cartier.  Donnaconna  pre- 
sented some  of  his  kindred  to  Cartier  as  a  peace-offering, 
and  three  Indians  were  cleverly  dressed  up  to  represent 
demons,  covered  with  dog-skins,  and  bearing  horns. 
These  came  past  the  vessels  of  Cartier,  and,  without  a 
word  or  look  to  the  ships,  passed  out  of  view.  Donna- 
Qojina   and   his   Indians  then   appeared   and  dissuaded 


THE  Canadian  People  9 

Cartier  from  leaving  his  ships.  The  two  guides  now  came 
from  the  woods,  and  with  cries  of  "Jesus,"  "Marie," 
and  the  like,  appealed  to  Cartier.  On  being  asked  the 
meaning  of  this  performance,  they  said  their  god, 
Cudouagny,  had  spoken  from  Hochelaga,  and  that  the 
three  demons  had  come  to  announce  that  on  account  of 
so  much  snow  and  ice,  all  the  people  of  Hochelaga  had 
died. 

In  spite  of  threats  and  persuasions,  the  explorer  on  the 
18th  of  September  sailed  up  the  river,  though  without 
the  two  Indian  guides.  The  voyageurs  were  struck  with 
the  beauty  and  fertility  of  the  banks  of  the  river,  as  well 
as  with  the  abundance  of  game.  They  passed  through 
Lake  St.  Peter  on  the  28th  of  September.  Taking  the 
North  Channel  the  shallowness  of  the  water  prevented 
further  progress.  Landing  on  the  shore,  the  voyageurs 
met  the  natives,  and  received  assurances  that  they  were 
on  the  proper  course  for  Hochelaga.  Cartier,  now  con- 
vinced that  VH ermine  could  not  navigate  the  lake,  left 
her  some  forty-five  leagues  from  Hochelaga,  and  with  his 
most  intimate  friends,  fitted  up  the  two  smaller  vessels, 
with  which  he  arrived,  on  the  2nd  of  October,  safely 
before  Hochelaga.  Cartier  was  received  here  as  he  had 
been  at  Gasp6  and  at  the  island  of  Orleans,  with  gifts  of 
the  products  of  the  country  and  with  great  demonstra- 
tions of  joy.  He  bestowed  freely  upon  the  men,  women, 
and  children  from  his  store  of  weapons,  beads,  and 
trinkets. 

From  Cartier's  description  it  is  evident  that  the  people 
of  Hochelaga  differed  from  the  ordinary  Al- 
gonquin Indians.  They  were  less  wandering  in  ^aiw.^^^*" 
their  habits,  and  were  regarded  as  superiors  by 
the  other  tribes.  The  town  or  village  of  Hochelaga 
was  three-quarters  of  a  mile  distant  from  the  mountain 
at  Montreal.  It  consisted  of  a  walled  enclosure,  with 
barred  gates.  Around  it  and  halfway  to  the  river  were 
the  cultivated  fields  belonging  to  the  village.  The 
village  contained  some  fifty  houses  ;  each  of  these  was 
upwards  of  fifty  yards  long,  and  from  twelve  to  fifteen 


lO  A  Short  History  of 

wide.  The  houses  were  wooden  and  were  covered  with 
the  bark  of  trees.  In  the  midst  of  each  house  was  a 
great  earthen  chamber  where  the  fire  was  kept. 

In  the  houses  were  granaries,  and  from  these  stores  of 
Indian  corn  and  peas  they  obtained  their  food,  pounding 
out  the  grain  to  make  flour  for  bread.  They  used  the 
same  material  for  soups  ;  and  they  likewise  had  an 
abundance  of  melons  and  fruits.  They  had  large  vessels, 
probably  of  pottery,  in  their  houses  for  keeping  fish,  of 
which  they  stored  large  quantities  for  winter.  In  their 
houses  were  beds  made  of  bark,  and  they  used  the  skins 
of  animals  for  coverings  and  clothing.  They  had  also  a 
species  of  bead  or  shellwork  which  they  valued  highly. 
This  they  called  Esurgni,  and  it  was  probably  the  well- 
known  wampum. 

The  explorers  were  much  interested  in  the  Hochelagans, 
and  gave  the  name  to  their  mountain  of  Mount  Royal. 
During  this  visit  their  chief  was  ill.  Cartier  read  the 
Gospel  of  St.  John  and  offered  prayers  for  him  ;  and 
during  all,  the  natives  regarded  the  explorer  with  re- 
verence. In  company  with  the  leaders  of  the  Indians, 
Cartier  and  his  companions  ascended  the  mountain,  and 
learned  of  the  St.  Louis  and  other  rapids  up  the  river, 
which  they  could  see  stretching  westward,  and  were 
pointed  in  the  direction  of  the  other  great  river — the 
Ottawa.  The  Indians  had  seen  the  gold  and  silver  in 
Cartier's  coat-of-arms,  and  they  informed  him  that  these 
metals  were  found  up  the  river.  Red  copper,  they  said, 
also  was  found.  But  there  were  warlike  and  dangerous 
tribes  living  toward  the  setting  sun.  After  many  leave- 
takings,  the  explorers  departed  on  the  5th  of  October. 

At  the  mouth  of  a  tributary  of  the  St.  Lawrence  they 
erected  a  commanding  cross,  and  dropping  down  the 
river,  on  the  11th  of  October  they  arrived  at  Ste.  Croix. 
On  his  return  to  Stadacona,  Cartier  became  familiar  with 
the  Indians.  He  pointed  out  to  them  that  their  Cu- 
douagny  was  an  evil  spirit,  and  that  there  was  only 
one  true  God.  Many  of  the  Indians  on  hearing  his 
fuller  explanations  became  anxious  to  be  baptized  ;   but 


THE  Canadian  People  11 

on  the  plea  that  he  had  no  holy  oil,  he  deferred  the 
matter,  promising  on  his  next  voyage  to  bring  priests 
and  all  the  accompaniments  of  reHgion. 

During  the  month  of  December  the  people  of  Stadacona 
were  attacked  by  a  severe  disease  and  some  perished  ;  and 
though  they  were  forbidden  to  approach  the  fort  which 
had  been  erected  on  the  shore  opposite  the  vessels,  yet 
the  disease  attacked  those  wintering  in  the  fort.  It  was 
evidently  some  scorbutic  disease,  but  was  unknown  to 
the  French.  Cartier  engaged  in  devout  religious  ser- 
vices, hoping  to  drive  away  the  plague.  All  but  three 
men  of  the  expedition  were  invalids.  The  winter  proved 
severe  and  trying  ;  two  feet  of  ice  on  the  water,  and  four 
feet  of  snow  on  land,  was  a  new  experience. 

Cartier  was  among  the  well.  He  saw  that  Doma- 
gaza,  one  of  the  guides,  who  had  been  under  the  plague, 
h£ui  suddenly  recovered,  and  ascertained  from  him  that 
extract  of  the  spruce  was  a  certain  remedy  for  the  disease. 
The  result  of  the  application  of  this  remedy  was  remark- 
able. Cartier,  speaking  of  its  success,  says  :  "If  all  the 
physicians  of  Louvain  and  Montpellier  had  been  there 
with  all  the  drugs  of  Alexandria,  they  could  not  have 
done  as  much  in  a  year  as  this  wonderful  tree  did  in  eight 
hours  ;  "  and  he  thanks  God  for  the  marvellous  cure. 
Canadians  are  well  aware  still  of  the  curative  power  of 
the  balsam  of  "  Epinette  blanche." 

On  the  3rd  of  May,  1636,  the  explorers  erected  a 
cross  thirty-five  feet  high,  and  upon  the  shield  fastened 
on  it,  inscribed  in  ancient  letters,  "Franciscus  primus, 
Dei  Gratia  Francorum,  rex,  regnat."  Having  done  this, 
Cartier,  by  a  surprise,  kidnapped  Donnaconna,  with  the 
intention  of  taking  him  to  France.  During  the  night  a 
great  number  of  the  Indians  came  opposite  the  ships 
crying,  **  Agonhanna !  agonhanna !  "  wishing  to  speak  to 
him.  Cartier  assured  them  he  would  be  absent  only 
twelve  or  thirteen  months,  that  he  would  see  the  great 
king,  and  would  return  with  a  great  present  again. 

Laden  with  gifts  of  fruits  the  explorers,  on  the  1 6th  of 
May,  left  Ste,  Croix,  accompanied  by  many  boat-loads 


12  A  Short  History  of 

of  the  subjects  of  Donnaconna.  On  being  rewarded  by 
Cartier  with  valuable  presents,  the  Indians  returned  re- 
joicing to  Stadacona.  Passing  He  aux  Coudres  on  the 
21st  of  May,  and  St.  Pierre  Islands  on  the  11th  of  June, 
where  they  were  met  by  many  French  fishing-vessels,  the 
expedition  on  the  16th  of  July  reached  St.  Malo,  having 
been  twelve  or  thirteen  months  absent.  Thus  finishes 
Cartier 's  most  notable  voyage. 

After  the  return  of  Cartier,  it  was  four  years  before 
.jUjIj^  another  expedition  from  France  to  the  New 

Voyage  of  World  was  undertaken.  Donnaconna  and  the 
Cartier.  other  captured  savages  had,  on  reaching  France, 
during  the  course  of  these  years  become  Christian,  and 
had  been  baptized  into  the  faith  in  Brittany.  Unfor- 
tunately all  of  them  except  a  little  girl  of  ten  years  of 
age  had  died.  Cartier  seemed  somewhat  unwilling  to 
return,  but  under  the  command  of  the  king,  undertook 
the  charge  of  five  vessels,  under  Chevalier  de  la  Rocque, 
Sieur  de  Roberval,  to  whom  also  had  been  given  the  title 
"  Governor  of  Canada  and  Hochelaga." 

The  fleet  having  been  inspected  by  De  Roberval,  and 
there  being  further  supplies  to  be  received  at  Honfleur, 
Cartier,  with  full  authority  from  his  superior,  set  sail  with 
his  five  vessels  on  the  23rd  of  May,  De  Roberval 
going  to  Honfleur  to  obtain  two  other  vessels, 
with  the  intention  of  following  after  and  joining  Cartier  at 
Newfoundland.  Cartier's  fleet  had  a  stormy  passage, 
the  delays  were  numerous,  the  cattle  on  board  the  ships 
were  worn  out  with  the  sea-voyage,  and  Roberval  did 
not  overtake  them.  Thus  hindered,  Cartier  did  not 
reach  Ste.  Croix  until  the  23rd  of  August. 

On  inquiry  as  to  what  had  become  of  their  people  by 
the  Stadacona  natives,  it  was  replied  that  Donnaconna 
had  died,  and  that  the  others,  having  been  well  provided 
for,  were  unwilling  to  return.  Cartier  now  took  up  new 
headquarters  at  Cap  Rouge,  known  as  Charlesbourg 
Royal,  some  twelve  miles  above  Ste.  Croix.  The  ex- 
plorer then  laid  up  three  of  his  ships  at  Cap  Rouge, 
^nd  sent  back  two^  manned  by  his  brother-in-law,  Jalobert, 


THE  Canadian  People  13 

and  his  nephew,  Noel,  with  letters  to  the  king.  An  ex- 
pedition was  then  made  up  the  river  on  the  7th  of  Septem- 
ber, to  visit  the  various  rapids,  and  in  this  two  gentlemen 
companions  of  Cartier  took  part.  (Hakluyt's  record  is 
here  incomplete.) 

Cartier  would  seem  to  have  remained  in  Canada  for 
the  year,  earnestly  waiting  for  his  superior  to 
arrive.     It  was  not  till  the  16th  of  AprH  that  val.^^liL 
De  Roberval  started  for  the  wide  domain  of 
which  he  was  governor.     He  had  now  three  tall  ships, 
and  he  was  bringing  out  some  two  hundred  colonists, 
women  as  well  as  men,  to  build  up  his  possession.     Suc- 
cessfully the  expedition  reached  the  harbour  of  St.  John, 
Newfoundland,  on  the  8th  of  June. 

Here,  to  the  surprise  of  the  governor  and  his  party, 
they  met  Cartier  now  returning  from  Canada.  He  spoke 
well  of  the  country,  showed  diamonds  and  gold  obtained 
in  it,  but  said  he  had  left  it  on  account  of  the  number 
and  disposition  of  the  savages.  Ordered  by  De  Roberval 
to  return  with  the  colony,  Cartier  stole  out  of  St.  John 
Harbour  by  night,  and  returned  to  France.  De  Roberval 
went  on  his  way,  arrived  in  Canada,  and  built  a  great 
fort,   "Fort  France  Roy,"  at  Ste.  Croix. 

In  September  he  sent  back  two  of  his  ships  to  France, 
and  with  the  colony  remained  to  face  the  winter.     During 
the  winter  the  scurvy  again  appeared,  and  about  fifty  of 
the  colony  succumbed  to  it.     The  governor  seems  to 
have  had  no  lack  of  occupation  in  the  management  of  the 
colony.    A  number  of  men  and  women  were  whipped,  and 
Michael  Gaillon,  one  of  the  number,  was  hanged  for  theft. 
In  June,  leaving  M.  Royere  as  his  lieutenant  and  thirty 
of   the   colonists,   he   sailed   with   seventy  in 
search  of  gold,  leaving  the  colony  till  his  return 
from    the    Saguenay.     It    was    the    disturbed    state    of 
France  that  led  to  De  Roberval  being  left  without  succour. 
There  is  a  report  given  by  Lescarbot  that  Cartier  was 
despatched  to  Canada,  and  that  Roberval  and         . 
the  whole  surviving  colony  were  brought  back 
to  France.     Engaged  in  the  French  wars,  De  Roberval, 


14  A  Shoet  Histoey  of 

the  Governor  of  Canada,  was  not  able  till  peace  returned 
to  seek  his  New  World  possession.  It  is  stated  that  in 
1549  company   with   his   brother   Achille,    another 

brave  soldier  of  the  French  king,  he  started  on 
an  expedition  for  the  New  World,  but  that  the  fleet  and 
all  on  board  were  never  heard  of  again. 

The  supremacy  of  England  on  the  sea  is  to  us  an 
inheritance  mainly  of  the  days  of  Good  Queen 
Voyages.  Bess.  The  limits  of  our  work  but  permit  us  to 
name  those  great  captains,  immediate  contem- 
poraries and  successors  of  Cartier,  who  made  England 
famous  in  the  New  World.  There  is  the  family  of  the 
Hawkinses  belonging  to  Devonshire .  William  Hawkins  in 
1530  sailed  to  the  Guinea  coast,  and  obtained  a  cargo  of 
ivory.  His  son.  Sir  John  Hawkins,  was  a  buccaneer  and 
slave-trader,  whose  name  was  feared  on  the  seas.  One 
reads  with  a  shudder  of  his  carrying  slaves  in  his  ship,  the 
Jesus,  of  Lubeck.  Sir  Richard,  son  of  Sir  John,  was  a 
brave  commander  in  the  destruction  of  the  Armada. 
William,  the  fourth  great  Hawkins,  was  the  son  of  Sir 
Richard,  and  traded  to  the  East  Indies. 

Another  great  captain,  and  from  Devonshire  also,  was 
Sir  Francis  Drake.  It  was  his  great  honour  in  1577  to 
undertake  the  voyage  in  which  he  succeeded  "in  first 
turning  up  a  furrow  about  the  whole  world."  It  is  inter- 
esting to  Canadians  to  know  that,  running  up  the  west  coast 
of  America,  Drake  reached  latitude  48°  N.,  and  saw  in  the 
distance  the  peaks  of  our  British  Columbian  Mountains. 

Passing  by  in  the  meantime  the  names  of  Frobisher, 
Davis,  Gilbert,  and  Raleigh,  we  reach  Henry  Hudson, 
whose  name  and  fate  have  become  historic.  He  was 
connected  with  a  family  of  position  which  had  long 
been  engaged  in  trading  in  the  great  Muscovy  Company, 
but  nothing  is  certainly  known  of  Hudson's  birth  and 
parentage.  Four  voyages  performed  by  him  constitute 
his  fame.  Two  of  these  were  for  the  Muscovy  Company 
1609  ^^  ^^^  north-east  of  Britain  in  Russian  waters. 

His  third  voyage  was  made  in  the  ship  Half- 
Moon,  provided  by  the  Dutch. 


THE  Canadian  People  16 

He  had  intended  to  have  gone  to  the  north-east,  but 
changed  his  course  and  reached  Newfoundland.  Sailing 
south  he  touched  Cape  Cod,  to  which,  supposing  it  an 
island,  he  gave  the  name  New  Holland.  Passing  Cape 
Charles,  the  navigator  ran  up  a  roadstead,  and  then 
ascended  the  river  which  bears  his  name,  until  the 
stream  became  too  narrow  for  further  progress.  Return- 
ing to  England,  the  Half -Moon  was  delayed 
for  ten  months,  but  then  proceeded  to  Amster- 
dam to  give  her  report.  In  consequence  of  the  in- 
formation received,  the  Dutch  sent  out  agents  who  took 
possession  of  New  Netherlands,  which  name  the  region 
bore  till  afterwards  changed,  upon  its  captiire  by  the 
English,  to  New  York. 

In  the  year  of  Hudson's  return  from  America,  the 
English,  unwilling  to  lose  the  services  of  the  navigator, 
induced  him  to  leave  the  Half-Moon^  and  to  imdertake 
a  voyage  for  them.     In  this,  crossing  to  the  ...  ^.^ 
west,  Hudson  discovered  the  strait  to  the  north- 
west of  Baccalaos  Island  (Belle  Isle). 

He  determined  to  follow  the  opening  further  up  the 
coast,  laid  down  by  Weymouth  (1602),  which  Davis  had 
also  marked,  and  called  "  the  furious  overfall."  Through 
this  strait  Hudson  passed.  Entering  the  bay  which,  like 
the  strait,  now  bears  his  own  name,  he  wintered  in  latitude 
52°  N.  The  motion  of  the  tides  caused  him  to  hope  that 
a  passage  to  the  westward  would  be  found,  but  the  mutiny 
of  his  crew  led  to  his  being  cast  adrift  with  his  son  and 
a  few  sick  companions,  and  it  is  a  sailor's  story  that  the 
spirit  of  the  departed  navigator,  like  an  icy  spectre,  still 
hovers  around  the  Hudson  Bay. 

The  perfidious  crew  were  thrown  into  prison  on  their 
arrival  in  England,  and  though,  by  the  direction 
of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  three  ships  were  sent     ^5^2! 
out  in  the  following  year,  in  consequence  of  a 
hope  that  the  navigator  might  still  survive,  the  search 
proved  a  fruitless  one. 


CHAPTEK    II 

THE   CANADIAN   DOMESTION 

Section  I. — The  Name  and  Extent 

It  was  thus  a  Frenchman  of  Brittany  who,  first  of  Euro- 
peans in  historic  times,  set  foot  upon  Canadian  soil  and 
claimed  the  country  for  his  king,  and  so  for  many  of  his 
fellow-countrymen  who  afterwards  came  to  make  New 
^  France  their  home.  It  was  a  company  of  English  ad- 
venturers on  Hudson  Bay  who  for  two  centuries  kept  for 
their  king  and  country  the  almost  continuous  sovereignty 
of  the  land  bestowed  upon  them,  and  it  was  a  young 
English  general,  dying  in  the  hour  of  victory  on  the  plains 
near  Quebec,  who  engraved  the  name  of  England  on 
Canada — the  fairest  jewel  in  the  British  crown.  It  was 
brave  Eraser  and  Montgomery  Highlanders,  and  restless 
Scottish  pioneers,  who  came  as  early  settlers,  the  former 
to  carry  with  French  voyageurs  the  fur  trade  from 
Montreal  to  distant  Athabasca,  the  latter  to  reclaim  the 
wilderness  along  the  sea-shore  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince 
Edward  Island,  as  well  as  elsewhere,  who  gave  elements 
of  energy  and  thrift  to  Canada.  It  was  the  sweetest 
poet  of  Ireland  who,  gliding  with  the  boatmen  down  the 
beautiful  St.  Lawrence,  sang  the  best-known  Canadian 
song  in  the  land  whither  many  of  his  countrymen  have 
since  come  to  find  freedom  and  prosperity.  Last,  and 
perhaps  most  important,  it  was  American  loyalists  who, 
sacrificing  worldly  goods,  preserved  their  honour  to  be 
an  inheritance  to  their  children  in  New  Brunswick  and 
elsewhere  along  the  sea,  as  well  as  to  be  the  leaders  in 
laying  the  foundations  of  a  new  community  upon  the 

16 


A  Short  Histoby  ot  the  Canadian  People    17 

shores  of  the  lakes  Erie  and  Ontario.  Ours  is  the  duty 
of  telling  the  story  of  this  gathering  of  the  races  from 
the  several  sources  named,  and  of  the  consolidation  of 
them  and  their  descendants  into  one  people  bearing  the 
name  Canadian,  and  who  have,  under  the  shelter  of 
Britain,  extended  the  rule  of  Canada  to  a  region  stretch- 
ing between  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Arctic  Oceans, 
including  well-nigh  half  of  North  America. 

No  name   could   have   been   more   appropriate   than 
Canada  for  this  vast  territory,  for  the  name 
Canada  goes  back  to  within  half  a  century  of  the  ^J5[g^'***® 
discovery  of  the  continent  by  Columbus.     We 
find  it  first  used  in  Cartier's  account  of  his  voyage  given 
by  Ramusio,   1556.     It  was  used  for  a  century  and  a 
half  before  we  find  any  aUusion  to  its  meaning,  and  this 
no  doubt  accounts  for  the  difference  of  opinion  on  the 
subject.     It  is  in  the  writings  of  Father  Hennepin  in 
1698,  that  we  are  told  "  that  the  Spaniards  were  the  first 
who  discovered   Canada ;    but   at  their  first   arriving, 
having  found  nothing  considerable  in  it,  they  abandoned 
the  country  and  caUed  it  '  II  Capo  di  Nada,'  i.e.  a  cape 
of  nothing  ;     hence,   by   corruption,   sprang  the   word 
Canada,  which  we  use  in  all  the  maps.'* 

About  half  a  century  later,  Father  Charlevoix,  in  1744, 
states  that  the  Bay  of  Chaleur  was  formerly  called  the 
*'  Bay  of  Spaniards,"  and  an  ancient  tradition  goes  that 
the  Castillians  had  entered  there  before  Cartier,  and 
that  when  they  there  perceived  no  appearance  of  mines, 
they  pronounced  two  words,  "  Aca  nada,"  nothing  here, 
meaning  no  gold  or  silver  ;  the  savages  afterwards  re- 
peated these  words  to  the  French,  who  thus  came  to 
look  upon  Canada  as  the  name  of  the  country. 

As  regards  the  voyages  of  the  Spaniards  to  which 
reference  is  made,  it  has  been  usual  to  identify  them  with 
those  of  Velasquez  to  the  coast  of  Canada.  It  has  now 
been  found  that  the  reputed  voyages  of  this  Spaniard 
are  spurious,  so  that  it  is  evident  no  rehance  can  be 
placed  on  this  as  origin  of  the  name  Canada. 

Father  Charlevoix  states  in  a  note  that  "  some  derive 


18  A  Short  History  o^ 

this  name  from  the  Iroquois  word  *  Kannata,'  which  is 
pronounced  '  Cannada,'  and  signifies  a  collection  of  dwell- 
ings." This  derivation  is  borne  out  by  Schoolcraft, 
who  states  that  the  Mohawk  word  for  town  is  "  Ka-na-ta," 
the  Cayuga  "  Ka-ne-tae,"  and  the  Oneida  "  Ku-na-diah," 
and  these  were  three  members  of  the  Iroquois  con- 
federacy. The  use  of  the  word  Kannata  for  village,  in 
Brant's  translation  of  the  Gospel  by  Mark  into  Mohawk, 
in  the  latest  years  of  the  eighteenth  century,  confirms  this 
derivation  ;  and  the  detection  of  Iroquois  influence  by 
recent  investigators  in  the  villages  of  Hochelaga  and 
Stadacona,  at  the  time  when  Cartier  first  visited  them, 
renders  this  explanation  reasonably  certain. 

Canada  continued  sole  name  of  the  country  discovered 
by  the  French  on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  until 
1609,  in  which  year  the  Canadian  explorer,  Champlain, 
having  given  at  Fontainebleau  before  the  French  king, 
Henry  IV.,  an  account  of  the  country,  it  received  the 
name  "  La  Nouvelle  France."  As  the  French  explora- 
tions continued  up  the  St.  Lawrence  and  along  the 
shores  of  the  great  lakes,  the  name  Canada  or  Nouvelle 
France  became  one  of  wider  significance,  imtil  towards 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  it  meant  all  the 
territory  claimed  by  the  French  southward  to  the  English 
possessions,  from  which  it  might  be  said  in  general 
terms  the  Ohio  River  divided  it,  and  west  until  the  Missis- 
sippi was  reached. 

West  of  the  Mississippi  lay  Louisiana,  seemingly 
claimed  by  the  French  by  virtue  of  their  explorations  by 
way  of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  Northward  the 
territory  from  St.  Anthony  Falls,  on  the  Father  of  Waters, 
was  practically  unknown  till  the  third  decade  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  northern  boundary  of  Canada 
was  at  the  time  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713  regarded 
as  being  described  by  the  height  of  land  between  the 
lakes  and  Hudson  Bay.  That  treaty  provided  that 
commissioners  should  be  appointed  to  lay  out  this  line, 
but  this  was  never  carried  out. 

It  was  after  the  American  Revolution,  in  what,  so  far 


THE  Canadian  People  19 

as  Canada  is  concerned,  may  be  called  the  Cession  rather 
than  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  that  the  vast  territory  south 
and  west  of  the  great  lakes  to  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
rivers  was  deliberately  given  up  to  the  United  States. 
This  seems  all  the  more  surprising  and  unfortunate 
when  it  is  remembered  that  the  British  Parliament  had 
in  1774  extended,  by  its  own  legislation,  the  boundaries 
of  the  then  Province  of  Quebec  to  the  wider  limits  named. 
A  few  years  after  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  when  Canada  had 
been  so  shorn  of  her  wide  domain,  a  division  was  made 
of  the  territory  remaining,  by  the  Imperial  Parliament 
into  Lower  Canada,  containing  chiefly  the  French  popula- 
tion, and  Upper  Canada,  that  portion  bounded  mainly  by 
the  Ottawa  River,  the  Upper  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  lakes. 
It  was  only  in  1867-73  that  the  name  of  Canada  was 
given  to  a  wider  region  than  ever  before,  under  the  rule 
of  a  dominion  or  confederated  government.  The  Canada, 
then,  of  the  imited  Canadian  people  is  the  result  of  the 
natural  ties  and  patriotic  statesmanship  of  those  attached 
to  the  British  Crown  upon  the  North  American  continent. 
It  was  on  Dominion  Day,  the  Ist  of  July,  1867,  that  the 
Royal  proclamation,  dated  on  the  22nd  May  preceding 
at  Windsor  Castle,  joined  the  four  leading  members  of  the 
Confederation,  Ontario,  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New 
Brunswick,  into  a  united  Canada.  This  union  not  only 
gave  relief  from  political  difficulties  then  existing,  but 
consolidated  British  power  upon  this  continent,  and 
awoke  to  life  in  the  Dominion  a  yoimg  national  existence, 
afterwards  bringing  in  the  North-west,  Prince  Edward 
Island,  and  British  Columbia. 


Section  II. — Physical  Features  of  Canada 

The  condition  of  peoples  is  largely  dependent  on  the  soil, 
climate,  and  character  of  the  country  they  in- 
habit.    To  attempt  the  study  of  the  history  of  JJj  biJ^d?" 
the  Canadian  people  without  examining  the 
physical  features  of  their  country  would  be  to  ignore 


20  A  Short  History  of 

the  very  explanation  of  the  movements  of  population 
within  its  borders.  The  geological  features  of  the 
country  give  a  clue  to  the  causes  or  failures  of  settlement. 
We  are  thus  compelled  to  look  back  to  a  time  entirely 
prehistoric — to  a  time  long  antecedent  to  Norseman, 
Indian,  or  voyageur — to  find  out  the  reasons  for  the 
course  which  immigration  has  followed. 

The  time  when  any  portion  of  this  continent  had 
reached  the  stage  in  its  development  which  it  now  re- 
tains, was  undoubtedly  ages  ago,  at  the  period  when 
there  were  yet  only  the  Archsean  or  primitive  rocks. 
Then  only  the  north-eastern  part  of  North  America 
appeared  as  an  island  in  the  midst  of  the  tepid  ocean 
which  surrounded  it. 

^  The  rugged  land  of  Labrador,  and  the  Laurentide 
hills,  and  the  wilderness  country  between  Hudson  Bay 
and  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior,  extending  far  away  to 
the  mouth  of  Mackenzie  River,  and  north-eastward  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  was  a  rocky  waste.  Solid  gneiss  and  the 
variegated  granites  ;  lava  and  obsidian  ;  syenite  and 
serpentine  and  the  like  rocks  after  their  kind — all  were 
there.  These  have  contained  hidden  in  them  from  that 
primeval  day  till  now  the  veins  of  gold  and  silver  and 
copper  and  iron  which  men  are  discovering  to-day,  but 
at  the  early  time  referred  to  not  even  Mammon,  "  the 
least-erected  spirit  that  fell  from  heaven,"  had  peered 
into  their  glittering  crevices. 

No  trace  of  plant  or  animal  appeared,  unless  the  beds 
of  transformed  carbon  or  graphite  represent  the  rem- 
nants of  an  early  plant  life.  Mountain  chasms  and  falling 
streams  were  all ;  there  was  no  sound  of  bird  or  beast ; 
no  fish  swam  in  the  heated  waters.  And  ever  since, 
through  colder  and  hotter  as  the  changes  have  come, 
those  primeval  rocks  have  remained,  except  that  glaciers 
have  since  that  time  ground  down  their  roughnesses, 
and  crushed  rock  matter  has  been  carried  out  by  the 
streams  upon  the  ocean  and  lake  beds.  These  vast 
fields  of  unyielding  rocks  have  been  the  backbone  on 
which  the  continent  has  been  formed. 


THE  Canadian  People  21 

At  length  along  the  south  and  west  coast-line  of  this 
expanse  of  rocky  island  in  the  sea,  plants  and 
animals  began  to  appear,  but  all  seemingly  be-  pjj^^j^ 
longing  to  the  sea.  At  first,  no  doubt,  the  wide 
expanse  of  rock,  rising  above  the  sea,  was  Hke  the  "  burn- 
ing marl  "  of  Milton,  but  was  slowly  cooling  down.  Not 
highly  developed  animals,  with  acute  nerves  and  tender 
bodies,  but  hard,  thick-plated  animals  were  the  first  to 
appear — all  were  suited  to  their  rough  environment. 
There  were  great  colonies  of  corals,  headless  bivalve  shell- 
fish, called  Brachiopods,  in  great  numbers,  hardy  cylin- 
drical mollusks  with  heads,  called  Orthoceratites,  and 
these  dwelt  among  the  f ucoids  that  grew  a  mass  of  leathery 
weeds  along  the  shore.  The  remains  of  these  and  many 
other  animals  are  found  in  rocks  many  thousands  of  feet 
thick,  which  must  have  taken  many  years  to  fall  as 
great  mud  deposits  along  the  coast.  It  is  hard  to  con- 
ceive the  time  those  plastic  beds  have  taken  to  form  the 
hard  rock  masses  of  to-day. 

This  first  period  is  called  the  Silurian,  from  the  fact 
that  rocks  of  this  time,  such  as  we  find  in  Nova  Scotia, 
New  Brunswick,  Quebec,  Ontario,  Manitoba,  the  North- 
West  territories,  and  also  British  Columbia,  were  found 
by  the  geologists  in  Wales,  the  country  of  the  ancient 
Silures.  The  region  covered  by  deposits  during  that 
first  gush  of  life — for  it  was  a  time  of  much  exuberance 
of  the  lower  forms  of  life — either  rose  from  the  sea  by  an 
inner  motion  of  the  earth,  or  was  built  up  by  the  detritus 
carried  down  from  the  land. 

Now  with  the  cooling  of  the  waters  and  the  greater 
fitness  for  a  higher  animal  life  came  in  time  a 
new   age,    as   under   changed   conditions   the  perf^."* 
southern  fringe  of  this  now  considerable  area  of 
new-made  land  began  to  form.     Many  corals  and  large 
mollusks  still  continued,  but  there  were  now  changes  of 
species,  an  armed  lobster  that  swam  the  salty  seas,  strong 
armour-covered  fish,  and  creatures  that  "  tare  each  other 
in  their  slime  " — the  first  animals  to  appear  with  brain. 
Vegetation  of  the  sort  of  the  spore-bearing  ferns  began, 


22  A  Short  History  of 

and  the  dry  land  was  plainly  becoming  more  fit  for  habita- 
tion.    An  abundant  life  swarmed  in  the  seas  of  this  time. 

This  period  was  known  to  Hugh  Miller,  the  Scottish 
geologist,  as  the  Old  Red  Sandstone,  but  in  Canada  it, 
like  the  Silurian  which  preceded  it,  contains  rocks  of 
chiefly  white,  reddish,  or  black  limestone  or  of  shaly 
structure.  It  is  more  common  to  call  them  after  the 
similar  rocks  appearing  in  the  south  of  England — the 
Devonian  beds.  In  the  Upper  Silurian  and  Devonian 
deposits,  salt  and  petroleum  are  found  in  Western  Ontario 
and  the  district  of  the  Mackenzie  River. 

At  the  close  of  the  Silurian  and  Devonian  periods  the 
ancient  Laurentide  Island  had  been  extended  by  the 
addition  of  beds,  chiefly  of  Silurian  and  Devonian  lime- 
stone and  shale,  on  its  south-east  coast  fifty  miles,  a  hun- 
dred, and  at  points  even  of  greater  breadth,  in  Ontario, 
Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick.  On  its 
south-west  side  in  the  district  of  Manitoba,  and  the 
North-West  territories,  the  Laurentide  Island  also  ex- 
tended its  borders,  and  a  band  of  Silurian  and  Devonian 
rocks,  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  miles  wide,  was  formed. 
A  large  portion  of  the  fertile  lands  of  Canada  lies  above 
these  rocks  of  the  early  time,  though  they  are  covered 
by  a  soil  or  drift  belonging  to  a  much  later  period. 

During  the  succeeding  time  when  the  deep  sea  seems 
J,  1  p  •  J  110^  ^o  have  completely  surrounded  the  enlarged 
island,  as  in  the  regions  now  included  in  the 
south-eastern  portion  of  Nova  Scotia,  as  well  as  in  the 
American  States  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Michigan, 
a  large  extent  of  the  country  along  the  shore  must  have 
been  a  dense  marsh  and  jungle,  where,  during  this  car- 
boniferous period,  great  ferns  and  club  mosses,  and 
strangely-marked  trees  of  large  size  formed  the  coal 
measures  as  they  lived  and  died  and  were  imbedded  in 
the  deposits. 

In  Canada  these  coal  measures  proper  seem  to  have 
been  confined  to  Nova  Scotia  and  Cape  Breton.  Iron 
is  here,  as  elsewhere,  found  accompanying  the  coal.  So 
far  as  eastern  and  maritime  Canada  are  concerned,  with 


THE  Canadian  People  23 

these  periods  of  formation  the  completion  of  the  Lauren- 
tide  Island  was  reached,  until  by  a  subsequent  change 
the  soil  was  deposited  upon  much  of  it. 

After  a  gap  of  time,  the  rising  ocean  bottom  appears, 
in  a  mighty,  shallow,  north-western  sea,  to  have 
extended  from  Lakes  Manitoba  and  Winni-  peJiodf"^ 
pegoosis,  which  mark  the  western  limit  of  the 
Devonian  formation,  for  1500  miles  unbroken  to  the  west 
of  Vancouver  Island,  for  no  rocky  mountain  range  had 
yet  appeared  to  interrupt  this  vast  expanse.  Here, 
during  this  Cretaceous  period,  so  called  from  its  being  of 
the  same  age  as  the  chalk  cliffs  of  the  east  of  England,  but 
in  America  largely  sandstone,  huge  reptiles,  whose  re- 
mains are  being  imearthed  on  the  banks  of  the  Saskatche- 
wan River  to-day,  lived  and  died,  and  were  in  part  pre- 
served. Ammonites  and  Baculites,  the  successors  of  the 
cephalopod  mollusks  of  the  eariier  time,  of  great  size  and 
glistening  in  their  pearly  shells,  lived  in  the  salty  waters 
of  the  period. 

The  whole  of  this  wide  sea-bottom  seems  to  have  risen 
gradually,  and  in  time  to  have  become,  in  parts  at  least, 
a  marsh,  in  which  an  exuberant  vegetation  lived,  died,  and 
accumulated,  until  coal  formations,  rivalling  in  quaUty 
many  of  the  earlier  carboniferous  deposits,  were  formed. 
These,  spread  over  the  country  for  hundreds  of  miles,  con- 
stitute the  largest  coal  area  now  known  in  the  world. 
Along  with  this  coal  are  now  found  also  extensive  de- 
posits of  clay  ironstone.  On  Vancouver  Island  is 
reached  the  western  limit  of  this  great  Cretaceous  coal- 
field. The  eastern  limit  of  the  deposits  of  this  secondary 
age  is  marked  by  a  range  of  hills  south-west  of  Lakes 
Manitoba  and  Winnipegoosis,  comprising  Duck  and 
Riding  mountains,  the  Manitoba  sandhills,  and  the  Pem- 
bina Mountain. 

The  western  and  southern  portion  of  this  wide  coal 
area  seems  to  have  been   again   submerged, 
and  deposits  of  sandstone  are  found  in  which  ^ge!"^ 
are  traced  remains  of  mammals,  resembling 
those  now  living  on  the  earth.     There  are  also  imbedded 


24  A  Short  History  of 

in  the  rocks  well-preserved  leaves  and  nut-fruits  of 
many  trees,  such  as  sassafras,  poplar,  tulip-tree,  oak, 
yew,  and  plane-tree.  It  was  during  this  third  age  that 
the  Rocky  Mountains  appeared.  This  was  probably 
caused  by  the  collapse  of  the  extended  plain — 1500  miles 
wide — which,  falling  in,  caused  the  elevation  of  the 
great  core  of  ancient  rocks  which  had  been  lying  below. 
The  fracture  thus  made  must  have  been  enormous, 
extending  as  it  did  from  the  north  to  the  south  of  the 
western  hemisphere,  and  may  have  led  to  a  disturbance 
of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  earth,  by  which  the 
axis  may  have  changed  its  direction,  and  the  ice  age  been 
brought  on  on  account  of  a  new  relation  of  the  earth  to 
the  sun,  as  some  would  have  us  believe. 

Whatever  the  cause  may  have  been,  the  fact  remains 
that  after  this  time  an  extension  of  the  region 
Age.  ^^  *  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^  ^^^  more  southward  poiut  than  it 
had  hitherto  covered  took  ^lace.  This  time, 
known  as  the  glacial  period,  was,  so  far  as  the  whole  of  the 
territory  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  is  concerned,  one  of 
Arctic  winter,  with  also  certain  intensely  hot  intervals. 
Glaciers  formed  and  slid  down  over  the  rocks,  crushing 
them  to  powder,  and  the  melting  stream  distributed  the 
detritus  over  the  whole  extent. 

It  is  to  this  period  we  owe  our  soil.  In  every  part  of 
Canada  great  striated  markings  from  north-east  or  north- 
west toward  the  south  are  found,  indicating  the  progress 
of  this  powerful  crushing  process.  Boulders  of  rocks 
from  the  north  are  mixed  with  the  finer  soil,  and  lie 
scattered  in  places  over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  as  de- 
scribed by  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  in  his  fanciful  sketch 
of  the  "  Dorchester  Giant." 

According  to  Sir  Archibald  Geikie's  estimate,  for  1 80,000 
years  this  grinding  process  of  the  rocky  world  contiuued. 
At  length,  in  common  with  other  temperate  regions 
of  the  earth,  the  territory  of  the  Dominion  assumed 
something  like  its  present  conformation.  In  all  pro- 
bability by  other  great  terrestrial  changes  the  icy  hand 
of  the  glacial  epoch  became  relaxed,  and  the  land  of 


THE  Canadian  People  26 

Keewaydin,  or  the  North  Wind,  was  driven  back  to  its 
former  limits.  This  was  the  land  prepared  after  untold 
ages  for  its  earliest  Mongolian  or  Norseland  visitors. 

Section  III. — Fixing  the  Boundaries  of  Canada 

It  is  of  prime  importance  to  consider  the  limits  of 
the  larger  Canada,  and  to  refer  to  the  cir- 
cumstances   under    which    these    boundaries  cana^^*' 
were  settled.     During  the  past  hundred  years 
the  numerous  treaties,   conventions,   and   commissions 
in  which  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  have  taken 
part  have  largely  been  occupied  with  the  adjusting  of 
the  international  boundary  line. 

The  most  noticeable  thing  about  these  negotiations  is 
the  fact  that  it  was  the  former  possession  of  Canada  by 
France,  and  the  line  of  cleavage  thus  clearly  marked 
between  Canada  and.  the  British  Colonies,  that  led 
Canada  to  cling  to  Britain  when  her  own  colonies  de- 
serted her.  It  was  the  existence  of  boundary  lines, 
more  or  less  sharply  defined,  between  the  English  and 
French  Colonies  which  supplied  the  data  for  deciding 
the  boundary  line  of  Canada.  Having  succeeded  in 
gaining  independence,  and  this  with  the  hearty  approba- 
tion of  a  very  important  part  of  the  British  people  them- 
selves, it  was  in  the  next  year  after  the  British  surrender 
at  Yorktown  that  the  United  States  commissioners  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  a  provisional  agreement  as  to  the 
leading  principles  on  which  the  boundary  should  be 
decided.  The  Ministry  then  in  power  had  as  two  of  its 
leading  members  Lord  Shelboume  and  Charles  James 
Fox,  and  the  very  existence  of  that  Ministry  was  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  British  people  desired  to  have  a  harmo- 
nious settlement  of  these  differences  with  the  rebellious 
colonies. 

A  British  merchant  named  Oswald,  well  acquainted 
with  America,  was  the  commissioner  for  Britain,  and  the 
negotiations  were  conducted  in  Paris.  On  behalf  of  the 
United  States  there  were  Franklin,  Adams,  and  Jay, 


26  A  Short  History  of 

and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  desire  of  the  British 
people  for  peace  with  their  own  flesh  and  blood  beyond 
the  sea,  as  well  as  the  remarkable  ability  of  the  American 
commissioners,  gave  Canada  much  less  territory  than  she 
should  have  had. 

The  result  of  the  negotiations  was  the  memorable 
Treaty  of  1783,  usually  known  as  the  Treaty  of  Paris. 
In  this  the  agreement  as  to  boundary  was  very  vague 
in  some  parts.  This  was  probably  inevitable  from  the 
unexplored  character  of  the  vast  territory  under  con- 
sideration, and  many  a  subsequent  dispute  has  grown 
out  of  this  want  of  definite  description. 

There  was  a  dispute  as  to  the  line  drawn  from  the 
north-west  angle  of  Nova  Scotia,  which  was  defined  as 
an  angle  formed  by  a  straight  line  north  from  the  source 
of  St.  Croix  River  to  the  Highlands.  The  line  running 
thence  along  the  height  of  land  to  the  north-west  head 
of  the  Connecticut  River  was  almost  impossible  of 
interpretation.  This  part  of  the  boundary  was  not 
settled  for  nearly  sixty  years  afterwards.  Running  from 
the  point  reached  on  the  Connecticut  River,  and  down 
the  river  to  the  45°  N.  lat.,  the  line  followed  the  forty- 
fifth  parallel  to  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  middle  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  and  of  the  rivers  and  lakes  from  this  point 
up  to  the  entrance  of  Lake  Superior,  formed  a  most 
natural  boundary.  From  the  St.  Mary's  River  the  line 
of  division  ran  through  the  middle  of  the  lake,  but  to 
the  north  of  Isle  Royale,  and  then  indeed  the  description 
became  vague. 

A  certain  Long  Lake  is  mentioned  as  an  objective 
point,  but  no  one  has  ever  known  of  a  Long  Lake.  From 
this  supposed  point  the  line  was  to  have  run  along  the 
watery  way  by  which  at  last  Lake  of  the  Woods  is  reached, 
whose  north-west  corner  was  the  point  aimed  at.  A 
west-bearing  line  was  then  to  be  drawn  until  the  Missis- 
sippi was  reached,  but  the  source  of  the  Mississippi  was 
f  oimd  to  be  a  degree  or  two  to  the  south  of  the  north- 
west angle  named. 

No  further  attempt  to  fix  a  boimdary  was  needed  west- 


THE  Canadian  People  27 

ward,  for  to  the  west  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  south  of 
49°  N.,  a  line  seemingly  chosen  as  very  nearly  excluding 
the  sources  of  the  Missouri,  lay  Louisiana,  claimed  by 
the  French ;  and  to  the  territory  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  laid  no  claim. 

The  indefiniteness  of  the  boundary  line  described,  and 
the  subsequent  purchase  of  Louisiana  and  the  country  on 
the  Pacific  coast  by  the  United  States,  gave  rise  to  dis- 
pute after  dispute.  The  definition  of  the  Maine  boundary, 
the  finding  of  the  line  from  Lake  Superior  to  Lake  of 
the  Woods,  the  line  to  the  forty-ninth  parallel,  and  the 
Oregon  difficulty,  including  in  it  the  San  Juan  affair, 
were  the  chief  of  these. 

In  the  Treaty  of  London,   1794,  known  as  that  of 
amity  and  commerce,  the  question  arose  which 
was  the  true  St.  Croix  River,  whose  source  Boundary.* 
was  named  as  a  starting  point.     Commissioners 
were  appointed  to  examine  the  ground.     They  decided  in 
1798  in  favour  of  the  smaller  branch,  inasmuch  as  it  ran 
in  the  most  northerly  direction,  and  at  the  spot  agreed 
upon  they  caused  a  monument  to  be  erected. 

But  next  it  must  be  decided  where  the  highlands 
referred  to  in  the  treaty  were.  The  Americans  claimed 
heights  even  overlooking  the  St.  Lawrence.  Britain 
refused  this.  The  treaty  had  said  the  highlands  between 
the  streams  running  into  the  St.  Lawrence  and  those 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  headwaters  of  the  St.  John 
and  Restigouche  rivers  were  those  relied  on  by  the 
Americans.  "No,"  said  the  British,  "the  St.  John 
empties  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  and  the  Restigouche 
into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  neither  of  them  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean." 

So  raged  the  contest.  The  linie  running  north  from 
the  monument  was  claimed  by  the  Americans  for  one 
hundred  and  forty  miles  ;  the  British  would  only  allow 
them  forty  miles.  In  1829  the  knotty  question  was 
referred  to  the  King  of  the  Netherlands  as  arbitrator. 
The  arbitrator  made  an  honest  efiort  to  decide,  but  was 


28  A  Short  History  op 

compelled  to  return  the  matter  to  the  parties  concerned  as 
inexpUcable  and  impracticable.  He  at  the  same  time  sug- 
gested a  compromise  solution.     This  was  not  acceptable. 

But  the  question  must  be  settled.  Land  and  forest 
were  being  sought  for  by  settlers,  and  conflicts  between 
American  and  Canadian  citizens  were  constant.  In  1833 
President  Jefferson  made  a  proposition  to  Lord  Palmer- 
ston,  but  this  was  not  adopted,  as  it  appeared  somewhat 
ambiguous.  A  temporary  joint  occupation  was  next 
agreed  upon,  and  in  1842  the  contending  governments 
appointed  commissioners  to  consider  the  matter.  The 
well-known  Daniel  Webster  was  the  United  States  com- 
missioner, and  the  Hon.  Alexander  Baring,  afterwards 
Lord  Ashburton,  was  for  the  British. 

Many  have  been  the  criticisms  on  these  national  repre- 
sentatives. To  have  succeeded  was  in  any  case  to  have 
brought  down  adverse  criticism.  Webster  was  astute, 
and  Baring,  belonging  to  a  banking-house,  closely  con- 
nected with  American  interests,  was  supposed  to  have 
been  specially  fitted  for  the  work,  and  seems  to  have 
been  high-minded  and  honest.  Perhaps  he  was  not 
sufficiently  alive  to  colonial  interests. 

The  commissioners  agreed  to  take  the  River  St.  John 
and  its  branch,  the  St.  Francis,  as  the  northern  boundary 
of  Maine.  This  gave  seven-twelfths  of  the  disputed 
territory  to  the  United  States,  and  five-twelfths  to 
Canada. 

A  curious  incident  of  this  boundary  dispute  was  in  con- 
nection with  the  part  consisting  of  the  forty-fifth  parallel. 
Some  years  before,  this  line  had  been  surveyed  by  two 
incompetent  engineers,  Valentine  and  Collins,  and  their 
boundary  was  a  sad  commentary  on  Euclid's  definition 
of  a  straight  line.  Now  it  was  north,  now  south  of  the 
real  parallel,  and  the  Treaty  of  1842  met  the  case  by 
following  *'west  along  the  said  dividing  line,  as  hereto- 
fore known  and  understood."  Great  satisfaction  was 
expressed  by  the  British  on  the  settlement  of  the  Maine 
boundary  dispute,  and  Mr.  Baring  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  in  consequence.     The  Americans  were  chagrined 


THE  Canadian  People  20 

at  the  decision,  until  an  event  transpired — one  of  the 
most  remarkable  in  the  history  of  diplomacy. 

The  American  Congress  while  discussing  the  treaty 
sat  with  closed  doors,  and  were  disposed  to  reject  it.  At 
this  juncture  Webster  laid  before  the  Senate  a  map 
which  had  been  discovered  among  the  archives  in  Paris, 
just  before  the  beginning  of  the  treaty,  by  an  American 
litterateur  named  Sparks.  The  map  had  been  in  Web- 
ster's hands  during  the  progress  of  the  whole  treaty.  The 
map  in  question  was  the  copy  of  one  made  by  Franklin, 
as  giving  the  boundaries  agreed  on  in  the  Treaty  of 
1783,  on  which  was  a  strong  red  line,  marking  the  boun- 
dary exactly  where  the  British  claimed. 

The  effect  of  the  map  upon  the  unwilling  senators  is 
said  to  have  been  magical.  The  treaty  was  at  once 
ratified.  Severe  things  have  been  said  in  connection 
with  this  affair.  It  has  been  said  that  the  original  map 
was  sent  by  Franklin  to  the  Coimt  de  Vergennes  to  mis- 
lead him  at  the  time.  This  certainly  reflects  on  Franklin. 
Others  say  the  map  used  before  the  Senate  was  an  in- 
vention, to  induce  it  to  adopt  the  treaty.  In  favour  of 
this  view  is  the  fact  that  since  that  date  the  original  has 
never  been  found  in  the  archives  at  Paris.  Whatever 
explanation  may  be  accepted,  the  affair  is  not  creditable 
to  American  statesmanship,  and  has  given  rise  to  a  strong 
feeling  of  injury  in  the  breasts  of  the  Canadian  people 
ever  since. 

In  the  Treaty  of  1 794,  to  which  reference  has  been  made, 
one  of  the  subjects  discussed  was  the  settlement  j^  .     g 
of  the  line  from  Lake  Superior  to  Lake  of  the  rlor  to  Lake 
Woods.     It  was  not,  however,  until  the  Treaty  <>'  the 
of  Ghent  in  1814  that  the  step  was  taken  of  ^°®^^' 
appointing  commissioners  to  continue  the  boundary  to 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods  north-westward.     The  commis- 
sioners met,  but  could  not  agree  on  this  matter.     It  then 
remained  unsettled  until  it  came  up  for  decision  at  the 
time  of  the  Ashburton  Treaty.     Britain  claimed  that  her 
territory  should  extend  from  the  western  extremity  of  Lake 
Superior  northward.     The  Americans,  while  unable  to 


30  A  Shobt  Histoey  op 

point  out  the  Long  Lake  referred  to,  fell  back  on  the 
Treaty  of  1783,  saying  by  way  of  the  "water  communi- 
cation "  to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods.  The  additional  fact 
was  in  their  favour  that  the  line  must  run  north  of  Isle 
Roy  ale.  It  is  luidoubted,  taking  these  points  into  con- 
sideration, that  the  Pigeon  River  route,  and  by  way  of 
the  "  Grand  Portage,"  was  pointed  to  by  the  Treaty  of 
1783,  and  so  it  was  decided  by  Mr.  Baring.  We  have 
already  noticed  that  though  the  British  commissioner  of 
1842  cannot  be  blamed  for  his  decision,  yet,  taking  into 
account  the  early  explorations  of  Du  Luth  and  the  French 
explorers,  and  the  occupation  of  territory  south-west  of 
Fond  du  Lac  by  the  Ojibway  or  Canadian  Indians,  the 
original  treaty  should  have  preserved  a  far  greater  territory 
to  Canada. 

It  was  by  the  commissioners  appointed  in  1794  that 
Lake  of  the  *^^  further  difficulty  was  recognized  of  settliug 
Woods  to  the  line  west  of  Lake  of  the  Woods.  By  this 
*^  ^'  time  it  had  been  discovered  that  the  Mississippi 

was  many  miles  south  of  Lake  of  the  Woods.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  the  parties  to  that  treaty  agreed  that 
the  question  should  be  settled  by  "  amicable  negotiation." 
The  matter  was  deferred  until  1814,  when,  near  the  close 
of  the  war  between  Britain  and  the  United  States,  a 
peace  was  concluded  at  Ghent.  It  seems  fortunate  that 
an  understanding  was  then  reached.  The  battle  of  New 
Orleans,  fought  in  1815,  after  the  treaty  was  made, 
so  raised  the  hopes  of  the  American  people  that  an 
agreement  then  would  have  been  difficult  to  reach. 

The  commissioners  appointed  at  Ghent  succeeded  in 
1818,  at  what  is  called  the  Convention  of  London,  in 
closing  the  matter  It  was  agreed  to  draw  a  line  due 
north  and  south  from  the  north-west  angle  of  the  Lake  of 
the  Woods  until  it  met  the  forty-ninth  parallel.  An  unex- 
pected and  amusing  result  of  this  mode  of  settlement  is 
that  a  small  peninsula  jutting  out  from  Canadian  soil  has 
a  trifling  portion  of  the  extremity  cut  off  by  this  in- 
flexible line,  which  thus  becomes  United  States  territory. 

Claiming  the  lands  along  its  banks  from  having  dis- 


THE  Canadian  People  31 

covered  the  Mississippi,  France  in  171 2  gave  one  De  Crozat 
the  exclusive  right  to  trade  in  this  region.  « i. 
Five  years  later  the  trader  surrendered  his 
monopoly.  By  secret  treaty  in  1762  France  surrendered 
Louisiana  to  Spain,  seemingly  meaning  by  that  the 
country  upon  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers.  A 
year  later  it  was  settled  between  Britain,  France,  and 
Spain  that  aU  the  territory  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi 
should  belong  to  Britain.  In  1800  Spain  gave  back  to 
France  the  reduced  Louisiana  lying  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

No  sooner  was  this  transfer  known  than  the  young 
republic,  then  under  President  Jefferson,  successfully 
negotiated  with  Napoleon,  and  purchased  Louisiana  for 
$12,000,000,  and  certain  **  spoliation  claims  "  amounting 
to  3f  millions  more.  The  acquisition  of  this  territory  by  the 
United  States  in  1803  immediately  opened  up  the  question 
of  boundary  between  it  and  the  British  possessions. 

It  had  been  settled  in  Jay's  treaty  of  1794  that  the 
forty-ninth  parallel,  which  was  known  to  be  near  the  Lake 
of  the  Woods,  should  be,  until  it  reached  the  Mississippi, 
the  boundary.  We  have  mentioned  the  difficulty  arising 
in  this  case,  and  seen  that  in  1818  the  forty-ninth  parallel 
was  reached.  In  the  same  treaty  the  line  was  continued 
westward  to  the  **  stony  "  (Rocky)  mountains.  This  was 
again  fully  stated  in  the  Ashburton  Treaty,  which,  re- 
ferring to  the  line  starting  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods, 
says,  "  thence,  according  to  existing  treaties,  due  south 
to  its  intersection  with  the  forty-ninth  parallel  of  north 
latitude,  and  along  that  parallel  to  the  Rocky  Mountains." 
It  was  not  till  1872,  in  the  year  after  the  Treaty  of  Washing- 
ton, that  two  parties  of  engineers — one  British,  the 
other  American — met  on  this  boundary,  determined  it 
accurately,  and  marked  it  with  iron  posts  for  several 
hundred  miles  westward. 

In   1783  there  was  no  mention  made  of  the  Pacific 
coast    in    the     treaty.       The     acquisition    of 
Louisiana  by  the  United  States,  however,  in-  JuesUoDf"'* 
duced  them  to  claim  territory  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Rocky  Moimtains.     An  American  authority  has 


32  A  Shout  HistoR"?  oj* 

thus  stated  their  case  :  "In  treating  with  Great  Britain 
for  the  establishment  of  our  northern  boundary  west  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  this  region  was  claimed  on  three 
grounds,  that  of  discovery  and  occupation,  the  Louisiana 
purchase,  and  cession  from  Spain.  On  which  of  these 
grounds  we  succeeded  in  having  the  boundary  established 
on  the  forty-ninth  parallel  will  never  be  ascertained,  and 
is  of  little  moment." 

Their  claim  of  "  discovery  and  occupation  "  rested  on 
the  visit  of  a  Captain  Gray,  of  Boston,  who  in  an  American 
ship  in  1792  had  entered  the  Columbia  River  and  sailed 
a  few  miles  up  that  stream.  In  1804-6  the  well-known 
American  expedition  of  Captain  Lewis  and  Clarke  took 
place  to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River.  In  1811 
the  Astor  Fur  Company  established  a  trading  port  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  and  though  they  sold  out 
to  the  English  North- West  Company  in  1813,  yet  this 
was  claimed  as  American  occupancy. 

The  British  claim  was  that  the  Montreal  Fur  Company 
had  early  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  descending 
the  Columbia  had  erected  posts  throughout  the  country. 
Britain  was  quite  content  to  recognize  the  forty-ninth 
parallel  from  the  mountains  to  the  Columbia,  but  then 
claimed  the  river  as  the  boundary  until  the  mouth  was 
reached  between  latitudes  46°  and  47°  N. 

In  1818  it  was  agreed  between  Britain  and  the  United 
States  that  this  territory  on  the  north-west  territory  of 
America  should  for  ten  years  be  open  to  both  countries. 
The  Monroe  doctrine,  that  the  American  continent  should 
not  be  free  to  the  future  colonization  of  any  European 
power,  was  about  this  time  being  vigorously  asserted, 
and  was  used  in  connection  with  the  Pacific  coast.  In 
1824  an  attempt  was  made,  though  inefiectually,  to 
extend  the  boundary  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Again  in 
1826,  proposals  and  counter-proposals  between  the  in- 
terested parties  were  made,  but  to  no  purpose. 

Between  Russia  and  Britain,  towards  the  north,  so  early 
as  1825  a  treaty  had  been  made,  by  which  the  meridian 
of   140°   +  west  longitude  should  be  the  boundary  of 


THE  Canadian  People  33 

Alaska,  but  that  a  strip  of  territory  commencing  at 
60°  N.  along  the  Pacific  coast,  some  fifty  miles  wide, 
and  as  far  south  as  54°  40'  N.,  should  be  recognized  as 
Russian  territory  on  accoimt  of  prior  occupation.  In- 
spired by  the  preposterous  Monroe  doctrine,  the  cry  of 
the  American  people  was  that  they  should  possess  the 
whole  coast  up  to  Russian  territory.  Their  claim  was 
put  epigrammatically,  "  Fifty-four  forty,  or  fight." 

This  came  up  with  the  other  important  matters  of 
dispute  before  the  commissioners  of  the  Ashburton 
Treaty  in  1842,  but  was  left  unsettled.  For  several 
years  there  was  an  active  correspondence  between  the 
rival  governments.  At  last,  in  1846,  a  compromise  was 
offered  by  the  British  Government,  viz.,  that  the  line  of 
49°  N.  be  taken  to  the  sea,  but  that  the  whole  of  Vancouver 
Island,  a  part  of  which  ran  nearly  a  degree  to  the  south, 
should  be  British.  This  proposition  was  accepted  and 
the  treaty  ratified. 

The  American  authority  quoted  above  has  stated  his 
difficulty  in  deciding  which  of  the  three  grounds  ad- 
vanced by  the  United  States  was  the  means  of  establishing 
the  boundary.  We  would  suggest  that  possibly  no  one 
can  now  determine. 

Our  Ambassador  at  Washington,  who  was  also  a 
sportsman,  without  much  regret  surrendered  the  Columbia 
River  because  the  salmon  in  it  were  said  to  be  so  spiritless 
as  not  to  take  the  angler's  fly. 


Chapter  ill 

THE   CANADIAN   INDIANS 

Section  I. — The  Mound-Builders 

Almost  the  only  remains  of  a  prehistoric  people  in 
America  are  in  the  mounds  of  earth  which  are  found 
along  the  rivers  and  lakes  extending  from  Central  America 
to  Lake  Winnipeg,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
Oceans.  Many  of  these  have  disappeared  without  notice 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country,  but  the  regions  upon 
the  Mississippi,  Ohio,  Missouri,  Souris,  Red,  Rainy, 
and  other  rivers  in  more  western  longitudes  have  been 
settled  in  comparatively  recent  times,  and  along  these 
rivers  the  mounds  have  been  observed.  In  Canada 
mounds,  or  bone-pits  corresponding  to  them,  have  been 
found  on  the  site  of  Hochelaga,  in  the  region  between 
Toronto  and  Lake  Simcoe,  near  London,  and  no  doubt 
elsewhere  in  the  eastern  provinces. 

In  the  Canadian  North- West  a  well-defined  mound  area 
has  been  observed,  and  to  some  extent  explored.  The 
mounds  found  in  Canada  have  been  chiefly  oval  or  circular, 
and  were  plainly  mounds  for  burial,  and  also  for  the 
purposes  of  observation.  They  are  generally  placed  at 
points  of  advantage  along  the  rivers,  on  high  clijffs,  or 
where  there  is  a  good  view  of  the  river  up  and  down  to 
be  obtained,  or  at  the  junction  of  rivers,  or  near  rapids 
and  "  saults." 

Mounds  made  in  the  outline  of  a  serpent,  bird,  or 
animal,  and  seemingly  used  for  defence,  have  been  traced 
on  the  Ohio,  but  not  to  any  extent  in  Canada.    The 

34 


A  Shobt  Histoey  op  the  Canadian  People    35 

Canadian  mounds  vary  from  six  to  fifty  feet  in  height, 
and  from  thirty  to  120  feet  in  diameter.  They  are  fomid 
chiefly  in  good  agricultural  regions,  whence  it  has  been 
inferred  their  builders  were  tillers  of  the  soil.  The 
mounds  are  built  of  the  earth  in  their  neighbourhood, 
and  sometimes  contain  layers  of  stone  if  beds  of  rock 
are  found  near.  On  the  Rainy  River  in  North- Western 
Ontario  no  less  than  twenty-one  mounds  have  been  ob- 
served along  some  forty  miles  of  the  course  of  that 
river,  and  on  the  Souris  twenty  in  an  area  of  four  miles 
square. 

The  mounds  contain  large  quantities  of  human  bones, 
and  were  evidently  used  as  places  of  burial.  In  some 
cases  groups  of  detached  skulls  and  bundles  of  leg  and 
arm  bones  in  heaps  are  found,  as  if  these  had  been  carried 
from  a  distance  and  deposited  there.  Skulls  are  found 
showing  their  possessors  to  have  been  killed  by  the  blows 
of  heavy  weapons,  and  in  some  cases  with  red  ochre  still 
remaining  on  the  faces.  In  the  large  mounds  it  would 
seem  as  if  all  the  bones  more  than  six  or  eight  feet  from 
the  surface  of  the  mounds  had  been  reduced  to  reddish 
dust.  The  conception  that  the  moimds  were  formed  by 
a  vast  band  of  men  working  together  like  the  builders 
of  the  Egyptian  pjrramids  is  probably  a  mistaken  one, 
and  if  the  mound  grew  from  one  generation  to  another 
by  the  accretion  of  the  remains  of  the  same  family  or 
sept,  brought  perhaps  from  great  distances  whither  the 
family  had  spread,  the  supposition  that  a  few  hundred- 
weights or  tons  of  earth  carried  by  the  moiu-ning  relatives 
in  baskets  from  the  neighbourhood  to  cover  the  remains 
deep  enough  to  prevent  wild  beasts  disturbing  them,  would 
sufficiently  account  for  what  we  find. 

Among  natural  products  found  in  the  mounds  besides 
human  remains  are  bits  of  charred  wood,  5-^-1-- 
scorched  birch-bark,  lumps  of  red  ochre,  and 
pieces  of  iron  pyrites,  probably  regarded  as  sacred  objects. 
Manufactured  articles  are  also  found,  such  as  stone  scrapers 
and  gouges,  axes  and  malls,  as  well  as  stone  tubes  of 
the  medicine-men.     Horn  spear-heads  with  barbs,  used 


36  A  Short  History  of 

as  fish-speajs,  and  in  the  Kainy  River  mounds,  native 
copper  drills,  cutting  and  scraping  knives  and  chisels,  shell 
ornaments,  either  from  fresh- water  clams  cut  into  shape, 
or  small  sea-shells  pierced  and  used  as  beads,  are  found. 
The  most  remarkable  remains  are  those  of  pottery  cups 
and  vessels.  In  most  cases  these  are  broken,  but  perfect 
cups  have  been  found  occasionally.  The  pottery  seems 
hand-made,  and  has  a  considerable  variety  of  markings. 

As  to  the  age  of  the  mounds,  and  the  race  to  which 
the  builders  belonged,  there  has  been  much  discussion : 
some  seek  great  antiquity,  others  are  satisfied  with  a  few 
centuries.  On  many  of  the  mounds  trees  from  two  to 
three  feet  in  diameter  are  growing,  several  hundreds  of 
years  old,  and  these  may  be  the  successors  of  other  trees. 
As  to  race,  the  mound-builders  seem  extinct,  though 
certain  Indian  tribes  still  show  certain  affinities  to  them. 
The  supposition  that  seems  most  satisfactory  on  the 
whole  is  that  they  belong  to  the  race  of  peaceful,  agricul- 
tural, industrious,  pottery-making  builders,  such  as  the 
Toltecs,  who  are  known  to  have  occupied  Mexico  from 
the  seventh  to  the  eleventh  centuries,  and  seem  to  have 
spread  up  the  Mississippi  valley  from  its  mouth  to  the 
sources  of  its  furthest  tributaries. 

They  would  seem  to  have  occupied  their  northern 
settlements  in  Canada  from  the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth 
centuries,  and  to  have  been  swept  away  by  fierce  tribes 
such  as  the  Iroquois  and  Sioux  following  in  their  wake, 
just  as  the  Aztecs  destroyed  the  parent  Toltecan  race  in 
Mexico.  Probably  the  Hochelagans  of  Montreal,  who 
disappeared  before  the  time  of  Champlain,  and  the 
Eries  who  perished  just  before  the  French  occupation 
of  Canada,  may  have  been  the  last  remnants  of  this 
race,  who  are  now  pretty  generally  spoken  of  by  the 
learned  as  *'  The  AUeghans."  The  0  jib  ways  of  Canada 
speak  of  the  builders  of  the  mounds  as  having  been  of  a 
different  race  from  them,  and  call  them  the  Ke-te-anish- 
i-na-be,  or  "  very  ancient  men,"  though  a  number  of 
facts  seem  to  connect  the  Mandans  of  the  Missouri  with 
the  Mound-Builders. 


THE  Canadian  People  37 

Section  II, — The  Present  Tribes  of  Canada 

On  the  Continent  of  America  lived,  when  Columbus, 
Cabot,  and  Cartier  discovered  it,  a  native  race.  In 
appearance  and  in  language  this  race  was  so  distinct  from 
any  people  of  either  Europe,  Africa,  or  Asia  known  to 
these  commanders,  that  they  were  concluded  to  be  the 
inhabitants  of  the  imknown  and  sought-for  Cathay,  and 
hence  Columbus  called  them  Indians. 

This  guess  seems  to  have  been  a  happy  one,  for  all  the 
latest  investigations  go  to  show  that  the  American  Indians 
are  of  Mongolian  type,  and  came — though,  from  the 
wide  divergence  of  their  languages  from  even  the  Asiatic, 
it  must  have  been  at  an  ancient  date — from  the  eastern 
coast  of  Asia.  With  abundant  hair,  black,  coarse,  and 
"  glossy  as  a  horse's  mane,"  slight  beard,  small  dai-k  eyes, 
narrow  arched  eyebrows,  and  prominent  cheek-bones  and 
nose,  the  red  man  has  become  of  so  decided  a  type  as  to 
cause  some,  though  not  the  majority,  to  regard  him  as 
indigenous  to  the  soil  to  which  so  long  ago  he  came  a 
stranger.  Without  dealing  at  large  with  the  several 
American  tribes,  in  Canadian  history  we  meet  with  some 
of  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  Indian  peoples. 

The  British  or  French  colonists  along  the  Atlantic  first 
became  familiar  with  various  families  of  the  .  . 

great  Algonquin  nation.  While  following  the 
general  Indian  type  the  Algonquin  is  a  heavy-boned, 
somewhat  coarse-featured,  and  far  from  best-looking 
Indian  of  the  coimtry.  Accustomed  to  the  rocky  shore 
of  the  Atlantic,  and  spreading  between  the  Atlantic 
coast  and  the  AUeghanies,  he  claimed  as  his  home  the 
rocky  and  wooded  Acadia,  as  well  as  the  north  shore 
of  the  St.  Lawrence.  But  little  addicted  to  agriculture, 
the  sea  and  the  forest  yielded  him  his  precarious  living. 
Used  to  the  chase,  he  was  accustomed  also  to  war,  and 
turned  his  weapon  readily  westward  against  his  hostile 
native  neighbours,  or,  when  wronged,  with  terrible 
ferocity  against  the  white  intruders. 

ICnown  as  the  Powhattans  in  Virginia,  though  intro- 


36  A  Short  History  of 

duced  to  the  whites  by  the  mythic  story  of  Pocahontas, 
these  Algonquins  soon  took  up  the  tomahawk  against 
the  colonists,  and  in  the  end  suffered  extinction.  The 
Pequods  of  Massachusetts,  as  the  Algonquins  of  that 
state  were  called,  while  kindly  receiving  the  pilgrims,  are 
represented  on  the  coat-of-arms  of  that  commonwealth 
by  a  sturdy  Sagamore  with  bow  and  arrow,  but  above 
his  head  a  soldier's  arm  with  a  drawn  sword. 

The  Natics  of  the  same  stock  have  left  their  only 
memorial  in  the  dialect  in  the  Bible  translation  of  the 
apostolic  Eliot.  The  Mohicans  of  Connecticut  and  New 
York,  once  noted  in  war,  were  crushed  between  the 
whites  on  the  east  and  the  Iroquois  on  the  west,  and  the 
last  of  them  have  but  lately  passed  away.  The  Leni- 
Le napes,  or  Delawares,  the  "men  of  men"  of  the  Algon- 
quin stirps,  have  even  been  regarded  as  so  representative 
as  to  have  had  their  name  transferred  by  some  to  the 
whole  family  in  place  of  Algonquin.  A  remnant 
of  the  Delawares  still  survives  in  the  Indian  territory. 

A  wretched  band  of  Algonquins  known  as  the  Micmacs 
still  flit  about  the  Nova  Scotian  waste  places  like  returning 
ghosts  of  a  departed  people  ;  while  Algonquin  Abenakis 
yet  wander  over  the  land  of  their  fathers  upon  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  along  the  gulf  in  New  Brunswick.  These 
and  others  have  been  unable  to  stand  the  shock  of  a  meet- 
ing with  the  whites.  Many  tribes  and  famihes  are  only 
remembered  by  the  names  of  the  rivers,  lakes,  and  head- 
lands where  once  they  dwelt. 

A  more  persistent  type  of  Algonquins  have  been  the 
famous  Ojibway  or  Chippewa  tribes,  extending 
from  the  St.  Lawrence  along  the  north  of  all 
the  lakes.  A  hardy,  persevering,  and  determined  people, 
they  have  steadily  pushed  their  way  north-westward, 
have  proved  an  equal  antagonist  for  the  Iroquois,  and 
instead  of  quailing  before  the  Sioux  have  actually  pressed 
these  "  tigers  of  the  plains  "  to  the  west,  and  have  es- 
tablished themselves  south  of  Lake  Superior,  on  the  former 
territory  of  the  Dakotas. 

Inhabiting   as  they  did  a  most  rocky  and  wooded 


Chief  Night  Bird — Nopapanais        Spring  Man — Kahnieeusekah- 
{SauUeaux)  maweyenevv  (Cree) 


Head  Chief  Iron  Shield — Ixki-         Big  Darkness — Opazatonka 
mauotani  (Blackfoot)  [Aaainiboine) 

Indian  Chiefs  of  Western  Canada 


MJ 


THE  Canadian  People  39 

country,  they  have  been  a  scattered  but  self-reliant 
people,  dwelling  in  their  round-topped  birch-bark  "  tee- 
pees," at  home  on  their  lakes  and  rivers  in  their  birch- 
bark  canoes,  and  living  on  fish  and  game — a  sturdy  race. 
Closely  related  to  them,  if  not  a  part  of  them,  were  the 
Ottawas,  who  lived  at  first  on  the  river  of  that  name, 
but  sallied  forth  westward  to  Manitoulin  Island,  ^^ 
and  thence  to  the  west  side  of  Huron  and 
Michigan  lakes.  ^ 

The  greatest  ofiFshoot  of  these  Algonquin  Ojibways 
has  been  the  Crees,  known  to  the  early  French 
and  English  traders  as  Kristineaux  or  Klistinos. 
They  seem  in  their  migrations  to  have  pushed  their  way 
up  the  Ottawa  and  Nipigon  rivers,  and  to  have  occupied 
the  great  muskegs  of  the  country  towards  Hudson  Bay, 
in  which  wide  region  they  are  known  as  the  Swampy 
Crees,  or  "  Muskegons."  So  strongly  do  they  seem 
entrenched  in  this  region  that  there  have  been  those  who 
have  held  that  here  and  not  to  the  southward  was  the  true 
v^gonquin  starting-point. 

As  a  western  branch  of  the  same  Cree  wave  reached 
Lake  of  the  Woods,  Lake  Winnipeg,  and  the  Saskatchewan 
River,  these  stm-dy  Algonquins  seem  to  have  been  modi- 
fied by  the  different  conditions  of  the  country,  and  are 
known  as  Wood  Crees  ;  while  a  still  more  adventurous 
offshoot  had  facility  enough  to  adapt  itself  to  the  changed 
life  of  the  prairies,  where,  exchanging  their  canoes  and 
dogs  for  horses,  and  their  birch-bark  teepees  for  buffalo- 
skin  and  moose-skin  tents,  they  are  known  as  the  "  Plain 
Crees,"  700  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Saskatchewan, 
and  even  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

When  the  French  traders,  early  in  the  18th  century, 
left  Sault  Ste.  Marie  to  coast  along  the  shore  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  even  to  pass  by  stream  and  portage  to  Lake 
Winnipeg,  they  were  accompanied  by  O  jib  way  canoemen, 
who  have  formed  an  intrusive  race  even  as  far  west  as 
the  Winnipeg,  and  Manitoba  lakes,  being  known  as 
the  Saulteaux  from  their  ancestral  home  at  the  emptying 
qf  Lake  Superioy.     There  are  said  to  be  16,000  Crees 


40  A  Short  History  oi* 

on  the  Saskatchewan  River  alone.  The  affinities  of 
the  7000  Blackfeet  on  the  South  Saskatchewan  are  doubt- 
ful, though  some  class  them  as  Algonquin  also. 

Undoubtedly  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Indian 
races  met  with  on  this  continent  has  been  the 
roquo  s.  Iroquois,  or  as  it  was  first  known,  "  Five  Nation 
Indians."  In  the  territory  of  what  is  now  the  State  of 
New  York  was  the  home  of  this  people  ;  and  yet  they 
kept  up  so  close  a  connection  with  the  Ohio  River  that 
the  impression  is  becoming  stronger  that  it  was  up  this 
river  they  had  come  in  prehistoric  times.  This  race,  how- 
ever, has  been  closely  connected  by  residence  and  in- 
vasion with  Canadian  soil. 

The  five  nations,  Mohawks,  Oneidas,  Onondagas, 
Senecas,  and  Cayugas,  united  in  a  league,  were  known 
as  the  "  Ongwehonwe,"  or  "  Superior  Men."  And  it 
was  this  league  that  gave  the  Iroquois  so  remarkable  a 
power,  not  only  in  their  conflicts  with  other  savage  tribes, 
but  in  their  attacks  on  the  infant  colony  of  New  France. 

Cultivating  their  fields  of  Indian  corn,  growing,  in 
the  cleared  openings  of  the  woods,  pumpkin  and  melons, 
rich  in  their  supply  of  wampum,  gregarious  in  their 
mode  of  life,  picturesque  in  their  distinctive  games,  and 
cruel  in  their  warlike  customs  and  religious  rites,  the 
Iroquois  fill  up  a  large  space  in  the  early  history  of  New 
France  and  New  England  alike. 

It  was  in  1712  that  the  Tuscaroras,  one  of  their  own 
tribes,  speaking  a  dialect  of  the  same  language,  having 
been  forced  at  some  time  previous  to  find  a  home  in  North 
Carolina,  rejoined  the  confederacy  to  make  it  the  "  Six 
Nations." 

The  Iroquois  were  always  attached  to  the  English, 
though  strangely  enough,  about  the  time  of  the  American 
Revolution,  French  influence  was  gaining  ground  among 
them.  Identified  with  British  arms  in  the  revolutionary 
war,  a  portion  of  the  Iroquois  left  their  old  homes  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  found  after  the  Treaty  of  Paris, 
as  we  shall  see,  new  homes  within  om'  borders,  that  have 
made  them  ever  since  loyal  Canadians. 


THE  Canadian  People  41 

Straight  as  arrows,  tall  and  athletic,  with  clean  limbs, 
more  copper-coloured  and  less  swarthy  than  the  Algon- 
quins,  with  finely  cut  faces,  their  dashing  warriors  and 
comely  women  formed  a  great  contrast  to  the  rather 
coarse-grained  Algonquins.  A  few  thousands  in  Ontario 
and  Quebec — few  of  them  now  pure  Indians — are 
memorials  of  a  once  powerful  race,  which  on  its  flight 
to  Canada  also  absorbed  the  Nottoways  and  Tutelas, 
two  Indian  fragments  of  doubtful  affinities. 

When   in    1535   Cartier   ascended   the   St.    Lawrence, 
he  found  the  present  sites  of  Quebec  and  Mont- 
real occupied  by  the  two  villages  of  Stadacona  JIJ^Hurons 
on  the  cliff,  and  Hochelaga,  the  village  of  the 
rapids.     The  palisaded  dwellings  in  which  the  natives 
lived  were  arranged  together  and  were  strong  for  defence 
against  Indian  weapons. 

We  have  seen  that  it  was  these  villages  that  gave  the 
name  to  Cartier,  by  which  he  called  the  whole  country 
Canada.  It  was  in  the  language  of  the  people  of  these 
two  places  that  it  was  so  called.  The  word,  as  we  have 
seen,  was  Iroquois,  and  the  people  of  these  villages  were 
related  to  the  great  Five  Nations  and  are  known  to  us  as 
the  Wyandots  or  Huron  Iroquois.  It  has  been  lately 
surmised  that  the  Cayugas,  one  of  the  Five  Nations, 
lived  at  Hochelaga  in  company  with  these  Hurons. 

The  besom  of  destruction  had  swept  them  and  their 
villages  on  the  St.  Lawrence  all  away  before  1600,  and 
Champlain  found  only  a  few  Algonquins — no  doubt  the 
Algonquins  were  the  destroyers — Uving  upon  the  village 
sites.  To  the  west,  however,  the  French  found  the 
Wyandots  occupying  the  fertile  coimtry  to  the  north  of 
Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario.  They  especially  abounded  on 
the  shores  of  Lake  Huron,  which  bears  one  of  their  names, 
for  the  story  goes  that  on  account  of  their  mode  of  wear- 
ing their  hair  done  up  in  peaks  above  their  heads,  the  early 
French  voyageurs  exclaimed  on  seeing  them,  "  Quelles 
Hures  !  " — what  top-knots  ! — hence  their  name.  Their 
language,  physical  featm-es,  and  social  life  were  akin  to 
those  of  the  Iroquois. 


42  A  Short  History  of 

It  was  in  consequence  of  an  ancient  feud,  long  before 
the  advent  of  Europeans,  that  these  Huron  Iroquois  had 
separated  themselves  from  the  Five  Nations.  Their 
tradition  was  to  the  effect  that  originally  they  consisted 
of  two  villages,  but  that  either  by  subdivision  or  alliance 
they  grew  to  four.  It  is  stated  by  Charlevoix  on  the 
authority  of  the  early  Jesuit  missionaries  that  they 
associated  with  themselves  other  tribes  about  them. 

It  is  in  connection  with  the  undoubted  composite 
character  of  the  Wyandots  that  a  suggestion  has  been 
entertained  by  some  that  this  union  may  have  been 
between  the  remnant  of  the  Mound-Builders,  and  this  tribe 
of  the  Iroquois  on  their  career  of  conquest  up  the  Ohio 
and  on  their  appearance  on  the  shores  of  the  great  lakes. 
This  opinion  gains  much  force  from  the  fact  that  the 
Hochelagans  were  constructive  in  tendency,  were 
agriculturists,  were  less  wandering  in  their  habits  than 
the  other  tribes,  and  made  pottery.  There  are  traces 
among  the  Wyandots  of  a  composite  language,  for  the 
earliest  annalists  state  that  there  were  some  of  the  Wyan- 
dots who  called  themselves  "  the  people  who  speak  the 
best  language." 

The  estimate  of  50,000  of  a  population  as  given  by  the 
early  chroniclers  as  belonging  to  the  Hurons  must  be 
received  with  caution,  as  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
good  missionaries  were  in  the  habit  of  exaggerating  the 
numbers  of  all  the  tribes.  The  Hurons  were  seemingly 
more  accessible  to  the  first  Jesuit  missionaries  than  their 
Iroquois  relatives,  or  perhaps  the  French  fathers  looked 
upon  them  as  being  more  within  their  district,  living,  as 
they  did,  north  of  the  lakes.  And  yet  it  was  among  the 
Hurons  that  the  bale-fires  of  torture  rose  with  such  lurid 
flames  in  the  cruel  deaths  of  the  Jesuit  fathers,  Breboeuf, 
Lalemant,  and  others,  though  at  the  hands  of  the 
Iroquois. 

The  fierce  wrath  of  the  Iroquois  was  at  last  too  great 
for  the  Hurons,  and  they  swept  them  away  like  the  early 
snow  before  the  sun.  A  few  Hurons  at  the  "  Ancient 
Lorette  "  near  Quebec  are  to  us  the  sole  Canadian  repre^ 


THE   CANADIAIf  PEOPLE  43 

sentatives    of    this    once    numerous    people.     With    the 
Wyandots  are  usually  associated  as  relatives  the  _,        . 
Eries,  who  in  times  before  the  arrival  of  the 
French  dwelt  on  the  south  of  the  lake  bearing  their 
name.     This    nation  were    called    by  the    French    the 
"  Cats,"  from  the  great  quantity  of  lynx-skins  which  were 
obtained  from  the  country  they  had  formerly  occupied. 
A    nation    called    the    "  Attiwandoronk,"    or 
"  Neutrals,"  the  kindred  of  the  Hurons,  lived  on  J^Jj.^®"" 
the  borders   of  the  Iroquois  country.     These 
gained  their  name  from  a  long  refusal  to  enter  into  the 
wars  of  either  the  Iroquois  or  their  enemies,  but  in  the 
end  an  Iroquois  invasion  exterminated  them.     Hurons, 
Eries,  and  Neutrals  thus  melted  away  before  the  whirl- 
wind of  savage  fury  of  the  Iroquois,  which  well-nigh 
destroyed  New  France  as  well. 

It  was  as  the  French  penetrated  the  interior,  and 
reached  the  greatest  of  the  lakes,  Superior,  that  ^,  gj 
they  first  met  a  travelling  band  of  a  new  nation 
of  Indians,  of  whom  they  had  heard  reports  from  the 
0  jib  ways,  imder  the  name  of  the  "  Nadouessi,"  or  "  Ene- 
mies." It  was  a  band  of  Sioux,  into  whose  hands  Henne- 
pin feU  when  he  discovered  the  Mississippi,  and  with  whom 
he  ascended  that  river  until  they  met  Du  Luth,  the 
intrepid  trader  pushing  his  way  inland  from  the  western 
extremity  of  Lake  Superior.  These  new-found  Indians 
bore  to  the  Frenchmen  the  characters  of  the  Iroquois, 
and  they  were  known  as  "  people  of  the  lake,"  and  were 
spoken  of  as  the  "  Iroquets,"  or  "  little  Iroquois  of  the 
west."  Employing  the  latter  part  of  the  name  Nadou- 
essi,the  French  gave  it  their  own  termination  and  it  became 
"  Sioux." 

Not  only  were  there  a  personal  appearance  and  a  war- 
like disposition  in  these  Indians  of  the  west  resembling 
the  Five  Nations,  but  like  them,  they  consisted,  and 
still  consist,  of  a  confederacy  of  united  tribes.  It  was  in 
allusion  to  this  political  feature  that  the  Sioux  nation 
caUed  themselves  "  Dakotas,"  or  "  Allies."  Isaunties, 
Yantons,  Tetons,  and  Sissetons  united  together  in  one 


44  A  Shoet  History  of 

powerful  league,  to  make  themselves  as  terrible  on  the 
prairies  as  the  Iroquois  had  done  in  the  eastern  forests. 
Not  only  so,  but  linguistic  resemblances  appear 
between  Iroquois  and  Dakotas,  in  addition  to  the 
lithe,  erect  figure,  aquiline  nose,  and  keen  intellectual 
features,  which  all  who  know  the  two  families  observe 
in  both. 

It  is  hard  to  resist  the  conclusion  that  Iroquois  and 
Sioux  are  not  different  branches  of  one  invading  people, 
who  as  an  American  race  of  fiery  Huns  swept  up  the 
Mississippi  valley — ^the  one  part  ascending  the  Ohio  to 
their  northern  home,  the  other  up  the  Mississippi  proper 
to  be  the  scourge  of  the  plains.  We  have  already  men- 
tioned the  fierce  conflict  that  subsisted  between  0  jib  ways 
and  Sioux.  The  Ojibways  succeeded  in  pushing  their 
conquests  to  the  shores  of  Red  Lake,  the  reputed  source 
of  the  Mississippi  itself.  The  vicissitudes  of  war  and 
disease  have  much  lessened  the  great  Dakota  family,  but 
their  numbers  are  said  still  to  reach  to  30,000,  and  they 
now  live  toward  the  western  limit  of  their  former  wide 
domain,  many  of  them  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Missouri 
river. 

Stirred  up  to  vengeance  in  1862  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  whites,  and  by  the  bad  faith  of  the  American 
Government,  the  Sioux  of  Minnesota  rebelled,  and  several 
exiled  bands  have  in  consequence  taken  up  their  homes 
on  Canadian  soil. 

Strangely  like  the  history  of  the  Iroquois  also  was  that 
of  the  Sioux,  that  on  its  northern  limit  one  of  the  tribes 
broke  off  from  the  confederacy  and  lived  as  borderers  on 
intimate  terms  with  the  Crees.  These  were  the  Assini- 
boines,  or  as  their  names  implies,  "  Sioux  on  the  Stony 
Biver."  Their  separation  from  the  Dakota  nation  took 
place  long  before  the  advent  of  Europeans,  and  was 
caused  according  to  the  tradition  by  a  quarrel  between 
two  families  of  the  Yantons  at  Lake  Traverse,  the  head- 
waters at  the  same  time  of  the  Red  River  and  of  one  of 
the  branches  of  the  Mississippi.  A  Dakota  traitoress  led 
to  the  re-enactment  of  the  story  of  Helen  of  Troy.    A  feud 


THE  Canadian  People  45 

of  wide  and  serious  extent  ensued,  and  the  Assiniboines 
became  the  inveterate  enemies  of  the  Sioux. 

Thrown  into  intimate  relations  with  the  Crees,  the  two 
nations  were  largely  intermarried,  and  dwelt  together. 
Bands  of  Assiniboines  are  found  scattered  along  the 
tributaries  of  the  Saskatchewan  River,  many  of  whom 
are  acquainted  with  the  Cree  language.  The  fur  trader, 
Alexander  Henry,  Jun.,  in  his  unpublished  manuscript 
gives  a  full  account  of  the  Assiniboines  along  the  Saskat- 
chewan, and  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  numbers  them 
by  thousands,  popularly  known  as  the  "  Stonies  " ;  this 
band  of  Canadian  Sioux  live  far  west  of  their  old  haunts, 
having  deserted  the  tributary  of  the  Red  River,  which 
bears  their  name. 

To  the  north  of  the  coimtry  of  the  Crees  live  tribes 
with  very  wide  connections,  known  as  the 
"  Turner  or  "  People,"  the  name,  indeed,  borne  or  S?"' 
in  their  own  language  by  many  of  the  Indian 
tribes.  They  are  also  called  Chipewyans — not  Chippe- 
ways — a  name  they  receive  as  referring  to  their  own  tra- 
dition that  they  sprang  from  a  dog.  This  derivation 
seems  likely  as  the  Chipewyans  have  a  great  aversion 
to  the  flesh  of  the  dog,  and  to  the  other  savages  who  eat 
it.  This  tribe  extends  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Fort 
Churchill,  on  Hudson  Bay,  across  the  country  on  the 
north  of  the  Missinipi,  or  English  River,  to  Isle  k  la 
Crosse,  and  thence  north  to  Lake  Athabasca. 

On  this  '*  Lake  of  the  Hills  "  is  to  be  seen  Fort  Chipe- 
wyan,  founded  as  long  ago  as  1788,  and  the  scene  of 
many  a  fur-trading  adventure.  And  yet  west  of  this  the 
widespread  nation  is  found,  for  ascending  the  Peace 
River,  and  following  its  romantic  course  as  it  flows  through 
the  Rocky  Mountains  from  the  west,  scattered  Tinn6 
famiHes  are  still  found.  On  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  a  race  still  speaking  the  Tinn6  tongue  is  met 
even  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  like  a  wedge  between  the 
Columbian  Indians  on  the  south  and  the  Eskimos,  who 
are  driven  back  far  to  the  north-west  of  Alaska. 

Returning  again  to  the  east  of  our  Canadian  Alps,  on 


46  A  Short  History  of 

the  head-waters  of  the  Saskathewan,  a  tribe  of  Chipe- 
g  wyan  affinities  is  found,  known  as  the  Sarcees. 

The  extended  character  of  this  people  may  be 
seen,  when  it  is  stated  that  in  Oregon,  Arizona,  New 
Mexico,  that  fruitful  nursery  of  nations,  Colorado,  and 
even  in  North  Mexico  itself  bands  of  these  Athabascans 
appear.  From  their  extensive  area  and  remarkable  sur- 
vival, it  might  have  already  been  inferred  that  the  Chipe- 
wyans  are  a  robust  race.  They  are  a  medium-sized  and 
persevering  race  ;  swarthy  though  their  complexion  is, 
they  have  neither  the  intensely  black  hair  nor  the  ex- 
cessively piercing  eye  of  the  better-known  Indians. 

Living  as  they  do  where  scanty  natiure  gives  but  a 
meagre  supply  in  return  for  great  exertion,  the  Chipe- 
wyans  have  not  developed  a  high  civilization,  though 
the  fish  and  game  are  so  plentiful  that  life  is  sustained 
easily  enough.  Sober  in  habits,  timid  in  disposition, 
wandering  over  vast  areas,  sluggish  in  temperament,  and 
unambitious  so  long  as  their  bodily  wants  are  supplied, 
the  Chipewyans  have  been  for  upwards  of  a  hundred 
years  the  servile  dependants  of  the  various  fur  companies, 
and  have  enjoyed  the  sunshine  of  peace,  even  if  they  have 
been  strangers  to  an  exuberant  plenty. 

A  perfect  chaos  of  race  and  language  meets  us  as  we 
British  examine  the  Indian  tribes  of  British  Columbia. 

Columbia  This  gives  colour  to  the  theory  that  the  Pacific 
Indians.  coast  is  the  side  from  which  the  Mongolian 
races  and  those  from  different  Asiatic  localities  have 
peopled  our  continent.  A  Japanese  junk  and  a  drifted 
boat  of  natives  from  the  Pacific  Isles  falling  upon  our 
shore  but  repeats  the  process  of  settlement  by  which  the 
copper-coloured  races  subjugated  unoccupied  America 
from  the  West,  as  the  whites  have  done  from  the  East. 

With  this  in  view  it  does  not  surprise  us  to  learn  that 
among  the  36,000  and  more  of  British  Columbian  Indians 
there  are  five  distinct  stocks.  To  our  unfamihar  ears 
the  names  of  Hydahs  and  Nutkas,  Selish  and  Sahaptans 
convey  no  meaning,  but  the  fifth,  Chinooks,  is  well  known, 
not  from  their  original  language,  but  from  a  trading  jargon 


a?HE  Canadian  People  47 

which  has  grown  out  of  it,  which  it  were  well  to  describe 
more  fully.  Their  habits  and  modes  of  life  have  made 
a  marked  difference  between  these  30,000  or  40,000 
Indians.  While  the  fish-eating  natives,  those  who  either 
dwell  on  the  sea-coast  or  along  the  rivers,  are  a  dwarfed 
and  despised  race,  no  doubt  from  their  being  as  con- 
stantly in  their  canoes  as  the  ancient  Parthian  was  on  his 
horse,  the  inland  Indians,  accustomed  to  athletic  pursuits 
and  exciting  sports,  are  physically  and  mentally  a  much 
better  type  of  savage. 

It  but  remains  to  notice  among  our  aborigines  on 
Canadian  soil  the  hyperborean  savages,  who  _ 
with  the  Tinn6  reach  the  number  of  26,000 
souls.  Dressed  in  a  manner  like  the  Christmas  Santa 
Claus  of  our  boyhood  days,  the  Eskimo  as  we  have  be- 
come acquainted  with  him,  chiefly  in  absorbing  accounts 
of  Arctic  adventure,  is  siuroimded  by  a  species  of  romance. 

Habited  in  his  impervious  seal-skin  suit  of  clothing, 
dwelling  in  the  hut  built  out  of  congealed  snow,  coming 
at  time,  even  to  the  frontier  posts  of  the  fur  trader,  his 
wolf-like  dogs,  so  characteristic  of  the  north,  as  to  have 
taken  their  name  from  his,  as  "  Huskies,"  or  "  Eskies," 
bearing  him  full  speed  across  glacier  or  snowy  plain,  the 
Eskimo  of  Labrador,  of  the  Coppermine  River,  of  the 
Arctic  Coast,  or  of  the  Alaskan  Peninsula,  awakens  the 
keenest  interest. 

The  seal  and  walrus  on  the  coast  and  the  reindeer  on 
the  land  afford  him  his  food,  and  the  0  jib  way  meaning 
of  his  name,  "  the  eater  of  raw  flesh,"  shows  his  notions 
of  cookery.  Known  among  themselves  as  the  "  Innuit," 
or  "  People,"  the  different  tribes  that  make  up  the 
homogeneous  race,  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the 
American  continent,  stretch  along  its  northern  coast  for 
upwards  of  3,000  miles. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  the  Eskimos  to  be  a  race  Ox 
dwarfs.  They  range  between  five  feet  four  inches  and 
five  feet  ten  inches.  It  is  their  oily  stoutness  and  thick 
skin  clothing  that  give  them  a  dwarfish  appearance.  The 
Eskimo  is  far  from  being  the  lowest  of  discovered  men. 


48  A  Short  History  of 

Accustomed  as  he  is  rarely  to  pass  beyond  twenty-five 
miles  from  the  sea-coast,  it  is  largely  for  the  sea  and  from 
the  sea  he  manufactm-es  his  implements.  The  walrus- 
tusk  and  whalebone  are  worked  up  by  him  in  a  most  skil- 
ful manner  into  harpoons,  spears,  spoons,  ladles,  orna- 
ments, and  trinkets  of  every  description.  The  "  kayak," 
or  one-seated  skin  boat  of  the  Eskimo  sailor,  and  the 
"  umiak,"  or  flat-bottomed  boat,  rowed  by  his  wife  and 
family,  are  well  known  to  all  readers  of  Arctic  story. 
Though  fierce  onsets  have  been  made  by  the  Eskimos 
on  their  enemies,  they  are  usually  a  peace-loving  and 
tractable  people. 

Our  general  survey  of  the  Canadian  aborigines  thus 
comes  to  a  close.  Our  35,000  Algonquins,  whether 
Ojibways,  Crees,  or  Blackfeet ;  our  Iroquois  with  their 
different  tribal  divisions  ;  our  Sioux,  whether  Tetons, 
Sissetons,  or  Assiniboines ;  our  wide-spread  Athabascans ; 
our  much-divided  tribes  of  the  Pacific  slope,  and  Eskimos 
from  the  Arctic  Circle,  make  up  a  motley  assemblage, 
all  of  undoubted  Asiatic  origin,  and  with  the  exception 
of  the  last-mentioned,  while  widely  differing  in  minor 
customs,  yet  all  presenting  physical,  social,  mental,  and, 
so  far,  linguistic  features,  very  much  after  the  same  type. 
We  now  undertake  the  description  of  the  life  and  habits 
of  our  aborigines. 

Section  III. — Domestic  Life  of  the  Indians 

An  old  plate  in  the  Ramusio  of  1556,  in  connection  with 
Cartier's  voyages,  gives  the  first  diagram  we 
^®  have  of  an  elaborate  Indian  village.     This  was 

the  plan  of  Hochelaga,  a  village  belonging  probably  to  the 
AUeghans,  or,  as  we  have  seen,  Huron  Iroquois.  This 
had  disappeared  in  three-quarters  of  a  century.  It  was 
when  he  had  crossed  Lake  Ontario,  in  his  hostile  expedi- 
tion against  the  Iroquois,  that  Champlain  saw  the  same 
Indian  villages  and  the  "  long  house  "  in  which  dwelt  in 
some  sort  of  communistic  harmony  the  several  related 
families  of  the  tribes  of  the  Five  Nations. 


THE  Canadian  People  49 

The  Indian  cornfields  and  the  plots  of  cucumbers  and 
melons  surrounded  the  wooden  erections,  and  these 
forest  clearings  made  the  Iroquois  tenacious  residents  of 
the  land  in  which  they  dwelt.  We  have  already  men- 
tioned the  birch-bark  teepee  of  the  0  jib  way.  Flattened 
sHps  of  ash  or  hickory  or  some  elastic  wood  were  fashioned 
in  the  forest,  and  were  thrust  with  sharpened  end  into 
the  soU.  Joined  together  at  the  top  or  bent  over  and 
again  fastened  in  the  ground,  they  formed  a  round- 
topped  framework  for  the  dwelling.  Spread  over  the 
frame  thus  erected,  the  thick  leathery  bark  of  the  birch- 
tree  (Betula  papyracea)  made  a  covering  to  shed  the  rain 
and  keep  out  the  wind,  and  open  enough  at  the  top  to 
allow  the  smoke  from  the  fire  of  sticks,  in  the  centre  of 
the  tent,  to  escape  freely. 

And  yet  to  seek  a  new  hunting-ground,  or  at  the  alarm 
of  an  advancing  enemy,  the  few  ashwood  bents  and  tough 
birch-bark  plates  could  be  hastily  folded  into  a  small  bulk 
and  carried  to  another  spot ;  or,  if  indeed  all  must  be  left 
behind,  their  place  could  be  easily  supplied  again  I5y  the 
use  of  the  axe  in  the  forest  anew. 

Of  the  Ojibway  the  teepee  was  characteristic.  When 
his  art  was  at  its  best  he  could  erect  a  central  building, 
covered  over  with  the  rough  bark  of  other  trees,  to  be 
his  council-house,  or  to  shelter  him  in  his  dances,  but 
this  is  beUeved  to  have  been  a  feature  of  later  times,  and 
the  idea  to  have  been  borrowed  from  the  whites.  When 
the  transition  is  made  to  the  western  prairies  by  the 
Algonquin  emigrations  to  localities  where  the  birch-tree 
is  not  found  and  life  is  exceedingly  nomadic,  a  firmer 
material  must  be  sought  for  tent-making.  The  skin  of 
the  deer  or  buffalo  then  becomes  the  material  for  the 
wigwam. 

The  art  of  tanning  leather  was  possessed  by  the  Indians, 
and  the  softness  and  suppleness  of  the  tanned  skin,  pro- 
duced by  the  skill  of  the  Indian  women,  challenge  ad- 
miration. Carrying  their  tent-poles  in  bundles  fastened 
over  the  backs  of  their  Indian  ponies,  the  free  ends 
dragging  on  the  ground  form  a  frame  now  called  the 
4 


50  A  Short  History  of 

"  travoie  "  ;  on  this  they  strapped  the  whole  of  the  camp 
equipage.  The  rapidity  with  which  an  Indian  tribe,  in 
a  large  encampment  of  Plain  Crees  or  Blackf eet,  strikes  its 
tents,  when  the  cry  of  the  buffalo  being  near  is  passed 
about,  might  well  excite  the  envy  of  a  military  quarter- 
master. Women  and  children  do  the  work,  and,  mounted 
on  her  pony,  the  squaw  of  the  prairie,  with  a  papoose 
clinging  to  each  side,  if  need  be,  hastens  off  at  full  speed 
with  the  ability  of  a  Parthian  rider. 

The  tents  made  of  buffalo-skin  are  much  loftier  than 
the  bark  teepees  of  the  Ojibways,  and  are  much  less 
likely  to  subject  their  occupants  to  the  inevitable  smoke 
of  the  wigwam,  which  among  the  Ojibways  causes  fre- 
quent affections  of  the  eyes.  On  the  skin  tents  of  the  plain 
tribes  their  owners  exercise  their  decorative  art.  The 
exploits  of  the  warrior  may  be  represented  in  pictorial 
detail.  His  totemic  symbol  or  crest  marks  his  tent  as 
it  does  every  other  important  article  of  his  possessions, 
and  the  tent  leather  is  sometimes  covered  with  figures  in 
red  and  yellow  ochre,  or  made  by  staining  with  the  juices 
of  certain  plants. 

The  well-appointed  tent  of  a  plain  Indian  is  an  object 
of  considerable  value,  and  exhibits  workmanship  of  a 
creditable  kind.  In  order  to  guard  the  sleeping  occupants 
of  the  tent  at  night  from  the  arrows  of  an  attacking 
foe,  who  would,  according  to  Indian  custom,  approach 
the  camp  stealthily,  and  might  dart  arrows  through  the 
skin  of  the  tent,  wide  strips  two  feet  or  more  in  width, 
of  very  hard  and  impenetrable  leather,  are  stretched 
around  the  base  of  the  tent ;  these  were  caUed  by  the 
early  voyageurs   "  Pour  fleches." 

In  plain  and  forest  wigwam  alike,  seated  on  the  ground 
around  the  smoky  fire,  the  Indian  family  passed  summer 
and  winter,  except  that  in  the  summer,  in  hot  and  dry 
weather,  the  fire  might  be  kindled  outside  the  tent,  and 
in  winter  the  tent  was  sheltered  from  the  icy  winds  by 
being  placed  in  the  lee  of  rock,  or  thicket,  or  forest.  The 
efforts  of  civilization  have  been  exerted  towards  inducing 
many  of  the  Ojibways,  Crees,  and  Sioux  to  surrender 


THE  Canadian  People  51 

their  movable  and  insufficient  dwellings,  and  accept  the 
shelter  of  log-houses  erected  by  Government  and  tribal 
labour ;  and  if  the  picturesque  birch-bark  or  leather 
wigwam  is  to  be  superseded,  the  Indian  is  for  a  generation 
likely  to  return  in  summer  to  his  tent  pitched  outside  of 
his  log  dwelling  till  the  hot  weather  is  past. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  Indian  from  the  limits  of 
Canada  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  the  same,  and  General 
that  as  when  you  scratch  a  Turk  you  catch  a  Character- 
Tartar,  so  a  close  examination  of  the  Indian  *^*^^* 
belonging  to  any  of  the  tribes  proves  him  an  Asiatic.     The 
same  has  been  said  of  the  Indian  languages,  of  which  we 
speak  at  greater  length  elsewhere.     It  has  been  said  that 
one  root  language  forms  the  basis  of  all  the  Indian  dialects. 
Of  this  also  we  speak  again.     It  is  too  early  in  the  course 
of  Indian  ethnology  to  admit  either  of  these  positions, 
except  in  the  most  general  way.    Although  the  same 
instincts  of  reserve,  cunning,  and  revenge  may  charac- 
terize them,  yet  every  variety  of  character  exists  among 
the  Indian  peoples. 

The  dark  eye  of  the  same  colour  as  the  gloomy  forests 
through  which  the  Indian  roams,  can  detect  a  stranger's 
footprint  on  the  ground,  the  track  of  the  animal  he  is 
pursuing,  or  catch  the  first  movement  of  enemy  or  prey 
at  surprising  distances.  With  imerring  instinct  he 
pursues  the  wary  moose,  or  gains  the  first  intimation 
of  approaching  game  by  the  sound  of  moving  leaves  or 
crackling  branches.  With  light  foot  he  pursues  the 
trail  in  the  forest  or  on  the  prairie,  which  a  white  man 
can  scarce  discover  ;  and,  well  accustomed  to  the  indistinct 
path,  the  Indian  traveller,  followed  by  faithful  squaw 
with  her  intoed  gait,  and  the  young  men  and  maidens 
of  his  family,  penetrates,  for  long  distances,  the  forest 
or  prairie  in  "Indian  fashion." 

A  sort  of  trot  is  the  Indian's  favourite  manner  of 
journeying,  and  at  the  present  day  the  Indian  guide  will 
follow  the  dog-train  hastening  over  the  frozen  crust  of 
snow  for  sixty  or  seventy  miles  a  day  with  a  midday  rest 
alone.     His  keen  powers  of  eye  and  ear,  and  his  skilful 


52  A  Short  History  of 

use  of  hand  and  foot,  make  the  Indian  an  invaluable 
guide  in  penetrating  the  fur  trader's  land,  in  exploring 
the  unknown  regions  of  the  country,  in  running  the 
rapids,  in  piloting  the  "  brigade  "  of  canoes,  or  even  the 
steamers  of  the  interior. 

Living  as  he  does  in  a  northern  clime,  the  Canadian  In- 
jj  dian  is  compelled  to  protect  himself  by  clothing. 

The  skins  of  the  animals  he  kills  afford  him  this. 
If  to  the  Eskimo  the  reindeer  supplies  everything  needed 
for  bodily  use,  so  to  the  Indian  in  the  Far  West  the 
buffalo,  ere  the  coming  of  the  white  man,  did  the  same  ; 
while  the  Algonquin  must  chiefly  depend  upon  the  un- 
certain supply  of  the  moose  or  other  deer  and  bear-skins 
of  the  chase.  No  doubt  before  the  coming  of  the  white 
man  the  Indian  disported  himself,  except  in  the  severest 
weather,  destitute  of  clothing. 

Of  his  leather  foot-covering  perhaps  the  most  distinctive 
feature  was  the  moccasin.  Shaped  exactly  to  the  foot  of 
the  Indian,  it  does  not  impede  him  on  the  march,  while  it 
protects  his  foot  from  the  thorn  or  cutting  rock.  Made 
as  the  moccasin  is  of  well-tanned  leather,  which  is  tho- 
roughly soaked  in  oil,  it  will  withstand  much  moisture, 
though  dwellers  in  Indian  countries  are  familiar  with 
the  careful  Indian  using  his  bare  feet  to  bear 
casin.  °°"  ^^  through  the  damp  and  mud,  with  his  moc- 
casins tied  together  by  the  strings,  carried 
dangling  over  his  arm.  The  leggings  of  the  Indian 
fringed  by  the  leather  being  cut  into  thongs,  were  strong 
and  comfortable,  while  the  skin  coat,  ornamented  with 
barbaric  art,  often  sewn  with  coloured  thread  or  de- 
corated with  porcupine  quills,  pleased  the  savage  eye  ; 
and  the  deer-skin  supplied  his  mittens  for  the  frosty 
weather. 

The  Indian  wears  his  head  uncovered,  unless  decorated 
for  battle  or  the  dance,  even  in  the  coldest  weather.  At 
times  his  hair  hangs  in  unkempt  locks,  at  others  it  is 
braided  into  two  long  plaits,  which  are  tied  at  the  ends 
with  brilliant-coloured  thongs  and  fall  from  behind  upon 
his  breast.     On  great  occasions  the  head-dress  of  the 


THE  Canadian  People  53 

Indian  is  gaudy.  Eagles'  or  hawks'  feathers  are  often 
used  for  decoration,  and  are  combined  into  an  imposing 
head-gear. 

All  Indians  are  fond  of  ornament.  On  special  occa- 
sions the  face  is  smeared  with  ochre  and  grease,  and 
sometimes  presents  a  grotesque  appearance.  Skilful 
native  artists  are  able  to  paint  the  nose  and  face  so  that 
one  view  presents  the  appearance  of  an  eagle's  beak, 
another  the  face  of  an  owl,  and  from  the  other  side  that 
of  a  dog.  The  faces  of  the  men  are  beardless,  the  hairs 
of  the  face  being  plucked  out  most  persistently.  Tat- 
tooing has  been  quite  common  among  some  tribes,  the 
figures  of  animals,  as  is  quite  natural,  being  the  usual 
devices  made. 

While  the  warriors  often  wear  ornaments,  such  as  a 
necklace  of  bears'  claws  or  a  circlet  of  the  scalps  taken 
in  battle,  the  dress  of  the  women  is  at  times  highly  orna- 
mental. Necklaces  of  shells  and  brUhant  stones  are 
common ;  the  petticoats  and  leggings  are  covered  with 
high-coloured  designs,  and  the  early  traders  foimd  diffi- 
culty in  supplying  a  sufficiency  of  bandanna  handkerchiefs 
and  bright  ribbons  to  satisfy  the  fair.  Bands  of  silver 
and  copper  are  often  worn  upon  the  arms,  bone  and  horn 
ornaments  are  suspended  from  other  parts  of  the  clothing, 
especially  on  the  breast,  and  the  ear  and  nose  rings  are 
regarded  as  special  objects  of  beauty. 

Judged    by  their   standard    of   development    in   the 
mechanical  arts,  the  Indians  rank  low.     Their  „ 
wandering  habits  and  the  insecurity  of  life  and 
property  among  them  have  rendered  progress  impossible. 
Art  and  skill  can  only  flourish  where  peace  prevails.     Yet 
the  Indian  is  not  lacking  in  the  ability  to  make  imple- 
ments for  his  use.     In  the  far  past  the  Mound-Builders 
seem  to  have  possessed  a  greater  knowledge  of  the  arts 
than  most  of  the  present  races  of  Indians.     The  faculty 
of  making  pottery  from  a  mixture  of  the  coarse  p 
sand  and  clay  found  scattered  everjrwhere  was 
possessed  by  this  lost  race,  as  is  well  shown  in  their 
remains.     While  the  Hochelagans  of  the  time  of  Cartier 


54  A  Short  History  of 

and  the  Mandans  of  the  Missouri  of  the  Jast  century 
have  possessed  this  art,  it  is  not  known  that  any  of  the 
tribes  now  under  review  have  possessed  it. 

The  women  of  all  the  Indian  tribes  are  skilled  in 
basket-making,  and  while  their  baskets,  stained  with  the 
juice  of  certain  plants,  are  coarse  and  far  from  elegant, 
yet  they  are  strong  and  serviceable.  It  is  not  unlikely 
that  the  Mound-Builders  used  baskets  in  carrying  to- 
gether the  earth  of  the  mounds. 

The  instruments  of  war,  fishing,  and  the  chase  are  those 

most  needed  by  the  Indian,  and  his  ingenuity 
plemenS"      ^^^^  showed  itself  upon  the  materials  lying  near 

his  hand.  As  in  the  older  civilization  of  Europe, 
the  stone  age  was  also  the  first  among  the  Indians. 
All  of  the  Indian  tribes  seem  to  have  had  the  knowledge 
of  the  manufacture  of  arrow-heads  from  the  cherty 
nodules  found  in  the  primitive  rocks.  They  have  made 
flint  scrapers  from  the  same,  formed  hard  stone  chisels, 
polished  and  worked  down  granite  and  crystalline  lime- 
stone into  axes  and  tomahawks,  with  a  groove  around 
the  middle  by  which  strong  sinews  were  attached  and 
handles  fastened  to  them  for  use.  Stone  hammers  formed 
in  the  same  manner  were  formerly  used,  and  among  some 
of  the  western  tribes  are  still  considered  as  of  value.  The 
stone-cutters  are  also  able  to  manufacture  from  the  soft 
pipestone,  sometimes  grey,  and  in  the  western  prairies 
bright  red,  pipes  for  smoking  the  several  kinds  of  dried 
leaves  and  bark  used  for  the  purpose. 

Among  the  implements  of  the  earlier  inhabitants  of 

the  country  are  found  hooks,  chisels,  knives, 
^^^^ '  and  other  articles  made  of  copper.  These, 
however,  are  usually  of  the  native  copper  of  the  Lake 
Superior  region,  having,  as  shown  by  the  microscope,  the 
grains  of  silver  found  in  that  ore.  As  the  copper  in  these 
implements  was  never  melted,  but  had  simply  been 
beaten  into  shape,  this  manufacture  comes  rather  under 
the  stone  age  than  under  any  succeeding.  The  only  case 
known  to  the  writer  of  an  article  of  the  nature  of  an  alloy 
was  found  near  the  falls  of  Rainy  River  in  the  soil,  in 


THE  Canadian  People  66 

which  a  portion  seemingly  of  a  cup  made  with  marking 
similar  to  those  of  the  Momid-Builders'  pottery  was 
miearthed. 

The  advent  of  the  white  trader  has  largely  put  an  end 
to  the  rude  manufacture  of  stone  implements.  The 
scalping-knife  and  tomahawk,  made  of  iron  in  any  form 
to  suit  the  Indian's  taste,  was  the  first  contribution  made 
him  by  the  white  trader,  and  soon  these  weapons,  which 
have  come  to  be  the  emblems  of  Indian  cruelty,  super- 
seded the  wooden  war-club,  stone  hammer,  and  bow  and 
arrows,  where  the  redman  could  purchase  them. 

In  time  also  the  trader  entrusted,  though  at  exorbitant 
prices,  to  the  Indian  tribes  the  firearms  which  were 
so  great  a  source  of  wonder  at  first  to  the  unsuspecting 
savage.  It  was  the  possession  of  firearms  obtained  by 
the  0  jib  ways  from  the  French,  which  enabled  that  tribe 
to  drive  the  Sioux  out  of  their  original  possessions  on 
Lake  Superior,  when  the  latter  were  not  able  to  obtain 
equal  weapons.  In  later  years  the  Indians  of  the  plains 
have  been  able  to  furnish  themselves  with  the  deadly 
Remington  rifles,  with  their  eighteen  repeating  charges. 

No  article  of  manufacture  of  the  Indian  indicates  so 
much  skill  as  the  construction  of  the  birch-  _.  - 
bark  canoe.  The  Indian  himself  so  values  it 
that  he  declares  it  to  have  been  the  gift  of  the  Gitche 
Manitou,  or  Great  Spirit.  With  the  canoe  the  Indian 
can  cross  the  deepest  water,  as  tossed  like  a  duck  on  the 
waves,  his  frail  bark  survives  where  heavier  and  more 
unwieldy  craft  would  have  been  swamped.  When  the 
wind  is  favourable,  fastening  his  blanket  or  skin  robe 
between  two  poles,  he  erects  them  in  the  bow  of  his 
canoe,  and  is  carried  at  a  rapid  rate  before  the  wind. 
When  he  must  ascend  the  river,  and  finds  paddling  against 
the  current  too  difficult,  attaching  a  long  line  of  buffalo 
or  deer-skin  to  the  bow  of  the  canoe,  with  one  in  the 
canoe  to  steer  it,  he  walks  along  the  shore  and  "  tracks  " 
up  the  canoe  in  the  shallow  water. 

Indian  women  manage  the  canoe  as  skilfully  as  the 
men.     The  canoe  requires  practice  to  control  it  well,  and 


56  A  Short  History  of 

is  dangerous  to  those  unaccustomed  to  its  use.  It  is  a 
most  interestiug  sight  to  meet  on  the  bosom  of  some 
inland  lake  the  Indian  mother,  with  her  half-dozen 
children,  paddling  with  rapid  speed,  the  youngest  child 
of  three  or  four  years  of  age  sitting  statuesque,  lest  a 
careless  lurch  should  overturn  the  uncertaia  craft.  Its 
lightness  is  one  of  the  chief  merits  of  the  birch-bark  canoe 
when  the  passage  is  to  be  made  from  one  river  to  another, 
or  a  dangerous  rapid  or  fall  is  to  be  avoided.  The  canoe 
is  then  unladen ;  the  cargo  is  carried  by  way  of  the 
portage  to  the  smooth  part  agaia,  while  inverted  on  the 
head  of  the  burden-bearing  squaw  the  birch-bark  boat  is 
borne  by  the  forest  path  or  trail  to  the  spot  where  it  again 
receives  its  load. 

When  the  winter  seals  up  the  river  or  lake,  the  red- 
man  is  driven  to  the  use  of  his  snow-shoe  would 
shoV  ^°^'  ^®  pursue  his  game.  The  snow-shoe  is  as  in- 
genious a  device  as  can  well  be  imagined.  So 
light  as  to  add  but  little  weight  to  the  foot,  the  frame  of 
the  snow-shoe  is  joined  by  a  network  of  leather  thongs. 
Its  breadth,  whOe  compelling  an  awkward  gait,  yet 
effectually  supports  the  walker  on  the  softest  snow.  On 
the  first  use  for  the  winter  of  the  snow-shoe,  the  awkward 
step  produces  after  long  exercise  an  excessive  soreness 
of  the  muscles  of  the  leg,  which  the  French  fur  traders 
knew  as  the  "  mal  de  raquette." 

Living  as  the  tribes  we  are  considering  do  in  their 
northern  home,  where  nature  is  not  so  bountiful 
as  in  the  tropics,  the  food  supply  is  always  an 
object  of  anxiety.  In  seasons  when  game  and  fish  are 
plentiful  the  Indian  prospers  ;  but  in  the  long  winter 
and  the  scarce  seasons  the  aged,  and  the  wives  and  children 
perish  from  hunger.  Among  the  Indians  of  the  forest 
the  moose  and  deer  are  much  prized,  but  are  only  cap- 
tured by  the  well-skiUed  hunter.  The  small  game,  such 
as  rabbits,  is  snared  by  the  squaws  during'^^the  times  of 
winter  scarceness. 

It  must  be  stated  that  the  Indian  does  not  feel  bound 
by  any  of  the  strict  requirements  of  the  Jewish  law  as 


THE  Canadian  People  67 

to  his  diet,  and  beavers,  foxes,  squirrels,  and  even  the 
"  gophers  "  of  the  plains  are  not  excluded  from  appeasing 
his  ravenous  appetite.  The  buffalo  on  the  western  plains, 
and  cariboo  or  reindeer  of  the  Arctic  regions,  as  well  as 
the  musk-ox  of  the  same  latitudes  supply,  or  did  until 
lately,  the  Indians  and  Eskimos  who  live  in  these  localities 
with  sufficient  food  as  well  as  clothing.  The  flesh  of  the 
buffalo  when  newly  killed,  and  especially  its  tongue, 
gave  palatable  food  to  the  plain-hunters  and  their  families, 
and  the  "  dried  meat  "  and  "  pemican  "  were  prepared 
for  winter  use.  It  is  surprising  how  on  the  dry  plains 
of  the  west  the  flesh  of  the  buffalo,  exposed  in  strips 
in  the  open  air  without  salt  to  preserve  it,  dries  up  without 
decaying. 

Pemican  was  the  name  given  to  the  most  common 
preparation  from  the  flesh  of  the  buffalo.  The  flesh  was 
cut  in  strips  and  poimded  with  sharp  stones  by  the 
squaws.  Dried  for  a  short  time  in  the  sim,  it  was  next 
thrust  into  bags  made  of  the  buffalo's  hide,  into  which, 
when  it  was  nearly  filled,  were  poured  melted  fat  and 
marrow  of  the  buffalo.  This  on  cooling  consolidated 
into  a  mass  which  will  keep  for  years.  The  berries  of 
the  saskatoon  tree  (the  Amelanchier  Canadensis)  are 
mixed  with  the  pounded  flesh  in  some  instances,  and 
*'  berry  pemican  "  is  thus  formed.  Unfortunately  the 
advance  of  civilization  has  made  the  untamed  buffalo 
an  almost  extinct  animal.  Indians  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains pursue  and  capture  for  food  the  mountain  sheep  and 
goat  in  addition  to  the  deer  which  become  their  prey. 

The  sea  and  river  have  always  given  of  their  treasure 
to  the  skilful  Indian  fisherman.  The  "  titimeg "  or 
white-fish,  and  the  "  ajidaumo  "  or  sturgeon,  with  the 
pike  or  "  jack-fish  "  have  ever  in  the  American  rivers  and 
lakes  supplied  a  plentiful  food.  In  some  rivers  of  the 
American  continent  the  sturgeon  swarm  in  such  numbers 
that  to  catch  them  requires  no  skill,  and  great  numbers 
are  slaughtered  wantonly  in  the  spring-time.  In  the  rivers 
of  British  Columbia  the  salmon  were  quite  as  plentiful, 
and  afford  food  and  means  of  merchandise  to  the  natives. 


68  A  Short  History  of 

Among  the  Iroquois  and  Hurons  the  food  supplied  by 
the  game  and  fish  was  supplemented  by  the  corn  planted 
and  cultivated  by  themselves.  The  beds  of  wild  rice 
{Zizania  aquatica)  in  many  of  the  lakes  and  rivers  supply 
food  of  a  most  wholesome  kind.  Where  rice  is  found, 
the  Indian  settlements  in  its  neighbourhood  are  deserted 
in  the  month  of  August,  the  rice-beds  being  penetrated 
by  numberless  harvesters,  and  the  grain  is  beaten  from 
the  stalks  with  clubs  into  the  canoes. 

The  cookery  of  the  Indian  is  performed  over  open  fires 
of  sticks.  Before  the  advent  of  Europeans,  when  clay 
pots  were  used,  fire  could  be  applied  with  ease  to  the 
well-constructed  vessel ;  flesh  was  also  broiled  over  the 
coals  and  formed  what  the  French  voyageurs  called  a 
"  barbecue,"  but  the  Assiniboine  or  Stoney  Indians,  as 
well  as  others,  are  said  to  have  heated  stones  red-hot 
and  then  cast  them  into  holes  dug  in  the  earth  into  which 
the  flesh  to  be  cooked  was  placed  in  water.  On  the 
Pacific  coast  the  Indians  to  this  day  plait  strong  grass, 
and  from  this  construct  vessels,  into  which,  filled  with 
water,  hot  stones  are  thrown,  and  thus  flesh  is  cooked. 

After  all,  the  Indian  is  largely  a  flesh  eater,  and  living  as 
he  does  by  the  chase  the  uncertainty  of  gaining  his  food 
has  a  most  unsettling  effect  upon  his  habits.  With  him 
it  is  always  either  a  "  fast  or  a  feast,"  and  the  scene  in 
a  large  Indian  camp  when  a  supply  of  buffalo  flesh 
is  brought  in  beggars  description.  Nothing  could  exceed 
the  gluttony  and  over-feeding  of  these  hungry  savages. 

By  some  it  has  been  thought  that  the  constant  use  of 
animal  food  has  given  the  Indians  their  craving  for  the 
"  ishketewabo,"  or  fire-water  of  the  white  man,  while 
others  have  attributed  it  to  the  want  of  a  regular  and  satis- 
fying diet.  Whatever  be  the  cause,  the  fact  is  undoubted 
that  the  Indian  on  the  verge  of  civilization  has  almost 
invariably  a  taste  for  the  deadly  strong  drink  of  the  trader. 
Rival  fur  traders,  and  even  nations  fighting  for  supre- 
macy in  North  America,  have  too  often  made  use  of  strong 
drink  to  advance  their  projects  with  the  Indians.  So 
universally  is  this  practice  condemned  that  for  many  years 


THE  Canadian  People  59 

both  in  Canada  and  the  United  States  it  has  been  illegal  to 
sell  or  give  spirits  to  an  Indian. 

Section  IV. — Language,  Manners,  and  Customs  of  the 
Indians 

Little  can  be  said  of  a  satisfactory  kind  of  the  Indian 
languages.  Sioux  and  Crees  cannot  understand  ^ 
each  other  speaking,  though  the  general  struc- 
tures of  their  languages  have  points  of  resemblance.  Cree 
and  0  jib  way,  however,  can  hold  converse  together. 
The  Indian  languages  seem  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
Malayan,  though  since  the  branching  off  the  Malayan 
has  been  greatly  developed.  This  would  indicate  an 
ancient  date  for  the  peopling  of  this  continent. 

The  Indian  languages  are  not  isolating  or  monosyllabic 
like  the  Indo-Chinese  group,  nor  inflexional  like  the 
Semitic  and  Aryan.  They  are  more  like  the  Ural-Altaic, 
having  agglutinative  characteristics.  Philological  and 
archaeological  features  of  the  American  Indians  and  the 
races  of  Mongolia  and  Siberia  in  north-eastern  Asia  are, 
according  to  Hrdlicka,  pointing  to  identification  of  lan- 
guage and  customs.  Much  scholarly  study  is  now  being 
carried  on  among  the  Indian  languages  in  the  Anthropo- 
logical Departments  at  Washington  and  Ottawa. 

Immediately  upon  the  arrival  of  the  whites  in  America, 
intelligent  men  among  them  began  to  study,  classify, 
and  reduce  to  a  written  form  the  various  Indian  dialects. 
Eliot,  the  famous  missionary,  and  Heckewelder,  .  ., 
of  Bethlehem,  have  preserved  for  us  the  dialects 
of  the  Indians  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  who  are  now  extinct. 
For  the  languages  of  the  tribes  of  Canada,  we  consult  the 
vocabularies  in  the  works  of  Baron  De  Lahontan  (1690), 
J.  Long  (1791),  Mackenzie  (1801),  Jonathan  Carver 
(1774),  Daniel  Harmon  (1820),  Keating  (1824),  and 
especially  the  magnificent  works  of  Henry  Schoolcraft 
(1834) ;  recently  the  Ojib way  Dictionary  of  Bishop  Baraga 
(1879),  the  Cree  Dictionary  of  Father  Lacombe  (1873), 
and  the  Dakota  Dictionary  of  Dr.  Riggs. 


60  A  Short  History  of 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  linguistic  phenomena 
g  .  in  this  connection  is  the  Indian  jargon  among 
the  tribes  to  the  west  of  the  Rocky  Momitains. 
This  is  a  combination  of  Chinook  and  Clatsop  words 
with  French  and  EngHsh  introduced  among  them.  It 
is  used  in  barter  all  along  the  Pacific  slope.  It  resembles 
in  its  use  the  lingua  franca  of  the  Mediterranean,  or  the 
"  Pidgin-English "  of  China.  The  jargon  originated 
about  the  beginning  of  last  century,  and  chiefly  from  the 
meeting  of  the  North- West  and  Hudson's  Bay  Companies 
with  the  Indians. 

Some  of  the  words  in  use  are  worthy  of  notice.  "  Puss- 
puss  "  is  the  Chinook  for  cat ;  "  King-Chautshman  "  is 
a  King  George  man  or  Englishman  ;  "  Boston  "  desig- 
nates an  American  ;  "  Potlatch  "  is  a  gift ;  "  Pasiooks  " 
is  a  Frenchman  ;  "  Piah-ship  "  is  a  steamer,  a  corruption 
of  "  fire-ship "  ;  "  Cosho  "  is  a  pig,  from  the  French 
"  Cochon  "  ;  "  Tahla  "  is  a  dollar,  and  so  on. 

The  mode  of  representing  his  ideas  in  a  pictorial 
manner  is  a  marked  peculiarity  of  the  Indian, 
writing"  Numerous  writers  have  given  examples  of  this. 
The  "  totem  "  of  the  Indian  is  an  illustration  of 
it.  It  is  some  object,  generally  an  animal,  used  as  a 
crest.  On  the  "  Roches  Percees,"  a  group  of  remarkable 
rocks  on  the  prairies,  along  the  forty-ninth  parallel, 
between  the  United  States  and  the  North- West  Terri- 
tories, are  figured  moose,  horse,  sturgeon,  bufialo-heads, 
and  the  like  as  the  totems  or  "  symbols  "  of  visitors,  who 
have  cut  them  on  the  rocks,  as  tourists  to  Niagara  Falls 
and  elsewhere  do. 

Very  ingenious  uses  are  made  of  picture-writing  by 
the  Indians.  The  writer  has  in  his  possession  a  drawing 
by  Mawintopaness,  chief  of  the  Rainy  River  Indians, 
representing  himself  as  an  Indian  in  the  centre,  with  one 
eye  turned  to  the  right  to  the  missionary  to  see  the  way 
he  points  out,  and  the  other  to  the  trader  on  his  left  to 
show  the  necessity  of  also  having  an  eye  toward  business  ; 
and  the  poor  Indian  is  divided  between  the  two  opposing 
forces. 


THE  Canadian  People  61 

The  same  chief  keeps  a  perfectly  accurate  account  of 
what  the  Government  gives  him  from  year  to  year  on  a 
sheet  of  foolscap  in  pictm:es.  A  barrel  of  pork  is  a 
pictm'e  of  a  barrel  with  a  rude  drawing  of  a  pig  upon  it ; 
a  box  of  tea  is  a  square  with  steam  puffing  out  of  one 
corner  of  it ;  oxen  and  cattle,  plough,  harrow,  saws,  etc., 
are  easily  recognizable. 

*":^n  connection  with  Indian  writing  a  most  interesting 
system,  called  the  syllabic  character,  was  in- 
vented in  1840  by  the  Rev.  James  Evans,  then  lawe/" 
a  missionary  on  Hudson  Bay.     It  consists  in 
using  triangles,  circles,  hooks,  and  other  characters  as 
symbols  for  syllables.    It  is  now  extensively  used  by  the 
Crees  of  the  Saskatchewan,  who  write  letters  with  it  on 
birch-bark  to  one  another.    It  may  be  learned  by   an 
intelligent   Indian  in  an  afternoon  or  two,  being   quite 
simple. 

The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  the  Church  of 
England,  and  the  Roman  Catholics  use  this  character  in 
printing  Indian  books.  When  Lord  Dufferin  was  in 
North- Western  Canada  in  1878,  he  heard  of  this  character 
for  the  first  time,  and  remarked  that  distinguished  men 
had  been  given  a  place  in  Westminster  Abbey  for  doing 
less  than  the  inventor  of  the  syllabic  characters  had  done. 

Among  the  Indians  it  has  been  the  custom  to  record 
events  by  the  use  of  wampum  belts  or  by  knots  of  par- 
ticular kinds.  The  Indians  have  a  considerable  skill  in 
geography  and  astronomy,  though,  like  all  savage  peoples, 
they  regard  celestial  phenomena  with  awe.  The  divi- 
sions of  time  are  carefully  noted  by  the  various  tribes. 
Some  of  the  nations,  such  as  the  Blackfeet,  regard  the 
sun  as  a  "  Manitou,"  and  worship  him.  A  number  of 
the  constellations  are  known  to  the  Indians. 

The  mode  of  reckoning  time  is  by  "  nights  "  rather 
than  by  days.  The  greater  divisions  of  time  are  counted 
by  "  moons  "  or  months.  Among  the  Crees  the  months 
are  as  follows  :  May,  "  Frog-moon  "  ;  June,  the  moon 
for  birds  laying  eggs  ;  July,  the  moulting  month  ;  August, 
the  moon  when  the   young   birds  fly  ;    September,  the 


62  A  Short  History  o^ 

month  when  the  moose  casts  his  horns  ;  October,  rutting 
moon ;  November,  hoar-frost  or  ice-moon  ;  December, 
whirlwind  moon  ;  January,  very  cold  month  ;  February, 
big  moon  or  old  moon  ;  March,  eagle  moon ;  April, 
"  goose  moon." 

A  people  so  devoted  to  a  wandering  life  as  the  Indians 
must  become  noted  for  excellence  in  violent  and 
exciting  games.  It  is  true  the  restless  ten- 
dencies of  the  Indian  tribes  found  an  outlet  in  the  fre- 
quent wars  carried  on.  When  the  young  men  of  the  tribe 
became  wearied  with  "  inglorious  ease  "  at  home,  a  war- 
party  was  organized,  and  frequently  wars  were  undertaken 
with  no  other  motive  than  that  with  which  a  Russian 
autocrat  is  said  to  incite  a  European  war,  viz.  for  the 
purpose  of  creating  a  public  interest. 

But  athletic  sports  of  various  kinds  are  earnestly 
followed  in  times  of  peace.  Chief  among  them  is  the 
game  of  ball,  which  has  been  preserved  in  what  may  be 
called  the  Canadian  national  sport,  that  of  "  lacrosse." 
In  this  the  ball  is  thrown  by  a  "  stick,"  some  four  feet 
long,  made  of  tough  wood,  bent  round  at  the  top,  and  the 
hooped  part  of  the  instrument,  which  is  ten  or  twelve 
inches  wide,  covered  by  a  network  of  strong  thongs  of 
buffalo  or  other  skin.  Among  some  of  the  tribes  the 
game  is  played  by  each  player  having  a  stick  in  each 
hand ;  among  others,  by  the  player  only  carrying  one. 
Any  number  of  chosen  players  can  engage  in  the  game. 
In  the  great  camps  of  the  western  plains  as  many  as 
800  players  take  part  in  the  game.  The  contestants 
are  divided  into  two  equal  parties,  and  the  object  is  to 
pass  the  ball  through  the  opposing  goals,  which  are  made 
by  two  poles  some  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  with  a  bar 
extending  across  the  top.  The  game  is  one  of  the  most 
exciting  that  can  be  imagined. 

Violent  encounters  are  constantly  occurring,  in  which, 
amidst  the  dust  and  confusion,  the  ball  is  for  the  time 
entirely  lost  from  sight.  Tripping,  pushing,  and  the 
roughest  jostling  all  seem  a  part  of  the  game.  At  times 
serious  conflicts  take  place  at  which  blood  is  drawn.     The 


THE  Canadian  People  63 

writer  has  seen  a  Caughnawaga  Iroquois  receive  a  blow 
with  a  stick  on  the  face  that  split  his  nose  completely 
open. 

At  times  the  game  of  ball  with  the  sticks  described, 
or  with  instruments  resembling  those  used  in  the  British 
game  of  "  shinty,"  is  played  upon  the  ice,  and  creates 
great  interest,  though  skill  is  not  so  easily  manifested 
in  the  management  of  the  ball  as  in  true  lacrosse.  Com- 
petitions with  bow  and  arrows  are  common,  and  these 
weapons  are  handled  with  great  skill  in  shooting  at  marks. 
Races  on  foot  are  frequent  among  the  Algonquin  and 
Iroquois  young  men,  but  on  the  western  prairies,  where 
horses  are  abundant  in  the  Indian  camps,  horse-racing 
is  one  of  the  most  absorbing  sports,  and  feats  of  horse- 
manship perfectly  astoimding  to  the  white  onlookers 
are  performed. 

High-spirited,  and  excitable  as  the  Indians  are,  almost 
aU  their  games  afford  the  opportunity  for  taking 
"  wagers  " — a  custom  in  which  too  often  the 
white  man  in  his  sports  has  not  succeeded  in  escaping 
the  savagery  of  the  redman  whom  he  follows.  The  ball- 
play,  the  foot-race,  and  the  horse-race  were  formerly 
marked  by  the  men,  women,  and  children  of  the  camp, 
and  even  whole  tribes,  wagering  wampum  belts,  house- 
hold utensils  and  possessions,  tents,  robes,  and  even 
horses,  with  one  another.  Wives  were  at  times  in  the 
excitement  of  the  game  bartered  off  by  their  husbands. 

Leaving  the  athletic  sports  of  the  Indians  and  comiug 
to  the  amusements  of  the  camp  in  quieter  times,  it  may 
be  stated  that  the  Indians  are  inveterate  gamblers.  Some 
element  of  chance  makes  almost  every  game  of  absorbing 
interest  to  the  redman.  The  game  of  "  plum-stones  " 
consists  in  painting  one  side  of  each  stone,  of  one  par- 
ticular colour,  and  then  gambling  with  the  parti-coloured 
stones  as  dice  are  used.  The  game  of  seeds  consists  of 
taking  some  hundreds  of  pieces  of  seeds  of  the  same 
size,  separating  them  into  groups,  and  selecting  in  order  to 
obtain  a  certain  lucky  number.  Another  game  among  the 
Crees  is  that  of  hiding  any  small  object  in  one  of  several 


64  A  Short  History  of 

moccasins,  and  then  leaving  the  proper  one  to  be  guessed, 
as  is  done  by  the  thimble-rigger  or  juggler  in  society 
called  more  civilized. 

By  these  and  other  like  methods  the  Canadian  redman 
gains  mental  excitement  of  as  extravagant  and  wild  a 
kind  as  do  the  gamesters  of  Baden-Baden  and  Monte 
Carlo  in  European  society.  Indian  gamblers  will  con- 
tinue their  play  for  forty-eight  or  sixty  hours  without 
rest  or  food,  and  in  that  time  will  often  lose  all  the  money, 
guns,  and  horses  of  which  they  are  possessed. 

But  probably  the  most  remarkable  thing  about  the 
social  life  of  the  Indians  is  the  elaborate  system  of 
dances,  many  of  which  indeed  lose  their  character  of  mere 
amusements,  and  are  identified  with  the  social  and  religious 
ideas  of  the  peoples. 

The  dance  seems  to  have  been,  and  to  be  an  outlet  for 
the  several  emotions  that  rise  in  the  breast  of 
Dances.  *^^  savage  in  connection  with  his  life.  To  him, 
a  wanderer,  the  procurement  of  food  is  one  of  his 
deepest  objects  of  thought.  Accordingly  the  change  of 
the  seasons,  the  time  for  seeking  the  different  varieties  of 
game  or  food,  and  the  abundance  of  anything  ministering 
to  his  bodily  wants  are  sufficient  reasons  for  an  overflow 
of  animal  spirits. 

The  exciting  preparation  for  war  and  the  victorious 
return  gave  rise  to  a  special  class  of  histrionic  celebra- 
tions. Veneration  for  the  departed,  or  great  admiration 
of  the  living,  were  also  connected  with  a  special  exube- 
rance of  feeling. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  wild  passion  of  an  Indian 
dance  is  heightened  as  the  sport  proceeds,  until,  like  the 
reeling  dervishes  of  the  East  the  dancers  are  brought  to 
a  pitch  of  absolute  frenzy.  In  all  the  Indian  dances 
there  are  common  features  recognizable.  Music  is  an 
invariable  accompaniment.  In  the  earlier  times  bands  of 
men  or  women  sang,  and  thus  supplied  the  weird  sounds 
with  something  of  rhythm  in  them. 

In  later  times  a  species  of  tambourine  with  rattles 
upon  the  sides  is  beaten  by  bone  or  stick.     This  rude 


THE  Canadian  People  66 

instrument,  known  as  the  "  tom-tom,"  is  usually  beaten 
by  the  women  and  secures  a  certain  regularity  of  motion 
among  the  dancers. 

When  the  dancers  have  painted  themselves  and,  fan- 
tastically dressed,  await  the  beating  of  the  "  tom-tom," 
suddenly  the  dance,  which  is  usually  carried  on  by  the 
men,  is  begun  by  any  one  to  whom  the  impulse  comes 
rising  up  and  slowly  beginning  to  circle  round  the  object 
which  is  the  occasion  of  the  dance.  The  motion  of  the 
dancer  is  that  of  a  strange  flexmre  of  the  body,  as  if  the 
joints  of  the  lumbar  region  were  all  relaxed.  As  the  speed 
of  the  dancer  increases  he  accompanies  his  motions 
with  a  strange  soimd,  "  E — ^he — e — he — ye — ^ye — yeah," 
interrupted  by  an  occasional  imitation  of  the  scream  of 
some  wild  bird  of  prey. 

One  of  the  commonest  dances  is  the  "  beggar's  dance," 
in  which  on  receiving  bags  of  flour  or  flitches  of  bacon 
from  the  settler  on  the  frontier,  the  redmen  indulge  their 
joy  for  hours  together  in  this  wild  sport  to  the  delecta- 
tion of  the  settler  and  his  family.  The  fire-dance,  pro- 
bably a  relic  of  some  ancient  fire-worshipper's  custom, 
consists  in  the  usual  dance,  while  one  of  the  dancers 
carries  in  his  wild  career  around  the  circle  a  burning  coal 
of  fire  between  his  teeth. 

Among  the  Indians  who  follow  agriculture,  the  ap- 
proach of  harvest  is  the  occasion  for  the  dance  of  thank- 
fulness to  the  "  Manitou  "  for  his  gift  of  the  cornfield. 
A  boiling  pot  of  maize  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  circle 
of  dancers,  and  each  dancer,  armed  with  a  stalk  of  Indian 
corn,  engages  in  the  wild  merriment.  Among  the  tribes 
of  the  plains  one  of  the  greatest  dances  was  that  to  the 
buffalo.  This  has  now  almost  disappeared  from  the 
scarcity  of  the  buffalo.  If  the  buffalo  were  becoming 
scarce  the  Indian  council  decreed  a  dance.  Then  the 
hunters  came  forth  each  with  his  mask,  consisting  of  a 
buffalo  head  and  horns,  which  he  wore,  while  he  carried 
the  buffalo  spear  in  his  hand.  Day  after  day,  by  fresh 
relays  of  dancers,  the  dance  was  kept  up  until  the  buffalo 
came,  and  the  camp  again  rejoiced  in  plenty. 

6 


Be  A  Short  fiisToRY  o^ 

As  the  winter  approaches  hunger  begms  to  stare  the 
savage  in  the  face  ;  the  snow  presents  obstacles  for  his 
pursuing  the  game  with  ease.  On  the  fall  of  the  first 
snow  among  the  0  jib  ways  a  pair  of  snow-shoes  is  erected 
on  lofty  poles  in  the  middle  of  the  ring  ;  the  dancers, 
dressed  in  leggings  of  fur,  and  their  feet  shod  with  snow- 
shoes,  show  their  gratitude  to  the  Manitou  for  the  snow- 
shoes  which  enable  them  to  overtake  the  game. 

Another  series  of  these  Indian  orgies  is  connected 
with  the  paying  of  honour  or  respect.  When  a  dis- 
tinguished visitor  is  received  among  the  Dakotas,  it  is 
the  custom  for  the  chiefs  and  older  men  to  dance  in  the 
presence  of  the  honoured  guest  who  is  present,  and  it  is 
said  that  this  is  one  of  the  few  cases  in  the  prairie 
country  where  women  are  allowed  to  take  part  in  the 
dance. 

The  memory  of  the  departed  brave  is  also  honoured  by 
these  savage  nations  in  what  is  called  the  dance  to  the 
medicine  of  the  brave.  The  companions  of  the  departed 
brave  assemble  around  the  lodge  of  the  widow.  The 
medicine-bag  of  her  departed  spouse  is  hung  on  a  green 
bush  before  her  door,  and  under  this  she  sits  and  weeps 
while  the  dancers  career  in  wild  fury  around  the  tent. 
It  was,  however,  to  have  been  expected  that  the  chief 
extravagances  of  these  savage  sports  should  be  observed 
in  connection  with  war. 

The  "  sun-dance  "  is  the  ordeal  by  which  the  young 
braves  show  endurance  and  receive  their  degrees  of 
honour.  A  booth  of  branches  is  erected  ;  the  medicine- 
man directs  proceedings  ;  from  the  centre  of  the  booth 
and  attached  to  a  high  post  a  strong  rope  or  line  is  sus- 
pended ;  on  the  end  of  this  is  a  strong  hook  ;  an  in- 
cision is  made  under  the  muscles  of  the  breast  of  the 
candidate  for  honour,  and  the  hook  is  fastened  in  it ; 
then  while  the  music  prevails  the  young  warrior  throws 
himself  back  from  the  hook,  and  for  a  considerable  time 
he  is  held  up  till  the  muscle  has  been  drawn  out  some- 
times six  or  eight  inches.  If  without  flinching  he  endures 
the  ordeal,  he  is  declared  worthy  of  the  dignity  of  a  brave. 


THE  Canadian  People  67 

and  fit  to  go  upon  the  war-path.  So  high  is  the  Indian 
ideal  of  endurance  ! 

Among  the  most  characteristic  of  these  Indian  symbolic 
rites  is  the  discovery-dance,  also  connected  with  war. 
This  is  performed  without  music.  It  represents  the 
various  stages  of  an  Indian  attack  :  the  skulking  approach, 
the  creeping  up  to  the  unexpecting  enemy  through  the 
underwood  and  grass,  the  falling  on  the  prey,  the  deadly 
tomahawking,  the  snatching  off  the  scalp,  and  the  vic- 
torious return.  It  is  indeed  a  pantomime  of  Indian  war- 
fare, and  is  often  adopted  to  secure  recruits  for  the  warlike 
expedition  by  inflaming  the  imagination  of  the  spectators. 

Of  all  the  wild  orgies  we  have  described  none  is  to  be 
compared  to  the  terrible  scalp-dance.  This  is  performed 
by  the  victorious  war-party  on  its  return.  For  fifteen 
summer  nights  it  is  continued,  and  while  engaged  the 
participants  are  more  like  demons  than  men.  They 
leap,  howl,  and  cry  like  wild  beasts,  brandish  their 
weapons,  dangle  the  scalps  which  they  have  lately  taken 
from  their  enemies,  and  become  so  infuriated  in  many 
instances  that  like  raving  wild  beasts  they  creep  on  the 
groimd  and  seem  to  be  devouring  their  enemies. 

And  yet  when  meek-eyed  peace  returns,  it  also  is  cele- 
brated by  the  pipe-dance.  The  medicine-man  seats 
himself  with  the  calumet  or  peace-pipe  and  commences 
to  smoke  it.  As  the  music  begins,  the  first  dancer  springs 
forth,  and  seizing  another  drags  him  into  the  ring.  The 
two  dancers  now  seize  a  third  ;  and  so  on  the  sport 
continues  imtil  all  are  gathered  into  the  ring,  and  with 
the  wildest  enthusiasm  the  return  of  goodwill  and  the 
reign  of  brotherly  love  are  shown  forth.  Thus  in  common 
life,  in  honour,  and  in  war,  do  the  savage  peoples  of 
America  show  forth  in  an  ingenious  and  emphatic  manner 
the  ruling  emotions  that  rise  within  them. 

Section  V. — Social,  Political,  and  Religious  Organization 

The  organization  of  an  Indian  tribe  is  one  of  the  things 
perplexing  to  the  white  man.     It  is  a  strange  mixture 


68  A  Short  History  of 

of  aristocratic  precedence  and  democratic  equality.  Out 
of  the  Indian's  strong  respect  for  age  grows  the  preced- 
ence given  the  old  men.  The  old  men,  no  doubt,  lament 
the  waywardness  of  the  young  warriors,  but  the  council 
is  the  tribunal  that  decides  on  war  or  peace,  spares  life 
or  thrusts  forth  to  execution,  and  is  the  ultimate  source 
of  appeal  for  everything  in  the  life  of  the  tribe. 

The  family  is  the  basis  of  the  tribal  relation,  and  accord- 
ingly there  is  a  hereditary  position  held  by  distinguished 
families,  but  this  seems  to  be  modified  by  the  decisions 
of  the  coimcil.  Among  the  Indian  races  there  is  a  strong 
sentiment  as  to  the  inferiority  of  woman.  Woman  is 
the  mother  of  the  family  and  the  slave  of  the  family. 
Woman  must  strike  the  tent  and  erect  it,  must  do  the 
great  share  of  the  burden-bearing  on  the  march,  must 
paddle  the  canoe  on  the  voyage  and  portage  the  cargo 
about  the  rapids — she,  in  short,  but  attends  the  footsteps 
of  her  stalwart  lord,  like  the  spaniel,  to  fetch  and  carry. 
When  age  creeps  over  the  matron,  she  is  then  regarded 
as  a  burden,  and  is  but  a  "  mindimoie  " — a  miserable 
old  woman.  To  send  a  woman  into  the  presence  of  a 
council  to  speak  with  ambassadors  from  another  tribe 
is  to  cast  thorough  contempt  upon  the  visitors. 

The  young  warriors  are  the  hope  of  the  tribe,  and 
through  many  severe  ordeals  they  are  trained  to  endur- 
ance ere  they  receive  the  rank  of  warrior  ;  they  must 
metaphorically  win  their  spurs.  In  deeds  of  daring  or 
even  of  cruelty  they  must  gain  the  renown  which  gives 
them  standing.  Fondness  for  her  children  is  a  mark  of 
the  Indian  mother,  and  consideration  for  their  wives  and 
children  is  a  feature  of  all  the  Indian  tribes  even  in  times 
of  extremest  peril.  The  mixture  of  the  patriarchal  and 
the  democratic  in  Indian  society  gives  rise  to  many 
misunderstandings  and  heartburnings. 

Personal  prowess  is  the  guerdon  of  honour,  and  is 
yielded  willing  recognition.  The  medicine-man  or  the 
war-chief  may  be  more  powerful  than  the  chief,  and  it 
is  often  the  case  that  the  chief  is  completely  outnumbered 
and  forestalled  by  the  young  men  or  by  ambitious  dis- 


THE  Canadian  People  69 

turbers.  Family  feuds  often  break  up  tribes,  and  many 
great  peoples  are  but  the  descendants  of  separate  families 
who  have  broken  off  and  set  up  an  autonomy  of  their 
own. 

Among  the  Algonquin  0  jib  ways  there  seems  little 
faculty  for  political  organization.  The  wandering  habit 
that  has  distinguished  them  alike  from  their  eastern 
limit  among  the  Pequods  to  the  furthest  western  Crees, 
has  induced  a  disintegrating  tendency  among  them.  No 
cornfields  have  held  them  to  one  spot ;  no  "  long  house  " 
has  sheltered  them  in  one  common  village.  Their  food  is 
game  and  fish  ;  their  birch-bark  teepees  can  be  moved 
with  ease ;  their  canoes  are  always  at  hand ;  and  if 
earth  or  river  fail  to  supply  their  food  they  journey 
far  away  to  other  haunts.  The  Algonquins  are  the  New 
World  gipsies.  A  Pontiac  or  Tecumseh  may  have  had 
his  dreams  of  uniting  his  Algonquin  fellow-countrymen 
into  a  grand  league  against  the  white  man,  but  it  was 
the  wild,  short  vision  of  a  leader  sinking  with  his  people 
into  the  abyss  of  extermination. 

It  has  been  otherwise  with  the  Iroquois  and  Sioux. 
In  each  of  these  nations  there  was  a  confederation.  And 
yet  this  seems  to  have  been  but  little  more  than  a  league 
of  peace  between  the  tribal  subdivisions,  and  of  co-opera- 
tion for  attacking  the  other  nations,  or  defending  them- 
selves when  attacked.  The  wampum  belts  must  summon 
the  gathering  ;  the  council  fire  must  burn  ;  and  the 
general  decision  be  made  before  war  or  peace  could 
be  determined,  but  all  the  personal  animosities  and  the 
tendencies  toward  disintegration  which  distinguished 
the  Highland  clans  in  former  days  are  seen  among  the 
members  of  the  confederacy. 

The  Iroquois  seem  to  have  allowed  one  of  their  number, 
the  Tuscaroras,  to  drift  away  from  them,  but  again  in 
1712  took  back  the  wanderer,  and  in  later  times  they 
became  the  Six  Nations,  while  known  to  the  early  New 
England  settler  as  the  Five  Nations.  Feud  and  hatred, 
as  we  have  seen,  separated  one  of  the  Dakota  nations, 
the  Assiniboines,  from  their  confederation.    It  is,  how- 


70  A  Short  History  of 

ever,  conceded  that  the  Iroquois  and  Sioux  have  had 
more  political  capacity  than  the  Algonquins  or  most 
other  North  American  Indians. 

The  deficiency  of  social  or  political  organization  in  the 
best,  however,  may  be  seen  in  the  absolute  helplessness 
of  the  tribe  in  the  presence  of  the  avenger  of  blood.  If 
by  accident  or  malice  life  was  taken,  the  manslayer  had 
no  protector.  The  friends  of  the  slain  became  the 
avengers — blood  alone  could  atone  for  blood.  No  law  of 
restraint,  no  mode  of  compensation,  in  fact  no  social 
remedy  could  be  found  ;  and  cases  have  been  known 
where  the  obligation  to  take  vengeance  for  some  wrong 
done  has  been  the  only  barrier  from  keeping  individuals  of 
Indian  tribes  from  attaching  themselves  to  the  Christian 
ChiKch  and  listening  to  the  entreaties  of  its  missionaries. 

The  Indian  with  his  strong  imagination  peoples  nature 
with  spirits  ;  but  his  conception  of  a  Great 
Spirit,  or  "  Gitche  Manitou,"  is  probably  a 
purer  conception  of  Deity  than  that  of  most  savage 
nations.  Like  many  of  the  Asiatic  peoples,  the  Indian 
has  a  conception  of  a  "  Matche  Manitou  "  or  Evil  Spirit 
of  great  power.  While  he  worships  the  Great  Spirit,  he 
is  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  propitiating  the  prince 
of  evil  spirits. 

It  is  out  of  this  latter  idea  that  the  ofiice  and  duties 
of  the  "  medicine-man  "  grow.  He  is  in  some  sense  the 
representative  of  the  priestly  class,  and  yet  he  is  rather 
a  sorcerer  or  wizard  holding  converse  with  the  Evil 
Spirit.  He  appeals  to  the  superstition  of  the  tribe  to 
gain  his  own  ends.  His  assumption  of  peculiar  super- 
natural agency  has  often  led  to  his  being  greater  than 
the  chief  in  influence.  Ofttimes  he  rises  to  the  position 
of  war  leader  or  military  commander.  There  have  been 
the  Shawanee  "  prophet,"  the  brother  of  Tecumseh,  and 
the  Sioux  leader.  Sitting  Bull,  who  thus  rose  to  pre- 
eminence. 

The  mysterious  fear  of  evil  is  found  in  the  general 
belief  among  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  Wendigo,  one  who 
they  think  has  become  a  cannibal,  or  one  who  they 


THE  Canadian  People  71 

believe  is  thoroughly  given  over  to  the  Evil  One,  and 
who  lurks  in  the  forest  to  seize  and  devour  the  unwary 
traveller.  The  medicine-man  is  also  the  physician  of 
the  tribe.  With  herbs  and  medicines  as  well  as  by  in- 
cantations he  cures  the  sick.  Pretending  to  suck  out  the 
disease  through  bone  or  stone  tubes,  invoking  the  spirits, 
and  raging  in  his  fury  like  a  priestess  of  old  on  her  tripod, 
the  medicine-man  is  a  potent  factor,  usually  for  evil,  in 
the  tribe.  The  superstitious  regard  of  the  Indians  for 
"  medicine,"  by  which  they  understand  "  magic,"  is 
amazing. 

Several  years  ago  a  deputation  of  chiefs  visited  the 
President  at  Washington  from  the  Far  West.  On  their 
return  they  told  of  such  marvellous  sights  that  they  were 
not  believed,  the  opinion  of  the  tribe  being  that  they  had 
been  bewitched,  or  had  "great  medicine."  A  daring 
North- West  trader  on  the  Pacific  coast,  fearing  he  would 
be  overcome  by  the  numbers  of  the  savages,  produced  a 
bottle,  stating  that  it  contained  small-pox,  and  that  all 
he  needed  to  do  was  to  take  out  the  cork  and  they  were 
doomed.  Their  superstitious  dread  was  so  great  that 
they  immediately  submitted. 

The  medicine-men  also  use  their  conjuring  arts  in 
bringing  rain  in  time  of  drought,  and  in  stopping  rain 
when  there  is  an  excess.  The  cult  of  the  Indians  seems 
generally  Asiatic.  The  eagle  is  an  object  of  veneration, 
and  an  eagle-dance  is  performed  in  its  honour. 

The  dog-feast  and  dog-dance  are  also  religious  rites. 
The  sacrificial  character  of  their  dog-feast  is  very  remark- 
able. If  possible  the  dog  must  be  white  and  spotless  ; 
his  flesh  is  made  into  broth  ;  in  the  dance  portions  of  his 
flesh  and  liver  are  eaten  raw  in  the  frenzy  of  the  occasion, 
and  much  reverence  thus  gathers  round  this  animal — a 
companion  of  man  in  every  clime. 

The  funeral  ceremonies  of  the  Canadian  Indians  vary 
considerably.  Among  the  Algonquins  the  usual  method 
of  burial  is  in  graves  at  prominent  points  on  the  river 
banks,  or  in  beautiful  spots  in  the  forest.  The  grave  is 
4ug  a  few  feet  deep,  and  the  body,  often  enveloped  in 


72  A  Short  History  of 

birch-bark,  interred  therein.  Over  the  grave  an  erection, 
like  the  roof  of  a  house,  is  built  a  foot  or  two  high.  This 
is  sometimes  entirely  covered  by  pieces  of  wood  ;  at 
others,  with  white  cotton  cloth.  At  the  head  of  the 
grave  food  is  placed,  and  often  a  piece  of  tobacco,  while 
weapons  for  the  chase  or  for  defence  are  buried  with  the 
body. 

On  the  western  prairies  different  customs  in  part  pre- 
vail. The  Sioux  mode  of  burial  is  to  lay  the  corpse  on 
platforms  erected  on  posts,  or  constructed  on  the  branches 
of  trees,  though  the  Sioux  now  bury  in  graves. 

Of  primitive  beliefs  there  are  several  which  are  very 
widespread  among  the  Indians.  One  of  these  is 
TradTttons.  ^^^^  ^^  ^^®  Deluge.  The  earth  was,  according 
to  their  story,  dark  for  a  time  ;  the  medicine- 
man at  last  saw  light  in  the  north  ;  but  soon  the  moun- 
tains of  waters  came  rolling  over  them.  All  were  des- 
troyed except  a  few  families,  who  built  a  raft  and  escaped. 
The  Iroquois,  Delawares,  and  other  tribes  have  variations 
of  this  same  tradition.  All  the  Indian  nations  believe 
in  a  future  state.  They  believe  that  the  dead  must 
journey  far  to  the  west ;  that  a  river  divides  the  present 
from  the  future  ;  that  a  narrow  and  slippery  crossing 
must  be  passed  to  reach  the  other  side  :  that  rocks  are 
hurled  at  all  who  cross  ;  that  from  these  the  good  escape 
and  enter  into  the  happy  hunting-grounds.  The  bad 
who  cross  are  struck  by  the  flying  rocks  and,  driven  from 
the  crossing,  fall  into  the  river  beneath,  which  is  filled 
with  dead  animals  and  fishes,  and  all  evil  things.  The 
lost,  they  believe,  live  in  sight  of  the  abode  of  the  blessed, 
but  cannot  reach  it. 

Among  the  Blackfeet  some  strange  religious  rites  pre- 
vail. On  a  lonely  hill  a  stone  with  certain  circles  and 
other  markings  is  placed.  Hither  women  who  have 
lost  their  children  or  husbands  retire  to  worship.  A 
sharp  stone  lies  on  the  other  stone.  The  worshipper  cuts 
off  one  or  more  joints  of  the  finger  and  offers  this  as  a 
propitiation  to  the  Deity. 

Amon^  the  most  remarkable  traditions  of  the  Indian 


THE  Canadian  People  73 

tribes  is  one  exceeding  the  wonders  of  the  Arthurian 
legend,  or  the  Nibelungen  Lied.  It  is  evidently  a  pious 
and  devout  tradition.  Hiawatha  was  a  person  of  mira- 
culous birth,  and  bears  this  name  among  the  Ojibways. 
Among  other  tribes  he  was  called  Michabou,  Chiabo, 
Gluscap,  Manaboio,  and  Tarenyawagan.  His  mission  was 
to  clear  their  rivers  and  forests  and  fishing-groimds.  He 
was  to  teach  peace  and  its  arts.  The  myth  is  plainly  the 
product  of  the  heart  of  man  universal  seeking  after  some 
higher  power  to  help  it,  and  the  hereditary  belief  that  a 
celestial  visitant  was  to  come  to  rescue  white  and  red  man 
alike.  We  are  indebted  to  Longfellow  for  his  making 
Hiawatha  a  household  word,  and  we  hail  such  a  tradition 
as  showing  the  common  origin  of  white  and  red  men,  and 
of  all  nations  which  dwell  on  the  earth. 

But  little  value  can  be  attached  to  the  Indian  tradi- 
tions about  their  own  origin.     The  Algonquin 
story,  where  it  departs  from  the  general  theory  ^i  origin, 
that  the  Gitche  Manitou  created  their  nation  in 
their  own  rock-bound  coast,  is  that  their  nation  emerged 
from  a  great  opening  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.     This  is 
probably  a  shrewder  guess  as  to  the  direction  of  their 
long-lost  home  in  Asia  than  most  of  the  other  tribes 
possess. 

The  Sioux  hold  that  they  were  created  in  their  own 
land  of  the  Dakotas  by  the  Great  Spirit,  who  is  known 
to  them  as  "  Wakan  Tanka."  They  have,  they  say, 
always  occupied  their  present  home.  According  to  their 
tradition  it  was  a  Frenchman  who  first  of  white  men 
visited  them.  He  carried  a  gun  which  greatly  interested 
them.  On  his  showing  its  power  upon  a  dog  they  fled, 
calling  the  new  visitant  "  Thunder." 

The  Chipewyans  believe  that  the  world  was  all  a  wide 
ocean,  and  only  one  inhabitant  was  on  it,  that  a  huge 
bird  with  eyes  of  fire,  which  flashed  like  lightning,  and 
the  flapping  of  whose  wings  was  thunder.  At  its  mighty 
touch  the  ocean  heaved  up  the  land  ;  and  by  it  were  pro- 
duced all  living  creatures,  except  the  Chipewyans  them- 
selves, who  sprang  from  the  too- much- valued  ancestry  of 


74     A  Shobt  History  of  the  Canadian  People 

a  dog.  They  regard  themselves  as  intruders  in  their 
present  country,  having  traversed  a  great  lake  to  escape 
from  a  very  wicked  people  in  their  old  home.  They 
suffered  greatly  on  the  voyage.  Their  ancestors  lived 
to  a  great  age,  even  til]  their  feet  were  worn  out  with 
walking,  and  their  throats  had  failed  from  eating. 

The  Columbian  Indians  have  a  still  stranger  account 
of  their  origin.  There  was  a  time,  they  say,  when  only 
birds,  beasts,  and  fishes  existed  on  the  earth.  Whence 
the  first  Indian  came  they  know  not,  but  he  was  of  short 
stature,  and  had  heavy  arms  and  legs.  He  killed  himself 
— why,  it  is  not  stated  ;  but  as  the  worms  were  devouring 
the  uncovered  corpse  a  bird  attacked  the  destroyers, 
and  the  slain  man  revived.  The  restored  Indian  then 
married  the  bird,  and  from  the  alliance  sprang  the  present 
Indians. 

Such  vague  and  trivial  accounts  give  us  no  clue  to  the 
original  home  of  the  Indians ;  but  they  are  plainly 
guesses,  and  as  such  not  so  far  behind  the  theories  of 
those  who,  without  the  aid  of  the  Creator,  make  effort 
to  construct  the  world  of  things  inanimate  and  animate. 
It  is  toward  sources  outside  of  the  empty  imaginings  of 
crafty  medicine-men  we  must  look  for  any  light  as  to  the 
affinities  and  original  home  of  the  Indian  tribes. 


CHAFTEK  IV 

THE  FBENCH  COLONIZATION  OF  NEW  FRANCE 

Acadia  is  the  land  of  poetry  and  legend.     Its  early 
days  were  days  of  fierce  conflict,  deceit,  and 
blood.     It  was  the  border-land  of  English  and 
French  dispute,   and    even    of    Catholic  and  Calvinist 
bickering.     The  figure  of  Champlain  appears  upon  this 
scene  before  we  find  him  in  Canada  ;    and  well  had  it 
been  had  his  wisdom  and  strong  arm  been  retained  to 
Acadia  in  her  misfortunes.     It  was  in  the  service  of  a 
rich  merchant  of  St.  Malo,  named  Du  Pont,  or  better 
known  as  Pontgrave,  that  Captain  Chauvin,  of 
the  French  navy,  first  went  forth.     This  was 
under  a  patent,  subsequent   to   that  of  Marquis  de  la 
Roche,  who  in  1598   took  up  the  title  of  Lieutenant- 
General  and  Viceroy  of  Canada,  left  vacant  by  the  dis- 
aster of  Roberval  on  his  last  voyage.  The  super- 
stitious  sailors  of  Brittany  thought  the  track  of 
the  lost  Seigneur  unlucky.     Captain  Chauvin  having  died, 
Chevalier  de  Chaste  succeeded  him.     In  the 
following  year  ( 1 603)  the  expedition — a  fruitless 
one — ascended  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Hochelaga.     On  that 
voyage  were  the  men  destined  to  guide  the  affairs  of  the 
French  in  America.     These  were  Pontgrave,  Champlain, 
and  the  Sieur  de  Monts. 

De  Monts,  whose  family  name  was  Pierre  du  Gua,  was 
in  high  favour  with  King  Henry  IV.      He  was  ^  -^ 
a  Huguenot  or  Calvinist  nobleman,  had  seen 
hard  service,   and  had  achieved  renown  in  the  French 
wars.     Preferring  Acadia  to  Canada,  on  account  of  its 
supposed  milder  climate,  he  obtained,  under  the  charter 

76 


76  A  Short  History  of 

of  the  old  company,  for  himself  from  the  king  an  exclusive 
grant  of  the  territory  from  40°  to  46°  N.,  and  went  forth 
dignified  as  Lieutenant-General  of  Acadia. 

Inducing  a  number  of  his  co-religionist  merchants  of 
Rochelle  to  join  him,  with  four  ships  and  a  gay  party  he 
went  forth  to  the  New  World.  Champlain  commanded 
the  fleet.  Led  by  the  novelty  of  the  enterprise,  many 
volunteers  had  joined  De  Monts.  Of  these  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  was  the  Baron  de  Poutrincourt.  His 
family  name  was  Jean  de  Biencourt.  Like  De  Monts,  he 
also  had  fought  bravely  in  the  wars  of  the  king.  He  had 
now  resolved  to  make  a  new  home  for  himself  and  family 
in  the  New  World.  The  plan  of  the  expedition  was  that 
^one  vessel  should  go  up  the  St.  Lawrence  to  trade  for 
furs  ;  another  under  Pontgrave — the  indefatigable  ex- 
plorer— was  to  scour  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  drive  off 
poachers  on  the  fishing-grounds  ;  while  the  remaining 
two  vessels,  under  De  Monts  himself,  were  to  carry  out 
the  colonists,  about  120  in  number,  consisting  of  artisans 
and  agriculturists,  clergy  and  gentlemen.  The  Huguenot 
leader  in  charge  of  so  important  a  company  had  the 
honour  of  going  forth  to  establish  the  first  per- 
160^4.  *  manent  settlement  in  the  territory  now  included 
in  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

The  expedition  had  a  good  voyage,  for  in  one  month 
the  New  World  was  reached,  though  De  Monts  lost  his 
course,  and  arrived  at  Cape  la  Have,  near  the  present 
Lunenburg  in  Nova  Scotia.  Finding  the  coast  rocky 
and  inhospitable,  the  colony  re-embarked,  rounded  Cape 
Sable,  the  south-west  extremity  of  Acadia,  entered  what 
they  called  "  La  grande  Bale  rran9oise,"  now  the  Bay 
of  Fundy,  the  "  Fond  de  la  Bale  "  of  the  old  French  maps. 

Running  into  the  narrow  passage  known  as  St.  Mary's 
Bay,  the  expedition  advanced  into  a  narrow  channel 
between  the  hills,  which  opens  out  into  a  capacious  har- 
bour, which  Champlain  describes  with  admiration,  and 
to  which,  with  the  foresight  of  a  pioneer,  he  gave  the 
name  of  Port  Royal.  The  Baron  de  Poutrincourt  was 
also  captivated  with  the  beauty  of  the  now  well-known 


THE  Canadian  People  77 

Annapolis  Basin,  and  obtained  a  grant  of  it  for  himself 
from  De  Monts,  a  privilege  afterwards  confirmed  by  the 
king. 

Under  Champlain's  leadership  much  of  the  neighbom'ing 
coast  was  explored  and  named,  and  the  mouth  of  the 
large  river  running  from  the  north  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
now  the  St.  John  of  New  Brunswick,  was  reached. 

The  coast  having  been  largely  explored  by  Champlain, 
and  the  patience  of  De  Monts  and  his  colonists  ex- 
hausted, the  choice  of  a  place  for  settlement  was  made  up 
Passamaquoddy  Bay,  on  an  island  of  the  Ste.  Croix 
River.  On  their  island  home  operations  were  at  once 
begun  by  the  colonists.  On  the  north  side  was  built  a 
fort,  outside  of  it  a  barrack  ;  and  other  buildings,  in- 
cluding residences  and  a  chapel,  were  erected,  while  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Ste.  Croix  a  mill  was  buUt.  On  this 
Douchet  Island  a  tercentenary  Monument  was  erected  in 
1904. 

The  severity  of  a  New  World  winter  was  a  rude  surprise 
to  the  unprepared  colonists :  wood  and  water  failed 
them  ;  the  Indians  seemed  hostile  ;  and  the  scourge  of 
Cartier's  early  settlement,  the  scurvy,  cut  down  the 
colony  to  forty-four.  The  spring  came  to  find  De  Monts 
sadly  discouraged.  The  disheartened  colony  determined 
to  seek  another  situation.  Along  with  Champlain,  De 
Monts  explored  the  coast  southward  to  Cape  Cod,  but 
no  place  excelling  in  their  eyes  their  first-chosen  spot, 
Port  Royal,  could  be  found. 

Deserting  their  buildings  on  the  Ste.  Croix,  they  crossed 
the  Bay  of  Fimdy,  and  found  on  the  shores  of  the  spacious 
Port  Royal  Bay  a  resting-place.  Shortly  after,  Pont- 
grave  arrived  from  France  with  forty  new  settlers  and 
supplies  for  the  colony,  and  new  heart  was  given  to  the 
discouraged  colony.  Port  Royal  now  seemed  to  offer 
everything  needed  for  a  successful  settlement — beauty 
and  safety  of  position,  plenty  of  timber,  good  fisheries, 
nearness  to  the  rich  marsh-land,  and  a  mild  climate. 
Here  then  dwellings  and  storehouses  were  built,  and  a 
fort  as  well. 


7^  A  Short  History  of 

The  colony  firmly  established,  De  Monts  returned  to 
France.  The  succeeding  winter  again  proved  very 
irksome  to  the  new  settlers,  and  on  the  return  of  spring, 
at  the  request  of  the  colonists,  Pontgrave  again  explored 
the  coast  to  the  south,  seeking  a  more  favourable  spot. 

But  De  Monts  found  his  pathway  in  France  surrounded 
with  difficulties.  The  Rochelle  merchants  who  were 
partners  in  the  enterprise  desired  a  return  for  their  in- 
vestments. The  Baron  de  Poutrincourt,  who  was  still 
possessed  with  the  desire  to  make  the  New  World  his 
home,  proved  of  assistance  to  De  Monts.  De  Poutrin- 
court returned  to  Acadia  and  encouraged  the 
1606.  '  colonists,  who  were  on  the  verge  of  deserting 
Port  Royal. 

With  De  Poutrincourt  emigrated  at  this  time  a  Parisian 
advocate,  named  Marc  Lescarbot,  who  was  of  great 
service  to  the  colony.  During  the  absence  of  De  Pou- 
trincourt on  an  exploring  expedition  down  the  coast, 
Lescarbot  drained  and  repaired  the  colonists'  fort,  and 
made  a  number  of  administrative  changes,  much  im- 
proving the  condition  of  the  settlers.  The  following  winter 
was  one  of  comfort,  indeed  of  enjoyment,  for  Lescarbot 
says,  "  They  lived  as  luxuriously  as  they  could  have 
done  in  the  street  Aux  Ours  in  Paris,  and  at  a  much  less 
cost." 

In  May,  however,  the  sad  news  reached  the  colony 
that  the  company  of  the  merchants  on  whom  it  depended 
had  been  broken  up.  Their  dependence  being  gone,  on 
the  30th  of  July  most  of  the  colonists  left  Acadia  for 
France  in  vessels  sent  out  for  them.  For  two  years  the 
empty  buildings  of  Port  Royal  stood,  a  melancholy  sight, 
with  not  a  white  person  in  them,  but  under  the  safe  pro- 
tection of  Membertou,  the  Micmac  chief,  who  proved  a 
trusty  friend  to  the  French. 

The  opposition  to  the  company  of  Rochelle  arose  from 
various  causes.  In  addition  to  its  financial 
difficulties  the  fact  of  De  Monts  being  a  Pro- 
testant was  seized  on  as  the  reason  why  nothing  was  being 
done  in  the  colony  to  christianize  the  Indians.  Accordingly 


TCHE  Canadian  Peoplis  70 

when  De  Monts,  fired  with  a  new  scheme  for  exploring 
the  north-west  passage,  turned  over  the  management 
of  Acadian  affairs  to  De  Poutrincom^t,  who  was  a  sin^- 
cere  Catholic,  some  of  the  difficulties  disappeared.  It 
was  not,  however,  till  two  years  later  that 
arrangements  were  made  for  a  new  Acadian 
expedition. 

Under  the  blessing  of  the  Roman  Pontiff  the  new 
enterprise  began.  With  the  reorganized  movement  was 
associated  Jess6  de  Fleucher,  a  priest  of  Lantage.  Soon, 
dismantled  Port  Royal  was  revived  again.  Houses  were 
occupied  along  the  river  by  the  artisans  and  labourers, 
and  successful  efforts  were  made  to  convert  the  Indians. 
Twenty-one  Indians  became  Christians  in  the  first  sum- 
mer. Chief  Membertou,  his  son,  and  his  son's  wife 
were  among  these  and  were  baptized  with  the  names  of 
Henri,  Louis,  and  Marie,  the  names  of  the  King,  Dauphin, 
and  the  Queen. 

Baron  de  St.  Just,  eldest  son  of  the  Baron  de  Pou- 
trincourt,  was  despatched  to  France  with  the  news  of 
these  conversions.  Great  joy  was  expressed  at  Court. 
Two  Jesuit  fathers  were  named  to  accompany  the  mes- 
senger on  his  return.  An  unexpected  obstacle  inter- 
vened. The  merchants  of  Dieppe,  who  controlled  the 
ship  going  to  Acadia,  were  Huguenots,  and  they  refused 
the  Jesuits  a  passage.  At  this  juncture,  Madame  de 
Guercheville,  a  noble  lady,  purchased  the  interest  of 
these  traders  in  the  ship,  and  the  fathers  were  allowed 
to  go.  Arrived  at  the  colony  again,  De  St.  Just  took 
charge  of  it,  and  allowed  his  father  to  return  to 
France.  At  this  time  it  contained  but  twenty- 
two  persons.     Its  difficulties  and  trials  were  many. 

About  this  time,  Madame  de  Guercheville  sent  another 
colony  from  Honfleur  to  seek  a  place  on  the  coast  of 
the  New  World.  The  Jesuit  father  who  accompanied  it 
had  quarrelled  with  De  St.  Just,  and  it  was  deemed  wise 
to  seek  another  situation  than  Port  Royal  for  it.  It 
consisted  of  forty-eight  colonists,  and  in  the  ship  con- 
taining the  emigrants  were  provisions  for  a  year.     The 


80  A  Short  History  of 

spot  chosen  for  settlement  was  Mount  Desert,  an  island, 
now  a  fashionable  summer  resort  on  the  coast 
of  Maine.     The  name  given  the  new  settlement 
was  St.  Sauveur. 

This  attempt  was,  however,  ill-starred.  The  situation 
chosen  was  on  territory  claimed  by  the  English,  and 
in  consequence  a  Virginian  captain,  Samuel  Argall,  fell 
upon  the  colony,  and  showing  no  mercy,  carried  fifteen 
of  the  colonists  away  in  chains,  and  turned  the  remainder 
adrift  on  the  ocean. 

The  captain  of  the  French  at  St.  Sauveur  had  shown 

to  Argall  the  commission  of  the  King  of  France  to  choose 

the   situation   he   had   done.     In   consequence   of   this, 

two  ships  from   Virginia  sailed  north,   and  cast  down 

every   vestige   of  French  occupation  found  on  Mount 

Desert.     The  expedition  visited  Ste.  Croix,  and  crossing 

over  to  Port  Royal  attacked  it  and  left  it  in  ashes.     In 

„  .  the  same  year  the  aged  Baron  de  Poutrincourt 

arrived  in  the  New  World  only  to  see  the 

desolation  of  Port  Royal ;   he  returned  to  France,  to  fall 

g  fighting  in  the  wars  of  his  sovereign  in  the 

following  year.     His  son  De  St.  Just  remained 

in  Acadia,  became  a  border  ranger,  and  with  the  remnant 

of  the  colony,  lived  among  the  Indians. 

The  successful  attack  by  Argall  was  a  heavy  blow  to 

French  interests  in  Acadia.     It  revived  the  claim  of  the 

English  to  the  Acadian  coast.     The  weak  hold  given  by 

the  almost  forgotten  voyages  of  Cabot  was  now  insisted  on. 

The  Puritans  of  King  James's  reign  had  much  interest 

in  the  New  World.     It  was  to  Sir  William  Alexander  of 

Menstry,    afterwards    Earl    of    Stirling,    a   favourite    of 

King  James,  one  claiming  to  possess  royal  blood,  and 

also  a  writer  of  plays  and  poems,  that  the 

^  '*        *   territory  of  Acadia  was  given,  under  the  name 

of  Nova  Scotia,  and  for  which  a  nominal  rent  was  to  be 

paid.     In  the  year  following,  the  new  Viceroy 

Alexander  sent  out  a  vessel  with  a  Scotch  colony 

which  wintered  in  the  New  World,   and  in  the  next 

spring  visited  the  coast  of  Acadia,  but  returned  to  Scot- 


THE  Canadian  People  81 

land  in  Jiily.  Some  French  settlers  at  this  time  still 
seem  to  have  been  at  Port  Royal.  The  would-be  New 
World  monarch,  King  James,  continued  to  send  a  vessel 
annually  to  the  coast  of  this  domain,  to  trade  with  the 
Indians. 

King  James  undertook  the  foundation  of  an  order  of 
baronets  of  Nova  Scotia,  but  it  was  only  in  the  first 
year  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  his  successor,  ^^ 
that  the  order  was  founded.     Patents  to  no 
less  than  200  barons  have  been  granted,  of  which  about 
150  stiU  exist.     Up  to  1635  there  were  in  Nova  Scotia 
fifteen  of  these  baronets'  estates,  thirty-four  in  Baronets 
New  Brunswick,  twenty-four  in  Cape  Breton,  of  Nova 
and  thirty-four  in  Anticosti.     Each  estate  was  Scotia, 
to  have  been  six  miles  by  three  in  area,  and  only  to  be 
held  on  condition  of  its  being  settled. 

The  remnants  of  the  French  colony  of  Port  Royal 
never  deserted  Acadia.     As  already  stated,  De 
St.  Just — perhaps  better  known  by  his  family  JjJJ^* 
name,  Biencourt — with  a  small  band  of  fol- 
lowers, lived  a  semi-barbarous  life  on  the  Acadian  shore. 
Among  the  colonists  at  Port  Royal  had  been  a  man  of  high 
birth — the  Sieur  de  la  Tour.     Allied  to  the    ^^ 
noble  house  of  Bouillon,  this  colonist  was  a 
Huguenot,  who  had  lost  his  estates  in  the  civil  war  in 
France.     His  family  name  was  Claude  de  St.  Etienne, 
and,  with  his  son  Charles,  he  had  only  cast  in  his  lot  for 
four  years  with  the  Port  Royal  colony,  when  disaster 
overtook  it. 

The  Virginian  expedition  which  had  destroyed  Port 
Royal  ruined  the  fort  in  the  absence  of  its  possessors, 
who  returned  to  find  their  place  of  shelter  in  ashes.  The 
De  la  Tours,  father  and  son,  had  then  established  a  fort 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Penobscot  River — Pentagoet — but 
being  on  territory  claimed  by  the  English,  they  had 
been  driven  from  it  by  the  Plymouth  colonists.  Charles 
de  la  Tour,  who  is  almost  a  romantic  figure  in  the  history 
of  Acadia,  had  then  taken  to  the  wild  life  of  Biencourt 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  destroyed  Port  Royal.  Kin- 
6 


82  A  Short  History  op 

died  spirits,  so  great  friends  had  they  become  that  when 
the  forest  ranger  Biencourt  died,  he  left  his 
rights  in  Port  Royal  to  the  young  St.  Etienne, 
then  but  twenty-eight  years  of  age. 

The  young  leader  of  the  borders  was  a  man  active  and 
sagacious — one  of  those  self-reliant  men  developed  always 
on  the  border-land  of  civilization.  Two  years  after 
1625  Biencourt's  death,  Charles  St.  Etienne  married 

a  Huguenot  lady,  afterwards  the  heroine  of  the 
shores  of  St.  John.  About  this  time,  St.  Etienne  built 
a  fort,  St.  Louis,  near  Cape  Sable,  on  the  south-west  of 
Acadia,  and  the  adjoining  harbour  bears  his  name.  La 
Tour.  Claude  St.  Etienne,  the  father,  driven  away  as 
we  have  seen  from  his  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  Penobscot, 
now  resorted  to  Fort  St.  Louis  with  his  son,  and  under- 
took to  carry  a  message  from  his  son,  the  real  commander 
of  the  fort,  to  the  French  king,  asking  for  ships  and 
men  to  preserve  Acadia  to  France. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that  another  Huguenot,  Sir 
David  Kertk,  in  the  service  of  the  English,  made  an 
attack  on  the  French  settlements  in  America.  Sieur  de 
la  Tour  had  been  successful  in  his  mission  to  France, 
and  was  coming  out,  bringing  eighteen  vessels  laden  with 
men,  cannon,  and  ammunition.  Kertk  captured  the 
whole  fleet  and  took  the  ships  to  England.  Young  St. 
Etienne  gathered  all  the  French  and  Indians  he  could 
influence  in  Acadia  into  his  Fort  St.  Louis,  and  stood 
for  its  defence  in  case  of  attack. 

But  strange  indeed  are  the  vicissitudes  of  fortune. 
The  elder  La  Tour,  taken  prisoner,  was  carried  to  England. 
Being  a  nobleman  and  a  Protestant,  he  was  received  at 
the  English  Court.  Having  become  friendly  with  the 
Nova  Scotian  pseudo-monarch.  Sir  William  Alexander, 
he  had  gone  over  to  the  English  side,  and  had  obtained 
for  himself  and  son  baronetcies  under  the  English  Crown 
in  Nova  Scotia.  The  estate  bestowed  on  father  and  son 
extended  along  the  coast  from  the  present  towns  of 
Lunenburg  and  Yarmouth,  with  a  depth  into  the  interior 
of  fifteen  miles,  and  comprised  4,500  square  miles.     Two 


THE  Canadian  Peopl:^  8S 

baronies  were  to  be  established,  St.  Etieime  and  La  Tour, 
and  a  Scotch  colony  was  to  be  formed. 

The  new  lord  of  La  Tour  had  married  while  in  England 
an  English  lady  of  rank,  and  embarked  with  a 
number  of  colonists  in  two  vessels  for  Nova 
Scotia.  On  his  arrival  before  Fort  St.  Louis  he  ac- 
quainted his  son  with  what  he  had  done.  His  son,  how- 
ever, utterly  refused  to  have  any  connection  with  the 
English.  The  father  used  threatening  and  winning 
words  alternately  with  his  rebellious  son,  but  all  to  no 
avail.  He  even  sought  to  compel  his  son  by  arms,  but 
failed  in  this  as  well.  Chagrined  and  disappointed. 
La  Tour  was  compelled  to  resume  his  voyage  and  conduct 
his  colonists  to  Port  Royal,  where  a  son  of  Sir  William 
Alexander  had  founded  the  Scotch  colony  in  1620. 

A  few  years  later  this  Scotch  colony,  along  with  the 
remainder  of  Acadia,  was  surrendered  to  France.  The 
elder  La  Tour,  now  on  the  invitation  of  his  son,  repaired 
to  Fort  St.  Louis.  In  the  same  year  in  which  La  Tour 
arrived  from  England,  a  vessel  was  sent  out  from  France 
with  ammunition  and  supplies  for  Fort  St.  Louis,  while 
the  young  commander  was  highly  honoured  for  his 
devotion  to  France. 

A  new  imdertaking  was  next  entered  upon  of  building 
a  fort  at  the  mouth  of  St.  John  River,  in  what  is  now 
New  Brunswick.  To  cap  the  strange  events  of 
this  period,  Charles  I.  in  order  to  obtain  from  J^gg^^  ^^^* 
France  the  400,000  crowns  of  his  queen 
Henrietta  Maria's  portion,  basely  gave  up  Acadia  in  the 
surrender  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye.  It  was  a  part  of  the 
policy  of  the  adroit  Cardinal  Richelieu  to  retain  at  all 
hazards  Acadia  and  Canada  as  French  possessions.  He 
had  five  years  before  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye 
organized  "  the  Company  of  New  France."  The  com- 
pany must  for  fifteen  years  send  out  200  colonists  a  year, 
and  thus  raise  the  colony  to  4,000  ;  all  the  colonists 
must  be  French  and  Catholics,  and  they  must  be  supplied 
with  priests.  The  company  received  the  gift  of  two 
men-of-war  in  addition  to  other  important  privileges. 


si  A  Shoet  History  of 

A  relative  of  the  Great  Cardinal,  Captain  de  Razilly, 
who  bore  marks  of  the  king's  favour,  was  chosen  to 
colonize  Acadia,  and  a  vigorous  policy  was  expected. 
The  new  commander  was  furnished  with  documents  to 
dispossess  the  Scotch  settlers  of  Port  Royal.  Artisans 
and  peasants  were  taken  out  to  strengthen  the  settlement. 
Along  with  De  Razilly  went  two  men,  whose  names  are 
D'Aulnay  indelibly  impressed  on  Acadian  history — these 
de  Char-  are  De  Charnissay,  and  the  historian  Denys. 
nissay.  rjij^^  former  of  these,  D'Aulnay  de  Charnissay, 

was  an  officer  of  the  French  navy,  who  had  served  with 
distinction  under  De  Razilly.  He  was  in  many  ways  a 
competent  leader  of  men,  and  acted  for  De  Razilly,  who 
had  unbounded  confidence  in  him. 

The  other  notable  man  of  the  party  was  Nicholas  Denys, 
^  born  in  1598  at  Tours.     Little  is  known  of  his 

Dfiiivs 

early  life.  He  wrote  "  A  Geographical  and 
Historical  Description  of  the  Shores  of  North  America, 
with  the  Natural  History  of  the  Country."  De  Razilly  in 
founding  his  colony  did  not  take  hold  of  Port  Royal, 
but  chose  La  Have  Bay,  and  with  his  forty  families  of 
colonists  settled  there  on  account  of  its  better  fisheries, 
and  erected  his  fort.  Denys  established  a  fishing-station 
near  it  at  Port  Rossignol.  New  troubles  now  arose. 
The  French  had  begun  to  claim  the  coast  as  far  south 
as  Cape  Cod  ;    and  De  Charnissay  took  possession  of  the 

old  French  station  of  Pentagoet  at  the  mouth 

of  the  Penobscot  River.  This  annoyed  the 
Plymouth  Company. 

The  other  and  yet  most  prominent  figure  in  Acadian 
affairs  was  La  Tour.  It  was  soon  manifest  that  the  old 
French  element  and  the  new  could  not  agree.  It  was  in 
1635  that  the  "  Company  of  New  France  "  granted  to 
Charles  de  St.  Etienne,  Sieur  de  la  Tour,  the  fort  of  St. 
John,  and  in  that  year  he  removed  a  portion  of  his  goods 
from  his  Fort  St.  Louis,  near  Cape  Sable.  The  greatest 
g-g  blow  to  the  internal  peace  of  Acadia  at  this 

time  was  the  death  of  De  Razilly. 
On  his  death  De  Charnissay,  or  as  he  is  perhaps  more 


THE  Canadian  People  86 

commonly  called,  D'Aiilnay,  as  next  in  command,  and 
also  a  relative  of  the  deceased  commander,  became 
successor  in  office.  He  removed  the  settlers  to  Port 
Royal,  but  being  chiefly  a  fur  trader,  did  not  encourage 
immigration.  D'Aulnay  was  now  virtuaUy  ruler  at  Port 
Royal,  La  Tour  at  St.  John.  La  Tour  lived  like  a  baron. 
His  fort  was  strong  ;  large  numbers  of  Indians  assembled 
there  to  trade  ;  fishing  with  nets  was  there  successful, 
game  of  every  kind  aboimded  ;  and  Lady  La  Tour  pre- 
sided with  grace  in  her  New  World  castle.  La  Tour  in 
1632  seems  to  have  been  a  nominal  Roman  Catholic, 
though  his  wife  always  remained  a  Huguenot. 

Jealous  of  the  distinction  of  La  Tour,  D'Aulnay  began 
to  poison  the  minds  of  the  French  Court  against  him. 
He  represented  that  instead  of  being  the  son  of  the 
well-known  officer,  Claude  St.  Etienne,  La  Tour  was  an 
impostor,  being  an  adventurer  named  Turgis,  the  son  of 
a  mason  of  St.  Germain,  who  had  gone  out  as  a  common 
soldier  to  Port  Royal ;  and  that  he  had  obtained  the 
goods  of  Biencourt,  some  70,000  livres  in  value,  including 
the  Port  Royal  Fort,  by  fraud.  La  Tour  knew  nothing 
of  the  secret  plot  to  destroy  him.  In  1640  he  had  gone 
to  Quebec,  and  in  the  foUowing  year  he  was 
surprised  by  a  peremptory  summons  to  repair 
to  France  to  answer  the  charges  made  against  him.  A 
vessel,  the  St.  Francis,  was  sent  to  conduct  him  to  France. 
Though  innocent.  La  Tour  refused  to  go,  on  the  ground 
that  misrepresentations  had  been  made  against  him, 
and  he  weU  knew  that  D'Aulnay  had  the  ear  of  the 
French  Court. 

Seeing  no  help  likely  from  the  French  Court,  La  Tour 
adopted  the  bold  expedient  of  calling  upon  the  Puritans 
of  Boston  to  assist  him.  The  Bostonians,  though  willing 
enough  to  trade  with  all  and  sundry,  were  not  disposed 
to  embroil  themselves  in  war.  Nevertheless  hearty  ne- 
gotiations were  maintained  between  La  Tour  and  the 
Puritan  governor,  Winthrop.  D'Aulnay  had  proceeded 
to  France  to  further  his  designs,  and  a  strong  expedition 
was  being  fitted  out  to  punish  La  Tour.     It  would  seem 


S6  A  Shobt  History  of 

that  religious  hate  lay  at  the  bottom  of  the  conflict,  for 
now  La  Tour  appealed,  and  not  unsuccessfully,  to  the 
Protestant  city  of  Rochelle  for  help.  The  Rochelle 
merchants  fitted  out  a  vessel,  the  Clement  by  name,  and 
sent  out  munitions  of  war  and  supplies,  along  with  140 
Rochelle  troops,  to  assist  the  Governor  of  St.  John. 

The  siege  of  La  Tour's  fort  began  early  in  the  spring, 
when  D'Aulnay  with  several  ships  and  500  men 
appeared  in  front  of  the  fort.  A  short  time 
after,  the  Clement  of  Rochelle  came  up  the  bay  behind  the 
French  fleet,  but  could  accomplish  nothing.  But  full 
of  expedients,  having  left  his  fort  as  well  defended  as 
possible,  the  brave  La  Tour,  accompanied  by  his  heroic 
lady,  escaped  past  the  blockading  fleet  at  night  in  a  shallop, 
boarded  the  Clement,  and  set  sail  in  her  for  Boston. 

The  vigorous  commander  succeeded  in  hiring  four  New 
England  ships,  and  in  enlisting  100  soldiers,  and  with  these 
he  hastened  back  to  attack  the  blockading  French  vessels. 

Surprised  beyond  measm-e  at  the  turn  in  events, 
D'Aulnay  saw  the  hopelessness  of  his  case,  and  speedily 
withdrew,  running  across  the  Bay  of  Fundy  into  Port 
Royal,  pursued  by  La  Tour.  The  vessels  grounded,  and 
a  party  of  the  Rochelle  and  the  English  troops  landing, 
defeated  those  of  D'Aulnay.  A  craft  laden  with  furs 
was  also  seized  and  the  cargo  divided  between  the 
Huguenots  and  Puritans. 

But  D'Aulnay  thwarted  was  not  defeated  :  he  again 
repaired  Port  Royal,  and  went  to  France  to  organize 
another  expedition.  At  the  same  time  Lady  La  Tour 
also  crossed  the  ocean  and  sought  to  gain  assistance  for 
her  husband's  cause  in  Rochelle.  D'Aulnay,  hearing  of 
her  presence  there,  obtained  a  warrant  for  her  arrest, 
which,  however,  she  avoided  by  flight  to  England.  The 
unflinching  heroine  now  took  ship  for  America,  butfwas 
very  nearly  captured  by  the  vessel  being  driven  on  the 
Acadian  coast.  By  assuming  a  disguise  she  eluded  the 
French  in  Acadia,  and  sailed  with  the  vessel  toj^Boston. 
Absent  nearly  a  year.  Lady  La  Tour,  having  escaped 
almost  every  variety  of  perils,  arrived  safely  at  St.  John. 


THE  Canadian  People  87 

D'Aulnay  next  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Bostonians, 
but  it  meant  nothing,  as  they  still  traded  with  La  Tour  ; 
for  this,  however,  D'Aulnay  afterwards  avenged  himself 
upon  them. 

Soon  the  last  lurid  scene  of  the  drama  came.     D'Aulnay, 
hearing  of  La  Tour  being  absent  in  Boston, 
attacked  the  fort  of  St.  John.     The  lady  her-  f^|  ^'^^^* 
self   defended   it,   from   one   of  the   bastions 
directing  the  cannonade  on  the  vessels.     For  three  days 
and  three  nights  D'Aulnay 's  attacks   were  driven   off 
with  loss,  till  a  traitorous  Swiss  betrayed  the  fort  while 
the  garrison  was  at  prayers.     D'Aulnay  offered  terms  of 
surrender,  which  being  accepted  he  basely  broke,  and 
hanged  the  garrison,  compelling  the  lady  to  be  present 
with  a  halter  around  her  neck  to  witness  the  execution. 

Three  weeks  later  the  heroine  died  of  a  broken  heart ; 
her  distinguished  courage  throws  a  halo  of  honour  around 
her  times.  The  American  poet  Whittier  has  in  stirring 
accents  of  immortal  verse  preserved  her  name.  Her 
husband  heard  the  sad  story  in  Boston.  His  fort  lost, 
La  Tour  sought  assistance  from  Sir  David  Kertk,  the 
Governor  of  Newfoundland,  but  in  vain. 

Driven  from  Acadia,  La  Tour  went  to  Quebec,  where 
he  was  received  with  much  distinction  by  the  governor, 
Montmagny.     In  New  France  he  took  a  lead- 
ing  part  for  four  years  in  exploration  and 
border  warfare. 

Acadia,  now  completely  under  D'Aulnay's  control, 
grew  ;  mills  were  erected  ;  vessels  built ;  the  marshes 
were  dyked  ;  the  people  increased  in  resources.  Three 
hundred  men  were  kept  as  a  small  standing  army  to 
defend  the  settlements.  The  victorious  D'Aulnay  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  Massachusetts  amid  much  demon- 
stration, and  left  the  harbour  under  a  salute  from  Boston, 
Charlestown,  and  Castle  Island. 

Freed  from  La  Tour,  the  jealous  D'Aulnay  must  now 
rid  himself  of  the  enterprising  Denys.  This  adventurer 
had  been  successful.  He  had  built  up  two  fishing-stations 
on  the  Cape  Breton  coast,  and  another  at  Chaleurs  Bay. 


88  A  Short  History  of 

Armed  with  a  high  commission,  D'Aulnay  seized  Denys' 
property,  broke  up  his  establishment,  and  drove  his 
former  friend  into  exile  to  Quebec.  But  justice,  though 
long  deferred,  overtakes  the  violent ;  and  D'Aulnay  de 
Charnissay  was  drowned  in  Port  Royal  River.  "  Rapa- 
city, tyranny,  and  cruelty  "  is  the  terrible  trinity  in 
which  his  life  in  Acadia  has  been  summed  up. 

On  the  death  of  his  rival.  La  Tour  hastened  to  France 
and  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  appointment  of  Governor 
of  Acadia,  with  many  valuable  privileges.  There  was  a 
prospect  of  much  trouble,  arising  from  the  claim  of  the 
widow  of  D'Aulnay  to  her  husband's  property,  but  at 
length  the  difficulty  was  overcome  by  marriage,  as 
quaintly  expressed  in  the  marriage  contract,  for  the 
"  peace  and  tranquillity  of  the  country,  and  concord  and 
union  between  the  two  families."  A  prospect  of  peace 
now  seemed  to  rise  before  the  long-disturbed  view  of 
Governor  La  Tour,  but  this  was  soon  dissipated. 

A  creditor  of  D'Aulnay,  who  claimed  a  debt  of  no  less 
than  260,000  livres,  now  came  to  seize  the  whole  of 
Acadia.  This  daring  man,  Emmanuel  le  Borgne,  carry- 
ing not  sword  and  fire,  but  writs  and  ejectments  instead, 
was  the  cause  of  serious  trouble,  and  was  about  to  seize 
Fort  la  Tour,  at  St.  John,  when  an  English  squadron 
took  possession  of  the  whole  of  Acadia,  in  the  name  of 

the  Lord  Protector,   Cromwell ;    it  was  some 

years  after,  however,  restored  to  the  French. 
Under  the  English,  La  Tour  succeeded  in  regaining  all 
the  old  grants  made  him  by  Charles  I.  as  a  baronet  of 
Nova  Scotia,  which  it  will  be  remembered  he  at  the  time 
refused.     In  1660  he  still  retained  his  possessions,  and 

we  know  but  little  more  of  him  till  the  time  of 

his  death. 

Canada 

In  the  last  year  of  the    16th  century,  two   French 
master-mariners  sailed  forth  to  different  parts 
of  the  New  World.     One  of  these  was  the  short- 
lived Captain  Ohauvin,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  entered 


» .  >   »      ?  > 


Monument  of  Champlain  at  Quebec 


88] 


THE  Canadian  People  89 

the  St.  Lawrence  to  Tadoussac  ;  the  other  was  a  native 
of  the  Biscayan  coast,  sprung  of  a  race  of  hardy  fishermen. 
This  young  mariner  had  risen  to  be  ship's  quartermaster 
in  the  French  navy,  and  in  this  year  he  found  employ- 
ment in  the  Spanish  service,  through  the  recommendation 
of  his  uncle,  who  by  the  Spaniards  was  known  in  their 
navy  as  the  "  Proven9al  Captain."  The  young  quarter- 
master, who  now  undertook  to  go  to  the  West  Indies, 
was  the  son  of  Antoine  de  Champlain. 

The  young  man,  of  the  age  of  twenty-two,  bore  the 
name  of  Samuel,  a  name  then  common  among  the  Hugue- 
not people  of  Rochelle  and  its  neighbourhood.  It  was 
on  his  return  from  the  West  Indies  that  the 
ambitious  captain  threw  himself  wUlingly  into 
an  expedition,  already  named  by  us,  along  with  the 
merchant  Du  Pont  to  visit  the  river  of  Canada.  The 
voyage  from  Honfleur  to  Tadoussac  occupied  from  the 
15th  of  March  to  the  24th  of  May,  and  the  summer  was 
spent  in  conference  with  the  natives,  in  the  exploration 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  in  the  examination  of  the 
minerals  of  the  country. 

We  have  already  noticed  that  Henry  IV.,  the  redoubt- 
able Henry  of  Navarre,  gave  a  wide  commission  to  a 
Huguenot  favourite,  the  Sieur  de  Monts,  to  especially 
open  up  and  govern  Acadia.  Bancroft  has  well  pointed 
out  the  remarkable  part  taken  in  early  colonization  by 
the  French  Calvinists.  It  was  in  the  spring  of  1604 
that  the  active  Santongeois  Champlain  joined  his  for- 
tunes to  those  of  De  Monts.  During  that  year  the 
energetic  captain  had  explored  a  good  part  of  the  North 
American  coast  along  the  North  Atlantic  and  in  the 
next  spring  as  far  south  as  Cape  Cod  was  reached.  It 
was  after  passing  through  his  Acadian  experience  that 
Champlain  accepted  the  suggestion  of  his 
patron  to  go  to  Canada,  which,  from  its  fewer 
ports  and  from  its  wide  extent  of  territory,  De  Monts 
regarded  as  better  suited  for  the  fur  trade  than  Acadia. 

It  was  in  the  next  year,  as  we  learn  from  Champlain's 
own  account,  that  on  the  3rd  of  July  he  chose  the  point 


90  A  Short  History  of 

of  Quebec,  so-called  by  the  natives,  probably  from 
1608  ^^^  Algonquin  word  "quebio" — the  narrows 

or  straits — on  which  to  found  what  has  now 
come  to  be  known  as  the  "  Ancient  Capital."  Here  he 
chose  a  fit  place,  than  which  he  found  none  better  situated 
for  the  habitation  of  his  infant  colony.  Workmen  were 
at  once  employed  to  cut  down  the  nut-bearing  trees  of 
the  point  of  land  made  by  the  entrance  of  the  St.  Charles 
River  into  the  St.  Lawrence.  A  portion  were  employed 
in  sawing  fit  building  material,  and  others  in  hollowing 
out  cellars  and  trenches  for  the  dwellings. 

A  plot  to  destroy  Champlain  was  discovered  by  him, 
but  the  ringleader,  Jean  Duval,  a  Norman  locksmith, 
who  had  intended  flight  to  Spain,  after  accomplishing 
his  malicious  purpose,  paid  the  penalty  with  a  traitor's 
death.  Champlain,  with  twenty-seven  or  twenty-eight 
for  a  company,  remained  for  the  winter  at  his  newly- 
begun  capital.  Of  his  choice  of  Quebec  as  capital,  the 
Abbe  Ferland  has  well  said  :  "  It  is  the  key  of  the  valley 
of  the  great  river,  of  which  the  course  is  nearly  800  leagues ; 
it  is  the  advanced  watchman  of  the  immense  French 
Empire  of  which  Louis  XIV.  dreamt,  and  which  was  to 
have  extended  from  the  Strait  of  Belleisle  to  as  far  as  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico."  The  winter  was  one  of  misery  and 
sickness,  and  in  the  spring  but  eight  of  the  colony  sur- 
vived. 

In  the  next  year  Champlain,  with  a  few  Frenchmen, 
gQQ  joined  the  Algonquins  and  Hurons  in  an  ex- 

pedition against  the  Iroquois  on  the  borders 
of  the  lake  thenceforward  to  be  known  by  the  name  of 
the  explorer.  Victorious  over  the  Iroquois,  after  his 
return  to  his  capital,  Champlain  set  sail  for  France.  It 
1610  ^^^  ^^  ^^®  ^^^  ^^  March  of  the  year  following 

that,  with  a  number  of  artisans,  the  commander 
again  embarked  at  Honfleur  for  Canada.  His  taste  for 
blood  once  awakened  in  the  Indian  wars,  he  was,  im- 
f ortunately  for  his  colony,  soon  involved  in  another  attack 
on  the  Iroquois.  Successful  in  his  expedition,  towards 
the  close  of  the  year  he  returned,  on  account  of  the  death 


THE  Canadian  People  91 

of  Henry  IV.,  to  France,  leaving  a  garrison  at  Quebec  of 
only  sixteen  men. 

It  was  while  at  home  in  France  on  this  occasion  that 
Champlain  married  a  young  girl  of  the  tender  age  of 
twelve,  of  a  Huguenot  family  named  Boulle. 

Leaving  behind  his  youthful  spouse,  in  the  next  year 
Champlain,  with  Pontgrave,  again  by  a  long 
and  dangerous  voyage  reached  the  New  World. 
It  was  in  this  year  that  Champlain  repaired  to  the  "  Grand 
Sault "  which  Cartier  had  visited,  and  the  mountain 
near,  which  he  called  Mont  Royal.  It  had  been  but 
seventy-six  years  before  that  Cartier  had  visited  this 
island  and  found  a  race  of  natives  living,  as  we  have 
seen,  in  a  fortified  camp,  in  wooden  houses,  agriculturists, 
pottery-makers,  and  much  more  civilized  than  their 
neighbours  ;  but  now  not  one  of  them  remained  to  greet 
Champlain.  They  had  been  crushed  out  between  the 
opposing  waves  of  Algonquins  from  the  east,  and  Iroquois 
from  the  south. 

The  next  notable  event  in  the  career  of  the  founder 
was  the  voyage  by  which  the  hope  was  awak- 
ened that  has  been  the  cynosure  of  many  gen- 
erations since,  of  finding  a  north-west  passage.  Led  by 
the  story  of  a  deceiver,  De  Vignau,  Champlain  went  up 
the  Ottawa,  hoping  to  reach  a  point  on  the  Northern  Sea. 
Though  the  expedition  never  reached  the  sea,  it  opened 
up  the  country  to  the  French,  and  brought  the  Indian 
tribes  of  the  Ottawa  and  Georgian  Bay  into  kindly  rela- 
tions with  the  French.  It  was  now  necessary  for  the 
daring  explorer  to  return  to  France,  for  the  affairs  of  the 
trading  company  for  which  he  acted  were  not  in  a  pros- 
perous condition. 

The  merchants  of  three  French  seaports  entered  into 
treaty  for  the  formation  of  a  strong  company.  The 
Rochelle  merchants  not  having  consented  to  enter  the 
company,  those  of  Rouen  and  St.  Malo  divided  the 
enterprise  between  them.  A  charter  was  obtained 
from  the  king,  and  the  Prince  of  Conde  took  the  title  of 
Viceroy  of  New  France.     To  forward  his  enterprise  the 


92  A  Short  History  of 

colonizer  now  sought  to  obtain  spiritual  guides  for  his 
colonists.  Negotiations  were  opened  with  Father  du 
Verger,  the  Provincial  of  the  RecoUets,  a  branch  of  the 
reformed  Franciscans,  which  had  taken  strong  root  in 
France  and  Belgium.  Thus  in  the  spring  the  Franciscan 
fathers,  Denis,  Dolbeau,  Le  Caron,  and  a 
brother,  Du  Plessis,  came  to  the  barren  religious 
soil  of  New  France  to  scatter  the  seed  of  truth. 

It  was  one  of  the  marks  of  the  French  occupation  of 
Canada  that  priest  and  explorer  were  constant  com- 
panions. On  a  spot  near  Champlain's  garden,  withia  a 
short  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Recollets  was  erected  a 
small  church  to  keep  alive  the  sacred  flame. 

It  was  in  the  year  of  return  from  France  that  the 
explorer  ascended  the  Ottawa,  and  passed 
by  way  of  Nipissing  and  French  River  to  the 
waters  of  Lake  Huron,  the  "  Attigouantan "  of  the 
natives.  Leaviug  its  shores,  he  joiu^neyed  southward 
down  the  lake  now  known  as  Simcoe  and  reached  our 
Lake  Ontario,  known  to  the  Indians  as  "  Entonoron." 

Crossing  this  lake  Champlain  encountered  the  Iroquois, 
and  though  twice  wounded  in  the  fray,  gained  the  victory. 
He  spent  the  winter  in  the  Huron  country,  north  of  Lake 
Ontario.  In  the  colony  two  fruitless  years  succeeded. 
Religious  disputes  between  Catholics  and  Huguenots, 
represented  by  the  fathers  and  the  Rochelle  merchants 
respectively,  retarded  the  advancement  of  the  colony, 
although  Champlain  succeeded,  by  his  frank,  true,  and 
fair  management,  in  keeping  himself  free  from  all  en- 
tanglements. 

In  1620  the  founder  brought  out  his  wife  and  family, 
believing  "  that  New  France  was  about  to  put  on  a 
new  face . ' '  The  Prince  of  Conde,  embarrassed  by  political 
and  private  troubles,  made  over  to  his  brother-in-law, 
the  Due  de  Montmorency,  the  viceroyalty,  receiving 
the  solatium  of  11,000  crowns;  and  in  the 
following  year  the  distractions  of  trade  were 
removed  by  all  interests  being  consolidated  in  one 
company. 


THIS  Canadian  People  93 

The  need  for  such  union  was  evident,  for  in  this  year 
the  whole  population  of  Quebec,  old  and  young, 
was  but  fifty.     It  was  in  1624  that  the  fort  of 
Quebec  was  built  of  stone.     It  was  a  considerable  struc- 
ture, 108  feet  long,  with  two  wings  of  60  feet,  and  four 
small  towers  at  the  angles  of  the   structure.     In  the 
following  year  the  Jesuit  fathers,  Lalemant  and    „ 
Brebeuf — names  celebrated  in  the  annals  of  the 
missions  of  their  society — with   two  others   arrived   in 
Canada  from  France.     Recollets  and  Jesuits  now  intro- 
duced dissensions,  annoying  and  needless,  into  the  infant 
colony. 

On  the  arrival  at  Quebec  of  Emeric  de  Caen,  a  Hugue- 
not, who  was  in  charge  of  the  company's  operations, 
Champlain,  with  his  wife  and  family,  who  for  five  years 
had  been  cut  off  from  the  attractions  of  Parisian  society, 
and  were  anxious  to  leave  the  colony,  crossed  over  to 
France.  The  contentions  between  the  old  and  new 
associates  of  the  consolidated  company  so  annoyed  the 
Viceroy  that  he  transferred  his  office  to  his  nephew,  De 
Levis,  the  Due  de  Ventadour.  In  the  same  year  Cham- 
plain  returned  to  Quebec,  and  finding  the  fort  out  of 
repair,  rebuilt  it. 

At  length  the  distressing  differences  of  the  associates, 
one  part  of  whom  desired  to  colonize,  and  the  g_g 
other  to  prosecute  the  fiu*  trade,  along  with  the 
considerable  success  of  the  Huguenots  in  retaining  in- 
fluence in  New  France,  decided  Cardinal  Richelieu  in 
favour  of  organizing  a  new  company.  His  brilliant 
scheme,  known  as  the  "  Company  of  New  France " 
or  of  the  "  One  Hundred  Associates,"  required  that  in 
the  first  year  two  or  three  hundred  citizens  should  be 
added  to  the  colony,  and  that  in  fifteen  years  the  popula- 
tion should  be  increased  to  4,000.  Land  and  seed  were 
to  be  furnished  the  colonists,  religion  must  be  supported 
by  the  company,  and,  what  was  the  highest  object  to 
the  cardinal,  no  heretic  must  set  unhallowed  foot  on  the 
soil,  but  all  must  be  Catholic  and  French. 

The  following  were  the  main  concessions  to  the  com- 


94  A  Shor'T  History  oj* 

pany  :  1.  The  possession  of  New  Prance  and  Florida  ; 
2.  The  right  to  alienate  the  land,  and  confer  titles  with 
certain  restrictions ;  3.  The  monopoly  of  trade,  all  pre- 
vious grants  being  revoked,  except  cod  and  whale  fishing 
in  the  deep  sea  ;  4.  The  right  to  purchase  at  a  certain 
rate  all  furs  taken  by  the  trappers  of  the  country  ;  5. 
The  gift  of  two  men-of-war  ;  6.  That  artisans  should  be 
at  liberty  to  return  in  six  years  ;  7.  Free  trade  for  the 
merchandise  of  New  France  ;  8.  The  distribution  of  a 
certain  number  of  titles  upon  persons  recommended  by 
the  company. 

It  was  in  the  first  year  of  the  operations  of  the  com- 
pany that  a  new  danger  beset  it.  This  was  none  other 
than  an  attack  by  the  English.  Three  brothers,  David, 
Louis,  and  Thomas  Kertk,  who  had  left  their  native 
country  of  France  in  anger  at  the  severe  treatment  of 
themselves  and  their  Huguenot  compatriots,  undertook 
the  task  of  assisting  England  against  New  France.  The 
Duke  of  Buckingham  was  making  a  demon- 
stration to  relieve  the  beleaguered  Protestant 
town  of  Rochelle,  and  Kertk's  attack  in  the  New  World 
was  a  part  of  the  same  campaign  against  France. 
Admiral  Kertk  made  a  demand  by  letter  upon  Champlain 
to  surrender  Quebec  from  so  safe  a  distance  down  the 
St.  Lawrence  as  Tadoussac.  Though  the  garrison  was 
at  the  time  on  short  allowance,  Champlain  sent  an  answer 
of  defiance,  and  the  English  in  that  year  withdrew  from 
the  conflict. 

In   the   following   year,    however,    when  famine   had 

done  its  work,  the  starving  people  of  Quebec 

were  peering  anxiously  from  their  rocky  citadel 

down  the  St.  Lawrence,  past  the  island  of  Orleans,  for 

ships  with  supplies  from  France,   when  in  July  three 

English  ships  of  war  appeared  instead. 

Champlain  had  no  resource  but  surrender,  and  on 
July  22nd  the  English  ensign  waved  over  the  fort  of 
Quebec.  Louis  Kertk,  with  150  men,  landed,  and  was 
installed  governor,  while  Champlain  was  taken  aboard 
the  admiral's  ship  and  conveyed  to  England.     The  supply 


THE  Canadian  People  96 

ship  expected  by  Champlain's  garrison  was  encountered 
and,  after  a  severe  contest,  captured  by  the  English.  The 
capture  of  Canada  gave  great  satisfaction  to  the  English 
people,  and  to  their  colonies  along  the  Atlantic,  and  yet, 
as  we  learn  from  Father  Charlevoix,  the  possession  was  of 
little  value  at  the  time,  for  the  progress  of  French 
Canada  had  been  painfully  slow.  He  mourns  thus : 
*'  The  fort  of  Quebec,  surroimded  by  several  wretched 
houses,  and  a  number  of  barracks,  two  or  three  huts  on 
the  island  of  Montreal,  also  perhaps  at  Tadoussac,  and 
in  some  other  directions  on  the  River  St.  Lawrence  for 
the  convenience  of  fishing  and  trade  ;  a  commencement 
of  settlement  at  three  rivers  .  .  .  behold  !  in  what  con- 
sisted New  France  and  all  the  fruit  of  the  discoveries  of 
Verrazano,  of  Jacques  Cartier,  of  M.  de  Roberval,  of 
Champlain,  of  the  great  expenditure  of  Marquis  de  la 
Roche,  and  of  M.  de  Monts,  and  of  the  industry  of  a 
great  number  of  the  French  !  "  The  population  of  the 
capital  of  the  colony  at  the  time  was  not  above  100. 

The  Treaty  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  as  in  the  case  of 
Acadia,  also  gave  back  Canada  to  France,  not 
only  to  the  intense  chagrin  of  Kertk,  its  captor, 
but  also  of  the  whole  English  people  and  colonies. 
Champlain  was  for  one  year  after  the  restoration  displaced 
from  his  position  as  governor,  in  order  that  De  Caen 
might  enjoy  the  sweets  of  office,  and  be  recouped  for 
losses.  That  year  Champlain  was  employed  in  publishing 
a  new  edition  of  all  his  voyages. 

In  the  next  year  he  was  appointed  by  Cardinal 
Richelieu  as  his  lieutenant.  In  March  of  that 
year,  with  the  three  ships,  St.  Pierre,  St. 
Jean,  and  Don  de  Dieu,  with  about  200  colonists,  the 
veteran  commander  set  sail  for  his  beloved  Quebec.  On 
his  arrival  Champlain  was  received  with  loud  acclama- 
tions. A  treaty  with  the  Algonquins  to  secure  the  fur 
trade,  the  building  of  a  new  post  on  the  Richelieu  River, 
and  the  greater  efforts  to  convert  the  Indians  were  the 
features  of  the  new  French  occupation.  In  gratitude  for 
the  restoration  of  Quebec  to  his  nation,  and  in  fulfilment 


96     A  Short  History  of  the  Canadian  People 

of  a  vow,  the  founder,  on  the  site  of  the  present  cathedral 
of  Quebec,  erected  a  new  chapel,  called  "  Notre  Dame 
de  Recouvrance." 

On  Christmas  Day  Champlain  died.  As  says  a  pious 
1635.  father,  Champlain  "  took  a  new  birth  to  heaven 

Death  of  the  same  day  as  the  birth  of  our  Saviour  on 
Champlain.  ^^e  earth."  Few  men  in  our  Canadian  annals 
have  had  the  enormous  difficulties  to  meet  that  Champlain 
encountered.  He  founded  a  nationality  on  the  banks  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  now  numbering  a  million  and  a  half  of 
souls.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  shrewd,  calm,  and  patient 
master  of  men. 

He  could  work  with  determined  Calvinist  and  subtle 
Jesuit  alike  ;  he  mediated  between  opposing  religious 
orders,  though  his  sympathies  were  always  with  the 
Franciscans,  "who,"  he  said,  were  "less  ambitious" 
than  their  rivals ;  he  harmonized  the  conflicting  in- 
terests of  fur  traders  and  colonists  to  a  surprising  degree, 
and  soothed  the  asperities  inevitable  in  the  early  life  of  a 
New  World  colony.  Happy  had  it  been  for  New  France 
had  the  governors  who  succeeded  him  been  of  kindred 
spirit. 


CHAPTER    V 

THE   FRENCH   REGIME   IN   CANADA   AND   ACADIA 

Section  I. — Governor  and  People 

From  the  death  of  Champlain  to  the  close  of  the  French 
regime  in  Canada  was  nearly  130  years.  As  regards 
the  improvement  of  the  colonists  in  comfort  and  the 
establishment  of  stable  government,  this  period  presents 
a  melancholy  picture.  The  heartless  autocracy  of  Louis 
XIV.,  then  flourishing  in  France,  was  also  felt  in  Canada, 
with  the  difference  that  its  agent,  the  French  Governor, 
was  in  the  New  World  playing  the  tyrant  over  a  handful 
of  miserably  poor,  nay,  himgry  colonists. 

Successive  governors  arrived  and  departed  with  but 
little  change  ;  a  struggle  between  the  Governor  and  the 
bishops  and  priests  of  the  Church  was  the  rule  rather 
than  the  exception  ;  working  at  cross-purposes,  the 
Governor  and  the  Royal  Intendant  often  lived  at  open 
enmity  ;  and  at  all  this  the  poor  people  looked  on,  usually 
regarding  the  quarrels  as  none  of  theirs,  and  knowing 
that  whichever  party  won,  no  benefit  followed  to  them. 

The  records  of  the  time  exhibit  duplicity,  petty  spite, 
and  selfishness — a  condition  of  things  almost  unparalleled. 
The  Colonial  Governor  always  had  enemies  in  the  Court 
of  the  king  plotting  against  him  ;  at  the  Governor's 
chateau  at  Quebec  every  explorer  in  the  wilds,  who  had 
a  fur-trading  licence,  was  sure  to  be  traduced  by  rivals  ;  in 
the  exploring  party  in  the  forest  mutinous  spirits  were  ever 
plotting  against  the  leader  ;  and  religious  orders  usually 
appeared  on  the  surface  as  having  a  hand  in  every  dis- 
7  97 


^§  A  Short  History  ot 

pute.     It  seemed  as  if  loyalty  and  trust  had  deserted 
New  France. 

It  were  useless  to  follow  in  detail  the  appointment  and 
recall  of  Governors,  many  of  whom  left  no  mark  on  the 
country.  Our  readers  will  find  their  names  in  lists  in 
the  Appendix.  We  but  single  out  some  prominent 
names,  and  though  there  were  some  truly  great  men 
during  this  regime,  their  fewness  shows  the  barrenness 
of  the  period  in  other  respects.  Midway  in  the  period 
Colbert  stands  the  name  of  a  most  remarkable  man, 

who,  as  Prime  Minister,  guided  the  destinies 
of  France.  This  was  Jean  Baptiste  Colbert.  In  the  year 
1651,  at  the  age  of  thirty- two,  Colbert  became  confi- 
dential agent  of  Cardinal  Mazarin.  In  1661  the  Cardinal's 
nominee  became  the  head  of  the  Government,  and  was 
some  years  after  appointed  Minister  of  Marine,  of  Com- 
merce, the  Colonies,  and  the  King's  Palace.  Colbert 
reduced  French  commerce  from  a  state  of  chaos  to  order, 
and  likewise  built  up  a  marine  for  his  country.  It  is 
true  his  economic  ideas  were  no  better  than  those  of  his 
age,  but  his  organizing  ability  was  surprising.  Colbert 
scouted  diplomacy  ;  his  methods  were  severe,  even  un- 
merciful— so  much  so,  that  he  was  known  as  the  "  man 
of  marble." 

New  France  was  under  his  special  control.  Having 
broken  up  organized  corruption  in  France,  the  reformer, 
in  1663,  remodelled  colonial  affairs.  A  "  royal  adminis- 
tration "  was  established  in  place  of  the  "  old  company  " 
rule,  and  the  "  Sovereign  Coimcil  of  Quebec  "  was  con- 
stituted. On  this  Council  were  the  Governor,  the  Bishop, 
and  Royal  Intendant.  At  first  there  were  also  five 
councillors ;  afterwards  the  number  became  twelve. 
These  councillors  were  appointed  by  the  Governor  and 
Bishop  conjointly,  and  their  election  was  annual.  When 
the  Council  sat  as  a  Court,  the  Governor  presided  ;  on 
his  right  sat  the  Bishop,  on  his  left  the  Intendant.  Ac- 
cording to  the  rules  drawn  up,  the  desire  of  the  rulers 
was  to  make  the  Council  "  neither  aristocratic,  nor  demo- 
cratic, but  monarchic." 


THE  Canadian  People  99 

The  Council  had  no  power  of  taxation.  This  right  the 
King  retained,  though  for  years  it  was  not  exercised.  It 
was  not  even  permitted  to  the  people  to  impose  a  tax  upon 
themselves.  The  King,  of  his  boimty,  at  times  gave 
over  his  revenues  to  the  people.  The  Constitution  of 
1663  seemed  to  give  some  power  of  electing  representa- 
tives to  the  people,  but  France  was  too  strongly  absolutist 
to  allow  this  to  remain.  In  1667  the  affairs  of  the  colony 
were  again  under  a  monopoly,  known  as  the  "  West  India 
Company,"  and  to  this  were  given  all  the  rights  of  Riche- 
lieu's former  company  of  100  Associates. 

At  this  time  the  population  of  the  colony  did  not 
exceed  2,500,  from  the  Saguenay  to  Montreal.  At  Quebec 
there  were  but  800  inhabitants.  Colbert  had  resolved  to 
send  out  300  colonists  yearly.  In  1663  some  300  persons 
embarked  for  New  France  at  Rochelle,  but  little  more 
than  half  of  them  reached  France  or  Acadia.  They  were 
"  clerks,  students,  or  the  classes  who  had  never  worked  " — 
not  very  promising  settlers  ! 

Colbert  chose  capable  men  for  carrying  out  his  plans. 
One  of  these  was  M.  Talon,  the  Intendant.  He  was  sent 
to  introduce  the  new  system.  He  was  not  the  head  of 
the  colony  ;  he  was  the  working  head  notwithstanding 
that  De  Courcelles,  an  agreeable  but  indolent  man,  was 
Governor.  A  still  higher  official.  Viceroy  of  French 
America,  was  appointed,  having  the  French  West  Indies 
in  his  jurisdiction  as  well.  This  officer  was  the  Marquis 
de  Tracy,  a  lieutenant-general  of  the  royal  army.  The 
Viceroy,  Grovernor,  and  Intendant  all  arrived  in  the  colony 
in  1665. 

In  this  year  came  a  large  number  of  immigrants  from 
France  ;  cattle  and  horses  were  also  brought — the  latter 
for  the  first  time.  With  the  colonists  there  was  also  a 
body  of  men  of  the  Carignan  Regiment,  brave  troops  who 
had  fought  with  renown  against  the  Turks.  Some  of 
these  afterwards  settled  down  in  New  France,  and  the 
officers,  who  were  chiefly  noblesse,  became  seigniors. 

It  was  Talon's  duty  to  report  to  Colbert  on  the  state  of 
the  country.    The  Intendant  was  of  the  same  enter- 


100  A  Short  History  of 

prising  spirit  as  the  great  Prime  Minister.  He  was  a 
good  friend  of  the  explorers,  and  had  enlarged  views  as 
to  government.  He  encouraged  the  fisheries,  especially 
seal-fishing,  the  export  of  timber,  and  the  cultivation  of 
the  soil.  In  1 668  Talon  obtained  leave  to  return  to  France, 
but  in  the  following  year  was  again  sent  out  as  being 
indispensable  to  the  colony.  With  him  there  returned 
700  emigrants,  nearly  half  of  whom  were  soldiers.  In 
1672  Talon  returned  to  Prance.  Tired  of  his  Canadian 
life,  De  Courcelles  was  allowed,  on  his  own  request,  to 
retire  from  New  France. 

In  the  year  that  Talon  returned  there  went  to  Canada 
the  man,  after  Champlain,  most  celebrated  in 
its  early  history.  This  was  Louis  de  Buade, 
Count  de  Frontenac  et  de  la  Paluau.  De  Buade  was  born 
in  1620.  He  had  served  in  the  French  wars  in  Italy, 
the  Netherlands,  and  Germany,  and  had  risen  to  be 
lieutenant-general.  Frontenac  was  large-hearted,  but 
his  high  birth  and  military  career  had  made  him 
haughty  and  severe.  This  was  the  more  noticeable  as 
he  followed  the  indolent  De  Courcelles.  He  maintained 
a  high  ceremony  and  strictness  in  the  affairs  of  State. 

With  stern  promptitude  the  Governor  called  to  account 
Commandant  Perrot,  of  Montreal,  for  maladministration, 
and  the  wrong-doer  was  thrown  into  prison.  His  case 
was,  however,  taken  up  by  some  of  the  Sulpicians  of 
Montreal,  notably  by  the  Abbe  Fenelon,  a  relative  of  the 
great  French  Archbishop.  Governor  Frontenac  was 
loudly  denounced  in  Montreal.  The  old  soldier  retorted ; 
Perrot  and  Fenelon  were  sent  as  prisoners  to  France. 
Disputes  also  arose  between  Frontenac  and  the  Bishop, 
and  between  Governor  and  Intendant.  The  French 
Government  could  restore  quiet  only  by  recalling  both 
Governor  and  Intendant.  The  Bishop's  party  rejoiced 
greatly  at  this,  but  the  colony  could  ill  spare  Frontenac 
in  its  coming  troubles. 

Failure  and  defeat  marked  the  course  of  Frontenac's 
successors.  M.  de  la  Barre,  a  distinguished  naval  officer, 
soon  arrived,  but  was  glad  to  take  his  flight  from  the 


THE  Canadian  People  101 

worry  of  Indian  attacks,  and  the  din  of  disputes  with 
the  clergy,  in  1685.  His  successor  was  the  Marquis  de 
Denonville,  an  honourable  and  religious  military  officer, 
but  misfortune  seemed  to  follow  his  every  step.  The 
Iroquois  sorely  beset  the  colony.  An  expedition  was 
planned  with  much  deliberation  against  their  country, 
but  resulted  in  nothing  of  consequence.  His  recall  was 
imperative,  and  under  the  pretence  of  asking  his  advice  on 
military  matters  in  France,  Denonville  was  relieved,  and 
the  veteran  Frontenac  returned  to  Canada. 

Bracing  himself  firmly  to  the  task,  the  Governor 
checked  the  British  in  the  border  settlements,  and  held 
the  Iroquois  well  in  hand.  With  clear  eye  and  un- 
diminished vigour,  the  aged  soldier  held  his  difficult 
post  till  his  death,  November  28th,  1698. 

Frontenac's  place  was  hard  to  fiU.  A  gallant  and 
cautious  officer,  the  Commandant  of  Montreal,  M.  de 
Callieres,  succeeded  him.  He  held  office  only  imtil 
1703,  when  he  died,  greatly  regretted  by  the  French 
Canadians. 

M.  de  Vaudreuil,  who  had  succeeded  De  Callieres 
in  Montreal,  now  became  Grovernor-General. 
The  new  Governor  was  popular  with  the 
colonists.  His  wife  was  a  French  Canadian.  It  was  his 
lot  to  be  Governor  at  the  time  of  the  Peace  of  Utrecht. 
Border  wars  raged  fiercely  during  his  rule.  Vaudreuil 
spent  the  time  in  Franco  from  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht 
until  1716.  He  remained  in  office  till  1725,  when  he 
died  at  Quebec,  greatly  regretted  by  the  people. 

M.  de  Beauharnois,  a  natural  son  of  Louis  XIV.,  now 
became  Governor-Greneral.  He  followed  the  policy  of 
his  predecessor  in  encouraging  exploration,  and  in  seek- 
ing peace  with  the  Indians.  He  was  gratified  in  seeing 
the  population  increase  to  50,000,  and  his  prosperous 
rule  continued  until  his  recall  in  1747. 

Aftet  short  terms  of  office  by  several  Governors,  M. 
de  Vaudreuil,  son  of  the  former  Governor  of  the  same 

t?    name,  arrived  at  Quebec  in  1755.     It  was  his  hard  lot 
I   to   pass   through   the   border  struggles   and   the   Seven 


102  A  Short  History  of 

Years'  War,  and  to  be  the  instrument  of  handing  over  to 
Great  Britain  the  portion  of  New  France  still  remaining 
after  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht. 

It  was  under  Vaudreuil  that  M.  Bigot  reached  the 
g  height  of  his  power  as  Royal  Intendant,  and 

accomplished  his  scandalous  robberies.  Having 
commenced  his  rascalities  at  Louisbourg,  where  he  had 
been  Intendant,  he  had  come  to  Canada  in  1747.  He 
was  a  most  vigorous  and  capable  man  of  affairs,  but 
absolutely  corrupt.  It  was  not  a  new  thing  in  New 
France  for  officials  to  be  charged  with  malversation  of 
office.  It  had  been  said  of  Governor  Perrot  of  Montreal, 
by  the  quaint  Lahontan,  "  that  he  cleverly  multiplied  a 
yearly  salary  of  1000  crowns  by  fifty,  through  unofiicial 
trafiic  with  the  Indians."  A  complaint  against  the  elder 
Vaudreuil  had  been  sent  to  France,  and  the  French 
Minister  had  only  written  on  the  margin  in  pity,  "  Well, 
he's  poor."  Frontenac's  mysterious  connection  with  the 
trader  Duluth  gave  rise  to  suspicions  ;  and  Vaudreuil 
the  younger  was,  after  the  conquest,  charged  with 
having  been  leagued  with  Bigot,  though  he  was  acquitted. 

Bigot's  operations,  however,  were  conducted  on  a 
magnificent  scale.  On  the  purchase  of  provisions  and 
equipments,  he  and  his  confederates  in  1757  and  1758,  in 
two  transactions,  profited  24,000,000  francs.  At  the 
very  time  when  the  soldiers  were  without  necessaries 
the  king  was  charged  with  rations  and  equipments  which 
had  never  been  supplied.  The  pay-rolls  were  falsified  to 
twice  or  thrice  their  true  amount ;  300,000  moccasins  for 
the  savages,  costing  30,000  francs,  were  charged  for  and 
not  delivered. 

These  are  but  instances  of  the  shameless  corruption 
in  New  France.  These  wrongs  weakened  the  attach- 
ment of  the  people  to  the  Governor  or  Montcalm  when 
the  supreme  struggle  came  at  the  siege  of  Quebec.  Bigot, 
after  the  loss  of  Canada  to  France,  was  tried  in  Paris 
and  condemned  to  expatriation,  and  required  to  restore 
the  enormous  sum  of  1,500,000  francs  ;  but  the  remedy 
was  too  late.     Canada  was  lost,  and  it  was  a  blessing  to 


Laval  Monument  at  Quebec 


102] 


THE  Canadian  People  103 

the  French   Canadians   that  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Britain. 

Section  II. — The  Church  and  Missionaries 

Mention  has  been  made  already  of  the  rivalry  pre- 
vailing between  the  several  religious  orders  in  the  early 
history  of  Canada.  The  Recollets  for  a  time  withdrew, 
but  the  contest  still  raged  between  the  Sulpicians  and 
the  Jesuits.  In  the  eyes  of  cultivated  France  the  exist- 
ence of  a  government  made  a  bishop  necessary.  The 
large  missionary  operations  among  the  Indians  made 
this  desirable  also. 

It  would  have  been  a  surprise  had  no  contest  ensued 
over  the  appointment  of  this  important  functionary.  The 
Sulpicians  recommended  Father  Queylus,  one  of  their 
number.  Cardinal  Mazarin  favoured  this  father,  but  the 
Jesuit  influence  around  the  king  was  too  strong,  and 
that  society  was  called  upon  to  name  a  bishop.  Their 
choice  fell  upon  a  highly  distinguished  and 
influential  young  ecclesiastic.  This  was  none 
other  than  the  afterwards  great  Laval. 

Pavilion  de  Montigny,  of  the  noble  and  ancient  house 
of  Laval  Montmorency,  was  bom  April  30th,  1623.  In 
order  to  enter  the  Church  he  renounced  his  inheritance 
as  eldest  son.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  asceticism  of 
the  vigilant  and  ultramontane  band  of  young  enthusiasts 
at  the  "  terrestrial  paradise  of  M.  de  Bernieres  "  in  the 
Caen  Hermitage.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1647. 
Nominated  now  by  the  Jesuits,  his  piety  and  lofty  family 
connections  secured  his  appointment.  According  to  the 
custom  still  prevailing,  when  missionary  bishops  are 
appointed,  of  giving  an  eastern  title,  the  young  bishop 
was  consecrated  by  the  Pope's  nuncio  at  Paris,  on 
December  8th,  1658,  under  the  name  Bishop  of  Petraea 
and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  New  France.  He  arrived  at 
Quebec  in  the  following  year  to  meet  the  strong 
opposition  of  the  Sulpicians.  Father  Queylus, 
having  vigorously  opposed  his  authority,  was  in  the  end, 
recalled,  a^d  returned  to  France^ 


104  A  Short  History  of 

Bishop  Laval  had  extremely  high  notions  of  the  Church 
and  its  offices.  He  was  a  Hildebrand  in  a  narrower 
sphere.  His  rank,  natural  disposition,  the  opposition  of 
the  Sulpicians,  and  the  state  of  morals  in  the  colony,  all 
tended  to  make  Laval  unyielding,  and  even  dictatorial  in 
his  bearing. 

Governor  D'Argenson  disputed  with  the  bishop  as  to 
precedence,  both  in  Church  and  State.  The  ecclesiastic 
asserted  the  rights  of  the  Church  to  be  supreme.  An- 
other Governor,  the  Baron  D'Avaugour,  a  fiery  old 
soldier,  thought  the  bishop's  opinions  on  the  sale  of 
liquor  to  the  Indians,  by  which  at  that  time  the  fur  trade 
was  largely  carried  on,  were  far  too  precise.  Conflict 
ensued,  when  the  bishop,  hastening  home  to  France 
in  1662,  complained  of  the  laxity  of  his  Excellency's 
views,  and  he  was  recalled. 

.  The  Government,  in  despair,  asked  Laval  to  name  his 
own  governor.  This  he  did  ;  and  M.  de  Mesy  arrived  in 
1663  as  the  bishop's  creature.  The  Sovereign  Council 
was  made  up  of  the  bishop's  nominees.  Dumesnil,  agent 
of  the  Company  of  New  France,  was  at  this  time  pressing 
the  Council  for  a  settlement  of  debts.  The  agent  was 
too  faithful,  and  members  at  the  Council  were  themselves 
debtors  of  the  Company.  At  the  instance  of  the  bishop 
the  papers  of  Dumesnil  were  seized  ;  but  this  proceeding 
was  more  than  even  Governor  De  Mesy  could  endure. 
He  asked  that  the  aforesaid  members  of  Council  should 
be  excluded.  The  bishop  refused.  The  Governor  per- 
sisted. His  lordship  threatened  his  Excellency  with  the 
loss  of  the  sacraments.  De  Mesy  was  aroused,  and 
appealed  to  the  opinion  of  the  people  ;  but  so  undignified 
a  course  in  the  eyes  of  majestic  France  procured  his 
recall. 

Bishop  Laval  will,  however,  ever  be  remembered  as 
the  founder  of  the  seminary  of  Quebec.  He  was  a  far- 
seeing  prelate,  and  so  laid  the  foundation  of  an  educated 
class  in  New  France.  The  seminary  received  large 
donations  from  France.  Laval  gave  his  own  valuable 
possessions,  large  tracts  of  land  in  the  seigniories  of  Petite 


THE  Canadian  People  105 

Nation,  Isle  of  Jesus,  and  Beaupre,  to  this  child  of  the 
fifth  year  of  his  episcopate.  In  1674  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Quebec  by  Pope  Clement  X.  The  revenues 
of  the  French  Abbey  of  Meaubec  were  given,  according 
to  a  usual  custom,  for  the  support  of  this  missionary 
bishopric. 

Pious  ladies  did  much  for  the  Church  in  New  France. 
The  Hotel-Dieu,  a  sick  hospital,  had  been  founded  by 
the  Duchesse  d'Aiguillon,  niece  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  in 
1637.  The  Hotel-Dieu  of  Montreal  was  erected  by 
Madame  de  Bullion  and  Mdlle.  Mance.  The  great  Ursu- 
line  convent  of  Montreal  was  founded  by  Madame  de  la 
Peltrie,  while  under  Bishop  Laval,  a  poor  but  pious 
sister,  Bourgeois,  began  the  congregation  of  Notre  Dame 
for  the  education  of  poor  girls. 

Bishop  Laval  met  his  strongest  opponent  in  the  person 
of  the  stem  old  soldier  Frontenac.  It  was  the  ^ame 
story  of  precedence  at  church  and  in  public  meetings. 
The  bishop,  as  we  have  seen^  rejoiced  at  Frontenac's 
recall.  Laval  also  disputed  with  the  Home  Government 
as  to  his  right  of  removing  cur6s  from  parishes  to  which 
they  had  been  appointed.  He  actually  once  disregarded 
a  royal  edict.  While  these  contentions  were  still  in  pro- 
gress Laval  returned  to  Paris,  and  asked  to  be  relieved 
of  office.  In  1688  this  request  was  granted.  Laval  was 
not  permitted  to  return  to  New  France  at  once,  though 
his  heart  was  still  there.  Four  years  afterwards  the 
prohibition  was  relaxed  and  the  late  bishop  came  to 
New  France  again,  where  he  died  in  1708. 

The  French  Grovemment  was  convinced  that  a  bishop 
of  a  different  order  should  be  chosen,  if  peace 
were  to  reign  in  New  France.  The  choice  now 
fell  on  a  noble  and  pious  priest,  well  known  at  Court  as 
the  Abbe  St.  Vallier.  Jean  Baptiste  St.  Vallier  was 
born  at  Grenoble,  November  14th,  1653.  He  was 
educated  in  the  college  of  his  native  town,  and  became 
a  doctor  in  the  Sorbonne  at  the  early  age  of  nineteen. 
After  serving  as  almoner  to  the  king,  and  refusing  to  be 
made  a  French  bishop,  St.  Vallier,  after  visiting  New 


106  A  Short  History  of 

France,  accepted  the  vacant  position  there.  He  was  con- 
secrated bishop  on  January  25th,  1688,  in  the  church  of 
St.  Sulpice  at  Paris. 

As  Bishop  Laval  had  inclined  to  education,  so  St. 
VaUier  was  drawn  out  toward  charities.  The  new 
bishop  founded  the  General  Hospital  of  Quebec.  Claim- 
ing certain  rights  in  its  administration,  he  engaged  to 
pay  the  community  of  the  Hotel-Dieu  £1,000  a  year.  St. 
VaUier  bestowed  upon  this  institution  the  houses  and 
lands  which  he  had  obtained  from  the  Jesuits.  He  seems 
to  have  lived  on  good  terms  with  Governor  Frontenac,  now 
in  his  second  term  of  office,  and  with  succeeding  governors. 

As  bishop  St.  VaUier  was  blamed  by  the  Jesuits  for 
hostility  to  Laval's  seminary.  Bishop  St.  VaUier  seems 
to  have  been  a  kind  and  yet  dignified  prelate.  His 
death,  which  took  place  December  26th,  1727,  was  greatly 
regretted.  A  strange  dispute  took  place  as  to  his  inter- 
ment. In  the  funeral  ceremonies  a  time  had  been  fixed 
for  his  burial.  According  to  appointment,  the  dignitaries 
assembled,  when  it  was  found  that  the  interment  had 
already  taken  place.  It  wasjaext-reported  that  there 
was  doubt  as  to  his  having  been  dead.  The  tomb  was 
opened,  and  his  body  was  found  supple,  but  he  was 
dead.  The  affair  found  its  way  into  the  civil  courts, 
and  created  much  angry  feeling. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  conquest  there  had  been  in  all 
six  bishops.  During  this  time  the  support  of  the  Church 
was  by  tax  or  tithe.  During  Bishop  Laval's  first  years 
one-thirteenth  of  everything,  "  whether  born  of  the 
labour  of  man,  or  what  the  soil  produce  of  itself,"  was 
demanded.  Since  1679,  however,  the  rate  has  been  one- 
twenty-sixth.  Complaint  has  been  made  by  Roman 
Catholic  historians  of  the  opportunities  for  education 
having  been  "  miserably  scanty  "  during  this  period.  In 
the  unsettled  state  of  the  country  it  would  have  been 
most  difficult  to  have  reached  the  scattered  communities. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  true  that  the  watchful  and  un- 
wearied efforts  of  its  early  bishops  placed  the  Chmxh  on 
its  present  firm  foundation  in  liower  Canada, 


THE  Canadian  People  107 

Section  III. — The  marvellous  Opening  of  the  West 

There  is  nothing  more  glorious  in  the  history  of  France 
than  the  zeal  and  success  with  which  her  missionaries 
and  explorers  became  the  pathfinders  to  vast  regions  of 
New  France  and  Louisiana.  The  successful  explorer 
needs  almost  every  good  quality.  He  must  have  foresight 
to  provide  for  such  wants  as  cannot  be  supplied  en  route  ; 
he  must  have  strength  and  energy  to  overcome  the  hard- 
ships of  the  way  ;  he  must  have  a  mixture  of  suavity  and 
firmness  to  meet  with  savage  tribes,  and  must  know  the 
points  of  strength  and  of  weakness  of  these  wild  peoples  ; 
he  must  also  have  the  faculty  of  ruling  men  and  attaching 
his  dependents  to  him.  Wind  and  wave,  hunger  and  thirst, 
fatigue  and  sickness,  are  by  no  means  the  most  formidable 
enemies  of  the  discoverer. 

Champlain  was  the  first  great  explorer  of  the  interior 
of  New  France.  He  ascended  the  Ottawa,  . 
passed  Lake  Nipissing,  coasted  Georgian  Bay 
— the  Mer  Douce — threaded  the  inland  lakes  and  rivers 
of  Ontario,  crossed  the  Lake  Ontario,  or  Frontenac  as  it 
was  afterwards  called,  and  also  penetrated  south  to  the 
lake  that  bears  his  own  name. 

Champlain's  west  fell  far  short  of  that  of  one  of  his 
own  followers — Jean  Nicolet.  This  brave  man  „  . 
was  bom  at  Cherbourg  in  Normandy.  In  1618 
he  came  to  New  France,  and  was  despatched  to  the 
interior.  In  Champlain's  service  he  became  familiar 
with  the  customs  of  the  Algonquins  and  their  language. 
After  dwelling  some  time  among  the  Nipissings,  he 
visited  the  Far  West,  seemingly  between  the  years  1634 
and  1640. 

In  a  birch-bark  canoe,  the  brave  Norman  voyageur 
crossed  or  coasted  Lake  Huron,  entered  the  St.  Mary's 
River,  and,  first  of  white  men,  stood  at  the  strait  now 
called  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  He  does  not  seem  to  have 
known  of  Lake  Superior,  but  returned  down  the  St. 
Mary's  River,  passed  from  Lake  Huron  through  the 
western  detour  to  Michilimackinac,  and  entered  another 


108  A  Short  History  of 

fresh- water  sea,  Mitchiganon  or  Michigan,  also  afterwards 
known  as  the  Lake  of  the  Illinois,  Lake  St.  Joseph,  Lake 
Dauphin,  or  even  Algonquin  Lake. 

Here  he  visited  the  Menomonee  tribe  of  Indians,  and 
after  them  the  Winnibagoes.  The  last-named  were  the 
first  Indians  of  the  Dakota  stock  met  by  the  French, 
and  marked  the  eastern  limit  of  that  great  family.  Nicolet 
returned  to  Canada,  and  lived  at  Three  Rivers,  but 
was  drowned  near  Sillery,  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  by  a 
squall  in  1642. 

It  has  been  well  pointed  out  by  Parkman  that  the 
second  generation  of  Jesuit  missionaries  was 
Explorers*  widely  different  from  the  first,  whose  martyr- 
dom has  become  so  celebrated.  Whilst  the 
names  of  Lalemant  and  Breboeuf,  from  their  zeal  and 
lofty  piety,  ought  to  be  written  on  the  skies,  many  of  the 
missionaries  of  later  times  were  of  the  earth,  earthy. 
They  were  explorers  rather  than  missionaries.  Father 
Marquette  was  the  connecting  link  between  the  fervour 
of  the  old  school  and  the  worldly  wisdom  of  the  new. 

The  fierce  wrath  of  the  Iroquois  had  driven  numbers 
of  the  Hurons,  Ottawas,  and  several  minor  Algonquin 
tribes  westward.  The  Iroquois,  like  a  wedge,  had  split 
the  northern  tribes  into  east  and  west.  Sault  Ste.  Marie 
became  a  central  point  for  the  refugees.  The  fleeing 
Algonquins  had  even  pressed  on  and  driven  away  the 
Sioux  from  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Superior  or  Lac 
de  Tracy,  as  it  was  afterwards  called. 

Another  gathering-place  for  the  fugitives  had  been 
found  very  near  the  south-west  corner  of  this  great  lake. 
This  was  La  Pointe,  one  of  the  Apostle  Islands,  near  the 
present  town  of  Ashland  in  Wisconsin. 

The  Jesuits  took  up  these  two  points  as  mission  centres. 
We  learn  of  much  of  the  period  from  167^  even  to  1679 
from  one  of  the  ablest  of  the  Jesuits,  Father  Claude 
Dablon,  in  the  "  Jesuit  Relations."  In  1669  the  Fathers 
Dablon  and  Marquette,  with  their  men,  had  erected  a 
palisaded  fort,  enclosing  a  chapel  and  house  at  Sault 
Ste.  Marie.    In  the  same  year  Father  AUouez  had  begun 


r^ 


THE  Canadian  People  109 

a  mission  at  Green  Bay.  In  1670  an  intrepid  explorer, 
St.  Lusson,  under  orders  from  Intendant  Talon,  came 
west  searching  for  copper-mines.  He  was  accompanied 
by  the  afterwards  well-known  Joliet. 

When  this  party  arrived  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  the 
Indians  were  gathered  together  in  great  numbers,  and 
with  imposing  ceremonies  St.  Lusson  in  the  name  of  his 
sovereign,  Louis  XIV.,  took  possession  of  "  Sainte  Marie 
du  Saut,  as  also  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior,  the  island 
of  Manetoulin,  and  all  countries,  rivers,  lakes,  and  streams 
contiguous  and  adjacent  thereunto."  A  cedar  cross 
was  then  erected,  and  upon  it  the  royal  arms  in  lead  were 
placed.  The  Jesuit  father  Allouez  then  harangued  the 
Indians,  magnifying  the  sovereign  Louis  XIV.,  and  telling 
them  "  that  the  great  king  had  10,000  Onontios  as  great 
as  the  Governor  of  Quebec." 

The  station  at  La  Pointe  was  occupied  by  the  Jesuit 
father  Marquette,  of  whom  we  have  more  to  learn.  Shortly 
after  this  time  the  Sioux  attacked  the  mission  of  L'Esprit 
at  La  Pointe,  and  the  yoimg  priest  and  his  Indians  were 
driven  back  to  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  Marquette  now  under- 
took the  new  mission  of  St.  Ignace  at  Michilimackinac, 
and  Father  Andr6  that  of  Manitoulin  Island. 

It  was  undoubtedly  the  pressing  desire  of  the  Jesuit 
fathers  to  visit  the  country  of  the  Illinois  and 
their  great  river  that  led  to  the  discovery  of  Jss^iSi*" 
the  "  Father  of  Waters."  Father  AUouez  in-  ^  ' 
deed  had  already  ascended  the  Fox  River  from  Lake 
Michigan,  and  seen  the  marshy  lake  which  is  the  head 
of  a  tributary  of  the  Mississippi.  At  last  on  June  4th, 
1672,  the  French  minister,  Colbert,  wrote  to  Talon  :  "  As 
after  the  increase  of  the  colony  there  is  nothing  more 
important  for  the  colony  than  the  discovery  of  a  passage 
to  the  South  Sea,  his  Majesty  wishes  you  to  give  it  your 
attention."  This  message  to  the  Intendant  came  as  he 
was  leaving  for  France,  and  he  recommended  the  scheme 
and  the  explorer  he  had  in  view  for  carrying  it  out  to 
the  notice  of  the  Governor  Frontenac,  who  had  just 
arrived. 


110  A  Short  History  of 

Governor  Fronteiiac  approved  and  the  explorer  started. 
J  The  man  chosen  for  the  enterprise  was  Louis 

Joliet,  who  had  akeady  been  at  Sault  Ste. 
Marie.  He  was  of  humble  birth  and  was  a  native  of 
New  France.  He  had  been  educated  at  the  Jesuit 
College,  Quebec,  but  had  given  up  thought  of  entering 
the  Church  in  order  to  prosecute  the  fur  trade.  The 
French  Canadian  explorer  was  acceptable  to  the  mis- 
sionaries and  immediately  journeyed  west  to  meet 
Marquette,  who  was  to  accompany  him. 

Joliet,  it  is  true,  in  the  end  received  but  little — the 
usual  reward  of  explorers  in  New  France.  He  was 
refused  a  possession  in  the  western  land  he  had  dis- 
covered, and  given  a  tract  on  the  barren  island  of 
Anticosti,  where  he  built  a  fort.  He  died  before 
1737. 

M.  Joliet  met  the  priest  Marquette  of  St.  Ignace  Mission, 
„  Michilimackinac.    Jacques  Marquette,  of  whom 

we  have  already  heard,  was  born  in  1637  at 
Laon,  Champagne,  in  France.  He  sprang  of  an  ancient 
and  distinguished  family.  His  mother  was  the  pious  Rose 
de  Salle,  a  relative  of  De  la  Salle,  the  founder  of  the 
"  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools."  In  1654  young 
Marquette  entered  the  Jesuit  Society,  and  in  1666  sailed 
for  Canada.  On  arriving  at  Three  Rivers  he  began  at 
once  to  study  the  Algonquin  language.  We  have  already 
seen  him  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  and  La  Pointe.  At  Michili- 
mackinac the  chapel  of  "  walls  of  logs  and  roof  of  bark  " 
had  been  erected,  and  near  it  the  xlurons  soon  built  a 
palisaded  fort. 

On  May  17th,  1673,  with  deepest  religious  emotion, 
the  trader  and  missionary  laimched  forth  on  Lake  Michigan 
their  two  canoes,  containing  seven  Frenchmen  in  all,  to 
make  the  greatest  discovery  of  the  time.  They  hastened 
to  Green  Bay,  followed  the  course  of  Father  AUouez  up 
the  Fox  River,  and  reached  the  tribe  of  the  Mascoutins  or 
Fire  Nation  on  this  river.  These  were  new  Indians  to 
the  explorers.  They  were  peaceful,  and  helped  the 
voyagers  on  their  way.    With  guides  furnished,  the  two 


THE  Canadian  People  111 

canoes  were  transported  for  2700  paces,  and  the  head- 
waters of  the  Wisconsin  were  reached. 

After  an  easy  descent  of  thirty  or  forty  leagues  on 
June  17th,  1673,  the  feat  was  accomplished,  the  Mis- 
sissippi was  discovered  by  white  men,  and  the  canoes 
shot  out  upon  its  surface  in  latitude  43°.  Sailing  down 
the  great  river  for  a  month,  the  party  reached  the  village 
of  Akansea,  on  the  Arkansas  River,  in  latitude  34°,  and 
on  July  17th  began  their  return  journey.  It  is  but 
just  to  say  that  some  of  the  Recollet  fathers,  between 
whom  and  the  Jesuits,  as  we  have  seen,  jealousy  existed, 
have  disputed  the  fact  of  Joliet  and  Marquette  ever 
reaching  this  point.  The  evidence  here  seems  entirely 
in  favour  of  the  explorers. 

On  their  return  journey  the  party  turned  from  the 
Mississippi  into  a  tributary  river  in  latitude  38°.  This 
was  the  Illinois.  Ascending  this  the  Indian  town  of 
Kaskaskia  was  reached,  and  here  for  a  time  Father 
Marquette  remained.  Joliet  and  his  party  passed  on, 
reached  the  headwaters  of  the  Illinois,  crossed  to  the 
Miamis,  and  descending  it  reached  Lake  Michigan.  The 
joyful  explorers  now  hastened  on  to  Michilimackinac, 
and  thence  to  Montreal,  to  proclaim  their  discovery, 
while  Marquette  having  gained  access  to  the  Illinois 
Indians,  returned  near  the  end  of  September  to  Green 
Bay.  Joliet's  party  were  successful  on  their  journey 
till  the  rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence  above  Montreal  were 
reached,  where  the  papers  containing  the  details  of  the 
voyage  were  lost,  and  the  explorer  could  but  make  his 
report  from  memory. 

Father  Marquette,  now  detained  at  Green  Bay  by 
dangerous  hemorrhage,  was  not  able  to  visit  the  Illinois 
tribe  till  the  winter  of  1674-6.  On  his  way  to  his  mis- 
sionary work  he  was  overtaken  by  his  disease  and  com- 
pelled to  land,  build  a  hut,  and  take  repose  for  a  time. 
On  April  8th,  1675,  the  brave  father  reached  Kaskaskia, 
and  "  was  received  there  as  an  angel  of  light."  Returning 
to  Green  Bay  he  was  again  too  ill  to  proceed.  He  landed, 
was  seized  with  his  last  illness,  and  died  in  a  bark  cabin 


112  A  Short  History  of 

on  the  lonely  shores  of  Lake  Michigan,  May  18th,  1675. 
His  bones  were  removed  to  Michilimackinac  in  1677. 

High  encomiums  of  Father  Marquette  fill — and  de- 
servedly so — the  "  Jesuit  Relations."  We  have  his 
autograph  map  of  the  Mississippi.  This  great  stream 
he  desired  to  call  "  Conception  River,"  but  the  name, 
like  those  of  "  Colbert "  and  "  Buade,"  which  were 
both  bestowed  upon  it,  have  failed  to  take  the  place  of 
the  musical  Indian  name. 

One  of  the  most  daring  of  the  early  explorers  was  Daniel 
D  luth  Greysolon  Duluth,  or  De  I'Hut.  Charlevoix 
speaks  of  him  as  "  one  of  the  bravest  officers  the 
king  has  ever  had  in  this  colony."  He  was  born  at  St. 
Germain-en-Laye,  though  Lahontan  calls  him  a  "  gen- 
tleman of  Lyons."  He  was  a  cousin  of  Tonty,  the  faithful 
friend  of  the  explorer  La  Salle,  and  came  to  Canada  in 
1674,  but  went  back  to  Europe  and  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Senef ,  where  he  met  his  after  friend,  Hennepin. 
In  1678  he  returned  to  Canada,  and  soon  went  west  to 
explore  the  country  of  the  Sioux.  Duluth's  enemy,  the 
Intendant  Duchesnau,  charges  him  with  having  been  at 
this  time  a  freebooter,  working  in  a  secret  compact  with 
the  governor. 

Duluth  suddenly  bursts  upon  our  view  in  1680  on  the 
Mississippi,  where  he  appears  as  the  deliverer  from  cap- 
tivity of  Hennepin  and  his  two  companions.  The  chief 
scene  of  Duluth's  activities  was  in  the  region  about  Lake 
Superior,  and  the  city  of  Duluth,  near  the  old  Fond  du 
Lac,  well  represents  the  centre  of  his  work  at  the  mouth 
of  the  little  river  St.  Louis,  which  commemorates  his 
royal  master.  The  charge  of  the  Intendant  of  being  a 
"  leader  of  coureurs  des  hois  systematically  breaking  the 
royal  ordinances  as  to  the  fur  trade,"  would  seem  not  to 
have  been  far  astray ;  for  he  was  on  mysteriously  inti- 
mate terms  with  Governor  Frontenac.  To  Duluth 
belongs  the  great  distinction  of  founding  Fort  Kaminis- 
tiquia  on  Thunder  Bay,  Lake  Superior,  and  this  would 
seem  to  have  been  before  1700.  Though  a  terrible 
sufferer  from  the  gout,  Duluth  was  a  doughty  warrior 


THE  Canadian  People  113 

against  the  Iroquois.  In  1695  he  was  placed  in  charge 
of  Fort  Frontenac.  Governor  Vaudreuil  in  1710  an- 
nounces the  death  of  this  famous  explorer  as  having 
occurred  during  the  previous  winter. 

Among  the  brilliant  cluster  of  explorers  belonging  to 

this    period    in   New  France,   none    are    so  _  .     . 

^       J  .  J.  J.  '  J.'     Lahontan. 

unique  and  amusmg,  not  to  say  inventive  m 

their  narrations,  as  the   Baron  Lahontan.     He   was   a 

young  Gascon  of  good  family,  born  about  the  year  1667. 

In  the  year  of  his  majority  he  came  to  Canada,  and  was 

an  observer  and  critic  of  all  that  went  on  there.     He 

was  "  caustic  and  sceptical."     He  had  little  respect  for 

religion,  and  might  almost  be  called  the  Voltaire  of  New 

France.     He  was  merciless  upon  the  Jesuits,  scoffed  and 

sneered  at  their  work,  and  rather  delighted  in  the  vices 

and  waywardness  of  the  Indans.     He  was  a  favourite  of 

Governor  Frontenac,  and  was  selected  by  him  to  bear  the 

despatch  to  France  announcing  Phipps'  defeat  in  1690. 

The  baron  travelled  in  the  Far  West, — how  far  is  the 
matter  under  dispute.  He  describes  the  "  Riviere 
Longue,"  which  he  claims  to  have  ascended,  from  the 
Mississippi,  to  the  west,  and  of  which  he  has  left  a  map. 
It  is  generally  believed  that  he  may  have  got  from  Indian 
description  some  clue  to  the  great  Missouri.  As  to  his 
having  visited  such  a  river,  Parkman  declares  it  a  "  sheer 
fabrication."  Father  Charlevoix,  the  Jesuit  traveller, 
never  forgave  Lahontan  for  the  attacks  on  his  order, 
and  says  in  his  spicy  manner  :  "  The  episode  of  the 
voyage  up  the  Long  River  is  as  fabulous  as  the  Barataria 
of  Sancho  Panza."  Lahontan  became  in  time  Deputy- 
Governor  of  Placentia  (Newfoundland),  but  quarrelled 
with  his  superior,  fled  to  France,  and  only  avoided  arrest 
by  another  flight.  His  first  work  was  published  in  1703  ; 
several  editions  appeared.  It  is  interesting  for  its  state- 
ments about  the  Indians,  and  for  an  Indian  vocabulary. 

But  no  doubt  the  most  remarkable  and  capable  of  all 
the  explorers  of  New  France  was  Ren6-Robert  _ 
Cavalier  de  la  Salle.     His  vast  projects  were 
not  crowned  with  success,  but  La  Salle  was  unsurpassed 


114  A  Short  History  of 

in  the  courage  with  which  he  met  misfortune,  and  the 
energy  with  which  he  traversed  the  continent.  Indeed 
one  is  appalled  at  the  dangers  and  hardships  endm-ed  by 
him.  He  was  born  at  Rouen  in  1643,  and  was  educated 
among  the  Jesuits.  He  even  entered  the  order,  and  sur- 
rendered his  paternal  fortune  in  doing  so.  He  after- 
wards seems  to  have  become  bitterly  hostile  to  the 
Jesuits,  and  much  preferred  the  RecoUets,  the  "  bare- 
foots  of  St.  Francis,"  as  the  Indians  were  used  to  call 
them. 

In  1667  La  Salle,  with  his  brother  Jean  Cavalier,  a 
priest,  came  to  New  France.  Obtaining  from  the  semi- 
nary at  Montreal  a  seigniory  which  he  called  "  St. 
Sulpice,"  La  Salle  built  the  village,  either  at  this  time  or 
later,  called  Lachine,  as  marking  the  explorer's  dream 
that  up  the  St.  Lawrence  was  the  path  to  China.  In 
1669,  with  the  authority  of  Governor  de  Courcelles, 
Seigneur  la  Salle  made  a  journey  up  Lake  Ontario,  and 
by  way  of  Fond  du  Lac,  now  Burlington  Bay,  crossed  the 
country  to  the  Grand  River,  reaching  it  probably  near  the 
present  village  of  Caledonia,  if  not  further  north,  intending 
to  descend  to  Lake  Erie,  or  Conti,  as  it  was  later  called. 

Here  the  party  met  Joliet  returning  from  his  first 
expedition  to  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  La  Salle,  under  plea 
of  illness,  separated  himself  from  Fathers  DoUier  and 
Galin6e,  of  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  who  accom- 
panied him,  and  while  they  thought  him  returning  to 
Montreal  they  descended  the  Grand  River  to  Lake  Erie. 

At  this  point  comes  in  the  mystery  of  La  Salle.  In  a 
paper  entitled  "  Histoire  de  M.  de  la  Salle,"  purporting 
to  be  a  conversation  between  La  Salle  and  an  unknown 
writer,  it  is  stated  that  La  Salle  turned  eastward,  went 
to  the  Iroquois  country  instead  of  Montreal,  was  con- 
ducted by  the  savages  to  the  Ohio  River,  and  descended 
it  to  37°  N.  In  support  of  this,  Joliet's  map  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, afterwards  made,  states  that  La  Salle  descended 
the  Ohio. 

Another  part  of  this  *'  Histoire  "  claims  that  on  this 
mysterious   disappearance   of   La  Salle   he  likewise,  by 


THE  Canadian  People  115 

way  of  the  River  Illinois,  reached  the  Mississippi  and 
descended  it  to  35°  N.  This  statement  lacks  confirma- 
tion. A  great  controversy  has  raged  on  this  question. 
The  truth  of  the  matter  would  seem  to  be  that  La  Salle's 
claim  to  have  descended  the  Mississippi  at  this  time  is 
false,  the  report  having  probably  taken  its  birth  in  the 
desire  of  the  Recollets  to  rob  Joliet  and  Marquette  of 
their  laurels. 

On  the  arrival  of  Frontenac  as  governor,  La  Salle  and 
he  at  once  fraternized.  They  were  of  kindred  spirit, 
they  were  both  men  of  marked  ability,  their  combination 
might  be  of  material  benefit  to  both,  and  in  common 
they  disliked  the  Jesuits.  La  Salle  entered  heartily 
into  the  governor's  plan  of  having  the  fort  at  Cataraqui 
replaced  by  one  of  solid  stone. 

In  1674  La  Salle  went  to  France  and  obtained  a  patent 
of  nobility  and  a  grant  of  the  Seigniory  of  Frontenac. 
The  fortunate  seignior  returned  and  made  Fort  Frontenac, 
as  the  new  fort  was  now  to  be  called,  his  residence.  In 
time  the  fortified  stone  fort  was  built,  and  was  a  consider- 
able establishment.  It  contained  a  fair  complement  of 
men  ;  nine  cannon  threatened  the  intruder  from  its  battle- 
ments ;  outside  its  precincts  a  band  of  settlers  was  placed  ; 
near  its  walls  was  built  a  chapel,  and  beside  this  was 
the  priest's  house  in  which  now  Father  Hennepin  dwelt. 
La  Salle  visited  France  again  in  1677  ;  on  this  occasion 
to  obtain  authority  to  advance  to  the  west.  He  received 
a  patent  from  the  king  in  1678.  The  explorer  likewise 
obtained  large  loans  from  relatives  and  others  to  carry 
out  his  enterprises. 

While  in  France  he  attached  to  himself  a  man  who 
became  the  right  hand  of  all  his  imdertakings — one  of 
the  bravest  and  most  faithful  men  in  the  service  of 
France  in  the  New  World.  This  was  Henri  de  Tonty. 
This  man  was  the  son  of  Laurent  de  Tonty,  an  Italian 
officer,  who  in  the  troubles  of  the  time  was  confined  in 
the  Bastille  for  eight  years.  From  this  Italian  officer,  as 
its  inventor,  the  Tontine  system  of  life  assurance  receives 
its  name.    Yoimg  Tonty  entered  the  French  army  as  a 


116  A  Short  History  of 

cadet  in  1668.  In  the  siege  of  Messina  by  the  Spaniards 
the  young  officer  lost  a  hand  by  the  bursting  of  a  gren- 
ade. He  obtained  afterwards  a  false  hand  covered 
by  a  glove,  and  this  in  his  conflicts  in  the  west  he  used 
with  much  effect,  and  was  in  consequence  named  in  New 
France  *'  Main-de-fer."  On  the  advice  of  the  Prince  of 
Conti,  La  Salle  took  Tonty  into  his  service. 

On  the  return  of  La  Salle  to  Quebec  new  combinations 
were  made  with  powerful  merchants,  and  the  expedition 
was  begun. 

Here  joined  him  Father  Hennepin,  who  had  come  down 
.  from  FortFrontenac  to  meet  him.  This  father,  if 
not  one  of  the  loftiest  spirits  of  the  time,  was  at 
least  one  of  the  most  remarkable.  Louis  Hennepin  was 
born  at  Roy,  in  Hainault,  about  the  year  1640.  He  entered 
the  order  of  the  KecoUets.  It  has  been  mentioned  that 
he  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Senef.  He  was  of  an 
unsettled  and  adventurous  disposition,  and  came  to 
Canada  in  1676.  He  sailed  in  company  with  Bishop 
Laval,  and  made  a  good  impression  on  him.  Engaged 
in  various  services  in  the  wilds,  for  which  he  had  a  taste, 
he  now,  with  the  approval  of  his  superior,  found  himself 
joined  to  La  Salle's  expedition. 

La  Salle,  Tonty,  Hennepin,  and  the  party  of  some 
thirty  left  Fort  Frontenac  for  the  mouth  of  the  Niagara 
River  in  two  small  vessels  at  different  times,  late  in  the 
autumn  of  1678.  At  a  chosen  spot  above  the  Falls  of 
Niagara  was  built  a  vessel  called  the  Griffin,  named,  it  is 
supposed,  from  Frontenac's  crest.  With  this  it  was 
intended  to  navigate  the  upper  lakes.  In  August  La 
Salle  arrived,  and  with  him  the  RecoUet  brothers,  one  of 
whom,  Le  Membre,  has  left  a  memoir  of  the  journey  in 
the  "  Etablissement  du  Foi." 

On  August  7th  La  Salle  and  his  followers  embarked 
for  the  west,  and  their  little  vessel  was  an  object  of  terror 
to  the  natives  as  she  fired  her  small  cannon.  On  the 
arrival  of  the  Griffin  at  Michilimackinac,  the  journey  was 
continued  to  Green  Bay,  and  from  this  point  the  vessel, 
laden  with  furs,  was  despatched  to  Niagara  to  satisfy  La 


THE  Canadian  People  117 

Salle's  creditors,  who,  urged  on  by  his  enemies  the  Jesuits, 
had  seized  Fort  Frontenac  and  all  his  property.  The 
Griffin  was  never  heard  of  again. 

With  a  portion  of  his  party  La  Salle  now  hastened 
forward,  and  near  the  large  Indian  village  in  January, 
1680,  began  his  fort.  Father  Hennepin  and  two  com- 
panions were  sent  in  February  on  an  expedition  down 
the  Illinois  River  to  reach  the  Mississippi,  and  then 
ascend  it.  Tonty  was  to  remain  in  charge  of  the  fort, 
which  La  Salle,  on  account  of  his  misfortune,  had  called 
Fort  Crevecoeur,  or  Heartbreak  ;  while  the  commander 
himself  would  return  by  an  enormous  land  and  water 
journey  of  1,000  miles  to  Canada. 

Of  the  trip  made  by  him,  Hennepin  the  RecoUet  father 
afterwards  in  1684  wrote  an  account.  It  must  be  con- 
fessed that  a  haze  of  micertainty  surrounds  all  Henne- 
pin's recitals.  His  first  published  story  of  his  voyages  is 
generally  accepted  as  true  ;  the  second,  published  at 
Utrecht  in  1697,  in  which  he  claims  to  have  descended 
the  Mississippi  to  the  Arkansas,  is  now  rejected  by  most 
writers.  With  his  two  companions,  Accan  and  Auguel 
of  Picardy,  the  father  reached  the  Mississippi.  Here  he 
was  captured  by  the  Sioux,  and  with  them  went  north- 
ward to  the  grand  falls,  where  the  city  of  Minneapolis 
now  stands,  and  these  he  named  St.  Anthony  of  Padua, 
in  honour  of  the  patron  saint  of  his  order,  who  is  also  the 
guardian  of  sailors.  On  the  Mississippi,  as  already 
stated,  the  captives  were  rescued  by  Duluth.  It  is  now 
generally  believed  that  the  forest-ranger  had  heard  of 
the  three  Frenchmen  in  captivity,  and  had  hastened  to 
their  rescue. 

Tonty  had  many  difficulties  at  Crevecoeur.  The 
Iroquois  invaded  the  Illinois  country,  and  many  conflicts 
took  place,  in  which  the  Italian  captain  proved  himself 
shrewd  and  valiant.  La  Salle,  as  we  have  seen,  had 
returned  to  Canada.  He  was  marvellously  successful  in 
repairing  his  shattered  fortunes,  but  while  at  Fort  Fron- 
tenac received  the  bad  news  that  his  men  at  Crevecoeur 
had   mutinied   and   destroyed   the   fort.     Some   of   the 


118  A  Short  History    op 

returning  mutineers  were  arrested  by  him  and  im- 
prisoned at  Fort  Frontenac.  Knowing  that  the  faithful 
Tonty  must  be  in  a  sad  plight,  the  commander  fitted  out 
an  expedition  to  relieve  him,  which  soon  arrived  at  the 
Miamis  River.  Tonty  on  the  loss  of  Crevecoeur  had 
betaken  himself,  after  various  wanderings,  to  a  village  of 
the  Pottawattamies.  La  Salle  sought  long  for  his  faith- 
ful Tonty,  but  at  length  the  rejoiced  friends  met  at 
Michilimackinac.  The  unfortunate  explorers  returned 
to  Fort  Frontenac. 

But  the  heart  of  steel  of  the  commander  was  hard 
to  break.  In  December,  1681,  the  great  expedition  of 
which  La  Salle  had  long  dreamt  was  planned — this,  to 
find  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  Hastening  west  by 
the  usual  route,  the  "  Father  of  Waters  "  was  reached  on 
February  8th,  1682.  The  Arkansas  River,  the  furthest 
point  hitherto  gained,  was  left  behind,  so  also  the  Nat- 
chez Indians,  afterwards  so  celebrated,  and  sailing  out  by 
different  mouths  of  the  river  upon  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
he  made  the  dream  a  reality.  On  the  dry  shore  of  the 
gulf  beyond  the  mouth,  a  column  was  erected  on  April 
9th,  1682,  with  the  usual  ceremonies,  and  the  country 
was  claimed  for  the  King  of  France,  and  given  the  name 
Louisiana. 

La  Salle  returned  up  the  Mississippi  and  took  the 
route  for  Canada.  On  his  arrival  there  he  found  that  the 
Governor  Frontenac  had  been  recalled.  The  wearied 
explorer  was  greatly  discouraged,  having  journeyed  5,000 
leagues,  most  of  it  on  foot,  lost  40,000  crowns,  and 
endured  untold  hardships  and  disappointments.  His 
chief  discouragements  had  been  the  treachery  of  his  men, 
and  the  hatred  of  his  enemies. 

Returned  to  France,  the  explorer  saw  the  star  of  hope 
rise  again.  It  was  now  determined  to  colonize  the  country 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  In  company  with  Com- 
mander Beaujeu,  of  the  Royal  Navy,  La  Salle  departed 
on  July  24th,  1684,  in  four  ships  with  a  large  number  of 
colonists.  After  many  difficulties,  and  a  severe  illness 
of  La  Salle,  the  expedition  reached  Louisiana,  but  failed 


THE  Canadian  People  119 

to  find  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  On  the  coast 
of  Texas  they  built  a  fort — St.  Louis.  Beaujeu  returned 
to  France,  and  with  him  some  of  the  colonists.  La  Salle, 
with  a  chosen  band,  made  an  overland  expedition,  but 
the  mouth  of  the  great  river  could  not  yet  be  found,  and 
his  party  returned  to  Fort  St.  Louis.  The  disappointed 
leader  now  determined  to  make  the  great  overland 
journey  to  Fort  Crevecoeur.  His  faithful  Tonty  know- 
ing of  the  coming  of  the  colony  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi,  had  already  descended  the  river,  but  meeting 
no  one  had  returned  to  the  Illinois  county. 

After  journeying  many  weary  days  La  Salle  was  way- 
laid by  some  of  the  baser  members  of  his  own  band  and 
basely  shot.  The  mutineers,  however,  quarrelled  over 
the  booty,  and  the  murderers  were  killed,  for  vengeance 
suffered  them  not  to  live.  The  survivors  of  the  exploring 
band,  including  the  priest  Cavalier,  La  Salle's  brother, 
arrived  in  a  miserable  plight  at  Crevecoeur.  The  St.  Louis 
colonists  suffered  death  or  slavery  at  the  hands  of  the 
Spaniards.  Tonty  spent  his  life  among  the  Illinois,  and 
here  disappears  from  view.  Hennepin  quarrelled  with 
all  his  old  friends,  and  even  deserting  his  own  country, 
entered  the  service  of  William  III.  of  England,  to  whom 
his  second  or  improbable  work  of  1697  is  dedicated. 
Thus  passed  away  the  trio — La  Salle,  Tonty,  and  Henne- 
pin, whose  fortunes  had  been  so  closely  bound  together. 

Following  in  the  train  of  the  great  explorers  came  De  la 
Verendrye,  a  most  successful  discoverer.  Like  y^-gn^-yg 
Duluth,  he  found  on  Lake  Superior  the  scene  of 
his  earlier  operations.  He  discovered  the  rivers  of  the 
Canadian  North- West,  and  his  sons  reached  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Pierre  Gualtier  de  Varennes,  Sieur  de  la  Ver- 
endrye, was  born  at  Three  Rivers  in  1685,  and  was  the  son 
of  the  French  Governor  of  Three  Rivers.  He  early  went 
to  France,  and  served  as  a  cadet  in  the  Marlborough  wars. 
He  was  severely  wounded,  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant, 
and  came  to  Canada,  to  live  in  poverty.  The  fur  trade 
attracted  him  ats  affording  the  only  opening  in  Canada 
for  a  gentleman  and  a  soldier. 


120  A  Short  History  of 

While  trading  on  Lake  Superior  he  heard  at  Nepigon 
in  1728,  from  an  Indian  Ochagach,  about  the  Winnipeg 
country.  A  birch-bark  map  of  the  country  was  obtained 
from  this  intelligent  savage,  and  forwarded  to  Governor 
Beauharnois  at  Quebec.  The  Governor  was  ambitious  of 
equalling  his  predecessors  in  discovery,  and  willingly 
granted  permission  to  Verendrye  to  explore,  and  issued 
a  licence  to  trade. 

At  Michilimackinac,  a  Father  Gonor  and  Verendrye 
laid  their  plans,  and  in  1731  Verendrye's  party  proceeded 
to  Lake  Superior,  left  the  lake  by  the  Groselliers  River, 
now  called  Pigeon  River,  and  took  the  canoe  route  to  the 
interior.  Reaching  in  the  first  year  of  their  journey 
Rainy  Lake,  they  built  Fort  St.  Pierre  at  the  foot  of  it. 
The  site  of  this  fort  is  still  pointed  out.  A  descent  of 
the  Rainy  River  was  made,  and  in  1732  Fort  St.  Charles 
was  constructed  on  the  south-west  shore  of  Lake  of  the 
Woods.  Across  Lac  des  Bois,  or  Minitie,  as  this  lake  was 
called,  and  down  the  Winnipeg  or  Maurepas  River, 
brought  the  explorers  to  Lake  Winnipeg  or  Ounipique. 
Having  built  Fort  Maurepas  at  the  mouth  of  Winnipeg 
River,  the  lake  was  crossed  and  the  Red  River  was  dis- 
covered. Ascending  this,  the  Assiniboine,  called  by  the 
party  St.  Charles,  was  reached,  and  Fort  Rouge  built 
in  1738,  where  the  city  of  Winnipeg  now  stands.  Farther 
west  on  the  Assiniboine  River,  Fort  de  la  Reine  was 
erected  at  Portage  la  Prairie,  as  a  good  trading  post,  in 
1738. 

Verendrye  was  accompanied  by  three  sons,  and  his 
nephew  Jemeraye.  While  one  of  his  sons  with  a  priest 
and  a  number  of  the  party  were  unfortunately  killed  on 
an  island  in  Lake  of  the  Woods  by  the  Sioux,  another 
of  his  sons  with  a  band  of  voyageurs  ascended  in  1742 
the  Souris,  or  St.  Pierre  River,  made  a  portage  to  the 
Missouri,  proceeded  up  this  great  river,  and,  on  the  1st 
of  January,  1743,  saw  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  or  "  Montagnes  de  Pierre  " — first  of  white- 
men  north  of  Mexico.  After  this  the  explorers  visited 
Lakes  Manitoba,  Winnipegoosis,  and  Dauphin,  and  the 


THE  Canadian  People  121 

Saskatchewan  as  far  as  the  Poskoiac — "  the  banks." 
The  father  and  his  sons  gained  much  honour  but  little 
reward  for  their  discoveries.  They  were  overwhelmed 
with  debt.  The  veteran  explorer  was  on  the  point  of 
visiting  the  Upper  Saskatchewan  when  he  died — 1749. 
His  sons  lost  their  licence,  it  having  been  given  to  Legar- 
deur  de  St.  Pierre,  who  ascended  the  Saskatchewan  and 
in  1753  built  Fort  la  Jonquiere,  near  the  site  of  the  present 
town  of  Calgary  at  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 


Section  IV. — Indian  Hostilities 

Reference  has  been  already  made  to  Champlain's  mis- 
take in  involving  himseK  with  the  Algonquin  Indians 
against  their  enemies  the  Iroquois.  The  valiant  founder 
left  a  sad  heritage  to  his  successors.  M.  Montmagny 
succeeded  Champlain  as  Governor  in  1636.  The  Hurons 
and  Algonquins,  the  allies  of  Montmagny,  called  him 
"  Ononthio  " — "  the  Mountain."  The  great  effort  of  the 
Iroquois  was  to  break  up  the  alliance  of  the  Hurons  and 
Algonquins  with  the  French. 

The  building  of  Montreal  in  1642  by  M.  Maisoneuve 
was  regarded  as  a  menace  by  the  Iroquois.  During  the 
two  years  succeeding  its  founding  it  was  in  a  constant 
state  of  siege.  The  fury  of  the  Iroquois  knew  no  bounds. 
To  the  west,  near  Lake  Simcoe,  the  daring  Jesuit  fathers 
had  gone,  and  done  much  work  among  the  Hurons. 
Like  a  forest  fire  the  Iroquois  swept  down  upon  the  Hurons 
and  their  missionaries.  Jogues,  while  on  an  embassy  to 
the  Iroquois  in  1646,  was  put  to  death  ;  Daniel  was  killed 
and  his  body  burnt  in  1648  ;  and  the  two  distinguished 
missionaries,  Lalemant  and  Breboeuf ,  suffered  terrible  tor- 
tures. "  Tearing  off  the  scalp  "  of  Lalemant  his  butchers 
"  thrice  dashed  upon  his  head  boiling  water  in  imitation 
of  baptism.  They  clove  open  his  chest,  took  out  his 
heart  and  devoured  it." 

From  Tadoussac  to  Quebec,  thence  to  Three  Rivers, 
and  all  the  way  to  Ville  Marie,  there  was  nothing  but 


122  A  Short  History  of 

trace  of  blood  and  havoc.  The  Hurons  were  swept  out 
of  existence,  or  driven  to  the  Far  West. 

An  incident  of  surpassing  bravery  in  1660  checked 
the  fury  of  the  Iroquois  invasion,  when  it  looked  as  if 
they  were  about  to  exterminate  the  French.  Sixteen 
Frenchmen,  led  by  one  Captain  DoUard  des  Ormeaux, 
with  Hurons  and  Algonquins  made  up  a  war-party  of 
sixty.  At  a  spot  north  of  Montreal,  near  the  bank  of  the 
Ottawa,  they  secreted  themselves  ;  200  Iroquois  warriors 
advanced  to  attack  them  and  were  repelled.  Keinforced 
by  500  more  the  Iroquois  again  attacked.  For  ten 
days  the  brave  defenders  held  out.  All  of  DoUard's 
party  were  killed  except  five  Frenchmen  and  four  Hurons, 
who  were  reserved  for  torture.  The  Hiurons  escaped  to 
Quebec  and  told  the  tale.  The  Iroquois  had  already 
planned  with  1,200  men  to  sweep  the  banks  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  but  the  heroism  of  DoUard's  band  seems  to 
have  led  them  to  change  their  minds. 

The  more  peaceful  disposition  of  the  Iroquois  and  the 
arrival  from  France,  in  response  to  the  frantic  cry  of 
the  settlers  for  help,  of  a  company  of  soldiers  in  1662, 
gave  rest  to  the  colony.  The  Indian  country  was  a 
source  of  constant  anxiety.  When  M.  de  Tracy  arrived, 
as  we  have  seen,  as  Viceroy  in  1665,  he  had  instructions 
to  conquer  and  exterminate  the  Iroquois.  Four  forts 
were  built  for  protecting  the  country  :  St.  Louis,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Richelieu  ;  Fort  Richelieu,  near  the 
rapids  on  that  river  ;  Ste.  Therese,  further  up  the  river  ; 
and  Ste.  Anne,  on  an  island  in  Lake  Champlain. 

In  January,  1666,  M.  Courcelles  penetrated,  though 
with  discomfort  to  his  troops,  the  very  country  of  the 
Iroquois  and  brought  them  to  terms.  In  the  following 
year  De  Tracy  headed  a  strong  expedition,  which  entered 
the  cantons  of  the  Iroquois  and  humbled  them. 

In  1680  the  brilliant  old  warrior  Frontenac  held  a 
great  meeting  with  the  Iroquois  at  Montreal.  Appearing 
amongst  them  with  great  display,  he  seized  their  toma- 
hawks from  the  hands  of  the  Iroquois,  threw  them  into 
the  river,  declaring  that  Hurons  and  Algonquins  as  well 


THE  Canadian  People  123 

as  Ottawas  and  Illinois  were  his  friends.  He  failed, 
however,  in  cementing  a  peace  between  the  Iroquois  and 
Illinois.  Trouble  with  the  Intendant  and  Laval's  oppo- 
sition, as  we  have  seen,  resulted  in  Frontenac's  recall. 

He  was  followed  by  a  weak  administrator,  M.  de  la 
Barre.  The  new  Governor  immediately  assembled  a 
meeting  of  notables  ;  he  received  their  opinion ;  but  a 
fatal  indecision  always  overtook  him.  At  this  time  a 
new  element  appeared  in  Indian  affairs.  The  English 
from  New  York  were  gaining  a  strong  influence  over  the 
Iroquois.  The  British  undersold  the  French  traders. 
They  stirred  up  the  Iroquois  against  the  French  in  order 
to  control  the  Indian  trade.  Colonel  Thomas  Dongan,  a 
man  of  great  energy,  now  became  Governor  of  the  colony 
of  New  York.  De  la  Barre  spent  his  time  negotiating 
with  the  Governor,  or  striving  to  make  peace  with  the 
Iroquois.  They  were  simply  toying  with  the  French,  and 
waiting  for  opportunities  of  advantage. 

In  the  year  1684  De  la  Barre  collected  an  expedition 
upwards  of  1,000  strong  to  attack  the  Iroquois.  Meeting 
ambassadors  of  the  French  near  Oswego,  on  the  Lake 
Shore,  the  Six  Nations  got  the  advantage  in  the  negotia- 
tion, the  Senecas'  envoy  declaring  that  the  war  between 
his  tribe  and  the  Illinois,  allies  of  the  French,  must  con- 
tinue till  one  tribe  or  other  should  be  exterminated.  This 
famous  expedition,  like  that  of  the  French  king  of  renown, 
**  marched  up  the  hill,  and  then  marched  down  again." 

Shortly  after  this,  when  rumours  of  a  Seneca  attack 
were  becoming  frequent,  the  Governor  was  recalled,  and 
the  Marquis  de  Denonville,  an  officer  of  dragoons,  was 
sent  out  as  Governor-General  with  600  troops. 

Denonville  soon  went  west  to  Cataraqui,  the  fort  near 
where  Kingston  now  stands,  and  conferred  with  the  Six 
Nations.  He  insisted  on  their  making  peace  with  the 
Illinois  :  they  insolently  refused.  Denonville  now  made 
preparations  for  a  strong  force  to  clear  the  Iroquois 
country.  This  inhuman  policy  was  strongly  objected  to 
in  a  correspondence  with  the  Governor  by  Colonel  Don- 
gan.    Colonel  Dongan,  failing  to  stop  the  project,  then 


124  A  Short  History  of 

urged  the  Iroquois,  in  their  own  interests,  to  attack  the 
French  before  the  reinforcements  came.  Governor  Don- 
gan  of  New  York  has  been  much  blamed  for  this. 

But  in  1687  the  additional  troops  arrived — 800  strong 
— under  Chevalier  de  Vaudreuil.  The  Governor  had  as 
many  more  militia  and  half  as  many  Indians  to  make  up 
his  army.  Denonville  committed  an  act  of  treachery  at 
this  juncture  which  has  ever  made  his  name  infamous. 
He  induced  a  number  of  Iroquois  chiefs  to  meet  him  in 
conference  at  Cataraqui,  seized  them,  and  sent  them 
home  in  chains  to  France  to  work  in  the  galleys. 

With  much  pomp  the  Governor  went  forward  to  his  work 
g^  of  depopulating  the  Iroquois  country.     Beaten 

in  fight,  the  Indians  quitted  the  coimtry  and 
went  to  the  west.  The  devastator  ravaged  the  country, 
destroyed  the  standing  crops,  and  slaughtered  the  cattle. 
The  Senecas  suffered  the  most,  losing  half  their  tribe. 
The  Governor  moved  westward  and  built  a  fort  at  Niagara, 
but  his  men  perished  from  disease.  Denonville  now 
retired,  and  the  expelled  Indians  returned  to  their 
homes.  The  Six  Nations  were  more  desperate  than 
ever.  Every  border  settlement  of  French  Canada  was 
attacked  ;  fire  and  tomahawk  were  everywhere,  and  all 
the  horrors  of  an  Indian  war  were  upon  the  country. 
Governor  Dongan  advised  the  Indians  to  less  sanguinary 
measures,  but  not  to  peace.  "  I  wish  you,"  said  he,  "  to 
quit  the  tomahawk,  it  is  true,  but  I  desire  not  that  you*» 
bury  it ;  content  yourselves  with  hiding  it  under  the 
grass."  Not  very  Christian  advice,  certainly  !  However, 
conferences  between  the  Indians  and  French  were  secured 
in  the  winter  of  1687-8. 

At  this  juncture  a  wily  Huron  chief,  named  Kondiaronk, 
or  "  the  Rat,"  arrived  at  Cataraqui,  and  informed  the 
French  of  his  devotion  to  them.  The  French,  anxious 
to  make  peace  with  the  Iroquois,  rather  slighted  Kon- 
diaronk. He  said  nothing,  but  bided  his  time.  Shortly 
after,  a  band  of  Iroquois,  coming  to  Cataraqui,  were  way- 
laid, and  a  number  of  them  killed  by  "  the  Rat  "  and  his 
followers.     "Now,"  said  he,  "I  have  killed  the  peace." 


THE  Canadian  People  125 

He  then  sent  back  all  the  prisoners  but  one  to  their  own 
people,  saying  to  them  that  he  had  made  the  attack  with 
the  authority  of  the  French  Grovernor. 

The  remaining  prisoner  he  took  to  Michilimackinac, 
and  gave  him  over  to  be  put  to  death  by  the  French 
commandant,  who  knew  nothing  of  the  peace.  An  aged 
Iroquois  prisoner  was  then  sent  to  his  own  people  with 
the  story  of  this  further  evidence  of  French  perfidy. 
The  cunning  chieftain  largely  succeeded  in  his  plot,  and 
the  GrOvernor  of  New  York  fanned  the  hostile  flame 
among  the  Iroquois.  The  spring  of  1689  seemed  a  time 
of  perfect  peace,  but  it  was  the  calm  before  the  storm. 
On  the  night  of  the  6th  of  August,  1,400  Iroquois,  amidst 
rain  and  hail,  silently  drew  their  canoes  up  to  Montreal 
Island.  Stealthily  they  surrounded  every  house  in  the 
sleeping  village  of  Lachine.  A  signal  given,  and  fire, 
and  tomahawk,  and  scalping-knife  were  doing  their 
dreadful  work.  Two  himdred  men,  women,  and  children 
suffered  the  horrors  of  Indian  butchery.  The  scene 
beggars  description.  Of  the  prisoners  taken  many  were 
roasted  alive. 

This  proved  the  last  year  of  Denonville's  adminis- 
tration, and  no  one  regretted  its  being  so.  Long  after- 
wards it  was  spoken  of  as  "  the  year  of  the  massacre." 
The  veteran  Frontenac  had  been  asked  to  accept  the 
Governorship,  and  as  his  old  rival,  Laval,  had  resigned 
in  the  year  before,  he  accepted  the  position,  and  arrived 
at  Quebec  on  the  18th  of  October,  1689.  War  was  now 
declared  between  Britain  and  France,  and  this  gave 
Frontenac  an  opportunity  of  striking  a  blow  at  the 
English  border  settlements,  from  which  no  doubt  the 
Iroquois  had  received  their  inspiration.  Frontenac  had 
found  the  Iroquois  at  the  gates  of  Montreal,  and  even 
after  his  coming  they  had  gained  certain  successes ; 
while  he  heard  with  dismay  that  Cataraqui  had  been 
blown  up  by  orders  of  Denonville. 

The  presence  of  Frontenac,  however,  gave  new  courage 
to  the  Canadians  ;  even  women  became  expert  in  the  use 
of  firearms.    Frontenac  sent  messages  to  the  Ottawas 


126  A  Short  History  of 

and  western  allies  of  the  French,  after  his  attacks  on  the 
English  settlements.  The  wily  Kondiaronk  endeavoured 
to  form  an  Indian  league  even  against  the  French,  his 
former  friends.  The  diplomacy  of  Frontenac  kept  the 
Iroquois  from  entering  it. 

In  1691  a  great  Iroquois  expedition,  numbering  1,000, 
came  as  far  as  the  junction  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
Ottawa,  but  accomplished  little.  In  1692,  however, 
these  threatenings  prevented  the  colonists  sowing  seed 
in  their  fields.  The  colonists  were  being  inured  to 
their  own  defence.  Roused  to  desperation,  the  veteran 
Governor  determined  to  put  an  end  to  these  continual 
aggressions  of  the  Iroquois.  He  assembled  in  1696, 
2,300  men,  and  with  this  considerable  army  went  up  the 
St.  Lawrence.  Tribe  after  tribe  of  the  Six  Nations  were 
driven  out,  and  their  country  ravaged.  The  French 
prestige  was  completely  restored  in  the  west.  A  Sioux 
chief,  representing  twenty-two  bands,  pledged  his  service. 
The  order  of  St.  Louis  was  bestowed  on  Frontenac,  and 
though  he  died  in  1698,  his  power  over  the  Indians  had 
become  so  strong  that,  at  a  great  gathering  in  1701, 
1,300  Indians,  representing  all  the  Iroquois  and  Algon- 
quins,  in  the  presence  of  Governor  de  Callieres  established, 
amid  salvos  of  artillery  and  discharge  of  small  arms,  the 
peace  of  North  America. 

The  French  and  English  still  strove  vigorously  for 
control  over  the  various  Indian  tribes.  While 
the  English  seemed  more  powerful  with  the  Six 
Nations  and  other  Indians  to  the  south,  the  French  re- 
tained their  influence  over  the  tribes  of  the  upper  lakes. 
This  was  well  seen  in  the  fact  that  the  last  blow  against 
the  English,  sixty  years  after  this  great  peace,  was  dealt 
by  the  Indian  Pontiac  and  his  confederates,  whose  story 
Parkman  has  told  so  well. 

Detroit  had  been  founded  by  La  Motte  Cadillac  in 
1701.  This  settlement  of  which  it  was  the  centre  had  in 
sixty  years  grown  till  it  numbered  2,500  souls.  The  fort 
in  1763  contained  about  100  houses.  The  British  had 
captured  it  in  the  year  after  the  fall  of  Quebec.     It  was  a 


THE  Canadian  People  127 

military  and  fur- trading  depot,  and  contained  about  120 
soldiers,  and  forty  or  fifty  tur-traders  and  engages.  Two 
schooners,  the  Beaver  and  the  Oladtvyn,  did  its  trade. 

It  was  to  capture  this  and  the  associated  fort  of 
Michilimackinac  that  Pontiac  laid  his  plans.  Pontiac, 
we  are  told,  was  "  king  and  lord  of  all  the  country." 
He  was  bom  about  the  year  1713,  and  belonged  to  the 
Ottawa  tribe,  though  his  mother  is  said  to  have  been  an 
Ojibway.  He  lived  on  a  small  island  near  the  St.  Clair. 
His  plan  was  to  enter  Detroit  with  the  appearance  of  seek- 
ing peace  ;  but  each  of  his  followers  had  cut  a  portion  of 
his  gun-barrel  off,  and  secreted  the  gun  under  his  cloth- 
ing. The  policy  to  be  followed  was  "  to  kill  every 
Englishman,  but  not  to  touch  the  scalp  of  a  Frenchman." 

Unfortunately  for  his  plans,  the  attachment  of  an 
Indian  girl  to  Commandant  Gladwyn  betrayed  ^ 
the  secret,  and  saved  the  fort.  With  sixty 
chiefs  as  his  followers  the  crafty  Pontiac  entered  the  fort, 
but  armed  men  met  him  at  every  turn.  He  then  assumed 
an  appearance  of  devoted  friendship.  The  danger  for 
this  occasion  was  over,  but  shortly  after,  the  siege  of 
Detroit  began.  It  was  conducted  with  great  skill.  Pon- 
tiac, though  the  leader  of  numerous  bands,  held  them 
together  for  months  by  his  personal  power,  issued  paper- 
money,  and  showed  consummate  statesmanship. 

A  part  of  the  plan  of  war  was  the  taking  of  Michili- 
mackinac. On  the  4th  of  June  1763,  this  fort,  under  a 
Commander  Etherington,  was  attacked  by  the  Ojibways 
during  a  "  ball  play,"  and  many  of  the  imsuspecting 
residents  massacred.  The  Ottawas  rescued  some  of  the 
prisoners  from  burning.  On  the  failure  of  the  Indian 
confederacy  Pontiac  went,  in  company  with  the  Indians 
of  the  upper  lakes,  to  Oswego,  where  he  met  Sir  William 
Johnson  and  concluded  a  peace.  In  1769  the  well- 
known  chief  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  St.  Louis,  at 
Cahokia.  The  Illinois  Indians  gave  him  a  feast.  An 
English  trader,  displeased  at  this,  bribed  a  worthless 
Indian  with  a  barrel  of  whisky  to  kill  him.  Thus  fell 
Pontiac  in  1769. 


128  A  Short  History  op 

Section  V. —  Wars  and  Truces  ending  in  the  Conquest  0/  1759 

Peace,  as  we  have  seen,  restored  Canada  to  France  in 
Treaty  of  1^32.  This  was  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain-en- 
Westphalia.  Laye.  Before  a  score  of  years  another  out- 
Peace  of  St.  break  between  the  powers  had  taken  place  ; 
Germain-  and  now  to  end  the  war  the  Treaty  of  West- 
aye,  phalia  was  signed  at  Munster  in  1648 — one  of 
the  waymarks  in  the  history  of  modern  Europe — the 
establishment  of  the  idea  involved  in  the  "  balance  of 
power."  The  infant  Louis  XIV.  had  then  been  five  years 
on  the  throne,  and  the  policy  of  France  was  dictated  by 
Mazarin,  who  followed  the  great  Cardinal  Richelieu  in 
his  plans.  Louis  XIV.,  as  he  grew,  was  matured  in  this 
school  of  national  aggrandizement.  The  age  of  Louis 
XIV.  in  France  was  in  military  glory,  in  manners,  and 
in  literature  one  of  wonderful  brilliancy ;  in  politics 
and  economics  it  was  the  age  of  lead.  Napoleon  long 
afterwards  revived  in  a  different  form  the  France  of 
Louis  XIV.,  so  far  as  grasping  at  power  was  concerned. 

Thus  grew  the  wars — and  war  in  Europe  meant  war  in 
America — with  gaily-decorated  regiments,  and  stately 
men  of  war  in  Europe,  with  hungry  and  badly-equipped 
troops,  and  worn-out  or  condemned  old  ships  in  New 
France.  Louis  XIV.  was  at  his  height  when  the  Grande 
Alliance  was  made  against  him  in  1690.  It  consisted  of 
Germany,  Spain,  Holland,  and  England.  William  III.  of 
England,  who  was  versed  in  the  school  of  French  diplomacy, 
was  the  leader  of  this  league.  With  its  European  battles 
we  have  now  nothing  to  do.  Governor  Frontenac  had 
but  returned  on  his  second  term  to  Canada.  He  was  exas- 
perated with  the  English  of  New  York  for  inciting  the 
Iroquois,  and  New  France  was  in  her  last  gasp.  War 
being  declared  between  the  mother-countries  gave  him  the 
opportunity  of  striking  a  blow  at  the  English  settlements. 

The  first  expedition  was  started  from  Montreal  under 

Le  Moyne  de  Ste.  Helene,  one  of  the  famous 

Longueil  family,   and  with  him   another  Le 

Moyne,  surnamed  D 'Iberville,  of  whom  more  hereafter, 


THE  Canadian  People  129 

The  party  of  209  was  made  up  of  coureurs  des  hois,  with 
nearly  100  "  Christian  "  Iroquois.  In  mid- winter  they 
fell  on  the  outpost  of  Corlaer,  or  Schenectady,  in  New 
York,  and  silently  in  Indian  fashion  a  night  attack  was 
made,  and  sixty  men,  women,  and  children  were  slain  in 
cold  blood.  The  second  party,  commanded  by  Frangois 
Hertel,  left  Three  Rivers  in  the  end  of  January,  and  on 
their  attack  of  Salmon  Falls,  New  Hampshire,  thirty 
English  settlers  were  killed  or  woimded.  The  third 
expedition,  imder  M.  de  Portneuf,  started  from  Quebec. 
It  was  twice  the  size  of  the  Three  Rivers  party.  The 
town  of  Canso  was  sacked,  and  numbers  like  those  in 
Salmon  Falls  were  among  the  fallen. 

These  were  barbarous  measures.  No  doubt  they  were 
looked  on  by  the  French  as  retributive,  but  the  customs 
of  border  warfare  on  both  sides  were  unmerciful.  The 
colonists  were  awed  by  this  mode  of  warfare,  and  no 
doubt  it  did  much  to  restore  the  prestige  of  the  French 
among  the  Indian  tribes. 

The  Puritan  colonies  were  of  too  stem  stuff  to  endure 
quietly  such  outrageous  attacks.  They  furbished  their 
arms,  which  had  been  chiefly  used  in  Indian  warfare. 
Boston,  as  was  usual,  took  the  lead.  Ships  and  money 
were  with  some  difficulty  gathered  together. 
And  now  for  a  Miles  Standish  or  other  leader 
"  with  a  martial  air !  "  The  most  available  officer  to 
command  was  a  rough  backwoods  captain  from  the 
Kennebec  in  Maine,  WiUiam  Phipps.  He  was  now 
upwards  of  forty  years  of  age.  He  had  succeeded  after 
two  attempts,  with  the  assistance  of  friends  in  England, 
in  fishing  up  treasure  from  a  simken  Spanish  galleon  in 
the  West  Indies,  and  thus  secured  for  himself  a  small 
fortune  and  the  honour  of  knighthood.  There  was  much 
of  the  ruffian  spirit  about  the  vociferous  coasting  captain. 
Thirty-two  vessels,  large  and  small,  were  gathered  for 
the  expedition,  and  with  pious  Piu'itan  services  the 
enterprise  was  undertaken. 

It  was  decided  to  strike  the  first  blow  at  Acadia. 
Acadia  had  grown  but  little.     There  were  not  in  it  at 
9 


130  A  Short  History  of 

this  time  1,000  people  all  told.  Port  Royal,  the  Acadian 
Ac  di  capital,   was  defended    by  only   seventy-two 

soldiers,  and  its  fortifications  were  in  ruins. 
In  May  Sir  William  Phipps  appeared  with  a  forty-gun 
frigate,  and  several  smaller  war-vessels,  before  Fort 
Royal,  and  to  him  it  at  once  surrendered.  Other  points 
on  the  Acadian  coast  submitted,  and  Boston,  ever  for- 
ward to  seize  territory,  considered  Acadia  as  now  an 
appanage  of  its  own. 

With  his  fleet  of  thirty-five  sail,  and  having  on  board 
2,000  militiamen.  Commander  Phipps  set  out  for  Quebec. 
Frontenac  was  at  Montreal  when  he  heard  of  the 
approaching  fleet.  Intelligence  had  already  reached 
him  that  the  overland  expedition  against  Canada  had 
failed,  and  thus  free,  he  hastened  down  the  St.  Lawrence 
with  1,200  men  to  defend  the  capital.  On  the  16th  of 
October  the  fleet  appeared  before  Quebec.  Sii  William 
sent  a  messenger  demanding  a  surrender.  Frontenac, 
confident  of  his  strength,  refused  to  submit  to  the 
"  usurper  William  III.,"  and  said  "  the  muzzles  of  his 
cannon  would  bear  the  answer  "  to  the  English  demands. 

Thirteen  hundred  men  of  the  New  England  militia 
disembarked  on  the  soft  fiats  of  Beauport,  but  could 
accomplish  nothing.  The  cannonade  from  Quebec 
damaged  the  ships  of  the  Bostonians,  while  the  ships 
could  damage  the  citadel  but  little.  The  siege  was 
raised,  the  New  Englanders  returned  crestfallen  to 
Boston,  and  Massachusetts  was  compelled  to  issue  paper- 
money  to  meet  the  heavy  debt  incurred.  Frontenac  sent 
word  to  his  sovereign  of  the  great  deliverance,  a  medal 
was  struck,  the  new  Church  of  Notre  Dame  de  la  Vic- 
toire  was  built  in  Quebec,  and  an  annual  day  of  rejoicing 
set  apart  in  memory  of  the  event. 

The  great  failure  of  the  Boston  fleet  was  aggravated 
still  more  by  disaster  from  another  quarter.  This  was 
from  the  well-directed  attacks  of  an  expedition  under  M. 
d'Iberville.  Pierre  le  Moyne  d'Iberville  was  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  commanders  of  his  time.  He  was  a  native 
of  Canada,  his  father,  Charles  le  Moyne,  first  Seignior 


THE  Canadian  People  131 

of  Longeuil  and  Chateauguay,  having  come  from  France 
in   1641.     Pierre  was  the  third  son,   and  was  bom  in 
Montreal  in  1661.     He  was  recommended  for  _ 
a  commission  in  the  French  navy,  and  after- 
wards became  captain  of  a  frigate. 

After  various  brilliant  naval  attacks  in  previous  years, 
in  1696  his  victories  over  the  seaboard  forts  of  the 
British  were  most  disastrous.  The  fortress  of  Pemaquid 
had  been  raised  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec  as  a  pro- 
tection from  the  French  of  Acadia.  D'Iberville  took 
this,  the  strongest  fort  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  de- 
molished it.  In  this  year,  1696,  D'Iberville  sailed  to 
Newfoundland,  where  the  British  still  claimed  certain 
possessions.  Meeting  here  other  ships  from  France,  the 
combined  fleet  fell  upon  St.  John's.  D'Iberville  landed, 
and,  taking  charge  of  the  assaulting  party,  seized  the 
fort  after  a  stubborn  fight.  The  winter  was  spent  in 
subduing  Newfoimdland. 

The  task  was  not  quite  accomplished,  when  five  ships 
from  France  arrived  with  orders  for  D'Iberville  to  take 
command,  and  with  this  fleet  to  capture  the  British 
forts  in  Hudson  Bay.  The  dashing  Frenchman  knew 
the  region  of  Hudson  Bay  very  well.  Years  before,  in 
1685,  D'Iberville  had  been  one  of  an  overland  party 
which  captured  the  English  forts  around  Hudson  Bay, 
and  had  taken  in  one  of  them  60,000  crowns'  worth  of 
furs. 

The  expedition  for  Hudson  Bay  now  set  sail  from 
Newfoundland  in  July.  After  having  trouble 
with  the  ice,  the  commander  entered  with  his 
flag-ship  Pelicarij  having  been  separated  from  the  remain- 
der of  his  fleet.  Here  he  was  met  face  to  face  with  three 
English  men-of-war.  There  was  no  escape  from  the 
conflict.  Though  the  Pelican  carried  but  fifty  guns,  she 
sank  the  English  Hampshire  of  fifty-six  guns,  captured 
the  ship  Hudson's  Bay  of  thirty-two  guns,  and  only 
failed  to  overtake  the  Dehring  of  thirty-six  guns.  Fort 
Nelson  was  next  attacked,  and  Governor  Bailey  capitu- 
lated to  the  dashing  seaman  on  honourable  terms    Thus 


132  A  Short  History  of 

France  had  captured  the  whole  of  Hudson  Bay,  to  which, 
indeed,  she  had  always  laid  claim. 

But  the  Canadian  captain's  work  was  not  yet  done  ; 
he  was  now  but  thirty-five  years  of  age.  The  settlement 
of  Louisiana,  which  had  ended  so  sadly  with  La  Salle's 
expedition,  was  to  be  again  attempted.  With  two  ships 
D 'Iberville  sailed  for  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  found  the 
mouths  of  the  Mississippi,  ascended  the  river,  and  re- 
turning built  a  fort  at  Biloxi,  on  the  coast  of  Louisiana, 
in  1699.  Having  again  reached  France,  the  successful 
colonizer  was  made  a  Knight  of  St.  Louis  and  Governor- 
General  of  Louisiana.  A  substantial  bastioned  fort  was 
built  at  Mobile  in  1701.  This  remarkable  French  Cana- 
dian ended  his  life  as  Governor  of  Louisiana,  and  died 
of  yellow  fever  in  1706. 

The  European  nations  had  now  tired  of  war,  and  the 
Treaty  of  Grand  Alliance  could  not  continue.  In  1696, 
Ryswick,  by  the  action  of  Italy,  the  compact  was  broken. 
^^^"^^  Louis  XIV.  took  the  occasion  to  make  over- 

tures of  peace.  Accordingly  a  meeting  of  plenipoten- 
tiaries took  place  on  the  9th  of  May,  1697,  at  Ryswick,  a 
village  near  the  Hague  in  Holland,  and  at  William  III.'s 
chateau  of  Neuburg  Hansen  there.  The  treaty  gained 
the  acknowledgment  by  France  of  William  III.  as  King 
of  England — a  matter  of  much  moment — and  resulted  in 
the  restoration  by  England  and  France  to  each  other  of 
the  conquests  they  had  made  during  the  war.  To  what 
little  purpose  had  been  the  bloodshed  in  Acadia,  Maine, 
Newfoundland,  and  Hudson  Bay  ! 

The  nations  had  but  a  short  respite.  In  the  last  year 
1701  ^^  ^^®  ^^^^  ^^  William  III.  of  England  there 

was  formed  the  "  Second  Grand  Alliance,"  to 
check,  as  the  first  had  done,  the  greed  of  Louis  XIV. 
The  death  of  William  gave  Louis  increased  hope.  He 
sought  to  make  terms  with  Holland,  and  thus  break  the 
league.  In  this  Louis  failed  and  Queen  Anne  followed 
out  the  policy  of  William.  Accordingly  England,  Ger- 
many, and  Holland  in  1702  declared  war  against  France 
and  Spain.     This  was  the  great  Marlborough  War,  or, 


THE  Canadian  People  133 

from  one  of  its  causes,  called  "  The  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession."  The  victories  gained  by  the  English  in 
Europe  were  marked  and  memorable. 

In  America  there  was  comparatively  little  bloodshed. 
The  sanguinary  Hertel  led  another  expedition  against 
the  border  settlement  of  Deerfield  in  1704,  and  Haverhill 
on  the  Merrimac,  and  the  peaceful  inhabitants  were 
killed  and  their  dwellings  burnt.  In  Acadia,  in  1706, 
and  again  in  1707,  unsuccessful  attacks  were  made  by 
New  Englanders  on  Port  Royal.  In  1710,  however,  an 
expedition  with  3,500  troops  sailed  against  the  Acadian 
capital  from  Boston.  The  defenders  of  Port  Royal  sur- 
rendered, and,  as  the  captors  thought,  all  Acadia  with  it. 
It  was  Port  Royal  no  more,  for  its  inhabitants  to  the 
number  of  450  were  sent  in  transports  to  Rochelle,  and 
the  name  of  the  place  changed  to  Annapolis  in  honour 
of  the  sovereign.  The  loss  of  Acadia  was  felt  keenly  in 
France,  though  by  an  expedition  in  1708  France  had 
gained  the  whole  of  Newfoundland,  except  the  settlement 
of  Carbonneau. 

In  1711  one  of  the  most  tremendous  failures  ever  seen 
in  the  New  World  overtook  an  expedition  organ- 
ized by  England  to  take  Canada.  It  was  a  New  ^madal 
World  Armada.  The  fleet  under  Sir  Hoveden 
Walker  contained  eighty-eight  sail,  and  was  to  carry  6,500 
troops,  among  whom  were  seven  regiments  of  the  flower 
of  Marlborough's  army.  There  was  also  colonial  militia. 
To  co-operate  with  this  there  was  a  land  force  of  4,000 
Massachusetts  men  and  600  Indians.  The  land  army, 
under  Greneral  Nicholson,  moved  to  Lake  Greorge,  there  to 
await  the  attack  on  Quebec  by  the  fleet.  But  the  ele- 
ments fought  against  Admiral  Walker.  Eight  ships  were 
wrecked,  and  corpses  were  thrown  up  on  the  gulf  islands 
like  those  of  Pharaoh's  army  on  the  Red  Sea  coast.  Sir 
Hoveden  called  a  council  of  war  at  Cape  Breton.  The 
attempt  was  given  up  ;  the  colonial  vessels  returned  to 
Boston,  and  the  British  to  England.  The  Massachusetts 
volunteers  retired  discouraged  to  their  homes.  England 
was  the  laughing-stock  of  Europe  ! 


134  A  Short  History  of 

But  now  in  1713  the   "  dogs  of  war  '*  were  leashed 

again.  After  much  negotiation  the  great 
UtMcht*'       Treaty  of  Utrecht  was  signed  at  the  "  Ferry 

of  the  Rhine"  on  the  11th  of  April,  1713. 
By  this  the  Hanoverian  line  was  recognized  in  England, 
the  fortifications  of  Dunkirk,  which  had  menaced  the 
British  coast,  were  to  be  destroyed,  and  to  England  was 
ceded  Acadia,  Newfoundland,  and  the  country  of  Hudson 
Bay.  To  France  alone  remained,  in  the  New  World, 
Canada,  Louisiana,  Cape  Breton,  St.  John's  (Prince  Ed- 
ward's) Island,  and  certain  fishing-rights  on  the  Gulf. 
It  was  a  day  of  glory  for  England  ;  it  was  a  day  of  dolor 
for  Louis  le  Grand,  though  by  surrendering  the  colonies 
the  French  king  purchased  the  Spanish  throne  for  his 
descendant.  Louis  XIV.,  sunken  into  hopeless  imbecility, 
survived  this  treaty  a  little  more  than  two  years. 
But  France  bereft  of  these  New  World  possessions 

now  made  a  more  determined  effort  to  protect 
*P®  '  ^  •  what  was  left  to  her.  The  island  of  Cape  Breton 
was  in  some  sense  the  gate  to  the  Gulf  and  to  Canada. 
Its  name  was  now  changed  to  Isle  Roy  ale.  On  the  coast 
of  the  island  a  great  fort  was  undertaken  by  the  French. 
This  was  the  elaborate  fortress  of  Louisbourg,  begun  at 
a  bay  on  the  coast  previously  known  as  "  English 
Haven."  Upon  the  fortifications  of  Louisbourg,  which 
were  begun  in  1720,  there  were  lavished  £1,500,000 
sterling.  Population  gathered  round  the  fort,  and  at 
length  reached  4,000.  It  was  governed  by  an  Intendant 
subject  to  the  Governor  at  Quebec. 

While    Cape    Breton   was   thus    being    settled    and 
-  strengthened,  Louisiana  on  the  Mississippi  was 

becoming  noted.  It  was  looked  upon  as  likely 
to  be  an  El  Dorado — was  to  be  the  salvation  of  heavily- 
burdened  France.  France  welcomed  any  scheme  to  give 
her  financial  relief.  This  want  was  supplied  by  a  specu- 
lative Scotchman,  born  in  Ediuburgh  in  1681,  named 
John  Law.  He  proposed  a  French  National  Bank,  on 
the  basis  of  security  given  by  the  fertile  lands  on  the 
Mississippi  in  Louisiana. 


THE  Canadian  People  135 

The  scheme  rose  like  a  balloon.  The  stock  reached 
2,050  per  cent.  When  faith  seemed  departing,  efforts 
were  made  to  sell  tracts  of  land  in  Louisiana.  In  1718 
the  town  of  New  Orleans  was  fomided  by  M.  de  Bienville 
on  the  Mississippi ;  and  a  most  ill-starred  emigration 
to  Louisiana  resulted  in  starvation  and  death  to  many. 
In  1720  the  bubble  burst,  and  penniless  crowds  called 
for  vengeance  on  the  "  impostor  who  had  ruined  France." 
The  Company  of  the  Indies  returned  its  charter  of  Louis- 
iana and  the  Illinois  country  to  the  king  in  1731. 

Peace  again  took  wings.  In  1743  Louis  XV.  declared 
war  against  England,  on  account  of  the  sympathy  of  the 
latter  for  the  Austrian  queen  Maria  Theresa.  The  battle 
of  Fontenoy  had  been  fought  in  Flanders  in  1745  ;  but 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  defeated  there,  had  won  Cul- 
loden  from  the  Pretender.  The  New  World  was  in  a 
ferment.  French  privateers,  making  Louisbourg  a  rendez- 
vous, inflictedgreat  losson  English  and  colonial  commerce, 
and,  indeed,  the  people  of  Cape  Breton  sought  to  recap- 
ture Acadia.  Though  Louisbourg  was  deemed  an  almost 
impregnable  fortress,  having  been  well-nigh  twenty-five 
years  in  building,  yet  the  New  England  States  deter- 
mined to  attack  the  **  hornet's  nest."  Governor  Shirley, 
of  Massachusetts,  succeeded  in  gathering  4,000  colonial 
troops,  and  sent  them  on  an  expedition  against  Louis- 
bourg imder  Colonel  Pepperel.  Leaving  Boston  in  April 
1746,  the  colonial  forces  landed  during  that  month  in 
Cape  Breton,  and  shortly  after.  Admiral  Warren  arrived 
with  a  small  fleet,  and  supplies  from  England. 

Disunion  prevailed  among  the  defenders.  A  night 
attack  was  made  on  May  13th,  at  an  unexpected  part  of 
the  fortress,  and  Lieutenant  Vaughan  and  a  party  of  400 
men  made  a  lodgment  within  the  defences.  Admiral 
Warren  now  captured  La  Vigilante,  a  French  frigate  of 
sixty-four  guns,  coming  with  nearly  600  men  as  reinforce- 
ments from  France.  This  dampened  the  hopes  of  the 
defenders,  and  though  a  disaster  happened  to  the  be- 
siegers in  the  loss  of  nearly  one-half  of  an  attacking 
party  of  400  in  the  neighbouring  island  of  St.  John's, 


136  A  Short  History  of 

yet  the  garrison  of  Louisbourg  became  discouraged.  The 
commander,  Duchambon,  capitulated  and  was  allowed  to 
march  out  with  the  honours  of  war.  The  French  troops 
and  about  2,000  of  the  people  of  Louisbourg  were,  accord- 
ing to  agreement,  borne  in  British  ships  and  landed  at 
Brest  in  France.  Thus  fell  Louisbomrg.  It  was  a  glorious 
victory  for  the  colonial  troops,  and  is  still  remembered 
as  a  story  of  the  grandfathers  in  the  city  of  Boston. 

A  strong  expedition  was  sent  from  France  in  1746  to 
recapture  Louisbourg  and  ravage  the  New  England 
coast,  but  a  terrible  storm  played  the  same  havoc  as  it 
had  done  to  Sir  Hoveden  Walker's  fleet,  and  showed  Pro- 
vidence to  be  impartial  between  English  and  French. 
Peace  of  "^^^  European  nations  were  again  wearied  with 
Aix-la-  war.  After  long  negotiations  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Chapelle.  ^j^^  peace  was  signed  on  the  18th  of  October, 
1748 — soon  to  be  broken  again  !  To  the  great  dis- 
appointment of  the  New  England  colonies  restitution 
was  made  to  France  of  Cape  Breton  Island,  while  Eng- 
land gained  the  support  of  the  rights  of  Maria  Theresa 
which  had  been  guaranteed  by  the  "  Pragmatic 
Sanction." 

Out  of  the  ambiguities  of  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
grew  the  wars  which  have  resulted  in  the  destruction  of 
the  French  power  in  America,  and  which,  terminating  in 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  trailed  the  French  standards  in 
the  very  dust.  The  first  dispute  was  as  to  the  boundaries 
of  Acadia,  which  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  had  been 
ceded  to  England,  "  conformably  to  its  ancient  boun- 
daries." The  English  claimed  as  part  of  Acadia  all  of 
what  we  now  know  as  New  Brunswick  ;  the  French 
resisted  this  claim. 

In  the  west  also  the  English  looked  upon  the  banks 
of  the  Ohio  as  belonging  to  Virginia,  while  the  French 
regarded  the  region  as  a  part  of  Louisiana.  Commis- 
sioners to  settle  these  disputes  met  at  Paris  between  the 
year  1750  and  1755.  The  colonies  were  so  stirred  by 
the  dispute  that  before  the  commissioners  could  decide, 
hostilities   were   begun.     While   previous   colonial   wars 


THE  Canadian  People  137 

arose  from  European  quarrels,  carried  to  America,  the 
present  border  disputes  led  to  the  Seven  Years'  War. 

The  Grovernor  of  New  France  at  this  time  was  the 
Marquis  de  la  Galissoniere.  He  was  a  naval  officer,  and 
a  man  of  capacity.  He  had  gained  the  victory  over  the 
unfortunate  Admiral  Byng.  Taking  up  the  boundary 
dispute  with  warmth,  he  pursued  a  decidedly  aggressive 
policy.  In  order  to  strengthen  Canada  on  the  side  of 
Acadia,  the  French  began  a  movement  for  the  emigra- 
tion of  all  the  French  in  Acadia  te^  the  north  side  of  the 
Bay  of  Fundy  in  the  disputed  territory. 

The  second  step  was  to  connect  Louisiana  and  Canada. 
These  were,  so  to  speak,  the  two  bastions  of  the  French 
power  in  America.  The  Governor  would  unite  them  by  a 
line  of  fortified  posts  up  the  Ohio  River  and  along  the 
lakes.  Having  gone  on  a  great  expedition  to  the  west  of 
some  1,200  leagues,  Galissoniere  imderstood  the  country, 
and  saw  its  deplorable  condition.  A  fort  was  determined  on 
among  the  Sioux,  another  was  erected  at  Green  Bay,  De- 
troit was  garrisoned.  Fort  Rouill6  was  built  at  Toronto, 
and  a  fort  at  Ogdensburg  was  erected  called  "  La  Pr6- 
sentation." 

It  was  in  1749  that  this  energetic  Governor  was  re- 
placed by  the  Marquis  de  la  Jonquidre,  also  a  naval  officer 
of  note.  No  change  of  policy  from  that  of  Galissoniere 
was  made.  He  would  have  built  forts  along  Lake  Erie, 
but  the  royal  despatch  of  1750  declared  "Niagara  and 
Detroit  will  secure  for  ever  our  communications  with 
Louisiana."  The  attempt  to  remove  the  French  from 
Acadia  was  succeeding.  This  was  rendered  more  easy 
now  that  Britain  had  decided  to  occupy  Acadia.  In 
1749  Governor  Cornwallis  with  3,800  colonists  had  come  to 
settle  at  Halifax.  His  proclamation  had  been  that  the 
French  in  Acadia  might  remain,  provided  that  the  priests 
they  retained  were  approved  by  the  British  Government 
and  that  the  Acadians  would  defend  their  homes,  and 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance.  Not  less  than  3,000  Acadians 
betook  themselves  to  the  north  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  and 
the  island  of  St.  Jean.  At  the  isthmus  between  Acadia  and 


138  A  Short  History  of 

the  mainland  was  the  French  settlement  of  Beaubassin. 
This  the  English  attacked.  On  a  hill  near  by,  the  French 
determined  to  erect  a  fort,  and  this  they  did,  calling  it 
Fort  Beausejour. 

The  Marquis  Duquesne,  a  captain  in  the  Royal  Marines, 

arrived  as  the  new  Governor  in  1752.  A  new 
to^the  Ohio.  i'c>ute  to  the  Ohio  was  now  discovered.     This 

was  by  leaving  Lake  Erie  where  Erie  city  now 
stands.  A  road  was  cut  through  the  woods  to  French 
Creek,  a  tributary  of  the  AlJeghany,  one  of  the  branches 
of  the  Ohio.     Here  was  built  Fort  Leboeuf,  and  hither 

came  as  commandant  Legardeur  de  St.  Pierre, 

whom  we  have  seen  as  a  successor  of  Verendrye 
on  the  Saskatchewan.  To  the  officer  in  charge  of  this 
fort  was  delivered  in  the  next  year  a  message  from  Go- 
vernor Dinwiddie,  of  Virginia,  borne  by  the  hands  of  the 
afterwards  celebrated  Washington,  now  a  youth  of  twenty- 
one.  The  message  remonstrated  with  the  French  for 
invading  British  territory. 

Washington,  on  his  return  journey,  chose  a  site  at  the 
union  of  the  Monongahela  and  the  Ohio  rivers,  where 
the  city  of  Pittsburgh  now  stands,  for  an  English  fort. 
In  February  of  the  following  year  this  fort  was  begun 
by  the  Virginians,  but  in  April  500  Frenchmen  captured 
the  stockade  and  began  near  it  the  more  extensive  French 
fort  of  Duquesne. 

Here  took  place  a  conflict  between  a  body  of  Virginians 
under  young  Washington  and  a  French  party  under 
Jumonville,  by  which  the  French  leader  was  killed.  The 
report  of  Jumonville' s  death  in  France  caused  some 
excitement,  for  it  will  be  remembered  the  two  nations 
were  still  under  a  formal  peace.  Charges  of  taking  an 
unfair  advantage  have  been  made  against  Washington, 
but  seemingly  without  ground.  Washington  was  com- 
pelled to  fall  back  to  a  colonial  outpost — Fort  Necessity. 
He  was  here  attacked  by  a  large  body  of  French  troops, 
and  was  compelled  to  surrender. 

The  gravity  of  the  state  of  things  on  the  borders  began 
to   press   itself   on   the   English   colonies.     France   was 


THE  Canadian  People  139 

aggressive,  and  was  pressing,  both  along  the  sea  and  in 
the  interior,  claims  which  they  regarded  as  preposterous. 
The  colonial  voice  was  in  favour  of  expelling  the  intruders. 
Accordingly  Dinwiddie  and  Shirley,  the  governors  of  the 
leading  Cavalier  and  Puritan  colonies,  agreed  upon  a  plan, 
and  submitted  it  to  the  War  Department  in  England.  The 
plan  of  operations  was  approved,  and  consisted  of  four 
expeditions  to  be  sent  against  salient  points  in  New 
France. 

The  first  of  these  was  against  Fort  Duquesne.  General 
Braddock  had  lately  arrived  in  Virginia  with  »  ^^  ^ 
two  British  regiments.  This  man  was  a  bluster- 
ing, brave,  self-opinionated  British  officer.  He  despised 
colonists  and  colonial  manners.  With  a  force  of  some 
1,200  men — ^regulars  and  mUitia — on  the  10th  of  Jiuie, 
1765,  he  began  his  march  over  the  Alleghanies  to  attack 
Fort  Duquesne.  He  preserved  on  the  march  all  the 
features  of  a  European  campaign.  Axemen  opened  up  the 
road  ;  the  waggons  proceeded  slowly  and  with  military 
precision.  At  length  so  slow  was  the  progress  that  he 
listened  to  the  advice  of  Washington,  one  of  his  ofiicers, 
to  leave  the  train  to  follow  and  to  hasten  forward  with  the 
troops.  After  the  mountains  were  passed,  and  some 
eight  miles  from  Fort  Duquesne,  just  after  the  Monon- 
gahela  had  been  crossed,  Braddock's  army  was  surrounded 
by  French  and  Indians.  The  enemy  was  invisible.  The 
martinet  Braddock  insisted  on  his  troops  fighting  in  line. 
His  men  were  cut  down  like  the  wheat-field  before  hail. 
The  ofl&cers  fought  most  bravely.  After  sixty-three  of 
these  out  of  eighty-six  had  fallen  and  Braddock  himself 
been  mortally  woimded,  the  remnant  retreated.  It  was 
an  absolute  and  crushing  defeat. 

The  second  point  of  attack  was  Acadia.     On  both  sides 
of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  a  considerable  French 
population  lingered.    Those  who  had  emigrated    ®*  * 

to  the  north  side  were  miserably  poor.  The  attack  on 
Acadia  was  made  by  a  body  of  Massachusetts  militia, 
under  command  of  Moncton,  the  agent  of  Governor 
Lawrence  of  Nova  Scotia.     Colonel  John  Winslow  com- 


140  A  Short  History  of 

manded  one  regiment.  On  the  1st  of  June  the  expedition 
landed  at  Beausejour.  The  garrison  consisted 
of  but  160  troops,  and  they,  as  well  as 
the  French  colonists,  were  much  discouraged.  They 
were  under  the  command  of  one  De  Vergor,  but  the  leading 
spirit  of  the  defence  was  a  priest.  La  Loutre,  to  whose 
malice  and  determination  most  of  the  troubles  of  the 
Acadians  at  this  time  may  be  traced.  Little  fighting 
took  place,  for  the  garrison  judged  it  wise  to  capitulate. 
La  Loutre  escaped,  but  was  afterwards  arrested,  and  im- 
prisoned in  the  isle  of  Jersey  for  eight  years. 

And  now  comes  one  of  the  most  mournful  episodes  of 
Trans-  history.     Governor  Shirley,  of  Massachusetts, 

portation  of  had  for  some  time  advocated  exportation  of 
Acadians.  ^j^g  Acadians.  Now  it  was  to  be  done.  It  is  a 
vexed  subject  of  discussion,  and  the  last  word  has  not 
yet  been  said  upon  it.  Undoubtedly  the  Acadians  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance.  That  in  itself  would 
hardly,  however,  have  justified  their  expulsion.  But  it  is 
charged  against  them  that  they  incited  the  Indians 
against  the  British,  that  any  hostile  French  expedition 
found  in  them  sympathizers,  and  that  being  on  the  fron- 
tier they  were  dangerous  to  the  peace  and  safety  of 
British  Acadia.  On  the  verification  of  these  charges, 
which  has  hardly  yet  been  done,  will  depend  the  judg- 
ment on  the  irreconcilability  and  dangerous  character  of 
the  Acadians,  that  must  be  given  by  posterity.  Colonel 
Winslow  said  their  deportation  was  the  most  unpalatable 
work  he  ever  did. 

The  story  of  Grand  Pre  is  a  familiar  one.  Winslow 
shipped  from  this  point  up  to  December,  1755,  2,100  men, 
women,  and  children — very  few  families  being  broken. 
From  Fort  Edward  1,100  persons  were  taken  in  four 
overcrowded  frigates  ;  1,664  exiles  were  by  the  end  of 
October  sent  from  Annapolis,  while  from  the  district 
about  the  captured  Fort  Beausejour,  about  1,100  were 
carried  away.  Many  of  the  exiles  reached  Louisiana  ; 
some  returned  to  Acadia  ;  others  sought  the  Atlantic 
States,  and  some  England  and  France.     Six  thousand 


THE  Canadian  People  141 

miserable,  albeit  misguided  people  were  thus  thrust  forth 
from  their  homes.  Even  though  their  expulsion  may 
have  been  justifiable  as  a  war  measure,  their  miseries 
appeal  to  us. 

The  third  attack  of  the  campaign  was  to  have  been 
made  on  Crown  Point,  on  Lake  Champlain,  the 
key  of  Canada.  The  commander  of  the  expe- 
dition was  William  Johnson,  an  Irish  gentleman  in 
charge  of  large  estates  in  the  State  of  New  York.  He 
had  never  seen  war,  but  was  a  natural  leader  of  men. 
Five  Colonial  Governments  supplied  the  militia,  of  whom 
there  were  3,000  or  4,000.  The  troops  assembled  at 
Albany,  and  after  delays,  took  up  march  and  encamped  on 
Lac  Sacrament,  south  of  Lake  Champlain,  a  name  which 
was  afterwards  changed  to  Lake  George.  The  colonial 
camp  was  on  the  water's  edge,  and  thus  only  needed  de- 
fence on  three  sides.  Johnson's  army  was  a  concourse  of 
farmers,  all  unfamiliar  with  war.  Some  of  the  men  had 
grotesque  uniforms  ;  some  had  none.  Their  arms  were  of 
all  descriptions.  The  French  heard  of  the  motley  throng, 
and  regarded  them  as  only  so  much  food  for  powder. 

The  French  army  was  fairly  good.    Marquis 
de  Vaudreuil  was  now  Grovernor,  in  place  of  Du-  q^qj^^ 
quesne.     Baron  Dieskau,  a  German  nobleman, 
was  in  command  of  the  French  troops,  some  of  which 
were  veterans  of  France.     The  delays  of  the  colonial 
army  had   been   very  much  to   the   advantage  of    the 
French.     Dieskau   had   reached   Crown   Point,    to   find 
the   colonials   still  at  a  distance.      He   sallied  forth   to 
meet   them.     At   last   he   heard   of   their  encampment. 
Johnson  sent  out  a  force  to  attack  the  baron,  the  Indians 
of  the  scouting  party  being  under  that  good  friend  of  the 
British,  Chief  Hendricks.    This  advance  party  was  caught 
by  the  French  very  much  as  Braddock's  had  been,  but 
retired,  after  severe  loss,  to  their  camp. 

At  the  camp  barricades  of  logs  had  been  thrown 
around  the  three  sides,  and  the  artillery  had  been 
mounted  on  a  rising  ground  to  rake  the  approach.  The 
French  came  close  upon  the  heels  of  the  retiring  scouting 


142  A  Shoet  History  of 

party,  and  for  five  hours  a  general  fight  from  behind  logs 
and  trees  ensued.  Baron  Dieskau  was  wounded  and  taken 
prisoner,  and  was  brought  into  camp.  Johnson  had 
received  a  flesh-wound,  and  was  confined  to  his  tent. 
The  French  were  defeated  and  fled.  The  losses  were 
about  equal,  being  200  or  300  men  on  each  side.  King 
Hendricks,  the  Iroquois  leader,  was  slain  in  the  advance  ; 
and  the  well-known  French  explorer,  Legardeur  de  St. 
Pierre,  it  is  said,  on  the  side  of  the  French.  Johnson 
failed  to  take  advantage  of  the  state  of  the  enemy,  and 
made  no  movement  on  Crown  Point.  The  colonial  troops, 
however,  gained  in  prestige.  Johnson  was  made  a  baronet 
and  received  a  grant  of  £5,000  from  the  British  Parliament. 

The  fourth  enterprise  was  that  against  Niagara.  It  was 
«.  made  up  of  the  three  regiments,  the  Jersey 

Blues,  Pepperel's,  and  Shirley's.  Governor 
Shirley  of  New  York  commanded  the  whole.  The  expe- 
dition went  on  its  way  till  it  reached  the  portage  where 
now  the  town  of  Rome  stands,  in  New  York  State.  But 
the  danger  of  attacking  Niagara  lay  not  only  in  the  1,200 
men,  many  of  them  Indians,  defending  it,  but  in  the  fact 
that  Fort  Frontenac  lay  in  the  rear,  and  might  cut  the 
party  off  from  its  supplies  entirely.  And  so,  after  fully 
considering  the  matter,  Shirley  and  his  councillors  allowed 
their  discretion  to  rule,  and  making  no  demonstration 
against  Niagara,  returned  quietly  home. 

In  addition  to  these  border  conflicts,  the  British  war- 
vessels  had  captured  some  300  French  ships.  It  thus 
happened  that  when,  on  the  17th  of  May,  1756,  a  formal 
declaration  of  war  was  made,  by  which  Britain  and 
Frederick  the  Great's  kingdom  were  combined  against 
the  remaiader  of  Europe,  the  relations  of  France  and 
England  were  but  little  changed.  France  braced  herself 
more  firmly  for  war,  and  sent  General  Montcalm  to 
command  the  forces  in  America. 

Louis  Joseph,  Marquis  de  Montcalm- Gozon  de  St.  Veran, 

was  born  at  Nismes,  in  the  South  of  France,  on 

•      the  29th  of  February,  1712.  Privatelyeducated, 

at  the  age  of  fifteen  he  entered  the  army  as  an  ensign.    He 


THE  Canadian  People  143 

married  the  Lady  Louise  Talen,  and  had  a  family  of  ten 
children.  Montcalm  was  a  good  father,  a  true  soldier, 
and  was  devoted  to  his  comitry.  He  had  fought  in  Italy 
and  Germany,  and  been  severely  wounded.  With  1,000 
regulars  and  400  recruits  the  general  embarked  for 
Canada,  which  he  reached  in  May  1756.  Sixteen  hundred 
soldiers  had  arrived  from  France  in  the  year  before,  so 
that  the  forces  imder  Montcalm  at  this  time  numbered 
about  4,000  men.  Two  officers,  afterwards  well  known, 
accompanied  Montcalm,  viz.  the  Chevalier  de  Levis- 
Veran  and  M.  de  Bourgainville. 

After  full  conference  it  was  decided  to  fortify  Niagara  ; 
and  to  make  Fort  Frontenac,  on  Lake  Ontario,  and 
Ticonderoga  (Carillon),  on  Lake  Champlain,  the  two 
central  camps  of  defence.  Louisbourg  was  defended  by 
1,100  men  and  much  needed  strengthening  in  its  defences, 
but  this  was  never  accomplished.  Great  Britain  now 
threw  herself,  as  never  before,  into  the  colonial  war. 
Governor  Shirley  had  planned  another  great  expedition 
against  Forts  Frontenac  and  Niagara  ;  but  as  16,000  men 
were  asked,  the  States  voted  nay.  This  bustling  leader 
was  now  superseded  by  the  Earl  of  Loudon,  who  added 
little  to  the  lustre  of  British  arms  in  America.  With 
Greneral  Loudon  came  also  Greneral  Abercrombie. 

On  the  opening  of  the  campaign  Montcalm  attacked 
and  took  without  difficulty  Fort  Oswego,  which,  though 
not  so  disgraceful  as  Braddock's  defeat  on  the  Monon- 
gahela,  was  a  greater  strategic  loss.  In  1757  the  French 
determined  to  secure  the  positions  about  Lake  Cham- 
plain.  An  attack  was  made  by  Montcalm  on  Fort  William 
Henry.  The  English  garrison  was  reduced  to  want, 
small-pox  entered  among  the  defenders,  their  cannon 
were  disabled,  and  as  Montcalm  was  soon  to  open  on 
the  fort  with  his  artillery,  the  garrison  surrendered. 
Thus  to  the  very  south  of  Lake  George  the  French  flag 
floated  triumphant.  The  French  cause  was  now  most 
hopeful,  although  a  total  failure  of  crops  in  Canada  left 
the  people  in  a  state  of  famine. 

In  1758  the  English  made  an  attempt  to  regain  the 


144  A  Short  History  of 

Lake  Champlain  forts.  General  Abercrombie,  with  16,000 
men,  made  an  attack  on  Ticonderoga.  Montcalm  arrived 
in  time,  however,  to  take  command  of  the  3,500  troops  in 
the  besieged  fort.  Behind  the  defences  of  Carillon  he 
awaited  General  Abercrombie's  attack.  After  a  most 
determined  series  of  onsets  by  the  British,  they  were 
compelled  to  retire  without  accomplishing  anything, 
having  lost  2,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  while  the 
French  had  not  suffered  to  the  extent  of  one-fifth.  The 
British,  however,  took  and  destroyed  Fort  Frontenac  ; 
they  also  drove  the  French  from  Fort  Duquesne  and  off 
the  Ohio,  and  compelled  a  retreat  to  Fort  Erie. 

In  the  end  of  May,  1758,  Admiral  Boscawen,  arriving 
at  Halifax,  met  General  Amherst,  who  had  been  sent  by 
General  Abercrombie  to  take  Louisbourg.  In  the  pre- 
ceding year  Louisbourg  had  been  threatened,  but  the 
attack  was  abandoned.  Now,  on  the  2nd  of  June,  Louis- 
bourg was  reached.  It  was  still  a  great  fortress.  The 
British,  after  a  severe  encounter,  effected  a  landing.  A 
siege  and  bombardment  by  the  assailants  resulted  in  a 
capitulation  on  the  27th  of  July,  1758,  of  the  entire  force 
of  the  6,000  soldiers  and  sailors  in  the  garrison.  Great  joy 
was  shown  in  England  over  this  capture. 

At  the  taking  of  Louisbourg  there  leaped  into  promi- 
nence  a  young  officer,  who  was  the  "  life  of  the 
appears.  siege."  This  was  Colonel  James  Wolfe,  aged 
thirty-two  years.  At  fifteen  he  had  entered  the 
army,  fought  in  the  battle  of  Culloden  at  the  age  of 
twenty-three,  and  at  that  age  became  a  lieutenant-colonel. 
Though  of  a  most  delicate  constitution,  he  was  "  all  life." 
The  remarkable  statesman,  William  Pitt,  who  then  guided 
the  destinies  of  England,  had  much  confidence  in  the  young 
soldier.  He  now  appointed  him  to  command  the  expedi- 
tion against  Quebec,  made  him  a  major-general,  allowed 
him  to  choose  his  own  staff,  and  sent  him  a  strong  con- 
tingent of  Scottish  Highlanders,  "  les  sauvages  des 
Ecossais,"  a  new  class  of  British  troops  organized  on 
Pitt's  suggestion  after  1745. 

The  last  of  the  fleet,  with  some  8,000  or  9,000  troops 


Wolfe's  Statue  at  Quebec 


144] 


THE  Canadian  People  145 

under  Wolfe,  left  Louisbourg  Harbour  on  the  6th  June,  the 
soldiers  drinking  to  the  toast, ' '  British  colours  ifi  m  q  ^^ 
every  French  fort,  post,  and  garrison  in  Amer-  ^ycg  ^  ^^' 
ica."  The  taking  of  Quebec  by  WoKe  is  now 
an  oft-told  tale.  In  Canada  proper  the  French  arms 
had  been  very  successful.  Now  there  were  to  meet  in  a 
desperate  struggle  the  two  armies — one  flushed  with 
success  in  the  interior,  the  other  fresh  from  capturing 
the  French  stronghold  on  the  sea.  There  were  two 
brilliant  opposing  commanders — ^Montcalm  and  Wolfe. 
It  was  a  supreme  crisis.  The  French  forces  had  been 
concentrated  at  Quebec.  The  whole  city  was  now  a  fort, 
and  for  ten  miles  along  the  shore  from  Quebec  to  Mont- 
morenci  Falls  was  an  armed  camp.  The  River  St.  Charles 
was  obstructed  by  sunken  hulks  and  a  "  boom  of  logs." 
A  hundred  cannon  and  more  defended  the  walls  of  the 
fortress.  The  French  fleet  had  retired  up  the  river  for 
safety — a  mistake,  as  it  afterwards  appeared.  Fourteen 
thousand  regular  French  troops,  colonists,  and  Indians 
manned  the  Beauport  works,  or  defended  the  city. 
Montcalm  was  supposed  to  have  authority  from  Grovernor 
Vaudreuil,  who,  however,  was  present  also. 

On  the  26th  of  June,  1759,  the  English  fleet  anchored 
off  the  island  of  Orleans,  near  Quebec.  Wolfe  soon 
landed,  and  took  a  reconnaissance  from  the  west  end  of 
the  island.  It  was  a  discouraging  prospect  for  him. 
High  in  front  of  him  lay  the  threatening  fortress,  and  to 
the  right  the  elevated  coast  was  an  extended  camp.  He 
was  outnumbered  by  the  defenders.  The  French  soon 
attempted  to  burn  his  fleet  by  sending  down  the  tide 
vessels  filled  with  combustibles,  but  they  wasted  their 
fierce  strength  in  vain.  The  British  took  possession  of 
the  south  shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Levis,  opposite 
the  city,  and  from  this  point  battered  the  lower  town  to 
pieces.  Wolfe  next  landed  below  the  Montmorenci  Falls, 
and  took  a  strong  position.  The  young  general  was  thus 
much  distressed,  having  Montmorenci,  Orleans,  and  Levis 
in  possession,  and  his  fleet  as  an  object  of  anxiety  beside. 
Montcalm,  however,  obstinately  refused  to  attack  the 
10 


146  A  Short  History  of 

English ;  his  plan  was  one  of  determined  defence. 
Wolfe  made  a  proclamation  favom-able  to  the  French 
Canadians,  and  thus  weakened  the  defenders  somewhat. 

On  the  18th  of  July  WoKe  accomplished  a  feat  which 
was  to  change  the  campaign.  The  vessel  Sutherland, 
under  a  heavy  fire,  successfully  passed  the  batteries  of 
Quebec,  and  now  lay  above  the  city.  Boats  were  taken 
by  portage  by  the  British  across  Point  Levis,  and  thus 
Montcalm  was  compelled  to  send  troops  to  different 
points  up  the  river,  and  occupy  exposed  points.  Thus 
far  Montcalm  seemed  to  have  the  best  of  it,  and  Wolfe 
was  no  doubt  in  much  perplexity.  An  attack  had  been 
made  by  Wolfe  near  Montmorenci.  The  British  seized 
the  redoubt  on  the  water's  edge,  but  could  not  take  the 
heights  above.  Failing  to  draw  forth  Montcalm,  Wolfe 
now  ravaged  the  country,  and,  with  a  doubtful  morality, 
burned  houses  and  turned  forth  homeless  families. 

Montcalm  was  immovable.  WoKe  was  continuing  his 
movement  of  vessels  above  the  city.  De  Bourgainville 
had  been  detached  by  Montcalm  with  1,500  men  to  guard 
the  shore  above  Quebec.  By  the  end  of  August  both  sides 
were  in  despair,  though  to  cheer  the  British  somewhat 
Wolfe  had  recovered  from  a  dangerous  attack  of  illness,  and 
to  comfort  the  French  news  had  arrived  from  the  interior 
that  the  expedition  against  their  forts  had  failed.  Wolfe 
now  adopted  the  hazardous,  but  in  the  end  successful,  plan 
of  evacuating  Montmorenci,  and,  with  his  twenty-two 
ships  above  the  city,  effected  a  lodgment  on  the  north 
shore. 

On  the  night  of  the  12th  of  September,  boats  laden  with 
,  chosen  men  dropped  down  the  stream.     After 

victory!  meeting  with  challenge  after  challenge,  and 
through  the  skill  of  one  of  Fraser's  High- 
landers, who  knew  French,  evading  them,  the  advance- 
guard  of  twenty-four  volunteers  scrambled  up  a  path  at 
Wolfe's  Cove,  a  few  miles  west  of  Quebec,  overpowered 
the  sleepy  guard,  and  by  the  morning  Wolfe's  army  of 
between  3,000  and  4,000  men  was  on  the  high  plateau — the 
Plains  of  Abraham.     During  the  night  Admiral  Saunders 


THE  Canadian  People  147 

had  bombarded  the  Beauport  shore  and  Montcahn  and 
the  bulk  of  his  troops  had  been  drawn  in  that  direction. 
In  the  morning  Montcahn  was  surprised  on  coming 
towards  Quebec  to  see  the  redcoats  and  Highlanders  on 
the  heights,  drawn  up  in  line.  He  calmly  remarked, 
"  This  is  a  dangerous  affair." 

With  haste  his  attack  was  made.  The  steadiness  of 
the  British  troops  was  marvellous.  They  stood  silently 
under  the  fire  of  the  approaching  enemy,  and  at  forty  yards 
discharged  two  or  three  murderous  volleys,  and  the  work 
was  done.  Wolfe,  thrice  wounded,  died,  having  been  in- 
formed by  his  attendants  of  his  victory  ;  and  Montcalm, 
shot  near  the  city,  was  led  in  supported  on  his  black 
charger — led  in  to  die  !  Rarely  have  two  nobler  spirits 
met  in  battle-array  than  Montcalm  and  Wolfe. 

The  rout  of  the  French  was  complete.  Bourgainville, 
coming  down  the  river  shortly  after  with  2,000  men, 
retired  precipitately.  The  British  troops  proceeded  to 
entrench  themselves.  Vaudreuil  had  sent  for  De  Levis, 
and  had  gone  to  meet  him,  the  scattered,  fleeing  troops 
having  concentrated  at  Jacques  Cartier,  thirty  miles 
above  Quebec.  Ramesay,  the  commandant,  with  a 
himdred  or  two  of  troops,  still  held  the  city.  He  was 
compelled,  under  threat  of  immediate  attack,  to  capitu- 
late. A  body  of  British  artillery  occupied  the  city,  and 
the  British  flag  was  imfurled  at  the  top  of  Mountain 
Street. 

Vaudreuil  withdrew  to  Montreal,  and,  to  his  disgrace, 
threw  the  blame  of  the  defeat  on  the  dead  soldier,  Mont- 
calm. Brigadier- General  Murray  now  remained  in  com- 
mand of  Quebec.  In  the  following  year  De  Levis  attacked 
Quebec,  coming  from  Montreal.  The  British  forces  left 
Quebec,  and  received  the  attack  at  Ste.  Foy,  near  the  city. 
The  French  were  successful.  The  British  fell  back  on  the 
city.  A  pillar  at  Ste.  Foy  commemorates  this  victory  of  De 
Levis.  The  arrival  of  a  British  fleet  made  De  Levis' s 
efforts  hopeless.  This  fleet  destroyed  the  six  French 
vessels  above  Quebec.  It  only  remained  to  take  Montreal. 
Generals  Amherst  and  Mmray,  coming  from  Schenectady 


148  A  Short  History  of 

by  way  of  Oswego  and  down  the  St.  Lawrence,  landed 
on  Montreal  Island,  and  invested  the  city  on  the  6th  of 
September,  1760.  On  the  8th  of  September  Governor 
Vaudreuil  yielded,  and  New  France  became  a  dependency 
of  Britain,  so  that  by  1761  French  rule  had  ceased  in  every 
part  of  Canada,  having  endm-ed  for  a  centm:y  and  a  half. 

Section    VI. — The  French  Canadian  People 

At  the  time  of  the  conquest  the  French  Canadians  were 
already  children  of  the  soil.  It  is  estimated  that  not 
more  than  8,000  immigrants  came  from  France  to  Canada, 
all  told.  As  we  have  seen,  the  chief  colonization  period 
was  in  Colbert's  time,  and  under  his  wise  and  energetic 
guidance.  The  population  had  now  at  the  conquest 
grown  to  be  65,000.  Three  generations  had  passed 
away,  so  that  not  only  had  the  people  been  fused  into 
one,  but  their  fathers'  graves  held  them  to  the  soil. 

Nor  had  the  population  of  French  Canada  been  of  a 
very  mixed  kind.  At  one  time  during  his  autocracy, 
Laval  had  objected  that  heretics  from  Rochelle  were 
being  sent  to  the  colony,  and  at  once  the  French  rulers 
turned  to  the  north-western  provinces  of  France  for  the 
new  settlers.  From  Normandy  the  greater  number  came. 
As  the  traveller  drops  off  the  railway  from  Dieppe  to 
Paris,  at  the  city  of  Rouen,  he  is  in  the  midst  of  the 
fatherland  of  French  Canada.  He  sees  there  much  that 
is  the  prototype  of  style  and  general  outline  of  the  French 
Canadian  homes. 

The  Government  was  really  active  in  sending  forth 
emigrants  in  Colbert's  day.  Many  ruined  gentlemen 
and  half-pay  officers  went  to  Canada.  As  governors  and 
officials  men  of  high  rank  were  sent — "  noble  dukes, 
proud  marquises,  great  sea-captains,  and  engineer 
officers"  were  all  found  in  Canada.  Baron  Lahontan 
said  he  "  preferred  the  forests  of  Canada  to  the  Pyrenees 
of  France,"  and  Louis  XIV.  boasted  that  "  Canada  con- 
tained more  of  his  old  nobility  than  the  rest  of  the  French 
colonies  put  together."     It  was  the  avowed  object  of 


THE  Canadian  People  149 

the  king  in  1663  to  "  infuse  a  more  liberal  spirit  into 
the  colony,  to  raise  the  quality  and  character  of  the 
settlers,  and  to  give  a  higher  tone  to  society." 

It  was  a  part  then  of  the  plan  to  transplant  feudal  in- 
stitutions to  Canada.  De  Tracy — the  Viceroy — always 
appeared  in  public  with  a  "  Garde  Roy  ale  "  of  twenty- 
foiu:  men.  The  Governor  and  Intendant  each  had  a 
splendid  equipage.  Of  the  Carignan  officers,  as  already 
said,  many  were  noblesse.  On  the  recommendation  of 
Grovernor  De  Courcelles,  four  families  in  Canada  were 
ennobled,  and  five  more  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
Intendant.  Seigniories  were  bestowed  upon  those  con- 
sidered deserving  of  them,  and  the  other  colonists  must 
receive  their  tenures  from  the  seignior. 

The  "censitaire,"  or  settler,  must  come  to  the  seignior 
"  without  sword  or  spurs,  with  bare  head,  and  one  knee 
on  the  ground,'*  must  repeat  his  lord's  name  three  times, 
bring  his  *'  faith  and  honour,"  and  pledge  himself  to  pay 
*'  seignorial  and  feudal  dues."  If  he  sold  out  his  right 
to  another,  the  feudal  lord  was  entitled  to  one-twelfth  of 
what  he  received.  Then  the  "  censitaire  "  must  grind 
his  flour  at  the  seignior's  mill,  bake  his  bread  in  the 
seignior's  oven,  give  one  fish  in  every  eleven  caught,  and 
work  for  his  lord  one  or  more  days  in  every  year. 

A  somewhat  highly  organized  society  was  thus  at  once 
formed.  But  the  Government  could  induce  but  few 
families  to  emigrate.  The  lonely  settlers  in  their  cabins 
longed  for  society.  Colbert  was  equal  to  the  emergency. 
In  1666,  100  French  maidens  were  sent  out  to  the  colony, 
and  married  at  once.  In  1667  eighty-four  girls  from 
Dieppe,  and  twenty-five  from  Rochelle,  went  out  to 
Canada,  and  so  in  other  years.  These  were  jocularly 
caUed  the  "  king's  girls "  ;  but,  notwithstanding  the 
sneers  of  the  cynical  Lahontan,  they  seem  to  have  been 
generally  honest  peasant  maidens.  There  were  excep- 
tions, however.  Mother  Mary,  who  had  charge  of  them, 
in  an  offhand  way  called  them  "  mixed  goods,"  and  at 
last  a  rule  was  enforced  that  each  should  bring  from 
her  parish  priest  a  certificate  that  she  had  not  been 


160  A  Short  History  of 

married  before.  As  soon  as  the  maidens  were  married, 
and  that  was  usually  very  soon  after  arrival,  to  each  new 
family  was  given  by  the  Government  an  ox,  cow,  pair  of 
swine,  pair  of  fowls,  two  barrels  of  salted  meat,  and 
eleven  crowns  in  money. 

Further,  to  encourage  marriage  in  the  colony,  twenty 
livres  was  given  to  each  young  man  married  before 
twenty  years  of  age,  and  to  each  girl  married  before 
sixteen.  This  was  known  as  the  "  king's  gift."  This 
was  independent  of  the  dowry  also  bestowed.  In  addi- 
tion, there  was  a  bounty  given  to  the  parents  of  every 
child.  The  practical  plans  of  the  Government  resulted, 
as  we  have  mentioned,  in  a  rapidly  increasing  and  moral 
community.  It  is  rather  remarkable  that  the  custom  of 
early  marriages  is  a  prominent  feature  of  Lower  Cana- 
dian society  to  this  day.  A  good  Jesuit  father  informed 
the  writer  that  he  has  seen  a  grandmother  among  the 
French  Canadian  peasantry  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight. 

Undoubtedly,  the  system  of  a  peasantry  dependent  on 
the  noblesse  has  made  the  French  Canadians  a  peaceable, 
industrious,  and  light-hearted  people  ;  but  it  has  likewise 
taken  away  the  mainspring  for  action,  the  hope  of  rising 
in  society,  and  while  their  life  may  be  compared  to  a 
"  pastoral  idyl,"  yet  it  would  be  all  the  better  for  some 
enlivening  or  even  discordant  strains. 

The  same  trustful  spirit  with  which  the  peasant  in 
Lower  Canada  looks  on  the  higher  classes  is  transferred 
to  the  priest  or  cure  of  the  parish.  The  cure  baptizes 
the  children,  and  keeps  a  most  careful  register  by  a 
system  which  has  resulted  in  the  industrious  Abbe  Tan- 
guay  being  able  to  make  a  genealogy  of  upwards  of  a 
million  of  French  Canadians.  The  cure  marries,  con- 
fesses, and  advises  all,  and  at  last  speaks  the  words 
"  Dust  to  dust  "  over  their  graves.  This  is  the  unevent- 
ful life  of  the  French  Canadian  habitant. 

The  language  of  the  French  Canadian  peasantry  is  by 
no  means  the  "  patois  "  some  would  have  us  believe. 
One  of  their  writers  has  said,  "  Our  French  Canadian 
peasantry  talk  better  French  than  half  the  peasantry  of 


THE  Canadian  People  151 

France."  The  first  settlers  of  Canada  left  France  when 
literature  was  at  its  zenith  under  Louis  XIV.  The 
French  Canadians  of  to-day  retain  the  "  simple  old 
Norman  songs  "  in  all  the  purity  with  which  their  fathers 
brought  them  ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  requests 
have  come  from  France  to  have  them  collected,  as  not 
occurring  now  in  any  part  of  France. 

The  French  Canadians  had  few  regrets  for  "  la  belle 
France,"  for  they  had  all  been  born  in  Canada,  and  the 
French  ofl&cials  went  to  France  after  the  conquest.  As 
already  said,  the  French  Revolution  rudely  severed 
French  Canada  from  the  mother-land.  It  was  in  con- 
templating this  fact  in  1794  that  Bishop  Plessis  of  Quebec 
"thanked  God  the  colony  was  English." 


CHAPTER   VI 

BRITAIN   IN   AMERICA 

Section  I. — The  Revolting  English  Colonies 

The  history  of  Canada  is  so  closely  bound  up  in  its  early 
days,  even  during  the  French  rule,  with  that  of  both 
Puritan  and  Cavalier  colonies,  that  some  short  account 
of  the  settlement  of  these  Revolting  Colonies  is  necessary 
to  understand  the  fortunes  and  history  of  the  colonies 
The  Cava-  which  remained  loyal  to  Britain  and  became  the 
liers.  Canada  of  to-day.  The  real  settlement  of  Virginia 

Virginia.       was  begun  thus.     An  enterprising  Englishman, 
Captain  Gosnold,  having  built  a  fort  on  an 
island  of  what  is  now  Massachusetts,  led  to  the  formation 
in  England  of  two  companies  for  colonization.     To  the 
London  Company  was  given  the  coast  from 
330  j^  ^Q  Delaware  Bay  in  nearly  40°  N.     From 
Delaware  Bay  northward,  along  the  coast  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Ste.  Croix,  in  lat.  45°  N.  was  bestowed  upon  the 
Bristol  Company.     The  dividing-line  of  the  territories 
was  not  marked.     Captain  Gosnold,  along  with  Wingfield 
and  John  Smith,  were  among  the  leaders  of  the  Virginia 
colony.     On  January  1st  the  company,  con- 
sisting of  "  poor  gentlemen,  tradesmen,  serving 
men,  and  libertines,"  sailed  for  the  New  World.     On 
May  13th  they  arrived  at  their  new  homes,  and  in  honour 
of   their   English   king,   called  their  settlement   James- 
town, and  this  a  year  before  Champlain  had  founded 
Quebec. 

From  the  composition  of  the  colony  it  could  not  be 
but  that  dissension  must  soon  arise.  The  man  who  rose 
to   command   among  these   unpromising   elements   was 

152 


A  Short  History  of  the  Canadian  People     153 

John  Smith.  The  account  given  by  himself  of  his  life 
in  his  "  Generall  Historic  "  is  now  generally  regarded  as 
Falstaffian,  and  even  the  thrice-told  tale  of  his  deliver- 
ance by  the  fair  Indian  maiden,  Pocahontas,  is  considered 
a  myth.  His  strength  of  character,  however,  saved  the 
Jamestown  colony. 

Lord  Delaware,  an  English  nobleman,  was  sent  out 
as  governor  ;  but  the  attempt  to  transplant  the  g^ 
grandeur  of  a  court  into  the  midst  of  a  handful 
of  ragged  settlers  proved  too  ludicrous  to  continue. 
Governor  Dale,  the  next  governor,  ruled  with  a  rod  of 
iron,  and  ruled  well.  During  his  time  Pocahontas  was 
married  to  an  adventurer  called  Rolf,  and  the  Randolphs 
of  Virginia  from  this  union  claim  descent.  The  colony 
grew  ;  women  were  among  the  new  colonists  ;  industry 
and  plenty  followed ;  the  tobacco-plant  became  the 
staple  of  production ;  and  the  settlers  began  to  look  on 
their  plantations  as  home.  Turbulence  and  dispute 
marked  the  dealings  of  the  colonists  one  with  the  other 
and  with  the  Home  Government ;  but  the  colony  was  in 
the  main  royalist  in  tone.  About  half  a  century  after 
the  founding  of  the  colony  the  population  numbered  some 
15,000. 

In  another  fifty  years  the  population  had  risen  to  above 
40,000,  though  from  one-twentieth  of  the  number  being 
negroes  it  will  be  seen  of  how  much  value  the  slave  had 
become  in  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  the  staple  of  Vir- 
ginia. The  third  fifty  years  of  the  colony  witnessed  a 
wonderful  advance.  Shortly  before  the  revolution  the 
population  numbered  half  a  million,  being  equally  divided 
between  whites  and  negroes.  The  existence  of  slavery 
to  so  great  an  extent  shows  how  thoroughly  aristo- 
cratic the  "  Old  Dominion "  had  become  in  temper. 
General  education  was  neglected,  and  one  governor  of 
the  colony  thanked  Grod  that  there  were  no  free  schools 
within  its  borders.  One  college,  named  from  the  Prince 
of  Orange  and  his  consort — "  William  and  Mary  College  " 
— educated  the  gentry.  The  chief  form  of  faith  was  the 
Episcopal. 


154  A  Short  History  of 

But  though  framed  in  their  constitution  so  much  after 
English  ideals,  the  Cavalier  colonies  asserted  as  strongly 
as  any  of  the  Puritan  communities  their  right  of  seK- 
government.  The  Virginian  slave-holding  magnates 
brooked  as  little  interference  with  their  liberties  as  did 
the  barons  at  Runnimede.  Their  mode  of  life  was 
sybaritic  ;  the  planters'  houses  were  provided  with  costly 
plate  ;  their  stables  contained  choice  horses  ;  in  short,  to 
use  the  words  of  a  writer  of  the  time,  the  Virginian  pro- 
prietors lived  "with  the  splendour  and  affluence  of  nabobs." 

The  stirring  events  of  Indian  warfare  cultivated  those 
qualities  that  made  the  bordermen  a  match  for  British 
troops,  and  developed  such  military  genius  as  that  of 
Washington  ;  while  the  defence  of  their  provincial  rights 
produced  as  orators  and  statesmen  Thomas  Jefferson, 
Patrick  Henry,  and  James  Madison.  Virginian  names 
such  as  Lee,  Randolph,  and  Pendleton  have  not  been 
unknown  in  history. 

It  was  to  the  possession  of  a  coast  hemmed  in  by 

islands  and  bars  of  sand  that  North  Carolina 

Carolina.       owed  her  want  of  success  in  the  struggle  with 

her  Virginian  sister  in  forming  a  new  state. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  first  attempt  at  colonization  had 

ended  miserably  in  loss  of  fortune  and  of  hope  to  the 

enterprising   knight — on   the   coast   of   North   Carolina. 

Charles  I.  at  a  later  time  made  a  grant  of  the  territory 

1629  ^^  ^  court  favourite,  calling  it  the  "  Province  of 

1653*  Carolina."     Not  till  a  quarter  of  a  century  later 

did  a  company  of  restless  Virginians  take  up 

their  abode  on  the  soil  and,  ten  years  after,  a  party  from 

Barbadoes  settle  down  the  coast  from  the  Virginian^HJj^ 

The  pleasure-loving  King  Charles  II.  rewarded^K 
favourites  by  giving,  as  to  the  company  in  Hudson 
Bay,  to  the  same  and  others  the  sand-dunes  of  North 
Carolina.  General  Monk,  the  Duke  of  Albemarle,  the 
Earl  of  Clarendon,  and  Lord  Ashley  were  the 
leaders  of  the  company  to  which  was  given 
the  charter.  Old  claims  were  now  made  upon  the  terri- 
tory, but  only  to  be  overruled  in  favour  of  the  new 


THE  Canadian  People  155 

beneficiaries,   and  the  territory  was  divided  into   two 
counties — ^Albemarle  and  Clarendon. 

It  is  one  of  the  amusing  incidents  of  this  colonial 
movement  that  the  philosopher  John  Locke  was  employed 
to  elaborate  a  complete  system  of  government  for  the 
colony.  This  was  called  the  "  fundamental  constitu- 
tions." The  Grovernment  had  a  tinge  of  feudalism  about 
it  with  its  four  orders  of  "  proprietaries,  landgraves, 
caciques,  and  commons."  It  was  a  most  clumsy  attempt 
at  government,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  one  provision 
of  granting  liberty  of  religious  thought,  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  had  Locke's  reputation  as  a  philosopher  rested  on 
no  sounder  basis  than  his  political  scheme,  it  would  have 
been  short-lived  indeed. 

The  shortcoming  of  North  Carolina  lay  in  the  worth- 
less and  unenterprising  character  of  most  of  its  people. 
Its  governors,  with  the  exception  of  the  Quaker  Archdale, 
maintained  a  grotesque  struggle  with  a  quarrelsome  and 
turbulent  mob.  The  summing  up  of  nearly  a  hundred 
years  of  government  is  given  thus :  **  No  reforms,  no 
money." 

The  company  of  proprietors,  distressed  probably  quite 
as  much  as  the  people  their  subjects,  sold  out 
their  rights  at  length,  and  about  a  century  from 
the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  company,  the  popula- 
tion had  reached  some  200,000,  of  whom  one-quarter 
were  slaves.  French  Huguenots,  Grermans,  Moravians, 
Swiss,  and  Scotch,  in  the  hill  country,  with  a  few  New 
Englanders  and  Virginians,  mixed  with  the  negroes  to 
constitute  the  motley  throng. 

There  were  no  towns  and  few  professional  men  ;  society 
was  almost  unorganized  ;  tobacco  was  the  chief  product ; 
small  ships  from  the  North  Atlantic  coast  foimd  their 
way  up  the  small  streams.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
establish  the  Episcopal  Church,  but  a  majority  of  the 
people  belonged  to  other  communions — or  in  most  cases 
cared  nothing  for  religion.  The  large  number  of  the 
population  known  as  "  poor  whites  "  is  the  best  exhibit 
of  the    ignorance,   immorality,  and    shiftlessness    of    a 


166  A  Short  History  of 

people  who  entered  the  union  of  1776  with  little  political 
sentiment,  and  scarcely  a  leading  man. 

When  the  early  settlers  under  the  charter  given  to 
Clarendon  and  Albemarle  visited  that  beautiful 
Carolina.       coast  to  the  south  of  Cape  Fear,  there  was  a 
tradition  of  aformer  settlement,  whose  every  step 
had  been  marked  with  blood.    This  was  of  the  Huguenot 
1562  colony  of  Coligny,  which  nearly  a  century  before 

had  been  begun  by  Jean  Ribault.  The  establish- 
ment begun,  it  had  been  attacked  by  a  Spanish  bigot, 
Menendez,  and  his  followers,  who,  coming  in  Spanish 
ships,  landed  on  the  coast  and  massacred  in  cold  blood 
the  settlers.  Marking  the  dishonoured  corpses,  the  in- 
human Spaniards  made  inscriptions  that  the  dead  "  were 
thus  treated  not  because  they  were  Frenchmen,  but  be- 
cause they  were  heretics  and  enemies  of  God." 

A  few  years  afterwards  this  butchery  was  avenged 
by  Chevalier  de  Gourgues,  who  attacked  the 
town  of  St.  Augustin  in  Florida,  and  put  almost 
aU  the  Spaniards  to  death.  The  cruel  inscription  was 
then  altered  to  read  that  the  dead  had  been  thus  treated 
"  not  as  Spaniards,  but  as  traitors,  thieves,  and  mur- 
derers." Shame  on  the  barbarism  of  nations  glorying 
in  the  name  of  Christian  ! 

Sayle,  the  leader  of  the  Albemarle  colony,  landing  at 
Beaufort,  where  the  unfortunate  scenes  had  years  before 
occurred,  began  the  movement    which  after- 
wards resulted  in  the  founding  of  Charleston. 
Governor  West,  who  succeeded  one  of  the  landgraves 
provided  for  in  the  "  Locke  Constitution,"  was  a  good 
governor,  and  laid  the  foundation  well.     Lured  to  the 
spot  by  the  memory  of  their  former  unfortunate  settle- 
ment, numbers  of  Huguenots  joined  the  English.     Be- 
tween the  fights  with  pirates  on  the  coast,  and  struggles 
with  Indians  on  the  frontier,  the  settlers  of  South  Caro- 
lina had  a  difficult  task,  but  the  territory  was  worth 
defending,   and  the  settlers  were  on  the  whole  of  an 
energetic  and  self-reliant  class. 
A   strong   immigration   of   Irish    Presbyterians   from 


THE  Canadian  People  157 

Ulster,  joined  with  the  number  of  Huguenot  settlers, 
contributed  to  establish  a  people  determined  on  pre- 
serving their  liberties  in  their  religious  concerns,  and 
though  an  Episcopal  Church  was  maintained  by  the 
Commonwealth  in  Charleston,  it  was  almost  the  only  one 
in  the  colony.  While  religious  toleration  was  from  the 
first  a  feature  of  its  institutions.  South  Carolina  seems  to 
have  been  always  blessed  with  an  active  and  pious 
clergy. 

A  century  after  the  founding  of  the  colony  the  popula- 
tion had  reached  upwards  of  150,000,  of  whom,  however, 
not  more  than  one-quarter  were  whites.  Here  was  a 
condition  of  things  imique.  The  life  of  South  Carolina 
in  consequence  differed  very  much  from  that  of  Virginia. 
South  Carolina  was  the  typical  Southern  State.  Its 
laws  for  the  control  of  the  slaves  were  severe  ;  its  planters, 
who  gained  their  wealth  chiefly  from  rice  and  indigo, 
did  not  live  along  the  low  river-bottoms,  whence  their 
profits  came,  but  largely  around  Charleston.  The  South 
Carolina  traders  were  strong  believers  in  law  and 
order. 

The  credit  of  the  State  was  far  ahead  of  that  of  its 
northern  sister  ;  the  condition  of  society  of  the  planters 
is  said  to  have  been  higher  than  that  of  the  Virginians ; 
the  sons  of  the  rich  men  were  sent  to  Europe  for  educa- 
tion ;  and,  indeed,  many  traces  of  British  connection  are 
still  seen  to  have  been  strongly  impressed  on  South  Caro- 
lina. Her  leaders  were  well  able  to  cope  with  those  of 
any  other  colony,  and  South  Carolina  in  her  independence 
and  force  has  always  taken  a  leading  place  among  the 
States  of  the  Union. 

New  England  is  the  brain  of  the  United  States.     The 
four  colonies  embraced  under  the  term  New 
England  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution  were  ^^^^^  " " 
Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New  Hampshire, 
and  Rhode  Island.     Maine  (1820)  and  Vermont   (1791) 
have  since  that   date  been  admitted  into  the   Union. 
These  six  are  the  New  England  States,  and  they  are  the 
creation  of  the  English  Puritans. 


168  A  Short  History  of 

The   Pilgrim   fathers,    seeking   a   freer   worship   than 

James  I.  was  willing  to  grant,  had  fled  to  Hol- 

ch^s^etts.       land.     They  desired,  however,  wider  scope  than 

Europe  afforded.  Their  jom:ney  consecrated  by 

the  fervent  prayers  of  their  Parson  Robinson,  they  left  him 

behind  in  Delfthaven,  as  in  the  ship  Speedwell  they  sought 

new  homes.     At  Southampton  the  Pilgrims  re- 

1620.    '        embarked  in  the  Mayflower,  which,  with  102 

souls  on  board,  sailed  for  the  New  World.    Safely 

across  the  Atlantic,  when  they  had  arrived  at  Cape  Cod, 

which  "bends,  and  embraces  round,  as  with  a  lover's  arm 

the  sheltered  sea,"  they  landed  and  drew  up  a  compact 

which  formed  the  basis  of  their  new  constitution. 

On  the  bleak  coast  of  Massachusetts  Bay  they  disem- 
barked and  stood  upon  the  rock  still  to  be  seen  at  the 
old  town  of  Plymouth,  where  also  amid  many  other 
memorials  of  their  coming  is  Leyden  Street,  in  token  of 
their  stay  in  Holland.  Standish,  Alden,  and  others  of 
their  names  have  become  historic.  New  England  fami- 
lies claim  it  as  a  patent  of  highest  nobility  to  have  had 
ancestors  in  the  Mayflower,  and  articles  of  trifling  value 
brought  from  England  have  become  precious  heirlooms, 
if  but  borne  in  that  vessel,  "  capacious  as  another  ark  for 
furniture  decrepit." 

Religiously  these  Puritans  belonged  to  the  wing  of 
the  Independents,  and  their  sentiments  were  strongly 
opposed  to  the  Episcopal  Church. 

Shortly  after  this  another  party,  known  as  the  Dor- 
g  g  Chester  Company,  after  many  trials  found  a 

resting-place  at  Salem,  on  the  coast  of  Massa- 
chusetts Bay,  under  their  notable  leader,  Endicott.  A 
daring  Puritan  scheme,  worthy  of  the  determined  men 
who  were  of  the  stock  of  Cromwell's  Ironsides,  was  soon 
undertaken,  viz.  that  of  obtaining  a  royal  charter  for 
the  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay.  The  charter 
1630  obtained,  by  a  clever  and  daring  act,  the  com- 

pany and  its  government  were,  without  the 
knowledge  of  King  Charles,  transferred  to  America. 
Thus  a  legal  government  was  in  force. 


THE  Canadian  People  159 

Governor  Winthrop  with  eleven  ships  brought  out  1,000 
Puritan  colonists,  who  took  up  their  first  abode  at  Charles- 
town,  where  now  stands  Bunker  Hill  Monument ;  but, 
dissatisfied  with  the  situation,  many  of  the  colonists  soon 
crossed  over  the  arm  of  the  sea  to  "  Tremontane,"  where 
Boston  now  stands.  Thus  besides  the  PJjmiouth  pilgrims, 
the  Puritan  settlements  on  Massachusetts  Bay  were 
Salem,  Charlestown,  and  Boston.  These  three  contained 
the  flower  of  the  Puritans.  The  settlers  had  not  yet 
severed  their  connection  with  the  Church  of  England. 
Yet  when  in  their  isolated  condition  they  determined  to 
found  religious  institutions,  the  circumstances  favoured 
the  adoption  of  the  Independent  model  belonging  to  their 
predecessors  at  Pljnnouth. 

These  were  men  of  great  fervour,  faith,  and  intelli- 
gence. It  is  said  that  no  less  that  forty  graduates  of  the 
English  University  of  Cambridge  were  among  their  clergy 
a  few  years  after  its  founding  in  the  colony  of  Massa- 
chusetts Bay.  Among  them  were  such  men  of  note  as 
John  Cotton  and  Thomas  Hooker,  driven  out  g,, 
of  England  to  the  New  World  by  the  fierce 
threats  of  Laud.  Four  thousand  people  in  sixteen  towns 
at  this  time  made  up  the  colony.  And  now  they  sought 
to  set  up  a  state  after  the  theocratic  model.  "  I  am  the 
Lord  thy  God,  which  brought  thee  up  out  of  the  land  of 
bondage,"  seemed  to  be  the  voice  of  their  Ruler  speaking 
to  them  from  the  clouds,  and  who  had  delivered  them 
from  persecution. 

The  laws  of  the  Puritans  were  severe,  for  the  Puritans 
were  men  of  thoroughness.  They  would  regulate  the 
Sabbath  and  the  family  discipline  by  statute  law.  They 
were  not  quiet ists.  They  were  the  people  who  ruled  a 
commonwealth,  and  whose  ideas  now  govern  half  a  con- 
tinent. 

They  were  narrow  for  they  were  zealous  ;  but  they 
showed  a  remarkable  faculty  for  organization  and  govern- 
ment. They  chose  their  governor,  elected  selectmen, 
condemned  eighty-two  tenets  of  theology  objectionable 
to  them  ;  sent  into  banishment,  after  having  cut  off  from 


160  A  Short  History  of 

the  Church,  men  and  women  who  were  troublers,  as  they 
would  have  plucked  out  a  right  eye — ^these  and  other  im- 
portant matters,  such  as  the  payment  of  their  preacher 
and  schoolmaster,  as  well  as  raising  levies  to  fight  the 
Indians,  they  did  by  the  simple  machinery  of  the  "  town- 
meeting." 

They  valued  education  highly ;  indeed,  standing  on  a 
granite  pedestal  on  Cambridge  Green,  near  Boston,  is  a 
noble  bronze  statue  of  the  broad-brimmed  Puritan, 
John  Bridge,  the  first  Cambridge  schoolmaster  employed 
in  the  first  decade  of  the  colony  ;  while  in  front  of  the 
magnificent  halls  of  the  oldest  university  in  America,  a 
few  hundred  yards  from  Bridge's  statue,  sits  the  figure 
in  bronze  of  the  devout  young  founder  of  Harvard 
1652  College.     Bent  on  dominion,  it  was  not  long  till 

Massachusetts  extended  her  boundaries  to  the 
north,  and  included  the  territory  now  in  the  States  of 
Maine  and  Vermont. 

The  unyielding  temper  of  these  rulers  of  the  coast  may 
1660  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^®  severe  dealing  with  the  Quakers 

and  Baptists,  whom  they  regarded  as  disturbers 
of  the  peace.  The  part  of  the  colony  settled  by  Endi- 
cott,  about  Salem,  seems  to  have  been  overrun  by  a  witch- 
burning  epidemic,  not  in  any  way  different  from  that 
which  was  at  the  time  prevailing  in  England  and  Scot- 
land. To  Massachusetts  belonged  the  chief  task  of 
defending  British  interests  on  the  North  Atlantic  coast 
of  America.  Massachusetts  was  indeed  New  England. 
Her  sons  valiantly  defended  her  frontier  from  the  Indians, 
and  her  coat-of-arms  shows  an  Indian  and  a  military  arm 
and  hand  grasping  a  drawn  sword  above  him. 

The  Massachusetts  militia  took  part  in  the  wars  against 
the  French  in  the  New  World,  and  a  cross  is  still  dis- 
played at  Harvard  College,  captured  from  the  fortress  of 
Louisbourg.  In  such  a  school  colonial  troops  were 
trained.  The  sturdy  independence  of  New  England  is 
seen  in  her  statesmen.  There  was  a  notable  succession : 
Otis,  Samuel  Adams,  Prescott,  and  Warren.  They  were 
of  the  same  stock  which  made  England  great — of  the 


THE  Canadian  People  161 

same  ilk  as  Hampden,  Drake,  and  Hawkins.  Stirred 
with  a  sense  of  injustice,  the  colonists  showed  in  Boston 
Bay,  Bmiker  Hill,  and  Lexington  that  they  were  worthy 
of  their  lineage. 

The  history  of  the  State  lying  in  the  valley  along  the 
Connecticut  River  is  that  of  a  frontier  settle- 
ment between  the  Puritans  and  Dutch.     From  ^^^^^^ 
the  first  it  was  evident  that  it  was  to  be  a  bit 
of    Puritan    New    England.     Its    first    governor,    John 
Winthrop,  junior,  came  out  under  the  patent  of  Lords 
Brook  and  Say  and  Sele,  and  puUed  down  the  Dutch 
arms  in  the  territory.    A  difference  of  opinion  in  the 
colony  of  Massachusetts  was  the  cause  of  the  beginning 
of  Connecticut. 

One  of  the  best  bands  of  settlers  that  ever  came  to  the 
New  World  was  that  which  arrived  to  settle  in  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts,  under  Thomas  Hooker,  known  as 
the  Braintree  Company,  which  came  with  the  ministers, 
John  Cotton  and  Samuel  Stone.  In  their  sober  Puritan 
humour  they  said,  "  they  had  all  needs  for  life  :  they 
had  Cotton  for  clothing.  Hooker  for  their  fishing,  and 
Stone  for  their  building."  But  Hooker  and  his  followers 
did  not  take  kindly  to  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  :  per- 
haps the  ministers  did  not  agree,  or  possibly  Governor 
Winthrop  was  too  dictatorial,  but  the  Hooker  colony  sold 
out  their  houses  to  a  new  company,  and  taking  their 
journey  through  100  miles  of  trackless  forest,  driving 
their  cattle  before,  and  carrying  their  sick  on  litters,  they 
founded  Hartford,  so-named  after  the  birthplace  of  Mr. 
Stone.  The  new  colony  bore  the  brunt  of  a  fierce  Indian 
war  with  the  Pequods. 

Another  company  of  settlers  of  property  and  respecta- 
bility coming  to  Massachusetts  also  failed  to  regard 
with  favour  its  usages  and  requirements,  and 
sailed  south  to  settle  thirty  miles  west  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Connecticut  River.  They  lived  for  a  year 
"  under  no  rule  but  a  compact  to  obey  the  Scriptures," 
and  formed  the  most  intensely  religious  of  the  Puritan 
settlements  known  as  the  New  Haven  Colony.  This 
11 


162  A  Short  History  of 

settlement  chose  a  rich  merchant,  Theophilus  Eaton,  as 
their  governor. 

Thus  there  were  two  independent  religious  democra- 
cies, Hartford  and  New  Haven,  founded  within  the  same 
territory.  The  Governor  Winthrop  of  the  Hartford  sec- 
tion succeeded  by  tact  and  energy  in  getting  a  corpora- 
1662  ^^^^  established  by  Charles  II. — "  The  Governor 

and  Company  of  Connecticut."  New  Haven  re- 
sisted the  encroachments  of  this  vigorous  company,  but 
at  last,  in  order  to  avoid  being  swallowed  up  by  the 
Dutch,  took  refuge  under  the  charter.  On  the 
visit  of  the  royal  commissioner  no  course  was 
left  but  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  king,  and 
the  duty,  though  disagreeable,  was  performed  by  these 
independent  religionists.  The  colony  suffered  much 
from  King  Philip's  Indian  war,  but  ever  bore  itself 
bravely. 

The  people  of  Connecticut  from  the  first  showed  a  con- 
siderable faculty  for  self-government,  as  weU  as  for  shrewd 
diplomacy.  While  Massachusetts  Bay  settlements  were 
too  assertive  to  live  at  peace  with  the  king,  Connecticut 
succeeded,  "  by  bending  before  the  breeze,"  in  sailing 
within  the  limits  of  the  king's  favour,  and  in  conse- 
quence retained,  though  not  without  difficulty,  her 
free  charter.  Schools  were  established  and  maintained, 
towns  were  improved,  legislation  was  wise,  debts  were 
paid,  and  her  magistrates  were  worthy  of  their  office. 
Taken  altogether,  Connecticut  lived  the  happiest,  most 
prosperous,  and  most  contented  of  all  the  Atlantic  States. 
This  arose  largely  from  the  respectable  and  upright 
character  of  her  first  settlers. 

Religiously  the  people  seem  to  have  been  harmonious, 
and  the  foimdation  of  Yale  CoUege  at  Newhaven  was 
an  event  of  national  importance.  While  Massa- 
chusetts was  the  representative  of  an  outspoken 
and  somewhat  quarrelsome  nonconformity,  Connecticut 
was  the  home  of  a  more  quiet  and  peaceable,  though  none 
the  less  determined  type  of  Puritanism. 

So  early  as   1603  the   two  small  English  craft,  Speed- 


THE  Canadian  People  163 

wdl  and  Discoverer,  under  Captain  Pring,  who  had  traded 

with  the  natives  along  the  coast  from  Penobscot 

Bay    southward,  had    discovered    the   islands  Hampshire. 

along  the  coast,  and  found  the  river  of  Maine 

and  New  Hampshire.     The  redoubtable  Captain  Smith 

had  entered,  like  Captain  Pring,  the  Piscatqua,  destined 

to  be  the  river  at  whose  mouth  stands  the  only  port  of 

New  Hampshire — Portsmouth. 

One  of  the  most  energetic  of  the  Plymouth  Council, 
Sir  Ferdinand  Gorges,  associated  with  himself  one  Mason, 
who  had  been  governor  of  a  Newfoundland  plantation, 
and  to  these  two  adventurers  was  given  the  g.. 
country  between  the  Atlantic,  the  St.  Law- 
rence, the  Kennebec,  and  the  Merrimac — a  district  in- 
cluding the  present  New  Hampshire.  Lawsuits  on  the 
part  of  English  claimants,  and  contests  with  the  French, 
who  looked  upon  this  as  a  part  of  Acadia,  followed  in 
due  course.  In  1641  the  colonists  united  with  Massa- 
chusetts. 

Fifty  or  sixty  English  Hampshire  families  represented 
the  whole  population,  thirty  years  after  the  .-g, 
colony  was  begun  ;   but  some  time  afterwards 
the  settlement  was  deemed  by  Charles  II.  of  sufficient 
importance  to  be  erected  into  a  royal  province.  .--^ 
In  later  years  New  York  and  Massachusetts 
both  asserted  a  claim  to  portions  of  the  ill-defined  terri- 
tory, until  in  the  following  century  the  boundaries  of 
what  is  now  known  as  the  "  Granite  State  "  .„^. 
were  fixed.     To  this  Switzerland  of  America 
many  a  tourist  finds  his  way.     Excepting  the  Irish,  other 
Europeans,  and  French  Canadians  of  its  manufactm-ing 
towns,  the  people  of  this  State  are  purely  the  descendants 
of  the  original  English  and  Scottish  settlers. 

From  the  summer  heat  of  these  great  religious  move- 
ments, there  follows  not  only  a  harvest-time  of 
useful  fruitage,  but  an  after-growth  of  spurious  island, 
seeding.     As   after  the   German  Reformation 
came  the  extravagances  of  Miinster  and  his  followers,  so 
out  of  Puritanism,  with  its  thorough  earnestness  and 


164  A  Short  History  of 

power,  grew  an  abundant  yield  of  Separatist  fruit.  The 
right  of  private  judgment  abused,  and  unmodified  by  a 
principle  of  charitable  cohesion,  leads  to  disintegration  in 
society.  Just  as  in  civil  government  the  struggle  for 
freedom  in  the  case  of  the  revolting  colonies  led  to 
General  Washington's  complaint  that  after  the  fight  of 
Bimker  Hill  every  colonist  soldier  thought  himself  a 
captain ;  so  in  the  struggle  for  the  soul  liberty  it  was 
not  surprising  that  the  tendency  towards  continued  dis- 
integration should  show  itself.  Especially  might  this 
have  been  expected  among  such  masterful  men  as  the 
English  Puritans.  Even  women  rose  to  be  leaders  of  sects. 
The  consciousness  of  such  danger  undoubtedly  led  the 
Puritan  leaders  to  adopt  strong  measures. 

It  is,  however,  rarely  that  the  divisive  tendency  spoken 
of  is  found  so  strongly  developed  as  it  was  in  one  of  such 
marked  private  and  domestic  virtues  as  Roger  Williams. 
Williams  was  an  English  Puritan  of  great  ability  and 
logical  power.  To  him  the  truth  was  everything.  While 
the  idea  of  a  Puritan  theocracy  as  held  in  Massachusetts 
and  Connecticut,  or  on  the  other  hand  of  an  aristocratic 
Government  and  State  Church,  as  in  Virginia,  have 
perished,  among  the  English  of  the  American  conti- 
nent, Williams's  principle  of  a  severance  of  Church  and 
State  has  become  supreme. 

It  will  be  noticed  by  careful  observers  that  the  grounds 
for  the  persecution  to  which  Williams  was  subjected  in 
Massachusetts  were  the  conclusions  as  to  civil  affairs 
reached  by  him  as  flowing  from  his  religious  doctrines. 
As  in  religious  matters,  Williams  objected  to  a  fort- 
nightly meeting  of  the  Puritan  ministers  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  religious  questions  lest  this  should  lead  to  a 
superintendency  or  ecclesiastical  control ;  so  it  was  a 
mark  of  the  civil  system  established  by  him  that  for  a 
time  it  "  would  have  no  magistrates."  While  the  prin- 
ciple of  Williams,  in  which  he  differs  entirely  from  the 
Massachusetts  Puritan,  that  "  the  civil  magistrates  may 
not  intermeddle  even  to  stop  a  church  from  apostasy 
and  heresy  "  is  undoubtedly  correct,  yet  his  antipathy  to 


THE  Canadian  People  165 

authority  in  civil  matters  led  him  very  near  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  "  levellers  "  or  "  root-and-branch  men."  The 
colony  of  Rhode  Island,  while  certainly  a  school  for  the 
development  of  rigid  principles,  was  also  distinguished 
for  its  turbulence. 

Driven  forth  by  a  tyrannical  edict  of  Puritan  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  the  cold  of  winter,  it  was  by  the  kind 
suggestion  of  Grovernor  Winthrop  that  Williams  made  a 
new  home  on  the  unoccupied  shore  of  Narragansett  Bay, 
where,  with  pious  gratitude,  he  named  his  set-    g^ 
tlement  "  Providence."   His  settlement  proved 
a  city  of  refuge  for  religious  exiles — and  these  were  not 
few — ^from  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  New  York. 
It  was  seven  years  later  that  the  four  towns  ._^ 
already  sprung  up  of   Providence,   Newport, 
Portsmouth,  and  Warwick  were  imited  under  one  juris- 
diction, and  given  a  charter  by  the  English  Parliament. 

To  Roger  Williams's  colony,  by  invitation  of  the  founder, 
gravitated  with  her  adherents  the  remarkable  lady, 
Anne  Hutchinson,  the  source  of  such  serious  trouble  in 
Massachusetts,  whose  tendencies  may  be  judged  by  her 
habit  of  referring  to  the  Puritan  ministers  as  the  "  black 
coats  "  trained  at  the  "  Ninneversity."  But  even  the 
mild  restraints  of  Rhode  Island  drove  the  Hutchinsons 
away  from  the  separatist  settlement  into  the  wilderness 
of  New  York.  Rhode  Island  was  the  smallest  of  the 
original  colonies,  as  indeed  it  is  still  the  smallest  of  the 
American  States. 

The  days  of  the  early  English  Stuarts  were  sore  upon 
all  who  disagreed  with  the  State  religion.     But  English 
while  a  Puritan  like  Baxter  might  be  soundly  catholics 
berated  by  a  judge,  and  perhaps  condemned  i°  Mary- 
to  pay  a  fine,  yet  he  was  looked  upon  only  *°  * 
as  a  member  errant  of  the  Chiu-ch  as  by  law  established. 
But  so  strong  was  the  feeling  against  the  Papists,  as  they 
were   derisively   called,    that   they   were   considered   as 
enemies  of  the  State,  and  so  were  not  eligible  to  hold 
civil  office.     Like  hunted  beasts,  the  Catholics  hid  them- 
selves in  their  homes  if  they  were  poor,  or  sought  refuge 


166  A  Short  History  of 

from  the  intolerance  of  the  age,  if  they  were  rich,  in  the 
Catholic  countries  of  the  Continent,  for  in  the  time  of 
the  first  James  or  the  two  Charleses,  insult  and  perhaps 
legal  penalty  were  meted  out  to  them. 

As  in  times  of  persecution  there  are  some  so  constituted 
as  to  embrace  a  cause  out  of  sympathy  for  the  sufferings 
of  its  adherents,  so  Sir  George  Calvert,  an  Oxford  graduate, 
a  Member  of  Parliament,  an  officer  of  state,  and  a  most 
active  public  man,  surrendered  office  on  account  of  a 
change  of  opinion,  and  identified  himself  with  the  pro- 
scribed Catholics.  His  high  standing  and  personal 
qualities  retained  him  some  consideration  from  James  I. 
Like  most  of  the  public  men  of  the  time,  Calvert  took  an 
interest  in  New  World  settlements.  Not  only  did  he 
belong  to  the  famous  Virginia  Company,  but  he  had  secured 
a  grant  of  the  Peninsula  of  Avalon,  on  the  barren  coast 
of  Newfoundland.  He  now  sought  to  establish  a  New 
World  home  for  his  co-religionists. 

The  most  noted  feature  of  his  colony  was  its  tolerance 
of  all  forms  of  faith.  A  strong  contrast  has  always  been 
drawn  between  the  tolerant  colony  of  Maryland  and  the 
persecuting  Puritan  colonies.  Yet  the  case  is  often 
misconceived.  The  Puritans  fled  not  so  much  to  obtain 
freedom  to  worship  God,  for  they  were  gaining  ground 
in  England  at  the  time.  They  desired  to  rule  and  could 
not  brook  kingly  authority.  They  were  desirous  of 
founding  a  theocratic  state.  They  were  masterful  men, 
and  the  spirit  of  domination  which  they  showed  in  the 
commonwealth  they  bore  to  the  New  World.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  regard  them  as  a  covey  of  hunted  partridges 
flying  for  cover.  They  neither  understood  nor  tried  to 
understand  the  principles  of  toleration.  They  were 
narrow  ;  and  however  wrong  and  little  to  be  admired, 
yet  they  were  not  inconsistent  with  their  other  opinions 
when  they  sought  by  law  to  repress  divergencies  of  belief. 

With  Calvert,  or  as  he  is  better  known,  Lord  Balti- 
more, and  his  Catholics,  the  case  was  different.  They 
had  mainly  given  up  hope  of  regaining  England.  The 
severities  following  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  as  well  as  the 


THE  Canadian  People  167 

previous  execution  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  had  broken 
for  half  a  century  the  expectations  of  the  Roman  Church. 
Lord  Baltimore  sought  for  peace.  In  order  to  obtain 
it,  he  adopted  a  like  expedient,  afterwards  used  by 
James  II.  when  he  became  tolerant,  threw  open  his  colony 
to  aU  in  order  that  he  and  his  Catholic  colonists  might 
unmolested  enjoy  their  own  faith.  The  law  of  tolerance, 
however,  only  included  Christians,  for  an  early  law  was 
passed  in  Maryland,  that  death  should  be  the  penalty 
for  the  denial  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 

Lord  Baltimore,  finding  Virginia  proper  impossible  as 
a  residence  for  Catholics,  turned  his  attention  to  the 
coast  lying  north  of  the  Potomac.  This  region  he  named 
Maryland  in  honour  of  Charles  I.'s  queen,  Henrietta 
Maria.  The  territory  was  bestowed  absolutely  upon 
Lord  Baltimore,  with  a  feudal  obligation  to  render  two 
arrows  and  one-fifth  of  the  precious  metals  found  to  the 
king.  The  charter,  however,  gave  large  powers  of  self- 
government  to  the  people.  The  royal  gift  was  now 
found  to  conflict  with  a  trading  licence  previously  given 
to  William  Claybome,  a  surveyor,  through  the  agency 
of  the  founder  of  the  Nova  Scotia  baronetcies,  Sir  William 
Alexander.  This  double  grant  afterwards  produced 
conflict. 

On  the  death  of  Calvert,  his  son  Cecil  became  heir 
to  the  territory,  and  to  Calvert  the  younger  was  for- 
mally granted  the  charter.     It  was  in  two  vessels,  the 
Ark  and  the  Dove,  that  on  the  22nd  of  November  Leonard, 
brother    of    Cecil    Calvert,    with    about    200 
Catholic  gentlemen  and  their  retinues,  departed 
for  their  New  World  plantation.     Delayed  at  Barbadoes 
and  elsewhere,  it  was  not  till  the  24th  of  February  .g„- 
that  they  reached  Virginia,  and  not  till  March 
that  they  ascended  the  Potomac,  and  planting  the  cross 
on  an  island,  took  possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  King 
Charles.     Kindly  relations  were  at  once  established  with 
the  Indians,  and  the  colony  endured  but  few  hardships. 
Within  a  year  a  popular  Legislative  Assembly  had  met, 
the  only  thorn  in  the  side  of  the  colony  being  the  con- 


168  A  Shobt  History  of 

tinued  hostility  of  the  claimant  Clayborne,  whose  influence 
in  Virginia  and  with  the  Indians  was  considerable. 

The  disturbed  state  of  England  under  the  last  years 
of  Charles  I.,  and  the  supremacy  of  the  Puritans  in  the 
Commonwealth,  gave  considerable  annoyance  to  the 
Maryland  Catholics,  who  were  royalists.  The  uncertainty 
as  to  the  allegiance  to  be  required  of  them  resulted  in 
almost  supreme  authority  in  their  own  territory  being 
given  to  their  Legislative  Assembly,  the  king  still  being 
regarded  as  suzerain.  Within  a  few  years  the 
population  of  the  country  was  estimated  at 
about  from  eight  to  twelve  thousand,  these  a  mixture  of 
Roman  Catholics,  English  and  Massachusetts  Puritans, 
and  Virginia  Prelatists. 

No  great  religious  or  philanthropic   purpose  led  to 

the  settlement  of  the  New  World  possessions 

which  had  been  discovered  by  Captain  Hudson 

on  behalf  of  the  Dutch.     It  was  in  the  year 

after  the  navigator's  return  from  his  last  voyage  for 

the  Dutch  that  a  number  of  Amsterdam  merchants  sent 

out   a   ship  to  trade   with   the  Indians   on   Manhattan 

Island.     As  a  consequence  of  success  in  this   venture, 

a  small  trading  village  was  built  where  the  city  of  New 

York  now  stands. 

It  was  probably  in  the  autumn  of  1614  that  a  small 
fort  was  built  to  protect  their  trade  by  the  Dutch.  Chris- 
tiannse,  Blok,  and  May  are  the  names  of  the  three  chief 
captains  of  their  early  expedition  of  five  ships.  Cape 
May  and  Blok  Island  commemorate  two  of  them  to  this 
day.  In  the  next  year  Captain  Hendricksen  ascended 
the  Hudson  River,  and  built  Fort  Orange  where  Albany 
now  stands.  In  1621  Manhattan  Island  was  bought  from 
the  Indians  for  twenty-four  dollars.  Captain  May  took 
1623  possession  of  New  Jersey  for  the  Dutch,  erecting 

Fort  Nassau.  The  colony  on  Manhattan  Island 
was  named  New  Amsterdam,  and  the  Dutch  settlements 
collectively  were  known  as  the  New  Netherlands. 

Soon  the  claim  of  the  Dutch  to  the  coast  extended  from 
Cape  Henlopen  to  Cape  Cod.      Of  Delaware  Bay  they 


THE  Canadian  People  169 

once  took  possession,  but  they  were  driven  out  by  the 
Indians,  and  Lord  Baltimore  afterwards  occupied  their 
territory.  On  the  north  the  coast  of  Connecticut  was 
snatched  from  the  Dutch,  as  we  have  seen,  by  English 
settlers. 

It  was  about  this  time  that  another  European  nation 
gained,  for  a  time,  a  foothold  on  the  Atlantic  ^^^^ 
coast.     This  was  Sweden.     Gustavus  Adolphus 
had  before  his  death  proposed  such  a  scheme  to  his 
countrymen.     Two  vessels,  the  Key  and  Griff  en,  d^jj^^j^j^ 
laden  with  Swedes  and  Finns,  were  taken  to 
America  by  Peter  Minuet,  the  former  Dutch  governor 
of  New  Amsterdam.     By  purchase  from  the  natives  the 
colony  obtained  the  coast  along  Delaware  Bay  known  as 
Poutaxat.     Delaware  Bay,  it  has  been  often  said,  was 
visited  by  Lord  de  la  Warre  in  1610,  but  this  report  is 
not  now  regarded  as  authentic. 

An  Indian  war,  brought  on  by  a  cruel  massacre  of  an 
Algonquin  camp  by  the  Dutch,  desolated  New    ^^ 
Netherlands.     It  was  when  a  treaty  had  been 
made  with  the  Indians  that  Peter  Stuyvesant,  the  famous 
Dutch  governor,  arrived,  finding  a  colony  of  some  3,000 
souls  all  told.     A  misunderstanding  between    ^^ 
the  Swedes  and  the  Dutch  on  the  coast  led 
to  the  old  soldier  Stuyresant  organizing  an  expedition 
which  captured  all   the  Swedish  settlements,  and  New 
Sweden  was  blotted  out.     Stuyvesant  ruled  his  enlarged 
colony  with  a  somewhat  strong  hand,  but  tolerant  prin- 
ciples prevailed.     It  became  an  asylum  not  only  for  the 
Dutch  Protestants,  but  for  Huguenot  fugitives  and  exiles 
from  Bohemia,  the  Maritime  Alps,  and  Switzerland.     A 
broad  foundation  was  being  laid  for  a  commerce  which 
is  now  one  of  the  world's  wonders  at  New  York. 

But  England  could  hardly  have  been  expected  to  have 
allowed  such  colonists  to  cut  her  seaboard  in  twain.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  grant  of  the  Dutch  coast  was  given  as  a  part 
of  that  conferred  upon  his  brother  James  by  easy-going 
Charles  II.  New  Netherlands  was  changed  by  antici- 
pation to  New  York,  and  an  expedition  of  three  ships 


170  A  Short  History  of 

arrived  before  New  Amsterdam,  and  demanded  their 
surrender  to  England.  The  old  warrior,  Stuyvesant, 
would  have  fought,  but  the  people  were  without  hope, 
,g-^  and  on  the  8th  of  September  the  commercial  city 

of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  the  territory  of  the 
Empire  State,  passed  over  to  Britain. 

Similar  to    Delaware    in    the    character  of    its    early 
Swedish  and  Dutch  settlers,   who  had  come 
even  before  the  Pilgrim  fathers  landed  in  Mas- 
sachusetts  Bay   to   the   coast   between   Long 
Island  and  Cape  May,  New  Jersey  has  been  an  impor- 
tant State.     It  was  ceded  by  Charles  II.  to  his  brother 
James,  who  afterwards  passed  over  the  territory  bestowed 
on  him  to  Lord  Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret,  the 
latter  being  the  governor  of  the  English  Isle  of  Jersey, 
hence  the  name  of  the  New  World  State.  .The  Dutch 
g_g  succeeded  in  dispossessing  the  Eil^lish  of  it, 

but  Sir  William  Penn  and  other  Quakers  sub- 
sequently purchased  it.  It  was  a  hard  battle-ground 
during  the  Revolutionary  War. 

To  their  early  history  do  aU  countries  look  back  as  to 
their  golden  age.  This  is  usually  because  not 
vania.  "  ^^ty  ^^^  ^^e  infant  strifes  forgotten,  but  the 
enforced  simplicity  of  the  earlier  time  is  in 
strong  contrast  to  the  artificial  and  conventional  state  of 
the  later  period.  In  few  cases  has  a  golden  age  better 
deserved  the  name  than  that  of  the  Quaker  colony  of 
Pennsylvania.  The  quietist  followers  of  an  English  reli- 
gious enthusiast,  George  Fox,  were  democratic  without 
being  demagogues,  and  were  believers  in  an  "  inner 
light  "  without  being  monomaniacs.  They  practised  the 
virtues  of  industry  and  domestic  life,  qualities  too 
often  wanting  in  enthusiasts  in  political  and  religious 
matters. 

William  Penn,  the  son  of  the  famous  admiral  who  took 
Jamaica,  and  grandson  of  another  naval  officer,  notwith- 
standing the  obloquy  and  even  imprisonment  endured  by 
him,  forsook  the  warlike  course  of  his  fathers,  and  be- 
came an  uncompromising  opponent  of  war,  even  as  the 


THE  Canadian  People  171 

final  resort  of  nations  which  disagree.     Of  high  scholas- 
tic attainments,  of  first-rate  poHtical  ability,  and  one 
having  avenues  of  honour  waiting  to  receive  him,  he 
forsook  all  to  "  suffer  affliction  with  the  people  of  God." 
A  debt  owed  his  father  by  Charles  II.  was  paid  to  Penn 
by   the   bestowal  of   a  grant  of   territory  in   the  New 
World.     By  his  persecuted  and  suffering  co- 
reHgionists,  New  Jersey,   Delaware,   and  the 
new  State,  to  be  afterwards  known  by  his  name,  were 
the /^ntre  towards  which  flight  was  made  from  intole- 
Taxt  New  England  and  the  unkind  mother-land. 
/  On  the  northern  edge  of  his  famed  Philadelphia,  the 
expatriated  gentleman  and  his  friends  met  the  Algon- 
quins  of  the  region  with  the  oUve-branch,  and 
showed  the  brotherly  love  inculcated  aUke  by 
his  creed  and  his  noble  nature.     **We  are  all  one  flesh 
and  blood,    said  the  white  chief  to  the  redman,  and  the 
chiefs  of  Penn's  forest  swore  friendship  "  as  long  as  the 
moon  and  sun  shall  endure."     Not  only  kings  and  princes 
of  Europe  admired  this  peaceful  Arcadia,  but  so,  too,  did 
the  poor  and  the  persecuted  from  England  and  Scotland, 
from  Ireland  and  Wales,  from  the  Netherlands  and  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Rhine,  and  thus  the  foundations  were 
laid  of  one  of  the  most  influential  States  of  the  American 
Union. 

Noted  alike  for  its  kindly  Quakerism  and  for  its  sturdy 
Calvinism,  the  *'  keystone  "  State  has  distributed  swarms 
of  **  Pennsylvania  Dutch  "  and  Irish- American  Protes- 
tants to  every  part  of  the  continent.  Two  young  sur- 
veyors, Charles  Mason  and  Dixon,  ran  the  line  between 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  a  famous  boundary  in  later 
anti-slavery  discussions.  Philadelphia  gradually  became 
one  of  the  most  important  places  of  the  seaside  colonies. 
It  was  here  that  the  celebrated  Congress  of  the  Colonies 
met,  when  the  thirteen  colonies  declared 
themselves  independent  of  British  rule,  and 
Benjamin  Franklin  became  chairman  of  the  Committee 
of  Safety.  Not  an  Indian  war,  not  a  case  of  persecu- 
tion, nor  since  1780  the  disgrace  of  owning  a  slave,  has 


172  A  Short  History  of 

disfigured  the  fair  fame  of  this  great  State,  which  now 
contains  upwards  of  4,000,000  inhabitants. 

Many  as  we  have  seen  the  motives  leading  to  the 
foundation  of  new  colonies  along  the  Atlantic 
eorgia.  seaboard  to  have  been,  none  were  nobler  than 
those  which  led  to  the  settlement  of  Greorgia.  The 
penal  laws  of  England  against  debtors,  which  had  not 
yet  disappeared  in  their  severity  even  so  late  as  the  time 
of  Dickens,  were  far  more  severe  a  century  ago.  To  be 
a  debtor  and  unable  to  pay  subjected  the  unfortunate 
man  thus  involved  to  treatment  almost  as  ignominious 
as  that  of  a  Roman  client  from  his  patron.  The  common 
jail  with  all  its  horrors,  and  that  of  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury before  Howard's  work  of  amelioration,  was  the  home, 
till  death  came  to  their  reHef,  of  multitudes  whose  only 
crime  was  poverty. 

A  noble-hearted  and  generous  man  was  stirred  to 
activity  by  witnessing  the  sufferings  of  the  helpless 
debtors.  This  was  James  Oglethorpe,  an  English 
general,  who  had  fought  against  the  Turks,  and  along 
with  Marlborough.  The  poet  Rogers  called  him  "  the 
finest  figure  of  a  man  you  ever  saw."  Edmund  Burke 
said  he  was  a  more  extraordinary  person  than  any  he 
had  ever  read  of.  Oglethorpe  having  had  a  friend  sorely 
oppressed  as  a  debtor,  appealed  to  Parliament,  and 
gained  some  modification  of  the  law.  But  the  opening 
of  the  prison  doqrs  to  a  large  number  of  these  unfortu- 
nate debtors  bu^l^hrew  them  helpless  on  the  world. 

The  extensive  territory  from  the  land  of  the  Iroquois 
south  to  34°  N.  lat.  was  surrendered  by  the 
JJgl*  Cherokee  Indians  to  Britain.     From  this,  three 

years  later,  the  philanthropic  general  obtained, 
under  Letters  Patent,  a  territory  organized  for  the  pur- 
pose of  conveying  thither  a  number  of  the  homeless 
debtors.  This  he  named  from  the  reigning  sovereign, 
George  II.  In  November,  with  116  unfortunate  emi- 
grants, the  general  took  ship  for  his  new  plantation  of 
Georgia,  and  a  peaceful  settlement  alongside  the  Creek 
Indians  was  made  where  Savannah  now  stands. 


THE  Canadian  People  173 

Religious  persecution  sent,  in  the  next  year,  a  hundred 
Bavarianrefugeestothe  new  colony.  These  were 
a  part  of  the  quiet  and  industrious  Salzbergers, 
who  were  expatriated  because  they  swore  upon  the  "host  " 
and  "  consecrated  salt  "  to  be  true  to  their  faith,  and  to 
the  number  of  some  20,000  in  all  were  driven  forth  to  be 
scattered  hither  and  thither  as  rebels.  The  pious  Bava- 
rians named  their  New  World  settlement  *'  Ebenezer,"  in 
token  of  dehverance.  In  their  southern  homes  they  be- 
came successful  producers  of  indigo  and  silk.  Through 
a  grant  from  the  EngUsh  ParUament,  and  from  private 
subscriptions,  $36,000  of  a  fund  was  raised  for  the 
colony.  The  colony  was  popular,  and  accordingly 
many  of  the  weak  and  unsuccessful — not,  it  is  true, 
the  best  settlers  for  a  new  country — found  their  way 
thither. 

Hardy  Swiss  and  Scottish  Highlanders  of  a  more  self- 
reliant  kind  were  also  induced  to  colonize  lands  in 
Georgia.  General  Oglethorpe's  second  expe- 
dition  brought  considerable  numbers  to  the 
colony,  and,  with  the  others,  the  brothers  John  and 
Charles  Wesley,  while  two  years  later  the  celebrated 
revivaUst  Whitfield  visited  the  scattered  settlements  of 
the  colony. 

Whitfield  founded  an  orphanage  called  **  Bethesda " 
at  Savannah,  and  through  his  fervid  appeals  subsequently 
obtained  sufficient  for  its  maintenance.  Troublous  rela- 
tions with  the  Spaniards  of  Florida  afterwards  led  to 
bloodshed. 

At  the  very  beginning  of  the  colony  slavery  obtained 
a  foothold,  though  Oglethorpe  had  forbidden  it 
as  opposed  to  the  teachings  of  the  Gospel.     A 
royal  government  and  council  were  appointed  by  the 
British  Government,  and  in  the  year  of  the 
Revolution  the  colony  had  so  prospered  as  to 
contain  70,000  souls.     General  Oglethorpe,  the  founder, 
died  in  arripe  old  age,  having  lived  to  see 
Georgia  a  prosperous  State  of  the  American 
Union. 


174  A  Short  History  of 

Section  II. — Causes  of  the  American  Revolt  (1775) 

The  thirteen  British  colonies  along  the  Atlantic  were 
becoming  strong.  In  the  year  preceding  the  Seven  Years' 
War  they  had  at  their  own  expense  carried  on  a  series  of 
border  campaigns.  Virginia  and  Massachusetts  especially 
were  populous  and  growing  in  wealth.  The  differences 
arising  from  their  origin  were  disappearing,  and  common 
enterprises  and  common  dangers  were  bringing  the 
separate  colonies  together. 

As  a  colony  grows  strong  a  feeling  of  independence 
is  sure  to  manifest  itself.  The  older  land  is  apt  to  pat- 
ronize the  new.  The  father  never  can  forget  that  his  son 
is  his  junior,  remembers  him  as  an  infant,  knows  the  pranks 
of  his  youth,  never  can  regard  his  actions  as  those  of 
an  equal.  The  young  colony  is  conscious  of  strength. 
Its  life,  it  is  true,  is  raw  and  crude,  but  it  is  bred  amidst 
difficulties,  and  these  it  has  fought  and,  to  some  extent, 
overcome.  It  is  a  young  giant,  and  is  anxious  to  try 
its  strength  with  those  older  and  less  vigorous  than 
itseH.  The  rise  of  the  spirit  of  independence  often 
is  the  evidence  of  a  capacity  for  self-control.  The  colony 
is  frequently  foolish  ;  far  better  remain  a  little  longer 
a  child.  But  who  can  eradicate  the  waywardness  of 
youth  ?  Besides  their  experience  in  border  wars,  the 
thirteen  colonies  now  had  a  population  of  some  four 
millions  of  souls. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  moreover,  that  the  colony  of 
Massachusetts  had  been  founded  by  a  determined  and 
assertive  people.  It  was,  so  to  speak,  established  in  the 
face  of  the  King  of  England.  The  desire  of  leadership 
among  the  colonies  was  ever  a  feature  of  Massachusetts. 
Her  lust  for  power  was  seen  in  the  energy  with  which  the 
Puritan  province  carried  on  the  war  against  Acadia  in 
1745,  the  Phipps  expedition  against  Quebec,  and  met 
the  cost  of  these  contests. 

Undoubtedly  the  ties  binding  the  American  colonies 
to  the  mother  country  would  not  have  been  severed  so 
soon  as  they  were  had  it  not  been  for  the  exercise  of  arbi- 


THE  Canadian  People  176 

trary  power  on  the  part  of  Britain.  A  strong  party  in  Eng- 
land at  the  time  was  opposed  to  these  measures,  and 
posterity  is  mianimous  on  the  subject.  In  1764  the 
British  Ministry  determined  to  enforce  Customs  regula- 
tions more  strictly  in  the  Atlantic  colonies.  A  most 
lucrative  trade  had  sprung  up  between  the  English  and 
Spanish  colonies  in  America.  An  exchange  of  products 
and  merchandise  between  our  colonies  and  those  of  the 
French  in  the  West  Indies  was  also  growing.  British 
manufactures  taken  to  our  colonies  were  carried  to  the 
West  Indies  and  the  Spanish  main,  and  England  as  well 
as  the  colonies  was  benefited.  By  the  Act  of  1764 
Spanish  goods  were  excluded  from  the  English  colonies, 
and  heavy  duties  placed  on  French  West  Indian  products. 
This  seemed  to  the  Americans  an  unwise  and  tyrannical 
procedure.  In  the  same  year  an  Act  was  passed  in  the 
Imperial  Parliament  "  to  restrain  the  currency  of  paper- 
money  in  the  colonies."  These  were  blows  at  the  very 
prosperity  of  the  colonies.  In  the  making  of  such  laws 
the  colonies  had  no  voice,  though  no  doubt  they  had  an 
interest  in  the  Seven  Years'  War  for  which  the  tax  was 
being  raised. 

But  it  was  not  in  1764  that  the  disposition  to  tax  the 
colonies  for  war  expenses  was  first  manifested.  There 
is  indeed  some  evidence  that  the  project  originated  with 
the  ofi&cial  classes  in  the  colonies  themselves.  In  colo- 
nial life  it  is  often  seen  that  the  greatest  tyrant  of  the 
people  is  the  colonial  official.  The  British  official  abroad 
is  often  an  absolute  bureaucrat.  We  find  that  so  early 
as  1764,  when  Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin  was  in  Boston, 
Governor  Shirley  of  Massachusetts  communicated  to  him 
as  a  profound  secret  the  "great  design  of  taxing  the 
colonies  by  Act  of  Parliament." 

Franklin's  written  answer  was  decided  and  statesman- 
like. "  To  tax  the  people  in  ParUament,"  said  he,  "  where 
they  have  no  representative,  would  give  dissatisfaction  ; 
That  while  the  people  were  willing  to  contribute  for  their 
own  defence,  they  could  better  judge  of  the  force  neces- 
sary and  the  means  for  paying  them,  than  the  British 


176  A  Short  History  of 

Parliament  at  so  great  a  distance  ;  That  parliamentary 
taxes  once  laid  on  are  often  continued  longer  than  neces- 
sary ;  That  colonists  are  always  indirectly  taxed  by  the 
mother  country,  which  enables  her  to  pay  taxes  ;  That 
the  colonists  have  at  personal  risk  extended  the  empire, 
increased  her  wealth,  and  should  not  be  deprived  of  the 
native  right  of  Britons." 

This  is  but  a  part  of  the  document,  but  it  shows  the 
nature  of  the  colonial  contention.  Some  parts  of  the 
reasoning  may  be  specious,  rather  than  solid,  but  such 
were  the  opinions  of  the  most  intelligent  of  the  colonists 
nine  or  ten  years  before  the  close  of  the  Seven  Years' 
War. 

At  the  close  of  this  war  the  Governor  of  Massachusetts 
was  Sir  Francis  Bernard.  He  was  an  astute,  ingenious, 
and  dignified  Governor,  but  an  absolutist  in  principle, 
and  a  constitutional  tyrant.  He  had  been  transferred 
from  the  governorship  of  the  loyal  colony  of  New  Jersey 
to  check  the  troublesome  Puritans  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 
After  Bernard  was  the  deluge  !  It  was  from  Governor 
Bernard  that  the  project  came,  to  the  financier  of  the 
British  Ministry,  "  driven  out  of  his  wits  for  ways  and 
means,"  of  which  Shirley  had  spoken  to  Franklin  ten 
years  before.  The  *'  ofiicial  junto  "  in  America  wished 
taxes  levied  by  Parliament,  and  the  salaries  of  Governors, 
Judges  of  Admiralty,  Judges  of  Common  Pleas,  and 
other  high  officials  paid  by  the  Imperial  Government. 

It  was  also  recommended  that  the  colonies  should  be 
combined  into  fewer  but  larger  provinces,  under  a  new 
system  of  royal  government.  This  last  proposition  was 
in  order  that  the  too  popular  constitutions  of  some  of 
the  colonies  might  be  remodelled.  Governor  Bernard 
strongly  maintained  the  right  of  the  Parliament  of  Britain 
to  tax  without  representation  ;  and  in  ninety-seven  pro- 
positions laid  down  extreme  reactionary  principles,  even 
recommending  the  establishment  of  a  nobility  in  America. 
Can  it  be  wondered  at  that  great  statesmen  like  Chat- 
ham, Burke,  and  others  who  defended  America,  were 
roused  to  patriotic  denunciation,  when  they  saw  those 


THE  Canadian  People  177 

who  should  have  been  the  defenders  of  colonial  rights 
plotting  for  their  destruction  ? 

There  was  another  element  in  the  case.  In  the  war 
which  had  just  closed  and  for  which  taxes  were  asked, 
there  had  been  much  feeUng  between  the  regular  and 
colonial  troops.  The  British  officials  and  soldiers  had 
despised  the  provincials.  No  provincial  troops  had  taken 
part  either  in  the  successful  attack  on  Louisbourg,  or  in 
Wolfe's  victories  at  Quebec.  No  doubt  it  was  showing 
jealousy  and  littleness  of  soul  for  the  colonists  to  com- 
plain, when  all  had  ended  so  well  for  them.  But  there 
is  much  human  nature  in  the  colonies  ! 

It  was  in  March,  1764,  that  in  a  thin  House  and  with- 
out much  discussion,  the  British  House  of  Commons 
passed  a  bare  resolution,  **  that  it  was  proper  to  charge 
certain  stamp  duties  in  the  colonies  and  plantations." 
No  sooner  had  the  news  of  this  reached  America,  than 
the  AssembUes  of  Massachusetts  and  New  York  adopted 
strong  remonstrances.  On  their  receipt,  the  Privy 
Council  advised  the  young  king  George  III.  to  lay  them 
before  ParHament.  The  request  was  not  granted :  the 
petitions  were  suppressed.  In  March,  1765,  the  Stamp 
Act  was  passed  in  the  face  of  opposition  by  the  American 
agents  in  London. 

Speaking  of  the  Americans,  Mr.  GrenvUle,  who  had 
charge  of  the  Bill  in  ParHament,  said, — 

*'  These  children  of  our  planting,  nourished  by  our 
indulgence  imtil  they  are  grown  to  a  good  degree  of 
strength  and  opulence,  and  protected  by  our  arms,  will 
they  grudge  to  contribute  a  mite  to  relieve  us  from  the 
heavy  load  of  national  expense  which  we  lie  under  ?  " 

Colonel  Barr6,  who  had  been  in  America,  certainly 
replied  with  plainness  of  speech  : — 

"  *  Children  planted  by  our  care  ! '  No,  your  oppres- 
sion planted  them  in  America  ;  they  fled  from  your 
tyranny  into  a  then  uncultivated  land.  .  .  . 

'* '  They  nourished  up  by  your  indulgence  !  '  They 
grew  by  your  neglect  of  them  ;  as  soon  as  you  began 
to  care  about  them,  that  care  was  exercised  in  sending 

12 


178  A  Short  History  of 

persons  to  rule  over  them."      (Then  follows  a  denuncia- 
tion of  these  officials.) 

"  '  They  protected  by  your  arms ! '  They  have  notably 
taken  up  arms  in  your  defence,  have  exerted  their  valour 
amidst  their  constant  and  laborious  industry  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  country.  .  .  .  The  people  in  America  are, 
I  believe,  as  truly  loyal  as  any  subjects  the  king  has ; 
but  a  people  jealous  of  their  Hberties,  and  who  will  vin- 
dicate them  if  they  should  be  violated." 

We  quote  these  rather  extreme  words  to  show  that 
the  American  case  had  a  hearing  in  England. 

As  soon  as  the  passage  of  the  Stamp  Act  was  known 
in  America  the  whole  Atlantic  seaboard  was  in  a  flame. 
Virginia,  the  great  cavalier  colony,  passed  dignified  but 
decided  resolutions,  declaring  the  action  of  the  British 
ParHament  to  be  "illegal,  unconstitutional,  and  unjust, 
and  having  a  manifest  tendency  to  destroy  British  as  well 
as  American  freedom." 

The  text  of  the  Act  was  printed  and  scattered  through- 
out the  streets  of  New  York,  headed,  "The  folly  of 
England,  and  the  ruin  of  America."  In  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  the  stamp-officer  was  compelled  to  refuse 
to  serve.  In  a  published  gazette,  protesting  against  the 
Act,  was  the  motto,  "  Vox  populi^  vox  Dei,''  "Where 
the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is,  there  is  liberty."  The  Con- 
stitutional Courant  had  an  emblem  of  a  snake  cut  in 
pieces,  each  piece  having  on  it  the  initial  letter  of  the 
name  of  a  colony,  and  under  this  inscribed,  "Join  or 
die." 

In  Boston  the  feehng  was  intense.  Effigies  of  the 
three  Stamp  Commissioners  were  burned  under  a  gaUows. 
The  stamped  paper  was  by  the  law  required  for  all  con- 
tracts, bills,  promissory  notes,  and  other  legal  documents 
thereafter  made  in  America.  No  one  would  take  the 
paper  from  the  ships  bringing  it  from  England  to  Boston. 
The  Assembly  was  asked  to  receive  it  but  refused.  At 
last  the  Governor  took  it  in  charge  to  the  castle,  with 
the  understanding  that  it  remain  im opened. 

Assembly  after  Assembly  throughout  the  colonies  de- 


THE  Canadian  People  179 

clared  against  the  Act ;  and  commissioners  from  nine 
provinces  met  in  a  Congress  at  New  York — the  first 
Congress  of  the  United  States — on  the  7th  of  October, 
1765.  While  professing  loyalty  to  the  King  of  England, 
yet  the  Congress  passed  fourteen  resolutions  distinctly 
laying  down  their  rights,  and  objecting  to  "taxation 
without  representation."  Riots  and  disturbances  took 
place  in  all  parts  of  the  colonies. 

The  agitation  compelled  the  attention  of  the  EngHsh 
ParUament.  Mr.  Pitt  thundered  forth  in  behalf  of  the 
colonists.  The  House  out  of  mere  fright  repealed  the 
Act  on  the  17th  of  March,  1766,  but  at  the  same  time 
passed  an  Act  which  declared  *'that  the  ParUament  of 
Great  Britain  had  a  right  to  bind  the  colonies  in  all  cases 
whatsoever."  The  expression  of  opinion  in  the  House  of 
Lords  was  especially  strong  for  the  preservation  of  the 
prerogative. 

The  arrival  of  the  news  of  the  repeal  of  the  Act  was 
received  with  loud  acclamations  in  America.  In  three 
years,  however,  on  the  29th  of  June,  1769,  a  new  Revenue 
Act  was  passed,  which  revived  the  old  opposition.  In 
the  harbour  of  Boston,  a  colonial  sloop,  the  Liberty,  was 
seized  by  the  revenue  ofl&cers  for  a  breach  of  the  law. 
This  was  done  in  an  arbitrary  manner.  In  addition, 
several  men  were  pressed  into  the  navy  in  Boston. 
Boston  was  all  excitement.     There  was  danger  of  riot. 

To  be  ready  for  emergencies  a  body  of  regular  troops 
was  sent  to  Boston.  It  was  against  an  Act  of  Parliament 
to  quarter  these  in  the  city.  The  Governor,  on  his  own 
authority,  quartered  them  in  the  State  House,  and  two 
field-pieces  were  placed  in  front  of  it.  In  1767  the 
English  ParHament  asked  that  inquiry  be  made  in  Mas- 
sachusetts as  to  the  treason  existing  there,  and  that 
offenders  be  sent  to  England.  This  irritated  the  people, 
and  Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  which  has  been  called  the 
*' Cradle  of  Liberty,"  again  rang  with  angry  denuncia- 
tions. Governor  Bernard's  recall  at  this  time  gave  great 
satisfaction  in  Boston. 

Lord  North,  coming  into  power  in  1770,  repealed  all 


180  A  Short  History  op 

the  port  duties  except  that  on  tea.  In  March  of  this 
year  an  unfortunate  collision  took  place  in  Boston  between 
the  military  and  the  citizens.  The  soldiers  opened  fire, 
and  several  citizens  were  killed.  The  excitement  rose  to 
fever  heat.  A  public  funeral  was  given  the  dead,  and  a 
great  crowd  attended  the  funeral.  In  1772  the  judges' 
salaries  were  paid  out  of  amounts  from  the  Revenue 
Tax  by  the  British  Government.  Much  anger  was 
aroused  in  Britain  in  1772  by  an  outrage  in  Rhode  Is- 
land. A  revenue  cutter,  the  Gaspee,  ordered  the  Provi- 
dence packet  to  lower  her  colours.  The  packet  refused. 
The  Gaspee  fired  on  her.  The  packet  led  the  Gaspee 
into  shallow  water  and  escaped.  The  Gaspee  ran  aground, 
as  the  tide  went  out.  At  night  the  Rhode  Island  fisher- 
men attacked  the  Gaspee,  took  Commander  Doddington 
and  crew  ashore,  and  burnt  the  vessel.  In  1773,  Gov- 
ernor Hutchinson  debated  with  his  two  Houses  of  Assembly 
as  to  the  supreme  legislative  authority  of  Parliament. 
This  was  interesting,  but  not  profitable. 

In  1773  the  denouement  came.  In  that  year  ships 
laden  with  tea  arrived  in  Boston  Harbour,  with  the  duty 
unpaid.  All  the  colonies  had  previously  agreed  not  to 
admit  tea  at  all.  The  people  in  Boston  insisted  on  the 
ships  returning  to  Britain  with  their  cargoes.  Governor 
Hutchinson  refused  to  allow  the  ships  to  return.  Then 
according  to  local  tradition  in  Boston  happened  the 
"  tea-party."  It  is  said  a  public  meeting  was  in  progress 
in  the  Old  South  Meeting  House,  when  some  one  cried 
out,  "  What  kind  of  a  mixture  would  salt  water  and  tea 
make  ?  "  Immediately  some  say,  a  few  days  later 
others,  fifty  men,  dressed  as  Mohawk  Indians,  boarded 
the  vessels  and  emptied  the  boxes  of  tea  into  Boston 
Bay.  A  specimen  of  the  submerged  tea  may  still  be 
seen  in  the  rooms  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society. 
The  British  Parliament  was  now  roused  in  turn.  A 
Bill  was  brought  in  closing  Boston  Port,  and  removing 
the  Custom  House  to  Salem  ;  another  Bill 
subverting  the  constitution  of  Massachusetts, 
and  next  a  Bill  for  bringing  those  guilty  of  sedition  to 


THE  Canadian  People  181 

England  for  trial.  All  these  Bills  passed.  It  was  at 
this  juncture  the  "  Quebec  Act  "  became  law.  Hence, 
probably,  its  illiberal  features. 

Next  the  colonists  in  Boston  and  elsewhere  sought  to 
retaUate.  They  agreed  to  stop  all  imports  and  exports 
to  and  from  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  West  Indies, 
until  the  obnoxious  Bills  were  repealed.  So  greatly 
were  all  the  colonies  stirred,  that  a  Continental  Congress 
met  in  Philadelphia,  under  the  presidency  of  Peyton 
Randolph,  of  Virginia.  That  meeting  of  Congress  was 
the  beginning  of  the  end.  A  resolution  was  passed 
approving  of  the  conduct  of  the  people  of  Massachusetts 
in  resisting  the  encroachments  of  arbitrary  power.  A 
declaration  of  rights  was  adopted. 

Addresses  were  passed  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain, 
to  the  American  people,  to  the  king,  and  to  the  Canadian 
people.  The  addiess  to  the  French  Canadians  of  Lower 
Canada  overflowed  with  tenderness.  It  sympathized 
with  them  in  the  arbitrary  character  of  the  *'  Quebec 
Act,"  over  which  the  French  Canadians  were  in  raptures. 
It  was,  indeed,  rather  amusing  to  see  provinces  which 
had  been  hostile  to  New  France  for  150  years  hoping  to 
make  them  friends  by  a  circular  letter.  As  there  were 
no  printing  facihties  in  Canada  the  letter  never  reached 
the  greater  number  of  the  French  Canadians. 

An  Act  was  passed  in  the  British  ParUament  now  to 
restrain  the  trade  of  New  England,  and  prohibiting  her 
from  carrying  on  fisheries  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland. 
Most  of  the  other  provinces  hurried  to  the  support  of 
New  England.  A  second  Act  was  passed  in  Britain, 
including  all  the  other  provinces  in  the  same  condemna- 
tion, except  New  York  and  North  Carolina. 

There  seemed  now  no  alternative  but  war.  Through- 
out the  colonies  arms  were  collected,  companies  formed, 
and  preparations  for  the  worst  were  made.  Nor  had 
they  long  to  wait.  The  colonists  seem  to  have  shrewdly 
determined  that  on  the  royal  party  should  lie  the  onus  of 
beginning  war.  General  Gage,  on  the  19th  of  April, 
1775,  sent  out  a  detachment  of  800^ men,  under  Major 


182  A  Short  History  of 

Pitcaim,  to  destroy  colonial  stores  being  collected  at 
Concord,  eighteen  miles  from  Boston.  At  five  in  the 
morning   the   troops   encountered    about    100   colonials 

assembled  at   a  meeting-house.     *'  Disperse,  d you, 

rebels,  disperse,"  cried  the  choleric  major.  Firing 
began,  and  eight  men  were  killed  and  a  number  wounded. 
Having  proceeded  to  Concord  and  destroyed  the  stores, 
the  regulars  were  beset  by  the  provincial  militia.  The 
old  New  England  drums,  which  had  beat  in  Acadia  and 
on  the  borders,  were  now  heard  again.  The  fight  was 
severe,  and  nearly  100  killed  and  200  wounded  marked 
the  course  of  Pitcairn's  detachment  back  to  Boston. 

An  early  movement  of  the  provincials  on  the  9th  of 
May  was  that  of  Ethan  Allen  and  Benedict  Arnold,  by 
which  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  were  seized,  and 
the  shipping  in  Lake  Champlain  captured.  In  the  second 
letter  of  the  Continental  Congress  to  the  French  Cana- 
dians reference  is  made  to  this  unbrotherly  act,  and 
asking  them  not  to  keep  in  mind  so  trifiing  an  occur- 
rence. With  the  progress  of  the  war,  the  raising  of  the 
Republican  army,  the  large  reinforcements  sent  over 
from  Britain,  and  the  battles  and  varying  fortunes  of  the 
campaign,  we  have  here  nothing  to  do. 

The  Congress  of  1775  had  voted  to  equip  20,000  men. 
Bills  of  credit  to  the  extent  of  3,000,000  dollars  were 
issued  on  the  credit  of  the  "United  Colonies,"  and 
General  George  Washington,  of  Monongahela  fame,  was 
appointed  Commander-in-Chief.  In  July,  1775,  under 
the  historic  elm-tree  in  Cambridge,  near  Boston,  shortly 
after  the  battle  of  Bunker's  Hill,  General  Washington 
took  command  of  the  American  army. 

In  November,  1775,  intelligence  reached  the  Congress 
that  the  second  petition  to  the  British  Parhament  had 
been  rejected.  Independence  began  to  be  considered  as 
the  only  remedy  for  their  grievances.  A  brochure, 
entitled  "  Common  Sense,"  by  a  loose-principled  Enghsh 
immigrant  named  Thomas  Paine,  had  a  wide  circulation, 
and  prepared  the  people  for  what  was  coming.  On  the 
4th  of  July,  1776,  after  full  consideration,  the  Declara- 


THE  Canadian  People  183 

tion  of  Independence  was  made  by  the  Continental 
Congress,  and  a  new  and  mighty  nation  was  born. 

This  Declaration,  which  has  become  an  historic  docu- 
ment, speaks  for  itself.  Fault  has  been  found  with  it, 
that  it  too  distinctly  lays  the  blame  of  the  arbitrary 
course  of  Britain  to  her  colonies  on  the  head  of  King 
George  III.  The  Declaration  says  :  "In  every  stage  of 
these  oppressions  we  have  petitioned  for  redress  in  the 
most  humble  terms  ;  our  repeated  petitions  have  been 
answered  only  by  repeated  injury.  A  prince  whose 
character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act  which  may  define 
a  tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people." 

These  are  strong  words.  Yet  they  are  probably  no 
stronger  than  truth  demands.  Letters  of  the  king 
show  that  these  words  do  not  misrepresent  him.  The 
king  afterwards  stated  to  John  Adams,  the  first  Ambas- 
sador from  the  United  States  to  England,  *'  that  he  was 
the  last  man  in  his  dominions  to  consent  to  the  recogni- 
tion of  their  independence."  Sad  to  think  of  the  havoc  and 
bloodshed  caused  by  our  old  King  George  III.,  who  was  in 
many  other  ways  so  worthy.  Independence,  however, 
must,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  have  come  sooner  or  later. 


Section  III, — The  Revolutionary  War  as  it  affected  Canada 

As  Massachusetts  was  the  head,  Boston  was  the  brain 
of  the  revolutionary  movement.  The  few  British  troops 
in  the  old  colonies  were  in  Boston,  for  here  General  Gage 
had  been  sent  to  enforce  obedience  when  Boston  port 
was  closed,  and  the  charter  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts 
annulled  by  the  British  Government.  Colonial  troops, 
such  as  those  Shirley  or  Pepperel  had  led  against  Acadia, 
or  perhaps  even  less  disciplined  than  they,  surrounded 
Boston,  and  sought  to  cut  it  off  from  influencing  the 
surrounding  country. 

On  the  17th  of  July  the  British  army  strove  to  dis- 
lodge the  colonial  forces  from  Bunker's  Hill,  a  .___ 
rising  ground  in  Charlesto wn,  a  suburb  of  Boston . 
The  "  rustic  "  irregulars  made  so  bold  a  stand,  and  did  so 


184  A  Short  History  of 

well,  that,  though  compelled  to  retire,  they  were  encou- 
raged by  the  trial  of  strength.  General  Gage  awaited 
reinforcements.  In  this  suspense  it  occurred  to  the 
colonial  leaders  that  their  greatest  obstacle  would  be 
removed  were  Canada  subdued,  and  thus  a  safe  base  of 
operations  taken  from  the  British. 

The  border  wars  had  opened  the  roads  by  which 
Canada  could  be  reached.  One  of  these  old  routes  at 
least  was  chosen.  General  Montgomery,  with  3,000  men, 
would  go  down  Lake  Champlain,  and  attack  Montreal ; 
while  General  Arnold,  with  1,200,  was  to  seek  the  head- 
waters of  Kennebec  River,  cross  the  height  of  land,  and 
descend  the  Chaudiere  to  the  very  gates  of  Quebec. 
The  brave  General  Carleton,  who  had  been  with^ Wolfe 
at  Quebec,  was  now  in  command  of  the  forces  of  Canada 
— if  500  British  regulars  and  a  few  hundred  militia 
might  be  so  denominated.  No  doubt  Governor  Carleton 
with  his  small  army  undertook  too  much.  He  sought  to 
defend  the  way  to  Montreal  by  holding  Fort  St.  John, 
and  that  to  Quebec  by  defending  Chambly.  Both  these 
places  fell  before  the  Americans. 

General  Montgomery  pushed  on  down  the  River 
Richelieu  and  occupied  Sorel,  throwing  forces  across  the 
St.  Lawrence,  and  erected  batteries  on  both  sides  to  pre- 
vent intercourse  between  Montreal  and  Quebec .  Montreal, 
now  defenceless,  was  compelled  to  surrender  on  the  13th 
of  November,  and  eleven  British  vessels  were  given  up 
to  the  enemy.  It  was  really  a  dark  hour  for  Canada. 
General  Carleton  has  been  severely  criticized  for  dividing 
his  forces.  The  truth  is,  the  attack  was  so  unexpected, 
and  so  soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion,  that  no 
plans  of  defence  for  Canada  had  been  laid.  It  was  the 
knowledge  of  this  fact  that  caused  such  prompt  action 
on  the  part  of  the  Americans.  General  Carleton  him- 
self escaped  from  Montreal,  and,  in  a  boat,  passed  the 
Sorel  batteries  with  muffled  oars  under  cover  of  night. 

The  general  had  but  reached  Quebec  in  time.  The  ex- 
pedition of  Arnold  had  already  gained  the  St.  Lawrence 
on  the  side  opposite  the  "  Ancient  Capital."     The  energy 


THE  Canadian  People  186 

displayed  by  Arnold's  men  was  remarkable.  The  Ken- 
nebec is  a  series  of  rapids.  Its  swift  current  hurries 
over  dangerous  rocks  at  every  turn.  The  highlands 
when  reached  consist  of  swamps  and  rocky  ridges  covered 
with  forest.  The  Chaudiere  proved  worse  than  the  Ken- 
nebec, and  the  current  being  with  the  boats,  dashed  them 
to  pieces  on  the  rocks.  Arnold's  men,  on  their  six  weeks' 
march,  had  run  short  of  food,  and  were  compelled  to  eat 
the  dogs  which  had  accompanied  them.  Not  much  more 
than  haK  Arnold's  army  reached  the  St.  Lawrence. 

Arnold's  force  crossed  the  St.  Lawrence,  landed  at 
WoKe's  Cove,  and  built  huts  for  themselves  on  the  Plains 
of  Abraham.  On  the  5th  of  December  Montgomery 
joined  the  Kennebec  men  before  Quebec.  The  united 
force  was  of  some  3,000  men,  supported  by  about  a  dozen 
light  guns. 

Carleton  had,  for  the  defence  of  Quebec,  only  one 
company  of  regulars,  and  a  few  seamen  and  marines  of  a 
sloop  of  war  at  Quebec.  The  popularity  of  the  Governor 
was  such  that  he  easily  prevailed  upon  the  citizens,  both 
French  and  English,  to  enrol  themselves  in  companies 
for  the  defence  of  their  homes.  He  was  able  to  count 
upon  about  1,600  bayonets. 

The  defences  of  Quebec  were,  however,  too  strong  for 
the  Americans.  On  the  night  of  Slst  of  December  a  des- 
perate effort  was  made  to  take  the  city  by  escalade. 
Four  attacks  were  made  simultaneously.  Arnold  sought 
to  enter  by  the  St.  Charles,  on  the  north  side  of  Quebec, 
and  Montgomery  by  the  south,  between  Cape  Diamond 
and  the  St.  Lawrence.  Two  feints  were  to  be  made  on 
the  side  toward  the  Plains  of  Abraham.  The  hope  of  the 
commanders  was  to  have  forced  the  gates  from  the  lower 
to  the  upper  town  in  both  cases.  Arnold  failed  to  reach 
the  lower  town,  and  in  a  sortie  the  defenders  cut  off 
nearly  the  whole  of  his  column.  He  escaped  wounded. 
Montgomery  was  killed  at  the  second  entrenchment  of 
the  lower  town,  and  his  troops  retired  in  confusion.  The 
American  generals  have  been  criticized  by  experts  for 
not  making  their  chief  attack  on  the  wall    facing    on 


186  A  Short  History  of 

the  Plains  of  Abraham.  Canadians  may  be  well  satisfied 
with  the  plan  of  attack. 

Greneral  Arnold  remained  before  Quebec,  though  his 
troops  had  become  reduced  to  800  men.  General 
Carleton  pursued  a  policy  of  acting  strictly  on 
the  defensive.  If  he  retained  Quebec  it  would  be  his 
greatest  success.  General  Arnold  sought  to  gain  the 
sympathy  of  the  French  Canadian  seigniors  and  people, 
but  without  any  success.  Three  thousand  troops, 
however,  came  to  reinforce  Arnold  early  in  the  year, 
and  4,000  occupied  Montreal,  St.  John's,  and  Chambly. 

But  on  the  6th  of  May  relief  came  from  England  : 
men-of-war  and  transports,  with  three  brigades  of  infan- 
try, besides  artillery,  stores,  and  ammunition.  The 
Americans  withdrew  to  Sorel.  The  British  troops 
followed  them,  and  a  brigade  encamped  at  Three  Rivers. 
The  Americans  attempted  to  surprise  the  force  at  Three 
Rivers,  but  were  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.  The  Ameri- 
cans now  fell  back  from  Montreal,  deserted  all  the  posts 
down  to  Lake  Champlain,  and  Governor  Carleton  had  the 
pleasure  of  occupying  Isle-aux-Noix  as  the  outpost,  leav- 
ing Canada  as  it  had  been  before  the  first  attack  in  the 
year  before. 

A  strong  movement  was  now  to  be  made  by  the  Brit- 
-__  ish   from   Canada   by   way   of   Lake   Champ- 

lain,  to  take  Albany,  and  open  communications 
with  New  York.  General  Burgoyne,  an  officer  of  good 
reputation,  was  in  command.  In  the  official  corre- 
spondence of  the  time  serious  charges  are  made  by  Sir 
Guy  Carleton  that  Burgoyne  had  succeeded  in  inducing 
the  British  war  authorities  to  transfer  the  chief  com- 
mand from  himself  to  Burgoyne.  Burgoyne  denies  the 
charge,  and  states  that  General  Carleton's  duties  as 
Governor- General  prevented  him  leaving  the  province 
on  an  offensive  expedition.  Sympathy  has  usually  been 
with  Carleton.  With  7,000  regular  troops  and  militia 
and  Indians  making  1,000  more,  Burgoyne  pushed  his 
way  down  Lake  Champlain,  taking,  in  a  gallant  manner. 
Crown    Point,    Ticonderoga,     Fort    Independence,    and 


THE  Canadian  People  187 

Fort  George — the  old  Fort  William  Henry.  The  Ameri- 
can shipping  on  Lake  Champlain  was  all  captm-ed  or 
destroyed.  The  prospects  of  the  campaign  were  bril- 
liant indeed  for  the  British. 

Much  delay  now  followed  in  bringing  up  boats  with 
supplies.  Every  day  of  delay  but  allowed  the  American 
army  to  gather  reinforcements.  Burgoyne  had  left  900 
men  to  garrison  Ticonderoga.  The  British  force  was 
now  on  the  east  side  of  the  Hudson.  The  road  to 
Albany  lay  on  the  west.  A  company  of  500  men  were 
sent  across  the  river  to  seize  a  convoy  of  the  enemy's 
stores,  but  were  fallen  upon  by  the  Americans  and  nearly 
cut  to  pieces.  This  greatly  encouraged  the  colonial 
troops.  General  Burgoyne  delayed  nearly  a  month,  for 
provisions  in  plenty  to  be  brought  up. 

The  British  army  now  crossed  to  the  west  of  the  Hud- 
son on  a  bridge  of  boats,  and  immediately  met  the 
enemy  in  a  drawn  encounter.  On  the  7th  of  October, 
the  Americans,  who  were  now  much  reinforced,  attacked 
Burgoyne.  Fearing  he  would  be  outflanked,  the  British 
general  fell  back  upon  Saratoga.  He  was  now  quite 
surrounded  by  the  American  army  of  16,000  men,  under 
General  Gates.  His  force  was  reduced  by  heavy  casu- 
alties, by  sickness,  and  desertion,  to  3,500  men.  There 
was  no  hope  of  deliverance,  and  Burgoyne  capitulated 
on  the  16th  of  October. 

The  co-operating  British  expedition,  which  ascended 
the  river  by  Oswego,  never  passed  the  Carrying  Place, 
but  was  compelled  to  withdraw  from  the  siege  of  Fort 
Stanwix,  after  investing  it.  This  command,  which,  under 
Colonel  St.  Leger,  consisted  of  700  regulars  and  1,000 
Indians,  fell  back  upon  Oswego,  and  thence  to  Montreal. 
The  campaign,  so  far  as  the  British  were  concerned,  was 
badly  conceived,  and  is  coimted  by  the  Americans,  and 
rightly  so,  one  of  the  chief  successes  of  their  revolutionary 
war. 

Had  Burgoyne  succeeded  in  reaching  Albany,  a  con- 
Biderable  rallying  of  loyal  men  would  have  taken  place 
to  his  standard,  for  the  population  along  the  Mohawk 


188  A  Short  History  of 

and  Hudson  Rivers  was  mainly  loyalist  in  sympathy. 
The  same  state  of  feeling  prevailed  largely  in  New  Jer- 
sey, while  in  North  Carolina  there  was  the  same  loyal 
sentiment.  Britain  began  to  experience  the  impossi- 
bility of  conquering  a  vast  territory  like  the  United 
States  with  the  majority  of  the  people  bent  on  indepen- 
dence. Almost  the  last  words  of  the  great  Earl  of  Chat- 
ham in  the  House  of  Lords  were,  "  You  talk  of  con- 
quering America — of  your  powerful  forces  to  disperse 
her  army.  I  might  as  well  talk  of  driving  them  before 
me  with  this  crutch." 

As  the  war  continued  year  after  year,  the  lines  of 
social  division  became  more  and  more  strongly  marked. 
The  loyal  minority  began  to  find  their  lot  an  unpleasant 
one.  The  most  of  the  clergy  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
were  loyalists,  though  many  of  the  leaders  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary party,  notably  Washington,  belonged  to  that 
communion. 

The  clergy  of  the  other  religious  bodies  were  almost 
exclusively  republicans.  A  most  interesting  journal,  in 
manuscript,  in  the  Parliamentary  Library  of  Ottawa, 
gives  an  account  of  the  sufferings  and  annoyances  of  the 
loyal  clergy  throughout  the  United  States  during  the 
years  immediately  preceding  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1783. 

It  is  related  by  one  of  these  faithful  shepherds,  that 
on  one  occasion  Washington  was  passing  Sunday  in  the 
town  where  he  dwelt.  A  leading  officer  on  Sunday 
morning  called  upon  the  clergyman  to  state  that  Washing- 
ton would  be  in  church  that  same  day,  and  asking  that 
the  denunciations  of  the  rebels  be  a  little  milder  than 
usual  for  that  day.  The  sturdy  loyalist  refused  to  modify 
in  one  jot  or  one  tittle. 

In  the  year  1783  it  became  evident  that  the  Republic 
must  be  declared  independent.  Tory  officials,  officers  in 
the  British  army,  regiments  such  as  Butler's  Rangers, 
Sir  John  Johnson's  Corps,  the  Queen's  Rangers  and 
others  all  made  up  of  loyal  Americans  were  compelled 
to  look  out  for  new  homes.  Accordingly,  not  only  on 
the  Canadian  border,  but  especially  in  the  city  of  New 


THE  Canadian  People  189 

York,  which  the  British  held  till  the  autumn  of  1783, 
were  crowds  of  loyalists  waiting,  not  knowing  what  the 
day  or  the  hour  might  bring  forth. 

Section  IV. — Rise  of  the  Loyal  British  Colonies 

The  story  of  the  loyal  colonies  is  a  very  short  one. 
It  was  natural  that  British  emigrants  and  refugees  from 
other  nations  should  gravitate  to  the  warmer  and  earlier 
founded  colonies  of  New  England  and  the  Virginian 
settlement.  Great  Britain  had  for  more  than  a  hundred 
years  been  sending  her  merchant  ships  and  trade  through 
Hudson  Bay  when  the  British  colonies  became  restless 
and  spoke  of  rebellion.  The  vast  region  of  Rupert's 
Land  given  by  Charles  II. — the  joUy  monarch 
— included  the  lands  on  rivers  running  into  jJJJJ^  * 
Hudson  Bay.  But  up  to  the  time  of  the 
American  Revolution  the  traders  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
company  had,  up  to  three  years  before  that  event, 
never  left  the  shore'  of  the  Bay,  but  met  the  Indians 
who  came  down  the  rivers  to  the  coast  to  trade  their 
furs  at  the  forts  Churchill,  York,  and  Severn.  Besides, 
it   was  looked   upon  at   thlSTtime  as   an  hyberborean 

region  of  the  nature  of  Greenland.       Canada  „       «    ,, 
,  9         .       ,,  •  r    -nv-  X      Nova  Scotia, 

being  in  the  possession  of  France,  natu- 
rally led  to  Acadia  being  looked  upon  as  debatable 
territory.  Its  name  is  a  memorial  of  the  united  crown 
of  England  and  Scotland  under  James  I. ;  the  "  shamb- 
ling monarch,"  as  Macaulay  calls  him,  must  needs  exalt 
his  Scottish  kingdom  to  the  same  plane  as  his  new  Eng- 
lish inheritance.  If  in  the  New  World  there  be  a  New 
England,  so  must  there  be  a  New  Scotland  ;  and  James, 
who  was  a  thorough  believer  in  an  aristocracy,  created  an 
order  of  baronets  of  Nova  Scotia  as  well. 

But  Nova  Scotia  was  long  the  battle-ground  of  Eng- 
lish and  French  in  the  New  World.  The  names  of 
Louisbourg  and  Port  Royal  are  almost  as  suggestive  of 
war  as  Gibraltar  or  Quebec.  Acadia  stands  out  before 
us  as  the  poetic  region  of  French  rule  in  North  America. 


190  A  Short  History  of 

It  was  because  of  the  passionate  attachment  of  the 
Acadians  for  their  land,  and  for  French  power,  that 
Britain  took  decided  steps  to  compel  the  loyalty  of  Nova 
Scotia.  Two  measm-es  were  adopted,  viz.  "  to  colonize 
with  loyalists,  and  to  deport  the  disloyal." 
r  In  1749,  Lord  Cornwallis,  with  a  well-equipped  colony 
of  trusty  English  people,  founded  on  Chebucto  Bay  the 
city  and  arsenal  of  Halifax,  so-called  from  Lord  Halifax, 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations.  The 
argument  for  loyalty  presented  by  such  an  imposing 
immigration  movement  could  not  be  withstood. 

In  1755,  when,  as  now  fairly  shown  by  Parkman,  the 
French  population,  by  obstinate  hostility,  proved  them- 
1  \  selves  unworthy  even  of  forbearance,  thousands  of  Aca- 
dians were  transported  to  regions  where  the  strife  was 
less  critical  than  the  border  of  French  and  English 
in  Nova  Scotia.  Bands  of  sturdy  Scottish  people  were 
attracted  to  the  newer  Scotland.  The  close  communica- 
tion between  Halifax  and  the  old  city  of  Boston  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, which  contained  so  many  loyalists,  led  to 
the  transfer  of  many  such  after  the  peace  of  1783.  Ger- 
mans and  other  European  immigrants  have  also  settled 
in  Nova  Scotia,  and  given  their  names  to  various  locali- 
ties. But  before  Scot,  Loyalist,  or  German  had  come, 
the  first  House  of  Assembly  for  Nova  Scotia  met  under 
Imperial  authority  in  1758. 

Of  the  relation  of  Nova  Scotia  to  Cape  Breton  and 
of  the  immigrants  attracted  to  the  maritime  provinces 
we  shall  speak  in  a  later  chapter. 

Two  hundred  miles  to  the  south-south-east, 
On  "  George's  "  the  billows  foam  like  yeast, 
O'er  shallow  banks,  where  on  every  side 
Lies  peril  of  billow,  shoal,  and  tide. 
There,  riding  like  sea-gulls  with  wings  at  rest, 
Cape  Ann's  swift  schooners  the  sharp  seas  breast, 
With  their  straining  cables  reaching  down 
Where  the  anchors  clutch  at  the  sea-sands  brown. 

There  gather  when  shorten  the  wintry  days. 

The  fish  of  a  thousand  shallow  bays  ; 

There  men  of  a  score  of  races  reap 

Their  dear-bought  harvest,  while  billows  sweep. 


THE  Canadian  People  191 

And  drear  fogs  gather,  and  tempests  blow 
O'er  the  fatal  sands  which  shift  below 
The  ever-angry  sea,  which  laves 
A  thousand  wrecks  and  a  myriad  graves. 

As  the  frigate  steams  in  where  her  consort  sank, 
So  when  maidens  are  weeping,  and  widows  are  pale, 
New  vessels  are  manned  for  those  lost  in  the  gale. 
The  orphan  fears  not  the  restless  wave. 
Which  gave  him  food,  and  his  sire  a  grave  : 
And  the  soulless  vetereui  soundly  sleeps. 
Rocked  by  the  rough  sea,  wliich  sullenly  sweeps 
O'er  the  bones  of  comrade,  brother,  and  son, 
Whose  long,  hard,  perilous  task  is  done." — HaU. 


The  remarkable  inlet  wliich  divides  portions  of  Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Brunswick — the  Bay  of  Fundy 
— afforded  the  means  for  the  early  colonization  gf^swick. 
of  New  Brunswick.  I  l^obably  IJfi^s  the  earUestV 
date  on  which  we  can  certainly  fix  for  the  arrival  of  the 
settlers  in  New  Brunswick.     At  that  time  New  Brunswick 
was  still  a  portion  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  district  of  Sun- 
bury   was   that    first   chosen   for   settlement.     Perhaps 
not  more  than  800  white  persons  altogether  were  to  be 
found  within  the  limits  of  this  province  in   1783,  the 
year  of  the  treaty. 

The  sudden  influx  after  that  date  was  so  great,  how- 
ever, that  New  Brunswick,  so  named  as  a  protest  against 
the  revolt  of  the  rebellious  States  against  the  royal 
house  of  Britain,  may  be  regarded  as  the  creation  of  the 
loyaUsts. 

The  following  year  marked  the  organization  into  a 
province  distinct  from  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  / 

next  year  saw  the  selection  of  the  little  town  J785. 
of  St.  Ann,  up  the  St.  John  River,  as  capital, 
but  with  its  name  changed  to  Fredericton. 

New  Brunswick  is  a  forest  province.  The  beauty  of 
its  woods  in  autumn  has  brought  forth  praises  from 
many  visitors,  while  their  vast  extent  affords  a  chief 
means  of  support  to  the  people.  Reared  amidst  its 
forests,  to  be  a  New  Brunswicker  is  to  be  one  accustomed 
to  the  free  life  and  industrious  habits  of  the  woodman. 
And  yet,  serving  the  purpose  of  a  large  and  hardy  fishing 


192  A  Shoet  History  op 

and  ship-building  population,  New  Brunswick  has  410 
miles  of  sea-coast,  one-haK  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  the 
other  along  the  coast  exposed  to  the  searching  breezes 
from  the  Atlantic.  This  latter  coast  is  familiarly  known 
as  the  North  Shore. 

One  of  the  first  portions  of  the  Dominion  to  be  dis- 
covered by  Europeans  was  St.  John's  Island 
wa?d  Island.  ^  *^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^-  Lawrence.  With  its  brick-red 
soil  and  sheltered  position  behind  Newfound- 
land, it  is  a  rural  paradise.  \  Having  come  m^trilhe^os^ 
session  of  the  British  from  the  French,  it  was  surveyed 
in  1744-6  by  the  British  Government  and  granted  to 
about  one  hundred  English  and  Scottish  subjects  as 
Estates.  Though  they  were  required  to  pay  a  very 
small  rent  to  the  Crown,  and  to  place  one  settler  on  every 
two  hundred  acres  in  ten  years,  yet  even  this  small 
service  they  failed  to  render.  The  first  settlers  of  St. 
John's  Island  were  chiefly  Scottish.  In  1770  the  island 
was  erected  into  a  separate  province,  and  in  1773  its 
first  Legislative  Assembly  was  held.  In  1780  the  Gover- 
nor of  the  Island,  a  Mr.  Patterson,  induced  the  Legis- 
lature to  have  an  Act  changing  the  name  of  the  island 
to  New  Ireland.  King  George  III.,  however,  refused  to 
sanction  the  change  of  name.  Some  time  after  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution  the  Legislature  passed  a  new  Act  calling 

/  the  island  after  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  father  of  Queen 

I  Victoria. 

^■"""^Though  not  a  member  of  the  Canadian  Confederation, 
our  preliminary  sketch  would  fail  in  its  purpose 
land.°"^  "  ^i^  ^^  &^^  ^^  account  of  Newfoundland.  Per- 
haps the  earliest  portion  of  British  America  to 
be  discovered,  it  has  long  been  one  of  the  best-known 
parts  of  the  new  continent.  It  was  in  ^583  that  Sir 
Humphrey  Gilbert  undertook  to  colonize  Newfoundland . 
He  took  out  260  men — masons  and  smiths,  mineralogists 
and  refiners,  and  even  musicians.  On  the  4th  of  August  he 
took  possession  of  St.  John's  harbour,  Newfoundland, 
and  erected  a  monument,  on  which  he  fastened  the  arms 
of  England,  engraven  in  lead.     He  promulgated  three 


fHtJ  Canadian  Peopljj  lOS 

laws  :  (1)  To  establish  the  Church  of  England  ;  (2)  Queen 
Elizabeth's  right  of  possession  ;  (3)  Penalty  of  loss  of 
ears  for  disloyalty.  The  colony  failed  ;  and  the  sad 
loss  in  mid-ocean  of  Sir  Humphrey  himself  is  known 
to  all. 

So  early  as  1680  there  were  2,280  people  upon  the 
island.  In  1728  Newfoundland  became  a  British  pro- 
vince, and  courts  were  then  established.  The  whole 
island  is  now,  as  it  ever  has  been,  redolent  of  fish.  Ship- 
ping, fish,  seals,  oil,  and  the  like  are  the  every-day  thought 
of  the  people.  Its  early  fishermen  were  much  beset 
by  pirates,  and  now  independent  of  Canada,  as  well 
as  of  the  United  States,  though  sometimes  thinking 
of  Britain,  it  is  the  embodiment  of  a  confirmed  insu- 
larity. 

Its  population,  now  almost  entirely  native-born,  is 
largely  of  Irish  extraction,  as  after  1798  many  refugees 
from  Ireland  foimd  in  it  a  peaceful  haven.  In  1^32  its 
first  Legislative  Assembly  was  held,  and  several  minor 
changes  in  its  constitution  have  since  taken  place.  Its 
Legislative  CouncU  contains  fifteen  members,  and  the 
Assembly  thirty-one.  Lying  far  out  toward  Britain, 
its  seaward  capes  serve  for  the  landing  of  the  Atlantic 
cable.  It  receives  the  service  of  the  Allan  line  of  steam- 
ships ;  and  its  population  had  in  1881  reached  185,114. 
Its  small  debt  and  distinctly  marked  insular  tendencies 
will  probably  long  prevent  its  entrance  into  the  Dominion 
as  one  of  the  provinces. 

Seven  provinces,  and  a  vast  extent  of  unoccupied  but 
fertile  territory  await  the  influx  of  the  hardy 
and  industrious  from  European  lands  to  become  ^jq^^  °°* " 
a  still  more  important  part  of  the   Greater 
Britain.     True  patriotism  seems  best  to  find  its  expression 
when  we  find  the  English  race  abroad  in  the  colonies. 
A  happy  and  contented  Canada  regards  the  bond  that 
binds  her  to  Great  Britain  as  a  tie  of  love,  without  even 
a  suspicion  of  servitude. 

Witness,  too,  the  silent  cry, 
The  prayer  of  many  a  race  and  creed  and  clime. 

13 


194  A  Short  Histoe^  o1^ 

Though  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  did  not  exist  at 
Canada  a  ^^^  *^^  ^^  *^®  American  Revolution,  yet  steps 
British  had  been  taken  to  transform  what  had  been 

Colony  hitherto    an   ahen   and  French   Province  into 

a  British  dependency. 

The  formation  of  French  Canada  into  a  British  pro- 
Lower  vince  in  so  short  a  space  of  time  was  most 
Canadian  remarkable.  The  terms  granted  to  Governor 
Convention.  Vaudreuil  at  the  capitulation  of  Montreal,  on 
the  8th  of  September,  1760,  and  the  provisions  of  the 
Treaty  of  Paris,  1763,  were  the  basis  of  this  Convention. 
In  the  Articles  of  Capitulation  the  French  were  granted 
the  free  exercise  of  their  rehgion.  Their  priests  were 
continued  in  their  fimctions  as  before  the  conquest. 
Quiet  possession  of  property  was  guaranteed  to  the  "new 
subjects,"  as  the  French  were  called,  except  in  the  case 
of  the  Jesuits'  estates.  These  Articles  did  not  preserve 
to  the  people  the  system  of  French  law  known  as  the 
"  Custom  of  Paris  "  ;  but  it  was  guaranteed  that  "  in- 
habitants and  merchants  were  to  enjoy  all  the  privileges 
granted  to  subjects  of  his  Britannic  Majesty." 

The  Treaty  of  Paris,  which  was  put  in  force  in  Canada 
King's  Pro-  ^J  ^^^  Majesty's  proclamation,  dated  St. 
clamation,  James's,  7th  of  October,  1763,  says  nothing 
1763.  about    rehgious    rights,    offers    liberal    grants 

to  military  officers  and  soldiers  of  Britain,  directs  the 
establishment  of  courts,  "as  near  as  may  be  agreeable 
to  the  laws  of  England,"  and  provides  for  the  calling 
of  "  assemblies  as  used  and  directed  in  those  colonies  and 
provinces  in  America  which  are  under  our  immediate 
government."  Though  not  so  stated  in  the  proclamation, 
yet  in  the  4th  Article  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris, 
Pa?fs;i768.  l'^^^>  *^®  ^i^g  promises  "to  give  the  most 
effectual  orders,  that  his  new  Roman  Catholic 
subjects  may  profess  the  worship  of  their  rehgion  ac- 
cording to  the  rites  of  the  Roman  Church,  as  far  as  the 
laws  of  Great  Britain  permit." 

The  first  Governor  of  Canada  under  the  British  was 
General  Murray.     He  selected,  according  to  his  instruc- 


IBE  Canadian  tEOPLB)  td5 

tions,  an  Executive  Council.  They  were  all  of  British 
extraction,  except  one — a  French  Canadian.  As  there 
were  65,000  French,  and  they  had  expected  to  become 
possessed  of  aU  the  rights  of  British  subjects,  the  French 
complained  of  this,  and  spoke  for  years  after  with  much 
severity  of  the  four  years  succeeding  1760,  which  they 
called  the  "  rule  of  the  soldiery."  General  Murray  was 
popular  among  the  French  Canadians.  In  1766  Brigadier 
General  (Sir  Guy)  Carleton  became  Governor.  The 
British  system  of  jurisprudence  was  being  introduced. 
Against  this  the  French  complained.  They  also  repre- 
sented that  the  means  of  obtaining  justice  under  the  new 
method  were  not  equal  to  those  under  the  old.  When 
we  take  into  account  that  the  Canadians  were  a  conquered 
people  it  is  marvellous  that  they  so  soon  became  reconciled 
to  their  lot.  Nine  years  passed  away.  There  was  com- 
plaint enough  among  the  new  subjects,  but  nothing  Uke 
rebellion  or  hostility  to  Britain. 

But  now  Governor  Carleton,  who,  as  we  have  seen, 
well  imderstood  the  Canadians,  and  was  much  trusted 
by  them,  in  company  with  Chief  Justice  Hey,  crossed 
the  ocean,  and  with  ex- Attorney-General  Maseres,  a 
distinguished  English  lawyer,  who  for  three  years  assisted 
Carleton,  undertook  to  bring  before  the  Houses  of  Par- 
liament a  measure  for  the  organization  of  the  province 
and  the  settlement  of  certain  disputed  points.  This  Act 
became  the  celebrated  "Quebec  Act  of  Jii4"  It  was 
a  great  experiment.  We  know  now  that 
taken  altogether  it  was  a  successful  venture,  Actof"i774. 
and  we  are  fortunate  in  having  preserved  for 
us  full  accounts  of  the  discussions  connected  with  its 
becoming  law.  It  was  first  introduced  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  and  afterwards  there  received  the  opposition  of 
Chatham. 

On  coming  to  the  House  of  Commons  also  it  received 
strong  opposition.  Its  provisions  as  to  the  boundary  of 
the  province,  the  use  of  French  law,  the  granting  of  no 
Assembly,  and  the  propositions  for  supporting  the  Roman 
Catholic   faith  were  the   chief    subjects   of   discussion. 


106  A  Short  History  op 

Petitions  were  presented  against  the  bill  on  behalf  of 
the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  objecting  to  the  encroach- 
ment on  the  Ohio  country.  A  plea  in  favour  of  New 
York  was  also  entered.  The  merchants  of  London 
petitioned  against  it  on  the  ground  that  the  use  of  the 
French  law  would  prejudice  the  rights  of  capitalists  who 
had  already  invested  money  in  the  province. 

The  Hon.  Thomas  Townsend,  afterwards  Lord  Sydney, 
spoke  against  the  oligarchic  principle  of  an  Executive 
Council  without  an  Assembly.  Edmund  Burke  opposed 
the  introduction  of  French  law.  The  answer  to  Burke 
was,  that  the  French  Canadians  objected  to  the  principle 
of  trial  by  jury  of  the  English  law.  "  They  thought  it 
strange  that  the  English  residing  in  Canada  should 
prefer  to  have  matters  of  law  decided  by  tailors  and  shoe- 
makers mixed  up  with  others  rather  than  by  a  judge." 
The  evidence  given  before  the  Committee  of  the  House 
as  to  the  desire  of  the  Canadians  for  an  Assembly  was 
conflicting.  Chief  Justice  Hey  said  the  French  Canadians 
"  look  upon  the  House  of  Assembly  as  a  house  of  riot, 
calculated  for  nothing  but  to  disturb  the  Government 
and  obstruct  public  servants."  On  the  other  hand, 
Mr.  Maseres  and  a  French  seignior  who  was  present, 
M.  Lotbiniere,  believed  the  Canadians  would  prefer  the 
Assembly. 

But  Governor  Carleton  understood  the  case.  He 
would  conciliate  the  Canadians  as  to  law  and  religion, 
but  as  a  military  man  would  keep  the  government  very 
much  out  of  their  hands.  He  believed  them  to  need 
training  before  being  ready  to  govern  themselves.  Lord 
North,  after  modifying  the  Bill  as  to  the  conflict  of 
boundaries,  and  making  it  nevertheless  to  include  the 
Ohio  and  Illinois  country  in  part,  succeeded  in  carrying  it. 

Not  only  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  was  granted 
the  Roman  Catholics,  but,  says  the  Act,  "  the  clergy 
of  the  said  Church  may  hold,  receive,  and  enjoy  their 
accustomed  dues  and  rights  with  respect  to  such  persons 
only  as  shall  profess  the  said  religion  "  (Sec.  5).  Pro- 
vision is  also  made  "  for  the  encouragement  of  the  Pro- 


THE  Canadian  People  197 

testant  religion  "  (Sec.  6).  The  criminal  law  of  Eng- 
land, having  been  in  force  more  than  nine  years,  is 
to  be  preserved  (Sec.  11).  "That  in  all  matters  of 
controversy,  relative  to  property  and  civil  rights,  resort 
shall  be  had  to  the  laws  of  Canada  as  the  rule  for  the 
decision  of  the  same "  (Sec.  8).  This  preserved  the 
Custom  of  Paris.  An  Executive  Coimcil  of  not  more^ 
than  twenty-three  nor  less  than  seventeen  was  authorized, 
but  Parliament  decided  in  the  face  of  the  advocates  of  the 
people,  as  the  Act  declares,  that  "it  is  at  present  inex- 
pedient to  call  an  Assembly."  Grovemor  Carleton 
returned  to  Canada  greatly  delighted  with  the  Act 
passed,  and  the  French  Canadians  hailed  his  return  with 
loud  acclaim.  As  we  shall  afterwards  see,  the  Conti- 
nental Congress,  meeting  at  Philadelphia  this  year,  com- 
miserated with  the  Canadians  on  the  tyrannical  character 
of  the  Act|^ 

The  Quebec  Act  had  been  in  force    in   Canada    for 
seventeen  years.     During  that  period  changes  xhe  Con- 
of  greatest  moment  had  taken  place  in  America,  stitutional 
Britain  had  lost  her  old  colonies  ;   the  French  ^^  °'  ^'^^^• 
people  had  accepted  British  rule,  and,  so  far  as  they  were_ 
concerned,  there  was  no  great  inquietude  in  Canada.  I  In 
1784  the  loyalist  immigration  to   Canada  took  place. 
Petitions  were  in  that  year  presented  to  the  king  and 
Parliament  of  Britain  asking  for  a  "  representation  of 
the  people  "  in  the  government  of  the  province.     These 
petitions  were  largely  from  the  English-speaking  resi- 
dents of  Montreal  and  Quebec. 

But  there  were  two  shades  of  English  opinion  in  Can- 
ada— ^that  of  the  Loyalists,  who  desired  a  separate 
province  in  the  west,  and  that  of  the  English  of  Montreal 
and  Quebec,  who  feared  that  division  would  leave  them 
in  a  helpless  minority  with  the  French.  The  Bill  pro- 
posed in  response  to  the  king's  speech  of  1791  was  in 
the  direction  of  granting  more  seK-control  to  the  Canar- 
dian  people.  There  were  many  reasons  at  the  time  for 
this.  The  republic  of  the  United  States  was  now  side 
by  si4e  with  Canada — a  pure  democracy.    The  Unite4 


108  A  Short  History  of 

Empire  Loyalists,  though  attached  to  the  king,  were  yet 
accustomed  to  popular  assemblies,  and  the  demand 
for  the  rights  of  the  people,  which  had  blazed  forth 
like  a  devouring  flame  in  the  French  Revolution,  was 
in  the  same  direction.  It  was  wise  to  bestow  a  more 
liberal  constitution  on  Canada,  though  it  must  be  said 
the  French  Canadians,  uneducated  in  politics,  were  list- 
less about  it. 

The  chief  opponent  of  the  Bill  was  a  merchant  of 
Quebec,  Adam  Lymburner,  Esq.,  who  came  as  the  chosen 
representative  of  the  English  party  in  Quebec.  Mr. 
Lymbuiaer  was  a  native  of  Kilmarnock,  Scotland,  had 
come  to  Quebec  as  a  merchant  before  1776,  and  had 
been  long  a  member  of  the  Executive  Council.  He  was 
especially  desirous  that  the  Quebec  Act  of  1774  should 
be  repealed  as  a  whole.  This  Act  continued  the  Custom 
of  Paris  as  a  system  of  law  in  Canada,  and  he  would  have 
it  blotted  out.  He  contended  that  this  should  be  done  on 
account  of  the  uncertainty  of  knowing  what  the  "  laws 
of  Canada  to  the  conquest "  were.  Lord  Dorchester 
(Sir  Guy  Carleton),  who  had  left  Canada  in  his  first  term 
of  ofiice  in  1778,  and  had  been  reappointed  in  1786,  had, 
in  1787,  inquired  into  the  working  of  these  laws.  He 
found  some  judges  were  following  English  procedure, 
others  the  French  code,  and  still  others  administering 
justice  according  to  no  law. 

Mr.  Ljrmburner  was  especially  strong  against  a  division 
of  the  province  and  the  establishment  of  two  legislatures. 
He  prophesied  many  evils  as  likely  to  overtake  both 
provinces,  and  caricatured  the  new  western  province  with 
its  small  population  of  10,000.  Yet  the  aspirations  of 
the  loyalists  and  the  opinion  of  Lord  Dorchester  were  for 
a  new  English  province.  Mr.  Lymburner,  in  pleading 
for  free  government,  objected  to  the  proposed  hereditary 
Council,  and  also  to  the  power  given  by  the  Bill  to  the 
Governor  of  fixing  the  bounds  of  electoral  divisions. 
After  full  discussion  the  Constitutional  Act  passed,  and 
was  undoubtedly  a  blessing  to  Canada. 

Itsjpaain  provisions  are  worthy  of  note.     It  divides 


THE  Canadian  People  199 

Canada  into  two  provinces,  Upper  and  Lower,  on  the 
line  still  existing  between  Ontario  and  Quebec.  A 
Legislative  Council  was  to  be  appointed  in  each  province 
by  the  king,  its  members  being  for  life.  The  king  was 
authorized  to  confer  titles,  whose  possession  should 
entitle  to  membership  of  this  Council.  This  provision  for 
a  House  of  Lords  was  fortunately  never  carried  out. 
Each  province  was  to  have  an  Assembly,  of  members 
chosen  from  districts  set  apart  by  the  Governor — a  pro- 
perty qualification  being  required  for  electors.  No 
clergyman  could  be  a  member  of  the  Assembly,  though, 
as  will  afterwards  be  seen,  this  restriction  did  not  apply 
to  the  Legislative  Council.  Power  was  given  the  Gover- 
nor to  convoke  and  prorogue  or  dissolve  these  Houses 
of  the  Provincial  Parliament.  The  Assembly  could 
not  continue  more  than  four  years.  We  shall  see 
how  arbitrarily  this  power  of  the  Governor  was  some- 
times exercised. 

It  was  further  decreed  in  the  Act  that  an  allotment  of 
Crown  lands  in  each  province  for  the  "  support  and 
maintenance  of  a  Protestant  clergy  *'  be  made,  to  be  one- 
seventh  of  all  the  Crown  lands  granted.  The  governors 
of  the  several  provinces  were  also  empowered  to  "  erect 
parsonages  and  endow  them,  and  to  present  incumbents 
of  ministers  of  the  Church  of  England."  Here  lay  the 
germ  of  the  greatest  political  question  that  ever  agitated 
Canada.  The  land  grants  of  the  Crown  in  Upper  Canada, 
and  in  Lower  Canada  if  desired,  were  in  freehold.  The 
British  Parliament,  in  the  Act,  reserved  the  power  of 
regulating  duties  on  navigation  and  commerce,  and  left 
to  each  province  "the  exclusive  appropriation  of  all 
monies  so  levied."  The  "  Quebec  Act,"  except  the 
portion  relating  to  an  Executive  Council,  continued  in 
force. 

Lord  Dorchester  obtained  leave  and  went  to  England 
in  August,  1791.  Alured  Clarke,  Esq.,  Acting  Gover- 
nor, declared  the  "  Constitutional  Act "  in  force,  estab- 
lishing Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  26th  of  December,  1791. 
This  day  was  celebrated  with  great  rejoicing  in  Quebec, 


200  A  Short  History  op 

The  city  was  illuminated.  All  were  agreed  that  distinc- 
tions between  "  old  "  and  "  new"  subjects  should  be 
forgotten,  and  the  160  gentlemen  who  attended  the 
public  dinner  in  Quebec  formed  themselves  into  the 
"  Constitutional  Club."  The  subdivision  of  the  provinces 
into  counties  went  on  apace.  In  1792,  as  we  shall  see, 
the  new  Governor  of  Upper  Canada,  John  Graves  Simcoe, 
arrived — a  great  day  indeed  for  Upper  Canada.  In  due 
course,  in  that  year  the  elections  were  held,  and  the 
Provincial  Legislatures  met. 

A  striking  incident  took  place  on  the  27th  of  June, 
1792,  as  the  election  for  Charlesbourg,  near  Quebec,  was 
closing.  Prince  Edward,  the  Duke  of  Kent,  and  father  of 
Queen  Victoria,  was  in  Canada  at  this  time,  and  was 
present  at  this  gathering  of  the  electors.  High  feeling 
prevailed  and  a  riot  seemed  inevitable.  The  prince,  seeing 
the  danger,  rushed  to  a  prominent  place,  and  called  for 
silence. 

He  then  in  pure  French  called  out,  "  Can  there  be  any 
man  among  you  that  does  not  take  the  king  to  be  the 
father  of  his  people  ?  "  A  shout  of  "  God  save  the  King  " 
greeted  the  question.  "  Is  there  any  man  among  you," 
then  asked  his  Highness,  "  that  does  not  look  on  the  new 
Constitution  as  the  best  possible  one,  both  for  the  sub- 
ject and  the  Government  ?  "  Loyal  shouts  were  again 
repeated.  "  Part  then  in  peace.  I  urge  you  to  unani- 
mity and  concord.  Let  me,"  continued  the  speaker, 
"  hear  no  more  of  the  odious  distinction  English  and 
French.  You  are  all  his  Britannic  Majesty's  Canadian 
subjects."  The  effect  of  this  speech  was  magical. 
Harmony  was  at  once  restored.  Happy  for  Canada  had 
the  princely  advice  been  always  followed. 

So  soon  as  Canada  was  transferred  to  Great  Britain 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  brave  adventurers — 
Incogtti"^  British  and  French — ^pursued  their  trade  from 
Montreal  up  the  water-courses  to  the  far  north- 
west. Whether  it  belonged  to  Canada  or  to  Rupert's 
Land  was  long  in  doubt,  but  it  was  all  certainly  under 
\]xQ  British  Crowjri,    It  was  long  a  secluded  and  inacpejS'' 


THE  Canadian  People  201 

sible  land  for  the  settler,  but  in  1870  was  struck  the  note 
that  gave  it  over  to  Canada,  to  carve  out  the  three  great 
prairie  provinces — ^Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  and  Alberta. 

These  are  the  gardens  of  the  desert,  these 

The  iinshom  fields,  boundless  and  beautiful. 

For  which  the  speech  of  England  has  no  name, — 

The  prairies,  I  behold  them  for  the  first. 

And  my  heart  swells,  while  the  dilated  sight 

Takes  in  the  encircling  vastness.     Lo  !    they  stretch 

In  airy  undulations,  far  away. 

As  if  the  ocean,  in  his  gentlest  swell. 

Stood  still,  with  all  his  rounded  billows,  fixed 

And  motionless  for  ever. — Motionless  ? 

No — they  are  all  unchained  again.     The  clouds 

Sweep  over  with  their  shadows,  and,  beneath. 

The  surface  rolls  and  fluctuates  to  the  eye ; 

Dark  hollows  seem  to  glide  along  cmd  chase 

The  sunny  ridges.  .  .  .  Fitting  floor 

For  this  magnificent  temple  of  the  sky. 

With  flowers  whose  glory  and  whose  multitude 

Rival  the  constellations  ! — Bryant. 

These  same  daring  fur  traders  were  the  first  to  cross 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  thirty  years  after  xhe  Cana- 
the  Treaty  of  Paris  one  of  their  greatest  leaders,  dian  Trans- 
Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  descended  the  dash-  **P^*- 
ing  mountain  streams  and  first  of  white  men,  north  of 
Mexico,  made  the  crossing  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.      On 
the  western  slopes  of  those  .which  were  called  the  "  Stony 
Mountains,"  full   of  treasure  are  British   Columbia  and 
Yukon  Territory,  overlooked  by  majestic  shining  peaks, 
and  true  to  British  ideals. 

The  mild,  bright  moon  has  upward  risen, 

Out  of  the  grey  and  boimdless  plain. 

And  all  around  the  white  snows  glisten. 

Where  frost  and  ice  and  silence  reign — 

While  ages  roll  away,  and  they  unchanged  remain. 

These  mountains,  piercing  the  blue  sky 

With  their  eternal  cones  of  ice  ; 

The  torrents  dsishing  from  on  high. 

O'er  rock  and  crag  and  precipice  ; 

Change  not,  but  still  remain  as  ever, 

Un wasting,  deathless,  and  sublime. 

And  will  remain  while  lightnings  quiver. 

Or  stars  the  hoary  summits  climb, 

Oy  rojls  the  thunder-chariot  of  eternal  Time, — Pike. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE    LOYALIST    SETTLEMENT    OF    CANADA 

Section   I. — The    Coming   of    the   Loyalists 

The  sad  refugees  who  fled  from  the  now  independent 
colonies  were,  many  of  them,  of  the  highest  intelligence 
and  standing.  As  the  traveller  to-day  passes  through 
the  vicinity  of  the  city  of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  the 
suburbs  of  Cambridge,  Newton,  Dorchester,  and  Charles- 
town,  and  other  towns,  fine  old  mansions  attract  the 
eye.  As  inquiry  is  made  as  to  the  history  of  these  square- 
built,  rather  antique-looking  houses,  the  answer  is  given 
that  one  was  the  residence  of  a  Tory  in  the  Revolution, 
in  whose  house  General  Burgoyne,  when  a  prisoner, 
was  quartered  ;  in  another  Tory  dwelling  General  Wash- 
ington at  one  time  held  headquarters  ;  and  in  this  abode 
the  poet  Longfellow  afterwards  dwelt ;  and  that,  said 
a  guide,  is  where  two  Chief  Justices  of  Massachusetts 
lived,  and  they  were  of  the  straitest  Tory  opinions. 
And  so  it  was  those  of  official  position,  leaders  in  society 
and  intelligence  in  the  old  colony  days,  as  was  quite 
natural,  who  at  last  took  sides  with  Britain,  and  when 
British  power  fell  in  the  thirteen  states  fell  with  it. 

As  already  stated,  a  number  of  the  best  regiments  in 
the  American  war  fighting  for  Britain  consisted  of  loyal 
colonists.  Against  these  the  feeling  of  the  rebellious, 
but  now  successful  Americans  was  most  intense.  A 
British  redcoat  was  an  object  of  detestation,  for  he  was 
a  foreign  opponent ;  but  a  colonial  soldier  of  King  George 
was  despised  as  a  traitor  to  his  country.  It  was  inevit- 
able that  these  regiments  of  the  king,  officials  holding 


A  Short  History  of  the  Canadian  People    203 

positions  under  the  royal  government,  as  well  as  the 
large  circle  of  non-combatants  who  held  like  opinions 
with  these  leaders  on  the  loyalist  side,  and  had  expressed 
them,  must  seek  some  other  home  than  the  now  indepen- 
dent commonwealths  of  Virginia,  New  York,  or  Mas- 
sachusetts. 

Accordingly,  as  is  well  known,  there  flocked  largely 
into  New  York  City  great  numbers  of  the  unfortunate 
outcasts  fleeing  from  the  fury  of  their  several  localities. 
The  circumstances  of  their  flight  precluded  their  having 
any  great  amount  of  property.  Their  houses  and  lands 
had  been  left  behind  ;  a  war  of  eight  years  had  reduced 
the  colonies  to  penury;  no  more  indigent  class  of  depen- 
dents were  probably  ever  left  upon  the  hands  of  a  govern- 
ment than  these  brave  but  imfortimate  people.  Yet 
they  were  possessed  of  an  inflexible  purpose  :  contempt 
for  the  republican  government  which  had  been  estab- 
lished was  commingled  with  the  recollection  of  their  own 
lost  positions. 

They  were  the  New  World  Jacobites.  A  sense  of 
higher  standing  was  added  to  the  powerful  sentiment 
gathering  around  the  glory  of  their  lost  cause,  and  of 
their  still  being  attached  to  the  land  of  their  ancestors 
and  the  land  of  unequalled  prestige. 

Utilitarians  have  read  them  many  a  lecture  on  the 
folly  of  pursuing  phantoms,  and  the  wisdom  of  being 
practical,  but  the  United  Empire  Loyalists,  as  they  de- 
lighted to  style  themselves,  never  deigned  to  look  at 
such  considerations,  so  strong  were  their  anti-republican 
antipathies. 

Nor  were  these  sufferers  for  conscience'  sake  without 
active  and  influential  sympathizers  in  Britain.  Leading 
peers,  whose  names  we  now  find  commemorated  in 
different  Canadian  localities,  spoke  in  terms  of  highest 
praise.  Said  Lord  Stormont,  "  Britain  is  bound  in  justice 
and  honour,  gratitude  and  affection,  and  by  every  tie, 
to  provide  for  and  protect  them."  Viscount  Town- 
send  declared,  "  To  desert  men  who  have  constantly 
94hered  to  loyalty  and  attachment  would  be  a  circuin- 


204  A  Short  History  of 

stance  of  such  cruelty  as  had  never  before  been  heard 
of."  While  Lord  Walsingham  said  "  he  could  neither 
think  nor  speak  of  the  dishonour  of  leaving  these  de- 
serving people  to  their  fate  with  patience."  True,  as 
we  have  seen,  the  anxiety  of  the  British  Government  for 
peace  had  led  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  interests  of  these 
loyal  subjects,  but  all  in  Britain  admitted  the  justice  of 
giving  them  new  homes  under  their  own  flag. 

The  means  were  already  prepared  for  the  settlement  of 
all  who  chose  to  leave  the  land  now  so  detested  by 
them.  In  the  "famous"  proclamation  of  George  III., 
7th  of  October,  1783,  provision  had  been  made  for  dispens- 
ing the  king's  bounty  from  the  waste  lands.  To  every 
person  of  field-officer's  rank  yifi^acres  was  promised  ; 
to  a  captain,  3j000  ;  to  subalterns,  2,000  acres  apiece  ;  to 
each  non-commissioned  officer,  206 'acres ;  and  to  every 
private  man,  5Q  acres. 

These  terms  wef^'*^fterwards  modified,  remaining  the 
same  for  non-commissioned  officers,  being  100  acres  for 
privates  ;  and  the  amounts  for  officers  less  than  in  the 
original  proclamation.  The  refugees  were  now  offered 
aU  the  advantages  mentioned,  were  taken  by  sea  in 
British  ships,  or  overland  in  parties,  to  a  safe  resting- 
place,  and  were  supported  by  Government  rations  for  a 
considerable  time. 

Gathered  in  the  seaports  along  the  Atlantic  coast, 
crowds  of  the  helpless  exiles  awaited  the  ships  for  their 
relief.  The  country  about  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  which  on 
both  sides  was  at  that  time  known  as  Nova  Scotia, 
afforded  ample  room  for  settlement.  Towards  the  end 
of  1782  the  loyalists  had  begun  to  see  from  the  negotia- 
tions in  progress  that  their  departure  would  be  a  hurried 
one.  The  first  instalment  of  refugees  arrived  on  the  18th 
of  May,  1783,  off  the  mouth  of  the  River  St.  John,  in 
what  is  now  New  Brunswick,  and  before  the  end  of  that 
summer  not  less  than  5,000  had  found  homes  along  the 
river  from  the  mouth,  which,  after  the  Governor  of  Nova 
Scotia,  was  called  Parr  Town,  up  to  St.  Ann's,  now 
Fredericton, 


THE  Canadian  People  206 

In  Nova  Scotia  proper  extensive  settlements  were 
made.  In  the  south-west  of  the  peninsula,  in  the  old 
locahty  of  La  Tour  and  Dp.  ^azillyj  now  the  coimty  of 
ShelboumeTuTTTSS  arrived  500  families  of  loyaUsts.  On 
Shelbourne  Harbour  they  erected  with  great  energy  a 
town  which  was  to  be  the  Carthage  of  the  loyaUsts.  This 
increased  in  the  course  of  a  year  so  greatly  that  its  popu- 
lation reached  some  12,000.  Now  a  deserted  spot  on  the 
spacious  bay  marks  the  site  of  this  transient  town,  which 
indeed  within  two  or  three  years  from  its  f oimding  began 
to  decay. 

The  busy  season  of  1783  was  said  in  September  to 
have  resulted  in  13,000  loyalists  having  taken  up  their 
abode  in  Nova  Scotia  and  St.  John's,  now  Prince  Ed- 
ward's Island.  In  the  following  season  a  like  activity 
prevailed.  The  township  of  Digby  in  the  Annapolis 
region  was  settled,  Aylesford  and  Rawdon  both  re- 
ceived large  additions  of  settlers,  the  Douglas  settle- 
ment was  filled  by  disbanded  soldiers  of  the  84th  Regi- 
ment, while  Clements  County  was  largely  taken  up  by 
disbanded  Hessian  soldiers  and  refugees. 

On  the  coast  above  Halifax,  in  the  county  of  Sidney, 
in  Coventry  Harbour,  the  refugees  erected  a  town,  to 
which  they  gave  the  name  '*  Storm ont  "  in  honour  of 
their  British  defender  and  friend.  Guysborough,  in  that 
county,  was  similarly  settled,  as  well  as  Preston  in  Hali- 
fax Coimty. 

During  the  same  period  the  importation  of  British 
dependents  continued  up  the  St.  John  River,  in  New 
Brunswick.  The  8th,  98th,  and  104th  Regiments,  and 
New  Jersey  Volunteers  of  Colonial  Mifitia,  all  having 
been  disbanded,  were  given  lands  in  this  region,  while 
the  "  Queen's  Rangers,"  the  regiment  second  to  none  in 
distinction,  was  also  quartered  on  holdings  here. 

There  can  be  little  difficulty  in  admitting  that  20,000 
of  the  U.E.'s  from  the  seaboard  found  their  new 
homes  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  numbers  of  these  after- 
wards journeyed  westward  to  Upper  Canada,  yet  the 
large  number  remaining,  and  their  descendants,  have 


^06  A  Short  History  of 

taken  an  important  part  in  the  conduct  of  affairs  in  the 
provinces  by  the  sea,  as  the  names  of  Howe,  Tupper, 
Wihnot,  Chandler,  WilUams,  and  Robinson  abundantly 
testify. 

No  sooner  had  the  loyalists  taken  possession  of  the 
north  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  settled  the  River 
St.  John,  than  they  began  to  clamour  for  self-govern- 
ment. Governor  Parr  was  much  opposed  to  the  division 
of  the  province,  and  removed  a  number  of  the  loyalist 
agitators  to  the  south  side  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  but  it 
was  of  no  avail,  and  in  1784  New  Brunswick  was  set 
apart,  as  we  have  before  seen,  as  a  separate  province. 

The  character  of  the  loyalist  settlers  of  St.  John  River 
may,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  be  seen  from  the  following 
of  the  twelve  members  of  the  first  Council  of  New  Bruns- 
wick. *'  Chief  Justice  Ludlow  had  been  a  judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  New  York  ;  James  Putman,  one  of  the 
ablest  lawyers  in  America  ;  Rev.  and  Hon.  Jonathan 
Odell,  Provincial  Secretary,  had  been  chaplain  in  the 
royal  army  ;  Judge  Joshua  Upham,  a  graduate  of  Harvard, 
had  been  a  colonel  of  dragoons  ;  Judge  Israel  Allen 
had  lost  an  estate  in  Pennsylvania,  and  been  a  colonel 
of  New  Jersey  Volunteers ;  Judge  Edward  Winslow 
was  a  colonel  in  the  royal  army  ;  Beverley  Robinson, 
who  had  lost  great  estates  on  the  Hudson  River,  had 
raised  the  Loyal  American  Regiment ;  Judge  John 
Saunders,  of  a  cavaher  family  in  Virginia,  had  been  cap- 
tain in  the  Queen's  Rangers,  and  afterwards  studied  law 
in  the  Temple,  London  ;  David  Bliss  l^^d  been  a  commis- 
sary in  the  royal  army."  1 

When  the  loyalists  were  flocking  to  ^Nov^  Scotia  and 
^  New  Brunswick,  the  British  Oovftnment  for- 

'  bade  the  Governor  of  Nova  Scotia  to  settle  any 
loyalists  in  Cape  Breton  Island,  which  was  then  a 
part  of  his  province.  The  Hon.  Thomas  Townsend,  who 
in  1784  became  Secretary  of  State,  and  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Lord  Sydney,  separated  Cape  Breton 
from  Nova  Scotia  at  the  same  time  as  New  Brunswick 
was  set  apart.      The  first  Governor  of  Cape  Breton  was 


tHi:  Canadian  t^EOPLE  20? 

Major  Desbarres,  a  brave  officer  who  had  gone  through 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  had  been  for  years  on  the 
coast  survey  of  Nova  Scotia.  The  Governor  gave  up  Louis- 
bourg,  the  former  capital  of  the  island,  and  founded 
Sydney,  which  possesses  a  safe  harbour,  and  which  he 
named  after  the  Secretary  of  State. 

A  band  of  the  refugee  loyaUsts  now  obtained  leave 
through  the  kind  offices  of  Abraham  Cuyler,  formerly 
Colonial  Governor  at  Albany,  to  settle  in  Cape  Breton. 
These  to  the  number  of  140  souls,  calling  themselves  the 
"Associated  Loyalists,"  sailed  in  three  vessels  imder 
Colonel  Peters,  Captain  Jones,  and  Mr.  Robertson,  who 
had  been  officers  of  the  Royal  Rangers.  Some  of  them 
settled  at  Baddeck,  others  at  St.  Peter's,  and  still  others 
at  Louisbourg.  It  is  stated  that  800  loyahsts  followed 
this  band  of  pioneers  to  Cape  Breton.  The  statement 
made  by  Governor  Desbarres,  that  three  or  four  thousand 
loyalists  came  to  Cape  Breton,  is  generally  discredited. 

Much  hardship  was  endured  by  these  first  settlers. 
In  the  winter  of  1786-6,  the  colonists  would  certainly 
have  starved  had  it  not  been  for  a  Quebec  vessel,  which 
remained  ice-bound  in  Arichat  Harbour,  and  whose  cargo 
of  provisions  was  purchased  for  the  perishing  settlers. 
In  the  year  1788,  Prince  WiUiam  Henry,  afterwards 
WiUiam  IV.,  to  the  great  delight  of  the  loyalists,  visited 
Sydney  in  his  frigate,  the  Andromeda, 

The  Governor-General  of  Canada  at  the  time  of  the 
ffight  of  the  loyahsts  was  General  Haldimand.  Their 
natural  leader.  Sir  Guy  Carleton,  had  been  reheved  of 
his  command  of  the  British  troops  on  the  appointment 
of  General  Burgoyne  in  1777,  having  regarded  that 
appointment  as  a  personal  shght  to  himself.  He  had 
resigned  his  governorship  of  Canada  in  1778,  had  returned 
to  England,  but  was  in  1782  appointed  to  succeed  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  in  command  of  the  British  troops  in 
America.  He  arrived  in  New  York  in  May  of  that 
year,  and  was  in  command  of  New  York  at  the  time 
of  its  evacuation.  Captain  Simcoe,  the  late  friend  of 
the  loyaUsts,   had  returned  from  America  to  Britain. 


208  A  SHORt  HistoRlr  oi* 

Governor  Haldimand,  a  Swiss  by  birth,  much  maligned 
by  a  troublesome  wrong-doer,  Du  Calvet,  has  now  had 
justice  done  him  for  his  noble  assistance  to  the  loyalists. 
Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  had  been  filled  to  re- 
pletion by  the  large  influx  of  loyalists  in  so  short  a  period. 
The  loyalists  remaining  in  the  places  yet  held  by  the 
British  now  turned  their  eyes  to  the  west. 

At  the  close  of  the  war  a  proclamation  had  been  made 
to  the  effect  that  those  who  had  remained  loyal  to  Britain 
should  rendezvous  at  convenient  stations  along  the  Cana- 
dian frontier.  This  had  been  intended  mainly  for 
those  Hving  inland,  who  might  not  be  able  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  transport  offered  from  the  seaports  to  Nova 
Scotia.  The  centres  named  were  Sackett's  Harbour, 
Carleton  Island  or  Oswego,  Niagara  on  Lake  Ontario, 
and  Isle-aux-Noix  on  Lake  Champlain. 

Even  from  the  seaboard  did  the  exiles  now  seek  their 
way  to  these  new  homes  which  had  been  offered  them. 
The  yet  undivided  province  of  Quebec  became  their 
place  of  destination.  An  U.E.  loyalist,  named  Grass, 
son  of  Captain  Michael  Grass,  has  left  us  an  account  of 
this  turning  of  the  emigration  from  Nova  Scotia  toward 
the  Upper  Province.  From  Bishop  Richardson  we  have 
his  words  :  "  My  father  had  been  a  prisoner  among  the 
French  at  Frontenac  (now  Kingston),  in  the  old  French 
war  (1756-63),  and  at  the  commencement  of  the  American 
Revolution  he  resided  in  a  farm  on  the  borders  of  the 
North  River,  about  thirty  miles  above  New  York.  Being 
solicited  by  General  Herkimer  to  take  a  captain's  com- 
mission in  the  American  service,  he  replied  sternly  and 
promptly  that  he  had  sworn  allegiance  to  one  king,  mean- 
ing George  III.,  and  could  not  violate  his  oath  or  serve 
against  him.  For  this  he  was  obliged  to  flee  from  his 
home  and  take  refuge  within  New  York,  under  British 
protection.  .  .  . 

"  On  the  return  of  peace,  the  Americans  having  gained 
their  independence,  there  was  no  longer  any  home  there 
for  the  fugitive  loyaUsts,  of  which  the  city  was  full ; 
and  the  British  Governor  was  much  at  a  loss  for  a  place 


tHE  Canadian  People  20§ 

to  settle  them.  .  .  .  Their  unmense  numbers  made  it 
difficult  to  find  a  home  for  them  aU  in  Nova  Scotia.  In 
the  meantime  the  Governor,  in  his  perplexity,  having 
heard  that  my  father  had  been  a  prisoner  among  the 
French  at  Frontenac,  sent  for  him  and  said,  *  Mr.  Grass, 
I  understand  you  have  been  at  Frontenac  in  Canada. 
Pray  tell  me  what  kind  of  a  country  it  is.  Can  people 
live  there  ?  What  think  you  ?  '  My  father  repUed, 
*  Yes,  your  Excellency,  I  was  there  a  prisoner  of  war, 
and  from  what  I  saw  I  think  it  a  fine  country,  and  that 
people  might  live  there  very  well.'  *  Oh  !  Mr.  Grass,* 
exclaimed  the  Governor,  '  how  glad  I  am  to  hear  that 
for  the  sake  of  these  poor  loyalists.  .  .  .  Will  you 
undertake  to  lead  thither  as  many  as  may  choose  to 
accompany  you  ?  If  so,  I  will  furnish  a  conveyance  by 
Quebec  and  rations  for  you  all  till  such  time  as  you  may 
be  able  to  provide  for  yourselves.'  " 

The  loyalist  captain,  having  taken  three  days  to  con- 
sider the  Governor's  offer,  accepted  it,  and  notice  was 
posted  throughout  the  city  with  an  offer  to  conduct  as 
many  as  desired  to  go  to  the  Upper  Province  of  Quebec. 
Two  shiploads  of  men,  women,  and  children  soon  after 
started. 

These  were  the  pilgrim  fathers  of  Canada.  They  may 
be  called  the  founders  of  Upper  Canada.  Their  service 
was  as  conspicuous  to  Canada,  their  bravery  was  as 
great,  and  their  devotion  to  their  principles  was  as  strong 
and  beautiful  as  anything  that  can  be  seen  in  the  heroic 
and  much-lauded  course  of  the  Pilgrims  of  Plymouth 
Rock.  It  was  shortly  before  the  evacuation  of  New  York 
by  the  British,  which  took  place  on  the  25th  of  November, 
1783,  that  the  two  ships  sailed  up  the  shore  of  New 
England,  entered  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  landed 
their  precious  cargo  at  Sorel,  a  town,  as  wo  have  seen 
some  miles  below  Montreal  on  the  St.  Lawrence. 

The  ships  had  been  convoyed  by  the  British  brig, 
Hope  ;  Captain  Grass  led  the  one  party,  and  Captain 
Van  Alstine  the  other.  At  Sorel  log-huts  were  built 
for  the  winter,  and  the  colonists,  along  with  others  who 

14 


210  A  Short  HistorV  o^ 

had  come  down  the  Richelieu,  awaited  the  openiag  of 
the  next  season,  suffering  in  the  meantime  from  the 
scourge  of  small-pox.  The  opening  spring  saw  these 
pioneers  undertake  in  flat-bottomed  boats  the  toilsome 
journey  up  the  river.  They  worked  manfully,  suffered 
many  privations,  and  at  times  were  compelled  to  leave 
their  unwieldy  craft  and  "  track  "  them  up  the  bank, 
especially  at  the  "Cedar  Rapids"  and  the  Long  Sault. 
Passing  through  the  Thousand  Islands,  the  wanderers 
from  New  York  were  captivated  by  the  beauty  of  the 
region,  and  settled  just  above  them,  on  "  Indian  Point," 
near  Fort  Frontenac,  where  the  city  of  Kingston  now 
stands.  The  first  survey  of  the  new  district  to  be  settled 
had  been  begun  in  1783.  Deputy-Surveyor  Collins  seems 
to  have  conducted  it,  but  a  new  survey  was  needed  in 
1784  to  correct  this.  It  was  not  till  July  that  the  land 
was  ready  for  distribution. 

But  not  only  by  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  but  through 
the  waterways  of  the  State  of  New  York  also,  did  the 
loyalists  reach  Upper  Canada.  Not  more  were 
Routes!  ^^®  Thames,  the  Humber,  and  the  Trent,  the 
arteries  by  which  the  Saxon  peoples  penetrated 
England,  than  were  the  several  lines  of  water  communi- 
cation and  portage  between  the  Hudson  River  and  Lake 
Ontario,  the  means  by  which  the  loyahst  refugees  reached 
their  new  homes. 

The  best-known  route  was  that  up  the  Hudson  River 
on  its  western  branch  to  Fort  Stanwix,  now  the  town 
of  Rome — thence  by  a  portage  to  Lake  Oneida  ;  through 
this  lake  and  down  the  River  Oswego  to  the  town  of  the 
same  name  where  the  river  enters  Lake  Ontario.  From 
Oswego  any  station  on  the  borders  of  Lake  Ontario  could 
be  reached  by  boat. 

A  second  route  was  that  by  which,  leaving  another 
branch  of  the  Hudson,  the  Black  River  was  gained  by  a 
short  portage.  At  the  mouth  of  this  river  was  Sackett's 
Harbour,  which  lay  on  the  lake  shore  between  Oswego 
and  Kingston. 

Another  line  by  which  Canada  was  approached  was 


THE  Canadian  People  211 

by  following  up  the  east  branch  of  the  Hudson  and 
crossing  the  Adirondack  Mountains.  Across  the  moun- 
tains to  the  west,  a  tributary  of  the  Black  River  was 
reached,  by  which  again  Sackett's  Harbour  could  be 
gained. 

By  a  track  a  Httle  more  to  the  north,  through  the 
Adirondacks,  the  Oswegotchie  River  was  found,  which 
led  down  to  Ogdensburgh — the  old  fort  "  La  Presenta- 
tion " — on  the  St.  Lawrence. 

A  fifth  route  through  the  interior  was  by  the  miHtary 
road,  a  relic  of  the  French  wars,  which  ran  along  the 
west  shore  of  Lake  Champlain.  From  this  road  the 
traveller  might  proceed  westward  to  Cornwall,  or  con- 
tinue his  journey  down  the  Richelieu  River  to  Sorel,  the 
rallying-point,  as  we  have  seen,  for  the  refugees  coming 
up  the  St.  Lawrence.  It  was  the  first  of  these  routes — 
that  leading  to  Oswego — which  was  most  popular, 
although  there  were  those  who  followed  a  still  more 
westerly  way,  as  they  came  from  Pennsylvania,  from  the 
headwaters  of  the  Susquehanna  to  Lake  Erie  and  Niagara. 
But  as  in  England  all  roads  lead  to  London,  so  all  the 
routes  named  converged  on  the  new  land  of  hope,  where 
a  united  empire  might  still  be  maintained. 

At  Sorel,  as  we  have  said,  several  bodies  of  refugees 
gathered,  as  well  as  those  who  came  up  the  St.  Lawrence 
from  New  York.  Many  of  these  were  disbanded  soldiers, 
whose  famihes  had  joined  them.  Sir  John  Johnson 
was  the  officer  in  charge  of  one  body.  This  officer  was 
the  son  of  Sir  William  Johnson,  of  fame  in  the  Seven 
Years'  War.  Like  his  father,  he  had  been  an  ardent  sup- 
porter of  British  claims. 

Johnson  had  raised  a  force  800  strong  of  his  own 
neighbours  and  dependents,  from  the  Johnson  estates 
on  the  Mohawk  River.  This  regiment  was  known  as  the 
"  84th  Royal  New  York  "—or  "  Royal  Greens."  The 
war  over,  the  84th  had  been  stationed  at  Isle-aux-Noix 
on  Lake  Champlain.  The  wives  and  children  of  the 
soldiers  had  come  from  the  Mohawk  River  overland, 
through  great  hardships,  to  join  them.     Late  in  1783  the 


212  A  Short  History  of 

refugees  passed  down  the  Richelieu  and  reached  Sorel, 
the  meanwhile  rendezvous. 

In  1 784,  in  company  with  the  other  exiles,  they  ascended 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  first  battalion  took  up  its  loca- 
tion in  what  is  now  the  county  of  Dundas,  in  the  townships 
of  Cornwall,  Osnabruck,  Williamsburgh,  and  Matilda. 
The  latter  two  townships  afterwards  received  these  names 
from  King  George  III.'s  third  and  fourth  children. 
Almost  all  of  the  first  battalion  of  the  "  Royal  Greens  " 
were  of  German  origin. 

Westward  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  went  to  the  adjoining 
townships  the  remaining  part  of  the  first  battalion  of  the 
Johnson  regiment,  known  as  "  Jessup's  Corps."  These 
were  chiefly  of  British  parentage  in  New  York  State. 
Their  townships  were  afterwards  called  Edwardburgh, 
Augusta,  and  Elizabethtown,  the  names  being  given  after 
the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  children  of  the  king.  It 
was  on  the  20th  of  June,  1784,  that  the  first  of  the  dis- 
banded soldiers  of  the  84th  landed  in  the  townships 
named.  The  second  battalion  continued  its  way  up  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  arrived,  in  a  few  days  after,  at  Fort 
Frontenac. 

It  was  in  July,  1784,  that  on  "  Indian  Point  "  at  Fort 
Frontenac  there  met  together  the  contingents  of  Cap- 
tains Grass  and  Van  Alstine,  Sir  John  Johnson,  and 
Colonels  McDonell  and  Rogers,  to  receive  their  lands. 
The  townships  beginning  at  Fort  Frontenac  were  num- 
bered westward  up  to  five.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
the  fifth,  lying  along  the  Bay  of  Quinte,  gave  its  Latin 
equivalent,  Quintus,  to  the  bay.  This,  however,  is  a  mis- 
take. In  the  old  maps  of  1776  the  Indian  name  of  the 
river  running  into  the  bay  is  the  "  Kentio,"  no  doubt  the 
original  of  Quinte. 

The  leaders  of  the  several  companies  having  assembled, 
to  Captain  Grass,  as  the  original  suggester  of  the  region, 
was  given  the  first  choice.  He  selected  township  one,  to 
which  in  honour  of  the  sovereign  was  given  the  name 
Kingston.  Township  two,  named  Emesttown,  after  the 
king's  eighth  child,   was  given  to   Sir  John   Johnson, 


THE  Canadian  People  213 

Colonel  Rogers  and  his  party  took  the  next,  which  from 
the  next  in  order  of  the  royal  family  was  called  Freder- 
icksburgh.  The  New  York  City  party,  under  Major 
Van  Alstine,  obtained  township  four,  which  in  its  turn 
was  named  Adolphustown.  The  Van  Alstine  contin- 
gent was  of  the  very  best  of  the  U.E.  stock.  It  seems 
to  have  been  composed  of  even  a  more  intelligent  and 
energetic  class  than  that  of  the  military  settlers.  Several 
distinguished  Canadians,  among  others  Judge  Hagerman 
and  Sheriff  Ruttan,  have  sprung  from  it. 

The  fifth  township,  known  as  Marysburgh,  from  another 
child  of  the  numerous  family  yf  fift^^p  hftlononncr  to  the 
sovereignf^ay  along  the  bay  of  Quifitifc — li  was  but 
partially  settled  by  Colonel  McDonell  and  his  disbanded 
men  of  the  84th,  and  in  the  next  year,  1785,  a  body  of 
Hessian  mercenaries,  who  had  remained  in  Lower  Canada, 
took  up  the  remainder  of  the  township.  They  were  a 
turbulent  and  dissatisfied  body  of  settlers. 

So  soon  as  the  townships  along  the  river  and  lake 
were  filled  with  loyaUsts,  the  sons  of  the  U.E.'s,  who 
were  entitled  on  coming  of  age  to  200  acres  of  land 
apiece,  settled  in  the  second  range  of  townships  such  as 
Winchester,  Mountain,  and  others. 

For  several  years  after  the  first  coming  of  the  refugees 
there  continued  fresh  arrivals  of  the  friends  of  the  earlier 
settlers.  These  foimd  suitable  locaUties  for  settlement  in 
Sophiasburgh  and  AmeUasburgh  townships,  still  follow- 
ing the  royal  family  in  their  names.  Thus  also  were 
settled  Sidney,  Thurlow,  and  Richmond.  To  have  been 
among  the  first  exiles  in  their  western  Hegira  was  deemed 
a  special  honour,  and  to  those  who  came  in  from  year  to 
year  afterward  was  given  the  name  *'Late  Loyalists." 

The  saying   of  the  New  York  refugees  as  they  left 
their  coimtry  to  go  into  exile  to  Canada  was  L^ke  Erie 
that  they  were  going  to  "  a  country  where  there  Settle- 
were  nine  months  of  winter  and  three  months  °^®^^' 
of  cold  weather  every  year."     This  remark  but  serves  to 
show  the  unselfish  devotion  to  principle  which  animated 
the  U.E.'s.     They  were,  however,  on  coming  to  Western 


214  A  Short  History  of 

Canada  agreeably  disappointed.  They  found  a  region 
capable  of  producing  the  melon,  the  grape,  Indian  com, 
and  even  the  peach  plentifully.  But  the  portion  of 
country  about  Fort  Frontenac,  so  largely  settled  by  the 
new  immigrants,  was  far  from  being  the  best  part  of  what 
is  now  the  province  of  Ontario. 

So  early  as  1750  numbers  of  disbanded  soldiers  from 
the  French  army,  who  knew  the  interior  of  New  France 
well,  had  passed  by  Fort  Frontenac  and  taken  up  their 
abode  near  Fort  Detroit,  which  n-early  fifty  years  before 
that — in  1701 — had  been  founded  by  Cadillac,  in  the  fine 
region  between  Lakes  Huron  and  St.  Clair.  And  so 
now  there  were  those  among  the  more  enterprising 
of  the  U.E.'s  who  came  through,  as  we  have  mentioned, 
from  the  headwaters  of  the  Susquehanna  to  Lake  Erie, 
and  by  other  routes,  who  crossed  the  lake  and  sought 
new  homes  on  the  west  of  the  Essex  peninsula. 

The  earlier  French  settlers  of  Sandwich  township  had 
surveyed  their  lands  into  narrow  strips  along  the  river 
bank,  in  French  Canadian  fashion,  in  order  that  they 
might  build  their  houses  more  closely  together ;  nor  was 
this  plan  a  bad  one  in  a  country  infested  by  wild  beasts 
and  treacherous  redmen.  It  was  in  1784,  the  same  year 
as  Kingston  was  settled,  that  a  band  of  U.E.'s  took  up 
the  most  south-westerly  township  of  what  was  afterwards 
Upper  Canada,  viz.  that  of  Maiden.  That  the  number  of 
settlers  was  considerable  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that 
in  the  same  year  Colchester,  Gosfield,  and  Mersea,  all 
contiguous  townships  bordering  on  Lake  Erie,  were  to 
some  extent  occupied. 

It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  population 
was  very  sparse,  each  settler  choosing  some  spot  attract- 
ing him,  even  if  it  were  miles  from  his  neighbour's  abode. 
As  we  shaU  see,  the  U.E.'s  had  little  feeling  of  com- 
munity with  the  earlier  French  Canadian  settlers,  and 
so  not  only  kept  the  former  occupants  at  a  respectful 
distance,  but  Hkewise  called  their  own  townships  "the 
newi  settlement . ' ' 

The  fact  that  Fort  Niagara  had  been  named  as  a  point 


THE  Canadian  People  215 

of  rendezvous  in  the  proclamation  at  the  close  of  the  war 

was    the  cause    likewise    of   a  settlement    of 

refugees  being   begun  in  the  Niagara   penin-  settlers!^"* 

sula.     So  early  as   1782  the  township  of  Cais- 

tor,    in   the  centre  of  the  Niagara  peninsula,  received 

its  first  settlers. 

It  was  in  that  red-letter  year  of  the  loyalists,  1784, 
that  the  townships  along  the  River  Niagara,  from  Lake 
Erie  to  Lake  Ontario,  all  received  their  first  settlers. 
These  townships  are  Bertie,  Willoughby,  Stamford,  and 
Grantham.  They  were  chiefly  occupied  by  the  disbanded 
soldiers  of  Butler's  Rangers. 

It  is  not  strange  that  a  number  of  the  U.E.'s  should 
have   sought   to   escape   the   hardships   of   a  Loyalists 
long  and  wearisome  journey  inland  by  settling  in  Lower 
near  Lake  Champlain  close  to  the  boundary  ^*°*^*« 
line.     St.  Armand  is  a  district  which  was  taken  up  by  the 
loyalists  in  1784.     The  greatest  number  of  these  settlers 
consisted  of  those  who  had  been  under  arms  on  the 
king's  side  ;    they  were  chiefly  of  German  origin,  and 
were  bom  on  the  Hudson  River.    Many  of  this  first  band 
of  refugees  became  leaders  of  colonies,  which  afterwards 
occupied  a  group  of  100  or  more  townships  lying  near 
the  forty-fifth  parallel  of  latitude,  largely  held  now  by 
English-speaking  people,  and  known  as  the   "  Eastern 
Townships." 

That  this  district  was  not  more  largely  settled  by  the 
U.E.'s  was  no  doubt  owing  to  the  contiguity  of  the  French 
Canadians,  and  the  desire  lying  at  the  root  of  the  loyalist 
movement  of  having  a  new  British  province  under  U.E. 
control,  as  well  as  the  unwillingness  of  Governor  Haldi- 
mand  to  have  them  on  the  frontier.  Several  of  the  families 
which  had  made  Sorel,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Richelieu,  their 
rendezvous,  remained  there,  and  the  town,  at  times  called 
by  the  name  William  Henry,  son  of  King  George  III., 
long  retained  a  military  tone. 

Section  II. — The  Friends  of  the  Loyalists 
Some  10,000  refugees  had  in  1784,  and  the  few  years 


216  A  Shobt  History  of 

following,  found  homes  in  Western  Canada,  just  as  it  is 
estimated,  as  already  mentioned,  that  20,000  had  settled 
in  the  provinces  by  the  sea.  Assuming  full  responsibility 
for  the  care  and  present  support  of  her  devoted  adherents. 
Great  Britain  opened  her  hand  cheerfully  to  assist  them. 
The  Treaty  of  1783  had  made  no  provision  for  the  indem- 
nification of  the  losses  of  the  loyal  refugees.  Yet  the 
Parliament  at  Westminster  of  1783  unanimously  passed 
an  Act  appointing  commissioners  to  inquire  into  the 
losses  of  those  "  who  had  suffered  ...  in  consequence 
of  their  loyalty  to  his  Majesty  and  attachment  to  the 
British  Government." 

The  latest  time  for  presenting  claims  was  at  first  the 
25th  of  March  1784,  but  this  was  again  and  again  ex- 
tended until  in  1790  the  matter  received  final  disposition. 
The  tedious  and  expensive  process,  however,  discouraged 
many.  There  were  3,225  applications  presented,  of  which 
about  nine-tenths  were  recognized,  though  not  to  the  full 
amount  of  the  claims.  The  sum  paid  by  the  British 
Government  to  the  suffering  refugees  was  about 
$15,000,000 — an  amount  whose  mention  for  ever  re- 
dounds to  the  honour  and  justice  of  Britain.  But  the 
30,000  homeless  refugees,  who  had  no  resource,  were, 
perhaps,  a  greater  charge  to  the  Government.  To  pre- 
vent absolute  starvation  daily  rations  were  issued  to  the 
loyalists,  in  some  cases  for  three  years  after  their  flight. 

For  the  several  settlements  there  were,  it  is  said,  pro- 
vided portable  steel  mills  for  grinding  their  flour.  Im- 
plements for  building  their  houses  were  supplied  as 
required.  A  plough  and  a  cow  were  bestowed  upon  each 
family  ;  spades  and  hoes  were  given  out  liberally,  and 
axes,  but  the  last  were,  unfortunately,  provided  with 
such  short  handles,  that  they  would  have  broken  in  a 
day  the  back  of  a  Canadian  woodman.  And  not  only 
were  the  new  settlers  dependent  for  their  means  of 
subduing  the  forest  and  erecting  dwellings,  but  the  very 
coarse  garments  and  shoes  worn  by  them  were  the  gift 
of  the  Government. 

The  co-operation  of  the  many  to  help  the  one  was  a 


THE  Canadian  People  217 

principle  early  introduced,  and  the  "  logging  bee  "  was 
one  of  the  earliest  customs  of  the  new  province. 

The  "  clearing  "  of  the  first  spot  in  the  forest  afforded 
the  "  logs  "  for  the  settler's  house  ;  a  few  panes  of  glass 
made  the  one  window  of  the  settler's  "  shanty."  The 
log  walls  were  surmounted  by  a  roof  formed  of  strips  of 
bark,  laid  upon  the  framework  of  poles  ;  and  flat  stones, 
found  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground,  supplied  the  mater- 
ials for  the  rude  chimney  and  an  ample  hearth,  to  admit  the 
blazing  yule-logs.  The  interstices  between  the  walls  were 
"  chinked  "  with  small  splinters  ;  and  clay  from  the  neigh- 
bouring "  clearing,"  used  as  plaster,  kept  out  the  winds 
of  winter. 

This  settler's  shanty,  introduced  by  the  U.E.'s,  has 
been  the  mode  of  entrance  to  Canada  of  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  her  sons,  and  who,  in  the  midst  of  opu- 
lence to-day,  look  back  to  the  "  first  shanty  "  as  did 
Ihe  Roman  to  the  shepherd's  hut  that  sheltered  the 
infants  that  afterwards  became  the  foimders  of  Imperial 
Rome. 

In  the  case  of  the  loyalists  it  was  as  it  has  so  often 
been  seen  in  the  history  of  new  settlement — their  first 
attempts  at  cultivating  the  soil  were  failures.  It  seems 
as  if  the  wildness  of  an  unbroken  and  untilled  soil  needs 
for  a  time  to  be  battled  with,  before  it  yields  to  man's 
desire.  In  1787,  probably  the  first  year  in  which  the 
new  settlers  expected  to  depend  upon  their  own  crops, 
there  was  an  absolute  failure,  so  that  in  1788  the  greatest 
distress  prevailed  and  for  many  years  afterwards  the 
famine  season  was  spoken  of  as  the  "  hard  summer,"  the 
"scarce  year,"  or  the  "hungry  year."  Roots  of  wild 
plants  were  dug  up  and  eaten  ;  pottage  of  wheat-bran 
was  prepared  ;  fish  and  game,  if  obtainable,  gave  much 
assistance  ;  the  butter-nut  and  well-known  weed,  "  lamb's 
quarters,"  were  in  much  demand  ;  and  the  succulent 
heads  of  the  new  growing  barley  were  sacrificed  to  keep 
away  hunger. 

It  was  in  the  year  1789  that  it  was  ordered  by  the 
Government  that  a  list  of  all  the  refugees  who  for  the 


218  A  Short  History  of 

five  years  preceding  had  fled  from  the  United  States 
to  the  British  Provinces  should  be  made  out,  to  be  known 
as  the  "  U.E.  List,"  and  to  be  a  record  of  all  who  should 
be  entitled  on  coming  of  age  to  the  same  privileges 
which  their  fathers  had  received  in  coming  to  the 
country. 

Few  have  been  accustomed  to  look  upon  the  Six 
Brant  and  Nation  Indians  as  U.E.  Loyalists,  and  yet  in 
the  Six  all  real  particulars  they  belong  to  the  refugee 
Nations.  patriots.  The  name  of  their  leading  chief, 
Joseph  Brant,  or  Thayendanagea,  has  always  been  bound 
up  with  their  history  and  removal  to  Canada.  In  that 
very  part  of  New  York  State  whence  we  have  seen  came 
a  large  part  of  the  early  settlers  of  the  Kingston  and  Bay 
of  Quinte  regions,  viz.  the  district  about  Fort  Stanwix, 
and  under  the  influence  of  Sir  William  and  afterwards  of 
Sir  John  Johnson,  lived  many  of  the  Six  Nations.  To 
the  Mohawks  of  this  region  Thayendanagea  belonged. 
He  was,  however,  born  in  1742  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio, 
but  was  carried  back  with  the  hunting  party  on  which 
his  parents  were  to  his  ancestral  home  at  Canojoharie,  in 
the  Mohawk  VaUey.  Soon  after,  his  father  died.  The 
name  of  his  foster-father  is  said  to  have  been  Nickus 
Brant,  hence  his  weU-known  name — Joseph  Brant. 

The  troublous  border  wars  involved  those  of  tender 
years  within  them,  and  at  the  early  age  of  thirteen  Brant 
was  present  with  Sir  William  Johnson's  troops  at  the 
memorable  battle  of  Lake  George  in  1755,  at  which,  it 
will  be  remembered,  the  French  were  defeated,  and  their 
leader.  Baron  Dieskau,  mortally  wounded.  Brant  was 
also  present  in  the  Niagara  campaign  four  years  after- 
ward, and  greatly  distinguished  himseK. 

But  the  time  of  trial  came  when  the  colonial  rebellion 
approached,  in  1775.  The  Oneidas,  one  of  the  Six 
Nations,  inclined  toward  the  colonial  side  ;  so  did  other 
Indian  tribes.  In  1775  Brant  visited  England.  He  was 
there  received  as  a  person  of  some  distinction,  and  ap- 
peared on  public  occasions  in  full  Indian  costume.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  presence  of  "  The  Great  King,"  as 


THE  Canadian  People  219 

the  Indians  called  George  III.  He  returned  to  America 
about  the  1st  of  April.  He  was  now  decided  to  "  take 
up  the  hatchet  "  on  the  side  of  the  Crown,  as  Grenerals 
Guy  Carleton  and  Haldimand  had  desired  him  to  do 
before  his  visit  to  England.  He  landed  at  New  York, 
and  secretly  pursued  his  visit  to  Canada. 

Brant  now  took  an  active  part  in  the  war  ;  but  was, 
for  an  Indian  warrior,  uniformly  humane.  The  poet 
Campbell,  in  connection  with  the  story  of  Gertrude  of 
Wyoming,  made  a  false  aspersion  on  his  name  by  calling 
him  the  "  Monster  Brandt."  Brant  was  not  present  at 
Butler's  terrible  expedition  to  the  Susquehanna,  nor  did 
his  general  character  justify  such  an  appellation. 

During  the  war  the  strong  spirit  of  leadership  of 
Thayendanagea  exhibited  itself  both  as  a  warrior  and 
councillor.  The  war  over,  and  the  year  of  the  cessation 
of  hostilities,  1782,  having  come,  the  articles  of  peace 
were  found  not  only  to  have  neglected  making  full  pro- 
vision for  the  white  loyalists,  but  even  the  faithful  Indian 
allies  of  the  Six  Nations  and  others  were  not  provided 
for  in  the  treaty  ;  and  as  their  memorial  stated,  "  the 
ancient  country  of  the  Six  Nations,  the  residence  of  their 
ancestors  from  the  time  far  beyond  their  earliest  tradi- 
tions, was  included  within  the  boimdary  granted  to  the 
Americans." 

But  British  officers  had  made  strong  pledges  to  the 
Indian  allies.  Sir  Guy  Carleton  had  promised  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war  to  restore  the  Mohawks  to  their 
native  valley.  In  1779  General  Haldimand  had  over  his 
own  signature  and  seal  pledged  himseK  to  carry  out  Sir 
Guy's  promise.  At  the  close  of  the  war  the  Mohawks 
were  residing  on  the  American  side  of  the  Niagara  River, 
alongside  their  closest  allies,  the  Senecas.  The  latter, 
indeed,  urged  them  to  remain  beside  them  on  the  Genesee 
River.  The  Mohawks,  however,  were  intensely  British  in 
feeling — ^to  use  the  words  afterwards  used  by  Captain 
Brant,  and  which  have  become  historic,  they  determined 
"  to  sink  or  swim  "  with  the  English. 

Captain  Brant  journeyed  to  Quebec  to  claim  the  fulfil- 


220  A  Short  History  of 

ment  of  his  promise  from  General  Haldimand.  The 
Mohawks  desired  a  tract  of  land  in  the  Bay  of  Quinte. 
This  the  Governor  promised  to  grant.  On  Brant's  return 
to  Niagara  the  Mohawks  were  induced  to  seek  a  dwelling- 
place  nearer  the  Senecas.  Being  sent  back  by  the 
council  of  his  own  people,  Brant  again  journeyed  to 
Quebec.  Now  he  sought  the  district  lying  along  the 
Grand  River,  or  Ouse,  with  which  his  name  has  ever 
since  been  associated. 

A  purchase  was  made  of  this  region  from  the  Chippe- 
was  by  the  Government,  and  the  Governor  promised  to 
the  Six  Nations  "  six  miles  on  each  side  of  the  river, 
from  the  mouth  to  its  source."  Brant  paid  another  visit 
to  Quebec  in  1784,  before  General  Haldimand  had  quit 
the  country,  and  secured  a  grant  of  the  land  desired; 
and  as  the  document  runs,  "which  the  Mohawks  and 
others  of  the  Six  Nations,  who  had  either  lost  their 
possessions  in  the  war,  or  wished  to  retire  from  them  to 
the  British,  with  their  piosterity,  were  to  enjoy  for  ever." 
The  Grand  River  settlement  was  thus  of  the  same  date  as 
that  of  Kingston  and  the  Bay  of  Quinte. 

The  Six  Nations  did  not  all  remove  thither  ;*  but  evi- 
dently the  Mohawks  may  be  said  to  have  completely 
joined  the  loyalist  province,  and  they  have  to  this  day  in 
their  possession  the  silver  communion  service  presented 
to  their  tribe  in  1710  by  Queen  Anne,  and  which  they 
only  saved  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Americans 
by  burying  for  a  time  in  the  earth.  We  learn  from  the 
account  of  a  faithful  witness  who  visited  the  Six  Nations 
at  their  Grand  River  home  in  1785,  that  there  were  700 
old  and  young  in  their  settlement.  The  Mohawk  church 
was  built  in  1786,  and  was  the  first  church  erected  in 
Upper  Canada.  The  Indian  Reserve  on  the  Grand  River 
now  contains  several  thousands  of  fairly  civilized  Indians, 
though,  as  we  shall  afterwards  see,  the  greater  part  of 
the  broad  territory  assigned  to  them  was  opened  up  and 
transferred  to  the  whites. 

A  portion  of  the  Six  Nations  also  lives  at  Tyendinaga, 
on  the  Bay  of  Quinte.     Joseph  Brant  continued  to  live 


Sir  Guy  Cableton  (Lord  Dorchester) 


220] 


THE  Cakadian  People  221 

near  the  western  extremity  of  Lake  Ontario,  at  Burlington, 
till  his  death,  on  the  27th  of  November,  1807.  He  was 
bm*ied  at  the  Mohawk  chm:ch,  near  Brantford,  where  his 
tomb,  since  renewed,  may  still  be  seen.  A  Canadian 
comity  and  township,  as  well  as  the  thriving  city  named, 
commemorate  his  better-known  name  of  Brant,  while  the 
township  referred  to  preserves  his  Indian  name  as  that 
of  one  of  Britain's  most  faithful  allies.  A'^coimtyTand 
township  also  keep  alive  the  name  of  Grovernor  Haldi- 
mand,  who  proved  himseK  so  firm  a  friend  to  the  Indian. 

If  the  New  World  has  provided  a  grave  for  many  an 
explorer,  soldier,  and  pioneer,  it  has  also  added  ^^  ^ 
laurels  to  many  of  the  adventurous  and  deserv-  Carleton 
ing.     Probably  few  have  had  such  opportimi-  (Lord  Dor- 
ties  for  distinction,  or  by  natural  disposition  and  '^       '^' 
heroic  deeds  have  gained  such  renown  on  American  soil  as 
Sir  Guy  Carleton.     He  seems  to  have  had  the  genius  for 
commanding  irregular  troops  in  a  difficult  country,  and 
also  for  ruling  mixed  peoples.     He  has  been  called  "  the 
foimder  and  saviour  of  Canada  "  ;  nor  does  it  seem  easy 
to  withhold  this  very  high  encomium  from  him.     Though 
not  Governor  at  the  time  of  the  loyalist  movement,  he 
yet  had  much  to  do  with  its  success. 

An  Irishman,  bom  at  Strabane  in  1722,  Carleton  early 
entered  the  army,  and  served  on  the  Continent.  In 
Wolfe's  great  campaign  of  1759,  an  expedition  in  which 
distinguished  generalship  was  shown,  Carleton  shone  out 
conspicuously.  He  had  been  given  an  important  com- 
mand under  Wolfe,  though  the  king  was  unfavourable  to 
him.  Wolfe  was  to  Carleton  ever  a  most  intimate  friend. 
Woimded  himself  at  the  taking  of  Quebec,  Carleton  saw 
WoKe  receive  his  mortal  wound.  Carleton  became,  for 
his  valour  at  Quebec,  a  brigadier-general. 

The  war  over,  and  Governor  Murray,  the  first  Gover- 
nor of  Quebec,  having  continued  but  a  short  time, 
Greneral  Carleton  was,  in  1766,  appointed  Governor. 
Governor  Carleton  dismissed  worthless  officials,  and 
undertook  the  organization  of  the  chaos  resulting  from 
the  old  French  regime  and  the  war  combined.       After  a 


222  A  Shoet  History  of 

few  years'  study  of  the  province  and  its  wants,  the 
Governor  crossed  over  to  England,  and  in  1774,  in  the 
face  of  such  influential  men  as  Thurlow  and  Burke,  suc- 
ceeded, as  mentioned,  in  carrying  the  "  Quebec  Act  " 
through  the  British  ParHament. 

On  his  return  in  October,  1774,  he  was  received  with 
loudest  plaudits  by  the  French  Canadians.  The  skill 
with  which  this  Governor  conducted  affairs  in  Canada 
during  the  trying  times  of  the  revolutionary  war  in  the 
thirteen  neighbouring  British  colonies,  has  always  re- 
ceived much  notice.  With  a  people  but  lately  subdued 
from  France,  his  defence  of  the  country  with  but  two 
regiments — in  all  not  1,000  men — against  an  attacking  foe 
of  three  times  its  numbers,  must  ever  be  regarded  with 
favour. 

It  was  a  matter  of  greatest  surprise  that  after  his 
brilliant  achievements  he  should  have  been,  in  1777, 
superseded  as  commander-in-chief  by  General  Burgoyne. 
He  resigned  his  appointment  as  Governor,  and.  Achilles- 
like, in  1778  retired  to  his  tent  at  home.  But  little 
success  followed  the  British  arms  after  his  retirement.  It 
was  unfortunate  that  in  1783-4,  the  time  when  the  depor- 
tation of  the  loyalists  was  taking  place,  that  Governor 
Carleton  was  not  at  the  helm,  although  as  commander  in 
New  York  he  was  of  service  to  the  loyalists  leaving  that 
port.  The  mistake  of  the  Government  in  its  treatment 
of  their  devoted  servant  was  recognized  in  Britain,  and 
in  1786  Carleton  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Dor- 
chester, and  in  the  same  year  was  asked  to  accept  the 
positions  of  Governor-General  of  Canada  and  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  Forces  in  North  America.  His  return  was 
most  opportime. 

The  loyaHsts  had  so  increased  in  number  in  the  western 
part  of  the  province  that  they  desired  to  be  set  apart  in  a 
province  of  their  own.  Immediately  on  his  arrival  as 
Governor  he  had  made  some  attempt  at  organizing 
the  western  part  of  the  province  of  Quebec,  where  the 
loyalists  had  settled.  He  had  directed  the  part  after- 
wards formed  into  Upper  Canada  to  be  divided  into  four 


THE  Canadian  People  223 

districts.  With  that  fine  sense  of  recognition  even  of 
national  prejudices  so  characteristic  of  the  man,  he 
had,  in  comphment  to  the  U.E.'s,  so  many  of  whom 
were  of  German  origin,  as  we  have  seen,  called  the  four 
divisions  Lmienburgh,  Mecklenburgh,  Nassau,  and 
Hesse.  He  had  hkewise  in  these  districts  estabHshed 
courts,  and  appointed  a  judge  and  sheriff  in  each.  With 
the  same  genius  that  had  recognized  the  aspirations  of 
the  French  Canadians  at  the  time  of  the  passing  of  the 
Quebec  Act  seventeen  years  before,  Lord  Dorchester 
saw  the  opportunity  of  founding  a  strong  English  pro- 
vince. 

With  the  same  courage  as  before  he  met  the  views  of 
many  opponents,  and  by  representations  to  the  British 
Government,  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  Act  of  1791,  by 
which  Upper  Canada  became  a  new  province.  It  is  true 
this  measure  met  the  strenuous  opposition  of  the  English- 
speaking  people  in  French  Canada,  but  it  was  undoubtedly 
as  wise  and  expedient  for  the  time  as  the  Quebec  Act 
had  been  when  it  was  passed. 

Though  the  immediate  administration  of  affairs  in  the 
new  loyaUst  province  of  Upper  Canada  was,  as  we  shall 
see,  committed  to  a  Lieutenant-Governor,  yet  Lord  Dor- 
chester was  ever  the  friend  and  advocate  of  those  who, 
like  himself,  had  fought  so  hard  for  British  supremacy 
in  America.  In  1796  he  retired  from  Canada,  but  with 
the  unbounded  admiration  of  all  classes  of  the  people. 
He  lived  a  peaceful  old  age  in  England,  and  died  in  1808. 
The  county  and  town  of  Carleton  in  Upper  Canada  com- 
memorate his  name,  and  a  coimty  and  town  in  Lower 
Canada — Dorchester — his  title. 

But  the  friend  and  most  earnest  advocate  of  U.E. 
Loyahsts  was  Governor  Simcoe.  It  was  he  to 
whom  the  task  was  committed  of  organizing  the  stoSo^^*^** 
new  province  of  Upper  Canada,  which  had  been 
estabHshed  by  the  Act  of  1791.  As  we  shall  see,  he  was 
suited  by  disposition,  habit,  and  former  association  for 
the  important  task  assigned  him.  Born  in  the  year  1762, 
the  future  Governor  of  Upper  Canada  was  the  son  of  an 


224  A  Short  History  o^ 

Englishman,  Captain  Simcoe,  who,  seven  years  after  the 
birth  of  his  son,  died  of  disease  on  board  ship  in  the  St. 
Lawrence  River,  before  Quebec,  shortly  before  the  cap- 
ture of  that  city  by  General  Wolfe. 

The  orphan  boy  with  his  mother  removed  to  Exeter, 
England,  and  he  was  brought  up  to  look  upon  Canada 
as  the  scene  of  his  father's  career  and  death.  Ending 
his  education  in  Oxford,  he  entered  the  35th  Regiment 
of  foot  as  ensign,  and  was  sent  to  win  his  first  laurels 
in  the  Revolutionary  War  in  America.  He  was  present 
at  the  battles  of  Bunker  Hill  and  Brandy  wine,  and  was 
wounded  in  the  latter. 

Soon  after,  on  his  recovery,  he  was  appointed  in  com- 
mand of  the  new  provincial  corps  of  "  Queen's  Rangers," 
a  regiment  which  attained  the  highest  distiaction  in  the 
war,  and  received,  as  we  have  seen,  honourable  recogni- 
tion, and  grants  of  land  on  the  St.  John  River  in  New 
Brunswick. 

The  war  over,  the  battle-scarred  colonel  returned  to 
England,  and,  in  1790,  entered  Parliament  for  a  Cornwall 
constituency,  and  was  an  enthusiastic  supporter  of  the 
Act  for  the  division  of  the  province.  No  more  suitable 
person  could  have  been  found  for  organizing  the  new 
province,  and  so,  on  the  1st  of  May,  1792,  Colonel  Simcoe 
sailed  for  the  New  World,  as  first  Lieutenant-Governor 
of  Upper  Canada.  He  called  the  first  Provincial  Parlia- 
ment together  on  the  17th  of  September,  1792,  at 
Niagara.  We  are  told  by  an  early  traveller  that  the 
capital,  though  first  called  Niagara,  was  next  called 
Lenox,  then  Nassau,  afterwards  Newark,  and  at  last 
agaiQ  Niagara. 

The  first  session  of  Governor  Simcoe 's  Parliament 
was  memorable.  It  extended  for  about  a  month.  Its 
members  have  been  described  as  "  plain,  homespun-clad 
farmers  and  merchants  from  the  plough  and  the  store." 
This  session  was  remembered  for  the  eight  Acts  it  passed. 
These  were  :  Act  1.  Introducing  English  Law.  2. 
Establishing  trial  by  jury.  3.  Regulating  millers'  toUs. 
4.  For  recovery  of  small  debts.     5.  For  erecting  a  gaol 


THE  Canadian  People  225 

and  courthouse  in  each  district,  and  for  renaming  the 
districts.  6.  For  regulation  of  weights  and  measures. 
7.  For  regulating  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas.  8.  To 
prevent  accidents  by  fire. 

It  was  Governor  Simcoe's  good  fortune  to  have  much 
to  do  with  the  names  adopted  for  the  various  subdivisions 
and  locahties  of  Upper  Canada.  The  lake,  coimty,  and 
town  bearing  his  name  commemorate  him,  though  given 
in  some  cases  by  others.  He  had  married  a  Miss  Gwillim, 
and  his  wife's  name  survives  in  three  townships.  East, 
West,  and  North  Gwillimbury. 

The  Act  of  subdivision  retained  the  four  districts  into 
which  Lord  Dorchester  had  divided  the  EngUsh-speaking 
section  of  the  province,  though  it  changed  their  names. 
Lunenburgh,  extending  from  the  River  Ottawa  to  the 
Gananoque  River,  was  changed  to  Eastern,  and  was  also 
known  as  Johnston,  District.  Mecklenburgh,  lying 
next  to  the  west,  and  reaching  the  River  Trent,  became 
Midland  District,  also  called  Kingston.  The  third  dis- 
trict, extending  through  a  most  important  section  of 
country  from  the  limits  of  the  Midland  District  as  far  as 
Long  Point  Peninsula,  on  Lake  Erie,  was  made  Home,  or 
more  familiarly,  Niagara  ;  while  the  remainder  of  the 
province  was  known  as  Western  District,  or  sometimes 
Detroit. 

The  names,  as  in  the  case  of  Stormont,  Dundas,  Glen- 
gary,  Leeds,  Addington,  Lenox,  Prince  Edward,  Has- 
tings, Northumberland,  Durham,  York,  Lincoln,  Norfolk, 
Suffolk,  Essex,  Kent,  and  Grenville,  given  to  seventeen 
counties,  were  in  honour  of  distinguished  friends  of 
Canada  in  the  British  Parliament  or  of  localities  in 
Britain,  but  it  is  questionable  whether  Indian  names 
would  not  have  been  more  appropriate,  such  as  was 
bestowed  on  but  one  of  the  two  remaining  of  the  nineteen, 
Frontenac  and  Ontario.  Who  can  wonder  that  Niagara 
has  distanced  its  three  Old  World  competitors  in  the  race, 
that  Toronto  has  superseded  Little  York,  or  that  Ottawa 
has  been  adopted  for  By  town  ?  Who  would  have  re- 
gretted if  Cataraqui  had  replaced  Kingston,  or  if  London 
15 


226  A  Short  History  of 

had  been  known  by  some  name  like  Pontiac  or  Brant,  or 
the  still  more  sonorous  Thayandanagea  ? 

In  the  very  year  of  his  appointment  Governor  Simcoe 
issued  a  proclamation  which  resulted  in  a  large  increase 
to  the  population  of  Upper  Canada.  From  his  knowledge 
of  the  people  in  the  old  British  colonies  he  concluded 
that  a  large  number  remained  behind  who  shared  the 
same  opinions  as  the  loyalists  who  had  taken  leave  of  the 
now  independent  States. 

Accordingly  he  at  once  issued  a  proclamation  stating 
that  he  was  prepared  to  grant  free  land  to  all 
who  chose  to  come  to  the  new  province.  The 
rule  of  settlement  was  that  the  new  settler  should  satisfy 
the  authorities  of  his  or  her  ability  to  cultivate  a  specified 
portion  of  the  soil,  and  take  the  oath :  "  I,  A.  B.,  do 
promise  and  declare  that  I  will  maintain  and  defend  to 
the  utmost  of  my  power  the  authority  of  the  king  in  his 
Parliament  as  the  supreme  legislature  of  this  province." 
The  result  showed  that  there  were  many  willing  to  throw 
in  their  lot  with  the  new  province. 

It  is  estimated  that  12,000  was  the  full  number  of  those 
in  the  province  in  1791,  but  that  by  the  end  of  the  four 
years  of  Governor  Simcoe's  term  of  office  the  population 
had  risen  to  30,000. 

Colonel  Simcoe  was  an  active  and  successful  adminis- 
trator. Reference  has  been  already  made  to  the  succes- 
sive changes  in  the  capital  of  the  province.  The  arrival 
of  numerous  settlers  and  their  settlement,  the  passage  of 
such  practical  legislation  as  we  have  mentioned,  an  Act 
for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  1793,  and  the  general 
exploration  and  development  of  the  province,  entirely 
occupied  the  mind  of  this  "  people's  "  Governor.  En- 
couraged by  Governor  Simcoe,  various  bodies  of  more  or 
less  notable  settlers  came  to  Upper  Canada.  One  party 
of  sixty-four  families  of  German  settlers  from  the  State 
of  New  York  came  over  in  1794  imder  the  leadership  of 
Mr.  WilHam  Berczy,  and  settled  in  the  township  of  Mark- 
ham,  near  Toronto. 

These  Germans  had  emigrated  from  Hamburg  to  settle 


THE  Canadian  People  227 

on  the  Pulteney  estates  in  New  York,  but  had  been 
induced  to  seek  the  new  province.  Their  leader,  Berczy, 
was  a  man  of  cultivation  and  energy  ;  he  opened  out  a 
road  to  his  settlement  on  Yonge  Street  as  he  had  already 
done  into  the  interior  of  New  York.  He  became  in- 
volved for  the  benefit  of  his  colony  in  erecting  the  ex- 
pensive *'  German  mills  "  in  Markham,  and  from  the 
compHcations  thus  arising  he  was  only  extricated  by  his 
death  in  New  York  in  1813.  Markham  has  become  one 
of  the  most  thriving  portions  of  Upper  Canada. 

Captain  Samuel  Ryerse  began  another  loyaHst  settle- 
ment in  Norfolk  County  in  1794.  He  was  led  to  Canada 
by  the  proclamation  of  his  old  friend  and  fellow-soldier, 
Governor  Simcoe.  Says  his  daughter  in  her  graphic 
accoimt  of  the  coming  of  her  family,  "  On  my  father's 
arrival  at  Niagara,  at  that  time  the  seat  of  Government, 
he  called  on  his  Excellency  General  Simcoe,  who  had 
just  returned  from  a  tour  through  the  province  of  Canada 
West,  then  one  vast  wilderness.  He  asked  General 
Simcoe 's  advice  as  to  where  he  should  choose  his  resting- 
place.  He  recommended  the  county  of  Norfolk — better 
known  for  many  years  as  Long  Point — which  had  been 
recently  surveyed." 

Even  from  England  were  there  those  who  responded 
to  the  invitation  of  the  Governor.  The  relatives  of  the 
genial  historian  of  Toronto,  Dr.  Scadding,  old  acquaint- 
ances of  Governor  Simcoe  in  Devonshire  in  England, 
represent  an  early  English  immigration  to  Upper  Canada. 
These  early  settlers  took  up  their  abode  in  what  is  now 
the  town  of  Whitby,  which  was  at  first  known  as  Windsor. 

The  Governor  himself  examined  with  greatest  minute- 
ness the  portions  of  wUderness  in  Upper  Canada.  A 
manuscript  map  is  preserved  of  various  expeditions 
made  by  him  on  foot  and  in  canoe.  He  was  accompanied 
on  many  of  these  journeys  by  one,  as  secretary,  whom  we 
shall  notice  at  a  latter  stage  as  identified  with  the  progress 
of  settlement  in  the  province,  Lieutenant,  afterwards 
Colonel  Talbot.  Associated  with  Governor  Simcoe  very 
intimately  also  was  the  Chief  Justice,  the  first  in  Upper 


228  A  Short  History  of 

Canada.  His  name  is  commemorated  in  Osgoode  Hall, 
the  centre  of  law  for  the  province  of  Ontario. 

One  journey  of  Governor  Simcoe  is  memorable.  Cross- 
ing the  peninsula  from  Niagara,  and  coasting  along 
the  north  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  the  Governor  and  party 
disembarked  at  the  nearest  poiat  to  the  Thames  River, 
lying  to  the  north  in  the  dense  forest.  The  river  reached, 
and  standing  on  the  spot  where  London  now  is,  the 
Governor  drew  his  sword  and  said,  "  This  will  be  the  chief 
military  depot  of  the  west,  and  the  seat  of  a  district. 
From  this  spot,"  pointing  with  his  sword  to  the  east, 
"  I  will  have  a  line  for  a  road  run  as  straight  as  the  crow 
can  fly  to  the  head  of  the  little  lake,"  meaning  the  station 
where  the  town  of  Dundas  now  stands. 

This  plan  was  afterwards  carried  out,  and  the  highway 
opened  is  still  called  the  "  Governor's  Road."  Governor 
Simcoe  indeed  won  distinction  as  a  road-builder,  and 
though  the  roads  begun  were  far  from  being  like  the 
military  highways  of  an  Agricola  or  a  Vespasian,  yet 
they  were  important  factors  in  the  progress  of  the  country. 

In  1793  an  Act  was  passed  in  the  Legislature  for  "  laying 
out,  amending,  and  keeping  in  repair  the  public  high- 
ways and  roads."  Yonge  Street,  named  after  the 
English  Secretary  of  War  and  a  Devonshire  friend  of 
the  Governor,  was  built  largely  by  the  assistance  of  the 
Governor's  regiment  of  Queen's  Rangers,  from  Lake 
Ontario  to  Lake  Simcoe,  having  been  surveyed  by  Sur- 
veyor Jones,  the  father  of  the  afterwards  well-known 
half-blood  Canadian,  the  Rev.  Peter  Jones. 

Governor  Simcoe  indeed  planned  a  great  military 
road  from  one  end  of  the  province  to  the  other,  to  which, 
though  he  never  saw  it  completed,  he  gave  the  name 
still  familiar  to  Canadians,  "  Dundas  Street."  No  doubt 
the  habitue  of  London  society,  or  even  the  visitor  from 
the  winding  thoroughfares  of  Boston,  looked  with  pity  on 
these  struggling  Upper  Canadian  settlements  and  poverty- 
stricken  homes  of  Upper  Canada,  in  the  closing  years  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  yet  in  these  were  laid  the  happi- 
ness and  comfort  of  the  present  generation  of  Canadians. 


THE  Canadian  People  229 

Section  III, — The  Life  of  the  Loyalists 

A  visitor  who  takes  the  trouble  to  examine  one  of 
the  collections  of  historic  articles  in  Pilgrims'  •  i  t  « 
Hall  in  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  or  in  the 
old  South  Church,  Boston,  will  have  no  difficulty  in 
explaining  the  social  life  and  customs  of  the  loyalists 
and  their  descendants  in  Canada.  In  these  collections 
wilj  be  found  the  originals  of  the  household  utensils, 
the  chimney  and  the  fireplace,  the  articles  of  furniture, 
the  quaint  needlework,  and  the  fashion  and  shape  of 
garments  belonging  to  the  first  generation  of  loyaUsts  in 
Canada  and  preserved  by  their  descendants. 

The  American  of  the  Atlantic  States  now  delights  in 
reproducing  the  life  and  customs  of  the  "  Old  Colony 
days,'*  and  certainly  the  history  and  circumstances  of 
the  loyalists  would  incline  them  to  cling  more  tenaciously 
to  these  than  would  be  the  case  among  those  whose 
opinions  were  a  reversal  of  all  those  preceding.  Where 
the  difficulties  of  the  journey  had  not  prevented  the 
carrying  abroad  of  the  "  ancient  timepiece,"  it  was,  so 
soon  as  suitable  surroundings  and  a  convenient  leisure 
allowed,  again  erected  in  the  comer  in  **  its  case  of  mas- 
sive oak,"  and    became  a  reminder  of    the  old  home. 

Even  to  the  middle  of  last  century  as  you  drew  near  the 
homestead  of  an  old  U.E.,  one  of  the  first  things  to 
catch  the  eye  was  the  high  wooden  beam  or  lever  erected, 
having  suspended  from  it  *'the  old  oaken  bucket,  the 
iron-bound  bucket,  the  moss-covered  bucket  which  hangs 
on  the  well."  When  time  and  means  had  come  to  re- 
place the  first  rude  log-hut  of  the  loyalist  by  a  dwelling 
of  greater  pretensions,  it  was  to  his  old  home  in  New 
York  or  Pennsylvania  he  looked  for  the  model  of  his 
new  erection.  Around  his  homestead  he  planted  trees 
just  as  they  had  grown  before  his  childhood's  eye,  and 
in  due  time  he  had  reproduced  the  vanished  scene 
where 

Stands  the  old-fashioned  country  seat. 


230  A  Short  History  of 

and  where 

Across  its  antique  portico 

Tall  poplar-trees  their  shadows  throw. 

Near  his  dwelling  had  been  planted  apple  and  pear 
trees,  and  before  the  grey  heads  of  the  first  generation 
of  loyalist  settlers  had  been  lowered  in  the  dust,  the 
farmer  had  cut  down  the  maple,  the  oak,  and  the  elm 
trees,  had  reduced  to  a  state  of  subjugation  the  acres 
of  his  woodland  farm,  and  needed  no  more  to  long  for 

The  orchard,  the  meadow,  the  deep  tangled  woodland, 
And  every  loved  spot  which  his  infancy  knew. 

Steps  were  taken,  too,  as  soon  as  possible  by  these 
intelligent  pioneers  for  the  education  of  their  children. 
The  first  newspaper  in  Upper  Canada  was  printed  in 
Niagara  in  1793,  and  was  the  chief  vehicle  of  official 
news  throughout  the  widespread  settlements. 

Nor  were  the  loyalists — white  or  Indian — left  en- 
tirely without  the  consolations  of  religion  in  their  new 
homes  and  amidst  their  hardships.  Though  made  up  of 
those  holding  different  creeds,  probably  the  predominant 
element  among  the  new  settlers  was  Episcopalian.  A 
noble  clergyman,  the  Rev.  John  Stuart,  who  had  been  for- 
merly a  missionary  among  the  Mohawks  on  the  Hudson, 
followed  the  refugees  to  Canada,  and  on  the  2nd  of  June, 
1784,  the  friend  of  the  pioneers  set  out  to  visit  the  loyalist 
settlements  along  the  St.  Lawrence,  near  Kingston,  and 
to  the  west  of  Lake  Ontario. 

Already  that  season,  as  we  have  seen,  bands  of  refugees 
— numbering  not  less  than  3,500 — had  preceded  him 
up  the  St.  Lawrence  from  Montreal.  He  visited  the 
Mohawks  at  their  village  on  the  Grand  River,  where  a 
church  was  being  erected,  and  his  reception  by  his  old 
parishioners  was  most  hearty.  In  August,  1785,  Mr. 
Stuart  took  up  his  abode  at  Kingston,  and  with  his 
family  became  thoroughly  identified  with  the  loyalists. 
He  has  been  called  "the  father  of  the  Upper  Canada 
Church." 


THE  Canadian  People  1231 

During  this  early  period  three  other  Episcopal  minis- 
ters were  associated  with  Mr.  Stuart  in  the  wide  field  of 
Upper  Canada.  The  Rev.  John  Bethune,  the  Presbyterian 
chaplain  of  the  84th  Regiment,  and  who  had  endured 
imprisonment  and  much  suffering  on  account  of  his 
loyaUst  opinions,  came  in  1787  as  the  second  legalized 
clergjmian  in  Upper  Canada.  He  had  come  from  North 
Carolina  and  settled  at  Williamstown,  so  named  from 
Sir  William  Johnson,  near  Cornwall.  By  him  the  first 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Upper  Canada  was  built  in 
1786.  In  the  graveyard  at  this  church  are  monuments 
erected  in  1785. 

Many  of  the  loyalists  being  Germans  and  Lutherans 
it  is  not  surprising  that  they  should  have  erected  the 
first  church  east  of  Kingston  so  early  as  1790,  and  that 
a  clergyman  was  obtained  by  them  in  that  year. 

The  first  regular  minister  of  the  Methodist  Church  was 
a  loyaHst  named  Losee,  who  in  1790  undertook  a  mis- 
sion in  the  Bay  of  Quint6  district.  As  we  shall  after- 
wards see,  it  was  difficult  for  the  settlers  to  maintain 
educational  and  refigious  institutions  among  themselves, 
but  their  increasing  prosperity  has  enabled  the  Canadian 
people  in  the  present  generation  to  support  these  im- 
portant objects  with  great  generosity. 

We  are  fortunate  in  having  several  pen  pictures  of 
early  Canadian  life  taken  for  us  by  eye-witnesses.  These 
are  of  much  value  to  us. 

So  early  as  1795,  one  of  these  tells  us  that  *'  Kingston 
contains  a  fort  and  barracks,  an  English  Epis- 
copaUan  church,   and  about   100  houses,  the  ^^^1795," 
most  of  which  last  were  built,  and  are  now  in- 
habited  by   persons   who   emigrated   from   the    United 
States  at  the  close  of  the  American  War.     Some  few  of 
the  houses  are  built  of  stone  and  brick,  but  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  them  are  of  wood.     The  fort  is  of  stone 
and   consists    of    a   square   with   four   bastions.     From 
sixty  to  one  hundred  men  are  usually  quartered  in  the 
barracks. 

"  Kingston  is  a  place  of  very  considerable  trade,  and  it 


232  A  Short  History  of 

is  consequently  increasing  most  rapidly  in  size.  All  the 
goods  brought  up  the  St.  Lawrence  for  the  supply  of 
the  upper  country  are  here  deposited  in  stores,  pre- 
paratory to  their  being  shipped  on  board  vessels  suitable 
to  the  navigation  of  the  lake  :  and  the  furs  from  the 
various  posts  at  the  nearer  lakes  are  likewise  collected 
together,  in  order  to  be  laden  on  board  bateaux,  and  sent 
down  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  principal  merchants  resi- 
dent at  Kingston  are  partners  of  old-established  houses 
at  Montreal  and  Quebec.  A  stranger,  especially  if  a 
British  subject,  is  sure  to  meet  with  a  most  hospitable 
and  friendly  reception  from  them  as  he  passes  through 
the  place. 

"  On  the  borders  of  the  bay  at  Kingston  there  is 
a  king's  dockyard,  and  another  which  is  private  property. 
Most  of  the  British  vessels  of  burthen  on  Lake  Ontario 
have  been  built  at  these  yards.  Belonging  to  his 
Majesty  there  were  on  Lake  Ontario,  when  we  crossed 
it,  three  vessels  of  about  200  tons  each,  carrying  from  eight 
to  twelve  guns,  besides  several  gun-boats  ;  the  last,  how- 
ever, were  not  in  commission,  but  laid  up  in  Niagara 
Eiver  ;  and,  in  consequence  of  the  ratification  of  the 
treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  between  the  United  States 
and  his  Britannic  Majesty,  orders  were  issued  shortly 
after  we  left  Kingston  for  laying  up  the  other  vessels  of 
war,  one  alone  excepted. 

"  The  commodore  of  the  king's  vessels  on  Lake  Ontario 
is  a  French  Canadian,  and  so  likewise  are  most  of  the 
officers  under  him.  Their  imiform  is  blue  and  white, 
with  large  yellow  buttons  stamped  with  the  figure  of  a 
beaver  over  which  is  inscribed  the  word  '  Canada.' 

"  The  town  of  Niagara  contains  about  seventy  houses, 

a  court-house,  gaol,  and  a  building  intended  for 

179I?'*  °    the  accommodation  of  the  legislativebodies.  The 

houses,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are  built  of  wood ; 

those  next  the  lake  are  rather  poor,  but  at  the  upper  end 

of  the  town  there  are  several  very  excellent  dwellings, 

inhabited  by  the  principal  officers  of  Government.     Most 

of  the  gentlemen  in  official  stations  in  Upper  Canada  are 


THE  Canadian  People  233 

Englishmen  of  education,  a  circumstance  which  must 
render  the  society  of  the  capital  agreeable,  let  it  be  fixed 
where  it  will. 

"Few  places  in  North  America  can  boast  of  a  more 
rapid  rise  than  the  Httle  town  of  Niagara,  nearly  every 
one  of  its  houses  having  been  built  within  the  last  five 
years.  It  is  stUl  advancing  most  rapidly  in  size,  owing 
to  the  increase  of  the  back-country  trade  along  the 
shores  of  the  upper  lakes,  which  is  carried  on  through 
the  places,  and  also  owing  to  the  wonderful  emigrations 
into  the  neighbourhood  of  people  from  the  States.  So 
sudden  and  so  great  has  the  influx  of  people  into  the 
town  of  Niagara  and  its  vicinity  been,  that  town  lots, 
horses,  provisions,  and  every  necessary  of  life  have 
risen  within  the  last  three  years,  nearly  fifty  per  cent, 
in  value  "  (Weld). 

A  well-known  writer  has  said :    "  On  Holland's  great 
manuscript  map  of  the  province  of  Quebec, 
made  in   1791,  and  preserved  in  the  Crown  i79i°6?' 
Lands  Department  of  Ontario,  the  indentation 
in  front  of  the  mouth  of  the  modern  Humber  River  is 
entitled   '  Toronto  Bay  ' ;  the  sheet  of  water    between 
the  peninsula  and  the  mainland  is  not  named,  but  the 
peninsula  itself  is  marked   '  Presqu'isle,  Toronto  '  ;    and 
an  extensive  rectangular  tract,  bounded  on  the  south  by 
Toronto  Bay,  and  the  waters  within  the  peninsula,  is 
inscribed  '  Toronto.'  " 

In  Mr.  Chewett's  Manuscript  Journal  we  have,  under 
date  of  Quebec,  22nd  of  April,  1792,  the  following  entry: 
"  Received  from  Governor  Simcoe  a  plan  of  points 
Henry  and  Frederick,  to  have  a  title-page  put  to  them  ; 
also  a  plan  of  the  town  and  township  of  Toronto."  In 
1793  the  site  of  the  trading-post  known  as  Toronto  had 
been  occupied  by  the  troops  drawn  from  Niagara  and 
Queenston.  At  noon,  on  the  27th  of  August,  1793, 
the  first  royal  salute  had  been  fired  from  the  garrison 
there,  and  responded  to  by  the  shipping  in  the  harbour, 
in  commemoration  of  the  change  of  name  from^  Toronto 
to   York — Si  change   intended  to   please   the   old  King 


234    A  Short  History  of  the  Canadian  People 

George  III.  through  a  compliment  offered  to  his  soldier 
son  Frederick,  Duke  of  York  (Scadding). 

The  year  1796  was  one  of  ill-omen  for  the  people  of 
Canada.  In  that  year  Lord  Dorchester,  whose  later  term 
of  office  had  but  endeared  him  the  more  to  the  mixed 
community  of  French  and  English  over  whom  he  was 
called  to  rule  in  Lower  Canada,  retired  to  Britain.  And 
in  the  same  year  the  friend  and  compatriot  of  the  loyal- 
ists— Governor  Simcoe — ^was  appointed  to  another 
position  imder  the  Crown  in  St.  Domingo.  No  doubt 
there  were  greedy  land-seekers  who  desired  his  removal, 
and  the  American  Government  regarded  him  as  only  too 
successful  an  advocate  of  British  interests,  but  the  people 
of  Upper  Canada  were  devotedly  attached  to  him. 

When  he  came  to  the  province  it  was  rudis  indiges- 
taque  moles,  when  he  left  it  in  four  years  it  had  nearly 
trebled  its  population,  had  been  mapped  out  in  sub- 
divisions, its  great  roads  had  been  built  or  planned,  its 
legislature  had  been  organized  and  had  passed  numbers 
of  useful  laws,  sites  of  new  towns  had  been  laid  out,  and 
the  forerunner  of  powerful  Canadian  newspapers  of  to- 
day had  already  begun  in  the  Upper  Canada  Gazette,  a 
small  sheet,  with  a  circulation  of  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  copies. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  Governor  Simcoe  has 
been  called  "  the  father  of  constitutional,  pure,  and  pro- 
gressive government  in  Upper  Canada."  With  his 
departure  we  regard  the  U.E.  Loyalist  period  as  closed, 
for  though  other  loyalists  did  come  in  the  few  years  im- 
mediately succeeding,  they  were  but  the  aftermath  of  the 
noble  harvest  of  patriots  whose  coming  gave  Canada  her 
tendencies  as  a  people  for  all  future  time. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

-A    LAND    OF    DESIRE 
(1796-1817) 

Section  I. — Fruit  of  Governor  Simcoe's  Policy  in  Upper 

Canada 

The  founding  of  Upper  Canada  had  been  auspicious. 
Grovemor  Simcoe,  as  we  have  seen,  had  entered  with 
great  enthusiasm  into  the  task  of  settling  the  wilderness. 
The  continued  influx  of  the  loyalists  suggested  to  him 
an  inexhaustible  supply  of  excellent  immigrants  from 
the  still  disturbed  states.  The  loyalty  of  the  first  settlers 
of  Upper  Canada  to  the  British  Crown  made  it  safe,  in 
the  Governor's  estimation,  to  invite,  even  from  the  repub- 
lican states,  as  many  as  chose  to  come,  provided  they 
were  of  good  character.  Largely  brought  as  the  new- 
comers were  by  their  knowledge  of  the  loyalists  as  old 
neighbours  or  friends,  it  was  likely  they  would  partake 
of  their  loyal  sentiments. 

Governor  Simcoe's  proclamation  issued  in  1792  began 
in  the  last  years  of  the  century  to  be  widely  known  both 
in  Britain  and  the  States.  Its  terms,  already  quoted,  run 
in  favour  of  all  such  as  can  "  make  it  appear  that  they 
will  be  useful  settlers."  Those  who  accepted  its  offers 
were  required  to  promise  to  maintain  and  defend  "  the 
authority  of  the  king."  The  good  report  of  the  loyalist 
settlers  found  its  way  back  to  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
and  Pennsylvania,  whence  they  had  mainly  come,  telling 
of  their  land  of  promise.  Undoubtedly,  too,  the  time 
had  come  when  many  who  were  obtaining  a  mere  exist- 
ence from  the  imgenerous  soil  of  the  land  along  the  sea 

235 
>)^ 


236  A  Short  History  of 

were  beginning  to  be  stirred  by  the  desire,  which  has 
become  so  strong  in  later  times,  of  going  to  the  west. 

Even  before  the  termination  of  the  pioneer  Governor's 
term  of  office  in  1796  many  British  and  American  immi- 
grants had  responded  to  the  invitation  of  the  proclama- 
tion. Rochefoucault,  a  French  nobleman,  and  a  trust- 
worthy authority,  who  visited  Canada  in  1795,  gives  us  a 
glimpse  of  Governor  Simcoe's  method.  Says  this  ob- 
server :  "  The  admission  of  new  inhabitants  who  present 
themselves  is  rather  difficult  for  the  Governor,  and  espe- 
cially of  those  who  come  from  the  United  States.  For  this 
reason  he  sends  such  colonists  as  cannot  give  a  satis- 
factory account  of  themselves  into  the  back  country,  and 
stations  soldiers  on  the  banks  of  the  lakes  which  are  in 
front  of  them.  He  would  admit  every  superannuated 
soldier  of  the  English  army,  and  all  officers  of  long  ser- 
vice who  are  on  half-pay,  to  share  in  the  distribution  of 
such  lands  as  the  king  had  a  right  to  dispose  of.  He 
would  dismiss  every  soldier  now  quartered  in  Canada 
and  give  him  100  acres  of  land  so  soon  as  he  should 
procure  a  young  man  to  serve  as  his  substitute.  With 
his  views  to  increase  the  population  of  the  country  he 
blends  the  design  of  drawing  young  Americans  into  the 
English  service,  by  which  he  will  augment  the  number 
of  American  families  attached  to  the  King  of  Great 
Britain." 

While  in  company  with  the  Governor,  Eochefoucault 
met  an  American  family,  which,  with  some  oxen,  cows, 
and  sheep,  was  emigrating  from  New  York  State  to  the 
new  province.  "  We  come,"  said  they  to  the  Governor, 
whom  they  did  not  know,  "  to  see  whether  he  will  give 
us  land."  "Aye  !  aye  !  "  the  Governor  replied.  "  You 
are  tired  of  the  Federal  Government.  You  like  not  any 
longer  to  have  so  many  kings.  You  wish  again  for  your 
old  father  (King  George).  You  are  perfectly  right. 
Come  along,  we  love  such  good  royalists  as  you  are  ;  we 
will  give  you  land." 

Thus  across  the  Niagara  frontier,  by  way  of  Oswego 
and  up  the  lakes  and  up  the  St.  Lawrence,  a  steady 


THE  Canadian  People  237 

stream  of  settlers  came.  The  immigrant's  covered  waggon, 
his  small  herd  of  cattle,  and  his  household  effects  were 
slowly  taken  westward  over  the  mmiade  and  well-nigh 
impassable  roads  to  the  new  home  in  Western  Canada. 

Such  townships  as  Walpole,  Charlotteville,  Burford, 
and  the  like,  some  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie,  others 
inland,  received  their  first  settlers  in  1793  ;  Windham, 
Woodhouse,  Flamborough,  and  others  in  1794,  and 
Delaware  in  1795.  The  older  U.E.  settlements  also 
received  additions  in  population. 

The  greatest  blow  struck  at  the  development  of  Upper 
Canada  was,  however,  the  removal  of  Governor  Simcoe. 
Lord  Dorchester,  who  was  Grovemor-General,  and  lived  in 
Montreal,  was  influenced  by  various  agencies  all  hostile 
to  the  high-minded  Governor  of  Upper  Canada.  Simcoe 
was  a  thorough  loyalist,  and  did  not  conceal  his  hostility 
to  the  United  States.  He  was  blamed  by  the  Americans 
with  instigating  the  western  Indians  against  the  Republic. 

His  vigorous  immigration  policy  was  not  very  accept- 
able to  certain  interests.  The  first  loyalists  looked  on 
Canada  as  their  patrimony.  They  even  regarded  with 
suspicion  those  loyalists  who  had  not  found  it  convenient 
to  remove  from  the  States  for  some  years  after  1783. 
The  detestation  of  republican  doctrines  by  the  earlier 
loyalists  was  so  great,  that  they  feared  lest  the  late 
arrivals  might  bring  the  new  leaven  to  Canada.  They 
freely  declared  that  it  was  the  fertile  acres  of  Upper 
Canada,  and  not  political  principle,  that  was  bringing  the 
new  people.  Fearing  then  lest  a  sentiment  hostile  to 
Britain  and  favourable  to  the  new  Republic  should  grow 
up  amongst  them,  they  distrusted  the  Governor's  too 
generous  policy. 

To  the  less  scrupulous  loyalists,  also,  the  honest  ad- 
ministration of  Governor  Simcoe  did  not  afford  the 
opportunities  for  self-aggrandizement  which  they  desired. 
While  the  "  land-speculator  "  is  the  worst  enemy  of  all 
new  countries,  yet  he  is  always  found  ready  with  eagle- 
like rapacity  to  seize  the  prey  awaiting  him.  For  this 
class  Governor  Simcoe  was  much  too  precise. 


238  A  Short  History  of 

Moreover  there  was  a  party  in  England  much  opposed 
to  the  settlement  of  Upper  Canada.  Lord  Sheffield  in 
the  debate  on  the  Bill  of  1791  in  the  Imperial  Parliament, 
had  said  "  he  thought  it  not  justifiable  on  any  principle 
of  policy  or  colonization  to  encourage  settlement  in  the 
anterior  parts  of  America.  It  had  been  much  doubted 
whether  colonies  were  advantageous  to  the  mother 
country."  He  observed  that  "  it  could  not  be  to  the 
interest  of  Great  Britain  to  form  a  settlement  of  farmers 
in  a  country  which  grows  the  same  articles  as  our 
own." 

Thus  malign  influences  from  so  many  directions  came 
against  the  good  Governor,  that  even  before  his  full  term 
of  five  years  had  quite  expired  he  was  appointed  to 
another  position  under  the  Crown  in  the  British  West 
Indies.  Bending  before  the  storm,  Simcoe  left  Canada 
with  regret ;  the  rising  party  of  spoilers  rejoiced,  but 
every  patriot  must  confess  that  it  was  a  sad  day  for 
Upper  Canada  when  its  first  Governor  left  it. 

The  effect  of  Governor  Simcoe's  wise  measures  did 
not  cease  with  his  removal.  Currents  of  immigration 
once  set  in  motion  are  not  easily  checked.  The  party 
in  power  no  doubt  repudiated  the  promises  to  new  set- 
tlers which  the  late  Governor  had  made,  and  failed  to 
carry  out  the  excellent  projects  of  connecting  the  main 
points  of  the  province  with  good  roads,  which  had  been 
one  of  Simcoe's  most  cherished  plans.  The  lands  which 
had  been  reserved  along  the  projected  highways  by  the 
Governor,  and  with  which  as  an  encouragement  to  new 
settlers  he  had  hoped  to  have  built  the  roads,  were  be- 
stowed upon  favourites  of  the  ruling  party. 

Nevertheless  the  immigration  continued.  As  was  to 
have  been  expected,  the  neighbourhood  of  Little  York, 
now  Toronto,  the  capital,  received  a  numerous  population. 
The  townships  of  Scarborough,  Markham,  Vaughan,  and 
Whitchurch  received  the  first  patents  for  lands  to  settlers 
in  1796,  King  in  1797,  Etobicoke  in  1798,  North  Gwil- 
limbury  and  East  Gwillimbuxy  in  1800.  During  the 
late  Governor's  time  settlement  in  these  townships  had 


THE  Canadian  People  239 

been  begun,  and  there  was  a  steady  flow  of  settlers  to 
them  until  1811. 

Some  of  these  accessions  to  the  population  were  of 
the  later  loyalists,  but  the  greater  number  of  them  were 
without  any  pronounced  political  feelings.  In  Whitchurch 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  people  were  Quakers  from 
Pennsylvania,  while  other  Quakers  settled  also  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  province,  as  in  the  township  of 
Norwich  in  the  Gore  district. 

Equalling  in  number  the  Quakers  of  Whitchurch,  there 
came  to  dwell  beside  them  certain  of  the  descendants  of 
the  Anabaptists  of  the  Reformation.  These  were  chiefly 
of  German  or  Hollander  origin,  and  were  known  as  Men- 
nonites  or  Tunkers.  Agreeing  with  the  Quakers  in 
their  peace  principles,  these  sects  practised  various  re- 
ligious rites  peculiar  to  themselves.  Almost  all  of  these 
were  from  the  United  States.  While  a  peaceful  and  most 
desirable  element  of  the  population,  their  principles  were 
completely  at  variance  with  those  of  the  true  loyalists. 

In  1800  a  number  of  "Pennsylvania  Dutch"  settlers 
opened  up  the  Waterloo  district,  and  in  1802  they  were 
joined  by  a  number  of  Mennonites.  Of  these  elements 
such  names  as  Clemens,  Shantz,  Bowman,  Erb,  and  others 
have  become  well  known. 

Undoubtedly  the  most  remarkable  class  attracted  to 
Canada  during  these  years  was  a  number  of  French 
colonists  of  very  high  rank.  Driven  from  France  by 
the  excesses  of  the  Revolution,  these  emigres,  as  they 
were  styled,  had  fled  to  England.  Accepting  the  bounty 
of  the  British  Government  they  had  come  to  Upper 
Canada,  and  were  allotted  holdings  in  the  year  1798  in 
the  "  Oak  Ridges,"  a  locality  on  Governor  Simcoe's 
projected  road  of  Yonge  Street. 

Most  noted  among  them  was  Comte  de  Puisaye,  whom 
Lamartine  declared  to  be  an  "  orator,  diplomatist,  and 
soldier,"  and  who,  we  may  add,  became  an  author  of 
some  note.  With  him  were  Comte  de  Chalus,  who  had 
been  a  major-general  in  the  royal  army  of  France,  an- 
other General  de  Farcy,  and  six  others  of  rank. 


240  A  Short  History  of 

The  romance  of  *'  a  lodge  in  some  vast  wilderness  " 
soon  passed  away,  and  the  locahty  chosen,  though 
romantic,  was  unsuited  for  agriculture.  Most  of  the 
emigres  in  a  short  time  departed  for  more  congenial  scenes. 
But  one  of  these  families — that  of  Quetton  de  St.  George 
— is  now  known  to  be  connected  with  Canadian  life. 

During  these  years,  the  influx  of  immigrants  from 
New  York  State  took  place  largely  across  the  Niagara 
River  to  the  regions  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario, 
and  even  into  the  London  district.  The  Indian  lands  on 
the  Grand  River  were  leased  to  whites  for  999  years,  and 
the  country  for  a  hundred  miles  was  settled  by  Ameri- 
cans. Such  names  as  Sturgis,  Ellis,  Westbrook,  Fair- 
child,  Nelles,  Culver,  Olmstead,  and  the  like  are  distinc- 
tive of  this  period. 

In  Lower  Canada,  the  region  known  as  the  Eastern 

Townships  filled  up  largely  during  this  period. 

Canada.       General  Haldimand   had,   in   introducing   the 

loyalists  into   Canada  in    1783-4,   pursued   a 

different  policy  from  that  we   have   seen  followed  by 

Governor  Simcoe.     Haldimand  was  unwilling  that  the 

U.E.  Loyalists  should  settle  along  the  frontier  of  Lower 

Canada,  lest  strife  should  arise  between  them  and  their 

American   neighbours.     He    had    accordingly,    as   much 

as  possible,  taken  the  loyalists  to  Upper  Canada,  and 

left  the  Lower  Canadian  border  townships  unoccupied. 

Now  when  the   American  influx  began,   these   vacant 

lands  were  taken  up. 

The  system  of  settlement  followed  in  the  Lower  Cana- 
dian lands,  during  these  years,  was  an  oft'shoot  of  the 
modified  feudal  system,  whose  outlines  we  have  traced  in 
a  preceding  chapter.  The  Government  transferred  a 
township  to  one  responsible  person,  called  "  the  leader," 
whose  duty  it  was  to  obtain  settlers,  perform  certain  con- 
ditions, and  thus  become  a  virtual  seignior  of  the  district. 

St.  Armand,  which  had  been  partially  occupied  by  the 
loyalists,  was  now  filled  up.  Dunham  was  granted  to  a 
company  of  associates  in  1796,  many  of  them  from  New 
Jersey.     Sutton  was  bestowed  on  individual  settlers,  and 


THE  Canadian  People  241 

became  an  established  township  in  1802.  Brome  was 
given  to  an  American  "  leader  "  in  1797.  Potton,  settled 
by  Vermonters,  New  Yorkers,  and  New  Hampshire 
families,  became  a  township  in  1797  ;  while  in  the  same 
year  Bolton  was  begun  and  settled  by  the  same  class  of 
Americans.  Thus  the  Eastern  Townships  were  occupied 
by  an  industrious  and  intelligent  class  of  Americans. 

Into  the  provinces  along  the  sea  came,  along  with  the 
loyalists  from  the  United  States,  numbers   of 
negroes.     There  was,  even  before  their  arrival,  provinces, 
a  considerable  body  of  freed  negroes  in  Nova 
Scotia.     It  was  foimd,  however,  that  the  climate  of  Nova 
Scotia  was  not  agreeable  to  these  immigrants.     Accord- 
ingly, in  1792,  1,200  of  them  were  taken  to  Sierra  Leone. 
There  were  fifteen  vessels  engaged  in  this  work  of  de- 
portation, and  the  British  Government  paid  some  £14,000 
in  connection  with  the  removal  of  the  blacks. 

It  might  have  been  supposed  that  no  more  negro  im- 
migration would  have  been  led  to  Nova  Scotia,  but  in 
1 796  a  colony  of  Maroons,  about  500  in  number,  arrived 
from  Jamaica.  These  were  negroes  whose  ancestors,  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  when  the  Spaniards  took  Jamaica, 
had  fled  to  the  mountains  and  lived  a  wild,  free  life.  Mis- 
understandings between  them  and  the  British  Government 
had  resulted  in  war ;  the  Maroons  had  been  defeated, 
and  were  now  brought  to  Nova  Scotia. 

They  were  employed  in  Halifax  upon  the  fortifications. 
Earnest  efforts  for  their  Christianization  were  put  forth. 
These  seemed,  for  a  time,  likely  to  be  successful.  The 
climate  was,  however,  unsuitable,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
other  negroes.  Governor  Wentworth,  in  the  year  1800, 
was  compelled  to  send  the  Maroons,  in  the  wake  of  their 
countrymen  of  a  few  years  before,  to  Sierra  Leone. 
Almost  all  of  them  accordingly  emigrated  thither. 

After  the  time  of  the  loyalists  there  was  but  little 
tendency  on  the  part  of  the  Americans  to  colonize  the 
Maritime  Provinces.  Indeed  Governor  Simcoe  did  not 
conceal  his  desire  to  draw  as  many  as  chose  to  come  from 
the  sea-coast  provinces  to  his  new  land  in  the  interior. 

16 


242  A  Short  History  of 

A  considerable  re-emigration  of  the  loyalists  of  New 
Brunswick  did  take  place  to  Upper  Canada,  during  the 
years  succeeding  Governor  Simcoe's  regime.  The  in- 
coming flood  of  Americans  to  Upper  Canada  and  the 
Eastern  Townships  of  Lower  Canada  may  be  estimated 
from  the  fact  which  we  find  stated  by  a  competent 
authority  that  Upper  Canada  alone  had,  in  1811,  increased 
to  very  near  77,000  in  population. 

Section  II. — From  Old  World  to  New 

While  Canada  owed  much  during  this  period  to  the 
American  element  which  entered  it,  there  came  many 
colonists,  especially  to  the  Maritime  Provinces,  from 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  disturbed  state  of 
Ireland  contributed  to  produce  a  large  emigration. 
England  also  sent  many  people  to  the  United  States, 
and  a  limited  number  to  Canada. 

From  Scotland,  however,  much  the  largest  amount 
of  emigration  to  Canada  flowed.  In  1745  the  second 
Jacobite  rebellion  had  been  suppressed.  The  British 
Government  stationed  soldiers  in  the  Highlands  and 
determined  to  break  up  the  clan  system.  A  number  of 
the  more  determined  Jacobites  fled  abroad.  Numbers 
of  them  emigrated  to  the  American  cavalier  colonies  of 
Virginia  and  the  Carolinas.  Some  of  them  found  their 
way  to  Lower  Canada.  The  return  of  peace  in  the 
Highlands  led  to  a  surplus  of  population  towards  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  conditions  of  life  were 
hard.  In  Scotland,  as  in  Ireland,  there  was  commercial 
stagnation.  The  peasantry  endured  much  suffering. 
The  necessity  for  emigration  was  admitted  by  all. 

The  Scottish  Loyalists  of  the  Johnson  settlement 
from  the  Mohawk  river — the  Grants,  McLeans, 

engarry.  ]yiuj.(>hisons,  Roses,  and  McKays— had  settled 
in  Williamstown,  Upper  Canada.  Thither  were  attracted 
in  1786  and  succeeding  years  the  Hays  and  Macdonells 
as  "later  Loyalists,"  as  well  as  McGillises  from  Morar, 
Scotland,    and    Clanranald    Macdonalds,    who    having 


THE  Canadian  People  243 

reached  Quebec  came  by  a  toilsome  foot  journey  of  260 
miles  along  the  St.  Lawrence,  towing  their  families  and 
baggage  in  flat  boats.  The  locahty  became  a  famous 
Scottish  settlement.  Famihes  of  the  McPherson  clan 
from  Badroch  also  settled  here,  and  Cameron  High- 
landers in  1796  entered  upon  and  named  Lochiel. 

Among  those  who  saw  an  opening  for  his  countrymen 
in  Canada  was  Alexander  Macdonell,  afterwards  Roman 
Catholic  Bishop  of  Upper  Canada.  Bom  in  the  Glen- 
garry Highlands  in  1762,  and  educated  in  Spain,  it  was 
his  lot  to  be  in  1791  ministering  as  priest  in  Lochaber, 
Scotland.  While  here  he  had  been  the  means  of  re- 
moving 600  evicted  Highlanders  to  obtain  work  amongst 
the  manufactories  of  Glasgow.  The  eviction  still  con- 
tinued. **  It  was  not  uncommon,"  wrote  the  benevolent 
priest,  "  to  see  200  families  evicted  to  make  one  sheep- 
farm,"  so  that  in  the  Celtic  idiom,  "150  or  200  smokes 
went  through  one  chimney." 

When  occupation  among  the  manufactories  next  failed 
his  people,  the  priest  advised  the  Highlanders,  imder 
their  chief,  Macdonell,  to  offer  their  services  to  the 
Government  as  soldiers.  This  was  done,  a  regiment 
formed,  and  in  1798  the  Glengarry  Fencibles  were  sent 
to  Ireland  to  quell  the  rebellion  there.  On  their  work 
being  finished  the  regiment  was  disbanded,  and  the 
priest  Macdonell,  their  chaplain,  induced  them,  in  1804, 
to  emigrate  to  Canada.  After  an  Atlantic  voyage,  in 
three  ships,  of  four  stormy  months,  some  800  soldiers 
and  300  of  their  kinsfolk  from  Kintail,  Knoidart,  and 
Glengarry  arrived  among  their  Scottish  friends  in  Upper 
Canada,  and  called  the  region  Glengarry.  The  indefati- 
gable priest  became  afterwards  the  bishop  of  his  people, 
for  whom  he  spent  a  most  laborious  and  unselfish  life. 
He  took,  as  we  shall  afterwards  see,  a  prominent  part 
in  pubUc  affairs. 

The  Highland  emigration  to  Nova  Scotia  began  at  even 
an  earUer  date  than  that  to  Upper  Canada.     So  „ 
soon  as  1 773the Sector,  an  old  Dutch  ship,  in  bad 
condition  and  poorly  equipped,  took  some  200  emigrants, 


244  A  Short  History  op 

chiefly  from  Ross-shire,  Scotland,  and  landed  them  under 
an  emigration  company's  auspices,  where  the  town  of 
Pictou  now  stands.  Disease  had  carried  away  some  of 
their  number,  but  the  large  proportion  of  those,  who  had 
embarked,  landed.  This  was  the  first  shipload  of  im- 
migrants to  the  province  during  this  portion  of  her  his- 
tory. After  the  usual  difficulties  of  early  settlement  the 
colony  prospered.  It  has  become  one  of  the  most  moral 
and  prosperous  communities  of  the  New  World. 

In  the  year  1783  a  number  of  additional  families 
arrived  in  Pictou  from  the  old  land,  and  a  regiment  of 
regulars,  the  82nd,  commanded  by  one  Colonel  Robert- 
son, and  lying  at  Halifax,  at  the  time  of  the  peace  in  1783 
was  disbanded,  and  many  of  the  soldiers  became  settlers. 

In  the  early  years  of  last  century  the  same  "  High- 
land clearances  "  which  led  to  the  settlement  of  Glen- 
garry in  Upper  Canada,  brought  large  numbers  of 
Celts  to  Nova  Scotia.  During  the  years  from  1801  to 
1805,  two  or  three  ships  a  year  arrived  laden  with  these 
settlers.  In  one  year  not  less  than  1,300  souls  were 
landed  in  the  one  county  of  Pictou. 

In  1801  two  vessels,  the  Sarah  and  the  Pigeon,  came, 
bearing  800  persons.  Many  of  these  were  Roman 
Catholics,  and  they  sought  out  a  separate  settlement 
for  themselves  in  Antigonish. 

The  privations  of  the  shiploads  of  men,  women,  and 
children  who  thus  ventured  to  the  New  World  were 
often  extreme.  The  vessels  used  in  this  service  were 
old  and  un seaworthy,  were  ill- ventilated,  and  badly  pro- 
visioned. Smallpox  frequently  carried  its  ravages  among 
the  poor  sufferers  ;  and  so  many  and  so  serious  were  the 
grievances  of  the  passengers,  that  this  traffic  carried  on 
between  the  Old  World  and  the  New  was  long  known  as 
the  "white  slave  trade."  Thus  was  Nova  Scotia  like 
Upper  Canada,  largely  peopled  by  a  poor  but  honest 
people,  who  in  a  generation  became  prosperous  and  con- 
tented. 

Cape  Breton,  as  we  have  seen,  still  preserved  a  separate 
government  from  Nova  Scotia.    In  1791  two  ships  had 


THE  Canadian  People  245 

reached   Pictou  with  the    first  Roman  Catholic   High- 
landers who  had  come  to  Nova  Scotia.     They 
were  induced  to  settle  in  Antigonish.    Not  satis-  bJJ^q^ 
fied  with  this  locality,  some  of  them  crossed 
over  to  Cape  Breton,  and  settled  near  Margarie.     Others 
followed,  and  usually  coming  by  way  of  Pictou,  they 
took  among  other  localities  those  of  Judique  and  Mabou, 
on  Cape  Breton  Island. 

In  1802  a  ship  arrived  directly  at  the  Bras  d'Or  Lakes, 
and  landed  her  299  passengers  at  Sydney,  the  capital  of 
the  island.  Up  to  the  year  1817  a  steady  flow  of  this 
immigration  came  to  Cape  Breton.  The  best  lands  had 
all  been  taken  up  by  1820,  but  even  till  1828  there  were 
new  parties  of  immigrants  arriving,  and  those  settling 
in  situations  remote  from  the  sea  became  known  as  the 
"  Backlanders." 

It  is  said  that  not  less  than  26,000  Scottish  settlers 
came  to  Cape  Breton  at  this  time.  This  population  has 
much  increased  in  comfort,  and  where  they  have  done 
the  least  so,  it  is  true,  as  has  been  said  by  a  late  writer, 
**  Even  the  log-hut  in  the  depths  of  the  forest  is  a  palace 
compared  with  some  of  the  turf  cabins  of  Sutherland  or 
the  Hebrides." 

Section  III. — Work  of  Noted  Colonizers 

The  Halifax  settlement  in  Nova  Scotia  in   1749  was 
the  earliest  example  of  an  organized  system  of  j^^jju^t  ^^j 
colonization  to  that  province.     In  the  year  the Phiiadel- 
1751,  958  Germans  arrived  at  Halifax,    and  pWa  Coin- 
in  the  year  following  1,000  more.     In   1753,  P*°^* 
1,500  of  these  removed  to  Lunenburgh,  Nova  Scotia. 
Since  that  date  Canada  has  owed  much  to  individual 
colonizers  and  companies  for  having  begun  and  carried 
out   schemes   of   colonization.     No   doubt   abuses   have 
often  characterized  such  movements,  but  the  organizers 
deserve  credit  notwithstanding. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  many 
persons   of  influence  took   up   the  subject   of    sending 


246  A  Short  Histoby  of 

colonists  to  Nova  Scotia.  Six  vessels  arrived  from 
Boston  with  200  settlers,  and  four  schooners  from  Rhode 
Island  with  100.  New  London  and  Plymouth  sent 
280.  An  enthusiastic  Irishman,  Alexander  McNutt,  was 
largely  instrumental  in  settling  Truro,  Onslow,  and 
Londonderry,  and  brought  in  300  colonists  from  Ireland. 
In  company,  in  1765,  with  a  number  of  prominent  resi- 
dents of  Philadelphia,  McNutt  received  a  grant  of  200,000 
acres  in  Nova  Scotia  between  Tatamagouche  and  Pictou. 
No  less  than  1,600,000  acres  were  reserved  for  McNutt 
in  other  parts  of  Nova  Scotia. 

In  1767  virtually  the  whole  of  Prince  Edward  Island  was 
granted  to  proprietors  in  a  single  day.  Almost  the  whole 
of  the  Nova  Scotian  counties  of  Pictou  and  Colchester 
was  given  over  to  grantees  about  the  same  time.  Mc- 
Nutt's  grant  in  Pictou  County  was  called  the  "  Irish 
Grant,"  and  the  township  of  Pictou  was  first  known  as 
"  Donegal." 

What  has  generally  borne  the  name  of  the. "Phila- 
delphia Grant "  in  Pictou  became  celebrated.  While 
McNutt  failed  to  settle  the  land  obtained  by  him  and 
was  compelled  to  allow  it  to  revert  to  the  Crown,  the 
Philadelphia  Company  succeeded  in  bringing  in  its  ex- 
cellent colonists.  Among  them  were  families  bearing 
such  well-known  Nova  Scotian  names  as  Archibald, 
Patterson,  Troop,  Rogers,  and  Harris. 

It  was  in  1767  that  the  little  brig  the  Hope,  since  be- 
come historic  in  consequence,  bore  its  precious  freight, 
the  seed  of  the  noted  Pictou  Colony  sent  by  the  Phila- 
delphia Company.  It  sailed  from  Philadelphia  in  May  and 
called  at  Halifax.  On  the  10th  of  June,  Pictou  Harbour 
was  reached.  Several  young  men  from  Truro,  passing 
the  mountains,  crossed  through  the  woods  and  built  fires 
on  the  shore  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  vessel. 
Fearing  Indians,  the  vessel  stood  off  the  shore  ;  a  closer 
inspection  showed  the  party  on  shore  to  be  friends.  There 
were  six  families  on  board,  among  them  being  those  of 
Dr.  Harris,  Squire  Patterson,  Rogers.  In  Pictou  grave- 
yard stands  the  monument,  erected  in   1809,  of  a  son 


THE  Canadian  People  247 

of  Rogers,  bom  the  night  before  the  landing,  and 
marked  "  The  first  descendant  of  an  Englishman  bom 
in  Pictou." 

Along   with   Grovernor   Simcoe   in   his   visits   through 
the  wilderness  of  Upper  Canada,  usually  went 
a  yoimg  Irishman,  Thomas  Talbot.     He  was  an  xalbot^ 
officer  of  the  24th  Regiment,  and  was  as  en- 
thusiastic as  was  the  Governor  himself  in  the  task  of 
subdividing,  naming,  and  settling  the  various  parts  of 
the  province,  and  in  road-making,  which,  like  his  chief, 
he  viewed  largely  from  a  military  standpoint.     After  his 
patron  had  gone  from  Canada,  Talbot  returned  and  re- 
ceived his  first  grant  of  6,000  acres  on  the  shores  of 'Lake 
Erie,  on  condition  of  settling  it. 

His  first  settlement  was  in  1803,  and  with  his  own 
hands  he  cut  the  first  tree  on  his  estate  at  Port  Talbot. 
His  abode  was  sixty  miles  from  Long  Point,  the  nearest 
settlement  at  that  time.  Colonel  Talbot's  plan  was  to 
settle  deserving  colonists,  come  from  what  source  they 
would,  and  he  was  allowed  200  acres  for  every  settler  he 
placed  on  an  allotted  fifty  acres.  The  grant  to  the  settler 
was  afterwards  increased  to  100  acres  on  certain  im- 
provements having  been  made.  It  was  not  till  1809 
that  settlers  began  to  enter  on  the  Talbot  lands,  and  then 
but  slowly. 

After  1810  settlement  became  more  rapid,  and  Talbot 
was  much  assisted  in  his  plans  by  a  land  surveyor,  a 
native  of  New  Jersey,  Colonel  Burwell,  who  afterwards 
became  a  member  of  the  Legislature.  Colonel  Talbot 
was  for  many  years  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Council 
of  Upper  Canada,  and  the  patriotic  officer  commanded  the 
militia  of  the  district  in  the  war  of  1812.  Among  the 
Talbot  settlers  was  the  afterwards  celebrated  Dr.  Rolph, 
who  came  from  England  and  took  up  his  abode  in  the 
district  in  1813.  The  first  shop  in  the  Talbot  settlement 
was  begun  in  1817.  The  main  line  of  communication 
from  east  to  west  along  Lake  Erie  through  this  section 
is  still  known  as  Talbot  Street. 

Some  notion  of  the  magnitude  of  the  operations  of  the 


248  A  Short  History  of 

odd  but  patriotic  Colonel  Talbot  may  be  got  from  the 
fact  that  twenty-eight  townships  were  settled  mider  his 
superintendence,  containing  now  probably  some  200,000 
people.  The  21st  of  May  was  long  celebrated  in  the 
Talbot  district,  in  somewhat  of  old  baronial  style,  in 
honour  of  the  "  Founder." 

Among  the  most  enthusiastic  of  the  colonizers  of  this 
Th  E  1  f  P^^^^^  ^^^  *^®  ^^^^  o^  Selkirk.  While  at 
Selkirk.  Edinburgh  University  he  had,  as  a  fellow- 
student  of  the  then  young  Walter  Scott,  been 
drawn  to  examine  the  case  of  the  suffering  and  evicted 
peasants  of  Ireland  and  Scotland.  In  1802  he  addressed 
a  letter  to  Lord  Pelham,  Home  Secretary,  proposing  his 
scheme  for  the  removal  of  these  sufferers  to  the  vacant 
lands  of  the  New  World. 

Possessed  of  wealth,  and  being  moreover  of  a  most 
philanthropic  spirit,  the  young  earl  organized  companies 
to  seek  homes  in  British  America.  He  seems  also  to 
have  had  in  view  the  diversion  of  the  stream  of  emigra- 
tion which  was  flowing  from  Britain  to  the  United  States, 
and  even  the  drawing  away  from  the  States  the  British 
subjects  who  had  already  gone  thither. 

His  lordship's  first  intention  had  been  to  send  his 
emigrants  by  way  of  Hudson  Bay  to  the  Red  River 
country,  having  become  convinced  from  Sir  Alexander 
Mackenzie's  work  of  1801  of  the  suitability  for  settlement 
of  that  region.  The  British  Government  interposed 
shortly  before  the  sailing  of  his  first  ship,  and  compelled 
him  to  select  a  portion  of  the  vacant  lands  not  so  remote 
as  those  of  Red  River. 

It  was  in^l803  that  three  ships,  carrying  some  800 
Pri  Ed-  ^^^^^is^^'  1^^^  Britain  under  Lord  Selkirk's 
ward  Island,  direction  for  Prince  Edward  Island.  Most  of 
the  settlers  were  from  the  islands  of  Skye  and 
Uist,  and  a  number  from  Ross,  Argyle,  and  Inverness. 
Lord  Selkirk  arrived  on  the  scene  shortly  after  the  land- 
ing of  the  first  ship's  company. 

An  old  Acadian  village  site  was  the  place  of  settlement. 
Work  was  begun  at  once.     Fever  broke  out  in  the  colony, 


Lord  Selkirk 
From  a  Painting  by  Raeburn. 


248] 


THE  Caijadian  People  249 

but  a  medical  man  was  in  attendance,  provided  by  the 
Earl.  Provisions  were  for  a  time  served  out  by  an  agent. 
Though  their  destination  was  reached  so  late  as  August, 
by  the  middle  of  September  all  the  colonists  had  been 
settled  on  their  lots.  Five  thousand  people  in  Queen's 
County,  Prince  Edward  Island — the  descendants  of  that 
band  of  800  pilgrim  fathers — are  to-day  among  the  most 
prosperous  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  island. 

Having  seen  his  colonists  provided  for  on  Prince 
Edward,  Lord  Selkirk  immediately  visited  d-i^qq- 
Canada  and  the  United  States.  He  seems  pre- 
viously to  have  secured  a  block  of  land  in  Upper  Canada, 
at  a  point  fifteen  miles  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Thames, 
in  the  most  westerly  county  of  Upper  Canada.  This  was 
named  "  Baldoon,"  from  a  portion  of  his  *  lordship's 
estates  in  Scotland. 

In  1803  some  twenty  families  from  Prince  Edward 
Island  settlement,  numbering  110  souls,  proceeded  to 
Baldoon.  The  locality  was  swampy,  and  one-third  of  the 
colonists  perished  in  the  first  season  from  malaria. 
During  the  war  of  1812  the  settlement  was  laid  waste 
by  the  Americans.  In  the  townships  of  Dover  and  Chat- 
ham, near  Baldoon,  Lord  Selkirk  also  purchased  wild 
lands. 

A  further  tract  of  land,  forming  the  township  of  Moul- 
ton,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Grand  River,  -^^   ^     ^ 
and  comprising  30,800  acres,  was  purchased  by  m^Qr, 
Lord    Selkirk    for    £3,850    from   Mr.   William 
Jarvis,  who  had  obtained  it  from  the  Indians  in  1803. 

In  1804  Lord  Selkirk  proposed  to  Governor  Hunter 
at  York  to  build  a  road  from  the  Grand  River  to  his 
Baldoon  settlement,  or  if  the  Government  preferred,  from 
York  to  Baldoon.  It  was  estimated  that  the  work  would 
cost  £40,000,  the  distance  being  nearly  300  miles.  The 
Ear^  offered  to  accept  in  payment  wild  lands  on  each 
side  of  the  road  to  be  built.  The  project  was  not  accept- 
able to  the  Government. 

For  several  years  the  troubled  state  of  Europe  pre- 
vented the  colonizer  following  up  his  plans  of   emigra- 


260  A  Short  History  of 

tion.  In  1811  he  obtained  a  controlling  interest  in  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company.  From  this  Company  he  pur- 
chased a  vast  district  lying  on  the  Red  River, 
ManttSba/^^^  116,000  square  miles.  This  he  called  As- 
siniboia,  and  in  1811,  by  way  of  Hudson  Bay, 
despatched  a  party  of  Highlanders,  with  a  few  Irish 
colonists  from  Sligo.  The  pioneers  did  not  reach  their 
destination  till  1812.  Another  band  arrived  in  the  same 
year,  a  third  in  1814,  and  a  fourth  in  1815. 

The  relation  of  the  new  settlers  and  their  patron  to  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  stirred  up  the  opposition  of  the 
North- West  Fm*  Company  of  Montreal,  which  occupied 
many  posts  throughout  the  region  to  the  north-west  of 
Lake  Superior. 

A  clever  movement,  by  a  Nor'-Wester  officer  named 
Cameron,  succeeded  in  1814  in  inducing  about  150  souls, 
or  about  three-fourths  of  the  Selkirk  Colony,  to  desert  the 
Red  River,  and  come  by  the  canoe-route  to  Lake  Superior 
and  thence  along  the  shores  of  the  lakes  to  Penetang- 
uishene  in  Upper  Canada.  The  descendants  of  this  band 
of  colonists  are  still  living  in  Gwillimbury,  north  of 
Toronto,  and  in  Aldboro'  and  adjoining  townships  in  the 
London  district. 

The  settlers  who  refused  to  join  Cameron  were  rein- 
forced by  an  addition  to  the  Selkirk  settlement,  in  1815, 
nearly  making  up  the  number  lost.  In  1816  the  ani- 
mosity of  the  North- West  Company,  which  contained 
many  of  the  French  half-breeds,  who  called  themselves 
"  the  new  nation,"  became  so  great  that  an  attack 
was  made  on  Fort  Douglas,  the  centre  of  the  Selkirk 
Colony,  and  Governor  Semple,  the  officer  in  charge,  was 
killed,  with  twenty  of  his  staff  and  colonists. 

Lord  Selkirk,  who  had  been  in  Montreal  during  the 
winter  of  1815-16,  was  hastening  to  reinforce  his  be- 
leaguered colony,  when  he  heard  the  sad  news.  He  had 
taken  100  men  of  the  disbanded  German  mercenaries 
called  De  Meurons,  whom  he  had  obtained  in  Canada, 
and  with  these  was  proceeding  westward.  He  seized 
the  Nor'-Wester  post  Fort  William,  wintered  there,  and 


THE  Caitadian  Peoplb  251 

early  in  1817  advanced  to  the  Red  River  by  way  of  Rainy 
Lake  and  Lake  of  the  Woods. 

Lord  Selkirk  soon  reduced  the  troubled  affairs  to  order, 
made  a  treaty  with  the  Indians  of  the  Red  River,  con- 
soled his  settlers,  and  returned  by  way  of  the  Mississippi 
and  through  the  Western  States  to  Canada  again.  Thus 
was  begun  the  province  of  Manitoba,  though  for  nearly 
sixty  years  after  its  founding  it  bore  the  name  the  Red 
River  Settlement. 

As  already  stated,  the  grant  had  been  made  by  Grcneral 
Haldimand  in  1784  to  the  Six  Nations  Indians  Lands  of 
of  the  vast  tract  from  the  source  to  the  mouth  the  Six 
of  the  Grand  River.     This  is  one  of  the  most  Nations, 
beautiful  portions  of  Canada.     The  covetous  eye  of  the 
new  settler  soon  fell  on  this  wide  domain.     The  Indians 
occupied  but  a  small  portion  of  it,  and  regarded  it  as 
useless  to  them. 

It  was  thought  that  by  the  sale  of  a  part  of  the  lands 
an  annuity  might  be  obtained  for  the  tribes.  The  British 
Government  was,  with  greatest  difficulty,  induced  to  con- 
sent to  this  sale,  and  then  only  in  part.  In  November, 
1796,  the  chiefs  and  warriors  of  the  Six  Nations  gave 
power  of  attorney  to  Captain  Joseph  Brant  to  sell  such 
lands  as  he  saw  fit  for  their  benefit. 

Block  one,  afterwards  comprising  the  township  of 
Dimafries,  and  embracing  94,305  acres,  was  sold  to  Philip 
Stedman.  Another  block,  as  we  have  seen,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Earl  of  Selkirk,  while  four  other  blocks, 
comprising  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  acres,  were  sold 
to  others. 

Local  report  has  always  been  to  the  effect  that  Captain 
Brant  was  somewhat  imposed  on  by  the  white  settlers, 
and  that  the  old  chieftain,  on  one  occasion  at  Niagara, 
offered  1,000  acres  of  land  for  £10  in  a  time  of  special 
need.  On  the  Six  Nations'  tract  there  lived  an  ingenious 
German  settler  from  New  York  State,  who  was  a  good 
violinist,  and  who  was  accustomed  to  invite  the  Captain 
now  and  then  to  a  sumptuous  feast.  When  the  old 
warrior  had  reached  the  height  of  exhilaration,  his  enter- 


252  A  Short  History  of 

tainer  succeeded  again  and  again  in  obtaining  his  signa- 
ture to  leases  of  one  after  another  of  choice  lots  of  land. 

In  1803  Governor  Hunter  ordered  an  investigation  into 
the  condition  of  the  Indian  lands,  and  again  in  1804.  In 
1806  Governor  Gore  ordered  a  statement  of  the  moneys 
invested  in  English  three  per  cents,  for  the  Indians  to 
be  laid  before  the  Legislature  of  Upper  Canada,  and  it 
was  but  little  above  £5,600.  The  report  given  to  the 
House,  by  Dr.  Strachan  and  Mr.  J.  B.  Robinson,  long 
after  Brant's  death,  suggests  that  but  poor  care  had  been 
taken  of  the  interests  of  the  Indians. 

Section  IV. — Political  and  Social  Life 

During  the  period  before  us,  the  introduction  to  Can- 
ada of  so  mixed  a  population  produced  the  inevitable 
result  of  conflict  and  heartburning.     Race  jealousy,  local 
dissatisfaction,  and  the  lack  of  representative  govern- 
ment gave  rise  to  loud  complaints.     It  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  so  much  the  want  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
Governor  and  Council  in  each  of  the  provinces,  as  fault 
with  the  system  of  government  that  produced  the  dis- 
content.    There  are  evident  signs  in  this  period  of  an 
expanding  poHtical  life  and  a  determination  on  the  part 
of  the  people  to  gain  self-government. 
y^The  plan  of  the  Imperial  Government  was  to  appoint 
a  Governor-General,  with  jurisdiction  over  the  six  pro- 
vinces in  existence  at  the  time  in  British  America.     Under 
this  chief  officer  was,  in  each  province,  a  Lieutenant- 
Governor.     In  Lower  Canada  the  office  of  Lieutenant- 
Governor  was  not  always  filled,  as  the  Governor-General 
lived  in  Montreal  or  Quebec,  though  from  1808  to  1822 
the  office  of  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Lower  Canada  was 
held  as  a  sinecure  by  an  absentee  at  a  comfortable  salary. 
/       In  each  province  there  was  a  Legislative  Assembly 
j  elected  by  the  people,  and  a  Legislative  Council  appointed 
I  by  the  Crown.     There  was   also  an  Executive  Council 
'   appointed  by  the  Crown,  which  was  not  responsible  to 
{ the  Legislature.    The  struggle  for  power  between  the 


THE  Canadian  People  253 

popular  branch  of  the  Legislature  and  the  Legislative 
Council,  led  by  the  Executive,  took  place  in  each  pro- 
vince, though  each  provincial  struggle  had  peculiarities 
of  its  own. 

^    In  Lower  Canada  after  the  departure  of  Lord  Dorches- 
ter, the  idol  of  the  people,  in  1796,  the  govern- 
ment  was  carried  on  very  successfully  by  General  Canada. 
Prescott,  though  he  was  at  times  compelled  to 
check  his   Executive   Council   for   selfishness.     He   was 
succeeded  by  Mr.  Milnes,  who  occupied  the  position  for 
five    or   six   years.     Governor   Milnes   was   not    strong 
enough  to  cope  with  the  heady  and  self-seeking  Execu- 
tive, which  was  steadily  building  up  a  structure  of  tyranny, 
which  in  the  end  must  be  levelled  by  the  people.     After 
Milnes'  departure  in  1805  the  President  of  the  Coimcil, 
Hon.  Thomas  Dunn,  filled  the  vacancy  in  the  Governor- 
ship till  a  successor  was  appointed. 

From  the  special  features  of  Lower  Canada  it  was  to 
have  been  expected  that  the  political  struggle  would 
be  very  severe.  Lower  Canada  was  largely  French 
Canadian.  Its  population  was  considerable,  and  its  people 
had  a  vigorous  social  and  religious  fife.  It  was  made  up 
of  a  conquered  people.  It  was  impossible  to  tell  what 
might  at  any  time  arise  in  the  complications  of  Britain 
with  the  United  States.  The  leading  business  men  of 
the  province  were  British  merchants  living  in  Montreal 
and  Quebec.  Many  of  these  were  associated  together  in 
the  vast  fur  trade  to  the  interior.  The  British  Governor 
most  naturally  chose  his  Executive  Council  from  this 
class.  To  make  matters  more  secure,  the  Governor  and 
Council  appointed  a  safe  majority  of  the  Legislative 
Council  from  among  the  British  residents. 

The  theory  of  this  system,  that  the  French  Canadians 
were  a  conquered  people  and  to  be  distrusted,  was  not 
quite  accurate.  The  iVench  of  Lower  Canada  had  found 
their  attachment  to  France  rudely  severed  by  the  events 
of  the  French  Revolution.  Atheistic  France  could  have 
few  attractions  for  French  Canada,  still  holding  to  its 
ancient  church.     Sentiment  and  interest  continued  to 


254  A  Short  History  of 

make  the  French  Canadians  loyal  to  Britain.  /  Having 
r^Become  British,  the  French  Canadians  clamoured  for  the 
I    rights  of  seK-government,  and  the  Assembly  was  chiefly 
French  Canadian. 

The  Executive  and  Legislative  Councils  were  a  strong- 
willed  and  united  oligarchy.  The  cry  of  the  French 
Canadians  for  self-government  was  interpreted  by  it 
as  disloyalty  to  Britain.  It  is  thus  an  oligarchy  usually 
protects  itself.  The  people  thus  charged  next  re- 
garded the  steps  taken  by  the  Governor-General  for  the 
protection  of  the  country  as  tyrannical.  The  Governor 
and  his  councils  misunderstood  the  people,  and  the 
people,  through  the  Legislative  Assembly,  misjudged  the 
authorities, 
c  The  Montreal  Gazette,  which  had  been  established  in 
1778,  was  an  organ  of  the  Government.  In  April,  1805, 
it  contained  an  account  of  a  banquet  given  to  the  Repre- 
sentatives of  Montreal  in  the  Legislature,  in  honour  of 
their  opposition  to  the  action  of  the  Assembly  in  passing 
a  certain  Bill.  At  the  meeting  toasts  had  been  proposed 
which  were  regarded  as  hostile  to  the  French.  The 
Assembly  took  notice  of  the  matter.  It  voted  the  pro- 
ceedings at  the  banquet  to  be  "a  false,  scandalous, 
and  malicious  libel  .  .  .  tending  to  lessen  the  affections  of 
his  Majesty's  subjects  towards  his  Government  in  this 
province." 

The  Assembly  in  this  action  evidently  made  a  mistake. 
Its  order  for  the  arrest  of  the  giver  of  the  toasts  at  the 
banquet  and  of  the  editor  of  the  Gazette  could  not  be 
justified,  though  the  order  was  never  enforced.  The 
extreme  action  of  the  Assembly  drew  forth  a  criticism 
from  the  Quebec  Mercury,  another  Government  news- 
paper. The  Assembly  again  erred  in  ordering  the  editor 
of  the  Mercury  to  be  taken  into  custody,  though  he  was 
soon  liberated.  Such  proceedings  as  these  but  widened 
the  breach  between  the  opponents. 

The  French  Canadians  next  undertook  what  was  a  far 
more  sensible  mode  of  defence  than  the  exercise  of  the 
prerogative  of  the  Assembly.     This  was  the  establishment 


THE  Canadian  People  265 

of  a  newspaper,  Le  Canadien,  to  defend  their  views. 
The  new  journal  began  its  career  in  November,  1806  ;  it 
was  decidedly  anti-British  in  tone,  and  regarded  the 
British  residents  of  Lower  Canada  as  "  etrangers  et  intrus.^^ 
Le  Canadien  was  conducted  wth  ability,  became 
popular,  and  gave  umbrage  and  uneasiness  to  the  Govern- 
ment. 

Amidst  the  din  of  this  race-conflict  sounds  of  war  were 
heard.  As  we  shall  afterwards  see,  the  British  doctrine 
of  the  "  right  of  search  "  produced  irritation.  H.M.S. 
Leopard  in  1807  had  boarded  the  Chesapeake,  an  Ameri- 
can frigate,  and  killed  a  number  of  American  citizens. 
The  preparations  for  war  for  the  time  drowned  the  noise 
of  provincial  turmoil.  President  Dunn  gave  orders  for 
drafting  one-fifth  of  the  militia  for  active  service.  French 
and  EngUsh  vied  with  each  other  in  being  ready  for 
defence.  Bishop  Plessis  issued  his  mandement  to  be  read 
in  aU  the  Roman  Catholic  churches,  supporting  the 
Government's  action. 

It  w€is  at  this  juncture,  in  October,  1808,  that  Lieu- 
tenant-General  Sir  James  Craig  arrived  in  Canada  as 
Governor-General.  He  was  of  good  Scottish  family,  had 
seen  the  whole  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  had  served  in 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  India,  and  had  gone  through 
the  campaigns  of  the  British  forces  on  the  Mediterranean 
in  the  wars  of  Napoleon.  He  was  at  the  time  of  his 
arrival  in  Canada  in  poor  health.  By  the  year  1809  the 
war-cloud  had  partly  blown  over,  and  Governor  Craig 
found  himself  in  the  midst  of  pohtical  instead  of  martial 
strife. 

The  Assembly  had  returned  to  its  querulous  mood. 
The  Governor  was  easily  persuaded  that  the  French 
population  and  later  American  immigrants  were  unsafe 
elements  in  the  country. 

In  order  to  carry  out  its  ends  the  Assembly  proposed 
to  exclude  the  judges,  who  had  been  members  of  As- 
sembly. In  this  the  action  of  the  Assembly  is  vindi- 
cated by  the  state  of  subsequent  opinion.  A  less  ex- 
cusable act  of  the  popular  branch  of  the  Legislature  was 


256  A  Short  History  of 

the  exclusion  from  their  House  of  the  member  for  Three 
Rivers — a  most  worthy  gentleman — on  the  ground  of  his 
being  a  Jew. 

The  session  had  progressed  five  weeks  with  no  better 
result  than  the  measures  named,  when  Governor  Craig, 
in  Cromwellian  humour,  went  to  the  House,  and  informed 
the  members  of  his  intention  to  dissolve  Parliament. 
That  they  had  wasted  in  fruitless  debates  the  time  and 
talents  to  which  the  public  had  an  exclusive  title,  was  the 
reason  given  for  their  dismissal.  Dismissed  accordingly 
they  were  to  their  constituents.  The  elections  were  held 
and  the  French  party  returned  stronger  than  before.  Le 
Canadien,  the  exponent  of  French  opinion,  waxed  violent. 
The  country  was  in  an  uproar.  Rumours  of  secret  meet- 
ings of  a  disloyal  kind  became  current,  though  they  seem 
to  have  been  without  foundation. 

On  the  17th  of  March,  1810,  the  press  and  material 
of  Le  Canadien  were  seized  by  Government  order,  the 
printer  was  apprehended,  and  M.  Bedard  and  two  other 
members  of  the  Assembly  were  arrested  on  a  charge  of 
treasonable  practices.  For  a  considerable  time  Bedard 
languished  in  prison,  though  strenuous  efforts  were  made 
by  the  Assembly  for  his  release.  Governor  Craig  refused 
the  application  on  the  ground  that  the  "  security,  as  well 
as  the  dignity  of  the  King's  Government  required  "  his 
imprisonment.  On  the  prorogation  of  the  Assembly  the 
prison  doors  were  opened  to  M.  Bedard. 

Undoubtedly  the  action  of  Governor  Craig  and  his 
advisers  in  this  matter  was  tyrannical.  During  the  year 
the  Governor,  at  his  own  request,  was  recalled.  He  has 
always  been  regarded  as  having  been  an  honest,  frank, 
and  philanthropic  man.  With  the  training  of  a  soldier, 
he  had  high  ideas  of  prerogative.  It  is  useless,  however, 
to  condemn  Governor  Craig  for  this  fierce  struggle  ;  it 
was  begun  before  his  arrival,  and  both  parties  were  to 
be  blamed.  The  French  having  taken  high-handed 
measures  against  the  Gazette  and  Mercury,  found  the 
same  treatment  applied  to  Le  Canadien  and  M.  Bedard. 
"  They  that  take  the  sword  shall  perish  with  the  sword." 


THE  Canadian  People  257 

The  birth  of  political  life  in  Upper  Canada  was  no  less 
troubled  than  in  Lower  Canada.     On  the  de- 
parture  of  Governor  Simcoe,  in  1796,  the  govern-  caSada. 
ment  was  administered  during  the  vacancy,  until 
1799,  by  the  Hon.  Peter  Russell.     The  spirit  of  rapacity 
which  had  opposed  Simcoe  found  its  embodiment  in  the 
new  President.     He  was,   according  to  a  very  rehable 
historian,  "  hellvo  agrorum  " — a  "  land-glutton."     A  list 
of  lands  patented  by  the  Hon.  Peter  Russell,  the  Acting 
Governor,  to  the  Hon.  Peter  Russell,  the  private  citizen, 
is  extant,  and  is  remarkable. 

In  1799  arrived  the  new  Lieutenant-Governor,  General 
Peter  Hunter.  He  remained  in  office  till  his  death  in 
1805.  He  administered  the  government  with  a  firm 
hand.  The  influx  of  Americans  during  his  term  of  office 
began  to  create  a  real  anxiety  among  the  loyalists.  Not 
that  the  new  immigrants  committed  overt  acts,  but  im- 
certainty  was  everywhere  prevalent.  It  was  in  1804 
that  this  suspicion  became  embodied  in  the  well-known 
**  Sedition  Act  "  of  that  year.  This  Act  gave  the  power 
to  arrest  any  person  who  had  been  less  than  six  months 
in  the  province,  who  had  seditious  intent  to  disturb  the 
tranquillity  of  the  province.  The  Act  became  a  fitting 
instrument,  in  after-years,  for  the  destruction  of  personal 
liberty. 

The  death  of  Governor  Hunter  was  followed  by  the 
appointment  in  1806  of  Mr.  Francis  Gore,  who  continued, 
with  the  exception  of  three  years  in  1812-14,  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor till  1818.  Governor  Gore  seems  to  have 
been  an  estimable  and  well-meaning  man,  but  he  was 
quite  unable  to  cope  with  the  determined  spirits  who 
during  his  time  laid  the  foundation  of  the  fabric  of  Upper 
Canadian  misrule.  In  English  history  freedom  had  often 
to  be  regained,  which  had  been  lost  under  weak  and 
amiable  kings.  So  this  Governor's  administration  was 
not  favourable  to  Hberty.  Governor  Gore's  period  of 
government  had  many  features  in  common  with  that  of 
his  contemporary  in  Lower  Canada,  General  Craig. 

The  weak  Governor  was,  on  his  arrival,  surrounded  by 

17 


268  A  Short  History  of 

the  combination  of  office-holders,  land  speculators,  and 
so-called  persons  of  good  society  in  the  capital  of  Little 
York.  He  became  their  bond-slave.  This  knot  of  pro- 
fessional politicians  and  hereditary  rulers,  as  they  regarded 
themselves,  looked  with  contempt  on  the  inhabitants  of 
the  rural  districts,  especially  on  the  later  American  im- 
migrants. They  saw  imminent  danger  to  the  State  in 
those  who  failed  to  see  their  superior  excellence. 

Their  wrath  was  first  visited  on  one  of  the  circuit 
judges.  This  was  Mr.  Justice  Thorpe.  He 
Thorpe.  ^^^  recommended  himself  by  his  just  decisions 
throughout  the  coimtry.  The  people  had  much 
confidence  in  the  sympathetic  judge.  As  he  went  from 
court  to  court  the  grand  juries  laid  their  grievances 
before  him,  and  he  became  the  exponent  of  the  rights  of 
the  people.  His  popularity  was  so  great  that,  contrary 
to  the  will  of  the  Government,  he  was  elected  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly.  The  Governor  and  his  councils 
as  well  as  the  Government  newspaper,  the  Upper  Can- 
ada Gazette,  bitterly  opposed  the  judge.  In  1807  a  new 
journal,  the  Upper  Canadian  Guardian,  was  begun,  to 
vindicate  the  people's  cause.  Unfortunately  for  the 
popular  party.  Judge  Thorpe  was,  by  the  influence  of 
Governor  Gore,  recalled  by  the  British  Government. 

An  enterprising  Irishman,  Joseph  Willcocks,  Sheriff 
of  the  Home  District,  was  a  strong  though  extreme 
supporter  of  Judge  Thorpe.  The  Government  was  so 
incensed  against  him  that  he  was  removed  from  office. 
It  was  he  who  became  the  editor  of  the  Guardian. 
His  strong  utterances  brought  upon  him  a  prosecution 
for  libel,  but  he  was  acquitted.  Having  been  elected  to 
the  Assembly,  he  was,  for  the  too  free  expression  of 
opinion,  committed  to  prison. 

In  the  year  1809  another  act  of  arbitrary  authority 
subjected  the  Governor  and  Executive  Council  to  severe 
criticism.  An  English  gentleman,  John  Mills  Jackson, 
who  possessed  lands  by  inheritance  in  Lower  Canada, 
and  by  purchase  in  Upper  Canada,  visited  the  country. 
He  was  much  displeased  with  what  he  saw.     On  his  return 


THE  Canadian  People  25d 

to  England  he  published  a  pamphlet  on  Canada,  referring 
to  the  severe  treatment  of  Judge  Thorpe  and  Sheriff 
Willcocks,  and  to  the  corrupt  state  of  political  affairs 
in  Upper  Canada. 

He  stated,  moreover,  that  it  had  been  declared  publicly, 
on  behalf  of  the  Executive,  that  should  any  man  sign 
any  petition  or  address  whatever  he  should  be  sent  to 
prison.  His  information  in  all  cases,  except  the  last 
mentioned,  was  correct,  and  possibly  in  this  case  con- 
structively so.  He  closed  his  pamphlet  saying,  "  I 
have  no  private  interest  or  passion  to  gratify ;  I  call 
for  investigation  as  a  duty  to  my  king  and  country." 

The  Upper  Canadian  Assembly  agreed  to  present  an 
address  to  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  expressive  of  its 
"  abhorrence  and  detestation  of  an  infamous  and  sedi- 
tious libel  signed  '  John  Mills  Jackson.'  " 

In  the  light  of  the  freedom  now  permitted  to  owners 
of  newspapers  and  writers  of  pamphlets,  it  is  surprising 
to  us  that  what  on  the  whole  was  a  true,  though  earnest 
presentation  of  grievances,  should  have  been  so  strongly 
condenmed,  and  certainly  Mr.  John  Mills  Jackson  was 
fortunate  in  being  beyond  the  reach  of  the  angry  legis- 
lators in  his  Englishman's  home  of  liberty.  — -— -^ 

The  struggle  of  the  Nova  Scotian  Legislature  with 
the  Executive  was  likewise  severe,  though  the  jj  «  0*1 
questions  at  stake  seem  to  have  been  less 
important  than  those  in  the  Upper  Provinces.  The 
loyalist  Governor,  Parr,  of  Nova  Scotia,  died  in  1791 
and  was  succeeded  by  Sir  John  Wentworth.  Sir  John 
was  a  native  of  New  Hampshire,  and  had  been  British 
Conmaissioner  of  Woods  and  Forests  in  America.  He  had 
likewise  been  Governor  of  his  native  province  in  the 
colonial  days  before  the  Revolution. 

Sir  John  was  of  the  courtly  class  of  old-time  governors. 
There  was  not  only  a  dignity,  but  also  a  knowledge  of 
affairs,  and  a  facility  of  administration,  in  those  trained 
in  the  old  school  of  Government  officials,  largely  wanting 
in  later  times.  Sir  John  lived  for  the  people,  and  yet  he 
considered  them  worthy  of  consideration  simply  as  they 


260  A  Short  History  of 

were  submissive.  Englishmen,  or  those  trained  in  the 
old  colonial  school,  could  alone  make  efficient  governors, 
to  his  mind.  He  was  distrustful  of  public  gatherings 
and  regarded  public  discussion  as  closely  bordering  on 
sedition.  He  inveighed  against  "  meetings  convened 
in  the  country  composed  of  uneducated  tradesmen, 
laboiu:ers  and  farmers,  who,  from  the  nature  of  their 
industry,  cannot  have  any  real  information." 

Sir  John  disliked  the  popular  leader  in  the  Assembly, 
Mr.  Cottnam  Tonge,  and  exhausted  every  device  to 
counterwork  his  influence.  This  "  tribune  of  the  people," 
though  charged  with  seditious  intent,  preserved  his  place 
even  in  the  face  of  the  official  opposition.  The  warlike 
rumours  of  the  time,  and  possibly  also  the  irritation 
caused  by  Governor  Wentworth's  distrust  of  the  people, 
led  to  the  appointment  of  General  Sir  George  Prevost  in 
his  stead  in  1808.  Sir  John  Wentworth,  after  some  oppo- 
sition in  the  Legislature,  was  voted  a  pension  of  £500. 

The  preparation  for  the  expected  war  occupied  the 
minds  of  the  people  and  Legislature.  Governor  Prevost, 
on  the  recall  of  Sir  James  Craig,  was  promoted  to  the 
Governor-Generalship,  and  Sir  John  Coape  Sherbrooke 
became  Governor  of  Nova  Scotia.  On  the  death  of 
Governor  Prevost  in  1816,  in  Lower  Canada,  Governor 
Sherbrooke  became  his  successor  in  office  there.  At  the 
end  of  this  period  the  population  of  Nova  Scotia  had 
reached  82,000. 

The  loyalist  province  of  New  Brunswick  was  under 
its  first  Governor,  Col.  Thomas  Carleton,  the 
wii^.  ^  ^  brother  of  Lord  Dorchester,  from  the  time  of  its 
founding  until  1802.  Six  governors  in  four 
years  succeeded  Carleton.  After  this  succession  of 
changes  a  military  officer.  General  Hunter,  held  office. 
As  in  the  other  provinces,  so  in  New  Brunswick,  a  struggle 
took  place  between  the  Legislative  and  Executive  Councils 
and  the  Assembly. 

The  subject  of  dispute  was  nothing  greater  than 
whether  the  members  of  Assembly  should  receive  a  pay- 
ment of  75.  6d.  per  day  during  the  sitting  of  the  House. 


THE  Canadian  People  261 

The  British  Colonial  Secretary  declared  this  "  derogatory 
to  the  dignity  of  members,  as  being  wages."  From 
1796  to  1799  there  was  a  "  dead-lock  "  between  the  two 
Houses  ;  but  in  the  end  the  popular  branch  gained  its 
contention.  During  this  period  imprisonment  for  debt 
was  still  in  vogue  in  Canada,  but  on  the  prisoner  making 
oath  that  he  was  not  worth  £5  he  was  entitled  to  be  dis- 
charged. Slavery  was  permitted  in  Lower  Canada  under 
licence  ;  but  in  Upper  Canada  in  1793  further  importation 
of  slaves  was  forbidden,  and  gradual  abolition  introduced. 

To  the  many  visitors  to  the  British  provinces  during 
this  period  colonial  life  seemed  very  unattrac- 
tive.    The  Old  World  traveUer  cannot  sympa-  ^j^^l^ 
thize  fully  with  the  diflficulties  of  new  settlers. 
To  him  their  crude  life  seems  the  result  of  improvidence. 
He  has  never  seen  the  unbroken  forest,  and  worked  out 
in  his  experience  the  steps  required  to  bring  it  into  the 
form  of  the  cultivated  field,  or  the  pasture-land  support- 
ing flocks  and  herds.     He  can  assume  the  rSle  of  critic, 
can  ever  act  as  the  kind  adviser,  and  regards  the  colo- 
nist who  fails  to  respond  to  his  suggestion  as  boorish 
and  lacking  in  spirit. 

The  colonist  in  turn,  knowing  the  difficulties  which 
have  been  encountered,  and  seeing  the  injustice  of  the 
criticisms,  has  usually  received  with  coldness,  if  not  with 
resentment,  books  of  travel  written  on  the  colonies. 

The  British  colonies  during  the  period  before  us, 
except  in  the  neighbourhood,  perhaps,  of  Montreal, 
Quebec,  or  Halifax,  were  just  emerging  from  their  primi- 
tive condition.  The  loyalists  and  British  settlers  were 
alike  poor.  From  the  circumstances  of  the  case  the 
loyalists  had  most  intelligence  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  British  settler  was  more  accustomed  to  labour.  The 
beautiful  dream  of  an  Arcadia  was  found  by  half -pay 
officers,  French  emigres,  and  needy  scions  of  nobility  to 
be  a  delusion.  Would  they  obtain  homes  they  must 
work  with  their  own  hands — 

He  who  by  the  plough  would  thrive 
Himself  must  either  hold  or  drive. 


2^2  A  Short  History  of 

Yet  the  pluck  and  self-denial  exhibited  by  the  early 
settlers  of  these  provinces  prove  them  to  have  been  true 
men.  When  there  is  no  accumulated  "'capital,  or  no  rich 
friends  in  England  from  whom  assistance  may  come, 
progress  must  be  slow. 

Lower  Canada  was  at  this  time,  from  its  earlier  settle- 
ment, in  a  position  of  advantage,  though  its  French 
Canadian  inhabitants  have  never  been  distinguished  for 
enterprise.  It  was  an  event  marking  a  new  era  when, 
on  the  4th  of  November,  1809,  the  steamer  Accommoda- 
tion arrived  in  Quebec  from  Montreal,  the  first  steamship 
ever  seen  on  the  St.  Lawrence.  "  No  wind  or  tide  can 
stop  her  "  was  the  admiring  comment  of  the  newspaper 
of  the  time. 

In  Lower  Canada  five  newspapers  were  issued  in  1810. 
These  were  the  Gazette,  the  oldest  newspaper  in  Canada, 
the  Mercury,  and  Le  Ganadien,  all  in  Quebec  ;  and  the 
Gazette  and  Courant  in  Montreal  The  Gazette  and 
Guardian  were  the  newspapers  of  Upper  Canada,  and 
even  during  this  period  the  Constellation,  the  Herald,  and 
others,  we  are  informed,  had  "  expired  of  starvation." 

The  country  advanced  in  business  and  manufactiu:es. 
The  chief  exports  were  wheat,  potash  from  the  ashes  of 
the  burnt  forests,  and  furs.  There  were  two  iron- works 
near  Three  Rivers — the  St.  Maurice  Forges.  In  1811 
the  manufacture  of  leather,  hats,  and  paper  had  been 
introduced.  There  were  no  considerable  factories  for 
cloth-making,  but  the  farmers  largely  manufactured 
their  own  clothing,  known  as  "  homespun."  Tobacco- 
smoking  was  common,  and  in  1810,  100,000  pounds  of 
tobacco  were  imported,  subject  to  duty,  in  Upper  Can- 
ada. Before  1817  there  was  not  a  bank  in  British  America, 
but  in  1822  one  had  been  established  at  Kingston 
and  two  in  Montreal. 

Many  of  the  early  settlers  having  been  soldiers,  and 
no  light  liquors  being  obtainable,  the  consumption  of 
ardent  spirits  was  large.  The  liquors  used  were  largely 
manufactured  in  the  country,  and  were  very  destructive. 
Duelling  was  not  uncommon,  and  in  some  circles  he  was 


THE  Canadian  People  263 

accounted  a  hero  who  had  "killed  his  man."  A  strange 
custom,  that  of  "  charivareeing  "  newly-married  people, 
was  common.  This  was  a  senseless  beating  of  drums, 
blowing  of  horns,  firing  of  guns,  and  drunken  shouting 
about  the  dwelling  of  those  who  were  the  victims.  The 
4th  of  June,  being  King  George  III.'s  birthday,  was 
observed  as  a  holiday,  and  this  even  during  the  times 
of  his  successors.  It  was  the  custom  to  summon  the 
militia  for  roll-call  and  inspection  on  that  day. 

In  Lower  Canada  the  mass  of  the  people  were  French 
Roman  Catholics,  and  even  nimibers  of  the  „  ..  . 
Fraser  and  Montgomery  Highlanders  who  had 
intermarried   with   the   French,    adopted   their   ancient 
faith.     Churches  at  this  period  were  well  supplied  to 
the  people. 

In  Nova  Scotia  the  first  Bishop  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, Dr.  Charles  Inglis,  arrived  in  1787,  and  died  about 
the  end  of  this  period.  In  the  year  previous,  the  well- 
known  Dr.  McGregor,  the  father  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Nova  Scotia,  arrived  from  Scotland.  In 
Upper  Canada  there  were  at  the  end  of  the  period  from 
six  to  ten  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England,  and 
a  like  number  in  Lower  Canada.  There  were  six  Pres- 
byterian ministers,  and  probably  not  less  than  thirty  or 
forty  itinerant  Methodist  preachers,  with  a  number  of 
Baptists  and  others  in  smaller  numbers.  These  clergy 
wandered  over  the  settled  parts  of  the  country,  were 
very  devoted,  and  were  of  much  service  in  restraining 
wrong  and  laying  the  foundation  of  the  present  religious 
condition  of  Canada. 

In  Lower  Canada  education  was  from  the  first  an  ad- 
junct of  the  Church,  and  hence  was  not  in  this  _,, ..^ 

•  1  J.X        r  J-  •  •     Education, 

provmce  so  much  a  matter  of  discussion  as  in 

the  other  provinces.  In  Nova  Scotia,  King's  College, 
at  Windsor,  had  been  established  by  Royal  Charter 
so  early  as  1802.  In  1811  an  Act  to  aid  Common  Schools 
was  passed,  and  another  to  establish  ten  county  grammar- 
schools,  in  addition  to  that  already  in  existence  in 
Halifax, 


264  A  Short  History  of 

In  Upper  Canada,  Governor  Simcoe  had  planned  a 
higher  educational  institution.  Under  his  auspices,  the 
afterwards  celebrated  Bishop  Strachan  was  brought  out. 
His  patron  having  gone,  the  Scottish  dominie  on  arriv- 
ing in  1799  was  disappointed.  He,  however,  began  the 
Kingston  and  afterwards  the  Cornwall  Grammar  School, 
in  which  many  of  those  afterwards  active  in  public 
affairs  were  educated. 

In  1803  arrived  in  Nova  Scotia  Dr.  McCuUoch,  the 
educational  Nestor  of  Nova  Scotia.  In  1807  an  Act  was 
passed  granting  £100  a  year  to  each  of  eight  schools 
in  the  different  districts  of  Upper  Canada.  An  Act  was 
passed  also  in  1816  establishing  common  schools  through- 
out the  country,  and  £6,000  a  year  was  granted  as  assist- 
ance in  supporting  these  schools. 

In  1818  there  was  established  on  the  banks  of  the 
Red  River  by  two  Roman  Catholic  fathers  a  school  in 
which  the  "  humanities  "  were  taught,  but  there  was  not 
for  several  years  after  an  English  school.  Thus  were 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  social,  religious  and  educa- 
tional fabric  of  to-day. 

Section  V.—The  War  of  Defence  (1812) 

A  passionate  dislike  of  the  British  still  remained 
among  the  masses  of  the  American  people.  The  long 
War  for  Independence  had  burned  the  events  of  those 
eight  years  into  the  people's  hearts.  The  veterans  of 
the  Revolutionary  War,  some  of  them  as  cripples  bearing 
ineffaceable  marks  of  their  valour,  still  lived  throughout 
the  States,  and  told  the  tales  of  a  grandfather  to  the 
second  generation  of  young  Americans. 

Ten  years  only  after  the  Peace  of  Paris  (1783),  warm 
sympathy  had  arisen  in  America  for  the  struggling 
French  Republic.  France  had  sent  La  Fayette  to  help 
them,  now  they  would  return  sympathy  to  her  people 
in  the  throes  of  revolution.  A  corresponding  hatred  for 
Britain  thus  became  stronger.  Washington  and  the 
leading  statesme»  of  the  Republic  had  sought  to  allay 


THE  Canadian  People  265 

the  hostile  feeling  against  Britain.  They  saw  that  the 
prosperity  of  their  people  depended  on  the  existence  of 
good  feeling  towards  Britain.  What  to  their  minds  was 
most  to  be  feared  in  the  United  States  was  a  reaction 
among  the  people,  and  the  tracing  of  all  business  and 
social  troubles  to  the  severance  of  the  colonies  from  the 
great  mother-land.  The  excesses  of  the  revolutionary 
party  in  France  alienated  much  sympathy  from  them  in 
puritan  New  England,  and  Washington  succeeded  in 
making  a  commercial  treaty  with  England.  But  the 
"father  of  his  country  "  retired  from  public  life  in  1796. 

Despite  all  efforts,  the  old  cleavage-line  between  North 
and  South  was  beginning  to  appear  in  the  Repubhc. 
Nothing  but  the  fierce  heat  of  revolution  could  have 
welded  them  together.  It  was  marvellous  that  cavaUer 
and  puritan  had  cohered  so  long.  The  removal  now  of 
the  common  danger  allowed  the  old  provincial  jealousies 
to  break  forth  anew.  In  1801,  Jefferson,  the  distin- 
guished framer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was 
elected  President  by  the  Democratic  party,  whose  strength 
lay  among  the  cavaliers.  The  feeling  against  Britain  was 
purposely  fanned  into  a  flame. 

Britain  was  at  this  time  engaged  in  a  gigantic  war. 
She  felt  her  fleet — of  1,000  ships  on  all  seas — to  be  her 
strongest  resource.  She  saw  her  advantage  over  her 
foes  in  cutting  off  the  supplies  of  war  coming  by  sea, 
and  in  enforcing  the  law  of  nations  that  no  neutral  may 
assist  with  supplies  either  combatant  in  a  war.  Accord- 
ingly in  1806  Britain  declared  the  coast  of  France  and 
Holland,  from  Brest  to  the  Elbe,  imder  a  blockade, 
and  sent  Lord  Keith  with  160  ships  to  enforce  it.  In 
November,  1806,  Napoleon  retaliated  in  his  so-called 
'*  Decrees,"  issued  from  Berlin,  forbidding  English  goods 
to  be  brought  upon  the  continent  of  Europe. 

In  1807  Britain  retorted,  and  by  the  celebrated  "  Orders 
in  Council,"  put  all  countries,  under  the  power  of  France, 
under  blockade.  In  November,  1807,  Napoleon  thun- 
dered forth  his  Milan  Decrees,  declaring  the  whole 
Pritish  Islands  blockaded.    Britain   had  declared   any 


266  A  Shobt  History  op 

French  possession  blockaded,  whether  actually  block- 
aded or  not,  on  the  theory  that  her  fleet  was  in  every 
sea.  Napoleon's  blockade  of  Britain  was  made  with- 
out his  having  one  ship  of  the  line  to  carry  out  his  threat. 
Looking  at  this  affair  from  the  standpoint  of  international 
law,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  "  constructive 
blockade  "  introduced  by  both  parties  was  an  absurdity. 
The  check  placed  on  commerce  irritated  the  Americans, 
and  though  both  France  and  England  were  equally 
blamable,  France  plainly  was  the  favoured  country  in 
the  United  States. 

On  the  22nd  of  June,  1807,  H.M.S.  Leopard,  of  seventy- 
four  guns,  cruising  off  Virginia,  made  formal  requisition 
upon  the  United  States  frigate  Chesapeake  to  deUver 
^  up  deserters  known  to  be  aboard  her.  The  American 
commander  denied  having  any  deserters,  when  the 
Leopard  opened  fire,  killed  three  men,  wounded  eighteen, 
'  and  having  boarded  the  disabled  ship,  took  off  the 
culprits.  Even  according  to  British  doctrine  this  was 
an  outrage.  The  Leopard  had  no  right  to  use  force 
in  her  search.  Britain  disavowed  the  act,  and  offered 
O  reparation.     This  conflict  increased  the  national  excite- 

\  ment. 

Giving  way  to  hostile  sentiment.  President  Jefferson 
refused  to  ratify  a  treaty  of  commerce,  amity,  and  navi- 
gation concluded  by  the  American  Minister  at 
London  with  the  British  ;  and  on  the  27th  of 
November  the  President  in  his  message  to  Congress 
freely  denounced  England  for  her  "  Orders,"  but  said 
nothing  of  Napoleon's  "  Decrees."  Congress  responded 
to  the  President's  bad  advice,  and  passed  an  embargo 
not  allowing  American  ships  to  leave  their  own  ports, 
the  plea  being  that  it  was  necessary  to  gather  together 
for  emergencies  all  American  ships.  By  this,  great  dis- 
tress was  caused  in  New  England  ports,  where  the  people 
depend  on  the  sea. 

In  1809,  after  Jefferson  had  served  as  President  for 
two  terms,  Madison  was  elected  to  that  office.  He  was 
eaid  to  be  less  anti-British  than  his  predecessor.     TUq 


THE  Canadian  People  267 

embargo  was  repealed,  but  a  law  of  non-intercourse 
passed,  providing  that  if  England  or  France  withdrew 
restrictions  on  commerce,  the  United  States  would  also. 
The  refusal  of  Britain  to  change  her  course  was  severely 
felt  in  New  England.  War  seemed  now  to  be  more 
likely  than  before,  and  Britain  began  to  prepare  by  sending 
as  governors  to  the  British  provinces  military  officers. 

In  1810  the  sky  grew  darker  still,  though  the  strong 
sentiment  in  the  New  England  States  was  for  peace. 
An  unfortunate  occurrence  hastened  the  conflict.  The 
President,  an  American  frigate  of  forty-four  gims,  attaicked 
a  small  British  vessel,  the  Little  Belt,  of  eighteen  guns.  ^ 
The  attack  seems  to  havaJhfiecr^iprQYQkeii.  Thirty-two  ^ 
men  were  killed  or  wounded,  and  the  little  sloop  was 
battered  to  pieces.  Negotiations  continued  during  1811. 
In  the  autumn  of  this  year  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  met,  and  determined  to  increase  the  army  from 
ten  to  thirty-five  thousand,  and  to  borrow  11,000,000 
dollars. 

Early  in  1812  national  feeling  was  roused  by  the  dis- 
closures of  one  Captain  John  Henry,  who  in  1809  had 
gone  as  a  spy  to  the  United  States  for  Governor  Craig, 
but  who,  on  not  receiving  what  he  claimed  from  the 
British,  agreed  to  sell  his  correspondence  to  the  Presi- 
dent for  50,000  dollars.  This  is  probably  one  of  the 
poorest  investments  ever  made  by  the  United  States. 
The  information  was  of  little  value,  but  its  supposed 
evidence  of  a  plot  was  used  to  inflame  the  minds  of  the 
people. 

On  June  19th,  1812,  Congress  declared  war  against 
Great  Britain,  though,  strange  to  say,  about  the  same 
time  England  repealed  the  obnoxious  orders.  The  legis- 
latures of  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  New  Jersey 
protested  against  the  war,  but  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
and  Baltimore  were  ardently  for  it.  This  division  of 
opinion  paralyzed  the  American  forces  during  the  whole 
war,  and  it  is  significant  that  no  attack  was  made  on 
Canada  east  of  Lake  Champlain.  Of  the  additional 
26,000  troops  authorized  by  Congress,  not  more  than 


268  A  Short  History  of 

one-fourth  were  enlisted,  and  great  difficulty  was  ex- 
perienced in  inducing  the  militia  to  move. 

The  action  of  Canada  was  very  different.  She  was  on 
her  defence,  and  all  classes  banded  together  to  repel  the 
invader.  Lower  Canada  numbered  some  220,000  people. 
Sir  George  Prevost  was  now  Governor-General,  having 
been  promoted  from  Nova  Scotia.  Prevost  was  very 
popular.  He  conciliated  the  French  Canadians,  and 
restored  to  office  certain  persons  removed  by  his  pre- 
decessor. The  Assembly,  though  much  divided  on 
general  politics,  very  heartily  united  in  passing  credits 
for  £250,000.  Prevost  found  that  the  French  Canadians 
preferred  being  drafted  for  service,  going  very  willingly 
if  selected  ;   the  English  preferred  to  volunteer. 

Prevost  raised  four  battalions  of  militia,  and  authorized 
a  regiment  of  Canadian  voltigeurs  under  the  valorous 
French  Canadian,  Colonel  de  Salaberry.  This  brave  man, 
one  of  our  Canadian  noblesse,  had  seen  service  in  the 
British  60th  Regiment  as  captain  in  different  parts  of  the 
world.  He  now  devoted  himself  to  his  native  province. 
In  Nova  Scotia  the  loyalty  of  the  people  asserted  itself. 
The  Legislature  for  defence  and  militia  voted  £60,000. 
In  Upper  Canada  there  was  dismay  at  first,  but  the 
spirit  of  the  U.E.  Loyalists  led  to  liberal  supplies  being 
granted.  To  defend  1,700  miles  of  frontier  there  were 
only  in  Canada  4,550  regulars.  Of  these  about  1,450 
were  in  Upper  Canada,  and  there  were  1,800  active 
mihtia.  In  Lower  Canada  there  were  some  2,000  militia. 
In  Upper  Canada,  Governor  Gore  had  returned  to  England 
in  1811. 

The  American  plan  of  attack  was  along  three  lines. 
General  Dearborn,  the  commander  of  the  "  Army  of  the 
North,"  was  to  move  from  Albany  and  strike  Lake  On- 
tario on  the  River  St.  Lawrence.  General  Van  Rensselaer 
commanded  the  "  Army  of  the  Centre  "  to  operate 
against  the  Niagara  frontier,  while  Brigadier-General 
William  HuU,  Governor  of  the  Territory  of  Michigan,  led 
the  "  Army  of  the  West  "  against  the  Detroit  border. 

The  defence  of  Upper  Canada  was  in  the  hands  of  Sir 


Buock's  Monl'-ment  at  Queenston  Heights 


2G8] 


THE  Canadian  People  269 

Isaac  Brock,  Acting  Governor.  His  was  no  easy  task. 
This  heroic  man  was  born  in  1769,  in  the  British 
island  of  Guernsey.  He  had  served  in  the  West 
Indies,  in  Holland  in  1799,  and  in  Lord  Nelson's  attack  on 
Copenhagen.  He  had  been  with  his  regiment  in  Canada 
since  1802,  and  had  become  essentially  Canadian  in 
feeling.  His  zeal,  bravery,  singleness  of  purpose,  and 
beauty  of  character  made  him  a  favourite  with  his  fol- 
lowers, something  such  as  Wolfe  had  been.  While 
Brock  was  engaged  in  July  with  the  business  of  the 
province.  General  HuU  with  2,600  men  appeared  at 
Sandwich  in  the  West.  He  was  kept  in  check  by 
Colonel  Proctor  with  some  350  men  and  a  band  of  Indians. 
An  extra  session  of  the  Legislature  at  York  delayed 
Governor  Brock. 

Suddenly  like  a  brilliant  rocket  in  the  North-West 
lakes  flashed  out  the  Canadian  victory  at  Michilimackinac, 
the  key  of  the  upper  lakes.  Captain  Roberts,  of  the 
North-West  Company,  and  Agent  Pothier,  of  Fort 
St.  Joseph — French  and  English  combined — with  thirty- 
three  regulars  and  160  Canadian  voltigeurs,  with  fowling- 
pieces  and  old  muskets,  and  two  rusty  three-pounders, 
surprised  the  American  fort  at  Mackinaw,  and  captured 
seventy-five  men,  and  a  large  quantity  of  stores  and 
valuable  furs.  The  capture  was  most  timely.  It 
attached  the  Indians  to  the  Canadians,  and  threatened 
HuU's  army  in  the  rear.     It  was  a  good  beginning. 

At  Detroit  General  Hull  issued  a  proclamation,  most 
impudent  and  insulting.  It  threatened  and  cajoled  in 
turn.  This  commander  imagined  the  Canadians  werebeing 
oppressed  by  the  British,  and  would  flock  to  him  as  a 
liberator.  Governor  Brock  issued  adignified  and  reassuring 
proclamation  in  reply.  ParUament  over,  he  hastened 
to  Detroit.  With  a  few  regulars  and  300  militia  he  urged 
his  boats  along  Lake  Erie  and  reached  Amherstburg. 

Here  he  met  Tecumseh,  chief  of  the  Shawnees.     This 
remarkable  man  was  bom  about  1768,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Miami,  Ohio.    Of  Shawnee  parent-    ®^"°^^®  • 
age,  his  name  signifying  "  Shooting  Star,"  he  divided  with 


270  A  Short  History  of 

his  brother,  Elskwatawa,  better  known  as  **  the  Prophet," 
enormous  influence  over  his  own  and  other  tribes  of 
Indians.  In  1808  Tecumseh  and  his  brother  removed  to 
the  Tippecanoe  River.  These  Indian  statesmen  sought 
to  band  the  Indians  together  in  a  great  league,  specially 
hostile  to  the  Americans.  Their  power  was  broken  in 
their  defeat  by  General  Harrison  in  the  battle  of  Tippe- 
canoe, November  7th,  1811.  Tecumseh  was  of  lofty  and 
benevolent  character,  and  now  became  a  faithful  ally  of 
the  English. 

Hull  had  suffered  reverses  even  before  Brock's  coming. 
In  boastful  pride  he  had  crossed  over  to  the 
Canadian  side  and  encamped.  Tecumseh  and  his 
band  had  intercepted  his  supplies  by  capturing  Van  Home's 
convoy,  Hull  had  then  retired  to  Detroit.  In  the  captured 
train  were  Hull's  despatches  expressing  misgivings  as  to  his 
expedition.  Hull  had  2,500  men.  Brock  330  regulars 
and  400  militia,  while  Tecumseh  had  some  600  Indians. 
Brock  on  the  15th  of  August,  1812,  with  his  characteristic 
pluck,  summoned  HuU  to  surrender.  The  American  general 
refused.  That  night  Tecumseh  crossed  the  river  with  his 
warriors  and  cut  off  HuU's  southern  connections.  On  the 
next  day  (August  16th)  Brock  crossed  with  his  force, 
having  the  assistance  of  a  small  sloop  of  war,  the  Queen 
Charlotte.  The  Americans  first  abandoned  an  outpost, 
and  soon  sent  out  a  flag  of  truce  offering  to  capitulate  ; 
Michigan  Territory,  Fort  Detroit,  a  ship  of  war,  thirty- 
three  cannon,  stores,  etc.,  and  2,500  troops  were  sur- 
rendered to  General  Brock.  It  was  an  electric  shock 
for  Canada.  The  general  who  had  threatened  a  war  of 
extermiaation  was  ]ed  through  Canada  to  Montreal  with 
lamb-Hke  gentleness. 

Brock  was  prevented  from  following  up  his  victory  by 
Q  ,  the  armistice,  arising  from  a  conference  between 
^  °°*  Britain  and  the  United  States.  Negotiations, 
however,  failed.  Brock  was  placed  at  a  disadvantage. 
The  trusted  leader  was  now  at  Fort  George,  in  Niagara. 
The  American  army  on  the  Niagara  was  6,000  strong.  On 
the  13th  of  October,  before  daybreak,  the  Americans  under 


THE  Canadian  People  271 

Van  Reusselaer  made  an  attack  at  Queenston.  Two 
British  regiments  and  200  York  Militia  held  the  landing- 
place  ;  under  cover  of  artillery  some  1,300  of  the  enemy 
effected  a  landing.  A  deadly  fusillade  now  took  place. 
Brock  having  heard  the  firing  from  Fort  George  rode 
hastily  up.  The  force  had  been  withdrawn  from  the 
Queenston  heights  above  to  defend  the  landing.  An 
American  captain  and  a  small  force  had  clambered 
unseen  up  the  river  side  of  the  height,  and  now  com- 
menced firing  on  the  rear  of  the  defenders.  This  force 
must  be  dislodged.  The  regulars  charged  up  the 
height. 

Brock,  who  was  much  exposed,  had  just  uttered  the 
words,  "  Push  on,  the  brave  York  Volunteers  !  "  when 
he  fell,  shot  in  the  breast.  Lieut.-Col.  John  Macdonell, 
his  aide,  was  shot  from  his  horse  by  the  American  troops 
above  him.  The  Americans  now  held  the  heights,  be- 
hind them  the  precipice  of  160  feet :  the  Canadians 
sullenly  prevented  their  escape. 

General  Sheaffe,  from  Fort  George,  by  a  flank  move- 
ment gained  the  heights  to  the  west  about  noon.  With 
him  was  now  a  band  of  the  Six  Nations  Indians.  He  had 
800  men  all  told.  Gradually  the  semicircle  of  SheafiFe's 
men  narrowed  in  on  the  entrapped  Americans,  and  1,100 
officers  and  men  surrendered.  Four  hundred  had  been 
shot,  bayonetted,  or  driven  over  the  precipice,  to  be 
impaled  on  the  trees  below.  Queenston  Heights  was 
a  signal  victory,  but  all  its  glory  was  bedimmed  by 
the  death  of  Sir  Isaac  Brock  and  his  gallant  Canadian 
aide,  young  Macdonell.  No  memorial  represents  a 
truer  sympathy  than  Brock's  monument  on  Queenston 
Heights. 

General  Smyth,  as  great  a  braggart  as  Hull,  now 
assumed  command  of  the  4,500  troops  on  the  Niagara 
frontier.  His  theory  was  that  the  Canadians  should 
immediately  lay  down  their  arms.  They  obstinately 
refused,  and  repulsed  all  his  landing-parties,  and  when 
December  came,  the  Americans  retired  into  winter 
quarters.     General   Smyth,   threatened    with    "tar   and 


272  A  Short  History  of 

feathers  "  by  his  own  men,  hurried  to  the  south,  and  left 
the  service. 

Thus  ended  the  first  campaign.  Its  advantages, 
says  an  American  historian,  rested  altogether  with  the 
British,  though  the  Constitution  and  Wasp,  American 
vessels,  made  naval  captures.  Throughout  the  whole 
British  Empire  sympathy  was  aroused.  A  society  for 
the  relief  of  the  distress  caused  by  the  war,  known  as 
"  The  Loyal  and  Patriotic  Society  of  Upper  Canada," 
was  begun.  For  it  were  raised  upwards  of  £14,000, 
and  a  perusal  of  its  minutes  now  very  rare,  leads  to  the 
belief  that  it  accomplished  much  good. 

The  war-spirit  had  continued  to  strengthen  in  the 
1813.  United  States.     Many  who  had  opposed    the 

_  . ,  war  now  acquiesced,  in  order  to  avoid  national 
disgrace.  The  loss  of  Michigan  had  especi- 
ally aroused  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  the  neighbom:ing 
states.  Early  in  January  General  Harrison  threatened 
Colonel  Proctor,  who  held  Detroit.  Proctor  had  now 
about  1,000  troops,  and  1,200  Indians  and  militia. 
General  Winchester  had  advanced  from  his  supports 
toward  Detroit,  when  Proctor  fell  on  him  at  Frenchtown, 
and  captured,  after  a  desperate  struggle,  upwards  of  500 
men,  while  the  enemy  lost  some  400  killed  and  wounded. 
Roundhead,  the  Huron  chief,  captured  the  American 
general. 

In  the  eastern  campaign  a  gallant  deed  was  done  in 
the  capture  of  Ogdensburg,  as  a  reprisal  for  a  nocturnal 
raid  on  Brockville.  At  Prescott  there  lay  a  force  of 
Q  ,  ,  some  500  militiamen,  and  the  Glengarry  Fen- 
g  ens  urg.  ^^^^jes  the  revival  of  Chief  Macdonell's  dis- 
banded regiment  of  the  same  name  to  which  reference 
has  been  made  already.  It  was  their  practice  to  drill 
upon  the  ice  opposite  Prescott.  On  the  22nd  of  February 
in  two  parties,  with  artillery,  they  made,  by  crossing  on 
the  ice,  an  unexpected  dash  on  Ogdensburg,  and  after  a 
severe  fight  took  it,  the  garrison  having  chiefly  escaped. 
The  military  stores  taken  were  of  value,  and  four  ships 
were  burnt. 


THE  Canadian  People  273 

The  American  fleet  on  Lake  Ontario  had  been  in- 
creased, and  in  1813  controlled  the  lake.  „  . 
General  Sheaffe  had  succeeded  Brock  as 
Grovernor  as  well  as  commander  of  the  forces.  Some 
600  troops  were  in  York,  the  capital.  York  had  about 
1,000  inhabitants,  and  was  not  regarded  as  of  strategic 
importance.  The  Americans,  however,  set  sail  from 
Sackett's  Harbour  with  sixteen  sail  and  2,500  men  to 
attack  it.  The  enemy  landed  to  the  west  of  the  town, 
and  General  SheafFe  evacuated  the  works,  and  retired 
down  the  Kingston  Road.  The  Americans  invested  the 
town,  and  though  skirmishing  took  place,  had  an  easy 
victory.  The  land  force  was  under  General  Pike,  an 
officer  well  known  as  having,  when  a  lieutenant,  explored 
the  sources  of  the  Mississippi.  Just  as  the  Americans 
had  weU  filled  the  fort,  the  powder-magazine  exploded 
with  violence,  killing  and  wounding  about  250.  General 
Pike,  struck  in  the  breast  by  a  flying  stone,  died  soon 
after.  The  Americans,  contrary  to  the  articles  of  sur- 
render, shamefully  burnt  the  town,  and  retired  from 
York  on  the  2nd  of  May,  1813.  While  the  squadron 
was  absent,  Sackett's  Harbour  was  attacked  by  a  strong 
force.  The  garrison  seemed  to  be  on  the  point  of  sur- 
rendering the  fort,  when  Sir  George  Prevost,  to  the 
surprise  of  all,  ordered  a  retreat. 

Little  York  taken.  Commodore  Chauncey  then  crossed 
the  lake  to  Fort  George  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Niagara  River.    General  Vincent  commanded  (Newark)'^ 
the  fort.     Twenty-four  of  Hull's  guns  frowned 
from  its  bastions.     Its  defender  had   1,340  men.     The 
American  army  on  the  Niagara  frontier  numbered  6,000. 
Chauncey  had  eleven  war-vessels  and  900  seamen.     On 
the  27th  of  May  the  expected  day  came.     Vincent  drew 
his  men  out  about  a  mile  from  the  fort  and  awaited  the 
attack.     He  was  overpowered  and  retired,  having  lost 
nearly  450  soldiers. 

The  Canadian  force  retired  to  a  strong  position,  "  Bea- 
ver Dams,"  twelve  miles  from  Niagara  on  the  heights, 
having  given  up  Fort  Erie  and    Chippewa  and  blown 
18 


2?4  A  Short  History  o^ 

up    Fort    George.      Vincent    had   now  1,600  men,   and 
with   these  he  retired  to  Burlington  Heights, 
Creek!^  near  the  present  city  of  Hamilton.  An  American 

army  of  2,500  men  followed  General  Vincent  to 
Stoney  Creek.  On  the  night  of  the  8th  of  June,  Colonel 
Harvey  of  the  British  force,  with  upwards  of  750  men,  fell 
stealthily  on  the  sleeping  American  army,  scattered  the 
troops,  killed  many,  captured  the  American  generals 
Chandler  and  Winder,  and  about  100  men,  along  with 
guns  and  stores.  The  adventurers  then  retired  to  their 
camp.  The  scattered  American  soldiers  reassembled  in 
the  morning  and  retired  in  a  disorderly  manner  down 
the  country  to  Fort  George. 

Vincent   now  followed  the   retreating   army   and  re- 
occupied  Beaver  Dams.     One  of  his  outposts 
Dams.^  was  held  by  Lieutenant  Fitzgibbon  and  thirty 

men.  Smarting  with  defeat,  the  American 
general  sought  to  surprise  this  station  as  a  basis  for 
future  attacks.  He  secretly  despatched  Colonel  Boerstler 
with  nearly  700  men  to  capture  it.  A  wounded  militia- 
man, living  within  the  lines  at  Queenston,  heard  by  chance 
of  the  expedition.  The  cripple  could  not  acquaint  the 
Canadian  army  of  the  danger.  His  wife,  Mrs.  Laura 
Secord,  volunteered  to  go. 

At  three  in  the  morning  she  left  home,  passed  with 
skill  the  American  lines,  and  for  twenty  miles  hurried 
through  the  forest,  afraid  to  follow  a  road.  Her  danger 
was  now  from  the  British  sentry  and  the  Indians.  The 
Indian  chief  was  very  doubtful,  but  at  last  took  her  to 
Fitzgibbon.  The  alarm  was  given,  and  that  night  the 
men  lay  on  their  arms.  Early  next  morning  the  Ameri- 
can party  came,  but  an  ambuscade  had  been  prepared 
for  them,  and  after  severe  fighting,  542  men  surrendered 
into  the  hands  of  some  260.  General  Dearborn  soon 
after  retired  from  the  command  of  the  American  army, 
to  be  succeeded  by  General  Boyd. 

British  parties  captured  Fort  Schlosser  and  Black  Rock 
on  the  Niagara  River  at  this  time,  though  at  the  latter 
place  with  the  loss  of   Colonel  Bishopp,  the  idol  of   his 


THE  Canadian  People  275 

men.  Colonel  Scott,  in  command  of  troops  on  board 
Commodore  Chaimcey's  fleet,  again  scom*ed  Lake  On- 
tario. Landing  at  Bm*lington  Heights  on  the  _,.  -^  , 
31st  of  July,  they  did  nothing  more  than  recon- 
noitre the  works  and  depart.  Afterwards  the  second 
attack  on  York  was  made  and  the  barracks  burnt. 
After  this  a  trial  of  strength  took  place  between  Sir 
James  Yeo's  fleet,  now  sent  forth  from  Kingston  Harbour, 
and  Chauncey's  squadron.  The  Americans  lost  two 
vessels  in  a  squall,  and  two  were  captured  by  the  British, 
but  the  result  between  the  two  fleets  was  indecisive. 

During  this  summer  of  1813  two  most  disastrous 
events  befell  the  Canadians.  The  first  of  these  was  the 
loss  of  the  British  fleet  on  Lake  Erie.  Hitherto  -,  _  . 
Britain  had  controlled  this  lake.  The  Americans, 
however,  continued  to  build  vessels  at  Presqu'isle,  now 
Erie  City.  Commodore  Perry  had  ten  ships  in  harbour, 
but  they  could  not  pass  the  bar  with  their  guns  aboard. 
Captain  Barclay,  the  British  commander,  knew  this,  and 
lay  with  his  fleet  near  by.  A  gale  having  scattered  the 
British  fleet.  Perry  escaped  and  loaded  his  ships  with 
their  gims  from  lighters  outside  the  harbour.  On  the  10th 
of  September,  1813,  the  squadrons  met  at  Put- in  Bay, 
Barclay  with  but  six  ships,  and  two-thirds  the  number 
of  men  of  his  opponent.  At  first  Barclay  had  the  ad- 
vantage. Perry's  flag-ship  having  struck  her  flag.  The 
wind  shifted  and  the  fortune  of  battle  changed.  Barclay 
fought  with  bull-dog  courage.  In  his  fleet,  "  every 
officer,  in  fact,  commanding  vessels  and  their  seconds, 
were  either  killed  or  wounded  so  severely  as  to  be  unable 
to  keep  the  deck."  The  whole  squadron  was  compelled 
to  surrender  to  Perry.  Barclay  was  court-martialled, 
but  was  acquitted  with  honour. 

The  disaster  on  Lake   Erie  left   Proctor   at   Detroit 
defenceless.     Winter  was  coming  on,  and  he 
determined  to  retreat  on  Burlington  Heights,  xecumseh? 
He  dismantled  Maiden,  Windsor,  and  Sandwich, 
removed  his  guns  from  Detroit,  and  left  that  scene  of  his 
former  successes  on  the  28th  of  September.     The  heavy 


276  A  Short  History  of 

baggage  was  sent  up  the  Thames  in  boats,  and  with  his 
540  regulars  and  290  militia,  he  retired  in  company 
with  Tecumseh,  who  led  500  Indians.  General  Harrison 
followed  Proctor  with  3,500  men,  1,500  of  them  the 
famous  Kentucky  mounted  riflemen.  Proctor's  progress 
was  slow,  for  the  roads  were  unspeakably  bad. 

Proctor  halted  at  Moravian  Town,  and  was  here  over- 
taken, 5th  of  October,  by  the  stronger  and  more  exultant 
American  force.  The  British  force  was  advantageously 
situated.  The  Thames  was  on  his  left  flank  ;  300  yards 
to  the  right  of  the  road  was  a  dense  cedar  swamp.  This 
Tecumseh's  Indians  occupied.  But  there  was  no  spirit 
left  in  the  troops  ;  they  surrendered  with  the  most 
trifling  losses.  The  Indians  alone  proved  valorous. 
Their  brave  chief  Tecumseh  fell,  and  no  man  knows  his 
grave.  That  his  body  was  mutilated  by  the  Americans 
is  not  generally  believed.  Mair,  a  Canadian  poet,  has 
embalmed  the  name  and  deeds  of  Tecumseh  in  a  drama 
of  much  merit.  Proctor  retired  with  his  staff  to  Bur- 
lington, was  court-martialled,  condemned,  and  suspended 
the  service. 

The  third  operation  of  the  American  army  was  the 
most  formidable,  but  proved  the  least  success- 
guay.  "  ^^^-  The  army  of  the  north  was  divided  into 
sections,  one  to  move  on  Montreal  by  way  of 
Lake  Champlain,  the  other  to  pass  by  way  of  Lake 
Ontario  and  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  same  point.  The 
force  on  Lake  Champlain  numbered  some  7,000,  with  ten 
field-pieces.  It  was  the  intention  of  General  Hampton, 
who  commanded  the  expedition,  to  advance  by  the 
mouth  of  the  Chateauguay  River,  and  cross  to  Montreal 
Island  above  Lachine. 

The  brave  De  Salaberry  was  hurried  forward  to  at- 
tack the  American  camp  on  the  Chateauguay  River. 
This  he  did,  and  checked  the  enemy.  Colonel  de 
Salaberry  commanded  about  1,800  Canadians  and  170 
Indians,  and  took  up  a  strong  position  with  his  small 
force.  On  the  26th  of  October  Hampton  advanced 
with    3,500    men   to    annihilate   the   foe.     The   French 


THE  Canadian  People  277 

Canadians,  holding  an  advance-post,  with  their  accus- 
tomed vivacity  fired  as  the  bugles  sounded.  Their 
position  was  very  perplexing  to  the  Americans.  De 
Salaberry  alarmed  the  enemy  by  his  ruse  de  guerre  of 
sounding  the  advance  with  bugles  at  difEerent  points  in 
the  abattis.  The  Americans  supposed  a  large  force  of 
Canadians  to  be  advancing.  Hampton  withdrew  his 
forces,  leaving  300  French  Canadians  masters  of  the 
field.  This  army  was  thus  checked  in  its  advance  on 
Montreal.  Unfading  glory  covers  the  name  of  Chateau- 
guay  for  the  French  Canadians ;  the  British  Prince 
Regent  presented  a  stand  of  colours  to  each  regiment 
engaged. 

The  army  to  descend  the  St.  Lawrence  from  Lake 
Ontario  consisted  of  8,000  men  under  Wilkinson.  For 
three  months  the  operations  were  delayed  at  Sackett's 
Harbour.  On  the  3rd  of  November  a  flotilla  of  300 
boats,  escorted  by  gunboats,  passed  by  Kingston,  and 
descended  the  St.  Lawrence.  In  order  to  clear  the 
course  for  the  expedition,  a  force  of  1,200  men  was 
landed  to  accompany  the  boats  along  the  north  shore. 
The  British  immediately  sent  a  force  of  800  from  Kings- 
ton to  hang  upon  the  rear  of  the  American  army  and 
harass  it.  Colonel  Harvey,  the  hero  of  Stoney 
Creek,  accompanied  it.  On  the  10th  of  p^!.*'' 
November  the  American  army  turned  upon 
the  British  advance  at  Chrysler's  Farm,  but  was  com- 
pletely vanquished.  This  was  considered  the  most 
scientifically  fought  battle  of  the  war.  The  fleeing  army 
overtook  its  advanced  force  at  Cornwall,  and  there  heard 
of  De  Salaberry  having  checked  General  Hampton. 
The  attack  on  Montreal  was  abandoned,  and  the  American 
army  crossed  the  St.  Lawrence  and  went  into  winter 
quarters. 

The  Maritime  Provinces  were  free  from  annoyance 
from  land  attacks,  but  were  frequently  excited  with 
news  from  the  sea.  Halifax  was  the  station  of  the 
British  for  the  North  Atlantic.  The  Americans  were, 
considering  the  prestige  of  Britain  on  the  ocean,  very 


278  A  Short  History  of 

successful  in  1813.  The  American  frigates  President^ 
Congress,  and  Essex  made  many  and  valuable  captures. 
The  British  brig  Pelican,  however,  captured  the  Ameri- 
can ship  Argus  on  the  14th  of  August,  but  the  great 
event  which  threw  Halifax  into  transports  of  joy  was  the 
result  of  the  duel  between  H.M.S.  Shannon  and  the  U.S. 
frigate  Chesapeake  on  the  18th  of  June.  Captain  Broke 
of  the  Shannon  challenged  Lawrence  of  the  Chesapeake 
to  leave  Boston  Harbour,  and  try  conclusions  on  the 
open  sea.  The  challenge  was  accepted.  The  Shannon 
was  manned  by  a  splendidly  trained  crew.  Though 
the  British  vessel  seemed  to  be  getting  the  worse  of  the 
cannonade,  yet  on  coming  to  close  quarters  the  British 
seamen  boarded  their  American  antagonist,  and  soon 
brought  her  a  prize  to  Halifax,  where  the  captain  and 
lieutenant  were  buried.  Though  the  fortunes  of  war 
varied  in  1813,  it  was  plain  to  both  contestants  that  the 
United  States  were  not  able  to  capture  Canada.  A 
portion  of  the  western  peninsula  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
enemy,  but  the  war  of  defence  had  been  thus  far  remark- 
ably successful. 

Early  this  year  the  American  force  on  Lake  Champ- 
g  -^  lain  made  an  advance,  5,000  strong,  on  Lacolle 

Mill,  near  the  borders  of  Lower  Canada. 
Canadian  militia,  the  voltigeurs,  and  a  few  companies 
of  regulars  bravely  defended  the  mill,  and  also  assumed 
the  defensive,  at  times  even  issuing  against  the  foe  in 
sorties.  The  American  force  was  obliged  to  retire 
without  accomplishing  anything.  In  March,  much  to 
the  delight  of  the  British,  an  embassy  of  chiefs  of  the 
Ottawas,  O  jib  ways,  Shawnees,  Dela  wares,  Mohawks, 
Sacs,  Foxes,  Kickapoos,  and  Winnebagoes,  from  the 
Upper  Lakes,  arrived  in  Montreal,  pledged  their  faith  to 
Britain,  and  urged  that  no  peace  be  made  with  the  "  big 
knives  "  till  the  Indian  lands,  taken  by  fraud  by  them, 
should  have  been  restored.  This  was  encouraging  to 
Canada,  and  showed  how  in  the  Indian  mind  the  for- 
times  of  war  were  going. 

The  campaign  opened  briskly  in  Upper  Canada.     Sir 


THE  Canadian  People  279 

Gordon  Drummond  and  Sir  James  Yeo  sallied  forth  with 
their  fleet  from  Kingston,  and  early  in  May  captm:ed  the 
fort  of  Oswego,  carried  away  the  stores,  and  dismantled 
the  fort.  The  British  fleet  had  now  supremacy  on  Lake 
Ontario. 

The  Americans  made  great  efforts  to  take  the  Niagara 
frontier.  Their  object  in  this  was  to  prevent  the  Am- 
herstbrn-g  region  being  occupied  by  the  British.  They 
likewise  planned  an  attack  on  Michilimackinac,  which, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  war,  had  been  held  by  the 
British.  The  Niagara  frontier  captured,  and  Michili- 
mackinac taken,  they  would  then  fall  on  Kingston.  This 
threefold  project  was  a  very  small  season's  work,  com- 
pared with  what  they  had  proposed  at  the  opening  of 
the  war. 

Michilimackinac  had  not  been  forgotten  by  the  Cana- 
dians. Unable  to  pfiss  Lake  Erie,  Colonel  McDowall 
had  in  May  conducted  some  ninety  men  and  supplies 
from  York  to  Lake  Simcoe,  thence  to  Georgian  Bay, 
and  by  open  boat  across  Lake  Huron  to  Michilimackinac. 
In  August  900  Americans  attacked  this  fort,  but  were 
repulsed,  and  two  schooners  taken  from  them. 

On  the  Niagara  River,  Fort  Erie  soon  fell  into  Ameri- 
can hands,  though  the  British  held  Fort  Niagara  on  the 
American  side.  On  the  6th  of  July  General  Riall,  the 
British  commander,  with  2,000  men  and  a  number  of 
guns,  attacked  the  large  army  of  Americans  near  Chip- 
pewa, but  was  repulsed  and  fell  back  on  the  road  toward 
Burlington  Heights.  Reinforced,  he  advanced  a  few 
miles,  and  threw  900  of  his  men  to  the  high  groimd 
near  Niagara  Falls.  This  force  was  attacked  by  the 
Americans.  He  advanced  to  Queenston,  and  sent  word 
to  the  detachment  to  fall  back  on  him  there. 

On  the  very  day  of  these  occurrences  Sir  Gordon 
Drummond,  with  reinforcements,  had  come  across  the 
lake  from  York.  He  arrived  to  meet  the  retreating 
force  near  Queenston.  Countermanding  the  retreat,  with 
1,800  men  he  advanced  against  the  enemy,  and  the  fight- 
ing was  severe  till  nine  o'clock.     Riall's  division  now 


$80  A  Short  History  of 

joined  them,  and  with  3,000  British  troops,  against  5,000 
Americans,  the  severest  battle  of  the  war  was  fought  till 
eleven  at  night.  The  Americans  retired  with  precipita- 
tion across  the  Chippewa,  and  the  next  day, 
Limef  ^  throwing  baggage,  camp  equipage,  and  pro- 
visions into  the  rapids,  cut  the  bridge  behind 
them  and  retired  to  Fort  Erie.  Upwards  of  800  men 
were  killed  on  each  side.  None  of  the  actors  now  remain 
to  tell  their  descendants  of  the  hand-to-hand  encounter 
they  fought  in  the  dark  at  Lundy's  Lane  on  the  26th  of 
July,  1814. 

The  British  commander  invested  Fort  Erie,  but  losing 
heavily  in  two  severe  encounters,  fell  back  to  Chippewa. 
On  the  6th  of  November  the  Americans  evacuated  Fort 
Erie  and  crossed  the  Niagara  River.  On  Lake  Cham- 
plain  the  British  squadron,  on  the  11th  of  September, 
attacked  the  American  fleet,  and  a  land  force  advanced 
against  Plattsburg.  Disaster  overwhelmed  the  British 
ships,  and  the  army  was  compelled  to  retire,  to  be  dis- 
persed at  Isle-aux-Noirs,  St.  John's,  Chambly,  and  La- 
prairie.     This  was  a  severe  blow  to  our  army. 

The  Nova  Scotians  saw,  during  this  year,  the  noble 
British  squadron  which  made  the  Americans  in  their 
unjustifiable  war  on  Canada  feel  the  power  of  Britain. 
British  ships  battered  to  pieces  the  fortifications  of  the 
American  seaboard.  From  Maine  to  Mexico  was  block- 
aded. Fort  McHenry  before  Baltimore  was  bombarded, 
and  New  York,  Boston,  New  London  felt  the  sea-king's 
power,  which  also  captured  and  burnt  Washington, 
the  Federal  capital.  The  British  expedition  against 
New  Orleans  was  repulsed  by  General  Jackson.  On 
the  24th  of  December,  1814,  the  British  and  Ameri- 
can plenipotentiaries  signed  at  Ghent  the  articles  of 
peace,  which  provided  for  a  "  mutual  restitution  of  con- 
quered territories  or  possessions."  The  war  gave  to  the 
several  provinces  self-respect  and  a  feeling  of  confidence 
in  their  future.  It  taught  the  Americans  that  it  is  hard 
to  conquer  a  people,  though  few,  in  their  own  country, 
and  also  that  Britain  will  defend  all  parts  of  her  empire. 


THE  Canadian  People  281 

After  referring  in  his  general  order  to  the  army  to 
its  having  fallen  to  the  lot  of  the  small  Canadian  army 
"to  struggle  through  an  arduous  and  unequal  contest, 
remote  from  succour,  and  deprived  of  many  advantages 
experienced  in  the  more  cultivated  countries  of  Europe," 
Sir  George  Prevost  says  :  "At  Detroit  and  at  the  River 
Raisin  two  entire  armies,  with  their  commanding  gene- 
rals, were  captured,  and  greatly  superior  armies  were 
repulsed.  The  several  battles  of  Queenston,  Stoney 
Creek,  Chateauguay,  Chrystler's,  La  Colle,  Lundy's 
Lane,  near  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  and  the  subsequent 
operations  on  that  frontier  will  ever  immortalize  the 
heroes  who  were  on  those  occasions  afforded  the  oppor- 
timity  of  distinguishing  themselves.  The  capture  of 
Michilimackinac,  Ogdensburg,  Oswego,  and  Fort  Niagara, 
by  assault,  are  memories  of  the  prowess  of  British  arms." 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  EEMOTE  KINGDOM  OF  THE  FUR-TEADERS 

Section  I. — The  great  Fur-trading  Companies 

Far  away  from  the  strife  of  contending  political  parties, 
and  unvisited,  except  on  Hudson  Bay,  with  the  din  of 
border  wars,  sleeps  under  its  coat  of  snow  the  vast  king- 
dom of  the  fur-traders.  Overhead  is  the  dazzling  bright- 
ness of  a  northern  sky,  which  at  night  is  covered  to  the 
very  zenith  with  dancing  auroras.  In  summer  for  three, 
four,  or  more  months,  the  streams  are  unbound,  a  luxu- 
riant vegetation  bursts  forth,  and  the  summer  green  is  as 
intense  as  the  wintry  whiteness  had  been. 

Here  the  fur-trader  must  remain  king.  Mink  and 
beaver,  marten  and  otter,  wolves,  foxes,  and  bears  are  his 
subjects,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  all  autocrats,  the  subjects 
exist  for  the  profit  of  the  ruler.  "  Pro  pelle  cut  em  "  is 
the  motto  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 

Perhaps  one  quarter  of  North  America  will  always 
remain  the  fur-traders'  preserve.  If  a  line  be  drawn  from 
Fort  Churchill,  on  the  shore  of  Hudson  Bay,  to  Norway 
House,  at  the  northern  end  of  Lake  Winnipeg,  thence  to 
Fort  Resolution  on  the  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  westward 
to  the  Stikeen  River  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  boundary 
of  a  region  will  be  marked  to  the  north  of  which  is  found 
the  fur- traders'  kingdom. 

It  is  true  this  fiu:-traders'  line  has  for  two  centuries 
been  moving  northward.  Time  was,  as  we  have  seen, 
when  the  region  of  the  great  lakes  from  Ontario  to  Su- 
perior and  Michigan  was  the  home  of  the  trader.  It 
was  for  the  fur  of  this  large  area  that  the  early  governors 


A  Shobt  Histoby  of  the  Canadian  People     283 

of  New  France  and  New  York  plotted  and  fought.  So 
more  recently  Rupert's  Land  was  kept  by  the  Hudson's 
Bay  CJompany  closed  under  fur-trading  conditions. 

By  the  opening  up  of  this  region  by  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  the  fur-line  was  moved  north  six  to  ten  degrees. 
Perhaps  from  the  physical  condition  of  the  country,  as 
unsuited  to  agriculture  and  possessed  of  a  severe  climate, 
the  region  north  of  the  line  traced  above  may  always  re- 
main undisturbed  to  the  fur-trader.  Of  this,  however,  no 
one  can  speak  certainly,  for  the  same  declaration  was 
made  of  New  York,  then  of  Canada,  and  later  still  of 
Rupert's  Land. 

More  than  two  centuries  ago,  a  colonial  captain, 
Zachariah  Gillam,  taking  with  him  two  French  explorers, 
Groselliers  and  Radisson,  who  had  journeyed  through 
New  France,  departed  in  two  ships,  under  the  direction 
of  English  merchants,  to  plant  a  post  on  Hudson  Bay, 
which  as  we  have  seen  had  been  discovered  sixty  years 
before  by  Captain  Hudson.  Radisson  in  the  Eaglet 
never  reached  the  Bay. 

It  was  in  1668  that  Captain  Gillam  sailed  from  Graves- 
end  in  his  ship,  the  Nonsuch.  The  New  England  cap- 
tain reached  the  southern  extremity  of  Hudson  Bay,  and, 
where  Rupert's  factory  afterwards  stood,  built  a  small 
stone  erection,  which  he  named  Fort  St.  Charles,  and 
returned  to  Britain  in  1669. 

The  merchants  interested  then  obtained  the  assistance 
of  Prince  Rupert,  the  king's  cousin,  of  General  Monk, 
whom  the  king  had  made  Duke  of  Albemarle,  and  of  the 
skilful  Lord  Ashley,  in  obtaining  from  Charles  11.  a 
charter,  which  they  claimed  on  the  ground  of  their  having 
erected  Fort  St.  Charles  ;  and  thus  was  begun  the  Com- 
pany of  Merchant  Adventurers  trading  into  Hudson  Bay. 
The  great  fur  company  was  incorporated  on  Hudson's 
the  2nd  of  May,  1670,  under  Prince  Rupert  as  Bay  Corn- 
first  Governor.  P^y- 

Fifteen  years  afterwards  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
possessed  five  forts  on  Hudson  Bay,  viz.  Albany,  Hayes, 
Rupert,  Nelson,  and  Severn.    Their  trade  was  conducted 


284  A  Short  History  of 

entirely  on  the  shores  of  the  bay,  the  Indians  coming 
down  the  rivers  from  Lake  Athabasca  and  the  country  of 
the  Christinaux  beyond  Lake  Winnipeg. 

We  have  seen  how  greatly  the  fur-trade  was  disturbed 
by  the  inroads  of  the  bold  D 'Iberville  during  the  last 
quarter  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Though  for  a  certain 
period  all  their  forts  were  in  the  hands  of  the  French, 
yet  from  time  to  time  the  "Merchant  Adventurers" 
comforted  themselves  with  a  dividend  of  fifty  or  more 
per  cent. 

In  1749  the  successful  trade  carried  on  stirred  up  the 
envy  of  rival  merchants,  and  in  that  year  the  English 
Parliament  appointed  a  committee  to  investigate  such 
charges  as  that  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  was  failing 
to  develop  trade  as  fully  as  might  be  done.  Several 
works  were  at  this  time  written  on  Hudson  Bay,  and  the 
Blue-book  of  1749  contains  the  report  of  the  committee. 
While  the  Company  was,  in  the  main,  exonerated,  yet  no 
doubt  the  investigation  led  to  the  exploration  of  the 
interior  country  a  few  years  after. 

Perhaps  the  strongest  influence  leading  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  to  penetrate  the  interior  was  the 
traders  successful  fur-trade  of  rival  merchants.     These 

were  the  North- West  traders  of  Montreal.  So 
early  as  1766  the  Scottish  merchants  of  Montreal,  Curry, 
and  Findlay  followed  the  route  of  Verendrye  already 
described,  and  leaving  Lake  Superior,  reached  Lake 
Winnipeg,  and  points  so  far  north  as  English  Kiver  and 
the  Saskatchewan.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  began 
to  find  their  trade  diminishing,  just  as  the  French  trade 
with  the  Iroquois  had  been  cut  off  at  its  sources  by 
Governor  Dongan  and  his  English  traders  of  New  York. 

The  fur  merchants  from  Montreal,  to  prevent  rivalry 
among  themselves,  for  there  were  no  less  than  six  houses 
in  Montreal  engaged  in  this  trade,  agreed  to  imite,  and 
thus  Messrs.  Frobisher,  McTavish,  McGillivray,  Gregory, 
McLeod,  and  others  became,  in  the  year  1787,  the  famous 
North- West  Company,  or,  as  they  were  familiarly  called, 
the  "  Nor '-Westers."    With  surprising  ability  and  sue- 


THE  Canadian  People  286 

cess  this  company  carried  its  trade,  and  built  forts  along 
the  route  from  Montreal  up  the  Ottawa  River,  on  the 
upper  lakes,  through  the  Rainy  River  region,  and  to  the 
very  Saskatchewan  and  Athabasca  districts.  In  a  few 
years  after,  the  company  pushed  on  across  the  Rocky 
Mountains  as  far  as  the  Columbia  River  on  the  Pacific 
coast. 

The  Nor'- Westers  became  at  this  time  the  chief  influ- 
ence in  trade,  and  in  public  affairs  as  well,  in  French 
Canada.  The  Executive  and  Legislative  Coimcils  of 
Lower  Canada  were  made  up  of  Nor'- Westers  or  those 
imder  their  influence.  Even  the  judges  on  the  bench 
must  bow  before  this  powerful  combination.  About  the 
year  1788  the  company  took  permanent  hold  of  trade  in 
the  Red  River  district. 

Jealousy,  however,  entered  into  the  North- West  Com- 
pany councils  after  a  few  years,  so  that  in  1796  a  section 
broke  off  from  the  old  company,  calling  them-  -,,    „  „ 
selves  the   **New  North-West  Company,"  or  company, 
better  known  as  the  **  X  Y  Company."     The 
leaders  in  this  new  association  were  the  Messrs.  Gregory, 
and  such  afterwards  well-known  traders  as  Sir  Alexander 
Mackenzie  and  the  Hon.  Edward  Ellice.     With  much 
energy  the  young  company  built  trading-posts  alongside 
of  their  two  older  rivals,  especially  beside  the  Nor'- 
Wester  posts,  carried  on  a  vigorous  trade,  and,  sad  to 
say,  during  this  period  the  use  of  spirituous  liquors  as  a 
means  of  trading  with  the  Indians  became  more  common 
than  ever  before. 

After  a  few  years  the  keen  rivalry  ceased,  for  in  1804 
the  old  and  new  North-West  Companies  united.  Their 
union  was  followed  by  the  best  results,  for  dispensing 
with  rival  posts  at  many  points  they  were  able  to  occupy 
localities  Mtherto  unvisited,  and  to  build  more  substan- 
tial forts. 

Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  North-West  Com- 
pany, by  way  of  Peace  River,  crossed  to  the  Pacific  slope, 
following  the  course  of  their  noted  partner.  Sir  Alexander 
Mackenzie.     Simon  Eraser,  a  pioneer  trader,  discovered 


286  A  Short  History  of 

the  river,  which  bears  his  name,  in  1806,  and  built  on  it 
the  first  trading-house  in  British  Columbia,  Fort  Fraser. 
David  Thompson,  the  astronomer  and  surveyor  of  the 
North- West  Company,  crossed  by  the  same  route,  dis- 
covered the  British  Columbian  river,  named  from  him, 
and  chose  sites  for  forts  on  the  Columbia  River  in  1811. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  John  Jacob  Astor,  a  leading 
merchant  of  New  York,  began  the  company 
Company'  which  bears  his  name,  but  which  was  also 
known  as  the  "  Pacific  Fur  Company."  In 
1810,  led  by  the  prosperity  of  the  Montreal  traders, 
Mr.  Astor  engaged  a  number  of  Scottish  and  French 
Canadian  clerks  and  trappers  in  Montreal,  and  sent 
them  by  the  ship  Tonquin,  by  way  of  Cape  Horn  and  up 
the  west  coast  of  America,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia 
River  to  engage  in  the  fur  trade.  Here  their  fort  "  As- 
toria "  was  built.  They  met  many  reverses ;  their 
ship  was  seized  by  the  natives,  and  almost  all  on  board 
were  massacred. 

The  North- West  Company,  regarding  the  Astor  Com- 
pany as  intruders,  boldly  opposed  them,  stirred  up  the 
Indians  against  them,  occupied  the  headwaters  of  the 
various  streams,  and  succeeded  so  well  that  in  1813  Mr. 
Astor  was  glad  to  sell  out  to  these  determined  traders  of 
Montreal.  Washington  Irving  has  given  a  vivid  sketch 
of  the  sufferings  of  the  Americans  in  his  "Astoria." 

We  have  already  hinted  that  it  was  self-preserva- 
The  H.  B.  ^i^^  which  induced  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
Company  pany  to  ascend  the  streams  from  Hudson  Bay  to 
awakened,  ^^^q  interior.  The  Nor'-Westers  having  in 
1772  erected  Sturgeon  Lake  Fort,  in  1774  Fort  Cum- 
berland was  built  on  the  Saskatchewan  by  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company.  With  true  British  perseverance,  when 
once  undertaken,  the  movement  inland  was  carried  on 
with  great  success. 

Before  the  end  of  the  century  Fort  Edmonton  (1795) 
had  been  built  almost  in  view  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
Carlton  (1797)  not  far  from  the  forks  of  the  great  Sas- 
katchewan, Brandon  House   (1794)  at  the  junction  of 


THE  Canadian  People  287 

the  Souris  and  Assiniboine,  a  fort  on  Lake  Winnipeg 
(1795),  another  on  the  Assiniboine  (1796),  and  it  is 
asserted  that  even  on  the  Red  River  a  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  fort  was  built  in  1799. 

In  the  year  1812  a  new  element  entered  into  the 
operations  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  This  conflict 
was  the  colonization  movement  of  the  Earl  of  the 
of  Selkirk.  Lord  Selkirk  was  the  controlling  Companies, 
spirit  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  having  bought 
much  of  their  stock.  His  great  aim  was  to  build 
up  a  colony,  but  though  the  colony  on  the  Red  River 
was  to  be  kept  separate  from  the  fur  trade,  yet  in 
the  eyes  of  their  opponents  they  were  one.  Governor 
Miles  Macdonell  of  the  Colony,  anxious  for  the  support 
of  his  colonists,  forbade  the  export  of  pemican  from  Red 
River  by  the  Nor'-Westers,  but  promised  to  pay  for 
what  the  colony  required.  The  proclamation  to  this 
effect  was  issued  in  1814.  New  misunderstandings 
constantly  arose  between  the  companies.  Attacks,  ar- 
rests, and  reprisals  were  the  commonest  events  in  the 
Red  River  settlement.  At  length  came,  in  1816,  the 
skirmish  of  "  Seven  Oaks,"  near  Fort  Douglas,  where 
Governor  Semple,  Macdonell 's  successor,  was  killed. 

Lord  Selkirk,  after  visiting  Red  River  in  1817,  re- 
turned to  Canada.  Arrests  were  made  on  account  of 
the  disturbances  which  had  taken  place  in  the  upper 
country.  At  the  instance  of  Lord  Selkirk  a  number  of 
Nor'-Westers  were  tried  at  York,  Upper  Canada,  and 
an  action  was  brought  against  the  Earl  himself  in  Sand- 
wich, Upper  Canada,  in  1818,  in  which,  by  the  influence 
of  the  Nor'-Westers,  the  verdict,  with  damages,  was 
given  against  his  lordship. 

The  affairs  of  the  two  companies  were  becoming  des- 
perate. The  whole  North- Western  territories  were  in 
confusion,  and  trade  was  well-nigh  ruined.  Lord  Sel- 
kirk died  in  1820  in  France;  but '  largely  through  the 
efforts  of  the  Hon.  Edward  Ellice,  a  reconciliation  between 
the  hostile  companies  took  place  and  a  union  was  formed 
on  the  26th  of  March,  1821,  under  the  name  of  the  older 


288  A  Short  History  of 

or  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  The  new"  company,  com- 
bining the  stability  of  its  English  and  the  energy  of  its 
Canadian  parentage,  was  placed  under  the  governorship  of 
a  man  of  great  energy  and  mark,  well  known  in  later 
B.   ri  years  as  Sir  George  Simpson.     Born  in  Ross- 

Simpsonf*  shire,  yoimg  Simpson  had  early  gone  to  London 
and  become  a  clerk  in  a  city  house.  The 
task  was  a  difficult  one,  for  which  the  young  clerk 
was  selected  in  being  chosen  to  harmonize  the  com- 
panies, and  his  secret  instructions  were  very  flexible. 
A  man  of  immense  determination,  Simpson  soon  became 
the  king  of  the  fur-traders.  With  the  self-possession 
of  an  emperor  he  was  borne  through  the  wilderness. 
He  is  said  to  have  made  the  canoe  journey  from  Mont- 
real to  the  Red  River  forty  times  ;  and  in  1841-2  cross- 
ing the  continent,  the  experienced  traveller  visited  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  the  coast  of  Alaska,  passed  through 
Siberia,  and  made  his  way  to  London,  having  travelled 
round  the  world.  On  the  introduction  of  a  local  govern- 
ment into  the  district  of  Assiniboia,  or  the  Red  River 
settlement.  Governor  Simpson  became  the  president  of 
the  council.  For  his  distinguished  management  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  affairs,  and  for  his  services 
to  the  trade  of  Canada,  Governor  Simpson  was  knighted, 
and  he  died  in  1860,  a  man  who  would  have  been  of 
mark  anywhere,  but  developed  greatly  by  his  wellnigh 
forty  years  of  responsible  service. 

Section  II. — The  Life  of  the  Traders 

There  is  a  strange  fascination  about  the  life  of  the 
fur-trader.  Placed  in  charge  of  an  inland  fort,  sur- 
rounded and  ministered  to  by  an  inferior  race,  and  the 
leader  of  a  small  band  of  employes,  his  decisions  must 
be  final,  and  his  word  taken  as  law.  As  a  monarch  of 
his  solitude  he  has  great  responsibility.  His  supply  of 
goods  must  be  obtained.  There  are  places  in  the  Yukon 
region  where,  a  short  time  ago,  nine  years  were  needed 
from   the  time    goods  left  London  until  news  of  their 


THE  Cakadian  People  289 

receipt  came  back  to  London  again.  It  required  wisdom 
and  foresight  to  manage  a  post  so  remote. 

Often  also  the  merchandise  is  sold  to  the  Indians  on 
credit,  and  though  the  poor  savages  are  honest,  yet  such 
a  system  needs  watchfulness.  The  Indians,  too,  are 
fickle,  jealous,  and  complaining,  and  much  shrewdness 
is  required  in  dealing  with  them.  The  food  supply  is 
in  many  regions  a  subject  of  serious  thought.  There 
are  places  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  territories 
where  the  trader  and  his  men  never  see  a  pound  of  flour 
in  the  year.  On  the  bay  thousands  of  geese  are  killed 
and  salted  for  winter  use,  and  form  the  almost  exclusive 
food.  On  certain  rivers  a  fish  diet  is  the  chief  means  of 
sustenance.  In  Arctic  regions  the  reindeer  or  musk-ox 
is  the  mainstay,  and  bread  and  vegetables  are  at  some 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  posts  unknown. 

Yet  it  is  a  joyful  sight  to  the  traveller  in  the  distant 
wastes  of  the  North-West  to  see  the  fur-trader's  fort, 
with  the  flag  floating  over  it  flaunting  the  well-known 
letters  H.B.C.  Though  the  forts  of  the  fur-traders  vary 
greatly,  some  being  of  wood,  others  of  stone,  there  is  a 
family  resemblance  in  them  all. 

A  well-appointed  post  contains  a  considerable  enclo- 
sure. It  may  be  from  fifty  to  a  himdred  yards  along 
each  side,  and  is  a  square  or  often  an  oblong.  This  space 
is  contained  by  a  stockade,  consisting  of  posts  some 
twelve  or  fifteen  feet  high,  driven  into  the  earth  closely 
side  by  side,  and  fastened  by  an  inside  breastwork.  The 
posts  or  pickets  are  of  such  wood  as  the  locality  may 
afford.     Oak  is  preferred  if  it  can  be  had. 

In  the  middle  of  one  side  of  the  enclosure  is  the  gate, 
with  over  it  very  often  a  watch-tower  or  guerite  as  the 
French  call  it.  The  buildings  within  the  stockade  are 
arranged  around  the  sides,  having  a  free  space  in  the 
middle.  There  is  needed  a  larger  building  for  the  store 
or  shop.  Near  this,  or  perhaps  on  the  side  opposite 
the  gate,  is  seen  the  residence  of  the  chief  officer  or 
bourgeois,  as  the  Nor '-Westers  called  him. 

Several  houses,  the  number  depending  on  the  import- 
19 


^90  A  Short  History  oi^ 

ance  of  the  fort,  are  needed  for  the  men  :  these  also  face 
the  open  square.  If  of  sufficient  importance  the  fort 
may  have  a  blacksmith's  forge,  and  in  troublous  times 
the  smiths  have  charge  of  the  two  or  three  rusty  four- 
pounders  that  frown  from  prominent  positions  upon  all 
assailants.  Kitchens,  outhouses,  and  stables  complete 
the  buildings  arranged  in  order  around  the  open  space. 

In  the  busy  season  scores  of  Indians,  squaws,  and 
children  may  be  seen  in  groups  seated  on  the  ground  in 
the  midst  of  the  fort,  their  encampment  being  a  group 
of  tents,  bark  or  skin,  outside  the  stockade. 

On  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Winnipeg  there 
have  been  five  forts,  which  may  well  illustrate  the  pro- 
gress, slow  though  it  may  have  been,  made  in  the  fur- 
trade. 

In  1738,  Verendrye's  post.  Fort  Rouge,  was  hurriedly 
built  on  a  wooded  point  at  the  junction  of  the  Red 
and  Assiniboine  Rivers,  and  on  the  south  side  of  the 
latter.  It  was  merely  an  erection  of  logs,  and  was  soon 
deserted. 

In  1806,  after  the  union  of  the  North- West  and  X  Y 
Companies,  there  was  erected  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Assiniboine  River  at  its  "  forks  "  with  the  Red  River  a 
considerable  post.  Fort  Gibraltar.  Its  stockaded  walls 
were  about  200  yards  in  length  on  each  side.  While 
eight  houses  were  arranged  around  the  square,  the  front 
of  the  chief  trader's  residence  extended  for  sixty-four 
feet.  This  fort  was  levelled  to  the  ground  by  Governor 
Semple  in  1816. 

In  the  year  1812  had  been  begun,  about  a  mile  below 
Fort  Gibraltar,  facing  on  Red  River,  Fort  Douglas, 
bearing  Lord  Selkirk's  family  name.  Small  at  first, 
it  grew  to  be  a  considerable  fort.  The  material  of  Fort 
Gibraltar,  on  its  destruction,  and  of  a  fort  at  Pembina, 
was  floated  down  the  river,  and  used  in  the  enlargement 
of  Fort  Douglas. 

About  the  year  1822  was  built,  near  the  former  site  of 
Fort  Gibraltar,  the  original  Fort  Garry,  so  called  from  a 
prominent  director  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.     The 


THE  Canadian  People  291 

building  of  this  fort  was  the  result  of  the  happy  union  of 
the  North- West  and  the  Hudson's  Bay  Companies.  It 
was  a  strong  fort,  had  heavy  oak  bastions,  large  and 
well-constructed  wooden  buildings,  but  was  replaced  in 
thirteen  or  fourteen  years. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  found  it  necessary  to 
relieve  Lord  Selkirk's  heirs  of  the  colony  of  obligations 
in  which  they  were  involved,  and  in  1835,  the  year  in 
which  a  government  was  established  at  Red  River,  the 
later  Fort  Garry  was  built,  to  the  west  of  the  older  fort, 
on  the  rising  ground.  Enlarged  in  1852,  its  walls  were  of 
masonry  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  with  its  four  circular 
bastions,  with  loop-holes  for  cannon  and  firearms,  and 
presenting  on  its  prairie  side  its  gateway  of  castellated 
masonry,  Fort  Garry  had  a  formidable  appearance. 

The  five  forts  of  Winnipeg  are  now  things  of  the  past, 
but  they  are  types  of  the  advance  made  in  exploration 
and  trade.  York  Factory  and  Prince  of  Wales  or  Churchill 
Fort  on  Hudson  Bay  saw  similar  mutations.  Lower 
Fort  Garry,  Cumberland  House,  Edmonton,  Fort  Ellice 
have  each  their  tale  to  tell ;  but,  being  the  centres 
of  accessible  or  fertile  regions,  their  glory  as  fur-trading 
posts  has  passed  away. 

Near  the  mouth  of  the  Souris  River  the  traveller  up 
the  Assiniboine,  into  which  the  Souris  flows,  may  trace 
the  outlines  of  three  forts.  These  represent  the  three 
rival  movements  of  which  we  have  spoken  as  in  existence 
at  the  beginning  of  this  century.  Brandon  House,  the 
first  of  these,  was  the  fort  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
and  the  site  of  every  building  of  it  could  long  after  be 
traced.  Less  distinct,  but  still  quite  visible,  were  the 
ruins  of  Assiniboine  House  and  Fort  k  la  Souris,  the 
rival  posts  of  the  North- West  and  X  Y  Companies. 

On  Hudson  Bay  the  York  Factory  of  1812  was  the 
successor  of  several  forts  which  had  been  built  in  its 
neighbourhood.  The  fort  of  this  date  was  an  enclo- 
sure 400  feet  long  by  300  feet  wide,  and  contained  a 
considerable  "  pile  of  buildings."  The  master's  residence 
was,  we  are  told,  a  house  of  two  stories  in  height,  badly 


:2D2  A  Short  History  oj* 

built,  heated  entirely  by  grates,  having  "  not  an  Ameri- 
can or  Swedish  stove  "  to  resist  the  severity  of  the  climate. 
Near  the  water's  edge  was  a  launch-house  or  canoe-store, 
in  danger  of  being  carried  away  by  the  ice  every  year, 
for  the  site  of  the  fort  is  described  as  "  marshy." 
There  was  no  garden  at  the  fort,  and  the  whole  was 
enclosed  by  a  stockade  of  cedar  posts,  some  sixteen  feet 
above  the  ground,  but  of  little  use  for  defence. 

The  most  western  of  the  fur-traders'  posts  was  that 
of  Fort  Victoria,  erected  so  late  as  1849,  at  the  time  when 
Vancouver  Island  was  given  over  to  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company.  It  was  a  square  enclosiu-e  of  100  yards' 
length  on  each  side,  was  protected  by  cedar  pickets, 
twenty  feet  high,  and  had  octagonal  bastions,  on  each  of 
which  six-pounder  iron  guns  were  mounted  on  the  north- 
west and  south-west  angles.  The  buildings  of  the  fort 
were  eight  in  number,  and  of  considerable  magnitude. 

Just  as  now  the  site  of  the  fur-traders'  post  at  Fort 
Orange,  Albany  ;  or  Cataraqui,  Kingston  ;  or  Rouill6, 
Toronto,  is  sought  for  by  the  cm'ious,  so  Fort  Garry,  or 
Fort  William,  or  Brandon  House,  or  Fort  Victoria  is  a 
memorial  of  the  trade  which  has  retreated  from  the 
more  southern  fur-trading  districts  to  the  banks  of  the 
Churchill,  the  Mackenzie,  or  the  Yukon  rivers. 

And  yet,  that  early  fur-trade  and  its  picturesque 
scenes  should  not  be  forgotten.  Sometimes  it  was 
carried  on  in  the  ponderous  York  boat,  of  which  it  was 
one  season's  work  to  leave  Brandon  House,  and  by  way 
of  Lake  Winnipeg  and  the  Nelson  River  reach  York 
Factory,  and  retiu:n,  laden  on  the  way  down  with  furs, 
and  on  the  way  up  with  bales  of  goods  ;  at  other  times 
it  was  by  way  of  Lachine,  up  the  Ottawa  by  canoe 
through  Lake  Superior,  and  thence  north-westward. 
But  by  whatever  route  conducted,  it  was  a  powerful 
agent  in  preparing  for  the  opening  up  and  colonisation 
of  north-western  Canada. 

Washington  Irving  has  described  in  "  Astoria  "  the 
picturesque  and  somewhat  hilarious  life  of  the  fm:-trader 
in  the  Nor'-Wester  capital  of  Montreal.     Factors,  traders, 


<^ 


THE  Canadian  People  293 

and  voyageurs  revelled  in  theii*  liberty  till  the  advance 
of  the  season  compelled  the  voyage  to  be  again  under- 
taken. They  sang  at  Ste.  Anne  as  they  entered  the 
Ottawa  River  "  their  parting  hymn,"  prayers  were  said 
to  the  patron  saint  of  the  voyageurs,  the  priest's  blessing 
was  received,  and  they  hied  away  to  pass  the  rapid, 
by  decharge  or  portage  on  their  difficult  route.  When  Fort 
William,  on  Thunder  Bay,  Lake  Superior,  was  reached, 
they  turned  over  their  merchandise  to  new  relays  of  men. 

A  French  Canadian  trader,  Franchere,  who  went  to 
the  Pacific  coast  in  the  Astor  Company  and  returned 
overland,  has  given  a  picture  of  the  Fort  William  of  the 
Nor'- Westers  in  1814.  This  fort,  named  from  the  Hon. 
William  McGillivray,  was  the  rendezvous  of  hundreds  of 
traders,  trappers,  and  Indians.  Whether  judged  by  the 
great  gathering  from  the  wilds,  the  storehouses  filled 
with  valuable  furs,  the  supplies  stored  away  for  distribu-, 
tion  to  the  far-away  posts,  or  from  its  being  the  head- 
quarters where  all  the  partners  met  once  a  year  and 
decided  on  the  plans  and  business  of  the  company,  the 
fort  on  the  Kaministiquia  should  ever  be  remembered. 

The  wild  traders,  who  brought  the  furs  to  Fort  William, 
and  carried  their  bales  of  merchandise  to  the  interior, 
looked  with  contempt  on  the  patient  French  Canadians, 
who  toiled  up  the  lakes  to  Fort  William,  and  sneer ingly 
called  them  '*  pork-eaters,"  still  a  term  of  reproach  in 
the  north-west.  The  traders  north  and  west  of  Fort 
William  rejoiced  in  the  name  "rimners  in  the  woods,*' 
and  many  of  them  had  Indian  blood  in  their  veins. 

The  French  Canadians  and  Indians  blended  well  to- 
gether in  producing  a  lithe,  hardy,  and  wild-spirited 
race.  This  mixed  people  became  faithful  adherents  of 
the  enterprising  merchants,  the  hot-blooded  Celts  of  the 
Scottish  element  in  Montreal. 

In  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  trade  from  Hudson 
Bay  to  the  interior  there  was  far  less  of  the  French  or 
Highland  dash,  but  there  was  the  steady,  toilsome  labour 
of  a  faithful  race.  For  more  than  a  centuryjthe  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  has  taken  its  employes  from  the  Orkney 


294  A  Short  History  of 

Islands.  Of  Scandinavian  origin,  the  Orlaiey  labourers 
of  the  fur  company  could  endure  any  hardship,  and  are 
of  most  peaceable  and  tractable  disposition.  Like  the 
French  Canadians,  many  of  them  have  intermarried  with 
the  Indian  women.  Their  descendants  are  a  quiet,  ease- 
loving  people.  While  the  French  half-breed  may  be 
compared  to  a  wild  mustang,  the  Orkney  man  or  English- 
speaking  half-breed  is  the  patient  roadster. 

Scattered  throughout  the  whole  fur-traders'  territory 
will  be  found  the  half-breed  of  French  Canadian  or 
Orkney  origin.  Some  beautiful  lake,  or  sheltered  bend 
in  the  river,  or  the  vicinity  of  a  trader's  post,  has  been 
selected  by  him  as  his  home,  and  partly  as  an  agricul- 
turist or  gardener,  but  far  more  of  a  hunter  or  trapper, 
he  rears  his  dusky  race.  Sometimes,  when  the  engage 
had  served  his  score  or  two  of  years  for  the  company, 
he  retired  with  his  Indian  spouse  and  swarthy  children 
to  float  down  the  streams  to  the  older  settlements,  to 
what  has  been  called  "  the  paradise  of  Red  River,"  and 
there,  building  his  cabin  on  land  allotted  by  the  fur 
company,  spent  his  remaining  days. 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  its  influence  on  the  white 
man,  the  fur-trade  has  been  a  chief  means  in  cement- 
ing the  alliance  between  the  white  and  red  man.  The 
half-breeds  are  a  connecting  link  between  the  superior 
and  the  inferior  race. 

For  many  years  it  was  the  inflexible  regulation  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  to  allow  no  haK-breed  to  become 
an  officer,  but  the  rule  could  not  be  maintained,  and  on 
account  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  having  always 
assisted  in  the  education  and  Christianization  of  the 
native  people,  many  of  them  have  risen  to  high  places  in 
the  fur-trade,  as  well  as  in  other  spheres  of  life. 

Section  III. — Famous  Journeys  through  the  Fur-traders^ 

Land 

To  Verendrye  and  his  sons,  as  we  have  seen,  belongs 
the  honour  of  discovering  the  Canadian  north-west.    They 


THE  Canadian  People  296 

explored,  in  the  surprisingly  short  time  of  eighteen  years', 

several    thousands  of   miles    of   the    "watery 

way,"  north-west  of  Lake  Superior,  named  all  JjgJ^J^^g. 

the   important    lakes  or  rivers  of  the  fertile 

prairie  section,  and  built  forts  at  the  chief  centres  of  trade. 

The    first   adventurer  who   successfully   explored    the 
river  and  lake  route  between  Lake  Superior  and 
Hudson  Bay  was  Joseph  La  France,  a  French  1738-1742. 
Canadian  haK-breed,  born  at  Michilimackinac 
in  1704.      He  was  an  unlicensed   trader    or  freebooter. 
Having  been  arrested  by  the  French  Grovernor  on  Nipis- 
sing  River,  he  escaped,   fled  by  Verendrye's  route  to 
Lake  Winnipeg,  joined  the  Indians  in  the  interior,  became 
their   captain,    and   with   them,    in    birch-bark   canoes, 
floated  down  the  Nelson  River,  reaching  the  English 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  traders  at  York  Factory,  June 
29th,   1742. 

It  was  a  notable  day  when  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
determined  to  leave  the  sea-coast  to  which  they  „ 

rlAA.1*11A 

had  clung  for  a  himdred  years,  and  penetrate  176^-1774. 
the  interior  with  exploring  and  trading  parties. 
This  was  done  imder  the  leadership  of  Samuel  Heame, 
who  has,  on  account  of    his  successful  journeys,  been 
called  the  "  Mungo  Park  of  Canada."     Leaving  Prince  of  * 
Wales  Fort,  at  the  mouth  of  Churchill  River,  after  two 
previous  unsuccessful  attempts,  in  1771  Hearne  reached 
the  Coppermine  River,  and  having  descended  it  to  its 
mouth,  arrived  at  the  Arctic   Sea,  and  may  be  called 
its  discoverer.     From  defective  knowledge  of  instruments 
he  placed  the  mouth  of  the  Coppermine  in  71°  N. — three 
or  four  degrees  of  a  mistake.     It  was  Hearne  who,  in 
1774,  conducted  the  expedition  which  built  Cumberland 
House  on  the  Saskatchewan. 

Led  on  by  Hearne's  heroic  journey  for  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,  Alexander  Mackenzie,   of  the 
North- West  Company,  determined  to  seek  the  1739^       ' 
Arctic   Sea.     Pursuing   the  fur-trade  at   Fort 
Chipewyan,   on  Lake  Athabasca,  in  1789,  he  fitted  out 
four  canoes,  and  manning  them  with  French  Canadian 


296  A  Short  History  of 

voyageurs  and  Indians,  left  the  fort  in  June,  and  de- 
scending the  river  which  bears  his  name,  after  many 
dangers  and  trials,  near  the  end  of  July  reached  its 
mouth  and  looked  out  upon  the  Arctic  or  Polar  Sea. 
Finding  himself  hampered  by  his  want  of  scientific 
knowledge,  the  persevering  explorer  went  to  Britain  in 
1791,  and,  prepared  by  his  year  of  study,  returned  to 
Lake  Athabasca  in  the  following  year.  He  now  ascended 
with  a  trusty  party  the  Peace  River,  spent  the  winter 
trading  on  its  banks,  and  in  the  early  spring  passed  by 
way  of  the  Peace  River  through  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  first  of  white  men  north  of  Mexico  crossed  the  con- 
tinent to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  letters  of  red-vermilion 
he  inscribed  on  a  rock  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  "  Alexander 
To  the  Pa-  Mackenzie,  from  Canada  by  land,  July  22nd, 
cifie  Coast,  1793."  For  his  great  discoveries  the  explorer 
1792-1793  ^g^g  honoured  by  his  sovereign,  thus  becoming 
Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  and  he  was  long  a  representa- 
tive Nor'-Wester  officer. 
—'^  Three  most  important  expeditions  were  sent  by  the 
United  American    Government    to    explore    the    fur- 

States  Ex-  traders'  land,  after  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana 
peditions.  ]^y  ^Yie  United  States  in  1803,  for  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  Louisiana  of  the  French  extended 
to  the  territory  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  The 
first  of  these  was  that  of  Captains  Lewis  and  Clark, 
Lewis' and  ^^^  ^^  1804,  leaving  St.  Louis,  ascended  the 
Clark,  Missouri,  crossed   from    its   sources    over   the 

1804-1806.  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia,  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  returned  by  nearly 
the  same  route,  reaching  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  in 
1806. 

The  second  expedition  was  that  of  Lieutenant  Pike, 
who,  with  a  small  party  of  United  States  Infantry, 
ascended  the  Mississippi  from  St.  Louis,  in 
^'  *  1805,  and  explored  Lake  Travers,  or,  as  the 
Indians  call  it,  Otter-tail.  Pike  found  it  to  be  the 
head-waters  of  the  Red  and  Mississippi  rivers,  and 
on  February   13th,   1806,  took  an  observation  at  the 


THE  Canadian  People  297 

saone  point  where  David  Thompson,  the  astronomer  of 
the  North-west  Company,  had  taken  it  for  the  British  in 
1798.  Substantially  agreeing  with  Thompson,  the  ex- 
plorer thus  fixed  one  source  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  third  expedition  was  that  of  Major  Long,  in 
1823.  The  exploring  party  left  Philadelphia  in  April, 
passed  overland  to  Prairie  du  Chien,  on  the  Mississippi, 
ascended  that  river,  descended  the  Red  River  to  Pem- 
bina, and  there  took  an  observation  to  ascertain  the 
49th  parallel.  On  August  8th  an  oak  post  L^„jg  and 
was  erected  on  the  boundary,  on  the  north  side  Keating, 
of  which  were  the  letters  G.B.,  and  on  the  south  ^^^* 
U.S.  On  this  memorial  the  American  flag  was  hoisted. 
The  party  not  being  able  to  follow  the  49th  parallel  to 
Lake  Superior,  on  account  of  swamps,  descended  the  Red 
River  to  the  Selkirk  settlement,  and  returned  by  way 
of  Lake  Winnipeg  to  Lake  Superior.  Coming  down 
the  lakes  and  crossing  the  country,  Major  Long  reached 
Philadelphia  in  October,  having  accomplished  this  re- 
markable journey  in  less  than  six  months. 

The  fame  of   Captain,  afterwards  Sir  John,  Franklin 
was  largely  gained  by  two  overland  journeys  (j-u*«|n 
in  the  fur-traders'  country.     The  first  of  these  John 
was    in     1819.      Accompanied    by    explorers  Franklin, 
afterwards  so  well  known  as  Richardson  and  ^''^^'^^    • 
Back,  Captain  Franklin  went  by  the  ship  belonging  to  the 
Hudson's   Bay   Company   to   York   Factory,   and   pro- 
ceeding by  winter  journey  the  party  had  all  reached 
Fort  Chipewyan  by  July,  1820.     In  October  the  expe- 
dition had  erected  a  winter  station,  which  they  called 
Fort  Enterprise,  near  the  head-waters  of  the  Copper- 
mine River.     By  descending  the  Coppermine  the  Polar 
Sea  was  reached  in  July,   1821,  and  Heame's  mistake 
was    corrected,    the    mouth    of    the    Coppermine    being 
settled  as  in  nearly   67°    48'.     The  coast-line  eastward 
along  the  sea  was  followed  by  more  than  six  degrees  to 
Cape  Turn  again.     After  much  suffering,  the  expedition 
once  more  reached  Fort  Enterprise,  and  found  its  way 
home  to  Britain  in  1822. 


298  A  Shobt  History  of 

The  second  journey  of  this  great  explorer  was,  with 
the  same  leading  companions,  undertaken  in  1825. 
Having  again  reached  Fort  Chipewyan,  the  journey 
Franklin's  northward  was  continued,  and  the  winter  spent 
Second  at  their  erection,  called  Fort  Franklin,  on  Great 

Journey,  Bear  Lake.  The  party  next  divided.  Captain 
*  Franklin  leading  a  portion  which  descended 
the  Mackenzie  to  the  sea  and  coasted  westward  to  Return 
Reef,  hoping  to  have  reached  Captain  Cook's  Icy  Cape 
of  1778,  but  failing.  Dr.  Richardson  conducted  the  other 
party,  which  went  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie,  and 
coasted  eastward  to  the  mouth  of  the  Coppermine,  which 
he  ascended.  By  September  both  parties  had  regained 
Fort  Franklin,  where  the  second  winter  was  spent. 
In  September,  1827,  the  successful  discoverers  returning 
reached  London. 

One  of  Captain  Franklin's  most  trusted  lieutenants 
was  Mr.  George  Back.  In  1829  Captain  Ross 
1833-1835.  ^^^  gone  by  sea  to  seek  the  north-west  pas- 
sage. For  three  years  no  tidings  had  come  of 
him.  Captain  Back  was  sent  overland  to  seek  him  on  the 
Arctic  coast  by  descending  the  waters  from  the  height 
of  land  near  Great  Slave  Lake.  Arrived  at  Fort  Chipe- 
wyan in  July,  1833,  the  Indians  and  traders  tried  to 
dissuade  him  from  making  the  attempt.  Back  yet 
persevered,  built  Fort  Reliance,  and  wintered  there, 
descended  the  river  which  bears  his  name,  and  which 
is  also  called  Great  Fish  River.  News  reached  him  of 
the  rescue  of  Captain  Ross  by  a  whaler,  and  he  returned 
to  England  in  1835. 

One  of  the  most  successful  journeys  of  exploration  of 
the  wild  Northland  was  that  planned  by  the  Hudson's 
Deaseand  ^^J  Company  itself  in  1836,  and  conducted  by 
Simpson,  two  Hudson's  Bay  Company  officers,  Peter 
1836-1840.  Dease  and  Thomas  Simpson.  Descending  the 
Mackenzie  River  to  its  mouth,  the  expedition  followed 
the  Arctic  coast  westward,  passed  Franklin's  "Return 
Reef,"  reached  Boat  Extreme,  and  Simpson  made  a 
foot  journey  thence   to   Cape  Barrow.     After   coming 


THE  Canadian  People  299 

again  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie,  that  river  was 
ascended,  and  from  it  the  voyage  was  made  to  the 
head  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  where  Fort  Confidence  was 
built. 

Having  wintered  here,  in  the  following  spring  the 
party  descended  the  Coppermine  River,  and  coasting 
eastward  along  the  Polar  Sea  came  to  Cape  Turnagain  in 
August,  1837.  Retracing  their  steps,  the  expedition 
regained  Fort  Confidence,  and  wintered  there.  In  the 
next  year,  1838,  bravely  venturing  to  the  sea-coast  again, 
and  resuming  their  eastward  journey,  the  explorers 
reached  new  ground,  parsed  Dease's  Strait,  and  discovered 
Cape  Britannia.  Taking  two  years  to  return,  Simpson 
arrived  at  Fort  Garry,  and,  disappointed  at  not  receiving 
further  instructions,  departed  for  Britain  a  few  days 
afterwards.  While  en  route,  he  was  killed,  either  by  his 
half-breed  companions  or  his  own  hand,  in  Minnesota, 
in  1840.     He  is  buried  at  St.  John's,  Winnipeg. 

No  events  have  so  bound  England  to  our  northern 
land    as   the    search   for   Sir   John    Franklin,  search  for 
His  last  voyage,  in  1845,  was  with  two  ships,  Franklin, 
the  Erebus  and  Terror,  and  130  men,  to  seek  a  18*8-1859. 
north-west    passage.     With  the    many  voyages   by  sea 
in  search  of  the  lost  commander,  we  have  here  nothing 
to  do.     His  old    companion.  Dr.  Richardson,    hastened 
in  1848  by  land  journey  to  seek  him.     Reaching  Fort 
Chipewyan,  the  route    by  Great  Bear  Lake    and  the 
Coppermine  River  was  followed.     With  his  companion, 
Dr.   Rae,  the    coast   of   the  Arctic    Sea   was    searched 
by  Dr.  Richardson  without  finding  any  traces  of  the 
lost  commander. 

It  was  in  1854  that  Dr.  Rae,  leading  an  expedition 
along  the  coast  of  Hudson's  Bay,  obtained  on  the  west 
side  of  Melville  peninsula,  plate  and  the  silver  decorations 
of  the  lost  captain,  from  the  Eskimos.  Dr.  Rae  received 
a  portion  of  the  reward  offered  by  the  British  Government. 
The  painful  uncertainty  was  finally  set  at  rest  by  an 
expedition  under  Captain  McClintock,  in  1859,  finding, 
west  of  King  William's  Land,  a  packet,  stating  that  Siy 


300    A  Short  History  of  the  Canadian  People 

John  Franklin  had  died  in  1847,  and  leaving  no  doubt 
as  to  the  fate  of  the  party,  not  one  of  whom  had  sur- 
vived. 

Not  many  years  before  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
Milton  and  territories  passed  into  the  hands  of  Canada, 
Cheadle,  Viscount  Milton  and  Dr.  Cheadle,  descending 
1862, 1863.  ^Yie  Red  River  by  canoes  to  Fort  Garry,  or- 
ganized an  overland  expedition,  going  by  Red  River 
carts  over  the  plains  to  Fort  Carlton,  and  wintered 
at  the  post  they  had  built  near  it,  called  "La  Belle 
Prairie."  In  the  spring  they  crossed  by  the  Yellow  Head 
pass  through  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  British  Columbia, 
and  after  enduring  the  greatest  hardships,  reached  the 
Fraser  River,  which  they  descended  to  New  Westminster, 
after  which  they  soon  arrived  at  Victoria,  Vancouver 
Island. 

l!;.  By  journeys  such  as  these  have  British  courage  and 
self-denial  been  made  plain  to  the  world,  and  the  features 
of  the  vast  interior  made  known  to  us. 


CHAPTER    X 

THE     MAKING   OP   CANADA 

(1817-1836) 

Section  I. — The  Oreat  Immigration 

Napoleon  was  now  a  prisoner  in  St.  Helena.  The 
defence  of  Canada  had  been  successful.  Britain  was  at 
peace.  Social  discontent  is  more  heard  in  times  of  peace 
than  amidst  the  din  of  war.  Industries  which  supply 
the  material  of  war  are  stopped,  and  hardships  come  to 
the  unemployed.  Disbanded  soldiers  in  large  numbers 
naturally  appeal  to  the  State  for  support,  and  are  not 
disposed  to  be  industrious,  even  should  employment  be 
found  them.  The  Napoleonic  wars  lasted  for  neariy 
twenty  years,  and  while  their  continuance  had  blighted 
many  a  home,  yet  their  cessation  caused  widespread 
suffering  also. 

In  1815  the  Imperial  Government  must  devise  a 
remedy,  and  emigration  was  that  decided  on.  Lord 
Bathurst,  Secretary  of  State,  with  much  zeal  undertook 
to  work  out  the  plan  of  relief.  The  Government  was 
willing  to  give  settlers  a  choice  of  land  in  either  Upper 
Canada  or  Quebec.  This  was  far  from  being  a  pauper 
emigration,  however.  All  who  were  accepted  by  the 
Government  must  be  of  good  character,  and  each  head 
of  a  family  was  required  to  deposit  £16  with  the  Govern- 
ment, besides  two  guineas  on  his  wife's  account.  To 
clergymen  and  schoolmasters  free  grants  of  land  were 
promised  ;  and  in  the  case  of  considerable  colonies,  pro- 
vision was  made  for  the  support  of  a  church  and  school. 

301 


302  A  Short  History  of 

To  those  who  had  complied  with  the  conditions  the 
Government  then  gave  a  free  passage  in  ships  to  Canada, 
assigned  lands  to  each  family,  provided  tools  for  clearing 
and  cultivating  the  soil,  and  dealt  out  rations  until  after 
the  first  harvest  had  been  reaped.  These  were  certainly- 
liberal  conditions. 

The  best  known,  and  perhaps  most  prosperous  of  the 
different  groups  of  colonists,  was  that  called 
Settlement,  the  "  Military  Settlement."  This  was  formed 
in  Upper  Canada  in  1816,  in  the  townships  of 
Bat  hurst,  Drummond,  Beckwith,  and  Goulburn,  these 
names  being  those  of  the  British  officials  closely  con- 
nected with  the  movement. 

By  the  close  of  the  year,  230  men  and  708  discharged 
soldiers  had  been  placed  on  their  holdings,  and  these, 
with  women  and  children,  made  up  a  population  of  1,890 
souls.  Largely  Scottish,  the  colonists  were  from  Perth- 
shire, Lanark,  and  adjoining  shires,  and  in  consequence 
"  Perth  Settlement  "  gradually  became  the  name  of  the 
military  colony.  Many  settlers  from  Paisley,  Scotland, 
driven  from  home  by  the  bad  state  of  trade  in  the  manu- 
factories, joined  the  colony.  In  1820  no  less  than  1,100 
persons  from  Glasgow  and  Lanarkshire  settled  in  the 
townships  of  Lanark  and  Dalhousie.  A  portion  of  the 
colonists  were  induced  to  settle  at  Grantham,  Wickham, 
and  Wendover,  on  the  St.  Francis,  in  the  eastern  town- 
ships of  Lower  Canada.  In  1819  there  were  292  houses 
erected  in  these  townships.  In  the  neighbouring  settle- 
ment of  Drummond  there  were,  in  the  same  year,  235 
souls.  The  whole  of  these  settlements  were  under  mili- 
tary control,  continuing  in  charge  of  the  British  Quarter- 
master's Department  until  1822. 

Another  settlement  of  this  period  was  the  Highland 
colony  at  the  Lac  des  Chats,  up  the  Ottawa, 
Colony.  lender  the  chief  McNab.  Here  "  the  McNab  " 
sought  to  maintain  the  former  glories  of  his 
clan.  High  on  the  bold  and  abrupt  shore  of  the  lake 
stood  the  chieftain's  picturesque  residence,  Kinell  Lodge. 
He  had  received  the  grant  of  a  whole  township,  and 


I'HE  Canadian  People:  303 

brought  out  his  clansmen  at  a  considerable  expense  to 
settle  it.  When  on  his  visits  to  Little  York,  the  capital 
of  the  province,  the  chieftain  wore  his  "  borniet  and 
feather,  tartan  and  sporran,  and  besides  his  bright 
scarlet  vest  with  its  silver  buttons."  The  chief  was 
always  attended  by  his  piper,  and  was  really  a  bright  spot 
amid  the  sombre  hues  of  backwoods  life.  The  efforts  to 
maintain  a  feudal  establishment  in  McNab  township 
ended  in  failure,  though  a  visitor  in  1828  speaks  of  the 
characteristic   hospitality   of    "  the  McNab." 

During  this  period  Bytown  was  laid  out,  in  1826,  in 
the  township  of  Nepean.  The  township  was  By*^™. 
called  from  the  British  official  of  that  name, 
and  the  town  from  the  well-known  Colonel  By,  the  royal 
engineer  who  constructed  the  Rideau  Canal.  The  town 
of  Hull,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Chaudiere  Falls,  had 
been  begun  in  1806  by  Philemon  Wright,  Esq.,  from 
Boston,  who  brought  thither  plentiful  means  and  a  colony 
of  his  countrymen.  Bytown  early  became  a  chief  seat 
of  the  lumber  industry.  Its  streets,  Wellington  and 
Rideau,  were  on  the  line  parallel  to  the  river.  Above 
Bytown,  on  the  river,  was  the  large  estate  of  Captain  Le 
Breton,  called  Britannia.  Through  its  situation,  being 
remote  from  the  frontier,  Bytown  was  in  later  years 
chosen  as  capital  of  Canada,  and  its  name  changed  to 
Ottav/a. 

During  this  period  a  large  and  dependent  Irish  ele- 
ment of  the  population  found  its  way  to  Canada,  jjigii 
A  writer  of  the  time  attempts  an  explanation  Immigra- 
of   the  movement  from   Ireland  thus:    "The'*®°* 
increase  of  the  operative  population  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  rapidly  outstripped  the  demand  for  their  labour  ; 
and  the  application  of  new  agents  in  manufactories,  and 
the  more  general  use  of  machinery,  increased  the  evil  to 
a  degree  that  arrested  the  attention  of  Parliament,  and 
measures  were  adopted  to  alleviate  the  distress  of  the 
country  by  encom:aging  emigration." 

The  benevolent  British  Government  of  1823  provided 
for  the  removal,  at  a  cost  of  £12,600,  of  680  souls  from 


304  A  Short  History  of 

Ireland  to  the  British  American  colonies.  A  U.E. 
Loyalist  Commissioner,  Hon.  Peter  Robinson,  brother  of 
the  Chief  Justice,  conducted  the  movement.  The  settlers 
were  provided  with  homes  mainly  in  the  townships  of 
Ramsay,  Huntley,  Goulburn,  Pakenham,  and  Beckwith, 
in  the  region  lying  between  the  Perth  colony  and  the 
Ottawa  river. 

The  continuation  of  this  Irish  immigration  led  to  the 
occupation  of  a  most  important  region  of 
borough.  country  in  the  Newcastle  district  of  Upper 
Canada.  This  took  place  in  the  year  1825. 
Previous  to  this  date  a  few  families  had  entered  the 
townships  north  of  Cobourg.  A  number  of  Cumberland 
people  had  settled  in  Smith  township  (1818).  First 
settlements  had  been  made  in  North  Monaghan  (1818), 
Otonabee  (1819),  Asphodel  (1821  or  1822),  and  Douro 
(1822).  At  the  date  mentioned  there  were  not  more 
than  500  souls  in  the  whole  region  north  of  Rice  Lake. 

It  was  in  May  of  this  year  that,  under  the  guidance 
of  Commissioner  Robinson,  415  Irish  families  sailed  in 
ships  from  Cork,  and,  by  way  of  Quebec  and  the  St. 
Lawrence,  came  to  Upper  Canada.  A  hundred  acres  of 
land  was  granted  to  each  family  of  settlers.  Roads  were 
cut  through  the  forest,  and  for  each  family  a  "  shanty  " 
was  built.  Rations  were  issued  for  eighteen  months. 
To  each  family  was  given  a  cow,  tools  for  farming,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  seed  for  the  land.  An  excellent  mill 
was  built  for  the  colonists  by  the  Government. 

Of  the  whole  party,  nearly  1,900  settled  in  the  New- 
castle district.  From  the  "  Imperial  Papers  on  Emi- 
gration," published  in  1848,  we  learn  that  this  colony 
cost  the  Imperial  Government  upwards  of  £43,000,  and 
also  that  the  town  of  Peterborough  was  laid  out  in  1826. 
"  Speculators,"  we  are  told,  "  flocked  to  the  neigh- 
bouring townships  in  all  directions,  mills  were  built, 
stores  opened,  and  life,  bustle,  and  spirit  were  evident 
on  every  side."  By  this,  only  the  beginning  of  a  large 
Irish  emigration  to  Canada,  the  townships  named  were 
colonized,  and  also  Emily  and  Omeemee. 


THE  Canadian  I^eoplh  306 

The  beginning  of  by  far  the  most  important  movement 
of  the  time  is  thus  noticed  by  a  vigorous  con- 
temporary  writer: — "In  1825,  famous  for  (jj^mpany. 
speculations,  schemes,  and  companies  in  the 
City  of  London  ;  when  the  bowels  of  the  Mexican  moun- 
tains received  strong  purgatives  in  order  to  free  them  of 
ingots  of  gold  and  silver  ;  when  the  pearl-oyster  of  the 
Orient  seas  yawned  with  surprise  at  the  appearance  of 
diving-bells  ;  and  when  golden  sands,  said  to  be  brought 
from  the  shores  of  Africa,  were  spread  in  the  courts  and 
alleys  of  Lombard  Street  to  allure  the  xmreflecting — the 
wilderness  of  Canada  was  opened  before  the  public,  and, 
contrary  to  all  expectation,  received  a  considerable  share 
of  attention."  In  1826  the  Canada  Company  was  incor- 
porated under  an  Imperial  Act,  with  a  capital  of  £1,000,000 
sterling. 

The  antiquarian  wandering  along  the  eastern  part  of 
King  Street,  Toronto,  sees  an  old-fashioned  building, 
with  "  Canada  Company  "  on  the  door,  which  touches  his 
heart  with  something  of  the  feeling  that  the  "  South 
Sea  ofl&ce  "  affected  Charles  Lamb.  The  magnitude  of 
the  operations,  the  striking  personality  of  its  first 
Canadian  officials,  and  the  royal  manner  in  which  its 
operations  were  conducted,  as  well  as  the  provin- 
cial hostility  which  rose  against  it,  make  the  company 
memorable. 

The  company  purchased  an  enormous  quantity  of  land 
in  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  and  a  revenue  of  between 
£250,000  and  £300,000  accrued  to  the  Government.  In  the 
Parliamentary  Library  of  Ottawa  may  be  seen  the  original 
township  maps,  with  the  lots  of  the  Canada  Company 
coloured  green  on  them.  In  these  maps  are  represented 
company  lands  to  the  extent  of  1,300,000  acres.  The 
most  notable  portion  of  the  Canada  Company's  lands  was 
the  "  Huron  tract,"  which  contained  upwards  of  1,000,000 
acres,  not  included  in  the  before-mentioned  amount. 
For  the  lands  in  large  tracts  the  company  must  open 
roads,  build  mills,  and  make  certain  expenditures,  which 
gave  a  considerable  patronage. 
20 


306  A  Short  History  oe* 

A  gentleman,  not  more  distinguished  for  his  active 
administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  company  than  for  his 
literary  zeal,  became  the  Secretary  of  the  company,  in 
June,  1826.  This  was  John  Gait,  Esq.,  a  native  of 
Ayrshire,  Scotland.  He  was  a  most  prolific  writer. 
His  romances,  "Laurie  Todd,"  the  "Ayrshire  Legatees," 
"The  Entail,"  and  "The  Annals  of  the  Parish,"  are 
perhaps  the  best  of  his  abundant  efforts.  We  have  his 
autobiography,  a  work  of  interest  also  in  connection  with 
the  Canada  Company.  Mr.  Gait  was  a  man  of  too  much 
genius  to  conduct  very  long  the  affairs  of  a  large  joint- 
stock  land  company.  His  decisions  were  often  hasty,  his 
projects  rather  visionary,  and  his  humour  variable. 

Another  officer  of  the  company  was  the  eccentric  Dr. 
Dunlop,  who  meets  us  as  a  character  in  Professor  Wilson's 
"  Noctes  Ambrosianse."  He  was  appointed  by  the 
company  "  warden  of  the  woods  and  forests."  Dunlop 
surveyed  a  considerable  portion  of  the  company's  tract. 
He  was  assisted  in  this  by  Captain  John  Brant,  son  of 
old  Thayendenagea,  and  two  energetic  lieutenants, 
Messrs.  Sproat  and  Macdonald. 

The  vast  Huron  tract  was  surveyed  into  twenty  town- 
ships. These,  such  as  HuUett,  McKillop,  Logan,  Ellice, 
Easthope  (N.  and  S.),  Downie,  Fullerton,  Tucker  Smith, 
Biddulph,  Usborne,  Blanshard,  Bosanquet,  Williams, 
McGillivray,  Stanley,  Goderich,  and  Colborne,  were 
named  after  the  directors  of  the  company  or  prominent 
ofiicials  of  the  Government. 

The  town,  now  the  City  of  Guelph,  was  founded  by 
Gait  himself,  accompanied  by  a  number  of  friends,  amidst 
great  hilarity,  in  the  year  1827.  It  was  the  centre  of 
the  Halton  Block  of  42,000  acres.  Its  plan,  which  was 
somewhat  unique,  was  then  made.  Its  name  was  given 
by  Gait,  in  honour  of  the  reigning  house  of  England,  and 
the  epithet  "  Royal  City  "  now  attaches  to  Guelph.  A 
considerable  commotion  arose  over  its  naming.  The 
British  Board  of  Directors  had  decided  to  name  their 
new  burgh  after  Lord  Goderich.  The  news  arrived  in 
England  that  the  new  town  had  been  called  Guelph. 


1KB  Canadian  People  307 

Orders  were  immediately  given  to  change  the  name.  As 
deeds  to  purchasers  had  been  issued,  this  could  not  well 
be  done,  and  the  secretary's  naming  remained.  The 
chief  river  of  the  Huron  tract  is  called  by  the  Indians 
Menesetung,  but  on  account  of  its  difficult  pronunciation, 
Dr.  Dmilop  called  it,  from  the  governor's  name,  the 
Maitland.  The  eccentric  warden,  in  1827,  laid  out  a 
new  town  at  its  mouth,  calling  it  Groderich,  and  here  took 
up  his  abode. 

The  lands  of  the  Canada  Company,  being  generally  of 
good  quality,  were  sold  to  the  immigrants,  who  were 
arriving  from  Britain  by  thousands.  Their  Huron  tract, 
being  the  most  remote  and  in  a  block,  was  last  to  be 
settled.  In  1835,  there  were  not  more  than  3,000  souls 
upon  the  Huron  tract.  The  possession  of  so  great 
quantities  of  land  by  non-residents  gave  rise  to  much 
complaint  throughout  Canada.  It  was  said  that  capi- 
talists were  able  to  hold  as  wild  land  what  was  being 
made  more  valuable  by  the  labour  and  self-denial  of  the 
actual  settler.  Political  agitation  has  always  set  in,  in 
the  new  world,  as  the  result  of  the  establishment  of  large 
land-holding  companies,  and  a  somewhat  bitter  senti- 
ment remains  among  the  people  in  Western  Canada 
against  the  Canada  Company  even  to-day. 

Joseph  Brant,  as  we  have  already  seen,  sold  the  large 
township  of  Dumfries  to  Philip  Stedman.    From  xhe 
the  heirs  of  Stedman,  the  estate  was  purchased,  Dickson 
in  1816,  by  Hon.  William  Dickson,  a  Scottish  Settlement, 
gentleman,  and  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Council  of 
Upper  Canada,  at  a  price  of  little  more  than  one  dollar 
an  acre.     The  better  to  carry  out  his  plans  of  settlement, 
Dickson  chose  as  his  agent  a  young  American,  named 
Absalom  Shade. 

Desiring  to  see  the  purchased  tract  of  land,  Dickson, 
accompanied  by  his  manager,  came  up  the  Governor's 
Road  from  Dundas  until  the  Grand  River  was  reached  at 
Paris.  Turning  northward  into  the  forest,  the  travellers 
journeyed  and  were  specially  struck  with  the  beauty  and 
fitness  for  a  new  business  centre  of  the  spot  where  now 


306  A  Short  History  of 

stands  the  town  of  Gait.  From  the  mill,  which  was  soon 
erected,  the  place  took  the  prosaic  name  of  Shade's  Mills, 
until  after  the  visit  of  John  Gait,  Esq.,  in  1827,  when,  in 
recognition  of  that  gentleman's  popularity,  the  place  was 
named  from  him.  Dickson  now  began  to  encourage  im- 
migration to  his  estate. 

Numerous  articles  appeared  in  Scotland  in  Chambers 
Journal  and  the  regular  press.  In  1820  one  John  Telfer, 
a  retired  Nor'- Wester  trader,  went  to  Scotland  to  induce 
immigration,  and  a  large  colony  was  obtained  for  the  Gait 
settlement  from  Roxburgh  and  Selkirk  shires.  In  1825 
this  movement  was  still  in  force,  and  even  in  1831  and 
succeeding  years  the  flow  to  Dumfries  continued.  In 
1831  there  was  devised  a  plan  of  connecting  Gait,  which 
stands  on  the  Grand  River,  with  Lake  Erie,  by  navigation. 
Flat-bottomed  boats  such  as  are  still  used  in  the  shallow 
streams  of  the  western  prairies  were  constructed.  These 
were  known  as  "  Arks,"  but  their  navigation  was  slow 
and  difficult. 

In  the  year  after  the  death  of  Joseph  Brant  (1807),  a 
block  of  29,000  acres  of  the  land  of  the  Six 
Settlement,  ^^'tioi^s  of  Indians,  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
Grand  River,  was  sold  to  Colonel  Thomas 
Clarke.  Of  this  tract  the  township  of  Nichol  formed  a 
part.  In  the  year  1833  a  portion  of  the  township  was 
piu:chased  by  Messrs.  Fergusson  and  Webster,  and  the 
village  of  Fergus,  named  from  the  former,  was  begun. 
Immigration  to  this  region  continued  for  years  after,  and 
many  farmers  from  Aberdeen  and  Mid-Lothian  in  Scot- 
land found  homes  here. 

This  part  of  the  country  has  become  very  celebrated 
for  agriculture,  so  that  it  has  been  at  times  called  the 
*'  Lothians  of  Canada."  Such  townships  as  Garafraxa, 
Eramosa,  and  Erin  were  occupied  in  a  similar  manner. 
A  township,  lying  to  the  south  of  this  tract,  that  of 
Wilmot,  was  settled  by  Mennonist  Germans  from  Munich 
in  Bavaria,  who  were  under  a  German  leader,  Naffzinger. 

A  most  interesting  colony  was  that  of  disbanded 
soldiers  led  by  their  retired  officers,  who,  in  1832,  settled 


THE  Canadian  People  309 

a  considerable  region  in  the  London  district  in  Upper 
Canada.  While  the  townships  were  being  jjie  Adelaide 
reached  and  roads  opened  out,  a  camp  some  Military 
400  strong  was  formed.  Officers  and  men  Settlement, 
were  chiefly  Irish  of  a  highly  intelligent  class.  The 
officers  had  commuted  their  half-pay  before  leaving 
Britain  into  a  sum  in  hand,  and  on  arriving  in  Canada 
received  a  grant  of  400  acres  each.  Junior  officers  received 
200  acres  each,  and  the  men  100  acres  apiece.  The  town- 
ships settled  were  those  of  Adelaide,  Warwick,  Carradoc, 
and  Plympton,  and  roads  were  cut  by  the  pensioners 
through  to  Egremont.  Officers  and  men  set  to  work 
with  vigour.  It  is  related  of  an  old  colonel  that  he  never 
could  learn  to  chop,  but  his  sons  became  famous  woodmen. 

A  unique  "  logging- bee  "  is  described  as  having  taken 
place  in  which  one  afterwards  Chief  Justice  of  Upper 
Canada,  another  in  time  a  coimty  judge,  the  colonel 
aforesaid,  and  a  young  man  afterward  an  episcopal  rector, 
did  their  share  with  axe  or  handspike,  while  the  actual 
rector  of  the  settlement  drove  the  oxen.  As  might  have 
been  expected,  men  possessed  of  the  courage  and  hardihood 
thus  to  hew  out  for  themselves  homes  in  the  forest,  were 
the  first  to  spring  to  arms  when  the  standard  of  rebellion 
was  raised  a  few  years  afterwards,  and  many  of  them 
have  risen  to  places  of  influence  in  the  country. 

In  the  year  1832  a  committee  was  formed  in  Sussex, 
England,  under  the  direction  of  the  Earl  of  Petworth 
Egremont,  to  conduct  a  band  of  English  emi-  or  Sussex 
grants  to  Canada.     Each  colonist  for  the  sum  ^°'®°y' 
of  £5  was  conveyed  to  his  destination  in  Upper  Canada. 
During  that  year  three  ships,  the  Lord  Melville,  Eveline, 
and  the  England,  sailed  from  Portsmouth,  having  on  board 
upwards  of   760  emigrants.     A  number  of  these  went  to 
Adelaide,  while  others  betook  themselves  to  the  different 
settlements  in  the  western  peninsula  of  Upper  Canada. 

It  was  a  remarkable  movement  this  overflow  xh^  insixoi 
of  population  from  the  British  Isles  to  Canada,  of  1829- 
though  again  repeated  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ^®^^* 
later.     Its  causes  are  not  far  to  seek.     Political  ferment 


310  A  Short  History  of 

in  the  agitations  for  Catholic  emancipation,  modification 
of  tithes,  and  the  Reform  Bill,  were  at  the  same  time  the 
result  of  overpressure  of  population,  and  a  means  of 
driving  many  to  the  New  World.  Grievances  produced 
the  agitation,  and  agitation  made  the  grievances  more 
real.  Sir  Archibald  Alison,  writing  in  Blackwood  in  1831, 
says,  "  the  emigration  from  Ireland  this  year  amounts 
to  18,000.  No  reason  can  be  assigned  why  it  should 
not  be  180,000."  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  immigration 
to  Canada  alone  in  the  year  1831  reached  34,000. 

In  that  year  not  only  did  disturbed  and  overburdened 
Ireland  send  her  quota,  but  England  and  Wales  sent 
abroad  to  Canadian  shores  10,000  of  their  children,  and 
Scotland  5,000  more.  During  the  four  years  of  the  great 
influx  the  colonists  who  arrived  at  Quebec  from  the 
British  Isles  reached  the  extraordinary  number  of 
160,000. 

Though  the  fertile  soil  and  English-speaking  race  of 
Lower  Upper  Canada  were  strong  forces  drawing  the 

Canada  British  immigrants  thither,   yet  the  desolate 

Shares.  places  of  Lower  Canada  received  a  good  pro- 

portion. In  the  year  1831,  for  example,  300  respectable 
families,  chiefly  Irish,  went  into  the  region  south  of 
Quebec  City,  known  as  the  County  of  Megantic.  One 
thousand  persons  of  the  newly  arrived  colonists  settled 
in  Valcartier,  Port  Neuf,  Stoneham  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  Quebec  City.  Fifteen  hundred  of  the 
homeless  found  rest  on  the  St.  Francis  River  and  in  the 
Eastern  townships  in  Lower  Canada,  while  some  5,000 
settled  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Montreal. 

Two  events  cast  a  lurid  light  over  the  Canadian  immi- 
The  great  gration  of  these  years.  The  first  is  the  terrible 
Miramiehi  "  Miramichi  fire,"  which  took  place  on  the 
^'®'  banks  of  that  river  in  New  Brunswick.     For 

two  days  preceding  the  7th  of  October,  1825,  the  air 
had  been  intensely  close ;  there  was  a  dead  calm.  To- 
wards evening  a  rumbling  sound  was  heard,  then  a 
breeze,  and  last  a  hurricane  bringing  flames,  cinders, 
ashes,  and  hot  sand,  so  that  simultaneously  several  hun- 


THE  Canadian  People  311 

dreds  of  square  miles  were  wrapt  in  one  blaze.  The 
town  of  Newcastle  was  swept  away  almost  entirely. 
Vessels  in  the  river  were  cast  ashore,  and  a  number 
burnt.  Hundreds  of  men,  women,  and  children  were 
overtaken  in  the  flames  and  perished.  The  Governor- 
General  advanced  upwards  of  £2,000  for  relief,  which  was 
cheerfully  assumed  by  Lower  Canada,  Nova  Scotia  appro- 
priated £750,  and  military  stores  to  the  value  of  many 
thousands  of  pounds  were  sent  to  the  miserable  sur- 
vivors. 

The  other  calamitous  event  was  the  breaking  out  of 
Asiatic  cholera  among  the  immigrants  seeking  a  jhe  Plague 
home  in  Canada  in  1832  and  1833.     On  the  8th  In  1832- 
of  June  the  terrible  news  reached  Quebec  that  ^^^' 
a  ship,  the  Carrick,  from  Dublin,  had  arrived  at  Grosse 
Isle,  the  quarantine  station,  with  fifty-nine  deaths  from 
cholera,   out   of    133   passengers.     Next   day   came    the 
infection  as  if  borne  by  the  wind,  and  cases  broke  out 
in  Quebec.     On  the  10th  it  had  reached  Montreal,  and 
so  on  through  the  towns  and  vUlages  of  Upper  Canada. 

The  plague  seized  Canada  with  peculiar  severity.  In 
Quebec  city  upwards  of  3,000  persons  perished  in  this 
year,  and  in  Montreal  a  proportionate  number.  An  agita- 
tion grew  out  of  this  visitation  and  other  causes  to  con- 
nect Montreal  with  Upper  Canada,  but  the  French 
Canadians  opposed  it.  In  1834  a  second  attack  of  the 
cholera  took  place  of  equal  virulence  with  that  of  two 
years  before.  Quebec  and  Montreal  suffered  greatly,  as 
well  as  cities  and  towns  in  the  Upper  Province.  During 
these  two  terrible  visitations  persons  of  every  age  and  in 
all  positions  of  society  fell  as  victims  of  the  plague. 

This  period  we  have  called  the  "  making  of  Canada." 
We  have  done  so  because  it  marks  the  era  in 
which  the  various  elements  in  the  British  Isles  ^j  cimada!^ 
took  possession  of  the  vacant  lands  in  Upper 
and  Lower  Canada,  as  they  had  done  at  an  earlier  period 
in  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince  Edward  Island.     It  is  true 
an  enormous  immigration,  of  which  we  shall  speak,  took 
place  afterwards,  in  the  years  preceding  1850  ;   but  these 


312  A  Short  History  of 

later  immigrants  were  simply  distributed  among  the 
sparse  settlements  already  formed.  The  U.E.  Loyalists 
had  given  the  force  of  their  ideas  to  the  rising  provinces, 
but  they  were  relatively  few  in  number.  In  the  period 
before  us  we  have  a  filling  up  of  the  waste  places,  the 
rise  of  organized  society,  the  reaching  out  after  a  fuller 
political  life,  and  the  foundation  of  a  real  provincial 
existence. 

Section  II. — The  Family  Compact  and  its  Opponents 

The  Family  Compact  manifestly  grew  out  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  U.E.  Loyalists.  It  was  the  union  of  the 
leaders  of  the  loyalists  with  others  of  kindred  spirit,  to 
rule  Upper  Canada,  heedless  of  the  rights  or  wishes  of 
its  people.  We  have  admired  the  patriotic,  heroic,  and 
sentimental  side  of  U.E.  loyalism  ;  but  plainly,  as  related 
to  civil  government,  its  political  doctrines  and  practices 
were  tyrannical. 

Its  prominent  members  belonged  to  the  class  which  in 
the  American  colonies,  in  the  persons  of  Governors  Ber- 
nard and  Hutchinson,  and  many  others  of  high  office  and 
standing,  had  plotted  to  destroy  the  liberties  of  the 
people,  and  had  hastened  the  American  revolution.  No 
Roman  patrician  ever  looked  with  more  contempt  upon 
the  Roman  plebs  as  they  retired  to  Mons  Janiculum, 
than  did  the  U.E.  Loyalist  upon  the  American  democracy 
and  the  young  republic. 

That  famous  representative  of  the  governing  class, 
Sir  John  Went  worth,  the  aforetime  Colonial  Governor, 
and  as  we  have  seen  for  years  Governor  of  Nova  Scotia, 
detested  such  a  dictum  as  that  "  Government  must  be  by 
the  people,  with  the  people,  and  for  the  people,"  as 
thoroughly  as  he  despised  Thomas  Paine's  fierce  attacks 
on  the  Christian  religion  or  the  doctrine  as  to  witchcraft 
held  by  the  early  Puritans.  Wentworth,  too,  was  not  a 
passive  opponent  of  such  doctrines.  He  would  meet 
fire  with  fire  ;  he  would  adopt  measures,  as  complete  to 
dispense  with  the  popular  wiU,  as  those  of  that  older 


THE  Canadian  People  313 

Went  worth  who,  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  formed  the 
plan  with  the  suggestive  name  of  "  Thorough." 

Inheriting  such  views,  having  fought  for  their  suc- 
cess, having  made  the  great  sacrifice  of  leaving  home 
and  gone  into  exile  to  maintain  them,  living  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  their  republican  opponents, 
and  fearing  lest  they  should  be  outnumbered,  or  lest 
their  children  should  imbibe  the  poison  of  republicanism, 
it  is  no  wonder  that  the  U.E.  Loyalists  desired  and 
strongly  endeavoured  to  maintain  an  oligarchy  in  Upper 
Canada.  An  oligarchy,  such  as  the  rule  of  the  Family 
Compact,  was  the  natural  fruit  of  the  U.E.  Loyalist  tree. 

Nor  did  the  circmnstances  of  the  time  leave  the  U.E. 
Loyalists  without  excuse.  The  great  influx  of  Quakers, 
Mennonites,  and  other  non-combatants  was  a  weakness 
in  case  of  hostilities  with  the  United  States.  The  thou- 
sands of  American  settlers,  who,  with  no  pronounced 
views  in  favour  of  British  connection,  had  come  in  to 
enjoy  the  fertile  lands  of  Canada,  might  create  a  senti- 
ment in  favour  of  the  United  States.  Time  and  again,  as 
in  the  case  of  Hull's  proclamation  of  1812,  the  American 
Grovernment  counted  on  this  sentiment  in  Canada  as  one 
favourable  to  them,  though  it  is  true  they  counted  with- 
out their  host. 

It  had  been  the  custom  in  Grovernor  Simcoe's  time  to 
carefully  examine  into  the  principles  of  new  settlers,  and 
to  send  those  of  unpronounced  views  into  the  interior, 
and  to  settle  the  border  with  trusty  men.  About  the 
year  1800  much  alarm  was  created  in  the  minds  of  the 
loyalists  by  this  large  immigration,  and  we  have  seen 
that  in  1804  the  ''  Alien  "  or  "  Sedition  Act  "  was  passed 
by  the  Legislature.  It  was  dread  of  the  popular  senti- 
ment that  led  to  the  severe  treatment  of  Judge  Thorpe 
and  Mx.  Wilcocks  in  1809.  During  the  war  of  defence, 
especially  in  the  end  of  1813,  when  the  American  arms 
were  victorious  in  the  London  district,  it  was  found  that 
while  the  people  were  loyal  in  the  main,  yet  there  were 
traces  among  the  later  American  immigrants  of  favour 
for  the  United  States.  . 


314  A  Short  History  of 

On  the  other  hand  the  war  of  1812-1815  had  brought 
the  U.E.  Loyalists  and  their  immediate  friends  into 
closer  acquaintance  with  one  another.  Cornwall,  Kings- 
ton, York,  and  Niagara  had  formed  new  attachments. 
Concerted  action  in  war  opened  the  way  to  combined 
action  in  peace.  Watchful  leaders  in  the  Church  saw 
the  opportunity  of  using  the  loyalist  sentiment  to  their 
advantage.  Thus  by  the  years  1818  or  1820  a  junto 
or  cabal  had  been  formed,  definite  in  its  aims  and  firmly 
combined  together,  known  as  the  Family  Compact,  not 
to  its  best  leaders  seeming  an  embodiment  of  selfishness, 
but  rather  set  for  patriotic  defence,  and  hallowed  with 
the  name  of  religion. 

But  while  the  bands  of  privilege  were  thus  being 
drawn  closely  around  the  self-appointed  rulers,  there 
arose  from  the  people  those  who  remembered  that  they 
were  Britons,  and  the  inheritors  of  "  Magna  Charta " 
and  "  Habeas  Corpus  "  rights,  and  who  knew  that  in 
the  end  the  people  must  rule.  These  were  of  no  special 
creed  or  race,  even  some  of  U.E.  Loyalist  parentage 
were  amongst  them,  and  they  included  men  who  for 
education  and  respectability  might  well  compare  with 
the  best  of  the  oligarchy,  while  they  far  surpassed  them 
in  political  knowledge  and  soundness  of  judgment. 

It  has  been  often  the  case  that  in  great  movements  it 
falls  to  the  lot  of  the  extreme  and  the  eccentric  to  hasten 
forward  the  crisis  of  events.  It  was  thus  in  the  Puritan 
conflict  in  England,  in  the  American  revolt,  and  in  the 
French  revolution.  It  was  in  1817  that  a  Scottish 
adventurer,  Robert  Gourlay,  came  to  Canada.  Born  in 
Ceres,  in  Fifeshire,  a  gentleman,  and  possessed  of  con- 
siderable estates,  he  had  met  misfortune,  having  lost  his 
property  in  1815.  He  was  a  visionary,  a  plotter,  and 
somewhat  skilled  in  the  ways  of  demagogism.  Ruined 
in  Scotland,  Gourlay  had  gone  to  Wiltshire  in  England, 
and  undertaken  the  management  of  an  estate.  In  this 
he  had  failed  to  satisfy  the  proprietor,  and  so  determined 
to  leave  Britain,  and  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  military 
colonists,  who  at  this  time  we  have  seen  were  coming  to 


THE  Canadian  People  316 

Canada.  Gourlay  was  pleased  with  the  country,  and 
saw  its  suitability  for  settlement.  He  determined  to 
establish  himself  as  a  land-agent,  and  no  doubt  in  doing 
so,  from  his  ardent  and  controversial  nature,  would  become 
a  troublesome  and  powerful  opponent  of  the  Family 
Compact. 

In  order,  as  he  declared,  the  better  to  prepare  himself 
for  the  work  of  encouraging  immigration,  the  Fifeshire 
exile  sent  out  to  every  township  in  Upper  Canada  a 
list  of  thirty-one  queries  asking  for  information.  The 
last  of  these  questions  became  celebrated  in  connec- 
tion with  after-events.  It  was,  "  What,  in  your  opinion, 
retards  the  improvement  of  your  township  in  particular, 
or  the  province  in  general,  and  what  would  most  contri- 
bute to  the  same  ?  " 

The  Family  Compact  is  not  to  be  blamed  for  having 
endeavoured  to  counterwork  the  agitator  in  so  far  as 
they  chose  legal  methods.  The  questions  certainly 
occasioned  much  excitement  throughout  the  province. 
In  the  townships  of  the  Home  district  the  influence  of 
the  Government  was  sufficient  to  prevent  meetings  of  the 
people  being  convened.  But  generally  in  the  other  districts 
meetings  were  held,  and  the  replies  to  the  queries  showed 
much  dissatisfaction.  Gourlay  advised  the  people  to 
send  commissioners  home  to  Britain  to  represent  their 
grievances  there,  and  a  convention  was  held  in  York. 

The  heather  was  now  on  fire,  and  the  Family  Compact 
determined  at  any  cost  to  drive  Gourlay  from  the  country. 
He  was  prosecuted  for  libel  in  1818  in  Kingston,  but 
the  jury  acquitted  him,  and  a  similar  arrest  and  acquittal 
took  place  in  Brockville.  In  that  year  an  Act  was  passed 
by  the  Legislature  forbidding  the  holding  of  conventions. 
But  it  occurred  to  the  pursuers  that  the  "  Sedition  Act  " 
of  1804  was  suited  to  their  purpose  of  following  Gourlay. 
The  man  had  been  in  the  province  for  two  years,  and  yet 
a  member  of  the  Assembly  named  Swayze,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  the  Hon.  Messrs.  Dickson  and  Claus,  took  oath 
that  the  Fifeshire  exile  was  a  seditious  person,  and  came 
within  the  provisions  of  the  Act. 


316  A  Shobt  History  of 

The  doomed  agitator  was  accordingly  arrested  and 
thrown  into  prison,  where  he  remained  for  more  than 
seven  months  before  trial.  In  August,  1819,  at  Niagara, 
before  Chief  Justice  Powell,  his  most  exciting  trial  was 
witnessed.  The  prisoner  was  a  picture  of  misery  ;  he 
was  emaciated,  his  mind  was  plainly  giving  way,  and 
amidst  the  solemnity  of  the  court  the  prisoner  burst  into 
loud  maniacal  laughter.  But  his  persecutors  were  men 
of  determined  and  bitter  spirit.  He  was  found  guilty  by 
a  prejudiced  judge  and  jury,  and  was  condemned  to  leave 
the  country.  This  the  unfortunate  man  did  ;  but,  though 
the  trial  was  conducted  in  the  name  of  law,  a  fire  was 
kindled  that  day  that  in  twenty  years  had  swept  out  of 
existence  the  system  that  permitted  such  a  travesty  of 
justice. 

In  the  same  year  as  Gourlay's  trial  the  Earl  of  Selkirk, 
through  the  North- West  Company  abetted  by  the  Family 
Compact,  was  prosecuted  in  the  town  of  Sandwich  for 
the  troubles  in  the  North- West.  Chief  Justice. Powell  not 
only  administered  justice  unfairly,  but,  as  President  of  the 
Legislative  Council,  secured  legislation  by  which  he  was 
able  to  condemn  the  cause  of  the  chivalrous  earl. 

Not  only  did  Gourlay's  persecution  stir  up  feeling  in 
the  country,  but  his  queries  had  struck  the  weak  point  in 
the  supposed  invincible  armour  of  the  Family  Compact. 
The  Executive  Council  was  not  responsible  to  Parliament, 
and  yet  this  select  body  of  men  had  power  to  bestow  the 
lands  of  the  country  upon  whom  they  pleased,  paid  the 
officials  without  heed  to  the  Council  or  Assembly,  and 
could  actually  create  a  permanent  Church  establishment, 
as  we  shall  see  in  the  time  of  Sir  John  Colborne.  In 
the  year  1836  a  return  was  made  to  the  Assembly 
showing  that  the  Executive  Council  had  bestowed  vast 
tracts  of  land  upon  themselves  and  their  favourites.  So 
that  the  Family  Compact  was  seen  to  exist  not  merely  to 
hold  power,  and  exercise  influence  in  the  country,  but 
was  engaged  in  enriching  its  members  and  their  friends 
at  the  public  expense.  Among  the  leaders  of  the  Family 
Compact  two  or  three  stand  out  as  its  head  and  front. 


THE  Canadian  People  317 

While,  as  we  shall  see,  a  doughty  ecclesiastic  was  the 
brain  of  the  compact,  John  Beverley  Robinson  cmef 
was  its  right  arm.     This  well-known  Canadian  Justice 
was  the  son  of  an  officer  of  the  Queen's  Rangers,  ^o^^son. 
who  with  the  other  loyalists  had  gone  to  New  Brunswick, 
but  had  afterwards  come  to  the  western  provinces.     He 
was  born  at  Berthier,   Quebec,  in   1791.     As  a  boy  he 
was  a  scholar  of  the  afterwards  famous  man.   Bishop 
Strachan.     Beverley  Robinson  studied  law  in  York,  and 
was  present  as  a  lieutenant  with  Brock  at  the  taking  of 
Detroit.     He   was,  on   the  recommendation  of  William 
Dummer    Powell,    the    Chief    Justice,    made    Attorney- 
General  at  the  age  of  twenty-one. 

In  1821  he  entered  the  Assembly  as  the  first  member 
of  York,  and  in  the  following  year  was  sent  to  Britain 
to  negotiate  in  some  important  affairs.  During  succeed- 
ing years  he  filled  the  trying  position  of  Attorney- 
General,  and  proved  himself  a  shrewd,  capable,  and 
unyielding  advocate  of  Family  Compact  principles.  He 
was  a  Bourbon  of  the  Bourbons.  Popular  tumult  had 
no  terrors  for  him  ;  he  was  incapable  of  learning  by 
experience.  After  serving  his  cabal  in  many  a  stem 
fight,  he  accepted,  in  1829,  the  position  of  Chief  Justice, 
in  which,  removed  from  the  arena  of  conflict,  he  gained 
the  character  of  a  thoroughly  wise  and  upright  judge, 
though  he  was  still  a  power  behind  the  throne.  He  was 
made  a  baronet  in  1854,  and  passed  away  full  of  years 
and  honours  in  1863. 

There  was  no  man  during  this  period  in  Canada  of 
such  striking  personality   as   John   Strachan. 
Born  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in  1778,  his  father  strachan. 
an  Episcopalian,  and  his  mother  a  Presbj^erian, 
the  afterwards  first  Bishop  of  Toronto  attended  King's 
College  in  his  native  town,  where  he  graduated  in  1796. 
Engaged  as  teacher  of  the  parish  school  in  Kettle,  Fife- 
shire,  he  received  an  offer  to  go  to  Canada  from  the  Hon. 
Richard  Cartwright,  of  Kingston,  to  found  an  academy, 
"  afterwards  to  become  a  college  imder  the  patronage  of 
the  Goverimient  of  the  Province."  « 


318  A  Short  History  of 

When  young  Strachan  arrived  in  Canada  in  1799, 
Governor  Simcoe,  the  patron  of  education,  had  gone,  and 
the  young  Scottish  teacher  was  disheartened.  A  school 
on  a  private  basis  was,  however,  soon  after  begun  in 
Kingston,  which  was  transferred  to  Cornwall  in  the 
year  1804,  when  John  Strachan  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
the  Church  of  England.  His  school  was  the  nursery  of 
the  Family  Compact.  Such  well-known  loyalist  and 
Family  Compact  names  as  Robinson,  Macaulay,  McLean, 
Boulton,  Jones,  Sherwood,  Cartwright,  Ruttan,  Bethune, 
and  the  like  occur  on  its  lists. 

In  1812  Dr.  Strachan  removed  to  York,  where  he 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  war  of  defence.  It  is  said 
his  representations  to  the  American  officers  saved  York 
from  being  burnt.  He  also  did  a  good  work  in  organ- 
izing the  "Loyal  and  Patriotic  Society."  In  1815  the 
courageous  rector  was  made  a  member  of  the  Executive 
Council,  and,  in  1820,  of  the  Legislative  Council  of 
Upper  Canada.  Unquestionably  most  of  the  movements 
against  the  democratic  tendencies  of  the  time  were  origi- 
nated by  Dr.  Strachan.  He  was  a  politician  of  the 
most  ardent  type.  He  added  the  persistency  of  his 
Scottish  nature  to  the  uncompromising  principles  of 
loyalism. 

Bravery,  perseverance,  astuteness,  and  ingenuity  were 
the  prominent  features  of  the  ecclesiastical  legislator  and 
councillor.  It  is  easy  to  imagine  with  what  gusto,  in 
his  Aberdonian  dialect,  the  clerical  politician,  when  it 
was  suggested  to  him  that  the  law  did  not  permit  the 
house  to  expel  a  refractory  member,  would  declare,  "  The 
law  1  the  law  !  never  mind  the  law — ^tum  him  cot ;  turn 
him  oot  !  " 

In  his  later  years  the  bishop  quite  believed  he  had 
overcome  the  peculiarities  of  his  mother-tongue,  and 
often  admonished  the  students  of  the  college  which  was 
so  dear  to  him.  Trinity,  to  avoid  "awe-cent!"  avoid 
"  awe-cent !  " 

He  was  thoroughly  a  man  of  affairs.  On  one  occasion 
the  parishioners  of  one  of  his  clergy  came   complaining 


THE  Canadian  People  319 

that  their  clergyman  had  on  several  occasions  preached 
the  same  sermon.  The  shrewd  old  bishop  asked  them 
to  repeat  the  text,  which,  none  being  able  to  do,  they 
were  advised  to  return  and  hear  the  discom:se  again. 

Dr.  Strachan  made  numerous  visits  to  Britain,  wrote 
extensively  in  the  newspaper  and  pamphlet  field,  took 
part  in  all  public  and  charitable  movements,  kept  up 
fraternal  relations  with  the  oligarchy  of  Quebec,  gave  his 
advice  on  every  question  in  the  Legislative  and  Executive 
Councils,  took  a  leading  part  in  the  Clergy  Reserve  con- 
troversy, and  moreover  managed  for  many  years  the 
ecclesiastical  affairs  of  Upper  Canada.  He  was  a  man  of 
marvellous  industry  and  unbounded  energy,  and  well 
deserved  to  be  made  the  first  Bishop  of  Toronto  in  1839. 
His  aged  form  was  well  known  in  Toronto  in  quite  recent 
years,  for  he  died  so  late  as  1867. 

One  of  the  well-known  names  of  the  Family  Compact 
cabal  was  that  of  Boulton.  The  name  and  »j,yj*Qn 
family  are  English,  and  the  head  of  it  in  Canada 
was  D'Arcy  Boulton,  who  was  in  turn  Solicitor-General, 
Attorney-General,  and  Justice  of  the  King's  Bench. 
The  better-known  member  of  the  family  was  Henry 
John  Boulton,  who  was  bom  in  London  in  1790,  studied 
law  in  England,  and  came  to  Canada,  where  he  com- 
menced the  practice  of  law  in  1816.  In  1829  the  York 
lawyer  became  Attorney-General.  It  was  a  troublous 
time  :  it  was  difficult  to  fill  the  place  of  Beverley  Robin- 
son ;  but  by  pluck  and  readiness,  and  a  somewhat 
vociferous  style,  the  new  Attorney-General  held  his 
place,  though  his  abusive  manner  brought  him  into  con- 
flict with  the  Home  Office.  He  was  not  in  the  first 
rank  of  the  leaders  of  the  Compact,  but  was  a  working 
member  of  it. 

The    Highlanders    of    Glengarry    and    their    trusted 
clerical  leader.   Bishop  Macdonell,  have  been 
noticed  before.    The    first    settlement  of  the  Macdonell. 
loyalist  Highlanders  had  been  chiefly  disbanded 
soldiers.     The  name  Macdonell  is  of  fame  among  those  in 
the  Queen's  Rangers,  and  also  in  the  Glengarry  Fencibles. 


320  A  Short  History  ot 

Bishop  Macdonell  was  strongly  loyalist  in  sentiment.  The 
British  Government  recognized  his  services  after  the  war 
by  approving  of  his  appointment  of  bishop,  and  pro- 
viding £600  annual  support. 

It  was  not  till  1829,  when  the  Family  Compact  began 
to  feel  the  pressure  of  its  opponents,  that  Bishop  Mac- 
donell became  a  member  of  the  Executive  Council  of 
Upper  Canada.  As  a  pensioner  of  the  Government  he 
had  always  been  a  strong  supporter,  and  rendered  a  sort 
of  feudal  homage  to  the  Family  Compact.  After  the  re- 
bellion he  seems  to  have  been  still  a  favourite  of  Govern- 
ment, for  he  went  to  Britain  on  an  emigration  mission 
with  Dr.  Thomas  Rolph  in  1839,  where  he  died  suddenly 
in  1840. 

The  name  of  Bidwell  is  one  honoured  by  the  present 
Bid  ell  generation,  and  yet  one  which  brings  a  blush  to 
the  face  of  every  true  Canadian  for  the  severe 
treatment  of  the  Bid  wells  by  the  Family  Compact.  They 
were  Americans  who  came  over  to  the  county  of  Ad- 
dington  in  1810.  Barnabas  Bidwell,  the  father,  had 
been  a  member  of  Congress  in  the  United  States,  and 
was  noted  for  his  eloquence.  Falling  into  business 
difficulties,  in  which  he  maintained  to  the  last  there 
was  no  moral  stain  upon  his  name,  he  had  come  to 
Canada. 

Bidwell  was  author  of  a  part  of  Gourlay's  statistical 
work  of  Upper  Canada,  and  when  in  1821  the  eloquent 
American  exile  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Canadian 
Assembly,  the  oligarchy  determined  on  his  exclusion 
from  the  House.  He  was  assailed  in  the  Assembly  with 
vituperation,  excluded  by  vote,  and  an  Act  passed  that 
no  one  having  held  a  principal  office  in  a  foreign  state 
was  eligible  for  election.  A  new  election  was  held  in 
the  county  of  Addington,  and,  as  the  father  had  been 
unjustly  excluded  from  the  Assembly,  his  son,  Marshall 
Spring  Bidwell,  a  young  man  but  twenty-one  years  of 
age,  was  a  candidate.  Once  defeated,  and  on  a  second 
occasion  elected,  young  BidweU  was  not  allowed  to  take 
his  seat  by  the  obnoxious  Act  of  1823,  but  so  loud  was 


THE  Canadian  People  321 

popular  clamour  that  the  Act  was  repealed,  when  in 
1824  the  future  leader  of  the  opponents  of  the  Compact 
was  elected. 

Few  men  in  public  life  in  Canada  have  for  nobility  of 
character,  loftness  of  aim,  soundness  of  judgment,  high 
legal  knowledge,  and  commanding  eloquence  been  more 
esteemed.  For  eleven  years  Marshall  Bidwell  remained 
in  political  life,  a  part  of  that  time  the  dignified  Speaker 
of  the  Assembly.  During  the  stirring  times  of  the  rebel- 
lion of  1837  Sir  Francis  Bond  Head,  who  always  took 
strong  groimd  against  Bidwell,  informed  him  that  on 
account  of  suspicions  against  him,  and  yet  on  account  of 
his  high  character,  he  desired  him  to  leave  the  country. 
Bidwell  should  not  have  yielded,  but  fearing  injustice  con- 
sented, retired  to  the  United  States,  and  could  not  even 
be  induced  to  take  up  his  abode  in  Canada  again,  though 
offered  a  judgeship. 

Bitterly  opposed  to  the  Canadian  oligarchy  were,  as  we 
have  said,  the  sons  of  a  nimiber  of  the  loyalists.  _ 
Most  prominent  and  influential  of  these  was 
Peter  Perry,  born  in  the  U.E.  Loyalist  township  of 
Ernest-town,  near  Kingston,  in  1 793.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  the  Bidwells,  but  lacked  their  polish  and  solidity. 
He  was  one  of  the  "  fighting  men  "  of  the  opponents  of 
the  cabal.  His  fluent,  impassioned  diatribes  against  the 
Compact  made  him  a  favourite  among  the  farmers  of  the 
midland  and  eastern  districts,  though  his  manner  was 
homely.  In  1824  Perry  was  elected  for  the  united 
counties  of  Lennox  and  Addington.  This  tribune  of  the 
people  did  not  favour  the  rebellion,  but  desired  only  to 
redress  wrongs  by  the  use  of  constitutional  means.  He 
entered  the  House  a  second  time  after  a  considerable 
absence,  and  died  in  1851. 

One  of  the  stainless  names  among  those  of  the  public 
men  of  Canada  is  Robert  Baldwin.  The  son  of  »  i^  • 
an  Irish  physician  in  York,  he  was  born  in 
1804.  His  father  was  for  a  time  in  public  life,  but  the 
son  was  much  the  more  celebrated.  Young  Baldwin 
studied  law,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1825.  In  that 
21 


322  A  Short  History  op 

trying  year,  1829,  when  the  public  temper  was  highly 
roused,  Baldwin  was  returned  as  one  of  the  representa- 
tives from  York. 

Called  into  the  Executive  Council  by  Sir  Francis  Bond 
Head,  he  was  too  high-minded  to  occupy  a  seat  while  the 
Governor  consulted  others  than  his  constitutional  advisers. 
During  the  time  of  the  outbreak  the  dignified  position 
taken  by  Robert  Baldwin,  and  his  subsequent  wisdom, 
made  him  one  of  the  most  valuable  men  Canada  has  ever 
known. 

One  of  the  most  subtle-minded  and  diplomatic  of  the 
R  1  h  opponents  of  the  oligarchy  was  Dr.  John  Rolph. 

He  was  born  in  Gloucestershire  in  England  in 
1793,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  took  up  his  abode  as  a  phy- 
sician in  the  Talbot  settlement.  In  1821,  having  studied 
law,  he  was  called  to  the  bar,  and  seems  to  have  prac- 
tised both  law  and  medicine.  He  was  among  the 
new  members  in  the  popular  Assembly  elected  in  1824, 
being  chosen  for  Middlesex.  Rolph  took  a  prominent 
place  in  the  House,  as  was  to  have  been  expected  from 
his  high  scholastic  attainments,  finished  eloquence,  and 
smoothness  of  manner. 

The  rebellion  era  was  a  time  of  special  trial  for  Rolph. 
There  seems  little  doubt  that  while  apparently  against 
the  insurgents,  he  secretly  encouraged  them.  He 
remained  until  1857  in  public  life,  but  retired  from  it  to 
practise  his  profession  of  medicine.  This  father  of  reform 
became  in  time  the  founder  of  a  medical  college,  and 
many  hundreds  of  the  physicians  of  Canada  still  speak  of 
the  erudite  and  accomplished  lecturer  who  led  them  into 
Esculapian  mysteries.  The  doctor  remained  a  well- 
known  feature  of  Toronto  for  many  years,  and  died  in 
1870. 

Small  in  stature,  but  large  in  energy,  honest  in  pur- 
j^  .  .  pose,  but  hasty  in  temper,  keen  in  intellect,  but 
imsafe  in  council,  a  hater  of  wrong,  but  a  bitter 
antagonist,  pitying  the  poor  or  unfortunate,  but  not  of 
humble  disposition,  a  warm  friend,  but  a  dangerous 
enemy,  was  William  Lyon  Mackenzie.     In  distinct  per- 


THE  Canadian  People  323 

sonality,  perhaps,  he  was  the  only  man  of  his  time  who 
might  dispute  the  palm  with  Bishop  Strachan.  He  was 
bom  of  humble  parents  near  Dundee,  Scotland,  in  1795. 
Possessed  of  a  thirst  for  knowledge,  he  had,  by  his  own 
exertions,  on  his  arrival  in  Canada,  in  1820,  become  a  man 
of  marked  intelligence. 

After  certain  moderately  prosperous  ventures  in  that 
memorable  political  year,  1824,  he  began  the  publication 
of  a  newspaper.  The  Colonial  Advocate.  This,  after 
November,  1824,  was  issued  in  York,  the  provincial 
capital.  Now  began  his  work  of  ferreting  our  Canadian 
grievances.  Many  were  the  trials  of  the  irrepressible 
Radical.  In  1828  he  entered  Parliament,  but  time  and 
again  was  expelled  by  the  dominant  majority  in  the 
Assembly. 

He  became  the  father  of  the  Upper  Canadian  rebellion, 
was  estranged  for  a  time  from  his  old  friends,  was  an 
exile,  but  returned  to  spend  his  last  days  in  the  province, 
which,  after  all,  he  loved,  and  died  in  1861.  There  are 
those  who  wouJd  drag  to  light  the  differences  between 
Rolph  and  Mackenzie.  The  advocates  of  both  will  find 
in  their  respective  heroes  a  character  a  long  way  indeed 
from  perfection,  but  our  counsel  would  be  **  Nil  nisi 
bonum  de  mortuis." 

Section  III. — The  Struggle  for  Freedom 

The  trial  of  Goiurlay  sent  a  thrill  through  the  breasts  of 
the  people  of  Upper  Canada.  The  Family  Compact  had 
chosen  their  ground  well.  Niagara  had  been  settled  by 
Butler's  Rangers,  who  had  done  bloody  work  in  the  war 
of  the  revolution,  and  what  neither  Brockville  nor 
Kingston  had  ventured  to  do,  Niagara  permitted,  viz., 
the  absolute  destruction  of  personal  liberty.  The  per- 
secution of  Lord  Selkirk  by  the  Family  Compact  was  a 
similar  wrong.     But  the  cabal  was  all-powerful. 

It  was  only  in  1824  that  the  voice  of  the  people  spoke 
out  loudly  against  the  junto.  In  that  year  was  elected, 
amidst  much  excitement,  an  Assembly,  which  may  be 


324  A  Short  History  of 

called  the  People's  Assembly.  It  contained  a  majority 
against  the  Family  Compact,  and  the  opposition  suc- 
ceeded in  electing  the  speaker.  But  the  Government 
was  not  responsible  to  the  Assembly.  The  Executive 
could  defy  the  will  of  the  Assembly,  though  it  should  be  a 
unit.  The  Governor,  instead  of  being  an  arbiter  between 
contending  parties,  found  association  with  the  Family 
Compact  most  congenial. 

The  name  of  Governor  Maitland  will  ever  remain  one 
little  favoured  in  Canada.  Born  in  Hampshire 
MalttMid!  i^  1777,  young  Peregrine  Maitland  entered  the 
army  as  ensign  in  1792.  He  gained  distinction 
in  the  Napoleonic  wars,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  On  the  retirement  of  Francis  Gore,  who  had 
returned  to  Upper  Canada  after  the  war  of  defence  in 
1815,  and  had  continued  in  office  until  1818,  Sir  Peregrine 
came  as  his  successor.  Governor  Maitland  was  the  son- 
in-law  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  the  Governor-General, 
having  married,  as  his  second  wife,  after  eloping  with  her 
from  Paris,  the  Lady  Sarah  Lennox,  the  duke's  daughter. 
As  seems  to  have  been  usually  the  case  in  our  provin- 
cial struggles,  the  newspaper  press  took  a  chief  part  in 
the  troubles.  A  monument  to  Sir  Isaac  Brock  was  being 
reared  on  Queenston  Heights.  In  the  base  of  the  structure 
The  "  Co-  ^  copy  of  the  Colonial  Advocate  had  been  placed, 
lonial  and  William  Lyon  Mackenzie  had  taken  part  in 

Advocate.'  ^j^^  ceremonies  of  the  occasion.  Sir  Peregrine 
Maitland  ordered  the  cavity  to  be  reopened  and  the 
Radical  newspaper  to  be  taken  out,  and  it  was  done. 
The  Advocate  next  attacked  fiercely  the  action  of  Judge 
Boulton  and  his  son,  the  Solicitor-General,  in  a  case 
before  the  court — calling  it  the  Star  Chamber,  and  sug- 
gesting parallels  with  the  detested  names  of  Scroggs  and 
Jeffries.  The  opposition  majority  in  the  Assembly  in 
1825  was  thus  urged  on  to  severe  criticism  of  the  Governor 
and  Council. 

And  yet  the  Colonial  Advocate,  not  basking  in  the 
smile  of  Government  patrons,  was  imremimerative,  and 
its  editor,  Mackenzie,  was  in  financial  difficulties.     At 


THE  Canadian  People  826 

this  juncture  a  band  of  the  younger  members  of  the 
Family  Compact,  in  open  day,  on  June  8th,  1826,  entered 
the  printing-office  of  the  Advocate,  tore  the  furniture 
to  shreds,  and  threw  the  type  into  Toronto  Bay.  The  nine 
culprits  were  brought  to  trial,  and  compelled  to  pay 
£625  as  damages  to  the  agitator  Mackenzie.  Subscrip- 
tions were  taken  up  among  the  official  class  to  pay  the 
fine,  but  the  receipt  of  the  amount  named  gave  new  life 
to  the  Colonial  Advocate. 

The  Grovernor  and  Council  were  now  roused  to  counter- 
work the  agitators.  Spies  were  employed  to  watch  the 
anti-ministerialists.  The  weight  of  the  Family  Compact 
wrath  fell  upon  Captain  Matthews,  an  outspoken  The 
British  half-pay  officer,  representative  of  Mid-  Matthews 
dlesex,  who  had  thrown  in  his  lot  with  the  ^**®* 
opposition.  In  1825  the  captain,  in  company  with  others 
in  a  hilarious  mood,  had  attended  a  theatrical  perform- 
ance given  by  a  band  of  strolling  American  players  in 
York,  and  called  upon  the  orchestra  to  render  certain 
American  airs.  This  was  charged  as  the  most  flagrant 
disloyalty.  The  most  of  the  party  having  been  in  an 
oblivious  state  of  mind,  it  was  difficult  to  ascertain  the 
truth,  but  Captain  Matthews  wfits  summoned  by  the 
British  Grovernment  to  repair  to  England,  and  though  a 
Committee  of  the  Assembly  cleared  him  of  disloyalty, 
his  haK-pay  was  stopped  by  the  War  Department. 

In  1827  there  arrived  in  Canada  a  querulous  and  some- 
what pompous  English  lawyer,  who  had  been  The  Troubles 
appointed  to  be  Judge  of  the  King's  Bench,  in  of  Judge 
the  expectation  that  an  Equity  Coiurt-  would  Willis, 
be  established,  over  which  he  would  preside.  This 
was  John  Willis.  He  was  married  to  Lady  Mary  Willis, 
daughter  of  Lord  Strathmore.  Judge  Willis  seems  to 
have  taken  a  dislike  to  Beverley  Robinson,  Attomey- 
Greneral,  and  Lady  Mary  Willis  was  no  admirer  of  Lady 
Maitland.  It  was  evident  that  the  Belgr avian  circles  of 
York  would  soon  be  in  a  state  of  torrid  temperature. 

In?a  libel  suit  against  a  troublesome  printer,  Collins, 
Attorney-General  Robinson  was  engaged  in  conducting 


326  A  Short  History  of 

the  case.  Judge  Willis  took  the  opportunity  to  ad- 
minister a  rebuke  to  the  Attorney- General  for  neglecting 
to  prosecute  other  cases  which  involved  injury  to  certain 
friends  of  the  Family  Compact.  The  scene  in  court  was 
most  unbecoming  to  all  parties.  It  was  now  announced 
in  the  press  of  the  time  that  Judge  Willis  was  preparing 
a  treatise  on  the  system  of  jurisprudence  in  Upper 
Canada,  and  the  motto  chosen,  "meliora  sperans,"  was 
supposed  to  reflect  upon  the  code  then  in  vogue. 

But  the  crisis  came  when  Judge  Willis  professed  to 
have  discovered  that,  in  the  absence  of  the  Chief  Justice, 
who  had  gone  to  Britain,  the  sitting  of  the  court  was 
illegal,  and  he  announced  this  to  the  assembled  Bar, 
refusing  at  the  same  time  to  sit.  The  relations  between 
the  two  ladies  already  mentioned,  who  both  desired 
to  be  leaders  of  York  society,  had  also  become  very 
imJiappy.  The  Governor  and  Coimcil  decided  to  remove 
Judge  Willis.  This  was  done,  and  Justice  Hagerman  was 
appointed  his  successor.  The  contention  of  Judge  Willis 
was  shown  afterward  to  be  wrong,  and  his  temper  and 
mien  were  far  fron^^^imendable,  but  the  opposition  re- 
garded his  as  a  cl^Hbf  persecution,  and  this  also  did 
much  to  render  thel^kmily  Compact  unpopular  in  the 
country.  ^ 

Another  unfortunate  occiurence  soon  took  place.  A 
The  greedy  innkeeper  at  Niagara  Falls,  named  For- 

Forsyth  syth,  in  order  to  prevent  visitors  to  that  in- 
^*^*"'*  teresting  locality  from  seeing  the  Falls  without 

passing  through  his  hostelry,  built  a  high  fence  along 
the  front  of  his  property,  thus  shutting  in  the  Govern- 
ment reserve  of  one  chain  in  width  along  the  river, 
and  hiding  the  view  of  the  Falls.  Ordered  by  Sir  Pere- 
grine Maitland,  as  Commander  of  the  Forces  in  1828, 
to  remove  the  barrier,  he  refused.  A  sergeant  and  a 
fatigue  party  soon  after  appeared,  threw  down  the  fence, 
demolished  one  of  Forsyth's  houses,  which  was  built 
on  his  own  property,  and  threw  the  materials  over  the 
bank  into  the  river  beneath.  Though  Forsyth  was  in  the 
wrong,  yet  the  employment  of  military  and   the  high- 


THE  Canadian  People  327 

handed  procedure  aroused  strong  opposition  to  the  Gover- 
nor, and  very  nearly  led  to  a  conflict  between  the  British 
soldiers  and  the  colonists  such  as  had  been  seen  in  Boston. 

Complaint  was  made  to  the  Legislature.  The  As- 
sembly summoned  certain  Grovernment  officials  to  give 
evidence,  who,  instructed  by  the  Grovernor,  refused  to 
attend  before  the  Committee  of  the  House.  The  officials 
were  arrested  by  the  Assembly  and  imprisoned  for 
several  days,  when  the  GrOvernor  prorogued  the  House 
and  liberated  the  prisoners.  Sir  Peregrine  had  been 
wrong  both  as  to  the  destruction  of  Forsyth's  property 
and  the  instructions  given  to  the  official  witnesses.  The 
other  charges  against  the  despotic  governor  were  con- 
stantly urged.  The  popular  excitement  was  great,  so 
that  the  storm  raised  chiefly  by  the  unworthy  innkeeper 
resulted  in  the  Governor's  recall  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment, and  his  being  sent  to  Nova  Scotia. 

It  was    assuredly  no   bed  of  roses  which   Grovernor 
Maitland  left  to  his  successor.     A  high  officer,  -,   ,  . 
Sir  John  Colbome,  known  in  hj^  later  life  as  colboriw. 
Lord  Seaton,  was  sent  to  replac^Bktland,  and 
to   quiet  the  disturbed  pro vii^^^  John  Colborne   was 
bom  in  1777,  in  Hants  county^Bigland.     He  had  early 
entered  the  army,  and  had  gainia  great  distinction  in  the 
French  wars,  having  risen  to  the  rank  of  major-general. 
Sir  John  arrived  in  York  in  1828.     His  predecessor  had 
left  him  a  troublesome  heritage  in  the  Collins  case. 

This  was  that  of  a  Roman  Catholic  printer,  Francis 
Collins,  editor  of  a  radical  paper,  the  Canadian  Freeman^ 
which,  from  1825,  pursued  a  constant  course  of  vitupera- 
tion against  the  Family  Compact.  Its  fierce  attacks  had, 
if  possible,  exceeded  those  of  the  Colonial  Advocate. 
Several  libel  suits  were  brought  against  Collins,  when  he 
in  revenge  raised  a  charge  against  Solicitor-General 
Boulton  for  having  killed  in  a  duel  one  Ridout.  This 
affair  had  happened  many  years  before.  The  trial  took 
place,  but  Boulton  was  acquitted.  Collins  now  charged 
the  Colonial  Advocate  rioters  with  their  crime,  which  had 
not  been  tried.     They  were  found  guilty,  and  a  slight  fine 


328  A  Short  History  of 

imposed  upon  them  by  Judge  Willis.  The  libel  suits 
against  Collins  were  allowed  to  drop. 

Collins  now  became  more  ferocious  than  ever  in  his 
attacks.  Beverley  Robinson  urged  a  charge  of 
Libel.  °  ^  personal  libel  of  himself  as  Attorney- General 
against  Collins.  The  Family  Compact  judge, 
Sherwood,  who  was  accused  of  being  partial,  charged 
severely  against  Collins,  and  the  prisoner  was  found 
guilty.  Heavy  fines  and  imprisonment  were  visited  on 
the  libeller,  and  a  sentiment  among  the  people  some- 
what similar  to  that  in  the  Gourlay  case  followed  the 
unfortunate  man  to  prison,  while  contempt  fell  on  the 
Attorney- General..  It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Sir  John 
Colborne  arrived  at  York.  The  people,  by  public  subscrip- 
tion, had  paid  CoUins's  fine,  and  now  petitioned  the  Governor 
for  his  release.  The  requests  of  the  people,  and  even  Col- 
lins's  respectful  petition  to  the  Governor  for  himseK  and 
his  helpless  family,  fell  without  effect  on  a  man  who  had 
beheld  the  bloody  scenes  of  the  Peninsula  and  Waterloo. 

The  Assembly,  in  1829,  took  up  the  case,  and  made  a 
strong  appeal  to  Sir  John  in  CoUins's  behaK,  but  in  vain. 
Though  the  final  appeal  of  the  Assembly  was  successful, 
the  people  never  forgave  the  hard-hearted  governor.     In 

1829  the  struggle  continued  between  the  "  People's 
House  "  and  the  Family  Compact  Executive  Council. 
Allan  McNab,  the  son  of  a  U.E.  Loyalist,  and  Solicitor- 
General  Boulton  fell  under  the  displeasure  of  the  As- 
sembly, on  account  of  their  having  refused  to  give 
evidence  before  a  committee  of  the  House  as  to  a  riot  in 
Hamilton.  The  Assembly  acted  with  decision.  McNab 
was  committed  to  prison,  and  became  a  favourite  of  the 
Cabal ;  the  occasion  of  Boulton's  reprimand  by  Mr. 
Speaker  Bidwell  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  most 
impressive  scenes  in  Canadian  Parliamentary  life. 

About  this  time  began  to  appear  a  line  of  cleavage 
Family  between  Mackenzie  and  his  radical  followers  and 

Compact  the  more  moderate  men  of  the  Bidwell  and  Bald- 
Reaction.       ^^^  type.     In  consequence,  in  the  elections  of 

1830  the  Family  Compact  gained  ground,  indeed  had  a 


THE  Canadian  People  329 

majority  in  the  Assembly.  In  1831  the  "Everlast- 
ing Salary  Bill,"  rendering  the  judges  and  Executive 
Coimcil  independent,  as  to  salary,  of  the  Assembly  was 
passed.  In  this  year  Mackenzie,  who  had  been  elected 
in  the  new  Parliament  for  York,  notwithstanding  the 
political  slaughter  of  Baldwin,  Rolph,  and  Matthews, 
became  an  object  of  special  hatred  to  the  majority. 
Thrice  was  the  virulent  editor  of  the  Colonial  Advocate 
expelled  from  the  Assembly,  and  as  often  was  he  re- 
elected. William  Lyon  Mackenzie  became  the  People's 
Tribune,  and  on  going  to  England  the  British  authorities 
admitted  the  injustice  of  the  action  of  the  Assembly,  as 
shown  in  a  despatch  of  Lord  Goderich  in  1833.  The 
Assembly  still  refused  to  admit  the  obnoxious  member. 
Again  was  he  elected  ;  and  followed  by  a  great  body  of 
his  constituents,  he  demanded  admission  to  the  House, 
but  was  stiU  refused.  Mackenzie  became  the  most 
popular  man  in  Canada,  and  in  1834  was  chosen  to  be 
Mayor  of  Toronto,  as  York,  incorporated  as  a  city,  was 
now  called. 

But  the  burning  question  of  all  these  years  was  one  con- 
nected with  religion.     Strange  that  the  bit-  xhe  Clergy 
terest  conflicts  of  the  race  have  risen  out  of  Reserve 
religious  differences.     We  have    already    seen  ^^P"*®* 
that    in    the    discussion    of    the    Treaty    of    1763    and 
the  Quebec  Act  of  1774,  a  religious  establishment  was 
continued  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  among  its  French 
people.     In   the    Quebec   Act    a   vague    provision   was 
made  also  for  the   support  of  a  Protestant   clergy.     By 
the  Constitutional  Act  of  1791  definiteness  was  given  to 
this  proviso.     One-seventh   of   all  unoccupied  lands  was 
granted  for  the  support  of  a  "Protestant  clergy,"  and 
power  was  given  to  erect  parsonages  or  rectories  accord- 
ing to  the  establishment  of  the  Church  of  England. 

Out  of  these  short  clauses  grew  a  struggle  lasting  more 
than  three  decades,  ending  only  in  1854,  which  might  be 
called  the  Thirty  Years'  Religious  War  of  Upper  Canada. 
Shortly  after  1791  lands  to  the  extent  of  nearly  2,400,000 
acres  in  Upper  Canada,  and  approaching  a  million  in 


330  A  Short  History  of 

Lower  Canada,  were  thus  set  apart  for  a  "  Protestant 
clergy."  In  Gourlay's  agitation  the  first  sounds  of  dis- 
content were  heard.  Some  little  attention  had  before 
this  been  given  the  matter  in  Lower  Canada.  In  1819  a 
small  body  of  Scottish  Presbyterians  in  Niagara,  having 
lost  their  church  by  fire,  petitioned  Governor  Maitland 
to  grant  them  £100  from  the  Clergy  Reserve  Fund,  or 
any  other  available  fund.  Lord  Bathurst  replied  that 
such  grants  might  be  made  to  the  Church  of  Scotland  as 
weU  as  the  Church  of  England,  but  not  to  dissenters. 

This  question  as  to  the  original  meaning  of  the  expres- 
sion "  Protestant  clergy "  has  been  much  discussed. 
There  seems  some  evidence  that  in  the  Parliament  of 
1791  it  was  a  compromise  phrase,  whose  interpretation 
might  be  thrown  over  on  posterity.  Lord  Grenville 
certainly  at  the  time  informed  Viscount  Sandon  that  the 
Bin  "  meant  to  provide  for  any  clergy  that  was  not  Roman 
Catholic,"  and  yet  many  members  of  both  Houses  of 
Parliament  understood  it  to  mean  for  the  clergy  of  the 
Church  of  England  exclusively.  One  haK  of  our  dif- 
ficulties arise  from  the  compromises  and  ambiguities  of  our 
ancestors.  The  matter  became  one  of  public  interest 
in  1823,  in  which  year  William  Morris  of  Perth,  a  member 
of  the  Assembly,  introduced  resolutions,  which  were 
carried,  claiming  equality  as  to  the  Clergy  Reserve 
Fund  for  the  Church  of  Scotland  with  the  Church  of 
England.  The  Legislative  Council  disapproved  of  these 
resolutions,  though  Governor  Maitland  had  at  the  time 
received  a  despatch — kept  secret  for  the  time  being 
— ^from  Lord  Bathurst  justifying  this  interpretation  of 
the  Act. 

In  this  year  the  redoubtable  Dr.  Strachan  petitioned 
the  House  of  Lords,  and  forwarded  an  "  Ecclesiastical 
Chart,"  whose  facts  were  indignantly  denied  by  all  the 
other  Canadian  churches.  At  this  time  arose  a  man  who 
wielded  a  weighty  pen,  and  as  the  leader  of  the  Methodist 
body  took  a  leading  part  in  this  controversy.  This 
was  Egerton  Ryerson.  Born  in  1803,  in  the  county 
of  Norfolk,  the  son  of  a  U.E.  Loyalist  officer  of  the  New 


THE  Canadian  People  331 

Jersey  Regiment,  who  had  first  gone  to  New  Brunswick, 
and  then  come  to  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie  in  1799,  young 
Ryerson,  at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  entered  the  ministry 
of  the  Methodist  Church. 

It  was  in  the  year  1826  that  Dr.  Strachan  preached  a 
sermon,  the  third  effort  in  the  same  direction  as  his 
ecclesiastical  chart.  Young  Ryerson,  at  the  suggestion 
of  his  brethren,  prepared  for  the  press  a  review  extending 
to  the  length  of  some  thirty  octavo  pages,  and  signed  it 
"A  Methodist  Preacher."  This  at  once  made  the  "boy 
preacher  "  famous.  In  that  year  the  Assembly  passed 
resolutions  declaring  that  the  fimds  from  the  Clergy 
Reserves  should  be  used  for  the  support  of  the  "Chris- 
tian religion  generally  ":  .  .  of  whatever  denomination.*' 
In  this  year  also  the  Home  Government  granted  the  con- 
tention of  the  Assembly,  so  far  as  the  Chm*ch  of  Scotland 
was  concerned,  and  provision  was  thereafter  made  for  the 
payment  annually  of  £750  to  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and 
also  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  from  funds  of  the 
Canada  Company.  In  1827  the  Assembly  of  Upper 
Canada  asked  that  the  Clergy  Reserves  be  used  for 
schools,  a  provincial  seminary,  and  in  aid  of  the  erection 
of  places  of  worship  for  all  denominations  of  Christians. 
In  each  of  the  three  years  following,  the  popular  agita- 
tion resulted  in  the  Assembly  making  similar  requests. 
For  many  years  in  Canada  marriages  could  not  be  cele- 
brated by  the  Methodist  clergy,  as,  in  addition  to  the 
clergy  of  the  esta^blishments,  only  "Lutheran  and  Cal- 
vinist "  ministers  might  marry,  and  then  only  those  of 
their  own  faith.  In  1829  Mr.  Bidwell  succeeded  in 
carrying  a  Bill  extending  this  privilege  to  all.  The 
power  to  hold  church  property  and  burying-grounds  was 
also  bestowed  on  this  numerous  body.  Year  after  year 
both  sections  of  the  opposition,  the  more  radical  led  by 
Mackenzie,  the  more  moderate  by  Bidwell,  had  coalesced 
on  the  Clergy  Reserve  question. 

Ryerson,  who  had  become  a  political  leader  of  influence, 
about  the  year  1834  became  hostile  to  Mackenzie  and 
had   many   followers.     One  chief   cause   of   this  was   a 


332  A  Short  History  of 

letter  of  sjmipathy  from  Joseph  Hume,  the  great  English 
radical,  to  Mackenzie,  on  the  occasion  of  his  expulsion 
from  the  Assembly,  in  which  the  English  politician 
said  such  proceedings  must  "  terminate  in  independence 
and  freedom  from  the  baneful  domination  of  the  mother 
country."  The  whole  letter  was  published  in  leaded 
type  in  the  Colonial  Advocate.  This  alarmed  Ryerson 
and  the  more  moderate  opponents  of  the  Family  Com- 
pact, and  the  Christian  Guardian,  a  newspaper  begun 
by  Kyerson  in  1 829,  now  fiercely  denounced  Mackenzie. 

This  schism  in  the  opposition  gave  the  Family  Compact 
an  advantage,  but  notwithstanding,  in  the  General  Elec- 
tion of  1834,  the  Compact  was  defeated,  and  Mr.  Bidwell 
was  chosen  Speaker  by  thirty-one  to  twenty-seven  votes 
in  the  Assembly,  the  minority  containing  five  or  six 
Independents.  The  Assembly  immediately  appointed  a 
"  Special  Committee  on  Grievances,"  with  Mackenzie  as 
Chairman,  and  in  April,  1835,  the  "Seventh  Report  of 
the  Grievance  Committee  "  was  brought  in,  and  this  is 
the  storehouse  from  which,  along  with  Gourlay's  statistical 
account,  the  chief  materials  for  the  history  of  the  period 
are  drawn. 

This  famous  report  called  the  attention  of  the  Home 
Government  to  the  lamentable  state  of  the  country,  and 
led  to  Sir  John  Colborne's  recall  in  1836,  followed, 
by  the  coming  of  that  paragon  of  eccentricity  and 
blundering.  Sir  Francis  Bond  Head.  Sir  John  Colborne's 
last  act  was  one  for  which  he  was  never  forgiven  by  the 
Canadian  people.  Taking  advantage  of  the  provision  in 
the  Act  of  1791,  permitting  the  endowment  of  rectories 
out  of  Clergy  Reserve  lands,  the  departing  Governor 
determined  to  erect  fifty-seven  rectories.  But  forty-four 
of  the  patents  for  these  were  signed,  the  reason,  it  is  said, 
having  been  that  a  clerk,  engaged  in  preparing  the  docu- 
ments, informed  Mr.  Bidwell,  who  at  once  made  the 
matter  known,  and  the  enormous  wrong  was  not  com- 
pleted. The  time  is  drawing  on  apace  when  the  crisis  in 
provincial  affairs  must  come. 

As  shown  in  a  previous  chapter,  the  conflict  for  free 


THE  Canadian  People  333 

government  in  Lower  Canada  was  intensified  by  the  fact 
that  while  the  Assembly  was  chiefly  French  Ca-  Lower 
nadian,  in  the  Legislative  and  Executive  Comi-  Canadian 
cils  there  was  a  British  majority.  The  Earl  of  struggle. 
Dalhousie,  who  had  been  for  some  yeais  Governor  of 
Nova  Scotia,  arrived  in  Lower  Canada  in  1820.  Belong- 
ing to  the  class  of  high  disciplinarians,  though  he  had 
shown  himself  a  friend  of  education  and  social  progress 
in  Nova  Scotia,  he  was  yet,  as  has  been  said,  a  soldier 
rather  than  a  statesman.  The  Lieutenant-Grovemor  of 
Lower  Canada,  Mr.  Burton,  was  popular,  but  the  French 
Canadians  were  never  reconciled  to  the  stern  commander. 
Lord  Dalhousie  was  much  hampered  by  the  vacillating 
policy  of  the  British  ministry,  and  as  he  was  a  man  with 
whom  there  was  no  finesse  or  intrigue,  his  position  was 
often  unenviable. 

The  Lower  Canadian  Assembly,  year  after  year,  passed 
resolutions  declaring  their  grievances,  the  people  sent 
"  monster  petitions  "  ;  the  French  Canadian  press,  and  an 
English  newspaper  published  in  Montreal,  the  Vindicator, 
constantly  excited  the  populace  to  discontent.  The  idol 
of  the  French  Canadians  at  this  time  was  Mr.  Speaker 
Papineau,  of  whom  we  shall  hear  more  anon. 

In  the  excited  state  of  public  feeling,  Papineau  had 
given  expression  to  opinions  about  the  Grovernor  which, 
as  proceeding  from  the  Speaker  of  the  Assembly,  espe- 
cially from  one  who  had  served  as  Speaker  in  six  parlia- 
ments, were  considered  disrespectful  to  the  Crown.  On 
the  summoning  of  the  new  House,  in  1827,  though  it  was 
known  that  Lord  Dalhousie  disapproved  of  him,  Papineau 
was,  by  a  large  majority,  chosen  Speaker  of  the  Assembly. 
The  Governor  refused  to  recognize  the  agitator.  The 
House  persisted  in  its  course,  when  the  old  soldier  pro- 
rogued the  Assembly.  Lord  Dalhousie  also  deprived  a 
number  of  the  militia  oflficers  of  their  commissions  for 
insolence.  In  1827  petitions,  largely  signed,  were  pre- 
sented to  the  King,  asking  for  legislative  control  of  Lower 
Canadian  affairs.  Delegates  were  sent  to  lay  their  re- 
quests at  the  foot  of  the  throne. 


334  A  Short  History  of 

In  the  meantime  (1828),  Lord  Dalhousie  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  command  of  the  forces  in  India.  In  the 
same  year  the  Imperial  Parliament  appointed  a  Committee 
to  consider  the  petitions  from  Lower  Canada,  as  well 
as  those  from  Upper  Canada.  The  report  of  this  "  Can- 
ada Committee "  is  a  most  able  document,  and  re- 
commends concessions  which,  if  they  had  been  adopted, 
would  probably  have  prevented  the  outbreaks  in  both 
provinces.  Their  recommendation  that  the  "legislative 
assemblies  and  the  executive  government  of  Canada  be 
put  on  a  right  footing,"  was  the  solution  of  the  whole 
difficulty.  But  the  remedy  was  too  late  in  its  application. 
For  several  years  a  chronic  case  of  difficulty  tried  the 
Lower  Canadian  Legislature.  Robert  Christie,  chairman 
of  the  Quebec  Quarter  Sessions,  was,  in  1829,  the  object 
of  the  French  Canadian  hatred,  for  having  advised  the 
dismissal  of  certain  French  Canadian  magistrates,  and 
wrongly  influenced  Lord  Dalhousie.  On  his  subsequent 
election  to  the  Assembly,  as  member  for  Gaspe,  he  was 
again  and  again  expelled,  to  be  in  each  case  re-elected. 

The  Assembly,  in  the  year  1834,  spent  its  time  chiefly 
in  the  consideration  of  the  famous  "  ninety-two  resolu- 
tions," which  may  be  spoken  of  as  their  "  claim  of  right." 
Another  Committee  of  the  Imperial  Parliament,  in  1834, 
examined  Canadian  grievances,  but  without  any  material 
profit. 

New  fuel  was  added  to  the  flame  by  a  statement  of 
Sir  John  Colborne  to  the  Upper  Canadian  Legislature,  in 
his  last  message,  to  the  effect  that  the  Lower  Canadian 
agitation  had  filled  his  mind  with  deep  "  regret,  anxiety, 
and  apprehension,"  and  had  done  injury  to  the  country. 
The  Lower  Canadian  Assembly  repudiated  these  state- 
ments, and  in  1836  Speaker  Papineau  addressed  to  Mr. 
Bidwell,  Speaker  of  the  Upper  Canadian  Assembly,  a 
lengthy  letter,  defending  their  agitation,  and  adding 
certain  remarks  which  were  regarded  by  some  as  seditious. 
It  was  unfortunate  that  Sir  John  Colborne,  a  natural 
despot,  should  have  been  at  this  juncture  appointed  to 
Lower  Canada  to  command  the  forces. 


THE  Canadian  People  335 

The  evils  of  oligaxchy  were  not  unknown  in  the  Mari- 
time Provinces.  Society  there  was,  however,  jjova  Scotia 
in  a  more  settled  condition  on  account  of  the  and  New 
older  settlement.  The  agitations  in  the  upper  Br»"^wick. 
provinces  began  to  be  felt  in  the  lands  by  the  sea,  but 
their  struggles  took  place  a  few  years  later,  when  the 
rebellions  in  the  upper  provinces  had  done  their  trouble- 
some work. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE    REBELLIONS    AND    THE    NEW    CONSTITUTION 

Section  I. — Sedition  in  Lower  Canada 

The  agitation  among  the  French  Canadians  began  to 
Lower  assume  a  serious  aspect.     Loud  appeals  were 

Canadian  made  for  an  equality  of  rights  with  their  British 
Rebellion,  fellow-subjects.  The  Assembly,  which  was 
chiefly  French  Canadian,  threw  off  all  reserve, 
and  by  all  classes  sentiments  hostile  to  Britain  were 
freely  uttered  from  the  platform  and  upon  the  streets. 
The  cry  was  that  the  Legislative  Council  should  be 
elective,  and  that  the  Assembly  ought  to  control  the 
provincial  exchequer.  The  control  of  the  revenue  had 
been,  in  1832,  given  over  to  the  Assembly  by  the  British 
Government  to  quiet  the  clamour.  Now  it  was  deter- 
mined by  the  Assembly  to  compel  further  concessions 
by  refusing  to  pay  the  judges  and  other  executive 
officers. 

A  British  Commission  was  appointed  in  1835  to  inquire 
into  the  state  of  Lower  Canada,  and  the  possibility  that  a 
report  favourable  to  French  Canadian  desires  might  be 
made,  led  the  British  people  of  Montreal,  Quebec,  and  the 
English  settlements  in  Lower  Canada  to  organize  them- 
selves into  "  Constitutional  Associations."  The  main 
questions  of  liberty  were  now  obscured.  The  leaders  of 
the  French  Canadians  appealed  to  their  following  to 
support  the  cause  of  their  down-trodden  race. 

On  constitutional  questions,  such  as  the  Executive 
Council  being  responsible  to  the  Assembly,  many  of  the 
English  people  of  Lower  Canada  agreed  with  the  French 

336 


A  Short  History  of  the  Canadian  People    337 

Canadians,  but  it  seemed  as  if  the  French  leaders  were 
making  the  matter  one  of  British  connection  and  British 
influence  rather  than  of  executive  reform.  In  conse- 
quence, the  appeals  of  the  "  Constitutional  Associations  " 
were  much  more  moderate  and  statesmanlike  than  the 
wild  denunciations  of  the  authors  of  the  "  ninety- two 
resolutions."  And  yet  the  success  of  the  British  party, 
in  their  contention,  meant  welding  the  fetters  of  an 
oligarchy  upon  the  people.  It  was  a  perplexing  case  for 
British  statesmen. 

On  the  report  of  the  "  Commission  "  coming  before 
the  Imperial  Parliament,  Lord  John  Russell,  in  1837, 
moved  four  resolutions,  reciting  that  the  Lower  Canadian 
Assembly  had  granted  no  supplies  since  1832,  that 
upwards  of  £142,000  was  due  to  the  judges  and  civil  ser- 
vants, that  the  request  to  have  the  Legislative  Council 
made  elective  be  not  granted  ;  but  that  that  branch  of 
the  Legislature  be  changed,  that  it  might  secure  a  greater 
degree  of  public  confidence. 

The  so-called  "  patriots "  were  infuriated  when  the 
news  of  this  action  reached  Canada.  The  Vindicator 
declared,  "  Henceforth,  there  must  be  no  peace  in  the 
province — no  quarter  for  the  plunderers.  Agitate ! 
Agitate !  Agitate !  Destroy  the  revenue ;  denounce 
the  oppressors.  Everything  is  lawful  when  the  funda- 
mental liberties  are  in  danger.  The  guards  die — ^they 
never  surrender !  "  These  were  certainly  extravagant 
expressions.  They  were  the  outburst  of  feeling  after 
five  years  of  agitation.  The  leader  of  the  movement  was, 
as  we  have  said,  Speaker  Papineau. 

Louis  Joseph  Papineau  was  bom  in  Montreal,  1789, 
and  was  educated  in  the  Seminary  at  Quebec.  _  . 
At  the  early  age  of  twenty  he  was  elected  for 
the  Assembly  for  Kent,  now  Chambly.  In  1812  the 
young  parliamentarian  commanded  a  militia  corps  in  the 
war  of  defence.  In  1817  he  was  elected  Speaker  of  the 
Assembly,  and  with  one  short  interval  continued  so  until 
the  rebellion.  Papineau  was  a  brilliant  orator,  an  ener- 
getic and  useful  member  of  Assembly,  a  political  student, 
22 


338  A  Short  History  of 

though  somewhat  vain  and  aggressive,  and  on  the  whole 
lacking  in  balance  of  mind. 

At  this  juncture  of  the  Russell  resolutions  Papineau 
was  prepared  to  go  wildly  into  anything — even  independ- 
ence or  annexation  to  the  United  States.  Associated 
with  the  rebellious  Speaker  in  the  agitation  was  a  man  of 
very  different  qualities — this  was  Dr.  Wolf  red  Nelson. 

Wolfred  Nelson,  born  in  1792,  in  Montreal,  belonged 
to  a  respectable  English  family,  and  his  mother 
Nelson.  ^^^  ^  U.E.  Loyalist.  Educated  in  Montreal, 
he  began  the  practice  of  medicine  at  St.  Denis, 
St.  Hyacinthe  county,  in  1811.  Having  served  with  the 
British  army  in  the  war  of  defence  as  a  surgeon,  he  had 
acquired  a  knowledge  of  military  tactics.  Induced  to 
enter  public  affairs,  he  was,  in  1827,  able  to  defeat  Attor- 
ney-General Stuart  for  the  division  of  William  Henry 
(Sorel).  Dr.  Nelson  had  accumulated  a  considerable  for- 
tune, and  was  the  owner  of  a  large  property  at  St.  Denis. 
He  was  a  man  of  high  scholastic  attainments,  of  calm  and 
ready  judgment,  was  highly  respected,  and  had  a  bound- 
less influence  over  the  people  in  the  southern  counties  of 
Lower  Canada. 

Believing  that  the  struggle  in  Lower  Canada  was  one 
for  liberty,  and  that  the  oligarchy  in  the  lower  pro- 
vince was  as  tyrannical  and  seK-seeking  as  the  Family 
Compact  in  Upper  Canada,  Nelson  had  allied  himself 
with  Papineau  and  the  French  Canadians. 

At  a  great  indignation  meeting  of  1,200  persons,  held 
on  the  7th  of  May,  1837,  on  the  Richelieu  River,  near  St. 
Denis,  at  which  Dr.  Nelson  presided,  strong  resolutions 
were  adopted  against  the  course  taken  by  Lord  John 
Russell.  The  example  of  the  Irish  patriot,  Daniel  O'Con- 
nell,  was  held  up  for  admiration,  and  it  was  agreed  that 
all  should  rally  around  one  man  as  their  chief — and  that 
man,  Papineau. 

Encomiums  were  passed  on  Papineau 's  force  of  mind, 
eloquence,  hatred  of  oppression,  and  love  of  country,  and 
it  was  determined,  with  much  enthusiasm,  to  give  up  the 
use  of  imported  articles,  in  order  that  the  revenue  might 


THE  Canadian  People  339 

be  crippled.  With  much  zeal  the  assemblage  decided  to 
raise  a  fund,  to  be  known  as  the  "  Papineau  tribute,"  for 
the  support  of  their  idol.  Similar  meetings  to  that  at 
St.  Denis  were  being  held  throughout  the  country,  when 
Lord  Gosford,  the  Governor-General,  becoming  alarmed, 
issued  a  proclamation  forbidding  such  gatherings,  and 
summoning  those  loyal  to  the  country  to  support  his 
action.  This  but  increased  the  agitation.  "  Anti-coercion 
meetings,"  as  they  were  now  called,  were  widely  held. 
The  young  French  Canadians  organized  themselves  into 
societies,  known  as  the  "  Sons  of  Liberty,"  while  the 
loyal  inhabitants,  by  meeting  and  petition,  threw  back 
the  rebellious  challenges. 

The  provincial  parliament  assembled  in  August.  Num- 
bers of  the  French  members  appeared  in  Quebec,  dressed 
in  homespun  (itoffe  du  pays)  according  to  their  resolution. 
One,  M.  Rodier,  was  an  object  of  great  remark.  He 
was  dressed  in  a  coat  of  granite-coloured  homespun; 
trousers  and  waistcoat  of  the  same  material,  striped 
blue  and  white,  straw  hat  and  beef  shoes,  with  home- 
made socks  completed  his  attire.  This  determined 
patriot  wore  no  shirt,  having  been  unable  to  smuggle  or 
manufacture  one.  Other  members  also  thus  showed 
their  desire  to  "  destroy  the  revenue." 

A  most  important  meeting  of  the  agitators  took  place 
at  St.  Charles,  on  the  Richelieu,  on  the  23rd  of  October, 
including  delegates  from  the  "  six  confederated  counties." 
There  were  present  at  the  meeting,  it  is  estimated, 
5,000  persons.  Dr.  Nelson  presided,  and  his  outspoken 
declaration,  the  extravagant  resolutions  adopted,  and  the 
excited  speeches  delivered,  left  no  longer  any  doubt  as  to 
the  intentions  of  the  agitators.  A  handsome  column, 
surmounted  with  a  "  cap  of  liberty,"  was  erected  at  this 
time  in  honour  of  Papineau  at  St.  Charles. 

The  threatening  clouds  of  sedition  now  grew  so  heavy 
that  the  Roman  Catholic  Bishop,  Mgr.  Lartigue,  a  rela- 
tive of  Papineau,  issued  an  earnest  pastoral,  imploring 
the  people  to  avoid  the  horrors  of  a  civil  war.  The 
agitators  continually  grew  bolder,  and  began  to  drill  at 


340  A  Shobt  History  of 

different  points  throughout  the  country.  In  the  mean- 
time several  additional  French  Canadians  were  placed 
upon  the  Legislative  and  Executive  Councils,  but  the 
concession  had  come  too  late  to  abate  the  excitement. 

The  "  Sons  of  Liberty  "  and  the  "  Constitutionalists  " 
met  in  conflict  in  the  streets  of  Montreal  in  November 
of  this  year,  and  the  odds  were  slightly  in  favour  of  the 
former.  Proclamations  forbidding  the  drilling  of  the 
patriots  were  issued.  Sir  John  Colborne  had  now  made 
his  headquarters  in  Montreal,  and  in  October  all  the 
British  troops  in  Upper  Canada  had  been  brought  to  his 
aid,  while  the  loyalists  of  Glengarry  had  tendered  their 
services  to  the  general. 

Soon  the  blow  fell.  News  came  that  bands  of  insiu:- 
gents  were  collecting  at  St.  Charles  and  St.  Denis,  and 
an  expedition  under  Colonels  Wetherall  and  Gore  was 
sent  against  the  rebels. 

At  St.  Denis,  on  the  23rd  of  November,  Dr.  Nelson 
St  D  ni  ^^^  fortified  a  stone  distillery,  three  stories 
high,  belonging  to  himself,  had  cut  down  the 
bridges,  and  awaited  the  attack  of  the  approaching 
troops,  of  whose  movements  he  had  learned  from  des- 
patches taken  on  Lieut.  Weir,  a  captured  officer.  The 
attack  on  the  improvised  fort  was  made,  but  without 
success,  Dr.  Nelson  showing  himself  a  skilful  tactician. 
After  several  hours'  fruitless  effort,  the  troops  retired* 
By  their  success  the  insurgents  were  encouraged. 

At  St.  Charles  was  the  more  important  centre  of 
St  Charles  ^^^^^*-  ^  "  G^eneral  "  Brown  was  the  rebel 
leader.  The  insurgents  are  said  to  have  had  at 
this  point  1,500  men,  two  24-pounders,  and  a  well  pro- 
visioned fort.  The  attack  was  made  upon  the  rebel 
position  by  Colonel  Wetherall,  and  after  a  severe  struggle 
resulted  in  the  taking  of  the  fort,  the  defenders  losing 
150  killed  and  300  wounded.     Brown  escaped  to  Vermont. 

The  arrival  at  St.  Denis  of  the  news  from  St.  Charles, 
caused  Nelson's  followers  to  vanish  like  the  mist,  and 
the  brave  St.  Denis  leader,  seeing  all  lost,  fled  towards 
the  American  boundary,  but  was  captured  in  the  county 


THE  Canadian  People  341 

of  Shefford.  Papineau,  who  was  at  St.  Denis,  is  said  to 
have  escaped  to  the  United  States  while  the  fight  at 
the  fortified  distillery  was  still  going  on.  It  is  of  interest 
to  know  that  among  Nelson's  followers  at  St.  Denis  was 
young  George  Etienne  Cartier — afterwards  a  prominent 
statesman  of  Canada. 

A  most  tragic  occmrence  took  place  at  St.  Denis.  A 
dashing  young  officer,  Lieut.  Weir,  carrying  despatches 
for  Colonel  Wetherall,  had  lost  his  way  and  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  the  rebels  at  St.  Denis.  For  safe  keeping 
he  had  been  placed  under  the  charge  of  three  French 
Canadian  guards.  His  keepers  were  removing  their 
prisoner  to  a  distance  from  the  scene  of  conflict,  when 
the  mettlesome  young  officer  attempted  to  escape. 
Thinking  themselves  justified  by  Weir's  insubordination, 
the  guards  fell  upon  their  prisoner,  shot  him  with  their 
pistole,  and  cut  him  to  pieces  with  sabres.  This  cruel 
deed  was  enacted  without  the  knowledge  of  the  leader, 
Dr.  Nelson,  who  deeply  regretted  the  outrage.  In 
revenge  for  the  barbarities  practised  on  Lieut.  Weir, 
the  infuriated  loyal  soldiery  burnt  Dr.  Nelson's  extensive 
buildings  at  St.  Denis. 

The  insurgents  made  unsuccessful  demonstrations  at 
St.  Eustache  and  St.  Benoit,  in  the  district  north-west  of 
Montreal,  as  well  as  along  the  international  boundary- 
line.  Though  an  attack,  led  by  Robert,  the  brother  of 
Dr.  Wolfred  Nelson,  was  made  at  Odelltown  from  across 
the  boundary-line  in  the  following  year,  which  was 
easily  suppressed  by  Sir  John  Colbome,  yet  the  danger 
to  Canada  was  over  when  St.  Charles  had  been  taken. 
Though  troops  were  during  the  winter  of  1837-8  sent 
through  the  wilderness  from  New  Brunswick  to  Quebec, 
their  services  were  but  little  required.  Thus  ended  the 
appeal  to  arms — a  mad  attempt  at  the  best ! 

Section  II. — The  Rebels  in  Upper  Canada 

Great  expectations  were  indulged  by  the  opposition  in 
Upper  Canada,  when  in  place  of  the  discredited  Governor 


342  A  Short  History  of 

Colborne,  it  was  learned  that  a  more  liberal-minded  Lieu- 
The  Upper  tenant- Governor  was  on  his  way  to  York. 
Canadian  Their  supposed  "  crowning  mercy "  was  Sir 
rising.  Francis   Bond   Head,    a   retired   army  officer, 

and  late  poor-law  guardian.  The  new  appointee 
had  a  taste  for  book-making,  and  had  written  certain 
very  readable  books  of  travel.  His  previous  experience, 
however,  did  not  in  any  way  justify  his  appointment 
as  ruler  of  a  province  on  the  verge  of  rebellion.  The 
reasons  for  his  selection  have  always  been  a  mystery,  and 
the  shortest  explanation  of  it  is  that  it  was  a  Downing 
Street  blunder. 

Sir  Francis  boasted  of  having  no  political  views,  and 
of  having  had  no  political  experience.  He  was  a  man 
whose  shallow  nature,  flippant  letters  and  despatches,  and 
speedy  subserviency  to  the  Family  Compact  rendered  him 
in  the  end  an  object  of  detestation  in  Canada.  Denun- 
ciation too  severe  can  scarcely  be  visited  upon  a  man 
who  deliberately  proceeds  to  aggravate  and  irritate  a 
disturbed  community.  The  new  Governor  was  surprised, 
as  he  himself  tells  us,  to  see  in  large  letters  on  the  walls 
of  Toronto  on  his  arrival,  "  Sir  Francis  Head,  a  tried 
reformer,"  and  before  four  months  had  elapsed  those 
who  had  made  the  placards  were  possessed  with  still 
greater  surprise  and  vexation  when  they  looked  back 
at  what  they  had  done. 

The  departing  Governor,  Sir  John  Colborne,  received 
tokens  of  the  favour  of  the  adherents  of  the  Family 
Compact,  on  his  way  down  to  Montreal  from  Toronto, 
especially  in  Kingston  and  Cornwall,  the  centres  of 
oligarchic  influence.  A  considerable  following  of  the 
Glengarry  people  made  up  his  train  as  he  entered  Lower 
Canada,  and  a  strong  British  escort  came  from  Montreal 
tb  meet  him  and  return  with  him  to  the  city. 

Governor  Head,  shortly  after  his  arrival,  was  called  on 
to  fill  three  vacancies  in  the  Executive  Council,  one  half 
of  the  offices  being  already  held  by  adherents  of  the 
Family  Compact.  The  Governor,  passing  over  Mr.  Bid- 
well,  for  whom  he  from  the  first  took  a  strong  dislike, 


THE  Canadian  People  343 

called  to  the  council  Messrs.  Baldwin,  Rolph,  and  Dunn. 
Soon  finding  that  Chief  Justice  Robinson  and  Dr. 
Strachan,  who  were  not  in  the  Executive  Council  at  all, 
were  the  virtual  advisers  of  the  Governor,  the  new  coun- 
cillors resented  the  interference  and  resigned  in  three 
weeks'  time.  The  new  Governor  was  no  more  independent 
than  Sir  John  Colborne  had  been,  and  was  less  dignified. 

Sir  Francis  concluded,  soon  after  his  arrival,  that  the 
oppositionists  were  not  a  party  of  gentlemen,  and  was  in 
a  short  time  engaged  in  discrediting  them  before  the 
country,  utterly  forgetful  of  his  position.  The  Assembly 
sought  to  protect  itself,  and  adopted  a  formal  deliverance, 
charging  the  Governor  with  "deviations  from  truth  and 
candour." 

A  general  election  was  soon  to  follow,  and  the  opposi- 
tion found  to  their  cost  that  the  provincial  electorate  had 
much  changed  since  the  year  1830.  Since  that  date  the 
population  of  Upper  Canada  had  nearly  doubled.  The 
new  inhabitants  were  largely  from  the  British  isles,  and 
were  strongly  monarchic  in  their  views.  While  a  section 
of  the  opposition  desired  a  constitution  which  would  be 
*'  an  exact  transcript "  of  that  of  Great  Britain,  it  was 
well  known  that  some  of  them  favoured  an  approxi- 
mation to  republican  forms.  Bid  well  and  perhaps  Mac- 
kenzie were  among  the  latter. 

Governor  Head  threw  himself  heartily  into  the  struggle 
in  the  election  of  1836,  and  no  doubt  honestly  Governor 
believing  there  was  a  section  of  the  late  Assem-  Head  a 
bly  disloyal  to   Britain,   stirred   up   the  new  Po»tician. 
British  electors,  who  had  not  a  single  principle  in  com- 
mon with  the  Family  Compact,  to  look  upon  Bidwell, 
Mackenzie,    and    their    followers    as    untrue    to    British 
connection,  pointing  as  he  did  to  the  disloyal  letter  from 
Papineau,  which  had  been  read  by  Mr.  Speaker  Bidwell 
in  the  Upper  Canada  Assembly. 

But  the  Governor,  though  just  "  winning  his  spurs  " 
as  a  political  manipulator,  showed  evidence  of  talent  in 
not  trusting  to  appeals  to  sentiment  alone.  He  used  the 
stronger  inducements  of  self-interest.     It  was  given  out 


344  A  Short  History  oir 

that  settlers  who  voted  with  the  government  would 
receive  the  patents  for  their  lands,  for  which  in  some 
cases  they  had  waited  long,  and  these  patents  were 
openly  distributed  on  the  days  of  polling.  The  Family 
Compact  organized  the  "  British  Constitutional  Society  " 
in  Toronto  the  more  effectually  to  fasten  the  charge  of 
disloyalty  on  their  opponents.  "  Hurrah  for  Sir  Francis 
Head  and  British  Connection  "  was  their  rallying-cry. 
The  influence  of  the  redoubtable  politician  Egerton 
Ryerson  was  likewise  thrown  in  the  same  direction. 

The  election  was  a  political  Waterloo  for  the  Governor's 
opponents.  Bidwell,  Perry,  Lount,  and  even  Mackenzie 
were  all  defeated.  The  Family  Compact  had  changed  a 
minority  of  eleven  in  the  late  Assembly  into  a  majority 
of  twenty-five  in  the  new,  and  now  they  were  able  to 
contend  that  constitutional  harmony  between  Governor, 
Executive  and  Legislative  Councils,  and  the  Legislative 
Assembly  had  been  completely  restored. 

Mackenzie  was  exasperated,  revived  his  Colonial 
Advocate,  under  the  name  of  the  Constitution,  and  was 
now  more  fierce  in  his  attacks  than  he  had  ever  been 
before.  Those  in  power,  confident  of  their  majority, 
heard  his  denunciations  without  attempting  to  repress 
their  vilifier.  Soon  the  Governor's  influence  began 
to  wane.  Even  the  parliament  elected  through  his 
interference,  to  some  extent  asserted  its  liberties  as 
against  his  arbitrary  control,  and  the  whole  population 
saw  the  error  that  had  been  committed  in  returning  a 
legislature  subject  to  the  Family  Compact. 

Now  was  the  time  for  wisdom  and  self-control  on  the 
part  of  the  leaders  of  the  opposition.  Sad  indeed  was 
it  for  the  country  that  the  unwise  and  unpatriotic 
counsel  of  Mackenzie  was  that  which  asserted  itself 
most  strongly.  No  doubt  the  malign  influence  of  the 
Lower  Canadian  party  of  sedition,  led  by  Papineau, 
with  whom  Mackenzie  and  others  were  in  constant  com- 
munication, v;as  felt  in  Upper  Canadian  affairs.  The 
French  Canadians  spoke  with  the  utmost  freedom  of  a. 
resort  to  arms  should  their  demands  be  refused. 


THE  Canadian  People  345 

About  the  end  of  July,  1837,  an  organization,  known 
as  the  "Committee  of  Vigilance,"  was  formed  in  Upper 
Canada,  and  William  Lyon  Mackenzie  was  chosen  as 
"Agent  and  Corresponding  Secretary."  This  society 
did  not  professedly  aim  at  rebellion  ;  the  great  majority 
certainly  did  not  suspect  outward  violence ;  a  few  ardent 
spirits  may  from  the  first  have  intended  sedition.  Mac- 
kenzie was  most  active  :  he  stirred  up  the  province 
from  end  to  end  by  stirring  addresses,  and  professed 
to  have  obtained  thousands  of  names  of  those  willing  to 
make  a  hostile  demonstration  against  the  Grovernor,  and 
to  form  a  provisional  government. 

Bidwell  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  violent 
measures  ;  Rolph  played  a  double  part.  He  was  in  secret 
with  Mackenzie  planning  active  measures,  and  was  the 
man  selected  by  the  plotters  to  be  the  head  of  the  new 
government  proposed,  but  he  succeeded  in  imposing  on 
the  Governor  as  to  his  loyalty. 

The  Governor  had  but  invited  a  rising  by  allowing 
the  British  troops  to  go  to  Sir  John  Colborne's  aid  in 
Montreal.  Everything  favoured  the  fulfilment  of  Mac- 
kenzie's schemes.  The  rising  in  Lower  Canada  brought 
on  the  crisis  in  Upper  Canada,  or  more  correctly  the 
two  movements  had  been  concerted  in  order  to  help  one 
another.  On  November  24th,  less  than  twenty-four 
hours  before  the  St.  Charles  defeat,  Mackenzie  left 
Rolph's  house  in  Toronto  to  rouse  his  followers.  Next 
day  a  revolutionary  appeal  was  printed,  headed  *'  Pro- 
clamation by  William  Lyon  Mackenzie,  chairnian  'pro 
tern,  of  the  Provisional  Government  of  the  State  of 
Upper  Canada,"  and  containing  such  incendiary  senti- 
ments as  "  Rise,  Canadians  !  Rise  as  one  man,  and  the 
glorious  object  of  our  wishes  is  accomplished."  The 
document  stated  that  the  "  patriots  "  had  established  a 
provisional  government  on  Navy  Island,  in  the  Niagara 
River.  The  well-known  names  of  Mackenzie,  Gorham, 
Lount,  and  Buncombe  were  attached  to  the  manifesto, 
and  it  was  stated  that  two  or  three  other  names  were, 
for  powerful  reasons,  withheld  from  view. 


346  A  Short  History  of 

Samuel  Lount  was  appointed  a  commander,  and  a 
well-known  resort,  "  Montgomery's  Tavern,"  on  Yonge 
Street,  a  few  miles  north  of  Toronto,  was  made  the 
rebel  rendezvous.  The  outbreak  was  planned  for  De- 
cember 7th,  1837.  Mackenzie,  who  knew  the  country 
well,  and  had  been  hither  and  thither  for  several  days, 
returned  to  Montgomery's  to  find  that  the  time  of  the 
rising  had  been  ante-dated  by  Dr.  Rolph  to  the  4th  of 
December.  At  that  time  the  first  detachment  of  in- 
surgents arrived  under  Lount,  eighty  or  ninety  strong. 

Blood  was  soon  shed.  One  Captain  Powell,  a  loyalist, 
had  been  taken  prisoner  by  the  rebels,  but  escaped  from 
their  hands  by  shooting  his  guard — a  man  named  Ander- 
son. A  most  sad  event  was  the  death  of  Colonel  Moodie, 
a  Family  Compact  favourite.  He  had  rashly  attempted, 
on  horseback,  to  force  the  rebel  line  on  Yonge  Street. 
He  was  fired  upon,  and  fell  from  his  horse  mortally 
wounded. 

The  insurgents  numbered  at  length  800  or  900.  Had 
they  marched  at  once  on  Toronto,  it  must  have  fallen 
into  their  hands,  for  though  a  place  of  12,000  people, 
the  apathy  was  so  great  that  none  of  its  citizens  took 
up  arms  to  defend  it,  but  were  content  to  rely  for  de- 
fence upon  the  men  of  Gore  district  from  the  west. 
The  Governor  sought  to  gain  time  by  negotiating  with 
the  rebels.  He  asked  the  assistance  of  Bid  well,  who 
refused  the  commission. 

At  last,  by  the  hand  of  Baldwin  and  Rolph,  a  flag  of 
truce  was  sent,  and  a  reply  brought  to  the  Governor 
with  certain  demands  of  the  insurgents.  The  Governor 
refused  to  grant  the  requests  made.  It  was  in  carrying 
back  Governor  Head's  unfavourable  answer  that  Dr. 
Rolph  showed  his  duplicity.  Though  acting  as  the 
Governor's  messenger,  he  took  aside  certain  of  the  rebel 
leaders  and  secretly  encouraged  them  to  attack  Toronto. 

An  advance  was  made  to  within  a  mile  of  the  city, 
when  a  collision  took  place,  and  the  rebels  retired  to 
Montgomery's.  Mackenzie  succeeded  in  a  sally  on  the 
western    mail   in    capturing    certain   important    letters. 


THE  Canadian  People  347 

The  delay  in  attacking  Toronto  made  Rolph's  position 
very  precarious,  and  so  he  hastened  from  Toronto,  pro- 
fessedly to  the  western  district,  but  really  to  seek  shelter 
in  the  United  States, 

The  time  for  action  was  allowed  to  slip  by  the  afore- 
time courageous  regulators.  Colonel  Allan  McNab  ar- 
rived in  Toronto  from  Hamilton,  with  his  militia,  and 
without  delay  attacked  the  rebels  remaining  at  Mont- 
gomery's. After  a  short  but  severe  skirmish,  the  militia 
were  victors ;  the  motley  gathering  of  discontented 
farmers  fled  ;  and  Mackenzie,  on  whose  head  a  reward 
of  £1,000  had  been  set,  after  a  toilsome  and  adventurous 
journey,  escaped  to  the  United  States  by  way  of  the 
Niagara  frontier. 

The  Provisional  Government  was  now  organized  on 
Navy  Island,  in  the  Niagara  River.  The  patriot  flag, 
with  twin  stars  and  the  motto,  "  Liberty  and  Equality," 
was  hoisted,  and  planted  in  the  face  of  Colonel  McNab, 
who  held  the  Canadian  shore.  A  daring  action  was 
performed  on  December  29th  by  Captain  Drew,  R.N., 
one  of  McNab's  command.  The  insurgents  had  made 
use  of  a  vessel,  the  Caroline^  in  carrying  supplies  from 
the  American  shore  to  Navy  Island.  The  vessel  lay 
moored  for  the  night  under  the  very  guns  of  Fort 
Schlosser,  indeed  the  shadows  of  the  fort  enveloped  the 
Caroline.  With  seven  boats,  carrying  some  sixty  men 
in  all,  who  were  armed  with  pistols,  cutlasses,  and  pikes, 
the  captain  boarded  the  ill-fated  vessel,  captured  her, 
but  not  being  able,  on  account  of  the  current,  to  bring 
her  to  the  Canadian  side,  sent  her  flaming  over  the 
Niagara  Falls.  The  vessel  proved  to  be  an  American 
bottom,  and  so  Britain  was  compelled  to  disavow  the 
seizure,  but  nothing  could  blot  out  the  bravery  of  the 
deed. 

The  ardent  leader.  Dr.  Duncombe,  succeeded  in  gather- 
ing some  300  men,  on  Burford  Plains,  intending  to  pass 
by  way  of  Brantford,  and  seize  Hamilton,  and  thus 
advance  the  rebel  cause.  €k)lonel  McNab,  however, 
with  500  men,  hastened  west,  and  reached  the  village  of 


348  A  Short  History  of 

Scotland,  but  the  insurgent  band  melted  away  on  his 
approach.  For  some  time  afterwards,  an  irritation  con- 
tinued along  the  Niagara  frontier,  a  number  of  character- 
less scoundrels  seeking  to  keep  up  strife  for  the  sake 
of  plunder.  The  leader  Mackenzie  was  at  length  seized 
by  the  law  authorities  of  the  State  of  New  York,  and 
tried  at  Albany,  "  for  setting  on  foot  a  military  enter- 
prise against  Upper  Canada."  He  was  found  guilty, 
and  sentenced  to  one  and  a  haK  years'  imprisonment, 
but  was  released  in  response  to  numerous  petitions  after 
some  ten  months  had  expired. 

The  utter  want  of  tact,  and  even  of  fair  dealing,  shown 
by  Sir  Francis  Bond  Head,  resulted  in  his  recall.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Sir  George  Arthur,  who  had  in  Hobart 
Town  been  accustomed  to  rule  the  convict  settlements. 
He  was  harshness  itself.  Lount  and  Matthews,  two 
of  the  rebel  leaders,  were  well  regarded  by  all  classes 
of  the  people,  notwithstanding  their  false  movement 
in  the  rebellion.  Large  petitions  in  their  favour  were 
presented  to  the  Governor,  and  Lount's  wife  made  before 
Sir  George  a  most  heart-rending  appeal  for  her  husband, 
but  all  was  of  no  avail,  and  they  were  hurried  to  the 
gallows,  April  12th,  1838.  On  June  28th,  an  amnesty 
was  granted  to  all  suspected  persons  who  had  not  been 
actively  engaged  in  the  rebellion.  It  was  not  till  1843 
that  Rolph,  Duncombe,  Morrison,  Gibson,  Gorham, 
and  Montgomery  were  pardoned,  and  a  general  amnesty 
was  not  granted  until  1849.  Thus  in  reality  terminated 
this  wretched  affair,  dishonouring  alike  to  the  enemies 
of  liberty  who  forced  it  on,  and  reflecting  only  disgrace 
on  those  who  conceived  and  so  badly  executed  it. 

Section  III. — The  New  Constitution 

Few  things  so  stir  British  statesmen  as  a  colonial 
The  need  rebellion.  The  memory  of  Lexington  and 
of  conces-  Bunker's  Hill  ^  once  revives.  At  certain 
*^°°*  eras  it  seems  to  have  been   the  only  means 

of  quickening  the  Downing  Street  conscience.     One^of 


THE  Canadian  People  349 

the  rising  statesmen  of  Britain  was  at  once  despatched 
to  Canada,  with  status  as  the  benevolent  young  queen's 
High  Commissioner,  for  Victoria  had  but  lately  ,    ,  ^ 
ascended  the  throne,  Jime  20th,    1837.     This  ^ani. 
was  the  Earl  of  Durham. 

John  George  Lambton,  born  in  1792,  in  the  north  of 
England,  entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1813.  He 
was  a  pronounced  Liberal  in  his  views,  a  champion  of 
popular  rights,  and  one  of  the  leaders  in  carrying  the 
Reform  Bill  of  1832.  A  political  associate  of  Earl  Grey, 
the  tie  was  cemented  with  that  great  leader  by  the 
marriage  of  Lord  Durham  with  a  daughter  of  that  states- 
man. He  had  served  as  ambassador  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, from  1835-37,  and  though  of  advanced  political 
views  was  aesthetic  in  his  tastes,  and  inclined  to  habits 
far  from  Spartan. 

With  a  large  retinue  the  new  Governor-General  ar- 
rived at  Quebec,  May  29th,  1838,  amid  much  splendour. 
The  constitution  of  Lower  Canada  had  been  suspended 
by  the  Imperial  Parliament  on  account  of  the  rebellion. 
Lord  Durham's  first  difficulty  was  in  dealing  with  the 
prisoners  taken  during  the  rebellion.  Sixteen  of  the 
leaders  had  removed  themselves  from  his  jurisdiction  by 
flight.  The  amnesty  proclaimed  only  excluded  eight 
leaders.  It  was  in  dealing  with  the  exceptions  that  Lord 
Durham  erred.  Trusting  to  his  powers  as  special  commis- 
sioner, he  broke  the  law  by  sending  the  eight  prisoners 
retained,  among  whom  was  Dr.  Wolf  red  Nelson,  into  exile 
to  Bermuda.  Lord  Brougham  and  his  other  rivals  in 
England  denoimced  his  action  as  illegal  and  unjustifiable. 
It  was  really  imfair  that  Lord  Durham,  in  the  midst  of 
such  grave  difficulties,  should  have  been  so  severely 
taken  to  task.  The  contemptuous  title,  "  Lord  High 
Seditioner,"  was  hurled  at  him  by  his  enemies.  The 
high-spirited  earl  was  led  into  another  act  of  unwisdom 
by  his  annoyances,  viz.  of  issuing  a  proclamation  con- 
taining criticisms  as  to  the  action  of  the  British  minis- 
try in  disallowing  the  exile  ordinance  which  he  had 
passed.     And  yet   these   blunders   were   but   the    spots 


350  A  Short  History  of 

on  the  sun  of  Lord  Durham's  glorious  achievements  for 
Canada. 

It  is  true  Lord  Dm:ham  was  imperious,  mettlesome, 
and  at  times  obstinate  ;  he  was,  moreover,  sensitive  and 
irritable,  this,  no  doubt,  arising  from  his  delicate  state 
of  health,  but  no  British  delegate  ever  showed  such 
capacity  for  dealing  with  the  difficulties  of  colonial  life, 
or  for  suggesting  remedies  for  improvement,  as  Lord 
Durham.  As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  period  of  his 
rule  was  the  shortest  ever  served  by  a  Governor-General, 
viz.  six  months,  and  yet  no  Governor  ever  did  so  much 
for  Canada. 

The  enormous  mass  of  information  to  be  found  in  the 
folio  proceedings  of  the  House  of  Lords,  em- 
Report,  bodying  Lord  Durham's  report  and  its  elabo- 
rate appendices,  is  a  wonderful  monument  of 
industry. 

Lord  Durham  did  not  hesitate  to  express  his  opinions 
openly.  He  declared  "  that  the  same  grievances  to  a 
large  extent  prevail  in  all  the  provinces  ;  while  the 
present  state  of  things  is  allowed  to  last,  the  actual  in- 
habitants of  these  provinces  have  no  security  for  person 
or  property,  no  enjoyment  of  what  they  possess,  no 
stimulus  to  industry." 

As  to  Lower  Canada,  the  report  speaks  with  remark- 
able clearness.  Lord  Durham  admired  the  mild,  well- 
mannered  French  Canadians,  but  saw  the  political  danger 
from  their  being  "  an  utterly  uneducated  and  singularly 
inert  population."  "  They  remain,"  said  he,  "  an  old 
and  stationary  society  in  a  new  and  progressive  world." 
While  clearly  pointing  out  the  wrong  features  of  Lower 
Canadian  oligarchy,  he  nevertheless  declared  "  that  in 
Lower  Canada  the  real  struggle  was  not  one  of  prin- 
ciples, but  of  race." 

Great  Britain,  he  maintained,  was  largely  responsible 
for  this,  for  to  preserve  Canada  against  the  United 
States,  Britain  "  had  cultivated  Lower  Canadian  nation- 
ality." The  report  declares  that  the  natural  state  of 
government  in  "  all  the  colonies,"  those  by  the  sea  as 


THE  Canadian  People  351 

well  as  those  inland,  "  is  that  of  collision  between  the 
executive  and  the  representative  bodies."  Such  collisions 
show  a  deviation  from  sound  constitutional  principles. 
Lord  Durham  declared  that  "since  1688  the  stability 
of  Britain  had  depended  on  the  responsibility  of  the 
government  to  the  majority  of  the  legislature." 

We  cannot  pretend  to  give  even  a  sketch  of  this  re- 
markable report.  It  is,  undoubtedly,  one  of  the  greatest 
state  documents  in  existence.  Its  grasp  of  principles 
is  masterly,  and  not  a  feature  of  the  social,  religious, 
industrial,  or  political  life  of  the  people,  in  any  of  the 
British  American  provinces,  escaped  the  keen-eyed 
statesman,  and  his  able  assistants,  chief  of  whom  was 
Mr.  Charles  Buller. 

The  various  remedies  for  the  government  of  the  country 
are  discussed  in  the  report.  At  first  Lord  Durham 
had  favoured  a  federal  constitution,  but  in  the  end  he 
recommended  a  legislative  union.  Far-seeing  states- 
man that  he  was,  he  foreshadowed  a  union  of  all  the 
provinces,  though  for  the  settlement  of  the  pressing 
difficulties  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  he  recom- 
mended their  immediate  union,  and  the  establishment 
in  them  of  *'  responsible  government." 

All  true  Canadians  must  regret  that  the  founder  of 
their  liberties,  for  such  Lord  Durham  was,  should  have 
been  received  so  ungraciously  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment on  his  return  to  England.  True,  he  had  in  his 
vexation  over  the  disallowance  of  his  exile  ordinance 
sailed  for  Britain  without  leave,  but  to  have  refused 
his  lordship  a  salute  on  landing  such  as  was  customary 
to  returning  governors,  was  surely  a  high  indignity. 
The  British  people,  however,  on  the  landing  of  his  lord- 
ship, gave  him  a  right  royal  welcome. 

Lord  Durham's  report  was  so  important  that  a  Bill 
was  founded  on  its  recommendations,  and  introduced 
into  parliament,  in  1839,  by  Lord  John  Russell.  Before 
the  final  passage  of  this  Bill,  it  was  deemed  wise  that 
it  should  be  submitted  to  the  Colonial  governing  bodies. 
To    accomplish   this  end   a   shrewd    diplomatic   envoy, 


352  A  Short  History  of 

Mr.  Charles  Poulett  Thompson,  a  relative  of  the  famous 
Lord  Ashbm:ton,  was  sent  to  Canada,  September  13th, 
1839. 

The  Council  of  Lower  Canada  accepted  the  proposed 
constitution,  though  had  the  Assembly,  which  had  been 
suspended  during  the  rebellion,  been  in  existence,  the 
result  would  have  been  different.  Even  the  Upper 
Canadian  legislature  needed  much  skilful  management 
by  Mr.  Thompson  in  order  to  induce  it  to  accept  the 
Bill,  for  the  Loyalists  saw  that  they  would  be  greatly 
outnumbered  in  United  Canada.  A  strong  appeal  to 
their  patriotism,  however,  at  length  gained  their  ap- 
proval. 

^TEe  Imperial  Parliament  then  again  took  up  the 
matter,  and  the  "  Act  to  reunite  the  provinces  of  Upper 
^  and  Lower  Canada  "  became  law,  July  23rd,  1840.  Under 
The  New  ^^^^  ^^^  constitution,  there  was  provision  made 
Constitu-  for  a  Legislative  Council,  whose  members  would 
**°°'  be  appointed  for  life  by  the  Governor,  while 

the  Legislative  Assembly  was  to  consist  of  an  equal 
number  of  members  from  Upper  and  Lower  Canada. 
Toronto,  Montreal,  and  Quebec  were  to  elect  two  mem- 
bers each,  the  towns  one  member,  and  to  the  Governor 
was  given  the  power  of  fixing  the  limits  of  the  con- 
stituencies. The  English  language  alone  was  permitted 
in  the  legislative  records,  but  this  provision  was  changed 
in  after-years.  In  order  to  make  the  constitution  stable, 
it  was  provided  that  no  change  in  the  number  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Assembly  could  be  made,  unless  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote. 

By  the  new  constitution  a  fixed  civil  list,  amounting 
to  £75,000  annually,  was  made,  over  which  the  Assembly 
had  no  control,  but  all  other  expenditure  must  be  under 
its  direction.  Amounts  due  to  the  clergy  were  not  subject 
to  the  vote  of  the  Assembly,  and  ecclesiastical  rights 
were  under  the  protection  of  the  Crown.  Taxes  on  the 
people  could  only  be  levied  for  the  benefit  of  the  pro- 
vince, and  with  the  assent  of  the  two  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment.    Provision  was  made  for  the  full  establishment  of 


THE  Canadian  People  363 

courts  of  law.     To  the  Governor  belonged  the  power  of 
fixing  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  Canadian  legislature. 

The  longing  desire  of  the  people  was  that  the  new\ 
constitution  should  provide  for  the  Executive  Council    \ 
being  made  responsible  to  the  Assembly,  and  so  to  the 
people.     In  the  new  Act  this  was  not  provided  for  in  so 
many  words,   but  it  was  provided  that  the  Governor 
should  only  exercise  power  according  to  instructions  from 
her  Majesty.     To  supplement  these  important  provisions, 
upon  the  Act  coming  into  force  by  proclamation,  on  the 
5th  of  February,    1841,  a  despatch  was  forwarded  by 
Lord  John  Russell  to  the  Governor-General  that   "  the 
Governor  must  only  oppose  the  wishes  of  the  Assembly    j 
when  the  honour  of  the  Crown  or  the  interests  of  the    J 
empire  are  deeply  concerned."  ^""^ 

The  moderate  opponents  of  the  Family  Compact  were 
in  transport  of  delight  over  the  new  constitution ;  the 
rebel  party  of  Upper  Canada  regarded  it  as  but  a  half- 
measure,  their  aforetime  compatriots  in  Lower  Canada 
were  much  dissatisfied,  and  sent  a  petition  with  40,000 
signatures  against  the  new  Act  to  Britain,  while  the 
Loyalists  looked  suspiciously  upon  it,  regarding  it  as  the 
beginning  of  a  Canadian  Republic.  The  British  Ministry, 
through  Lord  Durham's  aid,  had  undoubtedly  reached 
the  happy  mean ;  Mr.  Thompson  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  as  Lord  Sydenham  for  his  successful  manage- 
ment, and  under  his  wise  guidance  the  new  constitution 
was  launched  to  go  on  its  perilous  way. 


23 


CHAPITER     XII 

PROGRESS  IN  PROVnsrCIAL  LIFE 

Section  I, — Growth  of  Population 

Canada,  as  we  have  seen,  was  from  the  first  largely 
The  Half-  ^  military  colony.  Not  only  were  the  Carig- 
Pay  Officers'  nans,  and  the  Fraser  and  Montgomery  High- 
Legion,  landers,  an  important  element  in  Lower  Canada, 
but  disbanded  Royalist  soldiers,  Hessians,  Glengarry 
Fencibles,  De  Meurons,  and  the  soldiers  of  many  British 
regiments  which  were  reduced  from  time  to  time,  filled 
up  large  districts  in  all  of  the  Canadian  provinces.  And 
while  the  rank  and  file  thus  colonized  many  portions 
of  British  America,  there  was  a  large  element  of  the  mili- 
tary officer  class,  which  also  threw  in  its  lot  with  Canada. 

The  traveller  in  the  Canada  of  a  generation  or  two  ago 
constantly  met  with  representatives  of  these  decayed 
gentlemen  in  all  the  settlements.  They  were  in  general 
very  poor,  often  very  ill  suited  for  a  new  country,  while 
their  wives,  compelled  to  labour  with  them,  knew  little 
of  domestic  economy,  and  especially  as  practised  amid  the 
scanty  provision  of  the  backwoods.  But  the  younger 
generation  of  these  families,  born  and  bred  in  the  new 
settlements,  learned  to  make  a  livelihood,  and  their 
intelligence  and  refinement  were  not  lost,  but  gave  them 
many  advantages  in  the  new  communities.  Almost 
invariably  this  element,  which  in  the  whole  of  Canada 
might  be  numbered  by  thousands,  sympathized  with  the 
Family  Compact.     This  was  not  remarkable. 

In  some  cases  the  needy  officers  were  taken  into  the 
favoured  circle,  and  enjoyed  its  sweets.     The  rebellion 

354 


A  Shobt  History  of  the  Canadian  People    356 

of  1837  brought  this  class  very  much  to  the  front,  and 
provided  military  employment  for  a  time.  An  illustra- 
tion, showing  how  great  a  boon  to  the  poor  officers  the 
rebellion  was,  may  be  found  in  Mrs.  Moodie's  interesting 
book,  "  Roughing  it  in  the  Bush."  In  Perth,  Argen- 
teuil,  Peterborough,  Talbot,  Adelaide,  and  many  other 
settlements,  British  officers  became  an  influential  element 
in  their  communities.  As  the  country  grew  in  wealth, 
many  of  these  and  their  descendants  obtained  public 
positions,  and  to-day  constitute  a  considerable  percentage 
of  the  official  class  in  Canada. 

In  the  train  of  the  U.E.  Loyalists,  and  of  the  respect- 
able Americans  of  Simcoe,  an  important  immi-  ^^^^  ^^^^ 
gration,  came  a  large  body  of  very  undesirable  less  Ameri- 
settlers  from  the  United  States.     These    were  ^^^  Con- 
the  sutlers  and  camp-followers  of  the  move-  "^®°^ 
ments,  and  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  many 
thousands  of  Canada's  best  citizens,  who  were  Americans. 
Illiterate  in  the  extreme,  immoral,  imtrustworthy,  and 
scandalously  lazy,  they  were  the  complete  counterpart  of 
the  "  poor  whites  "  found  in  North  Carolina  and  Georgia, 
whom   the   respectable   negro   population   designate    as 
"  white  trash." 

These  Americans,  of  whom  many  thousands  were 
scattered  through  Canada,  occupied  the  borders  of  the 
main  highways  throughout  the  country.  Almost  all  the 
wayside  taverns  on  Dundas  Street,  the  Governor's  Road, 
Talbot  Street,  Yonge  Street,  Kingston  Road,  and  the 
like,  fell  into  their  hands.  Too  indolent  to  work,  pos- 
sessed of  a  certain  shrewdness  and  smartness  got  by 
contact  with  the  world,  the  position  of  "  mine  host  "  in 
a  rough  backwoods  hostelry  was  very  congenial  to  them. 
Profane  and  imscrupulous,  the  work  of  providing  for 
their  customers  the  vile  spirits  then  manufactured  in  the 
country  but  debased  them  the  more. 

Others  of  this  class  were  more  shiftless  still.  They 
took  up  wild  lands,  sometimes  as  mere  "  squatters,"  were 
regular  visitors  at  the  taverns  of  their  compatriots,  but 
did  little  work.    Accustomed  to  the  gun  and  rifle,  th© 


356  A  Short  History  of 

forest  supplied  them  with  duck,  pigeon,  or  partridge,  also 
squirrels,  and  occasionally  a  deer.  Their  children  were 
ignorant,  unkempt,  and  dressed  in  rags,  and  their  homes 
were  abodes  of  squalor.  It  is  this  element  that  such 
writers  as  Talbot,  McTaggart,  Bonnycastle,  and  others 
describe  as  the  Americans  of  Canada.  To  them  the 
wayside  tavern-keeper  and  his  claquers  seemed  to  be 
the  people  of  the  country. 

Travelling  through  the  country  hastily,  it  was  not  sur- 
prising that  these  strangers  should  have  been  shocked  by 
the  profanity,  and  disgusted  with  the  conceit  of  those 
they  saw,  and  have  concluded  that  the  large  body  of  the 
farming  population  belonged  to  this  class.  The  American 
innkeeper  expressed  his  opinions  very  freely,  did  not  con- 
ceal his  thorough  contempt  for  "  kings  and  dookes,"  and 
did  this  in  his  nasal  vernacular.  This  element,  too,  in 
its  poverty,  proved  a  band  of  parasites  to  the  incoming 
population.  They  pursued  a  system  of  "  borrowing " 
that  was  almost  equivalent  to  levying  blackmail.  Mrs. 
Moodie  has  left  us  a  dismal  picture  of  her  afflictions  in 
this  respect.  "A  persistent  neighbour,"  says  Mrs. 
Moodie,  "  borrowed  of  me  tea,  sugar,  candles,  starch, 
blueing,  irons,  pots,  bowls — in  short,  every  article  in 
common  domestic  use." 

The  young  men  of  this  class,  in  many  localities,  con- 
stituted a  band  of  petty  desperadoes.  No  fruitful  plum 
or  peach-tree,  or  exposed  melon-plot  was  safe  from  their 
depredations.  Valuable  dogs  were  poisoned,  cattle 
maimed,  and  even  horses  shot  by  these  wanton  dis- 
turbers. Night  was  made  hideous  by  their  "  raccoon 
hunts,"  and  "  husking  bees,"  and  "  charivarees."  The 
religious  sugar  maker,  who  left  his  caldron  of  half-boiled 
maple-sugar  in  the  forest  during  Sunday  to  go  to  church, 
found  it  "  sugared  off  "  and  stolen,  on  Monday  morning, 
by  these  local  outlaws. 

Yet  these  bad  elements  constituted  but  a  small  part  of 
the  population.  As  well  declare  that  because  an  "  artful 
dodger  "  should  make  a  visitor  to  the  east  of  London  his 
victim  that  all  Londoners  are  thieves,  or  because  a  large 


THE  Canadian  People  357 

portion  of  the  frequenters  of  the  Salt  Market  in  Glasgow 
are  dissipated  that  the  Scottish  people  are  drunkards,  as 
that  the  Canadians  at  the  time  of  these  passing  travellers 
were  the  pestilential  element  they  describe. 

The  Bidwells,  Burwells,  Shades,  and  Duncombes  rather, 
were  the  representatives  of  an  American  element  which 
has  been  of  the  highest  service  to  Canada.  For  the 
vicious  and  lawless  class  described,  the  advance  of  civi- 
lization became  too  strong.  The  church  and  school  did 
their  work  among  the  young.  Public  sentiment  became 
too  powerful  for  the  evil-doers  to  persevere  in  their  van- 
dalism, and  this  immoral  American  element  has  well-nigh 
disappeared  from  Canadian  society. 

The  Canada  Company,  as  already  stated,  were  gradually 
obtaining  settlers  for  their  lands  in  the  Huron 
tract.     Their  population  in  1841  had  become  Tract.  "'^^ 
5,600,  and  nine  years  later  had  grown  to  26,933. 
The  company  was  fiercely  attacked  for  the  slow  develop- 
ment of  its  lands.     Its  advocates,  in  the  year  1850,  in 
defending  themselves,  declared  that  in  twenty-three  years 
the  "  Huron  tract  "  had  made  more  progress  than  Lower 
Canada  had  done  in   104  years  up  to   1721,  when  its 
population  did  not  reach   25,000.     The   argument,    we 
must  confess,  is  not  very  convincing. 

Among  the  first  settlers  in  the  Huron  tract  had  been 
Colonel  von  Egmont,  the  commander-in-chief,  in  1837,  of 
the  rebels  who  followed  Mackenzie.  Von  Egmont  had 
been  a  colonel  in  the  Imperial  army,  and  had  led  a 
Belgian  regiment  at  Waterloo.  Soon  after  his  settle- 
ment the  officers  of  the  Canada  Company  had  been 
invited  to  visit  his  prosperous  farm  ;  and  Madame  von 
Egmont,  in  the  presence  of  the  oflicial  gentlemen,  cut 
with  a  sickle,  and  bound  up  herself  the  first  sheaf  in 
what  is  now  the  populous  and  fertile  Huronjdistrict. 

The  outcry  against  the  Canada  Company  on  the  part  of 
the  people,  in  the  years  succeeding  the  rebellion, 
induced  the  Government  to  open  for  settlement  gush.  ^*°  * 
the  region  north  and  east  of  the  Huron  tract. 
This  had   been    described  as  a  great  swamp,  and   the 


368  A  Short  History  of 

Canada  Company  itself  had  regarded  it  as  valueless. 
Roads  were  opened  through  the  new  townships,  and  the 
means  of  access  were  found  by  ways  of  Guelph  and 
the  Garafraxa  road.  Two  vast  counties  were  laid  out  in 
the  new  district,  Bruce,  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Huron — & 
memorial  of  Lord  Elgin's  family  name — and  Waterloo, 
which  extended  from  the  township  of  Wilmot  even  to  the 
shores  of  Georgian  Bay. 

In  1857  the  new  counties  of  Waterloo,  Wellington, 
and  Grey  were  formed,  the  two  former,  with  the  township 
of  Wellesley  in  the  same  region,  reminding  us  of  the  L:on 
Duke.  To  the  Queen's  Bush,  as  this  district  was  called, 
in  the  years  1855  to  1865,  the  flow  of  population  was 
continuous,  both  of  British  immigrants  and  of  residents 
from  the  older  counties.  This  formerly  discredited 
portion  of  the  country  now  contains  an  enormous  popu- 
lation, the  counties  of  Grey  and  Bruce  alone,  in  the  year 
1881,  having  had  upwards  of  100,000  people. 

From  the  time  of  the  union  of  the  Canadas  and  before, 
even  to  the  present  day,  there  has  been  a  steady 
Coun?^^  settling-up  of  the  "  Back  Counties."  This  has 
gone  on  in  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick, 
Ontario,  and,  to  some  extent,  in  Lower  Canada.  The 
policy  of  the  Government  has  been  at  all  times  to 
encourage  this.  Counties  in  Upper  Canada,  back  of 
Kingston,  Peterboro',  Toronto,  and  those  in  Lower  Canada 
lying  to  the  rear  of  Montreal  and  Ottawa,  have  thus 
been  occupied. 

For  example,  the  county  of  Simcoe  was  set  apart  in 
1843  ;  St.  Vincent  township  was  at  first  known  as  Zero  ; 
the  township  of  Flos,  Tiny,  and  Tay  were  so  named 
from  the  three  lap-dogs  of  my  lady  of  Government 
House.  A  road  from  Bradford  northward,  and  another 
to  the  west  were  opened  in  the  large  coimty  of  Simcoe, 
and  by  the  year  1850  the  population  had  grown  to 
25,000.  At  the  same  date  there  were  upwards  of  a 
quarter  of  a  million  of  acres  of  unoccupied  Crown  land 
in  Simcoe,  Wellington,  and  Grey. 

Eyen  in  the  closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 


THE  Canadian  People  359 

negro  could  boast  that  when  his  foot  touched  Canadian 
soil  the   shackles   which    had    been   fastened 
upon  him  by  the  laws  of  the  United  States  fell  tiements." 
from  his  limbs.    In  consequence,  the  300  negroes 
who  had  come  with  the  U.E.  Loyalists  to  the  British  pro- 
vinces were  followed  by  numbers  of  their  race.     To  Nova 
Scotia,  and  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Chatham  and  Windsor, 
in  the  western  district  of  Upper  Canada,  most  of   the 
negro  immigrants  came.     In  1848  a  tract  of  18,000  acres 
in  Raleigh,  near  Lake  Erie,  was,  through  the  influence  of 
Lord  Elgin,  set  apart  as  a  refugee  settlement  under  the 
Elgin  Association. 

The  Rev.  William  King,  a  Presbjrterian  clergyman, 
who  had  owned  slaves  in  Louisiana,  liberated  them  and 
came  to  Canada  to  begin  in  this  district  the  "  Buxton 
Settlement,"  so  named  from  Thomas  Buxton,  the  philan- 
thropist. Another  colony  of  negroes  was  formed  on  the 
borders  of  Kent  and  Lambton  counties,  the  founder  being 
the  Rev.  Josiah  Henson,  the  original  of  Mrs.  Stowe's 
character  of  "  Uncle  Tom."  In  1881  the  negro  popu- 
lation of  Canada  exceeded  21,000,  of  whom  upwards  of 
7,000  were  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  above  12,000  in  Ontario. 

The    increasing    flood    of    immigration    from    Britain 
reached  125,000  souls  in  the  flve  years  preceding  jhe  St. 
the  rebellion  of    1837.      In  the  two  years  of  Lawrence 
the  rebellion  the  numbers   feU  to   less  than  ^"^K'*"*'- 
3,000  in  the  first  year,  and  to  some  7,000  in  the  second. 
The  passage  of  the  Union  Act,  in  1840,  and  the  prospect 
of  peace  thus  given,  immediately  restored  the  confidence 
in  Canada  as  a  settlers'  home.     In  the  ten  years  from 
1840  to   1850,   there  landed  at   Quebec,   from    the  Old 
World,  no  less  than  350,000  souls,  of  whom  from  one- 
third  to  a  half  took  advantage  of  the  Canadian  route 
to  reach  the  Western  States.     In  the  year  1847,  which 
succeeded  the  distress  by  the  potato  famine  in  Britain, 
upwards  of  98,000  immigrants  landed  at  Quebec. 

In  the  period  from  1850  to  1867,  the  date  of  confedera- 
tion, there  were  upwards  of  450,000  persons  entered  by 
the  port  of  Quebec.    It  was  by  this  vast  multitude,  an 


360  A  Short  History  of 

army  of  conquerors,  coming  up  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley 
to  subjugate  the  forest  and  the  soil,  that  Huron  district, 
Bruce,  Wellington,  Grey,  Simcoe,  and  other  "  back 
counties  "  of  Ontario  were  settled,  as  well  as  by  the  sons 
and  daughters  of  the  pioneers  who  in  previous  generations 
had  endured  hardships  to  make  Upper  Canada  what  she 
had  become. 

The  forests  of  New  Brunswick  sought  their  share  of 
the  Old  World's  overflow  of  population. 
Brunswick.  Between  the  years  1834  and  1840  the  increase 
of  population  was  above  30,000,  and  in  the  next 
eleven  years  it  was  37,000.  During  the  latter  period,  in 
1844  and  three  succeeding  years,  there  landed  no  less 
than  34,000  persons  in  New  Brunswick,  but  about  half 
of  this  number  sought  the  United  States.  In  the  last  of 
these  years  ninety-nine  vessels  arrived  direct  from 
Ireland  with  immigrants.  These  settlers  were  in  a  most 
destitute  condition,  and  were  the  victims  of  the  "  ship 
fever,"  which  is  still  remembered  by  oJder  colonists  as 
but  little  less  deadly  than  the  cholera. 

In  that  year,  of  the  17,000  who  shipped  for  New 
Brunswick  from  Britain,  2,000  died  of  this  plague,  and  in 
the  same  year  upwards  of  5,000  died  on  shipboard,  pro- 
ceeding up  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Quebec.  Of  those  sent 
from  Ireland,  many  had  not  enough  of  clothing  to  cover 
their  persons,  and  Lord  Elgin's  despatch  states  that  the 
fever  was  brought  on  board  the  ships  in  most  cases,  and 
did  not  originate  on  the  voyage.  Canadian  municipalities 
passed  resolutions,  protesting  against  this  immigration, 
and  the  different  provinces  adopted  severe  quarantine 
laws.  In  New  Brunswick  the  chief  localities  receiving 
the  new  population  were  Richibucto,  Tabishintac, 
Soumouche,  New  Bandon,   and  Bathurst. 

A  burning  land  question  was  the  chief  feature  of 
Prince  Prince  Edward  Island.     As  already  mentioned, 

Edward         the  whole  island,  except  a  small  Government 
Island.  reservation,  was  given  out  by  ballot,  in  1767, 

to  proprietors  who  had  claims  on  the  ground  of  mili- 
tary or  other  public  services,    As  a  condition  of  tenure 


THE  Canadian  People  361 

the  land  must  be  settled  within  ten  years.  In  1770 
there  were  on  the  island  but  150  families  and  five 
proprietors.  The  owners  were  required  to  pay  quit-rents 
to  the  Grovernment,  and  the  proprietary  system,  so 
alien  to  the  spirit  of  New  World  settlement,  was  fixed 
upon  the  unfortunate  island.  Efforts  were  made  early  to 
collect  these  rents,  but  the  influence  in  England  of  the 
owners,  and  their  ability  to  combine  to  resist  the 
enforcement  of  the  Government's  demands,  resulted  in 
their  dues  being  actually  reduced,  and  in  their  firm  con- 
solidation, not  only  as  a  privileged  class,  but  in  what  is 
its  most  odious  form — an  absentee  oligarchy. 

In  1802  the  feelings  of  the  people  are  said  to  have  risen 
"  in  paroxysms  of  just  indignation  against  the  pro- 
prietors." Agitation  followed  agitation.  In  1860,  in 
the  legislature  of  the  island,  it  was  agreed  to  submit  the 
questions  between  proprietors  and  tenants  to  a  commis- 
sion of  three  persons,  one  to  be  named  by  the  legislature, 
another  by  the  proprietors,  and  a  third  by  her  Majesty. 
The  Hon.  Joseph  Howe  was  chosen  commissioner  for  the 
tenantry.  During  this  same  year  the  estates  of  the  Earl 
of  Selkirk,  consisting  of  upwards  of  62,000  acres,  were 
purchased  by  the  Prince  Edward  Island  Grovemment  at 
little  above  2s.  an  acre.  In  1861  the  Land  Commissioners, 
after  holding  a  Court,  taking  evidence,  and  examining 
the  condition  of  the  island,  recommended  a  recognition 
of  the  claims  of  the  proprietors,  not  being  able  to  advise 
the  escheatment  of  any  of  the  original  grants  on  the 
ground  of  non-performance  of  conditions  of  settlement. 
To  extinguish  the  proprietors'  claim  it  was  recommended 
that  the  Imperial  parliament  guarantee  a  loan  of  £100,000 
for  the  purpose.  The  Commissioners,  on  giving  in  their 
suggestions,  declared  their  belief  that  if  relief  were 
obtained  for  the  island,  "  Prince  Edward  Island  would 
yet  become  the  Barbadoes  of  the  St.  Lawrence." 

At  this  date  the  population  of  the  island  was  found 
to  be  80,856.  The  Imperial  parliament  refused  to  per- 
mit the  Act  of  the  Prince  Edward  Island  legislature, 
embodying  the  Commissioners'  report,  to  become  law. 


362  A  Short  History  op 

Negotiation  with  the  proprietors  was  now  the  only  hope 
of  a  settlement.  A  delegation,  in  1863,  went  to  Britain 
from  Prince  Edward  Island.  It  is  interesting  to  know 
that  one  of  the  chief  proprietors  was  Sir  Samuel  Cunard, 
of  the  celebrated  steamship  line.  The  matter  was  not 
settled  mitil,  by  the  entrance  of  Prince  Edward  Island 
into  the  Confederation  in  1873,  800,000  dollars  was  set 
apart  by  the  Dominion  for  the  extinguishment  of  the 
owners'  claims,  and  a  Court  was  constituted  in  1875  which 
estimated  the  amoim.ts  due,  and  thus  this  troublesome 
question  was  removed,  after  having  been  a  subject  of 
contention  for  a  whole  century. 

At  Fort  Garry,  the  centre  of  the  Red  River,  or  Selkirk 

Settlement,  on  the  12th  of  February,  1835,  a 
Settlemwit.     Civil  Government  was   erected    and  a    Court 

established.  Assiniboia  was  the  name  of  the 
newly-organized  district,  and  Sir  George  Simpson  became 
President  of  the  Council,  which  consisted  of  fifteen  mem- 
bers selected  from  the  leading  men  of  the  Selkirk  settlers 
and  English  and  French  half-breeds  making  up  the  settle- 
ment. At  this  date  the  population  had  reached  about 
5,000,  in  1865  it  was  estimated  at  6,500,  and,  on  the  erec- 
tion of  Manitoba  as  a  province  by  the  Dominion  in  1870, 
the  population  was  found  to  be  about  2,000  whites,  4,500 
English-speaking,  \  and  5,500  French  half-breeds.  Of  the 
population,  whicl(iV  arrived  in  the  country  between  the 
years  1817  and  1821,  several  hundreds  were  Lord  Sel- 
kirk's disbanded  De  Meuron  soldiers,  or  Swiss  immi- 
grants, who  had  come  out  by  way  of  Hudson  Bay. 
Almost  all  of  these  deserted  the  country  about  1827. 

The  agitation  arising  out  of  the  Oregon  question,  and 
the  loud  boasting  of  the  people  of  the  United  States, 
resulted  in  the  force  of  500  British  regulars,  chiefly  of 
the  6th  Royals,  being  sent  to  Fort  Garry  in  1846. 
Two  years  after,  on  the  departure  of  the  troops,  a 
body  of  seventy  pensioners  was  sent  to  the  country,  to 
whom  were  given  small  holdings  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Fort  Garry.  A  serious  outbreak  took  place  at  Fort 
Garry  in  1849,  arising  from  the  attempt  of  the  Hudson's 


Obelisk  of  Sie  James  Douglas,  Victoria,  B.C. 

302] 


THE  Canadian  People  363 

Bay  Company  to  enforce  their  rights  of  monopoly  in  the 
fur-trade. 

Vancouver  Island  was  in  1849  granted  to  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,   and  Mr.   Richard  Blanchard  _  ... , 
being  sent  out  as  Governor  remained  for  two  columbi* 
years.  There  were  not  more  than  thirty  settlers  and  Van- 
on  the  island,  other  than  Hudson's  Bay  Com-  i'^^^ 
pany  employees,  when  Governor  Blanchard,  in 
a  dispirited  state  of  mind,  left  the  island.    The  well-known 
officer  of  the  fur  company,  afterwards  Sir  James  Douglas, 
succeeded  to  the  governorship.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
was  expected  to  undertake  the  colonization  of  the  island, 
and  provision  was  made  for  the  establishment  of  a  Legis- 
lative Council  and  Assembly,  having  power  to  levy  taxes. 

The  trading  licence  on  the  Pacific  mainland,  which  had 
some  years  before  been  given  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany, was  in  1858  revoked,  and  the  province  of  British 
Columbia  established.  In  the  succeeding  year  the  grant 
of  Vancouver  Island,  which  had  been  made  ten  years 
before  to  the  fur-traders,  was  recalled,  and  the  Pacific 
island  became  a  Crown  colony,  with  Victoria  as  its  capital, 
as  New  Westminster  was  the  capital  of  the  mainland 
colony  of  British  Columbia.  By  Imperial  Act,  in  1866, 
Vancouver  Island  and  British  Colimibia  were  joined  into 
one  province,  under  the  name  of  the  latter,  and  remained 
a  imited  Crown  colony  until  their  entrance  into  Con- 
federation in  the  year  1871. 

Section  II. — The  Stormy  Sea  of  Politics 

Lord  Sydenham  was  set  to  work  out  the  new  constitu- 
tion which  was  the  result  of  Lord  Durham's 
report.  He  was  a  man  of  delicate  health,  great  GoverMient. 
devotion  to  business,  and  lived  in  constant  fear 
lest  his  plans  of  government  should  fail.  The  first  elec- 
tion after  the  imion  of  the  Canadas  had  resulted  in  a 
most  heterogeneous  parliament.  There  were  only  seven 
members  of  the  whole  eighty-four  who  had  belonged  to 
th^  now  discredited  Family  Compact,  but  the  Radicals 


364  A  Short  History  of 

among  the  Upper  Canadians  and  the  rebellious  Lower 
Canadians  were  uncertain  quantities  in  the  new  House  of 
Assembly.  The  Governor  chose  his  Executive  Council 
from  those  of  different  shades  of  opinion. 

Robert  Baldwin  became  the  leading  figure  in  Upper 
Canadian  politics.  His  moderation  but  made  his  tena- 
cious hold  of  the  principle  of  responsible  government  the 
more  admirable.  Unwilling  to  enter  the  Executive 
Coimcil  with  any  of  the  former  absolutists,  he  accepted 
office  for  a  time,  in  order  to  satisfy  the  new  Governor, 
along  with  Mr.,  afterwards  Chief  Justice,  Draper,  but 
soon  resigned.  On  the  opening  of  the  House,  Draper 
was  severely  pressed  as  to  whether  he  was  an  adherent 
of  the  new  constitution,  and  would  insist  on  "respon- 
sible government."  Of  an  acute  mind,  the  leading 
executive  councillor  made  fine  distinctions,  but  was  sup- 
posed to  have  accepted  the  popular  principle.  The 
House,  which  had  been  summoned  by  Lord  Sydenham 
to  meet  at  Kingston  on  the  14th  of  June,  1841,  adopted 
resolutions  declaring  for  the  new  principles,  but  less 
explicit  than  Baldwin  desired.  The  Governor  became 
much  enfeebled  in  health  ;  his  anxieties  consumed  him  ; 
by  a  sad  accident  he  was  thrown  from  his  horse  while 
riding,  and  his  reduced  frame  succumbed  on  the  19th 
of  September,  1841.  Lord  Sydenham  was  a  capable, 
fair-minded,  and  useful  Governor. 

The  next  Governor-General  was  Sir  Charles  Bagot, 
who  only  survived  a  year,  dying  from  a  painful  disease 
in  the  year  1843. 

Earl  Stanley,  the  Colonial  Minister,  was  regarded  as 
hostile  to  the  new  constitution,  and  it  was  no  surprise 
when,  in  the  year  of  Governor  Bagot' s  death,  his  successor 
was  appointed  from  the  reactionary  school  of  politics. 
Lord  Stanley's  protege  was  Charles  MetcaKe. 
Metcalfe.  Charles  Theophilus  Metcalfe  was  born  on  the 
30th  of  January,  1785,  at  Calcutta.  He  was  the 
Bon  of  an  army  officer  who  was  in  the  East  India  Com- 
pany's service.  Educated  at  Eton  he  had  returned  to  India 
in  his  sixteenth  year,  had  been  employed  in  the  East  Indies 


THE  Canadian  People  365 

in  important  Government  offices,  and  had  then  reached 
Jamaica  as  Governor  of  that  island.  Having  ruled  over 
inferior  races,  Governor  Metcalfe  was  despotic  in  his 
tendencies,  and  misuited  for  Canada  at  this  juncture. 
He  jeered  at  "  responsible  government,"  and  declared 
his  position  no  better  than  "  an  Indian  Governor,  com- 
pelled to  rule  by  means  of  a  Mahommedan  Ministry  and 
a  Mahommedan  parliament." 

Indeed  it  was  the  usual  role  of  the  opponents  of  liberty 
to  sneer  at  popular  government.  One  of  the  Family 
Compact  wits  described  it  as  a  "  trap  set  by  rogues  to 
catch  fools,"  and  Sir  Francis  Bond  Head,  who  had  said 
about  himself,  "  I  was  no  more  connected  with  himian 
politics  than  the  horses  that  were  drawing  me,"  gloried 
in  the  contrary  principle,  "  that  the  Executive  Council  is 
not  responsible  to  the  people."  Governor  Metcalfe  was 
defended  in  his  assumptions  by  Egerton  Ryerson,  who 
seems  to  have  developed  into  a  more  adroit  politician 
than  the  great  clerical  statesman  Strachan. 
/  The  crisis  soon  came.  Robert  Baldwin  maintained 
that  the  acts  of  the  Governor  must  be  in  harmony  with 
the  advice  of  his  Executive  Council.  The  Governor  took 
opposite  ground,  and  on  the  23rd  of  November,  1843, 
made  an  appointment  to  office  without  the  advice  of  his 
Council.  Popular  indignation  rose  strongly  against  the 
valorous  autocrat,  who,  notwithstanding  his  intense 
suffering  from  a  cancer  on  his  face,  was  willing  to  try 
conclusions  with  that  hydra-headed  opponent  of  tyrants — 
the  people.  At  this  studied  insult  the  Ministers  resigned, 
and  it  was  with  great  difficulty  that  the  Governor  obtained 
a  new  Executive  Council. 

Amidst  much  excitement  Parliament  met  in  1844  in 
Montreal.  At  the  general  elections  the  Canadian  Ministry 
had  been  but  barely  sustained.  The  British  Ministry 
looked  with  approval  on  the  action  Governor  Metcalfe 
had  taken,  and  rewarded  the  plucky  absolutist  by  raising 
him  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  MetcaKe  of  Fern  Hill. 
Finding  that  he  had  fallen  in  the  estimation  of  the  people. 
Lord  Metcalfe  resigned  and  retired  to  England,  where 


366  A  Short  History  of 

he  died  soon  after.  Of  a  kind  and  benevolent  disposition, 
Lord  Metcalfe  was  not  without  his  Canadian  admirers, 
but  the  attempt  to  interfere  needlessly  with  a  constitu- 
tion which  had  been  obtained  by  the  exile  of  a  number  of 
leading  Canadians  and  the  blood  of  others,  stirred  up  the 
strong  feeling  of  the  best  elements  of  Canadian  society 
against  this  propounder  of  absolutist  theories. 

The  struggle  for  responsible  government  in  New  Bruns- 
New  Bruns-  ^^^^  ^^^  Nova  Scotia  was  virtually  one  with 
wick  and  that  in  Canada.  In  a  despatch  from  Lord 
Scora  Glenelg,   the    Colonial  Secretary  in    1838,  to 

Sir  Colin  Campbell,  the  Governor  of  Nova 
Scotia,  it  had  been  plainly  set  forth  that  no  judge  could 
hold  office  in  the  Colonial  Parliament,  and  also  that  the 
power  must  be  allowed  each  Assembly  to  control  the 
provincial  revenue.  The  Governor  chose  to  be  members 
of  his  Executive  and  Legislative  Councils  only  those 
belonging  to  the  oligarchy,  which  in  Nova  Scotia  as  well 
as  in  Upper  Canada  was  known  by  the  name  "  Family 
Compact."  The  Assembly  remonstrated  with  the  Go- 
vernor, who  stubbornly  refused  to  be  advised,  and  not- 
withstanding Lord  Glenelg's  instructions,  pursued  his 
own  course.  But  the  cause  of  liberty  had  able  advocates 
in  Nova  Scotia.  Such  names  as  Uniacke,  Young,  and 
especially  Howe,  stand  out  among  her  defenders. 

Joseph  Howe,  born  in  Halifax,  December,  1804,  was  the 
„  son  of  a  U.E.  Loyalist.     Compelled  to  seek  his 

own  way  in  life,  he,  in  1817,  became  a  printer's 
apprentice,  and  had  in  ten  years  become  the  publisher  of 
a  vigorous  newspaper — ^the  Nova  Scotian.  In  the  year 
1835  this  journal  made  a  fierce  attack  on  the  Halifax 
magistracy,  charging  that  body  with  dishonest  official 
conduct.  An  accusation  of  libel  was  brought  against 
the  outspoken  printer.  The  case  was  so  clearly  against 
him  that  no  lawyer  would  undertake  his  defence.  Thrust 
into  the  breach,  Howe  defended  his  own  cause ;  his 
address  to  the  jury  occupied  more  than  six  hours,  and 
was  at  once  a  model  of  forensic  and  popular  eloquence. 
The  jury  brought  in  a  verdict  of  "  Not  Guilty." 


Hon.  Joseph  Howe,  Halifax,  N.S. 


366] 


TH»  Canadian  Peoplb  367 

In  1836,  Howe  was  elected  to  the  Assembly.  In  the 
Maritime  Provinces,  it  was  not  till  after  the  adoption  of 
Lord  Dm'ham's  report  that  the  battle  for  free  government 
was  really  fought.  New  Brunswick  had  always  been 
strongly  loyalist.  Sir  John  Harvey,  the  Governor  of 
New  Brunswick,  had,  on  the  receipt  of  Lord  John 
Kussell's  despatch  of  the  16th  of  October,  1839,  regarded 
it  so  highly  as  "  a  new  and  improved  constitution,"  that 
he  proceeded  to  introduce  its  principle  sinto  the  govern- 
ment of  his  province.  Strange  to  say,  the  New  Bruns- 
wick Assembly,  by  a  small  majority,  refused  to  accept 
the  principle,  not  valuing  the  freedom  offered  it. 

In  Nova  Scotia,  however,  the  old  soldier  named,  who 
held  the  reins  of  power,  on  the  other  hand  suppressed 
the  despatch,  and  made  no  allusion  to  its  having  been 
received.  In  1840,  in  the  Nova  Scotian  Assembly, 
Howe  introduced  four  resolutions  asserting  the  doctrine 
of  responsible  government,  and  declaring  want  of  con- 
fidence in  the  existing  Executive  Council.  The  resolutions 
were  adopted  by  a  vote  of  thirty  to  twelve. 

Representations  were  thus  made  to  Sir  Colin,  but  he 
declared  himself  satisfied  with  his  advisers.  The  ob- 
stinacy of  the  Grovernor  drew  forth  an  address  by  the 
Assembly,  calling  attention  to  Lord  RusseU's  despatch. 
The  Governor  informed  the  Assembly  that  his  interpre- 
tation of  the  despatch  differed  from  theirs.  The  Assembly 
then  reluctantly,  but  fiirmly,  lequested  the  recall  of  the 
Governor,  which  took  place  in  1840,  and  Viscount  Falk- 
land came  in  his  stead.  Fierce  personal  contests  next 
took  place  between  Howe  and  the  new  GrOvernor  ;  but, 
through  much  heat  and  conflict,  the  battle  of  free  govern- 
ment was  won,  and  even  in  New  Brunswick  the  popular 
cause  became  triumphant. 

The  sad  rebeUions  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  left 
a  heritage  of  discord  in  the  losses  which  had 
been  occasioned  by  the  outbreak.     The  under-  Losses^BUl 
taking  to   meet,  on   the  part  of  the   Govern- 
ment,   the    losses    of    loyalists    had    originated    in    this 
party,  when  it  gained  imder  Lord  MetcaKe's  rule  a  small 


368  A  Short  History  op 

majority  in  1844.  Among  those  who  had  been  made 
prominent  by  service  to  his  party  and  zeal  in  repressing 
the  rebellion  of  1837,  no  one  stood  out  more  markedly 
than  the  Speaker  of  the  new  House,  the  afterwards  well- 
known  Sir  Allan  McNab. 

Allan  McNab,  born  at  Niagara  in  February,  1798,  was 

McNab  ^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^  ^•"^*  I^oy^lis^  lieutenant  of  the 

famous  Queen's  Rangers.  His  grandfather  had 
been  a  captain  in  the  42nd  or  Black  Watch  Highlanders. 
McNab  grew  to  manhood  in  York,  the  Upper  Canadian 
capital,  saw  as  a  boy  the  sacking  of  the  town  during  the 
war  of  defence,  and,  even  so  young,  joined  the  small 
Canadian  army.  Suffering  the  ills  of  poverty,  he  at 
length  began  the  practice  of  law  in  Hamilton,  Upper 
Canada.  His  alleged  persecution,  already  referred  to, 
was  the  making  of  young  McNab ;  for,  on  his  being 
elected  for  Wentworth  to  the  Assembly,  the  Family 
Compact  found  in  him  a  trusty  friend. 

For  his  persevering  and  brave  service  during  the 
rebellion,  McNab  was  made  a  baronet,  and  his  residence 
in  Hamilton,  called  Dundurn  from  his  grandfather's 
smaU  estate  in  Scotland,  was  well  known.  Lavish  in  hia 
expenditure,  the  baronet  was  always  impecunious. 

He  was  a  man  of  action  and  decision,  and  after  the 
union  became  a  striking  personality  in  Canadian  affairs. 
It  is  related  that  on  one  occasion  he  was  called  upon  by 
Chief  McNab,  of  whom  we  have  spoken,  from  the  Ottawa. 
The  chieftain,  claiming  his  right,  sent  in  his  card  as 
"The  McNab."  The  haughty  baronet  wrote  on  the 
reverse  of  the  card  "The  Other  McNab,"  and  returned 
it  to  his  visitor.  Sir  Allan  continued  many  years  in 
Canadian  politics,  and  passed  away  in  1862,  when  an 
unseemly  strife  was  created  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
bishop  claiming  his  remains  as  those  of  a  convert  to 
Rome. 

The  return,  as  we  have  said,  of  the  loyalist  party  to 
power  was  the  signal  for  the  demand  for  compensation 
for  the  losses  incurred  eight  years  before.  The  new 
Ministry,  under   the  leadership  of  Mr.    Draper,  in   1845 


THE  Canadian  People  369 

carried  a  measure  in  the  House  to  devote  the  tavern  and 
other  licences  toward  the  payment  of  the  loyalist  claim 
in  Upper  Canada,  amounting  to  £40,000.  Sufferers  by 
the  rebellion  in  Lower  Canada  now  claimed  consideration. 
The  Ministry  could  not  evade  the  demand,  and  appointed 
Commissioners  to  estimate  the  losses  in  Lower  Canada, 
but  clothed  them  with  limited  powers.  Upwards  of 
£240,000  of  claims  were  reported,  but  with  a  comment  of 
the  Commissioners  that  in  their  opinion  £100,000  would 
meet  the  real  losses.  Mr.  Draper  now  agreed  to  repay 
the  losses  of  "  certain  loyal  inhabitants  of  the  lower 
province,"  and  Parliament  sanctioned  the  issue  of  some 
£10,000  in  debentures,  to  be  met  from  the  *'  Marriage 
Licence  Fund."  This  small  concession  was  regarded  by 
the  Lower  Canadians  as  mere  solemn  trifling. 

The  Draper  Ministry  was  in  1848  tottering  to  its  fall. 
The  constant  cry  of  the  loyalists  that  the  rebellion  losses 
fund  would  be  administered  in  Lower  Canada  as  an 
amount  for  rewarding  rebels  alienated  the  French  Cana- 
dians. Into  the  heat  and  turmoil  of  party  strife  had  been 
thrown,  in  the  year  before,  a  Governor  whose  memory  is 
still  fragrant  in  Canada,  as  having  been,  perhaps,  the  best 
administrator  ever  in  Canada.     This  was  Lord  Elgin. 

James  Bruce,  Earl  of  Elgin,  was  born  in  London  the 
20th  of  July,  1811.  He  was  son  of  the  cele-  i^Avigij, 
brated  Earl,  who  was  an  ambassador  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  who  removed  from  Athens  the  valuable 
marbles  which  still  bear  his  name  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  have  given  so  great  an  impulse  to  English  art. 
Educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  young  Bruce  gained  the 
highest  University  honours,  and  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Jamaica  in  1842.  Four  years  after,  on  leaving 
Jamaica,  he  was  married  to  Louisa,  daughter  of  Canada's 
benefactor,  the  Earl  of  Durham,  and  was  thus  closely 
bound  up  in  opinion  and  interest  with  that  distinguished 
statesman.  Ijotcj  Elgin,  in  1847.  went  as  Governor- 
General  to  Canada,  possessed,  as  he  himself  tells  us,  with 
the  high  aim  of  working  out  successfully  the  scheme  of 
government  which  the  genius  of  his  father-in-law  had  pro- 
24 


370  A  Short  History  of 

pounded,  and  which  Lord  Metcalfe  had  sought  to 
destroy. 

The  Governor's  Ministry  had  been  defeated  several 
times  in  the  session  of  1847,  and  at  the  general  election 
in  the  following  year  suffered  a  crushing  defeat.  The 
leadership  of  the  French  had  been  transferred  from  the 
aforetime  rebel  Papiaeau,  who  was  now  in  Parliament 
again,  to  the  Hon.  L.  H.  Lafontaine. 

The  Lafontaine-Baldwin  ministry  was  formed,  and 
the  full  development  of  ministerial  responsibility  was 
now  the  acknowledged  principle.  One  of  the  earliest 
measures  to  be  introduced  was  that  providing  for  the 
payment  of  the  rebellion  losses  in  Lower  Canada.  The 
loyalist  opposition  now  raised  the  cry  again  that  the  object 
of  this  bill  was  to  compensate  those  who  had  actually 
taken  part  in  the  rebellion.  The  Ministry  denied  having 
any  such  intention.  The  fury  of  the  opposition  knew  no 
bounds  :  "  No  pay  to  rebels  "  became  their  watchword  ; 
and  indignation  meetings  stirred  up  the  passions  of  the 
people. 

At  this  juncture  occurred  one  of  the  most  disgraceful 
episodes  ever  known  in  Canadian  politics.  The  opposi- 
tionists, who  had  so  rimg  the  changes  on  the  cry  of 
loyalty,  actually  signed  a  manifesto  declaring  their  readi- 
ness for  annexation  with  the  United  States.  It  was  the 
cry  of  loyalty  that  was  debased  to  bring  to  death  the 
purest  one  the  world  ever  saw,  but  the  annexation  fiasco 
of  1849  serves  to  show  how  meaningless  the  continual 
harping  on  the  string  of  loyalty  may  be.  We  pass  over 
the  names,  some  of  them  since  prominent,  without  men- 
tion, of  those  who  signed  the  disloyal  document,  for 
their  act  brings  a  blush  to  the  face  of  every  true  Canadian. 

Notwithstanding  the  most  determined  opposition,  the 
*'  losses  bill  "  passed  by  a  considerable  majority.  The 
loyalist  party  in  Toronto  attacked  the  houses  of  pro- 
minent supporters  of  the  measure.  Lord  Elgin  proceeded 
to  the  house  which  is  now  St.  Ann's  Market,  Montreal, 
and  assented  to  the  objectionable  act.  His  carriage  was 
beset  by  ruffians,  though   protected  by  cavalry.     In  the 


THB  Caitadiait  Peoplb  371 

evening,  amidst  the  wild  excitement  of  the  "canaille," 
the  parliament-house  was  sacked ;  a  rioter  seated  himself 
in  the  Speaker's  chair  and  cried  out,  "I  dissolve  this 
house  ;  "  and,  to  end  all,  the  buildings  were  set  on  fire 
and  burned  to  the  ground.  Sir  Allan  McNab,  the  Speaker, 
with  difficulty  saving  the  mace  and  a  valuable  picture  of 
her  Majesty. 

Violence  was  shown  also  towards  the  leading  members 
of  the  Ministry,  and  a  disgraceful  attack  was  made  upon 
his  Excellency  on  his  entering  the  city  on  his  public 
duties.  There  seemed  a  repetition  of  the  excesses  of  a 
Jacobin  mob  in  Paris,  but  one  is  grieved  to  state  that 
the  rioters  were  British.  Montreal  was  punished  by  the 
immediate  removal  of  the  capital  to  Toronto  for  two 
years,  and  after  that  for  four  years  to  Quebec,  and  its 
claim  to  be  made  the  capital  of  Canada  was  never  again 
received  with  favoiu*. 

The  infamous  act  of  Sir  John  Colbome,  in   1835,  in 
establishing  the  rectories  was  one  of  the  most  The  Clergy 
irritating  of  the  wrongs  which  incited  the  radi-  Reserves 
cals  of  that  time  to  rebellion,  for  it  was  entirely  *2*^°* 
out  of  harmony  with  a  despatch  of  Lord  Ripon,  in  1832, 
which  had  promised  that  no  action  would  be  taken  in  the 
matter.     Immediately   after   the  rebellion   the    question 
of  the  Clergy  Reserves  rose  again.     Lord  Sydenham  was 
exceedingly    desirous    of    having    this    difficulty    settled 
before  the  union  of  the  provinces  in  1841.     His  reasons 
were    convincing.    The   introduction  of    a  large   French 
element  into  the  new  Parliament,  which  had  no  interest 
in  the  matter,  was  a  sufficient  ground  for  haste. 

Accordingly,  in  1839,  Lieutenant-Governor  Arthur,  of 
Upper  Canada,  was  successful  in  having  a  bill  passed 
re-vesting  the  Clergy  Reserves  in  the  Crown,  and  trans- 
ferring the  power  of  appropriating  the  funds  from 
their  sale  "to  the  Imperial  Parliament  for  religious 
purposes."  The  Act  was,  however,  disallowed  by  the 
Imperial  authorities.  But  again,  in  1840,  the  Governor- 
General  sent  a  message  to  the  Assembly  of  Upper  Canada, 
proposing  a  new  measure  for  settling  this  vexed  question. 


372  A  Short  History  of 

This  was  to  devote  the  proceeds  of  the  clergy  lands,  one- 
half  to  the  churches  of  England  and  Scotland  and  the 
other  half  among  religious  bodies  desirous  of  sharing  it. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Egerton  Ryerson  failed  to 
stand  firm  to  the  principle  of  secularization  he  had  before 
advocated  by  accepting  this  proposal.  He  thus  incurred 
the  wrath  of  the  leading  popular  advocates  throughout 
the  country.  This  proposition  of  the  Governor-General 
was  accepted  by  the  Assembly,  but  on  being  submitted 
to  the  judges  by  the  House  of  Lords  was  declared  illegal. 
The  Upper  Canada  Assembly,  according  to  the  judges, 
had  power,  by  the  Act  of  1791,  to  vary  the  mode  of  dis- 
posing only  of  lands  yet  imsold,  not  of  those  previous]y 
sold. 

But  a  new  Bill  was  passed  through  the  Lords  by  the 
Bishop  of  Exeter  and  Lord  Seaton,  the  aforetime  Sir  John 
Colborne  of  *'  Rectories  "  fame,  with  the  consent  of  Lord 
John  Russell,  carrying  out  Lord  Sydenham's  proposal ,  at 
least  so  far  as  the  lands  still  remaining  were  concerned. 
Thus  what  was  regarded  as  an  act  of  spoliation  by  nearly 
all  the  claimants  for  the  time  being  was  agreed  upon. 
No  doubt  the  weak  attitude  of  Ryerson  and  his  friends 
was  the  cause  of  the  disaster.  They  had  been  hood- 
winked and  disappointed. 

The  revenue  accruing  from  the  reserves  proving  trifling. 
Bishop  Strachan,  in  1843,  began  an  agitation  for 
ag1?atToii.  ^^^  amendment  of  the  Act  of  1840.  He  was 
encouraged  to  do  this  by  the  fact  that  in  that 
year  the  Church  of  Scotland  had  been  weakened  by  the 
secession  of  the  Free  Church.  Ryerson  was  opposed  to 
the  reopening  of  the  question,  knowing  that  secularization 
must  result.  In  1846  it  was  proposed  to  divide  up  the 
lands  among  the  several  religious  bodies.  This  caused  a 
great  ferment  in  Canada.  The  Bishop  madly  persisted 
in  his  efforts  to  obtain  a  readjustment,  and,  as  might  have 
been  foreseen,  the  Assembly,  in  1850,  passed  an  Act  ask- 
ing the  repeal  of  the  Imperial  Act  of  1840.  Bishop 
Strachan  proved  himseK  far  less  astute  than  the  other 
reverend  champion. 


THE  Canadian  People  373 

In  1863  the  control  of  the  clergy  lands  was  again 
transferred  by  Imperial  Act  to  the  Legislature  of  Upper 
Canada.  The  Hincks-Lafontaine  administration  in  power 
in  Canada  was  thus  compelled  to  meet  the  question  anew. 
The  French  Canadians  were  much  averse  to  secularization, 
fearing  a  similar  turn  of  events  in  connection  with  the 
support  of  the  clergy  in  Lower  Canada.  But  the  people 
of  Upper  Canada  were  clamorous.  In  1854  this  question, 
along  with  that  of  the  Seigniorial  Tenure  in  Lower  Canada, 
were  the  means  of  defeating  the  Hincks  Grovernment. 

The  new  cabinet,  called  the  McNab-Morin  ministry, 
entered  ofl&ce  pledged  to  settle  these  troublesome  matters, 
and  thus  Hincks,  on  account  of  his  entangling  alliance, 
was  deprived  of  the  pleasure  of  settling  the  question 
for  which  he  had  so  strenuously  fought  for  nearly  twenty 
years.  Sir  Allan  McNab,  imiting  with  a  number  of 
Hincks'  followers,  had  "  dished  the  Whigs  "  by  taking 
up  their  old  policy,  and  in  1854  an  Act  securing  the 
life-interest  of  the  clergy  of  the  Churches  of  England 
and  Scotland  was  passed,  giving  the  excess  of  the  fund 
to  the  support  of  educational  objects.  Thus  ended  the 
thirty  years'  religious  war  of  Canada.  It  was  a  long 
and  tedious  struggle,  and  was  made  more  so  by  the  craft, 
instability,  and  selfishness  of  those  who  should  have 
been  models  of  simplicity  and  sincerity. 

The  French  regime  left  its  heritage  of  trouble  to  this 
period.     Seignior  and  censitaire  sought  to  over-  seigniorial 
reach  one  another.     The  age  of  feudalism  had  Tenure 
passed  away  ;  now  the  tenant  asked  pertinent  *8it*tio°' 
questions  as  to  the  rights  of  the  seignior  to  charge  him 
rent.     Under  the  French  regime,  as  we  have  seen,  there 
was  an  Intendant,  who  exercised  control  over  the  seigniors, 
and  might  interfere  on  behalf  of  the  censitaires.     In  1862 
a  bill  was  introduced  and  passed  through  the  Assembly 
limiting  the  amount  of  rents,  and  leaving  the  seignior  to 
recover  by  legal  process  his  rights,  if  any,  to  be  reim- 
bursed from  the  public  treasury,  but  this  failed  to  pass 
the  Legislative  Council. 

Mr.  Hincks  desired  to  abolish  all  rents  and  compen- 


374  A  Short  History  of 

sate  the  seigniors,  but  his  Lower  Canadian  colleagues 
refused,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  the  weakness  of  the  Hincks 
ministry  on  this  as  well  as  the  Clergy  Reserve  question 
caused  its  defeat.  It  was  the  good  fortune  of  Sir  Allan 
McNab  to  settle  this  question  also  in  the  year  1854  by 
the  purchase  of  the  rights  of  the  seigniors  at  a  cost  to 
the  country  of  two  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars.  Hence- 
forth the  French  Canadian  is  as  free  in  the  possession  of 
his  homestead  as  the  Anglo-Saxon. 

The  inequalities  of  representation  as  arranged  after  the 
Representa-  -^^^  ^^  ^^^^  were  most  unfair.  The  older  con- 
tion  by  stituencies  were  in  many  cases  small  in  popu- 
Population.  Jation,  but  equal  in  representation  to  those  with 
teeming  numbers.  It  was  largely  this  inequality  which 
led  to  the  increase  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  Legislative 
Council  and  Assembly,  as  required  by  the  Union  Act, 
from  eighty-four  members  to  130  in  the  Assembly,  sixty- 
five  being  from  each  province.  The  cry  of  the  French 
Canadians  against  the  Union  Act  had  been  that  while 
Upper  Canada  had  170,000  fewer  people  she  had  equal 
representation,  and  now  the  "  whirligig  of  time  "  brought 
round  punishment  to  Upper  Canada,  for,  in  fifteen 
years  after  the  Union,  Upper  Canada  had  an  excess  of 
population  of  250,000.  Now  the  complaint  arose  from 
the  Upper  Canadians.  It  was  while  the  veteran  Sir 
Allan  McNab  was  in  power  that  the  demand  for  a  change 
arose,  in  1855  and  succeeding  years. 

The  leader  in  the  crusade  was  the  Hon.  George  Brown. 
Born  in  Edinburgh  in  November,  1818,  young 
BroJra.  Brown  was  the  son  of  a  cultivated  and  ardent 

politician,  Peter  Brown.  His  father  came  to 
New  York  in  1838  and  commenced  a  newspaper  there — 
the  British  Chronicle.  Attracted  to  Canada  in  1843,  old 
Peter  Brown  began  a  Presbyterian  newspaper — The 
Banner.  In  the  following  year,  in  March,  George  Brown 
undertook  the  well-known  newspaper  the  Toronto  Globe, 
which  has  ever  since  been,  with  varying  excellence,  a 
powerful  advocate  of  popular  rights.  Like  many  others 
in  Canada  Mr.  Brown  gained  notoriety  by  a  libel  suit 


THE  Canadian  People  376 

which  was  brought  against  him  in  1849.  Defeated  in 
Haldimand  in  1851  by  William  Lyon  Mackenzie,  Mr. 
Brown  became  a  strenuous  opponent  of  the  Hincks 
administration.  He  defeated  the  Hon.  Malcolm  Cameron 
of  that  ministry  in  1851  in  Lambton,  and  took  his  seat 
in  the  House. 

Through  a  combination  with  Allan  McNab,  Hincks  was 
defeated  by  Mr.  Brown  and  his  small  band  of  ultra,  or,  as 
he  claimed,  true  reformers.  Mr.  Brown  was  somewhat 
chagrined  at  the  union  of  Sir  Allan  McNab  with  a  number 
of  Mr.  Hincks'  late  followers,  and  turned  the  weapons  of 
tongue  and  newspaper  against  the  Coalition  Ministry. 

The  fierce  cry  of  injustice  was  constantly  a  feature  of 
Mr.  Brown's  advocacy.  With  a  great  power  of  mind,  a 
fearless  disposition,  determined  grasp  of  principles,  and 
great  ability  as  a  public  speaker,  Mr.  Brown  was,  until 
the  time  of  his  death  in  1880,  when  he  fell  by  the  as- 
sassin's bullet,  perhaps  the  most  prominent  figure  in 
Upper  Canadian  politics.  Though  constitutionally  an 
oppositionist,  and  but  little  acquainted  with  the  rewards 
of  office,  perhaps  no  man  has  left  so  strong  an  impression 
on  Upper  Canadian  institutions  as  he. 

There  now  came  into  prominence  as  a  strenuous  oppo- 
nent of  Mr.  Brown  on  the  question  of  represen- 
tation   one    whose    bronze   statue   stands    on  cartler!'^* 
Parliament  Hill,  Ottawa — the  Canadian  states- 
man, Cartier.  Greorge  Etienne  Cartier  was  born  in  Septem- 
ber, 1814,  in  Vercheres  County,  Lower  Canada.     He  was 
of  the  family  of  the  brave  explorer  of  St.  Malo,  who  dis- 
covered Canada.     Educated  in  Montreal  Seminary  young 
Cartier  studied  law,  and  began  its  practice  in  Montreal 
in   1835.     Becoming  involved,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the 
rebellion  of  1837,  he  fled  to  the  United  States,  but  soon 
returned,  and  did  not  enter  political  life  till  1848. 

He  became  a  member  of  Sir  Allan  McNab's  coalition 
cabinet  in  1855.  Soon  after,  he  distinguished  himself  by 
the  codification  of  the  confused  civil  laws,  and  laws  of 
procedure  of  Lower  Canada,  and  took  part  in  the  Seignio- 
rial Tenure  settlement.    In  1858  he  formed,  in  conjunc- 


376  A  Short  History  of 

tion  with  John  A.  Macdonald,  a  new  cabinet.  The 
Seigniorial  Tenure  settlement  required  a  much  larger 
sum  for  its  completion  than  had  been  expected — amount- 
ing, as  has  been  said,  to  several  millions  of  dollars.  As 
this  was  taken  from  the  fund  of  United  Canada,  and  was 
purely  a  Lower  Canadian  object,  Mr.  Brown  and  his 
followers  denounced  it  as  "robbery."  This  and  like 
questions  quickened  the  demand  for  representation  by 
population,  and  in  1861  the  question  was  urged  on  the 
House. 

Cartier,  who  was  a  vivacious,  astute,  and  determined 
politician,  defended  Lower  Canada.  On  the  charge  by 
Mr.  Brown  that  the  one  county  of  Bruce  with  80,000 
people  had  not  one  representative,  Cartier  retorted  that 
if  heads  were  to  be  counted,  then,  taking  in  the  codfish 
in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  Lower  Canada  had  the 
majority.  In  1862  representation  by  population  was 
a  burning  question.  Though  Cartier  was  defeated  on  a 
Militia  Bill,  yet  the  fierce  spectre  of  "rep.  by  pop.," 
conjured  before  the  French  people,  made  a  stable  Govern- 
ment by  either  party  impossible.  Upper  Canada  by  a 
double  majority  demanded  her  rights.  Lower  Canada 
almost  unanimously  stood  on  the  constitution. 

Cartier  died  in  1873,  and  though  his  own  claim  was 
that  he  was  an  "  Englishman  speaking  French,"  yet  his 
dogged  perseverance  and  unflinching  "  Here  stand  I," 
did  a  hundred  times  more  to  cement  the  bonds  of  the 
Lower  Canadians  as  an  exclusive  nationality  in  Canada 
than  all  the  narrowness  of  Bedard,  or  the  frenzied  appeals 
of  Papineau,  for  the  many  years  which  had  preceded. 
Representation  by  population  received  its  recognition 
in  confederation. 

Section  III. — Keel,  Lock,  and  Bail 
Canadian  Shipping 

Her  ships  make  Canada  Britain's  truest  child.  On  the 
ocean  and  on  her  inland  waters  Canada's  ships  were  so 
numerous  that  after  confederation,   Great  Britain,  the 


THE  Canadian  People  377 

United  States,  and  Norway  were  the  only  countries  in 
the  world  excjeeding  her  in  tonnage.  It  was  by  steady 
industry,  with  but  little  capital,  that  Canada's  marine  was 
built  up.  In  the  bays  and  fiords  of  Nova  Scotia  and 
New  Brunswick,  a  few  skiKul  workmen  placed  the  stocks, 
and  built  their  craft,  staunch  and  seaworthy,  able  to 
breast  the  wild  waves  of  the  gulf  currents  or  of  Greorge's 
Beef.  The  fishing  and  sailing  vessels  were  built  not 
usually  in  great  ship-yards,  but  in  the  mouths  of  creeks 
and  inlets,  and  thus  the  people  of  the  whole  coast,  as 
ship-builders  and  sailors,  looked  upon  the  sea  much  as  our 
Norse  ancestors  regarded  it.  On  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and 
in  the  city  of  St.  John  there  are  great  seafaring  popu- 
lations. 

At  Quebec  wooden  vessels  were  built  in  large  numbers 
in  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Charles.  In  the  upper  lakes, 
as  well,  good  schooners  were  constructed  to  carry  on  the 
trade,  and  though  oak  was  once  brought  from  England 
by  a  stupid  Admiralty  order  to  build  vessels  on  Lake 
Ontario,  this  was  repaid  by  Canada  sending  home  her 
timber  to  build  British  bottoms.  The  first  steamer,  as 
already  stated,  ran  on  the  St.  Lawrence  in  1809.  It  was 
in  the  year  1819  that  the  Savannah ^  an  American  ship 
of  360  tons  burthen,  left  port,  the  first  steamer  to  cross 
the  Atlantic  ;  she  crossed  in  twenty-four  dajrs,  but  the 
trial  was  a  commercial  loss,  and  for  twenty  years  the 
venture  was  not  repeated.  In  1838  two  English  steamers 
crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  in  1840  a  Thames-built  steamer, 
the  President,  left  New  York  for  Europe,  but  was  lost. 
But  to  Nova  Scotia,  true  to  her  British  origin,  belongs 
the  honour  of  the  most  successful  steamship  line  on  the 
Atlantic — the  Cimard  line. 

Samuel  Cunard  was  born  in  Halifax,  in  November, 
1787,    the    son   of    a    West    India   merchant. 
Having  gained  by  persevering  effort  a  know-  stiamers. 
ledge  of  shipping,   and  accumulated  a  small 
capita],  Cunard  became  possessed  with  the  grand  idea  of 
founding  a  fleet  of  steamers.     With  the  aid  of  Robert 
Napier,  the  Glasgow  engineer  ;    the  Messrs.   Burns,  of 


378  A  Short  History  of 

Glasgow  ;  and  Mclver,  of  Liverpool,  the  enterprise  was 
begun  in  1840,  and  the  task  undertaken  by  the  Cunard 
Company  of  running  a  fortnightly  line  from  Liverpool 
to  Halifax  and  Boston.  With  the  four  vessels — Britannia, 
Acadia,  Caledonia,  and  Columbia,  each  of  1,200  tons,  the 
great  undertaking  commenced,  and  for  £197,000  in  all  of 
an  annual  subsidy,  the  line  was  extended  to  New  York. 
A  magnificent  fleet  of  twenty-four  vessels  now  represents 
the  Cunard  line.  The  distinguished  founder  of  it  was 
made  a  baronet  in  1857,  and  died  eighteen  years  after. 

The  Cunard  line  could  hardly  be  called  Canadian, 
however.  Its  founder  was  a  Haligonian  and  its  point 
of  call  was  Halifax,  but  its  commerce  was  chiefly  that  of 
the  United  States.  To  make  a  distinctively  Canadian 
line  was  a  far  more  difficult  enterprise.  Wiseacres  de- 
clared that  the  icebergs  of  the  Newfoundland  banks,  the 
rocks  of  BeJle  Isle,  Anticosti,  and  scores  of  dangerous 
reefs  rendered  it  impossible.  The  man  and  the  occasion, 
however,  overcame  the  difficulty. 

Hugh  Allan  was  the  son  of  an  Ayrshire  captain.  He 
was  born  in  September,  1810.  In  1840,  in  the 
Allan!^^  ^^  ^^  Miller  &  Co.,  Montreal,  he  was  employed 
in  shipbuilding.  In  1851  he  was  engaged  in 
building  iron-screw  steamships,  and  the  first  of  the 
great  Allan  fleet,  the  Canadian,  was  built  in  1853.  The 
Allan  line  was  begun  three  years  later  with  that  vessel 
and  the  Indian,  North  American,  and  Anglo-Saxon. 
Disaster  threatened  the  failure  of  the  line.  Misfortune 
after  misfortune  occurred.  Brave  men  like  Sir  George 
Simpson,  who  held  stock  in  the  line,  began  to  waver. 
Hugh  Allan,  without  faltering,  bought  out  their  stock. 
He  stood  like  a  lighthouse  amidst  the  waves.  The  tide 
of  fortune  turned,  and  the  Allan  line,  with  its  grand  fleet 
of  vessels,  is  the  boast  of  every  true  Canadian. 

There  were  in  1910  in  all  in  the  registers  of  the  Domin- 
ion upwards  of  7,900  Canadian  vessels.  If  the  extent 
of  sea  coast  be  the  measure  of  a  nation's  commerce, 
Canada  claims  a  high  place,  as  her  sea-coast,  which  requires 
fog  whistles,  bell-buoys,  automatic  and  other  buoys,  and 


THE  Canadian  People  37^ 

beacons,  is  3,200  miles,  and  her  inland  lake  coast  2,600 
miles.  Her  light  stations  number  upwards  of  500.  She 
employs  upwards  of  650  lighthouse-keepers,  and  has 
sixteen  lightships.  From  Sable  Island  to  British  Columbia 
are  scattered  beneficent  provision  of  the  most  scientific 
kind  for  those  who  venture  on  the  deep  waters. 

OuB   Canals 

The  enormous  water-stretches  throughout  the  inland 
parts  of  Canada  have  led  to  the  improvement  of  these 
channels  by  artificial  means  to  a  very  great  extent. 
While  Lord  Durham  gave  the  great  public  works  of  the 
country  as  a  chief  element  of  difficulty  in  conducting 
honest  government  through  corrupt  expenditure,  Canada 
would  to-day  have  been  largely  a  wilderness  but  for  her 
public  works. 

The  famous  Lachine  rapids  stood  an  obstacle  at  the 
very  gate  of  the  St.  Lawrence  above  Montreal,  j-gui-g 
In  1821  was  begun  the  Lachine  Canal,  nine 
miles  long  with  its  six  locks,  under  the  chief  direction  of 
the  great  engineer  Telford.  It  was  completed  in  three 
years  at  a  cost  of  £115,000  by  a  private  company,  but 
with  the  aid  of  the  Provincial  and  Imperial  Governments. 

The  success  of  the  Lachine  Canal  immediately  sug- 
gested  the  extension   of   the   system   further 
inland.     The    mighty    cataract    of   Niagara —  i^^   ® " 
"  thundering  water  " — ^had  its  name  affixed  to  it 
by  wondering  savages  long  before  La  Salle  beheld  it.     Its 
height  of  160  feet  but  represented  a  portion  of  the  fall 
between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario.     It  was  a  U.E.  Loyalist 
who  with  amazing  perseverance  succeeded  in  overcoming 
this  obstacle  by  projecting  the  Welland  Canal.     William 
Hamilton  Merritt,  born  in  1793  in  New  York  State,  was 
the  son  of  refugee  loyalists  who  had  at  first  fled  to  New 
Brunswick.     Sent  again  to  New  Brunswick  to  be  edu- 
cated young  Merritt  returned  to  Niagara  in   1809,  and 
became  captain  by  the  end  of  the  "  war  of  defence." 
He  was  a  man  of  moderate  opinions,  and  though  he 


380  A  Short  History  of 

called  the  rebellion  of  1837  a  "  monkey  war,"  yet  his 
sympathies  were  largely  with  the  people. 

He  began  considering  his  project  in  1818,  but  did  not 
succeed  in  organizing  an  incorporated  company  tiU  1825, 
to  undertake  the  great  scheme.  In  1829  two  vessels 
passed  through  the  canal,  and  by  way  of  Welland  River 
reached  Buffalo  from  Lake  Ontario.  Several  changes 
were  made  upon  the  course,  such  as  connecting  it  with 
the  Grand  River,  and  also  of  making  a  direct  line  to 
Lake  Erie.  A  half -million  pounds  were  spent  upon  it 
up  to  the  year  1841,  at  which  date  it  was  assumed  by 
United  Canada.  The  canal  from  lake  to  lake  is  now 
twenty-seven  miles  in  length  ;  it  has  cost  in  all  more 
than  thrice  the  sum  named  ;  it  was  enlarged  after  the 
union  and  also  since  that  time,  and  is  one  of  the  grandest 
triumphs  of  Canadian  enterprise. 

The  campaigns  of  the  "  war  of  defence  "  conducted  up 
J.  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  which  in  part  forms  the 

boundary  of  the  United  States,  suggested  to  the 
Imperial  Government  the  necessity  of  a  safe  communi- 
cation between  Montreal  and  Lake  Ontario.  It  was  found 
that  to  the  foot  of  Chaudiere  Falls  on  the  Ottawa  River 
and  Kingston  on  Lake  Ontario,  a  distance  of  135  miles, 
streams  ran  in  two  directions  from  an  upland  sheet  of 
water,  twenty-eight  miles  in  length,  caUed  Rideau  Lake. 
The  fall  northward  was  283  feet,  southward  153. 

By  a  system  of  dykes,  dams,  and  aqueducts  Colonel 
John  By,  and  his  assistant,  a  young  Scottish  engineer, 
McTaggart,  demonstrated  to  the  British  Government  the 
feasibility  of  connecting  the  inland  waters  with  the  lower 
St.  Lawrence.  In  1827  work  in  earnest  was  begun  by 
the  Imperial  Government.  The  cost  of  the  enterprise 
was,  as  is  usual  in  such  cases,  much  under-estimated. 
When  the  canal  had  been  mainly  built  in  1832,  or 
finished  in  1834,  the  cost  had  reached  one  and  a  half 
millions  of  pounds,  nearly  thrice  the  original  estimate. 
g  As  a  part  of    this  great  project  the  Impe- 

rial Government  also  undertook  works  at  the 
Grenville  rapids  on  the  Ottawa  River.    The  upper  canal, 


THE  Canadian  People  381 

that  of  Carillon,  is  about  one  and  a  half  miles  long ;  the 
middle,  Chute  au  Blondeau,  a  mile ;  and  the  lowest  is 
that  to  avoid  the  Long  Sault  of  the  Ottawa,  which  is  twelve 
miles  below  Carillon.  Upper  Canadians  should  ever  bear 
in  mind  this  generous  expenditure  on  the  part  of  the 
Imperial  Government,  a  showing  very  different  from  that 
of  the  school  of  Little  Englanders. 

Canadian  commerce,  however,  found  the  Ottawa  and 
Rideau  route  from  Montreal  to  Upper  Canada 
too  round-about  and  tedious.     Accordingly  the  rence.^" 
Canadian  Government  undertook  three  canals 
nearly  forty-four  miles  long  on  the  St.  Lawrence — the 
Williamsburg,  between  Prescott  and  Dickenson's  Land- 
ing ;    the  Cornwall,  to  avoid  the  "  Long  Sault "  of  the 
St.  Lawrence ;    and  the  Beauharnois,  to  overcome  the 
"  Coteau,"   ''  Cedars,"  and   "  Cascades  "  rapids.     Up  to 
1852  the  cost  of  the  St.  Lawrence  canals  was  set  at  one 
and  a  half  millions  of  dollars. 

In  computing  the  cost  of  all  our  canals,  who  shall  say 
that  the  fifteen  or  twenty  millions  of  dollars  have  not 
been  well  spent  in  enabling  vessels  of  moderate  size  to 
pass  from  Britain  by  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  lakes, 
and  with  the  aid  of  the  short  canal  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie, 
completed  by  the  Canadian  Government,  thus  to  reach  the 
western  extremity  of  Lake  Superior,  1,400  miles  above 
Montreal,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  continent. 

Railways 

For  the  vast  distances  in  Canadian  territory,  and  the 
opening  up  of  new  regions  remote  from  the  water-courses, 
another  agent  than  the  canal  must  be  employed.  What 
the  Roman  roads  were  to  the  Roman  empire,  as  shown 
by  their  all  being  computed  from  the  golden  milestone 
near  the  Roman  forum,  railways  are  to  America. 

It  was  in  1832  in  Canada,  that  the  first  railway  com- 
pany was  incorporated — and  that  a  railway  along  the 
Richelieu  River,  and  from  its  termini  called  the  St. 
Champlain  and  St.  Lawrence  railway.    In  the  following 


382  A  Short  History  off 

year  the  Hm^on  and  Ontario  line  was  formed,  and  in  the 
next  again  the  Great  Western  of  Canada. 

But  it  was  in  1849,  after  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws 
and  the  relaxation  of  the  restrictions  on  navigation,  that 
a  great  movement  towards  opening  up  Canada  by  rail- 
ways took  place.  It  has  been  usual  to  trace  much  of 
this  to  the  enlightened  policy  and  suggestive  mind  of 
Lord  Elgin.  But  credit  is  also  due  to  one  whom  we 
have  already  met  as  a  political  leader — ^Mr.  Hincks. 

Francis  Hincks  belonged  to  an  English  family  which 
Hinck  ^^^  ^^^^  settled  for  a  generation  or  two  in 

L'eland.  The  son  of  a  Unitarian  minister  in 
Cork,  he  was  born  in  that  city  in  1807.  His  father 
became  master  in  the  Royal  Belfast  Academy,  and  after 
completing  his  education  there,  Francis  Hincks  entered 
trade  and  went  abroad ;  and,  after  visiting  Canada,  re- 
turned with  his  young  wife  now  to  settle  in  the  province 
in  1832.  At  the  time  of  the  rebellion  Hincks  was  manager 
of  "  The  Bank  of  the  People  "  ;  but  in  1838  began  a  news- 
paper, the  Toronto  Examiner,  which  we  find  bore  the 
motto  of  "  Responsible  Government  and  the  Voluntary 
Principle." 

In  1841  the  young  Irishman  was  elected  member  for 
Oxford  in  the  first  Union  Parliament,  and  by  the  year 
1842  had  been  appointed  Inspector-General.  As  Hincks 
had  begun  the  Toronto  Examiner,  so  he  afterwards 
foimded  the  Montreal  Pilot.  It  was  in  1849  that  Hincks 
had  the  distinction  of  introducing  a  measure  to  grant 
Government  assistance  to  railways.  In  1850  there  was 
in  operation  only  some  forty  miles  of  railway,  and  while 
the  country  cried  out  for  development,  private  enterprise 
could  not  provide  it.  In  1851  the  Northern  railway,  the 
first  Upper  Canadian  line  of  rail,  was  begun,  and  the 
Countess  of  Elgin  turned  the  first  sod. 

It  was  in  the  same  year  that  Mr.  Hincks,  with  great 
energy,  devoted  himseK  to  carry  out  a  plan  for  "a  main 
trunk  line  of  railways  throughout  the  whole  length  of 
Canada." 

If   the   originator   of   a  grand  idea  be  a  greater  man 


THE  Canadian  People  383 

than  the  hundred  men  who  afterwards  work  it  out, 
Francis  Hincks  deserves  special  recognition  for  his  broad 
policy  of  railway  expansion.  He  set  aside  waste  lands 
for  the  construction  of  the  Canadian  trunk  line.  In  ten 
years  a  marvellous  transformation  had  taken  place  in 
Canada. 

The  means  for  this  great  development  was  provided  by 
the  Municipal  Loan  Fund  Bill  introduced  by  Mr.  Hincks, 
by  which,  though  the  Canadian  municipalities  plunged 
themselves  into  a  burden  of  debt  of  10,000,000  dollars,  the 
country  was  opened  for  commerce.  In  ten  years  after 
the  passage  of  the  Railway  Guarantee  Bill  of  1849  there 
had  been  added  to  Canada  no  less  than  2,100  additional 
miles  of  railway. 

The  great  promoter  of  railways,  however,  passed  for  a 
time  from  the  scene  of  Canadian  politics,  being  made 
Governor  of  Barbadoes  and  the  Windward  Isles  in  1856, 
and  after  an  absence  of  thirteen  years  returned  to  public 
life  in  Canada,  and  died  so  lately  as  1885  in  the  small- 
pox epidemic  in  Montreal. 

Sir  Francis  Hincks  was  the  Colbert  of  later  Canadian 
affairs.  Two  noble  memorials  of  this  era  remain  to 
Canada :  the  well-known  suspension  bridge  by  which  the 
Grand  Trunk  railway  crosses  the  Niagara  River.  This 
was  opened  in  1855,  and  bridges  in  a  single  span  the 
chasm  800  feet  wide.  The  other  great  work  is  the  mag- 
nificent Victoria  bridge,  opened  in  1860,  crossing  the  St. 
Lawrence  at  Montreal,  with  its  twenty-four  piers  extend- 
ing nearly  two  miles  in  length.  Greater,  these,  than 
the  ancient  world's  seven  wonders  ! 


Section  IV. — The  Field,  the  Forest,  the  Mine,  and  the  Sea 

God  speed  the  pUrugh !  is  our  oldest  Canadian  motto. 
In  so  widespread  and  diversified  a  country  as  Canada 
every  variety  of  agriculture  exists.  Six  leading  areas, 
characterized  by  special  climatic  influences,  may  be  found. 
The  Anticosti  shore;    the  gulf  region,  including  most  of 


384  A  Short  History  of 

Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick ;  the  Quebec  region ; 
the  lake  sections,  comprising  chiefly  Ontario ;  the  prairies ; 
and  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  British  Columbian  valleys. 

The  farm  yielding  its  products  by  a  steady  rotation 
of  grain,  grass,  and  root  crops,  with  a  certain  amount  of 
stock-raising,  a  moderate  dairy  product,  and  some  at- 
tention to  the  growth  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  is  cer- 
tainly the  Canadian  ideal.  That  it  is  folly  to  have  all 
the  eggs  in  one  basket  is  the  housewife's  dictum  usually 
accepted  by  Canadian  farmers.  Yet  different  parts 
of  the  country  are  being  found  suitable  for  special 
productions. 

Nova  Scotia  on  its  west  coast,  and  the  western  penin- 
sula of  Ontario  and  British  Columbia  are  celebrated  for 
apple-growing  and  the  yield  of  small  fruits ;  the  sea 
meadows  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  supply  rich  hay-fields  ; 
the  eastern  townships  of  Quebec  cultivate  horse  and  cattle- 
breeding  successfully ;  careful  husbandry  of  the  idyllic 
type  is  the  beau  ideal  of  Lower  Canadian  life  ;  dairy  farms 
of  a  large  size  are  numerous  in  Ontario  and  Quebec,  and 
a  great  output  of  cheese  and  of  butter  have  resulted  ;  our 
western  prairies  are  becoming  the  granaries  not  only  of 
Canada  but  of  America ;  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains — ^the  Canadian  Piedmont — and  the  western 
prairie  section  have  become  a  wonderful  farming 
country  ;  and  no  doubt  the  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan 
plains  will  yet  be  vast  sheep-runs,  as  well  as  the  abode  of 
herds  of  cattle  and  horses. 

The  enviable  pre-eminence  of  Canada  in  agriculture 
has  not  been  attained  without  effort.  In  1818  appeared 
in  the  Nova  Scotian  newspapers  a  most  notable  series 
of  letters  by  "Agricola,"  which  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  Governor,  Lord  Dalhousie,  and  of  all  leading  Nova 
Scotians,  and  gave  an  impetus  to  agricultiu-e. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  pictures  of  Canadian  life 
is  the  return  of  the  "Autumn  Fairs,"  in  which  the 
products  of  the  earth  are  brought  together  in  the  leading 
cities  and  towns.  At  these  exhibitions  prizes  are 
awarded,  and  a  desire  for  excellence  in  farming  is  culti- 


THE  Canadian  People  385 

vated.  No  feature  so  well  brings  out  the  prosperity  and 
comfort  of  the  Canadian  farmer  as  a  view  of  the  thousands 
of  burly  farmers  and  their  wives,  with  the  well-dressed 
lads  and  maidens  who  gather  together  in  holiday  attire, 
engaged  in  rendering  homage  to  Ceres,  the  presiding 
divinity  in  hundreds  of  local  centres  from  Prince  Edward 
Island  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  lofty  pine,  that  suggests  to  Virgil  its  pre-eminence 
in  the  forest,  certainly  deserves  in  the  eyes  of  ju  p  * 
Canadians  a  prominent  place,  as  the  source  of 
enormous  wealth.  Where  the  farmer  cannot  penetrate 
may  still  be  the  fruitful  field  of  the  Imnberer.  About 
the  beginning  of  last  century  a  settler  from  Massachusetts, 
named  Philemon  Wright,  bought  in  Montreal  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  forest  lands  on  the  Ottawa  River,  on 
the  strength  of  certain  documents,  afterwards  found  to 
have  been  forged.  The  Government  of  Lower  Canada, 
sympathizing  with  Mr.  Wright  in  the  severe  loss  he  had 
met,  bestowed  on  the  pioneer,  on  condition  of  his  de- 
veloping it,  a  large  tract  on  the  Ottawa  River,  north  of 
the  Chaudiere  Falls. 

Thus  began  the  lumber  trade,  which  has  grown  to 
such  great  proportions  on  the  Ottawa ;  for  it  was  in 
June,  1806,  that  the  first  raft  of  logs  went  down  that 
river. 

Between  the  parallels  of  43°  and  47°  grows  largely 
the  white  or  Weymouth  pine,  the  Pinua  8tr6bu8  of  the 
botanists.  Throughout  Canada  is  found  also  the  red  or 
Norway  pine  much  used  in  ship-building,  and  especially 
for  masts,  which  with  the  oak  and  tamarack  afford  a 
great  part  of  the  limiber  of  the  Canadian  trade. 

Bands  of  men,  hardy  and  rough,  hasten  in  winter  to 
the  "  woods "  in  the  Imnber-man's  "  timber  limits," 
build  their  "shanties,"  live  on  "pork  and  beans,"  and 
engage  in  hewing  down  the  forest  monarchs,  which  give 
us  our  wealth.  Each  "  gang  "  is  divided  into  "  hewers," 
"  liners,"  "  scorers,"  and  horse  and  ox  teamsters.  The 
logs  are  drawn  to  the  water-courses,  and  in  spring-time 
"  driven  "  {i.e.  guided  in  the  stream)  singly  to  the  mills, 
25 


386  A  Short  History  of 

or  joined  together  in  "  rafts  "  when  the  larger  streams 
are  reached.  These  are  then  sawn  into  lumber  or  taken 
uncut  to  Quebec  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  sent  to 
Britain,  under  the  direction  of  a  public  official — the 
"  supervisor  of  cullers," — being  shipped  and  stowed  away 
in  the  ocean  vessel  by  men  called  "  stevedores." 

The  recognition  of  the  lumber-trade  was  first  made 
by  the  Government  under  Lord  Dalhousie  placing  an 
export  tax  upon  it  in  1823.  In  order  to  overcome  the 
Chaudiere  Falls,  "  slides,"  by  which  logs  can  be  safely 
taken  down  stream,  were  built  in  1829  by  Mr.  Ruggles 
Wright.  In  succeeding  years  "  timber  licences "  have 
been  issued  to  lumberers  by  the  Provincial  Dominion 
Governments,  by  which  a  very  considerable  public  revenue 
is  obtained. 

Nor  have  Canadians  been  deterred  by  the  hard 
Th  M*  character  of  their  Laurentian  and  Huronian 
rocks  from  "  rifling  the  bowels  of  their  mother- 
earth  for  treasures."  The  thirst  for  gold  has  led  to 
gold-mining  both  on  the  eastern  and  western  borders  of 
the  Dominion. 

The  discovery  of  gold  on  the  Upper  Fraser  River 
in  British  Columbia,  in  1858,  caused  in  a  few 
Columbia,  weeks  such  an  excitement  that  "  Every  one 
seemed  to  have  gone  gold  mad.  Victoria 
appeared  to  have  leapt  at  once  from  the  site  of  a  pro- 
mising settlement  into  a  full-grown  town."  Thousands 
of  miners,  attracted  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  had  in 
a  short  time  hastened  to  the  "  diggings."  Including 
Chinese,  nearly  5,000  men  were  in  the  year  1861  en- 
gaged in  the  various  processes  of  alluvial  washing. 

Gold  was  also  discovered  in  Nova  Scotia  in  the  year 

„  e  *i  1861,  but  unlike  British  Columbia,  the  precious 
Nova  Scotia.        ^  '  i     i  i    i  •         i       i  ^  ..  • 

metal  was  embedded  m  a  hard  quartz  matrix. 

A  number  of  companies  erected  mills  for  crushing  the 

rock,  and  in  the  year  1867,  27,000  ounces  of  gold  were 

obtained.     In  five  years  more  the  production  had  fallen 

off,  but  during  later  years,  robbed  of  its  glamour,  gold 

crushing  has  become  a  settled  Nova  Scotian  industry. 


THE  Canadian  People  387 

The  petroleum  and  salt  deposits  of  Western  Ontario 
are  exceedingly  prolific,  there  having  been  produced  in 
a  single  year  15,000,000  gallons  of  the  former  and  nearly 
200,000  tons  of  the  latter.  The  development  of  the 
lime  phosphate  industry  in  the  province  of  Quebec  along 
the  Ottawa  River,  the  crushed  apatite  being  used  as  a 
fertilizer,  is  remarkable,  and  has  already  reached  a  con- 
siderable annual  yield. 

The  coal  of  Nova  Scotia  is  produced  from  the  mines  at 
the  rate  of,  in  1887,  a  million  and  a  half  of  tons  a  year, 
while  the  enormous  development  of  coal  at  Nanaimo 
mines  in  Vancouver  Island,  and  on  the  Saskatchewan 
River  with  its  tributaries  in  Alberta,  is  notable. 

The  Dominion  of  Canada  owns  the  largest  and  richest 
fisheries  in  the  world,  and  they,  in  the  year  -,.  « 
1883,  yielded  seventeen  and  a  half  millions  of 
dollars'  worth  of  fish.  Our  deep-sea  fisheries  in  Nova 
Scotia  and  British  Columbia  have,  it  is  estimated,  not 
half  the  available  sea-coast  worked.  The  cod  fishery 
stands  first  in  importance  :  it  is  carried  on  by  means  of 
hand  lines,  or  by  "  bultows,"  i.e.  set  lines.  Canadian 
dried  codfish  supply  the  Catholic  countries  of  Europe. 

In  ten  years,  from  1871  to  1881,  the  lobster  fisheries 
of  Canada,  almost  unknown  at  the  former  date,  had 
grown  to  employ  at  the  latter  more  than  600  factories, 
curing  yearly  fifty- two  and  a  half  millions  of  lobsters. 
The  fishermen  of  Labrador  and  the  Magdalen  Islands 
are  the  only  Eastern  Canadians  engaged  in  seal  catching, 
while  10,000  Newfoundland  seamen  pursue  this  inter- 
esting and  lucrative  industry. 

The  fresh-water  fisheries  include  the  wonderful  catch 
of  salmon,  "  food  alike  for  the  poor  man's  cottage  and 
mansion  of  the  rich."  While  a  staple  article  of  food 
along  the  rivers  of  the  sea-coast,  the  salmon  affords 
sport  for  the  dilettante  fishermen  who  spend  their  holi- 
days in  New  Brunswick  ;  but  the  catch  of  salmon  in 
British  Columbia  quadrupled  in  the  three  years  pre- 
ceding 1882,  in  which  year  12,000,000  pounds'  weight 
were  exported. 


3S8  A  Short  History  of 

The  fish  of  the  inland  lakes  of  Canada  afford  food  to 
many  thousands  of  her  population.  Trout  and  white 
fish  are  caught  in  large  numbers,  and  before  1887  four 
and  a  half  millions  of  these  palatable  fish  were  sent 
fresh  to  market,  while  40,000  barrels  of  sturgeon,  pike, 
and  other  varieties  were  salted  for  sale.  The  fresh- 
water fisheries  of  the  Dominion  had  reached  the  annual 
value  of   4,000,000  dollars. 

The  products  of  "  the  soil,  the  forest,  the  mine,  and 
The  Reci-  ^he  sea,"  were  those  of  which  a  free  inter- 
procity  change  was  effected  between  Canada  and  the 

Treaty.  United    States,    by    the    Reciprocity    Treaty, 

obtained  through  the  wise  negotiation  of  Lord  Elgin, 
in  the  year  1854,  to  continue  for  ten,  or  at  the  most 
eleven  years.  Free  use  of  water-courses,  canals,  and 
fisheries  was  granted  to  one  another  by  the  contiguous 
countries. 

It  was  a  mutual  benefit ;  but  through  some  mistaken 
view,  or  narrow  trade  policy,  the  United  States  refused 
to  continue  the  treaty  after  the  year  1866.  Its  cessation 
created  a  considerable  derangement  of  trade  between 
the  two  countries,  but  the  compulsory  development  of 
many  branches  of  home  industry  by  Canada  has  given  a 
self-dependence  and  energy  to  Canadians. 

Section  V. — Commercial,  Educational,  and  Social 
Progress 

The  business  of  Canada  is  conducted  chiefly  by  com- 
mercial institutions  native  to  the  soil.  Out  of  forty-four 
banks  doing  business  in  Canada  in  1887,  with  their 
many  branches,  only  two  had  their  headquarters  out  of 
the  Dominion.  The  Bank  of  Montreal  is  the  oldest  in 
Canada,  having  been  begun  in  1817,  while  the  Quebec 
Bank  was  undertaken  in  the  same  year  to  facilitate  the 
carrying  on  of  the  timber  trade. 

At  the  time  of  the  establishment  of  municipal  in- 
stitutions in  the  upper  province  in  1834,  the  Bank  of 
Upper  Canada — a  provincial  institution — was  commenced, 


THE  Canadian  People  389 

while  a  similar  local,  or  perhaps  more  strongly  national 
feeling  in  Lower  Canada,  resulted  in  the  founding  of 
"  La  banque  du  peuple." 

The  banking  system  of  the  maritime  provinces  was 
rather,  after  the  manner  of  the  American  banking  customs, 
to  establish  branches  in  many  small  places. 

To  the  Bank  of  British  North  America,  with  its  head- 
quarters in  London,  Canadian  bankers  give  the  credit  of 
introducing  amongst  Canadians  the  best  elements  and 
methods  of  British  banking.  The  Merchants,  Nova  Scotia, 
Imperial,  and  Commerce  were  in  1887,  in  addition  to  those 
previously  mentioned,  the  leading  banks  of  Canada. 

For  many  years  Canada  used  what  was  called  "  Halifax 
currency,"  in  which  the  nomenclature  of  sterling  money 
was  that  employed,  but  having  a  pound  of  this  currency 
valued  at  four  dollars.  The  Canadian  banking  system 
has  always  been  conducted  on  a  gold  basis.  The  Cana- 
dian banJks  are  required  to  report  regularly  to  the  Do- 
minion Grovemment,  and  are  under  strict  GrOvemment  regu- 
lations. The  Dominion  Grovernment  issued  in  1881,  on  its 
own  credit,  all  notes  for  one,  two,  and  four  dollars,  while 
the  banks  were  confined  to  those  of  higher  denominations. 

A  system  of  post-office  savings  banks  was  introduced 
by  the  Canadian  Government  at  eighty-one  of  the  larger 
places  throughout  the  country.  Large  sums  of  money 
are  invested  throughout  the  different  provinces  by  loan 
companies.  The  first  of  these  in  Canada  began  opera- 
tions in  1855,  and  there  were  seventy- three  with  many 
branches  doing  business  in  the  year  1883.  Canadian 
enterprise  has  also  shown  itself  in  the  organization  of 
fire  and  life  insurance  companies,  of  which  the  "  Canada  " 
and  "  Confederation "  companies  rank  equal  to  the 
strongest  British  or  American  societies. 

Notice  has  been  already  taken  of  the  beginnings  of 
educational  life  in  the  provinces  by  the  sea.   It  Education 
was  after  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen-  in  tlie 
tury  that  the  free  school  movement  swept  along  Maritime 
the  seaboard.     To  New  Brunswick  seemingly 
belongs  the  palm  in  the  maritime  provinces  for  organizing 


3fliO  A  Short  History  of 

a  thoroughly  flexible  and  workable  system  including  the 
whole  population,  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants. 
Nine  hundred  excellent  schools  were  in  operation  in  1865. 
After  confederation  a  most  vigorous  attempt  was  made 
by  the  Roman  Catholics  of  New  Brunswick  to  obtain 
separate  schools.  The  movement  resulted  in  nothing. 
The  Douay  Bible  is  allowed  for  use  in  schools  where  the 
population  is  chiefly  Catholic. 

It  was  not  till  1864  that  Nova  Scotia  could  boast  of  a 
successful  school  system.  As  in  the  case  of  New  Bruns- 
wick no  provision  is  made  for  separate  schools.  In 
Prince  Edward  Island,  where,  in  1767,  almost  the  whole 
territory  was  given  out  by  lot  to  the  proprietors,  a 
reserve  was  made  in  each  township  for  the  support  of 
schools.  Though  assistance  was  given  from  time  to  time, 
it  was  not  until  1852  that  a  system  of  the  same  character 
as  that  found  in  the  sister  provinces  was  established. 
Agitation  to  obtain  special  privileges  by  the  Roman 
Catholics  took  place  here  also,  but  was  repressed.  And 
thus  the  lower  provinces,  with  a  strong  sentiment  for 
a  thoroughly  provincial  system,  with  well-organized 
normal  schools,  are  becoming  more  and  more  an  en- 
lightened and  cultivated  people. 

New  Brunswick  carried  the  principle  of  her  public 
school  system  into  higher  education  also.  Organized  as 
a  Church  of  England  institution  by  the  New  Brunswick 
Loyalists,  a  College  was  established  in  1828,  but  in  1860 
it  was  made  provincial,  and  has  become  the  Univer- 
sity of  New  Brunswick.  Prince  Edward  Island  possesses 
no  university.  The  crown  of  her  public  school  system  is 
an  excellent  academic  institution,  established  in  1861, 
and  known  as  Prince  of  Wales'  College. 

The  history  of  higher  education  in  Nova  Scotia  has 
not  been  a  happy  one.  King's  College,  Windsor,  founded 
as  a  Church  of  England  institution  in  1788,  led  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Pictou  Academy  by  the  Presby- 
terians in  1817,  by  the  pioneer  Dr.  McCulloch.  It  was 
desired  by  the  promoters  of  Pictou  Academy  to  have  it 
made   a  degree-conferring   body  ;    but  the  determined 


THE  Canadian  People  391 

soldier,  Lord  Dalhousie,  then  Governor,  refused  this, 
and  founded  Dalhousie  College  in  1820,  and  devoted  to 
its  support  several  thousand  pounds  of  the  Castine  fund, 
a  sum  of  money  which  had  been  collected  at  Castine, 
Maine,  during  the  time  it  was  held  by  the  British  during 
the  war  of  defence.  Legislative  grants  were,  however, 
made  to  King's  and  Dalhousie  Colleges,  as  well  as  to 
Pictou  Academy.  Dalhousie  College,  largely  endowed 
by  a  generous  Nova  Scotian,  GJeorge  Munro,  has  been 
strongly  favoured  by  the  numerous  Presbyterian  element 
of  Nova  Scotia,  but  is  a  provincial,  undenominational 
institution. 

Acadia  College,  Wolfville,  a  Baptist  college,  received 
its  imiversity  powers  in  1840,  and  in  1862  a  Methodist 
university  was  established  at  Sackville,  on  the  borders 
of  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick, 

The  French  Canadians  claim  that  in  1616  the  first 
attempts  at  education  were  made  in  NewFrance.  ^ 
Lord  Dorchester,  in  1787,  directed  an  inquiry 
into  the  state  of  education  in  Lower  Canada,  and  in  1801 
what  were  called  free  schools  were  established  under 
the  "  Royal  List  i  tut  ion."  The  Act  of  Education  was 
passed  by  United  Canada  for  the  eastern  province  in 
1841,  and  six  years  afterwards  there  were  1,800  schools 
in  Lower  Canada. 

There  are  now  ^ve  classes  of  educational  institutions 
in  the  province.  Commencing  in  the  case  of  Quebec,  at 
the  summit  of  the  system  we  find  the  universities. 
Laval  University,  at  Quebec,  incorporated  in  its  present 
form  in  1852,  possesses  the  four  faculties  of  theology, 
laws,  arts,  and  medicine.  Laval  had  in  1887  fifteen 
affiliated  colleges  in  different  parts  of  the  province. 

The  great  Protestant  university  of  Lower  Canada  is 
McGill  College,  begun  in  1811,  incorporated  in  1827, 
and  named  after  its  founder.  The  merchant  princes  of 
Montreal  have  taken  delight  in  adding  to  its  emoluments. 
McGill  College  maintains  the  faculties  of  arts,  law,  and 
medicine,  and  to  it  are  affiliated  the  Presbyterian  college 
of  Montreal,  the  Wesleyan  and  Congregational  of  the 


392  A  Short  History  of 

same  city.  At  Lennoxville,  in  the  eastern  townships, 
is  a  small  Anglican  university. 

Of  primary  schools  in  Quebec  there  were  in  1887  4,400, 
with  140,000  pupils.  Excellent  norma]  and  model  schools 
are  attached  to  the  two  leading  universities.  The  system 
of  Lower  Canada  permits  separate  Catholic  and  Pro- 
testant schools,  but  there  are  no  mixed  schools. 

The  magnificent  educational  system  of  Ontario  had  its 
Ontario  ^^^^  beginning  in  a  parliamentary  enactment 
in  1807,  establishing  a  grammar  school  in  each 
of  the  eight  districts  of  Upper  Canada,  each  having  a 
grant  of  £400  a  year.  The  first  common  school  law  was 
passed  nine  years  later,  and  241,000  dollars  were  appro- 
priated for  educational  purposes,  but  only  to  be  cut 
down  to  $40,000  four  years  afterwards.  The  years  1835 
and  1836  were  noted  for  "reports"  on  all  provincial 
subjects,  and  suggestions  for  a  broader  system  of  edu- 
cation were  then  laid  before  the  Assembly.  The  union  of 
the  Canadas  in  1841  gave  a  real  impulse  to  education, 
and  three  years  afterwards  Egerton  Ryerson  won  his 
way  into  Lord  Metcalfe's  favour,  and  became  Chief 
Superintendent  of  Education. 

Dr.  Ryerson  pursued,  in  framing  the  Ontario  educa- 
tional system,  a  wise  principle  of  selection.  From  New 
York  was  taken  the  educational  machinery,  Massachusetts 
the  principle  of  local  taxation,  Ireland  the  first  series  of 
school  books,  and  from  Germany  the  idea  of  normal 
schools.  By  his  department,  which  has  since  passed 
under  the  control  of  a  minister  of  education  of  the  pro- 
vincial cabinet  of  Ontario,  was  administered  the  primary 
or  public  schools.  Ever  since  1841  separate  schools  for 
Roman  Catholics  have  been  permitted,  and  these  in 
Upper  Canada,  before  confederation,  became  a  part 
of  the  educational  system  of  the  province,  and  still 
continue  so. 

There  is  a  finely  arranged  graduation  in  the  system  of 
Ontario.  The  promotion  of  scholars  is  made  from  class 
to  class  in  the  public  schools  by  county  inspectors. 
By  a  special  examination  pupils  are  admitted  from  the 


THE  Canadian  People  398 

public  schools  into  the  high  schools  and  collegiate  insti- 
tutes. The  curriculum  of  these  secondary  schools  leads 
up  to  the  provincial  university  at  Toronto. 

In  Toronto  is  situated  Upper  Canada  College,  founded 
in  1828,  and  which  has  had  a  most  distinguished  history. 
Modelled  somewhat  after  the  great  boys'  schools  of 
England,  its  alumni  have  achieved  much  distinction,  and 
many  of  them  are  leading  men  in  the  province  and 
Dominion. 

The  culmination  of  the  Ontario  system  is  the  Univer- 
sity of  Toronto.  Originally  established  by  royal  charter 
in  1828,  it  was  called  "  King's  College,"  and  was  a  close 
corporation  belonging  to. the  Church  of  England.  Dis- 
established and  broadened  in  its  constitution  it  came  into 
active  existence,  and  became  known  by  its  present  name 
in  1849.  This  university,  with  its  teaching  college,  is  by 
far  the  best  equipped  institution  in  Canada,  having,  with 
the  school  of  science  attached  to  it,  a  very  large  annual 
revenue.  Late  as  its  history  begins,  Toronto  University 
has  now  a  vast  number  of  graduates,  and  there  were  in  1887 
clustering  around  it  the  affiliated  Knox  Presbyterian 
College,  McMaster  and  Woodstock  Baptist  Colleges, 
Wycliffe  Episcopal  College,  St.  Michael's  Roman  Catholic 
College  ;  and  Victoria  Methodist  College  had  lately  decided 
to  unite  its  fortunes  with  the  provincial  imiversity. 

The  Church  of  Scotland  in  1841  obtained  royal  letters 
patent  for  a  university  at  Kingston,  which  has  ever  since 
been  called  Queen's  College.  In  the  same  year  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  body  obtained  incorporation  of  a  university  at 
Cobourg,  ever  since  known  as  Victoria  College. 

On  the  occasion  of  King's  College  being  made  a  pro- 
vincial institution.  Bishop  Strachan,  unwilling  to  accept 
the  change,  with  great  energy  established  in  1852  Trinity 
College,  Toronto,  for  which  he  received  considerable 
sums  from  England.  Schools  of  medicine  were  in  1887 
affiliated  to  each  of  the  universities  named,  and  ladies' 
colleges  and  schools,  Protestant  and  Catholic,  supply 
in  different  parts  of  the  province  higher  training  in  general 
education,  music,  and  art. 


394  A  Short  History  of 

Benevolence  and  Christian  feeling  find  their  proper 
public  embodiment  in  the  institution  for  the  Deaf  and 
Dumb  established  in  Belleville  in  1870,  the  institution 
for  the  Blind  in  Brantford  in  1871,  the  Provincial  Ke- 
formatory  School  at  Penetanquishene,  and  the  Central 
Reformatory  prison  begun  in  Toronto  in  1873. 

So  early  as  1818  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  through 
Manit  ba  ^^^^  Selkirk's  influence,  arrived  at  Red  River 
and  established  a  church  and  school.  Out  of 
this  school  has  grown  St.  Boniface  College.  At  St. 
John's — ^the  Upper  Church — on  the  banks  of  Red  River, 
in  1821  a  Church  of  England  clergyman  established  a 
mission,  and  beside  it  a  school.  This  school  has  now 
become  St.  John's  College.  The  Selkirk  Colony,  with 
the  help  of  Canadian  friends,  in  1871  established  Mani- 
toba College,  a  Presbyterian  institution. 

There  were  in  the  Red  River  Settlement  in  1870  a  few 
French  common  schools,  fourteen  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  two  Presbj^erian.  The  first  Act  for 
public  schools  in  Manitoba  was  passed  in  the  following 
year.  It  permitted  in  1887  Protestant  and  Catholic 
schools,  each  administered  by  a  general  superintendent. 

The  University  of  Manitoba  at  Winnipeg,  whose 
governing  body  was  at  first  composed  of  representatives 
from  St.  Boniface,  St.  John,  and  Manitoba  Colleges,  held 
its  first  examinations  in  1878.  It  is  a  union  of  denomi- 
national colleges,  under  a  sole  university,  for  the  province. 
A  medical  school  is  affiliated  to  it,  and  provision  was 
made  for  the  affiliation  of  any  other  colleges  which  may 
arise.  Degrees  in  theology  are  conferred  by  the  separate 
coUeges.  The  Dominion  Government  bestowed  150,000 
acres  of  wild  lands  on  the  university,  while  the  Isbister 
legacy  of  upwards  of  80,000  dollars  yields  a  good  annual 
revenue,  which  is  distributed  in  scholarships. 

On  the  year  after  the  entrance  of  British  Columbia 

into  confederation  (1872)  provision  was  made 

Columbia.      ^^^  public  education  by  the  passing  of  an  Act 

including  all  the  people  of  the  province.     The 

scattered  settlements  necessitated  something  of  the  nature 


THE  Canadian  People  395 

of  boarding-schools  at  central  points  in  the  valleys. 
The  building  of  school-houses,  and  the  maintenance 
of  schools  could  only  be  accomplished  at  enormous 
cost,  and  though  few  schools  were  opened,  a  grant  of 
40,000  dollars  was  made  out  of  the  liberal  Dominion 
subsidy  paid  to  the  Pacific  province.  A  high  school  in 
1887  was  in  operation  in  Victoria,  and  another  in  New 
Westminster. 

The  municipal  system  found  as  a  marked  feature  in 
most  of  the  Canadian  provinces,  is  the  basis  of 
social  improvement.  Montreal,  with  its  popu-  ^j.^^ 
lation,  half  French  and  half  English,  of  150,000 
in  1887,  is  the  largest  Canadian  city,  while  Quebec,  the 
ancient  capital,  is  Canada's  most  hospitable  city.  Toronto, 
the  centre  of  Upper  Canadian  life,  had  in  1887  120,000 
population,  and  disputes  with  Montreal  the  palm  in 
commerce,  education,  literature,  and  political  influence, 
while  numerous  smaller  cities  and  towns  of  Ontario  are 
possessed  of  many  social  comforts.  Halifax  and  St. 
John  present  the  features  of  a  cultivated  city  life  along 
the  sea ;  Winnipeg,  a  city  in  1887  with  22,000  people, 
and  but  of  yesterday,  was  rapidly  obtaining  recognition, 
and  possesses  in  its  chief  thoroughfare  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  streets  in  the  Dominion.  Victoria  keeps  the 
gate  of  the  Pacific,  with  its  balmy  climate,  and  old- 
fashioned  society  in  1887. 

In  all  of  these  centres  of  population  the  telegraph  and 
telephone  make  commimication  easy  ;  gas  and  electricity 
make  night  as  safe  as  day  ;  fire  and  water  provision  give 
every  convenience.  Block,  McAdam,  and  stone  pave- 
ments have  obliterated  the  quagmires  of  early  days ; 
libraries  for  the  people  abound,  literary  societies  and 
scientific  associations  flourish.  Hospitals,  asylums,  and 
homes,  supported  by  local,  voluntary,  and  municipal  aid, 
alleviate  human  suffering.  Were  Lord  Durham,  with 
the  memory  of  his  former  Canadian  life,  permitted  to 
revisit  Canada,  it  would  be,  as  compared  with  his  previous 
experience,  like  soaring  away  from  the  dull  earth  to  the 
fabled  island  of  Laputa. 


396  A  Short  History  of 

Section  VI. — The  Federal  Union  accomplished 

The  struggle  for  freedom  in  the  old  thirteen  colonies 
along  the  sea  had  fused  them  into  one  in  the  pursuit  of  a 
common  object,  and  thus  their  union  into  the  American 
Republic  resulted.  The  several  British  provinces  had,  as 
we  have  seen,  been  compelled  to  fight  the  battle  of 
responsible  government,  but  the  British  authorities  had 
been  more  willing  for  liberal  government  than  the  domi- 
nant parties  in  the  colonies  themselves.  The  remedies 
for  colonial  misgovernment  had,  in  the  case  of  Canada 
and  the  maritime  provinces,  been  suggested  by  British 
statesmen,  while  in  the  case  of  the  original  thirteen 
colonies  their  constitution  had  been  of  their  own  devising. 

And  yet  it  had  been  the  voice  of  Howe  in  Nova  Scotia, 
Wilmot  in  New  Brunswick,  Papineau  in  Lower  Canada, 
and  Baldwin  in  Upper  Canada,  which  in  each  case  sounded 
the  key-note  of  freedom.  The  causes  which  now  led  to 
the  drawing  together  of  the  provinces  into  one  dominion 
were  partly  provincial  and  partly  imperial.  The  remark- 
able progress  of  the  United  States  stimulated  a  desire  on 
the  part  of  the  several  provinces  to  pursue  a  similar 
career. 

The  presence  of  this  mighty  power  alongside  of  the 
provinces  became  somewhat  of  a  menace  to  the  weak 
colonies,  especially  as  the  republic  had  an  enormous 
army  but  lately  engaged  in  internal  strife,  but  now  not 
unwilling  to  engage  in  foreign  war.  The  presence  of  a 
large  military  establishment  in  a  country  is  a  constant 
source  of  danger  to  weak  neighbours.  The  Trent  affair, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  American  civil  strife,  when  war 
seemed  imminent  between  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
forced  the  fact  of  their  weakness  very  strongly  on  the 
British  colonies. 

The  desire  for  imion  of  the  provinces  would  seem  to 
have  first  taken  root  in  the  maritime  provinces.  Lord 
Durham,  with  his  powerful  and  formative  mind,  had 
indicated  a  union  of  all  the  provinces  as  a  sequence  of 
the  union  ofjthe  Canadas,  and  to  his  statesman's  eye  the 


THE  Canadian  People  397 

building  of  a  railway  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  provinces 
was  the  bond  of  union.  Time  and  again,  as  we  shall  see, 
between  1838  and  1860,  negotiations  were  in  progress 
between  the  inland  provinces  and  those  by  the  sea  for 
the  survey  and  construction  of  an  intercolonial  railway. 
Though  nothing  had  as  yet  been  accomplished,  the 
project  had  not  been  forgotten. 

It  was  in  the  year  1864  that  the  Legislatm-es  of  Nova 
Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  Prince  Edward  Island 
authorized  their  several  Governments  to  hold  a  con- 
ference at  Charlottetown,  Prince  Edward  Island,  to 
consider  a  union  of  the  maritime  provinces. 

In  Canada,  as  we  have  seen,  the  struggle  for  repre- 
sentation by  population  had  brought  on  a  serious  crisis. 
The  Union  Act  of  1840  had  been  of  great  service  to  the 
country  :  much  progress  had  been  made  in  all  directions  ; 
but  a  stable  government  was  found  impossible,  and  some 
constitutional  change  was  inevitable.  The  leaders  of  the 
two  Canadian  parties  by  a  noble  act  of  patriotism  agreed 
for  the  time  to  lay  aside  the  weapons  of  political  warfare 
and  endeavour  to  secure  a  confederation  of  the  British  pro- 
vinces, as  not  only  the  remedy  for  the  Canadian  "  dead- 
lock," but  also  as  conducive  to  British  interests  on  the 
American  continent. 

The  maritime  provinces  had  ignored  party  divisions  in 
the  Charlottetown  conference,  and  eight  delegates  from 
Canada  sailed  down  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  by 
permission  of  the  maritime  province  representatives 
joined  the  conference.  A  full  and  free  discussion  of  the 
various  interests  involved  resulted  in  a  determination  to 
meet  again  in  conference  at  Quebec,  on  a  day  to  be 
named  by  the  Governor-General. 

On  the  10th  of  October,  1864,  the  Quebec  conference 
was  begun.  This  was  one  of  the  greatest  events  of 
Canadian  history.  Here  were  gathered  the  descendants 
of  the  French  pioneers  who  had  for  more  than  a  century 
clung  to  British  connection,  though  often  tempted  from 
their  allegiance,  and  who  had  shown  remarkable  apti- 
tude   in    adopting    British    representative    government ; 


398  A  Short  History  of 

here  were  those  of  U.E.  Loyalist  stock  from  the  four 
English  provinces,  but  who  had  accepted  responsible 
government,  and  done  good  service  in  working  it  out ; 
here  were  those  of  British  origin — ^from  England,  Ireland, 
and  Scotland,  and  representing  all  the  faiths  of  those 
mother-lands  ;  and  here  were  those  of  American  descent, 
not  behind  their  fellows  in  declaring  their  preference  for 
the  forms  of  Canadian  liberty  over  the  peculiar  features 
of  the  Republic. 

They  met  for  friendly  conference  on  the  historic 
ground  of  old  Quebec,  where  French  Catholic  and  French 
Huguenot,  French  and  American,  French  and  British, 
British  and  AjQierican,  Canadian  and  American,  had 
closed  together  in  deadly  conflict  in  the  days  of  Kertk, 
Phipps,  Wolfe,  and  Montgomery.  Now  they  sat  imder 
the  smile  of  Britain,  while  ninety  years  before  the  other 
great  formative  convention,  the  Continental  Congress  of 
the  English  Colonies,  had  met  under  the  British  frown. 

On  the  28th  of  October  the  conference  closed  its  pro- 
ceedings. Many  had  been  the  knotty  points  discussed; 
on  one  or  two  occasions  it  seemed  as  if  an  agreement, 
especially  on  the  financial  arrangements,  was  hopeless ; 
but  there  was  a  desire  on  the  part  of  all  the  delegates  to 
make  one  New  Britain  on  this  continent,  and  they  suc- 
ceeded in  adopting  seventy-two  resolutions  on  the  sub- 
ject. Of  how  vastly  more  moment  to  the  country  these 
than  the  reckless  ninety-eight  resolutions  formulated  in 
the  same  city  some  thirty  years  before  ! 

Much  joy  was  manifested  throughout  the  several 
provinces,  and  according  to  British  custom  convivial 
banquets  were  held  in  the  various  cities.  As  has  been 
observed,  the  English  people  inaugurate  great  move- 
ments with  eating  and  drinking,  and  imitate  in  this  the 
ancient  Germans  described  by  Tacitus,  of  whom,  dis- 
cussing their  projects  midst  eating  and  drinking  and 
deciding  on  them  amidst  great  solemnity,  it  was  said : 
"  They  deliberate  while  they  cannot  feign ;  they  deter- 
mine when  they  cannot  err." 

Having  resumed  their  sittings  in  Montreal,  on  the  31st 


THE  Canadian  People  399 

of  October  the  convention  closed,  and  the  Confederation 
scheme  was  launched  for  discussion  by  the  various  pro- 
vinces. In  Canada  there  was  so  great  unanimity  that 
Parliament  adopted  the  project  without  going  back  to 
the  people  ;  in  New  Brunswick  the  Confederation  scheme 
was  on  submission  to  the  people  defeated,  but  on  another 
appeal  in  a  year  after  was  by  a  surprising  change  adopted  ; 
in  Nova  Scotia  the  measure  was  accepted  by  the  Legis- 
lature without  consulting  their  constituents,  and  the 
seeds  sown  of  a  most  troublesome  agitation  subsequently  ; 
while  in  Prince  Edward  Island  the  proposal  was  for 
the  time  rejected,  as  also  in  Newfoundland. 

The  scheme  of  Confederation  was  the  subject  of  most 
favourable  discussion  in  the  United  States,  and  especially 
in  Great  Britain ;  as  pointed  out  in  the  conference — 
though  federal,  like  the  constitution  of  the  United  States 
— the  conception  is  widely  different.  In  the  case  of  the 
thirteen  colonies  which  had  thrown  off  allegiance  to 
Britain,  they  came  together  as  sovereign  states,  and  each 
state  is  the  repository  of  power  in  all  cases  where  the 
constitution  does  not  transfer  this  to  the  general  or 
federal  government ;  in  the  Canadian  scheme  the  Do- 
minion Government  is  the  repository  of  power,  except 
where  this  is  transferred  to  the  several  provinces.  The 
Canadian  theory  is  that  of  a  relatively  more  powerful 
central  government  than  that  of  the  United  States. 

The  British  Government  heartily  approved  of  the 
Confederation,  and  Lord  Card  well  wrote  a  despatch, 
which  much  assisted  the  project  in  its  adoption  by  the 
several  provincial  legislatures.  On  the  4th  of  December, 
1866,  representatives  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New 
Brunswick  met  in  London,  and  agreed  to  certain  changes 
in  the  resolutions.  On  these  provisions  a  Bill  was  then 
founded  and  introduced  into  the  Imperial  Parliament, 
and  on  the  29th  of  March,  1867,  became  law. 

From  the  Imperial  standpoint  the  whole  scheme  was 
received  with  marked  favour.  As  was  said  by  a  British 
journal  of  the  time  :  "  The  Confederation  scheme  of 
Canada  solves,  not  for  itself  alone,  but  for  other  colonies, 


400     A  Short  History  of  the  Canadian  People 

the  problem  of  how  to  transmute  a  jealous  dependency 
into  a  cordial  ally,  which,  though  retaining  mayhap  the 
golden  link  of  the  Crown,  should  in  all  respects  evince 
an  imbought  and  unforced  loyalty,  an  allegiance  without 
constraint,  co-operation  without  coercion,  bonds  without 
bondage — the  only  fitting  guerdon  that  freemen  should 
care  to  seek  or  be  willing  to  yield." 

Undoubtedly  the  union  of  the  four  great  provinces  of 
British  America  bore  a  stately  aspect.  Compared  with 
the  petty  struggles,  in  which  all  the  provinces  had  been 
engaged,  there  was  a  breadth  and  scope  about  Con- 
federation most  imposing. 

The  new  constitution  went  into  effect  on  the  1st  of 
July,  1867,  and  was  marked  by  demonstrations  of  great 
joy  in  the  several  provinces  ;  and  this  date  is  annually 
observed  as  "  Dominion  Day."  The  provisions  of  the 
"  British  North  America  Act,"  as  the  new  constitution 
is  called,  are  embodied  in  the  Appendix,  as  being  too 
important  to  be  treated  in  a  mere  sketch.  Surely,  as 
compared  with  the  former  state  of  disintegration,  every 
Canadian  should  say  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  :  "  Esto 
perpetioa.''^ 


Statue  of  Sir  John  Macdonald  at  Toronto 


400] 


CHAPTER   Xm 

TWO   DECADES   UNDER  CONFEDERATION 

(1867-1887) 

Section  I. — The  Affairs  of  State 

With  the  booming  of  cannon  and  the  beating  of  drums 
the  new  Dominion  was  ushered  in.  Lord  Monck  tjjq 
was  sworn  in  as  Governor-General,  and  his  ad-  Dominion 
visers  were  selected  from  both  parties  through-  organized, 
out  the  different  provinces.     The  British  North  America 
Act  joined  together  in  one  the  two  parties  of  old  Canada 
and  the  two  leading  maritime  provinces.     Titles  of  Com- 
mander of  the  Bath  were  bestowed  by  the  Queen's  direc- 
tion upon  several  members  of  the  new  privy  council  of 
thirteen,  and  the  leader  of    the  Government,  John  A. 

Macdonald,  who  had  already  for  many  years  „    ^     .^ 
1       J         •         -4.4.         A.  '     n       j-i-       Macdonald. 
played  an  important  part  m  Canadian  affairs, 

was  knighted. 

John  Alexander  Macdonald  was  born  in  Sutherland- 
shire,  Scotland,  in  January,  1815,  and  came  with  his 
father  to  Kingston  in  1820.  Educated  in  the  Royal 
Grammar  School,  he  studied  and  began  the  practice  of 
law  in  Kingston,  and  in  1839  gained  prominent  notice  by 
his  defence  of  one  of  the  unfortunate  "  liberators  "  who 
were  disturbing  the  borders  of  Upper  Canada  after  the 
rebellion.  Yoimg  Macdonald  was,  in  the  year  1844, 
elected  as  member  of  Assembly  for  Kingston,  at  a  most 
important  juncture.  Educated  in  the  old  Loyalist  centre 
of  Kingston,  and  now  its  chosen  representative,  Mac- 
donald was,  in  1847,  selected  by  Draper  to  join  the 
weakening  cabinet  as  Receiver- General. 

26  401 


402  A  Short  History   of 

The  characteristic  of  the  young  politician's  mind  was 
that  of  a  singular  fluidity,  and  a  power  to  overcome 
religious,  race,  or  even  party  prejudices,  so  that  in  his 
long  career  he  was  always  found  co-operating  with  those 
who  had  been  rebels  or  annexationists,  radicals  or  ultra- 
pro  testants,  secessionists  or  ultramontanes.  One  of 
his  biographers  said  of  the  veteran  politician,  "  He 
recognizes  the  truth  that  there  is  a  time  to  oppose  and 
a  time  to  accept.  He  will  pursue  one  line  of  policy 
as  long  as  it  is  tenable,  and  abandon  it  ^r  an  opposite 
line  when  it  has  ceased  to  be  practicable." 

He  opposed,  for  example,  in  1849,  the  broadening  of 
the  basis  of  King's  College,  and  was  a  true  son  of  the 
Family  Compact,  yet  he  did  signal  service  to  the  country 
in  1861,  and  to  the  same  university,  when  he  refused  to 
allow  the  enemies  of  the  latter  to  tear  it  greedily  to  pieces. 

The  preservation  of  the  Clergy  Reserves  as  an  endow- 
ment of  religion  had  been  a  favourite  Family  Compact 
principle.  Macdonald  had  advocated  this  heartily,  and 
yet  it  was  the  coalition  ministry  of  which  he  was  a 
member  which  secularized  the  Clergy  Reserves.  In  the 
abolition  of  the  seigniorial  tenure  Macdonald's  action  was 
somewhat  similar. 

The  qualities  which  characterized  this  practical  politi- 
cian were  a  sensitiveness  to  public  opinion,  great  fertility 
of  resource,  a  singular  power  of  ignoring  old  animosities,  a 
strong  love  of  Canada,  and  a  sincere  attachment  for  British 
connection.  He  was  probably  the  best  living  example  of 
Conservatism  as  opposed  to  Toryism.  The  Dominion  with 
its  conflicting  interests,  arising  from  differences  of  com- 
mercial and  industrial  situation,  of  race,  religion,  and 
prejudice,  afforded  unbounded  fleld  for  the  special 
qualities  of  such  a  man  as  Sir  John  Macdonald. 

The  first  flush  of  enthusiasm  for  confederation  was 
soon  over,  and  at  times  it  has  seemed  as  if  conflicting 
interests  would  have  rent  it  asunder.  Discussions  as  to 
who  has  kept  the  confederated  provinces  together,  or 
which  party  has  been  truest  to  the  Dominion,  are  abso- 
lutely profitless. 


THE  Canadian  People  403 

Undoubtedly  the   question  of  provincial  claims  and 
provincial  rights  as  opposed  to  those  of  the  Dominion 
has  been  the  greatest  danger,  and  yet  the  advocates  of 
provincial  demands  have  on  appeal  usually  been  p^  ^    ,  , 
proven  in  the  right.     From  Nova  Scotia  have  Rights, 
come  from  time  to  time  the  greatest  complaints. 
The  absence  of  a  municipal  system  of  the  same  sort  in  Nova 
Scotia  as  in  the  other  provinces  seems  to  have  made  the 
matter  of  adjusting  the  financial  claims  of  the  province 
most  difficult. 

A  rearrangement  in  favour  of  Nova  Scotia  was  made 
in  1869 ;  and  the  acceptance  of  this  by  the  veteran 
Howe,  who  ceased  his  opposition  and  entered  the  cabinet, 
gave  that  aforetime  statesman  the  appearance  of  incon- 
sistency, yet  it  was  well  for  the  peace  of  the  Dominion. 
The  most  notable  representative  under  confederation 
from  the  maritime  provinces  was  a  determined  and 
eloquent  politician,  Sir  Charles  Tupper. 

Charles  Tupper,  the  eldest  son  of  a  prominent  Bap- 
tist clergyman  of  Nova  Scotia,  of  U.E.  Loyalist  _ 
descent,  was  bom  at  Amherst  in  July,  1821. 
He  studied  medicine  and  built  up  a  wide  practice  in  his 
native  town.  Dr.  Tupper,  to  the  surprise  of  every  one, 
defeated  the  great  leader  Howe,  in  1856,  in  the  Nova 
Scotia n  county  of  Cumberland.  He  was  elected,  without 
a  defeat,  well-nigh  a  dozen  times  in  this  county.  He 
has  never  swerved  from  the  principles  of  loyalism,  and 
did  good  service  to  Nova  Scotia  by  introducing  in  the 
Assembly  important  social  measures. 

Having  had  much  to  do  in  bringing  Nova  Scotia  into 
confederation,  he  has  at  times  since  stood  like  a  lone 
tower,  the  only  confederate  representative  at  Ottawa  of 
his  own  province.  Tupper  is  a  man  of  great  determina- 
tion, of  much  volubility  as  a  speaker,  is  a  ready  and  very 
effective  debater,  ^d  though  vehement  in  manner,  is 
yet  a  manly  opponent,  and  a  leader  of  cool  judgment. 
For  several  years  Sir  Charles  Tupper  was  Canadian  resi- 
dent in  England. 

The  difference  in  political  feeling  that  prevailed  during 


404  A  Short  History  of 

the  earlier  career  of  confederation  between  the  great  Pro- 
vince of  Ontario  and  the  Dominion  Govern- 
R?ghts°  nient  gave  rise  to  numerous  appeals  by  the 
Ontario  Government  to  the  Privy  Council 
in  London.  The  Ontario  local  government  was  for 
years  managed  with  singular  ability  by  the  Hon.  Mr. 
Mowat. 

Oliver  Mowat,  of  Scottish  origin,  was  bom  at  Kingston 
Mowat  ^^  1820,  entered  law,  rose  to  the  top  of  his  pro- 

fession, and  for  a  time  sat  upon  the  chancery 
bench.  Mr.  Mowat  entered  political  life  in  1857,  was 
long  in  office,  and  no  breath  of  evil  against  his  character 
has  ever  been  heard.  He  was  a  Christian  statesman  in 
every  sense  of  the  term. 

The  western  boundary  of  Ontario  was  for  many  years 
a  disputed  line  between  that  province  and  the  Dominion, 
but  Ontario  won  the  case  before  the  Privy  Council.  The 
same  successful  result  was  seen  in  the  appeals  as  to  the 
control  of  the  streams  in  provincial  territory,  and  the 
right  of  the  provinces  to  deal  with  liquor  licences.  As 
a  constitutional  lawyer  the  Ontario  premier  had  no 
superior  in  Canada. 

A  fierce  struggle  raged  for  years  in  the  Pacific  pro- 
British  vince,  in  which  British  Columbia  complained 
Columbian  of  a  breach  of  faith  on  the  part  of  the  Dominion, 
Complaint,  g^  fg^j,  ^^g  relates  to  the  completion  of  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway.  Threats  of  secession  were  loudly 
made,  and  much  irritation  existed,  but  the  completion  of 
the  trans-continental  railway  ended  the  conflict. 

A  powerful  movement  in  1884,  1885,  and  1886  sprang 
up  in  Manitoba,  in  which  the  province  claimed 
Claims.*  ^^^  right  to  incorporate  local  railways. 
The  occurrence  of  such  questions  may  be  ex- 
pected to  diminish  as  confederation  grows  older,  and  the 
limits  of  Dominion  and  Provincial  power  are  settled. 
Happy  for  Canada  that  she  has  so  impartial  a  tribunal 
as  the  British  Privy  Council,  rather  than  that  her  questions 
of  dispute  should  be  settled  by  the  demands  of  political 
exigency. 


THE  Canadian  People  405 

British  connection  has  for  Canada  its  responsibilities 
as  well  as  its  advantages.     During  the  American 
Civil  War  a  strong  party  in  England  sym-  tonTreaty. 
pathized  with  the  Southern  Confederacy.     The 
close  commercial  relations  of  Britain  with  the  United 
States  made  it  extremely  difficult  to  pursue  the  straight 
line  of  international  neutrality.     Cruisers  were  fitted  out 
in  English  ports  which  preyed  on   American  merchant- 
ships. 

The  most  celebrated  of  these  were  the  ship  "No.  290," 
better  known  as  the  Alabama^  built  in  Birkenhead  in 
1862,  the  Florida  J  and  the  Shenandoah.  Though  warning 
was  given  to  the  British  Government,  it  could  see  no 
legal  ground  for  the  stoppage  of  the  Alabama.  The 
Confederate  cruiser  sailed  to  the  Azores,  where  she  was 
met  by  a  bark  from  the  Thames  with  guns  and  stores, 
and  by  another  from  the  Mersey,  with  men  and  the  future 
commander  of  the  Alabama — Captain  Semmes.  After 
capturing  many  American  vessels,  the  Akibamu  was  sunk 
in  a  naval  duel  off  Cherbourg  by  the  United  States  ship 
Kearsage,  in  1864. 

The  Fenian  movement,  of  which  we  speak  more  fully, 
created  much  anxiety  in  Canada.  The  large  body  of 
disbanded  Irish  soldiers  at  the  close  of  the  war  was  a 
real  danger  in  cities  of  the  United  States.  Raids  by  these 
Fenian  desperadoes,  from  the  border  cities  of  the  United 
States  as  a  base,  entailed  loss  of  life  and  heavy  military 
expenditure  on  Canadians,  and  thus  arose  one  grievance 
against  the  United  States. 

The  strained  relations  of  the  two  neighbouring  coun- 
tries became  more  critical  on  account  of  the  termination 
of  the  Reciprocity  Treaty  having  reopened  the  question 
of  the  rights  of  American  fishermen  in  Canadian  waters 
while  the  San  Juan  border  difficulty  was  a  cause  of 
irritation.  For  differences  of  opinion  of  a  tithe  of  the 
importance  of  all  these  questions,  European  nations  had 
deluged  Europe  with  blood.  It  was  now  to  be  tested 
whether  the  two  great  Christian  nations  of  the  earth  would 
be  able  to  obey  the  principles  of  the  Gospel  of  peace. 


406  A  Short  History  of 

At  Washington,  on  the  27th  of  February,   1871,  met 

the  Joint  High  Commissioners,  five  on  behalf  of 
Commission.  ^^^  United  States,  men  of  high  legal  standing, 

and  five  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  inclu- 
ding Sir  John  Macdonald,  the  special  guardian  of  Canadian 
interests.  In  less  than  three  months  the  Treaty  of 
Washington  was  signed,  and  within  a  month  after  was 
approved  by  the  American  Congress  and  British  Par- 
liament, while  the  Canadian  Parliament  adopted  the 
Canadian  sections. 
The  Alabama  case  was  referred  to  commissioners  from 

Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Brazil,  who  met  in 
Decision/     Geneva.     The  decision  was  against  Britain,  and 

the  award  of  $15,500,000  of  damages  was  duly 
paid  over  to  the  United  States.  As  to  Canada's  Fenian 
claims  against  the  United  States,  Britain  withdrew  the 
case,  but  agreed  to  guarantee  a  Canadian  loan  of  a  con- 
siderable amount  for  public  works  in  the  Dominion.  The 
San  Juan  boundary  was  referred  to  the  German  Emperor, 
who  gave  the  award  in  favour  of  the  United  States. 

Relaxation  of  customs  restrictions  by  a  "  bonding " 
system,  the  free  use  of  the  fisheries,  and  also  of  certain 
lakes  and  rivers  were  secured  to  each  nation,  and  the 
compensation  due  to  Canada  for  her  fisheries  was  referred 
to  a  joint  commission  afterwards  to  sit.  The  substantial 
fairness  of  the  Treaty  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  in  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Canada,  alike,  loud 
complaints  were  made  against  some  one  or  other  of  its 
decisions. 

The  second  general  election  for  the  Dominion  took 

place  in  1872.  By  it  Sir  John  Macdonald's 
Scanda?.  ^    Ministry    had    been    sustained.      Before     the 

meeting  of  parliament  a  charter  had  been  given 
to  a  company  to  build  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway — ^that 
company  being  the  amalgamation  of  two  rivals,  one  led 
by  Sir  Hugh  Allan  of  Montreal,  the  other  by  Senator 
Macpherson  of  Toronto. 

On  the  assembling  of  parliament,  Mr.  Huntingdon, 
a  Quebec  representative,  rose  in  his  place,  and  charged  the 


THE  Canadian  People  407 

Government  with  having  received  money  from  Sir  Hugh 
Allan  to  corrupt  the  constituencies  during  the  late  elec- 
tions. The  Government  denied  the  charge,  and  the  vote 
of  want  of  confidence  against  them  was  defeated.  The 
Grovernment  appointed  a  committee  of  investigation 
to  act  during  the  recess,  but  the  Oaths  Bill,  giving  powers 
to  this  committee,  was  disallowed  by  the  Imperial 
Government.  The  Government  then  offered  a  Royal 
Commission,  but  Mr.  Huntingdon  and  other  witnesses 
refused  to  accept  it,  as  being  an  infringement  on  the 
rights  of  parliament. 

Soon  appeared  in  the  public  prints  correspondence,  in 
which  charges  were  made  that  American  money  had  been 
given  to  the  Canada  Pacific  Bribery  Fund.  Parliament 
met  on  the  13th  of  August,  1873,  to  receive  the  re- 
port of  the  committee  of  investigation.  The  report,  on 
account  of  the  disallowance  of  the  Oaths  Bill,  was  of  no 
value.  The  ministry  advised  the  adjournment  of  the 
House,  and  the  opposition  clamorously  opposed  it.  The 
cries  of  '*  Privilege  !  privilege !  "  on  the  day  of  prorogation 
might  have  reminded  one  of  the  stormy  scenes  of  the 
Parliament  of  Charles  I.  A  Royal  Commission  was  now 
appointed,  but  Mr.  Huntingdon  refused  to  appear  before 
it  for  the  reasons  already  given. 

On  the  23rd  of  October  parliament  again  assembled  ;  the 
report  of  the  commission  was  ready  ;  the  Ministry  appealed 
pathetically  to  its  followers  ;  the  opposition  moved  a  vote 
of  want  of  confidence  ;  a  fierce  debate  for  a  week  ensued  ; 
but  the  current  of  feeling  was  so  manifestly  running 
counter  to  it  that  the  Government  resigned  before  the 
vote  was  taken.  Thus  passed  away  the  first  Dominion 
Ministry,  and  Mr.  Mackenzie  was  called  upon  to  form  a 
GrOvernment. 

Alexander   Mackenzie   was   bom   in    Perthshire,    Scot- 
land, in  January,  1822.    On  account  of  the  early 
death  of  his  father  young  Mackenzie  became, 
like  the  celebrated  Scottish  geologist,  Hugh  Miller,  to  whom, 
indeed,  Mr.  Mackenzie  had  resemblances,  a  stonemason. 
Mr.  Mackenzie  in  1861  entered  the  parliament  of  Canada 


408  A  Short  History  of 

as  member  for  the  county  of  Lambton,  a  county  bearing 
the  name  of  the  family  of  the  great  Lord  Durham.  It 
was  fitting  Mr.  Mackenzie  should  represent  Lambton. 

In  1871  Mr.  Mackenzie  became  a  member  of  the  Local 
Cabinet  for  Ontario,  but  soon  resigned,  to  devote  himself 
exclusively  to  Dominion  politics.  Mr.  Mackenzie  bears 
an  untarnished  character  in  the  eyes  of  all  Canadians. 
For  accuracy  of  information,  clearness  of  statement,  per- 
sistency of  purpose,  and  unselfish  devotion  to  duty  Mr. 
Mackenzie  has  been  excelled  by  no  Canadian  statesman. 

On  the  fall  of  the  Macdonald  Government,  Mr. 
Mackenzie,  on  the  5th  of  November,  1873,  undertook  the 
task  of  forming  a  new  Ministry.  The  current  ran 
strongly  in  his  favour,  his  Cabinet  was  soon  completed, 
its  members  speedily  re-elected,  and  on  the  Premier  re- 
commending a  dissolution,  on  the  ground  that  the  House 
of  Commons  had  not  been  freely  elected,  parliament 
went  to  the  country,  Mackenzie's  party  swept  the  con- 
stituencies, and  the  new  House  stood  nearly  three  to  one 
in  his  favour.  For  five  eventful  years  the  Mackenzie 
Government  retained  power,  and  the  Dominion  became 
still  further  consolidated. 

Six  years  had  passed  away  from  the  time  of  the  ratifica- 
The  Halifax  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^  Treaty  of  Washington,  and  the  com- 
Fisheries  pensation  for  the  free  use  of  the  Canadian 
Award.  fisheries  had  not  been  taken  into  considera- 
tion. In  the  year  1877  the  Commission  was  at  length 
appointed.  Such  serious  fault  had  been  found  by  Canada 
with  the  action  of  British  Commissioners  in  treaties  in- 
volving Canadian  interests  that  Mr.  Mackenzie  insisted 
that  the  British  Commissioner  should  be  a  Canadian. 
The  American  arbitrator  arrived  at  Halifax,  the  referee 
was  the  Belgian  Minister  at  Washington,  M.  Delfosse, 
while  for  Canada  stood  the  Hon.  Alexander  Gait. 

Alexander  Tilloch  Gait,  born  in  Chelsea,  London,   in 

September,  1817,  was  the  son  of  the  well-known 

*  *  Secretary  of  the  Canada  Company  and  author, 

John  Gait,  to  whom  we  have  already  referred.     In   1835 

young   Gait  came  to   Sherbrookej  Lower  Canada,  in  the 


THE  Canadian  People  409 

employment  of  the  British  America  Land  Company,  a 
combination  of  capitalists  operating  in  the  Eastern  town- 
ships after  the  manner  of  the  Canada  Company  in  Upper 
Canada.  Yomig  Gait  had  become  Chief  Commissioner 
in  1844,  and  five  years  later  entered  parliament. 

Alexander  Gait,  always  noted  for  the  moderation  of  his 
views,  was  in  several  administrations  filling  important 
positions,  was  commissioner  on  smidry  difficult  questions, 
was  knighted,  and  filled  the  position  of  Canadian  resident 
in  London.  In  1877  Gait  was  appointed  Canadian 
delegate  to  the  Halifax  Commission,  and  much  was  ex- 
pected from  his  appointment.  The  case  for  the  Canadians 
was  prepared  with  care,  among  others  the  well-known 
French  Canadian  lawyer,  Joseph  Doutre,  doing  his  share. 

The  amount  claimed  from  the  United  States  was 
$14,800,000  for  the  twelve  years  from  the  date  of  the 
treaty.  Elaborate  arguments,  and  much  oral  and  written 
testimony  at  length  obtained  an  award  for  Canada  of 
$5,500,000.  Great  rejoicing  took  place  throughout  Canada, 
the  American  newspapers  made  loud  outcry,  but  in  the 
end  the  amount  was  paid. 

Restrictions   on   trade   are   condemned   by   the   whole 
school  of  modem  economists  founded  by  Adam  ^he 
Smith.     The  long  struggle  over  the  Com  Laws  National 
led  to  the  British  people  of  all  political  creeds  ^^^^^V' 
becoming  the  advocates  of  Free  Trade.     "  Buy  at  the 
cheapest  market,  and  sell  at  the  dearest,"  irrespective  of 
national  boundary-lines,  national  prejudice,  or  physical 
barriers,  is  the  dictum  of  the  political  economist.     Of  up- 
ward of  eighty  works  on  political  economy  in  the  British 
Museum  Library,  the  majority,  it  is   said,    advocate  a 
restrictive  or  protectionist  policy. 

The  United  States,  however,  had  for  a  number  of  years 
maintained  a  high  protective  tariff.  This,  it  had  been 
argued,  is  necessary  to  develop  the  resources  of  a  new 
country.  However  plainly  it  may  be  demonstrated  that 
the  advantage  of  the  protected  classes  of  manufacturers 
must  be  obtained  at  the  expense  of  the  agriculturists  and 
others  who  are  not  protected,  yet  many  countries  in  the 


410  A  Short  History  of 

world  seem  willing,  for  the  sake  of  developing  various 
kinds  of  trade  and  cultivating  national  sentiment,  to 
adopt  a  system  of  protection  of  certain  industries. 

In  Canada,  the  cycle  of  depression  occurring  in  the 
business  world  had  come  during  the  rule  of  the  Mackenzie 
Ministry.  There  was  an  annual  deficit  in  revenue.  It 
was  maintained  that  a  higher  customs  tariff  was  needed 
for  revenue  purposes,  and  that  by  wisely  adjusting  this 
an  "  incidental  protection "  might  be  given  to  certain 
struggling  industries. 

Sir  John  Macdonald  made  this  the  battle-cry  of  his 
following,  and  called  it  the  "National  Policy."  Mr. 
Mackenzie,  in  his  unwillingness  to  increase  the  tariff,  was 
called  a  "  doctrinaire."  It  was  pointed  out  as  long  ago 
as  the  time  of  Sallust,  who  described  the  conspiracy 
of  Catiline,  that  commercial  or  industrial  distress  is  the 
fitting  time  for  revolution. 

Accordingly,  in  the  general  election  of  1878,  certain 
administrative  blunders  of  Mr.  Mackenzie,  the  earnest 
advocacy  of  the  new  national  policy,  but  chiefly  the  desire 
for  change  arising  from  business  stagnation,  resulted  in 
the  transference  of  a  large  manufacturing  and  industrial 
vote  to  the  support  of  Sir  John  Macdonald's  "  National 
Policy,"  by  which  Mr.  Mackenzie  was  heavily  defeated. 
Sir  John  retm-ned  to  power,  and  his  ministry  was  again 
in  1882  sustained  by  a  large  majority. 


Section  II. — The  acquisition  of  the  Great  North- West 

Canada  had  thrown  longing  eyes  for  many  years  upon 
the  fertile  portions  of  the  fur-traders'  land.  The  licence 
granted  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  to  trade  in  the 
Indian  territories  was  to  have  expired  in  1859.  The  Im- 
perial Parliament  appointed  a  select  committee  to  inquire 
into  the  affairs  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  in  1857. 
The  results  of  the  work  of  that  committee  are  a  folio 
volume  of  500  pages.  The  Canadian  Government,  ap- 
prized of  the  action  of  the  British  Parliament  by  the 


THE  Canadian  People  411 

Imperial  Secretary  of  State,  appointed  as  their  Commis- 
sioner to  Britain,  Chief  Justice  Draper. 

William  Henry  Draper,  the  son  of  a  Chm'ch  of  Eng- 
land clergyman,  was  born  in  London,  England,  Draper 
in  March,  1801.  Arriving  in  Canada  in  his 
twentieth  year,  he  became  a  schoolmaster,  and  afterwards, 
having  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1828. 
Sir  Francis  Bond  Head  selected  the  young  lawyer  as 
one  of  his  Executive  Council  in  1836,  and  he  also  entered 
the  Legislative  Assembly.  A  kindly  but  decided  follower 
of  the  Family  Compact,  Draper's  refined  and  gentlemanly 
manner  made  him  far  less  objectionable  to  the  people 
than  many  of  his  colleagues,  but  he  became  Lord  Met- 
calfe's chief  instrimaent,  as  premier,  in  the  struggle  against 
responsible  government.  Accepting  a  judgeship  in  1847, 
Draper  became  the  judicious  and  highly  respected  Chief 
Justice  of  Common  Pleas  in  1866. 

The  Chief  Justice  appeared,  as  we  have  said,  before 
the  Committee  of  the  Imperial  Parliament,  and  made 
the  claim,  based  on  the  old  French  occupation,  that 
Canadian  survey  and  settlement  should  be  permitted 
even  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  This  claim  was  enforced 
by  such  considerations  as  that  American  encroachment 
from  Minnesota  would  be  dangerous  to  British  interests 
if  the  coimtry  should  be  permitted  to  remain  unsettled ; 
that  young  Canadians  from  Glengarry  and  others  of  the 
older  settlers  were  seeking  new  homes  in  the  western 
states  and  were  thus  lost  to  Canada,  and  that  the  people 
of  Red  River  settlement,  who  had  reached  the  number 
of  7,000,  should  have  better  government. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  was  cautious  in  its  op- 
position, but  was  nevertheless  imfavourable  to  Canada's 
pretension.  The  argmnent  was  brought  forth  in  the 
company's  favour  that  the  country  was  not  well  suited 
for  agriculture,  was  difficult  to  visit,  and  it  was  said  that 
should  settlers  go  to  the  North- West  to  farm  they  would 
interfere  with  the  fur-trade  of  the  company,  for  it  was 
declared,  that  as  the  early  Jesuits  had  advanced  their 
mission-stations  because  their  "  Christianity  w£is  beaver," 


412  A  Short  History  of 

so  that  with  the  settlers  who  should  go  thither,  their 
"farming  would  be  beaver."  Chief  Justice  Draper 
largely  advanced  Canada's  contention  by  his  visit,  though 
it  took  some  ten  years  for  his  efforts  to  bear  fruit. 

A  most  important  and  successful  exploring  expedition 
took  place  in  the  year  1858,  under  Professor  Hind,  by 
which,  in  behalf  of  Canada,  almost  the  whole  of  the  fertile 
portion  of  the  North- West  was  traversed.  Hind's  report, 
published  in  quarto  form  by  the  Canadian  Government, 
has  proved  remarkably  trustworthy. 

Perhaps  the  origin  of  the  movement  for  acquiring 
McDoueall  ^^^  great  North- West  should  be  traced  back 
to  one  whose  name  has  since  been  much 
identified  with  the  Canadian  claim.  This  is  the  Hon. 
Mr.  McDougall.  William  McDougall  was  born  in  York, 
Upper  Canada,  in  1822,  and  of  U.E.  Loyalist  descent. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1847,  and  three  years 
later  established  the  North  American,  a  radical  newspaper, 
in  Toronto.  This  paper  was  afterwards  merged  in  the 
Toronto  Globe,  and  Mr.  McDougall  became  a  member 
of  the  joint  editorial  staff.  The  radical  editor  was 
elected  in  1858  a  member  of  the  Assembly  for  Oxford. 

In  the  columns  of  the  North  American,  so  early  as 
1856,  Mr.  McDougall  had  advocated  the  acquisition  of 
the  North- West  territories  by  Canada.  At  that  time 
many  Canadians  opposed  McDougall's  views.  Canadian 
newspapers  maintained  that  in  the  North- West  the  soil 
never  thawed  out  in  summer,  and  that  the  potato  or 
cabbage  would  not  mature.  With  William  McDougall 
it  became  a  passion,  as  has  been  said,  "  how  to  break 
up  the  Hudson's  Bay  monopoly ;  how  to  throw  these 
fertile  lands  open  for  settlement ;  how  to  acquire  them 
for  Canada." 

For  several  years  after  Chief  Justice  Draper's  return, 
the  political  difficulties  of  Canada  prevented  further 
action  being  taken,  though  it  is  true  that  the  delegates 
in  England  in  connection  with  Confederation  raised  the 
question  again  as  to  Hudson's  Bay  Company  rights.  In 
the  first  Dominion  parliament  in  1867,  Mr.  McDougall 


THE  Canadian  People  413 

returned  to  his  "  hobby,"  and  moved,  that  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  British  North  America  Act, 
steps  be  taken  to  bring  Rupert's  Land  into  the  Dominion  ; 
and  an  address  to  this  effect  to  the  Queen  was  adopted. 

McDougall  and  Sir  Greorge  Cartier  were,  in  1868, 
appointed  a  deputation  to  visit  England  in  connection 
with  the  cession  of  the  North- West.  It  has  now  been 
generally  agreed,  that  though  Canada  might  have  suc- 
ceeded after  lengthened  litigation  in  establishing  a  right 
to  the  territory  as  far  as  the  Rocky  Mountains,  yet  that 
to  obtain  by  purchase  the  relinquishment  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  claim  was  the  easier  course. 

The  deputation  on  their  visit  found  that  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,  however,  were  not  to  be  satisfied  with  a 
moderate  compensation,  and  McDougall  and  Cartier 
were  about  returning  home  discouraged.  At  this  juncture, 
it  is  said,  Mr.  Gladstone  brought  pressure  to  bear  upon 
the  Fur  Company,  and  it  was  agreed  that  for  a  payment 
of  £300,000,  the  retention  of  one-twentieth  of  the  terri- 
tory, and  the  possession  of  certain  lands  about  their 
trading-posts,  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  would  surrender 
all  general  claim  to  the  country. 

The  necessary  legislation  having  taken  place,  the 
time  of  transfer  in  1869  was  fixed,  and  the  preparations 
made  for  the  organization  of  the  North- West  territories 
and  their  government  meanwhile  by  a  Governor  and 
Council.  We  shall  tell  elsewhere  of  the  resistance  to 
Canadian  authority  by  the  misguided  natives  of  Red 
River,  and  the  postponement  of  the  expected  transfer. 
Suffice  it  now  to  say,  that  even  before  the  suppression  of 
the  rebellion  an  Act  was  assented  to  in  the  Dominion 
parliament,  on  May  12th,  1870,  erecting  the  settlements 
on  the  Red  and  Assiniboine  rivers  and  certain  adjoining 
territory  into  the  province  of  Manitoba. 

Twelve  thousand  people,  all  told,  made  up  the  popu- 
lation of  the  new  province,  to  which  was  given  an  As- 
sembly of  twenty-four  members — half  French  and  half 
English — and  the  travesty  of  an  Upper  House  of  seven 
members.     In  a  few  years,  however,  by  the  influx  of  new 


414  A  Short  History  of 

settlers,  the  proportion  of  members  was  changed,  and  the 
English-speaking  representatives  in  1887  constituted 
nearly  five-sixths  of  the  House.  In  a  short  time  the 
Legislative  Council  was  abolished. 

The  first  duty  of  the  Dominion  was  plainly  to  open 
the  country  to  settlers.  Surveyors  were  sent  in  swarms 
throughout  the  prairies,  and  large  areas  were  surveyed 
and  mapped  out. 

Companies  of  British  and  United  States  engineers, 
under  Captain  Cameron  and  Mr.  Archibald 
Sumyt'^  Campbell,  representing  the  two  nations,  met  on 
the  boundary-line  in  1872,  and  in  the  two 
years  succeeding  not  only  fixed  the  boundary-line  at 
Pembina,  where  Major  Long  had  taken  his  observation, 
but  surveyed  the  whole  parallel,  one  of  the  largest  mea- 
sured arcs  on  the  earth's  surface,  from  the  Lake  of  the 
Woods  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  some  850  miles. 

The  North- West  had  no  sooner  been  transferred  to 
Canada  than  the  flow  of  settlers  to  it  began.  Many  of 
the  volunteer  troops,  on  their  release,  remained  in  the 
coiuitry.  Parties  of  Ontario  farmers  travelled  by  rail 
through  the  United  States  to  the  railway  terminus  in 
Minnesota,  and  thence  by  prairie  trail  for  three  or  four 
hundred  miles  drove  their  covered  emigrant-waggons  to 
Manitoba.  The  Dominion  Government,  which  by  the 
Manitoba  Act  retains  the  land,  gave  it  freely  to  those 
settlers  who  would  make  homesteads  upon  it.  Each 
settler  on  accepting  the  conditions,  might  receive  160 
acres,  which  was  called  a  "  free  grant,"  and  as  much 
more  for  purchase  at  a  low  rate,  which  was  known  as  a 
"  pre-emption  claim." 

Immigration  from  the  old  world  was  freely  invited. 
Though  by  far  the  largest  proportion  of  settlers  was 
from  the  older  provinces  of  the  Dominion,  and  in  these 
the  Ontario  counties  of  Bruce,  Huron,  and  Lanark 
took  precedence,  yet  from  Europe  many  different  ele- 
ments came.  A  large  body  of  Mennonites  from  Russia 
arrived  in  1874,  numbering  some  five  or  six  thousand. 
They  are  Grermans,  who  had  formerly  removed  to  Russia, 


THE  Canadian  People  416 

in  order  to  practise  their  peace  priaciples,  which  are  the 
same  as  those  of  the  Quakers,  while  their  religious  system 
leads  to  a  species  of  communism.  They  are  well-doing 
and  useful  settlers. 

In  1875  came  to  Manitoba  a  number  of  Icelanders. 
These  are  an  industrious  and  peaceable  people  ;  they  are 
Lutherans  in  religion,  and  have  in  Winnipeg  a  respect- 
able newspaper  printed  in  their  own  language.  They 
number  in  the  province  many  thousands  of  souls,  and 
are  constantly  arriving  from  the  old  island  of  the 
Sagas. 

Of  the  many  prominent  persons  who  have  visited  the 
North- West  and  given  forth  its  praises  to  the 
world,  none  are  better  known  than  the  Earl  of  ouflerin. 
Dufferin,  the  Governor-General  of  Canada,  who 
visited    the    North- West    in    1877.     This   distinguished 
nobleman,  an  Irishman  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford, 
had  been  engaged  in  several  Grovemment  capacities  in 
Britain,  and  had  been  a  special  commissioner  to  Syria. 
He  had  also  visited  the  lonely  island  of  Iceland,  and  had 
written  a  most  pleasant  work  entitled   "  Letters  from 
High  Latitudes." 

Coming  at  the  age  of  fifty-one  to  Canada,  he  speedily 
won  the  hearts  of  the  people,  and  threw  himself  heartily 
into  the  young  life  of  the  country.  In  nothing  did  he 
take  a  greater  interest  than  the  settlement  and  develop- 
ment of  the  North- West.  On  the  occasion  of  his  progress 
through  Manitoba,  with  his  amiable  coimtess.  Lord 
Dufferin  visited  Lake  of  the  Woods,  the  Winnipeg  River, 
Winnipeg  Lake,  and  there  his  old  friends  the  Icelanders, 
the  Canadians  and  Mennonites  on  the  prairies,  and  left 
most  pleasant  memories,  which  led  Manitobans  to  follow 
his  course  in  Constantinople,  St.  Petersburg,  and  India, 
as  her  Majesty's  representative,  with  peculiar  interest. 

This  widening  of  knowledge  of  the  North- West  was 
followed  by  the  arrival  of  a  contingent  of  Jewish  refugees 
from  Poland  in  the  year  1882.  A  number  of  crofters, 
assisted  by  benevolent  friends  in  the  western  Highlands, 
have  also  found  their  way  to  the  prairie-land,  and  are 


416  A  Short  History  of 

excellent    settlers.     Hungarian,    Swedish,    and    German 
colonies  also  took  root. 

Efforts  have  been  made  to  attract  a  portion  of  the 
large  number  of  French  Canadians,  who  have  gone  to  the 
manufactories  of  the  eastern  States  in  tens  of  thousands, 
from  Quebec  to  the  vacant  lands  of  Manitoba,  and  this 
repatriation  movement  has  been  rewarded  by  the  settle- 
ment of  several  thousands  of  these.  The  immigration 
from  Ontario,  Nova  Scotia,  and  England  was  the  largest 
in  Manitoba  up  to  1887.  Not  including  Indians,  we 
may  state  that  the  12,000  people  of  1871  had  become 
tenfold  more  in  Manitoba  in  1886,  and  the  few  hundreds 
in  the  North- West  territories  at  the  former  date  had 
reached  upwards  of  20,000. 

Section  III. — A  National  Highway 

The  joining  of  the  several  British  provinces  in  North 
The  Inter-  America  by  a  common  line  of  railway  has  always 
colonial  been  relied  on  as  a  means  of  promoting  their 
Railway.  substantial  unity.  Lord  Durham  boldly  pro- 
claimed the  plan  in  his  Report  of  thus  overcoming  the 
barriers  of  division  which  nature  had  interposed.  To  the 
large-minded  Nova  Scotian,  Joseph  Howe,  seems  to  be 
due  the  revival  of  a  scheme  of  uniting  the  provinces  by 
rail.  Before  1850  the  three  provinces  of  Nova  Scotia, 
Canada,  and  New  Brunswick  agreed  to  support  the 
building  of  the  Intercolonial  Railway  from  Halifax  to 
Quebec  or  Montreal,  and  to  contribute  each  £20,000  a 
year  towards  its  maintenance  should  Britain  build  it. 

This  plan  failed,  and  then  it  was  proposed  to  raise 
money  for  its  construction  by  imposing  a  duty  on  timber. 
A  survey  of  the  route  was  completed,  and  Howe  visited 
England  to  obtain  Imperial  assistance  for  the  line. 
Howe  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Chandler  of  New  Brunswick 
came  to  Toronto,  having  secured  Lord  Grey's  promise  of 
support  while  in  Britain.  They  represented  the  British 
Government  as  willing  to  guarantee  a  loan  of  £7,000,000 
to  build  the  railway  from  Halifax  to  Quebec,  and  also  a 


THE  Canadian  People  417 

line  from  St.  John,  New  Brunswick,  westward,  to  the 
state  of  Maine,  to  connect  with  the  American  system  of 
railways.  The  Government  of  Canada  in  1851  agreed  to 
engage  in  the  enterprise. 

Suddenly  a  shadow  fell  upon  the  project.  The  British 
minister  denied  that  he  had  promised  to  Howe  that 
Britain  would  assist  the  line  connecting  with  the  Ameri- 
can railways,  and  stated  that  the  Imperial  guarantee 
could  only  be  given  "  to  objects  of  great  importance  to 
the  British  Empire  as  a  whole."  This  cloud  led  New 
Brunswick  at  once  to  repudiate  the  whole  plan,  as  it  was 
the  connection  with  the  American  system  which  was  of 
greatest  importance  to  her. 

Another  difficulty  also  was  that  Nova  Scotia  desired 
the  line  through  New  Brunswick,  running  along  the  sea- 
coast  and  touching  at  the  gulf  ports,  usually  known  as 
Major  Robinson's  line,  to  be  adopted  ;  while  New  Bruns- 
wick preferred  the  route  by  the  valley  of  the  St.  John 
River  northward.  Britain  favoured  the  sea-coast  line  as 
being  more  removed  from  the  American  frontier.  Though 
many  difficulties  now  threatened  the  scheme,  Canada  and 
New  Brunswick  having  entered  on  it  were  not  disposed 
to  give  it  up. 

Nova  Scotia,  formerly  the  leader  in  the  movement, 
grew  unwilling  .to  proceed  further.  Originally  the  plan 
had  been  for  each  of  the  three  provinces  to  assume  one- 
third  of  the  cost,  but  now,  on  condition  of  the  River  St. 
John  route  being  chosen.  New  Brunswick  offered  to  bear 
five-twelfths  of  the  expense  and  to  allow  Nova  Scotia 
to  pay  only  one-quarter  of  the  whole. 

Canadian  delegates  visited  Nova  Scotia  in  connection 
with  the  scheme  in  1852,  but  that  province  being  unwill- 
ing, and  a  new  Ministry  having  come  into  power  in 
England,  whose  members  were  unfavourable  to  the 
scheme,  the  Canadian  Prime  Minister  Hincks  gave  up 
the  enterprise,  but  the  circumstances  in  England  being 
very  propitious,  succeeded  in  floating  his  great  scheme 
of  a  Grand  Trunk  Railway,  to  run  through  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada  from  end  to  end. 

27 


418  A  Short  History  op 

The  Intercolonial  scheme  was  revived  in  1862,  and  new 
negotiations  were  opened  between  the  provinces  inte- 
rested and  the  mother  country.  The  difficulty  of  moving 
troops  inland  in  winter,  as  shown  by  the  Trent  affair, 
created  new  interest.  The  delegates  to  England  in  con- 
nection with  the  Confederation  movement  obtained  the 
promise  of  an  Imperial  guarantee  for  the  building  of  the 
Intercolonial  Railway,  and  the  amount  was  fixed  in  1867 
as  £3,000,000,  the  military  or  sea-coast  line  being  that 
selected. 

In  the  first  Dominion  parliament  (1867-8),  an  Act  was 
passed  providing  for  the  construction  of  the  line  so  long 
projected.  The  work  was  begun  in  due  course,  and  run- 
ning down  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  crossing  the 
wilderness  of  the  Gaspe  peninsula,  following  the  old 
military  waggon-road  along  the  Metapedia,  down  the  north 
shore  of  New  Brunswick,  and  forking  out  to  end  in  St. 
John,  New  Brunswick,  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  and  in 
old  Chebucto  Bay  at  Halifax  on  the  Atlantic  as  its  ter- 
minus, the  iron  band  uniting  the  provinces  by  the  sea 
with  those  in  the  interior,  was  completed  and  opened  for 
traffic  in  1876.  The  Intercolonial  Railway  is  840  miles 
long,  its  deep  rock  cuts  at  first  protected  by  snow-sheds, 
and  throughout  its  entire  length  it  is  a  credit  to  the 
mechanical  skill  of  Canadian  engineering. 

Probably  no  people  has  ever  entered  upon  such  heavy 
The  Cana-  responsibilities  in  order  to  build  up  a  nation  as 
dian  Pacinc  the  Canadian  people.  The  building  of  canals, 
Railway.  ^f  local  railways,  and  of  an  Intercolonial  rail- 
way, appealed  in  each  case  to  the  self-interest  of  the 
provinces  concerned.  It  was  to  develop  their  trade  in 
the  face  of  the  hostile  policy  of  the  United  States  ;  but 
the  project  of  a  transcontinental  railway,  a  part  of  it  to 
pass  over  many  hundreds  of  miles  of  rock  and  mountain, 
might  well  have  deterred  a  more  numerous  and  wealthy 
people  than  the  Canadians. 

The  acquisition  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  terri- 
tories in  1870,  and  the  desire  to  make  complete  the  solid 
fabric   of   British-American   imion   by   the   addition   of 


THE  Canadian  People  419 

British  Columbia,  led  to  a  promise  being  made  by  the 
Canadian  Government  to  construct  and  complete  in  ten 
years  the  Inter-oceanic  highway,  thus  linking  together 
the  several  provinces.  The  subject  was  for  years  one  of 
political  difference. 

The  advocates  of  the  speedy  construction  of  a  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway  have  claimed  that  "  patriots  "  was  the 
designation  by  which  they  should  be  known  ;  their  oppo- 
nents constantly  hurled  at  them  the  epithet  of  "  mad- 
men." That  the  people  of  Canada  believed  in  those  who 
claimed  to  act  from  patriotic  and  broad  political  motives 
is  seen  by  their  willingness  to  take  upon  themselves  the 
burden  of  debt,  so  that  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway 
became  an  accomplished  fact.  The  explanation  of  this  is 
that  Confederation  introduced  a  larger  life  ;  the  continued 
rivalry  of  the  United  States  awakened  in  Canadians  the 
desire  to  "  hold  their  own "  ;  the  possession  of  wide 
territorial  interests,  the  sense  of  their  land  bordering  on 
three  oceans,  and  realization  of  the  fact  that  nearly  half 
of  the  continent  is  their  heritage,  might  well  awaken 
dreams  of  national  greatness  in  a  people  less  emotional 
than  Canadians. 

Undoubtedly  the  Mackenzie  Grovemment  fell  because  it 
failed  to  realize  the  swelling  tide  of  rising  Canadian  life, 
and  to  satisfy  the  people's  desire  for  the  unification  of 
the  Dominion.  Perhaps  Canada  may  have  gone  too  fast ; 
perhaps  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  was  a  larger  scheme 
than  she  should  have  undertaken  ;  perhaps  she  should, 
in  her  desire  to  unite  the  provinces,  have  paid  more  heed 
to  the  pessimistic  cry,  "so  loyal  is  too  costly,"  but  she 
was  inflamed  with  the  dream  of  empire,  and  would  brook 
no  delay  in  its  successful  accomplishment. 

Mention  has  been  already  made  of  the  passage  of  the 
Pacific  Railway  Bill  in  the  Dominion  parliament  in  1872, 
empowering  the  Grovernment  to  bargain  with  a  chartered 
company  to  construct  the  railway.  The  "  Pacific  Scandal," 
resulting,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the  return  of  Mr.  Mac- 
kenzie to  power,  led  to  a  less  vigorous  prosecution  of  the 
railway  than  had  been  expected. 


420  A  Short  History  of 

The  Government  sought  to  escape  the  obligation  of 
building  the  railway  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  the  year 
1881,  at  which  time  it  had  been  promised.  Mr.  Mac- 
kenzie proposed  to  open  up  a  mixed  rail  and  water  route 
from  Lake  Superior  to  the  prairie  region  by  using  the 
"  water  stretches "  over  which  the  fur-traders  had 
formerly  journeyed,  and  likewise  for  immediate  relief  to 
the  North- West  to  build  a  branch  railway  from  the  main 
line  along  the  banks  of  Red  River  to  connect  with  the 
American  railway  system.  The  Government  undertook 
the  construction  of  the  railway  as  a  national  work  instead 
of  giving  it  out  to  a  company,  and  intended  to  build  it 
gradually  in  sections. 

The  branch  line  above  mentioned,  known  as  the  Pem- 
bina branch,  was  placed  under  contract  in  1874,  and, 
though  it  was  graded,  remained  until  the  year  1878 
unused  on  account  of  the  American  line  through  Minne- 
sota not  having  been  completed  to  meet  it.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  the  railway  from  Fort  William  on  Lake 
Superior  to  the  interior  was  begun,  and  the  first  locomo- 
tive engine  was  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kaministiquia 
in  1877,  not  far  from  the  site  of  Duluth's  old  fort,  and  in 
the  same  year  further  contracts  were  awarded  between 
Lake  Superior  and  the  prairie  country. 

The  Mackenzie  Government  was  defeated  in  1878, 
and  on  December  3rd  of  that  year  the  last  spike  was 
driven  of  the  sixty  miles  of  the  Pembina  branch,  thus 
connecting  the  city  of  Winnipeg  with  the  railway  system 
of  the  American  continent — ^the  first  benefit  realized 
in  the  North- West  from  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway. 

The  Macdonald  Government  in  1880  determined  to 
return  to  their  original  policy  of  giving  over  the  railway 
to  a  private  company.  A  "  syndicate  "  of  wealthy  Scot- 
tish Canadians  of  Montreal  undertook  to  build  the  rail- 
way in  its  uncompleted  parts  from  ocean  to  ocean. 

The  new  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  was  to  receive  all 
the  railway  and  material  belonging  to  the  Government, 
along  with  $25,000,000  in  money  and  25,000,000  acres 
of  land ;   while  the  company  guaranteed  to  complete  the 


THE  Canadian  People  421 

work  in  ten  years  from  date.  Great  opposition  was 
manifested  in  parliament  and  also  in  the  country  to  the 
scheme,  doubts  were  thrown  upon  the  ability  and  good 
intention  of  the  company,  but  the  Government  was 
sustained.  The  two  most  prominent  men  of  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway  were  Sir  George  Stephen  and  his 
cousin,  Sir  Donald  Smith. 

The  former  of  these  was  bom  in  Dumfriesshire,  Scot- 
land, came  to  Canada  early,  and  amassed  wealth  as  a 
merchant  in  Montreal;  the  latter  is  a  native  of  Moray- 
shire. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Company  has  been 
managed  with  surprising  ability.  In  the  choice  of 
executive  officers,  in  the  rapid  construction  of  the  sup- 
posed impassable  Lake  Superior  and  Rocky  Mountain 
sections,  in  the  completion  of  the  line  five  years  before 
the  contract  required,  in  the  management  of  a  most  com- 
fortable and  expeditious  railway  through  portions  of  the 
coimtry  hitherto  unvisited  by  the  white  man,  in  the 
acquisition  of  branch  lines  as  feeders,  as  well  as  in  making 
combinations  tending  to  bring  trade  to  Canada,  the 
Pacific  Railway  Directors  have  brought  honour  to  the 
name  Canadian. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Company  had  already,  in 
1887,  captured  the  transport  of  cattle  from  the  American 
ranches  of  Montana,  had  entered  into  competition  for  the 
trade  of  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  with  the  Pacific  coast,  and 
especially  San  Francisco,  in  carrying  tea  and  silk  con- 
signments from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  in 
transporting  thousands  of  European  and  Canadian  im- 
migrants to  the  unoccupied  lands  of  Manitoba  and  the 
North- West  territories,  and  in  developing  the  coal-mines 
of  the  Saskatchewan  and  Bow  rivers,  by  which  a  cheaper 
fuel  can  be  supplied  throughout  the  whole  country  from 
Winnipeg  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  was  in  operation  in  1886 
from  Montreal  to  Vancouver — 2,909  miles,  the  first 
through  train  having  passed  Winnipeg  on  the  1st  of  July, 
Dominion  Day,  1886. 


422  A  Short  History  op 

Thus  by  the  end  of  1887,  the  short  route  through  New 
Brunswick,  which  the  New  Brunswick  people  more  than 
thirty  years  ago  sought  as  the  line  of  the  Intercolonial 
Railway,  was  completed  by  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway, 
and  the  bridge  finished  over  the  St.  Lawrence  near  the 
Lachine  rapids,  so  that  the  distance  from  Vancouver 
on  the  Pacific  to  Halifax  on  the  Atlantic — 3,590  miles — 
was  accomplished  by  ordinary  trains  in  about  two-thirds 
of  the  time  taken  to  cross  the  continent  from  San  Francisco 
to  New  York  by  the  Union  Pacific  Railway. 

Section  IV. — The  growth  of  a  Military  Sentiment 

So  largely  sprung  from  a  military  ancestry,  it  would  have 
been  strange  indeed  if  Canadians  had  not  in  some  cases 
shown  soldierly  tendencies.  The  De  Salaberry  family 
of  French  Canadians  was  well  represented  in  the  British 
army,  and  Col.  de  Salaberry  showed  distinguished  ability 
at  Chateauguay  and  proved  himself  a  descendant  of  the 
race  of  stern  old  soldiers  of  the  Frontenac  and  De  Tracy 
type. 

One  of  the  bravest  officers  of  the  Russo-Turkish  war 
was  the  "  hero  of  Kars,"  General  Williams,  a  Nova 
Scotian,  it  is  said  of  U.E.  Loyalist  descent.  Another 
brave  officer,  from  Nova  Scotia  also,  was  the  Greneral 
Inglis  so  well  known  in  the  trying  scenes  of  the  Indian 
Mutiny,  while  Col.  A.  Dunn,  a  gallant  and  most  promising 
young  officer  from  Toronto,  was  killed  in  Abyssinia. 

During  the  Indian  Mutiny,  when  those  heart-rending 
scenes  of  cruelty  were  being  enacted,  Canada,  like  every 
other  British  colony,  felt  called  upon  to  offer  assistance 
to  the  mother-land.  In  1858  there  was  raised  in  Canada 
the  100th  or  Prince  of  Wales's  Royal  Canadian  Regiment, 
a  British  regiment  of  the  line,  which  marched  out  of 
Canada  1,200  strong. 

But  notwithstanding  these  evidences  of  military  spirit, 
there  was  but  little  in  Canada  as  a  whole.  The  rising 
during  Sir  Francis  Bond  Head's  term  of  office  showed 
that  the  v;ery  rudiments  of  war  had  been  forgotten  by  the 


THE  Canadian  People  423 

Canadian  people.  A  few  British  regiments  remained  in 
Canada,  but  the  "  old  musket  and  pitchfork  volunteers  " 
of  Mackenzie  and  Papineau  were  a  laughing-stock.  The 
war  of  defence  had  developed  much  military  spirit  in  its 
time,  but  for  well-nigh  half  a  century  after  it  no  occa- 
sion for  taking  up  arms,  except  the  Rebellion  episode, 
had  occurred. 

In  the  year  1861,  in  which  the  American  Civil  War 
had  broken  out,  even  Canadian  air  was  surcharged  with 
uncertainty  and  alarm.  In  that  year  two  ambassadors, 
Messrs.  Mason  and  Slidell,  from  the  Confederate  States, 
embarked  at  Havanna,  Cuba,  on  board  the  British  pas- 
senger steamer  Trent^  for  St.  Thomas,  to  proceed  thence 
to  England.  While  passing  through  the  Bahama  chan- 
nel, the  vessel  was  boarded  by  the  United  States  frigate 
San  Jacinto,  and  the  two  southern  gentlemen  were  taken 
from  the  vessel,  after  which  she  was  allowed  to  proceed. 
The  Confederate  ambassadors,  carried  to  Boston,  were 
regarded  as  a  great  prize. 

The  Americans  for  a  time  maintained  them  to  be  con- 
traband, and  that,  as  such,  a  neutral  vessel  had  no  right 
to  carry  them.  The  British  Government  demanded  their 
immediate  release,  and  though  it  was  clear  that  even  belli- 
gerents on  board  a  neutral  vessel  as  passengers  must  be 
protected  by  the  ship's  neutrality,  yet  American  orators, 
and  notably  Mr.  Secretary  Seward,  were  quite  forgetful 
of  the  American  clamour  as  to  the  "right  of  search" 
early  in  the  century,  and  put  forth  absurd  pretensions. 

For  a  time  war  seemed  imminent.  The  prospect  of 
attack  roused  Canadian  patriotism.  Companies  were 
enrolled  in  every  considerable  village,  the  towns  em- 
bodied whole  regiments,  and  cities  several  battalions 
each.  Militia  acts  had  been  passed  in  1855,  but  they 
had  been  largely  a  dead  letter.  A  remarkable  change 
soon  came  over  the  country.  Formerly,  on  the  Queen's 
birthday.  May  24th,  the  militia  at  certain  points  gathered 
together,  the  rolls  were  called  by  rustic  "  trainband  cap- 
tains," and  the  men  were  then  dismissed  for  another 
year.     In  other  years  whole  counties  had  been  unable  to 


424  A  Short  History  of 

find  a  man  who  could  form  a  company  in  line,  now  the 
drill-sergeant,  obtained  from  the  regulars,  was  every- 
where teaching  the  warlike  art. 

Additional  British  regiments  were  sent  out ;  the 
wilderness  journey  between  New  Brunswick  and  Quebec 
was  made  by  troops  in  sleighs.  The  volunteers  orga- 
nized all  over  the  country,  and  enlisted  for  three  years, 
were  termed  the  Active  Militia,  which  distinguished 
them  from  the  Sedentary  Militia,  consisting  of  all  men 
under  sixty,  unless  specially  exempt.  From  this  time 
forth  Canada  possessed  a  well-armed  and  uniformed 
citizen  soldiery.  The  Trent  excitement  passed  away,  but 
the  military  spirit  continued. 

The  close  of  the  American  war  in  1865  set  free  a  large 
The  Fenians  ^^^Y  ^^  discharged  soldiers.  Unwilling  to 
'  work,  many  of  them,  of  Irish  extraction,  and 
filled  with  no  good  feeling  to  Britain,  organized  an 
anti-British  and  anti-Canadian  movement,  called  the 
Fenian  Brotherhood.  Their  plan  was  to  capture  Canada 
as  a  base  of  operations  against  Ireland.  Open  drilling 
in  several  cities  in  the  United  States  took  place,  and  the 
leaders  regarded  their  prey  as  so  sure  that  they  divided 
up  among  themselves,  in  anticipation,  some  of  the  most 
desirable  residences  in  Montreal. 

Canadian  volunteers  were  under  arms  all  day  on  the 
17th  of  March,  1866,  expecting  a  Fenian  invasion,  but  it 
was  not  made  ;  in  April  an  insignificant  attack  was  made 
upon  New  Brunswick.  About  900  men,  under  Col. 
O'Neil,  crossed  from  Buffalo  to  Fort  Erie  on  the  night  of 
the  31st  of  May.  Moving  westward  this  body  aimed  at  de- 
stroying the  Welland  Canal,  when  they  were  met  by  the 
Queen's  Own  Volunteer  Regiment  of  Toronto,  and  the 
13th  Battalion  of  Hamilton  Militia,  near  the  village  of 
Ridgeway.  Here,  after  a  conflict  of  two  hours,  in  which 
for  a  time  the  volunteers  drove  the  enemy  before  them, 
the  Canadian  forces  retired  to  Ridgeway,  and  thence  to 
Port  Colbome,  with  a  loss  of  nine  killed  and  thirty 
wounded.  Col.  Peacock,  in  charge  of  a  body  of  regulars, 
was  marching  to  meet  the  volunteers,   so  that   O'Neil 


THE  Canadian  People  425 

was  compelled  to  flee  to  Fort  Erie,  and  crossing  to  the 
United  States  with  his  men,  was  arrested,  but  afterwards 
liberated.  The  day  after  the  skirmish  the  regulars  and 
volunteers  encamped  at  Fort  Erie,  and  the  danger  on 
the  Niagara  frontier  was  past. 

A  Fenian  expedition  threatened  Prescott,  aiming  at 
reaching  the  capital  at  Ottawa,  and  another  band  of 
marauders  crossed  the  border  from  St.  Albans,  Vermont, 
but  both  were  easily  driven  back.  The  Fenian  troubles 
roused  strong  feeling  in  Canada  against  the  American 
authorities,  who  sought  to  relieve  themselves  from  the 
charge  of  assisting  the  Fenians  by  the  paltry  excuse  that 
the  Federal  Government  could  not  interfere  in  the  indi- 
vidual states. 

A  Fenian  attack  was  led  by  Col.  0*Neil  on  the  Lower 
Canadian  frontier,  in  1870,  but  it  was  easily  met,  and  the 
United  States  authorities  were  moved  to  arrest  the  re- 
pulsed fugitives. 

A  foolish  movement  was  again  made  in  1871  by  the 
same  leader,  through  Minnesota,  against  Manitoba. 
Through  the  prompt  action  of  the  friendly  American 
commander  at  Fort  Pembina,  the  United  States  troops 
followed  the  Fenians  across  the  border,  arrested  their 
leader,  and  though  he  was  liberated  after  a  trial  at  St. 
Paul,  Minnesota,  the  expedition  ended  as  a  miserable  and 
laughable  failure.  These  movements  of  the  Fenian  So- 
ciety, though  trifling  in  effect,  yet  involved  Canada  in  a 
considerable  expense  from  the  maintenance  of  bodies  of 
the  Active  Militia  at  different  points  along  the  frontier. 
The  training  of  a  useful  force  of  citizen  soldiery  however 
resulted. 

The  transfer  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  territories 
to  Canada  was  greatly  mismanaged.   Before  the  The  Red 
country  had  been  handed  over  Canadian  survey-  River 
ing  and  working  parties  had  been  sent  into  it  to  Rebellion, 
lay  it  out,  and  complete  the  "  Dawson  Road  "  from  Lake 
of  the  Woods  to  Red  River.     These  parties  had  expressed 
contempt  for  the  natives,  who  had  Indian  blood  in  their 
veins,  and  who  were  not  being  considered  in  the  matter 


426  A  Short  History  of 

of  the  transfer.  The  French  Metis  especially  were  in  a 
disturbed  state,  and  were  led  by  a  rash  and  vainglorious 
young  man,  named  Louis  Riel.  He  was  the  son  of  a  fiery 
French  Canadian  miller,  who  lived  on  the  small  river,  the 
Seine,  which  empties  into  Red  River,  below  Fort  Garry. 
Louis  Riel,  the  younger,  was  a  French  half-breed,  and 
had  been  partially  educated  for  a  priest  in  Montreal. 

On  the  arrival  on  the  boundary-line  at  Pembina  of 
William  McDougall,  who  on  account  of  his  long  agitation 
on  behalf  of  the  North- West  was  named  as  its  first  Gover- 
nor, he  found  himself  opposed  by  the  Metis,  who  had 
risen  in  rebellion. 

Buried  in  the  wilds  of  Minnesota,  400  miles  north  of 
St.  Paul,  warned  against  entering  the  new  district  for 
which  he  had  laboured,  McDougall  issued  his  proclama- 
tion as  Governor,  ordering  the  rebels  to  lay  down  their 
arms.  The  proclamation  was  a  "  brutum  fulmen,"  for  the 
Red  River  people  soon  heard  of  its  being  valueless,  from 
the  territory  not  having  been  transferred.  The  few 
Canadians  in  the  country,  and  the  English-speaking 
natives,  were  anxious  to  receive  the  soi-disant  governor, 
but  Riel,  who  had  seized  Fort  Garry,  and  formed  a  pro- 
visional government,  refused. 

"  M.  le  President  Riel,"  as  the  upstart  desired  to  be 
called,  arrested  a  band  of  Canadians,  and  imprisoned  them 
at  Fort  Garry,  treating  them  in  a  contemptuous  and  in- 
human manner.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to  execute  a 
young  Canadian  named  Scott,  who  had  been  somewhat 
unyielding  and  independent.  The  news  of  the  shooting  of 
Scott,  on  its  arrival  in  Canada,  roused  a  wild  feeling,  and 
the  cry  for  vengeance  was  loudly  heard.  Thousands  of 
volunteers  offered  their  services,  of  whom  some  700  were 
accepted  as  sufficient,  and  with  them  500  regulars  made 
up  the  Red  River  Expeditionary  Force,  which  was  com- 
manded by  Colonel  Wolseley. 

After  a  long  and  toilsome  journey  up  Lake  Superior, 
and  by  the  old  fur-traders'  route,  after  passing  500  miles 
of  rapid  and  portage,  and  lake  and  stream,  the  little  army 
reached  Fort  Garry  on  the  24th  of  August,  1870,  to  find  the 


THB  Canadian  People  427 

rebel  leader  fled,  and  the  rebellion  at  an  end.  The  skill 
of  the  Canadian  voyageur  soldiers,  witnessed  at  this  time, 
led  General  Wolseley,  in  1884,  in  the  British  Expedi- 
tion to  Egypt,  to  send  to  Canada  for  an  agile  force  to 
work  his  boats  in  the  toilsome  journey  up  the  Nile. 

The  Canadian  Grovemment  had  sent  by  Bishop  Tache, 
from  Ottawa,  the  promise  of  an  anmesty,  but  the  murder 
of  Scott  having  taken  place  before  the  delegate  could 
reach  the  country  to  promulgate  the  pardon,  the  au- 
thorities maintained  that  circumstances  had  changed, 
and  refused  to  recognize  Riel  as  entitled  to  the  amnesty. 
Accordingly  the  besotted  leader  was  induced  to  leave  the 
country,  and  passed  five  years  of  exile  in  the  United 
States.  His  "  Adjutant-general,"  Lepine,  was  afterwards 
tried,  found  guilty,  and  for  a  time  imprisoned. 

The  Red  River  rebellion  grew  out  of  a  series  of  blunders. 
The  Canadian  Government  should  have  taken  steps  to 
conciliate  the  people  of  Red  River  before  taking  pos- 
session of  the  country.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
officials  in  Fort  Garry  were  singularly  inert,  the  pseudo- 
proclamation  of  Grovemor  McDougall  was  a  great  mistake, 
and  the  crowning  blimder  of  Riel,  in  advocating  the  case 
of  his  compatriots,  was  the  murder  of  Scott.  The  military 
enthusiasm  awakened,  however,  throughout  Canada  was 
notable,  and  nimibers  of  the  volunteers  of  the  expedi- 
tion remained  in  Manitoba  to  be  among  its  truest  citizens. 

The  enormous  influx  of  settlers  to  the  North- West  had 
led  Canada  to  believe  that  the  French  half-  The  sas- 
breed  population  was  powerless.     Many  of  the  katchewan 
Metis  had,  after  the  suppression  of  the  Red  Rebellion. 
River  rebellion,  gone  west  to  settle  on  the  Saskatchewan. 
In  the  remote  settlements,  no  doubt,  due  attention  was  not 
given  to  the  difficulties  and  grievances  of  these  scattered 
settlers  by  the  Canadian  Government.     The  settlers  on 
the  Saskatchewan  River,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Prince 
Albert  and  Batoche,  were  ill  at  ease.     The  Indian  popu- 
lation, too,  on  account  of  the  destruction  of  the  buffalo, 
and  the  encroachment  of  the  whites,  were  in  a  dissatisfied 
state  of  mind. 


428  A  Short  History  of 

The  malcontents  invited  the  aforetime  exile,  Riel,  from 
Montana,  whither  he  had  gone,  to  return  and  lead  their 
movement.  Riel  accepted  the  call  of  his  countrymen, 
and  posed  as  the  liberator  of  his  race,  and  even  promul- 
gated a  new  religion.  Little  danger  was  apprehended 
from  the  wild  harangues  of  the  adventurer.  Suddenly 
Canada  was  convulsed  by  the  news  telegraphed  from 
within  a  few  miles  of  the  scene,  that  an  attack  had 
been  made  on  the  Mounted  Police  and  Prince  Albert 
Volunteers  at  Duck  Lake,  on  the  26th  of  March, 
1885,  and  that  the  troops  had  been  defeated  with  loss 
of  life. 

The  excitement  through  all  Canada  was  intense.  The 
insurgents  were  entrenched  at  a  point  200  miles  from  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  and  there  were  unmistakable 
signs  of  restlessness  among  all  the  Indian  tribes,  for 
messengers  to  them  had  been  sent  in  all  directions  by 
Riel,  who  had  formed  another  provisional  government. 
The  90th  battalion,  from  Winnipeg,  and  a  volunteer  field 
battery  were  despatched  to  the  scene  of  action,  and  from 
different  parts  of  Canada  in  a  few  days  some  five  or 
six  thousand  of  the  volunteer  militia  were  on  their  way 
to  the  scene  of  the  rebellion. 

The  first  skirmish  took  place  at  Fish  Creek  on  the 
Saskatchewan,  where  the  French  half-breeds  held  a 
strong  position  among  the  ravines  with  their  skilfully 
arranged  rifle-pits.  After  loss  of  life  they  were  com- 
pelled to  retire.  In  another  portion  of  the  country  farther 
up  the  Saskatchewan,  the  Queen's  Own,  of  Toronto, 
attacked  an  entrenched  camp  of  Cree  Indians  under  Chief 
Poundmaker,  and  inflicted  severe  loss.  The  defeated 
half-breeds,  with  a  number  of  Sioux  Indians  as  allies, 
after  the  fight  of  Fish  Creek,  fell  back  to  their  strong- 
hold at  Batoche  ;  but  here,  after  several  days'  skirmishing, 
and  further  loss  of  life,  the  position  was  taken  on  the 
12th  of  May,  1885,  after  which  the  rebel  chief  was  cap- 
tured a  few  miles  from  the  field.  Taken  to  Regina,  tried 
by  civil  process,  and  found  guilty,  on  the  1 6th  of  November, 
1885,  Louis  Riel,  on  the  scaffold,  expiated  the  crime  of 


THE  Canadian  People  429 

! 
leading  two  rebellions,  and  the  country  was  for  the  time 
being  at  peace. 

The  military  expedition  to  the  Saskatchewan  was  the 
most  considerable  that  had  been  undertaken  by  the  Cana- 
dian Militia,  and  the  troops  came  out  of  their  three 
months'  campaign  with  all  the  steadiness  of  regulars. 

Canada  possesses  in  different  parts  of  her  domain 
memorials  of  the  military  spirit  of  her  people  Canadian 
in  the  monimients  raised  to  her  fallen  sons,  who  Military 
died  fighting  for  her.  On  the  plains  of  Abra-  Monuments, 
ham,  Quebec,  on  the  spot  where  Wolfe  fell  in  1769,  an 
older  monument  stood  ;  but  in  1849  a  suitable  column 
was  erected,  a  Roman  sword  and  helmet  lying  on  the 
capital,  while  on  the  tablet  is  inscribed,  "  Here  died 
Wolfe  victorious.*' 

In  the  city  of  Brantford,  on  the  banks  of  the  Grand  River, 
in  Upper  Canada,  was  unveiled,  on  the  13th  of  October, 
1886,  a  fitting  monimaent  to  the  U.E.  Loyalists,  more 
especially  to  the  brave  warrior,  Joseph  Brant.  Thirteen 
bronze  cannon,  given  by  the  Imperial  Government,  were 
cast  into  this  colossal  statue  of  the  Mohawk  chief.  This 
monument  is  a  worthy  memorial  of  Indian  devotion  and 
U.E.  Loyalist  courage. 

On  the  top  of  Queenston  Heights,  from  which  the  brave 
leader  Sir  Isaac  Brock,  on  that  sad  morning  in  October, 
1812,  received  his  death-wound,  but  which  in  the  after- 
noon became  the  scene  of  a  Canadian  victory,  was  erected 
in  1824  a  monument  to  Brock  and  his  faithful  aide-de- 
camp Macdonell.  For  sixteen  years  the  column  stood, 
tiU  blown  up  by  one  of  the  so-called  "  patriots,"  after  the 
rebellion  of  1837.  A  beautiful  monument  was  completed 
in  1859  upon  the  same  site,  consisting  of  a  noble  column, 
surmounted  by  a  commanding  statue  of  General  Brock, 
rising  in  all  185  feet,  in  memory  of  the  soldier-governor, 
"  revered  and  lamented  by  the  people  whom  he  governed, 
and  deplored  by  the  sovereign  to  whose  service  his  life 
had  been  devoted." 

The  promising  youths  of  the  Queen's  Own,  who  met  so 
imtimely  a  death  in  the  Fenian  attack  at  Ridgeway  in 


430  A  Short  History  of 

1866,  are  commemorated  by  a  suitable  brown  stone  monu- 
ment in  the  Queen's  Park,  Toronto,  which  was  set  apart 
with  appropriate  ceremonies. 

The  achievements  of  the  Canadian  Militia  are  not 
without  memorial.  The  Saskatchewan  rebellion,  in  the 
fights  of  Fish  Creek  and  Batoche,  bore  most  heavily 
on  the  plucky  90th  battalion  of  Winnipeg.  On  the  City 
Hall  Square,  Winnipeg,  on  the  28th  of  September,  1886, 
was  unveiled  with  suitable  proceedings  a  stately  memorial, 
with  column  supporting  a  Canadian  volunteer,  leaning  on 
his  rifle,  the  whole  made  from  the  beautiful  limestone  of 
Red  River  Valley,  and  presented  to  the  city  by  the  free 
gifts  of  her  citizens. 

Section  V. — Literature,  Science,  and  Art 

In  1887  Canada  had  yet  no  great,  distinctive,  national 
literature.  She  was  still  in  the  midst  of  a  colonial  life, 
her  population  sparse  and  much  divided,  wealth  but 
beginning  to  accumulate,  the  struggle  for  comfortable 
existence  so  common  that  few  persons  of  leisure  were 
found  either  to  cultivate  a  purely  Canadian  literature,  to 
engage  in  its  production,  or  to  afford  a  field  for  the  sup- 
port of  authors  and  publishers. 

But  the  blossom  must  come  before  the  fruit.  The 
unity  of  the  Dominion  was  being  felt  as  year  by  year  passed. 
Nova  Scotians  now  know  something  of  Ontario's  woods 
and  fields,  and  Upper  Canadians  wander  down  by  the 
sea  to  visit  the  ruins  of  Louisbourg,  or  to  gaze  with 
interest  at  Grand  Pre. 

In  Canada  there  is  no  lack  of  the  material  for  poetry, 
romance,  or  pictorial  representation.  Canada's  Indians 
afford  scope  for  treatment  in  their  mounds,  their  customs, 
and  their  legends,  for  it  is  from  our  distinctively  northern 
Indians  that  Longfellow  found  the  subject  of  his  North 
American  epic  of  Hiawatha. 

The  early  loyalist  and  settler  life  affords  material  for 
works  as  interesting  as  those  of  Holmes,  and  Irving, 
and  Longfellow.     The  fur-trader's  life  is  a  perfect  mine 


THE  Canadian  People  431 

of  wealth,  entirely  unworked,  in  which  dashing  adventure 
and  most  absorbing  social  and  military  incidents  abound  : 
the  two  centuries  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  rule 
afford  wide  field  for  historic  as  well  as  imaginative 
treatment,  and  to  us  belongs  the  history  of  Arctic 
adventure. 

We  have  seen  encroaching  on  our  preserve  the  Ameri- 
can historian  Parkman,  and  though  we  rejoice  in  it  as 
showing  the  breadth  of  the  republic  of  letters,  yet  it 
may  teach  us  that  what  we  want  is  not  the  field  and 
material  for  the  highest  literary  work,  but  the  eye  to 
see,  and  the  imagination  to  picture,  and  the  heart  to 
love  our  own  Canada. 

Can  the  poet  desire  nobler  subjects  of  song  than  our 
Canadian  scenery  ?  On  our  grand  St.  Lawrence  the 
nature-lover  may  lie  and  bask  in  the  summer  beauty  of 
its  changing  hues.  Our  Saguenay,  and  Chaudiere,  and 
Montmorenci,  and  Niagara  may  stir  the  sense  of  wonder. 
Our  autumn-tinted  forests,  golden  wheat-fields,  and 
alternation  of  rockland  and  meadow  present  a  picture 
distinctively  Canadian.  The  vast  prairies  suggest  the 
immensity  of  the  sea,  and  if  the  rugged  mountains  and 
bosky  dells  of  Scotland  rouse  poetic  sentiment  within 
the  bosoms  of  all  who  look  upon  them,  surely  the 
colossal  grandeur,  ever-changing  beauty,  and  delightful 
valleys  of  the  Rocky  Moimtains — ^the  Canadian  Alps — 
beside  which  Scottish  mountains  are  dwarfed,  may  kindle 
in  Canadian  hearts  the  poetic  fire. 

And  were  the  field  of  Canadian  subject  far  more  limited 
than  it  is,  yet  in  the  social  life  and  domestic  incidents 
of  our  people  in  Montreal,  the  queen  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, Toronto,  the  blooming  mother  of  a  hopeful  people, 
Quebec,  the  ancient  dame  in  her  quaint  environment, 
and  Winnipeg,  the  vigorous  child  of  the  new  prairie  life, 
there  is  ample  opportunity  for  the  pen  of  the  novelist 
and  brush  of  the  descriptive  writer. 

The  race  of  poets  in  any  land  is  small :  poets  are  like 
diamonds,  too  brilliant  to  be  common.  No  great  poet 
certainly  has  sprung  from  Canadian  soil.     Perhaps  first 


432  A  Short  History  of 

of  those  breathing  the  native  air  is  Charles  Sangster,  the 
sweet  poet  of  our  Canadian  forests. 

Up  to  1887  it  seems  that  the  best  of  our  literary  men  was 
one  now  for  many  years  passed  away — ^the  late  Chief 
H  rburton  ^^^^^^^  Haliburton  of  Nova  Scotia.  Thomas 
Chandler  Haliburton  was  born  at  Windsor, 
Nova  Scotia,  in  December,  1796.  He  was  a  U.E.  Loyalist 
of  Scottish  descent,  was  educated  for  law,  and  in  his 
profession  became  noted  for  his  "  polished  and  effective 
speaking,"  and  "  sparkling  oratory."  He  entered  the 
Nova  Scotia  parliament,  became  Chief  Justice  of  Com- 
mon Pleas  in  his  native  province,  and  in  1856  resigned 
from  the  bench,  and  went  to  Britain.  Differing  from 
a  distinguished  Nova  Scotian  politician — Samuel  G.  W. 
Archibald,  who  said  on  being  urged  to  come  over  to 
Britain  and  enter  the  Imperial  Parliament :  "  Your 
lordship,  I  am  head  of  one  House  of  Commons,  and  will 
never  become  the  tail  of  another  " — ^Judge  Haliburton 
entered  the  British  House  of  Commons  in  1859  as  M.P. 
for  Launceston. 

It  was  in  1829  that  Haliburton  wrote  his  history  of 
Nova  Scotia,  for  which  he  received  the  public  thanks  of 
the  Assembly.  In  1835  appeared  in  the  Nova  Scotian  his 
series  of  papers,  afterwards  published  under  the  name  of 
"Sam  Slick,"  "The  Clockmaker."  The  gist  of  Hali- 
burton's  writings  has  been  well  expressed  as  follows : 
"  Industry  and  perseverance  are  effectively  inculcated  in 
comic  story  and  racy  narrative."  Haliburton  wrote  a 
semi-political  critique,  "  The  Bubbles  of  Canada,"  chiefly 
dealing  with  the  French  question  in  Lower  Canada,  but 
it  is  written  from  a  narrow  and  unsympathetic  stand- 
point. 

The  field  of  Canadian  history  has  been  but  poorly 
treated.  The  history  of  F.  X.  Garneau,  written  from  a 
Lower  Canadian  standpoint,  though  atrociously  mangled 
in  its  translation  from  the  French,  is  for  high  aim  and 
accurate  statement  undoubtedly  the  most  successful 
literary  treatment,  apart  from  Parkman's  works,  which 
our  history  has  received. 


THE  Canadian  People  433 

In  1887  the  following  was  written  :  So-called  histories 
abound,  but  they  are  too  often  only  compilations  of 
previous  works,  containing  the  mistakes  and  unsystematic 
treatment  of  their  predecessors.  So  far  as  industry, 
a  desire  to  consult  the  original  authorities,  and  truer 
conception  of  the  literary  and  philosophic  work  of  the 
historian  are  concerned,  Mr.  J.  C.  Dent,  the  author  of 
*' Canada  since  the  Union  of  1841,"  two  vols.,  and  the 
"Story  of  the  Canadian  Rebellion,"  in  two  vols.,  repre- 
sents a  true  school  of  historic  work,  though  there  is  in 
this  author's  work  a  too  great  readiness  to  accept  what 
favours  his  theories,  and  a  want  of  deliberate  and  sober 
judgment. 

The  danger  threatening  the  rise  of  a  true  school  of 
Canadian  historical  criticism  is  the  tendency  of  writers 
to  make  history  one  of  the  Brodwissenschaften  of  the 
Germans — a  mere  means  of  gaining  a  livelihood  without 
rendering  value  to  unsuspecting  book-buyers,  and  it  must 
be  said  that  some  Canadian  publishers  have  not  shown 
themselves  above  being  parties  to  this  nefarious  tendency. 
Some  partisan  purpose  to  serve,  the  "  cacoethes  scribendiy'' 
or  the  imworthy  motive  of  receiving  government  patron- 
age, have  induced  a  somewhat  prolific  crop  of  political 
biographies,  local  "  histories  " — ^mere  uninteresting  and 
unsympathetic  collections  of  facts,  dry  and  raw  manuals 
known  as  "school  histories,"  all  dishonouring  to  the 
name  historian,  and  producing  on  the  public  a  nauseating 
effect  on  the  mention  of  the  name  of  history.  K  the 
historian  be  not  free  and  courageous  enough  to  give  his 
opinion,  history  is  valueless. 

To  Lower  Canada  belongs  the  most  distinctive  school 
of  Canadian  literature — Canadian  in  subject — and  though 
French  in  language,  yet  distinguished  from  the  modern 
French  literature  of  Paris  by  its  more  measured  flow, 
and  as  taking  its  spirit  more  from  the  literature  of 
Louis  XIV. 's  time — ^purer  in  tone  than  recent  French 
literature.  Such  names  as  Frechette,  Verreau,  Lemoine, 
and  Suite  stand  out  in  this  truly  native  school  of  literature. 

From  time  to  time  ventures  in  the  form  of  literary 
28 


434  A  Short  History  op 

magazines  have  been  made.  It  would  be  mmecessary 
cruelty  even  to  mention  the  names  of  these  untimely,  and 
unproductive  enterprises.  Literature  must  be  spon- 
taneous to  be  real.  Until  there  be  a  literature  in  the 
country,  the  literary  magazine  must  die  of  starvation. 
There  are  indications  now  that  not  far  in  the  future 
there  may  rise  a  true  and  natural  magazine  literature, 
one  of  these  being  the  appearance  in  numerous  British 
and  American  magazines  of  meritorious  Canadian  pro- 
ductions. 

Even  the  Spectator,  Tatler,  and  Ghiardian  of  the 
brilliant  Augustan  age  of  English  literature  faded  and 
passed  away  as  the  untimely  fruit,  to  be  followed  by  the 
magnificent  yield  of  the  British  magazine  literature  of 
the  present  day.  It  is  yet  to  be  seen  whether  enough  of 
Canadian  magazine  ventures  have  paid  the  penalty  of  un- 
timeliness  to  secure  a  successful  Canadian  literary  journal. 

Of  the  seething,  surging  vortex  of  Canadian  newspaper 
literature  it  can  but  be  said,  that  while  a  multitude  of 
newspapers  provide  a  sufficient  reading  material  to  the 
four  or  ^Yo  millions  of  Canadians,  yet  in  but  few  cases 
is  much  attention  paid  to  giving  a  literary  form  or  culti- 
vated tone  to  what  is  so  plentifully  supplied. 

In  science  Canada,  in  1887,  had  done  far  greater  things 
Science  ^^sm  in  general  literature.  The  necessity  of 
opening  up  the  resources  of  our  new  coiuitry 
has  attracted  to  the  government  service  and  universities 
men  of  distinguished  abilities  from  the  mother  country, 
and  yet  it  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  most  distinguished 
names  in  our  scientific  honour-roll  are  those  of  native-born 
Canadians,  while  a  school  of  Canadian  scientists  has 
grown  up,  whose  work  in  botany,  mineralogy,  geology, 
engineering,  and  surveying  compares  favourably  with 
that  of  any  other  country,  and  has  received  recognition 
at  the  hands  of  British  and  American  science. 

The  father  of  Canadian  science  may  be  said  to  have  been 

Loean  ^^^  William  Logan.     Bom  in  Montreal  in  1798, 

William  Edmund  Logan  returned  with  his  father 

to  Scotland  to  an  estate  purchased  near  Stirling.   Trained 


THE  Canadian  People  436 

in  Edinburgh  and  London,  young  Logan  visited  Canada 
in  1829,  and  returned  to  Wales  to  become  manager  of 
a  copper-smelting  establishment  in  South  Wales.  Dr. 
BucMand  said  of  him,  "  He  is  the  most  skilful  geological 
surveyor  of  a  coal-field  I  have  ever  known."  Li  1841  he 
became  -head  of  the  Canadian  Geological  Survey,  and 
threw  himself  into  field-work  at  once.  Of  his  life  he 
writes,  "Living  the  life  of  a  savage,  sleeping  on  the 
beach  in  a  blanket-sack  with  my  feet  to  the  fire,  seldom 
taking  my  clothes  off,  eating  salt  pork  and  ship's  biscuit, 
occasionally  tormented  with  mosquitoes."  Logan  never 
married,  and  was  knighted  in  1856.  His  great  principle 
of  scientific  work  was  "Facts,  then  theories."  Sir 
William  Logan  did  great  service  by  his  thorough  investi- 
gation of  our  primitive  rocks,  to  which  the  name  given 
by  him,  " Laurent ian,"  replacing  the  old  term  "Funda- 
mental gneiss,"  has  now  been  affixed  by  all  geologists. 
After  a  most  active  and  useful  life  our  greatest  scientific 
Canadian  died  in  Wales  on  the  22nd  of  June,  1876. 

The  mantle  of  this  noted  man  of  science  fell  worthily 
on  a  Nova  Scotian,  known  as  Sir  William  jj  jj 
Dawson.  Young  Dawson  was  bom  in  Pictou  in 
October,  1820.  Educated  under  the  able  Dr.  McCulloch, 
Dawson  went  to  Edinburgh  University,  and  on  his  return 
to  his  native  province  become,  in  1842,  the  companion  of 
Sir  Charles  Lyell  in  the  geological  exploration  of  Nova 
Scotian  coal-fields.  Li  1860  he  was  made  Superintendent 
of  Education  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  in  1865  became 
Principal  and  Professor  of  McGill  University,  Montreal. 

Dr.  Dawson  was  a  practical  investigator,  and  has  written 
numerous  important  works,  among  which  "Acadian 
Cfeology,"  "  Origin  of  the  Earth,"  and  "  Fossil  Men  "  are 
most  noted.  His  name  is  also  associated  with  the  dis- 
covery of  Eozoon  Canadense,  the  supposed  earliest  fossil 
animal.  In  1886  Sir  William  Dawson  was  chosen  to  the 
high  dignity  of  President  of  the  British  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science. 

Another  earnest  labourer  in  the  field  of  Canadian 
science  was  Dr.  Wilson,  President  of  University  College, 


436  A  Short  History  op 

Toronto.  Daniel  Wilson  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1816, 
and  early  devoted  his  life  to  literary  pursuits. 
Besides  certain  works  of  importance  written 
in  his  native  country,  he,  after  joining  the  professoriate 
of  University  College,  enriched  Canadian  archaeology 
and  ethnology  by  his  interesting  work,  "  Prehistoric  Man," 
while  dallying  in  the  lighter  field  of  literature  in  such 
works  as  "  Chatterton  "  (1869),  and  "  Caliban,  the  Missing 
Link  "  (1873).  Dr.  Wilson  was  a  warm  friend  of  edu- 
cation, and  is  remembered  for  his  sturdy  defence  of 
Toronto  University  when  its  enemies  sought  to  dis- 
member it.  He  afterwards  became  President  of  Toronto 
University. 

Most  prominent  among  practical  scientists  in  Canada 
Fl  min  stood,  in  1887,  Sandford  Fleming,  C.E.      Young 

Fleming  arrived  in  Canada  from  Britain  in 
1845,  only  eighteen  years  of  age.  In  time  he  followed  the 
profession  of  engineering,  and  became  the  chief  explorer  of 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway.  Sir  Sandford  Fleming  is 
the  Chancellor  of  Queen's  University,  Kingston,  but  has  at- 
tained his  greatest  distinction  by  pressing  upon  the  several 
Governments  of  Europe  and  America  the  importance  of 
the  adoption  of  a  prime  meridian  of  longitude  for  all 
nations,  and  of  a  system  of  universal  time.  His  recom- 
mendations have  been  received  with  great  favour,  and 
have  been  generally  adopted. 

Canadian  science,  especially  geology,  has  gained  a  pre- 
eminence on  the  American  continent.  The  wider  culture, 
more  accurate  work,  and  greater  reliability  of  our  Cana- 
dian scientific  men,  have  given  their  investigations  into 
the  origin  and  condition  of  our  continent  a  decidedly 
favourable  recognition,  far  beyond  what  might  have  been 
expected  from  so  new  a  country.  In  virtue  of  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  and  Museum  having  headquarters  at 
Ottawa,  that  has  become  an  important  scientific  centre; 
and,  while  Montreal  holds  some  of  its  old  pre-eminence, 
the  extent  and  completeness  of  the  School  of  Science,  now 
a  part  of  Toronto  University,  afford  good  opportunities 
for  training. 


THE  Canadian  People  437 

In  the  department  of  sanitary  science  the  province  of 
Ontario  has  reached  an  advanced  position.  A  thoroughly 
organized  Board  of  Health,  with  large  powers  as  to 
waterworks,  sewage,  cemeteries,  and  the  suppression 
of  epidemics,  takes  active  supervision  throughout  the 
province. 

Toward  the  close  of  his  term  of  office  the  Marquis  of 
Lome,   the    Grovemor-General,    sigjnalized    his 
residence  in  Canada  by  the  gathering  together  lo^^.    ° 
of  a  number  of  Canada's  leading  men  in  litera- 
ture   and   science  at  Ottawa,  and  constituting  them  a 
society. 

The  Marquis  of  Lome,  who  with  his  royal  wife,  the 
Princess  Louise,  came  to  fill  the  highest  position  in  the 
government  of  Canada,  was  born  at  London  in  1845. 
Eldest  son  of  the  Duke  of  Argyll,  the  Marquis  of  Lome 
is  of  a  race  distinguished  as  popular  leaders  for  cen- 
turies in  learning,  religion,  and  public  affairs.  Lord 
Lome  was  educated  at  Eton,  St.  Andrews,  and  Cam- 
bridge, and  has  always  shown  an  inclination  to  literature. 
Married  to  Her  Majesty's  daughter  in  1871,  his  selection 
as  Governor-General  of  Canada  was  regarded  as  a  mark 
of  special  favour  for  Canada.  His  arrival  in  Canada  was 
in  1878. 

The  experiment  of  the  Marquis  of  Lome  in  establishing 
a  learned  society  under  Government  patronage  was  a 
perilous  one.  It  was  declared  that  such  a  society  is 
contrary  to  the  genius  of  our  unaristocratic  institutions  ; 
and  the  special  countenance  of  the  State  makes  litera- 
ture less  spontaneous,  and  hinders  its  development.  The 
prophets  declared  that  the  society  must  fail.  The  French 
Academy,  with  its  "  forty  immortals,"  it  was  said,  might 
suit  a  people  like  the  French,  but  Anglo-Saxons  would 
brook  no  such  arbitrary  selection,  or  such  embodiment  of 
exclusiveness  as  that  proposed. 

However,  on  the  25th  of  May,  1882,  the  "Royal 
Society  of  Canada "  met  and  was  organized.  It  was 
formed  so  as  to  include  four  sections  of  twenty  members 
each ;  the  sections  being  French  literature,  English  litera- 


438  A  Short  History  of 

ture,  physical  and  chemical  science,  and  geological  and 
biological  science.  Though  at  first  nominated  by  the 
Governor-General,  the  society  itself  elects  new  members 
to  fill  its  vacancies.  In  1887  fom-  annual  meetings  had 
been  held  since  the  first,  and  the  proceedings  of  the 
society,  for  the  publication  of  which  Parliament  provides 
means,  form  a  portly  quarto  volume  annually. 

Two  years  before  the  formation  of  the  Royal  Society 
the  Marquis  had  made  his  first  experiment  in 
the  establishment  of  culture-guilds  in  the 
organizations  of  the  "  Royal  Canadian  Academy  of  Arts." 
The  Princess  Louise  is  a  devotee  of  Art,  and  it  seemed 
most  fitting  that  such  a  step  should  be  taken  by  the 
Governor  and  the  Princess.  Unlike  literature,  art  seems 
to  thrive  under  official  patronage,  as  shown  by  the  Louvre 
and  Luxembourg  collections  in  Paris,  the  Uffizi  Gallery 
in  Florence,  and  the  National  Art  Gallery  in  London. 
The  purposes  of  the  Canadian  Academy  are  most  praise- 
worthy, being  the  establishment  of  a  National  Gallery  in 
Ottawa,  the  holding  of  art  exhibitions  in  the  cities  of  the 
Dominion,  and  the  formation  of  schools  of  art  and  design 
throughout  the  country.  Forty  Academicians  make  up 
the  roll  of  the  society,  but  "Associates  "  are  chosen.  A 
few  names,  such  as  O'Brien,  Forbes,  and  Schrieber, 
stood  out  among  those  of  our  Canadian  artists,  and  we  all 
rejoice  that  Art,  the  slowest  growing  of  all  the  trees  in  the 
intellectual  garden,  was  being  so  cultivated  as  to  awaken 
the  dormant  genius  of  our  people,  and  diffuse  among  all 
classes  a  taste  high  enough  to  distinguish,  as  Ruskin  has 
said,  whether  the  animal  in  the  foreground  of  the  picture 
is  a  pony  or  a  pig.  It  was  gratifying  to  Canadians  to  see 
Lord  Lome's  successor  as  Governor-General,  the  Mar- 
Marquis  ^^^s  ^^  Lansdowne,  an  earnest  patron  of 
of  Lans-  Art.  Henry  Charles  FitzMaurice,  5th  Marquis 
downe.  ^f  ^Yie  politically  celebrated  house  of   Lans- 

downe, was  born  in  1845,  and  held  important  posi- 
tions under  Liberal  Governments  in  Britain  in  the  War 
and  India  departments.  He  arrived  in  Canada  in  1883, 
and  at  once,  by  his  affable  and  natural  demeanour,  won 


THE  Canadian  People  439 

the  hearts  of  the  Canadian  people.  A  man  of  keen 
insight,  simple  and  miostentatious  manner,  and  cultivated 
tastes,  he  filled  with  ability  his  influential  position.  It 
was  on  the  occasion  of  a  meeting  of  the  Academy  of 
Arts  that,  after  referring  to  the  resources  of  our  country, 
and  origin  as  a  people.  Lord  Lansdowne  said,  "  Can  you, 
being  who  you  are,  afford  without  discredit  to  do  nothing 
for  that  branch  of  culture  which  above  all  others  is  an 
indication  of  refinement  and  of  thoughtfuhiess,  and 
which  no  civilized  community  from  those  of  Egypt  and 
Assyria  downwards  has  ever  ventured  to  neglect  ?  " 

Section    VI, — Religion  and   Morals 

The  religious  and  national  life  of  a  community  are 
closely  bound  up  together.  Christianity  was  mightily 
affected  by  its  being  brought  under  the  patronage  of 
Constantine,  the  Emperor  of  the  Romans  ;  and  the  Synod 
of  Whitby,  which  brought  about  a  union  of  the  divided 
Church  of  the  Heptarchy,  was  largely  the  result  of  the 
union  of  the  several  Saxon  states  under  one  king.  So  in 
Canada  the  imion  of  the  various  provinces  had  an  im- 
portant effect  upon  the  several  religious  bodies,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  unions  have  reacted  most  powerfully  upon 
the  national  life  of  the  Dominion. 

The  favoured  Church  in  Canada,  as  in  a  number  of 
the  Atlantic  Colonies,  was  that  of  the  Church  of  England. 
We  have  traced  the  agitation  by  which  in  Upper  Canada 
she  was  deprived  of  the  clergy  reserves.  But  the  result 
has  shown  that  to  be  deprived  of  Government  support  is 
no  great  loss  for  a  Church.  Every  part  of  America  has 
demonstrated  that  the  sympathies  and  energies  of  a 
Church  are  more  developed,  and  its  more  intelligent  and 
careful  management  secured,  when  the  people  support 
their    own    clergy    by    individual    contributions. 

The  Church  of  England,  out  of  the  wreck  of 
the  clergy  reserves,  succeeded  in  saving  a  por-  England! 
tion,  which  was  commuted  and  consolidated  into 
an  endowment  fund.      It  is  a  question  to-day  whether 


440  A  Shokt  History  of 

even  this  endowment  fund  has  not  been  a  "  brake  " 
upon  the  wheels  of  progress  of  that  Church. 

Nevertheless  there  has  been  a  widespread  development. 
The  original  diocese  of  Nova  Scotia  included  the  British 
provinces,  but  old  Canada  became  that  of  Quebec, 
which  has  been  divided  and  redivided,  until  in  1887 
there  were  constituting  the  Church  in  Ontario  and 
Quebec  the  dioceses  of  Quebec,  Montreal,  Ontario  (Ottawa), 
Toronto,  Niagara,  Hiu:on,  and  Algoma,  while  these  had 
before  confederation,  in  the  year  1857,  united  with  the 
dioceses  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  (Frederic- 
ton)  and  Newfoundland,  to  form  one  ecclesiastical  province, 
in  1887  under  the  presidency  of  the  Metropolitan,  the 
Bishop  of  New  Brmiswick. 

In  the  newer  portion  of  the  Dominion  the  course  of 
the  Church  of  England  had  been  different.  Rupert's 
Land  was  the  scene  of  missionary  operations  from  Eng- 
land. The  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  officials  and  men, 
and  the  Indian  population  were  the  objects  of  much 
beneficence  from  the  great  missionary  organizations  of 
the  mother-land — ^the  Church  Missionary  Society  and  the 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel. 

Since  the  transfer  of  the  North- West  to  Canada,  the 
vast  territory  under  its  control  had  been  subdivided  in 
1887  into  a  number  of  dioceses.  This  newer  Canada  con- 
tained the  dioceses  of  Rupert's  Land,  Saskatchewan, 
Qu'Appelle,  Moosonee,  Athabasca,  and  Mackenzie  River 
— ^these  being  united  in  one  ecclesiastical  province.  There 
was  an  independent  province,  including  the  dioceses 
of  Columbia  and  New  Westminster,  on  the  Pacific 
Coast. 

No  doubt  it  was  a  wise  foresight  which  could  devise  so 
widespread  a  system  in  the  Dominion,  with  its  eighteen 
bishops. 

Strong  in  the  cities  and  towns,  devoted  to  education, 
and  decorous  and  stately  in  its  service,  the  Church  of 
England  occupies  an  important  place  in  the  social  and 
national  economy  of  Canada,  in  which  it  possessed, 
according  to  the   1881  census,   574,818  adherents. 


THE  Canadian  People  441 

Three  streams  go  to  make  up  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Canada.     One  of  these  was  the  Church  of  ThePres- 
Scotland,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  obtained  a  byterian 
share  of  the  clergy  reserves,  and  which,  com-  Church, 
muted  into  a  fund,  gave  a  partial  support  to  her  clergy. 
In  the  case  of  this  Church,  the  *'  Temporalities  Fund  " 
undoubtedly  acted  as  a  hindrance  to  development,  for 
while  paying  special  attention  to  higher  education  and 
a  highly  educated  ministry,  scarcely  any  missionary  work 
was  undertaken. 

From  this  body  in  Canada  separated  in  1844  a  section 
calling  themselves  the  Free  or  Presbj^rian  Church  of 
Canada,  which  became  an  aggressive  missionary  church, 
and  in  thirty  years,  without  endowments,  had  completely 
outstripped  the  mother  church.  The  Church  of  Scot- 
land, in  the  Maritime  Provinces,  had  the  same  experience 
of  division,  though  there  she  was  never  endowed. 

In  Nova  Scotia  the  earliest  Presbyterian  movement 
was  by  missionaries  of  those  bodies  dissenting  from  the 
Established  Church  in  Scotland.  These  united  in  1817, 
in  the  Lower  Provinces,  under  the  name  of  the  so-called 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Nova  Scotia.  Their  distinctive 
feature  was  the  belief  that  it  is  improper  to  receive 
State  funds  for  the  support  of  religion.  In  Upper 
Canada  the  United  Presbyterian  Church,  in  sympathy 
with  the  voluntaries  of  Nova  Scotia,  began  operations  a 
few  years  before  the  union  of  the  Canadas. 

The  Presbyterians  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  were 
thus  included  in  the  Chiu:ch  of  Scotland,  the  Free  Church, 
and  the  United  Presbjrterian,  while  in  the  Upper  Pro- 
vinces were  three  corresponding  bodies.  But  the  era 
of  union  came.  In  1860  the  Free  and  United  Presbyterian 
Churches  united  in  the  regions  by  the  sea  into  the  Pres- 
bjrterian  Church  of  the  Lower  Provinces,  and  a  year 
later  the  similar  bodies  in  the  inland  provinces  became 
the  Canada  Presbyterian  Church.  It  was  in  the^year 
1875  that  these  Presbyterian  Churches — the  two  last 
named,  and  the  inland  and  maritime  sections  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland — four  independent  bodies — united  as 


442  A  Short  History  of 

one  Church  for  the  whole  Dominion,  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada. 

This  large  church,  in  1887,  extended  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  including  the  five  Synods  of  Mari- 
time Provinces,  Montreal  and  Ottawa,  Toronto  and 
Kingston,  Hamilton  and  London,  with  Manitoba  and 
the  North-West  Territories,  these  again  comprising 
forty-one  presbyteries,  or  local  judicatories.  Possessing 
probably  the  most  wealth  among  its  people  of  any 
Canadian  Church,  the  Presbyterians  of  Canada,  of  whom 
the  vast  number  belong  to  the  United  Church,  numbered 
at  the  1881  census  676,165.  The  Presbyterian  Church 
carries  on  missions  abroad  in  China,  India,  Oceania,  and 
the  West  Indies. 

The  rise  of  the  Methodist  Church  in  America  has  been 

as  great  a  marvel  as  its  career  in  England.  „^   ,,  ,^ 
T     %        J     '1.  •  u       if     T4.    TheMetho- 

In  Canada  it  came  as  a  pioneer  church.     Its  ^g^  church. 

methods  bore  the  same  relation  to  those  of  the 
State  churches,  of  which  it  was  the  rival,  as  the  scouts 
bear  to  the  regular  army.  Its  self-denying  evangelists  and 
earnest  people  served  to  keep  alive  the  flame  of  religion 
when  it  would  have  perished  among  the  early  English- 
speaking  settlers  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada.  As  the 
country  advanced  in  resources,  the  preachers  of  the 
Methodist  Church  grew  in  education,  collegiate  education 
was  valued,  and  comely  church  edifices  rose  as  the  wilds 
were  subdued. 

It  was  with  but  poor  grace  that  Bishop  Strachan 
could  ask  for  the  sole  revenue  of  the  clergy  reserves  to 
be  given  his  church,  when  the  Methodist  Church  was 
doing  the  greater  part  of  the  religious  work. 

The  earliest  Methodist  preachers  were  from  the  United 
States.  To  Egerton  Ryerson  largely  belongs  the  credit 
of  the  Methodist  Church  in  Canada  cutting  itself  free 
from  its  connection  with  the  Methodist  Church  in  the 
United  States,  and  accepting  the  system  and  discipline 
of  the  British  Wesley  an  Methodists.  That  he  was  not 
able  to  do  this  completely  was  shown  by  the  fact  that 
in  1828  a  division  took  place,  thus  creating  two  Metho- 


THE  Canadian  People  443 

dist  bodies — ^the  Wesleyan  Methodist  and  the  Episcopal 
Methodist  Churches,  the  latter  remaining  in  sympathy 
with  the  American  Chm'ch. 

Other  branches  of  English  Methodism  in  time  took  a 
slight  hold  on  Canada.  In  the  year  1874  a  partial  coa- 
lescence, and  in  1884  a  complete  miion,  the  result  of  our 
Dominion  life,  brought  together  the  original  five  bodies 
of  Wesleyan,  Episcopal,  New  Connection,  Primitive 
Methodists,  and  Bible  Christians,  along  with  the  Metho- 
dists of  the  Lower  Provinces,  to  form  one  body,  the 
Methodist  Church  of  Canada.  This  had,  in  1887,  its 
ten  Conferences  of  Toronto,  London,  Niagara,  Guelph, 
Bay  of  Quinte,  Montreal,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick 
and  Prince  Edward  Island,  Newfoundland,  with  Manitoba 
and  the  North- West  Territories,  and  eighty  local  districts. 
This  great  church  is  numerous,  devoted,  and  zealous, 
and  has  been,  and  is  a  great  power  in  our  Canadian 
life.  All  the  Methodists  of  the  Dominion  at  the  census 
of  1881  numbered  742,981. 

As  illustrating  a  third  theory  of  ecclesiastical  polity 
may    be    mentioned    the    Baptists    and    Con-  xhe  Inde- 
gregationalists,  who  hold  to  a  system  of  indi-  pendent 
vidual  churches,  with  a  voluntary  association  Churches, 
of  these  into  a  imion  or  Common  Council.     The  Baptists 
have   succeeded   in  imiting   together   into   a   Dominion 
Association,  and  are  progressing  rapidly.     Through  the 
munificence  of  wealthy  members  of  their  communion  they 
are  able  to  pay  much  attention  to  the  education  of  their 
ministers,  and  are  aiming  at  a  high  standard  of  scholastic 
attainment.     The  Baptists  in   1881  included  in  Canada 
225,236  adherents,  and  the  Congregationalists  26,900. 

Though  the  church  last  mentioned,  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  is  the  most  numerous  denomina-  The  Roman 
tion  in  Canada,  embracing,  in  1881,  1,791,982  Catholic 
souls,  or  forty-one  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  ^^^^h. 
the  Dominion.     Of  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Canada  about 
two-thirds  dwell  in  the  province  of   Quebec.     The  pro- 
gress of  the  church  since  the  days  of  the  small  beginnings 
of  Laval  has  been  remarkable. 


444  A  Short  History  of 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  vast  territory  then 
under  the  sway  of  the  one  bishop  of  New  France 
has  been  subdivided  into  dioceses  having  many  bishops. 
There  were  in  1887  one  cardinal  archbishop  and  five 
archbishops  in  the  Catholic  Church  of  Canada,  namely, 
Cardinal  Archbishop  Taschereau  of  Quebec,  and  the 
Archbishops  of  Montreal,  Toronto,  Ottawa,  St.  Boniface, 
and  Halifax.  The  Eoman  Catholic  Chiu'ch  has  in- 
stitutions of  much  efficiency  for  higher  education,  and 
had,  to  a  large  extent,  succeeded  in  keeping  her  hand 
upon  the  common  school  education  of  the  young  of  her 
commimion  in  Quebec,  Manitoba,  and  the  North- West 
Territories. 

Religiously  the  Dominion  is  in  a  happy  and  contented 
condition.  Ultra-Protestants  and  ultra-Catholics  can  in 
most  parts  of  Canada  look  upon  the  rival  processions  of 
one  another  without  bitterness.  The  several  Protestant 
bodies  co-operate  most  heartily  in  general  religious  and 
philanthropic  movements. 

One  of  the  examples  of  hearty  combination,  looking 
YMCA  forward  to  a  closer  union  of  Christians,  is  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  This  has 
taken  a  strong  hold  on  Canada,  there  being  in  1887  in 
the  Dominion  fifty-six  branches,  and  the  college  asso- 
ciations have  a  powerful  influence  on  the  educated 
young  men  of  the  country. 

Another  important  agency  drawing  Christian  bodies 
together  is  the  remarkable  temperance  movement.  This 
is  an  outcome  of  Christianity,  and  in  Canada  is  not  only 
taking  the  direction  of  a  moral,  persuasive,  total  absti- 
nence power,  but  of  a  restrictive,  legal,  and  legislative 
character,  looking  towards  the  abolition  of  the  manufac- 
ture and  sale  of  spirituous  and  malt  liquors. 

During  the  term  of  the  Mackenzie  Ministry  an  Act 
called  the  *'  Canada  Temperance  Act  "  was  passed,  giving 
local  option  to  counties,  by  which,  on  a  favourable  vote 
of  the  people  being  taken,  the  sale  of  all  intoxicating 
drinks  is  prohibited  for  three  years.  This  enactment, 
which  is  known  from  the  name  of  its  promoter,  a  Dominion 


THE  Canadian  People  445 

Senator,  the  "  Scott  Act,"  was  carried  in  a  number 
of  the  Canadian  counties  and  cities.  An  association 
representing  the  different  parts  of  the  Dominion,  called 
the  "  Dominion  Temperance  Alliance,"  agitates  in  favour 
of  not  only  abolishing  the  sale,  but  also  the  manufacture 
of  all  intoxicants  in  Canada. 

Another  benevolent  movement  in  which  the  churches 
are  co-operating  with  the  Government  is  that 
of  caring  for,  educating,  and  Christianizing  the  in(Sans. 
Indians.     The    "  Indian   question "   is   one   of 
deepest  moment  both  to  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
There  were  in  Old  Canada  and  the  Lower  Provinces,  in 
1887,  33,047  Indians.    It  was  on  assuming  the  Grovern- 
ment  of  the  North- West  and  of  British  Colimabia  that 
Canada  first  really  met  the  Indian  problem.     More  than 
97,000   Indians,  in  the  North- West  and  on  the  Pacific 
slope,  are  imder  the  charge  of  the  Canadian  Government. 

As  soon  as  practicable  after  the  year  1871,  treaties 
were  made  with  the  Indians  in  the  southern  portion  of  the 
North- West  Territories  and  Manitoba.  Governors  Morris 
and  Laird  managed  the  negotiations  with  much  skill,  so 
that  by  the  year  1877  seven  distinct  treaties  had  been 
made,  embracing  21,000  Ojibways,  Crees,  Assiniboines, 
Blackfeet,  Bloods,  and  Sarcees,  and  reserves  were  also 
appointed  for  some  2,000  Sioux  refugees  from  the 
United  States. 

Each  Indian,  old  and  young,  under  the  treaty  was 
promised  five  dollars  a  year,  while  the  chiefs  and  head- 
men received  larger  sums.  Implements,  cattle,  and  sup- 
plies are  guaranteed,  and  schools  were  promised.  The 
question  now  for  the  churches  and  Government  to  solve 
is  how  to  reach  the  savages,  how  to  induce  these  children 
of  the  prairie  and  forest  to  settle  down  in  houses,  to  till 
the  soil,  allow  their  children  to  be  educated,  and  to  accept 
civilized  customs  and  Christian  training. 

Unfortimately  the  Indian  is  far  more  attracted  by  the 
vices  of  the  whites  than  by  their  virtues.  The  Indian, 
however,  is  not  hopeless.  Constant  and  unwearied  effort 
will  accomplish  his  civilization,  as  is  evidenced  by  nmne- 


446    A  Shobt  History  of  the  Canadian  People 

rous  bands  which  have  largely  given  up  their  wandering 
habits,  live  in  houses,  and  raise  large  quantities  of  wheat 
and  potatoes  on  their  farms.  The  barbarous  maxim  heard 
in  some  western  communities,  that  "  the  only  good  Indian 
is  a  dead  Indian,"  is  a  slander  on  the  redman,  and  a  dis- 
grace to  the  wretch  who  utters  it. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

Canada's    greatest    quarteiucentxjry 
(1888-1913) 

Section  I. — Under  Three  Sovereigns 

Queen  Vicjtoria  had  reached  the  sixtieth  year  of  her 
eventful  reign  in  1897.  At  her  accession  to  the  xhe 
throne  Great  Britain  and  her  Colonies  were  in  Diamond 
serious  turmoil.  The  Georgian  period,  with  ^"^**®*- 
its  wars,  unhappy  social  life,  and  exercise  of  high  royal 
prerogative,  had  ended  in  the  lurid  outburst  of  the  Re- 
form Bill  of  1832.  Five  years  after  this  peaceful  revo- 
lution the  gentle  princess  of  eighteen  came  to  the  uneasy 
possession  of  her  throne.  Her  simple  womanliness  and 
kindness  took  the  place  of  the  obstinacy  of  her  grand- 
father George  III.,  which  had  lost  to  the  empire  the 
revolting  American  Colonies.  The  Canadian  rebellion 
now  burst  out  in  the  year  of  her  accession.  We  have 
already  seen  how  by  judicious  inquiry  and  gradual 
concession  of  seK-govemment  a  new  system  of  colonial 
administration  secured  to  Canadians  the  rights  of  free 
British  subjects.  After  thirty  years  had  passed  the 
Queen  lived  to  see  her  several  provinces  in  North 
America  imited  into  a  Confederation  where  liberty  and 
progress  held  sway.  Twenty  years  later  in  the  life 
of  the  Dominion  saw  the  Royal  Princess  Louise  occupying 
for  a  time  Rideau  Hall  at  the  Ottawa  capital ;  which 
the  wise  Queen  had  chosen  when  her .  Canadian  subjects 
were  imable  themselves  to  agree  upon  it.  Under  the 
Queen's  son-in-law,  the  Marquis  of  Lome,  as  Governor, 
a  wider  autonomy  was  granted  to  Canada ;  and  while  her 

447 


448  A  Short  History  op 

fifty  years  had  been  celebrated  in  an  empire  enjoying 
peace,  the  good  Queen  still  lived  on  to  see  her  subjects, 
at  home  and  abroad,  rejoice  in  her  Diamond  Jubilee. 
It  was  a  unique  spectacle  of  free  parliaments,  throughout 
the  empire,  following  the  model  of  the  "mother  of 
parliaments "  in  London,  passing  congratulatory  reso- 
lutions to  the  veteran  sovereign,  and  from  all  parts  of  the 
world  came  men  of  every  garb  and  colour  and  creed  to 
show  their  hearty  fealty  in  London — ^not  only  the  capital 
of  the  empire,  but  the  centre  of  the  world's  civilization 
as  well.  Indian  splendour,  African  confidence,  and  Colonial 
simplicity  all  came  to  make  a  many-hued  pageant  of 
loyal  devotion  to  their  aged  ruler.  The  Queen  lived 
for  some  four  years  after  this  remarkable  exhibition  of 
attachment,  and  passed  away  on  the  22nd  of  January,  1901. 
The  whole  world  seemed  at  a  loss  ! 

Nurtured  in  the  warm  domestic  life  of  the  home  of 
King  Ed-  Prince  Albert  and  Queen  Victoria,  Prince 
ward,  the  Edward  had  grown  up  to  ripe  manhood.  He  and 
Peacemaker,  j^^g  ^^\iQ^  the  Danish  princess  Alexandra,  had  gone 
through  a  full  apprenticeship  of  service  in  the  functions 
of  royalty.  When  the  Queen  died  the  Prince  was  fifty 
years  of  age,  and  was  a  well-trained  man  of  affairs.  Com- 
paratively short,  his  reign  of  some  eleven  years  was 
crowded  with  good  deeds.  King  Edward  VIL,  with  his 
genial  temper  and  long  experience,  had  become  a  master 
of  diplomacy.  As  a  lad  of  eighteen  he  had  visited  Canada 
in  1861,  in  the  opening  era  of  Canadian  railways,  when 
the  Victoria  Bridge  across  the  great  St.  Lawrence  at 
Montreal  was  completed.  For  forty  years  after  that 
event  he  had  taken  part  as  prince  in  hundreds  of  important 
events  which  brought  him  in  touch  with  the  whole 
British  people.  It  was  now  a  new  thing  for  Great  Britain — 
the  ruler  of  the  seas,  the  mother  of  colonies,  the  world- 
conqueror  among  the  nations,  the  head  of  Protestantism 
in  the  world,  and  the  keen  trader  and  explorer — to  watch 
the  friendly  visits  of  her  king  to  France,  which  for  five 
centuries  had  been  her  hereditary  enemy;  to  Italy, 
seething  in  the  turmoil  of  religious  differences ;  and  to 


IKE  Canadian  PeopLb  440 

Germany,  the  young  Teutonic  rival  of  British  Anglo- 
Saxondom.  The  gracious  Queen  Alexandra — beautiful 
and  gentle — ^was  the  embodiment  of  domestic  virtue, 
and  the  English  Court  was  the  home  of  dignity  and 
purity.  Nothing  so  welded  the  world-scattered  Dominions 
and  Colonies  of  the  empire  to  the  mother-country  as  the 
hearty  spirit  in  which  King,  Queen,  Lords,  and  Commons 
in  Britain  carried  out  their  part  in  nurturing  their  stal- 
wart young  dependencies,  now  growing  to  the  stage 
of  self-government  and  independent  feeling. 

It  VMS  a  loorld-shock  when  the  King  died  in  1910/ 
It  was  a  royal  day  on  June  22nd,  1911,  over  a  year 
after  the  peace-loving  King  had  passed  away, 
when  King  George,  Queen  Mary,  and  their  ^^^  piffh '^* 
children  passed  on  in  carriages  of  state  to  the 
Coronation.  In  the  great  procession,  made  up  from  all 
parts  of  the  empire,  moving  from  Buckingham  Palace  to 
Westminster  Abbey  in  London,  there  was  a  scene  of  unusual 
splendour.  Canada,  the  foremost  Dominion,  was  well  repre- 
sented by  soldiers  and  statesmen ;  so  also  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  and  South  Africa ;  but  there  were  no  representatives 
more  devoted  or  more  beautifully  arrayed  than  the  Indian 
princes  from  our  great  Asiatic  Empire.  That  day  King 
George,  Emperor  of  India,  was  crowned.  The  King's 
reign  is  still  new,  but  the  good  temper,  caution,  fairness 
and  self-control  shown  by  the  King,  in  such  trying 
ordeals  as  the  struggle  between  Lords  and  Commons, 
in  the  effort  to  satisfy  Ireland  and  South  Africa  in 
industrial  collisions,  and  in  visiting  and  recognizing  all 
classes  of  his  subjects  have  won  him  great  reverence  and 
respect.  The  King  and  Queen  have  the  true  spirit  of 
empire-builders. 

Since  their  coronation  the  King  and  Queen  gained  the 
affection  of  their  Indian  subjects  in  the  unexampled 
splendour  at  the  Durbar  in  Delhi.  When  they  were 
Duke  and  Duchess  of  York  they  visited  Canada  from 
ocean  to  ocean  and  received  the  warmest  of  welcomes  on 
prairie  and  mountain,  in  city  and  hamlet.  They  have 
threaded  our  rivers  and  lakes — ^the  finest  lakes  and  rivers 

29 


460  A  Short  JIistory  of 

in  the  world,  have  visited  Canadian  universities,  churches, 
schools,  manufactories,  and  places  of  entertainment, 
and  won  the  devotion  of  a  free  and  intelligent  people. 
i.  pecially  was  the  King — ^then  Prince  of  Wales — a 
favourite  visitor  when  in  1908  he  was  received  with 
*'  a  hundred  thousand  welcomes "  by  his  French  and 
English  subjects  alike  in  the  Tercentenary  Celebration  in 
Quebec  of  the  founding  of  the  city  by  Champlain.  In 
pageant,  military  spectacle,  and  naval  display  was  the 
reception  alike  worthy  of  a  monarch  and  of  a  loyal  and 
devoted  people.  In  nothing  has  his  appreciation  of  Can- 
ada been  shown  by  the  King  than  in  the  appointment  in 
1912,  as  Grovernor-General  of  the  Dominion,  of  a  prince  of 
the  royal  blood — ^tho  Duke  of  Connaught. 

Section  II. — Canadian  Viceroys  (1888-1913) 

The  ^.^illiant  succession  of  Governors  of  Canada  which 
we  have  seen  in  previous  chapters,  ending 
of^Preston.^^  ^^^^  ^^^  Marquis  of  Lome  and  the  Marquis 
of  Lansdowne,  brings  us  to  the  beginning  of  the 
last  quarter-century  of  our  Canadian  rulers.  A  Governor 
of  high  lineage  who  had  not  come  to  his  earldom  was 
appointed  Governor-General  in  1888 — ^Lord  Stanley  of 
Preston.  Not  till  after  the  close  of  his  governorship  did 
he  reach  his  title  of  Earl  of  Derby.  The  house  of  Derby 
is  well  known  in  the  region  of  Lancashire  and  the  North 
of  England  as  distinguished  and  successful  leaders  in 
all  great  local  enterprises.  Lord  Stanley  was  a  plain, 
methodical,  business-like  Governor  and  well  suited  to 
the  rising  commercial  ideals  of  a  progressive  Canada. 
No  bugle  sound  of  war  disturbed  his  tenure  of  office, 
though,  as  we  shall  see,  important  negotiations  were 
carried  on  with  the  United  States. 

The  new  Governor- General  in  1893  was  Lord  Aberdeen, 

the  son  of  the  distinguished  premier — head  of 

Aberdeen!*      ^^^  former  Aberdeen  Ministry  of  Great  Britain. 

The  Earl  of  Aberdeen,   bom  in   1847,  was  a 

graduate  of  St.  Andrews  University  and  of  the  University 


teB  Canadian  People:  461 

of  Oxford.  The  most  important  event  of  his  regime 
was  the  fall  of  the  Conservative  ministry  of  Canada  in 
1896  and  the  entrance  into  office  of  the  Laurier  adminis- 
tration. Lord  Aberdeen  had  in  his  high  office  a  most 
important  assistant  in  the  person  of  Lady  Ishbel,  daughter 
of  the  Scottish  Lord  Tweedmouth. 

Lord  and  Lady  Aberdeen  succeeded  in  adapting  them- 
selves in  a  wonderful  manner  to  the  conditions  of  Canadian 
life.  It  was  said  by  a  leading  Canadian  journal  that 
Lord  Aberdeen  did  more  to  popularize  the  office  of 
Governor-General  in  Canada  than  any  other  British 
representative  that  had  ever  been  sent  to  Ottawa. 
Lady  Aberdeen  is  well  remembered  as  the  founder  of 
*'  The  National  Council  of  Canada "  and  also  as  com- 
memorating Queen  Victoria's  Diamond  Jubilee  by  the 
establishment  of  "  The  Victoria  Order  of  Nurses "  in 
Canada.  The  Aberdeen  Association  still  remains  in 
Canada  as  a  useful  means  of  distributing  literature 
among  the  lonely  and  scattered  settlers  in  remote  regions 
of  Western  Canada.  Lord  Aberdeen  received  a  large 
number  of  University  degrees  in  recognition  of  his  public 
service  in  Canada,  and  Lady  Aberdeen  was  made  an  LL.D. 
of  Queen's  University,  Kingston,  because,  as  Chancellor 
Sir  Sandford  Fleming  said,  "she  was  a  noble-hearted 
and  cultured  woman."  Many  regrets  followed  the  de- 
parture of  Lord  and  Lady  Aberdeen  from  Canada,  and 
Canadians  have  taken  much  interest  since  in  his  Lord- 
ship's service  to  the  Empire  as  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland. 

Among  the  well-known    officers  of    the  troops  which 
were   despatched   to    the   Canadian    West    to 
suppress  the  Saskatchewan  rebellion  in   1885,  Mi^to." 
was  the  aide-de-camp  of  General  Middleton,  the 
yoimg  Viscount  Melgund,  a  soldier  with  the  blood  of  the 
Scottish  border  ElUots  in  his  veins.     His  lordship  was  a 
man  of  method  and  of  action  rather  than  a  man  of  affairs. 
The  rebellion  having  been  suppressed  he  was  in  the  line 
for   promotion   in  Canada.     He   had   come   to  his  earl- 
dom as  Lord  Minto,  and  seen  service   in  the   army  on 
the  Danube,  among  the  Afghans,  and  in  Egypt,  as  well 


45^  A  Short  HistoRY  ot 

as  on  the  Saskatchewan.  He  became  Governor-General 
in  1898.  The  most  notable  event  of  Lord  Minto's 
regime  was  the  career  of  the  Liberal  Government  mider 
Hon.  WiKrid  Lam'ier  as  Prime  Minister.  Lord  Minto 
was  a  prompt  and  efficient  business  man  and  gave 
much  time  and  useful  assistance  in  the  fuller  establish- 
ment of  the  Dominion  archives.  Lady  Minto  was  the 
sister  of  Lord  Grey,  who  came  as  the  next  Governor- 
General.  She  was  identified  with  the  movement  for 
the  founding  and  maintenance  of  hospitals  especially 
in  the  newer  parts  of  Western  Canada.  These  were 
known  as  the  Lady  Minto  hospitals.  After  leaving  Canada 
Lord  Minto  was  for  five  years  Viceroy  of  Lidia. 

Bom  in  the  north  of  England  in  1851,  educated  at 
Earl  Grey  Harrow  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  Lord 
Grey  had  seen  service  in  South  Africa,  and 
came  to  succeed  his  brother-in-law,  the  Earl  of  Minto, 
as  Governor-General  in  1904.  He  has  been  described 
as  a  "statesman  and  philanthropist."  He  brought  exe- 
cutive ability  and  a  dominating  enthusiasm  to  his  high 
position  in  Canada.  During  the  five  years  of  his  Canadian 
service.  Lord  Grey  took  every  pains  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  wide  expanses  of  half  a  continent  reaching  from 
Sidney,  Nova  Scotia,  to  Prince  Rupert  in  British  Columbia. 
Throughout  his  term  of  office  as  Governor  he  sought 
earnestly  to  bring  French  and  English  speaking  Canadians 
closer  together  and  was  the  originator  of  the  great 
Tercentenary  Celebration  of  the  founding  of  Quebec  by 
Champlain  in  1608.  The  Governor  proved  himself  an 
empire-builder  and  an  explorer  of  every  part  of  the 
Dominion  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Pacific.  One 
of  his  last  expeditions  was  in  1911,  when  after  finding 
his  way  by  rail  from  Ottawa  to  Winnipeg,  he  and  his 
party  threaded  the  old  Hudson's  Bay  Company  route 
down  Lake  Winnipeg  to  Norway  House  and  thence 
journeyed  by  way  of  Oxford  House  to  York  Factory  on 
Hudson  Bay.  A  Canadian  steamer  then  carried  His 
Excellency  and  his  party  out  to  the  Atlantic  and  down 
the  coast  of  Labrador  to  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  whence 


THE  Canadian  People  453 

he  returned  by  way  of  Halifax  to  the  Canadian  capital. 
As  has  been  said,  Lord  Grey  showed  himself  to  be  a  man 
of  insight,  inspiration,  and  political  genius. 

Canadian  patriotism  was  steadily  leading  the  approach  to 
nationhood  within  the  Empire  when  His  Royal  _,    _.  . 
Highness  Duke  of  Connaught,  brother  of  the  connaught. 
late  King  Edward — a  soldier  and  world-wide 
traveller — was  appointed  in  1 9 1 2  the  Governor-  General .   It 
was  regarded  as  a  high  compliment  to  Canada  that  one 
of  the  royal  family  should  come  as  Viceroy.     His  early 
military  service  was  in  Canada  with  the  late  Lord  Wolseley 
on  the  Red  River  Expedition  of  1870,  and  after  forty  years 
he  became  ruler  of  the  Dominion  which  he  had  seen  in 
its  infancy.     No  doubt  his  career  in  Canada  will  add  new 
laurels  to  his  name  and  station. 

Section  III. — Canadian  Loyalty 

Midway  in  the  quarter-century  with  which  we  are  deal- 
ing, it  was  the  lot  of  the  \vriter,as  Honorary  President  of  the 
Literary  Society  of  Manitoba  College,  Winnipeg,  to  deliver 
the  Inaugiu'al  Address  for  the  year  1902  on  this  topic. 
The  writer  stands  to  the  same  positions  still. 

In  the  October  number  of  the  Canadian  Magazine 
the  writer  had  given  a  brief  psychological  study  of 
Canadian  loyalty.  That  paper  was  received  with  some 
favour  both  in  Canada  and  Britain,  and  its  restatement 
may  more  fully  illustrate  and  impress  the  line  of  thought 
then  followed. 

There  is  at  present  a  rising  tide  of  Canadian  life.  Na- 
tional events  have  been  moving  very  swiftly.  Not  only 
is  Canada  advancing  rapidly  in  material  and  intellectual 
respects,  but  a  new  place  is  on  all  hands  being  assigned 
to  her  in  the  British  Empire.  She  is  Great  Britain's 
eldest  and  most  beloved  daughter.  It  is  a  common 
thing  to-day  for  Canadians  to  visit  the  mother-land, 
when  a  few  years  ago  very  few  of  them  west  of  Montreal 
thought  of  such  a  thing. 

In  Canada,  satisfaction  with  British  ideas  of  govern^- 


454  ^       A  Short  History  of 

ment  has  grown,  and  the  attitude  of  Downing  Street  and 
the  Colonial  Office  toward  the  colonies  is  now  freely 
praised  within  our  borders. 

This  is  a  great  change. 

Most  Canadians  are  now  heard  boasting  of  their  British 
ancestry  ;  they  sing  vociferously  "  Britannia  rules  the 
wave  "  ;  British  habits  of  thought  are  now  followed ; 
and  even  in  some  parts  of  Canada  the  peculiarities  of 
the  distinctively  English  accent  are  imitated. 

A  generation  ago  or  a  little  more  this  was  not  the 
case.  Now  from  being  the  heritage  and  exclusive  pos- 
session of  a  sacred  few,  loyalty  to  the  British  throne,  both 
in  word  and  act,  has  become  the  characteristic  of  the 
whole  Canadian  people. 

We  look  lovingly  across  the  sea  and  sing  with  Tennyson 
of  British  freedom  as  ours  : 

Grave  mother  of  majestic  works, 
From  her  Isle-altar  gazing  down, 
Who,  God- like,  grasps  the  triple  forks. 
And  king-like,  wears  the  crown  ; 
Her  open  eyes  desire  the  truth. 
The  wisdom  of  a  thousand  years 
Is  in  them. 

The  many-voiced  Canadian  soul,  drawing  its  life-blood 
from  the  people  of  many  lands,  rests  satisfied  under  the 
British  flag,  and  swells  with  grateful  fervour,  for — 

Britain  bore  us  in  her  flank, 

Britain  nursed  us  at  our  birth, 
Britain  reared  us  to  our  rank 

'Mid  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

We  are,  then,  to  inquire  how  this  has  all  come  about. 
We  must  consider  the  diverse  elements  of  the  Canadian 
population,  and  follow  the  lines  of  thought  by  which 
they  have  become  one  in  British  sentiment. 

It  is  but  just  to  state  that  the  present  loyal  sentiment 
was  not  always  present  with  us.  The  writer  can  remem- 
ber when  little  more  than  a  generation  ago  there  were 
many  districts  in  different  parts  of  Canada  where  annexa- 
tion to  the  United  States  was  openly  advocated.  True, 
there  were  thousands  of  faithful  upholders  of  the  old 


THE  Canadian  People  466 

flag  who  never  wavered :  there  were  men  anxious  in 
regard  to  the  state  of  feeling  of  the  "little  Englanders  " 
in  Britain,  who  would  have  thrown  the  colonies  over- 
board ;  and  there  were  many  public  men  who  sought 
by  word  and  act  to  discourage  and  dissipate  the  discon- 
tent in  our  national  life. 

To  more  successfully  study  the  question,  it  may  be 
well  to  note  the  various  elements  in  the  Canadian  popu- 
lation as  touched  upon  in  earlier  pages  and  to  examine 
the  influences  for  and  against  British  connection  which 
affected  them. 

When  the  British  cause  was  lost  in  the  rebellious 
American  Colonies  and  the  Treaty  of  Paris  xhe  United 
concluded,  the  Hegira  of  the  sturdy  loyalists  Empire 
took  place,  as  we  have  seen,  chiefly  to  the  ^^y*"**'- 
Maritime  Provinces  and  Upper  Canada.  It  was  one  of 
the  most  imique  movements  in  history.  Five  thousand 
of  the  flower  of  the  expatriated  colonists,  many  of  them 
of  high  social  rank  and  political  station,  in  a  single  year 
betook  themselves  to  St.  John,  New  Brunswick.  Twelve 
thousand  of  them  built  Shelboume,  a  town  of  note  called 
by  some  writers  the  "  Carthage  of  the  Loyalists,"  in  Nova 
Scotia.  Some  ten  thousand  of  the  refugees,  including  many 
soldiers  who  had  fought  for  their  old  king,  took  up  their 
holdings  in  the  beautiful  forests  of  Upper  Canada  ;  while 
full  of  affection  for  the  British,  Brant  and  his  Six  Nations 
Indians  determined  to  cast  in  their  lot  with  their  Great 
Father  across  the  sea- water.  Retired  soldiers  of  "  Butler's 
Rangers,"  the  "Royal  Greens,"  the  "King's  Own/' 
Jessup's  Corps,  and  the  doughty  Hessians  were  of  stern 
stuff,  and  they  held  the  gates  for  the  United  Empire. 

The  loyalists'  report  of  the  land  was  good,  and  so 
the  early  loyalists  were  joined  by  struggling  bands  of 
exiles  who  followed  them  to  the  land  of  the  maple  leaf. 
Leaders  like  General  Haldimand,  a  Swiss,  Sir  Guy  Carleton, 
an  Irishman,  and  Governor  Simcoe,  a  Devonshire  man, 
threw  their  whole  souls'  devotion  into  building  up  this 
new  monarchy  on  Canadian  soil.  They  were  overflowing 
^ith  loyal  sentiment,  and  carried  on  secret  communica- 


456  A  Short  History  of 

tion  with  desirable  settlers  who  had  not  joined  them  in 
the  United  States. 

What  was  this  loyalist  sentiment  ?  This  is  easily 
answered.  Their  loyalty  was  a  religion.  Worldly  con- 
sideration meant  little  to  them.  They  willingly  left 
their  fine  old  mansions  and  homes  of  comfort  to  face 
the  wild  forest  life — ^left  them  for  conscience'  sake.  They 
were  the  Jacobites  of  the  New  World.  They  were  even 
more  remarkable  in  their  loyalty  than  the  followers  of 
the  Stuarts.  The  Jacobites,  who  held  to  a  lost  cause, 
had  with  it  the  personal  attachment  to  the  "  bonnie 
Prince  Charlie,"  but  the  U.E.  who  clung  to  his  political 
sentiment  did  so  even  though  he  knew  that  he  could 
not  justify  the  surly  and  selfish  old  Brunswicker  George 
the  Third. 

The  U.E.  Loyalists  held  to  the  very  form  and  corpus 
of  loyalty  to  the  British  Crown.  They  were  marvels  of 
tenacity.  Their  loyalty — and  we  admire  its  intensity 
and  honesty — ^was  fearless,  dogged,  and  unreasoning. 

The  strength  of  the  U.E.  loyalty  brought  with  it, 
however,  certain  dangers  to  Canada.  Uncertain  as  the 
loyalists  perhaps  well  might  be  as  to  the  loyalty  of  the 
later  Americans  and  of  the  crowd  of  "  all  sorts  "  which 
had  come  to  the  country,  the  U.E.  Loyalist  developed  a 
persecuting  and  tyrannical  spirit.  This  was  seen  in  the 
first  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  in  the  enforced 
recall  of  Judge  Thorne,  in  the  removal  of  Sheriff  Willcocks, 
and  in  the  "  Act  of  detestation  and  abhorrence  "  of  John 
Mills  Jackson. 

After  the  war  of  1812  the  union  of  the  U.E.'s  took 
the  form  of  an  oligarchy.  The  arrest  and  imprison- 
ment of  Gourlay,  the  legal  oppression  of  Lord  Selkirk, 
and  the  ruthless  enforcement  of  the  "  Sedition  Act  " 
were  all  the  work  of  the  loyalist  and  military  cabal 
that  at  the  end  of  the  first  generation  of  the  century 
had  well  earned  the  name  of  "  The  Family  Compact." 
These  sturdy  loyalists,  so  true  and  noble  on  the  one 
hand,  well-nigh  lost  Canada  to  the  British  Crown  on  the 
QtheTt 


THE  Canadian  People  457 

The  report  of  the  good  land  to  which  the  loyalists 
had  come  found  its  way  back  to  their  old 
neighbours  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Penn-  Americans, 
sylvania,  and  other  states.  In  the  four  years 
of  Grovernor  Simcoe's  regime  ending  in  1795  the  popu- 
lation had  grown  from  twelve  to  twenty  thousand  in 
Upper  Canada.  But  who  were  the  newcomers  ?  Berczy's 
band,  for  example,  of  sixty  German  families  from  Hamburg 
which  had  settled  for  a  short  time  in  New  York  State, 
came  to  Markham,  but  they  Were  foreign  to  British 
traditions.  Townships  about  Little  York,  now  Toronto, 
and  farther  west,  were  soon  after  taken  up,  but  by  whom  ? 
By  bands  of  Quakers,  who  had  no  interest  in  public 
affairs,  who  wouldn't  fight  for  king  and  country,  and 
who  at  the  best  were  negative  in  their  British  sympathy. 
In  Whitchurch  settled  down  Mennonites  and  Timkers 
of  German  and  Hollander  origin.  These  were  not  only 
non-combatants,  but  were  actually  averse  to  having 
anything  to  do  with  government.  About  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  came  large  numbers  of  Penn- 
sylvanian  Dutch,  many  of  whom  were  decidedly  Ameri- 
can in  their  sympathies.  Whole  townships  along  Lake 
Erie  were  occupied  by  these  Pennsylvanians,  many  of 
whom  were  quite  hostile  to  anything  distinctively  British. 
To  add  to  this  marvellous  **  melange  "  a  band  of  French 
imigris  came  to  live  for  a  time  on  the  Oak  Ridges  of 
York  County,  and  whole  townships  of  Lower  Canada 
were  filled  with  New  Jerseymen,  Vermonters,  New 
Yorkers,  and  New  Hampshire  people.  Many  of  these 
were  out-and-out  Americans  in  sentiment. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  loyalists  were  completely 
outnumbered  by  the  later  Americans.  Even  Nova  Scotia, 
the  home  of  loyalism,  had  colonies  of  Germans  and 
Philadelphians. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  the  overwhelming 
addition  of  foreign — especially  of  American — elements 
to  the  Canadian  population.  What  was  the  infiuence  of 
these  strangers  ?  It  was  certainly  very  far  from  being 
in  favour  of  loyalty  to  the  British'Crown.     The  writer. 


468  A  Short  History  of 

as  a  Canadian,  knew  many  of  the  families  that  were 
included  in  these  various  elements.  They  were  largely 
American  in  customs,  in  manners,  in  dialect  and  to  a 
large  extent  in  political  sympathies.  To  them  Britain 
was  behind  the  times,  her  old-world  notions  were  dis- 
tasteful to  them,  many  of  them  looked  forward  to  an- 
nexation to  the  United  States  as  the  inevitable  future  of 
Canada,  and  they  would  not  have  lifted  a  finger  to 
prevent  this  consummation. 

The  Americans  in  Canada  of  the  earlier  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century  were  described  by  such  writers  as 
Talbot,  McTaggart,  and  Bonnycastle.  No  doubt  their 
pictures  are  partial,  but  not  wholly  wrong.  They  saw 
— as  we  have  seen  already — ^in  journeying  through  the 
country,  almost  all  the  keepers  of  the  wayside  inns  to 
be  Americans  of  a  disreputable  class.  Shrewd  and 
smart  these  Bonifaces  were,  yet  indolent  and  shiftless. 
The  American  innkeeper  expressed  his  opinions  freely 
though  in  Canada,  did  not  conceal  his  contempt  for 
"  kings  and  dookes,"  and  gave  forth  his  views  in  the 
nasal  vernacular.  Mrs.  Moodie  in  her  book,  "  Roughing 
It  in  the  Bush,"  has  drawn  a  dismal  picture  of  her  Ameri- 
can neighbours  in  the  Peterborough  district.  No  doubt 
the  travellers  mentioned  exaggerated  the  importance 
of  the  "  wayside  Americans  "  met  by  them,  but  certainly 
these  vapouring  demagogues  and  thousands  like  them  on 
Canadian  soil  were  no  friends  to  British  and  true  Cana- 
dian ideas.  Looking  at  the  case  dispassionately,  a  fair 
observer  cannot  but  say  that  their  U.E.  Loyalist  neigh- 
bours had  much  reason  to  be  suspicious,  and  rightly 
combined  to  frustrate  what  they  considered  their  "  knav- 
ish tricks."  The  later  Americans  were  really  a  great 
contrast  to  those  now  coming  to  Western  Canada.  The 
Americans  in  Canada  at  the  loyalists'  times  were  poor, 
lazy,  illiterate,  immoral;  those  coming  to  Canada  now 
have  their  herds  of  cattle  and  horses,  their  implements 
and  money,  and  will  make  superior  citizens. 

Coming  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century 
in  very  large  numbers,  the  British  immigrants  found  theiA- 


THE  Canadian  People  459 

selves  wedged  in  between  the  U.E.  Loyalist  and  the  later 
American.  Frequently  the  old-world  settler 
had  come  to  avoid  the  imposts  of  a  greedy  gettle/s 
landlord  in  Britain,  or  to  escape  the  depressed 
trade  conditions  following  the  periods  of  war  in  which 
Britain  was  engaged.  The  Napoleonic  wars  in  the  open- 
ing years  of  the  nineteenth  century  led  to  the  emigration 
to  the* new  world  of  many  such  exiles — among  them 
the  man  of  Glengarry,  who  settled  about  a  Scottish  nucleus 
of  the  U.E.'s  on  the  St.  Lawrence ;  of  colonists  in 
Prince  Edward  Island  ;  and  of  Lord  Selkirk's  settlers 
on  the  banks  of  Red  River.  The  close  of  that  great 
world  struggle  led  to  the  carrying  to  Canada  of  the  people 
from  the  depressed  districts  of  Scotland,  and  there 
formed  the  Perth  Military  Settlement  and  the  McNab 
colony  in  Upper  Canada.  Several  thousands  of  L:ish 
peasants  came  shortly  after  to  the  Newcastle  district 
of  Upper  Canada,  while  the  Canada  Company,  under 
John  Gait,  the  novelist,  and  Dr.  Dunlop,  a  character  of 
the  "Noctes  Ambrosianse,"  filled  up  portions  of  the 
great  Huron  tract.  The  British  immigration  culminated 
in  four  years  in  supplying  160,000  British  colonists  to 
Upper  Canada.  In  the  ten  years  from  1840  to  1850  no 
less  than  350,000  immigrants  landed  at  Quebec — one 
half  of  whom  remained  in  Canada,  the  remainder  pass- 
ing through  to  the  United  States.  A  few  years  before 
this  time  a  very  large  Irish  immigration  filled  up  districts 
of  New  Brunswick. 

These  facts  are  sufficient  to  show  the  enormous  out- 
pour from  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  into  Canada. 
Many  of  these  newcomers  were  crofters,  peasants,  and 
poverty-stricken  artisans,  others  were  intelligent  and 
fairly  well-to-do  settlers. 

What  of  the  loyalty  of  this  invading  army  from  the 
old  world  ?  No  doubt  there  was  a  sprinkling  in  this 
miscellaneous  throng  of  those  who  were  badly  disposed 
to  the  mother  country.  The  English  chartist  sought  a 
new  home  in  the  western  hemisphere  to  be  free  from  the 
tyranny  which  he  thought  prevailed  in  England;   the 


460  A  Short  History  of 

sufferer  from  the  "  Highland  Clearances  "  nursed  a  bitter 
feeling  as  with  the  lament  of  "Lochaber  no  more"  he 
saw  the  shores  of  his  native  land  disappear  ;  while  the 
Irish  emigrant,  though  not  so  embittered  against  British 
rule  as  the  Irish  peasant  of  to-day,  yet  had  no  love  for  the 
oppressor,  whom  he  blamed  for  causing  the  sun  to  rise 
in  England  before  it  did  in  Ireland. 

Nevertheless  the  vast  majority  of  the  British  colonists 
and  their  children  were  true  to  the  land  of  their  ancestors. 
The  writer  is  a  native-born  Canadian — son  of  British 
colonists  who  came  from  the  banks  of  the  Forth  to 
make  a  home  in  Upper  Canada.  In  that  home  the 
influences  were  as  British  as  they  would  have  been  on 
the  slope  of  Stirling  Rock  ;  letters  came  from  "  home,"  as 
Britain  was  called,  speaking  of  grandfather,  uncles  and 
cousins ;  the  patriotic  strains  of  Scottish  and  English  songs 
were  familiar  in  the  Canadian  home ;  the  library  was  full 
of  the  best  English  books.  There  was  in  such  a  home  no 
thought  of  any  other  than  British  connection,  and  love  for 
Britain  was  as  natural  as  the  love  for  one's  own  family  and 
its  traditions.  Loyalty  was  a  sentiment  inspired  by  the  pa- 
triotic, moral,  and  religious  atmosphere  of  the  family  circle. 

This  moderate,  just,  and  rational  sentiment  was  the 
possession  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Brito-Canadian 
homes.  It  was  not  so  fierce,  so  dominating  a  loyalty 
as  that  of  the  U.E.  Loyalist,  but  was  more  pacific  and 
more  Christian — and  so  more  effective  in  inducing  the 
hearts  of  the  foreign  and  negative  class  in  Canada  to  a 
love  for  the  British  name  and  fame. 

Most  important  perhaps  in  our  study  is  the  case  of 
the  French  Canadians.  Here  we  have  a  people 
Canadians,  under  British  rule  by  conquest,  a  hundred  and 
fifty  years  ago  not  only  alien  to  Britain,  but  be- 
longing to  a  community  which  from  the  time  of  Edward 
III.  and  Henry  V.  had  been  hostile  to  England  and  anxious 
to  wipe  out  the  old  scores  of  Cressy  and  Poitiers  as  well 
as  Agincourt — a  people  with  a  different  language,  different 
ideals  of  government,  different  religious  institutions,  in 
short  utterljr  un-British,  numbering  60,000  to  100,000, 


THE  Canadian  People  46 1 

The  problem  of  a  people  intensely  hostile  at  the  time  of 
Wolfe's  conquest  to  be  made  into  a  loyal  and  tractable 
British  commimity  seemed  one  Quixotic  and  even  mad. 
But  it  is  not  wonderful  that  our  nation,  that  could  the 
other  day  give  the  obstinate  and  unreasoning  Boers,  after 
three  years  of  bloodiest  conflict,  a  new  chance,  provide 
them  with  millions  of  poimds  without  stint  for  re-estab- 
lishing their  farms  and  educating  their  young — it  is  not 
wonderful  that  this  nation  should  have  shown  the  French 
Canadians  every  kindness  and  consideration. 

In  an  article  written  in  the  Empire  Review,  Sir  Gilbert 
Parker,  our  Brito-Canadian  author,  supplied  a  clear 
and  appreciative  sketch  of  this  magnanimous  and  wisely 
executed  policy.  He  says :  "  The  period  which  immedi- 
ately followed  the  capitulation  of  Canada  is  known  as 
the  '  regno  militaire,'  but  it  is  an  error  to  suppose  that 
the  administration  so  strongly  named  was  marked  by 
anything  but  the  most  complete  equity.  .  .  .  England 
had  already  realized  that  the  lightest  yoke  is  the  one 
which  is  borne  longest." 

On  the  death  of  George  II.,  only  three  years  after  the 
conquest,  the  citizens  of  Montreal  "  placed  themselves  in 
mourning,"  and  in  their  address  to  the  British  Governor 
said  :  "  We  come  to  render  the  sole  tribute  of  gratitude 
of  a  people  who  never  cease  to  exalt  the  mildjaess  and 
moderation  of  their  new  masters.  The  general  who  has 
conquered  us  has  rather  treated  us  as  a  Father  than  as 
a  Vanquisher." 

True  the  French  Canadian  had  no  reason  to  lament 
for  the  passing  away  of  the  Old  Regime.  France  itself 
recognized  on  their  return  the  iniquities  and  tyranny  of 
its  agents  in  Canada.  Says  Parker  :  "  A  just  fate  over- 
took the  arch-conspirators  Bigot,  Cadet  and  their  knavish 
parasites.  The  Intendant  was  banished  from  France 
for  life,  and  all  his  property  confiscated  :  Cadet  was 
banished  for  nine  years  and  fhied  six  million  livres  ;  the 
others  received  sentences  which  varied  according  to  thia 
measure  of  their  guilt." 

In  striking  contrast  to  this  was  the  new  liberty  granted 


46^  A  Short  History  o^ 

by  Britain.  "  When  his  perceptions  were  able  to  measure 
the  English  system  the  plainest  citizen  felt  a  new  impulse 
within  him." 

This  benevolent  and  statesmanlike  policy  was  continued. 
The  French  Revolution  drove  a  wedge  in  deep  between 
the  French  Canadians  and  the  people  of  "  La  belle  France." 
Atheistic  France  could  have  few  attractions  for  French 
Canada.  It  was  in  view  of  this  fact  that  Bishop 
Plessis  of  Quebec  in  1794  "thanked  God  the  colony  was 
English." 

But  dark  days  were  in  store  for  the  Canadas.  Up  to 
1841  constitutional  government  had  not  yet 
Agitation,  been  granted  to  Canada,  and  indeed  in  Britain 
the  right  of  the  people  to  the  franchise  had  not 
yet  been  enjoyed  for  a  full  decade.  In  Upper  Canada  the 
Family  Compact  oppressed  the  people,  and  then  cast 
slurs  upon  the  people  for  demanding  their  rights.  A 
similar  fate  befell  Lower  Canada.  While  the  French 
Canadians  who  made  up  the  body  of  the  members  con- 
stituting the  Legislature  controlled  it,  yet  the  Executive 
and  Legislative  Councils  were  a  strong-willed  and  united 
oligarchy,  made  up  of  the  handful  of  British  residents. 
The  cry  of  the  French  Canadians  for  self-government 
was  interpreted  by  the  local  oppressors  as  disloyalty  to 
Britain.  Thus  do  oligarchies  always  protect  themselves. 
"  We  have,"  they  invariably  declare,  "  no  king  but 
Caesar  !  " 

The  period  from  1820  to  1850  was  Canada's  time  of 
greatest  trial.  The  Family  Compact  and  the  Lower 
Canada  Executive  fought  desperately  for  control.  Seeing 
the  people  in  both  provinces  determined,  the  oligarchs 
became  alarmed  for  British  supremacy.  In  this  we 
may  credit  them  with  honesty,  though  they  were  most 
imwise  and  impolitic  in  their  action. 

The  arrogance  and  selfishness  of  these  governing  bodies 
brought  on  Mackenzie's  and  Papineau's  rebellions.  Not 
that  Mackenzie  and  Papineau  were  justified  in  their 
action.  Had  they  been  patient  and  persisted  in  con- 
stitutional   methods,   they    would    certainly    have    won 


tHiJ  Canadian  People  46 S 

and  precious  blood  have  remained  unshed.  But  the 
elements  which  rose  in  rebellion,  with  the  exception  of 
their  leaders,  were  principally  those  which  had  no  natural 
allegiance  to  Britain,  viz.  the  children  of  the  later  Americans 
and  the  French  Canadians. 

The  rebellions,  however,  brought  the  real  facts  of  the 
case  to  British  eyes.  Downing  Street  had  been  asleep. 
Its  eyes  were  opened,  and  Lord  Durham's  Report  embodied 
in  the  constitution  of  1841  was  Britain's  pacific  and 
noble  answer  to  the  people  who  had  thus  spoken  no 
doubt  harshly,  to  many  minds  im wisely,  but  emphatically. 
This  Canadian  agitation  saved  Canada  from  the  tyranny 
of  the  oligarchy  and  held  it  fast  as  a  British  colony. 

The  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  saw  a  distinctly 
upward  trend  in  Canadian  society.  Serious  Rise  of 
questions  involving  religious  disputes  were  Canadian 
solved,  education  both  primary  and  imiversity  L<>y**ty. 
was  consolidated,  railways  and  canals  were  largely  imder- 
taken,  and  municipal  and  social  institutions  took 
definite  form.  Trade  with  the  United  States  became 
freer,  and  the  people  were  hopeful  and  contented. 
True  there  were  those  who  had  feared  that  commercial 
treaty  connection  with  the  United  States  might  impair 
British  attachment,  but  Lord  Elgin  faced  and  cast  to 
earth  this  bogey.  For  the  first  time  in  their  history 
the  Canadas  were  quite  contented,  and  then  there 
began  to  be  an  outlook  toward  a  national  life.  No  doubt 
the  tide  rose  but  slowly,  but  the  native  Canadian  now 
became  a  feature — ^he  was  indigenous  and  not  an  exotic. 

The  demands  of  these  times  also  drew  out  the  patriotic 
spirit  of  the  Canadians.  Half  a  dozen  years  before 
Confederation  young  Canadian  hearts  were  set  aglow 
with  the  prospect  of  a  conflict  between  Britain  and  the 
United  States,  which  would  involve  Canada.  When 
the  "  Treni  affair  "  broke  out  so  suddenly  in  1861,  so 
completely  had  the  thought  of  country  or  its  defence 
with  arms  died  out,  that  thousands  of  young  Canadians 
had  never  seen  a  uniformed  soldier,  or  put  in  a  single 
hour  of  drill,  or  thought  of  military  duty.     But  the  cry 


464  A  Short  History  of 

to  arms  had  an  unexpected  and  enthusiastic  response* 
Companies  and  regiments  were  formed  everywhere ; 
battalions  sprang  up  among  the  Americanized  coimties 
along  Lake  Erie ;  strong  regiments  arose  among  the 
old  U.E.  Loyalist  settlements ;  and  French  Canadian 
volunteers  were  as  loyal  and  enthusiastic  as  those  of 
British  blood.  Many  were  surprised  at  this  common 
impulse  among  Canadians. 

Why  was  all  this  ?  Now  the  grandsons  of  the  U.E. 
Loyalists  and  the  sons  of  the  British  settlers 
nition!^  ^  have  no  monopoly  of  loyalty.  The  son  of  the 
man  who  had  been  imder  arms  as  a  rebel  in 
1837-8  either  in  Upper  or  Lower  Canada,  the  descendant 
of  the  later  American,  even  the  son  of  the  L:ish  patriot 
who  had  left  Hibernian  shores  with  a  curse,  are  now 
on  the  same  footing  with  the  loyalist.  Why  ?  Because 
they  were  all  "to  the  manner  born."  They  were  all 
Canadians.     They  had  grasped  the  thought :  My  country  ! 

And  when  again,  and  still  before  Confederation,  when 
Canadian  homes  were  assailed  by  Fenian  hordes,  the 
clarion  sound  for  defence  was  heard  and  the  flower  of  young 
Canada  rushed  to  arms,  and  willingly,  to  give  their  lives 
for  the  land  they  loved.  It  came  to  be  that  the  patriot's 
soul  and  his  native  land  were  knit  together  by  a  covenant 
of  blood  never  to  be  broken. 

What  had  the  generation  of  Canadians  seen  different 
from  the  one  which  had  preceded  them  ? 

Hear  Lighthall's  answer  to  the  question : 

The  vision,  mortal,  it  is  this — 

Dead  mountain,  forest,  knoll,  or  tree 

Awakens  all  endued  with  bliss; 

A  native  land — O  think  !    to  be 

Thy  native  land — and  ne'er  amiss 

Its  smile  shall  like  a  lover's  kiss 

From  henceforth  seem  to  thee. 

The  cry  thou  could'st  not  understand. 

Which  runs  through  that  new  realm  of  light, 

From  Breton's  to  Vancouver's  strand 

O'er  many  a  lovely  landscape  bright, 

It  is  their  waking  utterance  grand. 

The  great  refrain,  "  A  Native  Land  !  " 

Thine  be  the  ear,  the  sight. 


tHE  Canadian  People  466 

Yes !   this  native  land  gradually  rose  out  of  the  mists 
of    political    contest,  and   the    negotiations  of 
statesmen,   and  the  soul  impulse  that  makes  ocean, 
for  national  life,  and  we    saw  slowly  emerge 
the  great  actuality  of  a  Dominion  of  Canada  (1867) ;    a 
union  of  provinces — of    interests,    of    wider    sentiment. 
Without  doubt  we  were  confused — ^uncertain,  half-hearted, 
but  when  our  enemies  sneered  at  us,  and  told  us  we  were 
"  a   mere  fringe  of    scattered    provinces  " — "  a  rope   of 
sand,"  the  stars  in  their  courses  fought  against  that  Sisera 
and   we  rose   into   our   destiny.     Confederation   became 
an  accomplished  fact. 

The  Confederation  Era  marked  a  distinct  step  in  our 
development.  Not  only  was  this  our  Native  Land,  but 
we  came  to  see  it  as  a  great,  beautiful,  ocean-washed 
land,  half  a  continent  in  extent.  The  vision  of  patriotism 
grew  into  a  vision  of  majesty,  and  as  we  gazed  at  the 
gleaming  of  the  snow-clad  peaks  of  our  Rockies,  we  were 
inspired  to  do  greater  things,  and  more  noble,  for  a  land 
so  worthy  of  our  faith. 

But  all  this  development  came  to    us  as  Canadians 
under   the   aegis  of    Great   Britain.     She   had 
watched  over  our  budding  life.     She  had  given  British  ? 
us  aid  and  nurture.     She  had  treated  with  un- 
selfish generosity  French  Canadian  and  British  settler,  as 
well  as  the  alien  from  afar — ^treated  all  alike  as  her  children. 

Thus  the  prestige  of  Britain  was  ours  ;  her  glory  ours  ; 
she  had  given  us  protection  and  shelter  with  unstinted 
hand,  and  then  bestowed  on  us  the  precious  boon  of 
self-government.  We  are  absolutely  free — ^the  freest 
nation  under  heaven.  We  call  ourselves  a  nation  within 
a  nation  ;  one  of  the  great  congeries  of  national  states  ; 
a  unit  of  the  cluster  of  parts  which  make  up  the  Empire. 
Britain's  language,  literature,  scientific  progress,  religious 
tolerance,  flag,  army,  navy,  constitution,  manners — ^all 
are  ours — ^all  our  precious  heritage!  A  true  affection 
has  grown  up  upon  the  basis  of  right  and  fair  treatment. 
Undoubtedly  too  this  loyal  feeling  has  assumed  the  form 
of    a  chivalrous  and  ardent   devotion,  because  for  more 

30 


466  A  Short  History  o^ 

than  sixty  years,  almost  coincident  with  the  growth 
of  our  liberties,  it  flourished  in  the  atmosphere  of  that 
life  in  whom 

A  thousand  claims  and  reverence  closed 
As  mother,  wife,  and  queen — 

Queen  and  Empress,  Victoria  the  unsullied.  This  is  why 
Canadians  are  loyal  to  the  British  Crown. 

We  are  still  looking  back  at  the  momentous  struggle 
To-Dav  with  the  Boers  which  closed  during  the  first 
decade  of  this  century.  In  that  struggle  con- 
tingent after  contingent  rushed  to  the  help  of  the  mother 
country,  and  in  every  contingent  all  the  elements  of 
Canadian  life  were  fully  represented.  Those  of  British, 
American,  and  French  descent  together  wet  the  South 
African  veldt  with  their  blood  as  soldiers  of  the  Queen. 

When  this  is  so,  shame  on  the  man  who  seeks  to  stir  up 
strife  between  one  element  of  the  population  and  another, 
or  who  would  despise  any  class  or  section  of  our  people. 
Upper  Canada  was  made  up  of  as  heterogeneous  elements 
of  population  as  any  land  could  be,  and  see  the  result 
to-daj^  in  a  community  happily  unified  by  time  and 
circumstance.  He  is  no  patriot  who  stirs  up  racial 
strife  among  us. 

Some  time  ago  the  writer  asked  for  a  few  linjes  on 
Canadian  loyalty  from  Sir  James  Lemoine  of  Quebec. 
Sir  James  was  well  known  as  a  distinguished  litterateur. 
His  biographer  said,  "he  is  a  happy  blend  of  the  French 
Canadian  seigneur,  the  English  gentleman,  the  Scotch 
Highlander,  and  the  U.E.  Loyalist.  The  personality 
of  Sir  James  Lemoine  touches  Canada  on  every  side." 

Sir  James  writes : 

**  Quebec, 
**20th  Oct.,   1902. 

"Dear  Sir, — 

"  While  rejoicing  with  you  in  that  healthy  sentiment 
of  loyalty  to  the  British  Crown,  so  conspicuous  ^  French 
in  your  native  Province  of  Ontario,  the  same  Canadian 
high    ideal  calls  forth    a  few   remarks    when  P**"^^- 
applicable    to    the    French    province   of   Canada. 


THE  Canadian  People  467 

"  More  than  once  it  has  been  a  proud  boast  for  French 
Canadians  to  point  out  their  alacrity  under  British  rule 
to  fly  to  arms  at  the  beck  of  their  king  and  country — 
in  1775  ;  in  1812  ;  in  1898. 

**  I  firmly  believe,  were  a  new  emergency  to  arise,  French 
Canadians  would  respond  to  the  bugle's  call  and  be  ready 
to  shed  their  blood,  as  they  recently  did  on  South 
African  veldts,  possibly  with  less  outward,  though  as 
hearty  an  impulse  of  loyalty,  as  British  Canadians  have 
shown. 

**  It  has  ever  seemed  unreasonable  to  me  in  dealing  with 
the  predominant  element  of  the  Quebec  population,  des- 
cendants from  the  proud  and  sensitive  Gallic  race,  foreign 
in  language,  creed,  and  traditions,  from  and  for  centuries, 
though  not  now,  hostile  to  everything  English — it  has 
ever,  I  say,  seemed  to  me  unreasonable  to  expect  from 
them  the  same  gushing  enthusiasm  for  English  aims  and 
English  successes  as  may  bubble  from  the  heart  of  a 
Canadian  of  British  parentage. 

"  In  fact  I  should  be  inclined  to  view  as  rank  hypocrisy 
any  such  pretence. 

"  Canada  heard  on  the  ever  memorable  13th  September, 
1769 — on  Abraham's  Heights — ^the  death  knell  of  one 
century  and  a  half  of  French  absolutism,  misrule  in 
various  shapes,  luiblushing  peculation,  forced  military 
service,  feudal  exactions — ^what  Parkman,  in  a  fine  satire, 
styles  '  paternal  despotism.' 

**  A  new  era  opened  out.  The  meteor  flag  of  old  England 
streaming  from  om*  bastions  meant  equal  rights — civil 
and  religious  liberty — progress. 

**  Yes !  indeed  Canadians  of  every  race  are  proud  as 
British  subjects  to  be  associated  as  partners  in  the  glory 
of  the  greatest  nation  of  modem  times — ^the  British 
Empire  with  its  four  hundred  millions  of  subjects. 

"  Such,  my  dear  Professor,  is  my  view  of  Canadian 
loyalty ;  'tis  not  likely  to  be  altered  by  the  vapourings 
of  a  few  hot-heads  or  sore-heads. 

"J.  M.  Lbmoinb." 


468  A  Short  History  of 


Section  IV. — Public  Men  of  the  Time 

The  two  prominent  Canadians  of  Scottish  blood — 
Death  of  Macdonald  and  Mackenzie — ^the  first  two 
Two  States-  premiers  of  the  Dominion,  were  not  far  divided 
™®°*  in  their   death — ^the   former   passing   away  in 

1892  and  the  other  in  1893.  Though  before  described,  we 
may  sum  up  their  careers.  Sir  John  was  a  skilful,  far- 
seeing,  and  practical  statesman — ^Mackenzie  a  persevering, 
industrious,  and  rather  unyielding  leader.  Sir  John, 
though  not  lacking  in  political  genius,  led  his  followers 
largely  by  sympathy  and  good-fellowship ;  Mackenzie 
by  close  adherence  to  his  principles  and  by  his  upright 
disposition.  Sir  John  was  persuasive,  Mackenzie  argu- 
mentative. Sir  John  was  after  the  manner  of  Disraeli, 
Mackenzie  of  the  class  of  thought  of  Ruskin  or  Carlyle. 
Mackenzie  refused  to  accept  a  title. 

Edward  Blake,  born  in  Canada  in  1833,  was  son  of 
Blake  Chancellor    Blake,    and    followed    his    father's 

profession  of  the  law.  He  was  educated  in 
Upper  Canada  College  and  Toronto  University.  Of 
the  University  he  afterwards  became  its  greatest  chan- 
cellor. On  his  entering  public  life  he  became,  easily, 
the  foremost  political  and  legal  authority,  but  he  lacked 
the  qualities  of  heart  and  skilful  management  of  a  great 
leader,  in  this  latter  quality  being  an  exact  opposite  of 
Sir  John  Macdonald.  Blake  was  for  a  time  premier 
of  the  Province  of  Ontario,  but  never  became  leader  of 
the  Dominion  Government,  although  an  ornament  for 
years  of  the  House  of  Commons.  The  last  years  of  his 
life  were  spent  in  the  British  Parliament,  where  he 
became  a  prominent  Home  Ruler.  A  British  jiu-ist 
rightly  called  Blake  "  a  man  of  power,  fairness, 
eloquence,  and  ability."  His  pleas  for  the  liberty  of 
Canada  and  afterwards  for  the  freedom  of  the  Irish 
people,  from  which  he  sprang,  were  marvels  of  power. 
He  was  called  by  one  admirer  "  the  most  brilliant  orator 
and  one  of  the  most  capable  statesmen  of  Canada,"  while 


THE  Canadian  People  469 

another  regarded  him  as  the  greatest  advocate  for  the 
freedom  of  mankind  that  the  last  generation  saw. 

A  clear-headed,  upright,  and  well-read  man  was  John 
Charlton — an  American — ^who  for  many  years  ch   i- 

represented  the  famous  county  of  Norfolk  in  t^n^ 
Western  Ontario.  Born  in  1829,  Charlton  was 
a  distinguished  tribune  of  the  people  and  an  undoubted 
statesman.  He  never  achieved  a  cabinet  position  when 
the  Liberal  party  was  in  power,  but  he  was  always 
marked  out  in  the  minds  of  the  people  as  higher  than 
the  mere  politician.  Sir  John  Macdonald,  though  a 
political  opponent,  declared  him  to  be  "  the  most  logical 
thinker  and  speaker  in  the  House  of  Commons."  He 
voted  against  his  own  party  on  what  was  known  as  the 
"  Riel  question "  and  also  opposed  the  Jesuit  Estates 
Bill.  Charlton  was  a  religious  leader  in  the  church  to 
which  he  belonged,  he  introduced  legislation  in  parlia- 
ment for  the  protection  of  women,  and  he  was  the  Cory- 
phaeus of  the  movement  for  the  better  observance  of  the 
Lord's  day.  He  was  a  high  authority  on  trade  and  tarijBE 
questions  and  a  thoroughly  consistent  public  man. 

The  name  of  Cartwright  has  been  for  more  than  a 
century  one  to  conjure  by  in  the  old  "  Lime-  -^  .  , , 
stone  City  "  of  Kingston,  Ontario.  Of  United 
Empire  Loyalist  descent,  through  four  generations  before 
the  time  of  Sir  Richard  Cartwright,  his  family  in  the  British 
American  Colonies  or  Canada  had  contained  members 
notable  in  the  army  or  on  the  bench.  Sir  Richard,  who 
died  in  1912,  was  born  in  Kingston  in  1835.  Of  a  strong 
Conservative  family.  Sir  Richard  in  1863  began  to  show 
signs  of  independence  in  regard  to  the  political  issues  of 
the  day,  and  after  Confederation  adhered  to  the  Liberal 
party,  sat  in  parliament  for  various  Ontario  constitu- 
encies, and  last  became  the  leader  of  the  Senate.  His 
political  life  extended  over  fifty  years.  He  was  a  brilliant 
speaker,  a  pungent  opponent  in  debate,  and  a  surpris- 
ingly well-iuformed  man  on  all  commercial  questions. 
While  impetuous  and  satirical  as  a  speaker,  yet  he  was 
a  fair  man  and  despised  taking  advantage  of  an  anta- 


470  A  Shoet  History  op 

gonist   or    gaining   a   point  in    any  other   way  than  by 
honest  fighting. 

Of  world-wide    fame,   but  the    especial  favourite    of 
str  th  every  part  of  the  British  Empire,  stands  out 

Donald  Alexander  Smith,  as  Lord  Strathcona 
and  Moimt  Royal.  Born  of  Hudson's  Bay  Company  stock, 
in  1820,  in  Scotland,  the  young  stripling,  after  showing 
aptitude  at  school,  followed  the  bent  of  mind  and  the 
love  of  adventure  of  his  uncle  John  Stuart,  who  belonged 
to  the  party  of  traders  which  first  descended  the  danger- 
ous Fraser  River  of  British  Columbia,  and  who  was  a 
Chief  Factor  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  It  was 
the  young  fur-trader's  lot  in  1838  as  a  junior  clerk  to  find 
his  way  to  the  desolate  shore  of  Labrador,  and  for  forty 
years  in  the  regions  east  of  Hudson  Bay  he  continued 
to  rise  through  all  the  grades  of  promotion  in  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  and  became  Chief  Factor  in  1863,  when  on 
account  of  his  administrative  ability  and  capacity  he 
was  called  to  the  head  office  of  the  Company  in  Canada 
at  Montreal.  In  1869  he  was  appointed  a  Dominion 
Commissioner  to  proceed  to  Fort  Garry  in  connection 
with  the  Riel  rebellion.  On  this  mission  he  was  success- 
ful, and  for  ten  years  he  represented  the  people  of  Winni- 
peg in  the  provincial  or  Dominion  parliaments.  While 
dealing  for  a  time  with  the  land  and  other  business  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  he  removed  to  Montreal 
West  and  sat  in  parliament  for  that  constituency.  His 
interest  in  the  Canadian  West  led  him  to  become  a  leader 
in  developing  the  St.  Paul  and  Manitoba  Railway  and 
afterwards  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway.  In  his  later 
years,  with  great  distinction,  he  acted  as  Canadian  Com- 
missioner in  London.  Of  great  wealth,  his  patriotism 
led  him  at  vast  expense  to  equip  a  mounted  Canadian 
regiment,  known  as  the  "  Strathcona  Horse,"  for  South 
Africa.  As  said  of  him,  *'  blood  will  tell,"  and  the  blood 
of  the  Grants  and  Stuarts  well  proved  itself  to  be  no  weak 
or  worn-out  flood  with  which  to  begin  the  life  of  trader, 
diplomatist,  financier,  syndicator,  business  man,  educa- 
tionalist, philanthropist,  and  patriot. 


LoBD  Stbathcona  and  Mount  Royal 


470 


THE  Canadian  People  471 

The  literary  product  of  French  Canada  has  not  been 
very  abundant,  but  it  may  be  said  that  where  py  u  ^ 
the  hterary  French  Canadian,  by  circumstances 
or  inspiration,  is  led  to  cultivate  the  muses  he  achieves  a 
high  standard.  This  was  especially  so  in  the  case  of 
Louis  Frechette,  who  was  born  in  Quebec  in  1839.  Edu- 
cated in  one  of  the  widespread  system  of  colleges  over 
which  Laval  University  spreads  her  wings  in  his  native 
province,  Frechette  began  the  study  and  practice  of  law 
and  also  had  a  short  experience  as  a  member  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  He  turned,  however,  from  the  troublous 
sea  of  public  life  to  the  flowery  meads  of  poetry.  As  a 
bird  pours  forth  its  exuberant  song,  so  Frechette  left 
many  gems  of  poetry.  Two  volumes  of  his  fertile  pen^— 
"Les  Fleurs  Bor6ales  "  and  "Les  Oiseaux  de  Neige" — 
were  judged  by  the  French  Academy  and  were  crowned 
for  their  merit.  A  prominent  English  Canadian  said  of 
Frechette,  "  Amid  the  commonplaces  of  Canadian  life 
Frechette  wrote  true  poetry  and  stands  well  beside  any 
poet  whom  Canada  has  produced." 

Like  Frechette,  Sir  James  Lemoine  stands  out  among 
the  scarce  French  Canadian  litterateurs  as  of  the  . 
first  quality  in  taste  and  imagination.  He  was 
born  in  1825  of  mixed  French  and  Scottish  blood,  bearing 
the  name  James  MacPherson  Lemoine.  Like  Wordsworth, 
he  was  in  love  with  nature.  He  knew  the  plumage, 
habits,  and  name  of  every  Canadian  bird.  He  found  his 
joy  in  the  flower  on  the  hillside  or  in  that  nestling  in 
the  valley.  But  as  he  loved  and  kept  his  birds  and  flowers, 
yet  bearing  as  he  did  the  pose  and  habit  of  the  old  French 
seigneur,  he  was  devoted  to  Quebec — "  Tancien  capital  " 
— to  all  its  memories  and  legends  and  to  every  "  coign 
of  vantage."  He  assumed  the  name  and  delighted  in 
personating  in  his  writing  Scott's  "  Jonathan  Oldbuck," 
the  Antiquarian.  Lemoine's  different  series  of  "  Maple 
Leaves  "  aboimd  with  tender,  gentle,  loving  touches  of 
"le  bas  Canada."  Until  the  last,  when  he  passed  away 
at  eighty-seven,  he  was  the  polished,  courtly,  light- 
hearted  gentleman  of  the  old  school. 


472  A  Short  History  of 

There  is  a  quiet  glow  in  the  heart  of  a  man  who  for- 
Three  Not-  sakes  the  joys  of  home  and  the  brilliancy  of 
able  Ecele-  city  life  to  make  his  abode  among  the  ignorant, 
siastics.  ^^^^  savage,  or  the  debased,  to  be  their  friend 
and  benefactor.  Such  satisfaction  assuredly  came  to 
the  hearts  of  a  number  of  young  men  who  left  comfort 
and  ease  to  go  out  in  the  middle  of  last  century  to  the 
remote  Hudson's  Bay  Company  territories. 

The  late  Archbishop  Machray  was  one  of  these.  Ro- 
-j   ,  bert    Machray  was  born    in  Aberdeen,    Scot- 

land, in  1831  and  took  his  degree  in  King's 
College  in  his  native  city.  Like  many  of  his  enter- 
prising countrymen,  he  went  to  Cambridge  University, 
England,  and  graduated  as  a  wrangler  there.  He  was  a 
man  of  commanding  appearance,  being  nearly  six  feet 
four  inches  high.  Careless  of  the  hardships  and  depriva- 
tions, he  came  out  to  Red  River  settlement  as  Bishop 
of  Rupert's  Land  in  1865  and  was  at  the  time  the  youngest 
bishop  in  the  Church  of  England.  The  land  was  remote, 
being  reached  only  after  a  long  sea  voyage  across  the 
Atlantic,  through  Hudson  Bay,  and  then  a  trying  land 
voyage  by  canoe  and  portage  for  five  hundred  miles. 
The  hardships  in  his  permanent  place  of  abode  were 
many  and  his  followers  were  few  and  careless.  Possibly 
the  pioneer  was  more  of  an  educationalist  than  a  mis- 
sioner.  He  revived  St.  John's  College  near  Fort  Garry 
and  put  his  work  among  whites  and  Indians  in  a  few 
years  on  a  good  footing.  He  was  first  chancellor  of  the 
young  University  of  Manitoba,  Winnipeg,  in  1877,  and 
chairman  of  the  Board  of  Education,  when  the  Province 
of  Manitoba  was  organized.  He  was  a  man  among  men, 
took  a  noble  stand  for  queen  and  coimtry  at  the  time  of 
the  Riel  rebellion,  and  was  universally  respected  and 
admired.  He  became  the  first  Anglican  Archbishop  of 
All  Canada. 

A  contemporary    of  Archbishop  Machray  was   Arch- 

Ta  h6  bishop  Tache.     Even  earlier  in  life  than  Bishop 

Machray  young  Alexandre  Antonin  Tache  went 

from  his  college  in  Lower  Canada  to  the  remote  region  of 


THE  Canadian  People  473 

Mackenzie  River.  Belonging  to  an  influential  French 
family  in  Quebec,  he  was  born  in  1823,  and  ended  his 
eventful  career  at  the  age  of  nearly  seventy-one.  He 
was  a  man  of  genial  temper  and  of  broad  views.  He 
has  been  called  an  ecclesiastical  statesman.  In  1852  he 
was  called  in  from  the  hyperborean  region  of  the  Macken- 
zie River  to  be  coadjutor  to  the  great  Bishop  Provencher 
the  founder  of  Roman  Catholicism  in  the  whole  North- West. 
Bishop  Tach6  was  the  real  leader  of  his  people.  Absent 
in  Rome  at  the  time  of  the  Riel  rebellion  in  1869,  he 
returned  to  pacify  his  followers  at  St.  Boniface.  An 
influential  factor  in  the  old  Council  of  Assiniboia,  he 
saw  his  cathedral,  college,  schools,  and  hospitals  grow 
to  a  notable  degree  and  efl&ciency.  Archbishop  Tach6's 
last  years  were  much  disturbed  by  the  Manitoba  school 
question  and  by  the  political  troubles  of  Manitoba.  He 
was  a  man  of  infinite  jest,  of  great  personal  affability, 
of  much  simpUcity  of  manner  and  breadth  of  opinion. 

To  Vancouver  Island  on  the  shore  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 
went  in  1854  a  large-hearted  and  self-denying 
clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England,  as  chap-  Qji^g^^ 
lain  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  Edward, 
afterwards  Bishop  Cridge .  For  fifty-nine  years  he  remained 
a  well-known  figure  in  Victoria.  Edward  Cridge  was  bom 
in  Devonshire,  England,  in  1817  and  graduated  in  Cam- 
bridge University.  He  grew  up  with  the  colony  of 
Vancouver  Island  and  saw  it  incorporated  with  the 
mainland  colony  as  the  Province  of  British  Columbia. 
For  so  long  a  well-known  figure  of  Victoria  in  the  Pacific 
capital,  on  passing  away  he  was  within  four  years  of 
his  century  in  age.  He  was  a  public-spirited  citizen,  a 
founder  of  hospitals,  and  a  friend  of  the  poor  and  needy, 
Machray,  Tache,  and  Cridge  all  adorned  their  high  station 
with  the  white  ribbon  of  a  simple,  unselfish  life. 

One  of  the  beautiful    things  in  our  Canadian  life  is 
the  sympathy  which  the  Christian  denomina-  jhe  gjgg^ 
tions  have  in  the  main  shown  to  each  other.  Church 
This   has   been   especially  noticeable,   at   any  ^®*ders. 
rate,  among  the  leaders  of  the  several  churches  since  the 


474  A  Short  History  of 

date  of  Confederation,  now  approaching  half  a  century. 
As  one  of  the  strong  churches  of  the  Dominion  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  has  also  had  its  share  of  great  men. 

One  of  its  most  notable  and  influential  men  was  Prin- 
Caven  cipal  Caven.     William  Caven,  born  in  Wigton- 

shire,  Scotland,  in  1 830,  came  to  Canada  with  his 
father,  a  man  of  knowledge  and  strong  character.  The 
young  man  was  educated  in  Canada  more  than  half  a 
century  ago,  and  afterwards,  chiefly  instructed  by  Rev. 
William  Proudfoot  of  London,  Upper  Canada,  Principal 
Caven,  without  high  school,  college,  or  university  training, 
became  one  of  the  most  learned  and  exact  scholars  of  his 
adopted  country.  For  years  a  pastor,  his  transcendent 
abilities  and  native  modesty  marked  him  out  to  be  the 
unanimously  chosen  head  of  Knox  College,  Toronto. 
His  high  personal  character  made  him,  as  has  been  said, 
"  the  dominant  figure  in  Canadian  Presbyterianism." 
Another  writer  has  said,  "  In  no  other  man  has  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  more  confidence."  His  love  of  liberty 
led  him  to  become  the  head  in  the  movement  in  Ontario 
against  the  Jesuits'  Estates  concession.  He  was  the 
most  prominent  figure  in  the  negotiations  for  the  union 
of  the  several  Protestant  churches  in  Canada,  and  he 
became  the  president  of  the  world-wide  organization 
known  as  "  The  Federal  Union  of  the  Reformed  Churches 
throughout  the  World."  His  great  scholarship,  clearness 
of  mind,  and  personal  influence  as  a  religious  leader  were 
combined  with  an  equanimity  of  manner,  suavity  of 
disposition,  and  gentleness  of  spirit  almost  unexampled. 
Of  very  different  qualities  of  mind,  but  equally  cele- 
g     ,  brated,  was  Principal  Grant,  of  Queen's  Univer- 

sity, Kingston,  Ontario.  He  was  born  in  Nova 
Scotia  in  1835.  He  was  a  Celt  of  great  warmth  and  im- 
pulsiveness of  nature.  He  was  educated  mainly  in  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  and  for  years  was  settled  as  pastor  in 
one  of  the  most  historic  churches  of  Halifax — St .  Matthew's. 
His  activities,  however,  reached  far  beyond  the  limits  of 
his  church  and  congregation.  He  was  a  social  reformer, 
educational  leader,  and  public-spirited  man  in  all  the 


THE  Canadian  People  475 

great  concerns  of  his  native  province.  In  1877  he  was 
moved  to  a  sphere  of  great  prominence  as  the  head  of 
Queen's  College.  He  raised  his  University  to  greatness 
in  Canada.  He  was  an  ardent  Canadian,  as  well  as  an 
Imperialist.  His  famous  journey  from  "  Ocean  to  Ocean" 
in  1872  made  him  an  authority  on  Western  as  well  as 
Eastern  Canada,  while  the  work  edited  by  him,  known 
as  "  Picturesque  Canada,"  showed  ardent  love  for  his 
native  land.  Principal  Grant  was  President  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Canada  in  1891,  and  Moderator  of  the 
General  Assembly  of  his  church  in  1889.  One  wiiter 
spoke  of  him  as  "a  man  of  powerful  personality,  mar- 
vellous versatility,  and  indomitable  perseverance."  Many 
indeed  declared  that  he  would  have  made  a  great  premier 
for  Canada  had  his  line  of  life  led  in  the  direction  of 
public  political  service. 

A  third  great  leader  and  statesman  was  Dr.  James 
Robertson,  for  twenty  years  superintendent 
of  Presbyterian  missions  in  Western  Canada,  i^^tson. 
He  was  bom  in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  in  1839. 
Coming  with  his  family  to  settle  in  Western  Ontario,  he 
studied  in  the  University  of  Toronto  and  became  pastor  of  a 
church  in  his  adopted  province.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
stature,  personal  strength,  and  ardent  disposition.  In 
1881,  the  critical  time  in  the  history  of  Western  Canada, 
he  was  taken  from  his  pulpit  in  Knox  Church,  Winnipeg, 
by  the  General  Assembly,  to  supervise  her  rising  missions 
in  Manitoba  and  farther  West.  He  became  the  "  Apostle 
of  the  Prairies,"  and  afterwards  was  also  overseer  of  British 
Columbia  and  the  Yukon.  The  great  superintendent  was 
an  untiring  worker,  a  church  pioneer,  and  a  man  of  the 
highest  patriotism.  A  hater  of  chicanery  and  dishonesty, 
he  denounced  wrong-doing  in  ruler,  public  servant,  or 
social  parasite  in  the  State.  He  was  the  friend  of  the 
Indian  and  the  new  foreign  settler.  He  stood  for  public 
righteousness  and  temperance.  Dr.  Robertson  had  great 
skill  in  the  management  of  men,  commanded  the  respect 
and  confidence  of  the  humblest  settler,  and  at  the  same 
time  of  the  head  of  the  Grovemment  of  Canada.     He 


476  A  Short  History  of 

passed  away  in  1902  and  was  correctly  described  as  "  a 
great  organizer,  a  skilful  financier,  and  a  broad-minded 
Christian  patriot." 

Bom  on  the  boundary  line  of  the  provinces  of  Quebec 
and  Ontario  in  1842,  Dr  Nathaniel  Burwash 
BurwjBh?^  of  United  Empire  Loyalist  stock  has  had  a  most 
successful  career  as  an  educationalist  and  suc- 
cessful leader  in  the  Methodist  Church.  Educated  in 
Canadian  and  American  universities,  he  was  early  identified 
with  the  fortunes  of  Victoria  University  as  a  professor  in 
1873  and  President  in  1887.  His  great  achievement  as 
a  church  and  educational  leader  was  the  union  between 
Victoria  and  Toronto  Universities  in  Toronto.  A  sound 
theologian  and  a  considerable  author  of  theological  and 
historical  works,  he  became  the  leader  of  his  church  in 
the  negotiations  for  union  with  the  other  Canadian 
churches.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Canada.  It  is  recorded  of  him  most  truly  that  he  is 
"  a  man  of  wide  reading  and  multifarious  knowledge, 
a  man  of  letters  who  has  thought  profoundly  on  the 
philosophy  and  claims  of  religion,  as  well  as  a  man  of 
the  highest  personal  character." 

Among  the  "  Makers  of  Canada,"  few  stand  out  more 
clearly  than  the  great  leader  of  the  Hudson's 
DouglSr  ^^y  Company  in  British  Columbia,  Chief  Factor 
James  Douglas,  who  withdrew  from  public  ser- 
vice a  few  years  before  Confederation.  While  long  since 
gone,  his  influence  is  still  felt  on  the  whole  Pacific  coast 
of  Canada.  Of  Scottish  descent,  he  early,  by  ability  and 
faithfulness,  rose  to  be  the  chief  power  in  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  on  the  West  Coast  of  America.  When 
Britain  was  about  to  lose  Oregon  and  Washington  States 
James  Douglas,  leaving  the  Columbia  River,  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  City  of  Victoria  on  Vancouver  Island. 
He  had  a  marvellous  power  over  the  Indians  of  the 
coast  and  lived  to  see  the  Province  of  British  Columbia 
formed  out  of  the  two  separate  Crown  Colonies  for  the 
island  and  the  Pacific  mainland.  His  personal  mag- 
netism, strong  and  Imperial  spirit,  skill  in  negotiating 


Sib  Wilfrid  Laurier 


47C] 


THE  Canadian  Peoplb  477 

with  the  savages,  and  his  broad  outlook  for  the  future 
mark  him  out  as  a  great  man.  His  courage,  manliness, 
shrewdness,  and  large  and  wide  vision  of  the  future  seem 
to  have  been  his  most  striking  characteristics.  An  obelisk 
for  him  stands  before  the  ParHament  buildings  in  Vic- 
toria and  his  memory  is  cherished  by  the  whole  Pacific 
province  of  the  Dominion. 

Among  the  poHticians  of  Canada  who  bore  an  imsullied 
reputation  was  Sir  John  Thompson,  who  became  «.  ,  . 
premier  after  the  death  of  Sir  John  Macdonald.  Thompson. 
Coming  from  Nova  Scotia,  originally  a  Protes- 
tant he  had  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  had 
been  on  the  bench  as  a  high-minded  and  able  judge.  He 
seemed  little  fitted  to  deal  with  the  imfortimate  political 
scandals  which  came  to  light  during  his  time  of  oflSce  in 
Ottawa.  His  opponents  give  him  credit  for  being  a  good 
lawyer,  a  man  personally  of  imstained  character  and  of 
high  respectability.  His  sudden  death  in  1894  while  at 
Windsor  Castle,  England,  caused  much  consternation  in 
political  circles  in  Canada.  A  magnificent  convoy  was 
given  him  as  a  British  man-of-war  brought  his  remains 
across  the  Atlantic  to  a  great  funeral  at  his  home  in 
Halifax. 

The  veteran  statesman  who  for  fifteen  eventful  years, 
from  1896-1911,  guided  the  destinies  of  Canada 
is  a  French  Canadian  of  great  brilliancy  and 
prestige.  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier  was  bom  in  1841,  and  after 
being  educated  at  L'Assomption  CoUege  and  McGiU 
University  he  entered  upon  the  legal  profession.  He  has 
been  in  the  Dominion  Parliament  for  more  than  forty 
years,  and  is  the  Nestor  of  the  House  of  Commons.  An 
equally  eloquent  speaker  in  French  and  EngUsh  and  of  a 
conciliatory  disposition,  he  has  done  much  to  moderate 
the  rise  of  rival  feeling  between  the  English  and  French 
people  of  Canada.  More  than  any  other  man  he  is 
equally  a  Canadian  and  an  Imperialist.  He  has  received 
the  highest  civic  and  university  honours  in  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  Canada,  and  was  given  the  place  of  honour 
among  all  the  Overseas  Dominions  in  the  Diamond  Jubilee 


478  A  Short  History  op 

of  Queen  Victoria.  As  a  speaker  and  statesman  he  is 
a  great  favourite  in  the  cities  of  London,  Liverpool,  and 
Edinburgh,  of  which  cities  he  has  received  the  freedom. 
Jii  grace  of  manner,  brilHant  diction,  skilful  debate, 
finished  oratory,  and  bonhomie  he  has  no  equal  in  Canadian 
pubhc  life. 

A  prominent  Canadian  who  passed  away  most  unex- 
Norauav  pcctedly  and  prematurely  in  his  native  pro- 
vince, was  John  Norquay,  who  at  the  age  of 
forty-eight  died  in  1889.  Of  Orkney  descent  and  a  native 
of  the  old  Red  River  settlement,  John  Nor  quay,  for 
twelve  years  premier  of  Manitoba,  died  all  too  soon. 
Educated  at  St.  John's  College,  he  was  the  most  polished 
and  effective  speaker  that  Manitoba  has  produced. 
Li  the  old  Red  River  settlement  the  people  had  an  ex- 
cellent public  library,  and  the  style  and  finish  of  the 
yoimg  men  as  speakers  was  fully  exemplified  by  young 
Norquay.  But  his  greatest  service  to  his  country  was 
his  conciliatory  disposition.  After  the  Riel  rebellion, 
there  was  much  suspicion,  if  not  animosity,  between 
the  native  people  and  the  incoming  Canadians.  As 
having  native  blood  Norquay  acted  as  a  mediator,  and 
did  much  to  secure  a  unity  and  tolerance  which  were  of 
the  highest  service.  By  his  eloquence,  fairness,  good 
nature,  and  public  spirit  John  Norquay  was  a  public 
benefactor  and  was  greatly  missed  by  all  classes  after  his 
death. 

The  present  Premier  of  Canada  is  the  Hon.  R.  L.  Borden. 
Of  United  Empire  Loyalist  descent,  he  was 
Borden!  ^^^^  ^  ^^^  Evangeline  country  of  Nova  Scotia 
in  1854  and  entered  the  legal  profession,  in  which 
he  has  taken  a  high  place.  He  is  a  sound  lawyer  and  a 
man  of  scholarly  tastes  and  high  ideals.  Since  entering 
poHtics  he  was  for  the  ten  years  preceding  the  defeat  of 
the  Laurier  administration  leader  of  the  opposition  in 
the  Dominion  parliament.  Li  1911  he  was  well  received 
in  England  after  his  becoming  Premier  of  Canada.  He 
is  a  Conservative  and  an  Imperialist,  as  also  a  man  of  the 
highest  moral  and  intellectual  standing.     His  opportunity 


1?HE  Canadian  People  479 

for  achievement  is  great,  and  in  the  increasing  place 
of  Canada  in  the  Empire  there  are  the  brightest  hopes 
for  his  success. 


Section    V, — Dominion    and    Provincial  Autonomy 

While  the  British  form  of  government  is  admirable 
because,  as  compared  with  those  of  Germany  or  Russia, 
it  allows  great  hberty  to  the  subject,  and  as  compared 
with  republics  like  France  or  the  United  States  it  has 
a  more  central  authority  and  effective  executive,  yet  its 
chief  quaUty  of  excellence  is  its  flexibUity  and  adaptability 
to  the  new  circumstances  which  may  arise.  British 
liberty  has  "  broadened  down  from  precedent  to  preced- 
ent." The  same  spirit  which  characterizes  the  mother 
country  is  also  found  in  all  the  daughter  states  which 
now  in  strength  and  amity  are  united  in  the  British 
Empire. 

It  is  no  violation  of  the  trend  of  British  history  or  of  the 
spirit  of  the  Empire  that  groups  of  people  rising  from  the 
stages  of  early  colonial  life  and  dependence  should  seek, 
as  they  feel  themselves  stronger,  a  greater  measure  of 
self-government.  This  spirit  prevails  and  grows  in  the 
rural  municipaUty,  in  the  civic  organization,  in  the 
provmce,  in  the  Dominion  or  Commonwealth  in  all  their 
several  relations  to  the  superior  authorities. 

This  is  not  to  be  regretted,  but  is  to  be  gloried  in, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  an  essential  feature  of  Limited  Monarchy 
of  which  all  Britons  boast.  The  first  important  modifi- 
cation of  the  relation  of  Canada  to  Great  Britain  took  place 
during  the  governorship  of  Lord  Dufferin  imder  the  strong 
and  intelligent  suggestion  of  the  Hon.  Edward  Blake. 
The  statement  cannot  be  contradicted  that  "  Canada 
is  not  only  a  colony  or  province  of  the  Empire  ;  she  is 
also  a  Dominion,  composed  of  a  number  of  provinces, 
federally  imited  imder  an  Imperial  charter  or  Act  of 
Parliament,  which  expressly  recites  that  her  constitution 
is  to  be  similar  in  principle  to  that  of  the  United  King- 


480  A  Shobt  History  ot 

dom."  When  the  Marquis  of  Lome  was  appointed 
Governor-Greneral  in  1878  his  instructions  were  modified 
as  compared  with  those  of  his  predecessors.  The  con- 
cessions then  made  to  Hberty-loving  Canada  were  very 
considerable  and  have  proved  thoroughly  satisfactory, 
although,  as  has  been  said,  "  they  do  not  abate  or  re- 
linquish an  iota  of  the  rightful  supremacy  of  the  Crown." 

In  1887  an  Imperial  Congress  was  held  in  London  made 
Later  ^P  ^f  representatives  of  Great  Britaiu  and  of 

Concession  all  the  self-governing  colonies  or  states  of 
of  1887.  ^^Q  Empire.  Canada  was  represented  by  Sir 
Alexander  Campbell  and  Sandford  Fleming,  C.E.  At 
this  conference  Sir  Alexander  Campbell  strongly  resented 
the  use  to  Canada  of  the  terms  "  colonist  "  and  "  colony." 
Out  of  this  conference  emerged  more  clearly  the  power 
exercised  by  Canada  of  negotiating  her  own  trade 
treaties  with  other  countries.  In  doiug  this  work  of 
negotiatiQg,  concession  has  been  made,  ever  siuce,  to 
Canada  by  the  British  Government  of  carrjdng  on 
negotiations  with  foreign  countries  and  of  having  the 
co-operation  of  the  British  authorities,  sometimes  with 
British  delegates  appointed  and  always  with  the  co- 
operation of  the  British  Ambassador  on  the  spot.  Trade 
treaties  have  been  made  by  Canada  with  France  and  other 
countries. 

That  the  Canadian  position  of  trade  autonomy  is 
satisfactory  to  Britain  and  the  Overseas  Domi- 
Surtax.^™*"  nions  is  shown  by  the  matter  of  the  German 
Surtax.  The  policy  of  Canada  to  Great  Britain, 
as  seemed  reasonable,  was  to  give  iu  1897  a  preference  of 
one-eighth  of  the  customs  duty  at  first,  then  one-quarter, 
and  afterwards  one-third.  Germany  contended  that  this 
was  a  violation  of  her  treaty  with  Britain.  Canada  disputed 
this.  Germany  in  retaliation  placed  on  Canadian  goods 
entering  Germany  the  maximum  rate  of  entry  to  her  ports. 
A  large  number  of  Canadian  products  were  thus  ex- 
cluded from  Germany.  Canada  showed  its  pluck  and 
sturdy  independence  by  placing  a  surtax  of  33 J  per  cent, 
upon    all    German    entries    into    Canada.     Though    the 


THE  Canadian  Peopli)  481 

struggle  continued  between  Canada|l- and  .,  Germany  for 
seven  years,  yet  the  firmness  of  Canada  led  Germany 
to  give  in,  and  so  the  surtax  was  taken  off  German  goods 
entering  Canada,  and  Canadian  goods  entered  again 
into  Germany  under  the  favomed-nation  clause  on 
March  1st,  1910. 

The  same  spirit  that  prevails  in  Canada  as  to  insistence 
on  its  natural  rights  is  seen  in  the  relation  of 
the  provinces  to  the  Dominion.     As  estabhsh-  Autonomy, 
ing  these  relations  the  British  North  America 
Act  provides  what  is  really  a  written  constitution  speci- 
fying the  respective  fields  of  legal  action  of  the  Dominion 
and  of  the  provinces.      As  no  human  constitution  can 
be   made   absolutely   clear   and   perfect,    questions   have 
arisen  in  dispute  between  the  rights  of  the  provinces  and 
those  of  the  Dominion. 

One  of  the  most  dangerous  conflicts  as  to  autonomy  in 
Western  Canada  was  the  claim  of  the  Province  Manitoba 
of  Manitoba  to  build  railways  where  it  chose  Railway 
in  its  own  jurisdiction .  The  Dominion  had  given  Disaiiowance. 
a  charter  to  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  which  allowed 
no  other  railway  to  build  to  the  American  boundary  line. 
The  province  imdertook  to  build  a  railway  of  its  own 
along  the  Red  River  Valley  to  connect  with  the  American 
system  of  railways.  The  excitement  became  intense. 
A  riot  was  imminent.  Wiser  counsels  prevailed.  This 
dispute  was  in  1883  and  succeeding  years.  It  was  at 
length  settled  by  the  Dominion  Government  giving 
way  and  the  province  gaining  its  rights. 

In  a  later  chapter  we  shall  describe  more  fully  this 
burning  and  alarming  question,  which  agitated  xhe  Mani- 
Manitoba  in  1890  and  succeeding  years.     The  tobaSchiool 
point  at  issue  from  the  legal  standpoint  was  Question, 
whether,  having   given   separate  schools   to   the  Roman 
Catholic  people  of  the  province,  the  province  was  still 
bound  to  maintain  them.     No  such  educational  question 
has  so  agitated  a  Canadian  province  as  this  one.   The 
question  is  far  from  being  settled  yet,  although  the  pro- 
vince has  for  more  than  twenty  years  maintained  its 
31 


482  A  Short  Histohy  oie* 

autonomy    in   the    matter.     The    details    of   this  serious 
conflict  will  be  given  in  another  chapter. 

The   determining  of    the  boundary  line   between    the 

provinces  of  Ontario  and  Manitoba  gave  rise  for 
Boundaries.    ^  number  of  years  after  1881  to  both  provinces 

occupying  the  disputed  territory  and  estab- 
lishing in  the  town  of  Rat  Portage  the  courts  and  other 
machinery  of  both  provinces  in  active  operation  side  by 
side.  In  this  struggle  the  Dominion,  as  having  a  common 
interest,  assumed  the  defence  of  Manitoba.  The  question 
was  finally  referred  to  the  Privy  Council  in  London,  which 
gave  its  decision  in  favour  of  Ontario  as  against  the 
Dominion  and  Manitoba  in  the  year  1884. 


Section  VI. — Growth  of  Population 

In  no  matter  has  Canada  seen,  in  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century,  so  great  a  change  as  in  the  increase  of  its  people 
and  the  transition  from  being  a  mere  coterie  of  provinces, 
with  their  petty  parish  politics,  into  a  large-minded 
nation  of  the  Empire  with  a  new  spirit  and  a  settled 
confidence  in  its  world-destiny.  No  doubt  the  con- 
struction of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  and  the  increase 
in  number,  size,  and  efiiciency  of  the  ships  of  her 
merchant  marine,  supplied  means  of  transport  and  thus 
provided  the  material  for  increasing  her  population. 
It  was  really  a  startling  outlook  for  Canadians  when  the 
census  of  1891  revealed  the  fact  that  with  all  her  wide 
lands  and  great  opportunities  the  population,  numbering 
not  quite  four  and  a  third  millions,  had  only  increased  in 
ten  years  by  a  little  above  four  hundred  thousand  souls. 
Canada  to  the  eye  of  the  emigrating  population  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  was  less  attractive  than  its  woods, 
muddy  highways,  and  dismal  thickets  had  been  forty 
years  before  this  time.  However,  an  active  immigration 
policy  was  introduced  by  the  Canadian  Minister  of 
the  Interior,  Hon.  Clifford  Sifton,  shortly  before  the 
beginning  of  this  century. 

Agents  of  skill  and  knowledge  with  business  ability  were 


THE  Canadian  People  483 

sent  abroad  to  show  the  advantages  of  Canada  to  the  poor 
but  industrious  residents  of  other  lands  who  wished  to 
make   new   homes   for   themselves   and   families.     Every 
honourable   means   was   taken,    by   lectures,   exhibits   of 
Canadian  products,  literature  with  full  information  and 
personal  solicitation,  with  for  a  time  a  bonus  to  companies 
and    shipowners,    and    the    propaganda    was    attended 
with    success.     The    farmer   or   farm    labourer    was    in 
greatest  request.     Tens  of  thousands  from  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Ireland  heard  the  call  from  the  Occident.    Whole 
shiploads  of  industrious  Austrians  from   Galicia,   Buko- 
wina,  and  Hungary  came  to  Western  Canada  and  took 
up  homesteads.     Polanders,  Doukhobors,  and  Finlanders 
fled  from  the  tjnranny  of  Russia  to  a  freer  Canada.     But 
the  most  notable  and  most  useful  immigration  came  from 
the  United  States  to  Western  Canada.    Nearly  all  of  these 
American  settlers  have  been  agriculturists.     Nearly  half 
of  those  who  came  from  the  United  States  are  Canadians 
or  the  children  of  Canadians,  who  in  the  times  of  Cana- 
dian  depression   had   emigrated   to   the    United   States. 
The  greater  part  of  the  other  half  of  the  Americans  were 
English-speaking  settlers,  two-thirds  of  them  of  Scandi- 
navian origin.     These  American  immigrants,  numbering 
hundreds  of  thousands,  came  well  provided  with  means  to 
carry  on  agriculture  on  the  lands  purchased  by  them  or 
given  to  them  as  homesteads.     This  American  immigra- 
tion was  especially  valuable  as  bringing  with  it  the  best 
methods  of  agriculture  as  practised  in  the  great  states  of 
Illinois,    Indiana,    Iowa,     Kansas,     and    Nebraska,    and 
taught  better  farming  methods  to  the  European  settlers 
and  even  to   Canadians  as  well.      This   great  immigra- 
tion encouraged  the  opening  up  of  the  country  by  the 
building  of  railroads,  and  increased  vastly  the  demand 
for   supplies   of  every  kind  from  the   manufacturers   of 
all  classes  in  Eastern  Canada,   and   brought  to  Canada 
a  very  large  amount  of  British  capital.     This  large  ex- 
tension of  industry  in  all  parts  of  Canada  made  great 
demands  for  labour  both  skilled  and  unskilled,  and  many 
thousands  more  of  European  labourers  came  to  Canada. 


484  A  Short  History  of 

In  Montreal,  Toronto,  Hamilton,  Brantforcl  and  else- 
where Ruthenians,  Greeks,  Roumanians,  and  even 
Syrians  found  ready  employment.  The  new  railways 
needed  men  from  Lake  Superior  to  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  on  to  the  Pacific  coast,  and  European  foreigners  came 
to  this  work  in  great  numbers.  Large  numbers  of  Jews 
came  from  Russia  and  Southern  Europe.  They  were 
industrious  and  money-making.  The  coal  mines  of  the 
Crowsnest  Railway  and  of  British  Columbia  are  now 
worked  by  European  foreigners  as  well  as  the  gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  nickel  mines  of  Ontario  and  British  Columbia. 
In  British  Columbia  a  large  part  of  the  rough  and  domestic 
labour  is  done  by  Chinese,  the  lumbermen  of  the  coast 
employ  many  Hindoos,  and  Japanese  have  taken  a  large 
hold  of  the  fisheries  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  Very  naturally 
the  question  of  admitting  Oriental  labour  in  far  Western 
Canada  is  a  serious  one,  yet  the  demands  of  the  in- 
dustries are  so  imperative,  that  despite  the  sensibilities 
of  British  and  Canadian  settlers,  they  have  compelled 
the  admission  of  workers,  other  than  paupers  or  defect- 
tives,  of  all  peoples  and  tongues.  In  the  city  of  Winnipeg 
there  are  sixty-two  different  nationalities  speaking 
their  native  tongues.  But  as  a  rule  they  are  industrious, 
peaceable,  thrifty  people,  who  have  come  to  better  their 
condition.  Thoughtful  Canadians  cannot  but  be  anxious, 
while  rejoicing  at  the  prosperity  coming  to  Canada  during 
the  last  twenty  years,  as  to  the  great  task  of  unifying  the 
Babel  of  tongues  and  the  variety  of  nationalities  and  cus- 
toms into  a  harmonious  unity  speaking  the  English 
language,  having  a  strong  British  and  Canadian  sentiment, 
incorporating  all  classes  in  wise  systems  of  public  educa- 
tion, and  in  the  diversities  of  religion  rejoicing  in  the 
prevalence  of  an  intelligent  and  united  Christian  sentiment. 
All  parts  of  Canada  have  felt  the  impulse  of  the  last 
quarter- century  of  growth.  Cities  everywhere  have 
increased  in  population  and  influence,  millions  of  acres 
have  been  turned  over  for  the  first  time  by  the  plough 
in  Western  Canada;  where  in  1871  in  the  three  prairie 
provinces  there  were  only  two  thousand  whites,  there  is 


THE  Canadian  People 


485 


in  the  four  provinces  west  of  Lake  Superior  a  million 
and  three  quarters  of  population.  It  is  gratifying  to  all 
Canadians  to  know  that  while  the  census  of  1891  was  so- 
disappointing,  yet  the  last  twenty  years,  as  shown  by 
the  censuses  of  1901  and  1911,  give  an  increase  in  popu- 
lation of  46  per  cent. 

The  following  table  shows  the  statistics  of  population 
in  all  Canada  during  the  last  twenty  years : 

Population  o»  the  Canadian  Provinces  and  Terbitobies 


1901 


1911 


Alberta          .... 

73,022 

374,663 

British  Columbia  . 

178,659 

392,480 

Manitoba       .... 

255,211 

455,614 

New  Brunswick     . 

331,120 

351,889 

Nova  Scotia 

459,574 

492,338 

Ontario          .... 

2,182,947 

2,523,208 

Prince  Edward  Island  . 

103,250 

93.728 

Quebec           .... 

1,684,898 

2.002,712 

Saskatchewan 

91.279 

492,432 

North- West  Territories 

20,129 

16,951 

Yukon           .... 

27,219 

8,527 

Total 


6,371,315         7,204,527 


Section  VII. — Organization  of  Western  Canada 

At  the  beginning  of  Canada's  last  quarter-century 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  had  just  begun  to  make  a 
reliable  passenger  and  freight  service  possible  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  Backed  by  the  Canadian 
Government  and  managed  with  remarkable  skill,  this 
transcontinental  enterprise  became  financially  stronger 
year  by  year,  and  along  with  other  railways  opened  up 
new  regions  for  settlement.  The  contrast  between  the 
early  settler  in  Ontario  sixty  or  seventy  years  ago, 
and  the  immigrant  coming  to  Canada  in  the  twentieth 
century,  is  startling  when  it  is  considered.  The  new 
settler  of  to-day  can  do  as  much  in  two  years  as  the 
settler  of  half  a  century  ago  could  accomplish  in  twenty. 
Consequently  Canada  has  been  compelled  to  expend 
great  sums  of  money  from  the  public  treasury  to  organize 
and  make  attractive  to  new  settlers  her  wide  domain. 


486  A  Short  History  of 

In  1895  for  the  sake  of  supervision  the  Government 
subdivided  the  unexplored  northern  region  of  Canada 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  whole  being 
included  in  the  North- West  Territories  into  four  districts  : 
(1)  Ungava,  (2)  Franklin,  (3)  Mackenzie,  (4)  Yukon. 
In  1894  in  the  most  westerly  of  these — ^the  Yukon 
— a  prospector  from  Alaska  went  into  the  interior  to  the 
Upper  Yukon  River — a  mighty  stream  flowing  into  the 
Arctic  Ocean — and  on  one  of  its  tributaries  found  traces 
of  a  "  colour  "  of  gold.  At  the  mouth  of  a  tributary 
of  the  Yukon,  the  Klondike,  he  met  an  adventurer 
named  Carmac,  who  had  been  for  years  "  prospecting  " 
the  region.  Investigation  showed  that  a  new  gold 
district  had  been  found  and  creeks  containing  gold 
were  explored  and  named  "  El  Dorado,"  "  Bonanza," 
and  the  like.  Now  began  to  be  repeated  the  excitement 
which  the  lust  for  gold  in  days  gone  by  had  produced 
in  Australia,  California,  and  early  British  Columbia. 
Old  miners  flocked  in  from  all  directions.  The  greatest 
was  Alexander  Macdonald,  a  New  Brunswick  Scotsman, 
who  came  from  Colorado  and  here  obtained  great  wealth. 
In  1895  a  Mounted  Police  detachment  went  out  by  sea 
from  British  Columbia,  entered  the  Yukon  River  from 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  ascended  for  1,800  miles  this  great 
river  of  the  north.  A  post  was  established  at  Fort 
Cudahy  and  order  was  established  among  the  mob  of 
gold-seekers.  The  crowds  of  gold  adventurers  rushing 
in  to  mine  for  gold  were  taken  up  from  Victoria  in  British 
Columbia  and  Seattle  in  the  United  States  to  the  Lj^n 
Canal  in  Alaska,  and  landed  at  Skagway,  to  cross  on 
foot  the  White  Pass  through  the  mountains  and  reach 
the  Yukon  River  in  Canadian  territory.  Down  the 
river  they  floated  to  this  new  Pactolus.  A  centre  was 
chosen  among  the  mining  camps,  and  this  became  the 
city  of  Dawson,  the  capital  of  the  Yukon  District.  After 
a  time,  the  pilgrimage  over,  the  White  Pass  was  accom- 
plished by  a  railway  line,  and  a  provisional  government 
was  established  by  Canada  in  Yukon  to  give  protection 
and  preserve  order.    A  Commissioner  now  rules,  Canadian 


THE  Canadian  People  487 

institutions  have  been  established,  and  the  district  sends 
a  member  to  the  House  of  Commons  at  Ottawa.  The 
day  of  the  adventurer  has  largely  passed  away,  the 
mines  are  largely  in  the  possession  of  hydraulic  com- 
panies, and  the  population  of  upwards  of  27,000  in  1901 
had  fallen  in   1911  to   8,512. 

British  Columbia,  as  we  have  seen,  came  into  Con- 
federation as  a  full-fledged  province.  Manitoba,  saskatche- 
by  direct  legislation  of  the  Dominion  Parlia-  wan  and 
ment,  was  cut  out  of  the  wide  territory  formerly  Alberta, 
known  as  Rupert's  Land  in  1870,  and  the  remainder 
of  the  vast  western  territory  became  known  as  the 
North- West  Territories.  Soon  after  the  formation  of 
Manitoba  these  Territories  were  given  a  Governor — 
at  times  the  Governor  of  Manitoba  being  appointed — 
and  at  length  an  elective  council,  which  sat  with  certain 
powers  as  a  legislature,  but  was  entirely  dependent  for 
its  revenues  on  the  Dominion  Grovernment  at  Ottawa. 
The  large  immigration  to  these  territories  led  to  the 
desire  for  full  provincial  organization.  Accordingly  in 
1906  the  matter  was  taken  up  by  the  Laurier  Govern- 
ment at  Ottawa.  The  legislation  took  the  form  of 
what  is  called  the  "  Autonomy  Bills."  The  two  new 
provinces  were  to  be  known  as  Saskatchewan  and 
Alberta.  They  were  made  of  noble  proportions — their 
area  of  550,345  square  miles,  nearly  equally  divided,  would 
each  be  twice  as  large  as  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
The  local  government  machinery  was  like  that  of  the 
other  provinces,  in  the  main,  they  each  having  one 
legislative  chamber.  Two  featm*es,  however,  of  the  new 
legislation  gave  rise  to  great  debate  and  difference  of 
opinion.  The  first  was  the  retention  by  the  Dominion 
Government  of  what  is  called  the  natural  resomrces  of 
the  province,  as  was  done  in  the  case  of  Manitoba.  As 
the  Dominion  paid  the  amount  for  quit  claim  to  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  of  $1,500,000,  and  became 
responsible  for  the  survey  of  the  lands,  the  expenses  of 
immigration  and  land  management,  it  was  held  that  the 
natural  resources — ^the  lands,  forests,  and  mines — should 


488  A  Short  History  of 

be  possessed  by  the  Dominion  Government.  As  all 
the  provinces  of  the  Dominion  except  Manitoba,  Saskatche- 
wan, and  Alberta  came  into  confederation  as  autonomous 
provinces,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  three  provinces 
named  would  ultimately  claim  the  same  privileges. 
However,  these  advantages  were  not  given  to  the  new 
provinces.  The  other  question,  and  at  the  time  the 
more  serious  one,  was  that  of  separate  schools.  Under 
the  territorial  government,  which  was  largely  organized 
by  the  Mackenzie  Government  in  the  'seventies,  separate 
schools  were  granted  to  the  Roman  Catholics.  The 
question  was  whether  in  the  full  status  of  provinces 
this  should  be  continued.  After  much  discussion,  it 
was  decided  to  grant  a  modified  concession  of  separate 
schools  in  each  of  the  two  provinces.  The  two  provinces 
sprang  like  Minerva  from  the  head  of  Jove — ^fuUy 
equipped.  At  the  census  of  1911  it  was  seen  that 
Saskatchewan  had  grown  in  ten  years  to  nearly  five 
and  a  half  times  its  former  population,  and  is  the  most 
populous  of  the  four  western  provinces  of  the  Dominion, 
while  Alberta  in  the  same  period  had  increased  to  more 
than  four  and  a  half  times  its  former  population.  It  is 
a  matter  giving  pride  to  the  whole  Dominion  that  it 
should  see  from  such  small  beginnings  the  four  western 
provinces  and  the  Territories  rising  to-day  to  one- quarter 
of  the  population  of  the  whole  Dominion. 

It  remains  still  to  speak  of  the  changes  which  have 
taken  place  in  the  area  of  the  Province  of  Mani- 
toba. When  Manitoba  was  established  in  1870 
it  was  made,  on  account  of  the  Riel  rebellion  and  the 
susceptibilities  of  the  native  people,  very  small.  After 
a  few  years  a  portion  was  added  taken  from  the  North- 
West  Territories,  but  it  still  appeared  so  small  on  the 
map  that  it  was  jocularly  spoken  of  as  the  "  Postage 
Stamp  Province."  After  long  and  fruitless  negotiation 
the  matter  of  the  enlargement  of  Manitoba  was  taken 
up  by  the  Dominion  Government  under  Hon.  Mr. 
Borden  in  1912.  The  question  of  the  possession  of  the 
natural  resources  again  came  up  as  in  the  case  of  Sas- 


THE  Canadian  People  489 

katchewan  and  Alberta.  This  was  not  granted,  but  a 
liberal  donation  of  money  instead  satisfied  the  province 
to  leave  these  resources,  at  least  for  the  meantime,  in 
the  hands  of  the  Dominion  Government.  It  is  worthy 
of  notice  that  earlier  in  its  history  Manitoba  received 
possession  of  its  swamp  lands  from  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment, and  these  have  proved  to  be  of  a  considerable 
value.  The  boundaries  of  Manitoba  were  extended 
by  moving  its  northern  limit  to  60°  N.,  which  is  the 
north  line  as  well  of  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta.  On 
the  south  a  diagonal  line  rims  from  the  north-eastern 
comer  of  the  province  to  Hudson  Bay.  The  eastern 
boundary  of  Manitoba  thus  follows  the  coast  of  Hudson 
Bay  from  near  Lat.  57°  to  Lat.  60°  N.  The  new 
area  of  the  province  is  about  the  same  as  that  of 
Saskatchewan  or  Alberta.  The  northern  boundary  of 
Ontario  also  now  extends  to  Hudson  Bay,  and  the 
Province  of  Quebec  includes  Ungava,  which  brings  its 
northern  boundary  to  the  Arctic  Sea. 

Section  VIII. — Stirring  Public  Events 

In  a  previous  section  reference  was  made  to  the 
adoption  by  Canada  in  1878  of  the  National  The  Trade 
Policy  of  Protection  in  Trade  by  Sir  John  Mac-  and  Tariff 
donald,  the  leader  of  the  Conservative  Party.  Question. 
The  history  of  this  question  shows  it  to  be  in  its  essence 
rather  an  economic  than  a  purely  political  question. 
While  Grermany  and  France  are  highly  protective  coun- 
tries in  trade,  Great  Britain,  after  Sir  Robert  Peel's 
Abolition  of  the  Corn  Laws,  became  a  Free  Trade  country, 
and  both  political  parties  for  years  made  this  their 
policy.  The  United  States,  on  the  other  hand,  led  by 
the  Republicans — the  Liberals  of  that  country — adopted 
after  the  war  as  a  financial  expedient  a  high  tariff  policy. 
Australia  also  under  Liberal  auspices  adopted  a  Pro- 
tective tariff.  It  was  accordingly  a  startling  inno- 
vation when  Sir  John  Macdonald  introduced  his  high 
tariff  for  protecting  the  Canadian  manufacturers.     John 


490  A  Short  History  of 

Stuart  Mill  was  quoted  as  justifying  trade  protection 
for  the  infantile  industries  of  new  countries.  The 
Liberals  led  by  Alexander  Mackenzie,  George  Brown,  and 
Hon.  Kichard  Cartwright  supported  a  tariff  sufficiently 
high  to  obtain  revenue  for  Government.  In  1882  Edward 
Blake,  a  prominent  member  of  the  Liberal  Opposition, 
though  still  a  free  trader  in  general,  yet  declared  for  a 
moderate  protection  to  home  manufacturers.  Other 
Liberals  opposed  this  position.  In  the  elections  of  1882 
and  1887  the  Protectionist  Government  was  sustained. 
Hitherto  both  parties  had  advocated  the  readoption  of  a 
Reciprocity  Treaty  with  the  United  States  to  renew 
that  which  had  been  in  force  from  1854  to  1865.  The 
Liberals,  failing  to  dislodge  their  opponents  in  office, 
under  the  leadership  of  their  new  leader,  Hon.  Wilfrid 
Laurier,  in  1887  supported  a  policy  of  unrestricted 
reciprocity  with  the  United  States,  i.e.  a  free  interchange 
of  both  agricultural  and  manufactured  products.  Though 
having  defeated  the  Liberals  in  their  policy,  Sir  John 
Macdonald  sought  to  meet  his  opponents  in  their  trade 
policy  by  proposing  negotiations  with  the  United  States 
as  to  Reciprocity,  a  Fishery  Treaty,  and  more  friendly 
conditions  as  to  coasting  relations  and  the  settlement 
of  international  boundaries.  Sir  John's  opponents  main- 
tained that  this  was  solely  to  gain  time  and  to  cover 
up  the  National  Policy  theory.  The  appeal  was  made 
to  Imperial  sympathies  and  to  the  danger  to  British 
connection  should  Free  Trade  relations  be  adopted 
between  Canada  and  the  United  States.  This  was 
the  last  appeal  of  the  great  Conservative  chieftain,  and 
his  party  was  returned  in  1891  with  a  reduced  majority 
of  about  twenty,  and  with  the  defeat  of  several  ministers. 
The  death  of  Sir  John  Macdonald,  as  we  have  seen,  took 
place  shortly  after  the  elections,  and  we  shall  see  the 
want  of  his  master-hand  in  the  stirring  events  which 
followed. 

The  surprising  skill  of  Sir  John  Macdonald  was  shown 
not  only  in  his  Trade  Policy,  but  also  in  his  ability  in 
heading  a  party  made    up    of    the  Ulster  Protestants 


THE  Canadian  People  491 

of  Ontario  and  other  parts  of  the  Dominion  and  of 
the  Ultramontane  Catholics  of  Quebec.  One  The  bitter 
of  the  most  serious  questions  of  his  long  rule  Reil 
arose  from  Quebec.  The  second  rebellion  of  Question. 
Louis  Riel,  which  had  been  repressed  in  1885,  on  the 
Saskatchewan  River,  left  the  infatuated  and  no  doubt 
partially  insane  rebel  in  the  hands  of  the  Dominion 
Government  as  a  prisoner  of  war  in  the  prison  at  Regina. 
We  have  seen  that  popular  feeling  led  to  his  execution. 
But  under  the  leadership  of  the  Premier  of  Quebec,  Hon. 
Honor^  Mercier,  this  action  was  taken  up  as  a  racial 
insult  and  became  a  national  question.  Great  mass 
meetings  were  held  in  Montreal.  In  1886  the  greatest 
excitement  prevailed  and  the  larger  share  of  the  blame 
was  thrown  upon  Sir  John  Macdonald.  The  Riel  matter 
became  a  Dominion  question  and  led  to  a  notable  debate 
in  Parliament  at  Ottawa.  Edward  Burke  spoke  con- 
stitutionally and  so  far  favoured  the  contention  of 
Mercier.  Now  arose  in  the  Conservative  ranks  a  young 
politician,  Mr.  J.  S.  D.  Thompson  of  Halifax,  who  defended 
the  Government  position  with  remarkable  acumen  and 
skill,  justifying  the  position  taken  by  Sir  John  Mac- 
donald in  relation  to  Riel.  The  French  party  was 
soothed  and  the  Government  was  saved. 

Sectarian  feeling  having  been  once  aroused  it  is  hard 
to  pacify  it.     A  question  now  arose  in  Quebec 
which  further  stirred  up  Protestant  animosity.  Estates!"  * 
This  was  the  Jesuits'  Estates  Bill.     In  the  year 
1888,  in  the  local  legislature  at  Quebec,  I^emier  Mercier 
introduced  a  bill  to  allocate  the  funds  which  had  belonged 
to   the   Jesuits  to   several   Provincial  purposes.     These 
funds  were  the  proceeds  of  properties  formerly  held  in 
Quebec  by  the  Jesuit  Society  which  had  been  suppressed 
by  order  of  the  Pope  in  1773.     Father  Casco,   the  last 
of  the  Canadian  Jesuits  of  that  period,  had  died  in  1800. 
The  Governments  of  Lower  Canada  and  Quebec  had  held 
these  efiFects  since  that  time.     The  Jesuits  having  been 
restored  to  favour.  Premier  Mercier  brought  a  bill  before 
the  legislature  dealing  with  the  matter.     It  was  provided 


492  A  Short  History  of 

that  the  province  repay  the  amount,  which  should  be 
divided  as  follows  : 

The  Restored  Jesuit  Society      .  .  $160,000 

Laval  University,  Quebec           .  .  140,000 

Labrador  Missionary  Bishop      .  .  40,000 

Protestant  Education         .          .  .  60,000 

Total           .  .  $400,000 


This  had  passed  the  Quebec  legislature  unanimously. 
The  matter  had  been  approved  by  the  Pope  and  his 
name  had  been  so  mentioned  in  the  Bill.  It  being  the 
privilege  of  the  Dominion  under  the  British  North 
America  Act  to  disallow  within  two  years  of  its  passing 
any  legislation  of  the  provinces,  the  question  thus  found 
its  way  into  the  Dominion  Parliament.  If  Quebec  had 
been  aroused  on  the  Riel  question,  Ontario  was  now 
set  on  fire  by  the  Jesuits'  Estates  Bill.  The  Minister  of 
Justice  of  the  Dominion  was  Hon.  J.  S.  D.  Thompson, 
a  Roman  Catholic  from  Nova  Scotia,  and  on  the  question 
being  raised  in  Parliament  he  gave  answer  that  legally 
and  constitutionally  the  Government  had  left  the  Act 
to  go  into  operation.  Fierce  attacks  upon  Mr.  Thomp- 
son and  the  Government  were  made  by  the  leaders  of  the 
Protestant  denominations,  and  Mr.  Dalton  McCarthy, 
an  Ontario  Conservative,  led  in  the  assertion  of  what 
were  called  "  Equal  Rights."  His  resolution  in  the 
House  of  Commons  condemned  : 

1.  The  endowment  of  a  religious  denomination  from 

public  funds. 

2.  The  introduction  of  the  name  of  the  Pope  of  Rome, 

a  foreign  authority. 

3.  The  endowment  of  a  Society  dangerous  to  Cana- 

dian liberties. 

Upon  the  vote  of  the  House  of  Commons  being  taken, 
the  majority  of  the  Liberals  voting  against  it,  as  advo- 
cates of  provincial  autonomy,  the  motion  was  lost  in 


~^ 


THE  Canadian  People  493 

a  house  of   131,   the  minority  being  known  afterwards 
by  their  friends  as  the  "  Noble  Thirteen." 

The  agitation  continued  in  Ontario,  and  on  June  12th, 
1889,    at    a  convention    held    in  Toronto,    an  The  Equal 
"  Equal  Rights  Association  "  was  formed.  A  still  Rights 
more     extreme     section     of     the     community  Association, 
formed  themselves  into  a  similar  society  under  the  name 
of    "The    Protestant   Protective    Association,"    known 
popularly   as    the    "  P.P.A."     An    appeal  having    been 
made  to    the   Grovernor-General,  Lord  Stanley  of   Pres- 
ton, to  veto  the    Act,  his  reply  was  that  he  could  not 
veto  the  bill  in  the  face  of  his  own  ministry  and  that 
of  a  large  parliamentary  majority. 

Well  might  Sir  John  Macdonald  have  said,  after  all 
his  political  and  sectional  troubles,  "  After  me  xhe  Manl- 
the  Deluge."  Out  of  the  bitter  hostility  caused  toba  School 
by  the  Riel  execution  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Question. 
Jesuits'  Estates  Bill  on  the  other,  came  a  still  greater 
and  more  difficult  question  than  either  in  connection 
with  the  Public  School  System  of  Manitoba.  When 
the  Manitoba  Bill  went  through  the  Dominion  Parlia- 
ment in  1870  after  the  disturbances  of  the  first  Riel 
rebellion,  the  Macdonald-Cartier  alliance  was  strong.  The 
question  of  establishing  a  system  of  separate  schools 
was  prominent,  and  conciliation  of  the  rebellious  Metis 
was  deemed  a  necessary  feature  of  the  pact.  The  Act 
provided  for  the  maintenance  of  all  the  privileges  as  to 
sectarian  schools  that  had  prevailed  in  the  Red  River 
Settlement  in  old  Rupert's  Land,  although  it  was  not 
known  what  these  were.  Provision  was  made  in  the 
Manitoba  Act  for  remedial  legislation  should  the 
province  interfere  with  the  so-called  rights  as  to  separate 
schools.  At  the  time  of  passing  the  first  School  Bill 
by  the  Province  of  Manitoba  in  1871  the  population  of 
the  French  and  English-speaking  sections  was  practically 
the  same.  But  in  twenty  years  an  enormous  change 
had  taken  place,  the  large  majority  being  with  the 
English.  No  doubt  the  "  Equal  Rights "  agitation 
influenced  the  public  mind,  in  fact  Mr.  Dalton  McCarthy, 


494  A  Short  History  of 

the  "  Equal  Rights  "  leader,  spoke  in  Portage  la  Prairie 
as  to  the  Manitoba  situation.  An  ardent  representative 
of  that  district,  Hon.  Joseph  Martin,  being  in  the  Mani- 
toba Government  led  by  Premier  Thomas  Greenway, 
took  up  the  matter  and  in  1890  the  measure  was  passed 
abolishing  separate  schools,  which  had  existed  for  some 
twenty  years.  The  dissatisfied  minority  in  Manitoba 
sent  petitions  to  the  Dominion  Government  asking  the 
disallowance  of  the  Manitoba  School  Act,  but  Sir  John 
Thompson  deemed  it  wiser  to  ask  the  intervention  of 
the  Courts.  This  advice  was  taken  and  the  Manitoba 
Courts  decided  in  favour  of  the  competency  of  the  new 
Act,  one  of  the  points  being  that  the  minority  had  no 
vested  rights  in  schools  at  the  time  of  the  entrance  of 
the  province  into  the  Dominion.  The  case  was  appealed 
to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Canada,  which  decided  against 
the  province.  The  appeal  was  then  made  to  the  Privy 
Council  in  London,  and  the  Imperial  authority  upheld 
the  province.  The  Dominion  Government,  now  led  by 
Sir  John  Thompson,  was  then  asked  to  pass  remedial 
legislation  as  the  Manitoba  Act  seemed  to  provide.  The 
Dominion  Government  heard  the  case  of  the  minority, 
but  the  provincial  authorities  refused  to  appear  before 
them.  On  the  matter  being  further  referred  to  Britain, 
the  Imperial  Privy  Council  decided  that  the  Dominion 
Parliament  might  legally  pass  remedial  legislation, 
compelling  the  province  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the 
Manitoba  Act.  About  this  time  the  Premier  of  Canada, 
Sir  John  Thompson,  died  very  suddenly  at  Windsor  Castle 
in  December,  1894.  The  death  of  Sir  John  Thompson 
was  a  great  blow  to  the  Conservative  party.  Sir  Macken- 
zie Bo  well  became  his  successor.  The  Dominion  Govern- 
ment after  great  trouble,  having  now  the  Privy  Council 
authority  to  do  so,  decided  on  sending  the  remedial 
order  to  the  Manitoba  Government  (March,  1895). 
Manitoba  refused  to  obey  the  order.  Now  was  the  time 
for  statesmanship,  but  Sir  John  Macdonald  and  Sir 
John  Thompson  had  died  without  leaving  any  com- 
petent   successors.     Ontario    and   other   provinces,  now 


THE  Canadian  People  495 

thoroughly  aroused,  made  their  power  felt,  and  Wallace, 
Foster,  Sir  Charles  Hibbert  Tupper,  and  four  other 
ministers  resigned.  The  Government  and  party  had 
simply  gone  to  pieces.  Something  heroic  must  be  done, 
and  Sir  Charles  Tupper,  leaving  the  Canadian  Office  in 
London,  whither  he  had  gone,  came  back  to  Canada  to 
gather  together  the  scattered  party  and  to  become  Premier. 
While  the  Dominion  Parliament  was  in  session,  three 
delegates  from  Ottawa — the  leader  being  Lord  Strathcona 
— ^proceeded  to  Winnipeg  to  negotiate  with  the  Manitoba 
Government  as  to  a  settlement  of  the  question,  but  it 
was  of  no  avail.  Hon.  Wilfrid  Laurier,  leader  of  the 
Opposition,  took  a  dignified  stand,  as  a  believer  in 
provincial  rights,  against  the  proposed  remedial  legis- 
lation. The  end  of  the  five  years'  period  of  the  life  of 
that  Parliament  being  near,  the  Opposition  "  talked  out  " 
the  Remedial  Bill  and  the  Tupper  Administration  was 
compelled  to  dissolve  Parliament  and  "go  to  the  country." 
The  result  in  J\me,  1896,  was  an  overwhelming  defeat  of 
the  Conservative  (Government,  and  the  matter  of  dealing 
with  the  Manitoba  School  question  was  bequeathed  to 
their  successors,  who  made  a  partial  settlement  of  the 
question. 

The  Conservative  Government  having  been  for  eighteen 
years  (1878-1896)  in  power,  it  seemed  as  if 
the  order  of  Nature  had  been  changed  when  Government. 
Hon.  Wilfrid  Laurier  was  called  on  by  Lord 
Aberdeen,  the  Grovernor-General,  to  form  a  new  ministry 
for  Canada.  Many  of  the  leading  supporters  of  the  Liberal 
chieftain  were  heads  or  members  of  the  provincial 
governments  in  the  several  provinces  of  the  Dominion. 
It  was  a  step  leading  to  a  considerable  amount  of  dis- 
location in  local  affairs  when  these  men  were  invited  to 
join  the  Dominion  Government.  However,  it  drew 
together  perhaps  the  most  able  Government  in  business 
experience  and  ability  that  Canada  has  seen.  The 
veteran  statesman,  who  was  a  Canadian  rather  than  a 
party  man,  Hon.  Oliver  Mowat,  became  the  Minister  of 
Justice,  and  afterwards  Governor  of  Ontario.     This  was 


496  A  Short  History  oi?* 

a  source  of  great  gratification  to  Ontario,  the  premier 
province  of  the  Dominion.  The  Minister  of  Marine  and 
Fisheries  was  the  Hon.  Louis  Da  vies,  Premier  of 
Prince  Edward  Island,  and  now  a  member  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Canada.  The  acute  financier  Hon.  Richard 
Cart  Wright  became  Minister  of  Trade  and  Commerce. 
Hon.  W.  S.  Fielding,  a  member  of  the  Nova  Scotia  Govern- 
ment, was  the  new  Finance  Minister.  One  of  the  most 
able  men  in  Canada,  J.  I.  Tarte  of  Quebec,  was  appointed 
Minister  of  Public  Works.  The  most  representative 
man  of  New  Brunswick,  Premier  Blair,  accepted  the 
difficult  post  of  Minister  of  Railways  and  Canals.  The 
seignior  of  Lotbiniere  in  Quebec,  a  favourite  of  all 
classes,  Hon.  Henri  Joli,  presided  in  the  Department  of 
Inland  Revenue,  while  the  veterans  Hon.  R.  W.  Scott, 
Hon.  William  Paterson,  Hon.  F.  W.  Borden,  with  the 
young  men  Sidney  Fisher  and  William  Mulock,  held  other 
portfolios.  The  position  of  Minister  of  Interior  was  for 
some  months  unfilled  until  Hon.  Clifford  Sifton,  a  member 
of  the  Manitoba  Government,  was  called  to  the  office, 
which  he  filled  with  distinguished  ability.  Premier 
Laurier  claimed  that  in  his  choice  he  had  selected  almost 
invariably  men  of  experience  in  their  own  departments, 
and  with  little  attention  to  titles  or  decorations  he  had 
aimed  at  forming  a  "  Business  "  Ministry.  The  chief 
points  of  his  policy  were  protection  of  the  rights  of  the 
provinces,  an  economical  administration  of  the  finances 
of  the  country,  a  tendency  to  reduce  the  customs  duties 
with,  however,  a  regard  for  the  vested  rights  involved 
in  the  manufacturing  interests  of  the  country,  the  active 
development  of  Western  Canada,  the  refusal  to  give 
land  grants  to  railways,  and  a  vigorous  immigration 
policy. 

One    of    the    greatest    achievements    of    the    Laurier 
Government  was  its  action  in  1898  in  giving  a 
preference  of  12 J  per  cent,  in  favour  of  British  preference, 
goods  coming  into  Canada.     In  this  manner 
the  Government  showed  a  disposition  in  favour  of  Free 
Trade,  for  as  the  amount  of  reduction  was  next  made  to 


THE  Canadian  People  497 

25  per  cent,  and  afterwards  to  33J  per  cent,  it  cheapened 
the  price  of  fabrics,  of  manufactured  iron  materials  largely 
used  in  Canada,  and  of  many  articles  for  which  England 
is  distinguished.  No  doubt  also  this  suggested  and 
enforced  the  movement  begim  by  Joseph  Chamberlain 
in  England  of  giving  a  preference  to  imports  in  England 
from  the  Overseas  Dominions.  The  effort  was  also 
made  to  increase  trade  intercourse  with  the  other  depen- 
dencies of  Britain  by  giving  them  this  tariff  preference. 
Thus  the  different  parts  of  the  Empire  such  as  the  West 
Indies,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand  would  bo  drawn 
closer  to  Canada,  and  be  more  firmly  attached  to 
the  mother  country.  Napoleon  with  some  attempt  at 
sarcasm  called  the  English  "  a  nation  of  shopkeepers." 
Canada  surely  may  be  willing  to  bear  the  same  honourable 
reproach  in  seeking  increasing  trade,  and  while  preserving 
her  legitimate  independence  of  action,  may  have  closer 
trade  with  the  whole  Empire  and  strengthen  her  loyalty 
to  the  king  of  the  realm. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  redistribution  of  territory  among 
the  different  provinces  of  Central  and  Western  xhe  Western 
Canada  in  1905  gave  an  opportunity  to  raise  the  Autonomy 
perennial  source  of  dispute,  the  "  School  Ques-  ®*^^^' 
tion."  If  there  is  one  thing  in  which  the  Orange  Societies, 
which  are  somewhat  numerous  throughout  Canada,  have 
been  consistent,  it  is  in  their  opposition  to  Government- 
supported  sectarian  schools.  The  Autonomy  Bills  on 
their  first  introduction  to  the  House  of  Commons  secured 
for  the  new  Provinces  of  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta  to 
favour  even  in  higher  education  the  giving  of  Govern- 
ment assistance  to  the  sectaries.  This  was  a  matter 
of  dispute,  but  in  the  Liberal  party  itself  this  roused 
opposition,  and  it  led  to  protest  even  from  the  Hon. 
Clifford  Sifton,  one  of  the  members  of  the  Laurier  Cabinet. 
The  bill  was  modified,  but  even  then  it  was  unacceptable 
to  many,  among  others  to  the  Hon.  F.  Haultain,  former 
Premier  of  the  Territories,  and  his  followers.  However, 
the  bills  passed  with  large  majorities  in  the  Dominion 
Parliament.     In  the  organization  of  the  two  new  pro- 

82 


498  A  Short  History  ob" 

vinces  Liberal  Governments^' were  formed,  but  in  the  elec- 
tions an  ardent  "  Equal  Rights "  party  opposed  the 
new  Governments.  However,  both  Governments  were 
sustained  by  large  majorities.  When  the  local  legislatures 
met,  the  Acts  of  Education  passed  in  both  provinces 
reduced  separate  schools  to  a  minimum.  Separate  and 
regular  public  schools  are  under  the  same  rules,  text- 
books, inspection,  and  certificated  teachers.  If  the 
Roman  Catholics  are  in  a  majority  in  a  town  or  district, 
their  school  becomes  the  public  school,  and  there  will 
in  that  place  be  no  Protestant  separate  school.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  at  any  place  the  Protestants  are  in  the 
majority,  theirs  will  be  the  public  school ;  so  that  the 
minority,  if  small,  cannot  support  a  separate  school. 
Thus  only  in  a  very  few  cases  in  the  eight  years  since 
the  passing  of  the  Autonomy  Bills  have  separate  schools 
been  established.  The  matter  of  religious  instruction 
is  settled  by  allowing  Catholics  or  Protestants  to  adjourn 
from  3.30  to  4  for  such  teaching  as  their  respective 
co-religionists  choose  to  give  them.  So  far  as  appears, 
the  people  of  these  two  provinces  make  no  complaint 
of  this  settlement  of  the  question. 

The  Laurier  Government,  with  numerous  changes  in 
.  its  personnel  arising  from  many  different 
Rfigime?'^^^  causes,  remained  in  office  fully  fifteen  years, 
having  gone  to  the  electors  in  1900,  in  1904,  and 
in  1908,  on  each  occasion  being  strongly  sustained  by 
the  country,  usually  by  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons of  about  forty  or  fifty.  The  Senate  in  the  same 
time  by  deaths  and  new  appointments  became  strongly 
Liberal  in  character.  Some  of  the  supporters  of  the 
Government  complained  that  the  Government  did  not 
considerably  reduce  the  duties  on  manufactured  goods 
and  allow  competition  to  come  from  the  United  States. 
Especially  did  this  demand  come  from  the  new  and 
rising  agricultural  provinces  of  Western  Canada.  The 
manufacturing  centres  such  as  Toronto,  Montreal,  and 
other  cities  and  towns  used  their  influence  strongly  in 
favour    of   the  continuance  of   protective    duties.     Any 


THE  Canadian  People  499 

Canadian  Government  will  find  it  difficult  to  hold  the 
balance  evenly  between  the  civic  and  agrarian  interests. 
This  difficulty  is  emphasized  by  the  differences  of  busi- 
ness interest  along  the  whole  boundary  line  between 
Canada  and  the  United  States  all  the  way  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific  coast.  During  these  fifteen  years  some- 
what large  bounties  were  given  to  steel  manufactories 
and  also  to  certain  classes  of  mining  industry.  An 
indirect  protection  was  secured  by  what  was  called  the 
Anti-Dumping  Clause,  which  prevented  American  goods 
in  times  of  dull  markets  slaughtering  or  selling  in  Canada 
at  lower  rates  than  they  were  doing  in  their  own  country. 
The  Grovemment  claimed  that  by  their  active  immigra- 
tion policy  in  increasing  population  and  inducing  foreign 
capital  to  come  to  Canada  they  were  providing  better 
home  markets  for  manufacturers.  Possibly  one  of  the 
most  useful  legislative  measures  introduced  by  this 
Government  was  in  their  establishing  a  Department  of 
Labour  which  dealt  in  a  sympathetic  manner  with  labour 
questions,  introduced  methods  of  arbitration  and  pre- 
vented many  strikes.  The  labouring  classes  in  Canada, 
while  as  in  other  countries  suffering  from  the  high  price 
of  living,  are  in  a  fairly  prosperous  and  satisfied  state  of 
mind. 

No  single  cause  can  be  given  to  explain  the  defeat  of 
the  Laurier  Administration  which   had  done  The  Borden 
such    distinguished    service    to    Canada,    and  Adminlstra- 
which  had  seen  so  marvellous  a  development  ^*°°' 
of  Canadian  increase  in  wealth  and  population  and  so 
great  prestige  in  the  eyes  of  the  world.     During  the  fifteen 
years  of  the  Lam'ier  regime   there  had  been  a  gradual 
change  in  the  political  character  of  the  provinces  making 
up  the  Dominion.     Ontario,  Manitoba,  British  Columbia, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Prince  Edward  Island  had  in  their 
local  politics  changed  their  allegiance  from  the  Liberal 
to  the  Conservative  ranks.     In  fifteen  years  many  of  the 
old  leaders  had  passed  away,  a  vast  number  of  young 
men  had  received  the  franchise,  and  the  cry  of  it  being 
"  time  for  a  change  "  had  some  force  in  it.     Besides  this, 


500  A  Short  History  or 

as  is  inevitable  with  all  Governments  "  barnacles  gather 
on  the  ship  "  and  lack  of  energy  creeps  in  in  some  depart- 
ments. The  old  "  Equal  Rights  "  contention  was  directed 
against  the  Premier  in  several  provinces  arising  from  the 
meeting  of  the  Eucharistic  Council  in  Montreal,  the  "  Ne 
temere  "  position  in  regard  to  mixed  marriages,  and  the 
ever-inflammatory  School  Question.  In  Quebec  all 
other  questions  were  made  secondary  to  the  Laurier 
Government  having  passed  "  navy "  legislation  against 
which  many  French  Canadians  took  a  decided  stand. 
The  most  exciting  discussion  took  place  on  the  proposed 
Reciprocity  with  the  United  States  in  a  free  exchange  of 
natural  products.  Though  the  Government  made  no 
attempt  to  interfere  with  the  protection  given  to  manu- 
factures, yet  capitalists  and  manufacturers,  possessed  of 
large  resources,  feared  lest  if  the  tide  turned  to  lower 
duties  or  free  exchange  in  natural  products  it  would 
lead,  in  response  to  the  cry  from  the  western  provinces, 
to  tariff  changes  being  made  in  industrial  quarters  as 
well.  A  number  of  prominent  Liberals  in  industrial 
centres  opposed  the  Government.  While  Reciprocity 
had  been  the  policy  of  both  parties  ever  since  the  repeal 
in  1865  of  the  Reciprocity  Treaty  of  1854,  yet  inju- 
dicious statements  made  by  President  Taft  of  the  United 
States  and  Representative  Clark  of  the  Lower  House  at 
Washington  led  to  a  fear  of  a  preponderance  of  American 
influence  in  Canadian  affairs.  Young  Canadians  are 
thoroughly  patriotic  and  attached  to  the  British  Crown, 
while  a  large  number  of  the  "  British  born  "  who  in  late 
years  have  left  the  "  Mother  across  the  Sea  "  responded 
to  the  appeal  to  support  the  flag  and  resist  closer  con- 
nection, even  in  trade,  with  the  United  States.  The 
election  resulted  in  a  majority  of  forty  or  fifty  in  favour 
of  the  opponents  of  the  Government.  Hon.  Robert  L. 
Borden,  who  had  been  rising  in  the  public  esteem  for 
several  years  as  an  honourable  and  upright  leader,  was 
called  on  to  form  a  new  Government.  Mr.  Borden, 
as  already  stated,  commands  the  respect  of  all  parties 
as  a  fair  and  patriotic  Premier.     The  leader  of  the  Con- 


THE  Canadian  People  601 

servatives  in  the  Province  of  Quebec  was  JVIr.  F.  B. 
Monk  of  Montreal,  an  old  parliamentarian  and  a  much- 
respected  man.  In  Quebec  the  Reciprocity  question 
was  discussed  very  little  in  the  political  campaign,  but 
a  considerable  number  of  members,  followers  of  Mr. 
Bourassa,  a  descendant  of  Papineau,  the  leader  in  the 
Lower  Canadian  rebeUion  of  1838,  calling  themselves 
Nationalists,  joined  with  Mr.  Monk  in  an  utter  opposition 
to  the  Grovemment  policy  of  a  Canadian  navy.  Mr. 
Borden's  Government  is  a  coahtion  of  the  Conservatives 
and  Nationalists,  the  latter  having  made  decided  in- 
roads on  Sir  Wilfred  Laurier's  following  in  Quebec. 

The  increase  in  wealth  in  Canada,  the  extension  of  her 
merchant  marine  on  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  ^  Canadian 
Oceans,  and  the  growth  of  an  Empire  spirit  Navy, 
naturally  led  the  Dominion,  as  having  more 
than  half  of  its  provinces  facing  these  oceans,  to  consider 
the  matter  of  naval  defence.  In  the  early  part  of  1909 
there  was  much  anxiety  in  all  Europe  as  to  the  military 
preparations  made  by  the  German  Empire  to  increase 
its  sea  power,  and  also  by  its  action,  seemingly  hostile 
to  France,  now  one  of  Britain's  allies,  by  occupying  in 
force  the  port  of  Agadir  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  Un- 
doubtedly the  British  people  were  aroused  and  took 
steps  to  build  more  and  greater  ships  of  the  Dreadnought 
type.  Both  political  parties  in  Canada  hastened  to 
show  their  devotion  to  Britain  and  take  steps  to  defend 
the  Canadian  coast  and  also  to  assist  Britain  in  the 
defence  of  the  Empire.  After  conferring  fully  on  the 
matter  both  parties  came  to  an  understanding  and 
passed    the    following    resolution    unanimously : 

"  This  House  fully  recognizes  the  duty  of  the  people  of 
Canada,  as  they  increase  in  numbers  and  wealth,  to 
assume  in  larger  measure  the  responsibilities  in  national 
defence. 

"  The  House  is  of  opinion  that  under  the  present 
constitutional  relations  between  the  mother  country  and 
the  seK-governing  Dominions,  the  payment  of  regular 
and  periodical  contributions  to  the  Imperial  Treasury 


502  A  Short  History  of 

for  naval  and  military  purposes  would  not,  so  far  as 
Canada  is  concerned,  be  the  most  satisfactory  solution 
of  the  question  of  defence. 

"  The  House  will  cordially  approve  of  any  necessary 
expenditure  designed  to  promote  the  speedy  organization 
of  a  Canadian  Naval  Service  in  co-operation  with  and 
in  close  relation  to  the  Imperial  navy,  along  the  lines 
suggested  by  the  Admiralty  at  the  last  Imperial  Con- 
ference, and  in  full  sympathy  with  the  view  that  the 
naval  supremacy  of  Britain  is  essential  to  the  security 
and  safety  of  the  Empire  and  the  peace  of  the  world. 

"  The  House  expresses  its  firm  conviction  that  whenever 
the  need  arises  the  Canadian  people  will  be  found  ready 
and  willing  to  make  any  sacrifice  that  is  required  to 
give  to  the  Imperial  authorities  the  most  loyal  and 
hearty  co-operation  in  every  movement  for  the  mainten- 
ance of  the  integrity  and  the  honour  of  the  Empire." 

In  1910  the  Laurier  Government  introduced  its  Naval 
Service  Bill.  This  provided  for  a  naval  force  of  eleven 
ships  which  would  cost  $11,000,000,  or  if  constructed 
in  Canada,  it  would  take  one- third  more  to  build  them. 
The  building  of  one  Dreadnought  for  the  Pacific  coast  as 
suggested  by  the  British  Admiralty  w^as  not  then  under- 
taken. This  Act  was  not  acceptable  to  Mr.  Borden's 
followers  in  Parliament.  A  beginning  was  made  by 
purchasing  two  cruisers  to  serve  as  training  ships  for  the 
prospective  navy,  and  negotiations  were  entered  into 
with  British  ship-building  firms  to  establish  shipyards 
and  build  war  vessels  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Canada. 
The  whole  naval  policy  provoked  much  hostility  in 
Quebec,  the  Premier's  province.  His  former  supporter 
Bourassa  now  became  by  his  eloquence  and  association 
a  strong  force  in  Quebec,  and  thus  he  was  supported 
by  the  whole  Quebec  Conservative  contingent  led  by  Mr. 
F.  D.  Monk.  At  a  bye-election  in  Drummond,  Athabasca, 
one  of  the  strongest  Government  seats,  their  candidate 
was  defeated.  The  Naval  Question  was  the  sole  issue, 
and  Canada  was  amazed  at  this  action  of  the  French 
Canadians,  who  had  often  claimed  to  be  more  British 


Lady  Aberdeen 

From  a  por trail  by  LafajeUe 


602] 


THE  Canadian  People  503 

than  the  British.  The  coalition  of  the  Conservatives 
with  the  Nationalists  of  Quebec  in  support  of  Hon.  IVIr. 
Borden's  Government  led  to  further  navy  complications 
in  1913.  The  Nationalists  were  unwilling  to  have  any 
naval  policy.  Early  in  1912  the  German  "  peril  "  again 
aroused  Great  Britain,  and  after  consultation  with  the 
British  Ministry,  Mr.  Borden,  after  much  conference, 
with  the  loss  of  Mr.  Monk,  the  leader  of  the  Quebec 
Conservatives  by  resignation,  brought  out  the  policy  of 
voting  the  price  of  three  Dreadnoughts — $35,000,000 — as 
assistance  to  Britain  in  the  "  emergency,"  but  deferring 
their  permanent  naval  policy  to  the  future.  A  long 
and  stormy  Session  of  the  Canadian  Parliament  followed, 
in  which  to  facilitate  a  decision  the  "  closure "  was 
introduced  into  the  House  of  Commons  procedure.  By 
a  majority  the  Bill  was  carried  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, but  was  held  over  without  a  decision  by  the 
Senate  "  until  it  should  be  passed  on  by  the  Canadian 
electorate  in  a  general  election." 

The  question  of  Imperial  Federation  is  a  question 
which  during  the  well-nigh  half-century  of  the  ^he  Im- 
life  of  the  Dominion  has  come  up  periodically  perialistie 
for  discussion.  It  has  been  a  favourite  topic  ^^*^- 
for  the  pubhc  orator,  the  ardent  politician  on  the  hust- 
ings, the  editor  in  midsummer  days  when  news  is 
scarce,  the  militarist  to  stir  up  enthusiasm  in  his  volunteer 
regiment,  or  the  fledgeling  poet  to  provide  him  a  subject. 
The  Imperial  Federationist  sees  danger  in  every  general 
election,  at  every  trade  discussion  that  may  arise,  at 
every  Fourth  of  July  oration  made  in  the  neighbouring 
United  States  on  the  glory  of  the  RepubHc.  He  fears 
the  influx  of  the  American  element  in  Western  Canada, 
advocates  Imperialism  as  a  special  topic  to  be  put  in 
every  school  curriculum,  and  is  an  especial  authority 
on  whether  White  ensign,  Canadian  Trade  flag,  or  the 
Union  Jack  is  the  correct  thing  to  fly  at  special  times 
and  seasons.  By  some  it  is  used  with  a  purpose,  as  when 
a  former  Premier  of  Canada  said  :  "A  British  subject 
I  was  born,  a  British  subject  I  will  die,  .  .  .  and  I  appeal 


504  A  Short  History  of 

with  equal  confidence  to  the  men  who  have  trusted  me  in 
the  past  and  the  young  hope  of  the  country  with  whom 
rest  its  destinies  in  the  future,  to  give  me  their  united 
and  strenuous  aid  in  this  my  last  effort  for  the  unity  of 
the  Empire  and  the  preservation  of  our  commercial  and 
political  freedom."  Whether  there  was  at  that  time 
danger  to  the  State  or  not,  the  appeal  had  at  any  rate 
the  sound  in  it  of  the  patriotic  war  cry  of  "  Scots  wha 
hae  with  Wallace  bled."  Let  the  Imperial  Federationist 
lay  before  his  countrymen  some  feasible  scheme  for 
uniting  the  scattered  forces  of  the  Empire,  let  us  have 
plans  and  specifications  as  to  the  goodly  structure  to 
be  used,  and  not  hints  of  veiled  treason  as  being  in  the 
hearts  of  men  who  showed  their  patriotism  by  risking 
their  lives  at  Ridgeway,  Batoche,  or  Paardeberg.  In 
Canada  since  Confederation  there  has  been  no  observable 
movement  favouring  or  looking  in  the  slightest  degree 
toward  annexation  with  the  United  States.  There  is 
not  a  professed  annexationist  recognizable  in  Canada 
to-day.  A  British  atmosphere  in  tradition,  sympathy, 
religious  connection,  and  political  affiliation  is  that  which 
all  Canada  breathes  to-day.  If  any  one  is  doubtful  it 
is  the  manufacturer,  who  in  some  cases  is  unwilling 
to  give  a  British  preference  in  trade  because  it  somewhat 
affects  his  profits.  The  British  Tariff  Reformers, 
expressing  their  views  through  Mr.  Joseph  Chamberlain, 
whether  their  scheme  is  practical  or  no,  are  at  least 
willing  to  tax  themselves  for  the  consolidation  of  the 
Empire. 

It  is  plain  to  every  reasonable  man  that  the  eight 
True  Cana-  millions  of  Canadian  people,  inheriting  the 
dian  Im-  principles  of  their  fathers  who  fought  against 
perialism.  tyxdnmj,  suffered  from  Downing  Street  old-time 
bureaucracy,  vice-regal  insolence,  and  even  at  times 
Imperial  neglect,  will  not  as  a  free  young  people  give  up 
their  rights  of  self-government.  Canadians  are  British 
subjects  under  the  Crown,  just  as  well  as  the  people  of 
London  or  Edinburgh  are  subjects,  protected  by  Magna 
Charta,   living    under  a  system    of    limited   monarchy 


THE  Canadian  People  505 

embodied  in  statutes,  fixed  customs,  a  judicial  system, 
and  a  form  of  self-taxation  which  has  been  conceded  to 
the  commons  of  the  realm.  Canada  is  protected  in 
a  written  constitution,  embodied  in  the  British  North 
'America  Act.  Canada  has  guarantees  of  the  rights  and 
liberties  of  every  subject  in  Halifax,  Toronto,  Winnipeg, 
Vancouver  or  Prince  Rupert  as  great  as  those  of  any 
London  costermonger  or  Manchester  cotton-weaver. 
Even  British  statutes  only  stand  good  in  Canadian 
Courts  or  Parliaments  where  we  have  not  modified 
them  by  provincial  and  Dominion  legislation.  The 
Privy  Council  only  avails  in  any  case  where  our  Dominion 
Courts  choose  to  allow  the  case  to  be  sent  to  London. 
Any  change  in  a  scheme  of  Imperial  consolidation,  if 
such  be  possible,  can  only  be  accomplished  by  Canada's 
consent.  It  is  necessary  to  state  this  distinctly.  No 
wise  British  statesman  would  question  this  right. 

But  while  this  is  true,  Canadians  in  heart  and  soul  are 
loyal  to  the  British  Crown.  This  is  the  real  Imperialism. 
In  no  part  of  the  Empire  is  the  National  Anthem  sung 
with  such  spirit  as  in  Canada.  In  no  Overseas  Dominion 
or  colony  have  the  people  such  memories  as  those  of  the 
United  Empire  Loyalist,  who  came  after  1783  ;  never 
did  a  scattered  people  rush  to  defend  their  own  soil 
more  heartily  than  did  the  heroes  of  1812  ;  nothing  could 
exceed  the  willingness  and  pluck  of  the  defenders  of 
their  country  against  the  border  ruffians  of  1866;  and 
no  part  of  the  British  forces  in  South  Africa  in  1899 
showed  greater  bravery  or  military  zeal  than  did  the 
Canadians. 

Besides  this,  Canada  can  render — and  is  willing  to 
render — great  assistance  to  the  Empire.  One  of  her  sons 
called  her  *'  the  half-way  house  of  the  Empire."  Three 
transcontinental  railways  are  now  on  the  way  to  com- 
pletion, which  on  Empire  soil  can  carry  troops,  war 
material,  supplies,  in  the  case  of  war  should  no  concert 
of  universal  peace  be  established.  Voluntary,  hearty 
co-operation  in  any  Empire  projects  will  always  be 
rendered  by  Canada,  and  Canada  is  open  to  consider 


506  A  Short  History  of 

any  plans  looking  toward  the  advancement  of  British 
interests.  Let  Britain — ^the  mother  comitry  which  has 
nurtured  us  so  long — be  encouraged  to  trade  more  with 
Canada,  to  circulate  her  daily  and  monthly  publications 
more  largely  in  Canada,  to  send  across  sea  more  freely 
her  permanent  literature,  to  encourage  her  surplus  popu- 
lation to  go  to  Canada  and  Australia.  Canada  should 
give  greater  preference  to  Britain  in  trade,  should  pay 
devotion  more  and  more  largely  to  the  ancestral  sliiines 
whence  come  our  religion,  language,  literature,  and  educa- 
tion. While  Canada  is  daughter  in  her  own  house,  may 
mother  and  daughter  rise  higher  in  world  influence 
together.     This  is  the  true  Imperialism  ! 

Section  IX, — International  Affairs 

The  right  of  Canada  to  take  part  in  the  treaties  which 
specially  concerned  her  having  been  conceded 
Seaofspute^  in  1887,  one  of  the  most  important  questions 
arising  on  the  Pacific  Coast  related  to  the 
jm-isdiction  as  to  seal  capture  on  the  Behring  Sea.  The 
United  States  contended  that  it  was  a  "closed  sea,"  i.e. 
one  to  which  only  her  citizens  could  have  access  for  its 
fisheries.  By  the  Treaty  of  Washington  (1871)  it  was 
agreed  that  the  question  should  be  settled  by  arbitration. 
Seven  commissioners  had  been  appointed  to  meet,  which 
they  did  in  1893.  The  commissioners  were :  Lord 
Hannan  for  Great  Britain,  Sir  John  Thompson,  Canada, 
J.  M.  Harlan  and  J.  P.  Morgan  for  the  United  States, 
and  one  representative  from  each  of  the  three  countries, 
Belgium,  Italy,  and  Norway  and  Sweden. 

By  a  majority  it  was  agreed  : 

1.  As  long  ago  as  1824  Russia — the  former  owner  of 
Alaska — admitted  that  she  had  no  jurisdiction  in  Behring 
Sea  except  within  cannon  shot  of  the  shore. 

2.  That  Britain  did  not  concede  to  Russia  exclusive 
jurisdiction  of  seal  fishing  in  Behring  Sea. 

3.  That  in  the  Treaty  of  1825  of  Britain  with  Russia, 
Behring  Sea  was  included  in  the  name  Pacific  Ocean. 


THE  Canadian  People  607 

4.  That  all  rights  possessed  by  Russia  up  to  1867 
were  given  over  to  the  United  States. 

5.  That  the  United  States  has  no  right  of  protection 
or  property  in  the  fur  seals  frequenting  islands  of  the 
United  States  in  Behring  Sea,  where  such  seals  are  outside 
the  ordinary  three-mile  limit. 

This  having  been  agreed  on,  in  1896  the  Behring  Sea 
Awarding  Commission  met  at  Victoria  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  the  sum  of  $464,000  damages  for  British  seal 
fishermen  was  assessed  upon  the  United  States. 

The  settlement  of  the  Alaska  boundary,  which  the 
United  States  had  purchased  in  1867  from 
Russia,  became  one  of  great  importance  as  Boundary.* 
threatening  misunderstanding  between  that 
country  and  Canada.  In  1892  at  Washington  a 
convention  was  agreed  on  as  to  the  boundary  and  a 
joint  survey  was  provided  for.  Ten  years  afterwards 
international  difficulties  had  arisen  largely  from  the 
rush  of  prospectors  to  the  gold  mines  of  the  Yukon. 
It  was  in  1899  proposed  that  an  Anglo-American  Com- 
mission should  consider  the  matter,  and  in  1902  Premier 
Laurier  and  Hon.  Clifford  Sifton  announced  that  they 
had  agreed  upon  a  provisional  boundary  until  the  matter 
had  been  settled.  This  went  into  effect  in  the  following 
year.  In  1903  the  British  Ambassador  at  Washington 
and  the  American  Secretary  of  State  agreed  to  the 
reference  of  the  question  of  the  boundary  line  to  an 
appointed  tribunal.  The  body  appointed  was  one  of 
great  ability.  It  included  for  Britain  :  Lord  Alverstone, 
Chief  Justice  of  England,  Sir  Louis  Jette  of  Quebec,  A.B. 
Aylesworth  of  the  Canadian  Ministry ;  and  for  the  United 
States,  Hon.  Elihu  Root,  Henry  Cabot  Lodge,  and  Senator 
Turner.  The  case  was  ably  presented  by  representatives 
of  the  two  governments  who  had  made  great  research 
as  to  the  seven  points  involved.  After  much  deliberation 
the  two  Canadian  representatives  were  dissatisfied  and 
refused  to  sign  the  Report.  Canadian  opinion  was  very 
severe  on  Lord  Alverstone,  the  question  turning  largely 
on  how  the  three-mile  limit  was  drawn  in  the  case  of  an 


508  A  Short  History  of 

inlet  of  the  sea.  While  the  criticisms  upon  the  Commis- 
sion were  very  severe  in  Canada,  yet  Canadians  showed 
that  they  were  good  sportsmen  enough  to  take  a  defeat 
if  the  game  was  fair. 

Reference  has  been  made  already  to  some  of  the 
treaties  of  Britain  with  foreign  countries  in 
Treatfi.^^  which  Canada  was  allowed  to  exercise  a  will  of 
her  own.  Shortly  after  the  Laurier  Govern- 
ment came  into  power  the  favoured-nation  clause 
between  Germany  and  Belgium  on  the  one  hand,  and 
Britain  on  the  other,  was  in  force.  Germany  found 
fault  with  Canada,  as  having  a  tariff  of  her  own,  being 
included  in  the  treaty,  and  refused  the  privilege  to  Canada. 
Then  several  years  of  retaliation  and  fruitless  negotiation 
took  place.  In  the  meantime,  in  1895  Canada  made  a 
favourable  trade  treaty  with  France.  Great  Britain 
then  gave  notice  to  denounce  her  treaties  with  France 
and  Belgium.  For  a  time  Germany  held  out  in  her 
attitude  to  Canada,  but  at  last  gave  up  the  case,  and 
amicable  trade  relations  were  established  between 
Canada  and  these  European  countries. 

In  the  last  quarter-century  there  has  been  an  enor- 
mous increase  of  Canadian  travel  to  Europe, 
iif  Europe.  ^^^^  ^^^  effect  of  greatly  increasing  the 
Canadian  horizon.  The  establishment  of  a 
High  Commissioner's  office  in  London,  and  also  the 
placing  of  Canadian  Emigration  Offices  in  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  has  widened  the  interest  from 
across  the  sea.  No  doubt  this  has  been  partly  brought 
about  by  growth  of  means  in  Canadian  hands,  and  the 
increase  in  number  and  comfort  of  steamship  lines 
across  the  Atlantic.  Canadian  ministers  cross  year 
after  year  and  have  conferences  with  the  Imperial 
authorities.  The  Queen's  two  jubilees  and  the  coro- 
nation of  two  of  her  successors,  the  crossing  of 
Canadian  volunteers — even  of  a  whole  Canadian  regi- 
ment— and  yearly  competitions  with  the  rifle  at  Bisley, 
make  Britain  and  British  scenes  and  customs  as  well 
known  in   Canada  as  they  are  at  "home."     Canadian 


THE  Canadian  People  60d 

financiers  are  seen  coming  over  in  flocks  to  the  money 
market  of  tlie  world.  The  reduction  on  both  sides 
to  a  penny  postage  has  vastly  increased  their  inter- 
com-se  between  the  opposite  sides  of  the  Atlantic ;  a 
similar  reduction  on  periodicals  and  magazines  has  led 
to  a  great  increase  in  Canada  of  British  transient  litera- 
ture. Canada's  prospects  have  led  to  great  numbers  of 
investors  visiting  the  New  World  and  becoming  possessed 
of  remunerative  property.  Bands  of  educationalists  come 
from  Canada  to  Britain,  and  British  teachers  revisit 
Canada,  both  tightening  the  cords  of  Empire  and  pro- 
fiting in  their  profession.  While  a  generation  ago  the 
number  of  Canadian  students  visiting  European  uni- 
versities was  small,  the  establishment  of  the  Rhodes 
Scholarship  Fimd  and  the  increasing  necessity  for  attain- 
ing a  higher  standard  in  professional  knowledge  is  bring- 
ing ten  for  every  one  of  the  students  who  came  years 
ago  to  study  in  Britain  or  Germany. 

Section  X. — The  Biggie  Call 

Canadians,  though  many  of  those  of  the  last  generation 
lived  far  from  the  "  tented  field,"  have  in  their  veins,  in 
a  vast  number  of  cases,  the  blood  of  soldiers.  Many 
a  Canadian  lad  who  had  not  seen  a  British  soldier  in 
1860  had  heard  his  grandsire's  tale  of  "  arms  and  the 
hero."  Large  numbers  of  the  United  Empire  Loyalist 
settlers  had  seen  service  in  the  revolutionary  war  as 
British  Colonials. 

Glengarry  was  first  settled  in  part  by  such  soldiers, 
and  was  added  to  by  discharged  Highland  troops  coming 
from  Scotland.  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  had 
a  large  percentage  of  soldiers  as  settlers.  Both  Lower 
Canada  and  Upper  Canada  had  more  than  a  sprinkling 
of  the  sons  of  Mars.  Perth  Military  Settlement  and 
Adelaide  and  Zorra  townships,  and  also  districts  along 
the  St.  Lawrence,  could  point  out  many  retired  veterans 
among  their  leading  men.  The  war  of  1812-15  had 
maintained  in  Canada  the  military  tradition.     At  the 


610  A  Short  History  of 

time  when  the  piping  times  of  peace  ended  in  the  war 
flmry  of  the  "  Trent  Affair  "  and  also  shortly  after  the 
Fenian  Raid  it  was  marvellous  to  see  the  alacrity  with 
which  young  Canadians  sprang  to  arms  and  formed  the 
volunteer  corps,  many  of  these  same  organizations  being 
in  good  heart  to-day. 

Under  the  flag  our  fathers  bore, 
They  died  in  days  gone  by  for  it, 
And  we  will  gladly  die  for  it : 
God  save  the  red-cross  flag. 

When  Canada  assumed  the  government  of  the  western 
The  Royal  prairies,  the  existence  of  tribes  of  wild  Indians, 
Mounted  the  intestinal  quarrels  of  Western  Canada,  and 
Police.  ^Y^Q  incoming  of  a  vast  body  of  settlers  from 

the  western  states  and  from  all  countries  in  Europe, 
led  Sir  John  Macdonald  to  establish  an  organization 
which  has  been  very  celebrated  and  very  serviceable. 
This  was  the  Royal  Mounted  Police.  This  marked  need 
of  protecting  life  and  property  in  the  wide  prairies  of 
the  west  led  quite  unwittingly  to  Canada's  training 
men  who  laid  the  basis  of  our  Canadian  fame  in  light 
cavalry.  It  was  Sir  John's  opinion  that  a  large  military 
body  was  not  wanted  for  his  purpose,  but  comparatively 
small  detachments  of  well-armed  and  disciplined  men, 
judiciously  posted  throughout  the  western  country,  and 
that  these  should  be  gathered  around  central  posts  in 
large  districts — ^points  where  there  might  be  a  whole 
garrison  of  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  mounted  riflemen. 
These  were  to  be  planted  throughout  the  North-West 
Territories,  not  in  fully  organized  provinces.  When  their 
chosen  military  leader,  Colonel  French,  was  leaving  the 
presence  of  the  old  statesman  to  take  command  of  the 
new  force,  the  Premier  called  after  him  :  "  French,  they 
are  to  be  purely  a  civil,  not  a  military  body,  with  as 
little  gold  lace  and  fuss  and  feathers  as  possible,"  and 
he  kept  them  under  his  own  hand,  and  not  under  the 
Department  of  Militia. 

The  organization  consisted  of  a  Commissioner,  super- 
intendents, inspectors,  and  sergeants  to  command  con- 


THE  Canadian  People  511 

stables  and  sub-constables.  Colonel  French  was  the  first 
Commander  in  1873,  and  there  left  Toronto  for  the 
west  in  the  following  year  the  Commissioner,  sixteen 
officers,  201  men,  and  244  horses.  They  gained  the 
respect  of  the  western  settler,  and  what  was  more,  the 
regard  and  even  admiration  of  the  wandering  tribes  of 
Indians,  who  were  skilled  horsemen.  Major  Walsh, 
afterward  Commissioner,  dashed  into  the  middle  of  the 
Sioux  camp  of  refugees,  who  had  fled  to  British  soil, 
after  the  terrible  slaughter  of  General  Custer  and  his 
whole  force  by  Sitting  Bull,  surprised  and  stunned  the 
desperate  savage  chief,  whose  hands  were  red  with  blood, 
into  obedience  and  even  friendship.  Such  is  the  force 
of  personal  bravery  and  British  reputation. 

To  the  distant  Yukon,  Athabasca,  Fort  Churchill, 
and  Herschel  Island — among  wild  Sioux,  stalwart  Black- 
feet  and  Sarcees,  daring  Plain  and  Wood  Crees,  sturdy 
Muskegons  and  greasy  Eskimos — the  police  have  gone 
as  the  trained  messengers  of  peace  and  order — not  of 
bloodshed  or  war.  Having  served  their  time,  many  of 
the  members  of  the  Mounted  Police  force  became  settlers. 
But  the  men  of  the  body,  of  some  61  officers  and  600 
non-commissioned  officers  and  men,  were  of  grand  physique 
— Parthian  riders,  unequalled  scouts,  accustomed  to  hard- 
ships and  rough  fare,  schooled  in  all  the  arts  of  border 
diplomacy,  strategy,  and  confidence  required  to  meet 
the  cunning  redman,  the  unscrupulous  border  ruffian, 
or  the  iUicit  whisky  trader.  When  escorts  were  needed 
to  cross  the  plains  with  the  Marquis  of  Lome,  the  Duke 
of  York,  or  other  officers  of  state  the  Royal  Mounted 
Police  were  always  favourites  and  their  most  trusted 
bodyguards.  We  shall  see  what  this  meant  when  we 
come  to  deal  with  the  war  in  South  Africa.  The  Fenian 
raids  and  the  two  Riel  rebellions  led  to  the 
development  of  the  volunteer  system  of  infan-  solSers." 
try,  cavalry,  and  artillery  regiments,  making 
up  a  body  of  many  thousands  of  men.  The  withdrawal 
of  British  troops  from  Canada — at  Quebec,  Halifax, 
Winnipeg,  and  Esquimalt — led  to  the  establishment  of 


512  A  Short  History  of 

bodies  of  permanent  Canadian  troops  at  these  points 
as  provincial  centres  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Oceans. 

It  was  like  a  volcanic  eruption  when  in  October,  1899, 
The  South  ^^^  world  was  startled  by  the  outbreak  of  the 
African  Boers,  who  had  formerly  been  subjects  of  Great 
^*^*  Britain,  who  had  trekked  to  the  Transvaal  or 

Free  State  in  South  Africa.  Every  part  of  the  Empire 
was  roused  to  defend  not  only  British  honour,  but  also 
to  carry  speedy  relief  to  the  unjustly  treated  British 
settlers  called  by  the  Dutch  the  ''  uitlanders  "  or  "  out- 
siders." The  suddenness  and  injustice  of  the  Boer 
action  excited  the  people  of  Britain  and  of  the  Overseas 
Dominions  and  colonies  as  they  had  never  been  before. 
The  lovers  of  peace  in  all  countries  had  been  hoping 
that  the  Dutch  would  show  the  generous  and  fair  treat- 
ment to  incomers  which  is  generally  found  in  the  colonies 
and  different  parts  of  the  Empire.  Canadians,  as  colonists, 
were  cautious  for  a  time  about  interfering  in  Britain's 
wars,  and  not  having  a  standing,  were  not  able  to  strike 
a  blow  as  soon  or  effectively  as  a  number  of  ardent  and 
belligerent  souls  would  have  liked.  Yet  when  the  need 
was  clearly  shown.  Lord  Minto,  the  Governor-General  of 
Canada,  on  October  15th,  1899,  on  behalf  of  the  Canadian 
Qovernment,  cabled  to  the  Hon.  Joseph  Chamberlain  of 
the  British  Government :  "  Have  much  pleasure  in 
telling  you  that  my  Government  offers  one  thousand 
infantry  for  South  Africa."  The  offer  was  accepted 
immediately — and  most  gratefully.  There  was  preparing, 
enlisting,  and  mounting  in  hot  haste.  From  different 
parts  of  Canada  were  brought  in  swift  trains,  and  in 
two  weeks  after  the  message,  on  October  30th,  there 
sailed,  under  the  command  of  Colonel  Otter  of  the 
Royal  Canadian  Regiment,  from  Quebec  in  the  steamer 
Sardinian  57  officers  and  1,224  non-commissioned  officers 
and  men,  the  first  contingent,  which  reached  Cape  Town 
on  November  29th.  Events  looked  very  gloomy  in 
South  Africa  and  the  whole  Empire  was  alarmed  at 
the    prospect.     On    November    2nd   Canada    offered   a 


THE  Canadian  Peoplb  513 

second  contingent,  including  horses,  guns,  and  complete 
equipment.     This  seems  at  first  to  have  been  regarded 
by  the  British  Government  as  unnecessary  from  an  Over- 
seas State,   unaccustomed  to  war,   but  the  emergency 
continuing   to   be  greater,  on  December  18th   the  ofiFer 
was   thankfully  accepted  by  Britain.     On  January  1st, 
1900,  the  first  quota  of  the  second  Canadian  contingent 
sailed  from  Halifax  in  the  Laurentian,  and  six  days  after- 
wards the  remainder  of  the  contingent  followed  in  the 
Pomeranian.     The  utmost  interest  and  highest  patriotism 
pervaded    the    whole     Empire.      The    other    Overseas 
Dominions — ^Australia   and    New    Zealand — were    quite 
as  forward  as  Canada  in  the  fray.     The  news  was  carried 
by  wire  to  every  hamlet  in  the  British  Empire.     Further 
bodies  of  troops  were  preparing  to  follow  their  comrades. 
In  the  battle  of  Paardeberg  the  Royal  Canadian  Regiment 
took  a  prominent  part,  though  with  serious  loss.     On 
the  18th,  GJeneral  Cronje,  the  Boer  leader,  was  defeated. 
His  surrender  on  the  27th  of  his  sword  into  the  hand 
of  the  Canadian  Commander   raised  the  greatest  enthu- 
siasm   throughout    Canada.     Monuments    in   nearly    all 
of  our  Canadian  cities  commemorate  the  losses  in  the 
fierce  fighting  of  the   18th.     In  March,  1902,  Canadian 
valour  showed  itself  in  Hart's  River  battle,  and  there  a 
number  of  Canadians  won  the  Victoria  Cross  for  dis- 
tinguished   bravery.     One    of    the    greatest    glories    to 
Canada  came  from  the  self-denial  and  patriotism  of  Lord 
Strathcona  and    Mount  Royal,  Canadian   Commissioner 
in  London,  who,  on  March  16th,  1900,  sent  out  to  the 
war,  at  his  own  cost,  a  Canadian  Mounted  Regiment, 
from  Western  Canada,  of  637  officers  and  men,  and  673 
horses,   at   a  full  expense  of     $1,000,000.     These  were 
carried  to  South  Africa  in  the  ship  Monterey.     Other 
contingents  of  infantry  and  cavalry  followed.     It  was 
especially  pleasing  to  all  her  people  that  Canada  was 
able  to  send  7,000  men  in  this  bloody  war,  to  help  the 
Mother  across  the  Sea,  but  also  to  have  the  aged  Queen 
in  her  last  message  on  opening   Parliament  say  i    "  The 
war  has  placed  in  the  strongest  light  the  heroism  and 
33 


514  A  Short  History  of 

high  military  qualities  of  the  troops  brought  together 
under  one  banner  from  this  country,  from  Canada,  from 
Australia,  and  my  South  Africa  possessions." 

Section  XI. — The  Iron  Bail  and  Keel 

We  have  seen  that  the  Canadian  Pacific  Eailway  was 
in  running  operation  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean  at  the  beginning  of  our  quarter-century.  At 
that  time  it  was  the  hope  of  the  whole  Dominion  that 
its  first  transcontinental  railway  in  Canada  would  be 
a  successful  denial  of  what  a  number  of  its  opponents 
in  the  Canadian  Parliament  declared  would  be  a  gigantic 
failure.  Twenty-five  years  have  vindicated  beyond  all 
expectation  the  hopes  that  its  promoters  had  for  its 
success.  It  built  numerous  branches  in  all  directions 
through  Western  Canada.  It  has  carried  its  lines  to 
give  competition  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States. 
It  has  built  or  secured  by  purchase  many  other  branches 
in  the  older  provinces  of  Ontario,  Quebec,  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  Nova  Scotia,  its  lines  have  been  double-tracked 
for  safety  and  convenience  in  different  parts  of  its 
system,  and  it  has  built  hotels  of  the  highest  class  for  the 
benefit  of  travellers  in  Montreal,  Winnipeg,  Vancouver, 
and  Victoria.  Great  improvements  have  been  effected 
in  recent  years  by  making  tunnels  involving  much  expense 
in  the  Rocky  and  Selkirk  Mountains.  Its  most  remark- 
able triumph  has  been  in  the  fact  that  while  the  land 
grants  of  the  Government  to  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way were  liberal,  yet  the  railway  has  all  along  placed 
fair  rates  upon  its  lands,  being  more  anxious  to  sell  these 
to  encourage  settlement  than  to  hold  them  to  gain  an 
increment  through  the  labours  of  others.  Withal,  the 
prophecies  of  one  of  its  greatest  managers,  Sir  William 
Van  Home,  as  to  its  future  standing  in  the  financial 
world,  have  been  largely  surpassed  by  its  high  dividends 
to  its  stockholders. 

The  well-known  Allan  Line  of  steamers  still  holds 
its  own  as  the  pioneer  ocean  steamship  company  of  the 


THE  Canadian  People  616 

St.    Lawrence.      New   ships   are   being    built  —  turbines 
and   others — and  Liverpool   and  Glasgow  are  Canadian 
still  the  points  of  departure  for  Canada.    During  Steamship 
the  winter  season  St.  John,  New  Brunswick,  ^°®^' 
and  Halifax  are  the  sailing  ports.     New  lines  such  as  the 
White  Star,  Dominion,  the  Donaldson,  the  Royal  Line  of 
the  Canadian  Northern,  and  the  Furness  Line  have  risen  to 
take  part  in  the  vastly  increased  trade  between  British 
and  Canadian  ports. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  steamships  form  a  series  of  lines 
all  comprehensive  of  Canadian  traffic.  The  ambition  of 
this  company  is  to  overtake  both  oceans — the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific.  By  a  happy  inspiration  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway  decided  to  call  its  largest  and  best  ships 
the  Empresses.  The  Empresses  of  China,  India,  Japan, 
Asia,  and  Russia  make  the  northern  Asiatic  route  across 
the  Pacific  Ocean  attractive.  From  Quebec  to  Liver- 
pool the  Empresses  of  Britain  and  Ireland  are  completed 
with  a  number  of  smaller  vessels  crossing  the  Atlantic 
from  Canada  to  Britain.  The  Empress  of  Asia  affords 
a  pleasant  and  speedy  voyage  around  the  world,  utilizing 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  between  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Oceans.  Connecting  Canada  with  Australia,  the 
railway  has  also  a  line  including  the  steamers  Zealandia, 
Maroma,  and  Makura. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  fleet  on  the  inland 
waters  of  Canada  are  of  the  same  order  as  vessels  of  the 
first  rank.  The  Athabasca,  Assiniboiu,  Keewatin,  Manitoba, 
and  Alberta  plough  the  great  waters  of  the  Upper  Canadian 
lakes.  Steamers  between  Vancouver  and  Victoria,  on 
the  beautiful  Arrow  Lakes,  and  Lake  Okanagan  give 
dehghtful  changes  from  the  long  railway  journeys  across 
the  continent.  The  passenger  and  merchant  ships  of 
this  railway  provide  a  magnificent  fleet,  of  the  greatest 
efficiency  and  beauty.  Cunard  and  other  lines  are 
running  ships  from  the  St.  Lawrence  to  European 
ports. 

Even  more  remarkable  in  some  respects  than  the 
development  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  has  been 


516  A  Short  History  op 

that  of  the  Canadian  Northern  Railway.  In  the  first 
The  Cana-  Y^^^s  of  this  quarter-century  the  Greenway 
dian  Government  of  Manitoba  sought  to  give  rail- 

Northern  way  communication  to  a  number  of  neglected 
*  ^^^'  parts  of  the  province.  An  attempt  was  made 
to  build  a  second  railway  to  connect  the  city  of  Winnipeg 
with  that  of  St.  Paul  in  the  United  States.  This  determi- 
nation of  the  Manitoba  Government,  as  we  have  seen, 
brought  them  into  conflict  with  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway's  charter,  which  debarred  any  other  railway 
from  building  within  eighteen  miles  of  the  international 
boundary  line.  In  spite  of  this  restriction  and  disputing 
the  validity  of  the  law,  the  Government  built  the  Red 
River  Valley  Railway.  The  greatest  political  storm 
seen  in  Manitoba  since  the  days  of  the  Riel  rebellion 
followed  this  attempt,  which  was,  however,  settled  by 
the  Dominion  Government  yielding  the  point.  The 
Manitoba  Government  then  undertook  to  build  a  railway 
called  the  Hudson  Bay  Railway  north-westward  from 
Winnipeg,  and  another  eastward  from  Winnipeg  to  the 
Lake  of  the  Woods,  pointing  in  the  direction  toward  Lake 
Superior.  In  connection  with  these  enterprises  two  men 
who  had  been  sub-contractors  in  building  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway  came  into  public  notice.  These  were  two 
native-born  Canadians  of  Scottish  origin — ^William  Mac- 
kenzie and  Donald  Mann.  After  the  beginning  of  this 
century,  on  the  change  of  Government  in  Manitoba  these 
men  obtained  possession  from  the  new  Government  of 
these  local  railways  and  also  of  the  Northern  Pacific 
rights  in  the  province.  A  wonderful  period  of  extension 
of  local  railways  took  place  in  every  part  of  Manitoba, 
and  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  also  built  new  branch 
lines.  The  new  competitive  system  of  Mackenzie  and  Mann 
became  known  as  the  Canadian  Northern  Railway. 
The  two  promoters  of  this  new  railway  have  become 
most  prominent  and  have  received  honours  of  knight- 
hood. Their  remarkable  career  has  been  seen  in  a 
great  railway  development  beyond  Manitoba  into  Sas- 
katchewan   and   Alberta.     They   became    possessors   of 


THE  Canadian  People  617 

the  two  street  railways  of  Toronto  and  Winnipeg,  both 
lucrative  franchises,  and  also  of  the  Lac  du  Bonnet  power 
system  on  the  Winnipeg  River.     The  Canadian  Northern 
system  was  supplemented  by  isolated  railways  purchased 
or  built  in  Nova  Scotia,  Quebec,  and  in  Eastern  Ontario. 
The  line  from  Winnipeg  to  Port  Arthur  was  pushed  through, 
and  new  lines  were  built  or  taken  up  in  New    Ontario 
north  of  Lake  Superior.     The  great  object  of  another 
transcontinental    railway   was    then   seen   to   be    their 
aim.     Their  plan  to  connect  these  separate  sections  was 
most     ambitious.      In     league    with    the    Province    of 
British   Columbia  they   undertook   to   build   a   railway 
from  the  Yellow  Head  in  the  Rocky  Moimtains  to  Van- 
couver on  the  Pacific  Coast.     The  railway  to  the  eastern 
coast   has   been  supplemented   by  the  placing   of  two 
transatlantic  steamers,  the  Royal  Edward  and  the  Royal 
George^  running  from  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia 
in  the  winter  and  on  the  St.  Lawrence  route  in  summer. 
The  building  of  a  third  transcontinental  railway  from 
ocean  to  ocean,  with  numerous  branch  lines  as  jhe  Grand 
feeders,  might  have  seemed  unnecessary  in  view  Trunk  Pacl- 
of  the  two  already  existing  or  being  built,  but  ^^  RaHway. 
the  growth  of  Western  Canada  gives  confidence  that  there 
is  a  necessity  for  all  of  them.     It  was  in  1903  that  the 
Laurier   Grovernment  introduced  into   Parliament  a  bill 
for  this  new    transcontinental  railway.      Existing  rail- 
way   interests    and    political    feeling    roused    a    certain 
amount  of  opposition    to  this  project,  but    the  Grand 
Trimk    Pacific    Railway  was    incorporated    by  certain 
financiers    with    a    capital    of    $75,000,000.     The   route 
beginning  at  Quebec  included  an  eastern  line,  avoiding 
Maine,  and  entirely  in  Canada,  reaching  Moncton  and  then 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick. 
Westward  from  Quebec  by  as  nearly  a  straight  line  as 
possible  the  line  is  to  pass  through  the  country  north 
of  Lake  Nipigon,  west  through  Winnipeg,  directly    to 
Edmonton,    with    branches   to    Port   Arthur,    Brandon, 
Regina,  and  Calgary,  with  a  further  west  main  line  from 
Edmonton    through    the    Rocky   Mountains    to    Prinea 


518  A  Short  History  of 

Rupert  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  British  Columbia.  A 
branch  to  Dawson  City  in  the  Yukon  Territory  is  also 
included.  The  Government  undertook  to  build  the 
division  from  Moncton  to  Winnipeg  and  the  Grand 
Trimk  Pacific  Railway  Company  the  division  from 
Winnipeg  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

On  completion,  the  Eastern  Section  will  be  leased  by 
the  company  from  the  Dominion  Government,  and  the 
whole  will  be  operated  by  the  company. 

The  arguments  advanced  in  favour  of  building  this 
great  work,  were — 

L  That  it  would  be  entirely  on  Canadian  soil. 

2.  That  it  is  needed  to  meet  the  increasing  demands 
of  western  trafiic. 

3.  That  Canada  will  thus  be  independent  of  any 
foreign  power. 

4.  That  choosing  a  line  as  direct  as  possible,  and  building 
it  with  low  grades,  rates  as  low  as  possible  will  be 
given  to  trafiic  going  both  ways  east  and  west. 

Portions  of  the  line  were  in  successful  operation  as  early 
as  1912. 

Section  XII. — Trade  and  Resources 
The  possessing  of  sufficient  capital,  its  proper  guardian- 
The  B  ks  ^^^P'  ^^^  ^^^  reliability  of  the  management  of 
the  chartered  custodians  are  the  chief  features 
of  a  good  banking  system.  In  these  respects  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  Canada  is  to  be  congratulated. 
By  the  requirement  of  the  Dominion  Government  sufiicient 
deposits  of  securities  are  entrusted  to  it  by  the  several 
banks  to  guarantee  safety  to  depositors  and  sufficient 
to  meet  the  paper  currency  which  they  issue.  To  secure 
this,  close  inspection  is  insisted  on  by  the  Banking  Act. 
All  the  chartered  banks  have  many  branches  throughout 
the  Dominion  as  well  as  branches  in  other  countries. 
There  are  in  Canada  some  twenty-eight  banks — a  number 
of  the  older  being  the  Bank  of  British  North  America, 
the  Bank  of  Montreal,  Bank  of  Toronto,  Merchants' 
Bank,  Bank  of   Nova   Scotia,  Imperial,    Quebec  Bank, 


THE  Canadian  People  519 

and  Bank  of  Ottawa.  Among  the  newer  banks  are  the 
Bank  of  Commerce,  Royal  Bank,  Northern  Crown  Bank, 
and  Union  Bank.  The  assets  of  the  Bank  of  Montreal  are 
$230,000,000,  of  the  Bank  of  Commerce  some  $190,000,000, 
and  of  the  Royal  Bank  of  Canada  above  $110,000,000. 
The  smallest  of  the  chartered  banks  is  the  Weybm:n 
Secm*ity  Bank  with  assets  of  slightly  over  $1,000,000. 

The  protection  of  the  people  both  as  to  life  and  fire 
is  one  of  the  most  benevolent  and  necessary 
things  in  our  national  life.  In  this  respect  {J^^^Jg 
Canada  is  particularly  fortunate.  Compared 
with  bank  investments  insurance  is  more  remunerative  and 
more  effective  in  dire  cases  of  loss  and  need.  Liberal  life 
insurance  leaves  the  family  that  is  bereft  of  its  head  in 
a  state  of  comfort,  and  sufficient  fire  insurance  supplies 
the  loser  with  means  to  recuperate  his  broken  fortunes. 
In  Canada  national  boundary  lines  are  not  regarded 
in  life  insurance.  Canadian,  British,  and  American 
companies,  on  making  the  necessary  deposits  for  secmrity 
with  the  Dominion  Government,  seem  equally  popular. 
During  the  year  1910  the  amounts  paid  as  claims  by 
Canadian  life  insurance  companies  reached  nearly 
$6,500,000.  In  Canada,  with  its  rapid  development 
and  its  rise  of  new  towns  and  cities,  where  fire-fighting 
apparatus  is  not  in  all  cases  able  to  be  provided,  and 
in  a  climate  which  at  times  is  very  dry,  fire  insurance  is 
a  great  boon.  Here  again  Canadian,  British,  and  Ameri- 
can fire  insurance  companies  all  get  their  share  of  busi- 
ness. For  fire  losses  in  1910  Canadian  companies  paid 
out  upwards  of  $2,500,000,  and  American  companies 
in  Canada  $2,250,000. 

There   is  a  strong   public    sentiment    in    Canada    in 
favour  of  the  civic  equality  of  all  citizens,  and  to  this 
end  there  has  been  growing  during  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century  the  desire  to  give  every  Jf^Labour^ 
man  and  woman  the  opportunity  to  earn  an 
honest  living.      A  Royal  Commission  of   the   Dominion 
Government  was  appointed  in  1 886  to  examine  the  claims 
of  Labour,  and  the  Commission  was  continued  for  so|n§ 


620  A  Short  History  op 

years.  The  first  Act  passed  by  Canada  was  that  '*  Re- 
specting Trade  Unions,"  but  this  was  only  permissive  in 
its  provisions.  In  1900  there  became  law  a  Conciliation 
Act,  and  out  of  this  grew  the  great  step  in  advance  of 
establishing  the  Dominion  Department  of  Labour.  A 
most  important  outcome  of  this  was  the  establishment 
by  the  Government  of  the  Labour  Gazette,  to  be  a 
vehicle  of  trade  views  and  trade  discussions.  The 
Labour  Disputes  Act  of  1903  was  also  a  forward 
step,  but  it  was  only  advisory  in  its  provisions  for  pre- 
venting strikes  and  lock-outs. 

The  greatest  event  in  the  history  of  remedial  legislation 
in  Canada  was  the  "  Lemieux  Act  "  of  1907.  This  Act 
provided  that  where  any  dispute  took  place  between 
employer  and  employees,  which  they  could  not  adjust, 
either  party  might  appeal  to  the  "  Minister  of  Labour  of 
Canada  "  to  appoint  a  "  Board  of  Conciliation  and  In- 
vestigation "  of  three  members — one  by  the  employer, 
another  by  the  employees,  and  a  third  chosen  by  these 
two.  Before  a  strie  or  lock-out  could  take  place  this 
Board  must  investigate.  The  excellent  result  has  been 
achieved  under  this  Act  that  in  150  applications  during 
six  years,  all  of  the  disputes  except  19  were  settled.  The 
Hon.  W.  L.  Mackenzie  King,  as  being  Minister  of  Labour, 
brought  a  fine  spirit  of  fairness  and  conciliation  into  this 
new  department  of  Government,  which  has  drawn  the 
attention  of  both  the  British  and  American  Governments 
in  dealing  with  labour  disputes. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  Canada  has  risen 
Foreign  ^^  ^^»  ^^^^  ^^®  mother-country,  one  of  the 
Trade  of  trading  countries  of  the  world.  She  has  her 
Canada.  Hhqq  of  steamships  crossing  the  great  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  Oceans.  Her  exports  go  to  all  the  countries 
of  the  world.  These,  as  we  shall  see,  are  made  up  of  the 
products  of  the  soil,  the  mine,  the  forest,  the  sea,  and 
the  manufactory.  This  not  only  represents  the  great 
resources  of  the  Dominion,  which  faces  the  two  great 
oceans,  but  also  the  work  and  skill  of  an  increasing  number 
of  workmen  and  manufacturers  in  the  cities  and  towns 


THB  Canadian  People 


521 


of  what  was  formerly  chiefly  an  agricultural  and  fishing 
population,  which  sent  its  raw  material  abroad  for  manu- 
facture, to  be  returned  as  finished  products  of  the  loom, 
mint,  or  industrial  shop. 

Neglecting  accurate  figures  below  millions  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  exports  in  dollars  which  Canada 
sent  abroad  in  1886  and  then  a  quarter  of  a  Export*" 
century  afterwards  as  shown  by  the  last  cen- 
sus (1911)  were  as  follows  : 


1886 

1911 

1.  Agricultural  products          .      17^  millions         82  J  millions 

2.  Animals  and  their  products     22          ,, 

52 

3.  Fisheries                                 •       ft|        , 

15^        „ 

4.  Forests                                    .21 

45i        „ 

5.  Manufactures    .                    .21, 

85i        ,. 

0.  Minerals                                  .4          „ 

42f        ., 

7.  Miscellaneous     .                              i        ,, 

Total            .                    .744        „ 

"2761        ., 

These  figures  show  that  all  classes  of  exports  have 
increased  very  greatly  in  the  quarter-century,  showing 
great  industrial  activity  in  Canada,  yet  that  far  the 
greatest  increase  has  taken  place  in  the  enormous  output 
of  agricultural  products  representing  the  growth  and 
development  of  Western  Canada,  a  creditable  increase 
in  the  manufactures  which  indicates  the  industrial  develop- 
ment in  Eastern  Canada,  and  in  mining  achievement  especi- 
ally in  British  Columbia,  the  Yukon,  and  Northern  Ontario. 

It  is  a  matter  of  some  interest  to  note  the  direction  in 
which  Canadian  exports — estimated  in  dollars — have 
gone  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  om*  quarter-century 
period  from  1886  to  1911.  Keeping  in  mind  the  seven 
classes  of  exports  mentioned,  we  see  that  while  our  ex- 
ports to  Britain  and  the  United  States  have  relatively 
increased  at  about  the  same  rate,  yet  Canada  has  opened 
up  foreign  markets  to  a  most  gratifying  extent : 


188C 

1911 


Can  API  AN  Exports 

To  Great  United 

Britain.  States, 

36 J  millions  31  ^  millions 

137        ..  140 


Other  Forsign 

Countries. 
6|  millions 
40J        „ 


522  A  Short  History  of 

The  increase  to  foreign  countries  of  our  exports  no 
doubt  represents  the  developed  trade  to  West  Indies, 
AustraHa  and  New  Zealand,  European  countries,  China, 
Japan,  and  India. 

Not  only  do  the  statistics  of  exports  quoted  indicate 
the  great  progress  made  during  this  period  in 
Imports^^  Canada,  but  equally  illuminating  facts  may  be 
found  in  the  study  of  Canadian  imports.  The 
fact  that  the  imports  of  the  Dominion  largely  exceed 
the  exports  might  be  quoted  by  some  schools  of  economic 
science  as  showing  a  dangerous  outlook  for  Canada,  yet 
when  it  is  remembered  that  vast  sums  paid  for  these 
imports  are  for  the  building  of  railways,  steamships, 
bridges,  warehouses,  and  larger  buildings  which  are 
remunerative,  it  will  be  seen  that  with  judicious  manage- 
ment and  care  in  investments  the  millions  of  British 
and  American  money  being  lent  in  Canada  are  being  used 
for  legitimate  and  paying  purposes.  It  is  also  interesting 
to  note  the  relative  amounts  of  trade — both  dutiable 
and  free — drawn  from  the  various  countries  with  which 
Canada  deals. 

Taking  the  same  classification  of  imports  in  dollars 
as  we  have  done  of  exports  we  find  the  totals — ^both 
dutiable  and  free  goods — from  abroad  to  Canada  as  follows 
for  the  two  periods  chosen  : 

Imports  fbom  Great  Britain  to  Canada 
Dutiable,  Fres. 

1886  .  .  .     30^  millions  8^  millions 

1911  .  .  .     84i        „  25i        „ 

Imports  from  the  United  States  to  Canada 

Dutiable.  Free. 

1886     .  .  .       29^  millions  13    millions 

1911      .  .  .153  „  121f 

Imports  from  other  Countries  to  Canada 

Dutiable.  Free. 

1886      .  .  .        70^  millions  25 J  millions 

1911      .  .  .     282f        „  169 

The  noticeable  fact  in  these  comparisons  is  the  very 


THE  Canadian  People  523 

large  amount  of  free  imports  from  the  three  classes  of 
countries  with  which  Canada  deals. 


Resources  or  Canada 

The  conformation  of  Canada  has  given  it  a  remarkable 
storehouse  of  water  power  which  can  be  readily 
turned  into  electricity.  From  the  coast  of  ^^|J 
Labrador  through  the  great  Laurentian  wilder- 
ness runs  the  rocky  range  of  heights  which  every  winter 
has  its  snows  and  during  the  summer  and  winter  fills 
its  streams  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  for  the 
valleys.  On  the  boundary  between  Labrador  and  the 
southern  line  of  Ungava  is  one  of  the  most  marvellous 
water  powers  in  the  world.  On  both  slopes  of  the 
Laurentian  range  will  flow  down  such  streams  as  the 
St.  Maurice,  which  produces  in  the  Shawinigan  Falls 
the  power  for  Montreal  and  other  Quebec  cities.  Along 
the  northern  side  of  the  range  will  pass  the  Grand  Trunk 
Pacific  Railway,  which  has  in  view  the  utilization  of  its 
power  for  rimning  the  railway.  Besides  undeveloped 
rivers,  the  Kaministiquia  is  now  providing  power  to 
enable  Fort  William  and  Port  Arthur  to  be  manufacturing 
centres,  while  the  great  power  of  the  Winnipeg  river 
has  supplied  Winnipeg  city  with  a  vast  supply  of  power 
over  two  lines.  Ontario  has  utilized  large  quantities 
of  the  power  obtained  from  the  great  Niagara  River, 
which  is  of  immense  value  to  Western  Ontario.  The 
Rocky  Mountains  in  far  Western  Canada  afford  an  enor- 
mous magazine  of  power  to  be  developed  in  the  future. 
The  unexplored  far  north  of  Canada  is  known  to  have 
treasures  of  power  as  well  as  of  minerals  in  its  mighty 
bosom.  It  is  impossible  to  think  of  what  this  great 
northern  part  of  North  America  may  have  of  potentiality 
for  the  coming  days.  It  is  among  the  greatest  proba- 
bilities that  the  dissipation  of  electric  power  in  trans- 
mission will  be  overcome  and  that  if  so  electric  heating  as 
well  as  electric  lighting  will  be  available,  and  the  central 
provinces  of  the  Dominion,  now  so  dependent  upon  foreign 


524  A  Short  History  of 

countries  for  fuel,  may  be  supplied  entirely  by  eleotricity 
from  the  water  powers. 

Looking  at  the  fertile  lands  of    Ontario  and  the  great 
prairie  expanses  of  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  and  Alberta, 

and  at  the  fair  quality  of  the  soil  of  the  three  Mari- 
Son.  "   ^     ^^^^  Provinces,  it  is  plain  that  agriculture  will 

remain  Canada's  great  resource.  The  use  of 
mixed  farming  will  not  only  in  itself  be  a  means  of  greatest 
comfort  and  interest  to  tens  of  thousands  of  our  people, 
but  will  be  the  means  of  retaining  the  fertility  of  the 
soil.  Governments  and  people  should  recognize  the  fact 
that  primarily  Canada  is  to  be  an  agricultural  country. 
The  Maritime  Provinces,  Ontario  and  British  Columbia, 
while  inclined  to  manufactures,  can  supply  Canada  and 
also  provide  for  export  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  while  a 
portion  of  Ontario  and  the  prairie  provinces  will  produce 
the  cereals  and  horses,  cattle  and  poultry  in  abundance. 

On    both    sea    coasts    of    Canada  as  well  as    in  the 
Fi  h  'e        great  inland  lakes  the  fisherman  will  continue 

to  follow  his  dangerous  occupation.  The 
fisheries  of  the  Atlantic  coast  were  the  first  possessions 
of  Canada  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Basques  before 
the  time  of  Cartier  and  are  still  a  great  resource.  Im- 
proved methods  of  fishing  and  of  protecting  the  ordinary 
fish  and  shell  fish  as  well  will  develop  a  great  natural 
asset.  The  salmon  and  halibut  fisheries  of  the  Pacific 
coast  are  one  of  the  most  attractive  and  also  profitable 
features  of  the  seashore  of  British  Columbia.  The 
proper  cultivation,  and  preservation  by  the  Government, 
of  the  lobster  and  oyster  fisheries  is  a  matter  of  greatest 
importance  to  sea-faring  Canadians. 

Canada  is  still  a  land  of  great  forests.   The  pine,  spruce, 

tamarack,  and  cedar  are  found  from  ocean  to 
Prodiicts.       ocean.     The   oak   and   other   hardwood   trees 

are  indigenous.  The  maple  is  Canada's  most 
beautiful  tree.  The  vast  forests  of  British  Columbia 
and  the  pine  stretches  of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  if  saved 
from  fire,  will  be  sources  of  great  wealth.  The  Forestry 
Association  has  been  for  years  doing  a  great  educative 


THE  CANADIAlf   PEOPLB 


5^5 


work  in  forestry,  and  the  Commission  on  Conservation 
has  been  successful  in  inducing  Parliament  to  make 
strict  regulations  and  penalties  for  preventing  railway 
fires.  The  spruce  tree,  found  generally  throughout  the 
Dominion,  is  in  Quebec  and  other  provinces,  and  along 
with  balsam,  hemlock,  and  poplar  in  the  different  pro- 
vinces of  the  Dominion,  the  som'ce  of  the  pulp  now  in 
so  great  demand  for  papermaking.  In  1910  some  600,000 
cords  (a  cord  is  128  cubic  feet)  of  these  woods  produced 
475,000  tons  of  pulp  valued  at  half  a  million  of  dollars. 
This  was  done  in  fifty-one  pulp  mills.  Lumber  is  one  of 
Canada's  most  valuable  products. 

As  shown  already  in  our  tables  of  statistics,  there  has 
been  avast  awakening  in  the  minds  of  Canadians  ^ 
as  to  the  value  of  their  mineral  treasures.  The 
finding  and  mining  of  precious  metals  in  Northern  Ontario 
have  in  some  ways  surpassed  the  El  Dorados  of  British 
Columbia  and  the  Yukon  Territory.  Full  information 
has  been  given  where  with  a  trifling  capital  great  fortunes 
have  been  made,  and  the  tales  of  the  Arabian  Nights 
and  of  the  sands  of  Pactolus  have  been  equalled  in 
Cobalt.  Canada  now  has  produced  much  gold  and  a 
mint  has  been  estabUshed  in  Ottawa.  The  greatest 
supply  of  nickel  in  the  world,  which  is  now  necessary 
for  making  armour  plate,  is  produced  in  Canada. 

The  following  is  an  accurate  account  of  the  value  of 
products  of  Canadian  mines  in  1911 ; 


Gold  . 

$9,762,096 

Silver 

17,452,128 

Copper 

6,911,831 

Lead  . 

1,498,119 

Nickel 

10,229,623 

Asbestos 

2,922,062 

Portland  Cement 

7,571,299 

These  seven  products  along  with  forty-seven  other 
minerals  aggregated  in  value  in  1911  in  Canada  the  sum 
of  $80,913,209. 


526  A  Shobt  History  of 

The  great  value  of  the  coal  deposits  of  Canada  is  seen  in 
the  fact  that  in  1911  the  following  quantities  were  mined : 


Tons. 

Nova  Scotia   . 

.     6,994,120 

British  Columbia 

.     2,536,502 

Alberta   .... 

1,498,057 

Saskatchewan 

204,253 

Yukon    .         .         .         .         , 

2,840 

New  Brunswick 

55,781 

Total      . 

11,291,553 

Besides  the  great  output  used  locally,  Canada  also 
imported  for  use  in  1911  from  foreign  countries  3,465,774 
tons  of  anthracite,  free  of  duty,  and  7,747,571  tons  of 
bituminous  coal,  on  which  there  is  a  small  duty. 

Section  XIII. — Education  in  Canada 

In  giving  a  view  of  education  during  the  quarter- 
century  with  which  we  are  dealing,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  refer  to  some  points  already  treated  in  ear  Her  chapters. 
To  the  Fathers  of  Confederation  the  question  of  education 
presented,  perhaps,  the  most  difficult  problem  with  which 
they  had  to  deal.  The  close  relation  of  education  and  re- 
ligion to  one  another  had  led  in  almost  all  of  the  provinces 
in  existence  in  1867  to  diversity  of  view.  The  teaching  of 
rehgion  in  the  school  in  all  British  and  French  traditions 
with  which  the  Canadian  people  were  acquainted  had  been 
regarded  as  the  normal  state  of  an  educational  system. 
This  led  to  an  immediate  cause  of  difference  between 
Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  in  mixed  communities. 
The  use  of  the  Bible  in  the  schools  was  demanded  by 
many  Protestants,  but  the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchies, 
as  educational  authorities,  held  that  the  method  and 
form  of  religious  teaching  should  be  in  the  hands  of  the 
clergy.  In  Canada  also  the  Protestants  were  divided 
into  several  different  religious  denominations  arising 
from  national  and  theoretical  views  as  to  the  relation  of 
church    and    state.    Accordingly    before    Confederation 


THE  Canadian  People  527 

the  battle  raged  in  almost  every  province.     Different 
solutions  had  been  reached. 

In  Ontario  the  public  schools,  with  a  specified  use  of 
the  Bible,  served  the  majority,  but  the  Roman  ^  .    , 
Cathohc  minority  were  allowed  to  have  their  Quebec, 
separate  schools.     Each  section  of  Protestant 
and   Roman   Catholic   might   tax    themselves    in   their 
school  districts  for  the  erection  of  school  buildings  and 
maintenance  of  their  schools,  and  to  each  class  of  schools 
the  provincial  Government,  after  insisting  on  inspection, 
gave  assistance  by  way  of  grants. 

In  Quebec,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Roman  Catholic 
majority  had  their  Catholic  schools,  and   the  minority, 
not  public  schools,  but  Protestant  schools.     Each  sec- 
tion in  a  locality  supported  their  own  schools,  but  with 
Grovernment  assistance.     The  principle  being  adopted  by 
the  British  North  America  Act,  that  education  should  be 
primarily  a  provincial  matter,  led  to   the   continuation 
of   the  methods  prevailing   previous    to   Confederation. 
The  Protestant  schools  of  Quebec  have  been  interpreted 
to  cover  Jews,  who  are  somewhat  numerous  in  the  cities. 
In  the  three  Maritime  Provinces — ^Nova  Scotia,  New 
Brunswick,   and    Prince   Edward    Island — ^all  xhe  Mari- 
apart  from  one  another  in  local  government —  time 
a  similar  solution  was  reached  after  a  consider-  ^ovinces. 
able  struggle  that  all  pubHc  schools  should  be  Government 
schools,  that  there  should  be  certain  liberty  as  to  the  use 
of  the  Bible  or  other   rehgious  features,  but  that  there 
should  be  no  separate  schools.     However,  the  then  local 
governments  solved  the  religious  difficulty  by  a  sort  of 
tacit  agreement  that  in  cities  and  towns  and  certain 
localities    Roman   Catholic   pupils   may   be    segregated 
in  separate  rooms  or  buildings  and  be  taught  by  teachers 
of  their  own  faith,  but  these  are  required  to  have  the 
regular  Government  standard  of  qualification. 

In  British  Columbia — ^the  only  other  province  which 
entered   Confederation    as   a   fully   organized  British 
province — the  public  school,  which  at  that  time  Columbia, 
allowed  no  reference  to  religion,  any  use  of  the  Bible,  or 


528  A  Short  History  of 

even  any  clergyman  as  a  school  trustee,  had  never  to 
face  the  question.  This  still  prevails,  although  the  re- 
striction as  to  trustees  has  been  abolished. 

Manitoba,  as  we  have  seen,  immediately  after  its 
-J  .  establishment  as  a  province  by  the  Dominion, 
in  the  first  year  of  its  history  adopted  separate 
schools,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  Ontario.  In 
1891,  as  already  stated,  after  a  great  agitation  these 
schools  were  abolished,  and  none  but  public  schools  are 
legalized.  Dual  languages  are  allowed,  and  half  an 
hour  at  the  end  of  the  school  day  for  the  different  de- 
nominations to  teach  their  children  as  they  please.  In 
two  cities  of  the  province-— Winnipeg  and  Brandon — 
the  minority  maintains  by  subscription  private  parish 
schools,  which  receive  no  Government  grant.  There  is, 
however,  much  unrest  in  Manitoba  on  the  school  question. 

As  we  have  seen,  in  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta  a 
Saskatche-  number  of  Government-supported  separate 
wan  and  schools  are  permitted,  under  close  Government 
Alberta.         supervision  and  under  certain  legal  restraints. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  education  flourishes  under  provincial 
supervision  and  support,  and  compulsory  attendance  is  in 
vogue,  except  in  the  provinces  of  Quebec  and  Manitoba. 

Secondary  Schools 

While  the  secondary  schools  of  the  older  provinces 
have  been  referred  to  already,  yet  in  the  last  quarter- 
century  they  have  been  vastly  increased  in  number  in 
those  provinces  and  much  more  fully  manned. 

In  Quebec  each  of  the  two  sections — Roman  Catholic 
and  Protestant — has  its  separate  high  schools  in  the 
larger  centres  of  population.  Each  section  also  has 
its  normal  school  for  the  province.  In  late  years  a  very 
great  advance  has  been  made  by  the  Quebec  Govern- 
ment in  organizing  and  fully  equipping  a  technical  school 
in  Quebec  City  for  the  eastern  part  of  the  province  and 
another  large  and  efficient  school  of  the  same  class  in 
Montreal  for  the  remaining  section.    These  are  main- 


THE  Canadian  I^eopl^  620 

tained  and  directed  immediately  by  the  Government 
itself. 

In  Ontario  and  the  Maritime  Provinces  thefcollegiate 
institutes  and  high  schools  are  common  to  all  classes 
and  religions,  in  many  cases  free  to  all  who  can  enter 
them  by  examination,  in  other  cases  fees  are  required. 
In  Ontario  the  separate  school  boards  have  a  representa- 
tion on  the  high  school  boards. 

In  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  and  British 
Columbia  the  collegiate,  technical,  and  high  schools 
are  directly  under  the  supervision  of  the  provincial 
Governments,  but  are  carried  on  and  supported  by  the 
local  elected  school  boards. 

In  all  these  new  provinces  the  normal  schools,  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  demand  for  teachers  in  these  provinces, 
are  provided  by  the  Governments  free  of  fees  and  are 
entirely  maintained  by  Government  support. 

Universities 

The  older  universities  described  in  a  former  chapter 
are  still  doing  their  work,  but  some  radical  ^  , 
changes  have  taken  place.  Laval  and  McGill, 
both  much  enlarged,  and  receiving  a  certain  amount  of 
Government  grant,  still  retain  their  affiliated  colleges — 
Laval  with  its  whole  system  in  leading  centres  of  the 
province, — McGill,  while  two  of  its  affiliated  colleges, 
Morrin  and  St.  Francis,  have  dropped  out,  has  had  affili- 
ated to  it  the  magnificent  Technical  and  Agricultural 
Macdonald  College,  supported  by  Sir  William  Macdonald. 
With  Macdonald  College  has  also  been  combined  the 
Protestant  Normal  School,  formerly  directly  affiliated 
with  McGill  University.  By  Sir  William  Macdonald's 
mimificent  assistance,  as  well  as  by  the  help  of  Lord 
Strathcona  and  by  a  late  movement  of  Montreal  citizens 
generally,  McGill  University  has  made  in  this  quarter- 
century  enormous  advances  and  still  holds  an  equal, 
if  not  the  supreme,  position  in  Medicine  and  Engineering 
with  any  other  institution. 

34 


630  A  Short  History  of 

The  whole  university  problem    has  been   changed  in 
Ont   i  Ontario    during    the    last    twenty-five    years. 

Trinity  (Chiu-ch  of  England)  and  Victoria 
(Methodist)  have  both  combined  with  the  Provincial 
University  under  the  name  University  of  Toronto.  By 
strengthening  its  Medical  Department — and  with  the 
opening  of  the  great  new  hospital — Toronto  will  have 
one  of  the  greatest  medical  schools  in  North  America. 
With  Knox  Presbyterian  College  with  its  beautiful  new 
building,  and  Wickliffe  College  on  its  grounds,  the  Uni- 
versity of  Toronto — including  a  vast  number  of  afiiliated 
institutions  such  as  Guelph  Agricultural  College,  Forestry 
School,  Veterinary  Branch,  Household  Science — claims 
to  be  the  largest  student  centre  on  this  continent.  During 
a  recent  year  Queen's  University,  Kingston,  was  allowed 
to  drop  its  connection  with  the  Presb3^erian  Church, 
and  is  now  aiming  at  being  the  University  for  all 
classes  in  Eastern  Ontario.  Its  Science  Department 
is  supported  by  the  Ontario  Government.  The  Royal 
Military  College  still  remains  at  Kingston,  and  the 
University  of  London,  now  stripped  of  its  denomina- 
tional character,  has  been  strengthened.  The  University 
of  Ottawa  is  a  Roman  Catholic  institution  still  increasing 
in  strength.  McMaster  University,  Toronto,  is  a  Baptist 
institution  which  remains  a  church  university,  being 
now  with  Ottawa  University  the  only  church  universities 
in  Ontario. 

Western  Provincial  Universities 

During  this  quarter-century  a  great  advance  has 
Ma  't  b  taken  place  in  the  University  of  Manitoba  and 
its  afiiliated  colleges.  In  1902  a  University 
building  was  erected  from  proceeds  of  the  land  grant, 
and  while  the  colleges  then  affiliated,  to  which  have  been 
added  Wesley  College  and  the  Pharmacy  College,  do  the 
University  work  in  classics  and  the  work  in  Theological 
colleges,  the  University  Faculty  now  includes  Mathe- 
matics,   Engineering,    Physical   and   Biological   Science, 


THE  Canadian  People  631 

English,  French,  and  German,  and  Political  Economy. 
This  year  the  first  President  of  the  University  was  ap- 
pointed, and  the  Government  has  given  assurance  of  largely 
supplementing  the  proceeds  of  the  land  grant  and  of 
erecting  new  buildings  in  a  large  site  near  Winnipeg  given 
to  the  University. 

Manitoba  also  rejoices  in  a  thoroughly  organized 
Agricultural  College,  for  men  and  women,  and  this 
has  power  to  grant  degrees  in  agriculture.  The  Uni- 
versity and  Agricultural  College  will  occupy  contiguous 
sites. 

It  is  marvellous   to  see  the   young  Province   of  Sas- 
katchewan, organized  in  1905,  already  coming  ^  .  .  . 
into  possession  of  the  progressive  University  of  ^^^    *" 
the  province  situated  at  Saskatoon.     It  is  an 
Arts  University  having  combined  with  it  full  Agricultural 
departments.     Its  buildings  are  rising  up  on  a  magnificent 
scale,  and  a  large  body  of  students  is  already  in  attend- 
ance.    Affiliated    theological  colleges    of  the  Church  of 
England  and  the  Presbyterian  Church  are  now  in  full 
operation    in    connection    with    it.     The    University    is 
entirely  supported  by  the  provincial  Government,  and 
is   under    governors    originally   nominated    by   leading 
centres  of  the  province. 

At  Edmonton,  the  capital  of  Alberta  Province,  shortly 
after  its  formation  in  1905  a  beginning  was 
made  by  the  Government  of  a  provincial 
University  at  Strathcona,  now  included  in  the  city  of 
Edmonton.  Buildings  were  commenced  immediately 
and  a  competent  Arts  staff  was  appointed  and  began 
work  immediately.  The  University  is  governed  by  a 
Board  chosen  by  a  convocation  including  the  graduates 
of  universities  resident  in  the  province.  On  account 
of  financial  troubles  of  the  Government  there  was  a 
certain  delay  in  finding  proper  accommodation,  but  this 
is  being  overcome.  Two  theological  colleges — ^the 
Methodist  and  Presbyterian — are  in  operation  and  are 
affiliated  to  Alberta  University. 

The  youngest  and  what  may  become  one  of  the  greatest 


632  A  Short  History  of 

Canadian  universities  is  that  of  British  Columbia 
situated  near  Vancouver,  its  great  site  of 
Columbia.  ^^^^  or  four  hundred  acres  overlooking  the 
beautiful  Gulf  of  Georgia.  This  is  the  gift  of 
the  provincial  Government,  which  has  also  endowed  the 
University  with  two  million  acres  of  wild  land  through- 
out the  province.  Provision  is  made  on  the  University 
grounds  for  free  sites  to  the  af&liated  colleges.  The 
province  has  been  indebted  to  McGill  University  for 
providing  for  several  years  past  a  teaching  staff  in  Arts 
at  Vancouver  in  a  pro-college,  which  will  be  absorbed  in 
the  University.  The  University  is  governed  by  a  body 
chosen  by  the  registered  graduates  of  University  stand- 
ing throughout  the  Province.  The  Government  has  ap- 
pointed the  President  of  the  University.  This  will  be 
the  University  last  to  see  the  sunset  in  the  golden  west. 

Agricultural  Research  and  Education 

The  great  subject  of  agriculture  is  one  most  important 
to  Canada.  Although  agriculture  is  regarded  by  some 
as  the  work  that  remains  for  the  illiterate  or  the  common 
man  to  do,  yet  the  most  intricate  and  mysterious  facts 
of  nature — in  physics,  chemistry,  plant  physiology, 
and  biology — are  underlying  the  farmer's  work.  There- 
fore it  is  that  all  countries,  as  they  become  more  civilized, 
are  found  establishing  apparatus  of  research  and  in- 
vestigation to  meet  their  demands.  Agricultural  re- 
search is  to  be  carried  on  by  experimental  farms,  by 
experienced  scientists  provided  with  suitable  laboratories, 
and  by  a  close  study  of  the  plant  and  animal  diseases, 
the  causes  of  crop  failure,  the  means  of  preserving  the 
soil,  and  the  methods  of  destroying  noxious  agencies. 
These  organizations,  too  long  under  unscientific  men, 
are  now  receiving  expert  and  systematic  oversight. 
The  Experimental  Farm  at  Ottawa  is,  as  the  head  of  the 
system,  making  more  and  more  efforts  to  advance  agri- 
culture by  branches  in  Brandon,  Indian  Head,  Agassiz, 
Charlottetown,  and  in  Trmo,  Nova  Scotia.     The  various 


Pbemieb  B.  L.  Bobden 


»38] 


THE  Canadian  People  533 

agricultural  colleges  are  also  being  provided  with  more 
highly  trained  and  educated  investigators  in  the  wide 
field  of  agriculture,  horticulture,  and  scientific  farming. 

The  Conservation  Commission 

The  whole  world  is  now  much  alive  to  applying  scientific 
methods  to  its  social  problems  and  industrial  develop- 
ment. Leading  minds  such  as  those  of  Dr.  Pinchot  of 
Washington  and  of  trained  leaders  in  Britain  and  Germany 
have  been  devoted  to  pointing  out  the  need  of  saving  and 
using  properly  the  national  resources  of  the  country. 
The  impulse  reached  Canada  in  1909,  and  in  that  year 
a  representative  Commission  from  different  parts  of 
Canada  was  appointed,  with  Hon.  Clifford  Sifton  as  chair- 
man. Sub-committees  were  struck  at  its  first  meeting 
in  1910  and  immediately  a  staff  of  experts  was  appointed 
to  assist  the  Commission.  A  strong  committee  was 
appointed  to  make  efforts  to  save  the  forests  of  Canada 
from  fires,  and  to  advance  the  reforestation  of  bare 
lands.  This  has  led  to  legislation  to  check  forest  fires 
along  railways,  and  to  require  the  use  of  liquid  fuel 
in  forest  districts  in  summer.  Another  committee  care- 
fully examined  all  the  provinces  as  to  the  state  of  farms 
and  farmers'  methods.  A  body  also  studied  the  question 
of  preserving  the  water  powers  for  the  country.  Expert 
examination  into  health  problems  was  made.  The 
preservation  of  wild  animals  and  fish  has  been  carefully 
overtaken.  The  purifying  and  protection  of  streams 
have  been  the  subject  of  inquiry.  By  reports,  bulletins, 
newspaper  information,  lectures,  and  carefully  prepared 
literature  the  country  has  been  dealt  with  and  much 
interest  created. 

Royal  Commission  on  Technical  Education 

For  several  years  manufacturers  and  labour  men  have 
both  been  besieging  Government  to  give  more  technical 
education  to  the  rising  generation  of  workers — inasmuch 
at  in  all  countries,  even  Germany,  the  old  apprentice- 


534  A  Short  History  op 

ship  has  gone  never  to  return.  How  to  supply  its  place 
and  educate  skilled  workmen  is  the  problem.  In  1910 
the  Dominion  Government  appointed  seven  experts 
and  a  secretary,  representing  different  parts  of  Canada, 
to  study  the  whole  question  : 

1.  To  examine  the  needs  of  Canadian  manufacturers 
and  workmen.  The  commissioners  were  a  Court,  with 
power  to  take  evidence  under  oath,  and  they  examined 
upwards  of  fourteen  hundred  witnesses  of  all  classes 
in  Canada. 

2.  To  visit  Europe  and  the  United  States  and  obtain 
information.  Seven  countries  in  Europe  were  closely 
scrutinized  as  well  as  half  a  dozen  of  the  American  States 
noted  for  industries. 

3.  To  show  the  need  of  scientific  research  and  to 
suggest  means  of  improving  Canadian  agricultural  and 
industrial  conditions. 

4.  To  recommend  a  comprehensive  scheme  to  the 
Dominion  Government  of  methods  of  industrial  educa- 
tion and  training  suited  to  Canadian  conditions. 

After  three  years  the  Royal  Commission  submitted 
its  report  of  some  1,500  pages,  recommending  that 
$30,000,000 — three  millions  a  year  for  ten  years — be 
utilized  in  carrying  out  a  minute  and  comprehensive  plan 
suggested  by  the  Commission. 

Section  XIV. — Canadian  Literature 

It  is  the  fashion  in  some  circles,  even  in  Canada,  to 
despise  Canadian  Literature.  True  we  have  not  produced 
men  to  compare  with  Tennyson  or  Browning,  or  writers 
to  stand  beside  Macaulay  or  Froude  as  historians,  or 
novelists  of  the  same  class  as  Dickens  and  Thackeray, 
or  essayists  like  Carlyle  and  De  Quincey,  but  we  have 
a  goodly  company  who  in  these  departments  have  done 
work  of  a  highly  creditable  kind  which  is  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  our  developing  life  as  a  nation. 

Again,  it  is  very  noticeable  that  our  native-born  literary 
talent  has  not  all  remained  at  home  but  has  been  attracted 


THE  Canadian  People  635 

abroad  by  the  more  generous  rewards  given  to  literature 
in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  We.  however, 
claim  these  wanderers  as  absentee  Canadians  and  rejoice 
in  their  success  in  their  absence  from  us.  We  have  now 
in  this  section  to  do  only  with  the  product  of  our  literary 
life  in  the  latest  and  greatest  quarter-century  of  our 
Canadian  life. 

It  is  very  remarkable  that  a  constellation  of  our  literary 
lights  was  just  coming  into  full  view  at  the  begimiing 
of  this  quarter-century.  Roberts,  Lampman,  Wilfred 
Campbell,  Bliss  Carman,  Frederick  G.  Scott,  C.  W. 
Gordon  (Ralph  Connor),  Duncan  C.  Scott,  Pauline  John- 
son, Gilb^ii  Parker,  Thompson-Seton,  all  born  between 
1860  and  1862,  were  first  gaining  notice  in  the  ninth 
decade  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Possibly  the  atmosphere  of  these  twenty  or  thirty 
years  was  stimulative  of  imagination  and  creative 
power.  In  the  air  were  the  Crimean  War,  the 
comet  of  1858,  the  Indian  Mutiny,  the  American  Civil 
War,  the  Trent  excitement  in  Canadian  life,  the  Con- 
federation Era  of  the  Dominion,  and  Canadian  militarism 
in  the  Fenian  attacks.  These  may  have  led,  as 
national  discussion,  war,  tumult,  and  disaster  always 
do,  to  intellectual  and  spiritual  creativeness  and  en- 
deavour. Whatever  the  causes,  it  is  plain  that  from 
1865  to  1890  there  was  a  special  outburst  of  Canadian 
talent  which  has  been  manifesting  itself  more  fully  in 
our  latest  quarter-century. 

We  can  treat  only  scantily  the  works  or  influence  of 
our  literary  Canadians.  One  thing  impresses  us  in  the 
case  of  all — a  patriotic  note  and  confidence  in  Canada  as 
a  rising  nation. 

Poetry 

Charles   G.  D.   Roberts,   born    in  New  Brunswick  in 
1860,  became  Professor  of  Literature  in  King's  ^  ^  j. 
College,   Windsor,  N.S.,  in    1888.     During  his  Roberts, 
seven  years  of  life  as  a  professor  he  published 
in   1901  his  collected  poems.      He  and  other  Canadian 


636  A  Short  History  of 

poets  show  evidence  of  the  influence  of  Shelley  as  their 
master.  Roberts  now  lives  in  the  United  States,  has 
written  a  History  of  Canada,  edited  Shelley's  works, 
published  a  number  of  "  animal "  books  and  done  much 
magazine  work.     He  is  a  Canadian  patriot  still : 

Your  bulwark  hills,  your  valleys  broad 
And  streams  where  Salaberry  trod, 
Where  Wolfe  achieved,  where  Brock  was  slain, 
These  voices  are  the  voice  of  God. 

Born  in  Ontario  in  1861  and  educated  in  Toronto 
University,  Campbell  has  in  a  constant  flow 
CainpbelL  ^^  ^^^§  struck  high  notes  of  didactic,  patriotic, 
and  descriptive  poetry.  He  has  written 
*'  Mordred,"  "  Hildebrande,"  and  "  Daulac  "—tragedies. 
A  writer  of  forcible  verse,  he  has  imaginative  flights, 
and  is  always  full  of  human  interest.  While  he  has  written 
largely  in  prose  as  well,  many  of  his  nature  poems  are 
very  beautiful : 

NoRTHEBN  Winter  Lakes 

Out  in  a  world  of  death,  far  to  the  northward  lying 
Under  the  sun  and  moon,  under  the  dusk  and  the  day, 
Under  the  glimmer  of  stars,  and  the  purple  of  sunsets  dying 
Wan  and  waste  and  white,  stretch  the  great  lakes  away. 

This    poet,    one   of   our    brightest    literary    products 
— ^the  cousin  of   Roberts — ^though  now  living 
Carman.        ^^  ^^®  United  States,  was  born  in  New  Bruns- 
wick in  1861.     His  polished  phrases  excel  those 
of  any  of  our  native  poets.     His  broad  humanity  and 
love  for  all  things  living  are  somewhat  Coleridgean : 

The  apple  harvest  time  is  here, 
The  tender  harvest  apple  time : 
A  sheltering  calm  unknown  at  prime 
Settles  upon  the  brooding  year. 

A  poet  of  older  years,  of  more  stalwart  mental  build, 

and  stronger  sentiment  is  Charles  Mair.     Born 

j^j^^J®*         in  Ontario  in  1840,  but  living  since  1868  under 

the  setting  sun  in  Western  Canada,  he  has  faced 

the  trials  of  life,  but  in  them  all  has  had  the  true  poet's 

afflatus.    His  "  Tecumseh,''  a  drama  of  1886,  was  dear  to 


THE  Canadian  People  537 

him,  for  he  knows  the  Indian  well.     An   edition   of   his 
revised  poems  appeared  in  1901. 

The  Last  Bison 

One  stride  he  took,  and  sank  upon  his  knees, 
Glared  stem  defiance,  when  I  stood  revealed. 
Then  swayed  to  earth,  and,  with  convulsive  groan, 
Turned  heavily  upon  his  side  and  died. 

Weak  of  body,  keen  of  mind,  of    vivid  imagination, 
and  solid  in  judgment,  Lampman    was  born 
in  Ontario  in   1861.     Sensitive  as  mimosa,  in  Lampman. 
humour    like    a    bright    tearful    eye    looking 
through  the  shadows,  struggling  with  poverty,  terribly 
introspective,  but  charmed  with  the  play  of  his  children, 
he  only  lived  till  1899.      His  "Among  the  Millet"  in 
1888  and  "  Lyrics  of  Earth  "  in  1896  were  no  mean  in- 
heritance for  one  life  to  leave. 

Into  the  hands  of  our  mother  we  come, 

Our  broad  strong  mother,  the  innocent  Earth, 

Mother  of  all  things  beautiful,  blameless. 

Mother  of  hopes  that  her  strength  makes  tameless. 

Modest,  exact,  and  methodical,  Duncan  Scott  has  the 
contemplative  insight  of   the  poet.     Nothing  Duncan 
tawdry  or  effusive  comes  from  his  pen.     He  Campbell 
was  born  in   Ontario  in   1862.     His  song  is  ^°°^* 
sweet  and  musical  and  his  power  of  description  excellent. 
"The  Magic  House"  of  1893  and  "New  World  Lyrics 
and  Ballads  "  of  1905  stand  to  his  credit. 

You  know  the  joy  of  coming  home 
After  long  lefiigues  to  France  and  Spain, 
You  feel  the  clear  Canadian  foam 
And  the  gulf  waters  heave  again. 

Poet  and  novelist,  born  in  Ontario  in  1857,  we  have 
in  Lighthall  of  Montreal  a  business  man  and 
a  man  of  pubHc  affairs,  who  also  cultivates  Lighthall.' 
the  muse.     His  love  for  Canadian  verse  showed 
itself  in  his  publication  in   1889  of  "Songs  of  the  Do- 
minion"  and   in    1891    "Canadian  Poems   and   Lays." 
He  has  written  several   novels,  among  them  an  Indian 


538  A  Short  History  op 

tale  of  which  the  scene  is  laid  in  Canada  before  the  coming 
of  the  white  man  to  America. 

I  see  the  sun  break  over  you 

On  hills  that  lift  from  iron  bases  grand 

Their  heads  superb  ! — the  dream  it  is  my  native  land. 

As  the  days  roll  on,  and  now  and  then  the  music  of 
the  sweet  lute  that  sounds  from  old  Quebec 
G^^cott.  reaches  us,  we  realize  that  the  singer  of  the 
"  Old  Capital  "  is  not  behind  any  of  those  we 
have  named.  Frederick  Scott  clings  to  the  old  rock 
of  Stadacona,  where  he  was  born  in  1861.  For  fine 
poetic  taste,  flash  of  imagination,  and  purity  of  diction, 
we  have  no  one  who  excels  him.  His  strength  of  con- 
ception is  seen  in  "  Samson "  and  "  Thor,"  while  his 
ever-increasing  list  of  books  shows  how  dear  to  him  is 
his  musical  flight. 

Columbus 

Westward  with  the  stars  of  a  midnight  sky 

His  strong  thought  travelled  'gainst  the  moving  world. 

He  pushed  his  course  and  trusting  God  on  high 
Threw  wide  the  portals  of  a  larger  world. 

Few  names  of  Canadian  literary  men  bring  out  so 
loving  a  response  from  us  alias  that  of  the  author 
Dri^moid.  ^^  "  '^^^  ^^^^^  of  the  Julie  Planter  Of  Irish 
birth  in  1854  Drummond  had  become  a  true 
Canadian,  and  he  loved  the  French  Canadian  especially 
well.  His  book  "  The  Habitant "  opened  up  a  new 
strain  of  dialect  poetry  in  1898.  "  Johnnie  Courteau  and 
Other  Poems  "in  1901  was  clamorously  received,  and  in 
1906  "  The  Voyageur  "  showed  the  touch  that  makes  men 
of  different  races  and  creeds  of  the  world  to  be  of  one  kin. 
Universally  regretted,  the  poet  died  in  1907. 

French  Canadian  Loyalty 
An'  onder  de  flag  of  Angleterre,  so  long  as  that  flag  was  fly — 
Wit  deir  English  broder,  les  Canayens  is  satisfy  live  or  die. 
Dat's  de  message  our  fader  geev  us  w'en  dey  're  fallen  on  Chateauguay, 
An'  de  flag  was  kipin  dem  safe  den,  dat  is  de  wan  we  will  kip  alway. 

\ 


THE  Canadian  People  539 

This  patriotic  poet  of  the  people  was  born  in  1818 
and  passed  away  in  1896.     He  spoke  the  voice 
of  the  backwoods  settler.     His  mind  is  that  McLachfan. 
of  the  Celt  with  his  visions  mingled  with  his 
rapturous  love  of  the  mountains,  trees,  and  flowers.     The 
stars,  the  rmming  brooks,  the  opening  spring,  and  the 
birds  of  the  forest  were  his  familiar  friends.     He  loved 
Canada. 

October 

With  a  rapture  of  delight 
We  hail  thy  gorgeous  pinion : 
To  elevate  our  hearts  thou'rt  here 
To  bind  us  with  a  tie  more  dear 

To  our  beloved  Dominion. 

The  daughter  of  a  chief  of  the  Mohawk  tribe  of  the 
fierce  Iroquois  of  the  old  border  wars.  Miss  E. 
Pauline  Johnson  was  bom  on  the  Indian  Re-  johiSon? 
serve  on  the  Grand  River,  Ontario.     Educated 
in  Brantford,  her  first  poem,  published  in  1894,  was  "  The 
White  Wampum."     In   1903    came   "Canadian   Born." 
She  represented  with  pride  the  fiery  temper  of  her  race. 
She  was   an  excellent  raconteur  and  her  finest  poem 
is    "  The    Song    my    Paddle    Sings."     Two    volumes   of 
Canadian  poetry  are  her  gift  to  her  Canadian  countrymen. 
For  a  long  time  struggling  with  disease,  she  died  in  1913 
in  Vancouver,  and  was  buried  at  her  own  request  at  a 
beautiful  spot  on  Burrard  Inlet  where  the  running  tide 
comes  in  and  out. 

The  Tortured  Iroquois 

Captive  ! 

A  taunt  more  galling  than  the  Huron's  hiss. 

He — proud  and  scornful,  he — who  laughed  at  last. 

He — scion  of  the  deadly  Iroquois. 

History 

If  Canada,  as  we  have  seen,  has  supplied  a  goodly  number 
of  brilliant  literary  minds  to  the  world  beyond  her 
borders,  we  cannot  but  admit  that  the  American  historian 


540  A  Short  History  of 

Parkman  has  well  repaid  us  in  his  monumental  volumes, 
which  deal  with  Canadian  history  especially  under  the 
French  regime. 

A  number  of  early  writers  wrote  works,  some  better, 
some  worse,  which  were  called  Canadian  histories. 

Garneau  and  Miles  wrote  of  Lower  Canada,  so  also 
did  Christie,  with  Murdoch  and  Campbell  of  the  provinces 
by  the  sea.  Much  of  their  history  consisted  of  summaries 
of  political  events  and  legislative  struggles  for  party 
superiority. 

No  doubt  the  poverty  of  treatment  of  early  Canadian 
history  arose  from  the  fragmentary  and  unconnected 
character  of  the  several  immigrations — different  in  time 
and  nationality — which  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
various  British  settlements  of  North  America.  After 
the  American  Colonies  had  separated  themselves  from 
Britain,  the  small  groups  of  British  settlers  in  different 
parts  of  British  North  America  had  no  connection  or 
correspondence  with  one  another,  so  that  there  can  be 
no  real  unity  in  the  treatment  of  their  history.  They 
formed  separate  colonies,  which  had  a  struggling  and 
seemingly  hopeless  future. 

It  was  only  after  the  formation  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  in  1867  that  there  appeared  any  unity  or  hope 
of  united  action  under  the  aegis  of  Great  Britain.  Our 
only  task,  however,  in  this  chapter  is  to  deal  with  the 
quarter-century  now  closing. 

Miss  Agnes  Machar  of  Kingston,  who  as  early  as  1879 
published  "  For  King  and  Country,"  has  continued  a 
busy  literary  life  in  magazine,  newspaper,  and  book,  in 
presenting  the  picturesque  in  our  local  history,  and  has  in 
so  doing  shown  her  poetical  gift  as  well. 

In  New  Brunswick  James  Hannay,  born  in  1842  and 
busy  with  many  subjects,  wrote  in  1879  the  History  of 
Acadia,  and  followed  this  with  other  books  and  historical 
monographs. 

It  would  be  unfair  to  omit  here  the  name  of  W.  H. 
Withrow,  of  whom  we  might  speak  under  the  heading  of 
Journalism^  who  wrote  a  History  of  Canada  which  for  a 


THE  Canadian  People  541 

number  of  years  was  used  largely  in  schools  during  our 
quarter  of  a  century. 

Undoubtedly  a  great  impulse  was  given  to  historical 
research  and  publication  by  the  founding  in  1882  by 
the  Marquis  of  Lome,  Grovernor-General,  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Canada.  This  body  of  men,  numbering  at 
first  eighty  and  afterwards  a  larger  number,  was  appointed 
at  first  and  afterwards  became  a  self-continuing  society 
like  the  French  Academy.  Divided  into  foiur  sections, 
two  of  them  were  respectively  for  French  and  English 
literature  in  its  broadest  sense,  covering  history  and 
archaeology  as  well  as  purely  literary  work.  It  has  in 
more  than  forty  years  of  existence  done  a  great  deal  for 
Canadian  history,  both  French  and  EngUsh,  by  its 
comprehensive  annual  volume.  It  hats  been  a  rallying 
centre  for  the  many  historical  societies  in  all  parts  of  the 
Dominion  which  are  afl&Hated  to  it.  Its  considerable 
library  has  now  grown  to  large  proportions  and  has  a 
home  in  the  large  building  of  the  Victoria  Museum  in 
Ottawa.  Among  its  French-speaking  historical  leaders 
have  been  Sir  James  Lemoine,  Abb6  Casgrain,  E.  Bou- 
chette,  and  Abb6  Bourassa.  These  have  passed  away, 
but  there  still  remain  Benjamin  Suite,  the  indefatigable 
investigator  and  writer  who  has  worked  out  many  interest- 
ing problems  of  French  Canadian  history,  Judge  Prud'- 
homme,  who  has  sketched  the  lives  of  many  western 
pioneers,  as  well  as  Mr.  Decelles. 

In  the  Enghsh  section  there  are  historians  who  have 
now  passed  away :  Sir  Daniel  Wilson — archaeologist  and 
historian — Principal  Grant  and  Sir  John  Bourinot — ^not 
only  President  of  the  Society  and  historical  investigator, 
but  long  the  mainspring  of  the  Society.  Among  present 
members  are  Col.  Denison,  military  historian,  Coyne, 
Cruickshank,  Le  Sueur,  Short,  Col.  Wood,  Professor 
Wrong,  Burwash,  Burpee,  Doughty,  W.  L.  Grant,  and 
Archdeacon  Raymond.  Thus  in  the  Royal  Society  with 
its  network  of  affiliated  societies  almost  every  Canadian 
question  of  interest  is  being  investigated. 

In  the  first  decade  of  the  twentieth  century  a  very  con- 


542  A  Short  History  oi? 

siderable  impulse  was  given  to  historical  research  through- 
out the  Dominion  by  the  publication  by  Morang  &  Co.  of 
the  "  Makers  of  Canada  Series."  Twenty  large  octavo 
volumes  containing  the  biographies  of  leading  pioneers  in 
all  the  Canadian  provinces  have  been  scattered  widely 
through  the  Dominion  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 

Another  movement  that  grew  out  of  this  great  interest 
in  historical  investigation  in  Canada  was  the  formation 
in  1905  of  the  Champlain  Society  in  Toronto.  It  exists 
to  reprint  for  the  benefit  of  historians  and  con- 
noisseurs in  all  parts  of  Canada  copies  of  early  works 
of  history  and  geography  which  are  rare  and  difficult 
to  obtain.  The  volumes  reproduced  are  well  annotated 
and  thus  made  serviceable  to  modern  readers.  The 
mainspring  of  this  Society  was  James  Bain,  Librarian 
of  Toronto  Public  Library,  who  was  a  well-known  au- 
thority on  Americana  and  Canadiana.  Such  rare  works 
as  those  of  Denys,  Lescarbot,  Hearne,  etc.,  are  being 
published  at  the  rate  of  two  a  year.  A  work  of  ten  volumes 
of  considerable  size,  the  History  of  Canada,  remains  to 
the  credit  of  an  indefatigable  worker,  the  late  W.  Kings- 
ford  of  Ottawa.  Though  the  work  may  be  criticized  for 
want  of  perspicuity,  good  arrangement,  or  interest,  yet 
it  represents  a  vast  amount  of  painstaking  effort  and 
great  research.  Western  Canadian  history  has  during 
the  quarter-century  owed  much  to  the  Manitoba  His- 
torical Society.  Alexander  Begg  (1),  a  native  of  Ontario, 
wrote  a  number  of  useful  volumes  on  the  History  of 
the  North- West;  Alexander  Begg  (2),  a  native  of  the 
Orkneys,  wrote  of  British  Columbia. 

Fiction 

The  rise  of  fiction  in  Canada  has  been  quite  phenomenal. 
Looking  back  before  our  quarter-century,  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  find  a  real  novel  produced  by  a  Canadian. 
Except  "  The  Golden  Dog,"  said  to  have  been  written 
by  William  Kirby  in  1877,  we  fail  to  find  a  native 
work  that    took    hold  of    the  interest   of    the    people. 


THE  Canadian  People  643 

True,  Canadians  have  long  been  appreciative  novel- 
readers,  but  it  was  to  Scott,  Dickens,  Thackeray,  other 
British  writers,  and  Ho  wells  that  they  turned. 

But  during  our  period  a  native  fiction  seems  to  have 
come  in  reality  and  it  has  grown  to  great  proportions  to-day. 

The  cause  of  the  appearance  of  this  new  candidate  for 
recognition  seems  to  have  sprung  from  the  native  Canadian 
spirit  which  has  gradually  taken  possession  of  Canada 
with  strong  force.  It  was  the  realization  that  Canada, 
a  young  nation,  is  forming  a  life  of  its  own  and  the  con- 
sciousness that  it  has  a  social,  an  historic,  a  religious  or 
a  distinctive  life  which  is  bound  to  express  itself  and 
will  not  down.  Our  poetry,  as  already  indicated,  has 
been  charged  with  being  entirely  imitative.  It  may 
be  after  the  manner  of  Keats  or  Shelley,  or  with  a  touch 
of  Tennyson  or  perhaps  of  Kipling,  but  it  is  not  so  with 
our  new  fiction.  The  story  is  laid  in  the  settler's  house, 
in  the  early  church  life,  among  the  fui-traders  or  wood- 
rangers,  in  the  lurid  life  of  the  mining  camp,  among  the 
apple  orchards,  or  in  the  wheat-fields — but  it  must  be 
Canadian.  Now  all  this  is  because  we  are  just  in  the 
generation  that  is  realizing  itself  to  be  distinctively  of  a 
new  mould — ^the  Canadian. 

Born  in  Ontario  in  1862,  Gilbert  Parker,  a  wanderer  who 
has  been  round  the  world,  has  been  elected  by  an 
English  constituency  to  be  a  member  of  the  parker.^ 
British  Parliament.     The  novelist  comes  back 
to  Canada  for  many  of  his  subjects.     He  seems  dominated 
by  the  glamour  of  Scott  but  under  new  skies.     It  is 
the  romance  of    the  ^parly    Canadian   life — "  The  Seats 
of  the  Mighty  "  in  Quebec,  "  The  Trail  of  the  Sword  "  on 
the  Canadian  coast,  "  An  Adventurer  of  the  North,"  and 
back  again  in  1903  to  the  "  History  of  Old  Quebec,"  and 
in  1909  "Northern  Lights." 

Of  Scottish  birth  in   1850,   but  caught  early,  Robert 
Barr  grew  up  in  Western  Ontario.     Following 
the  life  of  a  schoolmaster,  of  which  he  soon  grew  gaw  ' 
wearied,  and  after  some  newspaper  experience, 
the  young  explorer  went  back  to  London,  there  to  write 


544  A  Short  History  oip 

many  novels.  Most  of  them  were  not  distinctively 
Canadian,  but  some  have  the  flavour  of  the  New  World. 
One  of  his  works  is  of  the  Affair  of  Ridgeway  in  1866. 
He  died  in  1912. 

Born   in   Central   Ontario  in    1848jand  educated   in 

England,  Grant  Allen  sought  to  find  his  own 
^[f^^  in  writing  works  of  science,  being  an  advanced 

scientific  thinker.  As  this  sort  of  literature 
did  not  prove  remimerative,  he  turned  to  fiction.  His 
stories  were  numerous,  running  up  to  forty.  He  died 
in  1899. 

Born  in  Glengarry  County,  Ontario,  in  1860,  educated 

in  Toronto  University  and  Knox  College, 
W.^Gordon.    Toronto,  Gordon  was  settled  in  charge  of  St. 

Stephen's  Church,  Winnipeg,  in  1894,  after 
having  had  missionary  experiences  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. It  came  into  the  mind  of  the  young  Canadian 
in  1898  to  write  a  novel.  This  he  did  under  the  name 
of  "  Black  Rock,"  and  imder  the  pseudonym  of  "  Ralph 
Connor."  This  was  a  picture  of  mountain  life.  Next 
year  it  was  followed  by  "  Sky  Pilot,"  much  the  best  book 
that  he  has  written.  His  prettiest  effort  is  "  Beyond 
the  Marshes."  He  returned  to  the  home  of  his  boyhood 
in  '*  The  Man  from  Glengarry,"  and  has  written  other 
works  since.  He  is  in  his  soul  a  thorough  Canadian  and 
in  his  books  he  portrays  a  virile  type  of  religion.  He 
supplies  fiction  acceptable  to  religious  people,  but  takes 
a  thorough  interest  in  a  well-contested  piece  of  sport  or 
even  a  "  free  fight." 

Born  in  the  Province  of  Quebec  in  1858  and  educated 

in  Canada,  United  States,  and  Great  Britain, 
DougalL        *^^^  ^^^y  ^^  talent  has  had  editorial  experience 

in  the  management  of  World  Wide  of 
Montreal,  but  also  has  a  record  of  making  good  books. 
Her  first  work,  "  Beggars  All  "  of  1891,  has  always  been 
popular.  She  wrote  "  The  Madonna  of  a  Day  "  in  the 
year  1896.  As  a  writer  of  high  aims  and  distinguished 
ability  we  quote  from  one  of  her  books  her  ideal  of  a 
novel:    "  I  do  not  believe  that  it  belongs  to  the  novel 


THE  Cakadian  People  546 

to  teach  theology  ;  but  I  do  beheve  that  religious  senti- 
ments and  opinions  are  a  legitimate  subject  of  its  art, 
and  perhaps  its  highest  function  is  to  promote  under- 
standing by  bringing  into  contact  minds  that  habitually 
misinterpret  one  another." 

Mrs.  E verard  Cotes  (was  Miss  Sara  Jeannette  Duncan) . 
A  native  of  Brantford,  Ontario,  Mrs.  Cotes  was  g^ra 
born  in  1862.     She  rose  to  prominence  as  a  Jeannette 
writer  of  fiction  in  her  first  book,  "  A  Social  J'^'^can. 
Departure."     "  The  Adventures  of  a  Mem-Sahib,"  reflects 
her  life  in  India,   of  which  she  is  now  a  resident.     One 
of  her  books  gives  an  amusing  pictmre  of  a  bachelor  settler 
in  Western  Canada.     Mrs.  Cotes  is  a  lively,  witty,   and 
most  entertaining  writer. 

A  Nova  Scotian,  born  in  1858,  Oxley  was  educated  at 
Dalhousie  and  Harvard  Universities.  Following  james  Mao- 
business  in  Montreal  and  Toronto,  he  became  a  donald 
contributor  to  magazines,  but  found  his  special  ^^'^y* 
aptitude  in  writing  stories  for  the  young.     He  has  been 
a  thorough  delineator  of  Canadian  life  and  a  most  prolific 
writer.     Always  popular,   "  Up  Among  the   Ice-Floes, " 
written  in  1890,  and  "  Wreckers  of  Sable  Island  "  are 
well-known  novels. 

Miss  Mcllwraith,  a  native  of  Ontario,  has  done  much. 
She  was  educated  in  Hamilton  Ladies'  College 
in  London,  and  in  Queen  Margaret's — a  Ladies'  McHwraUh. 
College  in  Glasgow.     As  a  more  severe  piece 
of  work  Miss  Mcllwraith  wrote  the  volume  in  the  "  Makers 
of  Canada  Series  "  dealing  with  the  officer  who  had  most 
to  do  in  settling  the  U.E.  Loyalists  in  Upper  Canada — 
Sir    Frederick  Haldimand.     For    this    volume    she    has 
received  much  praise.     Two  of  her  novels,    "  The  Span 
of  Life"  and  "  The  Making  of  Mary,"  are  highly  spoken 
of.     The  latter  appeared  in  1905. 

A  native  of  Brantford,   Ontario,  young  Duncan  was 
bom  in  1871  and  graduated  in  Toronto  Uni- 
versity.     After    following    journalism    for     a  Duncan, 
time  he  was  appointed,  in  1900,  Professor  of 
Rhetoric  in  Washington  and  Jefferson  College  in  the 
35 


546  A  Short  History  of 

United  States.  His  best  known  work  of  fiction  is  "Dr. 
Luke  of  the  Labrador  " — an  attractive  story.  Besides 
in  "  The  Way  of  the  Sea  "  and  "  The  Cruise  of  the  Shining 
Light  "  he  has  made  our  Atlantic  sea-shore  better  known 
to  us,  and  his  brother,  Professor  K.  K.  Duncan  of  Pitts- 
burgh, U.S.,  has  done  like  service  in  the  field  of  chemical 
science. 

Born  in  Western  Ontario  in  1871,  Miss  Laut  spent  her 

early  life  in  Manitoba,  and  studied  in  Manitoba 
Laut.  ^"^^    University,    Winnipeg.     Having   served   as    a 

journalist  she  turned  to  the  work  of  making 
more  permanent  literature.  Here  she  has  wavered 
between  writing  fiction  and  early  Canadian  and  American 
history.  Her  most  appreciated  book  is  no  doubt 
"  Lords  of  the  North,"  a  novel  published  in  1900,  followed 
by  ."Pathfinders  of  the  West,"  1904,  and  "Vikings  of 
the  Pacific,"  1906.  Miss  Laut  makes  her  home  upon  the 
banks  of  the  Hudson  river.  New  York,  and  is  a  most 
industrious  magazine  writer. 

Known  in  her  earlier  writings  by  the  pen-name  of 

"  Marian  Keith,"  this  young  writer  was  born 
McGregor.*     i^  Central  Ontario.     She  is  said  to  be  the  first 

novelist  who  has  really  depicted  Canadian 
domestic  life.  Her  novels,  first  written  as  serials,  have 
been  issued  as  books.  They  are  interesting,  real,  and 
effective.  She  published  "Duncan  Polite"  in  1905, 
"Silver  Maple"  in  1906,  and  "  Lisbeth  of  the  Dale" 
in  1911. 

Born  in  1876,  this  writer  came  to  Canada  from  Scotland 

and  was  employed  in  the  Canadian  Bank  of 
Service.   '     Commerce  in  Victoria,  Vancouver,  Kamloops, 

and  White  Horse,  where  he  became  thoroughly 
possessed  with  the  glamour  of  the  wild.  He  wrote  in 
1907  his  first  book  of  poetry,  "  Songs  of  a  Sourdough," 
and  in  1909  "Ballads  of  a  Chechako."  They  both 
represent  the  wild,  impetuous,  reckless  life  of  early 
Yukon.  Service  has  been  called  the  "  Kipling  of  the 
Arctic  World."  There  is  a  certain  virility  in  his  work, 
and  a  daring  facility  in  expressing  what  attracts  many. 


THE  Canadian  People  547 

His  effort  in  prose  is  called  "  The  Trail  of  '98  " — a  weird 
story  of  the  Yukon. 

A  preacher  and  lecturer,  the  young  novelist  Knowles 
was  born  in  Ontario  in   1868.     Educated  at 
Queen's  University,  Kingston,   and  Manitoba  Knowles.' 
College,  Winnipeg,  he  first  showed  the  novelist's 
talent   in   his  work    "  St.    Cuthbert's "    in    1906.     Then 
followed  in   quick  succession   "  The   Undertow,"    "  The 
Web  of  Time,"  "The  Attic  Guest,"  and  in  1911  "The 
Singer  of  the  Kootenay."     Mr.  Knowles  has  been  called 
the  "  Canadian  J.  M.  Barrie."     English  critics  have  given 
him  praise,  and  he  certainly  has  brilliancy,  a  thread  of 
humour,  and  the  knack  of  the  story-teller  in  his  pictures 
of  Canadian  life. 

This  novelist  is  a  lady  of  Manitoba,  born  in  Ontario 
in  1873.     She  has  grown  up  on  the  western 
prairies  of  Canada  and   has  dnmk  in  every  McClimg.  * 
breath  of  the  free  life  of  the  west.     She  has 
decided  power  of  description  and  a  taste  of  canny  humour 
running  through  her  stories.     Her  book  "  Sowing  Seeds 
in  Danny  "  has  good  action  and  a  considerable  power 
of   dialogue.     Her   later   book,    "  The   Second   Choice," 
shows  she  is  evidently  in  love  with  the  prairies  and  breathes 
forth  their  very  air. 

This  young  Canadian  lives  in  Prince  Edward  Island 
and  is  one  of  our  most  recent  novelists.  There  „  ,  „ 
are  about  her  writing  a  raciness  and  expression  Montgomery, 
which  are  very  marked.  Coming  to  us  from 
the  quiet  sea  pastures  of  the  pretty  island,  her  books 
have  a  simplicity  and  naturalness  most  attractive. 
First  known  through  "  Anne  of  Green  Gables,"  she  has 
since  maintained  interest  in  "  Anne  of  Avonlea  "  and 
"  Kihneny  of  the  Orchard." 

Essays  and  Joxtrnalism 

The  journalist  is  something  of  an  essayist.  Both  have 
a  topic,  which  requires  to  be  treated  as  a  unit,  and  the 
editorial  writer  and  the  essayist  both  have  the  same 


648  A  Short  History  of 

didactic  purpose,  leading,  however,  in  the  case  of  the 
journalist  to  a  greater  incentive  to  action.  In  the  realm 
of  the  philosophic  essay  in  Canada  we  find  in  Dr.  John 
Watson  of  Queen's  University,  born  in  1847,  S.  B.  Leacock 
of  McGill  University,  born  in  1869,  and  Andrew  McPhail 
of  the  University  Magazine,  born  in  1864,  excellent 
examples  of  the  brilliant  essayist.  Dr.  W.  T.  Herridge, 
born  in  1857,  with  a  finished  style  as  a  preacher  in  St. 
Andrew's  Church,  Ottawa,  has  published  two  volumes 
of  essays — "The  Coign  of  Vantage  and  Other  Essays," 
1908,  and  a  second  in  1913. 

Forsaking,  however,  the  peaceful  academic  shades, 
the  journalist  enters  upon  a  hurried,  restless,  and  weari- 
some manner  of  life  which  develops  in  him  something 
of  the  debater  if  not  the  pugilist.  Canadian  newspapers 
of  greatest  influence  cannot  in  the  nature  of  the  case 
be  very  numerous.  The  Globe,  Mail  and  News  of  Toronto, 
the  Free  Press  of  Winnipeg,  the  Colonist  in  Victoria, 
the  News- Advertiser  in  Vancouver,  the  Gazette  and  Star 
in  Montreal,  the  Chronicle  and  Herald  in  Halifax,  and 
the  Citizen  in  Ottawa  probably  do  the  thinking  and  set 
the  pace  for  the  multitude  of  useful  journals  throughout 
Canada.  In  almost  all  cases  the  whole  press  of  Canada 
is  a  well-conducted  feature  of  Canadian  life.  While 
numerous  writers  of  fair  capacity  are  doing  faithful  work 
in  other  newspapers  than  those  mentioned,  yet  we  can 
name  but  a  few  prominent  leaders,  as  it  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  no  one  knows  who  it  is,  after  all,  that  writes 
the  editorials.  The  Dean  of  the  Guild  of  journalism  in 
Canada  for  our  period  may  be  said  to  be  Mr.  John  Reade. 
Born  in  Ireland  in  1837,  he  has  been  for  forty  years  on 
the  editorial  staff  of  the  Montreal  Gazette.  He  has  a 
noble  record  as  a  consistent  advocate  of  good  feeling 
between  French  and  English,  a  strong  supporter  of  the 
confederation  of  the  British  American  provinces,  and  an 
advocate  of  a  broad  and  judicious  union  of  the  various 
units  of  the  Empire. 

A  cosmopolitan  writer  who  has  been  successful  editor 
on  both  sides  of  political  conflict  is  Sir  John  S.  Willison, 


THE  Canadian  People  649 

formerly  editor  of  the  Olohe  and  later  of  the  Toronto  News, 
now  the  correspondent  of  the  London  Times.  Born  in  1 856 
in  Western  Ontario  and  knighted  in  1912,  Sir  John  Willi- 
son  has  among  his  writings  a  Hfe  of  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier. 

A  well-known  jom-nalist  and  writer  in  Victoria,  B.C., 
where  she  was  born  in   1863,   Miss  Cameron  ^jsg  Agnes 
was  for  years  a  successful  teacher,  and  after  Deans 
experience  in  journalism — especially  magazine  Cameron, 
writing — forced  her  way  into  pubUc  notice  as  a  lecturer. 
She  had  a  rare,  forcible,  and  quite  characteristic  style, 
which  disclosed  her  natural  bent  as  an  original  thinker. 
Her  work  "  From  Wheat  to  Whales  "  gives  a  vivid  picture 
of  travel  down  the  Mackenzie  River  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  as 
does  also  her*  "  New  North."    Death  came  to  her  all  too 
soon  in  1912. 

Born  in  Prince  Edward  Island,  she  early  became  con- 
nected with  the  press  on  the  Montreal  Star  and  mjss 
Ednumton  Bvllelin,  Alberta.    Showing  historical  Katherine 
tendencies    she     was    appointed     Provincial  hughes. 
Archivist  in  Alberta  in  1 908.    She  had  a  passionate  interest 
in  the  Indian  tribes  and  travelled  through  Peace  River 
and    Athabasca    districts    through    every  kind    of    dis- 
comfort.    It  is  said  of  her  that  though  a  modest  little 
woman,  she  has  the  courage  and  the  mental  grip  of  a 
man.     She   is  a  frequent   contributor  to   the  magazines 
and  her  greatest  work  is  "Life  of  Pere  Lacombe,"  for 
whom  as  a  pioneer  and    Indian  missionary  she  has  a 
passionate  admiration. 

The  managing  editor  of  the  Toronto  Olohe  was  born  in 
Ontario    in    1862.     Having    studied    for    the  james 
ministry     after     passing      through     Toronto  Alexander 
University,   and   serving   in   St.    Thomas  five  Macdonald. 
years  as  a  pastor,  he  became  a  noted  editor,  the  editor 
of    the    Presbyterian,    the    Westminster    Magazine,    and 
afterwards   took  the   direction  of  the  Olohe.     He  is  a 
good  preacher,  a  magnetic  public  speaker,  and  writer  of 
ability  on  sociology,  politics,  or  religious  topics.     He  is  a 
Governor  of  Toronto  University  and  a  prominent  Director 
of  the  World's  Peace  Foundation. 


550  A  Short  History  of 

This  prominent  British  Columbian  was  born  at  Lake 
Robert  Beauport,    Quebec,    in    1860,    became    editor 

Edward  of  several  Ontario  papers  in  succession,  but 
Gosnell.  ^^^g  (jjawn  by  the  lure  of  the  west  to  British 
Columbia,  where  he  has  lived  since  1886.  He  has  edited 
at  different  times  two  most  important  journals  of  British 
Columbia — ^the  Victoria  Colonist  and  Vancouver  News- 
Advertiser.  For  several  years  he  has  been  an  employee 
of  the  British  Columbia  Government,  has  written  and 
edited  several  books  on  statistics  and  forestry,  and 
is  the  author  of  a  volume  of  the  "  Makers  of  Canada 
Series  "  on  Sir  James  Douglas. 

One   of   the   most   unassuming   but   most   industrious 

and  ideal  editors  of  Canada  is  William  Houston, 
Houston.       ^^^  ^^^  born  in  Eastern  Ontario  in  1844.     A 

close  student,  an  educational  lecturer.  Uni- 
versity representative,  and  a  painstaking  librarian,  he 
became  editor  of  the  Documentary  Literature  of  the 
Canadian  Constitution  in  1911.  In  the  G^Zo6e  sanctum  he 
has  written  many  an  article  which  has  influenced  public 
opinion.  With  his  full  knowledge,  terse  style,  and  strong 
opinions,  he  is  the  beau-ideal  of  a  competent  editor. 

Born  in  Toronto  in  1849,  in  young  manhood  he 
Edward  became  surveyor  and  explorer,  but  settled 
William  down  for  thirteen  years  as  an  editorial  writer 
Thomson.  ^^  ^^le  Globe,  and  afterwards  for  ten  years  as 
a  writer  of  the  Youth^s  Companion  in  Boston.  Now  he 
is  a  correspondent  in  Ottawa  of  the  Boston  Transcript, 
As  an  author  he  will  be  appreciated  by  all  who  have 
read  his  "  Old  Man  Savarin."  His  interesting  press 
articles,  timely  poems,  and  clever  stories  give  him  high 
rank  as  a  litterateur. 

The  able  editor  of  the  Manitoba  Free  Press  was  born 

in  1866  in  Eastern  Ontario.  Since  receiving 
Dafoe.  '        ^^®  High  School  education  he  has  absolutely 

grown  up  in  a  newspaper  atmosphere.  He 
gained  a  high  reputation  for  advancing  the  Weekly  Mon- 
treal Star  to  have  an  enormous  circulation  in  all  Canada. 
He  was  first  editor  of  the  independent  newspaper — ^the 


THE  Canadian  People  661 

Journal  of  Ottawa.  Drawn  to  the  west,  he  was  on  the 
editorial  staff  of  the  Winnipeg  Free  Press,  but  was 
induced  to  go  east  to  manage  the  Montreal  Herald.  His 
greatest  work  is  in  guiding  the  destinies  for  the  past 
twelve  years  of  the  Winnipeg  Free  Press,  one  of  the 
largest  and  best  newspapers  in  the  Dominion.  As  a  sane 
and  discreet  manager,  with  an  incisive  and  effective  style 
as  a  writer,  and  as  a  man  of  highest  character,  he  prob- 
ably is  not  excelled  in  the  newspaperdom  of  Canada. 

For  many  years  Mr.  Morgan  of  Ottawa  has  been  per- 
forming the  intricate  and  painstaking  work  of 
a   historiographer,  statistioan,  biographer,  and  Morgan.* 
chronologer  for  the  Dominion  of  Canada.      His 
first  book  of  "  Sketches  of  Celebrated  Canadians  "  was 
published  in  1862.     In  1898  his  next  well-known  volume 
was  issued,  and  his  latest  appeared  in  1912.     His  work 
is  invaluable  for  reference  in  all  departments  of  work. 
These  have  involved  an  enormous  amount  of  labour  that 
few  men  would  willingly  undertake. 

Castell  Hopkins,  as  he  is  famiharly  known,  was  born 
in    1864  in  the  State  of    Iowa,  but   he  was 
educated   in    Ontario   and   as   a   young   man  Hopki,^  * 
busied   himself   with   the   cause   of    Imperial 
Federation,  of  which  he  has  ever  since  been  a  determined 
supporter.     He  has  published  a  large  number  of  works 
on  different  phases  of  Canadian  life.     His  immense  work 
has  been  encyclopaedic    in  character.      He  has  written 
many  books  on  Canadian  subjects.      With  the  help  of 
leading  Canadians  he  issued  a  four- volume  Encyclopaedia — 
a  work  on  "  The  Progress  of  Canada,"  another  in  1912,  on 
"  The  Story  of  our  Country,"  and  still  another,  "  Canada 
and  the  Empire."     His  Canadian  Annual  is  now  to  be 
foimd  in  all  public  libraries  and  Government  offices. 

To  close  the  section  of  Canadian  literature  and  especi- 
ally of  journalism  without  reference  to  Gold-  ooldwin 
win  Smith  of  Toronto  and  George  Murray  of  Smith: 
Montrealwould  be  unpardonable.  They  make  an  George 
absolute  contrast :  Goldwin  Smith,  born  in  1823  Murray. 
in   England,   possessed   of   wealth,    of   radical   opinions. 


552  A  Short  History  of 

self-conscious  of  power  and  always  ready  for  a  "  clash  of 
arms,"  had  the  vision  of  a  politician  but  without  that 
"  illness,"  to  use  Shakespeare's  word,  that  should  attend 
ambition.  He  was  the  "  sage  "  of  the  Grange,  Toronto, 
and  somewhat  of  an  intellectual  dictator  to  his  admirers, 
but  without  the  power  of  leadership.  He  was  a  busy 
journalist,  a  beautiful  stylist,  and  an  ideal  critic.  In  our 
quarter-century  he  discussed  again  and  again  the 
political  relations  of  Canada  and  the  United  States,  but 
represented  no  shade  of  Canadian  opinion.  He  was  a 
prophet — ^but  he  was  crying  in  the  wilderness.  George 
Murray,  like  Goldwin  Smith  both  an  Englishman  and  a 
graduate  of  Oxford,  came  to  Canada  in  1860  and  for  a 
generation  was  classical  master  in  Montreal  High  School. 
He  was  a  quiet,  studious,  and  retiring  soul.  To  know  him 
was  to  love  him.  His  fine  classical  taste  and  painstaking 
work  for  the  press  made  him  a  great  favourite  with  all 
the  members  of  the  Sections  of  Literature  in  the  Royal 
Society  of  Canada.  He  edited  the  literary  remains  of 
D'Arcy  McGee.  He  loved  his  French  Canadian  fellow 
citizens.  He  was  the  successful  competitor  out  of  290 
for  the  best  ballad  on  any  subject  of  Canadian  history. 
With  a  snatch  of  it  we  close  our  section  of  Canadian 
literature.  It  refers  to  the  story  of  DoUard  des  Ormeaux 
(1660)  in  his  heroic  death  on  the  Ottawa  River: 

How  Canada  was  Saved 

Beside  the  dark  Utawa's  stream  two  hundred  years  ago, 
A  wondrous  feat  of  arms  was  wrought,  which  all  the  world  should  know. 
'Tis  hard  to  read  with  tearless  eyes  that  record  of  the  past ; 
It  stirs  the  blood  and  fires  the  soul  as  with  a  clarion's  blast. 
What  though  no  blazoned  cenotaph,  no  sculptured  columns  tell 
Where  the  stern  heroes  of  my  song  in  death  triumphant  fell ; 
What  though  beside  the  foaming  flood  untombed  their  ashes  lie — 
All  earth  becomes  the  monument  of  men  who  nobly  die. 

Section  XV. — Science,  Art,  Religion 

All  evidence  goes   to  show  that  it  was   the  union   of 

g  the   British   provinces   of  North  America    in 

1867,  the   transfer  of   the  territories  occupied 

by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  in  1870,  and  the  com- 


THE  Canadian  People  553 

pletion  of  the  Dominion  by  its  other  two  provinces, 
Prince  Edward  Island  and  British  Columbia  by  1873,  that 
gave  new  hope  to  the  scattered  children  of  the  British 
Motherland  in  North  America,  the  more  that  they  had 
under  one  Government  become  possessors  of  a  greater 
area  than  that  of  the  United  States.  Henceforth  Canada 
becomes  the  eldest  daughter  and  at  the  same  time  a 
virtual  nation  of  the  Empire. 

Daughter  am  I  in  my  mother's  house 
But  mistress  of  my  own — 
The  gates  are  mine  to  open. 
The  gates  are  mine  to  close. 

It  was  this  hope  in  the  air  that  inspired  its  loyal  sons 
to  poetic  effort,  to  a  nobler  independence,  and  to  an 
ambition  to  meet  the  responsibilities  of  a  new  natioaal 
life.  In  taking  possession  of  the  new  territory  the  sur- 
veyor was  required  to  be  more  accurate,  scientific,  and 
certain  of  his  ground.  Young  men  had  now  to  build 
railways,  construct  better  roads,  lay  out  and  serve  great 
numbers  of  new  towns  and  cities.  They  had  now  to 
harness  the  waterfalls  for  producing  power.  They  were 
required  for  the  welfare  and  health  of  the  vast  bodies  of 
workmen  and  all  citizens  to  devise  better  conditions  and 
had  new  and  important  questions  of  civilization  thrown 
upon  them. 

Increased  scientific  knowledge  and  experience  was  forced 
upon  them  at  every  turn. 

Now  science  at  its  best  in  Canadian  universities  was 
but  in  an  infantile  stage  in  1867.  To  make  up  for  this  loss 
many  students  crossed  the  ocean  to  work  in  the  physical, 
chemical,  medical,  and  applied  science  laboratories  in 
London,  Edinburgh,  Paris,  and  Leipsic  ;  or,  less  ambitious, 
crossed  to  the  excellent  scientific  facilities  of  Boston 
and  New  York.  They  became  well  trained.  Many  Euro- 
pean professors  of  science  were  brought  to  Canadian 
universities  and  Government  public  works.  In  McGill, 
thanks  to  Sir  William  Macdonald,  and  in  Toronto  Uni- 
versities, a  great  building  development  took  place,  and 
laboratories    imthought    of    before    were    provided    for 


554  A  Short  History  of 

ambitious  students.  In  Queen's  University,  Kingston, 
backed  up  by  the  Ontario  Government  help,  training  was 
given  in  mining,  chemistry,  and  physics.  Canadian 
engineers  began  to  be  turned  out  equal  in  genuine  ability 
and  often  more  distinguished  by  executive  power,  than 
many  who  came  from  abroad.  In  the  course  of  time  an 
Engineering  School  was  established  in  Halifax  and  is  now 
supported  by  the  Government  of  the  Province. 

The  two  scientific  sections  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Canada  have  given  evidence  both  in  the  Physical  and 
Biological  Sections  of  an  enormous  amount  of  scientific 
research  and  of  the  capability  of  their  giving  the  highest 
scientific  instruction.  Prominent  men  in  different 
scientific  departments  such  as  Sir  William  Osier,  Sir  John 
Murray,  Professors  Rutherford,  McBride,  Bovey,  and 
McLennan  in  Canadian  laboratories,  and  non-resident 
Canadians  such  as  Professor  McGregor  of  Edinburgh, 
Professor  Duncan  of  Pittsburgh,  Newcombe  and 
Schurman  in  the  United  States,  have  shown  the  capa- 
bilities of  Canadian  scientific  men.  Besides,  the  in- 
evitable result  has  followed  of  science  trickling  down 
from  these  laboratories  into  the  collegiate  institutes 
or  secondary  schools  of  Canada,  which  have  now  better 
appointed  laboratories  than  the  universities  had  at  the 
time  of  Confederation. 

Canada  can  now  boast  in  its  Observatories  of  Ottawa  and 
Toronto  of  such  competent  men  as  King,  Klotz,  Stupart, 
and  Plaskett ;  and  at  various  centres  of  such  competent 
men  in  their  departments  as  Goodwin  of  Queen's,  Macallum, 
Mackenzie,  Coleman  of  Toronto,  Brock  of  Ottawa,  and 
Adams  and  Barnes  of  Montreal.  The  Canadian  Experi- 
mental Farm  at  Ottawa  has  also  among  its  staff  men  of 
the  highest  scientific  attainments.  Through  the  strength- 
ening of  the  scientific  facilities  of  the  older  Canadian 
universities,  the  inevitable  increase  of  effort  in  research 
in  the  rising  universities  of  Western  Canada,  and  the 
impulse  likely  to  follow  in  various  branches  of  investiga- 
tion from  the  scheme  recommended  to  the  Dominion 
Government   by   the   Royal   Commission   on   Technical 


THE  Canadian  People  555 

Education  and  Industrial  Training,  the  Dominion  may 
look  for  a  great  advance  in  its  scientific  equipment  and 
accomplishment . 

The  artistic  faculty  is  one  found  well  developed  even 
among  some  savage  nations.  The  ceilings 
left  by  the  cave-dwellers  in  the  Spanish 
cave  of  Altamira  have  artistic  figures  in  colour  of 
animals  now  extinct  in  Europe.  So  in  Canada  our 
Indians  had,  before  the  white  man  came,  this  faculty. 
Mr.  Albert  Sherwood,  A.R.C.A.,  has  thus  claimed  that 
the  beginning  of  our  art  history  is  clouded  in  mystery. 
He  holds  that  the  little  Canadian  child  as  he  finds  Indian 
pottery  on  the  river  bank  fancies  the  purpose  of  a  broken 
relic  and  at  once  tries  to  reproduce  it.  Thus  art  is  in- 
digenous. While  this  cannot  be  forgotten — for  we  shall 
yet  have  a  worthy  native  Canadian  art — we  have  to  con- 
fess that  we  have  received  our  art  impulse  directly  or 
indirectly  from  London,  Paris,  Holland,  and  Germany. 

In  1880  the  Marquis  of  Lome  and  his  distinguished 
Royal  consort,  the  Princess  Louise,  took  up,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  question  of  art  and  founded  the  "  Royal  Can- 
adian Academy  of  Arts."  It  was  a  great  step  thus  to 
obtain  the  co-operation  of  artists  in  the  improvement,  cul- 
tivation, and  extension  of  their  art  in  Canada.  True, 
Paul  Kane,  a  Canadian,  did  some  remarkable  work  among 
the  Western  Indians  in  his  pictures  made  many  years 
ago.  Many  of  these  are  carefully  preserved  in  Toronto 
to-day.  We  cannot  in  our  survey  pass  by  unnamed 
a  number  of  artists  who  have  passed  away,  whose  names 
are  sacred  and  whose  works  do  follow  them.  There 
was  Jacobi,  a  President  of  the  Academy,  whose  painting 
"  Across  the  Lea  "  we  have,  and  Bell-Smith,  whose  mists 
and  glaciers  of  the  Selkirks  are  in  the  Gallery.  Notably 
there  was  O'Brien  of  Toronto,  first  President  of  the 
Academy,  whose  fame  is  perpetuated  by  his  beautiful 
Diploma  picture  "  Sunrise  on  the  Saguenay  "  ;  and  also 
James  Alexander  Eraser,  who  died  in  1897,  whose  Diploma 
picture  of  Laurentian  splendour  and  another,  "  The 
Highlands,"  embodies  his  warm  Celtic  imagination.     Nor 


556  A  Short  History  of 

can  one  ignore  the  beautiful  painting  in  the  Gallery  of 
"  Devotion  " — ^the  nun  before  the  altar — or  "  Mother 
Love,"  a  genre  picture.  These  all  have  passed  away, 
but  the  Canadian  lovers  of  art  will  lay  the  wreaths  of 
their  affection  on  their  graves. 

A  visit  to  the  Gallery  in  Ottawa  reveals  to  us  that 
oiu:  living  artists  are  still  building  up  a  worthy  art. 

Robert  Harris,  C.M.G.,  and  for  two  years  President  of 
the  Academy,  confronts  us  with  four  pictures — ^the  best 
that  of  "  The  Chorister  "  and  also  "  A  Meeting  of  School 
Trustees."  Unsurpassed  in  Canada  as  a  painter  is  Horatio 
Walker,  a  native  of  Ontario.  He  is  a  prominent  member 
of  several  art  associations  in  the  United  States,  having 
taken  a  gold  medal  in  the  Arts  Galleries  Competition. 
His  picture  in  the  Canadian  National  Gallery.  "  Oxen 
Drinking,"  in  its  bold  outline,  character,  and  colouring, 
is  perfect.  One  of  this  artist's  pictures  sold  for  a  large 
sum  in  the  United  States. 

Homer  Watson,  a  native-born  Canadian,  is  on  exhibit 
in  his  two  pictures,  "  The  Nut  Gatherers  "  and  his 
Diploma  picture,  "  The  Laurentides."  A  young  Toronto 
Canadian  painter,  Dickson  Patterson,  also  an  Academician, 
has  two  fine  female  figures — ^notable  in  colour  and  natural- 
ness. "  The  Portrait  "  is  a  dainty  work  of  art.  William 
Brymner  of  Montreal,  son  of  the  late  well-known  Dominion 
Archivist,  a  President  of  the  Society,  has  on  exhibition 
four  fine  pictures — the  best  "  A  Wreath  of  Flowers." 
An  Australian  by  birth,  but  Canadian  by  adoption,  is 
E.  Wyly  Grier,  a  President  of  the  Academy,  who  has  won 
high  honours  in  New  York,  Munich,  Berlin,  and  Dussel- 
dorf.     His  picture,  "A  Summer  Idyll,"  is  most  beautiful. 

Born  in  Toronto  and  a  favourite  Canadian  painter, 
John  Colin  Forbes  charms  us  by  his  delicate,  naive 
production,  "  Beware,"  and  by  his  successful  portrait  of 
Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier. 

For  several  years  a  President  of  the  Academy,  and  we 
may  say  the  Art  Coryphaeus  of  Canada,  is  George  Agnew 
Reid,  who  has  a  world-wide  fame  and  delights  us  with 
his  great  achievements — the  one,  "  Dreaming  Reverie," 


THE  Canadian  People  667 

a  woman,  dark,  mysterious,  impressive,  and  the  other 
a  "  genre  pictm-e,"  most  unique  and  striking,  "  Mort- 
gaging the  Homestead."  A  native  of  London,  England, 
who  early  settled  in  Canada,  Thomas  Mower  Martin 
has  been  a  prominent  art  figure  in  Toronto.  He  has  two 
productions  in  the  Gallery  with  a  sameness  of  back- 
ground, but  they  are  both  most  attractive — "Le  Pays 
de  Caribou  "  and  "  A  Summer  Afternoon."  A  gem  that 
meets  us  here,  done  by  the  Royal  patronessof  the  Academy, 
the  Princess  Louise,  is  "  Portrait  of  a  Lady."  A  native 
of  Toronto,  James  Macdonald  Barnsley,  having  a  Euro- 
pean reputation,  charms  us  by  the  splendid  work  "  Dieppe 
Harbour,"  as  well  as  by  choice  works  of  art.  One  of  the 
most  natural  and  striking  pieces  of  art  in  the  Museum  is 
William  Cruikshank's  picture,  "  The  Gravel  Pit."  The 
action  is  good  and  the  clear  outline  can  hardly  be  sur- 
passed. J.  W.  L.  Forster,  a  native-born  Canadian  who 
had  a  thorough  Parisian  training,  delights  us  with  a  life- 
size  view  of  the  veteran  General  Booth.  Readers  of 
Fraser's  "  Mooswa "  and  of  current  magazines  will  be 
quite  familiar  with  the  mode  of  Arthur  Heming,  a  native 
of  Western  Ontario.  He  has  been  a  teacher  of  art  as  well 
as  an  artist.  His  masculine  sketches  show  him  to  be 
en  rapport  with  the  spirit  of  Western  Canada.  F.  Mc- 
GiUivray  Knowles,  an  American  adopted  by  Canada,  has 
caught  the  Canadian  spirit.  His  delicate,  finely  finished 
work  is  seen  in  "  Westminster  in  the  Haze  "  and  "  The 
Wayside  Cross."  With  their  dreamy  softness  they  capture 
our  admiration. 

Among  the  younger  painters  of  Canada,  full  of  promise 
is  a  young  Toronto  artist,  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Canadian  Academy — Edmund  M.  Morris.  A  protege  of 
William  Cruikshank,  Mr.  Morris  has  laid  out  for  himself 
a  most  fruitful  field  of  Canadian  art  in  the  Indian  life  of 
the  Canadian  West.  To  the  Indians  the  artist's  father,  the 
late  Governor  Morris,  was  "  Kitche  Okima."  The  Morris 
collection  of  Indian  relics  is  notable.  One  of  the  most 
beautiful  gems  of  the  national  collection  is  the  picture, 
"  A  Daffodil."     It  is  the  work  of  Miss  Laura  Muntz,  who 


558  A  Short  History  of 

has  gained  recognition  both  in  European  and  American 
art  circles. 

While  painting  has  a  goodly  number  of  ardent  devotees 
in  Canada,  yet  sculpture  has  also  had  its 
representatives.  Born  in  1827  in  Quebec, 
Napoleon  Bourassa  may  be  called  the  father  of  Canadian 
sculpture.  The  son  of  the  idol  of  the  French  Canadian 
people  during  their  struggle  for  constitutional  govern- 
ment in  Canada,  Bourassa  was  born,  with  the  artistic 
genius  of  his  race,  at  Monte  Bello  in  Quebec  Province. 
He  was  at  once  author,  architect,  and  painter.  He  was  a 
charter  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  and  for  a 
year  a  vice-president.  His  fame  has  been  continued  by 
his  pupil  Hebert. 

Louis  Phillippe  Hebert,  C.M.G.,  B.C. A.,  born  in  1850, 
is  a  native  of  Lake  Megantic  District  in  Quebec.  His 
reputation  is  high  in  Paris  as  a  scupltor  and  he  was  made 
in  1911  a  Knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  of  France. 
While  he  is  well  known  for  his  statues  of  Champlain 
in  Quebec  and  Maisonneuve  in  Montreal,  two  of  his 
greatest  works  are  the  De  Salaberry  Monument  at 
Chambly  and  that  of  Bishop  Laval  in  Quebec  City.  Sir 
Wilfrid  Laurier  spoke  of  Hebert  as  "  the  equal  of  any 
man  who  has  modelled  clay  on  this  continent." 

Hamilton  McCarthy,  R.C.A.,  born  in  London,  the  son 
of  an  artist  and  belonging  to  a  well-known  military  family, 
is  an  enthusiastic  devotee  of  his  art.  His  best  known 
statue  is  that  of  Sir  John  Macdonald  in  the  University 
Park,  Toronto.  Sir  Daniel  Wilson  declared  that  he  as  a 
sculptor  *'  had  a  permanent  claim  upon  Canadian  patron- 
age." His  facility  in  representing  military  figures  is 
found  in  that  he  is  "  the  pioneer  in  putting  the  figure  of 
his  soldier  into  action."  Mr.  McCarthy  has  a  long  list 
of  statues  in  different  parts  of  Canada  to  his  credit. 

While  the  cultivation  of  art  is  a  flower  that    grows 

very  slowly,  yet  in  past  years  art  schools  have 

Culture.        been    carried    on    in    Ontario    at    Hamilton, 

St.    Thomas,    Brockville,    Kingston,    London, 

Toronto,  and  Ottawa.     In  the  Province  of  Quebec  there 


THE  Canadian  People  559 

have  been  schools  in  Montreal,  Quebec,  Levis,  New 
Liverpool,  Huntingdon,  Granby,  and  Iberville.  The 
Canadian  Royal  Commission  on  Technical  Education  and 
Lidustrial  Training  in  its  three  years  of  investigation 
found  that  while  certain  night  classes  in  which  art  had 
a  place  in  a  number  of  locahties  had  accomplished  some- 
thing, that  yet  a  new  system  of  art  teaching  more  adapted 
to  the  capacity  and  circumstances  of  the  industrial 
classes  is  loudly  demanded.  Art  is  the  very  foundation  of 
training  in  industrial  eflSciency.  We  may  reasonably 
hope  for  a  greater  attention  being  given  by  both  Dominion 
and  Provincial  Grovemments  to  this  fundamental  need. 
Training  is  likely  to  result  from  a  more  generous  support 
of  the  Royal  Canadian  Academy  and  a  more  efficient 
system  of  schools  of  design  throughout  the  coimtry. 

Closely  connected  with  art  is  music,  although  it  is  in 
some  senses  a  science.  Canadians  in  the  ^  . 
last  quarter  of  a  century  have  paid  much  at- 
tention to  music.  It  would  be  wrong  to  state  that 
Canada  can  be  called  a  musical  country  in  the  sense  of 
Italy  or  France  being  so.  The  problems  of  life  are  too 
severe  in  Canada  to  permit  this.  In  church  music,  as 
more  elaborate  and  beautiful  churches  have  been  built, 
there  has  been  a  great  advance  in  the  music  of  Handel 
and  Haydn.  To  the  French  organ-builders  of  Ste. 
Hyacinthe,  Quebec,  the  Messrs.  Cassavant,  and  to  other 
makers  in  Ontario  much  is  owed.  The  manufacture  of 
pianos  in  Canada  is  enormous  and  gives  some  indication 
of  the  pubhc  taste.  There  is  no  local  Canadian  music. 
For  this  we  have  to  depend  upon  the  songs  of  old 
England,  the  pipes  and  lilts  of  Scotland,  and  Irish  melo- 
dies. These  appeal  to  their  several  nationalities  and  their 
descendants. 

Undoubtedly  as  great  musicians  brought  their  music 
to  our  British  ancestors,  so  British  musicians  have  brought 
their  talent  to  Canada.  Charles  A.  E.  Harriss,  from 
London,  settled  in  1882  in  Montreal  and  did  much  in 
inspiring  good  musical  taste,  organizing  high-class  musical 
concerts,    and    in   numerous    original   productions.     He 


560  A  Short  History  of 

has  visited  all  parts  of  the  Empire  in  the  interests  of 
Musical  Reciprocity. 

Edward  Fisher,  Musical  Doctor,  born  in  1848,  and 
highly  trained  in  the  best  European  centres,  opened  the 
Toronto  Conservatory  of  Music  in  1886,  and  since 
that  time  thousands  of  students  of  music  have  received 
training  there.  As  a  prominent  church  organist  and 
leader  of  Toronto  Choral  Union  he  had  high  fame.  F.  H. 
Torrington,  born  in  England  in  1837,  an  organist  at 
sixteen,  spent  twelve  years  as  organist  of  Great  St. 
James  Church,  Montreal,  then  four  years  in  King's  Chapel, 
Boston,  and  in  1873  came  to  Metropolitan  Church, 
Toronto,  in  which  city  he  has  been  a  great  musical  force. 
In  1888  he  founded  the  Toronto  College  of  Music  and  was 
made  a  Musical  Doctor  in  1902,  being  in  that  year  elected 
President  of  the  Canadian  Society  of  Musicians. 

The  importance  given  to  music  in  Ontario  may  be  seen 
in  that  Trinity  University,  and  now  Toronto  University, 
have  courses  and  give  degrees  in  music. 

That  a  number  of  Canadians  have  gained  world-wide 
fame  in  music  is  worthy  of  notice. 

The  prima-donna  is  "  Albani  "  (Mrs.  Albani-Gye),  a 
French  Canadian  born  in  Chambly,  Quebec,  in  1854.  She 
studied  in  England,  Denmark,  Coburg,  and  Paris.  Re- 
siding in  London,  she  takes  world-round  concert  tours, 
is  always  warmly  received,  and  is  called  the  French 
Canadian  "  Jenny  Lind." 

Paul  Ambrose,  a  musical  composer,  was  born  in  Canada 
in  1868.  He  is  now  a  resident  of  New  York,  being 
secretary  to  the  Musical  Committee  of  New  York ;  he  is 
also  at  work  in  the  American  Institute  of  Applied  Music  in 
New  York,  and  Professor  of  Music  in  the  New  Jersey 
State  Schools.  He  is  a  composer  of  many  sacred  and 
secular  songs,  vocal  duets,  part  songs,  etc. 

Eugene  Cowles,  born  at  Stanstead,  Quebec,  is  a  great 
basso  soloist ;  he  was  the  second  for  years  in  the  "  Bos- 
tonians  "  of  Baltimore  and  became  the  leader  in  the  Alice 
Nielson  Opera  Company.  He  was  well  received  in  London, 
England,  and  is  the  author  of  several  songs. 


THE  Canadian  People  661 

Belonging  to  a  well-known  Canadian  family,  being  a 
daughter  of  the  late  John  Beverley  Robinson  of  Toronto, 
is  Mrs.  Stewart  Houston,  a  great  vocalist.  She  was 
well  known  in  London  concert  halls,  and  was  a  favourite 
in  Toronto,  where  in  1895  she  achieved  great  success  in 
"  The  Creation."  Several  years  after,  during  the  Boer 
War,  she  sang  in  several  Canadian  cities,  giving  the 
proceeds  of  §10,000  to  the  Dominion  Patriotic  Fund.  One 
of  her  most  successful  tours  was  through  Canada  and 
the  United  States  with  Albani. 

A  young  Canadian  musician  who  won  great  renown 
as  a  violinist  is  Miss  Evelyn  Street,  a  daughter  of  Judge 
Street  of  Toronto.  A  graduate  of  Royal  Leipzig  Con- 
servatory, she  has  performed  many  important  engage- 
ments. 

Western  Canada  is  showing  a  great  appreciation  of 
musical  culture.  Miss  May  Hamilton,  an  Honour  Gradu- 
ate of  the  Conservatory  of  Music,  Toronto,  a  musical 
critic  of  high  rank,  and  a  poetess,  lives  in  Victoria,  B.C., 
as  a  leader  in  her  art. 

The  first  graduate  in  music  in  Trinity  College, 
Toronto,  was  Mrs.  Gregory  McGill  in  1886.  She  now 
lives  in  Vancouver,  B.C. 

Miss  May  Kathleen  Barlow,  born  in  Calgary,  Alberta, 
in  1890,  studied  in  St.  Petersburg  and  afterwards  became 
a  favourite  in  Russia,  Germany,  Scandinavia,  Holland, 
Belgium,  and  the  British  Isles. 

One  of  the  latest  Canadians  to  gain  renown  in  British 
circles,  especially,  is  Miss  Edyth  Miller  of  Portage  la 
Prairie,  Manitoba.  She  is  well  known  in  London  salons 
as  an  attractive  mezzo-soprano — as  **  the  Manitoba  Night- 
ingale." In  the  past  year  she  was  married  to  a  Mr. 
Fergusson,  of  high  British  connections.  Before  marriage 
her  last  appearance  was  in  London  with  Melba  in  Verdi's 
"  Rigoletto  "  in  grand  opera.     It  was  a  high  triumph. 

Religion 

Two  opinions  prevail  as  to  treating  Religion  as  a 
national  matter.     The  first  of  these  is  that  religion  is  a 

36 


562  A  Short  History  of 

sacred  thing,  that  to  put  it  on  the  same  plane  as  science 
or  art  is  to  degrade  it.  The  mysterious  element  in  re- 
ligion, no  doubt,  does  cultivate  a  reverence  for  the  Divine 
which  makes  it  a  personal  and  conscientious  matter. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  those  who  hold  that  with 
religion  the  State  has  nothing  to  do,  that  Church  and 
State  are  so  absolutely  separated  that  the  citizens  as  a 
body  or  the  country  as  a  whole  are  going  entirely  beyond 
their  sphere  in  dealing  with  such  matters.  The  history 
of  ecclesiasticism,  of  bitter  religious  feuds,  and  at  times 
of  religious  persecution  and  tyranny  both  by  Church 
and  State,  has  driven  the  more  thoughtful  and  tolerant 
free  countries  to  believe  that  State  interference  with 
religion  is  unwise.  Yet  as  religion  governs  conduct,  is  a 
useful  element  in  education,  and  the  guardian  of  liberty, 
intelligence,  and  political  safety,  it  is  generally  thought 
in  Canada  that  the  State  should  have  a  friendly  and 
protective  side  to  religion,  but  should  at  the  same  time 
decline  to  give  it  monetary  support.  The  majority  of 
Canadians  are  in  favour  of  leaving  it  as  the  great  Founder 
of  Christianity  intended  it  to  be,  a  matter  of  personal 
maintenance,  and  thus  the  best  means  of  cultivating 
generosity,  sympathy  for  others,  and  self-sacrifice.  This 
opinion,  though  not  universal,  seems  to  represent  the 
attitude  of  the  great  mass  of  the  people  of  Canada  of 
almost  all  denominations. 

With  the  exception  of  a  certain  power  of  vested  parish 
right  given  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
Census.  Quebec,    and  possibly  a  limited  Government 

assistance  given  to  the  Indian  missions  of  the 
several  churches,  with  special  municipal  tax  exemptions 
in  some  provinces  to  church  buildings,  all  the  churches  in 
Canada  are  supported  by  the  people  voluntarily.  The  zeal 
and  energy  of  the  several  churches  in  sending  their  mis- 
sionaries from  the  earliest  days  of  settlement  into  new 
provinces  has  led  to  a  much  more  thorough  churching  of 
Canada  from  east  to  west  than  has  been  seen  in  the 
United  States. 

Almost  all  the  religious  denominations  of  Europe  are 


THE  Canadian  People 


563 


found  in  Canada,  and  undoubtedly  the  British  connection 
of  Canada  has  led  to  greater  assistance  from  the  mother 
country  in  religious  development  and  has  also  made 
much  stronger  the  ties  of  political  attachment.  The 
great  preponderance  of  rehgious  service  is  conducted  in 
the  English  language,  though  foreign-speaking  immi- 
grants form  churches  freely  to  use  their  native  tongue, 
but  this  is  only  for  a  time,  and  the  second  generation  in 
most  cases  finds  English  most  convenient. 

The  following  is  the  census  of  1911  of  the  population  of 
Canada  as  belonging  to  the  several  churches  named : 

Canada. 

1911. 

2,833,041 

1,115,324 

1,079,892 

1,043,017 

382,666 

229,864 

88,507 

74,664 

44,611 

34,054 

30,265 

28,418 

18,834 

15,971 

10,406 

144,719 

32,490 


Whole  of 

1901. 

1.  Roman  Catholics 

.     2:229,600 

2.  Presbyterians  . 

842.442 

3.  Methodists       . 

916,886 

4.  Anglicans 

681,494 

5.  Baptists 

318,005 

6.  Lutherans 

92,524 

7.  Greek  Church 

15,630 

8.  Jews        .... 

16,401 

9.  Mennonites 

31,797 

10.  Congregationalists    . 

28,293 

11.  Protestants      . 

11,612 

12.   *  Eastern  Religions 

15,570 

13.  Salvation  Army 

10,308 

14.  Mormons          .          .          .          . 

6,891 

15.  Adventists       .          .          .          . 

8,058 

16.  All  others         .          .          .          . 

102,582 

17.  Unspecified      .          .          .          . 

43,222 

Populations  ....     5,371,315         7,206,643 

Canada  being    a    Christian  community  and    not    an 
unbelieving  country  gives  abundant  evidence 
of  that  in  its  laws  and  customs.     Its  Federal  Features! 
Parliament  of  Senate  and  Commons  is  opened 
with   rehgious    services.     It    incorporates    and    protects 
churches  in  their  buildings  and  property.     As  already 
mentioned,  in  many  of  its  provinces  a  certain  amount  of 
church  property  is  exempt  from  taxation.      In  almost 
every  province  of  the  Dominion  liberty,  under  certain 
rules,  is  given  for  the  use  of    prayeis  and  the  reading 

*  These  include    Confucians,    Buddhists,    Mohammedans,  Shintos, 
Sikhs,  and  Hindoos. 


564  A  Short  History  of 

of  the  Bible  in  the  public  schools.  The  rite  of  marriage 
is  celebrated  in  all  parts  of  Canada  by  Christian  ministers 
mider  statute.  Religious  meetings  and  even  religious 
services  in  the  streets  are  protected^^by  the  arm  of  the 
law.  Perhaps  the  most  distinctive  religious  protection 
to  Christianity  is  shown  in  "  The  Sunday  Law  "  of  1906 — 
"  An  Act  respecting  the  Lord's  Day." 

The  particular  interpretation  given  to  it  is  under  the 
fiat  of  the  Attorney-Grcneral  of  each  province.  This  law, 
Christian  and  humanitarian,  protects  the  working  man's 
rest  day  ;  it  forbids  the  manufacture  and  sale  on  that 
day  of  newspapers,  it  compels  the  closing  of  business 
places  and  manufactories,  makes  unnecessary  labour  a 
legal  offence,  and  protects  religious  assemblies  from 
interruption  or  annoyance.  Railways,  except  in  the  case 
of  through  trains,  are  not  to  be  operated.  Public  games 
or  contests  for  gain  on  Sundays  are  prohibited.  This  Act 
in  its  passing  was  supported  by  all  the  churches — Protes- 
tant and  Roman  Catholic.  This  protection  of  Sunday  has 
a  powerful  influence  in  guarding  the  interests  of  religion. 
Canada  has  practically  solved  the  question  of  religious 

equality.  There  is  no  State  Church,  there  is 
Equality!       ^^  religious  compulsion.     In  any  locality  the 

clergyman  stands  on  his  merits  as  a  useful, 
influential,  or  public-spirited  citizen.  He  is  frequently  a 
leader  in  education  and  charities,  but  this  comes  to  him 
from  no  church  precedence  or  prescriptive  right.  The 
chaplains  of  all  volunteer  regiments  are  selected  on 
account  of  local  standing  and  suitability  as  men.  It  is 
the  personal  equation  which  tells.  In  one  respect  the 
Christian  clergyman  has  a  restricted  liberty  as  compared 
with  Great  Britain.  It  is  an  almost  general  convention 
that  he  shall  not  interfere  in  party  politics — this  being 
on  account  of  the  possibility  of  bringing  undue  pressure 
upon  his  parishioners. 

Religious  ^^  ^  result  of    these  religious    features  of 

Co-opera-  Canada  a  vast  amount  of  non-denominational 
tion.  co-operation  is  observable.     The  Young  Men's 

Christian  Association  and  that  of  the  Young  Women  of 


THE  Canadian  People  565 

all  ranks  in  the  country  have  promoted  religious  unity. 
Volunteer  missionary  and  social  organizations  are  work- 
ing with  perfect  freedom  among  the  several  Church  bodies. 
Temperance  effort  has  become  a  part  of  Church  life,  and 
large  regions  in  the  various  provinces  of  the  Dominion 
are  under  total  prohibition  restrictions.  A  growing 
number  of  the  branches  of  the  National  Brotherhood  of 
England,  as  exponents  of  interdenominational  co-opera- 
tion, have  taken  root  on  Canadian  soil.  Evangelistic 
union  movements  have  done  much  for  Canadian  religious 
life. 

It  was  quite  natural  that  all  the  divisions  of  Christen- 
dom should  be  brought  and  planted  in  the 
New  World.  Canada  being  a  vast  country  was  unJJn. 
seen  to  be  no  exception  to  this.  But  being  a 
democratic  country  it  was  inevitable  that  social  inter- 
course, intermarriage,  the  existence  of  public  systems 
of  free  education,  the  use  of  the  same  hymnology,  and 
the  general  support  of  non-denominational  organizations 
should  lead  to  more  breadth  and  charity  between  the 
Christian  bodies.  Accordingly  in  1861  and  1862  religious 
organic  union  took  place  between  the  Presbyterian  bodies 
in  the  Maritime  Province,  and  also  of  two  in  the  western 
provinces.  After  years  of  negotiation  the  union  of  all 
Presbyterians  took  place  in  1875,  to  the  vast  benefit  of 
all  concerned.  Nine  years  after  that  date  the  five  bodies 
then  holding  the  Methodist  faith  united  together  into  the 
Canada  Methodist  Church.  For  several  years  the  Pres- 
byterian, Methodist,  and  Congregational  Churches  in 
Canada  have  been  negotiating  a  union  with  the  view  of 
making  a  united  church.  All  of  these  bodies,  having 
taken  plebiscites,  have  decided  by  large  majorities  to 
unite.  Most  friendly  relations  exist  as  a  rule  between 
all  churches  in  Canada,  in  the  personal  relations  of  their 
members.  No  doubt  this  is  largely  brought  about  by 
their  all  being  equal  in  the  eyes  of  the  law.  Such  facts 
as  these  point  to  the  union  of  vast  numbers  of  the  Chris- 
tians of  Canada  into  one  body  and  also  to  a  universal 
Christendom. 


566  A  Short  History  of 

Section  XVI. — Canadian  Autonomy 

Canada  is  in  the  eye  of  the  world.  She  has  now 
explored  many  parts  of  her  wide  domain,  even  to  Fort 
Churchill  on  Hudson  Bay  and  Herschell  Island  in 
the  Arctic  Sea.  Explorer  Stefansson,  a  western  uni- 
versity graduate  of  Icelandic  descent,  is  now  far  on  his 
way  to  the  Ultima  Thule  of  Canadian  possession.  He 
will  complete  our  knowledge  in  a  few  years  of  our  Arctic 
northland,  just  as  a  Canadian  expedition  did  a  few  years 
ago  of  Hudson  Bay  and  Straits,  and  the  northern  part 
of  Ungava. 

Canada  has  now  eight  millions  of  people  and  there 
are  independent  kingdoms  in  Europe  that  have  a  smaller 
and  less  progressive  population. 

While  cosmopolitan  in  origin  and  feeling,  yet  our  land 
is  British  to  the  core  and  British  in  sympathy  and  out- 
look. 

Yet  just  as  Scotland,  pre-eminently  British,  objects  to 
be  called  English,  as  Ireland  is  sacrificing  many  things 
to  be  Erin  of  old,  as  even  the  Channel  Islands  and  the 
Isle  of  Man  cling  to  their  hereditary  privileges,  what 
really  gave  them  local  autonomy — so  Canada,  which 
bought  with  blood  and  agitation  its  constitutional 
liberties  and  its  very  existence  in  the  days  of  Bond  Head, 
Colborne,  and  Metcalfe,  longs  for  and  is  determined  to 
preserve,  in  the  noblest  spirit  of  her  British  ancestors, 
her  well-deserved  autonomy. 

One  of  the  most  marked  features  of  this  desire  is  the 
wonderful  spread  of  the  Canadian  Club  idea  as  seen  from 
ocean  to  ocean.  With  true  democratic  spirit,  these 
clubs  are  made  up  of  all  classes  of  Canadian  resident 
citizens.  The  organization  of  the  Canadian  Club  is 
exceedingly  simple  :  a  trifling  fee  is  paid  annually ;  it  has 
simply  a  president  and  a  small  number  of  officers  elected 
annually.  It  has  luncheons  very  simply  prepared  and 
usually  held  at  midday,  when  some  notable  stranger 
or  local  speaker,  after  the  half-hour  luncheon,  makes  a 
half -hour  address.      No  more  speeches  are  allowed,  and 


H.R.H.  The  Duke  of  Connauuht 


S66] 


THE  Canadian  People  567 

the  meeting  immediately  closes  with  the  National 
Anthem,  "  The  Maple  Leaf,"  or  "  Canada,  0 ! 
Canada."  The  embodiment  is  simple,  open  to  all  who 
wish  to  join,  informing  and  patriotic.  In  1912  there 
were  large  numbers  of  these  societies  in  Canada  and 
many  of  them  have  several  hmidreds  each  or  even  over  a 
thousand  members.    - 

Moreover    this    is   now    paralleled    by    the    Women's 
Canadian  Clubs,  equally  patriotic  and  well  sustained. 

With  the  thorough  approval  of  Britain,  of  late  years 
Canada  has  appointed  Trade  Commissioners  at  leading 
places  throughout  the  world,  and  has  negotiated  com- 
mercial treaties  with  much  success.  It  was  a  great  joy 
to  French  Canada,  and  a  highly  appreciated  step  in 
advance  to  all  Canadians,  when  the  Franco-Canadian 
Treaty  was  agreed  on  in  1908,  and  a  fuller  emphasis 
given  to  the  "  Entente  cordiale  "  between  Great  Britain 
and  France.  Treaties  negotiated  by  Canada,  not  only 
with  France,  but  with  Germany,  Belgium,  and  Italy  in 
Europe  have  resulted  successfully.  Hon.  Mr.  Foster  of 
the  Borden  Government  has  with  skill  arranged  for 
profitable  treaties  with  our  British  West  Indian  Crown 
Colonies ;  and  lately  visited  the  great  Commonwealth 
of  AustraUa.  It  was  a  great  triumph  when  a  brilliant 
French-Canadian  Minister,  Hon.  Mr.  Lemieux,  in  the 
face  of  Japanese  suspicion  and  discontent,  went  to  Japan 
and,  with  the  traditional  skill  of  his  French  ancestors, 
succeeded  in  arranging  with  the  Japanese  Government 
to  soften  down,  by  limiting  their  emigration,  the  injured 
feelings  of  the  subjects  of  the  Mikado.  Question  after 
question  has  been  settled  in  the  last  decade  between 
Canada  and  the  United  States.  International  Commis- 
sions are  now  being  used  to  accomplish  what  was  in 
former  days  done  by  war,  and  are  now  settled  without 
leaving  bitter  feelings  as  a  heritage  for  the  future.  With 
almost  all  the  questions  of  difference  solved  along  the 
international  boundary  line,  and  the  prospect  in  1915  of 
celebrating  a  century  of  peace  between  the  countries,  the 
future   is   bright.     We   are   also   seeing   understandings 


668  A  Short  History  of 

being  established  between  all  the  Overseas  Dominions 
and  the  mother  country  by  which  all  shall  do  their 
full  share  in  a  policy  of  defence,  which  will  be  the  best 
guarantee  to  the  world  of  a  lasting  Era  of  Peace,  between 
all  other  countries  and  the  greatest  Empire  on  which  the 
Sim  has  ever  risen. 

There  is  too  a  rising  spirit  in  Canadian  life  that  higher 
political  and  social  ideals  should  be  aimed  at  by  our 
people,  that  true  economic  principles  should  prevail 
among  us,  and  that  our  British  connection  with  its  rising 
spirit  of  democracy  may  give  to  every  man,  woman,  and 
child  in  the  Empire  their  rights.  The  grasping  spirit  of 
capital  and  money-making  should  be  moderated,  just  as 
the  sometimes  intolerant  spirit  of  labour  should  be  modi- 
fied, by  giving  education  and  by  administering  justice  and 
fair  play  to  all ;  the  self-suificiency  of  the  rich  and  the 
tyranny  of  the  trust  should  be  resisted  and  the  poor  man 
of  to-day  should  be  given  the  opportunity  of  becoming 
the  true  man  of  the  future  by  the  use  of  energy,  thought, 
and  good  behaviour. 

A  writer  in  a  foreign  land  has  placed  before  us  a  noble 
ideal,  which  we  as  Canadians  may  well  adapt  to  our  own 
circumstances  : 

"  We  must  as  Canadians  put  heart  into  the  people  by 
taking  the  heartlessness  out  of  politics,  business,  and 
industry.  We  have  to  make  politics  a  thing  in  which  an 
honest  man  can  take  his  part  with  satisfaction  because 
he  knows  that  his  opinion  will  count  as  much  as  the  next 
man's,  and  that  the  political  trickster,  of  whatever  side, 
and  the  machine  in  politics  have  been  dethroned.  Busi- 
ness we  have  to  untrammel,  abolishing  tariff  inequali- 
ties, and  railroad  discriminations,  and  credit  denials, 
and  all  forms  of  unjust  handicaps  against  the  little  man. 
Industry  we  have  to  humanize  through  the  direct  action 
of  law,  guaranteeing  protection  against  dangers  and  com- 
pensation for  injuries,  guaranteeing  sanitary  conditions, 
proper  hours,  the  right  to  organize,  and  all  the  other 
things  which  the  conscience  of  the  country  demands,  as 
the  working  man's  right.     We  have  to  cheer  and  inspirit 


THE  Canadian  People  669 

our  people  with  the  sure  prospects  of  social  justice 
and  due  reward,  with  the  vision  of  the  open  gates  of 
opportunity  for  all.  We  have  to  set  the  energy  and 
initiative  of  our  people  absolutely  free,  so  that  the  future 
of  Canada  will  be  greater  than  the  past,  so  that  the  pride 
of  Canada  will  grow  up  with  achievement,  so  that  Canada 
will  know  as  she  advances  from  generation  to  generation 
that  each  brood  of  her  sons  is  greater  and  more  enlightened 
than  that  which  preceded,  knowing  that  she  is  receiving 
the  promise  that  the  great  Grod  gave  to  aU  His  children." 


APPENDIX  A 

THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA 

PROVISIONS  OF  THE  BRITISH  NORTH  AMERICA  ACT 
iBfPEBiAii  Act,  30  &  31  Vict. 

An  Act  for  the  Union  of  Canada^  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Bruns- 
ivick,  and  the  Oovemment  thereof  ;  and  for  purposes  con- 
nected therewith. 

Whereas  the  Provinces  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Bruns- 
wick have  expressed  their  desire  to  be  federally  united  into 
one  Dominion  under  the  Crown  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  with  a  Constitution  similar  in  principle  to 
that  of  the  United  Kingdom  : 

And  whereas,  such  a  Union  would  conduce  to  the  welfare  of 
the  Provinces  and  promote  the  interests  of  the  British  Empire  : 

And  whereas,  on  the  establishment  of  the  Union  by  authority 
of  Parliament,  it  is  expedient,  not  only  that  the  constitution  of 
the  legislative  authority  in  the  Dominion  be  provided  for,  but 
also  that  the  nature  of  the  Executive  Government  therein  be 
declared  : 

And  whereas,  it  is  expedient  that  provision  be  made  for  the 
eventual  admission  into  the  Union  of  other  parts  of  British  North 
America : 

Be  it  therefore  enacted,  etc. 

I.  Pbeliminaby 
Sects.  I.  and  11. 

II.  Union 

Sects,  m.  and  IV.  Power  given  to  proclaim  the  Provinces 
named,  "  One  Dominion  under  the  name  of  Canada." 

Sects,  v.,  VI.  and  VII.  Constituting  four  Provinces  :  Ontario, 
Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick. 

Sect.  VIII.  Provides  that  in  the  census  in   1871  and  every 

671 


572  Appendix  A 

tenth  year  thereafter  the  population  of  the  several  Provinces 
shall  be  distinguished. 

in.  Executive  Power 

Sect.  IX.  *'  The  Executive  Government  and  authority  of  and 
over  Canada  is  hereby  declared  to  continue  and  be  vested  in  the 
Queen." 

Sect.  X.  Governor-General  to  be  "  on  behalf  and  in  the  name 
of  the  Queen." 

Sect.  XI.  There  shall  be  a  Council,  "  to  aid  and  advise  in  the 
government  of  Canada  " — "  The  Queen's  Privy  Council  "  ; 
Governor-General  has  power  to  choose  and  summon  such,  to 
swear  them  in,  and  from  time  to  time  to  remove  them. 

Sect.  XII.  All  powers,  authorities,  and  functions  given,  shall 
"be  vested  in  and  exercisable  by  the  Governor-General,  with 
the  advice,  or  with  the  advice  and  consent  of,  or  in  conjunction 
with,  the  Queen's  Privy  Council  for  Canada  "...  subject  never- 
theless to  be  abolished  or  altered  by  the  Parliament  of  Canada. 

Sect.  XIII.  Defines  meaning  of  "  Governor-General  in  Council. " 

Sect.  XIV.  Power  to  her  Majesty  to  authorize  Governor- 
General  to  appoint  deputies. 

Sect.  XV.  "The  command  in  chief  of  the  land  and  naval 
militia  and  of  all  naval  and  military  forces,  of  and  in  Canada,  is 
hereby  declared  to  continue  and  be  vested  in  the  Queen." 

Sect.  XVI.  "  Until  the  Queen  otherwise  directs,  the  seat  of 
Government  of  Canada  shall  be  Ottawa." 

IV.  Legislative  Power 

Sect.  XVII.  "  There  shall  be  one  Parliament  for  Canada,  con- 
sisting of  the  Queen,  and  Upper  House  styled  the  Senate,  and 
the  House  of  Commons." 

Sect.  XVIII.  Privileges,  etc.,  of  the  Houses. 

Sect.  XIX.  First  session  of  Parliament  provided  for. 

Sect.  XX.  "  There  shall  be  a  session  of  the  Parliament  of 
Canada  once  at  least  in  every  year,"  etc. 

The  Senate 

Sect.  XXI.  The  Senate  to  consist  of  seventy-two  members, 
"  who  shall  be  styled  Senators." 

Sect.  XXII.  Senate  is  to  consist  of  three  divisions — each  with 
twenty-four  members,  viz.  (1)  Ontario,  (2)  Quebec  (one  from 
each  of  twenty-four  specified  divisions  to  preserve  the  English 
representation),  (3)  Maritime  Provinces  (Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick — twelve  each). 

Sect.  XXIII.  The  qualifications  of  a  Senator  are  to  be — (1) 
Age  of  thirty  years ;    (2)  A  subject  of  her  Majesty ;    (3  and  4) 


Appendix  A  573 

QuaKfication,  freehold  of  $4,000,  real  and  personal  property 
$4,000  ;  (5)  Reside  in  the  Province  which  he  represents  ;  (6)  In 
Quebec  real  property  in  district  he  represents. 

Sect.  XXIV.  "  The  Governor-General  shall,  from  time  to  time, 
in  the  Queen's  name,  by  instrument  under  the  Great  Seal  of 
Canada,  summon  quaUfied  persons  to  the  Senate,"  etc. 

Sect.  XXV.  Summons  of  first  body  of  Senators. 

Sects.  XXVI.,  XXVII.,  XXVIII.  Six  additional  Senators, 
but  no  more,  may  be  added,  by  Queen's  direction,  two  from  each 
of  three  divisions,  in  case  of  necessity. 

Sects.  XXIX.  and  XXX.  Senator  holds  office  for  life — ^unless 
(XXXI. ),  but  may  resign. 

Sect.  XXXI.  The  place  of  a  Senator  may  become  vacant — ( 1 ) 
If  absent  for  two  consecutive  sessions  ;  (2)  If  he  transfer  his 
allegiance ;  (3)  If  bankrupt  or  insolvent ;  (4)  If  attainted  of 
treason,  or  convicted  of  felony,  or  of  any  infamous  crime  ;  (6) 
If  he  loses  property  necessary  for  qualification,  or  changes  resi- 
dence. 

Sect.  XXXII.  Governor-General  shall  fill  vacancies. 

Sect.  XXXIII.  Senate  shall  determine  on  qualification  of  its 
members. 

Sect.  XXXIV.  Governor-General  may  appoint  a  Speaker  of 
the  Senate,  and  may  remove  him. 

Sect.  XXXV.  Fifteen  Senators  form  a  quorum. 

Sect.  XXXVI.  All  members  of  Senate  may  vote,  and  an 
equality  of  votes  decides  for  the  negative. 

Th^  House  of  Commons 

Sect.  XXXVII.  House  of  Commons  to  consist  of  181  members 
—eighty-two  for  Ontario,  sixty-five  for  Quebec,  nineteen  for 
Nova  Scotia,  fifteen  for  New  Brunswick.  Except  as  afterwards 
provided. 

Sect.  XXXVIII.  "  The  Governor-General  shall,  from  time  to 
time,  in  the  Queen's  name,  by  instrmnent  under  the  Great  Seal  of 
Canada,  summon  and  call  together  the  House  of  Commons." 

Sect.  XXXIX.  Senators  are  not  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. 

Sect.  XL.  Electoral  districts  of  the  four  Provinces  are  named. 

Sect.  XLI.  Existing  election  laws  in  each  Province  are  to 
continue  until  Parliament  of  Canada  otherwise  provides. 

Sect.  XLII.  Power  to  Governor-General  to  issue  writs  for  first 
election. 

Sect.  XLIII.  As  to  casual  vacancies. 

Sects.  XLIV. — ^XLVII.  Provisions  for  election,  filling  place, 
and  presiding  of  the  Speaker. 

Sect.  XL VIII.  Twenty  members  form  a  quorum. 

Sect.  XLIX.  The  speaker  shall  only  vote  when  there  is  a  tie. 


574  Appendix  A 

Sect.  L.  **  Every  House  of  Commons  shall  continue  for  five 
years  from  the  day  of  the  return  of  the  writs  for  choosing  the 
House  (subject  to  be  sooner  dissolved  by  the  Governor-General) 
and  no  longer." 

Sect  LI.  After  1871  and  after  each  subsequent  decennial  census 
the  representation  of  the  four  Provinces  shall  be  re-adjusted  as 
follows  : 

1.  Quebec  shall  retain  sixty-five  members. 

2.  Representation  by  population  according  to  last  census. 

3.  More  than  one-half  shall  entitle  to  an  extra  member. 
4  and  5.  As  to  carrying  out  the  re-adjustment. 

Sect.  LII.  Number  of  members  may  be  increased,  provided 
the  proportion  is  preserved. 

Money  Votes :    Royal  Assent 

Sect.  LIII.  Appropriation  and  tax  bills  must  originate  in  the 
House  of  Commons. 

Sect.  LIV.  Money  votes  must  be  recommended  to  the  House 
of  Commons  by  message  of  the  Governor-General  in  session  when 
proposed. 

Sect.  LV.  Governor-General,  in  the  Queen's  name,  may  assent 
or  withhold  assent,  or  reserve  for  the  signification  of  her  Majesty's 
pleasure. 

Sect.  LVI.  Queen  in  Council  may  within  two  years  of  the 
assent  of  the  Governor-General  to  any  bill  disallow  the  Act. 

Sect.  LVII.  A  bill  reserved  for  the  signification  of  the  Queen's 
pleasure  shall  have  no  force  unless  within  two  years  the  Governor- 
General  announces  the  Queen's  assent  to  it. 

V.  Pbovincial  Constitutions 

Sect.  LVIII.  "  For  each  Province  there  shall  be  an  officer, 
styled  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  appointed  by  the  Governor- 
General  in  Council  by  instrument  under  the  Great  Seal  of  Canada." 

Sect.  LIX.  Lieutenant-Governor  to  hold  office  for  five  years, 
but  for  cause  assigned  he  may  be  removed  by  the  Governor- 
General. 

Sect.  LX.  Salaries  of  Lieutenant-Governors  are  to  be  fixed 
and  provided  by  the  Parliament  of  Canada. 

Sect.  LXI.  Lieutenant-Governors  must  subscribe  oaths  of 
allegiance  and  ofiice  similar  to  those  taken  by  the  Governor- 
General. 

Sect.  LXII.  Provisions  relating  to  Lieutenant-Governors  apply 
to  administrators  of  provincial  aJBfairs. 

Sect.  LXIII.  Authorizes  the  appointment  of  Executive  officers 
for  Quebec  and  Ontario. 

Sect.  LXIV.  Constitution  of  the  Executive  authority  in  Nova 


Appendix  A  576 

Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  remains  as  before  Confederation 
until  changed  by  them. 

Sect.  LXV.  Lieutenant-Governors  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  are 
to  exercise  the  powers  belonging  to  them,  either  with  advice  of 
Executive  Councils  or  alone,  at  the  time  of  Union. 

Sect.  LXVI.  Lieutenant-Governor  in  Council  in  each  Province 
means  Lieutenant-Governor  acting  by  and  with  the  advice  of 
the  Executive  Council  thereof. 

Sect.  LXVII.  Administrator  may  in  absence,  illness,  or  other 
inability  of  Lieutenant-Governor  be  appointed  by  the  Governor- 
General  in  Council. 

Sect.  LXVni.  Until  changed  by  the  Executive  Government  of 
the  Province,  the  seats  of  government  for  the  Province  are  to  be  : 
Ontario,  Toronto  ;  Quebec,  the  City  of  Quebec  ;  Nova  Scotia, 
Halifax  ;  New  Brunswick,  Fredericton. 

Legislative  Poweb 

1.  Ontario 

Sect.  LXIX.  Legislature  of  Ontario  consists  of  Lieutenant- 
Governor  and  of  one  House,  styled  the  Legislative  Assembly  of 
Ontario. 

Sect.  LXX.  Legislative  Assembly  of  Ontario  composed  of 
eighty-two  members,  representing  the  eighty-two  electoral 
districts  named  in  the  Appendix  of  the  Act. 

2.  Qtiebec 

Sect.  LXXI.  Legislature  of  Quebec  consists  of  Lieutenant- 
Grovemor  and  of  the  Houses,  styled  Legislative  Council  of  Quebec, 
and  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  Quebec. 

Sect.  LXXII.  Lieutenant-Governor  in  Queen's  name  is  to 
appoint  twenty-four  members  of  Legislative  Council  of  Quebec, 
one  to  represent  each  of  the  twenty-four  divisions  named  by 
this  Act. 

Sect.  LXXIII.  Qualifications  of  Legislative  Councillors  are  the 
same  as  those  of  the  Senators  for  Quebec. 

Sect.  LXXIV.  Place  of  Legislative  Councillor  of  Quebec  shall 
become  vacant  for  similar  purposes  as  for  Senator. 

Sect.  LXXV.  Lieutenant-Governor  in  the  Queen's  name  shall 
fill  up  vacancies. 

Sect.  LXXVI.  Legislative  Council  shall  hear  and  determine 
any  question  as  to  quaUfication  of  Councillor,  or  a  vacancy  which 
may  arise. 

Sect.  LXXVII.  Lieutenant-Governor  may  from  time  to  time 
appoint  and  remove  a  Legislative  Councillor. 

Sect.  LXXVHI.  Ten  members  are  a  quorum  of  the  Legislative 
Council. 


576  Appendix  A 

Sect.  LXXIX.  All  members  of  the  Legislative  Council  may- 
vote,  and  an  equality  of  votes  decides  for  the  negative. 

Sect.  LXXX.  Legislative  Assembly  of  Quebec  consists  of  sixty- 
five  members  ;  the  constituencies  may  be  redistributed,  except 
that  in  any  change  affecting  them,  on  the  second  and  third  read- 
ings of  the  bill,  a  majority  must  vote  for  it,  from  the  English 
constituencies  of  Pontiac,  Ottawa,  Argenteuil,  Huntingdon, 
Missisquoi,  Brome,  Shefford,  Stansted,  Compton,  Wolfe  and  Rich- 
mond, Megantic  and  the  town  of  Sherbrooke. 

Sect.  LXXXI.  Provides  for  first  meeting  of  Ontario  and  Quebec 
Legislatures. 

Sect.  LXXXII.  Lieutenant-Governors  of  Ontario  and  Quebec 
are  to  summon  the  Legislatures. 

Sect.  LXXXIII.  No  person  being  a  salaried  ofiicial  of  Ontario 
or  Quebec  can  be  a  member  of  the  Legislature. 

Sect.  LXXXIV.  The  election  laws  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  are 
for  the  meantime  continued. 

Sect.  LXXXV.  The  Legislative  Assemblies  in  Ontario  and 
Quebec  may  not  continue  for  more  than  four  years. 

Sect.  LXXXVI.  There  must  be  a  yearly  session  of  the  Legisla- 
ture in  each  of  these  two  Provinces. 

Sect.  LXXXVII.  Provisions  as  to  the  Speaker,  vacancies,  the 
quorum,  and  mode  of  voting  of  the  House  of  Commons  are  ex- 
tended to  the  Legislative  Assemblies  of  these  two  Provinces. 

4.  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick 

Sect  LXXXVIII.  The  constitutions  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Bnmswick,  except  as  modified  by  this  Act,  continue,  as  also  the 
House  of  Assembly  in  the  latter. 

5.  Ontario,  Quebec,  and  Nova  Scotia 

Sect.  LXXXIX.  Provision  is  made  for  the  first  elections  in 
each  of  these  three  Provinces. 

6.  The  Four  Provinces 

Sect.  XC.  Provisions  of  this  Act  relating  to  appropriation  and 
tax  bills,  the  recommendation  of  money  votes,  the  assent  to  bills, 
the  disallowance  of  Acts,  and  the  signification  of  pleasure  on  bills 
reserved,  shall  apply  to  the  Provinces,  except  that  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor  be  substituted  for  Governor- General,  Governor-General 
for  the  Queen,  and  as  to  time  of  reservation,  of  one  year  for  two. 

VI.  Distribution  of  Legislative  Powers 

Powers  of  the  Parliament 

Sect.  XCI.  The  Parliament  of  Canada  may  make  laws  for  the 
peace,  order,  and  good  government  of  Canada,  on  all  matters,  not 


Appendix  A  577 

coming  within  the  classes  of  subjects  assigned   exclusively  to 
the  Provincial  Legislatures  and  for  greater  certainty,  but  not 
to  restrict   the  generahty   of    the  foregoing,   in   the  following 
subjects : 
*'  1.  The  pubUc  debt  and  property. 

2.  The  regulation  of  trade  and  commerce. 

3.  The  raising  of  money  by  any  mode  or  system  of  taxation. 

4.  The  borrowing  of  money  on  the  public  credit. 
6.  Postal  service. 

6.  The  census  and  statistics. 

7.  The  militia,  military,  and  naval  service,  and  defence. 

8.  The  fixing  of  and  providing  for  the  salaries  and  allow- 

ances of  civil  and  other  officers  of  the  Government  of 
Canada. 

9.  Beacons,  buoys,  lighthouses,  and  Sable  Island. 

10.  Navigation  and  shipping. 

11.  Quarantine,  and  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 

marine  hospitals. 

12.  Sea-coast  and  inland  fisheries. 

13.  Ferries  between  a  Province  and  any  British  or  foreign 

coimtry,  or  between  two  Provinces. 

14.  Currency  and  coinage. 

16.  Banking,  the  incorporation  of  banks,  and   the  issue  of 
paper  money. 

16.  Savings  Bank. 

1 7.  Weights  and  measures. 

18.  Bills  of  exchange  and  promissory  notes. 

19.  Interest. 

20.  Legal  tender. 

21.  Bankruptcy  and  insolvency. 

22.  Patents  of  invention  and  discovery. 

23.  Copyrights. 

24.  Indians,  and  lands  reserved  for  the  Indians. 

25.  Naturalization  and  aliens. 

26.  Marriage  and  divorce. 

27.  The  criminal  law,  except  the  constitution  of  courts  of 

criminal  jurisdiction,   but  including  the  procedure  in 
criminal  matters. 

28.  The    establishment,    maintenance,    and    management    of 

penitentiaries. 

29.  Such  classes  of  subjects  as  are  excepted  in  the  enumeration 

of  the  classes  of  subjects  by  this  Act  assigned  exclusively 

to  the  Legislatures  of  the  Provinces  ; 
**  And  any  matter  coming  within  any  of  the  classes  of  subjects 
enmnerated  in  this  section  shall  not  be  deemed  to  come  within 
the  class  of  matters  of  a  local  or  private  nature  comprised  in 
the  enumeration  of  the  classes  of  subjects  by  this  Act  assigned 
exclusively  to  the  Legislatures  of  the  Provinces.*! 

37 


678  Appendix  A 


Exclusive  Powees  of  Provincial  Legislatubes 

Sect.  XCII.  "  In  each  Province  the  Legislature  may  exclusively 
make  laws  in  relation  to  matters  coming  within  the  classes  of 
subjects  next  hereinafter  enimaerated  : 

1.  The    amendment    from    time    to    time,    notwithstanding 

anything  in  this  Act,  of  the  constitution  of  the  Pro- 
vince, except  as  regards  the  office  of  Lieutenant- 
Governor  ; 

2.  Direct  taxation  within  the  Province  in  order  to  the  raising 

of  a  revenue  for  provincial  purposes  ; 

3.  The  borrowing  of  money  on  the  sole  credit  of  the  Pro- 

vince ; 

4.  The  establishment  and  tenure  of  provincial  offices,  and  the 

appointment  and  payment  of  provincial  officers  ; 

5.  The  management  and  sale  of  the  public  lands  belonging 

to  the  Province,  and  of  the  timber  and  wood  thereon  ; 

6.  The    establishment,    maintenance,    and    management    of 

public  reformatory  prisons  in  and  for  the  Province  ; 

7.  The    establishment,    maintenance,    and    management    of 

hospitals,  asylums,  charities,  and  eleemosynary  in- 
stitutions in  and  for  the  Province,  other  than  marine 
hospitals  ; 

8.  Municipal  institutions  in  the  Province  ; 

9.  Shop,   saloon,   tavern,   auctioneer,   and   other  licences  in 

order  to  the  raising  of  a  revenue  for  provincial,  local, 
or  municipal  purposes  ; 

10.  Local  works  and  undertakings  other  than  such  as  are  of 

the  following  classes  : 

(a)  Lines  of  steam  or  other  ships,  railways,  canals,  tele- 
graphs, and  other  works  and  undertakings  con- 
necting the  Province  with  any  other  or  others  of 
the  Provinces,  or  extending  beyond  the  limits  of 
the  Province  ; 

(&)  Lines  of  steamships  between  the  Province  and  any 
British  or  foreign  country  ; 

(c)  Such  works  as,  although  wholly  situate  within  the 
Province,  are  before  or  after  their  execution  declared 
by  the  Parliament  of  Canada  to  be  for  the  general 
advantage  of  Canada,  or  for  the  advantage  of  two 
or  more  of  the  Provinces  ; 

11.  The  incorporation  of  companies  with  provincial  objects  ; 

12.  The  solemnization  of  marriage  in  the  Province  ; 

13.  Property  and  civil  rights  in  the  Province  ; 

14.  The  administration  of  justice  in  the  Province,  including 

the  constitution,  maintenance,  and  organization  of 
provincial  courts,  both    of  civil  and  of  criminal  juris- 


Appendix  A  579 

diction,  and  including  procedure  in  civil  matters  in 
those  courts  ; 

16.  The  imposition  of  punishment  by  fine,  penalty,  or  im- 
prisonment, for  enforcing  any  law  of  the  Province 
made  in  relation  to  any  matter  coming  within  any  of 
the  classes  of  subjects  enumerated  in  this  section  ; 

16.  Generally,  all  matters  of  a  merely  local  or  private  nature 
in  the  Province." 

Edttcation 

Sect.  XCIII.  *'  In  and  for  each  Province  the  Legislature  may 
exclusively  make  laws  in  relation  to  education,  subject  and 
according  to  the  following  provisions  : 

1.  Nothing  in   any  such   law   shall  prejudicially  affect  any 

right  or  privilege  with  respect  to  denominational  schools 
which  any  class  of  persons  have  by  law  in  the  Province 
at  the  Union  ; 

2.  All  the  powers,  privileges,  and  duties  at  the  Union  by  law 

conferred  and  imposed  in  Upper  Canada  on  the  separate 
schools  and  school  trustees  of  the  Queen's  Roman  Catholic 
subjects  shall  be,  and  the  same  are  hereby  extended  to 
the  dissentient  schools  of  the  Queen's  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  subjects  in  Quebec  ; 

3.  Where  in  any  Province  a  system  of  separate  or  dissentient 

schools  exists  by  law  at  the  Union,  or  is  thereafter  estab- 
lished by  the  Legislature  of  the  Province,  an  appeal  shall 
lie  to  the  Grovemor-General  in  Coimcil  from  any  act  or 
decision  of  any  provincial  authority  affecting  any  right 
or  privilege  of  the  Protestant  or  Roman  Catholic  minority 
of  the  Queen's  subjects  in  relation  to  education  ; 

4.  In  case  any  such  provincial  law,  as  from  time  to  time  seems 

to  the  Governor-General  in  Council  requisite  for  the  due 
execution  of  the  provisions  of  this  section,  is  not  made, 
or  in  case  any  decision  of  the  Governor-General  in  Council 
in  any  appeal  under  this  section  is  not  duly  executed 
by  the  proper  provincial  authority  in  that  behalf,  then 
and  in  every  such  case,  and  as  far  only  as  the  circum- 
stances of  each  case  require,  the  Parliament  of  Canada 
may  make  remedial  laws  for  the  due  execution  of  the 
provisions  of  this  section,  and  of  any  decision  of  the 
Governor-General  in  Council  under  this  section." 
Sect.  XCIV.  The  Parliament  of  Canada  may  make  provision 

for  the  uniformity  of  the  laws  relative  to  property  and  civil  rights 

in  Ontario,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick. 

Sect.  XCV.  The  Parliament  of  Canada,  and  Legislatures  of  each 

Province,  may  make  concurrent  legislation  respecting  agriculture 

and  immigration. 


580  Appendix  A 


VII.  Judicature 

Sect.  XCVI.  Governor-General  appoints  the  judges  of  the 
superior,  district,  and  county  courts  in  each  Province,  except 
those  of  the  courts  of  probate  in  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick. 

Sect.  XCVII.  Until  laws  in  Ontario,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New 
Brunswick  are  made  uniform,  judges  in  each  Province  shall  be 
selected  from  the  bar  of  that  Province. 

Sect.  XCVIII.  Judges  in  Quebec  shall  be  selected  from  the  bar 
of  that  Province. 

Sect.  XCIX.  Judges  of  the  superior  courts  shall  hold  ofl&ce 
during  good  behaviour,  but  shall  be  removable  by  the  Governor- 
General  on  address  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Commons. 

Sect.  C.  Salaries,  allowances,  and  pensions  of  judges  (except 
of  probate  courts)  are  fixed  and  provided  by  the  Parliament  of 
Canada. 

Sect.  CI.  Parliament  of  Canada  is  empowered  to  establish  a 
General  Court  of  Appeal  for  Canada  (Supreme  Court). 

VIII.  Revenues,  Debts,  Assets,  Taxation 

Sect.  CII.  All  revenues,  not  provincial,  form  one  Consolidated 
Revenue  Fund  for  the  public  service  of  Canada. 

Sect.  cm.  The  consolidated  revenue  bears  all  charges  for  its 
collection  and  management. 

Sect.  CIV.  Annual  interest  of  the  debts  of  the  Provinces  at  the 
Union  forms  a  second  charge  on  the  Consolidated  Revenue  Fund. 

Sect.  CV.  The  salary  of  the  Governor-General  is  £10,000 
sterling,  payable  out  of  the  Consolidated  Revenue  Fund. 

Sect.  CVI.  The  remainder  of  the  Consolidated  Revenue  Fund 
shall  be  appropriated  by  the  Canadian  Parliament  to  the  public 
service. 

Sect.  CVII.  All  stocks,  cash,  bankers'  balances,  and  securities 
for  money  belonging  to  Provinces  shall  be  taken  by  Canada  in 
reduction  of  the  provincial  debts. 

Sect.  CVIII.  Canada  now  possesses  all  public  works  of  the 
former  Provinces,  as  canals,  public  harbours,  lighthouses,  and 
piers,  and  Sable  Island,  steamboats,  dredges,  and  public  vessels ; 
rivers  and  lakes  improvements,  railways  and  railway  stocks,  mort- 
gages, and  other  debts  due  by  railway  companies,  military  roads, 
custom-houses,  post-offices,  and  public  buildings  (except  for 
Provincial  Legislatures  and  Governments),  ordnance  property 
(transferred  by  Imperial  Government),  armouries,  drill-sheds, 
military  clothing,  and  munitions  of  war,  and  lands  set  apart  for 
public  purposes. 

Sect.  CIX.  All  provincial  lands,  mines,  minerals,  and  royalties 
remain  so. 


Appendix  A  681 

Sect.  ex.  All  assets  connected  with  a  provincial  debt  belong 
to  the  Province. 

Sect.  CXI.  Canada  is  liable  for  all  provincial  debts  and  liabiUties 
at  the  time  of  Union. 

Sect.  CXII.  Ontario  and  Quebec  are  liable  to  Dominion  for 
any  amomit  of  debt  above  62,500,000  dollars,  subject  to  5  per  cent, 
interest. 

Sect.  CXIII.  The  assets  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  conjointly 
are : — ^Upper  Canada  Building  Fund,  Lunatic  Asylums,  Normal 
School,  Court  Houses  in  Ayhner,  Montreal,  and  Kamouraska  ; 
Law  Society,  Upper  Canada  ;  Montreal  Turnpike  Trust,  Univer- 
sity Permanent  Fund,  Royal  Institution,  Upper  Canada  Con- 
solidated Municipal  Loan  Fund,  ditto  Lower  Canada,  Upper 
Canada  Agricultural  Society,  Lower  Canada  Legislative  Grant, 
Quebec  Fire  Loan,  Temiscouata  Advance  Account,  Quebec  Turn- 
pike Trust,  Education — ^East,  Building  and  Jury  Fund  of  Lower 
Canada,  Municipalities  Fund,  Lower  Canada  Superior  Education 
Income  Fund. 

Sect.  CXIV.  Nova  Scotia  is  liable  to  Canada  for  amount  above 
7,000,000  dollars,  at  6  per  cent,  interest. 

Sect.  CXV.  New  Brunswick,  ditto,  ditto,  ditto. 

Sect.  CXVT.  In  case  the  public  debts  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick  do  not  reach  7,000,000  dollars  each,  they  are  entitled 
to  interest  at  6  per  cent,  on  the  amount  short  of  that  sum. 

Sect.  CXVII.  All  pubho  property  not  disposed  of  in  this  Act 
remains  provincial. 

Sect.  CXVTII.  The  Provinces  are  annually  to  receive  from  the 
Dominion  as  follows: — Ontario  80,000  dollars,  Quebec  70,000 
dollars.  Nova  Scotia  60,000  dollars.  New  Bnmswick  50,000  dollars 
— ^total  260,000  dollars,  and  an  annual  grant  of  eighty  cents  per 
head  of  population  by  census  of  1861  (and  in  Nova  Scotia  and 
New  Brunswick  by  each  subsequent  decennial  census  until 
400,000  of  a  population  is  reached  in  each),  and  interest  owed 
the  Dominion  is  subtracted  from  these  annual  subsidies. 

Sect.  CXIX.  New  Bnmswick  for  ten  years  after  Union  is  to 
receive  63,000  dollars  annually. 

Sect.  CXX.  The  Parliament  of  Canada  is  to  decide  how  liabilities 
of  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick,  assumed  by  the  Dominion, 
are  to  be  met. 

Sect.  CXXI.  There  shall  be  no  Customs  lines  between  Pro- 
vinces. 

Sect.  CXXII.  Customs  and  Excise  duties  of  each  Province 
remain  as  before  the  Union,  until  changed  by  the  Parliament 
of  Canada. 

Sect.  CXXIII.  Re-adjusts  interprovincial  importations  levied 
on  articles  in  country  at  time  of  Union. 

Sect.  CXXIV.  Lumber  dues  of  New  Bnmswick  continue  as 
before  the  Union. 


682  Appendix  A 

Sect.  CXXV.  **  No  lands  or  property  belonging  to  Canada,  or 
any  Province,  shall  be  liable  to  taxation." 

Sect.  CXXVI.  The  portions  of  the  duties  and  revenues  re- 
served to  each  Province  form  a  consolidated  revenue  fund  for 
each  Province. 


IX.  Miscellaneous  Provisions 

Sect.  CXXVII.  As  to  Legislative  Councillors  of  Provinces 
becoming  Senators. 

Sect.  CXXVIII.  Members  of  Dominion  Parliament  or  Pro- 
vincial Councils  and  Assemblies  must  take  the  oath  of  allegi- 
ance : — "  I,  A.  B.,  do  swear  that  I  will  be  faithful  and  bear  true 
allegiance  to  her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria." 

Sect.  CXXIX.  All  existing  laws,  courts,  and  offices  shall  remain 
in  force  until  repealed  by  the  competent  Dominion  or  provincial 
authority. 

Sect.  CXXX.  All  officers  in  departments  transferred  to  the 
Dominion  shall  continue  in  office. 

Sect.  CXXXI.  Until  Canadian  Parliament  otherwise  provides, 
power  to  appoint  necessary  officers  belongs  to  the  Governor- 
General  in  Council. 

Sect.  CXXXII.  The  Parliament  and  Government  of  Canada 
shall  have  power  to  perform  any  treaty  obligations  of  any  of  the 
Provinces  toward  foreign  countries. 

Sect.  CXXXIII.  The  English  and  French  languages  may  be 
used  in  the  Canadian  Parliament ;  both  languages  shall  be  used 
in  records  and  journals  of  both  Houses,  and  either  language  may 
be  used  in  any  court  of  Canada  established  under  this  Act,  or  in 
any  court  in  Quebec.  The  Acts  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada 
and  of  the  Legislature  of  Quebec  must  be  published  in  both 
languages. 

Sect.  CXXXIV.  Until  otherwise  provided  by  Legislatures  of 
Ontario  and  Quebec,  the  Lieutenant-Governors  of  each  may 
appoint  such  officers  as  may  be  necessary  to  carry  on  the  Pro- 
vincial Governments,  and  five  Executive  officers  for  Ontario 
and  six  for  Quebec,  and  their  subordinates. 

Sect.  CXXXV.  The  Lieutenant-Governor  may  appoint  officers 
to  carry  out  duties  belonging  to  Old  Canada,  now  transferred  to 
Ontario  and  Quebec. 

Sect.  CXXXVI.  Great  Seals  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  are  the 
same  as  those  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  respectively  before 
their  union. 

Sect.  CXXXVII.  Temporary  Acts  of  Canada  are  extended  to 
the  first  sessions  of  the  Legislatures  of  Ontario  and  Quebec. 

Sect.  CXXXVIII.  In  legal  documents  Upper  Canada  is  equiva- 
lent to  Ontario,  and  Lower  Canada  to  Quebec. 


Appendix  A  583 

Sect.  CXXXIX.  Proclamations  to  be  made  under  the  Great 
Seal  of  Old  Canada  not  invalidated  by  the  Union. 

Sect.  CXL.  Lieutenant-Governors  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  may 
make  such  proclamations. 

Sect.  CXLI.  *'  The  penitentiary  of  the  Province  of  Canada  shall, 
until  the  Parliament  of  Canada  otherwise  provides,  be  and  con- 
tinue the  penitentiary  of  Ontario  and  Quebec." 

Sect.  CXLII.  Three  arbitrators,  one  chosen  by  Ontario,  another 
by  Quebec,  and  a  third  by  the  Dominion,  shall  divide  the  debts, 
properties,  and  assets  of  Old  Canada  between  these  two  Pro- 
vinces. 

Sect.  CXLIII.  Grovemor-General  in  Council  has  power  to  give 
such  books  and  records  of  Old  Canada  €ts  he  may  see  fit  to  each  of 
the  two  Provinces. 

Sect.  CXLIV.  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Quebec  may  constitute 
new  townships  in  that  Province. 

X.  Intercolonial  Railway 

Sect.  CXLV.  The  intercolonial  railway  must  be  begim  within 
six  months  after  the  Union,  to  connect  Halifax  and  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  must  be  constructed  without  intermission,  and 
completed  with  all  practicable  speed. 

Sect.  CXL VI.  The  Queen  is  empowered,  on  the  advice  of  her 
Privy  Coimcil,  and  on  an  address  being  presented  by  the  Canadian 
Parhament,  and  an  address  by  their  Legislature,  to  admit  to  the 
Union  Newfoundland,  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  British 
Columbia,  and  on  an  address  of  the  Canadian  Parhament  to 
admit  Rupert's  Land  and  the  North-Westem  Territories. 

Sect.  CXLVII.  Relates  to  adjustment  of  the  number  of 
members  of  the  Senate,  should  Newfoundland  and  Prince  Edward 
Island  enter  the  Union. 


APPENDIX  B 

AUTHOKITIES  AND  REFERENCES 

CHAPTER  I 

"  TimsBus  of  Plato,"  translated  by  Professor  Jowett ; 
Seneca's  **  Medea  "  ;  **  Fusang,"  by  C.  G.  Leland  ;  **  Congres 
des  Am^ricanistes,"  2  vols.,  Paris,  1875;  "History  of  Wales," 
by  Dr.  Powell ;  Gravier*8  "  D^couverte  de  TAm^rique  par  les 
Normands "  ;  **  Antiquitates  Americanse,"  by  C.  C.  Rafn, 
Copenhagen,  1837  ;  **  Delia  Navigationi  et  Viaggi,"  by  G.  Batista 
Ramusio,  3  vols.,  Venetia,  1656 ;  **  Historia  del  Almirante," 
Fernando  Colombo  ;  **  Raccolta  completa  degli  scritti  di  Chris- 
toforo  Colombo,"  Torre  Lione,  1864  ;  **  Memorials  of  Columbus," 
Sportomo,  1823  ;  *'  Life  and  Voyages  of  Columbus,"  Washington 
Irving,  1823  ;  "  Le  R4v61ateur  du  Globe,"  L.  Bloy,  1884  ;  "  Navi- 
gations, Voyages,  etc.,"  by  Richard  Hakluyt,  Preacher,  3  vols., 
London,  1599;  "Vespucci,"  by  F.  Bartolozzi,  Firenze,  1789; 
"Viaggi  d'Amerigo  Vespucci,"  by  S.  Camovai,  Firenze,  1817. 

CHAPTER    II 

Charlevoix,  "  Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle  France,"  6  vols.,  Paris, 
1744;  Hennepin,  "Nouvelle  D^couverte,"  etc.,  Utrecht,  1698; 
Bryce's  "  Everyman's  Geology,"  Government  Reports  of 
Geological  Survey,  1863-85  ;  Dana's  "  Geology "  ;  Geikie's 
"  Ice  Age  "  ;  Nicholson's  "  Palaeontology  "  ;  Publications  Man. 
Hist.  Society. 

CHAPTER    III 

"  On  Mounds  "  ;  Publications  of  Smithsonian  Institute  and  of 
Manitoba  Historical  Society  ;  Schoolcraft's  "  Indian  Tribes  "  ; 
"  North  American  Indians,"  by  George  Catlin,  2  vols.,  London, 
1866  ;  Articles  in  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  "  on  Indians  ; 
"  Aboriginal  Literature,"  6  vols.,  by  D.  G.  Brinton,  Philadelphia, 
1882,  etc.  ;  "Dictionary  of  Dakota  Language,"  by  Dr.  Riggs, 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington  ;  "  Dictionary  of  Cree 
Language,"  by  Father  Lacombe,  Montreal,  1874  ;    "  Dictionary 

685 


686  Appendix  B 

of  Ojibway  Language,"  by  Bishop  Baraga,  Montreal ;  **  M^moire 
sur  les  Langues  de  TAm^rique  du  Nord,"  by  M.  Ponceau,  Paris, 
1838. 


CHAPTER    IV 

'*  (Euvres  de  Champlain,"  6  vols.,  Quebec,  1871  ;  Charlevoix, 
*'  Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle  France,"  6  vols.  ;  "  Histoire  de  la 
Nouvelle  France,"  Lescarbot,  Paris  1866  ;  "  Histoire  de  I'Acadie 
Fran9aise,"  M.  E.  Moreau,  Paris,  1873  ;  "  A  Lost  Chapter  of 
American  History,"  P.  H..  Smith,  1884  ;  *'  History  of  Acadia," 
James  Hannay,  1879. 


CHAPTER    V 

*'  Notes  sur  la  Nouvelle  France,"  Paris,  1872,  H.  Harrisse  ; 
*'  D6couvertes  et  ]6tablissements  de  Cavalier  de  la  Salle,"  Paris, 
1870,  by  G.  Gravier  ;  "Discovery  of  the  North- West  by  John 
Nicolet,"  Cincinnati,  1881,  by  C.  W.  Butterfield  ;  "  Margry's 
Original  Documents,"  3rd  and  4th  vols.,  Paris,  1879  ;  *'  Histoire 
des  Canadiens  Fran^ais,"  Montreal,  1882,  by  B.  Suite  ;  "  The 
Old  Regime  in  Canada,"  Boston,  1884,  by  F.  Parkman  ;  "  Premier 
Etablissement  de  la  Foi  dans  la  Nouvelle  France,"  Paris,  1691, 
by  Fathers  Le  Clercq  and  Membre  ;  "La  Salle  and  the  Discovery 
of  the  Great  West,"  Boston,  1884,  by  F.  Parkman  ;  "  Montcalm 
and  Wolfe,"  2  vols.,  Boston,  1884,  by  F.  Parkman  ;  "  L 'Histoire 
du  Canada, "  Quebec,  1852,by  F.X.  Garneau  ;  "  History  of  Canada, 
French  Regime,"  Montreal,  1872,  by  H.  H.  Miles  ;  "  History  of 
Modem  Europe,"  vol.  iii.,  1864,  by  T.  H.  Dyer;  "Manual  of 
Modern  History,"  London,  1881,  by  W.  C.  Taylor;  "Docu- 
mentary History  of  New  York,"  vols,  x.  and  xi.  ;  "  Maple  Leaves," 
Quebec,  1863,  by  Sir  J.  M.  Lemoine  ;  "  The  Conspiracy  of  Fron- 
tenac,"  2  vols.,  Boston,  1884,  by  F.  Parkman  ;  "  Narrative  and 
Critical  History  of  America,"  vol.  iv.,  Boston,  1886,  by  Justin 
Winsor. 


CHAPTER    VI 

"  Short  History  of  the  English  Colonies  in  America,"  by  H.  C. 
Lodge,  Boston  (Harper,  New  York),  1881  ;  "  History  of  the 
United  States,"  by  B.  J.  Lossing,  New  York,  1857  ;  "  History  of 
the  American  People,"  by  Arthur  Oilman,  Boston,  1883  ;  "  Con- 
cise History  of  the  American  People,"  by  J.  H.  Palton,  New 
York,  1883  ;  "  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,"  by 
J.  Bach  McMaster,  Appleton,  New  York,  vol.  i.,  1885,  vol.  ii., 
1886. 


Appendix  B  587 


CHAPTER  VII 

"Travels  in  North  America  in  1795-6-7,"  vol.  ii.,  1807,  by 
Isaac  Weld;  "Description  of  Nova  Scotia,"  1826,  Anon.; 
"  British  Dominions  in  North  America,"  3  vols.,  1832,  by  Joseph 
Bouchette;  "Life  of  Joseph  Brant,"  2  vols.,  1838,  by  W.  L. 
Stone ;  "  Settlement  of  Upper  Canada,"  1872,  by  William 
Canniff  ;  "Toronto  of  Old,"  1873,  by  Henry  Scadding  ;  "The 
Loyalists  of  America  and  their  Times,"  2  vols.,  1880,  by  Egerton 
Ryerson  ;  "Canadian  Portraits,"  4  vols.,  1881,  by  J.  C.  Dent  ; 
"  American  Loyalists,"  by  Col.  Sabine  ;  "  Haldimand  Papers," 
Manuscript  (large  collection),  Canadian  Archives,  Ottawa ; 
"  Accounts  of  the  *  U.E.'s,'  "  2  vols..  Manuscript,  Pari.  Lib., 
Ottawa. 

CHAPTER    Vm 

"  Acts  of  the  Legislature  of  Upper  Canada  "  ;  "  Travels  of 
the  Due  de  la  Rochefoucault  Liancourt,"  2  vols.,  1799  ;  "The 
Eastern  Townships,"  by  C.  Thomas,  1866  ;  "  Statistical  Account 
of  Upper  Canada,"  by  R.  Gourlay,  3  vols.,  1822;  "Diaries  of 
Lord  Selkirk,  1803-4";  Copies  in  Canadian  Archives,  Ottawa; 
"  Life  of  Col.  Talbot,"  by  E.  Ermatinger  ;  "  Summary  of  Talbot 
Papers,"  by  J.  H.  Coyne  (Royal  Society  of  Canada  Reports) ; 
"History  of  County  of  Pictou,"  by  Dr.  G.  Patterson,  1877; 
Murdoch's  "  History  of  Nova  Scotia,"  1867  ;  "  Papers  on  Times 
of  the  Loyalists,"  by  A.  Raymond  (Royal  Society  Reports)  ; 
"  Scots  in  Canada,"  vol.  ii.,  by  A.  Rattray,  1882  ;  "  The  Scots- 
man in  Canada,"  2  vols.,  by  Campbell  and  Bryce,  1912  ;  "  History 
of  Nova  Scotia,"  by  T.  C.  HaHburton,  2  vols.,  1829  ;  "  High- 
land Emigration,"  by  the  Earl  of  Selkirk,  1806  ;  "Manitoba," 
by  G.  Bryce,  1882  ;  "  History  of  Lower  Canada,"  vols.  i.  and  ii., 
by  R.  Christie,  1848  ;  "  History  of  Cape  Breton,"  by  R.  Brown, 
1869;  "Dundas,"  1861,  by  James  Croil ;  "History  of  the 
United  States,"  New  York,  1865,  Lossing  and  Williams  ;  "  His- 
tory of  the  United  States,"  London,  1838,  by  John  Frost ; 
"  History  of  the  United  States,"  vols.  iii.  and  iv.,  1884,  by  Ban- 
croft ;   "  1812,"  by  Col.  CoflSn. 

CHAPTER    IX 

Report  of  Committee  of  Imperial  Parliament  on  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,  London,  1867;  "Voyage  from  Montreal,  with 
Account  of  the  Fur  Trade,"  by  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  London, 
1801  ;  "  Astoria,"  by  Washington  Irving,  London,  1870  ;  "  The 
Columbia  River,"  by  Ross  Cox,  2  vols.,  London,  1832;  "Can- 
adian Trials,"  by  A.  Amos,  London,  1820 ;  Unpublished 
Letters  of  Nor'- West  Traders  among  Canadian  Archives,  Ottawa ; 


588  '  Appendix  B 

"Documents  on  Boimdary  Dispute,"  published  at  Ontario, 
1879;  "Hudson's  Bay,"  by  Arthur  Dobbs,  London,  1744; 
'*  Six  Years  on  Hudson's  Bay,"  by  Joseph  Robson,  London, 
1759 ;  Accounts  of  Journeys  published  by  Samuel  Heame, 
1795  ;  Journeys  of  Captains  Lewis  and  Clark,  London,  1815  ; 
of  Lieut.  Z.  Pike,  1811  ;  of  Keating  (Major  Long),  London, 
1825 ;  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  London,  1834 ;  of  Sir  George 
Back,  London,  1836  ;  of  P.  Dease  and  T.  Simpson,  London, 
1843  ;  of  Sir  John  Richardson,  New  York,  1852  ;  of  Dr.  John 
Rae,  London,  1850 ;  and  of  Lord  Milton  and  Dr.  Cheadle, 
London,  1865. 

CHAPTERS    X    AND    XI 

Imperial  Papers  on  Emigration,  London,  1847-8 ;  Corre- 
spondence with  British  Quartermaster's  Department,  Archives, 
Ottawa ;  "  British  America,"  by  Joseph  Bouchette,  3  vols., 
London,  1832  ;  "  Autobiography  of  John  Gait,"  2  vols.,  London, 
1833  ;  "Three  Years  in  Canada,"  2  vols.,  by  J.  M.  McTaggart, 
London,  1829;  "Hints  to  Emigrants,"  by  William  Bell,  Edin- 
burgh, 1824 ;  "  Early  Settlement  of  Peterborough,"  by  Dr. 
Poole,  1867  ;  "  Gait  and  its  Neighbourhood,"  by  James  Young, 
M.P.  ;  "  Story  of  the  Upper  Canadian  Rebellion,"  2  vols.,  by 
J.  C.  Dent,  Toronto,  1885  ;  "  Story  of  My  Life,"  by  Egerton 
Ryerson,  Toronto,  1883 ;  "  History  of  Lower  Canada,"  by 
Robert  Christie,  vols.  iii.  and  iv.,  Quebec,  1850 ;  Seventh 
Report  of  Grievance  Committee,  Toronto,  1835  ;  Act  to  Re- 
unite the  Provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  etc.,  British 
Statutes,  London,  1840  ;  the  Rolph  Papers,  Archives,  Ottawa. 

CHAPTER    XII 

"  Roughing  it  in  the  Bush,"  by  Mrs.  S.  Moodie,  London,  1854  ; 
"Twenty-seven  Years  in  Canada  West,"  Strickland,  London, 
1854;  "The  Staple  Trade— Timber— of  Canada,"  by  G.  H. 
Perry,  Ottawa,  1862  ;  "  The  Last  Forty  Years,"  by  J.  C.  Dent, 
2  vols.,  Toronto,  1881;  "History  of  Prince  Edward  Island," 
by  Duncan  Campbell,  Charlottetown,  1875  ;  "  Reminiscences  of 
Sir  Francis  Hincks,"  Montreal,  1882  ;  "  Life  and  Speeches  of  the 
Hon.  George  Brown,"  by  Hon.  Alex.  Mackenzie,  Toronto,  1882  ; 
"  Canada,"  by  A.  Lillie,  1855  ;  "  Canadian  Economics  by  British 
Association,"  Montreal,  1885;  "History  of  Nova  Scotia,"  by 
Duncan  Campbell,  Montreal,  1873  ;  "  Vancouver  Island  and 
British  Columbia,"  by  J.  D.  Pemberton,  London,  1850  ;  "  Van- 
couver Island  and  British  Columbia,"  by  M.  McFie,  London, 
1865;  "British  Columbia,"  by  R.  C.  Mayne,  London,  1862; 
"  Hudson's  Bay  Company  Report,"  London,  1857  ;  "  Confedera- 
tion of  Canada,"  by  J.  H.  Gray,  Toronto,  1872. 


Appendix  B  689 


CHAPTER   Xin 

"Canada  since  the  Union  of  1841,"  vol.  ii.,  by  J.  C.  Dent, 
Toronto,  1881  ;  *'  International  Law,"  by  W.  E.  Hall ;  "  Inter- 
national Law,"  by  Theodore  D.  Woolsey,  New  York,  1879 ; 
Report  of  American  Northern  Boundary  Commission,  Wash- 
ington, 1878;  "Reminiscences  of  the  North- West  Rebellion," 
by  Major  Boulton,  Toronto,  1886;  "The  Intercolonial  Rail- 
way," by  Sandford  Fleming ;  Histories  of  the  various 
Churches ;  "  Reports  of  Progress  of  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way," Ottawa,  1877  ;  Reports  of  Geological  Survey,  1871-4  ; 
"  Dominion  Annual  Register,"  1880-4,  by  H.  J.  Morgan,  Toronto  ; 
"  The  Indian  Treaties,"  by  Alex.  Morris,  Toronto,  1880. 

CHAPTER    XIV 

"Canada  Year  Book,"  Ist  series,  Ottawa,  1886-1904;  2nd 
series,  Ottawa,  1905-11;  "  Canadian  Annual  Review  of  Public 
Affairs,"  by  J.  Castell  Hopkins,  Toronto,  1901-12;  "The 
Canadian  Almanac,"  Toronto,  1888-1913;  "The  Story  of 
the  Dominion,"  Hopkins,  1912 ;  "  Who's  Who,"  London, 
1885-1912  ;  "Canadian  Who's  Who,"  London,  1910  ;  Debrett's 
"Peerage  and  Baronetage,"  London,  1888-1912;  "Memoirs 
of  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald,"  2  vols.,  Jos.  Pope,  1894;  "Hon. 
Alex.  Mackenzie,"  by  Buckingham  and  Ross,  Toronto,  1892  ; 
"Reminiscences,"  by  Sir  Richard  Cartwright,  1913;  "Public 
Life  in  Canada,"  by  Jas.  Young,  1912  ;  "  Life  of  Dr.  J.  Robert- 
son," Gordon,  1908  ;  "The  Kingdom  Papers,"  by  Ewart,  1912  ; 
"  Fourth  Census  of  Canada,"  4  vols.,  1901  ;  "  Census  of  North- 
West  Territories,"  1906  ;  "  Census  of  Canada,"  1911;  "  Canadian 
Contingents  and  Canadian  Imperialism,"  Sanford  Evans,  1901  ; 
"  Golden  Book  of  Canadian  Contingents  in  South  Africa,"  1901 ; 
"Riders  of  the  Plains"  (R.N.W.M.  PoUce),  Haydon,  1910; 
"Getting  into  Parhament  and  After,"  by  G.  W.  Ross,  1913; 
"  Royal  Society  of  Canada  Transactions,"  4to,  1888-1912, 
Report  of  Royal  Commission  on  Technical  Education,  4  vols. 
1913  ;  "  Conservation  Conunission  of  Canada — Report  on  Lands, 
Fisheries,  Game  and  Minerals,"  1911;  "Water  Powers  of 
Canada,"  Dennis  and  White,  1911  ;  "Sea-Fisheries  of  Eastern 
Canada,"  1912  ;  "Forest  Conditions  of  Nova  Scotia,"  by  Femow, 
1912  ;  "  Fur-Farming  in  Canada,"  Jones,  1913  ;  "  Life  of  Arch- 
bishop Tach6,"  Dom  Benoit,  2  vols.,  1904  ;  "  Life  of  Archbishop 
Machray,"  R  Machray  ;  "Handbook  of  Canadian  Literature," 
MacMurchy,  1906  ;  "  Canadian  Essays,"  Critical  and  Historical, 
by  O'Hagan,  1901  ;  "  Annual  Calendars  of  Sixteen  Canadian 
Universities." 


APPENDIX  C— TABLE  OF 


The  Governor-General. 


FROM  CONQUEST,  1759. 


Gen.  Murray  .  .  .  1763 
Gen.  Sir  Guy  Oarleton  1766 
Gen.  Fred.  Haldimand  1778 


1786 
1786 


1808 
1811 


1815 


Lord  Dorchester  .  . 
Q«n.Prescott  .  .  . 
Gen.    Sir    James    H. 

Craig  .... 
Gen.  Sir  G.  Prevost  . 
Sir     Gordon     Drum- 

mond  (Adminstr.)  . 
Sir  John  Coape  Sher- 

brooke  ....  1816 
Duke  of  Richmond  .  1818 
Earl  of  Dalhousie  .  .  1820 
Sir  Jas.  Kempt  (Adm.)  1828 
Lord  Aylmer  .  .  .  1830 
BarlofGosford  .  .  1835 
Earl  of  Durham  .  .  1838 
Sir     John     Colborne 


(Adm.)  .  .  . 
Lord  Sydenham  . 
Sir  Charles  Bagot . 
Lord  Metcalfe  .  . 
Earl  of  Elgin  .  . 
Sir  Edmund  Head 
Lord  Monck     . 


1838 
1839 
1842 
1843 
1847 
1855 
1861 


FROM  GONPEDBRATION,  1867, 


Lord  Lisgar  .  .  .  1868 
Earl  of  DufEerin  .  .  1872 
Marquis  of  Lome  .  .  1878 
Marquis  of  Lansdowne  1883 
Lord  Stanley  .  .  .1888 
Earl  of  Aberdeen  .  .  1893 
EarlofMinto  .  .  .  1898 
Earl  Grey  ....  1904 
Duke  of  Connaught    .  1911 


Governors  of  Nova  Scotia. 


Gen.  Nicholson  .  .  1714 
jGen.  Phillips  .  .  .  1717 
Col  Laurence  Arm- 
strong ....  1724 
Capt.  Paul  Mascarene  1740 
Lord  Cornwallis  .  .  1749 
Peregrine         Thomas 

Hopson  ....  1762 
Major  Lawrence    .     .  1753 


Jonathan  Belcher .     . 

Col.  Wilmot     .     .     . 

Lord  William  Camp- 
bell     

Francis  Legge .     .     . 

John  Parr  .... 

John  Wentworth  .     . 

Sir  George  Prevost     . 

Sir  John  Coape  Sher- 
brooke  (Adm.)  .     . 


1760 
1763 

1766 
1773 

1782 
1792 
1808 

1811 


Earl  of  Dalhousie  .     .  1816 
Gen.  Sir  James  Kempt  1820 
Sir    Peregrine    Mait- 
land(Adm.)       .     .  1828 

Sir  Colin  Campbell     .  1834 


Viscount  Falkland  .  1840 
Sir  John  Harvey  (Ad.)  1846 
Sir  J.  G.  Le  Marchant  1852 
Earl      of      Mulgrave 

(Adm.)  ....  1858 
Sir  R.  G.  Macdoimell .  1864 
Sir  Fenwick  Williams    1865 


Gen.  WUUams  (Adm 
Col.  Williams  . 
Gen.  Doyle 
Joseph  Howe  . 
A.  G.  Archibald 

Do, 
M.  H,  Richey  . 
A.  W.  McLelan 
M.B.Daly.  . 
Alfred  A.  Jones 
D.  0.  Eraser  . 
J.  D.  McGregor 


)  1867 
1868 
1868 
1873 
1873 
1878 
1883 
1888 
1890 
1900 
1906 
1910 


Governors   of   Prince 
Edward  Island. 


Capt.   Walter  Patter- 
son     1770 

A  ,  /  Oalbeck  \  1775- 
^"^•tDe  BrisayJ  80 

Capt.  Patterson  .  .  1780 
Geo.  E.  Fanning  .  .  1786 
Col.  J.  F.  W.  De  Bri- 

say  .  .  .  .  (1805) 
C.  D.  Smith  .  .  .  1813 
(Brother     of     Sidney 

Smith) 
Col.  Ready       .     .     .  1824 
Col.  A.  W.  Young  .     .  1831 


Col.  Sir  J.  Harvey 
Sir  C.  A.  FitzRov  . 
Sir  H.V.Huntley. 
Sir  Don.  Campbell 
Sir  A.  Bannerman 
Dominick  Daly 


1836 
1837 
1841 
1847 
1851 
1854 


George  Dundas     .     .  1859 


W.  C.  F.  Robinson 
Sir  R.  Hodgson 
T.  H.  Haviland 
A.  A.  Macdonald 
J.  S.  Carvell     . 
G.  W.  Howlan  . 
P.  A.  Mclntyre 
D.  A.  McKinnon 
Benjamin  Rogers 


1870-74 
1874 
1879 
1884 
1889 
1894 
1899 
1904 
1910 


Kings  of  France. 


Francis  I.  (Father  . 

of  Letters)     .     .  1515 

Henry  H.     .     ,     .  1547 

Francis  11.  .     .     .  1559 

Charles  IX.       .     .  1560 


Henry  IV.  (The 

Great)  .  .  .  1589 
Louis    XTTT.    (The 

Just)  ....  1610 
Louis     XIV.     (Le 

Grand :  also  Dieu- 

donn6)      .     .     .  1643 


Louis  XV.     .  1715-1774 


Governors  of  Upper 
Canada. 


John  Graves  Simcoe  1792 
Peter  Russel  (Adm.)  1796 
Gen.  Peter  Hunter  .  1799 
Francis  Gore  .  . 
Gen.  Brock  (Ad.)  . 
Gen.  Sheafie  (Ad.)  . 
Gen.  Murray  (Ad.)  . 
Gen,  Robinson  (Ad,) 
Francis  Gore 
Sir  Peregrine  Mait- 

land  ....  1818 
Sir  John  Colborne  .  1828 
Sir     Francis    Bond 

Head  ....  1836 
Sir  George  Arthur  .  1838 


1806 
1812 
1812 


1815 


Governors  of  Ontario. 


Gen.  Stisted  (Ad.)  .  1867 

W.  P.  Howland       .  1868 

John  Crawford        .  1873 

D.  A.  Macdonald    .  1875 

J.  B.  Robinson  .     .  1880 

Alex.  Campbell       .  1887 

Geo.  A.  Kirkpatrick  1892 

SirO.Mowat     .     .  1897 

Mortimer  Clark       .  1903 

J.  M.  Gibson     .     .  1908 


590 


CANADIAN  GOVERNORS 


French   Govemora   of 
Canada. 


Champlain 
De  Montmagny 
D'Ailleboust    . 
De  Laoson  .      . 
D'Axgenson 
D'Arougour     . 


1608 
1637 
1647 
1651 
1658 
1660 


ROYAL    GtoVBRNMENT, 


DeMesy 
De  Courcelles  . 
De  Frontenac  . 
De  la  Barre 
De  Denonville . 
De  Frontenac  . 
De  Oallierea  . 
De  Vaadreuil  . 
De  Beauhamois 
De  Ghilissoniere 
De  la  Jonqoiere 
Marq.  da  Qaesne 
De  Vaadreuil  . 


1663 
1664 
1672 
1682 
1685 
1689 
1699 
1703 
1726 
1746 
1748 
1762 
1765 


Sorer eigns  of  England. 


Henry  Vn.  .  .  .  1478 
Henry  Vin.  .  .  .  1509 
Edward  VI. ;  Mary  .  1553 
Elizabeth    ....  1558 

James  1 1603 

Charles  1 1625 

Cromwell    ....  1649 


Charles  n.  . 


1660 


Governors    of    Red    River 
Settlement  and  Manitoba. 


Gk>vemorg   of    Lower 
Canada. 


James  n 1685 

William  and  Mary      .  1689 

Anne 1702 

George  1 1714 

George  II 1727 


George  III. 
George  IV. 
William  IV. 
Victoria  . 
Edward  vn. 
George  V.  . 


1760 
1820 
1830 
1837 
1901 
1910 


GoTemors  of  New 
Brunswick. 


Capt.  Miles  Macdonell  1812 
Alex.  Macdonell 

C*' Grasshopper  Go- 


Governors      of     British 

Columbia  and  Vancouver 

Island. 


venor  ") 
Capt.  A.  Bulger  . 
Robert  PeUy  .  . 
Donald  Mc&enzie 
Alexander  Christie 
Duncan  Finlayson 
Alexander  Christie 
Col.  Crofton  .  , 
Major  Griffiths  . 
Major  Caldwell  . 
Jadge  Johnston  . 
William    McTavisb 


1815 
1822 
1823 
1825 
1833 
1839 
1844 
1846 
1847 
1848 
1855 
'58-69 


British  Columbia. 
Jas.  Douglas     .     .  1859 


Vancouver  Island. 
R.  Blanshard     .     .  1849 
James     Douglas  1851-64 
Capt.  Kennedy       .  1864 


British  Columbia  and 

Vancouver  Island. 

Seymour       .     .     .  186 


A.  G.  Archibald 
Alex.  Morris  . 
Joe.  E.  Cauchon 
J.  0.  Aikins  . 
J.  0.  Schults  . 
J.  0.  Patterson 
D.  H.  McMillan 
D.  C.  Cameron 


1870 
1872 
1877 
1882 
1888 
1892 
1900 
1911 


J.  N.  Trutch 
A.  N.  Richards 
C.  F.  Cornwall 
Hugh  Nelson 
E.  Dewdney 
T.  R.  Mclnnes 
H.  G.  Joly    . 
Jas.  Dunsmuir 
T.  N.  Patterson 


1871 
1876 
1881 
1887 
1892 
1897 
1902 
1906 
1909 


Sir  B.  S.  Mibies 


1799 


Absentee 
nor 


Gover- 
.     .  1808-1822 


Sir  F.  N.  Barton  .     .  1824 


Col.     Thomas    Carle- 
ton       ..      .  1784-1803 
Gen.W.HunUey(Ad.)  1809 
Gen.     G.     8.     Smyth 

(Ad.)        .      .      .  1817-23 
Gen.   Sir   Howard 

Douglas  (Ad.)  .  .  1824 
Gen.  Sir  Arch.  Camp- 
bell (Ad.).  .  .  .  1832 
Gen.  Sir  John  Harvey  1837 
Sir  WUliam  Colebrook  1841 
SirE.  W.  Head  .  .  1848 
J.  H.  Sutton  .  .  .  1854 
A.  Gordon  ....  1862 
Gen.  Doyle      .     .     .  1866 


Governors  of  North -West 
Territories. 


A.  G.  Archibald 
F.  G.  Johnston 
Alex.  Morris  . 
David  Laird  . 
Edgar  Dewdney 
Joseph  Royal  . 
C.  H.  Macintosh 
M.  C.  Cameron 
A.  E.  Forget    . 


1871 
1872 
1873 
1876 
1881 
1888 
1893 
1898 
1891 


Governors  of  Quebec. 


Governors  of  New 
Brunswick. 


Saskatchewan. 


Alberta. 


Sir  N.  F.  Belleau  . 
R.  E.  Caron  .  . 
Letellier  de  St.  Just 
Dr.  T.  Robitaille  . 
L.  F.  R.  Masson  . 
A.  R.  Angers  .  . 
I.  A.  Cbapleau 
L.  A.  Jette  .  . 
O.A.PeUetier.     . 


1867 
1873 
1876 
1879 
1884 
1887 
1892 
1898 
1908 


Gen.  Doyle  (Ad.) 
L.  A.  Wilmot  . 
S.  L.  TiUey  . 
E.  B.  Chandler 
R.  D.  Wilmot  . 
Sir  S.  L.  Tilley 
John  Boyd 
J.  A.  Eraser  . 
A.  R.  McClelan 
J.  B.  Snowball 
L.  J.  Tweedie  . 
J.  Wood     .     . 


1867 
1868 
1873 
1878 
1880 
1885 
1893 
1893 
1896 
1902 
1907 
1912 

591 


A.  E.  Forget 
G.  W.  Brown 


1905 
1910 


A.  V.  Bulyca 


1905 


CANADIAN  ANNALS 

EARLY    DATES 

B.C. 

638.  Solon,  who  told  of  Atlantis,  bom. 

429.  Plato,  who  preserves  Solon's  story,  bom. 

A.D. 

3 — 66.  Seneca,  who  gave  forecjist  of  discovery. 

449.  Myth  of  Fusang. 

726.  Tyranny  of  Harold  the  Fairhaired  drove  many  Norwegians 
to  the  Orkneys. 

726.  Grim  Camban  estabUshed  at  Faroe  Isles. 

826.  Dicuil,  an  Irish  monk,  writes  of  the  Orkneys. 

861.  Naddod,  Norwegian  pirate,  discovers  Snoeland.     Flokni- 
Rafna  calls  Snoeland  Iceland. 

874.  Ingolf  founds  Reykiavik. 

877.  Greenland  discovered  by  Gurn-bjom. 

886.  Emigration  from  Scandinavia  to  Iceland. 

930.  Iceland  is  all  occupied. 

970.  Ships  under  Erik  leave  Iceland  for  Greenland. 

986.  Christianity  introduced  into  Iceland. 
1002.  Thorwald  visits  Vinland. 

1006.  Thorstein  Erikson  winters  in  Greenland. 

1007.  Saga  of  Thorfinn  Karlsefne. 

1170.  Madoc,  Prince  of  Wales,  sails  to  the  west. 

AMERICA    DISCOVERED 

1291.  Marco  Polo  visits  Cathay,  passing  through  Asia. 

1372.  Sir  John  Mandeville  travels  east  to  Tartary. 

1374.  Toscanelli,  the  Florentine,  maintains  an  open  sea  to  East 

Indies. 
1477.  Meredith,  son  of  Rhesus,  writes  of  Welsh  visiting  the  west. 
1477.  John  Cabot  takes  up  his  abode  in  Bristol,  England. 
1477.  Columbus  visits  Thule  (probably  Iceland). 
1480.  Cabot  said  to  have  sought  Brazil. 
1484.  Columbus  flees  from  Portugal  to  Genoa. 
1492.  (April  17th)  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  sign  documents  for 

Columbus. 

38  693 


594  Annals  op 

A.D. 

1492.  (August  3rd)  Columbus'  ships  leave  Palos. 

1492.  (September  9th)  Columbus  loses  sight  of  Old  World. 

1492.  (October  12th)  New  World  sighted. 

1494.  Reputed  voyage  of  Cabot. 

1494.  Jacques  Cartier  born  at  St.  Malo. 

1497.  Americus  Vespucius  sailed  for  the  New  World. 

1497.  Vasco  di  Gama  sailed  for  Cathay. 

_1497.  Cabot  (on  first  undisputed  voyage)  discovers  mainland  of 
^~^  America.    (Canada  thus  being  first  part  of  American 

mainland  reached.) 

1498.  Sebastian  Cabot  takes  first  colony  to  America. 

1499.  Vespucius'  second  voyage. 

1500.  Cabral  discovers  Brazil. 

1500.  Gaspard  Cortereal  finds  Labrador. 
1502.  Miguel  Cortereal  seeks  his  lost  brother. 
1506.  Columbus  dies  at  Valladolid. 
1512.  Sebastian  Cabot  enters  the  service  of  Spain. 
1512.  Ponce  de  Leon  discovers  Florida. 

1512.  Americus  Vespucius  dies  at  Seville. 

1513.  Balboa  ascends  Cordilleras,  and  discovers  Pacific  Ocean. 

1516.  Sebastian  Cabot  returns  to  England. 

1517.  Sebastian    Cabot     makes    an    expedition    to    the    New 

World. 

1518.  Sebastian  Cabot  enters,  second  time,  the  service  of  Spain. 

1519.  Cortez  invades  Mexico. 

1519.  Magellan  sails  to  circumnavigate  the  globe. 
1522.  Circumnavigating  expedition  returns. 
1524.  Verrazano  visits  America. 
1530.  William  Hawkins  goes  to  Guinea. 

1533.  Pizarro  conquers  Peru. 

1534.  Jacques  Cartier  on  first  expedition  explores  the  Gulf. 

1535.  Jacques   Cartier   on   second   expedition   discovers   inland 

Canada. 

1541.  Jacques  Cartier  makes  third  voyage. 

1542.  Ferdinand  de  Soto  discovers  the  Mississippi. 
1542.  De  Roberval  goes  to  Canada. 

1548.  Sebastian  Cabot  returns  to  England. 

1549.  De  Roberval  lost. 

1556.  Ramusio,  an  Italian,  writes  a  valuable  account  of  voyages. 
1562.  Ribault  founds  French  Huguenot  colony  near  Cape  Fear, 
but  all  massacred  by  the  Spaniard  Menendez. 

1577.  Sir  Francis  Drake  circumnavigates  the  globe. 

1578.  De  Gourgues  attacks  St.  Augustin,  and  revenges  Ribault 's 

colony. 
1583.  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  undertakes  to  colonize  NewfoTind- 

land. 
1683.  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  lost  at  sea. 


Canadian  History  596 

COLONIES    BEGUN 

A.D. 

1599.  Captain  Chauvin  sails  to  St.  Lawrence. 

1602.  Captain  Gosnold  builds  a  fort. 

1603.  English  vessels  visit  the  Penobscot. 

1603.  French  expedition  up  the  St.  Lawrence. 

1604.  De  Monts  establishes  first  settlement  in  the  Dominion. 
1606.  De  Poutrincourt  returns  to  Acadia. 

1606.  London  Company  given  its  possessions. 

1607.  Colony  to  found  Jamestown  sails,  led  by  Gosnold. 

1608.  Quebec  founded  by  Champlain. 

1609.  Champlain  before  Henry  IV.  at  Fontainebleau. 

1609.  Champlain  proceeds  against  the  Iroquois. 

1610.  Henry  Hudson  discovers  Hudson  River. 
1610.  Champlain  leaves  France  for  Canada. 

1610.  Lord  Delaware  goes  to  Virginia  as  Governor. 

1611.  De  St.  Just  becomes  Governor  of  Acadia. 
1611.  Hudson  perishes  in  Hudson  Bay. 

1613.  Champlain  ascends  the  Ottawa. 

1613.  St.  Sauveur  founded. 

1614.  St.  Croix  and  Port  Royal  attacked  by  Puritans. 

1614.  Small  Dutch  fort  at  New  Amsterdam. 

1615.  Four  Recollets  reach  Canada. 

1616.  Champlain   reaches   Georgian   Bay   and   comes   to   Lake 

Ontario. 
1620.  (November  21st)  Mayflower  sails.     Plymouth  Fathers  land 
at  Plymouth. 

1620.  New  Jersey  occupied. 

1621.  Acadia,  as  Nova  Scotia,^  given  to  Sir  William  Alexander 

by  James  I. 

1621.  Manhattan  Island  bought  from  the  Indians. 

1622.  Gorges  and  Mason  receive  a  grant  on  the  Atlantic  Coast. 

1622.  Alexander  sends  Scottish  colony  to  Nova  Scotia. 

1623.  Fort  Nassau  erected. 

1624.  Biencoiirt  (St.  Just)  leaves  Acadian  possessions  to  Charles 

St.  Etienne  (De  La  Tour). 

1624.  Stone  fort  built  at  Quebec. 

1625.  Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia  created. 
1625.  Charles  St.  Etienne  marries. 

1625.  Jesuit  Fathers  arrive  in  New  France. 

1628.  Richeheu  forms  Company  of  New  France  (100  Associates). 

1628.  Salem,  Mass.,  founded  by  Dorchester  Company. 

1629.  Kertk  takes  Quebec. 

1630.  Claude   St.   Etienne  joins  English,   but  his  son   Charles 

refuses. 
1630.  Charter  of  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay  transferred  to 
New  World. 


696  Annals  of 

A.D. 

1632.  Treaty  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye. 

1632.  Charles  I.  basely  transfers  Acadia  to  the  French. 

1633.  Champlain  on  behalf  of  the  new  company  sails  with  the 

colonists  for  Quebec. 

1633.  English  Puritans  continue  to  reach  Massachusetts. 

1634.  Maryland  settled  by  Calvert,  heir  of  Lord  Baltimore. 

1635.  D'Aulnay    (De    Charnissay)    occupies    Pentagoit    for    De 

Razilly. 

1635.  Champlain  dies  on  Christmas  Day. 

1636.  De  Razilly  dies. 

1636.  Roger  Williams  founds  Providence  in  Rhode  Island. 

1637.  Hotel-Dieu  erected  in  Quebec. 

1639.  Swedish  colony  settles  in  Delaware. 

1640.  Charles  St.  Etienne  (La  Tour)  goes  to  Quebec. 

1640.  Nicolet  before  this  date  discovers  Sault  Ste.  Marie. 

1641.  La  Tour  summoned  to  France. 

1642.  Montreal  built  by  Maisonneuve. 

1643.  Siege  of  La  Tour's  fort  (St.  John)  by  D'Auhiay. 
1643.  Rhode  Island  given  a  charter. 

1645.  (April  17th)  La  Tour's  fort  taken. 

1645.  Indian  wars  disturb  New  Netherlands. 

1646.  La  Tour  received  with  distinction  at  Quebec. 
1646.  Stuyvesant  captures  Swedish  settlements. 
1646.  Father  Jogues  put  to  death  by  Iroquois. 
1648.  Father  Daniel  burnt. 


COLONIAL    PROGRESS 

1648.  Treaty  of  Westphalia. 

1651.  Colbert  becomes  agent  of  Mazarin. 

1652.  Massachusetts  claims  territory,  now  Maine  and  Hampshire. 

1653.  First  Virginia  settlers  occupy  North  Carolina. 
1653.  First  English  colonists  reach  New  Hampshire. 

1658.  Laval  consecrated  Bishop  of  Petraea. 

1659.  Bishop  Laval  reaches  Canada. 

1660.  Puritans  of  New  England  persecute  Quakers. 

1660.  Des  Ormeaux's  deathless  deed  of  valour. 

1661.  Colbert  becomes  Prime  Minister  of  France. 

1662.  Hartford  settlement  incorporated. 

1663.  Charles  II.  bestows  North  Carolina  on  his  favourites. 
1663.  Royal  government  begins  in  Canada. 

1663.  Emigrants  leave  Rochelle  for  Canada. 

1664.  New  Netherlands  taken  by  British  and  called  New  York. 

1665.  Emigration  of  French  girls  to  Canada. 

1665.  New  Haven  and  Hartford  united. 

1666.  Father  Marquette  sails  for  Canada. 

1666.  De  Courcelles  invades  the  Iroquois  country. 


Canadian  History  697 

A.D. 

1667.  Canada  given  to  the  West  India  Company. 

1668.  Gillam  founds  post  on  Hudson  Bay. 

1669.  Jesuits  erect  a  chapel  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie. 

1669.  La  Salle  journeys  through  Lake  Ontario. 

1670.  Beginning  of  Charleston. 

1670.  St.  Lusson  and  Joliet  visit  Sault  Ste.  Marie. 
1670.  Hudson's  Bay  Company  formed. 
1672.  La  Tour  dies. 

1672.  Intendant  Talon  returns  to  France. 

1673.  New  Jersey  purchased  from  the  Dutch. 

1673.  Mississippi  discovered  by  Johet  and  Marquette. 

1674.  Laval  made  Bishop  of  Quebec. 

1674.  La  Salle  visits  Freuice. 

1675.  Marquette  dies. 

1678.  Hennepin  comes  to  Canada. 

1678.  La  Salle  receives  permission  to  explore  the  West. 

1678.  La  Salle  proceeds  westward. 

1679.  New  Hampshire  erected  as  a  Royal  Colony. 

1679.  Tithe  rate  in  Quebec  reduced  to  ^. 

1680.  Population  of  Newfoundland,  2,280. 
1680.  Duluth  rescues  Hennepin. 

1680.  La  Salle  builds  a  fort  on  the  Illinois. 

1680.  Frontenac  holds  Indian  Council  at  Montreal. 

1682.  Penn  and  his  Quakers  found  Pennsylvania. 

1682.  La  Salle  discovers  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 

1683.  Penn  makes  a  treaty  with  the  Indians. 

1684.  La  Salle  sails  for  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  is  killed  in  the 

interior. 
1688.  Bishop  Laval  retires. 

1688.  Abb6  St.  Vallier  made  Bishop  of  Quebec. 

1689.  Terrible  Indian  massacre  at  Lachine. 

1689.  Frontenac  comes  on  second  term  to  Canada. 

1690.  Grand  European  Alliance. 
1690.  Corlaer  attacked. 

1690.  Sir  William  Phipps  fails  to  take  Canada. 

1695.  Duluth  in  charge  of  Fort  Frontenac. 

1696.  D'Iberville  captures  Hudson  Bay  posts. 

1697.  Treaty  of  Ryswick. 

1698.  Frontenac  dies. 

1699.  D'Iberville  builds  a  fort  at  Biloxi,  Louisiana. 

1700.  Yale  College  founded. 

1701.  Great  Indian  Treaty. 

1701.  Detroit  founded. 

1702.  War  of  Spanish  Succession  begins. 
1704.  Deerfield  and  Haverhill  attacked. 
1706.  D'Iberville  dies. 

1708.  Laval  dies. 


698  Annals  of 

A.D. 

1710.  Duluth  dies. 

1710.  Acadia  taken  by  New  Englanders. 

1710.  Sir  Hoveden  Walker's  colossal  failure. 

1710.  Queen  Anne  presents  silver  service  to   Iroquois  of  the 

Mohawk  River. 
1712.  Tuscaroras  rejoin  the  Iroquois. 
/1 7 13.  Treaty  of  Utrecht. 
1718.  New  Orleans  founded  by  Bienville. 
1720.  France  begins  to  fortify  Louisbourg. 
1720.  Mississippi  scheme  collapses. 

1727.  Bishop  St.  Vallier  dies. 

1728.  Newfoundland  becomes  a  British  Province. 

1729.  Cherokees  surrender  territory  to  Britain. 

1731.  Verendrye  starts  to  discover  the  Winnipeg  country. 

1731.  North  Carolina  Company  sells  out. 

1732.  General  Oglethorpe  is  granted  Georgia. 

1733.  Bavarian  colony  comes  to  Georgia. 

1736.  General  Oglethorpe  with  colonists  and  the  Wesleys  visit 

Georgia. 
1738.  Verendrye  discovers  site  of  present  city  of  Winnipeg. 

1741.  Bomidaries  of  New  Hampshire  fixed. 

1742.  Verendrye's  party  cross  to  the  Missouri  and  see  the  Rockies. 

1744.  Father  Charlevoix  visits  Canada. 

1745.  Battle  of  Fontenoy. 

1745.  Battle  of  CuUoden. 

1 746.  French  fail  in  attempting  to  recapture  Louisbourg. 

1747.  Intendant  Bigot  arrives  in  Canada. 

1748.  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1749.  Halifax  is  founded  by  Lord  Cornwallis. 
1749.  Verendrye  dies. 

1749.  Inquiry  into  Hudson's  Bay  Company  affairs. 

1750.  French  soldiers  settle  at  Detroit. 

1751.  Lunenburg  Germans  arrive  in  Nova  Scotia. 

1752.  Royal  Government  formed  in  Georgia. 

1753.  Fort  La  Jonquiere  built  by  direction  of  Legardeur  de  St. 

Pierre. 
1755.  Transportation  of  Acadians. 
1765.  Braddock's  ignominious  failure. 
1755.  Acadia  attacked  by  the  British. 

1755.  Battle  of  Lake  George. 

1756.  Seven  Years'  War  begins. 
1756.  Montcalm  arrives  in  Canada. 

1758.  First  Legislative  Assembly  in  Nova  Scotia. 

1758.  Louisbourg  captured  by  the  British. 

1759.  Quebec  taken  by  General  Wolfe. 

1760.  Montreal  taken  by  General  Amherst. 

1761.  French  cease  to  rule  Canada. 


Canadian  History  59^ 

A.D. 

1762.  Louisiana  secretly  ceded  by  France  to  Spain. 

1763.  Pontiac's  conspiracy. 
1763.  Treaty  of  Paris. 


CANADA    UNDER    THE    BRITISH 

1763.  Proclamation  of  Greorge  III.  offers  lands  in  Canada. 

1764.  Prince  Edward  Island  surveyed. 

1764.  British  Ministry  determines  to  enforce  duties  in  America. 

1764.  First  Canadian  newspaper — Quebec  Gazette — ^published. 

1765.  Congress  of  Colonies  meets  in  New  York. 

1 766.  First  settlers  reach  New  Brunswick. 
1766.  Stamp  Act  repealed. 

1766.  CJeneral  Carleton  appointed  Grovemor  of  Canada. 
-1769.  Pontiac  killed. 

1769.  Revenue  Act  passed  for  British  Colonies. 

1770.  Prince  Edward  Island  is  made  a  separate  Colony. 
1773.  Prince  Edward  Island,  first  Legislative  Assembly. 
1773.  Tea  thrown  overboard  in  Boston  Harbour. 

1773.  Emigrant  ship  Hector  arrives  in  Pictou,  N.S. 

1774.  Quebec  Act  passed. 

1774.  Bills  closing  Boston  port  passed. 

1774.  Climber  land  House  built. 

1775.  Joseph  Brant  visits  England. 

1775.  Lexington  and  Bunker  Hill  colUsions. 

1776.  Americans  attack  Canada. 

1776.  Montgomery  and  Arnold  fail  to  take  Quebec. 

1776.  (July  4th)  Declaration  of  Independence  by  United  States. 

1777.  Burgoyne's  disaster  at  Saratoga. 

1778.  Captain  Cook  visits  west  coast  of  America. 
1778.  Montreal  Gazette  established. 

1780.  Prince  Edward  Island  named  New  Irelemd,  but  the  King 
refuses  to  call  it  so. 

1782.  Sir  Guy  Carleton  in  conuxnand  of  New  York. 

1783.  Treaty  of  Paris. 

1783.  (November  25th)  Evacuation  of  New  York  by  the  British. 

1783.  LoyaUsts  colonize  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia. 

1784.  Cape  Breton  is  given  a  separate  government. 
1784.  New  Brunswick  is  given  a  separate  government. 
1784.  Loyalists  receive  lands  in  Upper  Canada. 

1784.  Kingston  settled. 

1785.  Frederic  ton  chosen  as  capital  of  New  Brunswick. 
1785.  General  Oglethorpe  dies. 

1785.  Hessians  settle  in  Upper  Canada. 

1786.  Mohawk  church  built  at  Brantford. 
1786.  Dr.  McGregor  arrives  in  Nova  Scotia. 


600  Annals  of 

A.D. 

1787.  The  North-west  Company  formed. 
1787.  Failure  of  crops  in  Upper  Canada. 
1787.  The  "  Scarce  Year  "  in  Upper  Canada. 

1787.  First  Bishop  of  the  Episcopal  Church  arrives  in  Nova  Scotia. 

1788.  Fort  Chipewyan  founded. 

1788.  Prince  William  visits  American  seaboard  in  Andromeda. 

1789.  U.E.  List  made  out. 

1789.  Alexander  Mackenzie  discovers  the  Mackenzie  River. 

1791.  Governor  Parr  of  Nova  Scotia  dies. 

1791.  Constitutional  Act  passed,  and 

1791.  Upper  Canada  becomes  a  separate  Province. 

1791.  Vermont  admitted  as  a  State. 

1792.  Vancouver  visits  the  Pacific  coast. 

1792.  Governor  Simcoe  arrives  in  Upper  Canada. 
1792.  First  parliament  of  Upper  Canada  at  Newark. 

1792.  Negroes  taken  to  Sierra  Leone. 

1793.  Alexander  Mackenzie  crosses  the  Rockies  to  the  Pacific. 
1793.  Act  passed  for  building  roads  in  Upper  Canada. 

1793.  Slavery  abolished  in  Upper  Canada. 

1793.  First  newspaper  in  Upper  Canada. 

1794.  Treaty  of  Amity  and  Commerce  (London). 
1794.  Markham  is  settled  under  Berczy. 

1796.  Lord  Dorchester  (Guy  Carleton)  and  Simcoe  leave  Canada. 
1796.  Maroons  in  Nova  Scotia  from  Jamaica. 
1796.  Washington  retires  from  public  life. 

1796.  X  Y  Company  formed. 

1797.  Second  ParUament  of  Upper  Canada  meets  at  York. 

1798.  Decision  as  to  the  source  of  the  St.  Croix  (Bouchette). 
1798.  Prince  Edward's  name  given  to  Prince  Edward  Island. 

1798.  Great  colonization  of  Newfoundland  from  Ireland. 

1799.  John  Strachan  arrives  in  Canada. 

GROWTH    OF    CANADA 

1800.  Maroons  sent  by  Wentworth  to  Sierra  Leone. 
1800.  Louisiana  ceded  by  Spain  to  France. 

1801-5.  Many  Scottish  immigrants  arrive  in  Nova  Scotia. 
1802.  Ships  with  settlers  arrive  directly  at  Sidney,  Cape  Breton. 

1802.  Bang's  College,  Windsor,  N.S.,  established. 

1803.  Lord  Selkirk's  colony  reaches  P.E.  Island,  and 
1803.  A  portion  settle  Baldoon,  U.C. 

1803.  Dr.  McCulloch  arrives  in  Nova  Scotia. 

1804.  Macdonell's  Highlanders  arrive  in  Glengarry. 

1804-6.  Captains   Lewis   and   Clark  cross  Rocky  Mountains  to 
Pacific. 

1805.  Lord  Selkirk  writes  on  Emigration. 

1806.  Britain  blockades  coast  of  France. 


Canadian  History  601 

A.D. 

1806.  Napoleon's  Berlin  Decrees. 

1806.  Simon  Fraser  builds  first  fort  in  British  Columbia. 

1807.  Chesapeake  boarded  by  H.M.S.  Leopard. 
1807.  Upper  Canadian  Gtiardian  begins. 

1807.  Aid  granted  to  eight  schools  in  Upper  Canada. 

1807.  Britain  makes  the  celebrated  "  Orders  in  Council." 

1807.  Napoleon's  Milan  Decrees. 

1809.  Upper  Canadian  Assembly  denounces  John  Mills  Jackson. 

1809.  First  steamer  on  the  St.  Lawrence. 

1810.  Talbot  settlement  begins  to  increase. 

1810.  Bedard  and  other  French  Canadian  members  imprisoned. 

1810.  Astor  Fur  Company  formed. 

1811.  Astoria  established  on  the  Columbia  River. 

1811.  Lord  Selkirk's  first  Red  River  settlers  leave  Scotland. 
1811.  Common  School  Act  in  Nova  Scotia. 

1811.  Battle  of  Tippercanoe. 

1812.  (August  30th)  First  Selkirk  settlers  arrive  at  "  The  Forks," 

Red  River,  by  way  of  Hudson  Bay. 
1812-15.  Canadian  War  of  Defence. 
1815.  Battle  of  New  Orleans. 

1815.  Departure  of  a  portion  of  Selkirk  colony  to  Canada. 

1816.  Governor  Semple  killed  at  Red  River. 

1816.  Act  passed  establishing  common  schools  in  Upper  Canada. 

1817.  Disputed   territory   in   Maine   occupied   by    Britain    and 

United  States  conjointly. 

1818.  Letters  of  Agricola  in  Nova  Scotia. 

1818.  First  Roman  Catholic  school  at  Red  River. 
1820.  Cape  Breton  becomes  a  part  of  Nova  Scotia. 

1820.  Maine  admitted  as  a  State. 

1821.  The  Fur  Companies  unite  in  Rupert's  Land. 
1821.  Swiss  immigrants  come  to  Red  River. 

1824-6.  Ineffectual  efforts  to  settle  boimdary  on  Pacific  slope. 
1826.  The  great  Miramichi  fire. 
1826.  The  Canada  Company  formed. 

1829.  Maine  boundary  referred  to   King  of  Netherlands,   but 
undecided. 

1813.  Rust-eaten  armour  of  Norseman  said  to  have  been  foimd 

on  Atlantic  coast  (Longfellow).     (Now  thought  doubtful. ) 
1832.  First  Legislative  Assembly  in  Newfoundland. 
1832.  Japanese  vessel  wrecked  on  Sandwich  Islands. 
1832.  Cholera  in  Canada. 

1833-4.  Japanese  junk  wrecked  on  coast  of  British  Columbia. 
1835.  Grovemment  of  Assiniboia  established  at  Red  River. 
1837-8.  Lord  Durham  reaches  Canada. 

1840.  The  Union  Act  passed. 

1841.  The  Union  of  the  Canadas. 

1842.  Ashburton  Treaty. 


602  Annals  of 

A.D. 

1846.  Settlement   of   Pacific   boundary   offered    by   Britain   to 

United  States,  but  refused. 

1847.  Lord  Elgin  comes  to  Canada. 
1857-8.  Gold  fever  in  British  Columbia. 

1858.  One-hundredth  Regiment  raised  in  Canada. 
1861.  The  Trent  affair. 

1861.  Presbyterian  Church  in   the  Maritime   Provinces  formed 

by  Union. 

1862.  Sioux  massacre  in  Minnesota. 

1864.  Charlottetown  Confederation  Conference. 
1864.  (October  10th)  Quebec  Conference. 
1866.  British  Columbia  and  Vancouver  Island  united. 
1866.  Fenian  invasion  of  Canada. 

1866.  (June  2nd)  Ridgeway  skirmish. 

1867.  (July  1st)  Dominion  Day. 
1867.  Confederation  accompHshed. 

1869.  Decision  to  give  North- West  to  Canada. 
1869-70.  Red  River  Rebellion. 

1870.  Manitoba  Act  passed. 

1870.  Red  River  Rebellion  quelled  by  Colonel  Wolseley. 

1871.  First  meeting  of  Manitoba  Legislature. 
1871.  British  Columbia  enters  the  Dominion. 

1871.  Washington  Treaty. 

1872.  Boundary  49°  surveyed  and  marked. 
1872.  First  Canada  Pacific  Railway  Bill. 
1872.  Pacific  Scandal. 

1874.  Mennonites  settle  in  Manitoba. 

1875.  Icelanders  come  to  Manitoba. 

1875.  Presbyterians  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  unite. 

1877.  The  Halifax  Fisheries  Award. 

1877.  Seventh  Indian  Treaty  of  North- West  completed. 

1878.  Lord  Dufferin  visits  Canadian  North-West. 
1878.  "  National  Policy  "  carried. 

1880.  Royal  Canadian  Society  of  Arts  formed. 

1881.  Census  of  the  Dominion  taken. 

1882.  Royal  Society  of  Canada  holds  first  meeting. 
1884.  Methodists  of  the  Dominion  unite. 

1884.  Imperial  Federation  League  formed. 

1885.  Saskatchewan  rebellion. 

1885.  Louis  Riel  executed. 

1886.  Canada    warns    U.S.    Government    to    observe   Fisheries 

Treaty  of  1818. 
1886.  (March   13th)  Town  of  Vancouver  destroyed  by  fire. 
1886.  (March   14th)  New  Extradition  Treaty  (U.S.  and  Britain) 


1886.  First  C.P.R.    train,  Winnipeg    (July  1st)  to    Vancouver 
(July  4th). 


Canadian  History  603 

A.D. 

1886.  Monument  to  Jos.  Brant  unveiled  in  Brantford. 

1887.  Hon.  H.  Mercier  becomes  Premier  of  Quebec. 
1887.  Quebec  Government  incorporates  Jesuit  Society. 

1887.  Imperial  Government  empowers  Canada  to  make  treaties. 
1887.  First   C.P.R.    steamer  from   Yokohama  reaches   Victoria 
(Jime  14th). 

1887.  Delegates  to  Interprovincial  Convention  meet  to  discuss 

changes  in  B.N. A.  Act  of  1867. 

1888.  North- West  Territories  granted  an  Assembly. 

1888.  Grand  Trunk  Railway  unites  with  Northern  Railway. 
1888.  Sir    Charles    Tupper    appointed    High    Conunissioner    to 

England. 
1888.  Queen  Victoria  Park  at  Niagara  opfened. 
1888.  (June  11th)  Equal  Rights  Party  appears. 

1888.  Quebec  Legislature  passes  Jesuits*  Estates  Bill. 

1889.  Act  for  Settlement  of  Jesuits'  Estates. 

1889.  Province  of  Quebec  pays  from  Jesuits' Estates  of  $400,000 

160,000  to  Protestant  Education. 

1890.  Canadian  Atlantic  Railway  opens  a  bridge  over  the  St. 

Lawrence  at  Coteau. 
1890.  (February  14th)  Toronto  University  fire:  damage  $600,000. 
1890.  (March  Slst)  Manitoba  Legislature  passes  School  Bill. 
1890.  Royal  Assent  given  to  Dominion  Banking  Act. 
1890.  Clark  Wallace's  Bill  to  incorporate  Orange  Order  of  B.N.A. 
1890.  (August   15th)  Delegates  of  Church  of  England  Synods 

meet  in  Winnipeg  to  unite  all  Canada. 
1890.  (September)  Great  Epidemic  of  Grippe  in  Canada. 

1890.  (October  6th)  McKinley's  U.S.  High  Tariff  goes  into  effect. 

1891.  Vahdity  tested  in  U.S.   Supreme  Courts  of    seizures  of 

vessels  in  Behring  Sea. 
1891.  Dominion  General  Election. 

1891.  (March  8th)  Mercier's  Government  defeated  in  Quebec. 
1891.  (Jime  6th)  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald  dies. 
1891.  (June  10th)  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald  is  buried  in  Cataraqui 

cemetery. 
1891.  Dominion  Bank  Act  goes  into  effect. 
1891.  United  States  and  Dominion  Educational  Convention. 

1891.  (September  17th)  St.  Clair  Railway  Tunnel  opened. 

1892.  (April  17th)  Hon.  Alexander  Mackenzie  dies. 

1892.  Newfoundland  adopts  tariff  hostile  to  Canadian  trade. 
1892.  Behring  Sea  Arbitration  ratified  by  United  States. 
1892.  Government  terminates  Canal  Tolls  system. 
1892.  New  Brunswick  abolishes  its  Legislative  Coimcil. 

1892.  (November  15th)  Sir  John  Thompson  becomes  Premier  of 

Canada. 

1893.  (March  23rd)  Behring  Sea  Tribunal  meets  in  Paris. 

1893.  (May  1st)  World's  Columbian  Exposition  opened  in  Chicago. 


604  Annals  or 

A.D. 

1893.  (August  15th)  Behring  Sea  Tribunal  decides  for  an  open  sea. 

1894.  iProhibition  plebiscite  carried  in  Ontario. 

1894.  Colonial  Trade  Conference  at   Ottawa  for  greater  trade 

between  British  Colonies. 
1894.  (December    12th)   Sir   John   Thompson   dies   at   Windsor 

Castle. 

1894.  (December  21st)  Mackenzie  Bowell  becomes  Premier  of 

Canada. 

1895.  Sir  John  Thompson's  funeral  in  Halifax. 

1895.  Privy    Council    decides  Dominion    may  adopt    remedial 

measure  for  Manitoba  School  Law. 
1895.  Davin  introduces   Bill  in  Dominion  House  for  Woman's 

Suffrage. 
1895.  (Jxme  13th)  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canadian  Canal  opened. 
1895.  Manitoba  refuses  to  obey  Remedial  Order  in  Education. 
1895.  Treaty  between  Canada  and  France  goes  into  operation. 

1895.  Modification  of  Canadian  Copyright  Act. 

1896.  (January   7th)  Seven  Cabinet  Ministers  resign  from  the 

Bowell  Cabinet. 
1896.  (February   11th)  Manitoba  Remedial  Bill  introduced  in 

Commons. 
1896.  (February    27th)   Manitoba   Legislature   protests   against 

interference. 
1896.  (April  14th)  Deadlock  in  Commons  on  Remedial  Bill. 
1896.  (April  15th)  Government  withdraws  the  Bill. 
1896.  (April  27th)  Sir  Charles  Tupper  becomes  Premier. 
1896.  iParliament  dissolved. 
1896.  (June  23rd)  Liberals  win  in  the  Elections. 

1896.  (July  13th)  Premier  Laurier  assumes  ofl&ce  and  forms  his 

ministry. 

1897.  The  Yukon  Territory  is  organized. 
1897.  (June  11th)  Behring  Sea  Commission  met. 

1897.  (June  20th)  First  day  of  Queen  Victoria's  Diamond  Jubilee. 

1897.  Royalty  imposed  on  gold  mined  in  Klondike. 

1897.  Grand  Trunk  Railway  Niagara  bridge  completed. 

1897   (August   1st)  First  preference  reduction   to   Britain  and 

Colonies  (12 J). 
1897.  Government  defines  Alien  Act  versus  United  States. 
1897.  Mgr.  Bruchesi  made  Bishop  of  Montreal. 
1897.  Mgr.  Merry  Del  Val — Papal  delegate. 
1897.  American  battleship  Indiana  allowed  in  British  dry  dock, 

Halifax. 
1897.  (August  31st)  First  meeting  British  Medical  Association  in 

Montreal. 
1897.  (October  21st)  World's  Women's  C.T.U.  in  Toronto. 
1897.  (November  11th)  Sir  Wilfrid   Laurier  and  Sec.  Sherman 

(U.S.)  confer. 


Canadian  History  605 

A.D. 

1897.  (December  22nd)  United  States  pay  $464,604  to  Canadian 

sealers. 

1898.  (August  1st)  Additional  British  Preference  (12 J  +  12^). 
1898.  (August    23rd)    Anglo-American    Conference    in    Quebec 

(many  questions). 
1898.  (September  29th)  Prohibition  plebiscite  carried  in  Canada. 
1898.  (October  10th)  Champlain  Monument  in  Quebec  unveiled. 

1898.  (December  29th)  Two-cent  letter  postage  announced. 

1899.  (January  1st)  Two-cent  letter  postage  in  force. 

1899.  (January  20th)  2,300  Doukhobors  from  Russia  land  at 

Halifax  for  the  west. 
1899.  (October  1st)  Mgr.Falconio,  Papal  Delegate,  reaches  Quebec. 
1899.  (October  30th)  2nd  Batt.  Can.  Regt.  imder  Col.  Otter  leave 

Quebec  for  South  Africa. 
1899.  (October  18th)  G.  W.  Ross  becomes  Premier  of  Ontario. 

1899.  (November  19th)  Sir  William  Dawson  dies. 

1900.  (January  6th)  Resignation  of  Green  way  Cabinet,  Manitoba. 
1900.  (January  10th)  Hon.  H.  J.  Macdonald's  Cabinet  sworn  in 

(Manitoba). 
1900.  Dawson  City,  Yukon,  great  fire  :  half  a  million  dollars  loss. 
1900.  (April  3rd)  Queen  Victoria  visited  Ireland. 
1900.  (April  14th)  Formal  opening  of  Paris  Exhibition. 
1900.  (April  26th)  Great  fire  in  Ottawa  and  Hull:    ten  million 

dollars  loss,  15,000  people  homeless. 
1900.  (May  28th)  Free  State  formally  annexed  to  Britain. 
1900.  (June  21st)  Sir  Henri  Joly  becomes  Governor  of  British 

Columbia. 
1900.  (July)  British  Preference  increased  to  one-third. 
1900.  (September  29th)  Hon.  R.  P.  Roblin  becomes  Premier  of 

Manitoba. 
1900.  (October  25th)  Transvaal  becomes  formally  part  of  British 

Empire. 
1900.  General  Election  in  Dominion:  Laurier  sustained. 

1900.  Upper  Canada  College  transferred  to  new  governors. 

1901.  Commonwealth  of  Australia  proclaimed. 
1901.  New  Zealand  adopted  penny  postage. 
1901.  (January  22nd)  Queen  Victoria  dies. 
1901.  Accession  of  Edward  VII. 

1901.  (January  23rd)  Great  fire  in  Montreal.  Two  million 
dollars  loss, 

1901.  (March  16th)  Duke  and  Duchess  of  York  sail  for  Australia 
to  open  first  Parliament. 

1901.  British  and  French  agree  on  modtis  vivendi  for  French 
shore. 

1901.  Canadian  Parliament  makes  May  24th  Victoria  Day. 

1901.  (May  25th)  Northern  Pacific  Railway  taken  over  by  Mani- 
toba. 


606  Annals  of 

A.D. 

1901.  (July  4th)  Deed  of  sale  signed  taking  over  Plains  of  Abra- 
ham to  Canada. 

1901.  (September  16th)  Duke  and  Duchess  of  York  welcomed  in 
Quebec. 

1901.  (September  26th)  Duke  and  Duchess  of  York  open  Mani- 
toba University  Building  in  Winnipeg. 

1901.  (September  24th)  Telegraphic  communication  opened  with 
Dawson  City,  Yukon. 

1901.  (October    2nd)    Marconi   system   installed    on    Straits    of 

Belleisle. 

1902.  (January  24th)  Rev.  Dr.  Robertson  dies. 

1902.  (February  15th)  Canadian  Society  of  Authors  formed. 

1902.  Carnegie  has  given  to  twenty-seven  Canadian  Libraries 
$826,000  ;  Montreal  and  Ottawa  Libraries,  $150,000 
each ;  Winnipeg,  $100,000.  Agitation  in  Ottawa  for 
protective  copyrights  of  Canadian  authors. 

1902.  (May  10th)  Principal  George  Grant  dies. 

1902.  (May  26th)  Royal  Society  of  Canada  meets  in  Toronto. 

1902.  Hon.  R.  L.  Borden  visits  Winnipeg. 

1902.  (June  18th)  Douglas  Brymner,  Archivist,  dies. 

1902.  (June  20th)  Victoria  and  Vancouver  Navy  League  ask  sea 
protection. 

1902.  (June  24th)  Illness  of  King  Edward  VII. 

1902.  (July  5th)  King  out  of  danger. 

1902.  Coronation  of  King  Edward. 

1902.  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier  visits  Britain. 

1902.  Col.  G.  Denison  goes  on  Fiscal  campaign. 

1902.  Security  of  Empire  on  the  sea  discussed. 

1902.  Imperial  Federal  (Defence)  Committee  asks  Colonies  for 
help  to  the  navy. 

1902.  (August  23rd)  Ex-Governor  Joseph  Royal  dies. 

1902.  (October  13th)  Sir  John  Bourinot  dies. 

1902.  (December  15th)  Principal  D.  H.  Mc Vicar  dies. 

1903.  The  Charter  for  G.T.P.  Railway  given. 

1903.  Alaskan  Boundary  Treaty  ratified  by  United  States. 
1903.  (March   2nd)   Postage  on    newspapers    from    Canada    to 

England  reduced  to  Canadian  rates. 
1903.  (March    29th)   Landslide  at  Franck,  B.C. ;    seventy-nine 

killed. 
1903.  (April)  Sir  Oliver  Mowat  dies. 
1903.  (November  17th)  Canadian  Mounted  Police  occupy  Her- 

schel  Island,  Arctic  Sea. 
1903.  (November  18th)  New  Zealand  passes  Imperial  Preference 

Trade  Bill. 

1903.  (December  12th)  Canadian  Minister  of  Militia  appointed  on 

Imperial  Defence  Commission. 

1904.  The  New  British  Army  Council  appointed. 


Canadian  History  607 

A.D. 

1904.  The  Dominion  Railway  Commission  is  appointed. 
1904.  (February  10th)  Russia  declares  war  against  Japan. 
1904.  (February  11th)  Japan  declares  war  against  Russia. 
1904.  (April  8th)  Great  Britain  and  France  sign  agreement  settling 

disputed  points  in  Newfoundland. 
1904.  (April    19th)    Great  fire   in   Toronto.      Loss    ten    million 

dollars. 
1904.  (April  20th)  St.  Louis  Exhibition  opened. 
1904.  (May  8th)  Floods  in  Brandon,  Manitoba. 
1904.  (June    17th)    Federal    Government    decide    to    purchase 

Canadian  Ecistem  Railway. 
1904.  (July)  Dominion  Exhibition  held  in  Winnipeg. 
1904.  (November  3rd)  Dominion  General  Election :  government 

sustained. 

1904.  Great  fire  in  Winnipeg. 

1905.  (January)    Ontario    Government    (G.    W.    Ross    Premier) 

defeated. 
1905.  Hon.  James  Whitney  becomes  Premier  of  Ontario. 
1905.  Provinces    of     Alberta    and    Saskatchewan    are    formed 

(Autonomy  Bills). 
1905.  (September  1st)  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan  formally  con- 
stituted as  provinces. 
1905.  Forget,  Governor  of  Saskatchewan. 
1905.  Bulyea  of  Alberta  first  provincial  Governor. 
1905.  Hon.  Walter  Scott  and  Hon.  A.  C.  Rutherford  first  premiers 

of  their  provinces  (Saskatchewan  and  Alberta). 
1905.  Earl  Grey  appointed  Governor-General  of  Canada. 
1905.  British  Columbia  levies  a  tax  on  commercial  travellers. 
1905.  The  Canadian  manufacturers  visit  Britain. 
1905.  Canadian  Team  at  Bisley  wins  Kolapore  Cup. 
1905.  Canadian  Northern   Railway  has  west  of   Lake  Superior 

a  mileage  of  2,400. 
1905.  Senate   protests   against   British   Embargo    on   Canadian 

Cattle. 
1905.  Empire  Day  (May  23rd)  widely  celebrated  in  Canada. 
1905.  Movement  initiated  for  including  West  India  Islands  in 

the  Dominion. 

1905.  Great    development    of    Canadian    and    other    Limcheon 

Clubs. 

1906.  Dominion  Lord's  Day  Act  passed. 

1906.  Strong  legislation  excluding  undesirable  immigrants. 

1906.  Greater  protection  given  to  immigrants. 

1906.  Giving   false   information    to    immigrants    made   a   penal 

offence. 
1906.  New  Dominion  Forest  Reserves  Act ;    21  reserves  ;    5,373 

sq.  m. 
1906.  Act  for  appointment  of  Forest  Rangers. 


608  Annals  of 

A.D. 

1906.  Serious    coal    miners'    strike    at    Lethbridge    (March    to 

December). 
1906.  Prince  Arthur  visits  Japan  with  honours  for  Emperor. 
1906.  (April  18th)  The  great  San  Francisco  Earthquake. 
1906.  Commercial  Treaty  between  Canada  and  Japan. 
1 906.  Annual  average  of  juvenile  immigrants  to  Canada  is  2,000. 

1906.  Halifax  garrison  and  dockyard   transferred  by  Imperial 

Grovemment  to  Canada. 

1907.  (April  15th)  Colonial  Conference  held  in  London. 

1907.  (May  14th)  Proposal  to  have  all-British  mail  service  to 

Australia  and  New  Zealand  via  Canada. 
1907.  (September   19th)   Signature  of  Treaty  between  Canada 

and  France. 
1907.  (September)    Riots   in    British    Columbia   over   Japanese 

immigration. 
1907.  First  decision  under  Industrial  Disputes  Act  made     in 

Toronto     between     Grand     Trunk     Railway     and     its 

machinists. 
1907.  (June  7th)  Prince  Fushimi  of  Japan  visits  Canada. 
1907.  (August   29th)  Collapse  of  the  great  new  bridge  of  G.T. 

Pacific  Railway. 
1907.  Decision  to  celebrate  by  a  memorial  the  founding  of  Quebec 

in  1608. 
1907.  Special  English  Commissioner  examines  British  trade  in 

Canada. 
1907.  Year  of  great  financial  stringency  in  Canada. 
1907.  Historical  Manuscripts  Comimission  appointed. 

1907.  King  Edward  established  medal  for  courage  in  life-saving. 

1908.  Dominion  Act  passed  establishing  annuities  for  old  age. 
1908.  Act  for  Canada  to  prevent  juvenile  smoking. 

1908.  Grants  to  Canadian  volunteers  and  nurses  who  served  in 

South  Africa. 
1908.  Regulations  for  sale  of  patent  medicines. 
1908.  Civil  Service  Commission  to  regulate  inside  Civil  Service. 
1908.  Act  passed  prohibiting  importation  of  opium  into  Canada 

except  for  medicine. 
1908.  Tercentenary  celebration  in  Quebec. 
1908.  British  and  French  and  American  fleets  take  part. 
1908.  Historical  pageants  given  in  Quebec. 
1908.  Cobalt  mines  in  Northern  Ontario  yield  large  returns. 
1908.  (October  26th)  Dominion  General  Election:   Government 

sustained. 

1908.  (November  16th)  Sir  Henri  Joly  dies. 

1909.  British  Association  met  in  Winnipeg. 

1909.  Attention  called  to  development  of  German  Navy. 
1909.  Much  discussion  of  the  Navy  question  in  Canada. 
1909.  Imperial  Press  and  Australian  delegates  visit  Canada. 

\ 


Canadian  History  60D 

A.D. 

1909.  International  Council  of   Women,   with   Lady   Aberdeen 
president,  met  in  Toronto. 
Cobalt  Region  (Northern  Ontario),  1903  to  1909,  produces 
32  million  dollars  worth  of  silver. 
1909.  Saskatchewan  Government  takes  over  all  telephones. 
1909.  Canadian  Clubs  have  on  Imperial  subjects     52  addresses. 
,,  „  „  Canadian  73  „ 

„  „  „  Foreign  and  miscel- 

laneous 26  „ 

Total  151 

No.  of  visitors  to  Banff  in  the  year,  32,000. 
1909.  Commission    on    Conservation    of    Canadian    Resources 

appointed. 
1909.  Thirteen  Canadian  Institutions  gave  this  year  thirty -seven 

Honorary  Degrees. 
1909.  Production  of  gold  in  Yukon  this  ye€ur  upwards  of  three  and 

a  quarter  milUons  of  dollars. 
1909.  Canadian  books  issued  this  year  reached  ninety-eight. 

1909.  British  money  invested  in  Canada  this  year  reached  about 

195  miUions  of  dollars. 

1910.  Coronation  Oath  modified  by  British  Parliament. 

1910.  During  this  year  Lord  Strathcona's  pubUc  donations  reach 

seven  and  a  half  milUons  of  dollars. 
1910.  First  Marconi  message  was  sent  across  secis  by  Lord  Strath- 

cona  to  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier. 
1910.  Queen's  Own  Regiment  visits  Britain. 
1910.  Great  numbers  of  British  visitors  come  to  Canada. 
1910.  Imperial  Veterans'  Association  at  Winnipeg,  2,200  strong. 
1910.  Contributions  given  toward  a  Wolfe  Memorial. 
1910.  (March  1st)  German  Surtax  is  repealed  by  Canada. 
1910.  Act  passed  by  Dominion  Parliament  for  Canadian  Navy. 
1910.  Hague  Arbitration  Court  decides  Fishery  Dispute. 
1910.  Dominion   Government   appoints   Royal   Commission   on 

Technical  and  Industrial  Training.  . 

1910.  (September  6th)  Great  Roman  CathoHc  Eucharistic  Council 

meets  in  Montreal. 
1910.  French  Canadians  of  Ontario  agitate  for  bilingual  schools. 
1910.  Provincial  Sanitarium  for  Consumptives  opened  at  Ninette 

in  Manitoba. 
1910.  Franco-Canadian  Convention  of  1908  comes  into  effect. 

1910.  International  Fishery  Regulations  of  Canada  and  United 

States  approved. 

1911.  Important  Imperial  Conference  in  London. 

1911.  Canadian    and    United  States    Governments  agree    on    a 
Reciprocity  pact  to  be  approved  by  Parliament. 

39 


610  Annals  of 

A.D. 

1911.  Dr.  George  Young,  Manitoba  pioneer,  dies  in  Toronto. 

1911.  Coronation  of  King  George  in  London  (June  22nd). 

1911.  Great  agitation  in  Canada  over  Reciprocity  pact. 

1911.  Long  Parliamentary  debates  on  Reciprocity. 

1911.  Dissolution  of  Dominion  Parliament. 

1911.  Eighteen  prominent  Liberals  of  Toronto  oppose  Reciprocity. 

1911.  (September  21st)  At  General  Election  Laurier  Government 

defeated. 
1911.  Hon.  R.  L.  Borden  forms  Conservative  Government,  which 

is  sworn  in  October  10th. 
1911.  Ne  Temere  Decree  causes  agitation  as  to  Marriage  Laws. 
1911.  H.R.H.  Duke  of  Connaught  arrives  as  Governor-General 

in  Ottawa  (October  14th). 
1911.  Many  towns  and  cities  of  Ontario  utilize  Hydro-Electric 

Niagara  power. 
1911.  Winnipeg  receives  by  its  city  plant  its  own  electric  power 

from  Winnipeg  River. 

1911.  Canadian  new  books  published  number  172. 

1912.  Terrible  disaster  of  White  Star  liner  Titanic  in  which  a 

number  of  Canadians  were  lost. 

1912.  H.R.H.  Duke  of  Connaught  lays  foTindation  of  Selkirk 
Monument,  Winnipeg. 

1912.  Commission  of  Conservation  legislation  carried  to  prevent 
forest  fires  on  railways ;  and  also  care  of  forest  reserves. 

1912.  Duke  of  Connaught  makes  extensive  tour  through  pro- 
vinces of  the  Canadian  West. 

1912.  Ne  Temere  and  Marriage  Matters  ruled  out  of  Dominion 
Parliament. 

1912.  Boundaries  of  Manitoba,  Ontario,  and  Quebec  are  extended 
by  Dominion  Parliament. 

1912.  (November)  Dr.  Wilson,  Democrat,  elected  President  of 

U.S. 

1913.  Bill  to  supply  three  Dreadnoughts,  costing  35  millions  of 

dollars,  passed  by  Canadian  Commons,  but  deferred  by 

Senate. 
1913.  Hon.    George   Foster,   after   visiting   West   Indies,   visits 

Australia  to  secure  Trade  Reciprocity. 
1913.  (June    2nd)    Six    thousand    Presbyterian    representatives 

from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  meet  in  Convention  in 

Toronto. 
1913.  Duchess  of  Connaught,  after  severe  illness,  returns  for  a 

time  to  England  with  the  Duke. 
1913.  University  of  Manitoba  chooses  new  site. 
1913.  University  of  Columbia  being  organized  imder  its   first 

president. 
1913.  Ambassador  Bryce  returns  from  Washington  to  England 

after  being  very  popular  in  Canada  and  U.S. 


Canadian  History  611 

A.D. 

1913.  Stefansson,  of  Icelandic  Manitoba  descent,  returns  with 
Canadian  party  to  explore  the  Canadian  Arctic  regions. 

1913.  (June)  Canadian  Royal  Commission  on  Technical  Educa- 
tion and  Industrial  Training  adopts  voluminous  report, 
recommending  expenditure  of  three  million  dollars  a 
year  for  ten  years. 

1914  (January  21st)  Lord  Strathcona  dies  and  given  a  public 
funeral  in  Westminster  Abbey. 


INDEX 


Aberdeen,  Earl  of,  Governor,  450 

—  Lady,  Sketch  of,  451 
Acadia,  75 

Acadians,  Transportation  of,  1 40 

Adelaide  military  settlement,  309 

Agricultural  Research  and  Educa- 
tion, 532-3 

Aix  la  Chapelle,  Treaty  of,  1748, 
136 

Alabama  f  Confederate  cruiser, 
406-6 

Alaska  Boundary,  The,  507-8 

Alberta  Province  constituted, 
487-8 

Alexander  Begg  (1);  Alexander 
Begg(2),  542 

Alexander,  Sir  William,  Scotch 
Colony,  80 

Algonquins,  The,  37 

Allan  Line  established,  378-9 

Allen,  Grant,  544 

American  Revolt,  Causes  of,  1 74-7 

Americans,  The  later,  457 

Americus  Vespucius,  3 

Amnesty  to  suspects,  348 

Anticosti,  7 

Art  in  Canada,  555 

1887,  438 

—  culture  in  Canada,  558-9 
Arthur,  Sir  George,  Governor,  348 
Ashburton  Treaty,  28 
Assiniboines,  The,  44 

Astor  Company  and  Astoria,  286 

Atlantis,  I 

Authorities  and  References,  585- 

9,  Appendix  B 
Autonomy  Bills,    The    Western, 

497-8 

—  Dominion  and  Provincial,  479- 
80 

Baccalaos,  4 

Back,  George,  Expedition,  298 


Baldwin,  Robert,  prominent 
loader,  264 

sketch  of,  321-2 

Banks,  Canadian,  518-9 

Barr,  Robert,  643 

Battle  of  Frenchtown.  272 

Beausejour,  Fort,  138 

Beaver  Dams,  Fitzgibbon's  vic- 
tory, 274 

Behring  Sea  dispute.  The,  606-7 

Bidwells,  The,  320-1 

Blackfeet,  48 

Blake,  Edward,  Career  of,  468 

Borden  Administration,  The,  499- 
500 

—  Premier,  Account  of,  478-9 
Boulton,  D'Arcy,  319 
Boundaries,  Provincial,  482 
Boundary  survey,  1872,  414 
Bourassa,  Napoleon,  558 
Bourgeois,    Sister,    iDegins   Notre 

Dame  Congregation,  105 
Braddock's  expedition,  139 
Brandon  House  and  neighbouring 

forts,  291 
Brant  and  the  Six  Nation  Indians, 

218-21 

—  Monument  of,  429 

British  attack  on  American  sea- 
board, great  blockade,  280 

—  Columbia  and  Vancouver  Is- 
land, 368 

threatens  secession,  404 

—  fleet  lost  on  Lake  Champlain, 
280 

—  immigrant  settlements  in 
Lower  Canada,  310 

—  N.  America  Act  (Constitution 
of  Canada),  571-83,  Appen- 
dix A 

—  settlers,  Loyalty  of,  459-60 
Brock,  Sir  Isaac,  General,  269 
Brown,  George,  Sketch  of,  374-6 


613 


614 


Index 


Bullion,    Mme.    de,    and    Mdlle. 

Mance,   founded    H6tel    Dieu, 

Montreal,  105 
Burwash,  Chancellor,  Sketch  of, 

476 
By  town  (Ottawa)  laid  out,  303 

Cabot,  John  and  Sebastian,  3 
Cameron,  Agnes  Deans,  549 
Campbell,  W.  Wilfred,  536 
Canada,  1795-1817,  political  and 
social  life,  253 

—  Company,  Work  of,  305-7 

—  Education,  263-4 

—  Lower,  253-56 
1796-1817,  240-1 

Articles  of  Capitulation,  194 

Constitutional  Act,  1 95-7 

King's  Proclamation,  194 

Quebec  Act,  195-7 

Treaty  of  Paris,  1 94-5 

—  Religion,  263 

—  Social  progress,  261-3 

—  Temperance  Act,  444 

— -  The  making  of,  1817-36,  311 

—  The  name,  1 7 

—  Transalpine,  201 

—  Unorganized,  200 

—  Upper,  257-64 

1796-1817,    235-40 

and    Lower  United,    1840, 

352 
Canadian  artists,  555-7 

—  autonomy.  Desire  for,  566 

—  clubs,  566-7 

—  Freeman,  327 

—  Governors,  590-1,  Appendix  C 

—  loyalty,  453-4 

Explanation  of,  464 

Rise  of,  463-4 

—  negotiations         with         other 
countries,  567 

—  Northern  Railway,  516-17 

—  observatories,  554 

—  outlook,  568-9 

—  Pacific  Railway  planned  and 
built,  418-22 

—  resources,  383-88 

—  scientists   in   other    countries, 
654 

Carleton,  Career  of,  221-3 

—  Thomas,  260 
Carolina,  North,  154-5 

—  South,  156-7 


Caroline,  Steamer,  destroyed,  347 
Carman,  Bliss,  536 
Cartier,  Jacques,  4  et  seq. 

—  Sir  George,  Career  of,  375-6 
Cartwright,   Sir  Richard,   Career 

of,  469 
Cathay,  3 
Cavalier  Colonies  in  America,  153 

Slavery  in,  154 

Statesmen  in,  1 54 

Caven,  Principal,  Sketch  of,  474 

Chaleur,  Gulf  of,  5 

Champlain  ascends  the  Ottawa,  91 

—  attacks  the  Iroquois,  90 

—  builds  Fort  of  Quebec,  93 

—  Death  of,  96 

—  explores  Acadia,  76 

—  founds  Quebec,  90 

—  occupies  St.  Croix,  75 

—  Society,  542 

—  visits  Canada,  89-90 
Champlain's    return    to    Quebec 

under  Richelieu,  95 

Charivareeing,  263 

Charlton,  John,  Sketch  of,  469 

Chateauguay,  De  Salaberry's  Vic- 
tory, 277 

Chauvin,  Acadia,  74 

Chesapeake,  Frigate,  266 

Chipewyans  or  Tinn6,  45 

Chippewas,  The,  38 

Cholera  outbreak,  1832-4,  311 

Christie,  Robert,  expelled,  334 

Chrysler's  Farm,  Colonel  Harvey's 
victory,  277 

Church  Union,  565 

Clergy   Reserve    di&pute,  329-32 

question  settled,  371-3 

Coal  period,  22 

Concession  to  Canada,  1887,  480 

Colbert's  success,  98-9 

Colborne,  Governor,  327 

Collins  libel,  327-8 

Colonial  Advocate,  324-5 

Committee  of  Vigilance,  345 

Company  of  100  Associates,  Con-    i^ 
cessions  to,  93-4 

Confederation, BritishGovernment 
approves  of,  399 

—  Conference,  1864,  396-8 

—  Day  (July  1st)  observed,  1867, 
400 

Conflict   of   fur  companies.  Lord 
Selkirk's  visit,  287 


Index 


615 


Connaught,  Duke  of,  Governor, 
453 

Connecticut,  161 

Conservation  Commission,  The, 
533 

Constitution  and  Wasp  take  Brit- 
ish vessels,  272 

Constitution,  New  Canadian,  1 840, 
352-3 

Crees,  The,  39 

Cretaceous  period,  23 

Cridge,  Bishop,  Sketch,  473 

Crown  Point  attewked,  141 

Cunard  steamers  begim,  377-8 

Dafoe,  John  W.,  550 

Dakotas,  The,  44 

Dalhousie,    Lord,    as    Governor, 

333-4 
Dawson,  Sir  William,  Sketch  of, 

435 
Dease  €uid  Simpson  Expedition, 

298-9 
De    Chamissay    and   de    Razilly 

arrive,  84 
De  la  Tour,  History  of,  85-8 

Lady  of,  86 

De  la  Tour's  settlement,  81-3 
Delaware,  Swedish  settlement  be- 
comes English,  169-70 
Delawares,  The,  38 
DeMonts,75-6 
Dent,  J.  C,  History  by,  433 
Denys,  historian,  84 
De  Salaberry,  268 
Devonian  period,  22 
Dickson  settlement,  307-8 
Disallowance,  Manitoba  Railway, 

481 
Donnaconna,  11 
Dougafl,  Miss  Lily,  544 
Douglas,    Sir  James,    Sketch  of, 

476-7 
Drake,  14 
Draper,  Chief  Justice,  Sketch  of, 

411 
Drummond,  Dr.  Wra.  H.,  538 
Duff erin.  Lord,  Visits  North-West, 

415 
Duluth,  explorer,  112 
Duncan,  Norman,  545 
—  Sara  Jeanette,  545 
Duncombe,  Dr.,  met  by  McNab, 

347-8 


Dxmlop,  Dr.,  306 

Durham,  Lord,  Great  Report  of, 

350-1 
Sketch  of,  349-50 

Education  up  to  Confederation, 
389-93 

—  in  British  Columbia,  527-8 

—  in  Maritime  Provinces,  527 

—  in  Ontario,  527 

—  in  Quebec,  527 

—  in  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta, 
528 

Elgin,  Earl  of.  Sketch  of,  369-70 
England,  Church  of,  in  Canada, 

1887,  439-60 
Equal  Rights  Association,  493 
Eries,  The,  43 
Erikson,  Lief,  2 
Eskimos  or  Innuit,  47 
Essayists,  Canadian,  547-8 
Exports,  Canadian,  521-2 

Family  Compact  defeated,  1834, 
332 

Origin  of,  312-16 

reaction,  1830,  328-9 

Fenian  attacks  on  Canada,  424-5 
Fergusson  settlement,  308 
Fifty-fotir  Forty,  33 
Fifty-seven  rectories,  The,  332 
Fisheries,  Canadian,  524 
Five  Forts  of  Winnipeg,  290-1 
Fleming,  Sir  Sandford,  Sketch  of, 

436 
Foreign  trade  of  Canada,  520-1 
Forest  products,  524-5 
Forsyth  affair,  326-7 
Fort  Erie  taken  by  Americans, 

279 

—  Garry,  Soldiers  sent  to,  1846, 
362 

—  George,  Vincent  defeated,  273 

—  Niagara,  142 

—  Rouge,  290 

—  Victoria,  292 

—  Wilham,  293 
Foster,  Hon.  Mr.,  567 
Frankhn,  Sir  John,  Expeditions, 

297-8 

—  Search  for,  299 
Frechette,  Louis,  Sketch  of,  471 
Freedom,  Struggle  for,  323-5 
French  Canada,  Bounties,  150   ' 


616 


Index 


French  Canada,  Dialect,  1 60 

Feudalism,  149 

Immigration  to,  149 

Patriotism,  151 

Social  condition,  150 

French  Canadian  Literature,  433- 
4 

Loyalty,  461-2 

French    Canadians    attracted    to 

Manitoba,  416 
Frontenac  differs  from  Laval  and 

is  recalled,  102 
Frontenac's   first  administration, 

100 
Fur  trade  moving  north,  282 
Fusang,  2 

Gait,  A.  T.,  408-9 

—  John,  Career  of,  306 

—  Town  of,  308 

Garneau,  F.  X.,  History  by,  432 
Gasp6,  6 

George  V.,  Accession  of,  449 
— Coronation  of,  449-50 
Georgia,  172-3 

—  "Ebenezer,"  173 

—  General  Oglethorpe,  172 

—  Whitfield   and  Wesley's    visit 
to,  173 

Gillam,    Capt.,    commands     first 

ship  Nonsuch,  283 
Glacial  Age,  24 
Glengarry  settlers,  242-3 
Gordon,  Charles  W.,  544 
Gosnell,  Robert  Edward,  550 
Gourlay,  Robert,  Career  of,  3 1 4-1 6 
Grand  Trunk  Pacific,  The,  517-18 

Railway,  383 

Grant,  Principal,  Career  of,  474-5 
Great  immigration,  1817-36,  301 

—  Miramichi  fire,  310 
Grenville  Canal,  380-1 

Grey,  Earl,  Governor,  Sketch  of, 

452 
Grievance    Committee,     Seventh 

Report  of,  332 
Groseillers  and  Radisson  lead  to 

Hudson  Bay,  283 
Guelph    and    Goderich    founded, 

306-7 

Half-pay  Officers'  Legion,  354 
Haliburton,  Judge,  Sketch  of,  and 
works,  432 


Halifax  fisheries  award,  408 

—  founded,  137 
Hannay,  James,  540 
Hawkins,  14 

H.  B.  Co.,  Five  early  forts,  283 

Forts,  289 

incorporated,  1670,  283 

Investigation  into,  1749, 

284 
Prince  Rupert,  Governor, 

283 

reach  the  interior,  founding 

Fort  Cumberland,  286 
Head,     Sir     Francis,     Governor, 

242-3 

Bond,  recalled,  348 

Hearne,  explorer,  295 
Hebert,  Louis  Philippe,  558 
Hennepin  explores  the  west,  116- 

17 
Henry,  Capt.  John,  267 
High  Commission  at  Washington, 

406 
Hind,  Professor,  explorer,  412 
Hindes,  Sir  Francis,  Sketch  of,  382 
Hochelaga,  9 
Hochelagans,  The,  10 
Hopkins,  J.  Castell,  551 
Houston,  Wm.,  550 
Howe,  Joseph,  Sketch  of,  366-7 
Hudson,  Henry,  14 
Hughes,  Miss  Katherine,  549 
Hull,   General,   Proclamation   of, 
269 

Surrender,  270 

Hume,  Joseph,  Letter,  332 
Him.ter,  Governor,  257 
Huron  Tract  surveyed,  306 

increases  population,  357 

Hurons,  The,  41 

Immigration   of  Mennonites  and 
Icelanders  to  Manitoba,  415 

—  to  Canada  since  1887,  482-4 
ImperiaHsm,  True  Canadian,  504- 

6 
Imperialistic  Cult,  The,  503-4 
Imports,  Canadian,  522-3 
Independent  Churches  in  Canada, 

1887,  443 
Indian  agriculture,  49 

—  art  of  tanning,  49 

—  canoe,  The,  55 

—  characteristics,  51 


Index 


617 


Indian,  Chinook,  60 

—  copper  tools,  54 

—  dances,  64-7 

—  dress,  52 

—  education  and  condition,  1887, 
446-6 

—  food,  56-8 

—  gambling,  63 

—  hostilities,  1642-97,  121-6 

—  language,  59 

— .picture-writing,  60 

—  pottery,  53 

—  religion,  70-2 

—  religious  traditions,  72 

—  snowshoe.  The,  56 

—  sports,  62 

—  stone  implements,  64 

—  syllabic,  61 

—  time-reckoning,  61 

—  traditions  of  origin,  73-4 

—  travoie,  50 

—  tribal  relations,  68-70 

—  tribes  pledge  faith  to  Britain, 
1814.  278 

Indians,  Authors  on,  69 

—  of  British  Columlaia,  46 
Influx  of  British  settlers,  1829-33, 

309-10 
Inglis,  Bishop,  263 
Insurance  companies,  619 
Intercolonial  Railway,  416-18 
Irish  immigration  of  1823,  303-4 
Iroquois,  The,  40 

Jackson,  John  Mills,  268-9 
Jesuit  Estates  Question,  491-2 
Johnson,  E.  Pauline,  539 
Joliette,  explorer,  110 
Journals,  Leading  Canadian,  548 

Kertk  attacks  Quebec,  94 

King  Edward,  Beign  and  death 

of,  448-9 
King's  College  Windsor,  263 
Kingsford,  W.,  542 
Kingston  in  1795,  231 
Kirby,  Wm.,  542 
Knowles,  Robert  E.,  547 

Labour,  The  rights  of,  519-20 
Lachine  Canal,  379 
La  France,  adventurer,  296 
Lahontan,    explorer    and  writer, 
113 


Lake  Erie,  Perry's  great  success, 
275 

—  George,  Battle  of,  141-2 
Lampman,  Archibald,  537 
Lansdowne,   Marquis   of.    Sketch 

of,  438-9 
Lartigue,Mgr. ,  issues  Pastoral,  339 
La  Salle,  explorer,  113-16 
Later  Americans  as  seen  by  Brit- 
ish writers,  458 
Laurentide  Island,  19 
Laurier,   Sir  Wilfrid,   Sketch  of, 
477-8 

—  Government  formed,  495-6 

—  Regime,  The,  498-9 
Laut,  Miss  Agnes,  546 

Laval,    first  Bishop    of    Quebec, 
103-5 

—  death  of,  1708,  105 
Lemieux,  Hon.  Mr.,  567 
Lemoine,   Sir  James,  Sketch  of, 

471 

—  Sir    J.  M.,    French  Canadian 
patriot,  466-7 

Lescarbot's  rule,  78 
Lewis,  J.  Clark,  Expedition,  296 
Lighthall,  Wm.  D.,  537-8 
Literature,  Canadian  introduction 

to,  430-1 
Logan,    Sir  William,    Sketch   of, 

434-6 
Long   and   Keating,   Expedition, 

297 
Lord  Selkirk,  lawsuits  of,  316 
Lome,  Marquis  of,  Career  of,  in 

Canada,  437 
Louis  XIV.  and  Canada,  97 
Louisburg  captured,  144 
Lount   and   Matthews   executed, 

348 
Lower  Canadian  struggle,  333 
Loyal  Patriotic  Society,  272 
Loyalty,  Greatest  trial  of,  1820- 

50,  462-3 
Lundy's  Lane,  Battle  of,  280 

McCarthy,  Hamilton,  558 
Machar,  Miss  Agnes  Maule,  540 
Machray,  Archbishop,  Sketch  of, 

472 
McClung,  Mrs.  Letitia,  547 
McCulloch,       Dr.,       educational 

Nestor,  264 
Macdonald,  James  Alexander,  549 


618 


Index 


Macdonald  Ministry  resigns,  407 

—  Sir  John,  Career  of,  401-2 

death  of,  468 

Macdonell,  Bishop,  319-20 
McDougall,   William,    Career   of, 

412-3 

McGregor,  Dr.,  Presbyterian  pio- 
neer, 263 

—Mrs.  D.  C.  (Marian  Keith), 
546 

Mcllwraith,  Miss  Jean,  545 

Mackenzie,  Alexander,  Premier, 
407-8 

—  Hon.  Alexander,  death  of,  468 

—  Sir  Alex.,  discoverer,  295-6 
Simon     Fraser,      David 

Thompson,    western  explorers, 
285-6 

—  W.  L.,  arrested  in  New  York 
State,  348 

—  Wm,  Lyon,  reformer,  322-3 
Maclachlan,  Alexander,  539 
McNab,  Col.  Allan,  attacks  rebels, 

347 

—  Sir  Allan,  Career  of,  368 

—  Colony,  302-3 
McNutt'sNovaScotiansettlement, 

245 
Madoc  of  Wales,  2 
Magdalen  Island,  5 
Maine,  Boundaries  of,  27 
Mair,  Charles,  536-7 
Maitland,  Governor,  324 
"  Makers    of    Canada,"    Morang, 

542 
Mandeville,  3 
Manitoba     boundary     enlarged, 

488-9 

—  claims,  1884-6,  404 
Marco  Polo,  3 

Maritime    Provinces,    1796-1817, 
241 

Cape  Breton,  245 

Nova  Scotian  immigration, 

243-4 
Marquette  and  Jesuit  explorers, 

108-12 
Maryland,  Catholic  Colony,  167-8 

—  Lord  Baltimore,  167 
Massachusetts,  Boston  and  Salem 

settlers,  159 

—  laws  and  education,  1 59-60 

—  Pilgrim  Fathers,  158 

—  statesmen,  1 60 


Matthews,  Captain  Case,  325 
Metcalfe,  Lord,  Governor,  364-6 
Methodist  Church  in  Canada,  1 887, 

442-3 
Michilimackinac,  American  attack 

repulsed,  279 

—  Capture  of,  269 
Micmacs,  The,  38 

MiUtary    sentiment.    Growth  of, 
422-4 

—  traditions  in  Canada,  509-10 
Milton  and  Cheadle,  trans-conti- 
nental expedition,  300 

Mines,  Canadian,  525-6 
Minto,  Earl  of.  Governor,  451-2 
Mississippi  River  reached,  109 
Monroe  doctrine,  32 
Montcalm,  Career  of,  142 
Montgomery,  L.  M,,  547 
Montreal  fur  traders  found  North- 
West  Co.,  284 

—  Riots  in,  370-1 

Moody,  Colonel,  Sad  death  of,  346 
Moravian  Town,  Proctor  defeated, 

Tecumseh  killed,  Mair's  poem, 

276 
Morgan,  Henry  J.,  551 
Mound-builders'  remains,  34 
Mounted  Police,  The  Royal,  510- 

11 
Mowat,   Sir  Oliver,   and  Ontario 

rights,  404 
Murray,  General,  147 

—  George,  551-2 
Music  in  Canada,  559-61 

National  policy,  Rise  of,  409-10 
Nationalists,  The  Quebec,  501 
Navy,  A  Canadian,  501-3 

—  Island,  Government,  347 
Negro  settlements,  359 
Nelson,  Wolf  red,  Career  of,  338 
Neutrals,  The,  43 

New  Brunswick,  260 

organized,  191 

New  France,  Company  of,  83 
New  Hampshire,  163 
New  Jersey,  1 70 

New  Orleans,  Americans  success- 
ful, 280 
New  York,  Dutch  occupation,  168 

taken  by  English,  169 

Newfoundland  settled,  1 92-3 
Newspapers  in  Lower  Canada,  262 


Index 


619 


Niagara  in  1795,232 
Nicolet  explores  Lake  Huron,  107 
Norquay,  John,  Sketch  of,  478 
North-west  Canada  acquired,  410- 
12 

—  Territories  divided,  486 
Nova  Scotia,  259-60 

Baronets  of,  81 

founded,  188 

Ogdensburg,  Capture  of,  372 
Ojibways,  The,  38 
Oregon  question,  31 
Orkney-men  in  Hudson's  Bay  Co., 

293-4 
Oswego  taken  by  British  fleet,  279 
Ottawas,  The,  39 
Oxley,  Jas.  Macdonald,  545 

Pacific  scandal.  The,  406-7 
Papineau,  Sketch  of,  337 
Papineau's  letter  to  Bidwell,  334 
Parker,  Sir  Gilbert,  543 
Peace  signed  at  Ghent,  Dec.  24th, 

1814,  280 
Peltrie,  Madame  de  la,    founded 

Ursuline  Convent,  100 
Penn,  Character  of,  1 70 
Pennsylvania,    No    Indian    war, 

171 

—  Quaker  Colony,  170 
Perry,  Peter,  321 
Perth  settlement,  302 
Peterborough  settled,  304 
Pike,  explorer,  296-7 
Pittsburgh,  138 

Poetry  in  Canada,  535 
Political  Waterloo,  1836,  344 
Pontiac,   126-7 
Population  of  Canadian  Provinces, 

1901-11,  compared,  485 
Port  Royal,  78-9 
Powell,  Chief- Justice,  316 
Preference,  The  British,  496-7 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada, 

1887,  441-2 
Prevost,  Governor,  268 
Prince  Edward  Island  a  separate 

Colony,  192 
Puritan  colonies  of  New  England, 

157 

Quebec,  Taking  of,  145-8 
Queen  Victoria,  Death  of,  448 


Queen  Victoria's  Diamond  Jubilee, 
447-8 

Queen's  Bush,  The,  divided  into 
Bruce  and  Waterloo,  357-8 

Queenston  Heights,  Brock  killed. 
General  SheafEe  defeats  Ameri- 
cans, 271 

monument,  429 

Van     Ransselaer     attacks, 

271 

Rae,  Dr.,  Expedition  of,  299 
Railways,  Canadian,  514 
Reade,  John,  548 
Rebellion  breaks  out,  345 

—  Losses  Bill,  367-8 

—  Lower  Canadian,  336-7 
Rebels  pardoned,  1849,  348 
Reciprocity  question  in  1911,  500 

—  Treaty,  388 

Reckless  American  settlers,  355-7 
Red  River  rebellion,  425-7 

settlement  organized,  1835, 

*  362 

Religion  in  Canada,  561-2 
Religious  census  in  Canada,  562-3 

—  co-operation,  564-5 

—  equality  in  Canada,  564 
Representation  by  population  de- 
manded, 374 

Responsible    Government    under 

Lord  Sydenham,  363 
Revolutionary    War:     American 

victorious  in  States,  187-8 

Bunker's  Hill,  183 

Canada  attacked,  184 

Montgomery       killed        at 

Quebec,  185 

Peace  established,  188 

Treaty  of  Paris,  1783,  188 

Rhode  Island,  1 64 
Rideau  Canal,  380 
Ridgeway  Monument,  429 
Riel,  Louis,  executed,  428 
Sketch  of,  426-7 

—  question.  The,  491 

Rival  fur  companies  unite  under 
Governor  Simpson,  288 

Roberts,  C.  G.  D.,  535 

Roberval,  12 

Robinson,  Chief  Justice,  Career 
of,  317 

Roger  Williams,  164-5 

Rolph,  Dr.  John,  Career  of,  322 


620 


Index 


Roman     Catholic     Churches     in 

Canada,  1887,  443-4 
Bouill6  Fort  at  Toronto,  137 
Royal  Canadian  Academy,  557 

—  Society  Historians,  541 
Runners  and  pork-eaters,  293 
Rupert's  Land,  189 

acquired  by  Canada,  413-14 

Russell,  Hon.  Peter,  257 
Ryerson,  Egerton,  adroit  leader, 
365 

St.  Charles,  fort  taken,  340 

meeting,  339 

St.  Denis  attack,  340 

St.Germain-en-Laye,  Treaty  of,  95 

St.  Just  returns  to  France,  70 

St.  Lawrence  Canals,  381 

St.  Maurice  Forges,  262 

St.     Valier,     second     Bishop     of 

Quebec,  105 
Ste.  Foy,  battle,  147 
Salient  religious  features,  563-4 
San  Juan  border  difficulty,  405 
Sarcees,  46 

Saskatchewan  Province  constitu- 
ted, 487-8 

rebellion,  427-8 

School  question,  Manitoba,  481-2, 

493-5 
Science  in  Canada,  552-3 
1887,  434 

—  in  Canadian  Universities,  553-4 
Scott,  Duncan  Campbell,  537 

—  Frederick  G.,  538 
Sculpture  in  Canada,  558 
Secondary    schools    in    Canada, 

528-9 
Secord,  Laura,  brave  act,  274 
Sedition  Act,  257 
Seignorial  tenure  agitation,  373-4 
Selkirk,  Earl  of,  Baldoon,  249 

Birth  of  Manitoba,  250-1 

Colonizer,  248 

Grand  River,  249 

Lands  of  the  Six  Nations, 

251-2 

PrinceEdward  Island,  248-9 

Seneca's  prophecy,  1 
Service,  Robert  W.,  546 
Settlements,  Increase  of,  359-62 
Shannon  and    Chesapeake,   naval 

conflict,  278 
Shelbourne,  Lord,  25 


Sherbrooke,  Sir  J.  C,  260 

Silurian  period,  21 

Simcoe,  Governor,  223-8 

Simpson,  Sir  George,  Career  of, 
288 

Sioux,  The,  43 

Six  Nations,  The,  40 

Slaverv  in  Canada,  261 

Smith,"  Goldwin,  251-2 

Smythe,  General,  271 

Social  progress,  395 

Soil,  The  fertile,  524 

Soldiers,  Canadian,   511 

"  Sons  of  Liberty  "  and  "  Consti- 
tutionalists," 340 

Stadacona,  8 

Stanley  of  Preston,  Lord,Go  vernor, 
450 

Steamship  lines,  Canadian,  515 

Stoney  Creek,  Harvey's  victory, 
274 

Strachan,  Bishop,  Sketch  of,  317- 
19 

educational  pioneer,  264 

Strathcona,  Lord,  Career  of,  470 

Surtax,  German,  480 

Sussex  Colony,  309 

Tach6,  Archbishop,  Career  of,  473 

Talbot  settlement,  247 

Talon,  Intendant,  29 

—  Large     French     Immigration, 

99-100 
Technical  Education,  Royal  Com- 
mission on,  533-4 
Tecumseh,  269-70 
Tertiary  Age,  23 
Thompson,  Sir  John,  account  of, 

477 
Thompson,    L.    Poulett,    reaches 

Canada,  1839,  352 
Thomson,  Edward  William,  550 
Thorpe,  Justice,  258-9 
Tonge,  Cottnam,  260 
Tonty  and  La  Salle,  117-19 
Toronto  in  1791-8,  233 
Trade  and  Tariff  Question,  489-90 
Travel,  Canadian  in  Europe,  508 

-9 
Treaty-making,  Canadian,  508 
Tupper,   Sir  Charles,   Sketch    of, 

403 
Tupper's  Administration  defeated, 

495 


Index 


621 


XT.  E.  Loyalist  sentiment,  455-6 
Universities   in   Ontario,    530 

—  in  Quebec,  529 
University   of  British  Columbia, 

532 

—  of  Manitoba,  530-1 

—  of  Saskatchewan,  531 
Upper    Canada,    New     counties 

formed,  358 
Upper     Canadian     rising,     1837, 

342—3 
Utrecht,  Treaty,  1713,  134 

Von  Egmont,  prominent  settler, 
357 

War  declared,   1812,  267 

—  of  1812,  American  plan,  268 
causes  of,  267-8 

summation  of  events,  281 

Wars,    French    and    English    in 

America  :  in  Aceulia,  1 30 
D'Iberville  attacks  Brit- 
ish and  Atlantic  Coast.  131-2 


Washington  Treaty,  405 
Water  power,  Canadian,  523-4 
Weir,  Lieut.,  Tragic  death  of,  341 
Welland  Canal,  The,  379-80 
Wentworth,  Sir  John,  259,  260 
Westphaha,  Treaty  of,  128 
Willcocks,  Sheriff,  258 
Willis,  Judge,  troubles  of,  325 
Willison,  Sir  John  S.,  548-9 
Wilson,  Sir  Daniel,  Sketch  of,  436 
Winnipeg   Volunteer  Monument, 

430 
Withrow,W.H.,540 
Wolfe,  Career  of,  144 
—  and  Montcalm,  Death  of,  147 


X  Y  Co.  formed.  286 


by 


York,       1812,        captured 
Americans,  273 

—  Factory,  291 

Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion, 1887,  444 

Yukon  Territory,  Sketch  of,  486 


Printed  by  Baxell,  Watson  de  Yiney,  Ld.^  London  and  AyleOmry. 


THE  SCOTSMAN   IN 
CANADA 

By   WILFRED    CAMPBELL,   LL.D. 

AND 

GEORGE  BRYCE,  M.A.,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

In  Two  Volumes,  Demy  8vo,  Clotb  Gilt,  16  Illustrations, 
Complete  in  Box,    Price  21/'  net 

nPHE  part  played  by  Scotsmen  in  the  development  of  the  Canadian 
■•■  nationality  as  a  part  of  the  British  Empire  has  been  very  great,  and  in 
this  two-volume  work  we  are  given  a  complete  account  of  the  range  and 
extent  of  the  influence  they  exerted  and  of  the  various  spheres  in  which  that 
influence  has  had  most  marked  and  lasting  effect. 

Volume  I.,  which  is  written  by  Dr.  Wilfred  Campbell,  covers  all  Eastern 
Canada,  and  deals  with  the  many  early  settlements  which  were  essentially 
Scottish  and  with  the  life  of  the  chief  Scottish  communities  in  the  leading 
cities,  stress  being  laid  upon  the  Ulster  Scotsman  and  the  importance  of  his 
place  in  the  Canadian  economy. 

Of  particular  interest  and  value  to  students  in  individual  research  should  be 
the  lists  which  are  given  of  the  pioneers  and  founders  of  these  settlements. 

Dr.  Bryce  contributes  Volume  II.,  which  deals  mainly  with  the  Western 
Provinces  of  Canada,  including  portions  of  old  Rupert's  Land  and  the  Indian 
Territories. 

In  both  volumes  the  authors  have  endeavoured  to  trace  clearly  the  Scottish 
influence  in  the  religion,  education,  politics  and  commerce  of  Canada,  and  to 
show  how  important  has  been  the  share  which  Scotsmen  have  had  in  the 
founding,  peopling,  and  upbuilding  of  Britain's  great  Western  Empire. 
Amongst  the  more  famous  Scotsmen  who  are  mentioned  in  the  work  are  the 
Right  Hon.  Sir  Alexander  Macdonald,  K.C.B.,  His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Argyll, 
Sir  Sandford  Fleming,  Lord  Strathcona,  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  Lord 
Selkirk,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Robertson,  Archbishop  Machray,  and  many  others. 

"  Two  important  volumes  record  and  analyse  with  painstaking  thoroughness  and  marked 
ability.  That  the  research  necessary  for  the  compilation  of  such  a  work  as  this  has  been  a 
labour  of  love  for  Mr.  Wilfred  Campbell,  the  well-known  poet  and  scholar  of  Ottawa,  and  for 
Dr.  George  Bryce,  of  Winnipeg,  we  can  well  believe.  That  their  effort  was  worth  the  making 
no  one  will  doubt  who  looks,  even  cursorily,  into  the  nine  hundred  odd  pages.  .  .  .  We 
know  of  nothing  more  comprehensive  in  the  shape  of  biographical  and  historical  records  of  the 
lives  and  doings  of  the  Dominion's  more  prominent  citizens  than  '  The  Scotsman  in  Canada.'  " 
— Atfutueunt. 

"  We  have  had  several  works  recently  on  the  part  played  by  emigrants  from  our  own 
northern  country  in  the  building  up  of  modern  Canada,  but  the  two  volumes  '  The  Scotsman 
in  Canada '  are  likely  to  rank  as  the  standard  authority  on  the  subject.  .  .  .  Both  writers 
have  already  done  good  work  in  the  field  of  Canadian  literature  and  history,  and  the  present 
undertaking  will  increase  their  reputation.  .  .  .  The  present  work  is  one  which  should 
appeal  to  Scottish  readers  all  the  world  over." — TAc  Scotsman. 


London:  SAMPSON  LOW,  MARSTON  &  CO.,  Ltd. 

And  all  Booksellers 


'BOOKS  ON  CANADA 


By  QEORQE   BRVCE,   M.A.,   D.D.,   LL.D. 

THE  ROMANTIC  SETTLEMENT  OF  LORD 
SELKIRK'S   COLONISTS 

Illustrated.     Cloth.     716  net 

THE   REMARKABLE    HISTORY   OF   THE 
HUDSON'S   BAY   COMPANY 

Demy  Svo,  cloth  extra^  with  Maps  and  Illustrations.     10/6  net 

Dr.  Bryce  has  had  special  opportunities  for  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
history,  position,  and  inner  life  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  He  has  lived 
for  nearly  thirty  years  in  Winnipeg,  and  has  visited  many  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company's  posts  from  P'ort  William  to  Victoria ;  he  is  also  acquainted 
with  many  officers  of  the  Company,  from  whom  he  has  been  able  to  gather 
much  first-hand  information. 

ENGLAND  AND  CANADA: 

A  Summer's  Journey  between  Old  and  New  Westminster,  with  some 

Historical  Notes  descriptive  of  a  Tour  recently  made  between 

England  and  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

By  5.   FLEMING,   LL.D.,    F.Q.S.,   Etc. 

With  Map.     Crozvn  Svo.     6/- 


NEWFOUNDLAND  TO   COCHIN   CHINA 

By  Mrs.   HOWARD  VINCENT 

JVew  Edition.     Crown  %vo.     3/6 


THE  FIRST  ENGLISH  CONQUEST  OF 
CANADA 

Records  interesting  incidents  earlier,  by  more  than  a  hundred  years, 
than  Wolff's  Conquest. 

By  HENRY  KIRKE,  M.A.,   B.C.L.,   F.R.Q.S. 

Crown  %vo.     Illustrated.    3/6  net. 


THE  QUEEN'S  HIGHWAY  FROM  OCEAN 
TO    OCEAN 

By  STEWART  CUMBERLAND 

With  Photographs  and  Maps.     Svo.     18/' 


London:  SAMPSON  LOW,  MARSTON  &  CO.,  Ltd. 

And  all  Booksellers 


Ji 


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