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SHORT HISTORY 

OF 

CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP 




Scenes from the Schools of Athens early in the Fifth Century B.C. 

Vase-painting on a Cylix, with red figures on black ground, found at Caere 
in Etruria ; described on p. lo. 



r 



A 

SHORT HISTORY 

OF 

CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP 



FROM THE SIXTH CENTURY B.C. 
TO THE PRESENT DAY 



BY 
Sir JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, Litt.D., F.B.A., 

FELLOW OF ST JOHn'S COLLEGE, AND PUBLIC ORATOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE ; 

HON. LITT.D. DUBLIN; HON. LL.D. EDINBURGH AND ATHENS; 

COMMANDER IN THE HELLENIC ORDER OF THE REDEEMER 



WITH TWENTY-SIX ILLUSTRATIONS 



CAMBRIDGE 

AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 

1915 



CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 

C. F. CLAY, Manager 

Itontron: FETTER LANE, E.C. 

i!?trittt)urgt : loo PRINCES STREET 




i^cto liorfe: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 
ISombag anU Calcutta: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd 
a:oronto: J. M. DENT AND SONS, Ltd. . 
STofep.o: THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA 



604830 

A /I rights resen>ed 



PREFACE 

THE present work is on the same subject as the author's 
History of Classical Scholarship, begun in the volume of 
1903 (which attained a second edition in 1906), and completed 
in the two further volumes published by the University Press in 
1908. But the treatment of the theme has here been kept 
within a more moderate compass. While the text of the three 
volumes of the larger work extended to as many as 1629 pages, 
that of the single volume of the present Short History is limited 
to 434. The former publication was mainly meant for the use 
of classical scholars ; the present is primarily intended for the 
classical student, and also for the general reader. With a view 
to saving space, scholars of comparatively subordinate importance, 
whose achievements were fairly entitled to a place in the larger 
work, have, now been either omitted altogether, or very briefly 
dealt with, while those of primary importance are treated with 
almost the same fulness as before. From the notes, even more 
than from the text, many details on minor points have been with- 
drawn, but others have been added wherever it seemed desirable 
to bring the literature of the subject up to the present date. 

The broad outlines of the treatment of the theme remain 
unchanged. In both works, the History of Scholarship in the 
Athenian Age, from 600 to 300 B.C., is followed by that of the 
Alexandrian Age, from 300 B.C. to the beginning of the Christian 
Era, and by that of the Roman Age, which here ends about 
530 A.D. Then follow the Middle Ages, in the East and West, 
here regarded as extending from about 530 to about 1350. The 
Middle Ages are succeeded by the Revival of Learning in Italy, 
including the two centuries between the death of Dante in 132 1 
and the death of Leo X in 152 1, and ending with the Sack of 



VI PREFACE 

Rome in 1527. This is followed by the subsequent History of 
Scholarship in Italy, and by a survey of the successive centuries 
of that history in France, the Netherlands, England, and Germany, 
with a brief notice of Greece and Russia, and of Hungary and 
Scandinavia. 

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the nations are 
reviewed in the following order : Italy, France, the Netherlands, 
England, and Germany. This order is, however, abandoned in 
the eighteenth, in which the influence of Bentley on the Greek 
Scholarship of Holland makes it historically necessary to place 
England immediately before the Netherlands. It has also been 
abandoned in the nineteenth, in the case of Germany. Hence 
the history of the eighteenth century in Germany is immediately 
followed by that of the nineteenth in the same country. Finally, 
the history of the nineteenth century in England is naturally 
succeeded by that of the United States of America. 

Of the eighty-six illustrations which appeared in the former 
work, twenty-five have been reproduced in the present, while the 
spurious portrait of Hemsterhuys has been superseded by the 
genuine portrait on p. 278. 

The Index is not limited to an alphabetical register of the 
contents of the volume. In the case of the principal classical 
authors, it also includes references to modern editions, which, for 
adequate reasons, are not actually mentioned in the body of the 
work. In this, and in other respects, the convenience of the 
classical student has been constantly kept in view. 

J. E. SANDYS. 
Cambridge, 191 5. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

(i) Scenes from the Schools of Athens, early in the fifth century 
B.C., from a vase-painting by Duris on a Cylix with red figures on a black 
ground, found at Caere in 1872 and now in the Berlin Antiquaritim (no. 2285). 
Reproduced partly from the large coloured copy in Afonumenti del Instituto, 
ix {1873), pi. 54, and partly from the small lithographed outline in the 
Archdologische Zeitung, xxxi (1874), i — 14. The central design is from the 
inside, the rest from the outside of the Cylix. Frontispiece, described on p. 10 

(2) Rhapsode Reciting. From an amphora from Vulci. British 
Museum facing ^p. i 

(3) Altar-piece by Francesco Traini {1345) in the Church of S. 
Caterina, Pisa. Described on p. 135. Reduced from Rosini's Pitttira Italiana, 
tav. XX (1840). Cp. Renan, Averroes, 305-8'*, and Woltmann and Woermann, 
History of Painting, i 459 E.T. ....... 134 

(4) Francesco Petrarca. F'rom a ms of Petrarch, Devii-is illustribusy 
completed in January, 1379, for Francesco of Carrara, Duke of Padua, to whom 
the volume is dedicated {Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, 6069 f). Reproduced 
(by permission) from the frontispiece of M. Pierre de Nolhac's Pitrarque et 
tHumanisme, 1892 162 

(5) Marsilio Ficino, Cristoforo Landino, Angelo Poliziano, 
and Demetrius Chalcondyles. Reproduced (by permission) from part of 
Alinari's photograph of Ghirlandaio's fresco on the south wall of the choir in 
Santa Maria Novella, Florence 180 

(6) Aldus Manutius. From a contemporary print in the Library of San 
Marco, Venice, reproduced as frontispiece to Didot's Aide Manuce . 194 

(7) Erasmus (1523). From the portrait by Holbein in the Louvre; 
reproduced (by permission) from a photograph by Messrs Mansell . 202 

(8) ViCTORlUS. From the portrait by Titian, engraved by Ant. Zaballi 
for the Ritratti Toscani, vol. i, no. xxxix (Allegrini, Firenze, 1766) . 208 

(9) BUDAEUS. From the engraving in Andre Thevet, Portraits et vies des 
hommes illustres (Paris, 1584), p- 551 . . . . . . 214 

(10) ScALiGER. From the frontispiece of the monograph by Bernays; 
portrait copied from the oil-painting in the Senate-House, Leyden ; autograph 
signature from Appendix ad Cyclometrica in the Royal Library, Berlin 220 



viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

(ii) LiPSius, From the portrait by Abraham Janssens (1605), engraved 
for Jan van der Wouwer by Pierre de Jode. Reduced from the large copy in 
Max Rooses, ChHsiophe Plantin (1882), p. 342 f. . . . . 240 

(12) Bentley. From Dean's engraving of the portrait by Thornhill 
(17 10) in the Master's Lodge, Trinity College, Cambridge (frontispiece of 
Monk's Life of Bentley, ed. 2, 1833) 264 

(13) PoRSON. Reduced from Sharpe's engraving of the portrait by 
Hoppner in the University Liljrary, Cambridge . . . . 274 

(14) Hemsterhuys. From the portrait painted by J. Palthe in 1766, 
the year of the scholar's death ; photograph lent by A. Gudeman . 278 

(15) Heyne. From C. G. Geyser's engraving of the early portrait by 
Tischbein 298 

(16) F. A. Wolf. From Wagner's engraving of the portrait by Jo. Wolfif 
(1823) ; printed as frontispiece to Hoffmann's edition of Wolfs Alterthums- 
Wissenschaft (1833) .......... 304 

(17) Hermann. From Weger's engraving of the portrait by C. Vogel ; 
frontispiece to Kochly's G'tf///r/>^A'.frwrt!«w (1874) .... 320 

(18) BoECKH. Reproduced (by permission) from the frontispiece to 
Hoffmann's August Boeckh (Teubner, Leipzig, 1901) . . . 324 

(19) Lachmann. Reduced from A. Teichel's engraving of the photo- 
graph by H. Biow 334 

(20) RiTSCHL. Reduced from a lithographed reproduction of the drawing 
by A. Hohneck ([844), published by Henry and Cohen, Bonn . . 338 

(21) MoMMSEN. Reduced from the original drawing by Sir William 
Richmond (1890), now in the possession of Prof. Ulrich von Wilamowitz- 
Moellendorff 360 

(22) CoBET. Reproduced from a copy (lent by Prof. Hartman of Leyden) 
of the presentation portrait drawn by J. H. Hoffmeister and lithographed by 
Spamer 374 

(23) Madvig. From a photograph reproduced in the Opuscula Academica 
(ed. 1887) 382 

(24) Jebb. Reproduced (by permission) from a photograph taken by 
Messrs Window and Grove, London ...... 402 

(25) MuNRO. From a photograph taken in Cambridge by Sir William 
Davidson Niven, K.C.B. . . . . . . . . . 410 

(26) Medallion of the American School of Classical Studies 
at Athens (1881); Panathenaic Vase, with olive-wreath and inscription, 
irapd^pov 0i\as <f>i\oi, Aesch. Bum. 1000. Reproduced from the original 
block, lent by Prof. J. R. Wheeler, New York, Chairman of the Managing 
Committee of the School ......... 429 



OUTLINE OF CONTENTS. 

BOOK I. THE ATHENIAN AGE, c. 600— c. 300 B.C. . 1—29 

CHAPTER I. The Study of Epic Poetry. Homer and the rhapsodes. 
Solon, Peisistratus and Hipparchus. Influence of Homer on Greek poets. 
Homer and the Sophists. Allegorical interpretation of Homeric mythology. 
Homer in Plato and Isocrates. Quotations from Homer. Early ' editions '. 
Aristotle on Homer . . . . . . . . . i — 9 

Plato on the Study of Poetry ; vase-painting by Duris. Dramatic poetry 
and literary criticism. Dramatic criticism in Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle's 
Didascaliae and Dionysiac Victories ...... 9 — 14 

CHAPTER II. The Rise of Rhetoric, and the Study of Prose. Gor- 
gias, Isocrates, Protagoras, Prodicus, Hippias. Plato's Gorgias and Phaedrvs. 
Aristotle's Rhetoric. Literary criticism a branch of Rhetoric. Place of Prose 
in Athenian education. Early transmission of the works of Plato and 
Aristotle 15 — 19 

CHAPTER III. (i) The Beginnings of Grammar and Etymology. The 
Greek Alphabet. Early speculations on the origin of language. Plato's 
Cratylus. Grammar in Aristotle, (ii) History and Criticism of Literature 
in the Peripatetic School. Theophrastus, Praxiphanes, Demetrius of 
Phaleron ........... 20 — 29 

BOOK II. THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE, c. 300—1 B.C. . 30—52 

CHAPTER IV. The School of Alexandria. The Library and the 
Librarians. Philetas. Zenodotus. Alexander Aetolus. Lycophron. Cal- 
limachus. Apollonius Rhodius. Eratosthenes. Aristophanes of Byzantium. 
Aristarchus. Hermippus. Apollodorus of Athens. Ammonius. Dionysius 
Thrax. Tyrannion. Didymus. Tryphon. Theon . . . 30—46 

CHAPTER V. The Stoics and the School of Pergamon. The Grammar 
of the Stoics. Antigonus of Carystos. Polemon of Ilium. Demetrius pf 
Scepsis. Crates of Mallos. Alexandria and Pergamon . . 47 — 52 

BOOK III. THE ROMAN AGE OF LATIN SCHOLARSHIP, 
c. 168 B.C.— r. 530 A.D. . . . 53—72 
CHAPTER VI. Latin Scholarship from the death of Ennius (169 B.C.) 
to the Augustan Age. Accius. Q. Valerius. L. Aelius Stilo. Varro. Cicero 
and Caesar on 'Analogy'. Nigidius Figulus. L. Ateius Praetextatus. 
Valerius Cato. Grammatical Terminology. Early Study of Virgil and 
Horace 53-59 



X OUTLINE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VII. Latin Scholarship from the Augustan Age to 300 a.d. 
Hyginus. Fenestella. Verrius Flaccus. Palaemon. Asconius. Pliny the 
elder. Probus. Quintilian. Suetonius. Grammarians. Gellius. Teren- 
tianus Maurus. Festus. Aero and Porphyrio .... 60 — 64 

CHAPTER VIII. Latin Scholarship from 300 to 530 A.D. Nonius. 
Symmachus. Victorinus. Donatus. Charisius and Diomedes. Servius. 
St Jerome. Macrobius. Martianus Capella. Recensions of Solinus, Vege- 
tius, and Pomponius Mela ; and abridgement of Valerius Maximus. Recension 
of Virgil by Asterius (494). Boethius. Cassiodorus. Priscian. Benedict's 
foundation of Monte Cassino (529) ...... 65 — 72 

BOOK IV. THE ROMAN AGE OF GREEK SCHOLARSHIP, 
c. I— ^- 530 A.D. . . . 7.^— 9f 

CHAPTER IX. Greek Literary Criticism in the First Century of the 
Empire. Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Caecilius of Calacte. Pseudo-Longinus 
on the Sublime. Pseudo-Demetrius on Verbal Expression . . 73 — 76 

CHAPTER X. Verbal Scholarship to 300 a.d. Juba. Pamphilus. 
Plutarch. Favorinus. Lucian. Grammarians: — ApoUonius Dyscolus, 
Herodian, and Nicanor. Lexicographers and 'Atticists': — Phrynichus, 
Moeris, Harpocration, Pollux. Hephaestion. Galen. Athenaeus. Cassius 
Longinus. Diogenes Laertius. Alexander of Aphrodisias. Porphyry 77 — 85 

CHAPTER XI. Greek Scholarship from 300 to 530 a.d. Eusebius. 
Libanius. Ulpian. Theodosius. Neo-Platonists : — Proclus, Hermeias, Am- 
monius and Damascius. The School of Athens closed by Justinian (529).. 
Simplicius and Olympiodorus II. Grammarians, Lexicographers, and Authors 
of Chrestomathies. The end of the Roman Age (529) . . 85 — 91 

BOOK V. THE BYZANTINE AGE, c. 530—6. 1350 A.D. 

92 — no 

CHAPTER XII. Byzantine Scholarship from 529 to 1350^ a.d. 92—110 

Period I (529 — 641). Choeroboscus. Stephanus of Alexandria. The 
Chronicon Paschale and Malalas 92 f. 

Period II (641 — 850). Theodore of Studion. Theognostus. The Study 
of Aristotle among the Syrians and Arabians 94 f. 

Period III (850 — 1350). The Classics in the Ninth Century. Photius 
and Arethas. The encyclopaedias of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The 
lexicon of Suidas. Psellus. Commentators on Aristotle. Etymological and 
other Lexicons. Tzetzes. Eustathius. Gregorius Corinthius. Scholars 
under the Palaeologi (1261 — 1453): — Planudes, Moschopulos, Thomas 
Magister, Triclinius, Chrysoloras. Characteristics of Byzantine Scholarship. 
Study and preservation of the Classics in the Byzantine Age. The Turkish 
Conquest of Constantinople (1453) ...... 95 — no 

1 In heading of chapter, on p. 92, for 1000 read 1350. 



OUTLINE OF CONTENTS xi 

BOOK VI. THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST, 

c. 530—^. 1350 A..D. . . . Ill— 160 

CHAPTER XIII. Gregory the Great. Gregory of Tours. Columban 
and Bobbio; Gallus and St Gallen. Isidore of Seville. 'Virgilius Maro.' 
Hisperica Famina. Greek in Ireland. Theodore of Tarsus. Aldhelm. 
Bede. Boniface and Fulda . . . . . . . iii — 118 

CHAPTER XIV. Charles the Great and Alcuin. Einhard. Rabanus 
Maurus. Walafrid Strabo, Servatus Lupus and the Classics. Joannes 
Scotus. Eric and Remi of Auxerre. Alfred the Great . . 119 — 123 

CHAPTER XV. (i) The Tenth Century. Gerbert (Silvester II). 
Luitprand. Abbo of Fleury. Aelfric of Eynsham . . . 124 f. 

(ii) The Eleventh Century. Fulbert of Chartres. Bamberg and Pader- 
born. Lambert of Hersfeld. Notker Labeo of St Gallen. Desiderius, 
Alfanus, and Leo Marsicanus, of Monte Cassino. Papias the Lombard 126 

CHAPTER XVI. The Twelfth Century. The Schoolmen and the 
Classics. The Scholastic Problem ; Realism and Nominalism. Mediaeval 
knovi^ledge of Plato and Aristotle. The Franciscans, Alexander of Hales, 
and Grosseteste. The Dominicans, Vincent of Beauvais, Albertus Magnus, 
Thomas Aquinas, and William of Moerbeke .... 127 — 136 

CHAPTER XVII. The Thirteenth Century and after. Roger Bacon. 
Duns Scotus. The influence of Aristotle. The teaching of Greek. Early 
revivals of learning. Causes of the Renaissance in Italy. Latin studies of 
Dante i37— 143 

CHAPTER XVIII. The survival of the Latin Classics in France, 
Germany, Italy, and England. Indications of the relative importance 
assigned to the principal authors in the Middle Ages. Grammar. The study 
of the mediaeval 'Arts' versus the study of the Classical Authors. The 
conflict between the grammatical and literary School of Orleans and the 
logical School of Paris. The Battle of the Seven Arts {c. 1250). The prophecy 
of the author of that poem fulfilled by the birth (in 1304) of Petrarch, the 
morning-star of the Renaissance ...... 144 — r6o 

BOOK VII. THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING IN ITALY, 

c. 1321 — c. 1527 A.D. . . 163 — 200 

CHAPTER XIX. The Revival of Learning, and the Quest of the 
Classics. The recovery of the Latin Classics by Petrarch and Boccaccio. 
Coluccio Salutati. Poggio Bracciolini. Gherardo Landriani. Enoch of 
Ascoli. Sannazaro. The early Medicean Age in Florence :—Niccol6 
de' Niccoli, Leonardo Bruni, Carlo Marsuppini, Politian. Fra Giovanni del 
Giocondo 163—174 



Xll OUTLINE OF CONTENTS 

Recovery of the Greek Classics by Guarino, Aurispa and Filelfo, Bessarion, 
Constantine and Janus Lascaris. The study of classical archaeology by 
Ciriaco of Ancona, Flavio Biondo, Felix Felicianus, Giuliano di San Gallo, 
and Era Giovanni del Giocondo. The schools of Guarino da Verona, and 
Vittorino da Feltre 174—178 

CHAPTER XX. The earlier Greek Immigrants. Gemistos Plethon. 
Bessarion. Theodorus Gaza. Georgius Trapezuntius. Joannes Argyropulos. 
Demetrius Chalcondyles ........ i79 — ^^3 

Nicolas V and the translations of the Greek Classics. Valla, Decembrio, 
Perotti, Campano 183 — 186 

The later Greek Immigrants. Michael Apostolius. Andronicus Callistus. 
Constantine and Janus Lascaris. Marcus Musurus. Zacharias Callierges 

186—188 

CHAPTER XXI. The Academy oi Florence -. Landino, Ficino, Pico, 
Politian ; of Naples : Pontano, Sannazaro ; and of /^ome : Pomponius 
Laetus 189—192 

CHAPTER XXII. The Printing of the Classics in Italy. Sweynheym 
and Pannartz. Philip de Lignamine. Ulrich Hahn. Georg Lauer. John 
of Spires. Bernardo Cennini. Aldus and Paulus Manutius ; Aldus II 

193—197 

Chronological Conspectus of Edit tones Principes . . . 198 — 200 

BOOK VIII. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY . 201—235 
CHAPTER XXIII. Erasmus . . . . . . 201—206 

CHAPTER XXIV. Italy from 1527 to 1600. Literary Criticism, Vida; 
influence of Aristotle's Poetic. Victorius. Robortelli. Sigonius. Nizolius. 
Majoragius. Faernus. Muretus ...... 207 — 212 

CHAPTER XXV. France from 1470 to 1600. The printers of the 
Sorbonne {1470 f). Gourmont and the first Greek press in Paris (1507). 
Budaeus. Robert and Henri Estienne. The elder Scaliger. Etienne 
Dolet. The College de France : — Turnebus, Dorat, Lambinus. Scaliger. 
Casaubon 215 — 225 

CHAPTER XXVI. The Netherlands from [400 to the foundation of the 
university of Leyden in 1575. The Schools of the Brethren of the Common 
Life. Nicolaus Cusanus, and Johann Wessel. Erasmus. Busleiden. Willem 
Canter. Jacob Cruquius 226, 227 

CHAPTER XXVII. England from c. 1460 to c. 1600. The Study of 
Greek. Selling, Linacre, Grocyn. Greek at Oxford. Greek at Cam- 
bridge : — Bullock, Croke, Sir John Cheke, Ascham. Scotland :— Buchanan 

228 — 231 



OUTLINE OF CONTENTS Xlll 

CHAPTER XXVIII. Germany from 1460 to 1616. Regiomontanus. 
Agricola. Reuchlin. Melanchthon. Camerarius. Hieronymus Wolf. 
Xylander. Sylburg 232 — 235 

BOOK IX. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY . 256—254 

CHAPTER XXIX. Italy; Famianus Strada. France; Salmasius. 
Maussac, Valesius. Du Cange. Tanaquil Faber, Andre and Anne Dacier. 
Huet and the Delphin Classics. Mabillon .... 236 — 239 

CHAPTER XXX. The Netherlands from 1575 to 1700. Lipsius. 
G. J. Vossius. Meursius. D. Heinsius. Grotius. Gronovius. N. Hein- 
sius. Graevius. Perizonius ....... 241 — 248 

CHAPTER XXXI. England in the Seventeenth Century. Savile. 
Downes. Bacon. Gataker. Selden. Stanley. Cambridge Platonists, 
More and Cudworth. Dodwell. Barnes .... 249 — 252 

CHAPTER XXXII. Germany in the Seventeenth Century. Gruter. 
Cellarius ............ 253 

Retrospect of Seventeenth Century . . . . . . 254 

BOOK X. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. . 255—286 

CHAPTER XXXIII. Italy in the Eighteenth Century. Facciolati, 
Forcellini. Muratori. Maffei. Lagomarsini. Corsini. Marini. E. Q. 
Visconti 255 — 259 

CHAPTER XXXIV. France in the Eighteenth Century. Montfaucon. 
Comte de Caylus. Barthelemy. Comte de Choiseul-Gouffier. Brotier, 
Larcher. Alsace (Brunck, Oberlin, Schweighauser, Bast). Villoison 

260 — 263 

CHAPTER XXXV. (i) England in the Eighteenth Century. Bentley. 
Markland. Taylor. Dawes. R. Wood. Heath, Toup, Musgrave. Tyr- 
whitt and Twining. Gibbon. Sir William Jones. Porson . 265 — 277 

(ii) The Netherlands in the Eighteenth Century. Le Clerc. Burman. 
Oudendorp. Burman II. Hemsterhuys. Wesseling. Valckenaer. Ruhn- 
ken. Wyttenbach 277 — 285 

Retrospect of the Eighteenth Century in Italy and France^ in England 
and the Netherlands . . . . . . . • . 285 f. 

CHAPTER XXXVI. Germany in the Eighteenth Century, (i) J. A. 
Fabricius. J. M. Gesner. Damm. Scheller. J. G. Schneider. J. A. Ernesti. 
Reiske 287—292 

(ii) J. F. Christ. Winckelmann. Lessing. Herder. Heyne. Eckhel. 
Schiitz 292—302 

Retrospect of Eighteenth Century in Germany .... 302 



XIV OUTLINE OF CONTENTS 



BOOK XI. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 305—429 

CHAPTER XXXVII. F. A. Wolf and his contemporaries, Voss, 
W. von Humboldt, Goethe and Schiller. A. W. and F. von Schlegel. 
A. Matthiae. Heeren. Niebuhr. Spalding. Schleiermacher. Heindorf. 
Buttmann. Bekker 305 — 318 

CHAPTER XXXVIII. Hermann and Boeckh . . 3^1—326 

CHAPTER XXXIX. Grammarians and Textual Critics from Lobeck to 
Ritschl. Lobeck, Nitzsch. Nagelsbach. Lehrs. Thiersch. Ast. Doeder- 
lein. Passow^ and Georges. Meineke, Bergk, and Dindorf. Kriiger, Kiihner, 
and Ahrens. Meisterhans. Bernhardy and Teuffel. Zumpt. R. Klotz. 
Lachmann, Haupt, and Ritschl . . . . . . 321 — 339 

CHAPTER XL. Editors of Greek Classics. Nauck. W. Christ. 
Kaibel. Orelli, Baiter, and Sauppe. Schomann. Blass. Brandis, Zeller, 
Bonitz, and Gomperz. Usener. Rohde . . . . . 340 — 344 

CHAPTER XLI. Editors of Latin Classics. Ribbeck. Vahlen. 
Lucian Miiller. Baehrens. Leo. Halm. Traube . . . 345 — 348 

CHAPTER XLII. Comparative Philologists. Bopp. Benfey. Leo 
Meyer. Georg Curtius. Rask. Grimm. Verner. Corssen. Schleicher. 
Brugmann. The New Grammarians. Steinthal . . . 349 — 352 

CHAPTER XLIII. Archaeologists :—K. O. Muller, Welcker, Gerhard, 
Jahn, Michaelis, Schliemann, Brunn, Overbeck, P'urtwangler. Bursian. 
Benndorf. Kiepert. Historians: — Ernst Curtius, Droysen, Arnold Schaefer, 
Holm. Theodor Mommsen, Hiibner ; von H artel . . . 353 — 364 

Retrospect of Germany in the Nineteenth Centtiry . . . 364 

CHAPTER XLIV. Italy in the Nineteenth Century. Mai. Pezzi and 
Ascoli. De-Vit and Corradini. Comparetti. Archaeologists : — Canina, Bor- 
ghesi, De Rossi 365 — 367 

CHAPTER XLV. France in the Nineteenth Century. Boissonade. 
Quicherat. Alexandre. Littre. Emmanuel Miller. Egger. Martin. 
Thurot. Boissier. Weil. Benoist. Riemann. Graux. Barthelemy Saint- 
Hilaire. C. Waddington. Archaeologists : — W. H. Waddington ; Millin, 
Quatremere de Quincy, Comte de Clarac, Letronne, Le Bas, Texier, Due 
de Luynes, Charles and Fran9ois Lenormant. The School of Athens. 
Villemain. Wallon. Duruy 368 — 373 

CHAPTER XLVI. The Netherlands in the Nineteenth Century, 
(i) Holland. Peerlkamp. Cobet. (ii) Belgium. Thonissen. Willems 

375—381 

Scandinavia. Denmark : —Zoega, Brondsted, Petersen, Kellermann. Mad- 
vigandUssing .... 383—385 



OUTLINE OF CONTENTS XV 

Norway: — Sophus Bugge. Iceland: — Arnesen, Egilsson. Sweden: — 
Fifteenth Century, Rogge. Sixteenth Century, The brothers Magni. Foun- 
dation of universities of Upsala, Dorpat, Abo. Seventeenth Century, Chris- 
tina's patronage of Learning. University of Lund. Nineteenth Century, 
Tegner, Linder, Walberg, Cavallin 385 — 387 

CHAI^TER XLVII. (i) Qxqqcq:— Eighteenth and Nineteenth Cen- 
turies: — Eugenics Bulgaris. Koraes. Georgios Gennadios. Universities of 
Corfu (1824), and Athens (1837). The controversies on language, and on 
pronunciation 388 — 390 

(ii) Russia: — Seventeenth Century, Ecclesiastical Academy of Kiev, and 
Graeco-Latin Academy of Moscow. Universities of Moscow {1755), Kazan 
(1804), Kharkov (1804), St Petersburg (1819), Kiev (1833), and Odessa 
(1865). Dorpat (1632, 1802). Russian scholars, who had studied in Germany. 
Germans in Russia. Archaeologists 391, 392 

(iii) Hungary: — Telfy and Abel 392, 393 

CHAPTER XLVIII. England in the Nineteenth Century. Elmsley 
and Gaisford at Oxford 394 

Greek Scholars of Cambridge : — Samuel Butler ; Dobree, Monk, C. J. 
and E. V. Blomfield, Scholefield, B. H. and C. R. Kennedy, T. W. Peile, 
Chr. Wordsworth, Blakesley, Lushington, Shiileto, Thompson, Badham, 
Cope, Donaldson, Paley, W. G. Clark, Babington, H. A. Holden, Jebb, 
Holmes, Archer-Hind, Butcher, Verrall, Neil, Adam, Headlam . 395 — 405 

Greek Scholars of Oxford : — Liddell and Scott, Jowett, Pattison, George 
Rawlinson. Max Mliller and Cowell. Grant; Eaton and Congreve; Lin- 
wood, Conington ; Worsley, Lord Derby ; Monro. Rutherford. Greek 
Scholars in Scotland : — Veitch. Blackie. Geddes . . . 405 — 408 

Latin Scholars in England: — Cambridge, etc.: — Key; Munro; J. E. B. 
Mayor; A. S. Wilkins. Oxford: — Conington, Sellar, Nettleship, Robinson 
Ellis. Dublin: — Henry; Palmer, Tyrrell .... 409 — 414 

Historians: — Thirlwall, Grote, P'ynes Clinton; Arnold, G. C. Lewis, 
Long, Merivale ; Maine ; Freeman ; Pelham. Archaeologists, etc. : — Leake, 
Newton, Penrose, Burn, Parker, Middleton. The Hellenic Society, and the 
Schools of Athens and Rome. The Classical Association. Literary 
Discoveries 415 — 419 

CHAPTER XLIX. The United States of America. Colleges and 
Universities. E.Robinson. Harvard: — Ticknor; (Cr^^/t Scholars), Everett, 
Felton, E. A. Sophocles, Goodwin, J. H. Wright; {Latin Scholars), Beck, 
Lane, Greenough, F. D. Allen, Minton Warren, M. H. Morgan. Yale : — 
Woolsey, Hadley, Packard, W. D. Whitney, Seymour. New York : — Drisler, 
C. T. Lewis, Merriam, Earle. Classical Periodicals. The Schools at Athens 
and Rome 420 — 429 

Retrospect 429 — 434 




%Bl[^rc i] [ll ll|t^,[a] Ig] 



Rhapsode reciting an epic passage 
beginning w5i ttot ev TOptudL (sic)... 

From an amphora from Vulci, now in the British Museum. See p. 6 infra. 



BOOK I 
THE ATHENIAN AGE 



CHAPTER I 

THE STUDY OF POETRY 

The earliest poems of Greece supplied the Greeks with their 
earliest themes for study, for exegesis, and for Homer and 
literary criticism. From about 600 B.C. we have the rhapsodes 
definite proof of the recitation of the Homeric poems by rhap- 
sodes in many parts of the Greek world,— at Chios, at Delos, at 
Cyprus, at Syracuse, at Sicyon, and in Attica. By an ordinance of 
Solon, the date of whose archonship is 594 B.C., the 

- , . , . . Solon 

rhapsodes were required to recite consecutive 
portions of the Homeric poems, instead of selecting isolated 
passages^ The effect of this ordinance would be to promote on 
the part of the audience, no less than on that of the reciters, 
a more consecutive and more complete knowledge of the contents 
of the poems themselves. 

The above tradition regarding the Athenian legislator Solon 
has its counterpart in a legend relating to the Spartan legislator 
Lycurgus. The date of Lycurgus is uncertain, one account 
placing him in 776 B.C., at the beginning of the Olympic era, 
and another a century earlier. According to Plutarch ^ Lycurgus 

1 Diogenes Laertius, Life of Solon, i 2, 57, t6. t^ 'Ofx^pov e^ viro^oXrjs 
y^ypaipe paxJ/Cfidecadai, olov 6irov 6 irpuTOS ^Xrj^ev, iKcWev dpx^<^^c-i' "^^^ ex^fievoy. 

2 Lycurgus, c. 4. 

S. H. I 



2 THE ATHENIAN AGE [CHAP. 

met with the Homeric poems in Crete, and brought a copy back 
with him to Greece. Even on Attic soil, Solon has a 

Peisistratus ... 

rival m Peisistratus, whose rule at Athens began in 
560 and ended in 527 b.c. According to the well-known story, 
he is said to have been the first to collect the scattered poems of 
Homer and to arrange them in order. The story is not found in 
any earlier author than Cicero, or in any extant Greek writer 
earlier than Pausanias {fl. 174 a.d.)^, but the question whether it 
was Solon or Peisistratus who did a signal service to the Homeric 
poems was apparently familiar to a Megarian historian of the 
fourth century b.c.^, and it has also been suggested that the source 
of the story about Peisistratus was a treatise on Homer by Dicae- 
archus who flourished about 310 b.c.^ The story has been much 
discussed. Accepted unreservedly by some scholars and rejected 
entirely by others, it has sometimes been accepted in a limited 
sense by those who hold that the story need only imply 
the restoration of a unity which in process of time had been 
gradually ignored. The festival of the Panathenaea, at which 
the Homeric poems were in after times usually recited*, was 
celebrated with special splendour by Peisistratus, who is even 
sometimes called the founder of the festivaP; and, according 
to a dialogue attributed to Plato, it was one of the sons of 
Peisistratus, namely Hipparchus (527 — 514 B.C.), who 'was the 

first to bring into this land the poems of Homer, 

Hipparchus -^ & r > 

and who compelled the rhapsodes to recite them 
successively, in regular order, at the Panathenaea, as they still do 
at the present day '^ The story is inconsistent with the statement 
that the poems of Homer were recited at Athens in the time of 
Solon, but it is possibly true that the recitations at the Panathenaea 
in particular were introduced by Hipparchus. 

' Cicero, De Or. iii 137 ; Pausanias, vii 26. 

2 Diogenes Laertius, i 2, 57, fiaWov ovv "ZbXwv "Ofi-rjpop €(p(bTta€i' if Ileto-tV- 
Tparos, <Dr Leaf, //tad, 1900, p. xviii, here inserts e/cetfos 701^0 rjv 6 to. iirrj eh 
rbv KardXoyov ejxiroL'qaa^ kol ov IleKTiaTpaTos, > ws (prjac Aieux^Sas iv T^fxirTip 
MeyapiKuiv. Dieuchidas is placed in the 4th century B.C. by Wilamowitz, 
Homerische Untersuchungen, 240 f. 

3 DUntzer in fahrb. /. Philol. xci 738 ff. * Lycurgus, c. Leocr. 102. 
^ Scholiast on Aristeides, Panath. p. 323 Dindorf. 

^ [Plato], Hipparchus 228 d. 



I] THE STUDY OF HOMER 3 

In the age succeeding the expulsion of the Peisistratidae, 
Pindar, with a conscious reference to the origin of 

Pindar 

the word Rhapsodos^, describes the Rhapsodes as 
'the sons of Homer, singers of deftly woven lays '^. He also 
alludes to the laurel-branch that they bore as an emblem of 
poetic tradition. Homer himself (he tells us) had ' rightly set forth 
all the prowess of Ajax, leaving it as a theme for other bards 
to sing, by the laurel-wand of his lays divine '^. 

The Homeric poems supplied Aeschylus with the theme of at 
least six tragedies and one satyric drama, Sophocles The Tragic 
with that of three tragedies {Nausicaa, and the p°^*^ 
Phaeacians, and possibly the Phrygians), and Euripides with that 
of one satyric drama, the Cyclops. The unknown author of the 
Rhesus derived his theme from the Iliad; and Achilles and 
Hector, with Laertes, Penelope and her Suitors, were among 
the themes of the minor tragic poets of the fifth and fourth 
centuries. But, among the tragic poets in general, a far larger 
number of their subjects were suggested by other poems of the 
Epic Cycle, namely the Cypria, the Aethiopis, the Little Iliad, 
the Iliupersis, the Nostoi and the Telegonia. 

Aeschylus himself probably regarded ' Homer ' as the author of 
all the poems of the Epic Cycle, when he described ^^^^^ ^ ^ 
his dramas as ' slices from the great banquets of 
Homer '^ Sophocles is described by Greek critics as the only 
true disciple of Homer, as the 'tragic Homer', and 
as the admirer of the Epic poet^ His verbal 
indebtedness to Homer is less than that of Aeschylus, though, 
like other dramatists, he borrows certain epic forms and epithets, 
as well as certain phrases and similes. His dramas reproduce the 
Homeric spirit. While very few were directly suggested by the 



1 pa\l/(pd6s, from pdirreLV doi.5i^v {Hesiod, /rag. 227), contexere carmen, pan- 
gere versus. 

2 Nem. ii i, 'Ofiijpidat, pairribv (lit. ' stitched ') iir^uv aoi5ol. 

^ Isth. iii 55,"0/A77poj...7ra(rai/ 6pdd}aais dperdv Kurh pd^dov ?<f)pa<T€v deaire- 
a'nav €iri(x}v Xolttois ddijpeiv. 

^ Athen. 347 E, refxdxv rQv 'Ofii^pov fieydXwv heiirvwv. 

^ Ion, in vita Sophoclis, fx6vov...'Ofxripov fxad-nT-^v. Polemo, ap. Diog. 
Laert. iv 20,"0fi7]pov rpayiKdv. Eustathius on I/iad, p. 440 etc., (()(.\6fj.rjpos. 

I 2 



4 THE ATHENIAN AGE [CHAP. 

Iliad or Odyssey^ he is described as 'delighting in the Epic Cycle '\ 
The extant plays connected with that Cycle are the Ajax and 
Philoctetes. Of the extant plays of Euripides, the Cyclops alone is 
directly taken from Homer's Odyssey, while the Epic 
Cycle is represented by the Iphigeneia in Aulide, 
Hecuba, Troades, Andromache, Helen, Electra, Iphigeneia in Tauris 
and Orestes. 

Herodotus places Hesiod, as well as Homer, about four 
hundred years before his own time, i.e. about 

Herodotus , , • o\ i r 

400 years (or exactly 12 generations^) before 
430 B.c.^ He assumes that other poems beside the Iliad and 
Odyssey were generally attributed to Homer, namely the Cypria 
and the Epigoni. He doubts the Homeric authorship of the 
Epigoni^, and denies that of the Cypria^. 

Thucydides regards the Phaeacians as a historical people and 

the Homeric catalogue as a historical document. 

Thucydides 

But he makes the story of the siege of Troy a 
theme for rationalising criticism ^ 

For the three centuries between 600 and 300 b.c. the Homeric 

poems were the subject of a considerable amount of uncritical 

Homer and study. Homer was ' the educator of Hellas ""; and, 

the Sophists during the fifth century B.C., the Sophists, who 

were among the most active educators of their age, had naturally 

much to say of one whose poems formed the foundation of all 

education at Athens. Thus Protagoras (c. 480 — 

ro agoras ^^^ B.C.), who classified the modes of expression 

under the heads of question, answer, prayer and command, 

ventured to criticise the opening words of the Iliad, for expressing 

what was meant as a /r^j^^r to the Muse in the form of a command, 

fxrjviv aetSe dea^. 

Hippias of Elis, so far as we can infer from the two Platonic 
dialogues which bear his name, was interested, not 
only in the accurate study of letters and syllables 

1 Athen. 297 d, ^x<*tp^---''"4' f^t/cy kijk\(^. ^ Her. ii 142. 

3 Her. ii 53. "* Her. iv 32. ^ Her, ii 117. 

^ Thuc. i 9 and 11. 

^ Plato, /^ep. 606 E, TTjv 'E\\d5a ireiraidevKev. 

8 Aristot. Poet. c. 19 § 5. 



I] THE STUDY OF HOMER 5 

and rhythms and harmonies ^ but also in discussing the characters 
of the Homeric heroes, holding the 'frank and straightforward' 
Achilles superior to the ' wily and false ' Odysseus^. 

Lastly, Gorgias {c, 485 — 380 B.C.) probably composed a Eulogy 
of Achilles I He is the author of two extant speeches 

Gorgias 

connected with the tale of Troy, namely the 
' Encomium of Helen ' and the ' Defence of Palamedes '. His 
pupil Alcidamas described the Odyssey as * a fair mirror of 
human life'^ 

The Homeric representations of the gods roused a protest on 
the part of the founder of the Eleatics, Xenophanes Protests 
of Colophon (/. 530 B.C.), who says that ' Homer ^omTri^^ 
and Hesiod have imputed to the gods all that is mythology 
blame and shame for men '^ His great contemporary, Pythagoras, 
is said to have descended to the world below, and to have seen the 
soul of Hesiod bound to a brazen column, squeaking and gibber- 
ing; and that of Homer hanging from a tree and encircled by 
serpents, in punishment for all that he had said concerning the 
gods'. 

In reply to protests such as these, some of the defenders of 
Homer maintained that the superficial meaning Homer 
of his myths was not the true one, and that there l^x^^^rlt^^ 
was a deeper sense lying below the surface, interpretation 
Theagenes of Rhegium {fl. S'^S ^-C-)? who suggested a two-fold 
form of allegory, moral and physical, regarded the names of the 
gods as expressing either the mental faculties of man or the 
various elements of nature. Thus Apollo was, in his view, 
opposed to Poseidon, as fire to water ; Pallas to Ares, as wisdom 
to folly ; Hera to Artemis, as the air to the moon ; Hermes to 
Leto, as reason, or intelligence, to forgetfulness''. Anaxagoras of 
Clazomenae {fl. 450 b.c.) saw the rays of the sun in the arrows of 
Apollo. His pupil, Metrodorus of Lampsacus (d. 464 B.C.), 

1 Hippias Major, 285 B ; Minor, 368 D. ^ Hippias Minor, 365 B. 

'^ Aristot. Rhet. iii 17. ^ Aristot. Rhet. iii 3 § 4. 

^ Sextus Emp., Math, ix 193, Trdvra ^eots a.v^di]Ka.v" Otxy\p6% d' 'U<tIo86s re | 
8<T<Ta trap' dvdpuTroiaLv dveiSea Kal \f/6yoi iarlv. 
^ Diog. Laert . viii §21. 
' Schol. Venet. on //. xx 67. 



6 THE ATHENIAN AGE [CHAP. 

maintained that Hera, Athene and Zeus were the elements of 
nature^ and that Agamemnon^ represented the air. Such inter- 
preters as these may well have been in Aristotle's mind, when 
he mentions the ' old Homerists, who see small resemblances, 
but overlook large ones '^ 

In the Memorabilia of Xenophon the rhapsodes are described 
as ' very precise about the exact words of Homer, but very foohsh 
themselves ''*. Among the rhapsodes who were also celebrated as 
interpreters of Homer, were Stesimbrotus of Thasos^, a contem- 
Homerin porary of Pericles, and Ion of Ephesus, a con- 

piato's/^« temporary of Socrates. Ion, who gives his name 

to one of the most interesting of the shorter dialogues of Plato, 
was not only a reciter, but also an interpreter of Homer. He 
comes to recite Homer to more than 20,000 Athenians at the 
Panathenaea. He wears a golden crown and is arrayed in a 
magnificent robe^. He is ' possessed ' with an enthusiasm for 
Homer, and he transmits his enthusiasm to his audience. It 
is through him that the magnetic influence, which has passed 
from the Muse to the poet, passes from the poet to the listener, 
who is the last link in the magnetic chain l Ion was also the 
author of a commentary on Homer. He declares that he * can 
speak about Homer better than anyone else', — better than Metro- 
dorus or Stesimbrotus ; and it may fairly be assumed that the 
fluent rhetorical exposition, with which he ' embellishes ' Homer, 
was in the main a fanciful allegorical interpretation of the poet's 
meaning. 

But no apologetic interpretation of the Homeric mythology 
was of any avail to save Homer from being expelled 
Plato's Re- with all the other poets from Plato's ideal Republic. 

^^^^'^ Plato insists that the stories of gods and heroes told 

by Homer and Hesiod give a false representation of their nature ^ 
The poet is a mere ' imitator ', and ' we must inform him that there 

^ Tatian, c. Graecos, 202 D. 

^ Hesychius, s.v. ^ yj/^^^ ^iii 6, 7. "* Mem. iv 2, 10. 

° Xen. Symp. 3, 6. ^ Cp. ' rhapsode reciting ', facing p. 1 supra. 

"^ Ion 533 D— E. 

^ Rep. 377 D — 378 E. Hesiod is also clearly meant, though not mentioned, 
in Laws 886 B — c. 



I] THE STUDY OF HOMER 7 

is no room for such as he in our State '\ 'The awe and love of 
Homer ', of which Plato had been conscious from his childhood, 
'makes the words falter on his lips; but the truth must be 
spoken '=^. 'AH the poets, from Homer downwards, are only imi- 
tators; they copy images of virtue, but the truth they never 
reach '^ 'We are ready to admit that Homer is the greatest of 
poets..., but we must remain firm in our conviction that hymns 
to the gods and eulogies of famous men are the only poetry which 
ought to be admitted into our State'''. Homer's expulsion from 
Plato's Republic called forth a considerable controversial litera- 
ture. Athens, notwithstanding this expulsion, continued to 
learn Homer by heart ^, and this ancient custom was continued 
far beyond the Athenian age. Even at the close of the first 
century of our era there were Greeks in the Troad who taught 
their children Homer from their earliest years **. In fact, from 
the Athenian age to the present day, the study of Homer has 
never ceased. 

In the earliest play of Aristophanes there was a scene in which 
a father, who believed in the old-fashioned style of 

. . . Aristophanes 

poetic education, is represented as exammmg his 

son as to the meaning of certain ' hard words in Homer '^ 

Isocrates, in his letter of exhortation to Nicocles, expresses his 
own admiration for Homer and for the early tragic 

•^ ° Isocrates 

poets ^, and rebukes his contemporaries for prefer- 
ring the most paltry comedy to the poems of Hesiod and Theognis 
and Phocylides^ In his Panegyric he describes the fame of Homer 
as enhanced by the fact that ' he pronounced a splendid eulogy 
on those who fought against the foreign foe ', adding that this was 
the reason why he had been honoured by Athens in the instruction 
of her youth ^^ In his Panathenaic, he speaks of the frequenters 
of the Lyceum as reciting the poems of Homer and Hesiod, and 
as 'talking twaddle' about them^\ — It was probably in the time of 

1 Rep. 398 A. '^ 595 B- ^ 600 E. •* 607 A. 

^ Xen. Symp. 3 § 5. ^ Dion Chrysostom, Or. 1 1 p. 308 R. 

"^ Aristoph. AairaXetj, 7rp6s raxna. ab \i%ov 'O/xrjpdovs 7X067x0$, tI KaXoCai 
Kdpvfipa..., tI KoXova dixeprjvh Kdp-qva; 

8 Isocr. 2 § 48. * Isocr. 2 §§ 43, 44. 

1" Paneg. 159. " 12 §§ 33. 34- 



8 THE ATHENIAN AGE [CHAP. 

the pupils of Isocrates that Homer became the theme of the 
paltry criticisms of Zoilus. 

The quotations from the ' Homeric poems ' in the Athenian 

Quotations ^g^ somctimcs differ from our present texts. These 
from Homer variations may be due to errors of memory, and 
they appear to throw little (if any) light on the state of the 
Homeric text in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. On the whole, 
the evidence of quotations shows that the text of those centuries 
was practically the same as ours. 

The epic poet Antimachus, of Colophon in Ionia i^fl. 464 — 410), 
who was among the older contemporaries of Plato, prepared a text 

g^j.j of Homer, which is mentioned about twelve times in 

'editions' of the Venetian Scholia on Homer\ An 'edition' of 
Homer is also attributed to Aristotle by Plutarch 
and Strabo. The former in his life of Alexander quotes Onesi- 
critus as stating that Alexander constantly kept under his pillow, 
with his dagger, a copy of the Iliad ^ which Aristotle had corrected 
for him, called 'the casket copy'^. Strabo calls Alexander an 
admirer of Homer {<f>i\6ixr]po<;), adding that there was a recension 
of Homer called * that of the casket ' ; that Alexander had 
perused and annotated certain parts of it with the help of men 
Hke Callisthenes and Anaxarchus; and that he kept it in a 
casket of costly workmanship which he had found in the Persian 
treasure ^ 

Aristotle, in his treatise on Poetry, describes Homer as 

Aristotle on ' representing men as better than they are '•*, and as 
Homer 'pre-eminent in the serious style of poetry'^; as 

' the earliest and the most adequate model ' of all the excellences 
of epic poetry, and as 'unequalled in diction and thought'*'. 
The poet keeps himself in the background, leaving his characters, 
which are clearly marked, to speak for themselves'^. He has 
taught all other poets the true art of illusion ^ In 'unity of 

^ i] 'AvTifxdxov (sc. ^/cSocrts), 7/ Kara' AvTlfxaxov, Tj^ApTifxdxetoi. 
2 Plut. A/ex. 8, i] iK tov pdpdrjKos. 

^ Strabo, p. 594. ' The //tad of the Casket may safely be dismissed as a 
picturesque legend ' (Monro, Od. p. 418). 

' 2 § 3. ' 4 § 9- •' 24 §§ I, 2. 

' § 7- « § 9- 



I] THE STUDY OF HOMER 9 

plot ', as in all else, he is of surpassing merit ; he has made 
the Iliad^ as well as the Odyssey^ centre round a single action ^ 
These two poems ' have many parts, each with a certain magnitude 
of its own ; yet they are as perfect as possible in structure ^'^. 

Aristotle's interest in Homer led him to draw up a collection 
of Homeric Problems^ a subject which he approaches in the 
chapter on 'critical difficulties and their solutions' towards the 
close of his treatise on Poetry. These Problems are only pre- 
served in a fragmentary form. For most of our knowledge of 
their purport we are indebted to the scholia on the mss of Homer, 
especially in the Venice ms B (cent. xi). They are there quoted 
in twenty-one places, not to mention isolated passages of Strabo, 
Plutarch and Athenaeus ; they were also familiar to the Neo- 
platonist Porphyry, the author of a similar work in the third 
century of our era. The points raised concern the ethical and 
dramatic sense of the poems, rather than verbal or literary 
criticism. 

We have seen thus far that, from the days of Solon to those 
of Aristotle, Homer was constantly studied and quoted, and 
was a favourite theme for allegorizing interpretation and for 
rationalistic or rhetorical treatment. He was also the subject of 
a very limited amount of verbal criticism. Of any literary criti- 
cism of his poems, we have scanty evidence, with the important 
exception of Aristotle's treatise on Poetry. The criticism of 
his text was in the main reserved for the Alexandrian age. 

An interesting picture of the normal course of education at 
Athens is drawn by Protagoras in the dialogue of The study of 
Plato which bears that name. In the picture in ^"pfaJ'o's 
question special stress is laid on the study of the Protagoras 
poets. 

When the boys have learned their letters, and are beginning to understand 
the sense of what is written,... their teachers set beside them the works of 
excellent poets, and compel the boys, while seated on the benches, to read 
them aloud and learn them by heart. In these are contained many admo- 
nitions, many detailed narratives and eulogies and laudations of brave men of 
old. These are learnt by heart, in order that the boy may emulate and imitate 

1 8 § 3. •-» 26 § 6. 



lO THE ATHENIAN AGE [CHAP. 

those brave men, and be eager to become like them Then, again, the 

teachers of the cithara, as soon as their pupils have learned to play on that 
instrument, instruct them in the works of other excellent poets, the composers 
of songs, which they set to music, forcing the very souls of the boys to become 
familiar with their rhythms and their melodies, in order that they may be more 
gentle, and be better fitted for speech and action by becoming more beautifully 
' rhythmical ' and ' melodious ' ; for the whole of man's life has need of beauty 
of rhythm and of melody. Besides all this, their parents send them to the 
master of gymnastic, in order that they may have their bodies in better 
condition and able to minister to the virtue of their minds, and not be 
compelled by the weakness of their bodies to play the coward either in war or 
in any other action i. 

The artistic counterpart of this picture is to be found in the 
Vase-paint- sccnes from an Athenian school which adorn the 
ing by Duns outsidc of an Attic vase executed by Duris in the 
early part of the fifth century B.C. In the centre of one of the 
two scenes the master, seated on a chair, holds a scroll half open, 
and listens to a boy standing before him, who may either be 
saying by heart the lesson that he has learnt, or committing it 
to memory under the master's prompting. The open part of the 
scroll bears a rather inaccurate copy of a line from some ancient 
Hymn : — Moto-a /xot a/x^t ^KafxavSpov ivppoov apxafxai aetScti/^. 

Literary criticism was promoted at Athens not only by the 
epic recitations of the rhapsodes, but also by the contests for 
the prizes offered for lyric, and much more by those for dramatic 
poetry. But such criticism was purely of a popular and unpro- 
Dramatic fcssional kind. The contests of the drama were 

fiterary^"'* at first decided by acclamation, and the voice of 

criticism the people awarded the prize. Subsequently the 

decision was made by five judges in comic, and probably the 
same number in tragic, contests. This small number of judges 
was appointed by lot, out of a large preliminary list elected by 
vote. It speaks well for the general competence of the judges 
that Aeschylus and Sophocles were usually successful ; but, strange 
to say, at the presentation of the Oedipus Tyrannus, Sophocles was 
defeated by a minor poet, Philocles, a nephew of Aeschylus. 
Euripides won the prize on five occasions only, while Aeschylus 

^ Plato, Protag. 325 C — 326 E. ^ See Frontispiece. 



I] DRAMATIC CRITICISM 



II 



is credited with thirteen victories, and Sophocles with at least 
eighteen. 

Dramatic criticism occasionally found its way into the plays 
themselves. Euripides, in his Electra (1. 552 — 544), openly criti- 
cises the means adopted by Aeschylus in the Cho'ephoroe for 
bringing about the recognition of Orestes by his sister. 

In the Frogs of Aristophanes (405 B.C.), Sophocles takes 
no part in the contest for the throne of Tragedy. The Frogs of 
Aeschylus and Euripides enter the lists and criticise Aristophanes 
passages in one another's plays (1119 — 141 3). 

The plays of Aeschylus were frequently reproduced after his 
death, but in the fourth century Sophocles was more popular, 
and finally Euripides was left without a rival. In process of 
time, alterations made by actors and copyists led to uncertainties 
as to the true text. A decree was accordingly carried by the emi- 
nent Athenian statesman and orator, Lycurgus (r. 390 — 324 B.C.), 
providing, not only for the erection of bronze statues of the 
three great tragic poets, but also for the preservation of a copy 
of the tragedies in the public archives. The town-clerk was 
to collate the actors' copies with this text, and no departure 
therefrom was to be allowed in acting \ 

Dramatic criticism in Plato is represented mainly by certain 
important passages of the Republic^ and also by Dramatic 
some incidental references in other dialogues. In criticism in 
the Phaedrus a person coming to Sophocles or 
Euripides, and saying that he ' knows how to compose very long 
speeches about a small matter and very short speeches about a great 
matter, and also pathetic or terrible and menacing speeches ', is 
described as ' knowing only the preliminaries of Tragedy ', 
while Tragedy itself is the * arranging of all these elements in a 
manner suitable to one another and to the whole '^. Tragedy, in 
brief, must be an organic whole. Tragedy and Comedy, not 
as they might be, but as they were^ find very scanty appreciation 
in the Republic and the Laws. Plato urges that the effect, which 
Tragedy produces on the audience, depends on the excitement of 
pity and grief ; that of Comedy, on the excitement of laughter and 

1 [Plutarch], Lives of the Ten Orators, p. 841 F. 

2 Phaedrus, 268 c — 269 A. 



12 THE ATHENIAN AGE [CHAP. 

(ultimately) exultation over the misfortunes of others. The poets 
(he continues) claim our sympathy for the passions of love, anger, 
fear, jealousy, and the rest, —all of them unworthy passions, which 
we do not approve in ourselves, and the representation of which 
ought not to afford us any pleasured The excitement of pity and 
fear by means of Tragedy is, according to this view, relaxing and 
enfeebling, these emotions being apt to degenerate into senti- 
mentality, and to make men unmanly. For these and similar 
reasons Plato banishes dramatic poetry from his ideal Republic. 

While Plato thus objects to Tragedy as tending to make men 
and in cowardly and effeminate by the excitement of their 

treatise on Sympathies, Aristotle tacitly opposes this view in his 

Poetry famous definition of Tragedy. The closing words 

of that definition imply that Tragedy presents us with noble 
objects for the exercise of the feelings of pity and fear, and 
affords relief by removing them from our system : — ' through 
pity and fear accomplishing ' (not the purification but) ' the pur- 
gation of those emotions '^. 

The treatise on Poetry includes a slight sketch of the historical 
development of Tragedy. We are here told that Aeschylus was 
the first to introduce a second actor, that he made the chorus 
more subordinate, and gave greater prominence to the dialogue ; 
also that Sophocles introduced a third actor, and added scene- 
painting ^ Sophocles and Euripides are twice contrasted, firstly, 
when Aristotle insists that the chorus ' should be regarded as one 
of the actors and be an integral part of the whole and join in the 
action, in the manner of Sophocles but not of Euripides '^; and 
secondly, when he tells us that 'Sophocles said that he drew men 
as they ought to be (or 'to be drawn'), but Euripides as they are'^. 
There are at least four references to the Oedipus^, a play which 
Aristotle obviously admires. Euripides is defended against the 
criticism of those, who ' censure him for making many of his plays 
end unhappily ' ; this (says Aristotle) is ' the right ending ' ; such 
plays ' have the most tragic effect ', and in this respect Euripides, 
' faulty as he is in the management of the rest, is recognised as 
1 J^ep. 603 c— 608 A, 387 c, Laws, 800 c. 2 p^^^ 5 § ^^ 

^ 4 § 13. ' 18 § 7. ' 25 § 6. 

^ <c. 14, 15, 16, 26; afterwards known as the Oedipus Tyrannus. 



l] THE DIDASCALIAE OF ARISTOTLE 13, 

the most tragic of the poets '\ His Medea, his Iphigeneia in 
Tauris and his Orestes are noticed. Poets who have ' dramatised 
the whole story of the Fall of Troy, instead of selecting portions, 
like Euripides, have been unsuccessful '^ Of the 'Three Unities ' 
of Action, Time and Place, popularly ascribed to Aristotle, the 
first is the only one which he actually enjoins. As a treatise on 
poetry the work is obviously incomplete, I.yric poetry being 
practically ignored, and Comedy noticed only in a slight sketch 
of its origin. But, even in its present condition, it is an invaluable 
work. Severely scientific and masterly in method, unadorned in 
style, and almost entirely destitute of literary grace and charm, it 
nevertheless stands out conspicuously in Greek literature as the 
earliest example of a systematic criticism of Poetry ; and, in our 
present survey of the critical literature of the past, we shall find 
nothing in Greek literature to rival it as a model of literary criticism 
until, in the Roman age, we ultimately reach the celebrated treatise 
On the Sublime. 

Aristotle's interest in the Drama led to his laying the founda- 
tion of its history in the form of chronological lists Aristotle's 
of the details of the representation of the several didascaiiae 
plays. From the term (8t8ao-Ketv), applied to the teaching and 
training of the chorus and actors and the general rehearsal of 
a play, the play itself, or the connected group of plays produced 
by a poet at a single festival, was called a didascalia. The same 
designation would naturally be given to the official record of 
the result, and hence the title of Aristotle's work. Such a work 
was doubtless largely founded on the various records of success in 
the dramatic contests. These records were mainly of two kinds : 

( 1 ) the documents preserved by the State in the public archives ; 

(2) the inscriptions on the monuments erected at private expense 
by the citizen, who as choregiis had borne the cost of the pro- 
duction of the play. Plutarch has preserved an early example of 
(2), commemorating a victory won in 476 B.C., when the choregus 
was Themistocles^ Aristotle was apparently the first to make the 

1 13 §6. '' 18 §5- 

^ Plutarch, Them. 5 § 3, 'He set up a tablet of the victory bearing this 
inscription : — QefxiaroKXiis ^pedppLos exoprjyei, ^ptjvixos i8lda<XK€v, 'AdeljxayTos 



14 THE ATHENIAN AGE [CHAP. I 

necessary transcripts from the archives, and to publish the result 
in a connected form. There are thirteen fragments of his 
didascaltae, five of them with his name and the rest without it'. 
Similar lists are preserved in extant inscriptions^, the earlier items 
of which were probably derived from the published work of 
Aristotle. This work is the ultimate source of our knowledge 
of the results of the drajnatic contests in which poets such as 
Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes were competi- 
tors. It was the authority followed by Callimachus {c. 260 B.C.) 
and Eratosthenes {c. 234), and also by Aristophanes of Byzantium 
{c. 200 B.C.) in a work which survives in the fragments quoted 
from it by the Scholiasts in the Arguments to Greek plays 
still extant. Aristotle was also the author of a work on 
Dionysiac Dionysiuc Victories^ the character of which may be 
Victories inferred from an extant inscription probably copied 

from that work^ Lastly, he drew up lists of victors in the 
Olympian and Pythian games. 

1 Aristot. Frag. 618 — 630 Rose. ^ C.I. A. 11972 — 975. 

* C.I. A. 11 971. In its complete form this inscription recorded the 
Dionysiac Victories from 473 to 328 B.C. The last item, under the archonship 
of Phllocles (459 — 8 B.C.), refers to the Oresteia of Aeschylus: — Tpay({)8Qv 
I^cvokXtjs 'A<pidva{tos) ^xopi7(7ci), AtVxiJXos ediSacxKev. Cf. Relsch in Pauly- 
Wlssowa's Real-Encyclopddie, s.v. Didaskaliai, and A. Wllhelm, Urkunden 
draniatischer Auffiihrungen in Athen (Wien, 1906). 



CHAPTER II 

THE RISE OF RHETORIC AND THE STUDY OF PROSE 

Greek rhetoric came into being in Sicily with the establish- 
ment of democracy at Acragas in 472 B.C., and at Syracuse in 466. 
Its earliest professors were Corax and Tisias, and 

Gorgias 

Pericles had passed away two years before Gorgias, 
the famous pupil of Tisias, made his first appearance in Athens in 
427. He came as an envoy to invite Athens to aid his native town 
of Leontini against the encroachments of Syracuse. The^ speech 
delivered by Gorgias made a singular sensation. The Sicilian 
historian, Diodorus^, tells us that 'the Athenians, clever as they 
were and fond of oratory (^tXoAoyot), were struck by the singular 
distinction of the style of Gorgias, with its pointed antitheses, 
its symmetrical clauses, its parallelisms of structure and its rhyming 
endings, which were then welcomed owing to their novelty'. 
These figures of speech are most simply classified as follows : — 

dvT£9€<ris = contrast of sense. 

trapCa-taa-is — parallelism of structure. 

•irapojj.o£«o-is = parallelism of sound. 
The last is subdivided into ojioioKdrapKTov, 6|iou)T4XevTov and 
irapovoiJtacrCa, according as the ' parallelism of sound ' affects the 
beginnings or the end, or the whole, of the two contrasted words. 
Gorgias was the founder of an artificial or semi-artistic type of 
Greek prose. 

The figures of speech characteristic of Gorgias were retained 
by his pupil, the eminent rhetorician, Isocrates 
(436 — 338 B.C.). Isocrates, however, unlike the later 
' Asiatic ' adherents of Gorgias, with their cramped and jerky 



l6 THE ATHENIAN AGE [CHAP. 

sentences, succeeded in expanding the unduly concise and mono- 
tonous clauses of his master by moulding them into an ampler and 
more varied periodic form, in which metrical and symmetrical 
effects were diversified by meandering melodies of rhythm and 
subtle harmonies of cadence. A very short specimen of his 
prose may here be quoted from the latter part of his Panegyric 
(§ 1 86) : — (fiTjfJLriv 8c KOL fJLvyjfjLrjv Kol So^ai/ j ttoctyjv tlvol )(^prj vofxlt^^LV, 
I ^ ^(St/ra? €^€ti/, I rj TiXevrrjaavTas KaraXeixf/CLv, | tov<s iv rot? TOtourots 
€pyot5 apto-Tcwavras ; The Style of Isocrates was in the main the 
foundation of the style of Cicero ; and the style of Cicero has in 
its turn supplied the languages of Europe with a model for some 
of the most highly finished forms of the ampler types of modern 
prose. 

While rhetoricians of the Sicilian school of Gorgias, in culti- 
vating a semi-poetic type of prose, aimed mainly at ' beauty of 
language ' (cvcVcia), the Greek school of certain 

Protagoras. o o \ /' 

Prodicus. Other Sophists, such as Protagoras, Prodicus and 

ippias Hippias, aimed at ' correctness of language ' 

{opOoeTraay. Protagoras classified the modes of speech; Prodicus, 
whose style is parodied in Plato's Protagoras'^^ dwelt on dis- 
tinctions between synonyms; while Hippias aimed at a correct 
and elevated style of expression. 

The two dialogues of Plato specially concerned with rhetoric 

are the Gorgias and the Phaedrus. In the former 
Plato's . * 

Gorgias and it is described, not as an art, but as a happy knack 

acquired by practice and destitute of scientific 
principle^. In both dialogues Plato casts ridicule on the writers 
of the popular rhetorical treatises ; but, in the Phaedrus, instead 
of denouncing rhetoric unreservedly, he draws up an outline of 
a new rhetoric founded on a more philosophic basis^ resting 
partly on dialectic, which aids the orator in the invention of argu- 
ments, and partly on psychology, which enables him to distinguish 
between the several varieties of human character in his audience 
and to apply the means best adapted to produce that persuasion 
which is the aim of his art^ 

^ Plato, Phaedrus, ibi C ; Spengel, Artium Scriptores, pp. 40 f, 
^ 337 A— c. '^ 463 B, 501 A. 

4 Thompson's Phaedrus y p. xiv. 



II] PLATO AND ARISTOTLE I7 

The hints which Plato throws out in the Phaedrus are 
elaborately expanded in the Rhetoric of Aristotle, Aristotle's 
especially in the first two books, which deal with ^^^^'^'^ 
the modes of producing persuasion. In the first book these are 
classified; while the second includes (i) 'a careful analysis of 
the affections of which human nature is susceptible, and also 
of the causes by which such affections are called forth; (2) a 
descriptive catalogue of the various modifications of the human 
character, and the sort of arguments adapted to each ' ^ The 
first two books, which thus deal with the invention of arguments 
(crpco-i?), are followed by a third occupied with the two other 
parts of rhetoric, style (Ae^ts) and arrangement (ra^ts). 

The study of the style of prose in the Athenian age was 
mainly connected with the study of rhetoric. The Relations of 
prose of public speech was the first to attain an p^ose'^Sn*° 
artistic form, but other kinds of prose had a closer general 
connexion with it than they have in modern times. In the 
domain of history, the style of Thucydides shows the influence of 
the Sicilian rhetoric ; and the historian readily resorts to speeches 
as a means of expressing the political opinions of the day, while 
he employs the medium of a dialogue to give a dramatic repre- 
sentation of the controversy between Athens and Melos. In the 
next century, two prominent historians, Ephorus and Theopompus, 
were both of them pupils of that trainer of rhetoricians, Isocrates. 
The criticisms in the Rhetoric are not confined to the criticism of 
speeches. A particular kind of prose-style is there ^ exemplified 
from Herodotus, while many of the precepts apply to prose in 
general, and not a few to poetry as well. From the time of 
Aristotle downwards literary criticism forms part of the province 
of rhetoric. 

While the place of poetry in Athenian education was due 
partly to a belief in the poet as a teacher and as an ^^^^ ^^ 
inspired being, partly to the fact that poetry attained Prose in 
an artistic form at an earlier date than prose (besides 
being easier to commit to memory), the place of prose was distinctly 
subordinate. In Plato's Phaedrus'' Socrates is described as disparag- 
ing reading and writing in comparison with talking and memory ; but 
1 ib. p. XX. - iii 9, 2. ^ 274 C. 

S. H. 2 



1 8 THE ATHENIAN AGE [CHAP. 

in Xenophon's Memorabilia^ we find him unrolling and perusing, 
with his friends, ' the treasures of the wise men of old, which they 
wrote down in books and left behind them '. As a young man, he 
had ' heard someone reading aloud ' a book of Anaxagoras, and 
hastened to obtain it^. ' Strains written in prose ', and ' composi- 
tions in prose, without rhythm or harmony ', are discussed, as well 
as poetry, in the scheme of education in Plato's Laws^^ but the 
' works handed down by many writers of this class ' (whether in 
prose or verse) are deemed * dangerous ', while a discourse like 
that in the Laws is described as ' inspired of heaven ' and ' exactly 
like a poem ', and as in fact an appropriate pattern for other 
discourses to be used in the education of youth ^. 

After the death of Plato the original manuscripts of his 
Early trans- dialogucs werc possibly preserved in the school 
wJ)rks°of°Pilto °^ ^^^ Academy. For eight years the school was 
and Aristotle under the care of his nephew and successor, Speu- 
sippus, and afterwards for twenty-five under that of Xenocrates, 
who was succeeded by Polemon and others. Copies of the 
original mss were doubtless made at an early date, and some of 
these may have been transmitted from Athens to Alexandria, 
possibly through the agency of Demetrius of Phaleron. The 
earliest extant ms of any part of Plato has been found in Egypt. 
It is a papyrus from the Faiytim, containing about 12 columns 
of the Phaedo, belonging to the middle of the third century B.C. 

On the death of Aristotle, the school of the Lyceum, with the 
library of its founder, remained for more than 34 years under 
the control of his successor Theophrastus. Theophrastus, on his 
death in or about 287 B.C., left his own library and that of 
Aristotle to his pupil Neleus, who removed it to his home at 
Scepsis in the Troad. A few years later the town passed into the 
possession of the Kings of the Attalid dynasty, who from about 
230 B.C. began to found a great Library at Pergamon to vie with 
that of the Ptolemies at Alexandria. The heirs of Neleus 
prudently concealed the mss in a cellar, awaiting an opportunity 
for sending them safely out of the country. The mss had thus 
remained in their possession for more than 150 years, when, about 
100 B.C., they were bought by Apellicon of Teos, and restored 

1 i 6, 14. ^ Phaedo, 97 b. ^ 809 b, 810 b. ^ 811c— E. 



II] PLATO AND ARISTOTLE I9 

to Athens. After the capture of Athens by Sulla in 86 B.C., they 
were transported from Athens to Rome, where they were consulted 
by scholars such as Tyrannion, Andronicus^, and others ; but, 
owing to long neglect, many of them had become illegible, and 
the copies made after they had passed into the hands of Apellicon 
were disfigured with unskilful conjectures and restorations. The 
above story of their fortunes is told us by Tyrannion's pupil, 
Strabo, who adds that Aristotle was the first to ' collect books ', 
thus setting 'an example afterwards followed by the Kings of 
Egypt 'I The story is partly confirmed in one passage of 
Athenaeus^, but contradicted in another^, carelessly asserting 
that all the books of Aristotle in the possession of Neleus were 
purchased for the Alexandrian library by Ptolemy II, who is 
elsewhere described as possessing more than 1000 books or rolls 
of the Aristotelian writings ^ The earliest extant manuscript 
of the Aristotelian writings is the papyrus containing Aristotle's 
Constitution of Athens^ found in Egypt in 1890 and ascribed 
to about 100 A.D. 

^ Added in Plutarch's Sulla, 26. ^ Strabo, pp. 608-9. 

^ 214 D—E. ^ 3B. * Schol. Arist. iia \.i. 



CHAPTER III 



THE BEGINNINGS OF GRAMMAR AND ETYMOLOGY 

We are told by Herodotus^ that the Phoenicians who came 
with Cadmus brought with them the letters of the 
Phoenician alphabet, and that in course of time they 
adapted the method of writing them to the requirements of the 
Greek language. In the temple of the Ismenian Apollo at Thebes, 
Herodotus had himself seen three tripods inscribed with ' Cad- 
meian ' letters, ' for the most part resembling those of the 
lonians '. He assigns the three inscriptions to the age of Laius 
in the third, and to those of Oedipus and Laodamas in the fourth 
and sixth generations from Cadmus^. We are also told by 
Herodotus that the lonians who lived nearest to the Phoenicians 
{e.g. in Cyprus and Rhodes) borrowed the Phoenician alphabet, 
with a few changes, and habitually called them the ' Phoenician ' 
letters'. 

From the Phoenician alphabet of 22 signs was derived the 
original Greek alphabet of 22 letters, which in the oldest extant 
inscriptions approximate to the following forms : 

123 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 

AailA^ =] lB<S)^>IAW\^fflO 

a /3 y S e digamnta ^ heta 6 l k \ ijl v ^ o 

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 

n M ? <1 ^ T. To this was added Y and the four 

IT san koppa par v 

24 25 26 27 

'non-Phoenician' signs : 4^ X y A. In the Ionic alpha- 

<^ X i/r w 

bet nos. 6 {digamma) and i8 (san) were omitted, and no. 19 {koppa) 
^ V 58. 2 V 59—61. 3 V g8. 



CHAP. Ill] GRAMMAR AND ETYMOLOGY 21 

very rarely used; no. 8 {heta) denoted 77; the forms were 
simplified, and the result was the following series of 24 letters : 

ABrAETH(earlierB)0(earlier<g))|l<AMN50nPCTY4^Xyn\ 

There were various local varieties in the alphabet, but we are 
here concerned only with the old Attic alphabet of 2 1 letters : 
ABA (y) A^I ({) H {h) eiKU (X) MNOnp^TY4)Xl ^ repre- 
sented €, ct, r; ; O represented o, ov, w ; H {heta) denoted the 
aspirate; ^ was spelt as X^, and i/^ as 4^^. This alphabet was 
in public use from about 540 to 404 B.C. ; but, between 431 and 
404 B.C., certain other forms were also in use, such as E, O, P 

and X. . This local Attic alphabet was gradually superseded by 
the old Ionic alphabet in which the long E was represented by H, 
the long O by A, and the double consonants by the single 
symbols i and y. This Ionic alphabet was in literary and 
private use at Athens before 403 b.c. Thus, in a fragment of the 
Theseus of Euripides, a play produced before 431 B.C., a slave 
who cannot read describes the second letter of the name of 
the hero of the play as consisting of two lines separated by 
a third line (hi) . But it was not until the archonship of 
Eucleides (403 B.C.) that official sanction was given to such 
changes by the decree ordering that henceforth all public docu- 
ments should be written in the Ionic characters. This reform 
was advocated in a special pamphlet published by the statesman 
Arctinus^. 

Spelling was taught by means of a series of syllables combining 
the consonants with all the vowels in succession. Fragments of 
a tile have been found in Attica bearing the syllables ap ySap yap 
Sap, ep /3ep yep Sep etc. The comic poet Callias wrote a 'letter- 
play ' (ypafxixaTLKr) rpaywSta) in which the dramatis persofiae were 
the letters of the alphabet, all of which were enumerated in the 



^ Cp. E. S. Roberts, in Companion to Greek Studies, pp. 582 f., and Greek 
Epigraphy, pp. 4f., 106 f. 

2 Kirchhoff's Studien zur Geschichte des gr. Alphabets, Tafel i, xiii (i). 
^ Kirchhoff, ib. Tafel i, xiii (2). 4 Athenaeus, 454 B. 

* Suidas, s.v. i:,afduv Sijfios. 



22 THE ATHENIAN AGE [CHAP. 

prologue, with a separate enumeration of the vowels at a later 
point. The play included a spelling-chorus, prjra aX<^a (3a etc. 

The current division of letters (o-Toi;(eta), as may be inferred from 
three passages of Plato, was as follows : (i) ' voiced ' 
or 'vocal' letters (cfiOivtjevTa, voca/es), our ' vowels '; 
(2) 'voiceless' letters (a^wi/a), our 'consonants'. The latter 
were divided into (a) letters not only ' voiceless' but also 'without 
sound ' (acfxDva Kal a<f)Ooyya), our ' mutes ' ; and (d) letters that 
are 'not vocal ', but ' not without sound ' (cfyuivyevra fxlv ov, ov fxevroi 
ye acfiOoyya), i.e. \ fx, 1/, p, 9, afterwards known as ' semivowels ' 
(yfjLLcfxovay. A passage in the Timaeus^ mentions the * teeth ', 
* tongue ' and 'lips' as producing 'the river of speech', which 
is 'the fairest and noblest of all streams'. In the Cratylus^ 
Plato notices that the only letters which have no special names 
are E, Y, O, 12, thus showing that the names epsilon^ upsilon, 
omicron and omega are of later origin, the Greeks in this age 
calling these letters «, v, ov, and w. The nsime epsi/on, or 'simple' 
€, was afterwards introduced to distinguish that letter from the 
diphthong at, and similarly upsilon, or ' simple ' v, to distinguish 
that letter from the diphthong ot, and both these names belong to 
the late Byzantine age, when e and at, and v and ot respectively, 
were pronounced alike. The name omega is also late. 

The earliest trace of any classification of words is to be found 
in Plato. ' Grammar ' was at first regarded mainly as the art of 
reading and writing ; but it also included the theory of the nature 
of sounds and of accent, with questions of quantity and rhythm, 
and in these respects it was closely connected with Music. 
With the classification of words grammar entered on a new stage. 
It is traditionally held that Plato was the first to distinguish 
between the Noun and the Verb, calling the former ovo/xa and the 
latter pi7/xa. But the correspondence between these terms is 
incomplete, and the distinction drawn by Plato between oi/o/xa 
and p^/xa does not answer to the gra?n7tiatical distinction between 
Noun and Verb, but to the logical distinction between Subject 
and Predicate. This is true even of the passage in the Sophistes^^ 
which is the main support of those who ascribe to Plato the first 

1 Cratylus, 424c; Fhilebus, 18 B, c (where tcl fxiaa are the 'semivowels'); 
TAeae^. 203 B. '^ 75 D. * 394 D. •* 261 e. 



Ill] GRAMMAR AND ETYMOLOGY 23 

distinction between Noun and Verb as parts of speech. He 
there says : — ' There are two kinds of intimations of being which 
are given by the voice', 'one of them called oi/o/xara and the 
other pTJfxara ' ; ' that which denotes action we call prj/xa \ * the 
articulate sign set on those who do the actions we call ovofxa ' ; ' a 
succession of ovofiara or pTJfxara alone is not discourse'; 'it is only 
when they are mingled together that language is formed '. pij/xa 
in Plato includes every kind of predicate. Thus, in the Cratylus^, 
Aa <^tA.os (being predicated of a person) is called a p^/xa, while its 
derivative Ak^iXos is an ovo\xa. In later times Plato's ovo/xa and 
pT7/xa were regarded as grammatical parts of speech, and the 
question whether this division was meant by Plato to be exhaustive, 
or whether the other parts of speech were only omitted because 
they were comparatively unimportant, was discussed by Plutarch 
in his Platonic Questions'^ ^ and decided in the latter sense. In 
Plato we find suggestions of the distinction afterwards drawn in 
grammar between the Substantive and the Adjective^; he also 
recognises Number^, Tenses of Verbs ^, and 'Active and Passive '**. 
Moods are not yet mentioned, but Protagoras had already 
distinguished in rhetoric some of the various modes of expression 
which correspond to the Moods of grammar He had also 
divided nouns into three classes, male, female, and inanimate 
(o-KciJT/), a classification apparently founded on a real or natural, 
and not on a grammatical basis, ' male ' and ' female ' nouns 
denoting male and female persons, or distinctions in sex, whether 
in mankind or among animals in general, and things inanimate 
including the names of all other objects, natural and artificial, 
real and abstract. This last class contains many words which are 
grammatically masculine or feminine, but the classification of 
Protagoras can hardly be identified with a classification of nouns 
as masculine, feminine and neuter. Protagoras uses in the sense 
of ' classes ' the same term (yeVr/), which was afterwards adopted 
in grammar to denote 'genders"'. 

^ 399 B. 2 Moralia, ii 1008. 

'^ Cp. iirtavvfiia in Farm. 131 A, So/h. 225 D, Phaedr. 238 A. 

^ Soph. 237 ?:. ^ Farm. 151 E, 156 A; Soph. 262 D. 

6 Soph. ■219B; FAt/edus26E. 

^ Ar. Clouds 659 fif. may be a satire on Protagoras. 



24 THE ATHENIAN AGE [CHAP. 

In the earlier Greek philosophers we find a few traces of 
speculation on the origin of language. Thus Pythagoras {fl, 540 — 
510 B.C.) held that, next to 'number', the highest wisdom 
belonged to 'him who gave things their names". Heracleitus 
{fi. 500 B.C.), though celebrated for the obscurity of his language, 
appears to have laid stress on linguistic expression, but we know 
of no scientific enunciation of his on this subject. He is, how- 
ever, known to have held that words existed naturally (cfiva-iL). 
Words, he said, were not like the artificial, but like the natural 
images of visible things ; they resembled shadows, and reflexions 
in water, or images seen in mirrors^ Democritus (460 — 357 B.C.) 
described the names of the gods as their ' vocal images '^. His 
contemporary Hippocrates (c. 460 — 359 B.C.) called names 'ordi- 
nances of nature ' {cf>v(TLos vo/xo^cTTy/xara) ; and Antisthenes (y?. 
400 B.C.) wrote on names and on language in connexion with his 
dialectical theories. But our knowledge of these speculations is 
very imperfect. In the case of Plato we have more material for 
forming an opinion, but even here there is much that is confused 
and perplexing. It was said of Plato that he was the first to 
speculate on the nature of ' grammar '^ In the Cratylus there 
are three interlocutors holding different views as to the nature and 
origin of language. (1) Hermogenes holds that language is 
conventional^ and that all names have their origin in convention 
and mutual agreement; like the names of slaves, they may be 
given and altered at pleasure. (2) Cratylus, a follower of Hera- 
cleitus, holds that language is natural^ and that every name is 
either a true name or not a name at all; he cannot conceive 
of degrees of imitation ; a word is either the perfect expression 
of a thing or a mere inarticulate sound. (3) Socrates takes up an 
intermediate position, holding that language is founded on nature^ 
but modified by convention^. 

1 6 TO, dvofxara rots irpdyfiaaL difxepos, Proclus on Plato's Cralylus, p. 6; 
Cicero, l^usc. Disp. i 25. 

2 Ammonius on Aristotle, de Interp. p. 24 b Aid. 

3 ayoKfiaTa (povijevTa, Olympiodorus on Plato, Philebus, p. 242. 

^ Favorinus ap. Diog. Laert. III i 19, 25, irpwroi edeuprjae rrjs ypafi^artKiji 
Tr]P diva/Mv. 

^ See also Introduction to the Cratylus in Jowett's Plato, i 253 — 321^, and 
Di Jsickson's Prae/ectton, 1906. 



Ill] GRAMMAR AND ETYMOLOGY 2$ 

Aristotle's treatise on Poetry includes an analysis of the parts 
of speech and other grammatical details (c. 20), and 
a passage on the gender of nouns (c. 21). Probably 
both of these passages are interpolations. In the former a 'letter' 
is defined, and letters divided into vowels^ semivowels and mutes 
[cf>wvrj€VTa, rifxi<^uiva and a^wi/a) ; a noun, a verb, and a ' connecting 
word ' (o-vv^ccr/Aos) are also defined ; and ' inflexion ' (tttwo-is) is 
described as belonging to the noun and the verb, and expressing 
'of, 'to', or the like, or the relation of number, or that of 'mode 
of address'. In the JDe Interpretatione the verb in the present 
tense is the pri^a.^ and the other tenses are its TTTwcrcts, and else- 
where the TTTwo-ets of a noun include even adjectives and adverbs. 
In contrast with Trrwo-ts, the nominative is called kA^o-is^ Various 
cases are distinguished by Aristotle, but their number and their 
names are still undetermined. In addition to 'Active and 
Passive' Verbs, those subsequently known as 'Neuter' and 
* Deponent ' are now recognised for the first time. The symbol 
of the rough breathing distinguishing OPO^ ' boundary ' from 0P02 
'mountain' is called by Aristotle a Trapda-rjixov^, the former word 
being probably written as •" OP02. The writings of Heracleitus are 
described as hard to punctuate (Siao-rt^at)^, but the only mark of 
punctuation actually mentioned by Aristotle is the Trapaypac^?/*, a 
short horizontal dash drawn below the first word of the line in 
which the sentence is about to end. It is from this ancient 
symbol, which marks the close of the sentence, that we give to 
the sentence itself, or to a connected group of sentences, the 
name of a 'paragraph'. 

The only parts of speech that Aristotle recognises in the first 
chapter of the Categories are ovo/xa and p^/^a, the Noun and the 
Verb. In the Rhetoric^ and the Problems^ he makes incidental 
mention of o-wSccr/xot, a term including conjunctions, connecting 
particles and even connecting clauses. In the treatise on Poetry^ 
he is also made to mention ap^pa (Pronouns and Articles), but we 
are assured by Dionysius of Halicarnassus^ that only three parts 
of speech were recognised by Aristotle, and, for this and other 

^ Analyt. Friora, 36, p. 48/^ 41 f. 

2 Soph. El. 177 b 3. '^ Rhei. iii 5. ^ Khet. iii 8. ^ iii 5 and 12. 

^ xix 20. '' c. 20. ^ De Comp. c. 2. 



26 THE ATHENIAN AGE [CHAP. 

reasons, the chapter in question is best regarded as an inter- 
polation. 

In the controversy as to the origin of language Aristotle is an 
adherent of 'convention' and not of 'nature'. The terms con- 
stituting a Proposition are declared by Aristotle to be a Noun in 
the nominative case as Subject, and a Verb as Predicate ; and the 
Verb is distinguished from the Noun as connoting time\ While 
Plato^ regards the Proposition as composed of the wo/xa and the 
prjfjLa (having no other terms than these for Subject and Predicate), 
and expresses affirmation by ^aVts and negation by d7ro<^a(rt9, 
Aristotle has a technical term not only for affirmation (Karat^ao-ts) 
and negation (a7rd<^acns) and for negative Noun and Verb, but 
also for Subject (to v-n-oKecfxevou) and for Predicate (to Kar-qyo- 
povixevov)'^. 'Subject' is in fact the modern form ol subjectum^ the 
late Latin rendering in Martianus Capella'' of the term first found 
in Aristotle. The further development of the terminology of 
Grammar was reserved for the Stoics of the third and following 
centuries B.C. 

Meanwhile, the Peripatetic School carried on the Aristotelian 
The Peripa- tradition by the special study of the history and 
tetic School ^^ criticism of Literature. Thus Heracleides 
Ponticus of Heracleia Pontica on the Bithynian coast 
{c. 390 — 310 B.C.), who had been a devoted pupil of Plato before 
Heracleides he became a very independent pupil of Aristotle, 
Ponticus wrote on Rhetoric and Music, and also on Poetry 

and Poets, on Homeric problems^, on the age of Homer 
and Hesiod, on Homer and Archilochus, and on Sophocles 
and Euripides. These writings were later than his return to his 
birthplace on the Euxine in 338 B.C. According to his rival, 
Aristoxenus, the tragedies which he attributed to Thespis were 
really forged by Heracleides^, a fact on which Bentley insists in 



^ De Interpr. c. 5. ^ Sophistes^ 261 f. 

^ Analyt. Priora, c. i and c. 28. "* iv 361. 

^ His two books Xvaiwv 'O/xrjpiKibv are quoted in six of the Homeric 
scholia. They are not to.be confounded with the 'O/nrjpiKO. irpo^XrumaTa of 
Heracleitus, an allegorist of the early Roman Empire (ed. Oelmann, 1910). 

^ Diogenes Laertius, v 92. 



Ill] THE PERIPATETIC SCHOOL 2/ 

discussing the ' Age of Tragedy ' in the course of his Dissertation 
on Phalaris^ Aristoxenus of Tarentum {fl. 318) 

, , ,. .... . , - Aristoxenus 

was the leading authority in the ancient world on 

Rhythm and Music"^. He also wrote biographies of Pythagoras, 

Archytas, Socrates and Plato, in which undue prominence was 

given to the merest gossip. Another rival of Heracleides 

Ponticus, his fellow-countryman, Chamaeleon, wrote 

on Homer, Hesiod, Stesichorus, Sappho, Anacreon, 

Lasus, Pindar, Simonides, Thespis and Aeschylus ; also on the 

early history of Tragedy and on ancient Comedy. 

The critical study of prose style was continued by Aristotle's 
successor, Theophrastus of Eresos in Lesbos (372 — 

^ . TT- • ^ o, 7 / \ \ /> \ Ml Theophrastus 

287). His treatise On Style {irepi Ae^cws), was still 
extant in the time of Cicero. He is expressly named in Cicero's 
Orator in connexion with the style of Herodotus and Thucydides 
(§ 39)5 the four points of excellence in style (79), the rhythm of 
prose (172, 228), and the use of the paean (194, 218); while 
several passages may probably be traced to him, e.g. that on 
delivery and its effect on the emotions (55), on beauty of diction 
(80) and on moderation in the use of metaphor (81). To Theo- 
phrastus we also owe the division of style into the 'grand', the 
'plain', and the 'mixed' or 'intermediate', adopted by Cicero in 
§§ 20, 21'. 

Among the younger and more independent pupils of Aristotle 
was Dicaearchus of Messana (fl. 310 B.C.), the 

. Dicaearchus 

author of an important work entitled ^10^ T-fjs 
*EXA.a8o9. It was the first attempt at a history of civilisation, 
tracing the ' Life of Greece ' from the dawn of history to the age 
of Alexander. It included an account of the geography and history, 
as well as the moral and religious condition of the country, besides 
embracing music and poetry in its extensive range. Treatises on 
Constitutions, such as that of Sparta, and those of Pellene, Corinth 



* p. 238 ed. 1699 (p. 266 ed. Wagner). 

2 The Harmonics of Aristoxenus, ed. with translation and notes by 
H. S. Macran, Oxford, 1902. 

3 See A. Mayer's Theophrasti wepl \k^em . . .fraginenta^ pp. i — 50, 1910, 
and cp. Stroux, De Theophrasti virtutibus dicendi, Leipzig, 191 2. 



28 THE ATHENIAN AGE [CHAP. 

and Athens, mentioned by Cicero^ may have either formed part 
of this work or served as materials for it ; while that on ' musical 
competitions ' may have belonged to a larger treatise on * Dionysiac 
contests'. His account of Homer was possibly the source of the 
story of the collections of the Homeric poems by Peisistratus^. 
His name is assigned to certain Arguments to the plays of Sophocles 
and Euripides ; and those on the Alcestis and Medea are still extant. 
He wrote biographies of Pythagoras, Xenophanes, and probably 
also of the Seven Wise Men and Plato, besides treating of the 
leading poets in the course of his great work on Greece. He did 
much for the study of Greek geography, and his maps were known 
to Cicero^; but he was much more than a mere student. He 
measured the altitudes of the mountains of the Peloponnesus, 
and he appeared as a public speaker at the Panathenaic festival 
at Athens, and at the Panhellenic festival at Olympia. 

A pupil of Theophrastus, Praxiphanes of Rhodes or Mytilene 
(fl. 300 B.C.), was one of the first to pay special 

Praxiphanes . • , , .... ,., 

attention to 'grammatical studies in the literary 
sense of the term. His interests included history, poetry, rhetoric, 
and the criticism and interpretation of literature. He was the first 
to suggest the spuriousness of the beginning of the ordinary text 
of Hesiod's Works and Days on the ground of its omission in the 
earlier mss; and he also criticised the opening words of Plato's 
Timaeus. His work on poetry was in the form of a dialogue 
between Plato and Isocrates; and, probably between 291 and 
287 B.C., he counted among his pupils Aratus and Callimachus. 
Another pupil of Theophrastus, Demetrius of Phaleron 
Demetrius of (^' 35° — ^- 280), was the first to introduce reci- 
Phaieron tations by rhapsodists into the theatre of Athens ^ 

For a period of ten years (317 — 307) he ruled with dis- 
tinction at Athens as Regent for Cassander. After his fall in 
307 he fled to Thebes, and, ten years later, in 297, left for Egypt, 
where he attained great influence at the court of Ptolemy I. 
Besides his numerous pofitical and oratorical works, he wrote 
on the Iliad and the Odyssey^ collected the Fables of Aesop, 
and drew up a chronological list of the Archons of Athens. In 

^ Ad Atticum, ii 2. ^ p. 2 supra. 

2 ib. vi. 2. ■* Athen. 620 B. 



Ill] DEMETRIUS OF PHALERON 29 

his treatise on Rhetoric he told the story he had heard from 
Demosthenes himself, on the way in which the orator had in his 
youth corrected the defects of an indistinct delivery \ The treatise 
irepl €pfxrjv€La<s which bears his name belongs to a later age. He 
is described by Cicero as the leading representative of the 
' intermediate ' style, which combines the minimum of force with 
the maximum of charm ; his diction was marked by a placid 
smoothness, and 'lit up by the stars of metaphor and metonymy"^. 
More florid than Lysias and Hypereides^ he marks the beginning 
of the decHne in Attic eloquence which followed the death of 
Demosthenes. In the history of Scholarship he marks the close 
of the Athenian and the beginning of the Alexandrian age, serving 
as a link between the first capital of Greek culture and the second, 
in so far as, after holding a prominent position in the oratorical 
and political world of Athens, he prompted the founding of the 
famous Library of Alexandria. 

1 Plut. Bern. c. II. ^ Orator, §§ 91 f. ^ Brutus, 285. 



BOOK II 

THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE 



CHAPTER IV 

THE SCHOOL OF ALEXANDRIA 

Greek Scholarship was fostered in Alexandria under the rule 
of the earlier Ptolemies. It was during the reign of Ptolemy Soter 
that Demetrius of Phaleron gave the first impulse towards the 
founding of public libraries in the Egyptian capital {c. 295 B.C.). 
Ptolemy Soter, who had in vain invited Theophrastus and 
Menander to settle in Alexandria, entrusted the education of his 
son and successor, Ptolemy Philadelphus (285 — 247), to the poet 
and scholar, Philetas of Cos, and to the philosopher, Straton, the 
successor of Theophrastus ; and the monarchical city of Alexandria 
took the place of democratic Athens as the literary centre of the 
Greek world. Early in the Alexandrian age literary institutions 
of the highest importance were founded in the city of the Ptolemies. 
The foundation of the Great Library in particular was probably 
due in the first instance to Ptolemy Soter, acting under the advice 
of Demetrius, but the credit is often assigned to Philadelphus. 
„, Philadelphus is also credited with the foundation of 

The Museum ^ . 

the splendid shrme of learnmg known as the Movo-ctov, 
Hhe temple, or home, of the Muses', which is described by Strabo, 
who visited Alexandria in 24 B.C., as forming part of the royal 
quarter of the city, and as including a covered walk, an arcade 
furnished with recesses and seats, and a large building containing 
a common hall, in which the Scholars who were members of the 
Museum met for their meals. This learned body had endowments ; 



CHAP. IV] MUSEUMS AND LIBRARIES OF ALEXANDRIA 3 I 

and its president, nominated by the government, was called ' the 
priest of the Museum '\ Even 500 years after its foundation it is 
eulogised by Philostratus as a society of celebrities^; in the follow- 
ing century the quarter of the city where it lay is described by 
Ammianus Marcellinus as ' having long been the home of eminent 
men'^, while the last who is actually named as a member of the 
Museum is the celebrated mathematician and neo-platonist Theon 
{fl. 380 A.D.), the father of the noble-hearted and ill-fated Hypatia 
(d. 415 A.D.). It is in connexion with the pathetic story of her 
life that the old associations of this memorable haunt of Alexandrian 
scholars and poets have been happily characterised by Kingsley : — 
'School after school, they had all walked and taught and sung 
there, beneath the spreading planes and chestnuts, figs and palm 
trees. The place seemed fragrant with all the riches of Greek 
thought and song'^ 

The other literary institutions of the earlier Ptolemies were the 
two libraries. The larger of these is stated to have 
been in the Brucheion^ the N.E. quarter of Alex- 
andria, and was probably very close to the Museum. It has 
however been conjecturally placed in the western half of the city, 
S.E. of the Heptastadion, about 400 yards from the Great 
Harbour, and to the north of the main street, which was lined 
with shady colonnades and extended for nearly four miles from 
the N.E. to the S.W. of Alexandria. 'There it towered up, the 
wonder of the world, its white roof bright against the rainless 
blue; and beyond it, among the ridges and pediments of noble 
buildings, a broad glimpse of the bright sea'^ 

The smaller Library, sometimes called the 'daughter-library', 
was in the Rhakofis, the S.W. quarter, near the ^j^^ Librar 
temple of Serapis and 'Pompey's Pillar', and not of the 
far from the Mareotic lake, which extends behind 
the spit of land on which Alexandria was built. The 
completion of the Library of the Serapeum, like that of the 
Great Library of the Bruckeion, may be ascribed to Ptolemy 
Philadelphus. It was also Philadelphus who, according to the 

^ P- 793 f- " ^^^' Soph, i 22, 5. 

^ xxii 16, 15, diuturnum praestantium honiinum domicilium. 
^ Hypatia, c. 1. ^ Hypatia^ c. 2. 



32 THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE [CHAP. 

'Letter of Aristeas', quoted by Josephus^ caused the Law of 
Moses to be translated into Greek by a commission of learned 
Jewish elders, thus beginning the version known as the Septuagint^ 
probably projected in the reign of Ptolemy Soter. To the reign 
of Philadelphus, and to about the year 255 B.C., belongs the 
settlement of a Greek colony in the newly reclaimed and greatly 
enlarged oasis of Lake Moeris, now known as the Faiyum. The 
Hellenic culture of that district is attested by the numerous ^^/jj^n 
there discovered. 

The number of mss comprised in the two Alexandrian Libraries 
is variously stated. We are informed that, in reply to a royal 
inquiry, it was stated by Demetrius of Phaleron (about 285 B.C.), 
that it was already 200,000, and that he would soon bring it up 
to 500,000^. In the time of Callimachus {c. 310 — c. 240 B.C.), 
the larger Library contained 400,000 volumes, including several 
works in each volume, and also 90,000 separate works ^ In the 
middle of the first century b.c. the number is said to have been 
700,000^ The smaller Library comprised 42,800 volumes^, which 
were probably comparatively modern mss with each roll complete 
in itself. 

It will be remembered that the Library has been conjecturally 
placed at a distance of about 400 yards from the harbour of 
Alexandria^. In 47 B.C., shortly after the death of Pompey, the 
conflicts between the Roman soldiers and the Egyptians in the 
streets of the city compelled Caesar to set the royal fleet on fire 
to prevent its falling into the hands of the Egyptians. The naval 
arsenal was also burnt''. According to the historian Orosius 
{c. 415 A.D.), the flames spread to the shore, where 40,000 
volumes happened to be stored up in the adjacent buildings^. 
The phrase used by Orosius has led to the conjecture that these 
volumes, having been removed by Caesar from the Library, were 



^ Ant. Jud. xii 2. 

2 'Aristeas' ap. Euseb. Praep. Ev. viii 2, p. 350a. 

3 Tzetzes, Proleg. in Arist. Plutus. 

^ Gellius vi 17; Amm. Marc, xxii 16, 13. ^ Tzetzes, u.s. 

6 p. 31 supra. 7 Caesar, ^. C. iii in. 

8 Orosius, iv 15, 31, quadraginta milia librorum proximis y^r/^ aedibus 
condita exussit. 



IV] LIBRARIES OF ALEXANDRIA 33 

temporarily stacked in certain buildings near the harbour, with a 
view to their being shipped to Rome as part of the spoils of 
conquest ; and that the burning of these books led to the legend 
of the burning of the Library ^ The earliest mention of the 
disaster which befell the mss is in Seneca^. 'The Pergamene 
Libraries', containing 200,000 separate volumes, were presented 
to Cleopatra by Antonius in 41 B.c.^ and Domitian is said to 
have supplemented the deficiences of the libraries in Italy by 
means of transcripts from the Alexandrian mss"*. Under Aurelian 
(272 A.D.) the Brucheion was laid wasted and under Theodosius I 
(391 A.D.) the Library of the Serapeum was probably demolished^. 
In 642 A.D., when Amrou, the general of Omar, Caliph of the 
Saracens, captured Alexandria, it is stated that Johannes 
Philoponus, the commentator on Aristotle, asked the conqueror 
for the gift of the Alexandrian Library, that the conqueror felt 
constrained to consult the Caliph, and that the Caliph made the 
well-known reply : — ' if these writings of the Greeks agree with 
the book of God, they are useless and need not be preserved ; if 
they disagree, they are pernicious and ought to be destroyed'. 
It is added that the contents of the Library were consigned to the 
flames, and that they served for six months as fuel for the 4000 
baths of Alexandria. The authority for this story is Abul- 
pharagius''; but it has been urged by Gibbon^ that his account, 
written in a distant province six centuries after the event, is 
refuted by the silence of two annalists of an earlier date and of 
a direct connexion with Alexandria, the more ancient of whom, 
the patriarch Eutychius, has minutely described the destruction 
of the city. The destruction of books, the historian adds, is 
contrary to the principles of Mohammedanism. In any case it 
may well be doubted whether any large number of ancient mss 
were still to be found in Alexandria at the date of its capture 
by the general of the Saracens. 



^ Parthey, Musatni Alex. p. 32. 

2 De Tranq. An. 9. quadraginta milia librorum Alexandriae arserunt. 

•^ Plut. Ant. 58. "* Suet. Dotn. 20. 

•^ Amm. Marc, xxii 16, 5. * Cp. Orosius, vi 15, 32. 

7 Cp, Gibbon, V 453, 515, Bury. ® c. 51. ... 

S. H. 3 



34 THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE [CHAP. 

The first six Librarians of Alexandria were Zenodotus, Apol- 

The lonius Rhodius, Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of By- 

Li ranans zantium, Apollonius the Classifier, and Aristarchus \ 

The Alexandrian age is in the main an age of erudition and 

criticism. Even its poets are often scholars. The 

Philetas 

earliest of the scholars and poets of this age is 
Philetas of Cos (c. 340 — c. 285), the preceptor not only of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus (in 295 — 2 B.C.), but also of Zenodotus and 
of the elegiac poet Hermesianax. He was the author of a 
glossary of unusual poetic words. The readings which he pre- 
ferred in the Homeric text are mentioned in several of the 
scholia^ while those preferred by a greater Homeric scholar, 
Aristarchus, were noted by the latter in a work entitled Trpos 
<Pi\r)Tav. About 292 he returned to Cos, where he apparently 
presided over a brotherhood of poets including Theocritus and 
Aratus. 

His pupil Zenodotus of Ephesus (c. 325 — r. 234 b.c.) was 

made the first Librarian of the great Alexandrian 

Zenodotus . . 

Library early m the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus 
(c. 285). As Librarian, Zenodotus classified the epic poets, while 
Alexander Aetolus dealt with the tragic and Lycophron with the 
comic drama. He compiled a Homeric glossary, in which he was 
apparently content with merely guessing at the meaning of difficult 
words. Shortly before 274 he produced the first scientific edition 
of the //tad and Odyssey. It was founded on numerous mss; 
each of the two poems was probably now for the first time divided 
into 24 books, and spurious fines marked with a marginal obelus. 
His reasons for condemning such lines were mainly because he 
deemed them inconsistent with the context, or unsuited to the 
persons, whether deities or heroes, whose action is there described^. 
Himself an epic poet, he occasionally inserted verses of his own 
to complete the sense, or blended portions of several verses into 
one. He deserves credit, however, for making the comparison of 
MSS the foundation of his text. Our knowledge of his criticisms 
rests almost entirely on statements recorded in the scholia on 

.^} Oxyrhynchus Papyri (1914), no. 1241, pp. 100, 102, 107 f. 
^ Lehrs, De Aristarchi Studiis Homericis^ p. 333^; cp. Cobet, Misc. Crit. 
225—39 (esp. 227, 234) and 251. 



IV] PHILETAS. ZENODOTUS. LYCOPHRON 35 

the Venice ms (A) of Homer. He is sometimes right, when his 
great successors, Aristophanes and Aristarchus, are wrong. His 
recension of Homer was the first recension of any text which 
aimed at restoring the genuine original. His merits as a 
Homeric critic are well summed up by Sir Richard Jebb. 'In 
the dawn of the new scholarship, he appears as a gifted man 
with a critical aim, but without an adequate critical method. He 
insisted on the study of Homer's style; but he failed to place 
that study on a sound basis. The cause of this was that he often 
omitted to distinguish between the ordinary usages of words and 
those peculiar to Homer. In regard to dialect, again, he did not 
sufficiently discriminate the older from the later Ionic. And, 
relying too much on his own feeling for Homer's spirit, he in- 
dulged in some arbitrary emendations. Still, he broke new 
ground; his work had a great repute; and, to some extent, its 
influence was lasting' ^ 

Alexander Aetolus (born c. 315) was responsible for the classi- 
fication of the tragic and satyric dramas in the Alexander 
Alexandrian Library. His work at Alexandria Aetolus 
lasted from c. 285 to 276 B.C., at which date he withdrew to 
the Macedonian capital of Antigonus Gonatas. In his youth 
he was probably a companion of Theocritus and Aratus in 
Cos, and he was also associated with the latter in Macedonia. 
As a tragic poet, he was included among the seven known as the 
Alexandrian Pleias. He also wrote in epic verse, and in ana- 
paestic tetrameters. Among the latter were some notable lines 
on Euripides: 

/cat fiLcroy eXois, Kai Twdd^eiv ov8e Trap* olvov fMefiadriKcas, 
dX\' 6 TL ypd\j/ai., tovt' dp fieXiros Kai aeiprjvuv eTere^xci^' 

Lycophron of Chalcis in Euboea was summoned to Alexandria 
r. 2815 B.C., and entrusted with the arrangement of 

. . . . Lycophron 

the comic poets in the Alexandrian Library. He 

was one of the tragic Pleias of Alexandria. His Alexandra is 

a lengthy tragic monologue consisting of a strange combination of 



^ Jebb's Homer, p. 92 f.; cp. Monro, Od. 436 f. 
^ In Gellius, xv 20, 8. 



36 THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE [CUAP. 

mythological, historical and linguistic learning, grievously wanting 
in taste and deliberately obscure in expression. He also wrote 
the earliest treatise on Comedy, the extant fragments of which 
give an unfavourable impression of his attainments as a scholar. 
Callimachus of Cyrene (^.310—^. 240), and his somewhat earlier 
contemporary Aratus, studied at Athens under the 

Callimachus -r, • . ,^ . , t i • ^ ^ 

Peripatetic Praxiphanes. In his youth he was in- 
vited to Alexandria, where he spent the rest of his life. His 
literary feud with ApoUonius Rhodius has left its mark on the 
poems of both. In contrast to the vast and diffuse epic of Apol- 
lonius, he preferred composing hymns and epigrams, and treating 
heroic themes on a small scale, expressing his aim in a phrase 
that has become proverbial: — /xcya ^l^Xlov fxeya kukovK He was 
a most industrious bibliographer. He is said to have drawn up 
lists of literary celebrities in no less than 120 volumes described 
as 7rtVaK€5 Twv if Trdar] TratScta SLaXafiij/dvTwv kol wv cruveypai/^av. 
This vast work was far more than a mere catalogue. It included 
brief lives of the principal authors, and, in the case of the 
Attic drama, the dates of the production of the plays. It was 
divided into eight classes: — (i) Dramatists, (2) Epic and Lyric 
poets, (3) Legislators, (4) Philosophers, (5) Historians, (6) Orators, 
(7) Rhetoricians, (8) Miscellaneous Writers. In the Drama, the 
order was that of date; in Pindar and Demosthenes, that of 
subject; in Theophrastus and in the Miscellaneous Writers, the 
order was alphabetical. If the authorship was disputed, the 
various views were stated. In these lists, as well as on the label 
(o-tAAv^o?) attached to each roll in the Library, the opening words 
and the number of lines contained in each work were given, in 
addition to the author and the title. Legends of the origin and 
foundation of various cities were included, not only in the four 
books of his poem known as the Atrta, but also in one of his 
prose-works. His works in prose and verse extended to over 
800 volumes. To his school belonged some of the most cele- 
brated scholars and poets, such as Eratosthenes, Aristophanes 
of Byzantium, his own rival ApoUonius Rhodius, with Hermippus, 
Istrus, and Philostephanus of Cyrene. 

1 Athen. 72 a. 



IV] CALLIMACHUS. APOLLONIUS. ERATOSTHENES 37 

Zenodotus, the first of the Alexandrian Librarians, was suc- 
ceeded, not by Callimachus, but by the slightly ApoUonius 
younger pupil, and rival, of Callimachus, ApoUonius Rhodius 
Rhodius, who criticised his predecessor's recension of Homer. 
ApoUonius may have been the tutor of Ptolemy Euergetes about 
270; he was still a young man when he produced his epic 
poem on the Argonautic Expedition, but his feud with Calli- 
machus led to his leaving Alexandria for Rhodes about 260. 
One of the Lives of ApoUonius makes him die in Rhodes, 
while the other makes him return to Alexandria and hold the 
office of Librarian. It is uncertain whether he held the office 
before or after his retirement to Rhodes. 

The third of the Librarians, Eratosthenes {c. 275 — c. 195 b.c.)S 
spent some years in Athens, whence he was recalled 
to Alexandria by Ptolemy Euergetes, and placed at 
the head of the Library. He remained in that important position 
during the reigns of Ptolemy Euergetes (d. 222 B.C.), and Philo- 
pator (222 — 205). His wide and varied learning prompted him 
to be the first to claim the honourable title of <^tA.oA.oyo9. He 
was the first to treat Geography in a systematic and scientific 
manner. He also wrote on Mathematics, Astronomy and Chro- 
nology, and, in connexion with the latter, we may mention his 
work on the Olympian victors. But the masterpiece of his many- 
sided scholarship was a work in at least twelve books, the first of 
its kind, on the Old Attic Comedy (ttc/ui Trj<; apxa-ia<i Kw/xtuSia^). 
He there corrected his predecessors, Lycophron and Callimachus, 
deahng with his theme, not in the order of chronology, but in 
a series of monographs on the authorship and date of the plays, 
and on points of textual criticism, language and subject-matter. 
His encyclopaedic learning was not incompatible with poetic 
taste. In opposition to the prosaic opinion that the battles of 
the warriors in the Iliad, and the wanderings of the hero of the 
Odyssey, were a precise description of actual events, he main- 
tained that the aim of every true poet is to charm the imagination 
and not to instruct the intellect^ 'The scenes of the wanderings 

^ c. 284 — 204 has been suggested. In any case, he lived to the age of 80, 
and died after 205 B.C., the date of the accession of Ptolemy V (Epiphanes). 
2 Strabo, p. 7, iroirjTij^ ttSs (TTOxat^rai ypyxo-y^oylas , ov didaaKoXlas. 



38 THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE [CHAP. 

of Odysseus will be found' (said Eratosthenes), 'when you find 
the cobbler who sewed up the bag of the winds, and not before". 
His successor as Librarian {c. 195 B.C.) was Aristophanes 
Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 257—^. 180), the pupil of 
of Byzantium Zenodotus, Callimachus and Eratosthenes. He 
was the first of the Librarians who was not a poet as well as 
a scholar; but in Scholarship he holds, with Aristarchus, one 
of the foremost places in the ancient world. He reduced 
accentuation and punctuation to a definite system. To Aristo- 
phanes are attributed the use of the mark of elision, the short 
stroke (vTroStao-roXr;) denoting a division in a word (such as the 
end of a syllable), the hyphen (•--' below the word), the comma 
(vTroa-TLyix-q)^ the colon (fJiea-rj (TTLyfxrj) and the full stop (rcA-cta 
(TTLyfXT^); also the indications of quantity, ^ for 'short' and - for 
' long', and lastly the accents, acute ', grave \ and circumflex ^ or ". 
These accents were invented with a view to preserving the true 
pronunciation, which was being corrupted by the mixed popu- 
lations of the Greek world. Aristophanes was certainly the 
originator of several new symbols for use in textual criticism. 
To the short horizontal dash called the 6ft€Xo<; or 'spit' — , which 
had already been used by Zenodotus to denote a spurious line, he 
added the asterisk * to draw attention to passages where the 
sense is incomplete, and, in lyric poets, to mark the end of a 
metrical KuiXov; also the Kepavviov T, to serve as a collective 
obelus where several consecutive lines are deemed to be spurious ; 
and, lastly, the avTia-cyixa, or inverted sigma, 3 , to draw attention 
to tautology^. These symbols were used in his edition of the 
I/iad and Odyssey^ which marked an advance on that of Zeno- 
dotus and the next editor, Rhianus. He agreed with Zenodotus 
in obelising many lines, but he also reinstated, and obelised, 
many which had been entirely omitted by his predecessor. Thus 
he appears to have had some regard for manuscript evidence, or 
at least for the duty of faithfully recording it, even if he dis- 
approved it. In rejecting certain lines, he acted on independent 
grounds; in this he showed considerable boldness, but was often 
right. A good example of his acuteness is his rejection of the 

^ Strabo, p. 24. 

^ Ke\fftxsc\it\di, Suetoni Reliquiaey ^\>. 137 — 144. 



IV] ARISTOPHANES OF BYZANTIUM 39 

conclusion of the Odyssey^ from xxiii 296 to the end^ Like 
Zenodotus, however, he is apt to judge the picture of manners 
presented in the Homeric poems by the Alexandrian standard, 
and to impute either impropriety, or lack of dignity, to phrases 
that are quite in keeping with the primitive simplicity of the 
heroic age^. 

Besides his Homeric labours, he edited the Theogony of 
Hesiod, and the lyric poets, Alcaeus, Anacreon and Pindar. In 
the case of Pindar he produced what was probably the fir^t 
collected edition. 

It may fairly be inferred from the scholia on Euripides and 
Aristophanes that he prepared a recension of both of those 
poets. It is probable that he also edited Aeschylus and 
Sophocles. He wrote introductions to the plays of all the three 
tragic poets, as well as to Aristophanes, and these have survived 
in an abridged form in the Arguments (viroOca-eis) prefixed to 
their plays, which are ultimately founded on the researches of 
Aristotle and others of the Peripatetic School. Aristophanes 
also divided the works of Plato into trilogies, viz. (i) Republic, 
Timaeus, Critias; (2) Sophistes, Politicus, Cratylus; (3) Laws, 
Minos, Epinomis) (4) Theaetetus, Euthyphron, Apologia; (5) Crito, 
Phaedo, Letters; but an arrangement which separates the CnV^and 
Phaedo from the Apologia cannot be regarded as satisfactory. 

He further compiled an important lexicographical work entitled 
A.e^€t?, in the course of which he treated of words supposed to be 
unknown to ancient writers, or denoting different times of life, 
forms of salutation, terms of relationship or civic life or of Attic 
or Laconian usage. The work showed a wide knowledge of 
dialects, and marked a new epoch by tracing every word to its 
original meaning, thus raising ' glossography ' to the level of 
lexicography. He probably wrote a work on Analogy or gram- 
matical regularity, as contrasted with Anomaly or grammatical 
irregularity. In this work he apparently endeavoured to deter- 
mine the normal rules of Greek declension, by drawing attention 
to general rules of regular inflexion rather than irregular and 
exceptional forms. Lastly, there is reason to believe that he 
drew up lists of the ancient poets who were foremost in the 
1 Nauck, Aristophanis Byz.frag. p. 32. '^ Cp. Cobet, quoted on p. 34. 



40 THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE [CHAP. 

various forms of poetry. This is inferred from a passage of 
Quintilian (x i, 54) stating that Apollonius Rhodius is not included 
in the ordo a grammaticis dattts^ 'because Aristarchus and Aris- 
tophanes did not include any of their own contemporaries '. In 
the same chapter (§ 59) he states that Archilochus was one of the 
three iambic poets approved by Aristarchus ; elsewhere (i 4, 3) 
he describes the ancient grammatici, not only as obelising lines 
and rejecting certain works as spurious, but also as including 
certain authors in their list and entirely excluding others ; and 
from the first chapter of his tenth book (§§ 46 — 54) we infer that 
the four leading epic poets were Homer, Hesiod, Antimachus and 
Panyasis. These passages are almost all the foundation for the 
discussions on the Alexandrian canon. The canons of the 
orators, recognised by Caecilius of Calacte, the friend of Dionysius 
of Halicarnassus, may have been derived from Hermippus. 
Between the age of Aristarchus and that of Strabo, Philetas and 
Callimachus were added to the canon of the elegiac, and 
Apollonius, Aratus, Theocritus and others, to that of the epic 
poets. The most important document bearing on the Alexan- 
drian canon is a list first published by Montfaucon from a MS 
of the tenth century from Mount Athos. The following are the 
names included in this list, as revised by Usener^ who omits late 
additions. The last in the list is Polybius, who died more than 
50 years after Aristophanes of Byzantium. 

(Epic) Poets (5) : Homer, Hesiod, Peisander, Panyasis, Antimachus. 

lajnbic Poets [^ : Semonides, Archilochus, Hipponax. 

Tragic Poets (5): Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Ion, Achaeus. 

Comic Poets, Old (7): Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes, 
Pherecrates, Crates, Plato. Middle (2) : Antiphanes, Alexis. New (5) : 
Menander, Philippides, Diphilus, Philemon, Apollodorus. 

Elegiac Poets (4) : Callinus, Mimnermus, Philetas, Callimachus. 

Lyric Poets (9) : Alcman, Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Pindar, Bacchy- 
lides, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides. 

Orators (10): Demosthenes, Lysias, Hypereides,' Isocrates, Aeschines, 
Lycurgus, Isaeus, Antiphon, Andocides, Deinarchus-. 

Historians (10): Thucydides, Herodotus, Xenophon, Philistus, Theo- 
pompus, Ephorus, Anaximenes, Callisthenes, Hellanicus, Polybius. 

1 Dion. Hal. de Imitation e, p. 130. 

^ Deinarchus, omitted by Usener, is restored by Kroehnert. 



IV] ARISTARCHUS 4I 

Aristophanes of Byzantium was succeeded, as Librarian, by 
Apollonius the ' Classifier ' ^ His successor, Aris- 
tarchus of Samothrace {c. 215 — c. 145 B.C.), lived 
in Alexandria under Ptolemy Philometor (181 — 146). His con- 
tinuous commentaries (vTro/AVT/'/xara) filled no less than 800 
volumes, partly as notes for lectures, partly in finished form. 
These were valued less highly than his critical treatises (avyypdfi- 
fxara) on such subjects as the Iliad and Odyssey, on the naval 
camp of the Achaeans, and on Philetas and on Xenon (one of the 
earliest of the chorizontes, who ascribed the Iliad and the Odyssey 
to different poets). As a commentator he avoided the display of 
irrelevant erudition, while he insisted that each author was his 
own best interpreter. He also placed the study of grammar on a 
sound basis ; he was among the earliest of the grammarians who 
definitely recognised eight parts of speech, Noun, Verb, Participle, 
Pronoun, Article, Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction^. As a 
grammarian he maintained the principle of Analogy, as opposed 
to that of Anomaly. He produced recensions of Alcaeus, 
Anacreon and Pindar; commentaries on the Lycurgus of Aes- 
chylus, on Sophocles and Aristophanes, and even on Herodotus ; 
and recensions, as well as commentaries, in the case of Archilochus 
and Hesiod. He had a profound knowledge of Homeric voca- 
bulary, and was the author of two recensions of the Iliad and 
the Odyssey, with critical and explanatory symbols in the margin 
of each. These symbols were six in number : (i) the obelus — to 
denote a spurious line, already used by Zenodotus and Aristo- 
phanes^; (2) the diple {^nrXr}) >, denoting anything notable either 
in language or matter; (3) the doUed diple (SLTrXrj ir^puanyiiivr]) :>, 
drawing attention to a verse in which the text of Aristarchus 
differs from that of Zenodotus; (4) the asterisk {aa-Tepia-Ko^) ^', 
marking a verse wrongly repeated elsewhere ; (5) the sligme or 
dot (a-TLyfirj), used by itself as a mark of suspected spuriousness, 

^ Oxyrhynchtis Papyri, x {1914), p. 107 f; cp. Etym. Magn., 'A7roXXwj'(to$) 
€lSoyf>d(f>os, iTreidr} eixpvrjs wv iv rrj ^i^XiodrjKri ra etSr) rots eldeatv iir^vei/xev. 

'^ ovofia, prjfjia, ficTOXVi OLVTWvvixla, dpdpov, iiripprffia, irpddeais, (Ttjvdefffxos 
{ovofia included the Adjective). Quint, i 4, 20, alii ex idoneis...auctoribus 
octo partes secuti sunt, ut Aristarchus. 

'^ p. 38 supra. 



42 THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE [CHAP. 

and also in conjunction with (6) the antisigma D, in a sense 
differing from that of Aristophanes, to denote lines in which the 
order had been disturbed, the dots indicating the lines which 
ought immediately to follow the line marked with the afiiisigma. 

In his criticisms on Homer three points have been noticed, 
{i) His careful study of Homeric language. (2) His strong 
reliance on manuscript authority^ and, in cases of conflicting 
readings, on the poet's usage. (3) His comments on the subject- 
matter^ comparing the Homeric versions of myths with those in 
other writers, and noticing characteristic points of Homeric 
civilisation. 

The Homeric mss accessible to Aristarchus mainly fall into 
two groups, those bearing the names of (i) persons^ or (2) places. 
The former are often cited by the name of the editor : — Anti- 
machus, Zenodotus, Rhianus, Sosigenes, Philemon, Aristophanes; 
the latter, by the names of the places from which they came : — 
Massilia, Chios, Argos, Sinope, Cyprus, Crete and Aeolis ; but 
the Cretan edition was probably not used by Aristarchus, and the 
Aeolian is cited only for some variants in the Odyssey. Besides 
these groups there were other texts denoted as * common ' or 
' popular ' (Koti/ai, 8r//AtoSets), representing the ' vulgate ' of the day, 
described as ' the more careless ' (et/catorcpat) as contrasted with 
the ' more accurate ' or ' scholarly ' (xa-pLca-Tepai). 

(i) The extant evidence for the text of Homer is to be found 
mainly in the two mss in Venice, A and B, belonging to the loth 
and nth century respectively, together with statements in the 
scholia in the earlier of these mss, and quotations in ancient 
authors. From these materials what may be called the ' vulgate ' 
text of Homer has been formed. (2) Of the known readings 
of Aristarchus (664 in number) about one-fifth have left no trace 
in our mss, and only one-tenth are found in all mss hitherto 
examined. Notwithstanding the very slight impression which 
Aristarchus produced on the current text of Homer, later writers 
had a profound respect for his authority as a critic. His power 
of critical divination is recognised by Panaetius, who calls him a 
Vdiviner " ; and with Cicero^ and Horace^ his name is a synonym 

1 /muTis, Athen. 634 c. ^ Ad Ati. i 14, 3. 

■' A. P. 450. 



IV] HERMIPPUS. APOLLODORUS. AMMONIUS 43 

for a great critic, and it has so remained ever since. He was the 
founder of scientific Scholarship. He was also the head of a 
School, and Apollodorus, Ammonius and Dionysius Thrax were 
among the most famous of his forty pupils. 

Before turning to the pupils of Aristarchus, we must mention 
a pupil of CalHmachus, Hermippus of Smyrna, the 

1 r ' 1 • 1-1 1 1 -1 ,• Hermippus 

author or an extensive biographical and biblio- 
graphical work, connected with his master's Pinakes and in- 
cluding lives of literary celebrities and lists of their writings, 
so far as they were preserved in the Alexandrian Library. It 
was one of the chief authorities followed by Diogenes Laertius, 
and by Plutarch in his Lives of Lycurgus, Solon and De- 
mosthenes. 

Apollodorus of Athens {fl. 144 B.C.) was a pupil of Aris- 
tarchus in Alexandria, which he left c. 146 B.C. 

Apollodorus 

After 144 B.C. he dedicated to Attalus H of Per- 
gamon a great work on Chronology, beginning with the fall of 
Troy and ending with the above date. The work was afterwards 
brought down to 119 B.C. It was written in comic trimeters, 
possibly as an aid to the memory. Where the exact date of the 
birth and death of any personage was unknown, he used some 
important date in that personage's active life to determine the time 
at which he flourished ; this was called his a/c/xiy and was regarded 
as corresponding approximately to the age of 40. He also wrote 
an important work in 24 books on the Religion of Greece (ttc/ji 
^€(o»/). Some of the numerous fragments of this work are in- 
consistent with the corresponding passages in the mythological 
Bibliotheca^ which bears the name of the same author. Between 
100 and 55 B.C. a handbook of mythology was compiled, which 
became the source from which Diodorus, Hyginus and Pausanias 
drew their information on this subject ; this was also the source 
of the extant Bibliotheca (possibly of the time of Hadrian) bearing 
the name of Apollodorus. 

Aristarchus was succeeded by his pupil Ammonius, who 
devoted himself mainly to the exposition and the 

•' ^ '■ Ammonius 

defence of his master's recensions of Homer. He 

was one of the main authorities followed by Didymus in his work 

on the recension of Homer by Aristarchus. 



44 THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE [CHAP. 

Another eminent pupil of Aristarchus was Dionysius Thrax 
Dionysius {^- 17° — ^- 9° B.C.), the author of the earUest extant 
Thrax Greek Grammar. It is a work of less than i6 

printed pages'. It begins by defining 'Grammar' as 'in general 
the practical knowledge of the usage of writers of poetry and 
prose'. It divides the subject into six parts : — (i) accurate 
reading, (2) explanation of -poetic figures of speech, (3) expo- 
sition of rare words and of subject-matter, (4) etymology, 
(5) statement of regular grammatical forms, (6) the criticism of 
poetry, 'which is the noblest part of all'-. It next deals with 
Accentuation, Punctuation, Letters and Syllables, and, after 
enumerating the Parts of Speech ^ ends with Declension and 
Conjugation, without including either Syntax or precepts on Style. 
In this Grammar ovofia includes not only the Noun, but also the 
Adjective and the Demonstrative and Interrogative Pronouns ; 
and oifjOpov, not only the Article but also the Relative Pronoun ; 
while avrtovv/xLa (' Pronoun ') is limited to the Personal and 
Possessive Pronouns. Among the Greek terms of this treatise 
are ovojjia, yeVo9, oipLOfxo^;, KXiVeig ('Declensions'), TTTwo-cts ('Cases'), 
TTTcotri? ovo/JLacTTLKr] KOL ev^cttt (Nom.), y€VLK7J (Gen.), SoTiKrj (Dat.), 
alriaTLKij (Acc), KXrjTLKrj (Voc); p'HH^a, (Tvt,vyLai ('Conjugations'), 
Sta^eacis ('Voices'), iyKXio-eis ('Moods'), XP^^^'- ('Tenses'), 
Trpoa-oyira (' Persons '). With a strict adherence to Attic usage 
the Active and Passive Foi'ces are here exemplified by tvttto) and 
TUTTTo/xat, the Numbers by tv-ktm^ tutttctoi/ and rvTrrofXiv, and the 
Persons (in inferior mss) by tutttw, rvTrrets, rwrct. It was appa- 
rently in the Canons of the late Alexandrian grammarian 
Theodosius (probably a friend of Synesius of Cyrene,y?. 400 a.d.), 
that this verb appeared for the first time with the complete 
paradigm of all its imaginary moods and tenses. Among the 
Romans, Varro was indebted to the Grammar of Dionysius 
Thrax for his definition of the 'Persons' of the Verb, and for 
that of Grammar itself. It was also the authority followed by 

1 Ed. Uhlig, 1883; apparently written at Rhodes, under Stoic influence. 

^ A fourfold division, which is more logical, in so far as it does not 
confound the aims and the means of instruction, is that ascribed to his pupil 
Tyrannion (see p. 45 infra). 

3 ovojxa, pTjixa, fxeroxv, dpdpov, dvTcovvfxla, irpodeais, iTripp7)na, a^vdeafios. 



IV] DIONYSIUS THRAX. TYRANNION. DIDYMUS 45 

Suetonius, by Remmius Palaemon (the teacher of Quintilian), 
and (probably at second hand) by later Roman grammarians. 
It remained the standard work on Greek Grammar for at least 
13 centuries. 

His pupil, Tyrannion the elder, who was taken to Rome by 
LucuUus in 67 B.C., and was a teacher there in 

Tyrannion 

the time of Pompey the Great, was among the 
first to recognise the value of the Aristotelian mss transported 
to Rome by Sulla in 86 b.c' He has been identified as the 
learned adviser of Atticus in his editions of Greek authors, such 
as Aristotle and 'I'heophrastus. While Dionysius Thrax had 
divided 'Grammar' into six parts, it was probably his pupil, 
Tyrannion, who, more logically, divided it into four: — (i) accu- 
rate recitation, (2) exposition, (3) correction of the text, and 
(4) criticism. It was through Varro that this division was 
transmitted to the Roman grammarians^. He wrote on the 
connexion between the Greek and Latin languages, and on the 
parts of speech. A commentary on the latter work was written 
by his pupil, Tyrannion the younger, who reached Rome as 
a prisoner and owed his freedom to Terentia, the wife of 
Cicero. 

The most versatile and industrious of all the successors of 
Aristarchus was Didymus U. 65 B.C. — 10 a.d,), who 

J '< -J ' Didymus 

taught at Alexandria, and perhaps also m Rome. 
To his prodigious industry he owed the notable name of Chalc- 
ejiterus. He is said to have written between 3500 and 4000 
books, and we are not surprised to learn that he sometimes forgot 
in one book what he had himself written in another. His lexico- 
graphical labours included two vast works on the language of 
Comedy, and on the language of Tragedy (Ac'^cts Kw/xtKat and 
rpaytKat), which may be regarded as the ultimate source of most 
of the lexicographical learning which has come down to us in 
Athenaeus and the scholia, and in the lexicons of Hesychius and 
Photius. He also made an elaborate attempt to restore the 
Homeric recension of Aristarchus. Aristarchus had produced 

^ p. 19 supra. 

2 Diomedes, i 426, ' grammaticae officia, ut adserit Varro, constant in 
partibus quattuor : lectione enarratione emendatione iudicio '. 



46 THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE [CHAP. IV 

two recensions ; but both were lost, and Didymus had to restore 
their readings with the help of transcripts together with such 
evidence as could be derived from the critical monographs and 
the continuous commentaries of Aristarchus. He also wrote 
commentaries on Hesiod, Pindar and Bacchylides, on Aeschylus, 
Sophocles and Euripides, and on the comic poets. Extending 
his industry to prose, he produced editions of the Attic orators, 
Isaeus, Hypereides, Aeschines and Demosthenes ^ Of the life of 
Thucydides by Marcellinus, §§ i — 45 are due to Didymus. 

Among the contemporaries of Didymus was a specialist in 

grammar and pure scholarship, who flourished 

under Augustus, named Tryphon. Several of his 

works are still extant. The most important of these is the 

treatise on tropes^. Part of an abstract of his Grammar was 

first pubhshed by the British Museum in 1891I 

Theon the ' grammarian ', of Alexandria, who flourished under 
Tiberius, wrote a commentary on the Odyssey, and 
possibly also on Pindar ; and apparently produced 
from the materials collected by Didymus a lexicon of tragic and 
of comic diction. As a learned commentator on Lycophron, 
Theocritus, ApoUonius Rhodius, and Nicander, he has been aptly 
described as 'the Didymus of the Alexandrian poets'. 

The scholars of Alexandria were mainly but not exclusively 
concerned with the verbal criticism of the Greek poets, primarily 
with that of Homer, and secondarily with that of Pindar and the 
dramatists. They were the earliest examples of the professional 
scholar, and they deserve the gratitude of the modern world for 
criticising and classifying the literature of the golden age of 
Greece and handing it down to posterity. From the verbal critics 
of Alexandria we now turn to the more varied studies cultivated 
in the school of Pergamon, and to the system of grammar con- 
nected with that school. 

1 De Demosthene comnienta, ed. Diels and Schubart (1904) ; and Memoire 
by Foucart (1907). 

2 Spengel's Rhet. Gr. iii 189 — 214. 

2 Classical Texts, ed. Kenyon, p. 109 f. 



CHAPTER V 

THE STOICS AND THE SCHOOL OF PERGAMON 

Grammar was studied by the Stoics, not as an end in itself, 
but as a necessary part of a complete system of ^he 
dialectics. Much of their terminology has become Grammar of 

• , , , the stoics 

a permanent part of the grammarian s vocabulary. 
While the earlier Stoics recognised four parts of speech, ovofia, 
prjfjia, avvS€(Tfxo<;, apOpov, Chrysippus distinguished between ovofxa 
as ' a proper name ' (e.g. %(i)KpdTrjs)f and ovo/xa Trpoa-rjyopiKov, 
nomen appellativum {e.g. av^ptovros). Under apOpov was included the 
pronoun as well as the article, and it was noticed that, while the 
apOpov was inflected, the o-vV8c(r/xos was not. The definition 
of the pyjp-a is identical with that of the Karrjyoprjfjia, or predicate. 
Predicates may be active (opOd), passive (v-n-Tia), or neuter 
(ovSeVepa). A special variety of the verbs passive in form, but 
not in sense, are the 'reflexive causative' verbs (di/TiTrcTroi/^oTa) 
now generally called 'middle'. The term tttwo-i? or 'inflexion' 
is applied by the Stoics to the noun and the dpOpov (pronoun and 
adjective), not to the verb. While Aristotle calls the nominative 
ovofxa, and the oblique cases irrwa-eis, the Stoics apply tttoSo-is to 
the nominative as well, but they do not (like Aristotle) call 
an adverb a tttwo-i*; of the corresponding adjective. In fact 
they confine tttcjo-l? to the four cases, the nominative (opOrj 
TTTwo-ts or €v^€ta, casus rectus^ and the three oblique cases (TTTtoVets 
TrXaytat), the genitive (yevLKrj), the dative (Sotlktj) and the accusa- 
tive (alTLaTiKTJ). The original meaning of these oblique cases 
was soon forgotten; the accusative did not originally mean the 
case that denotes the object of an accusation, but the case that 
denotes the effect of (to aiTiaroV, 'that which is caused by') an 



48 THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE [CHAP. 

action; so that its original meaning is best expressed by the 
epithet effectivus or causativus. Again, y^viKiq to the Stoics could 
only mean the case that denotes the yeVos or kind or class (as in 
the ' partitive ' genitive), although Priscian afterwards translated it 
by generalis. A verb, when used with a nominative subject, is 
called by the Stoics a (rv/x-ySa/aa {e.g. TrcptTraTct) ; when used with 
an oblique case a Trapaavfji^a/xa {e.g. /xcTa/xcA-ct). A verb with 
a nominative subject needing an oblique case to complete the 
sentence is called eXarrov y o-v/x^a/xa (^e.g. IlkdrMV <^iXct Atwi/a); 
a verb with an oblique case needing another oblique case to com- 
plete the sentence is called eXarrov rj Trapaa-vjxfiaixa {e.g. '^wKpo.TiL 
fxera/xeXeL 'AAKtjStaSovs). In Other words, we have two kinds of 
verb, personal and impersonal, and each of these kinds may be 
either transitive or intransitive. Time past, present and future 
was distinguished as (;(poi/09) Trapwp^T^/xeVos, ei/eo-rw? and yaeAAwi^. 
The Stoics named the present and past tenses as follows: 

Present: (xp^vos) €V€<ttu}$ TraparaTiKos (or dreXT^j). 

Imperfect: irapcfxvi^^os TraparaTiKos (or aTeX-qs). 

Perfect: ivearios avvTeXiKos (or xAetos). 

Pluperfect : irapifxvf^^'^os avpreKiKos (or xAeios). 

The above four tenses, whether reXeiot or ar€Xil<i, are all 
wpiarfjievoL, {tempord) finita ; the other tenses, whether future or 
past, are adpto-rot; but, while the future is called 6 /xeAAwv 
(xpoVo?), the term ao'/oto-Tos is only used of the past. 

The grammatical theories of the Stoics were known to Varro, 
who (as he tells us) combined the study of Cleanthes with that 
of Aristophanes of Byzantium \ The Stoics also paid attention 
to Etymology, regarding language as a product of nature, and 
'onomatopoeia' as the principle on which words were first formed. 

The founder of the Stoics, Zeno of Citium (364 — 263), is said 
to have written Trent Ac^ewi'. He also wrote on 

Zeno 

* poetry , and produced five books on ' Homeric 
problems', full of allegorical interpretations, which were justly 
attacked by Aristarchus. The allegorical interpretation of myths 
in general, and of the Homeric poems in particular, was in fact 
one of the characteristics of the Stoic school. 

1 Varro, Z. Z. v 9. 



V] THE STOICS 49 

Zeno's successor, Cleanthes of Assos (331 — 232), wrote on 
grammar, and was the first of the Stoics to write on 
rhetoric. In his work Trepl rov TroL-qrov he treated 
of Homer, applying playful etymologies and fanciful allegories to 
the interpretation of the poet. In the allegorical sense which he 
applies to the herb 'moly' we find the earliest known example of 

the word dXXrjyopiKw^. 

As a representative of the grammatical as well as the general 
teaching of the Stoics he was less famous than Chry- 

/ r. r. V 1 • ,- Chrysippus 

sippus (r. 280 — c. 280-4), who wrote a series of 
works on 'ambiguity', with treatises 'on the five cases', 'on 
singular and plural terms', 'on rhetoric', and 'on the parts of 
speech'. To the five parts of speech recognised by Chrysippus 
(ovofxa, TrpoarjyopLa, prj/JLa, o-vi'Seo'/xos and apOpov), his pupil, Antipater 
of Tarsus, added a sixth (ju-cotott;?, the participle). Chrysippus 
also wrote four books on 'anomaly', being (so far as is known) 
the first to use the term in a grammatical sense, as the opposite 
of 'analogy', the adherents of 'analogy' insisting on the ru/es 
applicable to the forms of words, and the adherents of 'anomaly' 
on the exceptions. The cause of 'analogy' was maintained by the 
Alexandrian critic, Aristarchus, while among the most conspicuous 
adherents of 'anomaly' was the Stoic Crates of Mallos, who, like 
Chrysippus and Antipater, was a native of Cilicia, and (about 
168 B.C.) was the head of the Pergamene school. 

Among the sculptors who flourished at Pergamon under 
Attalus I (241 — 197) was Antigonus, who also Antigonusof 
wrote treatises on the toreutic art and on famous Carystos 
painters, and is once called Antigonus of Carystos. The sculptor 
and writer on art have accordingly been identified with the 
author of that name and place, who died later than 226 B.C., 
after writing lives of philosophers founded on his personal know- 
ledge, and frequently quoted by Diogenes Laertius, and also a 
work on the wonders of nature, which is still extant. In literature 
he is the leading representative of the early Pergamene schooP. 
. Among other scholars who owed allegiance to the rulers 
of Pergamon, was Polemon of Ilium, a contem- Poiemon of 
porary of Aristophanes of Byzantium {fl. 200 — "'""^ 
1 Cp. Wilamowitz in Philologische Lint erstic hit ngen iv (r88i). 
S. H. 4 



50 THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE [CHAP. 

177 B.C.)- He was specially famous for his extensive travels in 
all parts of Greece, and in Italy and Sicily, and paid special 
attention to copying, collecting and expounding inscriptions. 
He was however more widely famous as t\\Qperiegetes. He devoted 
four books to the Votive Offerings on the Athenian Acropolis 
alone. 

Antiquarian research was represented about 150 B.C. by 

Demetrius of Demetrius of Scepsis in the Troad (born ^.214 B.C.), 
Scepsis ^,j^Q wrote a discursive work in 30 books on the 

list of the Trojan forces comprised in only 60 lines of the 
second book of the Iliad. 'This work appears to have been 
one of the most wonderful monuments of scholarly labour which 
even the indefatigable erudition of the Alexandrian age pro- 
duced. The most complete examination of every point which 
the subject raised or suggested was supported by stores of learn- 
ing drawn from every province of ancient literature, from every 
source of oral or local tradition. Mythology, history, geography, 
the monographs of topographers, the observations of travellers, 
poetry of every age and kind, science in all its ancient branches, 
appear to have been laid under contribution by this encyclopaedic 
commentator '\ Polemon of Ilium had with local patriotism 
identified the Greek Ilium in the Trojan plain as the site of 
Homeric Troy. The Greek Ilium corresponds to Hissarlik^ or 
Schliemann's 'Troy', which lies only 3 miles from the Hellespont. 
The pretensions of the Ilians were rejected by Demetrius of 
Scepsis in favour of a lofty site about 3I miles further inland, 
corresponding to the village of Bundrbashi. 

The head of the Pergamene school during the reign of 

Crates of Eumenes II (the builder of the Pergamene Library) 

^^^^°^ was Crates of Mallos. He was a strong opponent 

of his somewhat earlier contemporary, the great critic Aristarchus 
of Alexandria, being (like Chrysippus) an adherent of 'anomaly' 
as opposed to 'analogy'. The controversy on 'analogy' and 
'anomaly', in which Crates was interested as a grammarian of 
the Stoic school, turned mainly on matters of declension and 
conjugation. Aristophanes of Byzantium had endeavoured to 
classify words by the application of five tests. If two words 
1 Jebb, in/. H.S. ii 34 f. 



V] CRATES OF MALLOS 5 1 

were of the same 'kind', e.g. both of them nouns or verbs, in 
the same ' case ' or ' inflexion ', and identical in termination, 
number of syllables and sound, they were 'analogous' to one 
another; i.e. they belonged to the same declension or con- 
jugation. Aristarchus added a sixth test, by which both the 
words compared were to be simple or both of them compound. 
Crates appears to have regarded all the trouble spent on deter- 
mining the laws of declension and conjugation as idle and 
superfluous, and preferred simply to accept the phenomena of 
language as the arbitrary results of custom and usage. But he 
was wrong in denying all 'analogy', and in practically opposing 
the accurate grammatical scholarship of the Alexandrian school. 

Crates was sent as an envoy to the Roman Senate 'shortlj 
after the death of Ennius' (169 B.c.y. By a curious accident hii 
visit had a remarkable effect on literary studies in Rome. While 
he was wandering on the Palatine, he accidentally stumbled ovei 
an opening in a drain and broke his leg. He passed part ol 
the time during which he was thus detained in giving lectures, 
which aroused among the Romans a taste for the scholarly study 
of literature. 

In comparing the scholarship of Alexandria with that of 
Pergamon, we must remember that the former Alexandria 
passed through several phases. Under the first ^"^ Pergamon 
three Ptolemies, whose combined rule extended over a 
century (323 — 222 B.C.), scholarship of the first rank 
flourished at Alexandria and left its mark on all later ages. In 
the first age of Alexandrian scholarship Philetas, Zenodotus, 
Callimachus and Eratosthenes were 'poets' as well as scholars. 
In the second, Aristophanes and Aristarchus were scholars alone : 
the scholar had now narrowed into a specialist, but had gained 
a new power in the process. This second age closes with the 
accession of Ptolemy Physcon (146), and the death of Aristarchus 
(c. 143). Physcon played at textual criticism, and yet persecuted 
the Greeks of Alexandria, including the great critic himself. This 
persecution ' filled the islands and cities with grammarians^ philo- 
sophers, geometricians, musicians, painters, trainers, physicians 
and many other professional persons, whose poverty impelled them 
^ Suet. De Grammaiiczs, c. 2, ' sub ipsam Ennii mortem '. 

4—2 



52 THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE [CHAP. V 

to teach what they knew, and thus to turn out many notable 
pupils '\ In the third age of Alexandrian scholarship, a pupil of 
Aristarchus,Apollodorus of Athens, preferred Athens andPergamon 
to Alexandria, while Dionysius the Thracian left Alexandria for 
Rhodes, and Didymus, a century later, possibly resided in Rome. 
But in all its phases the school of Alexandria was in the main 
a school of verbal criticism. Even the versatile and widely- 
accomplished Eratosthenes laid himself open to the attacks of a 
representative of the Pergamene school, Polemon of IHum, who 
exposed his mistakes in matters connected with Attic antiquities. 
This is one of the earliest indications of the literary rivalry between 
Alexandria and Pergamon. The conflict between Aristarchus, the 
adherent of 'analogy', and Crates, the adherent of 'anomaly', is 
another. The feud descended to the successors of both : pupils 
of Aristarchus, such as Dionysius Thrax, attacked the opinions of 
Crates, while a pupil of Crates, Zenodotus of Mallos, attacked 
those of Aristarchus. It found an echo even in distant Babylon. 
A follower of Crates, of uncertain date, named Herodicus of 
Babylon, doubtless recalling the disputes of the Alexandrian critics 
on the epic forms of the personal pronouns, and especially the fact 
that Aristarchus had proved that Homer used only /xtv, not viv^ 
describes the followers of Aristarchus as ' buzzing in corners, and 
busy with monosyllables ' : 

yu}vi.o^6fj.^vK€S ixovocrvWa^oi, otcrt /jiifnfKev 
rb ff(f>lv Kal (Tffnatv koI to fxlv rjde to viv'^. 

While the school of Alexandria was mainly interested in 
verbal scholarship, the school of Pergamon found room for a 
larger variety of scholarly studies. In that school art and the 
history of art were represented by Antigonus of Carystos; learned 
travel and the study of inscriptions, by Polemon of IHum ; 
topography, by Demetrius of Scepsis ; chronology, by Apollodorus 
of Athens ; the philosophy of the Stoics, combined with grammar 
and literary criticism, by Crates of Mallos. 

1 Menecles ap. Athen. 184 c. 2 Athen. p. ■222 A. 



BOOK III 
LATIN SCHOLARSHIP IN THE ROMAN AGE 



CHAPTER VI 



LATIN SCHOLARSHIP FROM 1 69 B.C. TO 
THE AUGUSTAN AGE 

Suetonius, in his treatise De Grammaticis^ begins by remarking 
that in earlier times, while Rome was still un- crates 
civilised and engrossed in war, and was not yet °^ m alios 
in the enjoyment of any large amount of leisure for the 
liberal arts, the study of literature {grammatica) was not in 
use, much less was it in esteem. The beginnings of that study, 
he adds, were unimportant, as its earliest teachers, who were poets 
and half-Greeks (namely Livius Andronicus and Ennius, who were 
stated to have taught in both languages at Rome and elsewhere), 
limited themselves to translating Greek authors or reciting anything 
which they happened to have composed in Latin. After adding 
that the two books on letters and syllables and also on metres 
ascribed to Ennius were justly attributed to a later writer of the 
same name, he states that, in his own opinion, the first to introduce 
the study of literature into Rome was Crates of Mallos, who, during 
his accidental detention in Rome, gave many recitations and 
lectures which aroused an interest in the subject \ We are further 
informed that the example set by Crates led to the publication in 
seven books of a new edition of the epic of Naevius on the First 
Punic War, and to the public recitation of the Annals of Ennius ; 
and also (two generations later) to the recitation of the satires of 
Lucilius. 

1 p. 51 supra. 



54 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

Among the first of the Romans who travelled in Asia Minor 
^ . was L. Accius (170 — c. 90 b.c.), who was famous 

Accius ^ ' ^ '^ 

as the author of numerous tragedies on the tale of 
Troy. In the history of Scholarship he concerns us only as the 
author of a history of Greek and Roman poetry, especially that 
of the drama, written in Sotadean verse, under the name of 
Dtdascalica, a title probably suggested by the hihaa-KaXiai of 
Aristotle. He was the first to discuss the genuineness of certain 
plays wrongly assigned to Plautus. Among the peculiarities of 
his orthography we are told that he never used the letters Y 
and Z, and that, when A and E and U were long, he denoted 
the fact by writing them double. 

Among the younger contemporaries of Accius and the pre- 
cursors of Varro was O. Valerius of Sora (born 

Q. Valerius , ^ 

c. 154), a man of distinction in linguistic and 
antiquarian research. When Varro was asked the meaning of 
favisae Capitolinae, he admitted that he knew nothing of the 
origin of the word favisae and took refuge in quoting the opinion 
of Valerius to the effect that favisae was a corruption of fiavisae 
and meant the same as thesauri^. 

The foremost scholar of this age was L. Aelius Stilo Praeco- 

ninus ic. 154 — c. 74 B.C.) of Lanuvium, a Roman 

Stilo I • 1 

knight, who read the plays of Plautus and others 
with younger men such as Varro and Cicero. In 100 B.C. he left 
Rome for Rhodes, where he spent two years. Dionysius Thrax, 
the head of the Aristarchean school, was then in Rhodes, and it 
was probably owing to his influence that Stilo introduced the 
symbols of Aristarchus into the criticism of the Latin poets. He 
is characterised by Cicero in the Brutus (205) as a man of the 
profoundest learning in Greek and Latin literature, and as an 
accomplished critic of ancient writers and of Roman antiquities 
in their intellectual as well as in their historical and political 
aspects. His grammatical and especially his etymological 
inquiries were partly inspired by his devotion to the Stoic 
philosophy. He appears to have been an industrious writer, 
and much of his lore passed into the pages of Varro and of 

^ Quint, ii 10, 3. 



VI] ACCIUS. STILO. VARRO 55 

Verrius Flaccus, of Pliny the elder, and of Gellius. His writings 
included a commentary on the Carmina Saliorum} ; a critical list 
of the plays of Plautus, in which he recognised 25 plays as genuine; 
probably also an antiquarian work on the laws of the XII Tables, 
and lastly a glossary including articles on etymological, antiquarian 
and historical subjects. 

Stilo's most famous pupil, M. Terentius Varro (116 — 27 b.c.), 
is characterised by Quintilian as ' the most learned 
of the Romans'^. His books numbered as many as 
620, belonging to 74 separate works. They included xli books 
Antiqiiitatum rerum humanarum et divinarum^ with other anti- 
quarian works de vita and de gente populi Romania a book of 
'origins' called Aetia (like the Atria of Callimachus), and a 
treatise on Trojan families and on the Roman tribes. His 
writings on literary history comprised works on Plautus^ and on 
the drama, on poetry and on style, with three books on Libraries. 
His grammatical writings included xxv books de Lingua Latina^ 
of which V — X are extant. Further, he was the author of the first 
encyclopaedic work in Latin on the ' liberal arts '. Under the 
name of disciplinarum libri noveni^ it comprised (i) grammar, 
(2) logic, (3) rhetoric, (4) geometry, (5) arithmetic, (6) astronomy, 
(7) music, (8) medicine, (9) architecture, the first seven of which 
were the seven liberal arts of Augustine and Martianus Capella, 
afterwards represented by the trivium and the quadrivium of the 
educational system of the Middle Ages. In his Imagines he 
collected 700 portraits of famous Greeks and Romans. Apart 
from fragments, the only works which have survived are the 
books de Re Rustica^ and six books de Lingua Latina — the 
earliest extant Roman work on grammar. This great work, 
which was finished before 43 B.C., owed much to the Stoic 
teaching of Aelius Stilo, and also to that of a later grammarian 
who combined the Stoic and the Alexandrian traditions. Varro 
even derived his definition of grammar from that of Dionysius 

1 /<^. X I, 99. ' 2x1, 95. 

^ The 2 1 plays recognised by Varro were called the Fabulae Varronianae 
(GelHus iii 3, 3), which may safely be identified with the 20 extant plays and 
the Vidularia, of which fragments only have survived in the Ambrosian 
Palimpsest (cent. v). 



56 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

Thrax, probably through the medium of Stilo, and he was 
directly indebted to Dionysius' pupil, the elder Tyrannion. The 
first three of the surviving books are on Etymology, book v 
being on names of places, vi on terms denoting time, and vii on 
poetic expressions. The next three books are concerned with the 
controversy on Analogy and Anomaly : viii on the arguments 
against Analogy, ix on those against Anomaly, and x on Varro's 
own view of Analogy. 

Cicero's view agrees with that of Varro. He is an analogist, 
who nevertheless respects consuetudo. As a practical 
orator it would have been impossible for him to 
disregard it. So he keeps to himself his knowledge of the 
scientifically correct forms, and is content to follow popular 
usage. Usuni loquendi populo concessit scientiam mihi reservavi 
{Orator, i6o). 

Analogy was the theme of a work by Caesar, written while he 
was crossing the Alps, probably in 55 B.C. It con- 
sisted of two books ( I ) on the alphabet and on words, 
and (2) on irregularities of inflexion in nouns and verbs. It was 
in this work that Caesar laid down the memorable rule : ut tamquam 
scopulum, sicfugias inauditum atque insolens verbum\ 

Among the younger contemporaries of Cicero, the Neo- 

Nigidius Pythagorean P. Nigidius Figulus {c. 98—45 B.C.), 

Figuius |-j^g praetor of 58 B.C., was ranked by a later age 

as second to Varro in learning. His commentarii grammatici 

dealt with grammar in general, and especially with orthography, 

synonyms, and etymology. He was perhaps the inventor of the 

L. Ateius method of denoting the long vowel by an apex. 

Praetextatus ^j. Ateius Praetextatus, who was born at Athens 

and became a Roman freedman, assumed (like Eratosthenes) the 

name of Fhilologus. He was a student of style and of Roman 

history, and a friend of Sallust and x\sinius Pollio. 

Valerius Cato ,^ , . _ i , , 

Valerms Cato, who had a great reputation as a 
teacher of young noblemen with a taste for poetry, closed his life 
in extreme poverty ; but even the satirical lines of Bibaculus 
unconsciously do him honour by comparing him as a sutmnus 

^ pellius, i 10^ 4. 



VI] LATIN GRAMMAR 57 

grammaticus with the scholars of Alexandria and Pergamon : — 
en cor Zenodoti, en iecur Cratetis^. 

Latin grammar owes its terminology, in the first instance, to 
Varro; and, in the next, to Nigidius Figulus. In Grammatical 
the middle of the first century B.C. the Gender or terminology 
genus of a noun or nomen substantivum was distinguished by the 
terms virile^ muliebre and neutrum {masculinum and femininum 
not occurring earlier than the second century a.d.)1 The Number 
or numerus was described by Varro as either singularis or multi- 
tudinis^ while pluralis is found later in Quintilian (who represents 
the teaching of Remmius Palaemon), and plurativiis in Gellius. 
A Case (as with the Stoics) might be either rectus or obliquus ; 
the casus rectus was also known to Varro as the casus nominandei 
or nominativus ; the Genitive was called by Varro the casus patrkus, 
by Nigidius the casus interrogandi \ the Dative was described by 
both as the casus dandi^ while genetivus and dativus occur in 
Quintilian; the Accusative is in Varro the casus acciisandei or 
accusativus; the Vocative the casus vocandei, while vocativus is 
found in Gellius ; the Ablative, recognised by Quintilian, possibly 
owes its name to Caesar, Varro's name for it being the sextus or 
Latinus casus, as it was not found in Greek. The Declensions 
and Conjugations are unrecognised by Varro. He divides each 
of the three times, past, present and future, into a tempus infectum 
and a tempus perfectum ; but he knows nothing of any technical 
sense of modus. 

Virgil and Horace became classics soon after their death, 
driving out the taste for the older poets, and finding virgii and 
admirers and imitators in Lucan and Persius re- Horace 
spectively. While Virgil's Eclogues and Georgics were published 
during his life-time, the Aeneid was first edited by Varius and 
Tucca after his death (19 B.C.). He was attacked by Carvilius 
Pictor in his Aeneidomastix ; his supposed faults of style were 
collected by Herennius ; his alleged plagiarisms, by Perellius 
Faustus ; and his translations from the Greek, by Octavius Avitus ; 
while his detractors were answered by Asconius, better known as 

' Suet. Gram. 10. 

^ First found in Caesellius Vindex (Gellius vi (vii) 2). 



58 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

the earliest commentator on Cicero. The first to expound Virgil 
in the schools of Rome was a freedman of Atticus, named Q. 
Caecilius Epirota, who opened a school after the death of his 
second patron, the poet Cornelius Gallus (27 b.c). Virgil was 
criticised by Hyginus, the librarian of the Palatine Library, and 
by Cornutus, the friend of Persius. In the time of Quintilian* 
and JuvenaP he shared the fate, which Horace^ had feared for 
himself, of being a textbook for use in schools. The first critical 
edition of Virgil was that of Probus in the time of Nero. Among 
his interpreters were Velius Longus, under Trajan; Q. Ter. Scaurus, 
under Hadrian ; Aemilius Asper (towards the end of the second 
century) ; and Aelius Donatus (yf. 353 a.d.). The earliest extant 
commentaries are those in the Verona scholia, including quotations 
from Cornutus, Velius Longus, Asper, and Haterianus (end of third 
century) : that on the Eclogues and Georgics bearing the name of 
Probus {fl. 56 — 88 a.d.) ; that on the Aeneid by Tib. Claudius 
Donatus (end of fourth century), which is simply a prose paraphrase 
exhibiting the rhetorical connexion of the successive clauses ; and 
that on the whole of Virgil by Servius (late in fourth century), which 
includes references to the lost commentary by Aelius Donatus, 
who appears to have been deficient in knowledge and judgement 
and far too fond of allegorising interpretations, and in these respects 
inferior to the learned and sober Servius. The earliest mss of Virgil 
belong to the fourth or fifth century. 

The first critical edition of Horace was that of Probus ; the 
first commentary that of Q. Terentius Scaurus, followed (late in the 
second century) by Helenius Aero, who also expounded Terence 
and Persius. The only early commentaries now extant are the 
scholia collected by Pomponius Porphyrio (third century), and by 
Pseudo-Acro, and those compiled from various mss by Prof. 
Cruquius of Bruges (1565). It is only through Cruquius that we 
know anything of the codex aniiquissimus Blandinius, borrowed 
from the library of a Benedictine monastery in Ghent ^ and burnt 
with the monastery after it had been returned to the library. It 
represented a recension earlier than the date of Porphyrio, since, 

1 i 8, 5—6. 2 vii 226 f. 3 Ep. i 20, 17. 

•* Classical Review^ 1909, p. 204. 



VI] STUDY OF VIRGIL AND HORACE 59 

in Sat. i 6, 126, instead o{ fugio rabiosi fempora signi (recognised 
by Porphyrio), it had the true text -.—fugio campum lusumque 
trigonem. The only MS which retains the latter is the codex 
Gothanus (cent. 15). In this, and seven other mss, we find a 
record, at the end of the Epodes^ showing that, at the close of the 
Roman age, there was a recension of Horace produced, with the 
aid of Felix, orator urbis Romae, by Vettius Agorius Basilius 
Mavortius (the consul of 527). The earliest extant MS belongs to 
the eighth or ninth century. 



CHAPTER VII 

LATIN SCHOLARSHIP FROM THE AUGUSTAN AGE 
TO 300 A.D. 

One of the foremost scholars of the Augustan age was Hyginus 
(V. 64 B.C. — 17 A.D.), the pupil of Alexander Poly- 

Hyginus 

histor, a learned Greek of the school of Crates. 
Hyginus was the Head of the Palatine Library founded by 
Augustus in 28 a.d. In his studies he followed the traditions 
of Varro as well as those of Nigidius Figulus. Among the most 
important of his multifarious works were (i) his commentary on 
Virgil, and (2) his treatise on the Urbes Italiae, repeatedly cited 
by Servius. 

Varro was the model set up by Fenestella (52 B.C. — 19 a.d.), 
the author of more than 22 books of Annals, which 

Fenestella . _ , ,. 

became the source 01 a vast variety of later erudi- 
tion connected with Roman antiquities and literary history. In 
Verrius the Same age Verrius Flaccus {Jl. 10 B.C.) produced 

Fiaccus Yiis encyclopaedic work De Verborum Significatu^ 

the first Latin lexicon ever written. This survives in the incomplete 
and fragmentary abridgement by Pompeius Festus (second century 
A.D.), which in its turn was further abridged by Paulus, who 
dedicated his epitome to Charles the Great. We learn from 
Suetonius that Verrius Flaccus introduced among his pupils the 
principle of competition. He was made tutor to the grandchildren 
of Augustus and died as an old man in the reign of Tiberius. 
The remains of his work may still be traced in Quintilian, Gellius, 
Nonius, Macrobius and other writers. 

A name of note in the history of Latin Grammar is that of 

Q. Remmius Palaemon {fl. 35 — 70 a.d.) of Vicentia. 

His Ars Grammatical probably published between 
67 and 77 A.D., was the first exclusively scholastic treatise on 



CHAP. VIl] VERRIUS FLACCUS. PROBUS 6l 

Latin Grammar. Palaemon was the preceptor of Quintilian, and 
it is highly probable that, in i 4 and 5 §§ i — 54, Quintilian is 
paraphrasing from his preceptor's treatise. He was the first to 
distinguish four declensions ; and part of his grammatical teaching 
is preserved by Charisius (fourth century). 

One of the most competent commentators of the first century 
was Q. Asconius Pedianus (c. 3 — 88 a.d.), best 

, , . r ^ 1 1 • • 1 Asconius 

known as the writer of a learned historical com- 
mentary on Cicero's speeches, composed about 55 a.d. All that 
has survived is certain portions of the commentary on the Speeches 
in Fisonem, pro Scauro, pro Milone, pro Cornelio, and in toga 
Candida. It abounds in historical and antiquarian lore, and shows 
familiarity with even the unpublished works of Cicero, and the 
speeches of his partisans and his opponents. 

Grammar was one of the many subjects which attracted the 
attention of the elder Pliny (23 — 79 a.d.). His piinythe 
nephew, Pliny the younger^ names in the list of ^^'^^^ 
his uncle's works eight libri on dubius sermo (or Irregularities in 
Formation), written in the time of Nero. It is probably this work 
that is the source of a large part of Quintilian i 5, 54 to i 6, 287. 

M. Valerius Probus of Beyrut {fi. 56 — 88 a.d.) was the foremost 
grammarian of the first century a.d. He produced 
recensions of Plautus (?), Terence, Lucretius, Virgil, 
Horace and Persius, with critical symbols like those used by the 
Alexandrian Scholars. In settling the text of Virgil, he went 
back to the earliest authorities. We are told that he had himself 
examined a ms of the First Georgic corrected by Virgil's own 
hand^ and traces of some of his critical signs survive in the 
Medicean ms of Virgil, while we may ascribe to him the nucleus 
at least of the extant commentary on the Bucolics and Georgics^ 
which bears his name. Among the grammatical works assigned 
to Probus is one on anomaly {de inaequalitate consuetudinis\ 
and others on tenses, and on doubtful genders. Pliny and Probus 
are probably responsible for most of the remarks on irregularities 
of declension and conjugation found in the later grammarians. 
To these two writers, and to Palaemon, may be ascribed the main 
outlines of the traditional Latin Grammar. 

1 iii 5, 5. "^ Gellius, xiii 21, 4. 



62 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

From Probus we turn to a name of far greater note. Fabius 
Quintilianus {c. 35 — 95 a.d.) was the pupil of 
Palaemon and the preceptor of Tacitus and the 
younger Pliny. In 88 a.d. he was placed at the head of the first 
State-supported school in Rome, and probably three years after- 
wards he began his great work, the Institutio Oratoria. The study 
of literature {de gramniaticd) is the theme of chapters 4 — 8 of his 
first book, while c. 9 is de officio grammatici. There is reason 
to believe that c. 4 and c. 5 §§ i — 54 are founded on Palaemon; 
c. 5 § 54 to c. 6 § 27 on Pliny, and c. 7 §§ i — 28 on Verrius 
Flaccus. In the controversy between analogists and anomalists, 
Quintilian was on the side of the former without adhering to them 
very strictly. 

Our main authority on the history of Latin Scholarship from 
168 B.C. to the time of Probus is C. Suetonius 

Suetonius 

Tranquillus {c. 75 — 160 a.d.), who was private 
secretary to Hadrian, and spent the latter part of his life in 
preparing encyclopaedic works on the history of language and 
literature. Apart from his extant work de vita Caesarum^ he 
wrote an important series of biographies entitled de viris illus- 
tribus under the headings of 'poets', 'orators', 'historians', 
'philosophers', 'scholars' {grammatici)^ and 'rhetoricians'. Of 
the early part of this work we possess excerpts alone. From the 
book on 'poets', we have short lives of Terence, Horace, Lucan, 
Virgil and Persius; from that on 'historians', a few remains of 
a life of the elder Pliny. Of his 36 biographies of 'scholars 
and rhetoricians', no less than 25 have survived. In a lost work 
entitled Pratum or Prata he treated of various notations of time 
in connexion with the Roman year, being one of the authorities 
followed on this point by Censorinus and Macrobius, besides 
being one of the main sources of the erudition of Isidore of 
Seville. The works of Suetonius included a treatise on the 
critical signs used in the margins of mss\ Most of our know- 
ledge of the meanings of these symbols is due to Suetonius. 

Among the Scholars of the second century a.d. were Q. 

Scaurus. Tcrcntius Scaurus, who wrote on orthography as 

Veiius Longus ^g^ ^g Grammar and Poetry, and was also a com- 

^ Reifferscheid, Suetoni Reliquiae, p. 135 f. 



VII] QUINTILIAN. SUETONIUS. GELLIUS 63 

mentator on Plautus and Virgil, and probably on Horace: Velius 
Longus. and Flavius Caper, both of whom wrote 
on orthography; and Aemilius Asper, the learned ^^^^' ^^^^ 
and acute commentator on Terence, Sallust and Virgil. 

In tha JVoc^es A ^/t'cae of A\i\us Gellius(born^. 1 30 a. d.) we have an 
interesting and instructive compilation of varied lore 
on the earlier Latin Language and Literature, and 
on Law and Philosophy, deriving its name from the fact that the 
author began it, about the age of thirty, in the winter evenings 
near Athens. Its main importance is due to its large number of 
citations from works which are now no longer extant. He refers 
to good Mss of Fabius Pictor, Cato, Catullus, Sallust, Cicero and 
Virgil, but in these references it is possible that he may be really 
borrowing from Probus who, according to Suetonius, 'gave an 
immense amount of attention to the collection of good mss of 
classical authors '\ More than a fourth of his work is con- 
cerned with Latin lexicography, e.g. the singular use of mi7/e, 
with notes on pedarii senatores, on the different senses of ob- 
noxius, on proletarii and adsidui^ on the exact meaning of the 
phrase in Ennius, ex hire manum consertum, and on Cicero's 
use of paenitere. He also discusses synonyms, words of double 
meaning, derivations, and moot points of Grammar, such as the 
pronunciation of h and v, the quantity of in and con in com- 
position, the question whether one should say tertium or tertio^ 
curafn vestri or vestrum, and the difference between multis homi- 
nibus and multis mortalibus. In a history of Classical Scholar- 
ship it may be worth noticing that, while Cicero^ describes 
Cleanthes and Chrysippus as quintae classis in comparison with 
Democritus, Gellius contrasts a 'scriptor dassicus^ with a 'scriptor 
proletarius'''^^ obviously deriving his metaphor from the division of 
the Roman people into classes by Servius Tullius, those in the 
first class being called classici^ all the rest infra classem^ and 
those in the last proletarii. It is from this rare use of classicus 
that the modern term 'classical' is derived. 

To the close of the 2nd century may be assigned Terentianus 
Maurus, the writer of a manual in verse on ' letters, syllables and 

1 Suet. Gram. 24. '^ Acad, ii 73. 

2 xix 8, 15, classicus adsiduusque ( = locuples) scriptor, non proletarius. 



64 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. VII 

metres'; also Aero, the commentator on Terence and Horace; 
and Festus, the author of the abridgement of Verrius 

Terentianus, _ ° 

Aero. Festus. Flaccus. Porphyrio, whose scholia on Horace are 
orp yno ^^^ extant, probably belongs to a later date than 

Aero, whom he quotes on Sat. i 8, 25, and whose name is wrongly 
given to a number of miscellaneous scholia on Horace founded 
partly on Aero and Porphyrio. 

As we glance over the three centuries from the age of Augustus 
to that of Diocletian, we are bound to recognise that, in the first 
century a.d., grammatical studies are more systematic, but at the 
same time more narrow, than in the last century of the republic. 
The preparation of practical manuals for educational purposes 
has superseded the scientific and learned labours of a Varro, and 
has ultimately led to the actual loss of the greater part of his 
encyclopaedic works ; but we may well be thankful to the 
grammarians of the first century for all the lore that they have 
preserved \ 

The second century, in which Suetonius with all his varied 
learning must be regarded as little more than a minor counterpart 
of Varro, was in matters of Scholarship an age of epitomes and 
compilations. Learning became fashionable, but erudition often 
lapsed into triviality, and the ancient classics were ransacked for 
phrases which ill assorted with the style of the time. 

In the third century the only scholar worthy of consideration 
was Censorinus, the author of the brief chronological treatise De 
die natali (238 a.d.), yet even he owes his learning mainly to 
Suetonius, the inheritor of the traditions of Varro. 

^ Nettleship, ii 171. 



CHAPTER VIII 

LATIN SCHOLARSHIP FROM 3OO TO 53O A.D. 

In the history of Scholarship the fourth century opens with 
the name of Nonius Marcellus of Thubursicum in 
Numidia {fi. 323 a.d.), the author of an encyclo- 
paedic work compiled for the benefit of his son, and entitled De 
Compendiosa Doctrina. It is divided into three parts, lexico- 
graphical, grammatical, and antiquarian. In the grammatical 
portion the compiler is largely indebted to Probus, Caper and 
Pliny ; and, in the lexicographical, to the scholars and antiquarians 
from the reigns of Nero and Vespasian to those of Trajan and 
Hadrian, and especially to Verrius Flaccus. Nonius frequently 
copies Gellius, but never mentions his name. The value of his 
work lies mainly in its numerous quotations from early Latin 
literature. 

The interest in Livy inspired by Q. Aurelius Symmachus 
ic. 345 — 4015), consul in 391, and by his family, 

. .„ , , , ... ,, , 1 , Symmachus 

IS Still attested by the subscriptions to all the books 
of the first decade. Three of them bear the further subscription 
of one of the Nicomachi, and three that of the other, both of 
these revisers of the text being connexions of Symmachus by 
marriage. About the same time, and inspired perhaps by his 
example, other aristocratic Romans interested themselves in the 
revision of Latin Mss. In 401 Torquatus Gennadius revised 
the text of Martial ; in 402 Fl. Julius Tryfonianus Sabinus, that 
of Persius at Barcelona, and even that of Nonius Marcellus at 
Toulouse. 

The middle of the fourth century marks the date of a gram- 
marian and rhetorician of African origin, C Marius 

. 1-1 J Victonnus 

Victorinus, the author of several philosophical and 
rhetorical works (including a prolix commentary on Cicero De 
s. H. 5 



66 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

Ini'entione)^ and also of a treatise on metre in four books, founded 
mainly on the Greek of Aphthonius. 

Among his distinguished contemporaries was the grammarian 
and rhetorician Aelius Donatus, the author of a 
Grammar, which has come down to us in a shorter 
and in a longer form ; also of a valuable commentary on Terence, 
which has been combined with one or two others in the extant 
scholia on Terence, and of a commentary on Virgil, frequently 
cited by Servius. Two other grammarians, who were contem- 
poraries with one another, and had much in common, are Charisius 
charisius. ^^^d Diomedcs, the former of whom transcribed 
Diomedes large portions of the works of Julius Romanus, 
Cominianus, and Palaemon, and thus preserved for us much of 
the earlier grammatical teaching, while the latter borrowed largely 
from the lost work of Suetonius, de po'etis. Passages from the 
grammatical treatises of Varro are included in the works of both. 
In the latter half of the fourth century Maurus (or Marius) 
Servius Honoratus (born c. 355) was famous as a 
Virgilian commentator, whose work owes much of 
its value to its wealth of mythological, geographical and historical 
learning. It has come down to us in two forms, a longer and 
a shorter. It is a vast treasure-house of traditional lore. The 
author displays great erudition, as well as a certain aptitude for 
verbal exposition, and perhaps an over- fondness for pointing out 
the rhetorical figures used by the poet; but he supplies practically 
nothing that is worth calling literary criticism. 

In the same century the most scholarly representative of 
Christianity was Hieronymus, commonly called St 
Jerome (331 — 420 a.d.), who is celebrated as the 
unwearied translator and expositor of the Old and New Testa- 
ments. As a youth he was sent to Rome, where he became a 
pupil of Donatus. One of the most important fruits of his study 
in Constantinople (380 f) was his translation of the Chronicle of 
Eusebius, which, in its original Greek, now survives in fragments 
alone. In Rome, at the instance of Pope Damasus (382-5), he 
began his revision of the Latin Bible, and in due time completed 
his rendering of the Gospels and the Psalms. In 385 he left for 
Palestine, where he founded a monastery at Bethlehem (386). 



VIII] DONATUS. SERVIUS. MACROBIUS 6/ 

He there resumed his study of Hebrew and worked at his Latin 
rendering of the Old Testament, and his treatise de viris illus- 
tribus (in imitation of that of Suetonius). In sacred Hterature 
his most famous achievement is the Latin Vulgate. In the 
Middle Ages an interest in textual criticism was stimulated by 
the existence of his three successive versions of the Psalter: — 
(i) his revision of the Itala, called the Psalterium Romanum^ 
(2) the version founded on Origen's Hexapla^ known as the 
Psalterium Gallicanum, and (3) his rendering of the Hebrew 
original. In general scholarship his most celebrated work was 
his translation and continuation of the Chronological Canons of 
Eusebius, with large additions from Suetonius, de viris illustribus, 
and his successors down to 325, and from his own researches 
down to 378 A.D. 

To the end of the fourth and the beginning of the fifth century 
belongs Macrobius, the author of an extant com- 

„. ) 7^ /- o • • /' 1 • 1 Macrobius 

mentary on Cicero s Dream of Cicipto (m the sixth 
book of the De Republica), and of a miscellaneous work in seven 
books under the name of Saturnalia. The latter is in the form 
of a dialogue dealing with a vast number of topics connected 
with the earlier Roman literature and religion. Among the inter- 
locutors are the scholar and statesman Symmachus, and Servius, 
here represented as a modest student of Virgil, who naturally 
takes an important part in the lengthy discussions on that poet. 
The work deals largely with matters of mythology and grammar, 
including etymology (naturally of a praescientific type); but the 
discussion turns mainly on the varied and comprehensive merits 
of Virgil. The author borrows frequently from Gellius and 
Suetonius, and certain ancient commentators on Virgil. 

In northern Africa, before its conquest by the Vandals, 
Martianus Capella produced (c. 410 — 427) an Martianus 
encyclopaedia of the seven liberal arts in the Capeiia 
form of an allegory representing the marriage of Mercury and 
Philologia, who is attended by seven bridesmaids personifying 
the liberal arts. The work is chiefly founded on Varro's Disci- 
plinae ; the book on Rhetoric (v) is mainly taken from Aquila 
Romanus ; that on Geometry and Geography (vi), from Solinus 
and Pliny; and that on Music (ix), from Aristides Quintilianus. 

5-2 



6S THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

As in Varro's Satura Memppea, the prose is often varied with 
verse. The story of the allegory is introduced in the first two 
books. The seven following books are devoted to a description 
of the persons and attributes of the seven bridesmaids, Grammar, 
Logic, Rhetoric, Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Music. 
The order is the same as in Varro, and the number of the books 
is also the same, the only difference being that, whereas Varro 
devotes two further books to Medicine and Architecture, Marti- 
anus Capella omits these and uses the first two books to introduce 
his allegory. The Arts in general, and Grammar in particular, 
are allowed to talk undiluted and unmitigated text-book, and the 
dramatic form of the work as a whole is often lost in dull and dry 
detail. In the earlier Middle Ages it was the principal, often 
the only, text-book used in schools, and it exercised a considerable 
influence on education and on literary taste. 

The year 450 marks the death of Theodosius the younger, 
the emperor of the East who condescended to be 

Recensions ^ 

ofSoiinus, a copyist and was celebrated for his calligraphy. 

Even while he was presiding over the races of the 
Circus, he passed the time in producing specimens of beautiful 
handwriting. The record of his having copied a ms of Solinus is 
still preserved in transcripts of that copy bearing the subscrip- 
tion : — opera et studio (or studio et diligentia) Theodosii invictissimi 
principis. In the same year, in Constantinople, we have a recen- 
sion of Vegetius by one Eutropius, while, in the subsequent half- 
century, in Ravenna, we have recensions of Pomponius Mela and 
of abridgements of Valerius Maximus. In 494 we find the consul 
of that year, Turcius Rufius Apronianus Asterius, revising a text of 
Virgil in Rome, as is proved by a ' subscription ' in the Medicean 
MS at the end of the Eclogues. 

In the first quarter of the sixth century, which is the close of 
the Roman period and the prelude of the Middle 

Boethius * • ^1 TUT ^ • • ^ • 

Ages m the West, no name is more emment m 
Latin literature than that of Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius 
{c. 480 — 5 24). The crowning work of his life, the Philosophiae Conso- 
lation was composed in prison shortly before his death. His philoso- 
phical works on Aristotle gave the first impulse to a problem which 



VIII] BOETHIUS. CASSIODORUS 69 

continued to exercise the keenest intellects among the schoolmen 
down to the end of the Middle Ages. The first signal for the 
long-continued battle between the Nominalists and the Realists 
was given by Boethius. Porphyry, in his 'Introduction to the 
Categories ', had propounded three questions : (i) 'Do genera and 
species subsist ', i.e. really exist, ' or do they consist in the simple 
conception of the subject?' (2) 'If they subsist, are they cor- 
poreal or incorporeal?' (3) In either case, 'are they separate 
from sensible objects, or do they reside in these objects, forming 
something coexistent with them?' These questions Porphyry 
had set aside as requiring deeper investigation. Boethius, in his 
first commentary on Porphyry, in which he had accepted the 
translation by Victorinus, stated that it was impossible to doubt 
the real existence of genera and species; but, towards the close of 
the first book of his second commentary, founded on his own 
translation of Porphyry, we find him weighing and comparing 
the opinions of Plato and Aristotle: — 'according to Plato, genera 
and species are not merely conceptions, in so far as they are 
universals; they are real things existing apart from bodies; 
according to Aristotle, they are conceived as incorporeal, in 
so far as they are universals, but they have no real existence 
apart from the sensible world'. He now inclines towards the 
opinion of Aristotle, whereas formerly he had preferred that of 
Plato; but, like Porphyry himself, he leaves the question un- 
determined, deeming it unbecoming to decide between Plato and 
Aristotle. 

While the life of Boethius was prematurely cut short by a 
violent death, that of his contemporary Cassiodorus, 

Cassiodorus 

the skilful and subservient Minister of the Ostro- 
gothic dynasty, was prolonged beyond the age of ninety {c. 480 — 
c. 575). He was sole consul in 514, published his Chronicon in 
519, and, between 526 and 533, wrote his History of the Goths. 
At the end of 537 he published, under the title of Variae, the 
vast collection of his official Letters. In the evening of his days 
he withdrew from the world and founded two Monasteries at 
Scyllacium in Southern Italy. His later works included an 
educational treatise entitled the Instiiutiones Divinarum et 
Humanarum Lectionum. In the 93rd year of his age his monks 



/O THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

surprised him by asking for a treatise on spelling : he ac- 
cordingly produced a compilation De Orthographia^ borrowed 
from the works of twelve grammarians, beginning with Donatus 
and ending with Priscian. 

The Chronicon of Cassiodorus, which closes its abstract of the 
history of the world with 519 a.d., is mainly an inaccurate copy 
of Eusebius and Prosper, while towards its close it is unduly 
partial to the Goths. In the vast collection of his official 
Letters we find one enacting an increase in the salaries of 
grammarians : — 

'Grammar is the noble foundation of all literature, the glorious mother of 

eloquence The grammatical art is not used by barbarous kings: it abides 

peculiarly with legitimate sovereigns. Other nations have arms : the lords of 
the Romans alone have eloquence... The Grammarian is a man to whom every 
hour unemployed is misery, and it is a shame that such a man should have to 
wait the caprice of a public functionary before he gets his pay '...Such men 
'are the moulders of the style and character of our youth. Let them..., with 
their mind at ease about their subsistence, devote themselves with all their 
vigour to the teaching of liberal arts'^. 

In the first part of his Institutiones he warns his monks 
against impairing the purity of the sacred text by merely plausible 
emendations ; only those who have attained the highest learning 
in sacred and secular literature could be allowed to correct the 
sacred texts. Revisers of other texts must study the works of the 
ancients, libros priscorum, and correct those texts with the aid 
of those who are masters in secular literature^. To avoid mis- 
takes the copyist must read the works of ancient authors on 
orthography, Velius Longus, Curtius Valerianus, Papyrianus, 
' Adamantius Martyrius ' on V and B, Eutyches on the rough 
breathing, and Phocas on genders. These works he had himself 
collected to the best of his abiHty^ By his careful attention to 
the training of copyists he did much towards preventing the 
earlier Latin literature from perishing. The treatise De Ortho- 
graphia gives rules of spelling to enable the copyist to avoid 
certain common mistakes. The four chapters extracted from the 
above-mentioned treatise on V and B show that those letters 
must have been constantly confounded in the pronunciation of 

1 ix -21, p. 406 Hodgkin. ^ Migne, Ixix 1130 B. ^ i 30. 



VIII] CASSIODORUS. PRISCIAN 7 1 

imperfectly educated persons, who drew little (if any) distinction 
between vivere and bibere. 

St Jerome in his cell at Bethlehem had set the first great 
example of isolated literary labour. Cassiodorus appears to have 
been the first to have applied this principle in a wider and more 
systematic manner to the organisation of the convent. The 
civilisation of subsequent centuries, and, in particular, the insti- 
tution of monastic libraries and monastic schools, where the light 
of learning continued to shine in the ' Dark Ages ', owed much 
to the prescience of Cassiodorus. It is not improbable that 
some of his own mss ultimately found their way to Bobbio, in 
Northern Italy, which was certainly the place where the early ms 
of his Speeches was preserved \ The Benedictine monastery on 
Monte Cassino was founded in 529, more than ten years before 
that of Cassiodorus on the bay of Squillace ; but it was the latter 
which set the first example of that devotion to literary labour 
which afterwards became one of the highest distinctions of the 
Benedictine order. 

Almost all that is known of the date of Priscian is that he 
flourished in Constantinople in 512, and that a tran- 

- , . Priscian 

script of his great work on grammar was there com- 
pleted in 526-7 by one of his pupils. His Grammar \^ divided 
into XVIII books; i — xvi on Accidence; xvii and xviii on Syntax. 
In the dedication he states that he proposes to translate from 
the Greek of ApoUonius (Dyscolus) and Herodian. He follows 
Apollonius very closely, as may be seen from those portions 
of his work in which the corresponding books of Apollonius 
are almost completely preserved, viz. the parts on the Pronoun, 
Adverb, and Conjunction, and on Syntax. Most of Priscian's 
Latin learning comes from Flavius Caper; much is also due 
to Charisius, Diomedes, Donatus (with Servius on Donatus), and 
Probus ; and to an earlier list of grammatical examples from 
Cicero. The work is remarkably rich in quotations from Cicero 
and Sallust ; also from Plautus, Terence, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, 
Lucan, Persius, Statius and Juvenal. There are fewer from Cato, 
and from Accius, Ennius and Lucretius ; very few from Catullus 
and Propertius, Caesar, and the elder PUny ; and none from 
1 R. Beer, S. Ber. Vienna Acad. 191 1, 78—104. 



72 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. VIII 

Tibullus and Tacitus. The Greek examples are mainly from 
Homer, Plato, Isocrates and Demosthenes. This grammar was 
one of the great text-books of the Middle Ages and is accordingly 
still represented by more than looo mss. 

The fact that the great work of Priscian was copied by his 
pupil, not in Rome, but in Constantinople, foreshadows the be- 
ginning of the Byzantine age of scholarship. Two years after the 
archetype of Priscian had been transcribed, the Schools of Athens 
were closed in the early part of the reign of Justinian, probably 
at the very time when in the West the monastery of Monte Cassino 
was rising above the ruins of the altar of Apollo. 



BOOK IV 
GREEK SCHOLARSHIP FN THE ROMAN AGE 



CHAPTER IX 

GREEK LITERARY CRITICISM IN THE FIRST CENTURY 
OF THE EMPIRE 

In the Augustan age Rome was in a preeminent degree a 
centre of attraction to the leading representatives of Greek lite- 
rature. One of these, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Dionysius of 
lived in Rome from 30 to 8 B.C., producing in the Halicarnassus 
latter year his extant work on Early Roman History. His 
rhetorical writings, with which alone we are now concerned, 
contributed much towards the revival and the maintenance of a 
true standard of Attic prose. They may here be briefly noticed 
in an approximate chronological order. 

(i) The First Letter to Ammaeus. The aim of this short treatise is to 
disprove, on chronological grounds, the opinion that Demosthenes owed his 
success as an orator to the precepts laid down in the Rhetoric of Aristotle. 

(2) The treatise On the Arrangement of Words [irepl avvdiaew^ dvofxaTuy, 
De Compositione Verborum), includes a brief review of the history of the 
'parts of speech'. Nouns, verbs and connecting-particles {cri/vbeaiioCj were 
recognised by 'Theodectes and Aristotle'. The article {dpdpov) was added by 
the Stoics. Later writers successively separated the adjective (r6 irpoayjyopLKbv) 
and the pronoun [avTwvvixla) from the noun ; the adverb {^iripp-qiia) from the 
verb; the preposition (irpddecns) from the connecting-particle; the participle 
[fieroxv) from the adjective, and so on. The proper combination of these 
parts of speech makes a kuXov, and the proper combination of KwXa makes 
a 'period' (c. 2). Euphony (as an element of 'melody') is subsequently 
illustrated by the sounds of the letters of the alphabet, here divided into 
vowels ((fxavrjeuTa, <p<avaL) and consonants {\}/6(f)oi) ; and the latter into semi- 



74 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

vowels (r]fxl(j>wva) and mutes {6.(j)(i)va). Long vowels are more euphonious than 
short vowels. The descending order of euphony is for the vowels, a, 77, u>, v, 
I, 0, e; and for the semivowels, \ and p, next /j, and v, and lastly s, which is 
denounced as a disagreeable letter. The nine mutes are next classified firstly 
as i/'iXa {Venues) k, tt, t; 5a<r^a {aspiratae) x» 0j 9; and fxMaa {mediae) 7, j8, 5; 
and secondly as gutturals {/c, x» 7), labials (tt, ^, /3) and dentals (t, Q, 5) ; and 
in the former classification the aspirates are regarded as superior to the mediae^ 
and the mediae as superior to the tenues (c. 14). The sense of the word 
must be suggested by the sound, as in Homer's descriptions of the scream of 
the eagle, the rush of arrows, and the breaking of waves on the shore. The 
various metrical feet are enumerated and distinguished (c. 17); and metrical 
effects illustrated from masters of style, such as Homer, Thucydides, Plato 
and Demosthenes, as contrasted with the Asiatic orator, Hegesias (c. 18). 
In the sequel, the charm of variety is exemplified by the metres of Stesichorus 
and Pindar, and by the periods of Herodotus, Plato and Demosthenes (c. 19); 
apt propriety by Homer's effective description of the stone of Sisyphus, where 
the sound is an echo to the sense [Od. xi 593 — 8). The three ap/xoviai, or 
modes of composition, are next distinguished as (1) the 'austere' [avcxTrjpa 
apfjLouia or aOvdeais), represented by Antimachus and Empedocles in epic poetry, 
Pindar in lyric, Aeschylus in tragic ; Thucydides in history, and Antiphon in 
oratory (c. 22); (2) the 'smooth or florid' {y\a(pvpd, dvdrjpd), by Hesiod, 
Sappho, Anacreon, Simonides, Euripides, Ephorus, Theopompus and Isocrates 
(c. 23); and (3) the 'intermediate' {koivti), by Homer, Stesichorus, Alcaeus, 
Sophocles, Herodotus, Democritus, Plato, Aristotle and Demosthenes (c. 24). 

(3) On the Ancient Orators {irepX ruiu dpxo.iwv prjTdpoju vTrofXPrj/xariafMoi). 
This treatise was originally in two parts, comprising (1) three earlier orators, 
Lysias, Isocrates, Isaeus, (2) three later orators, Demosthenes, Hypereides, 
Aeschines, the first three being distinguished as having invented eloquence, and 
the second three as having brought it to perfection. (1) alone is extant ; the 
account of Demosthenes in (2) may possibly survive in an expanded form in 
the special treatise on that orator (No. 4). 

(4) On the Eloquence of Demosthenes. Demosthenes is here described as 
having formed his style on a happy combination of all that was best in the 
three typical varieties of diction, (i) the elevated and elaborate (\^|ts, vxprjX'^, 
wepiTTif}, i^7]X\ayfxivT]), represented by Thucydides; (2) the smooth and plain 
(Kltt] Kai a0eX?7s), by Lysias; {3) the mixed and composite (yuiKXTj koX (siivBeroi), 
by Isocrates (c. i — 3, 33, 34, 36). The distinction between these three types 
is probably due to Theophrastus (c. 3). In the latter part of the treatise the 
three modes of composition (as contrasted with the three varieties of diction 
above mentioned) are (as in De Comp. 22 — 24) carefully discriminated, (i) the 
austere, represented by Aeschylus, Pindar and Thucydides; (2) the smooth, by 
Hesiod, Sappho, Anacreon and Isocrates; and (3) the mixed, by Homer, 
Herodotus, Plato and Demosthenes (c. 36 — 42). 

(5) The Letter to Gnaeus Pompeius (possibly a Greek freedman of Pompey) 
is his reply to a correspondent who is dissatisfied with the writer's criticisms on 



IX] DIONYSIUS OF HALICARNASSUS 75 

Plato. He quotes from his Ancient Orators a passage on Plato describing 
him as combining the elevated style with the plain, and as being less successful 
in the former, whereas the plain style in Plato is 'mellowed by the tinge of 
antiquity', it 'remains radiant in beauty', and is 'like a balmy breeze blowing 
from meadows of surpassing fragrance'. He has also been asked for his views 
on Herodotus and Xenophon. In reply he quotes, from the Second Book of 
his lost treatise On Imitation {irepl /j,iix'/i<yea)s) , a long passage on these historians, 
and also on Thucydides, Philistus and Theopompus. This is almost all that 
survives of the treatise in question. 

(6) On Deitiarchus. Dionysius here deals with the life and style of 
Deinarchus, but his main object is to draw up a critical list of that orator's 
speeches. 

(7) On Thucydides. This is a critique on the historian's treatment of his 
subject-matter, and on his style. 

(8) The Second Letter to Ammaeus deals more minutely with the style of 
Thucydides. It begins with a summary of the characteristics of that style. 
It exemplifies each of those characteristics in turn, viz. his use of obscure, 
archaic and poetic words, of periphrasis and brachylogy, of noun for verb and 
verb for noun, of active for passive and passive for active, of singular for plural 
and plural for singular; of persons for things and things for persons; also his 
confusion of genders, his peculiar uses of cases and tenses, his use of 
parenthesis, his involved expressions, and his affected figures of speech. 
In the criticism of historians in general Dionysius is unsatisfactory ; like other 
ancient writers, he regards history as a branch of rhetoric, and he is far 
less conscious of the intellectual greatness than of the stylistic obscurity of 
Thucydides. 

In the minute and technical criticism of the art and craft of 
Greek Hterature, these works stand alone in all the centuries that 
elapsed between the Rhetoric of Aristotle and the treatise On the 
Sudli?ne. 

With Dionysius of Halicarnassus we naturally associate his 
friend Caecilius of Calacte, the author of a lost caeciiius of 
work on the characteristics of the Ten Orators, the Caiacte 
title of which shows that the canon of the Orators was already 
recognised and was not invented by Caecilius. His lost treatise 
Trept v\pov<; ('on elevation of style') is described by the author of 
the extant treatise bearing the same title, as falling short of the 
dignity of the subject. 

The treatise Trtpi i^i/^ous was regarded as the work of ' Dionysius 
Longinus' by all editors until it was observed, in Anonymus 
1808, that in a Vatican MS it was ascribed to "^^P^ v\|/ovs 
' Dionysius or Longinus '. The same alternative is offered in the 



76 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. IX 

index to two Paris mss ; but, in the superscription of this treatise 
in both, the two names are set side by side, with a considerable 
space between them. Lastly, a Florence ms of the treatise bears 
the inscription aVwi/u/xov Trcpl viJ/ov<s. But there are grave diffi- 
culties in ascribing the treatise either to Dionysius of Halicarnassus 
or to Cassius Longinus (d. 273), or to any other known author. 
It may very well be assigned to the first century of our era. Its 
general aim is to point out the essential elements of an impressive 
style, which, avoiding all tumidity, puerility, affectation and bad 
taste, finds its inspiration in grandeur of thought and intensity 
of feeling, and its expression in nobility of diction and in skil- 
fully ordered composition. It deals not merely with 'the 
SubHme'; it is a survey of literary criticism in general, with 
special reference to the elements which invest style with a certain 
elevation or distinction. 

The treatise of Demetrius on Verbal Expression, wrongly 
attributed to Demetrius of Phaleron, certainly be- 

Demetrius 

longs to the Roman age, and probably to the first 
century of our era. The author frequently quotes from the 
Rhetoric of Aristotle, and has many interesting remarks on 
oratorical style and rhythm. Thus he happily compares the 
' disjointed ' style to a number of stones lying near one another, 
loose, scattered and uncombined, and the 'periodic' style to the 
same stones when bound compactly in the self-supporting cohesion 
of a vaulted dome. His main subject is the 'Art of Prose 
Composition '. 



CHAPTER X 

VERBAL SCHOLARSHIP TO 3OO A.D. 

JuBA II, king of Mauretania, who died under Tiberius about 
20 A.D., is praised for his historical research by 
Plutarch, who calls him the most accomplished of 
kings'. He wrote on the history of Rome, and on Assyria, 
Arabia, and Libya, besides works on the Art of Painting, and 
on the History of the Theatre. The latter dealt with the 
instruments of music used in the Drama, with choral songs and 
dances, and the distribution of the several parts among the 
actors. It is quoted by Athenaeus and Photius, and large parts 
of it have probably passed without the author's name into our 
scholia on the dramatists, and especially into the Onomasticon 
of Pollux. 

Pamphilus of Alexandria i^fl. 50 a.d.) was the compiler of a 
vast work on rare or difificult words, which was 
superseded by abridgements and ultimately lost. 
Among these was the ' poor students' lexicon ' of Diogenianus, 
one of the authorities followed by the lexicographer Hesychius. 

The extant works of Plutarch (c. 46 — c. 125) have hardly any 
connexion with the history of scholarship. The 

^ ^ Plutarch 

sources of his Lives^ e.g. those of Demosthenes and 
Cicero, have been the theme of scholarly discussion ; his treatise 
De Placitis Philosophorum is held to have been compiled from 
Aetius ; and his Quaestiones Romanae from Juba, whose own 
authority was Varro. His ' Comparison between Aristophanes 
and Menander ' is very unfavourable to the former ; while his 
treatise ' On the Malignity of Herodotus ' begins and ends with 
the praises of his style, but is mainly concerned with the 
supposed proofs of his spite and uncharitableness. In the nine 
^ Settor. 9 and Anton. 87. 



78 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

books of his Convivial Questions the literary element is but 
slightly apparent. In arranging your guests at table, he would 
have you place 'the eager learner beside the distinguished 
scholar'. He discusses the number of the Muses, and inquires 
why A is the first letter of the alphabet. In connexion with 
Homer, he inquires what was the exact meaning of (wporepov and 
dyXaoKapTTos. In the letter of consolation addressed to his wife, 
he finds fault with critics who ' collect all the lame and defective 
verses of Homer, which are but few in number, and pass over an 
infinite sort of others, which were by him most excellently made'. 
In the introduction to the dialogue De Defectu Oraculorum points 
of grammar, such as the question whether ^dXXu) loses a X in the 
future, and what is the positive of x^^pov and jSeknov, are described 
as causing the disputants to contract their brows and contort 
their features ; while other topics can be discussed with a calm 
and unruffled mien. Plutarch's comments on Homer ('O/xrjpLKal 
/AcXerat), the possible source of the pamphlet 'on the life and 
poetry of Homer', survive in fragments only ; those on Hesiod's 
Works and Days, partly preserved by Proclus and Tzetzes, were 
apparently a medley of minute observation and moral disquisi- 
tion. His 'Life of Pindar' is quoted by Eustathius; and his notes 
on Aratus and Nicander are reproduced in the scholia on those 
authors, but they are solely on matters of natural science. The 
pseudo-Plutarchic 'Lives of the Ten Orators' were mainly founded 
on a lost work by Caecilius of Calacte. 

Among the friends of Plutarch was Favorinus of Aries (born 
^.75 A.D.), one of the most learned men of the 

Favorinus _ , . 

age of Hadrian. He vied with Plutarch in the 
number and variety of his writings, which included philosophy, 
history, philology and rhetoric. Besides several semi-philosophical 
works, he wrote at least five books of Memoirs, and twenty-four 
o{ Miscellanies. The latter is described by Photius as a store- 
house of erudition, and both are among the authorities followed 
by Diogenes Laertius. 

A history of Scholarship is only concerned with a few of the 

four-score writings that bear the name of Lucian 

Lucian 

(^.125 — ^.192). Yiis Judgement of the Vowels (hiK-q 
<l>wvri€VTU)v), which throws some light on the Attic Greek of his 



X] PLUTARCH. LUCIAN. APOLLONIUS 79 

day, describes a lawsuit brought before the court of the vowels 
by the letter Sigma against the letter Tau, complaining of violent 
ejectment from various words such as atjixepov, OdXaa-ora and 
0€o-o-aA.ta, which the Atticists of the time pronounced rtjix^pov, 
BaXarra and @€TTaAia. In his Lexiphanes we have a playful 
satire on the Atticists of the day, and on their fancy for inter- 
spersing their compositions with obsolete phrases borrowed from 
the old Attic authors. A specimen of this kind of patch-work 
is produced by Lexiphanes himself, who is severely criticised, 
and is solemnly admonished to reject the miserable inventions 
of modern rhetoricians, to emulate the great classical writers 
such as Thucydides and Plato, and the ancient masters of 
tragedy and comedy, and, above all, to sacrifice to the Graces 
and to perspicuity. 

To the age of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius we may assign 
the eminent grammarian Apollonius Dyscolus, who 

,.,,..,. . , , Grammarians 

lived and died m poverty m what was once the 
royal quarter of Alexandria. His name of Dyscolus (^ crabbed ') 
is said to have been due to a sourness of temper, ApoUonius 
caused by extreme poverty ; but it is far more Dyscolus 
probable that it was suggested by the difficulty of his style. 
Apollonius and his son, Herodian, are the most important 
grammarians of the imperial age. He was the founder of 
scientific grammar, and the creator of Greek Syntax. The sub- 
jects of his principal works were, the parts of speech in general, 
also nouns and verbs in particular, and syntax. The parts of 
speech, in his view, were eight in number, arranged in the 
following order : — noun, verb, participle, article, pronoun, pre- 
position, adverb and conjunction. His works on nouns and 
verbs were extensively quoted, not only by Priscian, but also by 
Georgius Choeroboscus {c. 600) and the scholiasts on Dionysius 
Thrax. But only four of his writings have survived — those on 
the pronoun, adverbs, conjunctions, and syntax. This last is in 
four books, the first of which determines the number and order 
of the parts of speech (assigning precedence to the noun and 
verb), and next discusses the syntax of the article; the second 
deals with the syntax of the pronoun ; the third begins with the 
rules of ' concord ' (KargtAA^A-orr^s) and their exceptions, followed 



8o THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

by the general syntax of the verb ; the fourth includes the syntax 
of prepositions, adverbs and conjunctions, but only a small portion 
of this is still extant. 

While Dionysius Thrax was, as we have seen', the first to make 
a special study of grammar, it was ApoUonius who placed that 
study on a scientific basis. He analysed the true nature of 
language and of its component parts ; set aside certain fantastic 
theories current in his day, and introduced scientific explanations 
in their place. The characteristic of the article is 'the retro- 
spective reference to a person already mentioned'; such a 
retrospect takes place, when we speak either of a known person, 
or of a definitely recognised class. He was the only ancient 
grammarian who wrote a complete and independent work on 
Syntax, and his opinions continued to be recognised as autho- 
ritative throughout the Middle Ages, and down to the time 
of Theodorus Gaza and Constantinus Lascaris inclusive. His 
definitions of the parts of speech show a marked advance on 
those of his predecessors, and are adopted by Priscian and by 
subsequent grammarians. 

Aelius Herodianus, the son of ApoUonius Dyscolus, lived at 
Rome under M. Aurelius. His principal work, 
entitled KaOoXiKr) -n-poo-wSta, was in 21 books, the 
first 19 treating of accentuation in general, book 20 on quantities 
(xpovoi) and breathings (Tn/ev/xara), and book 21 on enclitics, 
diastole and synaloephe. It was mainly founded on Aristarchus 
and Tryphon, and the nature of its subject left little (if any) room 
for originality. It is now represented only by excerpts preserved 
by Theodosius and 'Arcadius'. Herodian also wrote on ortho- 
graphy ; on barbarisms and monosyllabic words ; on nouns and 
verbs; on inflexions, declensions and conjugations. Our know- 
ledge of these works depends entirely on extracts in later 
grammarians, e.g. in the Homeric scholia, and in Stephanus of 
Byzantium. His only extant work is a treatise 'on peculiar 
diction ' (Trepi fjLovtjpov? Xe'^ecos), consisting of a series of articles 
on exceptional or anomalous words. We have also an abstract 
of his teaching on syllables ' common ' in quantity {irepl Slxpovwv)^ 

^ p. 44, supra. 



X] HERODIAN. PHRYNICHUS 8l 

and numerous excerpts from his work on the accentuation of 
the Iliad and the Odyssey. 

Another of the sources of the above scholia was the work of 
Nicanor (Trcpi cmy/x^s), written by an Alexandrian 
grammarian rather earHer than Herodian, probably 
in the reign of Hadrian. Nicanor distinguished eight varieties of 
punctuation, viz. three forms of the full stop ; two of the colon ; 
and three of the comma. His interest in punctuation led to his 
being known as ' the punctuator ' (6 o-Tty/xartas). 

In the second century lexicography received a new impulse 
from the prevailing fancy for imitating the great Lexico- 

Attic models of the past. graphers 

The chief representative of lexicography is the 'Atticist', 
Aelius Dionysius. He compiled a lexicon of Attic acHus 

words in five books with a supplement in five more, Dionysius 
both parts including many examples of each word. Photius 
describes it as equally useful to imitators of Attic style and 
students of Attic writers. His own copy included a similar 
lexicon, of equal bulk, but containing fewer examples, compiled 
by another ' Atticist ', Pausanias, who lived under Pausanias 
Antoninus Pius and possibly also under M. Aurelius. *^* ' Atticist ' 
Photius suggests the desirability of recasting and combining the 
lexicons of both of these ' Atticists ' in a single work with all the 
items in a single alphabetical order. For most of our knowledge 
of both, we are indebted to Eustathius. 

Of the ' Atticists ' the most interesting to ourselves are 
Phrynichus and Moeris, some of whose works are 

•11 1^1 • 1 / /T ^ N 1 Phrynichus 

Still extant. Phrynichus (yz. i8o) appears to have 
taught Rhetoric in Bithynia under M. Aurelius and Commodus. 
He was a passionate purist, and, in spite of feeble health, com- 
posed a vast lexicon of Attic terms in 37 books, under the title 
of a-ocfucTTLK-q 'TrpoTrapa(rK€vyj, ' the rhetorical magazine '. As autho- 
rities Phrynichus recognised, in prose, Plato and the ten Attic 
orators, also Thucydides, Xenophon, Aeschines Socraticus, Critias, 
and Antisthenes (with a special preference for Plato, Demos- 
thenes, and Aeschines Socraticus); and, in verse, Aeschylus. 
Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes. He composed (probably 
in his youth) a far shorter work which has come down to us, 
s. H. 6 ^ 



82 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

known to Suidas as the 'KTTiKicrT'q^, with an alternative title 

€Kkoyy] prjixaTwv koi ovofxaTwv 'Attikojv. It consists of a long list 

of rules and prohibitions, telling the student what expressions 

to avoid, and what to use instead. Of the life of 

Aelius Moeris we know nothing; but we possess 

his collection of Attic terms (Xe^ets 'ArrtKat), which, like one of 

the works of Phrynichus, is sometimes called the 'AmKio-Tr;?. 

The date of Valerius Harpocration, the author of an important 

lexicon to the Attic orators (A-elcts twv ScVa prjTopwv), 

Harpocration , . ^ . , i i • • i 

IS uncertam. It is perhaps best to place nim m the 
second century. His lexicon has come down to us in two forms, 
the complete work and an abridgement; but the mss of the 
former are far inferior to those of the latter. One of the mss 
of the complete work (P) is in the Library of Trinity College, 
Cambridge : another (Q) in that of the University (Dd 4, 63). 
In the margin of the second is a series of articles (including a 
passage from Philochorus on the subject of ostracism), first pub- 
lished by Dobree (1822) under the name of Lexicon rhetoricum 
Cafitabrigiense. The work of Harpocration himself is of special 
value in connexion with the language of the Attic orators and the 
institutions of Athens. Besides quotations from the tragic and 
comic poets, it preserves for us a number of passages from the 
Atthidographers Hellanicus, Androtion, Phanodemus, Philochorus, 
and Istrbs, from the Constitutions of Aristotle, from the Laws of 
Theophrastus, from historians such as Hecataeus, Ephorus and 
Theopompus, Anaximenes and Marsyas, also from Craterus, the 
collector of Attic decrees, from travellers such as Polemon and 
Diodorus {On Demes\ and from scholars such as Callimachus, 
Eratosthenes and Didymus of Alexandria, Dionysius of Hali- 
carnassus and his namesake, the son of Tryphon. These two 
last are apparently his latest authorities. 

Another lexicographer, Julius Pollux (rEoA-vScv/ci;?) of Naucratis 

(fl. 180 A.D.), is the author of an Onomasticon of 
Pollux . ' 

Attic words and phrases in ten Books, dedicated to 

his imperial pupil, Commodus, who appointed him to a professor- 
ship at Athens, which he held until his death at the age of 58. 
The arrangement is according to subjects. Among the most 
valuable portions are Book iv, on music, dancing and the Greek 



X] HARPOCRATION. POLLUX. ATHENAEUS 83 

theatre, probably partially borrowed from Juba; Book viii, on 
the Athenian tribunals and officers of State, founded partly on 
Aristotle's Constitution of Athens \ and Book ix, § 51 f, on coins. 
His primary authorities are the lexicons of Didymus, Tryphon, 
and Pamphilus ; in Book 11 he partly relies on a medical writer 
named Rufus; and, from Book ix onwards (as he himself tells 
us), he has made use of the Ononiasticon of Gorgias the younger. 

In this age the leading authority on metre was Hephaestion 
of Alexandria. His work (oriejinally in no less 

^ ° -^ . Hephaestion 

than 48 books) has only survived m the epito- 
mised form of his own Encheiridion. 

Galen (131 — 201), besides being a prolific writer on medical 
and philosophical subjects (including ethics and 
logic), wrote on matters connected with grammar 
and literary criticism. Of ten such works that he names in the 
list of his own writings, five were on Ancient Comedy. Some 
of the rest dealt with questions of Atticism, including a lexicon 
in 48 books comprising words used by the early Attic writers. 
The aim of his lexicon was simply to determine the exact sense 
of the words used by ancient writers, which, as he found, were 
often misunderstood by his contemporaries. He wrote com- 
mentaries on Plato's Timaeus and Fhi/ebus, on Aristotle's 
Categories and Analytics^ and on Theophrastus and Chrysippus ; 
but, with the exception of fragments of the first, they have not 
survived. 

A vast variety of erudition has been preserved by Athenaeus 
of Naucratis, who lived at Rome under Commodus 
and his successors. His comprehensive work, en- 
titled Aet7n/oo-o<^to-Tat or ' Doctors at dinner ', originally consisted 
of thirty books. It was abridged into fifteen ; and it is this 
abridgement that has survived in an incomplete form in a single 
MS. The scene is laid at the house of the Roman pontiff 
Larentius ; and all kinds of accomplishments, — grammar, poetry, 
rhetoric, music, philosophy and medicine, — are represented among 
the many interlocutors, some of whom bear famous names, such 
as Plutarch, Arrian, Galen and Ulpian. It is an encyclopaedia 
under the disguise of a dialogue. Food and drink, cups and 
cookery, stories of famous banquets, scandalous anecdotes, speci- 

6—2 



84 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

mens of ancient riddles and drinking songs, and disquisitions on 
instruments of music, are only part of the miscellaneous fare which 
is here provided. To the quotations in Athenaeus we are indebted 
for our knowledge of passages from about 700 ancient writers 
who would otherwise be unknown to us, and, in particular, for 
the preservation of a large part of the extant remains of the 
Middle and New Attic Comedy. 

The most eminent rhetorician of the third century was Cassius 
Longinus (c. 220 — 273). He studied at Alexandria, 

Longinus <-^ \ w-/ 

taught for thirty years at Athens, and ended his days 
at Palmyra as the counsellor of Zenobia, whom he nobly supported 
in her resistance to Aurelian, who put him to death in 273. We 
still possess part of his treatise on Rhetoric imbedded in that 
of Apsines, and first identified by Ruhnken as the work of 
Longinus. It is little more than a collection of practical observa- 
tions on ' invention ', arrangement, style, delivery, and the art of 
memory. The studies of Longinus ranged over philosophy, rhetoric 
and criticism. He produced two editions of a treatise on Attic 
phrases, and several works on Homer ; and his Homeric problems 
had their influence on a similar work by his pupil, Porphyry. It 
was his high renown as a critic that led to the conjecture of the 
copyists that he was the author of the treatise On the Sublime ; and 
there are some points of coincidence with that treatise in the 
fragments of his Philological Discourses. 

An uncritical account of the ' Lives and Opinions of Philosophers ' 
Diogenes IS Supplied by Diogenes Laertius (of Laerte in Cilicia), 

Lagrtius ^j^q jj^^y y^^ placed early in the third century. It aims 

at enumerating the chief representatives of each school, with 
brief biographical sketches of an anecdotic character, a list of their 
works and a popular statement of their views. The first two books 
include the ' Seven Wise Men of Greece ', the earliest philosophers 
down to Anaxagoras and Archelaus, and Socrates and his pupils 
with the exception of Plato, who is reserved for book iii. Book iv 
is on the Academics, v on Aristotle and the Peripatetics, vi on the 
Cynics, and vii on the Stoics from Zeno to Chrysippus. In viii 
we return to the earlier age, to the school of Pythagoras, with 
Empedocles and Eudoxus; in ix we have a confused jumble 
including Heracleitus, the Eleatics, the Atomists and the Sceptics, 



X] LONGINUS. PORPHYRY 85 

while X is entirely on the School of Epicurus, to which the compiler 
himself appears occasionally to incline. 

Late in the second and early in the third century is the age 
of the most important of the ancient commentators Alexander 
on Aristotle, Alexander of the Carian town of of Aphrodisias 
Aphrodisias. His extant commentaries deal with the First Book 
of the Analytics, the Topica, the De Sensu and the Metaphysics. 

In the domain of Scholarship Porphyry (233 — c. 305), the 
pupil of the Neoplatonist Plotinus, produced a 
treatise on 'philological research' (^tA.oA.oyos la-TopLa), 
and on 'grammatical questions' (y/oa/x/xaTtKat diropiai), as well as 
an ' introduction ' to Thucydides, and to the Categories of Aristotle. 
His Eisagoge, or introduction to the latter, as translated by Boethius, 
had an important influence on the thought of the Middle Ages^; 
his commentary on the Categories exists in fragments only. His 
interest in Homer is now represented only by some fragments of 
his Homeric Questions ('OfxripiKa ^r/TrJ/xara), which have several 
points of contact with Aristotle's Homeric Problems, and by his 
work On the Cave of the Nytnphs {Od. xiii 102 — 112), which is 
treated as an allegory of the universe. 

^ Cp. p. 69, supra. 



CHAPTER XI 



GREEK SCHOLARSHIP FROM 3OO TO 53O A.D. 

In the time of transition from paganism to Christianity, one 
of the Greek authors on the Christian side was 

£usebius 

Eusebius (265 — 340), the historian and chronologer. 
In the previous century a sketch of the comparative chronology 
of the history of the Jews and Gentiles had been drawn up by 
Sextus Julius Africanus, ending with 221 a.d. This was one of the 
principal works incorporated by Eusebius in his Chronicle. The 
latter was in two parts, (i) an epitome of universal history, and 
(2) chronological tables, the whole constituting the greatest 
chronological work produced by the ancient world. It is the 
foundation of most of our knowledge of the dates of Greek and 
Roman history, down to 325 a.d. The Greek of Eusebius survives 
in excerpts only ; for our knowledge of the rest we have to rely on 
the Latin version by Jerome, and the Armenian translation, first 
published in 18 18. 

On the pagan side the leading teacher of the fourth century 

was Libanius of Antioch (314 — c. 393). He was a 

Libanius . i 1 1 • 

prolific writer. Among his purely scholastic works 
are his Declamations (/AcXerat), and his Rhetorical Exercises 
{Trpoyvixvaa-fxaTOiv TrapayyeX/xara), the latter including speeches 
composed in the characters of Achilles and Medea, and a some- 
what dull and formal comparison between Demosthenes and 
Aeschines. He is also the author of certain critical works on 
Demosthenes, including a Lt/e of that orator and Arguments 
to his speeches. These are preserved in the mss, and printed 
in most of the editions, of Demosthenes; he rightly declines to^ 
accept the Speech on Halonnesus as the work of Demosthenes, 



CHAP. XI] EUSEBTUS. LIBANIUS. PROCLUS 8/ 

and is inclined to ascribe to Hypereides the Speech on the treaty 
with Alexander. In one of his discourses he complains of the 
inattentiveness of his class : ' some of them stand like statues, with 
their arms folded ; others vacantly count the numbers of those who 
come in late, or stare at the trees outside... ; they forget all about 
Demosthenes, the latest comments as completely as the first '^ In 
the most recent criticism of Demosthenes, his reminiscences of 
the orator's language supply part of the materials for determining 
the original text. 

Some of the extant scholia on Demosthenes bear the name 
of Ulpian. They are of little value, and probably 
belong in part alone to this eminent Sophist, the 
author of a number of lost rhetorical treatises and declamations, 
who taught rhetoric at Emesa and Antioch, under Constantine. 

The grammarian Theodosius of Alexandria may be placed 
about the end of the fourth century. His name is 

, . 1 „ . - . Theodosius 

wrongly assigned to a collection of commentaries on 
the Grammar of Dionysius Thrax. He is probably the author 
of the epitome of Herodian's work on accentuation (/cavoVcs T175 
KaOoXiK-^^ TTpoo-wSia?) attributed to Arcadius, a celebrated gram- 
marian of Antioch (before 600 a.d.). He is undoubtedly the 
author of certain 'introductory rules on the inflexions of nouns 
and verbs '. This work was often appended to that of Dionysius 
Thrax and was formerly ascribed to the latter. But there is a 
marked difference between them. Thus, while Dionysius Thrax 
confines himself to quoting only those tenses of tvtttu) which were 
in actual use, Theodosius sets forth all the imaginary aorists and 
futures of that verb, regardless of ancient usage. 

Among the extant works of the Neoplatonist, Proclus (410 — 
485), are commentaries on the Republic^ Timaeus and 
Parmenides, and a treatise on Plato's 'theology'. 
In the course of his commentary on the Republic he defends 
Homer against the attacks of Plato. Proclus (says Zeller) is really 
a ' scholastic ' : all his genius is devoted to the interpretation of 
texts, which he accepts unreservedly without caring to criticise 
them, 

^ Q^' ^ § i3> i 200 — 2 Reisk^. 



88 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

After Procliis, Neo-Platonism lived on for about a century. 
Hermeias. Among its representatives were Hermeias (end of 
Ammonius ^.^^^ y^^ ^j^q taught at Alexandria, and whose diffuse 

scholia on the Phaedrus are still extant ; many extracts from them 
are quoted in the edition of Dr Thompson, who observes that, 
'amidst a heap of Neoplatonic rubbish, they contain occasional 
learned and even sensible remarks '\ He agrees with Synesius 
in supposing that beauty of every kind is the theme of this dialogue. 
He was succeeded at Alexandria (early in cent, vi) by his son 
Ammonius, who is still represented by his commentaries on the 
logical treatises of Aristotle, and is the earliest of the extant 
expounders of the Eisagoge of Porphyry. Among the pupils of 
Ammonius were Simplicius, Asclepius, Olympiodorus the younger, 
and Joannes Philoponus. The last of these wrote (among other 
works) a commentary on Aristotle's Physics. His commentary on 
Porphyry's Introduction to the Categories was much studied by the 
Syrians. 

After languishing under the successors of Proclus, the School 
of Athens revived for the last time under Damascius, 
who was the head of the School in 529, when the 
* golden chain ' of the Platonic succession was broken by the edict 
The School of Justinian, which put an end to the teaching of 
cfoted by^ Neo-Platonism at Athens. Its teachers lingered for 

Justinian a short time in their Athenian home, and, in 532, 

seven of them, namely Diogenes and Hermeias, Eulalius and 
Priscianus, Damascius, Isidorus and Simplicius, left for the court 
of Chosroes, the enlightened monarch who had recently ascended 
the Persian throne and who proved his interest in Greek philosophy 
by promoting the translation of certain Platonic and Aristotelian 
writings. Their high expectations were bitterly disappointed and 
they soon entreated permission to return. In 533 Chosroes con- 
cluded a treaty with Justinian, which ensured the protection of the 
philosophers from persecution for their opinions. They returned 
to the dominions of the empire, to settle, not at Athens, but at 
Alexandria. Among those who had left Athens for Persia was 
a pupil of Damascius and Hermeias, Simplicius of Cilicia, whose 

1 Thompson's Fha^drus, pp. ix, 92, 136. 



XI] ATHENS AND ALEXANDRIA 89 

commentaries on the Categories, Physics^ De Caelo and De 
Anima of Aristotle are still extant ; and whose 

, . . . _, . . . . Simplicius 

'moral mterpretation of Epictetus is preserved m 
the library of nations, as a classic book '. This last is popular in 
style, while the main value of the rest lies, not in their exegesis, 
but in their citations from early Greek philosophers. After 564 
we find at Alexandria the younger Olympiodorus, who has left 
us a life of Plato and commentaries on the First oiympiodorus 
Alcibiades, Gorgias, Phaedo, Philehis, and Aristotle's *^^ younger 
Meteorologica. They unfortunately exhibit no originality, either 
literary or philosophic. David the Armenian, probably a pupil 
of Olympiodorus, produced a commentary on the Organon and 
on Porphyry's Introduction to the Categories. The Neo-Platonic 
School, and, with it, the study of Greek philosophy, practically 
ceased towards the end of the sixth century. 

While Plato and Aristotle were being expounded at Athens 
and Alexandria, grammar and lexicography were 

, . ,-^. , , ... Grammarians 

not neglected. With the grammarians the main 

source of inspiration was Herodian. In lexicography the labours 

of the Atticists of the second century were continued 

Lexico- 

in a series of mechanical compilations. A treatise graphers. 
on Synonyms, attributed in the mss to ' Ammonius', mmomus 
who left Alexandria for Constantinople in 391, appears to be only 
a revised edition of that of Herennius Philon on the same subject. 
A more important work is that of Orion, who was 
born at the Egyptian Thebes. This was an Etymo- 
logical Lexicon, the extant portions of which prove that it was 
founded on the researches of Heracleides Ponticus, Apollodorus, 
Philoxenus, Apollonius Dyscolus, Herodian, and Orus of Miletus, 
who has often been confounded with Orion. The work of Orion 
in its original form was one of the sources of the etymological 
compilations of the Byzantine age. 

Hesychius of Alexandria, who probably belongs to the fifth 
century, is the compiler of the most extensive of Hesychius 
our ancient Greek lexicons. It is not so much of Alexandria 
a ' lexicon ' as a glossary. In the preface it is described as a new 
edition of the work of Diogenianus, with additions from the 
Homeric lexicons of Apion and Apollonius (the son of Archibius). 



90 THE ROMAN AGE [CHAP. 

Hesychius is of special value in connexion with the emendation 
of classical authors. His work has often enabled Ruhnken and 
later critics to restore the original word in ancient texts where its 
place has been taken by an explanatory synonym. The existing 
lexicon, large as it is, is an abridgement only ; in its original form, 
it apparently included the names of the authorities for each state- 
ment. 

In the next century another scholar of the same name, 

Hesychius Hesychius of Miletus, who lived under Justinian, 
of Miletus ^g^g ^Y\e author of a lexicon of special importance 

in connexion with the history of Greek literature. He owed 
much to Aelius Dionysius and Herennius Philon. Our knowledge 
of his lexicon is solely due to the citations of Suidas, who describes 
his own work as an epitome of that of Hesychius of Miletus. 

The reign of Justinian saw an abridgement of the great 

stephanusof geographical lexicon of Stephanus of Byzantium. 
Byzantium j^ grammar Stephanus follows Herodian ; and, in 
geography, Hecataeus, Ephorus, Eratosthenes, Artemidorus (yf. 
loo B.C.), Strabo, Pausanias, and especially Herennius Philon. 
Among the earliest of compilers of chrestomathies was Proclus, 
who is regarded by Gregory of Nazianzus and by 
mathies. Suidas as identical with Proclus the Neo-Platonist. 

roc us p^^ almost all our knowledge of the ' grammatical 

{i.e. literary) chrestomathy ' of Proclus we are indebted to Photius, 
who states that, in the first two books, the author, after dis- 
tinguishing between poetry and prose, dealt with epic, elegiac, 
iambic and melic poetry, naming the leading representatives of 
each; and that he described the epic cycle in particular as a 
consecutive series of poems by various authors. This account is 
confirmed by the fragments of Proclus preserved in the codex 
Venetus of the Iliad and in some other mss. They include a 
short life of Homer, and a list of the authors of the Trojan part 
of the cycle, viz. the Cypria^ the Iliad^ the Aethiopis (Arctinus), 
the Little Iliad (Lesches), the Iliupersis (Arctinus), the Nosti 
(Agias), the Odyssey^ and the Telegonia (Eugammon), with an 
abstract of the contents of all except the Iliad and the Odyssey. 
Our knowledge of the contents of the lost epics of Greece comes 
almost entirely from this source, 



XI] STOBAEUS 91 

The only chrestomathy which has come down to us in an 
approximately complete form is that of Joannes 
Stobaeus (of Stobi in Macedonia), who is probably 
not much later than Hierocles {c. 450), the latest author whom he 
cites. In its original form it was in four books, (i) on philosophy, 
theology and physics, (2) on dialectic, rhetoric, poetry and ethics, 
(3) on virtues and vices, (4) on politics and domestic economy. 
The work is divided into 206 sections, each denoted by a short 
motto under which all the extracts are grouped, first those in verse, 
and then those in prose. The number of writers thus represented 
is no less than 500. In the Middle Ages the four books were 
treated by copyists as belonging to two separate works, (i) and 
(2) being entitled 'Extracts on Physics and Ethics' {UXoyai), 
and (3) and (4) the 'Anthology', a name that really belongs to 
the whole work. 

All the commentators, lexicographers and grammarians, whom 
we have now passed in review, belong to the age that ended with 
529 A.D., the eventful year in which the School of Athens was 
closed in the East, and the Monastery of Monte Cassino founded 
in the West. 



BOOK V 

THE BYZANTINE AGE 



CHAPTER XII 

BYZANTINE SCHOLARSHIP FROM 529 TO I GOO A.D. 

In the history of Greek Literature the Byzantine age, in the 
broadest sense of the term, may be said to begin with the 
founding of Constantinople in 330 and to end with its fall in 
1453. It may be divided into three parts : (i) the early Byzantine 
period, of about three centuries, from 330 to the death of 
Heraclius in 641 ; (2) the intervening period of two centuries, 
which, so far as secular learning at Constantinople is concerned, 
may be described as a dark age extending from about 641 to 
about 850 ; (3) the later Byzantine period of six centuries from 
850 to 1453. In the history of Scholarship this third period 
extends over five centuries only, beginning in 850 with the great 
revival of Byzantine learning heralded by the auspicious name 
of Photius, and ending about 1350, when, a full century before 
the fall of Constantinople, the interest in Scholarship passes 
westward to the cities of Northern Italy which caught the first 
rays of the new light that came to them from the East. 

In our survey of the history of Scholarship, we have found 
it convenient to treat the first two centuries (330 — 529) of the 
first of the above periods as the last two centuries of the Roman 
Period I, ^g^i leaving a period of little more than a century 

529-641 ^2 29 — 641) for the opening pages of the present 

Book. In this century antiquarian research is the province of 
Joannes Laurentius Lydus {c. 490 — 570), who studied Aristotle 



CHAP. XIl] CHOEROBOSCUS. STEPHANUS. MALALAS 93 

and Plato under a pupil of Proclus, and in his work On Offices 
gave a full account of the Roman civil service and the causes 
of its decline. Late in the sixth century is the earliest date that 
can be assigned to Georgius Choeroboscus, who 

... . -r^ . , . Choeroboscus 

played an important part m Byzantme education 
by his lectures on Grammar at the university of Constantinople. 
The chronological order of his principal works was : (i) a treatise 
on prosody, followed by lectures on (2) Dionysius Thrax, (3) Theo- 
dosius, (4) orthography, (5) Hephaestion, and (6) Apollonius and 
Herodian. His prolix lectures on the rules of Theodosius of 
Alexandria on nouns and verbs have come down to us in a 
complete form, part of them having been taken down by dictation. 
He appears to have had comparatively little influence on the later 
Byzantine grammarians, who preferred to study the great original 
writers on grammar, but in the age of the Renaissance he is closely 
followed in the text-books of Constantine Lascaris (Milan, 1476) 
and Urbanus of Belluno (Venice, 1497). 

Early in the seventh century (610) Aristotle was being ex- 
pounded by Stephanus of Alexandria, the author of 

. , ^ . „ _ . Stephanus 

commentaries on the Categories, Ve Interpretatione^ 

De Caelo, De Anima, Analytics, Sophistici Elenchi, and Rhetoric. 

The ecclesiastical writers of this age include Maximus Confessor 
(580 — 662), the private secretary of Heraclius. He is among the 
persons conjectured as possible authors of the anonymous 
Chronicon Paschale, an epitome of the history of chronicon 
the world from the Creation to 630 a.d., containing Paschale 
lists of consuls first published by Sigonius (1556), and many other 
chronological details first communicated by Casaubon to Scaliger 
and published by the latter in his edition of the Chronicon of 
Eusebius (1606). Among the authorities on which it is founded 
are Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius, the Consular Fasti, 
and the Chronicle of John Malalas. This last in its present form 
ends with the year 563 ; its author was a native of 

... , . 1 !• /• 1 • Malalas 

Antioch, who aimed at supplying the public of his 
day with a handbook of chronology written in the language of 
ordinary life. The only MS is in the Bodleian ; the name of the 
author was identified by John Gregory (d. 1646), and the work 
published by John Mill (1691), with an appendix consisting of 



94 THE BYZANTINE AGE [CHAP. 

the famous ' Letter to Mill ', which revealed to Europe the critical 
skill and the scholarship of Bentley. 

In our second period of two centuries (641 — 850) Theodore 

Period II, of Studion (759 — 826) was famous for his calli- 

^Theodore g^^P^Y ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ scrvices in promoting the 

of Studion preservation and multiplication of mss. Under 

Leo the Armenian (813—820) the grammarian Theognostus 

compiled a work on orthography comprising more 

than a thousand rules, mainly founded on Herodian's 

great work on accentuation. The vowels and the diphthongs which, 

in Byzantine Greek, have the same pronunciation as those vowels, 

are here grouped together, c with ai, and v with ot, the vowel being 

called € KJ/iXov, or v iJ/lXov, to distinguish it from the diphthong. 

During the two centuries described as the dark age of secular 
Aristotle literature at Constantinople the light of Greek learn- 

s"rians^and ^^8 Spread eastwards to Syria and Arabia. The 
Arabians philosophy of Aristotle had already found acceptance, 

in the fifth century, among the Syrians of Edessa, and, about the 
middle of that century, Syriac commentaries on the De Interpre- 
tatione, the Analytica Prior a and the Sophistici Elenchi had been 
produced by Probus. The School of Edessa, closed by Zeno in 
489 owing to its sympathy with Nestorianism, was succeeded by 
that at Nisibis, which attracted the notice of Cassiodorus, and that 
at Gandisapora (between Susa and Ecbatana), which sent forth 
Syrian students to instruct the Arabians in philosophy and 
medicine respectively. In the sixth century works of Aristotle 
had been translated into Syriac by Sergius of Resaina; and, in 
the seventh, the De Interpretatione, Categories and Analytics were 
produced in the same language, together with a Life of Aristotle, 
by Jacob, bishop of Edessa {fl. 651 — 719). Under the rule of 
the Abbasidae (which lasted from 750 to 1258, and whose capital 
of Bagdad was founded in 762), the medical science of the Greeks 
became known to the Arabs through the medium of the Syrians ; 
and, in the reign of the son of Harun-al-Raschid, the calif Alma- 
mun (813 — 833), whose request for the temporary use of the 
services of Leo the mathematician was resolutely refused by 
the emperor Theophilus {c. 830), philosophical works were trans- 



XII] ARISTOTLE IN SYRIA AND ARABIA 95 

lated by Syrian Christians from Greek into Syriac, and from 
Syriac into Arabic. It was under Almamun that Aristotle was 
first translated into Arabic under the direction of Ibn al Batrik 
("Son of the Patriarch'). The Nestorian Honein Ibn Ishak, 
or Johannitius (d. 876), who was familiar with Syriac, Arabic 
and Greek, presided over an important school of interpreters at 
Bagdad ; and (besides versions of Plato, Hippocrates and Galen) 
Greek commentaries on Aristotle were, in his name, translated by 
his sons and his disciples into Syriac and Arabic. In the tenth 
century new translations of Aristotle, Theophrastus, Alexander 
of Aphrodisias, Themistius, Syrianus, Ammonius etc. were pro- 
duced by the Nestorian Syrians. Of the Arabian philosophers 
in the East the most important were Alkendi of Basra (d. c. 870), 
who commented on the logical writings of Aristotle ; Alfarabi of 
Bagdad (d. 950), who in logic followed Aristotle unreservedly, 
and accepted the Neo-Platonic doctrine of emanation ; Avicenna 
(980 — 1037), who taught in Ispahan, combining instruction in 
medicine with the exposition of Aristotle, analysing the Organon 
and writing commentaries on the De Aninia and De Caelo, and 
on the Physics and Metaphysics ; and Algazel (1059 — 11 11), who 
began his teaching at Bagdad and opposed (on religious grounds) 
the doctrines of Aristotle. The* Arabic translations of Aristotle 
passed from the East to the Arabian dominions in the West, 
Spain having been conquered by the Arabs early in the eighth 
century. The study of Aristotle in Spain in the twelfth century, 
and the influence of the Latin translations of the Arabic versions 
of Aristotle, is reserved for our review of the Middle Ages in the 
West. 

The two works of Photius {c. 820 — 891), the Patriarch of 
Constantinople, which are of special importance in penod in 
the history of Scholarship, are (i) his Bibliotheca 850—1350 
and (2) his Lexicon. The Bibliotheca^ which must 
have been finished before 857 B.C., while the author was still a 
layman, consists of 280 chapters, corresponding to the number of 
separate volumes {codices) read and reviewed, and it fills altogether 
545 quarto pages in double columns in Bekker's edition. Some 
of these reviews contain lengthy extracts, with criticisms on the 



96 THE BYZANTINE AGE [CHAP. 

Style or subject-matter. Among the prose writings are the works 
of theologians, historians, orators and rhetoricians, philosophers^ 
grammarians and lexicographers, physicists and physicians, and 
even romances, acts of councils, and lives of saints and martyrs. 
Next to the theologians, the historians fill the largest space ; and, 
among the historical writings here preserved for posterity, are 
important notices of, or extracts from, Hecataeus, Ctesias, Theo- 
pompus, Diodorus Siculus, Memnon of Heraclea, Arrian, Phlegon 
of Tralles, and the chronologist Sextus Julius Africanus, besides 
later historians such as Olympiodorus of Thebes, Nonnosus of 
Byzantium, and Candidus the Isaurian. We are also supplied 
with excerpts from the chrestomathies of Proclus and Helladius, 
and brief reviews of the lexicon of the latter, as well as similar 
works by Diogenianus,and the Atticists Aelius Dionysius, Pausanias, 
and Phrynichus. The work, as a whole, is such as to prove, in the 
language of Gibbon, that 'no art or science, except poetry, was 
foreign to this universal scholar, who was deep in thought, 
indefatigable in reading, and eloquent in diction'. 

In his Lexicon (Xe'^ewi/ o-vi/aywyv;), which belongs to a later 
date than the Bibliotheca^ he makes use of excerpts from the 
vocabularies of Aelius Dionysius and Pausanias, both of them 
partly founded on Diogenianus ; he also uses the abridged Harpo- 
cration, with the Platonic lexicons of Timaeus and Boethus. 
For Homeric words he depends on Pseudo-Apion, Heliodorus 
and Apollonius. This Lexicon has been preserved solely in the 
codex Galeanus (c. 1200), formerly in the possession of Dr Thomas 
Gale (d. 1702), and now in the Library of Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge. It was twice transcribed by Porson, and published from 
his second transcript by Dobree (1822). 

The above was not the only Lexicon executed under the 
superintendence of Photius. In the Etymologicum Florentinum^ 
preserved in a MS of cent, x, and now called the Etymologicum 
genuinum^ Photius is cited in five passages, once in the form 
ovTiii% eyoj, $(OTtos 6 TraTptap;^?/?. But (curiously enough) he is 
not named in the numerous extracts derived from his earlier 
Lexicon and described as taken Ik tov prjTopiKov. The authorities 
here quoted include Methodius, Orus and Orion, Zenobius (the 
commentator on Apollonius), Herodian, Choeroboscus, Theog- 



XII] PHOTIUS 97 

nostuS'(yf. 820), and many scholia on the ancient poets. It would 
appear that the explanations of Homeric words current early in 
the sixth century were supplemented from Choeroboscus and 
reduced to a lexicographical form ; that interpolations were then 
introduced, and that, in this last stage, the work was taken up by 
Photius, who thus became the founder of the Greek Etymological 
Lexicons. The Etytnologicum genuinum was followed by the 
Etymologicwn parvufji, which was also drawn up under the orders 
of Photius, and completed in 882. 

The absence of all notice of the classical Greek Poets in 
the Bibliotheca of Photius has often been observed. But his 
omission of poetry in a work professing to record only a portion 
of his reading in his maturer years is quite consistent with his 
having studied the usual classical poets in the days of his youth. 
In the ninth century the authors studied at school, study of 
and familiar to the general public in Constantinople, *^^ Classics 
included Homer, Hesiod, Pindar; certain select plays of Aeschylus 
{Prometheus, Septem, Persae)^ Sophocles {Ajax, Eiectra, Oedipus 
Tyrannus), and Euripides (^Hecuba, Orestes, Phoenissae, and, in 
the second degree, Alcestis, Andromache, Hippolytus, Medea, 
Rhesus, Troades)', also Aristophanes (beginning with the Plutus)^ 
Theocritus, Lycophron, and Dionysius Periegetes. The prose 
authors principally studied were Thucydides, parts of Plato and 
Demosthenes, also Aristotle, Plutarch's Lives, and especially 
Lucian, who is often imitated in the Byzantine age. Among 
rhetoricians, the favourite authors were Dion Chrysostom, Aris- 
tides, Themistius and Libanius; among novelists, Achilles Tatius 
and Heliodorus. The geographer Strabo is hardly noticed before 
the Byzantine age. In sacred literature, the books chiefly read 
were, apart from the Scriptures, certain of the Greek Fathers, 
such as Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus and of Nyssa, Chrysostom, 
Johannes Climax, and John of Damascus, together with lives of 
saints and martyrs. The predominance of sacred literature is 
obvious in the catalogues of the great Greek libraries, such as 
those on Mount Athos. But the fact that so large a body of 
secular literature has been preserved at all is mainly due to the 
learning and enlightenment of eminent ecclesiastics such as Photius 
and Arethas. 

s. H. 7 



98 THE BYZANTINE AGE [CHAP. 

Arethas {c. 860 — c. 932) was one of the many distinguished 
pupils of Photius. He was Archbishop of Caesarea 
in Cappadocia in or before 907. Although his 
residence in Cappadocia kept him far removed from the chief 
centres of learning, he devoted himself with remarkable energy 
to the collection of classical as well as ecclesiastical writings, and 
to commenting on the same. Certain of his annotations on 
Plato, Dion Chrysostom, Pausanias, Lucian, Tatian, Athenagoras, 
Clement of Alexandria, and Eusebius are still extant. His interest 
in classical literature is attested by important mss copied under 
his orders and at his own expense. Among these are mss of 
Euclid (888) ; the Apologists, Clemens Alexandrinus, Eusebius 
(914); Aristides (917); possibly also of Dion Chrysostom, and 
certainly of Plato (895). This famous ms was brought from 
Patmos to Cambridge by the traveller, Dr Edward Daniel Clarke, 
afterwards Professor of Mineralogy in that University. It is now 
in the Bodleian at Oxford, and is known as the codex Bodleianus 
Clarkianus 39. At the end of the volume it bears an inscription 
stating that it was 'written by John the calligraphist, for Arethas, 
Deacon of Patrae, in the month of November 895'. Its value 
was fully appreciated by Porson at Cambridge (in 1802) and by 
Gaisford at Oxford (181 2). Its readings were pubHshed by the 
latter in 1820, and it has since been reproduced in facsimile 
(1898 f). It was acquired by Arethas when he was already a 
deacon. The Oxford MS of Euclid (888), which was acquired 
before he held any ecclesiastical office, is almost the earliest dated 
example of the Greek minuscule writing of the Middle Ages. 

The son and the grandson of Basil the Macedonian, Leo the 
Wise and Constantine Porphyrogenitus, were chiefly 

Constantine VII ... . , , . .... , . ^ 

distmguished for their literary productions. Leo 
(886 — 911) was the author of certain homilies and epigrams, with 
a book of oracles which gained him the name of 'the Wise'. The 
treatise on Tactics bearing his name was probably written by Leo 
the ' Isaurian '. The emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (912 — 
959) rendered considerable service to Greek literature by organ- 
ising the compilation of a series of encyclopaedias of History, as 
well as Agriculture and Medicine. The encyclopaedia of History 



XII] ARETHAS. SUIDAS. PSELLUS 99 

was drawn up under 53 headings, such as On Embassies, Virtues 
and Vices, Conspiracies, Stratagems, and Military Harangues. It 
included numerous extracts from earlier historians, beginning 
with Herodotus and ending with Theophylact Simocattes. The 
most important of these extracts are those from Polybius. 

To the third quarter of the tenth century (950 — 76) we may 
assign the great Lexicon of Suidas (SomSas), which 
is a combination of a Lexicon and an encyclopaedia, 
the best articles being those on the history of literature. It is 
founded (i) on earlier lexicons, such as the abridged Harpo- 
cration, Aelius Dionysius, Pausanias, and Helladius; (2) on 
scholia on Homer, Sophocles, Aristophanes and Thucydides, and 
on commentaries on Aristotle; (3) on histories, especially those 
included in the Excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus ; (4) on 
biographical materials collected by Hesychius of Miletus, and by 
Athenaeus; and (5) on other writers especially popular at Con- 
stantinople in the tenth century, such as Aelian, Philostratus, 
and Babrius. Its numerous coincidences with the lexicon of 
Photius are best explained by regarding both as having borrowed 
from the same originals. The earliest extant reference to the 
lexicon is found in Eustathius (latter part of cent. xii). 

The most notable personage in the Byzantine literature of the 
eleventh century was Psellus (1018 — 1078). He 

, • , • • , • r, • / T Psellus 

informs us that in his time learning flourished no 
longer at Athens or Nicomedeia, at Alexandria or in Phoenicia, 
or in either Rome, the Old or the New. In or after 1042 he 
became Professor of Philosophy in the newly founded Academy 
of law, philosophy and philology at Constantinople (1047 f). As 
a public teacher, he did much for the revival of Greek literature, 
and particularly for the study of Plato. His voluminous writings 
include an iambic poem on Greek dialects and on rules of 
grammar, and a brief description of the surroundings of Athens. 
In his list of the forensic phrases of Athens we find a passage 
on the reforms of Cleisthenes, with regard to the distribution 
of the demes among the new tribes, which we now know to 
have been ultimately derived from Aristotle's Constitution of 
Athens (21 § 4). 

The successor of Psellus as Professor of Philosophy was John 

7—2 



lOO THE BYZANTINE AGE [CHAP. 

Italus, a keen student of dialectic, who (without neglecting Plato 
and the Neo-Platonists) mainly devoted himself to the exposition 
of Aristotle, and especially to the De Interpreta- 
tors on Hone and Books ii — iv of the Topica. A pupil 

of Psellus, Michael of Ephesus, commented on 
part of the Organon (adding excerpts from Alexander of 
Aphrodisias) and also on the Ethics; while Eustratius of 
Nicaea (^. 1050 — c. 11 20) expounded the Ethics as well as the 
Second Book of the Later Analytics. 

Joannes Mauropus, the predecessor of Psellus as Professor in 
Joannes Constantinople, deserves mention as the author of 

Mauropus ^j^ etymological work in iambic verse. The words 

selected are suggested by the Greek text of the Scriptures and 
they are arranged in order of subjects, beginning with words such 
as ©€o?, ayycA-o?, ovpavos, acrrrip, 17X105, (reXTJvrj, and with the names 
of the winds and the four elements. The authority followed was 
apparently Jacob, bishop of Edessa (701), who produced a 
Christian version of an earlier work on 'etymology' or 'Hellenism', 
ultimately founded either on Seleucus or some contemporary 
grammarian in the age of Augustus and Tiberius. 

We have already noticed the Etyfuologicum genuinum and the 
Etymological Etymologicum parvum as having been prepared 
Lexicons under the direction of Photius. Next in date to 

these works is the Etymologicum {c. iioo) deriving the epithet 
of Gudianum from the former owner of an inferior MS of the 
same (1293), the Dane Marquard Gude (d. 1689), whose col- 
lection was presented by Peter Burman to the Library of 
Wolfenbiittel. Many items' in \h\?, Etymologicum are borrowed 
from the Et. genuinum and the Et. parvum, and their source is 
denoted in the best ms, the codex Barberinus I 70 (hardly later 
than cent, xi), by a monogram for ^wrto?. Some of the items so 
marked are not to be found in our mss of the two Etymologica 
edited by Photius, but all of them were probably taken from less 
imperfect copies of the same works. For the preservation of the 
old lexicons the ninth and tenth centuries were as fatal as they 
were fruitful. Photius and his circle diffused a wider interest in 
lexicography, but the value of the works produced was constantly 
deteriorating, the originals being abridged or expanded at the 



XII] TZETZES lOI 

copyist's caprice. In the twelfth century industrious scholars 
appear to have gone back to the works of the age of Photius. 
Hence arose the so-called Etymologicum magnmn^ which was 
founded mainly on the Et. genutnum with additions from the 
Et. Gudianum, while it dealt very freely with the former by 
altering the headings and the phraseology, suppressing quotations, 
adding passages from Homer, and in general aiming at something 
more than an expanded recension of its original. It was com- 
piled between iioo and 1250. It was first printed (with many 
interpolations) by Callierges (1499) who was the first to give the 
work the name of Et. magnum. 

The Lexica Segueriana are so called because they are pre- 
served in a MS of cent, xi formerly belonging to Lexica 
Pierre Seguier ( 1 5 88 — 1672, President of the French Segueriana 
Academy), now in the Paris Library {Coislinianus 345). This 
MS, which contains a number of minor lexicons and treatises on 
syntax, presents us with a vivid picture of the general range of 
grammatical studies in Constantinople during the tenth and 
eleventh centuries. It includes lexicons to Homer (that of Apol- 
lonius), Herodotus and Plato (that of Timaeus), the lexicons of 
Moeris and Phrynichus, and five anonymous lexicons, generally 
called the Lexica Segueriana^ (i) an anti-atticist work directed 
against Phrynichus ; (2) a lexicon on syntax with examples going 
down as far as Procopius {fl. 527 — 562) and Petrus Patricius 
{c. 500 — 562); (3) a list of forensic terms; (4) rhetorical terms 
with notes on Greek antiquities, derived from a lexicon to the 
Orators; {5) a crwaywy^ Ac^cwi/ xPW^I^^^y ii^ which the treat- 
ment of words beginning with A is very lengthy owing to 
numerous additions from Phrynichus, Aelius Dionysius and 
others. 

The twelfth century is marked by the name of Tzetzes 
U. mo — c. 11 80), the author of a didactic poem 

,. ,,..,. ,. ^ Tzetzes 

on literary and historical topics extending over no 
less than 12,674 lines of accentual verse, and displaying a vast 
amount of miscellaneous reading. The name of Chiliades is due 
to its first editor, the author's own name for it being simply 
ftL^\o<; L(TTopiK7J. Thc work is in the form of a versified com- 
mentary on his own Letters, which are full of mythological, 



102 THE BYZANTINE AGE [CHAP. 

literary and historical learning. The following lines on the seven 
liberal arts, founded on a passage in Porphyry, are a very favour- 
able example of his style: 

Seur^pws 5^ iyK^KXta ixad-fjixara KaXouvrai 

6 k^kXos, to avfXTT^paafia nduTUv tCjv fiadrj/xdrwu, 

ypafifiaTiKTjS, prjTopLKrjs, avTTJs (piXoaocplas, 

Kal Tuv reaadpwv Sk rexvCJv rdv vir' avriju KCLfxepuv, 

TTJs dpidixovarfs, fiovcnKTJs, Kal t7]s yeoyp-eTpias^ 

Kal TT]s ovpavo^dpLovos avrijs d(TTpovop.las^. 

The contents of this prodigious work show that its author's 
reading included, in verse, Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, the tragic 
poets, Aristophanes, Theocritus, Apollonius Rhodius, Lycophron, 
Nicander, Dionysius Periegetes, Oppian, the Orphica, Quintus 
Smyrnaeus and the Greek Anthology. In prose, he was familiar 
with historians, such as Herodotus, Diodorus, Josephus, Plutarch, 
Arrian, Dion Cassius and Procopius; with orators, such as Lysias, 
Demosthenes and Aeschines; with philosophers, such as Plato 
and Aristotle; with geographers, such as Strabo and Stephanus 
of Byzantium ; and, lastly, with the satirist Lucian. The total 
number of authors quoted exceeds 400. His other works in- 
clude Allegories on the Iliad and the Odyssey in 10,000 lines 
{c. 1 1 45 — 58); a Commentary on the Iliad (r. 1143); hexameter 
poems on Antehomerica, Homerica and Posthomerica ; scholia on 
Hesiod (before 11 38) and on Aristophanes, with important /r^- 
legomena giving valuable information on the Alexandrian Libraries; 
scholia on Lycophron, Oppian, and probably Nicander; a versified 
epitome of the Rhetoric of Hermogenes; and, lastly, a poem on 
Prosody (after 1138). He is proud of his rapid pen and his 
remarkable memory; but his memory often plays him false, and 
he is, for the most part, dull as a writer and untrustworthy as an 
authority. 

The most memorable name among the scholars of the twelfth 
century is that of Eustathius, whose philological 

Eustathius ,. -^ ^ ., ',,.^ °- 

studies at Constantinople preceded his tenure 01 
the archbishopric of Thessalonica from 11 75 to c. 1192. Of his 
Commentary on Pindar^ written while he was still a deacon, the 
only part preserved is a valuable preface on lyrical and Pindaric 

1 xi 525 f. 



I 



XII] EUSTATHIUS IO3 

poetry, on the poet's life, and on the Olympic games and the 
pentathlum. His next work is the Paraphrase and scholia to 
Dionysiiis Periegetes^ followed by an important Commentary on 
the Iliad and Odyssey^. That on the Iliad is twice as long as that 
on the Odyssey; both are preceded by literary introductions in 
which the commentator dwells with enthusiasm on the abiding 
influence of Homer on the literature of Greece I Both of them 
comprise many excerpts from earlier writers, including Herodian's 
work on accentuation. Eustathius makes much use of the Homeric 
glossary of Apion and Herodorus, which is partly founded on the 
same materials as the scholia to the Venice ms of Homer and 
has thus preserved some of the criticisms of Aristarchus. Among 
his other authorities are Athenaeus, Strabo, and Stephanus of 
Byzantium; also Heracleides of Miletus and two Greek works of 
Suetonius, together with the lexicons of Aelius Dionysius and 
Pausanias, the original Etymologicum magnum {i.e. the complete 
text of the imperfectly preserved Et. genuinum), and Suidas, 
who is not quoted by any earlier commentator. These are 
only a few of his text-books: 'from his horn of plenty' (in the 
phrase of Gibbon) he 'has poured the names and authorities of 
four hundred writers '^ 

His great commentary on Homer has led modern scholars 
to regard him as one of the most instructive of the Byzantines. 
But he is much more than a mere scholiast; while in learning 
he stands high among all his contemporaries he is also a man 
of political insight, and a bold and far-seeing reformer. As arch- 
bishop of Thessalonica, he did much towards raising the general 
intellectual and moral standard among the Greek monks of his 
diocese. He protests against their reducing their monastic 
libraries to the level of their own ignorance by parting with 
their books, and implores them to allow those libraries to retain 
their precious stores for the sake of those who at some future 
time might be inspired with a greater love of learning than 
themselves. 

^ ed. Stallbaum, 7 vols. 1825-30. 

^ In another work he refers to dramatic representations of Homeric scenes 
at Thessalonica; Opuscula, p. 81, Tafel. 
^ c. 53. 



I04 THE BYZANTINE AGE [CIIAP. 

Another learned ecclesiastic of this age is Gregorius, arch- 
Gregorius bishop of Corinth {c. 1200), author of an extant 
Connthius work on Greek Dialects. This is founded partly 

on Tryphon (cent, i B.C.) and Joannes Philoponus (cent, vi a.d.), 
on scholia and glossaries to Pindar, Aristophanes and especially 
Theocritus, and probably also on the author's independent read- 
ing of Herodotus, as well as Pindar and Theocritus. It aims 
at completeness but is defective in arrangement; its popularity 
is, however, abundantly proved by its preservation in numerous 
manuscripts. 

The Byzantine age ends with the Palaeologi, who held sway 
between the recovery of Constantinople from the 
under the Franks in 1261 and its capture by the Turks in 

aaeoogi 1453. The scholars who lived under that dynasty 

are the precursors of a new era. They differ widely from those 
who lived under the Macedonian (867 — 1057) and Comnenian 
(1057 — 1 185) dynasties, in their treatment of classical texts. 
While most of the mss from the ninth to the twelfth centuries 
(such as the Laurentian ms of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Apol- 
lonius Rhodius, and the Ravenna ms of Aristophanes) maintain 
the tradition of the Alexandrian and the Roman ages, those of 
the thirteenth and following centuries show that Byzantine scholars 
were beginning to deal with old Greek texts in a capricious 
manner, and to tamper with the metres of ancient poets with 
a view to bringing them into conformity with metrical systems 
of their own invention. The scholars of these centuries have 
less in common with Photius, Arethas and Eustathius than with 
the earliest representatives of the revival of learning in the West, 
who are the inheritors of the latest traditions of the Byzantine age. 

Among the late Byzantine scholars who had much in common 
with the precursors of the Renaissance the first 

Planudes , ^ . . 

m order of time is the monk Maximus Planudes 
{c. 1260 — 1 3 10). He had an exceptionally good knowledge of 
Latin. Among the many Latin works, which he introduced to 
his countrymen by translating them into Greek, were Caesar's 
Belluffi Gallicum, Cicero's Somnium Scipionis, Ovid's Metamor- 
phoses and Heroides, the smaller grammar of Donatus, and Boethius, 
De Consolatio7ie Philosophiae^ where even the poetical passages are 



XIl] PLANUDES. MOSCHOPULUS I05 

skilfully rendered in the corresponding Greek metres. His trans- 
lation of the Heroides was founded on a ms now lost, which must 
have been superior to our existing mss. His independent works 
included a dialogue on Grammar with a treatise on Syntax ; a life 
of Aesop, with a prose paraphrase of the 'Fables'; and scholia 
on Theocritus and Hermogenes. Among his compilations were 
historical and geographical excerpts from Plato, Aristotle, Strabo, 
Pausania§, Dion Cassius, Synesius, Dion Chrysostom and Joan- 
nes Lydus, some of them important in connexion with textual 
criticism. He also abridged and rearranged (with a few additions) 
the Anthology of Constantine Cephalas {c. 917), thus forming the 
collection of Greek epigrams called the Afithologia Planudea^ the 
only Greek Anthology known to scholars before the recovery of 
the Anthology of Cephalas in 1607. The Planudean Anthology, 
still preserved in the library of St Mark's at Venice, is in the 
hand of Planudes himself. It ends with his name, and with the 
date, Sept. 1302 {i.e. 1301 a.d.). 

Planudes counted among his pupils and friends Manuel 
Moschopulus {fl. 1300), the nephew of an arch- Mos^ho uius 
bishop of Crete. The reputation of Moschopulus 
is largely due to his having extracted from the two volumes of 
an anonymous grammatical work a catechism of Greek Grammar, 
which had a considerable influence during the early Renaissance. 
He also compiled a school-lexicon of Attic Greek, besides brief 
notes on the first two books of the Iliad, as well as on Hesiod, 
Pindar's Olympian Odes., Euripides and Theocritus. His in- 
fluence on the Byzantine text of Pindar was unsatisfactory. 
Among the mss of Pindar a 'family' of forty-three, most of them 
containing the Olympian Odes alone, is regarded as representing 
the 'badly interpolated edition of Moschopulus'. 

Among his contemporaries was Thomas Magister, secretary 
to Andronicus H (1282 — 1328). He was the Thomas 
author of several school-books, the chief of which ^agister 
is a 'selection of Attic nouns and verbs' founded on Phrynichus, 
Ammonius, Herodian, Moeris and others, with many additions 
from his own reading, especially in Herodotus, Thucydides, 
Aristides and Synesius. He also wrote scholia on Aeschylus, 
Sophocles and Euripides, and on three plays of Aristophanes 



I06 THE BYZANTINE AGE [CHAP. 

{Flutus, Nubes, Ranae). The scholia on Pindar, which bear his 
name, are ascribed to Triclinius. 

The foremost textual critic of the age of the Palaeologi was 
Demetrius Triclinius (early in cent. xiv). He ex- 

Triclinius , . . , , / -, r 

pounded and emended (and not unfrequently 
corrupted) the texts of Hesiod, Pindar, Aeschylus, Sophocles, 
Euripides {Hecuba^ Orestes^ Fhoenissae), and Theocritus. His 
scholia on Aeschylus and Hesiod {c. 1316-20) still exist in 
his own handwriting in Naples and Venice respectively. His 
transcript of Hesiod bears the date 1316 ; that of Aphthonius (at 
New College, Oxford) is dated 1298. His ms of Aeschylus was 
allied to a Venice ms of cent, xv, while that of Pindar was 
copied from the Florentine ms D (cent, xiii^xiv). He acquired 
a considerable knowledge of metre, but was misled to some 
extent by the changes of pronunciation which had come over the 
Greek language in the course of the Byzantine age. His textual 
emendations differ widely in value. In the case of Pindar in 
particular, 'he altered the text to conform to his crude rules 
of grammar and metric. His notes are full of conceit and self- 
assertion. Their value has been said to be chiefly negative; any 
text is suspicious which contains the readings recommended by 
him'\ His edition is now represented in a family of twenty- 
eight MSS. 

Our list of late Byzantine scholars may here close with the 

Manuel name of Manuel Chrysoloras, who was born a 

Chrysoioras century before the fall of Constantinople, and 
died forty years before that event, having meanwhile played a 
leading part in the revival of Greek learning in Italy. 

Of the extant remains of Byzantine literature, apart from 

Byzantine theological works, nearly half belong to the domain 
Scholarship ^f Scholarship in the widest sense of the term. 
The scholars of the Byzantine, and of the latter part of the 
Roman age, are unsystematic and diffuse, are deficient in 
originality of thought and independence of character, and are 
only too ready to rest satisfied with a merely mechanical repro- 
duction of the learning of the past. In matters of Scholarship 
they seldom show a real advance, or even display a sound and 
^ Seymour's Selected Odes, p. xxii. 



XII] TRICLINIUS 107 

impartial judgement. But, if they are themselves to be judged 
in a spirit of fairness and candour, they cannot be compared 
with the great Alexandrian critics, from whom they are parted 
by a thousand years, in the course of which the cultivation of 
Scholarship was attended with ever increasing difficulty and dis- 
couragement. A Planudes or a Triclinius cannot reasonably be 
judged by the same standard as an Aristophanes or an Aristarchus; 
and a Moschopulus has as little as a Melanchthon in common 
with the great Alexandrians. Even the Byzantine scholars of 
the ninth and eleventh centuries did not enjoy the advantages 
of the Alexandrian age, or of our own; but they served to 
maintain a continuity of tradition by which the learning of 
Alexandria has been transmitted to Europe. They must be tried 
by the standard of their own contemporaries in other lands : 
a Photius must be compared with an Alcuin; a Psellus with 
an Anselm. The erudite Byzantines who Hved under the dynasty 
of the Palaeologi will be seen in their true light, if they are 
regarded as among the earliest precursors of the Renaissance. 
For it must be remembered that, for the revival of Greek learning, 
we are indebted not only to the Greek refugees who in the middle 
of the fifteenth century were driven from Constantinople to the 
hospitable shores of Italy, or even to the wandering Greeks of 
the previous century. The spirit of the Renaissance was at work 
in Constantinople at a still earlier time. In the ninth century, 
that spirit is embodied in the bTilliant personality of Photius, 
which illuminates an age of darkness and barbarism. In the 
tenth, the intelligent knowledge of antiquity and the aspiration 
after its continued preservation appear to decline, while the 
despotic will of Constantine Porphyrogenitus threatens to bury 
the remains of earlier Greek literature under a mass of encyclo- 
paedic works projected on a magnificent scale, but executed in 
a most mechanical manner. But, in the same age, we may 
gratefully acknowledge the efforts made by intelligent custodians 
and expositors of the treasures of the past, such as Arethas the 
bibliophile^ and Suidas the lexicographer. In the eleventh century 
the comprehensive intellect of a Psellus is attracted to the study 
of antiquity as a whole, in a way that was afterwards character- 
istic of the foremost humanists of the Renaissance; while, under 



I08 THE BYZANTINE ACE [CHAP. 

the Comneni (1057 — 1185) ^"^ the Palaeologi (1261-^1453), the 
humanistic spirit is unmistakably prominent. It has accordingly 
been well observed, that historians of the Renaissance must in 
the future go back as far as Moschopulus and Planudes, and, 
even further still, to a Eustathius and a Psellus, an Arethas and 
a Photius. To obtain a continuous view of the course of 
grammatical tradition, we must remember that the works, which 
enabled Theodorus Gaza, Constantine Lascaris and Manuel 
Chrysoloras to promote the study of the Greek language and 
Hterature in Italy, were directly derived from Greek and Byzantine 
sources, from the canons of Theodosius, and the catechism of 
Moschopulus, while the ultimate originals of both of the latter 
were the works of Dionysius Thrax in the Alexandrian, and 
Apollonius and Herodian in the Roman age. 

Although it was mainly by the preservation and transmission 
of ancient literature that Byzantine scholarship had an important 
influence on the learning of the West, there was no lack of 
original and independent scholars who applied their powers to 
the emendation and interpretation of the old Greek Classics, 
and even to the elaboration of new metrical systems. Their 
weakest side was Grammar. They laid little stress on Syntax 
and not much more on Accidence, while they paid special 
attention to Accentuation and Orthography, the latter subject 
deriving a peculiar importance from the changes which had 
affected the pronunciation of the Greek language. But the 
scientific study of Grammar was set aside for the preparation of 
mere manuals for the use of beginners. The innumerable treatises 
on Accidence, Syntax, Prosody, and Metre, which abound in 
most collections of mediaeval mss, cannot be regarded as works 
of Scholarship, but merely as commonplace text-books and exercise- 
books for use in the schools of Constantinople. These treatises 
seldom agree with one another, every teacher and transcriber 
having in turn applied the processes of combination or inter- 
polation to altering his copy at his own caprice. 

It would be interesting to ascertain what portions of ancient 

The Greek literature were in the actual possession of the 

in anTafter Byzantines, and which were their favourite works. 

Century IX j^ and after the ninth century they possessed little 



XII] THE PRESERVATION OF THE CLASSICS IO9 

more than ourselves of the remains of classical Greek literature, 
such as Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, the Attic dramatists, the prae- 
Alexandrian historians and orators, and Plato and Aristotle^. 
But they were better provided with the works of the learned 
specialists and of the later historians. The compilers of excerpts 
in the time of Constantine Porphyrogenitus (912-59) had before 
them complete copies of many of the latter (such as Dexippus, 
Eunapius, Priscus, Malchus, Petrus Patricius, Menander Pro- 
tector and John of Antioch), now surviving in fragments only. 
Considerable portions of Polybius were unknown to them, but 
many fragments of that historian have been preserved to us 
through these excerpts alone. 

The loss of a krge part of Greek literature may be ascribed 
to the general cessation of literary activity from the middle of 
the seventh (the age of Theophylact Simocattes) to the middle 
of the ninth century (the age of Photius). In the tenth, many 
prose works may have perished owing to the compilation of 
excerpts under Constantine Porphyrogenitus. There was probably 
a considerable destruction of ancient literature in the three fires 
of Constantinople which attended its capture by the Franks in 
1204. But its capture by the Turks in 1453 probably did 
comparatively little damage to the surviving remains of ancient 
Hbraries. 

The debt of modern Scholarship to the Byzantine age can- 
not be better summed up than in the following extract from 
Mr Frederic Harrison's Rede Lecture of 1900: 

' The peculiar, indispensable service of Byzantine literature was the 
preservation of the language, philology, and archaeology of Greece. It is 
impossible to see how our knowledge of ancient literature or civilisation could 
have been recovered if Constantinople had not nursed through the early 
Middle Ages the vast accumulations of Greek learning in the schools of 
Alexandria, Athens, and Asia Minor; if Photius, Suidas, Eustathius, Tzetzes, 
and the Scholiasts had not poured out their lexicons, anecdotes, and com- 
mentaries; if the Corpus Scriptorum historiae Byzantinae had never been 
compiled; if indefatigable copyists had not toiled in multiplying the texts 
of ancient Greece. Pedantic, dull, blundering as they are too often, they are 
indispensable. We pick precious truths and knowledge out of their garrulities 
and stupidities, for they preserve what otherwise would have been lost for 

^ p. 97 supra. 



no THE BYZANTINE AGE [CHAP. XII 

ever. It is no paradox that their very merit to us is that they were never 
either original or brilliant. Their genius, indeed, w^ould have been our loss. 
Dunces and pedants as they were, they servilely repeated the words of the 
immortals. Had they not done so, the immortals would have died long 
ago'. 

When the Byzantine age, in the fullest sense of the term, 
ended in 1453 with the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, 
the attention of the youthful conqueror, Mohammed II, was 
arrested, as he rode through the hippodrome, by the brazen 
column composed of three serpents intertwined, which is still 
to be seen on the Atmeidan. More than nineteen centuries 
had passed since the heads of those serpents had first supported 
the historic tripod which the Greeks had dedicated at Delphi 
in memory of their victory over the barbarians at Plataea. A 
blow from the conqueror's mace shattered part of one of the 
serpents' heads, and that shattered head was an expressive 
emblem of the fact that the power of the Greeks to resist the 
barbarians was now at an end. But we may gratefully remember 
that the capital of the Eastern Empire had, with all its elements 
of weakness, proved strong enough to stand for centuries as the 
bulwark of Europe against the barbarians of the East, thus 
sheltering the nascent nations of the West, while they slowly 
attained the fulness of their maturity, and, at the same time, 
keeping the treasures of the old Greek literature in a place of 
safety, until those nations were sufficiently civilised to receive 
them. 



BOOK VI 
THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST 



CHAPTER XIII 



FROM GREGORY THE GREAT (c. 54O 604) 

TO BONIFACE (675 754) 

The history of Scholarship during the Middle Ages in the 
West covers a period of rather more than eight centuries, 
extending from about 530 to about 1350 a.d. Towards the close 
of a long letter prefixed to the Moralia, Gregory 
the Great {c. 540 — 604), who became Pope in ^°^^ 

589, confesses his contempt for the art of speech, and admits 
that he is not over-careful in the avoidance of barbarisms or 
inaccurate uses of prepositions, deeming it 'utterly unworthy 
to keep the language of the Divine Oracles in subjection to 
the rules of Donatus'. Elsewhere, he is almost ashamed to 
mention the rumour that has reached him, to the effect that the 
bishop of Vienne was in the habit of instructing certain persons 
in grammatical learning ^ 

In the same century the prevailing decline in grammatical 
knowledge is illustrated by lordanes, the author 

. . "^ . . lordanes 

of a universal chronicle, who, in the course of his 
abridgement (551) of the History of the Goths by Cassiodorus, 
makes dolus dj^A fluvius neuter, Midjlumen^ gaudium and regnum 
masculine; and abounds in errors of declension and conjugation. 



112 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

The same decline is illustrated by Gildas of Bath (516 — 573), 
the first native historian of Britain. The learning 

Gildas . ° 

he had derived from St Illtyd, the 'teacher of the 
Britons', was enlarged by a visit to Ireland. His 'lament on the 
ruin of Britain ' is written in a verbose, florid, fantastic and 
exaggerated form of monastic Latin, and its prolix periods often 
tend to obscurity. 

Gregory of Tours {c. 538 — 594)) in the preface to his History 
Gregory ^ ^^^ Franks, refers to the decay of literature 

of Tours jj^ Gaul. He repeatedly apologises for his imperfect 

knowledge of grammar. He combines the plurals haec and quae 
with a singular verb; he writes antedictiis cives for antedictos, and 
percolibantur (i.e. perculebantur) iox percellebantur; and one of his 
favourite constructions is the accusative absolute. The study of 
his works shows that, in his day, the pronunciation of Latin 
differed from the spelling; e was confounded with /, and o 
with u\ many of the consonants were pronounced feebly or 
suppressed altogether; aspiration was little observed, and a 
sibilant sound was introduced into ci and //. The departure from 
classical usage is most striking in matters of syntax, while there is 
comparatively little change in the inflexions. 

The Irish monk, Columban {c. 543 — 615), studied 'the liberal 
arts' on one of the islands of Lough Erne before 

Columban . 

entering the monastery 01 Bangor on the eastern 
coast of Ulster. In his letters he uses a few Greek words, and 
recommends the reading of the Latin poets as well as the fathers. 
About 585 he went abroad with twelve companions, and founded 
in the woodland solitudes of the Vosges the three monasteries 
of Anegray, Luxeuil {c. 590) and Fontaines. He also founded 
{c. 613) on the stream of the Trebbia, the monastery of Bobbio, 
which became a home of learning in northern Italy. In course 
of time its library received gifts of mss of the fourth and fifth 
centuries, originally transcribed for men of letters in Rome, 
and others of later date, presented by wandering countrymen of 
the founder, such as Dungal, the Irish monk who presided over 
the school at Pavia in 823. The first catalogue, which contained 
666 MSS, including Terence, Lucretius, Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, 
Persius, Martial, Juvenal and Claudian, with Cicero, Seneca and 



XIII] GREGORY OF TOURS. COLUMBAN II3 

the elder Pliny, was drawn up in the tenth century. The second 
included 280 volumes. The greater part have been dispersed 
through the libraries of Rome, Milan and Turin, while some 
have found their way to Naples and Vienna. It is practically 
certain that the Ambrosian palimpsest of Plautus and those of 
several of Cicero's Speeches (cent, iv) and of the Letters of Fronto, 
discovered in the Ambrosian Library early in the 19th century, 
all came from the monastery founded by the Irish monk at 
Bobbio, Among other mss, which once belonged to Bobbio, 
may be mentioned fragments of Lucan (Vienna and Naples), 
Persius and Juvenal (Milan and Rome), Symmachus (Milan) and 
the Theodosian Code (formerly in Turin); and scholia on Cicero 
(cent. V, Milan and Rome). The Medicean Virgil (cent, v), the 
Fasti Consulares at Verona, and the speeches of Cassiodorus, 
in Milan and Turin, also came from Bobbio. There are even 
good grounds for believing that the mss earlier than the time of 
Columban, which subsequently found their way to Bobbio, came 
originally from the Vivarium of Cassiodorus in the extreme South 
of Italy\ 

When the founder of Bobbio left for Italy, one at least of his 
companions, Gallus by name, remained on the shore Gaiius and 
of the Lake of Constance, and founded on a lofty ^* Gaiien 
site in the neighbourhood (614) the monastery which has given 
the name of St Gallen to the town which surrounds it. The 
monastery of St Gallen has proved no less important than that of 
Bobbio as a treasure-house of Latin as well as Irish literature. 

Within less than 25 years after the Irish monks had founded 
Bobbio and St Gallen, and thus unconsciously Isidore of 
promoted the preservation of some of the most Seville 
important remains of Latin literature, Isidore, bishop of Seville 
{c. 570 — 636), produced an encyclopaedic work which gathered 
up for the Middle Ages much of the learning of the ancient world. 
The work is known as the Origines, and is remarkable for the 
great variety of its contents and for its numerous citations from 
earlier authorities. The friend, for whom it was composed, 
divided it into 20 Books, describing the whole as a vast volume 
of 'etymologies' including everything that ought to be known. 
^ R. Beer, quoted on p. 71 supra. 
S. H. 8 



114 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

Books I — III are on the liberal arts, grammar (including metre) 
filling a whole Book; iv, on medicine and on libraries; v, on law 
and chronology; vi, on the books of the Bible; vii, on the 
heavenly and the earthly hierarchy; viii, on the Church and on 
sects (no less than 68 in number); ix, on language, on peoples, 
and on official titles; x, on etymology; xi, on man; xii, on 
beasts and birds; xiii, the world and its parts; xiv, physical 
geography; xv, political geography, public buildings, land-survey- 
ing and road-making; xvi, stones and metals; xvii, agriculture 
and horticulture; xviii, the vocabulary of war, litigation and 
public games; xix, ships and houses, dress and personal adorn- 
ment; and XX, meats and drinks, tools and furniture. The work 
is mainly founded on earlier compilations, Book ii being chiefly 
taken from the Greek texts translated by Boethius; the first part 
of IV from Caelius Aurelianus; xi from Lactantius; and xii — 
XIV, XV etc., from Pliny and Solinus; while its plan, as a whole, 
and many of its details, appear to have been borrowed from the 
lost Praia of Suetonius. The work was so highly esteemed as 
an encyclopaedia of classical learning that, to a large extent, 
it unfortunately superseded the study of the classical authors. 
We may here mention an eccentric grammarian, who assumes 
'Virgil', the the name of 'Virgilius Maro', and assures us that 
grammarian |^jg Piaster, 'Acncas', gave him the name of Maro, 
' quia in eo antiqui Maronis spiritus redivivit'. He gives his own 
contemporaries notable names derived from Latin literature — 
names such as 'Terrentius' {sic) and 'Donatus'. In his fifteen 
'Epitomae' and eight 'Epistolae' he discusses many points of 
grammar with an ignorance which is happily relieved by a certain 
sense of humour. Thus he describes one pair of grammarians as 
wrangling for a fortnight over the vocative of ego^ and another 
as drawing their swords after an equally long discussion on incho- 
ative verbs. He mentions a (probably imaginary) work on twelve 
kinds of Latin, and coins new words with the help of Greek, 
scribere, for example, becoming charaxare (from xapaaaiji). He 
pretends to have read the Bible in Greek, and professes to 
quote a translation beginning with the words, 'In principio celum 
terramque mare omniaque astra spiritus intus fovet', which are 
obviously inspired by a well-known passage in the Aeneid (vi 



XIII] HISPERICA FAMINA II5 

724-6). His poetic quotations illustrate the transition from 
quantitative to rhythmical forms of verse, while his Latinity has 
several points of contact with that of Gregory of Tours. He is 
himself described as belonging to Toulouse, and he once refers 
to the dialect of Bigorre, N. of the Pyrenees. He has even been 
called a presbyter Hispanus. Many of his etymologies are, to all 
appearance, derived from the Origines of Isidore of Seville (630), 
and he is quoted by Aldhelm, c. 668 — 690. This would make 
his date the middle of the seventh century \ 

A cryptic form of Latinity is exemplified by the strange 
poems known as Hisperica Famina. Their earliest Hisperica 
editor, Cardinal Mai (1833), 'says little about lamina 
them, except that they are alluded to by the grammarian Vir- 
gilius, and that any lover of classical Latin would devote them 
to the Furies'^. Mai printed them as prose, but it has since 
been observed that they fall into rhythmical lines, and that 
each line has an adjective at the end of the first half forming 
an assonance with the substantive at the end of the second, 
e.g. 'rhetorum florigera: flectit habenas caterva'. 'The scene 
is laid in a country where the language of the inhabitants is 
Irish. The work is therefore presumably written in Ireland '^ 
In this work, amid much that is singularly obscure, it is a relief 
to find so clear a phrase as: ''pantes solitum elaborant agrestes 
orgium\ It is characteristic of the possibly Irish origin of this 
strange composition that we here find two words borrowed from 
Greek. 

During the sixth and seventh centuries in Ireland we find 
a few traces of Greek. Thus we find antropi (for Greek in 
avOpwiroL) in Muirchu's Ziye of St Patrick (written ^^^land 



^ Cf. Roger, r enseignement des lettres dassiques cfAusone a Alcuin, 1905, 
pp.238 — 256; and Manitius, Za/. ZzV. des M As, 1911, pp. 119 — 127. Zimmer, 
however, who traces his influence in Ireland, makes him flourish c. 460 A.D., 
Sitzungsberichte of the Berlin Acad. 1910, p. 1067; and Kuno Meyer, Learning 
in Ireland in the fifth century {1913), p. 22 n. 7, declines to admit Virgil's 
indebtedness to Isidore. 

^ Prothero's Life of Brads haw, p. 340. 

^ Ed. Jenkinson, p. xi. It has, however, been assigned to S.W. Britain in 
the first half of the sixth century. Zimmer, Nennius Vindicatus, p. 309. 



Il6 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

before 698), anthleta (for athleta) in the 'Antiphonary of Bangor' 
{c. 680 — 691), and o?iomata in codex A of the 'Life of St Columba' 
by Adamnan (d. 704) \ 

The Hellenisms which have been discovered in the Irish, as 
well as the British, writers of the sixth and seventh centuries 
supply no proof of any real knowledge of the language, many of 
them being simply Greek terms that had already been borrowed 
in ordinary ecclesiastical Latin, while the rest were probably 
derived mainly from glossaries. Among these was probably 
the Greek and Latin glossary and conversation-book known as 
the Hermeneumata Pseudo-Dositheana ^ 

In and after the ninth century, the classical culture exhibited 
by a few Irish scholars such as Sedulius and John the Scot, 
was due to their residence abroad, in lands that came under 
the influence of the Caroline revival of learning"^. 

While Ireland sent forth Columban to found monasteries in 
Eastern France and Northern Italy in 585 and 612 respectively, 
Rome, in the person of Gregory, sent Augustine to Britain in the 
interval between the above dates. Augustine arrived in Kent 
in 597 and died archbishop of Canterbury in 605. Some sixty 
years later, the archbishopric was offered by Pope Vitalian first to 
Hadrian, who is described as ' most skilful in both the Greek and 
Latin tongues '^ and finally to Theodore, who was born at Tarsus 
Theodore ^nd educated at Athens, and therefore familiar with 
of Tarsus Greek. This Greek archbishop (668—690) founded 

a school at Canterbury for the study of Greek, and bestowed 
upon his foundation a number of books in his native language. 
With the help of Hadrian, who had declined the archbishopric, 
Theodore made many of the monasteries of England schools of 
Greek and Latin learning, so that, in the time of Bede (673 — 735), 
some of the scholars who still survived, such as Tobias, bishop of 
Rochester (d. 726), were as familiar with Latin and Greek as with 
their mother-tongue. 

^ Roger, I.e., 268 — 273. 

2 Goetz, Corpus Glossariorum Lat. iii (1892). 

3 Cp. M. Esposito, The knowledge of Greek in Ireland during the Middle 
Ages in 'Studies', Dublin, 1912, i pp. 665 — 683. 

4 Bede, H. E.'w \, 



XIIl] ALDHELM. BEDE II7 

Among the pupils of the school at Canterbury in 670 was 
Aldhelm {c. 650 — 709), afterwards abbot of Malmes- 
bury, and bishop of Sherborne from 705 to his death. 
' King Ina had hired the services of two most skilful teachers of 
Greek from Athens'^; and under Hadrian ^ abbot of St Augus- 
tine's, Canterbury, Ina's kinsman, Aldhelm, ' made such rapid 
strides in learning that ere long he was thought a better scholar 
than either his Greek or Latin teachers '^ He often introduces 
Greek words into his Latin letters, and employs Greek terms in 
defining Greek metres. In writing on Latin metres, he naturally 
quotes Latin poets, such as Terence, Virgil, Horace, Juvenal and 
Persius. His Latin prose is unduly florid. His prose and verse 
alike are marked by a love of Greek idioms and of alliteration. 
His main claim to distinction is that ' he was the first Englishman 
who cultivated classical learning with any success, and the first of 
whom any literary remains are preserved'^. 

While Aldhelm has been justly called the father of Anglo- 
Latin verse, his younger and far more famous con- 
temporary, Bede (673 — 735), has left his mark in 
literary history almost exclusively in the field of prose. In the 
Historia Ecdesiastica gent is Anglorum (731) we have interesting 
references to the generosity with which Irish professors received 
English pupils (in 614) and furnished them gratis with books and 
teaching, the diffusion of learning by Theodore and Hadrian and 
their pupils, the studies of the English in Rome, and the collec- 
tion and circulation of books in England. The author appears 
throughout as a master of the learning of his times, as (in Fuller's 
phrase) * the most general scholar of his age '. 

It was not until long after the death of Bede that his Historia 
Ecdesiastica became known to his contemporary Boniface 
Boniface, or Winfrid (675—754). A native of and Fuida 
Crediton, he was educated at Exeter and Nursling. With the 
sanction of Gregory II (719) he preached in Thuringia and Fries- 
land, converted the Saxons and Hessians, became a bishop in 
723 and archbishop of Maintz in 745, resigning that dignity to 

^ Migne, Ixxxix 66. 

2 William of Malmesbury, Gesia Ponti/icum, v § 189. 

^ ib. 85. 4 stubbs in Diet. Chr. Biogr. 



Il8 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. XIII 

return to Friesland in 753 and to die a martyr's death in the 
following year. He is best known as 'the apostle of Germany'. 
In literature his works are of slight importance. They include 
two text-books on metre and on grammar (founded on Donatus, 
Charisius and Diomedes). His devoted follower, Sturmi of 
Noricum, founded the monastery of Fulda, which adopted the 
Benedictine Rule, and soon rivalled St Gallen as a school of 
learning, numbering among its inmates Einhard, the future bio- 
grapher of Charles the Great, and Rabanus Maurus, the earliest 
praeceptor Germaniae. 



CHAPTER XIV 

FROM ALCUIN TO ALFRED 

Among the pupils of Bede was Egbert, archbishop of York, 
and among the pupils of Egbert in the cathedral 

<=> '^ >■ o Alcuin 

school of that city was Alcuin {c. 735 — 804), who 
was probably born in the year of Bede's death. In 778 Alcuin 
was himself placed at the head of the School and Library of 
York. We still possess the Latin hexameters, in which he gives us 
an enthusiastic description of the Library and a list of the authors 
which it contained^ Among prose authors he mentions Jerome, 
Hilary, Ambrose, Augustine, Athanasius, Orosius ; Victorinus and 
Boethius; Gregory and Leo ; Basil and Chrysostom ; Cassiodorus 
and Fulgentius ; Aldhelm and Bede ; among earlier writers, in 
prose or verse, Pompeius (Trogus) and Pliny ; Aristotle (doubtless 
in Latin) and Cicero ; Virgil, Lucan and Statius ; among later 
poets, Sedulius and Juvencus, and, among grammarians, Donatus 
and Priscian. Alcuin himself had copied text-books at York in 
his youth, and scribes were afterwards sent there to copy mss for 
his monastery at Tours. 

In 782 — 790 he presided over a school attached to the court 
of Charles the Great. The school is best regarded as a migratory 
institution attached to the court, whether at Aachen or elsewhere. 
Greek was taught at the court (782-6) by Paulus Diaconus 
(c. 725 — 797), a Benedictine monk, who shows his knowledge of 
Greek in his History of the Lombards^ and in his summary of the 
abridgement of Verrius Flaccus by Pompeius Festus. 

In 796 Alcuin was made abbot of St Martin's at Tours, which 
he soon restored to a commanding position among the schools of 

1 Po'etae Lat. Aevi Car. i 203 f ; well rendered in West's Alcuin, p. 34. 



I20 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

the land. Among his prose works a prominent place is here due 
to his dialogues on Grammar, Rhetoric, and Dialectic. He is 
mainly a grammarian. In his first dialogue On Grammar^ the 
seven liberal arts are compared to the seven pillars of the house 
of Wisdom. The substance of his second dialogue is taken from 
earlier grammarians, among whom Donatus and Priscian are men- 
tioned, while the definitions are borrowed from Isidore. In the 
dialogues On Rhetoric and Dialectic the persons concerned are 
Charles and Alcuin, and the principal authorities followed in the 
former are Cicero De Inventione and Julius Victor, and, in the 
latter, Boethius, Isidore and the Pseudo-Augustinian Categories. 
The tract On Orthography discusses in alphabetical order a number 
of Latin words which were apt to be wrongly spelt, and is useful 
in connexion with the pronunciation of Latin and the criticism of 
the texts of the time. The library at Bern possesses a MS of 
Virgil in Caroline minuscules (cent, ix), which certainly once 
belonged to Alcuin's monastery at Tours. 

The tradition of learning had descended from Benedict Biscop, 
Bede and Egbert to Alcuin ; and the influence of Alcuin, which 
passed from York to Tours, was transmitted through Rabanus to 
Fulda and thence to Auxerre and Ferrieres, to Old and New 
Corbie, and Reichenau, St Gallen and Rheims, while part of that 
influence finally reached Paris. Alcuin marks the beginning of 
the period in the history of European education which is described 
as the Benedictine Age, the age extending from the brief revival 
of learning under Charles the Great to the rise of the University 
of Paris {c. 1170). 

The life of Charles the Great was written in admirable Latin 
by Einhard ic. 770 — 840), a layman educated at 

Einhard ^ \ ' ' ^ n / 

Fulda. Einhard's model in Latin style is the Life 
of Augustus by Suetonius, and he also gives proof of a careful 
study of Caesar and Livy. In his preface he quotes the Tusculan 
Disputations^ and he also imitates the rhetorical works of Cicero 
and certain of his speeches, — the Second Verrine, the First Catili- 
narian, and the Fro Milone. It was probably owing to the 
architectural tastes of Einhard that the work of Vitruvius became 
first known in Germany and was preserved for other lands and 
later ages. 



XIV] ALCUIN. EINHARD. SERVATUS LUPUS 121 

The ancient and important school of Fulda, which had been 
founded under the sanction of Boniface, was also Rabanus 
the scene of the learned labours of Alcuin's pupil, Maurus 
Rabanus Maurus (776 — 856). Apart from extensive biblical 
commentaries, he wrote several educational works. In one of 
these he was the first to introduce Priscian into the schools of 
Germany. At Fulda twelve monks were regularly employed as 
copyists, and down to the seventeenth century there was a large 
collection of mss, most of which were unfortunately scattered 
during the Thirty Years' War. The library of the Westphalian 
monastery of Corvey (founded 822) is mentioned in the ninth 
century, and learning also flourished at Regensburg (652) on the 
Danube, and at Reichenau (724) on an island of the Untersee, 
west of the Lake of Constance. 

Among the pupils of Rabanus was the future abbot of 
Reichenau, Walafrid Strabo (r. 809 — 849), who waiafrid 
studied Christian and pagan poets, and wrote on strabo 
sacred as well as secular themes. His Hortulus^ a description of 
the plants in the monastic garden of Reichenau, was widely read 
during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. 

Another important pupil of Rabanus was Servatus Lupus 
(805 — 862), abbot of Ferrieres for the last twenty servatus 
years of his life. At Fulda he had obtained literary Lupus 
advice and instruction from Einhard, the ablest scholar of the 
time. In his literary spirit he is a precursor of the humanists of 
the Renaissance. He asks one of his relations to send a capable 
monk to Fulda and borrow from the abbot a copy of Suetonius. 
He begs the archbishop of Tours to send him a copy of the com- 
mentary of Boethius on the Topica of Cicero. He writes to the 
abbot of York to ask for the loan of the twelve books of the 
Institutions of Quintilian. He applies to pope Benedict III 
for certain mss of Cicero de Oratore, and of Quintilian, which he 
had seen in Rome (849), the latter being ' in a single volume of 
moderate size'. He adds that his monastery already possessed 
parts of the last two works, and concludes by begging for the loan 
of the commentary on Terence by Donatus. He answers a 
number of minor questions on points of spelling and prosody by 
appealing to the grammarian Caper, and by quoting thrice from 



122 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

Virgil, twice from Martial, and once from Prudentius, Alcuin and 
Theodulfus. He informs the bishop of Auxerre that Caesar had 
not really written a History of Rome ^ but only the Commentaries on 
the Gallic War, of which the bishop had doubtless heard, and a 
copy of which would be sent as soon as possible, adding that the 
continuation was the work of Caesar's secretary, Hirtius. With 
a view to correcting his own texts, be borrows extra copies of 
works already in his possession. He thanks a friend for revising 
his copy of Macrobius and for sending a ms of the commentary 
of Boethius ; he inquires about a ms of Cicero's Tusculan Dis- 
putations^ and, in the same letter, answers questions on prosody 
by quoting Virgil and Juvencus as well as Servius and Priscian. 
He informs a monk of the Benedictine monastery at Priim that 
he intends to compare his own copy of Cicero's Letters with the 
text which he has just received, and thus arrive at the truth ; he 
also asks for his friend's copy of Cicero's translation of Aratus, 
with a view to filling up some lacunae in his own. 

The importance of the age of Servatus Lupus, in regard to the 
preservation and transmission of mss, may be inferred from the 
large number of mss of the ninth century and the first half of 
the tenth, which are recorded as having belonged to the monastic 
libraries of France. It was also about this time that classical mss 
first found their way into Germany, the writers of the golden age 
being scantily represented by Virgil, Lucan, Livy and portions 
of Cicero, while later authors were more frequent, especially 
Macrobius, Martianus Capella and Isidore. 

In the reign of Charles the Bald (840 — 877), whom Lupus 

describes as 'doctrinae studiosissimus', there is a certain revival 

of interest in literature. The chief representative of Ireland and 

philosophy at his court was Joannes Scotus, or John 

Scotus the Scot {c. 810-5 — c. 875), who, from about 845, 

ngena ^^^ ^^ head of the palace school and thus took 

part in a temporary revival of learning. While his Latin style is 
recognised as correct and even elegant, he is fully conscious of 
the inadequacy of his Greek scholarship. He is familiar with 
Plato's Timaeus, and it has been supposed that he knew 
the original text ; at any rate, his , Latin quotations from the 

Timaeus are independent of the translation by Chalcidius. His 



XIV] JOHN THE SCOT. ALFRED THE GREAT 1 23 

general familiarity with Greek is fully proved by the fact that he 
was chosen to execute a Latin translation of ' Dionysius the 
Areopagite '. 

Two of the contemporaries of John the Scot may here be 
briefly mentioned, both of them natives of Auxerre. ^^.^ ^^^ 

The elder of these, Eric (841 — 877 ?), was educated Remi of 
under Servatus Lupus at Ferrieres. He is also the 
author of a number of notes on the translation of Aristotle De 
Literpretatione by Boethius, the Eisagoge of Porphyry, and the 
Categories of Aristotle, as 'translated from Greek into Latin by 
St Augustine'. This last, however, is not really a translation from 
Aristotle, and it must therefore be inferred that in the tenth 
century the text of the Categories was still unknown. Eric's dis- 
tinguished pupil, Remi of Auxerre, taught at Rheims {c. 893), and 
was the first to open a school in Paris (900 ; d. 908). His com- 
mentaries on Donatus and Martianus Capella are still extant. 
In the former, which remained in use to the times of the 
Renaissance, his chief Latin authority is Virgil. 

The ninth century closes in England with the name of Alfred 
(849 — c. 900). He was taken to see Rome at the 

en 1-1 /- -..T Alfred 

age 01 rive, and agam at the age of seven. Not- 
withstanding the general decay of learning, and the disquiet caused 
by the Danish invasions, he led a studious life in his youth, and, 
after succeeding to the throne in 871, began a series of transla- 
tions from Latin authors with the aid of the Welsh monk, Asser. 
In English literature Alfred is '^our first translator'. In his 
rendering of Boethius {c. 888) he does not hesitate, in the interests 
of his people, to add to the original whenever he thinks fit. He 
also translated the Universal History of Orosius, adding or omitting, 
as he deemed best. A third translation (in which his own name 
does not appear) is that of Bede's Ecclesiastical History; and a 
fourth, that of Gregory's Cura Pastoralis. It is only in this last 
that the king states his general design as a translator. He lament? 
that there were but few south of the Humber, and none south of 
the Thames, who could understand the Divine Service, or even 
explain a Latin epistle in English. He had therefore thought it 
good to translate into English the books that were most necessary 
to be known. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE TENTH AND ELEVENTH CENTURIES 

The Tenth Century 

In the tenth century the monastery of Gandersheim, south of 
Hanover, was famous as the retreat of the learned 

Hroswitha ^^ . . , n • i i • r. ttt- i 

nun, Hroswitha, who flourished in 984. With a view 
to providing the age with a purer literature than that of Latin 
Comedy, she composed six moral and religious plays, in which 
she imitates Boethius as well as Terence. But, as the mediaeval 
copyists of Terence were unconscious that his plays were written 
in verse, the plays of Hroswitha are written in actual prose. 
They survive in a single ms at Munich, the discovery of which 
was welcomed with enthusiasm by the early humanists in Germany. 
An exceptional number of recent editions attests her enduring 
popularity. 

One of the most prominent personages of the century was 
Gerbert Gerbert of Aurillac in the Auvergne (c. 950 — 1003), 

(Silvester II) ^j^q taught at Tours, Fleury, Sens and Rheims, was 
successively abbot of Bobbio and archbishop of Rheims, and 
became archbishop of Ravenna, and finally pope of Rome (as 
Silvester H) at the close of the century. He probably owed all his 
knowledge of Plato to the Latin translation of part of the Timaeus, 
though he quotes Greek words in his Geometry and elsewhere. 
Among the authors which he expounded at Rheims were Terence, 
Virgil, Horace, Lucan, Persius, Juvenal and Statius. He is eager 
to obtain mss of Caesar, Pliny, Suetonius, Symmachus, and the 
Achilleis of Statius. He is familiar with Sallust, and (above all) 
with Cicero. He advises one of his friends to bring with 
him on his journey Cicero's Speeches and the De Republican prob- 
ably meaning by the latter the Somnium Scipionis, the sole 
surviving portion of the Sixth Book. He also writes for a com- 
plete copy of Cicero pro rege Deiotaro. It has even been surmised 



CHAP. XV] GERBERT. LUITPRAND. ^LFRIC 1 2$ 

that the preservation of Cicero's Speeches^ which he frequently 
quotes, may have been largely due to Gerbert. 

The most original hellenist of this age is doubtless Luitprand 
{c. 920 — 972), bishop of Cremona. A Lombard by ^^^^ 

birth, he repeatedly represented Berengar II and 
Otho I as envoy at Constantinople. His reports on his missions 
of 950 and 968 abound in Greek words, phrases and idioms, 
and snatches of odd stories, which attain a new interest owing to 
the fact that the author always takes pains to set down the Latin 
pronunciation of the Greek, e.g. aOeot koI aVe^ei?, af/iei ke asevis. 

Meanwhile, in England, in the second half of the tenth 
century, Oswald^ archbishop of York (d. 992), who Abboof 
had himself been educated at Fleury on the Loire, Fieury 
invited Abbo of Fleury (d. 1004) to become the instructor of the 
monks of the abbey which the archbishop had caused to be 
founded in 969 at Ramsey near Huntingdon. Abbo wrote for 
his pupils at Ramsey a scholarly work known as the Quaestiones 
Gramma ficales. He here deals with their difficulties in matters 
of prosody and pronunciation, showing in his treatment of the 
same an accurate knowledge of Virgil and Horace, and even an 
interest in textual criticism. In the same half-century, ^Ifric 
{c. 955 — c. 1030), the abbot of Eynsham in Oxford- 
shire, who must be distinguished from both of his 
eminent namesakes, the archbishops of Canterbury (d. 1006) and 
York (d. 1 051), was the chief helper of bishop Ethelwold (d. 984) 
in making Winchester famous as a place of education. It was 
there that he began, and it was at Eynsham that he continued 
and completed, the preparation of those school-books which did 
so much for the early study of the Latin language in England. 
They included a Latin Grammar, with extracts translated from 
Priscian, followed by a Glossary of some 3000 words in Latin 
and English, arranged (more or less) in order of subjects. This 
Glossary is the oldest Latin-English Dictionary in existence \ The 
third of these educational works was the Colloquium, in which 
Latin, being still a living language, is taught in a conversational 
manner; the Latin words of the dialogue are explained by an 
interlinear translation ; the pupil is made to answer questions as 
^ ed. Zupitza (1880), including the Grammar. 



126 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. XV 

to his own occupations and those of his companions ; and the use 
of the rod is not forgotten. 

The Eleventh Century 

In France, the most notable teacher in the first quarter of the 
eleventh century is Fulbert, bishop of Chartres (d. 1029). In the 
middle of the century, Saint-Evroult, S. of Lisieux in Normandy, 
was celebrated as a school of copyists ; while the Norman 
monastery of Bee flourished under the rule of Lanfranc (1045) 
and Anselm (1066), both of whom came from Northern Italy to 
Normandy, and were thence called to England to become 
archbishops of Canterbury. 

In England, the influence of the Norman Conquest of 1066- 
71 on the intellectual life of the country did not take effect until 
after the close of the century. 

In Germany, this century saw the foundation of the bishopric, 
library and school of Bamberg (1017) and a revival of learning in 
the school of Paderborn, where the authors studied in 1052—76 
included Virgil, Horace, Statins, and Sallust. About the middle 
of the century, the styles of Sallust and Livy were admirably com- 
bined in the Annals of Lambert of Hersfeld (d. 1077). This 
century was part of the golden age of St Gallen, where Notker 
Labeo (d. 1022) took part in translating into German the Andria 
of Terence, the Eclogues of Virgil, and the Distichs of Cato, 
together with Martianus Capella, and several treatises of Boethius. 
He also produced a Latin version of Aristotle's Categories and De 
Interpretatione. 

Meanwhile in Italy, one of the homes of classical learning was 
Monte Cassino, where the abbot Desiderius caused his monks to 
make copies of Ovid's Fasti and Horace, as well as Seneca and 
several treatises of Cicero, while Latin verse was successfully 
cultivated by Alfanus, the future archbishop of Salerno, and Virgil, 
as well as Cicero and Sallust, was familiar to the able chronicler 
of the abbey, Leo Marsicanus. In 1053-63, a Latin dictionary 
was compiled by Papias the Lombard, who marks the quantity 
and gives the gender and the inflexions of the words, but draws no 
distinction between the ancient classical forms and the barbarous 
forms in modern use. His work lived on into the sixteenth century. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE TWELFTH CENTURY. THE SCHOOLMEN 

AND THE CLASSICS 

We must here say something of the history of Scholasticism, 
so far as it has points of contact with the study of Greek or Latin 
texts. Scholasticism may be described as a reproduction of ancient 
philosophy under the control of ecclesiastical doctrine. Its history 
(including that of its precursors) falls into two main divisions, 
(t) the accommodation of Aristotelian logic and Neo-Platonic 
philosophy to the doctrine of the Church, from the time of Joannes 
Scotus (d. 875) to that of Amalrich (d. 1207) and his followers, 
i.e. from century ix to the beginning of century xiii ; (2) the 
accommodation of the Aristotelian philosophy, which had now 
become fully known., to the dogmas of the Church, from the time 
of Alexander of Hales (d. 1245) to the end of the Middle Ages. 

John the Scot had affirmed the identity of true religion with 
true philosophy, but he interpreted the teaching of the Church in 
the light of * Dionysius the Areopagite', whose doctrines he 
wrongly supposed to be those of the early Christians, whereas 
they were really those of the Neo-Platonists of the latter part of 
the fifth century. Believing that the ' general ' existed before the 
' particular', he practically held the Platonic doctrine of ideas in 
the form afterwards expressed by the phrase, universalia ante rem. 
On the other hand, those whom he describes as dialectici held 
that individual objects were substances in a primary sense, while 
species and genera were substances only in a secondary way. This 
doctrine was derived partly from the dialectical works of Aristotle, 
and from Porphyry's Introduction., as translated and expounded by 
Boethius ; and partly from works attributed to St Augustine. 



128 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

Porphyry's Introduction^ as translated by Boethius, mentions 
the five predicables, i.e. the notions of genus, species, difference, 
property, and accident. It also touches on the question whether 
genera and species have a substantial existence, or whether they 
exist merely as mental conceptions. This question, and others 
arising out of it, had been suggested to Porphyry by the 
Metaphysics of Aristotle, by the Parmenides of Plato, and by the 
teaching of his own master, Plotinus. Porphyry, however, de- 
clined to discuss them, but this passage of Porphyry, as translated 
by Boethius^, gave the first impulse to the long controversy 
between Realism and Nominalism, which continued until the 
revival of learning. ' A single ray borrowed from the literature of 
the ancient world called Scholasticism into being ; the complete 
revelation of that literature extinguished it'^. 

Plato's doctrine (as stated by Aristotle) that ' universals ' have 
an independent existence and are ' before ' individual objects 
(whether in point of rank alone, or in point of time as well) is 
extreme Realism. Its formula is universalia sunt realia ante rem. 
The Aristotelian view that 'universals', while possessing a real 
existence, exist only in individual objects, is moderate Realism. 
Its formula is universalia sunt realia in re. Nominalism, on the 
other hand, implies that individuals alone have a real existence, 
that genera and species are only subjective combinations of similar 
elements, united by the aid of the same concept, which we express 
by one and the same word (vox or nomen). Nominalism has two 
varieties, stress being laid in (i) on the subjective nature of the 
concept, and in (2) on the identity of the word employed to 
denote the objects comprehended under the concept, (i) is 
Conceptualism, and (2) is extreme Nominalism ; and the formula 
of both is universalia sunt nomina post rem. All these views 
appear in different degrees of developement in the ninth and tenth 
centuries. 

The first period of Scholasticism began in Platonic Realism 
and ended in ConceptuaHsm ; while the second began in Aristo- 
telian Realism and ended in Nominalism. Thus, in the first 
period, the Realism of Joannes Scotus (d. 875), and that of 

^ p. 128 supra. 

2 Cousin, Ouvrages Inidits d Abdard, p. Ix (1836). 



XVI] THE SCHOOLMEN AND THE CLASSICS 1 29 

Anselm (d. 1109), which stands in contrast with the early 
Nominalism of Roscellinus (d. 1106), are followed by the Realism 
of William of Champeaux (d. 1121) and the Conceptualism of 
Abelard (d. 1142). In the second, the Aristotelian Realism of 
the Franciscans, Alexander of Hales (d. 1245) and Bonaventura 
(d. 1274), and of the Dominicans, Albertus Magnus (d. 1280) and 
Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), is criticised by Roger Bacon (d. 1294) 
and Duns Scotus (d. 1308), who are succeeded by the great 
Nominalist, William of Ockham (d. 1347). 

In the twelfth century Plato was represented by the Latin 
rendering of part of the Timaeus executed by 
Chalcidius (cent, iv), which included some account 
of the theory of Ideas; by the statem'ent of Plato's opinions in 
Aristotle; by the passages quoted in Cicero, Augustine and 
Macrobius; and by the account of Plato's tenets given by Apuleius, 
De Dogmate Platonis. The Phaedo and the Meno were translated 
in Sicily about 11 60 by King William I's minister, Henricus 
Aristippus, but were little known. 

Until the fourth decade of the century the only works of 
Aristotle known in the Middle Ages were the 
Categories and De Interpretatione, as translated 
into Latin by Boethius. The rest of the Organon, namely the 
Topics, Analytics and Sophistici Elenchi, became known after 11 28, 
when they were translated by Jacobus Clericus of Venice. All 
the treatises of the Organon^ except the Later Analytics^ were 
known to Theodoric of Chartres, who was one of the first of the 
mediaeval writers to popularise their contents {c. 1141)- The 
whole of the Organon was known to his pupil, John of Salisbury, 
in 1 159. 

The first acquaintance of Western Europe with any of the 
other works of Aristotle was due to the Arabs of Spain. Aristotle 
had long been studied in Syria and Arabia ; and the knowledge of 
his writings, which had passed from Constantinople to the East, 
had subsequently followed the course of Arab conquest along 
the Northern coast of Africa, till it reached the West in Spain, 
and thence found its way into France; but the Arabic translations 
executed at Bagdad in the first half of the ninth century did not 
reach Paris in their Latin form until after the middle of the twelfth. 

s. H. 9 



130 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

From about ii5oto 1250 the great centre of activity in the pro- 
duction of Latin renderings from the Arabic was Toledo. Before 
1 1 50 Avicenna's commentaries on Aristotle De Anima, and on 
other physical and metaphysical writings of Arabian philosophers, 
were there translated from Arabic through Castilian into Latin 
by Dominic Gondisalvi with the aid of the Jewish interpreter, 
Joannes ben David of Seville, and by the command of Raymund, 
archbishop of Toledo {c. 1130 — 1150). Gerard of Cremona, the 
elder (d. 1187), was attracted to Toledo by his interest in 
Ptolemy's Almagest, which he translated from the Arabic version 
in 1 1 75, being unaware that it had already been translated from 
the original Greek, in Sicily, about ii6o\ Among the 70 other 
works, which he rendered from Arabic into Latin, were Aristotle's 
Analytica Posterior a ^ Physics^ De Caelo et Mundo, De Generatione 
et Corruptione and the first three books of the Meteorologica. 
The fourth book had already been translated by Henricus 
Aristippus. Michael Scot, who probably learnt Arabic at the 
brilliant court of Frederic II in Palermo, left for Toledo. In or 
after 1 2 1 5 he there completed a rendering of two Arabic abstracts 
of Aristotle's Historia Animalium. He visited Bologna in 122 1, 
and, before returning to Palermo in 1223, he had translated the 
commentaries of Averroes on the De Caelo and the De Anima. 
We may also assign to him the translation of Averroes' com- 
mentaries on the Physics and Metaphysics. Roger Bacon describes 
him as bringing with him certain of the physical and metaphysi- 
cal works of Aristotle, with the commentators on the same, after 
1230. In 1232 the emperor permitted the transcription of the 
second of the two works in which Scot had dealt with the Historia 
Animalium^ and, apparently not long afterwards^ sent to the Uni- 
versities of Bologna and Paris the translations he had caused to 
be made from the Greek and Arabic mss of the works of Aristotle 
and other philosophers, relating to Mathematics and Logic, which 
were contained in the imperial library^. Hermann the German 
translated at Toledo the intermediate commentary of Averroes 

^ Haskins and Lockwood, in Harvard Studies xxi (19 10) 78. 

2 Prantl {Logik, iii 5) places this event before 1224 (viz. in 1220); if so, the 
date may have been 122 1 (when Scot, to whose hands the emperor's letters 
were probably entrusted, was actually in Bologna). 



XYl] THE STUDY OF ARISTOTLE 13I 

on the Ethics (1240), and an Arabic abridgement of the original; 
also some Arabic glosses on the Rhetoric^ and Averroes' abridge- 
ment of the Poetic (1256). It was only in this meagre form that 
Aristotle's treatise on Poetry was known to the Middle Ages. 
The last of these translators from the Arabic was Alfred the 
Englishman {fl. 1215-70), who produced a Latin translation of 
the Arabic version of the Pseudo-Aristotelian De Flantis, and 
revised and interpolated the earliest translation of the Meteo- 
rological presumably that of Gerard of Cremona. He has been 
identified with Alfred de Sereshel, who, in his work De Motu 
Cordis^ names nearly all the works of Aristotle which had lately 
been translated from Arabic into Latin. 

While the knowledge of Aristotle has thus been reaching the 
scholars of the West through the circuitous route of translations 
from the Arabic, the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204 
had opened to those scholars the prospect of a direct access to 
the stores of Greek learning. The conquerors themselves regarded 
that learning with contempt, but the natural result of their con- 
quest was the dispersion of Greek mss, some of which found their 
way to the West. The only evidence as to any mss of Aristotle 
having been brought from Constantinople refers to the Meta- 
physics^ but the Physics is probably meant. In Paris, in 1209, 
according to the Chronicle of Guillaume le Breton, certain 'libelli' 
on Metaphysics^ composed (it was said) by Aristotle, had recently 
been brought from Constantinople and translated into Latin, 
but they were ordered to be burnt as likely to foster heresy. 
Two other chroniclers, however, use phrases which must refer to 
the Physics^, and this is confirmed by the terms of the sentence 
passed by the provincial Council, really held in 12 10, which 
ordered that 'neither the books of Aristotle on natural philosophy, 
nor the Comments, should be read in Paris either publicly or 
privately'^. By the 'books of Aristotle on natural philosophy' 
were probably meant a Latin translation of the Arabic rendering 
of the Physics, viz. that executed by Gerard of Cremona before 
his death in 1187; and, by the Comments, the commentaries on 
the Physics by Avicenna which, together with those on the 

1 Jourdain, Recherches, 1843, pp. 187-8. 

^ Denifle, Chartulariiim Univ. FariSy i p. 70. 



132 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

Metaphysics and De Caelo^ were translated at Toledo before 1150. 
The heretical opinions of Amalrich of Bena and of David of 
Dinant were condemned by the same Council, and, whatever 
may have been the true source of those opinions, they brought 
suspicion and condemnation on the Latin renderings from the 
Arabic versions of Aristotle and his commentators. In 12 15 the 
Statutes drawn up by the papal legate ordered the study of the 
dialectical works of Aristotle, but forbade that of the Physics and 
Metaphysics; and the prohibition of the study of the Physics origin- 
ally announced in 12 10 was renewed in 1231 by Gregory IX, who 
directed that 'the libri naturales . . .should not be used until they had 
been examined and revised '^ This implied a considerable miti- 
gation of the severe sentences passed on the study of. Aristotle in 
1 2 1 o and 1 2 1 5 . William of Auvergne, who became bishop of Paris 
in 1228 and was still alive in 1248, made free use of the Physics and 
Metaphysics^ and at the same time denounced certain heresies of 
'Aristotle and his followers'. All his works began to be ex- 
pounded in Paris by the most eminent doctors of the Church, 
such as Albertus Magnus (1245) and Thomas Aquinas (1257); 
and, in 1255, even the Physics and Metaphysics were included 
among the subjects prescribed in the Faculty of Arts at the 
University of Paris. 

The Order of the Franciscans was founded at Assisi in 12 10, 
and that of the Dominicans at Toulouse in 12 15; and thenceforth 
all the great Schoolmen were either Franciscans or Dominicans. 
The first of the Schoolmen who was familiar with the whole 
range of iVristotle's philosophy and with his Arabic commentators, 
Alexander ^"^ ^^^^ employed the same in the service of 
of Hales thcology, was Alexander of Hales, a native of 

Gloucestershire who joined the Franciscans in Paris in 1231. 
Another Englishman, Edmund Rich of Abingdon, 
afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, was the first 
to expound the Sophistici Elenchi at Oxford. Platonic and Aris- 
totelian doctrines were combined by Robert Grosse- 

Grosseteste , , , ',11. 

teste {c. 1 1 75 — 1253), who was appointed lecturer 
to the Franciscans shortly after their establishment in Oxford in 
1224. It was probably during his life at Oxford that he prepared 
^ Jourdain, p. 191. 



1 



XVl] VINCENT OF BEAU VMS. ALBERTUS MAGNUS 1 33 

his commentaries on the Categories^ Analytics^ and Sophistid 
Elenchi. He drew up a summary of the Physics, with a com- 
mentary on the same. A Latin translation of the Greek text of 
the Ethics^ which was known under the name of Grosseteste, 
was probably executed under his direction by one of the Greek 
monks whom he had invited to England. He was bishop of 
Lincoln from 1235 to 1253, and, apart from his important services 
as a reformer and a statesman, he deserves to be remembered as 
one of the earliest leaders of thought at Oxford, as a promoter 
of Greek learning, and as an interpreter of Aristotle, who went 
far beyond his master in the experimental knowledge of physical 
science. 

In the Dominican Order the most learned scholar of this age 
was Vincent of Beauvais (d. 1264), best known vincent of 
in connexion with the Speculum Mundi, a vast Beauvais 
encyclopaedia divided into four parts distinguished by the epithets 
Maturate^ Doctrinale, Historiale, and Morale (added by a later 
writer). ,He knew no Greek, but he suppUes us with valuable 
evidence as to the successive stages that marked the translation 
of the 'Aristotelian' writings into the Latin language. Thus, for 
the Organon, he uses the old rendering from the Greek, by 
Boethius; that from the Arabic for the Historia Animalium, 
De Plantis, De Caelo,- and for the first three books of the 
Meteorologica; and the recent rendering from the Greek in ihQ Farva 
NaturaliSy the Physics, Metaphysics, De Anima and Ethics, while 
he never quotes the Politics. 

In this age the great exponents of Aristotle among the 
Schoolmen were the two Dominicans, Albertus Aibertus 
Magnus (i 193 — 1 280) and his famous pupil Thomas Magnus 
Aquinas. The former, who was a widely influential teacher in 
Paris and Cologne, paid special attention to Aristotle, all of 
whose works were accessible to him in Latin translations either 
from the Arabic or the Greek or both. He was the first to state 
the philosophy of Aristotle in a systematic form, with constant 
reference to the Arabic commentators. He has been denounced 
as an indefatigable compiler, but he was also a man of rich and 
varied endowments who deserves full credit as the restorer of the 
study of Aristotle. 



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Christ in Glory 
St Luke St Matthew St Paul Moses St John St Mark 

St Thomas Aquinas 

Aristotle Aver roes Plato 

Altar-piece by Traini (1345), in the Church of S. Caterina, Pisa. 

Reduced from Rosini's Pittura Italiana, tav. xx. 



CHAP. XVI] THOMAS AQUINAS 135 

Thomas Aquinas (1225-7 — 1274), who was born at a castle 
Thomas "^^^ ^^^ ancient Aquinum, studied at Cologne 

Aquinas and Paris under Albertus Magnus, taught philo- 

sophy at Cologne, Paris, Bologna, Naples and elsewhere; lived 
at the papal court in Rome from 1260 to 1269, and was less than 
50 years of age when he died in 1274. He brought Scholasti- 
cism to its highest development by harmonising Aristotelianism 
with the doctrines of the Church. For his logical and meta- 
physical principles he is indebted to Aristotle, while certain 
elements are derived from Platonism and from Christian theology. 
All these sources of illumination are indicated by the convergent 
rays in the upper part of the altar-piece by Francesco Traini in 
the Church of Santa Caterina, Pisa (1345). 

From the 'Christ in Glory' a single ray of light falls on each of the six 
figures of Moses and St Paul and the four Evangelists, here represented as 
bending forward from the sky, and holding tablets inscribed with passages 
from the books of the Scriptures which bear their names. In addition to the 
rays that proceed from each of these figures, three from the ' Christ in Glory ' 
may be seen descending on the head of the seated form of St Thomas Aquinas, 
who displays an open book with the first words of his Summa contra Gentiles : — 
Veritatem nieditabitur guttur meu??i, et labia mea detestahuntur impium 
(Proverbs, viii 7), while some of his other works are lying on his lap. Two 
other rays proceed from the open books displayed by Aristotle on the left and 
Plato on the right, probably representing the Ethics and Timaeus respectively. 
Another ray, not a beam of illumination, but a lightning-flash of refutation, falls 
from the Summa contra Gentiles^ striking the edge of a book lying on the ground 
beside the writhing form of its author, Averroes. Many other rays may be seen 
descending from the several works of St Thomas on the two crowds of admiring 
and adoring Dominicans below. In the original, among the rays on the left, 
may be read the text, hie adinvenit omnem viam disciplinae (Baruch, iii 32), 
and, among those on the right, doctor gentium in fide et veritate (i Tim. ii 7). 

While Albertus had composed paraphrases of Aristotle after 
the manner of his eastern exponent Avicenna, Aquinas produced 
commentaries after that of his western interpreter Averroes. He 
thus comments on the De Inter pretatione, Analytica Posteriora^ 
Physics^ Parva Naturalia, Metaphysics, De Anima, Ethics, Politics, 
Meteorologica, De Caelo et Mundo and De Generatione et Corrup- 
tione {c. 1260-9). In quoting Aristotle he uses translations 
from the Greek alone, and not from the Arabic. It was at his 
own instance that William of Moerbeke, who was educated at 



136 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. XVI 

Louvain, and was probably one of the young Dominicans annually 
sent to Greece to learn the language, produced literal Latin 
translations of several of Aristotle's works, which superseded the 
old renderings from the Arabic. The most important of these 
were his translation of the Politics (1274), finished before the 
death of Thomas Aquinas, who quotes it twice in the Summa 
contra Gentiles, and the translation of the Rhetoric (1281). In 
both cases the literalness of his rendering adds to its value as 
evidence of the text of the lost ms from which it was translated, 
a MS better than the best of those that have survived. A Nova 
Translatio of the Ethics (probably by Henry Kosbein of Brabant) 
was used by Thomas before 1262. 

Thus, in the course of about 130 years, from the date of the 
early translations at Toledo in 1150 to the death of William of 
Moerbeke in 1281, the knowledge of Aristotle's philosophy had 
passed in Europe from a phase of almost total darkness to one of 
nearly perfect light. The whole of the Organon had become 
known. The earliest complete versions of the Physics, Meta- 
physics, and Ethics had reached Europe through translations from 
the Arabic, and the De Anima, the Politics and Rhetoric through 
translations from the Greek. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER. 
ROGER BACON (1214-94) TO DANTE (1265-I321) 

Among the keenest critics of the Schoolmen, and also of the 
recent translators of Aristotle, was Roger Bacon 

° Roger Bacon 

(c. 1 2 14 — 1294), a pupil of Grosseteste at Oxford^ 
It was probably under the influence of Grosseteste, or of Adam 
Marsh, that he entered the Franciscan Order. At the invitation 
of Clement IV (d. 1268), he wrote, in the wonderfully brief space 
of 15 months, his three great works, the Opus Ma/us, the Opus 
Afinfis a,nd the Opus Tertium (1267). These were followed by 
his Compendium Studii Philosophiae (127 1-2). In 1277 Jerome 
of Ascoli, General of the P>anciscan Order, condemned his teach- 
ing, as containing 'some suspected novelties,' on account of 
which he was imprisoned in Paris for 15 years. On his release, 
he returned to Oxford, where he wrote in 1292 his Compendium 
Studii Theologiae and where he probably died in 1294. The 
following is the purport of a passage from his latest work : — 

' Slowly has any portion of the philosophy of Aristotle come into use among 
the Latins. His Natural Philosophy., and his Metaphysics, with the commen- 
taries of Averroes and others, were translated in my time, and interdicted at 
Paris before the year a.d. 1237. Even his Logic was slowly received and 
lectured on. For St Edmund, the archbishop of Canterbury [Edmund Rich], 
was the first who in my time read the Sophistici Elenchi at Oxford. And I have 
seen Master Hugo, who first read the book of Posterior {Analytics), and have also 
seen his writing [verbum). So there have been few, considering the multitude 
of the Latins, who are of any account in the philosophy of Aristotle ; nay, very 

^ He probably went to Paris before 1236; he was certainly there before 
1245. In Paris he chose as his master one of the most modest and most learned 
men of the time, Peter de Maricourt, ' the Master of Experiments ', the author 
of a treatise on the Magnet dated 1269. For ten years {c. 1256-66), 'owing 
to many infirmities ', he was compelled to withdraw from University affairs. 



138 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

few indeed, and scarcely any up to this year of grace 1292. ..The Ethics has but 
slowly become known, having been only lately, and that seldom, expounded 
by our masters... Thus far, there have only been three persons who could form 
a true judgement of the small portion of the whole of Aristotle that has been 
translated '. 

In the Opus Majus he notices the expansion in the knowledge 
of Aristotle's writings dating from the time of Michael Scot, i.e. 
from after 1230; and denounces the inadequacy of the current 
translations, and especially the ignorance which had led the 
translators to leave foreign words standing in their text. In the 
Compendium Studii Philosophiae., he thus pleads for the study 
of Greek as well as Hebrew : — ' we are the heirs of the scholars 
of the past, and (even in our own interests) are bound to main- 
tain the traditions of learning, on pain of being charged with 
infinite folly '\ His own knowledge of Greek was mainly derived 
from the Greeks of his day, and it is their pronunciation that 
he invariably adopts. His Greek Grammar^ preserved in the 
Library of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and first published at 
Cambridge in 1902, includes a short Greek Accidence and ends 
with the paradigm of tvtvtih. He naturally follows the Byzantine 
tradition. 

In Latin his favourite authors are Cicero and Seneca. In 
history he knows Sallust, Livy and 'Trogus Pompeius'; he is 
also familiar with Pliny and Solinus, and with Donatus, Servius, 
Apuleius, Gellius, Censorinus, Boethius, Cassiodorus and Priscian. 
In verse he quotes freely from Terence, Virgil, Juvenal, Lucan, 
Statius and the later poets. He urges that boys should not be 
taught the ' fooHsh fables ' of poets such as Ovid ; but, when he 
needs a new argument for the study of Greek, he tacitly borrows 
a line from the Epistolae ex Ponto : — ' gratius ex ipso fonte 
bibuntur aquae'. He knew Arabic and Hebrew, as well as 
Greek, and the same keenness of spirit, that prompted him to 
insist on the importance of the study of Greek, impelled him to 
extend the bounds of science''. 

' P- 435. 

2 Cp. E. Charles, J^oger Bacon (Paris, 1861), 'Commemoration Essays' 
ed. A. G. Little (Oxford, 19 14), and the present writer's paper in the 
Proceedings of the British Academy, 1914; also J. H. Bridges, The Life and 
Work of Roger Bacon (1897), reprinted 1914. 



XVIl] ROGER BACON 1 39 

In Roger Bacon's day, notwithstanding his eagerness for 
promoting the study of Aristotle in the original Greek, it was the 
Latin Aristotle alone that was studied in the schools. In the 
very year in which he was writing his three great works in Paris 
(1267), Oxford was prescribing for the course in Arts the whole 
of the Latin Organon, and, as an alternative, the De Anima and 
the Physics. The study of the Physics in England during this 
century may be illustrated by the MS of the Latin translation of 
that work, written in England and illuminated with a representation 
of a mediaeval lecture-room, in which a closely packed group of 
nine tonsured students, with their books resting on their knees, is 
listening to a scholar, who is lecturing with uplifted hand, robed 
in an academic gown and enthroned on a professorial chair'. 

The famous Franciscan, Joannes Duns Scotus, who was 
possibly born at Dunstan (near Dunstanburgh 

^ J ^ o Duns Scotus 

Castle) in Northumberland, opposed the teaching 
of Thomas Aquinas at Oxford, Paris and Cologne, where he died 
in 1308. He has a less high regard than Thomas for the teach- 
ing of Aristotle, and he adopts many Platonic and Neo-Platonic 
opinions. His works include Quaestiones on Aristotle De Anima 
and Meteoroiogica, and an exposition and summaries and con- 
clusions, as well as Quaestiones, on the Metaphysics. In the 
domain of pure Scholarship he is represented by the Grammatica 
Speculativa, which is also described as a treatise De Modis Signi- 
ficandi (on Moods). 

The extreme philosophical opinions of Duns Scotus were 
followed by a reaction led by Wycliffe (1324-84), who (for 
England at least) is at once ' the last of the Schoolmen ' and ' the 
first of the Reformers '. Humanists were agreed with later 
Reformers, such as Tyndale (1530), in opposing the subtleties of 
Scotus. In 1535 (a date which marks the close of the influence 
of Scholasticism in England) the idol of the Schools was dragged 
from his pedestal at Oxford and Cambridge ; and one of Thomas 
Cromwell's commissioners at Oxford writes : — ' We have set Dunce 
in jBocardo, and have utterly banished him Oxford for ever, with 
all his blynd glosses . . . (At New College) wee fownd all the 

^ British Museum, Royal 12. G. v. (reproduced in Social England, ill. ed., 
i 623). 



k 



140 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

great Quadrant Court full of the Leaves of Dunce, the wind 
blowing them into every corner '\ 

In the thirteenth century the extension of the knowledge of 

Aristotle beyond the narrow limits of the Organon 
ofAristoti"*^^ widened the intellectual horizon by stimulating the 

study of Psychology and Metaphysics. Aristotle 
was now recognised as the supreme and infallible authority, not in 
Logic alone, but also in Metaphysics, in Morals, and (unhappily) 
in Physiology and Natural Science in general. He was associated 
in Northern Europe with the study of speculative philosophy and 
theology, and in Italy with that of medicine, thus incidentally 
leading to an alliance between the Faculties of Medicine and 
Arts in the Italian universities. Under the wing of Aristotle, 
room was found even for Averroes. About the middle of the 
fourteenth century the Inceptor in Arts at the university of Paris 
was compelled to swear that he would teach nothing that was 
inconsistent with ' Aristotle and his commentator Averroes '^. But 
the mediaeval dependence on the authority of Aristotle gradually 
gave way. The change was in part occasioned by the recovery 
of some of the lost works of ancient literature, and the transition 
from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance was attended by a 
general widening of the range of classical studies, and by a renewed 
interest in Plato. 

In 1325 there were lectures on Greek, as well as Arabic, 

Chaldee and Hebrew, in the university of Paris, 
Greek'"^ °^ but the papal legate was instructed to take care that 

these strange tongues were not made the means of 
introducing outlandish doctrines. The suspicion of heresy clung 
to the Greek language in particular, and bishops gave up the 
traditional custom of signing their names in Greek. There were 
hardly any hellenists except among the Dominicans, who, as they 
had early secured complete control of the Inquisition, could with 
perfect impunity learn as much Greek as they pleased. After 
many decrees to the contrary, the study of Aristotle was restored 
with hardly any restrictions by the Papal Legates of 1366. For 

^ Layton in Strype's EccL Memorials, i 324. 

*^ Chartul. ii. 680, with the important addition, nisi in casibtis qui sunt 
contra Jidetn. 



XVIl] REVIVALS OF LEARNING I4I 

the B.A. degree it was necessary to take up Grammar, Logic 
and Psychology, the first of these including the * Doctrinale ' of 
Alexander of Villedieu; the second, the Organon of Aristotle 
and the Topics of Boethius ; and the third, the De Anima. For 
the Licence in Arts, the subjects comprised the Physics and the 
Parva Naturalia^ and, for the M.A. degree, the greater part of 
the Ethics and at least three books of the Meteorologica. But 
Aristotle was not studied in the original. The vast number of 
lucubrations on Aristotle included in the two oldest catalogues of 
the Hbrary of the Sorbonne (1290 and 1338) supply no proof of 
any direct acquaintance with the Greek text. 

The university of Paris was too closely bound up with the 
study of Aristotle and too strictly subservient to his supreme 
authority, to be able to take the lead in that general 
revival of Classical interests which we associate revivals of 
with the age of the Renaissance. Yet the Western ^^''"^"^ 
lands of Europe, France as well as England, had seen more than 
one revival of learning in the course of the early Middle Ages. 
The first two revivals are associated with the names of Aldhelm 
and Bede, and of Alcuin and Charles the Great. Even under 
the successors of Charles the Great, Greek prose found an inter- 
preter in the person of Joannes Scotus. In the tenth century 
Gerbert had been conspicuous in the study of Cicero. In the 
province of education, the changes which began to pass over the 
schools of France in the eleventh century had culminated in a 
great intellectual renaissance in the early part of the twelfth, 
during the age of Abelard. Throughout the Middle Ages the 
region of France which lay north of the Loire had taken the 
lead in the education of Europe, but that region had been too 
completely permeated and possessed by the mediaeval spirit to 
become the native land of the Renaissance ^ That honour was 
reserved for the classic soil of Italy, where the 

_, . 1 1 n J • Tr L • Causes of the 

Renaissance was slowly called into lire by a variety Renaissance 
of causes^, by the prevailing spirit of intellectual *" ^*^^^ 
freedom, by the social and political condition of the country, by 



1 Korting, Litt. It. iii 93. 

- Cp. Gebhart's Origines de la Renaissance eti Italic (1879), esp. pp. 51- 



146. 



142 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

the continuous tradition of the Latin language, by the constant 
witness to the existence of Greek in the region once known as 
Magna Graecia, by the survival of the remains of antique 
sculpture, such as the marble reliefs which inspired the art 
of Niccola Pisano, and by the abiding presence of the ruins of 
ancient Rome, which aroused the enthusiasm, not only of 
unnamed pilgrims of the tenth and twelfth centuries, but also 
of men of mark such as Giovanni Villani, and Rienzi, and 
Petrarch, in the first third of the fourteenth \ ' During the 
gloomy and disastrous centuries which followed the downfall of 
the Roman Empire, Italy had preserved, in a far greater degree 
than any other part of Western Europe, the traces of ancient 
civihsation. The night which descended upon her was the night 
of an Arctic summer. The dawn began to reappear before the 
last reflection of the preceding sunset had faded from the horizon '^. 
But, although the night was luminous, the sun was absent, and 
Petrarch was the morning-star of a new day ; yet there were other 
stars in the sky before the star of Petrarch. 

Dante (1265 — 1321) is a precursor of the Renaissance in a 
limited sense alone, — in his breaking loose from 

Dante , ,. , ,. • , . . , . 

the mediaeval tradition by writing his great poem 
not in the Latin but in the Tuscan tongue ; in his delight in 
minutely realistic descriptions, in his proud self-consciousness as 
a poet; and in his personal longing for immortal fame. He is 
true to the strictest theology of the Middle Ages, but at the same 
time he is as learned a layman as any that we shall meet in the 
coming age of the Renaissance. 

The speculative basis of his great poem is furnished by 
the scholastic combination of Christian theology with the Aris- 
totelian philosophy. For Aristotle himself he has the highest 
regard. In the Limbo of the unbaptized, in a green meadow 
surrounded by the sevenfold walls of a noble castle, the poet sees 
' the Master of them that know ', with Plato and Socrates hard by; 
and, amongst others, Cicero and Livy and the ' moralist Seneca ', 
with Avicenna, and Averroes ' who the great Comment made '^ 
In his works in general he frequently refers to the Latin Classics. 

^ Petrarch, De Rebus Fam. vi 2 p. 314 Fracassetti. 

2 Macaulay, Machiavelli[i^2'j), p. 30 of Essays (1861). ^ Inf. iv 130 — 144. 



XVIl] DANTE 143 

His references to ancient literature have been collected and 
classified, and the following list shows approximately the number 
of times he quotes each of the works mentioned : — the Vulgate 
(500 + ), Aristotle (300 + )\ Virgil {c. 200), Ovid {c. 100), Cicero 
{c. 50)^, Statius and Boethius (30 — 40), Horace (7)^ Livy and 
Orosius (10 — 20) ; the Timaeus of Plato in the translation by 
Chalcidius, with Homer, Juvenal, Seneca, Ptolemy, Aesop, Valerius 
Maximus and St Augustine (less than 10 each)^. The above list 
does not include the references to the Schoolmen such as Albertus 
Magnus, and Thomas Aquinas, whose greatest disciple is Dante. 
Sometimes, when he appears to be quoting Aristotle, his real 
authority is Albertus Magnus. In the Convito^ he compares the 
Old translation with the New, meaning by the ' Old ' one of 
the renderings from the Arabic, and by the ' New ' one of those 
from the Greek. His five great pagan poets are Homer, Virgil, 
Horace, Ovid, Lucan^. Statius is not found in the Inferno, his 
place, as a ' Christian ', converted by Virgil's Fourth Eclogue^ being 
in the Purgatorio'^ . Elsewhere, Dante names Virgil, Ovid, Lucan 
and Statius alone as the 'regular' Latin poets^ his omission of 
Horace being possibly due to a mere accident^, especially as he 
has previously quoted the Ars Po'etica with respect, as the work of 
magister noster Horatius^^. His standard authors in Latin prose 
are Cicero, Livy, Pliny, Frontinus and Orosius. 

His knowledge of Greek appears to have been practically nil. 
He describes Aristotle as most ' worthy of trust ', and his teaching 
as of the 'highest authority'". But Dante's Aristotle was only the 
Latin Aristotle, and of the treatise on Poetry he unfortunately 
knew nothing. Like the mediaeval scholars in general, he lay in 
bondage to the Latin versions of the Timaeus and of Aristotle, 
and it was high time for a revival of learning to restore a know- 
ledge of the Greek texts, and to extend the range of study, and 
inspire it with a new interest, even in the case of Latin literature. 

^ Mainly the Ethics, Physics, Metaphysics and De Anima. 

^ De Off., Sen., Am.', also De Finibus. 

' Six from Ars Poetica, and one from Ep. i 14, 43. 

* E. Moore, Studies, i 4 f . ° ii 15. ^ Inf. iv. 88. 
^ xxi f. ^ De Vulgari Eloquio, \\ 6. 

* Horatium might easily have fallen out before Statium, 
^^ De Vulg. El. ii 4. " Conv, iv 6. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE SURVIVAL OF THE LATIN CLASSICS 

While the Greek Classics owed their safe preservation to the 
libraries of Constantinople and to the monasteries of the East, 
it is primarily to the monasteries of the West that we are indebted 
for the survival of the Latin Classics. A certain prejudice against 
Prejudice pagan learning, and especially against pagan poetry, 

against the had doubtless been traditional in the Christian 

community. The philosophical works of Cicero 
had supplied a model for the Latin prose of the Fathers and of 
their successors in the Middle Ages; but even Cicero, it was some- 
times felt, might be studied with an undue devotion. Poets 
(unless their writings were of highly moral purport, or capable of 
being ' moralised ' by means of allegorical interpretation) were 
regarded with far less favour than philosophers. One of the 
celebrated illustrations in the Hortus Deliciarum^ the pictorial 
encyclopaedia composed, or compiled, by the abbess Herrad of 
Landsberg for the nuns of Mont St Odile in Alsace (1167-95), 
represents two large concentric circles filled with the following 
figures. In the upper half of the inner circle, Philosophy, a 
queenly form whose crown is parted into the semblance of three 
human heads identified as ' Ethics ', ' Logic ' and * Physics ', may 
be seen enthroned in majesty, while, in the lower half of the same 
circle, we have Socrates and Plato seated at desks with books 
open before them. The outer circle is filled with a series of 
seven arches, and, under each of these, we have a personification 
of one of the Seven Liberal Arts, with her emblems in her hands. 
Grammar with a book and a birch, Rhetoric with a tablet and 
stylus, and similarly with the rest. Below and outside this outer 
circle are four 'poets or magicians ', each of them writing at a desk, 



CHAP. XVIII] THE SURVIVAL OF THE CLASSICS I45 

with an evil spirit prompting him, in the form of a raven hovering 
near his ear. The whole design is further embellished with many 
mottoes in appropriate places. 

While the reading of pagan authors was discouraged by the 
founders of the monastic Orders, no restriction was placed on the 
copying of mss. The Benedictine Rule is vague, but it assumes the 
existence of a monastic library, naturally consisting of ecclesiastical 
books, while the work of the monastic schools would no less 
naturally involve the acquisition of a number of classical texts. 
The monks of centuries x, xi, and xii are credited with having been 
keener copyists than their successors ; but the love of learning, 
which had received its first impulse from Cassiodorus, never entirely 
died out. It left its results in the mss of Monte Cassino and 
Bobbio ; of Corbie and Cluni ; of Moissac on the upper Garonne, 
and Tours and Fleury on the Loire ; of St Gallen and Reichenau ; 
of Lorsch, Hersfeld and Fulda. Thus it is that the monasteries of 
the Middle Ages may justly be regarded not only as ' repositories 
of the learning that then was ', but also as ' well-springs of the 
learning which was to be ". 

The survival of certain of the Latin Classics was due to their 
local interest. Catullus survived in his birthplace, Verona ; 
Caesar's Gallic War, in France ; the Germa?tia and the early 
books of the Annals of Tacitus, with all that remains of 
Ammianus Marcellinus, in Germany ; and Frontinus, On Aque- 
ducts, at Monte Cassino, S.E. of the Roman Campagna, where 
this unique MS is still preserved. The interests of education 
prompted the preservation of authors on Grammar, with Terence 
and Virgil, and (in a less degree) Lucan and Statius, Persius and 
Juvenal. Sallust, Livy and Suetonius were retained as models 
for historical, Cicero's Speeches for rhetorical, and Ovid for poetical 
composition. The ethical interest prolonged the existence of the 
philosophical writings of Cicero and Seneca, and of the historical 
anecdotes of Valerius Maximus. Germany seems to have been 
mainly interested in subject-matter; France, in style and form. 
Catullus was preserved in France, as well as in Italy ; Horace, 
chiefly in France; Propertius, probably in France alone. The 
two earliest notices of Tibullus come from France. Cicero's 

^ Maitland's Dark Ages, Pref. 
S. H. 10 



146 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

Speeches survived at Cluni, Langres and Liege. The first to 
translate any of the Speeches was an Italian, Brunetto Latini 
(d. 1294); the Brutus survived solely in Italy; the De Oratore 
and Orator, in Italy and France. The historians (with the 
exception of the author of the Gallic War) were diligently read 
and copied in Germany \ and Pliny the elder in Germany and 
England. 

A few of the indications of the relative importance attached to 
the principal Latin authors in the Middle Ages may here be 
noticed. Plautus was little read ^ ; he is only quoted second- 
hand by Rabanus Maurus, who clearly derives his 
knowledge from Priscian and Isidore; but many 
isolated lines are cited in the Glossariui7i Osderni, a work of 
English origin. In the mediaeval catalogues, he is found at Bury 
and at Bamberg only. Terence was far more 
familiar. He was closely imitated by Hroswitha, 
and not unfrequently cited by others ; but, although his metres 
had been expounded by Priscian, he was regarded as a prose- 
author, not only by the learned abbess of Gandersheim, but 
also by the well-informed schoolmaster of Bamberg, Hugo of 
Trimberg'. 

Lucretius, who, in the Roman Age, had been imitated by 
Horace and Virgil, had been familiar to Arnobius, 

Lucretius ° . 

Lactantius and Jerome, and had been occasion- 
ally copied by Commodianus and frequently quoted by Isidore, 
was little read in the Middle Ages. Through the medium of the 
grammarians, he became known to Bede, one of whose quotations 
enabled Lachmann to emend the poet's text (vi 868). Probably 
all the other mediaeval quotations are borrowed from earlier 
authors such as Macrobius, Priscian, and Isidore. 

Verona's poet Catullus is quoted by Isidore of Seville in the 

seventh century, but is not even named again until 

the time of Ratherius, bishop of Verona (965). The 

MS at Verona, lost for a time but recovered shortly before 1323, 

was known to Petrarch (1347) and Coluccio Salutati (i374)j but 

had vanished again before Traversari's visit (July 1433)- It is 

(directly or indirectly) the source of all the extant mss. 

^ Registrum Multoruni Auctorum (1280), ed. Hiimer. 



XVIII] VIRGIL. HORACE 147 

Of all the poets by far the most popular in the Middle Ages 
was Virgil. The allegorical interpretation of the 
Aeneid, as an image of human life, as a story of 
the triumph of wisdom and virtue over folly and passion, first put 
forward by Fulgentius (c. 520), was accepted by John of Salisbury, 
as well as by Dante, and by scholars in the Renaissance, such as 
Alberti and Landini. Virgil was of course the constant model of 
the mediaeval epics. His general popularity in the Christian 
community was partly due to his Fourth Eclogue, which had been 
regarded by Lactantius, Eusebius, St Augustine and Prudentius 
as a prophecy of the coming of Christ. It was also a pious belief 
in Italy that St Paul had visited the poet's tomb when he passed 
through Naples, and had shed tears of regret at the thought that 
the poet had not lived at a time when he might have been con- 
verted by the Apostle. A hymn in honour of St Paul, which 
continued to be sung at Mantua down to the fifteenth century, 
included the following stanza : — 

'Ad Maronis mausoleum 
Ductus fudit super eum 
Piae rorem lacrymae; 
Quem te, inquit, reddidissem, 
Si te vivum invenissem, 
Poetarum maxime ! ' 

To Dante (as is well known) Virgil is 'the glory of the Latin 
race", 'the honour of all science and all wit'^, 'the sea of all 
wisdom '^, 'the gentile sage, who all things knew '\ the poet who, 
as the symbol of human wisdom and philosophy, is his ' leader, 
lord and master'^ in his journey through the Inferno duad the 
greater part of the Purgatorio^. 

The study of Horace in the Caroline age is represented mainly 
by Alcuin, who assumes the name of Flaccus, and 

. Horace 

displays a knowledge of the Odes and Epodes, as 

well as the Satires and Epistles, which may also be traced in the 

poems of Theodulfus, bishop of Orleans (d. 821). In 1280 his 

^ Purg. vii 16. '^ Infw 73. 

^ Inf. viii 7. ^ Inf. vii 3. 

^ Inf. ii 140. De Monarchia, ii 3, divinus poeta noster Virgilius. 
^ See, in general, Comparetti's Virgilio net Medio Evo (1872 and 1896), 
E.T. 1895. 

10 — 2 



148 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

hexameter poems are regarded by Hugo of Trimberg as more 
important than the lyrics : the former are the libri principales, the 
latter are minus usuales. Out of 1289 scattered quotations from 
Horace in the Middle Ages, exactly 250 (or less than \) are from 
the lyrics and as many as 1039 from the hexameters \ The total 
number of quotations from the lyrics in Italy is only 19, dis- 
tributed over several centuries, and gradually diminishing till they 
reach the age of Dante, when they entirely disappear. Horace 
was, in fact, little known in Italy before the Renaissance, while 
he was far more familiar in France and Germany. Most of the 
250 extant mss come from France. The oldest, known as the 
codex Bernensis now at Berne, came from Fleury on the Loire. 
It is written in an Irish hand (cent, ix) with Celtic glosses here and 
there in the margin, and is one of a group of mss now ascribed 
to Irish contemporaries of Sedulius of Liege. 

A popularity intermediate between that of Virgil and Horace 
was attained by Ovid, especially in his Meta- 
morphoses^ his Fasti, his Ars Amatoria and his 
Remedia Amoris. He was imitated by the scholars at the court 
of Charles the Great, one of whom assumed the name of Naso, 
while another believed that profound truths were contained in his 
poems, if properly {i.e. allegorically) understood. All his works 
were known and quoted, and most of them imitated and trans- 
lated, during the Middle Ages. Dante regards the Metamorphoses 
as a model of style ^, and as a work requiring allegorical interpre- 
tation^. Chaucer's Legend of Good Women proves his familiarity 
with the Metamorphoses and Heroides ; and there is no Latin poet 
that he cites more frequently. 

Lucan was one of the best known of the Classical poets. He 
owed his popularity largely to his learned allusions 
to matters of geography, mythology and natural 
history, as well as to his rhetorical style and his pointed sayings. 
He was regarded as a historical authority, being the main source 
of the mediaeval romances on JuHus Caesar. He is mentioned 
by Dante as the last of the four great Latin poets in the fourth 

^ Moore's Studies in Dante., i 201. 

2 De Vulg. El. ii 6. ^ Conv. ii i ; iv. 25, 27, 28. 



XVIII] STATIUS. MARTIAL. JUVENAL I49 

canto of the Inferno ; and is placed by Chaucer on the summit of 
an iron column in the House of Fame \ 

'And by him stoden all these clerkes, 
That write of Romes mighty werkes'. 

On certain other columns in the same building the poet places 
Homer, Virgil, Ovid and Statius. 

Statius was no less famous than Lucan. The Thebais and 
Achilleis are often quoted, while the Silvae, familiar 
to Ausonius, Claudian, and Apollinaris Sidonius, 
but imitated only once in the Caroline age by Paulus Diaconus^ 
remained practically unknown till its discovery by Poggio at St 
Gallen (141 7). In an ancient Norman poem he is called Estace 
le Grand, though Virgil (in the same line) has no epithet 
whatsoever. 

The quotations from Martial preserved by the grammarians 
from the time of Victorinus, Charisius and Servius, 

. , . ' Martial 

to that of Pnscian and Isidore, prove that he was 
well known from the fourth to the sixth centuries. There are 
many reminiscences of his epigrams in Ausonius and in Apollinaris 
Sidonius. The curious name of Coquus is sometimes given him 
by John of Salisbury (amongst others), and always by Vincent of 
Beauvais, who reserves the name of Martial for the horticultural 
poet Gargilius Martialis. 

The moral earnestness of Juvenal led to his being highly 
esteemed in the Middle Ages. According to the juvenai 
monastic catalogues, his Satires were preserved in 
three copies at Bobbio, St Bertin and Rouen, and in two at 
Corbie, Bamberg and Durham. Abbot Marleberge (12 18) 
brought to the monastic library at Evesham a Juvenal, as well as 
a Lucan and a Cicero. He is often quoted by Geoffrey of 
Monmouth, John of Salisbury, Vincent of Beauvais, and others. 
A reminiscence of the Tenth Satire may be noticed in Chaucer's 
Troilus and Creseide (iv 197) : — 

*0 Juvenal lord, true is thy sentence, 
That little wenen folk what is to yerne'. 

^ Carmen 35, Curre per Ausoniae non segnis epistola cavipos (Silv. iv 4). 



ISO THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

The popularity of Persius is attested by many quotations. 

His name appears often in mediaeval catalogues of 

centuries ix — xii. 

The only ms of Propertius mentioned in the Middle Ages 

belonged to France. The only complete ms earlier than century 

XV is that of Wolfenbiittel (xii), formerly in Naples, a ms known 

T> ^;„„ to PoUtian. Little more than the first book is 

Propertius, 

Tibuiius, contained in a Leyden ms (xiv). The earliest 

Val. Flaccus, . J \ / 

Siiius itaiicus, evidence for the text of Tibullus is contained in 
certain Excerpta Parisina (ix — x) known to Vincent 
of Beauvais ; later than these are the Excerpta Frisingensia (xi) 
now at Munich ; the earliest complete ms, that in Milan (xiv), was 
once in the possession of Coluccio Salutati. The text of Valerius 
Flaccus rests on the Vatican ms (ix — x) and the ms found by 
Poggio at St Gallen (141 6) and now known only through copies, 
especially Poggio's copy in Madrid and an independent copy at 
Queen's College, Oxford. A ms of Siiius Itaiicus is entered in a 
catalogue of St Gallen in the ninth century, but otherwise he has 
left no trace of his existence from the time of Apollinaris Sidonius 
to that of Poggio (141 7). The only complete ms of Phaedrus is 
the codex Pithoeanus^ now at Du Mesnil near Mantes (ix — x). 
We have to be content with secondary evidence of the text of its 
twin-brother, the ms formerly at Rheims, which perished by fire 
in 1774. 

The fame of Boethius, the ' last of the Romans ', was per- 
petuated throughout the whole of the Middle 

Boethius ^ ^^ ° . . ^ . . 

Ages. He was known not only as the first inspirer 
of the great scholastic problem * and the translator of certain of 
the logical treatises of Aristotle, but also as the author of the 
Consolatio, which is preserved in many mss (ix — x), was repeatedly 
translated, and was specially familiar to Dante and to Chaucer. 
The blended prose and poetry of that work was not unfrequently 
imitated. 

Turning from verse to prose, we find Cicero revered through- 
out the Middle Ages as the great representative of 
the ' liberal art ' of Rhetoric. His famous sayings 
were collected by Bede ; his De Inventione was the source of a 



XVIII] CICERO. SENECA 151 

short treatise on rhetoric by Alcuin ; the Tusculan Disputations 
were quoted, and the pro Milone, the first Catilinarian and the 
second Verrine imitated, by Einhard; while the text of his 
Epistles was carefully studied by Servatus Lupus. An excep- 
tionally wide knowledge of Cicero is exhibited by the presbyter 
Hadoardus, the custos of an unidentified library in Western 
Frankland, whose excerpts in a Vatican MS of century ix include 
many passages from the De Oratore, and more than 600 from the 
philosophical works*. In the tenth century Gerbert is specially 
interested not only in the rhetorical and philosophical works but 
also in the speeches, and the preservation of these last in France 
is possibly due to his influence. In the twelfth century Abelard 
cites only four of his works, the De Inventione and Topica^ and 
the De Officiis and Paradoxa. Abelard' s pupil, John of Salisbury, 
knew many more, and (besides being acquainted with the Letters) 
was specially familiar with the philosophical treatises. Dante's 
references to Cicero are primarily to the De Officiis and Cato, 
secondarily to the Laelius and De Finibus, with one or two notices 
of the De Inventione and Paradoxa. The Laelius is one of the 
two books in which he finds consolation on the death of Beatrice. 

Cato enjoyed the reputation of being the writer of the 
widely popular Distichs, which, with 'Aesop' and 'Cato.' 
Avianus, were studied by beginners in the mediaeval ' Aesop ' 
schools. Avianus, and a prose version of Phaedrus called Romulus^ 
were the sources of many mediaeval fables. 

Seneca was famous as the author of the Naturales QuaesfioneSy 
and still more as a moralist. He is called Seneca 

Seneca 

morale by Dante I He was believed to be a Christian, 
his 'correspondence with St Paul'^ being first mentioned by 
Jerome, who accepts it as genuine and includes its supposed 
author among his scriptores ecclesiastici. Jerome's opinion was 
followed by John of Salisbury, Vincent of Beauvais and many others. 
Pliny the elder, whose ' Natural History ' exactly suited the 
encyclopaedic tastes of the Middle Ages, was widely pij^y 

read in the original, and also in the excerpts of the eider 
Solinus. In the mediaeval catalogues he is named nine times in 

1 P. Schwenke, Philologus, Suppl. v (1889). 

2 Inf. iv 141. * Haase's Seneca^ iii 476 — 481. 



152 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

France and in Germany, and only twice in Italy and England. 
But this gives a very imperfect impression of the care with which 
he was studied in England. A more convincing proof of the 
thoroughness of that study may be found in the Northumbrian 
excerpts now in Bern (viii)^, and in the fact that Robert of 
Cricklade, prior of St Frideswide at Oxford, dedicated to Henry II 
(1154-89) a Defloratio consisting of nine books of selections 
taken from one of the older class of mss, which has been recently 
recognised as sometimes supplying us with the only evidence for 
the true text I 

The younger Pliny was little known, being mentioned only 
Pliny twice in the mediaeval catalogues of Germany, 

the younger ^nd Only thrice in those of France, but his Letters 
are quoted once by Ratherius of Veronal 

The Declamatio7is (or Causae) ascribed to Quintilian are alone 
mentioned by Trebellius PoUio and by Lactantius, 
and their study lasted through the Middle Ages 
down to the time of Petrarch (1350). His genuine Insiitutio 
Oratoria was known to Servatus Lupus, to Bernard of Chartres, 
and to John of Salisbury in the twelfth century, and, in the 
thirteenth, to Vincent of Beauvais. 

Cornelius Nepos, Caesar, Sallust, Livy, Suetonius, Justin and 
Florus were much studied in the Middle Ages, 

Historians. .7 

Cornelius and a special popularity attended the historical 

^^°^ anecdotes of Valerius Maximus. 

During the Middle Ages, and even in the pages of Petrarch, 
the author of the Gallic War is constantly called 

Caesar . 

Juhus Celsus, the name of a reviser of the text 
mentioned in the subscriptiones to the mss of that work. In the 
mediaeval catalogues (except in those of France) he is one of the 
rarer authors. 

Sallust was imitated by Sulpicius Severus, and by Ambrose ; 
and the Bellum Catilinae^ was even quoted by Leo 
the Great^. IVis Jugurtha was known to the com- 

1 K. Riick, Auszuge (Munchen, 1888). 

^ K. Riick in S. Ber. Munich Acad. 3 Mai 1902, p. 195 f. 

' Migne, cxxxvi 391 {Ep. i 5, 16). 

* 37, 5, sicut in sentinam confluxerant. '^ Sermo, xvi 4. 



XVIII] LATIN HISTORIANS 1 53 

piler of the Annals of Fulda (875). Sallust was a favourite model 
with African writers of centuries ii — v. Only fragments of his 
Histories have survived. The last to study this work at first-hand 
was Augustine (d. 425); later writers borrowed their quotations 
from Priscian and Isidore. 

The great work of Livy was originally in 142 books, of which 
only 35 (viz. books i — 10 and 2 1 — 45) have survived. Li^y. 
An abridgement is mentioned by MartiaP. Part Fiorus 
of an abstract of books 48 — 55 has been found at Oxyrhynchus^ 
An epitome was the source of the collection of prodigies made by 
Julius Obsequens (vii). A summary of the contents of the lost 
books is preserved in the Periochae^ best represented by a ms at 
Heidelberg (ix), and we have direct quotations from or vague 
references to the lost books in Asconius, Tacitus, Frontinus ; in 
Plutarch and Dion Cassius ; in Servius and Censorinus ; and in 
Priscian and Cassiodorus ; also in the Bernese scholia on Lucan. 
Thus the whole of Livy appears to have survived to the end of 
the Roman Age, but the books known to the Middle Ages were 
the same as those known to ourselves, and the rumours of the 
survival of a complete Livy, which were rife in the times of 
the Renaissance, remained unconfirmed. The style of Livy was 
imitated by Einhard, and, with greater freedom, by Lambert 
of Hersfeld. 

Suetonius was successfully imitated by Einhard (830), who 
was educated at Fulda. Servatus Lupus, who could suetonius 
find no MS of Suetonius in France, borrowed the vai. Maximus. 
Fulda MS {c. 850), and at the close of the same 
century a ms of Suetonius was copied at Tours. This copy still 
exists in Paris under the name of the codex Memmianus (ix), the 
best that has come down to us. While Eric of Auxerre made 
extracts from Suetonius and Valerius Maximus at the suggestion 
of Servatus Lupus, Sedulius of Liege had already been culling 
excerpts from Valerius and Vegetius, whose work, De re militari, 
was much studied during the wars of the ninth justin. 
century. Justin was a favourite model for historical Q- Curtius 
composition. Quintus Curtius, the imitator of Livy and Seneca, 

^ xiv 190. '^ Oxyr. Papyri, iv (1904) 90 — ri6. 



154 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

was studied by Einhard and Servatus Lupus and others in the 
Middle Ages. 

In the mediaeval catalogues there is no certain trace of Tacitus. 
Reminiscences of the Germania and the Histories 

Tacitus 

have been detected in Einhard, and of the Annals 
in a single passage of Rudolf's annals of Fulda (852)^, while the 
Germania is the source of the same writer's description of the 
Saxons^, and of the epigram in Guibert of Nogent (d. 11 24): — 
modernmn hoc saeculum corrumpitur et corrumpif. Books i — vi 
of the Annals have survived only in the Medicean MS (ix), found 
in 1509 and supposed to have come from one of the monasteries 
of Northern Germany, most probably Corvey; Annals xi — xvi 
and Histories i — v, solely in another Medicean ms (xi), ' found ' in 
1427, which is written in ' Lombard' characters and was possibly 
copied at Monte Cassino. The extant mss of the Dialogus, 
Germania, and Agricola are all of century xv, with the exception 
of a MS of the Agricola and Germania discovered in 1902 in a 
private library at Jesi near Ancona, which includes eight leaves of 
the Agricola from the Hersfeld ms (x) first discovered in 1455. 

A favourable impression of the extent to which the ancient 
historians were sometimes studied is conveyed by Radulfus de 
Diceto, dean of St Paul's (d. 1202), who gives a dated list of the 
historical authorities followed in his Abbreviationes Chronicorum, 
beginning with ' Trogus Pompeius ' and Valerius Maximus, while 
he quotes, in his own work, authors such as Caesar, Suetonius, 
Solinus, Florus, Apuleius, Virgil, Lucan, Martial, Statius, Claudian 
and Vegetius. But, in the Middle Ages as a whole, we find an 
ignorance of ancient history in general, and even of the history of 
philosophy and literature. Historical studies were entangled with 
strange versions of the tale of Troy and fabulous stories of 
Alexander the Great, while the wildest legends gathered round 
the names of Aristotle and of Virgil. The fables of mythology, 

^ Pertz, Mon. i 368, super amnem quem Cornelius Tacitus [Ann. ii 9 — 17] 
scriptor rerum a Romanis in ea gente gestarum Visurgim, moderni vero 
Wisahara vocant. 

2 Mon. ii 675 {\_Germ. 4, 5, 10, 11]. 

•^ Migne, clvi 858; Tac. Germ. 19, nee corrumpere et corrumpi saeculum 
vocatur. 



\ 



XVIII] GRAMMAR .155 

again, were either denounced as diabolical inventions or forced 
to minister to edification with the aid of allegory. 

The classical learning of the Middle Ages was largely derived 
second-hand, not only from comprehensive en- 

T 1 1 r 11 r ^ Grammar 

cyclopaedias, but also from books or elegant 
extracts or florilegia ; and, even if the student never attained to 
the reading of the authors themselves, he at least went through a 
protracted course of Latin Grammar. Early in the Middle Ages 
the vast compilation of Priscian was succeeded by the minor 
manuals of Cassiodorus and Isidore, of Aldhelm and Bede. 
After the eighth century the history of Grammar falls into two 
periods, (i) from the age of Alcuin to that of Abelard (centuries 
ix — xi), and (2) from the age of Abelard to the Renaissance 
(centuries xii — xiv). In the first period the authorities mainly 
followed are Donatus and Priscian. The few examples of texts 
quoted in illustration of grammatical rules are all borrowed from 
earlier grammars. Donatus has in the meantime been converted 
into a catechism (^Donatus minor), and the most popular text-book 
is the commentary on that catechism by Remigius of Auxerre 
(d. 908). A superstitious respect for a standard grammatical text, 
an ignorance of Greek and of classical antiquity in general, a dis- 
position to reason about grammatical facts instead of studying the 
facts themselves, a preference for ecclesiastical as compared with 
classical usage, are among the main characteristics of the first 
period. All these reappear in an exaggerated form in the second ; 
but, in the latter, we find Logic intruding into the sphere of 
Grammar, asserting itself first in the early part of the twelfth 
century and still more strongly in the thirteenth. Although the 
study of Logic spread over all Europe, the general trend of 
grammatical studies in France, south of the Loire, is different 
from that north of that river and in lands under the educational 
influence of Northern France, such as England, Flanders and 
Germany. In Italy and in Southern France the study of Logic, 
combined with that of Grammar, is subordinate to that of Law ; 
and Grammar is cultivated solely for the practical purpose of 
enabling the student to speak and write Latin with correctness. 
The most popular lexicons of the Middle Ages were produced by 
Italians, namely Papias of Lombardy (1053), Hugutio of Pisa 
(d. 12 1 2), and Balbi of Genoa (1286). 



156 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

In the second period the chief authorities on Grammar are 
men of Northern Europe who have studied in Paris. Petrus 
Helias, the author of a commentary on Priscian, is a Frenchman 
who taught in Paris {c. 1142). Alexander of Villedieu, the 
composer of a hexameter poem, in 2645 lines, on (i) Accidence, 
(2) Syntax, and (3) Prosody, Accentuation and Figures of Speech, 
compiled from Priscian, Donatus, Petrus Riga, and possibly also 
from unknown grammarians of the twelfth century, is a native of 
Normandy (1200). Flanders is the native land of his con- 
temporary, Eberhard of Bethune (12 12), the author of a poem on 
Grammar, written in hexameters interspersed with elegiacs, which 
owes its name of Graecismus to the fact that it includes a chapter 
on derivations from the Greek. Flanders also claims Michael 
* Modista ' of Marbais (cent, xiii), the writer of a treatise on Moods, 
who actually invokes the authority of Aristotle for the simple 
statement that one cannot give to another that which one has not 
got oneself. Lastly, we find two Englishmen, the first of whom is 
Joannes de Garlandia {fl. 1204-52), who left behind him about 
fourteen works on Latin Grammar and cognate subjects. The 
second is Robert Kilwardby, archbishop of Canterbury (1272-9), 
who was a Master of Arts of Paris and famous as a commentator 
on Priscian. In the thirteenth century Priscian was compelled to 
share the place of honour with his commentators Hefias and 
Kilwardby, while in the fourteenth he was practically superseded 
by the modern compilations of Alexander of Villedieu and Eber- 
hard of Bethune. These last owed much of their popularity to 
the fact that they were written in Latin verse. Latin Grammar 
now ceases to be cultivated as the art of speaking and writing 
Latin with correctness. It has now become a purely speculative 
science. 

Modern Syntax owes much to the grammarians of the Middle 
Ages. In the thirteenth century a complete system of philosophical 
grammar was composed, which was destined to hold its ground 
in the schools for two centuries. The work in which this 
philosophy of grammar was first laid down was entitled De Modis 
Significandi^ and its teachers were called Modistae. It has been 
variously attributed to Thomas Aquinas or Thomas of Erfurt or 
Duns Scotus in century xiii, and even to Albert the Saxon in the 
following century. It was the theme of several commentaries, 



XVIII] MEDIAEVAL LATIN PROSE 157 

and of elementary manuals, which were denounced by the early 
humanists because of the barbarous character of their Latinity, the 
inordinate number of their definitions, and the extreme subtlety 
of their distinctions. 

The grammarians of the Middle Ages dealt with Latin as 
the living language of the Church and the Schools, and it was 
precisely because it was a living language that it departed 
further and further from the classical standard. Founded on 
the Vulgate and the Fathers, it enlarged its vocabulary by 
incorporating names of things unknown to the ancients, together 
with technical terms of the Schools, whether invented by the 
Schoolmen or the Grammarians. We owe 'instance' to the 
former^ and 'substantive' to the latter. It is open to Seneca^ 
to complain that he cannot translate to 6v except by ^uod esf, but 
Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus would have felt no such 
difficulty, and Quintilian^ would not have condemned them for 
using ens or essentia. 'If fear' (says Priscian"^) 'had prevented 
authors from using any new words, which were necessarily 
demanded either by the nature of things or by the desire of 
expressing a certain mesLning, J>erJ>efms Latiniias angustiis damnata 
mansissef. Among changes of Syntax, the commonest are the 
use of quod or quia^ instead of the Accusative with the Infinitive ; 
fore, for esse, with the Future Participle ; the Accusative for the 
Ablative Absolute ; and quatenus in the ' final ' sense of ut. The 
scholastic Latin of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries degenerates 
in the fourteenth ; and this degeneracy was doubtless accelerated 
by the uncouth style of the renderings of Aristotle which began 
to be common in the thirteenth century. 

Grammar was the portal of all the Liberal Arts; the latter 
could only be approached through the study of 
the ' parts of speech ' : — qui nescit partes, in vanum between the*^ 
tendit ad artes. But it was only one of the Seven Arts and the 

■' Authors 

Arts constituting the normal course of mediaeval 

^ * instance ', instantia a rendering of ^varaais, primarily ' an objection ' 
to one of the premisses ; in the secondary sense of ' example ', not found in 
English earlier than 1586. 2 ^p^ 58 § 7. 3 y[[[ j, 33. 

* viii 92; op. Paulsen, Gesc/i. des gelehrten Unterrichts, i 42'-*; Reichling's 
ed. of Alexander of Villedieu, iv — vi. 



158 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

Study. Combined with Logic and Rhetoric, it formed the 
trivium, with which ordinary students were generally content. 
In the case of the more advanced, the study of these three Arts 
was followed by that of the quadrivium^ consisting of Music, 
Arithmetic, Geometry and Astronomy. The late Latin couplet 
summing up the Seven Arts in two memorial lines corresponding 
to these divisions is well known : — 

* Gram loquitur ; Dia vera docet ; Rhet verba colorat ; 
Mus canit ; Ar numeral ; Ge ponderat ; AsT colit astra ', 

The Middle Ages were the battle-ground of a struggle between 
the study of the Liberal Arts, as represented in meagre manuals 
like that of Martianus Capella, and the study of the classical 
authors themselves. The study of the Arts was regarded as 
subservient not only to the study of the Scriptures, but also to 
that of theoretic Theology. But the study of the Arts, though 
subordinate to that of the Scriptures, was deemed far more 
important than that of the Authors. In comparison with the 
latter, the text-books of the Arts in general, and of Logic in 
particular, were considered safer reading : a syllogism might 
possibly involve a fallacy, but it was at any rate free from the 
taint of paganism. From the first part of the eleventh century, 
the influence of the Schoolmen made the schools of Paris the 
stronghold of the study of Logic ; and, at the beginning of the 
thirteenth, we find the earliest statute of the university of Paris 
insisting on the study of Plato and Aristotle alone, to the neglect 
of a general classical education. Meanwhile, in the twelfth, an 
interest in the Classics still survived at Chartres during the three 
years (1137-40) in which John of Salisbury was studying there, 
under one of Bernard's pupils, and also under Bernard's brother 
Theodoric, who composed {c. 1141) a great work on the Seven 
Liberal Arts, treating each of them in connexion with ancient or 
modern text-books. For Grammar he quotes Donatus and Priscian ; 
for Dialectic, Aristotle and Boethius; for Rhetoric, Cicero; for 
Music and Arithmetic, Boethius ; for Geometry, Adelard of Bath 
(the translator of Euclid), with Frontinus and Isidore ; for Astro- 
nomy, Hyginus and Ptolemy. In this connexion it is interesting to 
point out that it was between 1134 and 1150, at a time when the 
influence of Bernard was still strong in Chartres, when his im- 



XVIII] THE ARTS AND THE AUTHORS 1 59 

mediate pupils were actually teaching in its famous school, and 
while his brother Theodoric was successively ' master of the 
school' and 'chancellor', that the right-hand door- way of the 
West P>ont of the cathedral was adorned with figures of the Seven 
Arts, each of them associated with an ancient personage, Grammar 
with Priscian, Dialectic with Aristotle, Rhetoric with Cicero, 
Music with Pythagoras, Arithmetic with Nicomachus, Geometry 
with Euclid, and Astronomy with Ptolemy. 

In the history of classical studies in the Middle Ages an 
important place must be assigned to the struggle 

. Orleans 

between the schools of Pans and Orleans. Even 
when the school of Chartres, overshadowed by Paris, began to 
decline, the classical tradition lived on at Orleans till at least the 
middle of the thirteenth century. In that century the school 
acquired a new interest through its struggle with the Sorbonne. 
Orleans had neglected the study of philosophy and had insisted 
solely on the attainment of purity of style through the direct study 
of classical authors, especially Virgil and Lucan. The Authors 
were supreme at Orleans, the Arts in Parish This contrast is 
clearly shown in certain Latin poems of the twelfth and thirteenth 
centuries. It is still more vividly represented in the contemporary 
poem of Henri d'Andely on the Battle of the Seven Arts, the 
author of which was a magister and a clericus of Rouen in 1259. 
The conflict between the study of philosophy in Paris and the 
cultivation of literature, especially poetic literature, at Orleans, is 
here represented as a battle between the forces of Logic and of 
Grammar. The piece is not without interest as a precursor of 
a far better known production, Swift's Battle of the Books (1697). 
The following may serve as a brief summary : — 

Grammar unfurls her banner before the walls of Orleans, and summons all 
her forces to the fray. Around that banner gather ' Homer ' and Claudian, 
Persius, Donatus and Priscian, with many another knight and squire. They 
are soon reinforced by the chieftains of Orleans itself, when they all combine in 
a march on Paris. Logic trembles at their approach; she summons aid from 
Tournai and elsewhere, and places in a chariot three of her champions who 
are skilled in all the Liberal Arts. Rhetoric has meanwhile taken up her 

1 The Statute of 1254 prescribes certain parts of Aristotle, with Donatus, 
lioeihius and Priscian, but none of the Latin Classics. 



l60 THE MIDDLE AGES IN THE WEST [CHAP. 

stand with the Lombard knights at a fort six leagues distant from Paris, 
where her forces are joined by those of certain other Arts : — Physic, Surgery, 
Music, Astronomy, Arithmetic and Geometry, while Theology remains apart 
in Paris. Among the champions of that city are Plato and Aristotle. Donatus 
begins the battle by attacking Plato; Aristotle meanwhile attacks Priscian, 
but is thrown from his steed and continues to fight on foot against Grammar, 
i.e. Priscian (who is aided by his modern 'nephews', Alexander and Eberhard), 
when he is himself attacked, not by Priscian only, but by Virgil and Horace, 
Lucan and Statius, Persius and Juvenal, Propertius, Sedulius, Arator, Terence 
and ' Homer ' ; and would certainly have surrendered, but for the aid of Logic 
and the several impersonations of the Organon, Physics and Ethics, with 
Porphyry, Macrobius and Boethius. Dan Barbarime, though a vassal of 
Grammar, takes up arms against her, because he also holds lands in the 
domain of Logic. While the battle goes on raging, the Authors find it hard 
to hold their own, although Ovid and Seneca hasten to their aid, together with 
certain modern poets, including Jean de Hauteville and Alain de Lille. 
Logic, however, is obliged to withdraw to the fort held by Rhetoric and 
Astronomy, and is there beleaguered by the forces of Grammar, till she sends 
down an envoy who unfortunately knows so little of the rules of speech that 
he cannot even deliver his message clearly and is accordingly compelled to 
return without result. Meanwhile Astronomy flings her lightning on her foes, 
burns their tents and scatters their forces; and, since that day, the Muse of 
Poetry has buried herself out of sight, somewhere between Orleans and Blois, 
never daring to show herself in the land where her rival, Logic, is holding 
sway. But she is honoured still by the Britons and the Germans, although 
the Lombards hate her^. 'This will last' (adds the poet) 'for thirty years; 
but the next generation will once more give heed to Grammar. Meanwhile, 
I declare that any scholar who cannot construe his text is a contemptible 
person, since, in every science, whoever is not perfect in his parts of speech, 
must be deemed the merest boy '2. 

Before the year 1300 the literary school of Orleans had been 
thrown into the shade by the schools of the Seven Arts in Paris, 
and the study of Law alone survived. But the fourteenth century 
saw the fulfilmment of the poet's prophecy of a revival of learning, 
which began, not in France or Germany or England, but in 
Northern Italy, where, in the early years of that century, the 
morning-star of the Renaissance arose in the person of Petrarch. 

^ A reference to the Lombard usurers in France, who are represented as 
hating the Muse of Poetry, only because they dun poets for their dues. 

^ Quar en toute Science est gars, 

Mestres, qui n'entent Hen ses pars. 
Text in Appendix to Jubinal's ed. of Rutebeuf, iii (1875) 325—347, 



S. H. 



II 




Francesco Petrarca. 



From a MS of Petrarch, De viris illustribus (1379), ^^ the Bibliotheque 
Nationale, Paris. Reproduced (by permission) from M. Pierre de 
Nolhac's P^trarque et V Humanisme, 1892 ; ed. 2, 1907. 



BOOK VII 

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE QUEST OF THE CLASSICS 

The History of Scholarship during the six centuries that have 
elapsed since the birth of Petrarch falls into four principal periods, 
which may be distinguished by the names of the nations that have 
been most prominent in each; — (i) the Italian, (2) the French, 
(3) the English and Dutch; and (4) the German. 

The first is the age of the Revival of Learning in Jtaly, 
including the two centuries between the death of Dante in 132 1 
and the death of Leo X in 1521, and ending with the Sack of 
Rome in 1527. It begins with Petrarch (1304 — 1374) and it 
ends with the contemporaries of Erasmus (1466 — 1536). It is 
the age of the Humanists, and its principal aim is the imitation 
and reproduction of classical models of style and of life. 

The second, or French^ period is mainly marked by a many- 
sided knowledge of the subject-matter of the Classics, by in- 
dustrious erudition rather than by any special cult of the form of 
the classical languages. It begins with the foundation of the 
College de France by Francis I at the prompting of Budaeus in 
1530, and it ends with the close of the seventeenth century. 
It is the period of the great Folyhistors of France and of the 
Netherlands. Its foremost names are those of Scaliger (1540 — 
1609) and Casaubon (1559 — 1614), and Lipsius (1547 — 1606) 
and Salmasius (1588 — 1653). Of these, Casaubon ended his 
days in England, while Scaliger passed the last sixteen years of 

II — 2 



l64 ITALY [cent. XIV 

his life at Leyden, which was also one of the principal scenes of 
the learned labours of Lipsius and Salmasius. 

The third, or English and Dutch^ period begins towards the 
end of the seventeenth century with Bentley (1662 — 1742). It 
is represented in Holland by Bentley's younger contemporary and 
correspondent, Hemsterhuys (1685 — 1766), and Hemsterhuys' 
famous pupil, Ruhnken (1723 — 1798). It is the age of historical 
and literary, as well as verbal, criticism. Both were represented 
by Bentley during the half century of his literary activity from 
1691 to 1742, while, in the twenty years between 1782 and 1803, 
verbal criticism was the peculiar province of Porson (1759 — 1808), 
who was born in the same year as Friedrich Augustus Wolf. 

The fourth, or German^ period begins with Wolf (1759 — 1824), 
whose celebrated Frolegojnena appeared in 1795. Wolf is the 
founder of the systematic or encyclopaedic type of scholarship, 
embodied in the comprehensive term Alterthumswissenschaft. The 
tradition of Wolf was ably represented by his great pupil, Boeckh 
(1785 — 1867), one of the leaders of the historical and antiquarian 
school, as contrasted with the critical and grammatical school of 
Hermann (1772 — 1848). During this last period, while Germany 
remains the most productive of the nations, scholarship has 
become more and more international and cosmopolitan in its 
character. In the torch-race of the nations, the light of learning 
has been transmitted from Italy to France and England, to the 
Netherlands and Germany, to Scandinavia, and to the lands across 
the seas. 

Born in exile at Arezzo, Petrarch was taken at the age of 
Petrarch ^^^^^ ^^ Avignon, —the seat of the Papacy during 

the more than seventy years of the 'Babylonian 
Captivity', which closely corresponded to the seventy years of his 
life (1304 — 1374)- Educated mainly at Montpellier and Bologna, 
he spent sixteen years in the seclusion of Vaucluse. His early 
travels in France and Germany were followed by repeated visits 
to Rome, where, in recognition of his powers as a Latin rather 
than as an Italian poet, he was crowned with the laurel on the 
Capitol in 1341. While he was familiar with Parma, and Verona, 
and Vicenza, he hardly ever saw his ancestral city of Florence. 



CHAP. XIX] PETRARCH. BOCCACCIO l6$ 

He spent eight years in Milan, stayed for a time at Venice and 
Padua, and, twelve miles south of that place, passed the last four 
years of his life at the quiet village of Arqua. Of his numerous 
portraits, probably the most authentic is that in a Paris manuscript 
of his own Lives of Illustrious Men^ a portrait executed for an 
intimate friend in Padua less than five years after his death ^ 

The lost writings of Cicero were the constant theme of his 
eager quest. Whenever, in his travels in foreign lands, he caught 
a distant ghmpse of some secluded monastery, he hastened to the 
spot in the hope of finding the object of his search. In 1333 he 
had his first experience of the joys of discovery, when he found 
two Speeches of Cicero at Liege. One of them was copied 
promptly by his companion, and the other by himself^. The 
second of these was certainly the Speech pro Archia^. A far 
greater joy was awaiting him. The Letters of Cicero had for ages 
been lost to view; but at Verona, in 1345, he found a manuscript 
containing all the Letters to Atticus and Quintus, and the corre- 
spondence with Brutus. He immediately transcribed the whole, 
but his transcript has been unhappily lost. The copy in the 
Laurentian Library at Florence'', long supposed to be Petrarch's, 
was really transcribed, eighteen years after Petrarch's death, for a 
Latin Secretary of Florence, Coluccio Salutati, who was the first 
in modern times to possess copies of both of the great collections 
of Cicero's iMters. The Epistolae ad Familiares were completely 
unknown to Petrarch. 

It was owing to the influence of Petrarch that his great con- 
temporary, Boccaccio (1313 — 1375), began in early 

Boccaccio 

life to study the Latm Classics. Boccaccio was the 
link between Petrarch and Florence the city of Petrarch's ancestors. 
It was at Petrarch's prompting that Boccaccio learnt Greek, and 
thus became the earliest of the Greek scholars of the modern world. 
Boccaccio's principal Latin work is a small folio on Mythology, 
claiming to be founded on ancient authorities alone. It is the 
earliest modern handbook of the subject, and its allegorical 
treatment of the old legends must have given it a peculiar interest 

^ See p. 162. 

2 Epp. Rerum Senilium, xv i, p. 948. 

^ Fam. xiii 6 (ii 238 Fracassetti). ■* xlix 18. 



l66 ITALY [cent. XIV 

in the eyes of the author's contemporaries. In this work he 
assumes that he will be charged with ostentation for quoting lines 
of Greek from Homer. In reply, he glories in the fact that, alone 
of all the Tuscans, he has Greek poems at his disposal, and 
proudly claims to have been the first to offer hospitality to a 
teacher of Greek in Italy ^, the first to introduce the poems of 
Homer into Tuscany, the first of all Italians to resume the reading 
of Homer. His less important work on ' Mountains, Woods 
and Waters', written to aid the study of the Latin poets, is simply 
an alphabetical dictionary of ancient geography, founded on 
Vibius Sequester. Both of these works, however, deserve recog- 
nition as the precursors of our modern Dictionaries of Ancient 
Mythology and of Geography. 

Boccaccio had a wide knowledge of the Latin poets, and 
with his own hand he made himself a complete copy of Terence, 
which is still preserved in the Laurentian Library ^ He sees 
the importance of comparing the texts of ancient mss, but beyond 
that stage he does not advance. He differs from Petrarch in 
being uncritical. He is specially attracted to the two Latin 
historians, Livy and Tacitus. He discovered the 7h's of Ovid, 
besides Martial, Ausonius, the Appendix Vergiliana, and the 
Friapeia, the earliest copy of which is written in his own hand^. 
He was the first humanist to quote Varro, and he may have 
obtained from Monte Cassino the extant archetype of all our mss 
of that writer*. The well-known manuscript of the Histories and 
the latter part of the Annals of Tacitus, was perhaps originally 
obtained by Boccaccio from Monte Cassino. He is undoubtedly 
the first of the humanists who is at all familiar with that historian. 

Salutati (1330 — 1406), who was educated at Bologna and 
Coiuccio corresponded with Petrarch in his youth, was Latin 

Salutati secretary of Florence from 1375 to his death. 

Like Petrarch, he was a great collector of Latin mss. He eagerly 
sought for the lost books of Livy, for Pompeius Trogus, and 
for a complete copy of Curtius and of Quintilian. He obtained a 
transcript (1375) of the Verona ms of Catullus, and of Petrarch's 
Propertius, together with a Tibullus, which is still in existence. 

^ Leontius Pilatus, 1360. 

2 xxxviii 17. - 2 j^aur. xxxiii 31. '* Laur. 1 10. 



CHAP. XIX] SALUTATI. POGGIO 1 67 

He was the first to possess a copy of Cato, De Agricultural the 
elegies of Maximianus, the Aratea of Germanicus and the com- 
mentary of Pompeius on the Ars ?nawr of Donatus. On learning 
in 1389 that the two mss of Cicero's Letters, from Verona and 
Vercelli, were in Milan, he caused a copy to be made from the 
Vercelli ms, which he found, to his joy, contained the Letters 
Ad Familiar es^ unknown to Petrarch. In 1392 he received from 
Milan a copy of the Verona ms of the Letters Ad Atticum^ 
Ad Quintum Fra/rem, and the Correspondence with Brutus, the 
only MS of Cicero's Letters which Petrarch had himself discovered 
and transcribed. Thus, after the lapse of centuries, the two 
volumes of Cicero's Letters stood side by side at last in the two 
ancient mss in Milan, and in the two modern transcripts in the 
possession of Salutati in Florence. Both of the latter are now 
in the Laurentian Library \ together with the original of the 
Ad Familiar es^ the ms from Vercelli'^. 

The quest for classical manuscripts, begun by Petrarch and 
continued by Boccaccio and Salutati, was extended beyond the 
borders of Italy during the Council of Constance (14 14 — 14 18). 
That famous Council witnessed not only the death of Chrysoloras 
{c. 1350 — 1 41 5), the first great teacher of Greek in Italy, but 
also the discovery of not a few of the old Latin Classics. Fore- 
most in the quest was Poggio Bracciolini (1380 — 
1459). He had been a papal secretary since 1403, 
and attended the Council in that capacity. During the vacancy 
in the 'Apostolic See', from 24 May 1415 to 11 November 141 7, 
the papal secretary had no official duties to perform, and it was 
during this interval that his principal discoveries were made. 
These discoveries are connected with four distinct expeditions : — 
(i) to Cluni in the summer of 141 5, (2) to St Gallen in the 
summer of 141 6, (3) to St Gallen and other monasteries early in 
141 7, and (4) to Langres and other places in PVance and in 
Germany in the summer of the same year. 

(i) At Cluni, north of Macon, Poggio found an ancient ms 
of Cicero's Speeches, including the/r^ Cluentio, pro Sexto Roscio^ 
and pro Murena. Recent researches have proved that it also 



> 



^ xlix 7 {Ad Familiares) and 18 {Ad Atticmn). 
^ xlix 9. 



l68 . ITALY [cent. XV 

included the pro Milone and pro Caelio. Poggio rescued the ms 
from the risk of destruction and sent it to his friends in Florence. 
The earliest known copy was completed for Cosimo de' Medici in 
February, 141 6. 

(2) In Poggio's expedition to St Gallen in the summer of 
1 41 6, his comrades were Bartolomeo da Montepulciano, who soon 
took a prominent part in the transcription of the newly discovered 
Latin mss ; Cencio Rustici, who like Poggio and Bartolomeo, was 
a pupil of Chrysoloras, and was engaged in translations from the 
Greek; and Zomino (Sozomeno) of Pistoia, whose knowledge of 
Greek, combined with an interest in Grammar and Rhetoric, 
prompted him to collect 116 Latin and Greek mss in Constance 
and elsewhere, which he ultimately bequeathed to his native city 
(d. 1458). So eager was the quest that even the wretched con- 
dition of the roads did not prevent Poggio and Bartolomeo and 
Cencio from sallying forth from Constance, and climbing the 
steep slopes that led to St Gallen some twenty miles distant. In 
that ancient home of learning they found the abbot and the 
monks absolutely uninterested in literature, and many a precious 
MS lying amid the dust and damp and darkness of one of the 
towers of the abbey-church. Among Poggio's first discoveries 
was a complete copy of the Institutio Oratoria of Quintilian, a 
work which Petrarch had never known except in an imperfect 
and mutilated form. Poggio hastened to send the good news 
to NiccoH and Bruni in Florence, carried off the ms to Constance, 
and copied it himself in 53 days. His transcript was apparently 
still in the Medicean Library in 1495. 

At the same time Poggio discovered a ms of the Argonautica 
of Valerius Flaccus, containing books i — iv 317. He made a 
copy, which became the source of other transcripts, and has 
itself been identified with a ms now in Madrid. Another copy, 
probably made for Bartolomeo by some ignorant German scribe, 
is in the library of Queen's College, Oxford. A complete ms 
found its way into Italy at a later date {c. 148 1)\ 

Another of Poggio's finds was a ms containing the commentary 
of Asconius on five Speeches of Cicero, and that of an unknown 
scholiast on a large part of the Verrine Orations. This ms was 
1 Vat. 3277 (cent. ix). 



CHAP. XIX] POGGIO 169 

faithfully copied at Constance by Bartolomeo' and by Zominol 
Bartolomeo's transcript is now in the Laurentian Library^; that of 
Zomino, at Pistoia. It was also copied, with greater freedom in 
conjectural emendation, by Poggio, whose transcript is still pre- 
served in Madrid, in the same volume as the Valerius Flaccus 
already mentioned. A fair copy of Poggio's hasty transcript 
became the archetype of mss in the Laurentian Library^ and at 
Leyden. Poggio's free recension was followed in all editions of 
Asconius previous to that of Kiessling and Scholl, which is 
founded on the faithful transcripts of Bartolomeo and Zomino. 

Cencio, after stating that all the three mss above-mentioned 
had been transcribed, notes the discovery of a Comment of 
Priscian on a few lines of Virgil, and a copy of Vitruvius. The 
latter was not unique, as we hear of a MS at Reichenau (still 
nearer to Constance), and of another in the papal library at 
Avignon. 

(3) A second expedition to St Gallen was made amid the 
wintry snows of January, 141 7. St Gallen was not the only 
monastery visited. Bartolomeo alludes to one as 'in the heart 
of the Alps', probably Einsiedeln, and three others, doubtless 
including the celebrated Benedictine abbey of Reichenau, founded 
in 724 on an island in the Untersee, and the later abbey of 
Weingarten less than 16 miles from the northern shore of the 
Lake of Constance. At St Gallen they found a Vegetius and a 
Pompeius Festus {i.e. the compendium by Paulus Diaconus), both 
of which were transcribed by Bartolomeo. Vegetius was in the 
library of Petrarch, but * Pompeius Festus ' was practically un- 
known. The rest of the new finds were Lucretius, Manilius, 
Silius Italicus, Ammianus Marcellinus, and the grammarians 
Caper, Eutyches, and Probus. The Lucretius was discovered in 
a ' distant ' monastery where a copy was made on Poggio's behalf. 
It was probably in the summer of 141 8 that this copy was sent to 
Niccoli, who apparently kept it until 1434, making in the mean- 
time the beautifully written transcript, now in the Laurentian 
Library, which is the ancestor of a whole family of Lucretian mss. 
The "Manilius is now represented by a transcript at Madrid con- 

^ 25 July, 1416. 2 23 July, 1417. 

•* liv 5. 4 liv 4. 



I/O ITALY [cent. XV 

taining a number of readings not found in the earliest and best 
MS, that from Gembloux. Of the Punica of SiHus Italicus, a work 
unknown in the Middle Ages, copies were made for Bartolomeo 
and for Poggio, and of the four mss, on which the text now rests, 
the two in Florence' probably represent the copy made for 
Poggio, and the two others^ that made for Bartolomeo. Fulda 
was the unnamed source of the ms of books xiv to xxxi of 
Ammianus Marcellinus, which was possibly brought to Constance 
by the abbot himself. It ultimately found its way into the 
Vatican Library^. Poggio afterwards essayed in vain to obtain 
another ms of the same historian from Hersfeld^ By Probus 
(who is mentioned with the two other grammarians) is meant the 
Ars minor or Institutio Artium that bears his name. 

(4) In the summer of 141 7 Poggio discovered, probably at 
Langres on the Marne, the/r<? Caecina; and, in unnamed monas- 
teries of France or Germany, seven other speeches, namely the 
three de lege agraria^ the two entitled pro Rabirio^ with the pro 
Roscio Comoedo, and the speech in Fisonem. At Constance, 
early in 1418, Poggio was still in possession of his transcript of 
these speeches, but he afterwards sent it to Venice, where it was 
kept by Francesco Barbaro until 1436. It is only through this 
transcript, and its copies, that the text of the speech pro Roscio 
Comoedo and the two speeches pro Rabirio has descended to 
posterity, while the transcripts of the Chini ms, discovered by 
Poggio in his first expedition, are the sole authority for the 
pro Murena and the pro Sexto Roscio. It was probably on the 
fourth expedition that he discovered the Silvae of Statius, and 
also a copy of Columella ■\ 

In the latter half of 142 1 (while Poggio was in England) 
an important discovery was made near Milan. In the cathedral 

^ L {Laur. xxxvii 16) and F. 

2 O {Oxon. Coll. Regin.) and V {Vat. 1652). 

^ No. 1873, cent. x. 

■* The text of the Hersfeld ms was published in 1533, and the MS lost, wath 
the exception of six leaves found at Marburg in 1876. 

'^ Cp. in general Sabbadini, Le Scoperte del Codici Latini e Greet ne' secoli 
xiv e XV (Firenze, 1905) ; A. C. Clark, Anecdota Oxoniensia, parts x and xi 
(Oxford, 1905-9); and Ernst Walser, Poggius Floretitihus, Leben und Werke 
(Berlin, 191 4). 



CHAP. XIX] POGGIO 171 

church of Lodi, the bishop, Gerardo Landriani, was engaged in 
searching for some ancient charters in a chest that had long 
remained unopened, when he lighted on a ms of Cicero^ written 
in old ' Lombardic ' characters, including a complete copy of the 
De Oratore, the Brutus, and the Orator. The Brutus was abso- 
lutely new, while the De Oratore and the Orator had hitherto been 
known only through imperfect and mutilated mss. The ms was 
sent to Gasparino Barzizza, then in Milan, who appropriated it, and 
sent in return a transcript of the De Oratore made by Cosimo 
Raimondi of Cremona. Subsequently, Gasparino combined the 
newly discovered portions with those already known, and his 
recension of the whole was soon copied in many parts of Italy. In 
1422, the Brutus was transcribed with wonderful rapidity by Flavio 
Biondo of Forli, who happened to be in Milan at the time, and 
this copy, which is preserved in the Vatican, was sent successively 
to Verona and Venice, and transcribed in various parts of Italy. 
A readable recension of the Brutus was meanwhile produced at 
Verona by Guarino. A transcript of the Brutus and Orator was 
forwarded to Niccoli from Milan in 1422, and is still in Florence. 
Further, a ms of the De Oratore and Orator, revised by Gasparino, 
found its way to Heidelberg and is now in the Vatican, together 
with a copy of all three treatises transcribed in 1422 and cor- 
rected from the original at Pavia in April 1425. The original 
was lost to view after 1428. In the meantime Poggio, while he 
was returning from England, where he failed to find any classical 
MSS, had lighted on an imperfect Petronius at Cologne and sent 
a copy to Niccoli, who kept it for seven years. From Paris he 
sent Niccoli a transcript of the Lexicon of Nonius Marcellus. 
From time to time there were rumours of a complete Livy in 
some distant library, but these rumours led to no result. 

We have already seen that the first of the humanists, who had 
any knowledge of Tacitus, was Boccaccio, who may possibly have 
discovered at Monte Cassino the Medicean MS of the Histories 
and the later books of the Arifials. The other Medicean ms, 
that of Annals i-vi, which probably came from Corvey, did not 
reach Italy until shortly before 1509. In 1455, Enoch of Ascoli, 
the emissary of Leo X, acquired the Hersfeld ms of the Agricola, 
Germania, and Dialogus, and eight leaves of this ms have been 



\J2 ITALY [cent. XV 

happily identified in the ms of the Agricola found at Jesi near 
Ancona in 1902. At the same time he acquired all that remains 
of Suetonius de grainmaticis et rhetoribus, with Apicius, and the 
tragedy of Orestes, and Porphyrio's commentary on Horace. 

In 1427, Lamola found at Milan a famous ms of Celsus\ In 
1429, Nicolaus of Trier, better known as Nicolaus Cusanus, sent 
Poggio a list of mss, including not only a complete Gellius and 
Curtius, but also the titles of twenty plays of Plautus, most of 
which were then unknown. Poggio urged the Cardinal Orsini to 
lose no time in securing the Plautus, and, by the end of the year, 
Nicolaus had arrived in Rome bringing with him the ms of four^ 
of the eight known plays and of twelve that were new, which is 
still one of the treasures of the Vatican Library ^ 

In 1429 the work of Frontinus on the Roman aqueducts 
was found by Poggio at Monte Cassino; it was carried off to 
Rome, copied and returned ^ In the quest of mss others (such 
as Ambrogio Traversari), who had equal or greater advantages, 
were less successful than Poggio. The only Classic discovered 
by Traversari was Cornelius Nepos, found in 1434 in the library 
of Hermolaus Barbarus at Padua. 

During the Council of Basel, the Sicilian Aurispa discovered 
at Mainz in 1433 the Commentary of Donatus on Terence, as 
well as the Latin Fanegyrici, beginning with Pliny's Panegyric on 
Trajan. In the century that elapsed between Petrarch's discovery 
of Cicero pro Archia (1333), and Aurispa's discovery of Pliny's 
Panegyric (1433), the principal accessions to the Latin Classics 
had been made. 

In France, in 1 501-4, the exiled Latin poet Sannazaro of 
Naples discovered new poems of the Latin Anthology, as well as 
the Halieuticon of Ovid, and the Cynegeticon of Grattius and of 
Nemesianus. 

For the thirty years from 1434 to 1464 Cosimo de' Medici 

^ Laur. Ixxiii i. 

^ Amphitruo, Asinaria, Aulidaria, and half of the Captivi. The other 
four known plays were, Casina, Curculio, Cistellaria and Epidicus. These 
survive in the Palatine mss B and C, and the Ambrosian E. 

=* Ritschl's D (c. xii). 

^ Complete /ari-w/;/^, ed. C. Hcrschel (Boston, 1899). 



CHAP. XIX] NICCOLI. BRUNI. MARSUPPINI 1/3 

was the great patron of copyists and scholars of every grade, the 
inspirer of an important translation of Plato, and the founder of 
the Library of San Marco. The circle of Cosimo 

. . . Niccoli 

included Niccol6 de' Niccoli (1363 — 1437), the 
copyist whose 800 mss finally found a home in the Medicean 
Library. The most important of those copied by himself were 
his Lucretius and his Plautus. He was much more than a copyist. 
He collated mss, revised and corrected the text, divided it into 
paragraphs, added headlines, and laid the foundations of textual 
criticism. He visited Verona and Venice in quest of mss, 
directed the agents of the Medici in acquiring mss in foreign 
lands, was the valued correspondent of the most eager scholars in 
Italy, and the centre of an enthusiastic literary circle in Florence. 

Leonardo Bruni (1369 — 1444), the Latin secretary of Florence 
from 1427 to his death, confessed that, as a student, 
he owed everything to Niccoli. His reputation rests 
on his translations from the Greek. Beginning with the work of 
Basil on the profit to be derived from pagan literature (1405), he 
subsequently translated the Speech of Demosthenes On the 
Chersonesus (1406), that of Aeschines Against Ctesiphon and 
Demosthenes De Corona^ with the Third Olynthiac, a selection 
from Plutarch's Lives^ with Xenophon's Hieron. These were 
followed by renderings of the Phaedo^ Gorgias, Crito, Apology^ 
Phaedrus (1423) and Letters of Plato, which were less highly 
appreciated than his translations of the Oeconomics, Ethics and 
Politics of Aristotle. His other works included versions of 
Xenophon's Hellenica^ Polybius and Procopius. 

Bruni's successor as Latin secretary, Carlo Marsuppini {c. 1399 
— 1453) was considered nearly equal to Bruni in 

, . r T • 1 • 1 • Marsuppini 

his mastery of Latm prose, and superior to him 

in verse. It was in verse that he produced his rendering of the 

Batrachomyomachia, and of the first book of the Iliad. 

Politian (1454 — 1494) was a keen investigator of all the 
ancient mss that came within his reach in Florence or elsewhere \ 
It was under the auspices of his rival Merula at Milan that 
Merula's secretary discovered the mss at Bobbio in 1493. He 
probably brought to Milan, for the purposes of his proposed 

I p. 190 infra. 



174 ITALY [cent. XV 

editions, the treatise of Terentianus Maurus on the metres, and 
that of Fortunatianus on the Odes of Horace; the works of 
VeHus Longus and Adamantius, on orthography, with the Catholica 
of Probus, and the Elegantiae of Fronto. The Terentianus alone 
was actually published. The satire of Sulpicia, first printed in 
1498, came from Bobbio. Among the mss which Inghirami, the 
librarian of the Vatican, removed to Rome (1496), was that of the 
Auctores Gromatici, now at Wolfenbiittel. Aulo Giano Parrasio 
(1470 — 1534), one of the best scholars of his time, during his 
stay in Milan (1499 — 1506) obtained from Bobbio the ms of 
Charisius, and transcripts of the poems of Dracontius, besides 
discovering, probably in one of the monasteries of Milan, the 
hymns of Sedulius and Prudentius. 

About 1500, Fra Giocondo of Verona discovered in Paris the 
Correspondence of Trajan and the younger Pliny. In 15 15, 
Velleius Paterculus was found by Beatus Rhenanus at the abbey 
of Murbach; and, in 1527, the first five books of the fifth decade 
of Livy were brought to light by Grynaeus from the abbey of 
Lorsch. 

The Greek mss, which had found their way into Italy before 
the coming of Chrysoloras, had been few indeed : — one or two 
copies of Homer, parts of Plato and Aristotle^, and a few of the 
Greek Fathers. It was a pupil of Chrysoloras, Guarino of Verona, 
who, in 1408, returned to Italy from the East with more than 
50 MSS. Foremost among the discoverers of Greek 

Aurispa 

MSS was the Sicilian Aurispa, who became for Greek 
literature what Poggio was for Latin. In 141 7 he brought from 
the East a few good mss, a Sophocles, a Euripides, and a Thucy- 
dides. Among those that he possessed in 1421, was the Com- 
mentum Aristarchi in Homerum^ which has been identified as the 
celebrated codex Venetus A of the Iliad. In 1422-3 he was in 
Constantinople, where he gathered from various parts of the 
Greek world a vast number of mss. When he reached Venice, 
late in 1423, he brought with him a whole Hbrary of no less than 
238 mss, almost entirely consisting of the Greek classics. Florence 
was the goal of his hopes, and his most valued correspondents in 
Florence were Niccoli and Traversari. The solitary ms which he 
sent to Niccoli from Constantinople was one of the tenth century 



CHAP. XIX] AURISPA. FILELFO. CIRIACO 1/5 

containing seven plays of Sophocles, six of Aeschylus, and the 
Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius, now famous as the Laurentian 
MS of those authors. For his friends in Florence he wrote out 
from memory a short list of his mss which included the Homeric 
Hymns and Pindar and Aristophanes^ nearly all Demosthenes, 
the whole of Plato and Xenophon, with Diodorus, Strabo, Arrian, 
Lucian, Athenaeus, Dion Cassius, and Plutarch. 

In 1427 a smaller number of valuable Greek mss (including at 
least forty authors, such as Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, 

^ . 7 , J Filelfo 

Euripides and Theocritus, as well as Herodotus, 
Thucydides and Xenophon) was brought to Venice by Francesco 
Filelfo (1398 — 1 481) who had spent seven years as secretary to 
the Venetian Legation at Constantinople. On his return to 
Italy, he taught in Venice and Bologna, and in Florence, Milan, 
and Rome. His translations included Xenophon's Cyropaedia, 
Agesilaus, and Lacedaemoniorum Respublica^ the Rhetoric of 
Aristotle, two Speeches of Lysias, and four of Plutarch's Lives. 
Of the Greek immigrants four were specially famous as collectors 
of MSS. In 1468, Bessarion, the discoverer of Quintus Smyrnaeus, 
presented his collection to the republic of Venice. Andronicus 
Callistus sold as many as six cases of mss at Milan in 1476. 
Constantine Lascaris bequeathed 76 mss to Messina, which are 
now in Madrid. Lastly, Janus Lascaris paid two visits to the 
East in quest of Greek mss on behalf of Lorenzo de' Medici, 
returning on the second occasion with as many as 200 mss from 
Mount Athos (1492). 

The age of discovery saw the awakening of a new interest in 
the intelligent study of classical archaeology. The leading repre- 
sentative of archaeolosfical research was Ciriaco 

° Ciriaco 

de' Pizzicolli of Ancona {c. 1391 — c. 1450). He 
was the Schliemann of his time. A self-taught student, he spent 
all his hfe in travelling, not only for the purposes of trade, but 
also for the collection of objects of archaeological interest. At 
his birthplace of Ancona, he began his archaeological career by 
making a careful copy of the inscription on the triumphal arch 
of Trajan. He continued that work in Rome (1424), where he 
first became conscious of the historic value of the evidence from 
inscriptions. In the next year he learnt Greek at Constantinople, 



176 ITALY [CENT. XV 

Studied Homer and Hesiod, purchased a fine copy of Ptolemy at 
Adrianople, and mss of Homer and Euripides in Cyprus, and 
even journeyed as far as Damascus. After returning to Rome 
(c. 1433), he visited Florence for the first time, taking a peculiar 
pleasure in the mss and antiquities collected by his friend, Niccoli. 
Between 1435 and 1447 he travelled in many parts of Greece, 
including the islands. In Thasos he bought a MS of Plutarch's 
Moralia. He also obtained scholia on the Iliad^ and mss of 
Herodotus, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates and Galen. The latest 
incidents in his foreign travels were his visit to the ruins at 
Ephesus (1447). A few years later we find him at Cremona, 
where he died about 1450. His name is now known mainly in 
connexion with his collections of inscriptions. They originally 
formed three vast volumes, but only fragmentary portions have 
been preserved. He is wanting in critical faculty, and much of 
his learning is ill digested. But he was an honest man, and the 
doubts once cast on the accuracy of his transcripts have been 
triumphantly dispelled. 

Among his contemporaries was Flavio Biondo of Forli 
Fiavio (1388 — 1463), who, in 1422, was the first to make 

Biondo ^ copy of the newly discovered Brutus of Cicero. 

He also deserves a place among the founders of Classical Archae- 
ology. He was the author of four great works on the Antiquities 
and the History of Rome and Italy. His Roma Triumphans 
gives a full account of the religious, constitutional, and military 
Antiquities of Rome ; his Roma Instaurata describes the city of 
Rome, and aims at the restoration of its ancient monuments; 
his Italia Illustrata deals with the topography and antiquities of 
the whole of Italy; and, lastly, the title of the Historiarmn ab 
Inclinatione Romani Imperii Decades obviously anticipates that 
of the History of the Decline and Fall of the Romaii Empire. 

Ciriaco's example was happily followed by the versatile and 
accomplished Felix Felicianus of Verona, whose collection of 
inscriptions was appropriately dedicated in 1463 to the most 
antiquarian of artists, Mantegna. The influence of Ciriaco may 
also be traced in the sketchbooks of Giuliano da San Gallo, and 
in the manuscript collections of Fra Giovanni del Giocondo of 
Verona, His collection of Roman inscriptions was published in 



CHAP. XIX] FLAVIO BIONDO. GUARINO 177 

Rome by Mazocchi in 152 1. The villas of the ancients were 
elucidated in his edition of Pliny's Letters (1508), the first modern 
plan of a Roman house appeared in his Vitruvius (151 1), and the 
earliest of modern drawings of Caesar's bridge across the Rhine 
in his Caesar (15 13). In the same year Andrea Fulvio presented 
to Leo X a description of the antiquities of Rome in Latin verse. 
This archaeological poet was the learned adviser of Raphael, who 
studied an Italian translation of Vitruvius specially made for his 
own use by Marco Fabio Calvi of Ravenna, and in 15 18-9, 
shortly before his death, proposed to Leo X a scheme for an 
illustrated plan of Rome divided into the ancient 'regions'. The 
scheme bore fruit in the prose version of the Antiquiiates of 
Fulvio, and in the Plan of Rome by Calvi, both published in the 
year of the ruin of Rome, the fatal 1527. 

Guarino of Verona (1374 — 1460) spent the last thirty years of 
his long life as a teacher at Ferrara. His transla- 

. , . Guarino 

tions mcluded three of the minor works of Lucian, 
the Evagoras and Nicocles of Isocrates, the whole of Strabo, and 
some fifteen of Plutarch's Lives. He was an eager collector of 
Latin mss. At Venice in 14 19 he discovered a MS of Pliny's 
Epistles containing about 124 Letters in addition to the 100 
already known, and several copies of this MS were made before it 
was lost. When the complete text of the De Oratore, Brutus and 
Orator of Cicero was discovered at Lodi (1422), he promptly 
obtained a transcript of all three treatises. A ms of Celsus reached 
him at Bologna in 1426, and another was discovered by his friend 
Lamola at Milan in the following year. At Ferrara in 1432 he 
made himself an amended copy of the famous codex Ursinianus of 
Plautus. He was also concerned in the recension of Cicero's 
Speeches^ and of Caesar, as well as both the Plinies, and Gellius 
and Servius. His Italian pupils included a precocious translator 
from the Greek, Francesco Barbaro (1398 — 1454)) who collected, 
collated, and emended Greek mss, obtaining an Iliad from Crete, 
as well as an Odyssey and the Batrachomyomachia. 

Vittorino da Feltre (1378— 1446), a student of Padua, and a 
teacher in Padua and Venice, spent the last twenty- vittorino 
two years of his life at Mantua. He there estab- 

s. H. 12 



178 ITALY [cent. XV 

lished ' the first great school of the Renaissance ', ' the great typical 
school of the Humanities '. The impetus given to the enthusiasm 
and to the educational method of the humanists by the produc- 
tion of Guarino's rendering of Plutarch's treatise On Education in 
141 1, and by the discovery of the complete Quintilian in 1416, 
and the De Oratore, Brutus and Orator in 1422, was fully felt 
by Vittorino, in whom a familiarity with the ' educational apparatus 
of classical literature ' was combined with ' the spirit of the 
Christian life' and 'the Greek passion for bodily culture'. His 
famous pupils included Federigo, the soldier and scholar, who 
founded the celebrated library in his ducal palace at Urbino ; a 
papal legate, Perotti, the author of the first large Latin Grammar; 
Ognibene da Lonigo {Leonicenus), an able teacher at Vicenza, 
whose smaller Grammar was widely used ; and Giovanni Andrea 
de' Bussi, the future bishop of Aleria, who had the unique dis- 
tinction of having been, in 1465 to 147 1, the editor of the first 
printed editions of as many as eight works of the Latin Classics : — 
Caesar, Gellius, Livy, Lucan, Virgil, Silius, and the Letters and 
Speeches of Cicero \ 

^ Cp. in general W. H. Woodward, Vittorino da Feltre, Cambridge, 1897, 
and Creighton's Historical Essays and Reviews, 107 — 134. 



12- 




Q . 



CHAPTER XX 

THE EARLIER GREEK IMMIGRANTS 

The Council of Florence (1439) failed in its avowed purpose 
of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches, but it succeeded in the 
unintended result of drawing the scholars of the East and the West 
nearer to one another. The attention of the leading spirits in 
Florence was called to a certain form of Neo-Platonism by the 
singular personality of an aged representative of the 
Greeks, Georgios Gemistos, a native of Constanti- piethon 
nople {c. 135 6 — 1450). Estranged from Christianity 
in his youth, he had spent a large part of his life near the site of 
the ancient Sparta, where he elaborated a singular philosophic 
system of a Neo-Platonic type. He had already attained the age 
of eighty-three, when, in spite of his pagan proclivities, he found 
himself in the peculiar position of having been selected, on 
patriotic grounds, as one of the six champions of the Greek 
Church at the Council of Florence. But ' instead of attending 
the Council, he poured forth his Platonic lore, and uttered dark 
sentences to a circle of eager Florentines. Cosimo de' Medici 
was delighted with him, and hailed him as a second Plato. 
Gemistos modestly refused the title, but playfully added to his 
name, Gemistos, the equivalent, Piethon, which approached more 
nearly to his master's name'\ 'The lively style of Piethon 
inspired Cosimo with such enthusiasm that his lofty mind im- 
mediately conceived the thought of forming an Academy, as soon 
as a favourable moment should be found '. Such is the language 
used many years later by Marsilio Ficino^, who was only six years 
of age when he was selected by Cosimo to be the future translator 

^ Creighton's History of the Papacy, iv 41 f, ed. 1901. 
2 Preface to Plotinus (1492). 



l82 - ITALY [CENT. XV 

and expounder of Plato. Before leaving Florence, Plethon 
produced a treatise on the points of difference between Plato 
and Aristotle, and thus stimulated the Italian humanists to a 
closer study of both. The general result was an increased ap- 
preciation of the importance of Plato, and a material diminution 
of the authority of Aristotle, which had remained unchallenged in 
Western Europe throughout the Middle Ages. 

Among the Greeks assembled at the Council was Plethon's 
Bessarion former pupil, Bessarion (1395 or 1403— 1472). He 

afterwards translated into Latin the Memorabilia of 
Xenophon, and the Metaphysics of Aristotle. As a Cardinal 
resident in Rome, he was conspicuous as the great patron of all 
the learned Greeks, who flocked to Italy, both before the fall of 
Constantinople, and after that event. 

Of the Greeks who arrived before its fall, the foremost (apart 
from Bessarion) were Theodorus Gaza, Georgius Trapezuntius, 

Joannes Argyropulos, and Demetrius Chalcondyles. 
^^Ga^r"^ The first of these, Theodorus Gaza {c. 1400— 1475), 

fled from his native city of Thessalonica before its 
capture by the Turks in 1430. He ranged himself on the side of 
Aristotle in the controversy raised by Plethon during the Council 
of Florence. He became the first professor of Greek at Ferrara, 
where he lectured on Demosthenes in 1448, counting among his 
pupils the German humanist, Rudolphus Agricola. In 145 1 he 
was invited by Nicolas V to take part in the papal scheme for 
translating the principal Greek Classics. His numerous transla- 
tions included the Mechanical Problems and De Animalibus of 
Aristotle, and the De Plantis of Theophrastus as well as Aelian's 
Tactics, He produced a Greek rendering of Cicero De Amicitia 
and De Senectute. He also took part in the editio prificeps of 
Gellius (1469). His Greek Grammar, the first of modern manuals 
to include Syntax, was used as a text-book by Budaeus in Paris, 
and by Erasmus in Cambridge. 

The second of the early immigrants, Georgius Trapezuntius 

(1395 — 1484), anative of Crete, who finally reached 
Georgius Venice about 14^0, became one of the papal secre- 

Trapezuntius to ' r i 

taries, and died at the age of nearly ninety. Like 
Theodorus Gaza, he took the side of Aristotle in the controversy 



CHAP. XX] THE EARLIER GREEK IMMIGRANTS 1 83 

raised by Plethon. His numerous translations included the 
Rhetoric and Problems of Aristotle, and the Laws and Parmeiiides 
of Plato, but they are more verbose and less felicitous than those 
of Theodorus Gaza. 

The third, Argyropulos of Constantinople (14 16 — 1486), was 
in Padua as early as 144 1. At Florence he taught 
Greek under the patronage of the Medici for fifteen Argyropu^ios 
years, leaving in 1471 for Rome, where he died in 
i486. He was highly esteemed as a translator of Aristotle, and 
his versions of the Ethics^ Politics^ Oeconomics, De Anima and De 
Caelo have all been printed. At Florence, his Greek lectures were 
attended by Politian. At Rome, in 1482, his lectures on 
Thucydides were heard by Reuchlin, afterwards eminent among 
the humanists of Germany. 

Lastly, Demetrius Chalcondyles of Athens (1424 — 15 n) 
reached Rome in 1447, and taught Greek at Perugia, 
Padua, Florence, and Milan. At Padua (1463-71) chaiTondyfes 
he was the first teacher of Greek who received a 
fixed stipend in any of the universities of Europe. The most 
important event of his life as lecturer for twenty years in Florence 
(147 1-9 1 ) was his preparation of the editio priticeps of Homer, 
printed at Florence in 1488 for Bernardo and Neri Nerli, the first 
great work that was printed in Greek. After the death of Lorenzo 
in 1492, Demetrius withdrew to Milan for the last nineteen years 
of his life. It was there that, about 1493, he printed his Erotemata^ 
a catechism of grammar aiming at a greater simplicity than that of 
Theodorus, which is, however, preferred by Erasmus. It was 
there also that he produced the editio pr in ceps oi Isocrates (1493), 
and of Suidas (1499)- 

Of the five Greeks already mentioned, three, namely Georgius 
Trapezuntius, Theodorus Gaza, and Bessarion, took 

^ . Nicolas V 

part in the great scheme of Pope Nicolas V for the 
translation of the principal Greek prose authors into Latin. The 
future Pope, Tommaso Parentucelli of Sarzana (1397 — 1455), ^^^ 
was born at Pisa, was a student at Bologna, and, in the literary 
circle that surrounded Cosimo de' Medici in Florence, distinguished 
himself by his skill as a copyist, and by his wide knowledge of 
Mss. As Pope from 1447 to 1455, he gathered Mssfrom all lands, 



1 84 ITALY [CENT. XV 

and became famous for ever as the founder of the collection of 
classical mss now preserved in the Vatican Library. In his scheme 
, for translating the Greek Classics into Latin, the author entrusted 
to the Greeks was Aristotle. The Rhetoric and De Animalibus 
were translated by Georgius Trapezuntius, who also undertook the 
Laws of Plato. An improved version of the De Animalibus was 
produced by Theodorus Gaza, who also rendered the Mechanical 
Froblefus, while the Metaphysics was assigned to Bessarion. The 
Nicofftachean and Eiidemian Ethics were undertaken by Gregorio 
of Citta di Castello, and Theophrastus, De Flantis, by Gaza. 

Turning to the Italian translators, we find Thucydides and 
nearly the whole of Herodotus, as well as Demosthenes De 
Corona, rendered by Valla ; Xenophon's Oeconomics by Lapo 
da Castiglionchio ; the five extant books of Polybius (with 
Epictetus) by Perotti ; the first five books of Diodorus Siculus by 
Poggio ; the whole of Strabo by Guarino ; and Appian by Piero 
Candido Decembrio. The translation of the Iliad into Latin 
verse was assigned to Marsuppini, who finished the first book 
only. The scheme, as a whole, was concerned with writers of 
prose alone. Most of the scholars, who are here enumerated, 
are mentioned elsewhere, but three of them. Valla, Decembrio, 
and Perotti, may be appropriately noticed at the present point. 
The first of these was the only one of the translators who was 
born and died in Rome; the second was one of the papal 
secretaries ; and the third was associated with Bologna and Rome 
more than with any other seat of learning. 

Laurentius Valla (1407 — 1457) learnt his Greek from Aurispa 
and from the papal secretary, Rinucci, while he owed 
his proficiency in Latin prose to Leonardo Bruni. 
Leaving Rome at the age of 24, he visited various places in the 
north of Italy, and subsequently entered the service of Alfonso, 
king of Aragon and Sicily. In 1450 he became professor of 
Rhetoric in Rome, where he died in 1457. In early life Valla 
had been attracted to the study of Quintilian, whom he deliberately 
preferred to Cicero. In his treatise on Dialectic, he denounces 
the mediaeval Aristotelians, Avicenna and Averroes, and attacks 
the philosophers of his time for their belief in the infallibility of 
Aristotle. He is also one of the founders of historical criticism. 



CHAP. XX] VALLA. DECEMBRIO. PEROTTI 1 85 

His investigation of the sources of Canon Law had drawn his 
attention to the ' decree of Gratian ', and in particular to the 
interpolated passage alleging that the emperor Constantine had 
presented Pope Sylvester I with his own diadem, and had assigned 
to the Pope and his successors, not only the Lateran palace, but 
also Rome itself and all the provinces of Italy and of the West. 
Valla attacks this decree on legal, linguistic, political, and 
historical grounds, showing inter alia that its style and contents 
are inconsistent with the date to which it purports to belong, and 
that the ancient mss of the legend of St Sylvester, on which the 
decree professes to rely, say nothing of the alleged ' Donation.' 
In the domain of pure scholarship Valla's reputation mainly rests 
on his widely diffused work, 'On the Elegancies of the Latin 
language ', the result of many years of labour. It was printed at 
Venice in 1471, passed through 59 editions between that year and 
1536, and, even at the present day, the greater part of its contents 
is by no means out of date. 

The translation of Appian had been entrusted to Pier Candido 
Decembrio (1399 — 1477), who lived in Rome, Milan oecembrio 
and in Ferrara and Naples. His father's rendering 
of Plato's Republic was completed by himself in 1440. In the 
same year he produced a literal translation of Iliad i — iv, x. 

The free and flowing, though far from faithful rendering of 
Polybius, executed by Perotti (1430 — 1480), was perotti 

highly appreciated by Nicolas. At Bologna he 
produced, in his Metrica^ the first modern treatise on Latin 
Prosody (1453). His Rudimenta Grammatices, the first modern 
Latin Grammar (1468), printed as a magnificent folio in 14735 is 
described by Erasmus as ' the most complete manual extant in his 
day ". His learned and discursive commentary on the Spedacula 
and the first book of Martial was published by his nephew 
nine years after his death **, including (in the later issues of 
1513-26) his editions of Varro, Festus, and Nonius Marcellus. 
As a Greek scholar and a pupil of Bessarion, Perotti took the side 

1 i 521 c. 

2 Cornucopiae sive Latinae linguae coinmentariontm opus, folio, 1396 pp., 
Ven. 1489, and at least five later edd. The commentary on Martial fills 1000 
folio pages, but is not named in the title- 



1 86 ITALY [cent. XV 

of Plato in one of the latest phases of the long controversy 
respecting Plato and Aristotle. 

Campano {c. 1427 — 1477), the Campanian shepherd boy, 
became a pupil of Valla in Naples. In or about 

Campano ^ '■ 

the year 1470, he printed a series of seven folio 
volumes, including the whole of Livy, Quintilian and Suetonius, 
with the Philippics of Cicero, and a Latin translation of all the 
Lives of Plutarch. 



THE LATER GREEK IMMIGRANTS 

The fall of Constantinople was once regarded as the cause of 
the Revival of Greek Learning in Italy. But, exactly a century 
before that event, Petrarch possessed a MS of Homer and of 
Plato ; the whole of Homer was translated into Latin for the use 
of Petrarch and Boccaccio ; and Boccaccio learnt Greek. Half a 
century before the fall, Greek was being taught in Florence by 
Chrysoloras ; and the principal Greek prose authors had been 
translated, and at least five of the foremost of the Greek refugees 
had reached Italy, before the overthrow of the doomed city. 

The most prominent of the Greeks, who found their way to 
Italy after the fall of Constantinople, were Michael Apostolius, 
Andronicus Callistus, Constantine and Janus Lascaris, Marcus 
Musurus, and Zacharias Callierges. 

The Greeks in Rome continued the controversy as to the 
respective merits of Plato and Aristotle, begun at 
Aristotle*" Florence by Plethon in 1439. Gaza's preference 
for Aristotle brought down upon him (in 1460-1) 
an ill-mannered and ill-tempered attack on the part of one of 
Bessarion's proteges, Michael Apostolius, who had reached Rome 
in 1445. Aristotle was defended, and Apostolius refuted, in a 
sensible and moderate manner by a Greek of better breeding 
named Andronicus Callistus (1462). 

A more notable name is that of Constantine Lascaris of Con- 
stantinople (1434 — 1 501)} a pupil of Argyropulos. 

Constantine y-r • ^ r i i i 

Lascaris "~^ ^^^ nineteen years of age when he was made a 

prisoner by the Turks on the fall of his native city. 

During the greater part of the next seven years he probably stayed 



CHAP. XX] THE LATER GREEK IMMIGRANTS 1 87 

at Corfu, but he found time for a visit to Rhodes, where he copied 
or acquired certain mss now at Madrid. From 1460 to 1465 he 
was transcribing mss and teaching Greek in Milan. For the last 
thirty-five years of his life he lived at Messina. He left his mss 
to Messina, then under the rule of Castile. In 171 2 they were 
placed in the National Library founded in that year in Madrid. 
Among them (dated Messina, 1496) is his own copy of Quintus 
Smyrnaeus — the poet once known as ' Quintus Calaber ', simply 
because the manuscript of his epic was first found, by Bessarion, 
in 'Calabria '. The small Greek Grammar of Constantine I.ascaris, 
published at Milan in 1476, is the first book printed in Greek. 

The same famous surname was borne by Janus Lascaris 
(1445 — 1535), who, on the fall of Constantinople, 
was taken to the Peloponnesus and to Crete. On "^^"Lascaris 
his subsequent arrival in Venice, he was sent, at 
the charges of Bessarion, to learn Latin at Padua. On the death 
of his Greek patron, he was welcomed by Lorenzo in Florence, 
where he lectured on Thucydides and Demosthenes, and on 
Sophocles and the Greek Anthology. As the emissary of Lorenzo, 
he went twice to the East in quest of mss. He recovered as many 
as 200, but, before his second return, his great Florentine patron 
had passed away (1492). On the fall of the Medici, he entered 
the service of France, and was the French envoy at Venice from 
1503 to 1508. When the second son of Lorenzo became Pope 
as Leo X, Janus Lascaris was at once invited to Rome and set 
over a Greek College. One of his colleagues was Musurus, and 
among his pupils was Matthaeus Devarius of Corfu {c. 1500 — 
1570), the future editor of the editio princeps of Eustathius 
(1542-50). In 1518 Lascaris returned to France, where he aided 
Francis I in founding the Royal Library at Fontainebleau. 
Lascaris returned to Rome on the accession of the second 
Medicean Pope, in 1523, and again in 1534. His reputation rests 
on his five editiofies principesy all of them printed in Florence, in 
Greek capitals with accents : namely, four plays of Euripides, 
Callimachus, Apollonius Rhodius, the Greek Anthology, and 
Lucian (1494-6). In Rome he produced at the Greek press on 
the Quirinal the ancient scholia on the Iliad and on Sophocles 
(1517-8). 



1 88 ITALY [CENT. XV f 

Among his pupils in Florence was the Cretan Musurus 
{c. 1470 — 15 1 7). In Venice, from 1498 to 15 15, he 
Musurus ^ aided Aldus Manutius in the preparation of the 

earliest printed editions of Aristophanes, Euripides, 
Plato, Athenaeus, Hesychius, and Pausanias. He was the editor 
of the '' Etymologicum Magnuni\ published at Venice in 1499, 
while the printer was Zacharias Callierges (y?. 1499 — 
1523), who, in the same year, printed the commen- 
tary of Simplicius on the Categories^ and afterwards produced in 
Rome the second edition of Pindar (15 15), and an early edition 
of Theocritus, the first to contain several of the later idylls (15 16), 
followed by his Thomas Magister (15 17). Callierges was noted 
for his calligraphy, and his Greek type is as beautiful, in its kind, 
as that of Aldus Manutius. 



CHAPTER-XXI 

THE ACADEMIES OF FLORENCE, NAPLES, AND ROME 

FiciNO had translated ten of Plato's dialogues before the death 
of Cosimo dei Medici; ten more had been translated The Academy 
before the accession of Lorenzo ; the work was com- °^ Florence 
pleted in 1477 and printed in 1482. The Introduction to the 
Symposium is one of the few primary authorities on the Platonic 
Academy of Florence. Of the nine that discussed the Symposium 
at Lorenzo's villa at Careggi, the only one now known 

°° •' Landino 

to fame, apart from Ficino himself, is Cristoforo 
Landino (1424 — 1504). He had already lectured on Petrarch 
(1460), and, at a later time, he was to expound Dante (1481), 
to annotate Horace (1482) and Virgil (1487), to translate the 
elder Pliny (1501), and to imitate the Tusculan Disputations of 
Cicero in a celebrated dialogue, whose scene is laid at Camaldoli, 
near the source of the Arno. 

Ficino (1433 — 1499), the true centre of the Academy, received 
holy orders at the age of forty, and spent the rest 
of his days in the honest and reverent endeavour 
to reconcile Platonism and Christianity. In the latter part of his 
life he translated and expounded Plotinus (ed. 1492). 

Among other members of the Academy was that paragon of 
beauty and genius, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola 
(1463 — 1494), who first flashed upon Florence 
shortly before the publication of Ficino's Plato. He was pos- 
sessed by the great thought of the unity of all knowledge, and, 
while he was still absorbed in planning a vast work, which was to 
form a complete system of Platonic, Christian, and Cabbalistic 
lore, he passed away at the early age of thirty-one. 



I90 ITALY [CENT. XV 

Pico's friend and correspondent, Hermolaus Barbarus (1454 — 
Hermoiaus i493)j died Only a year before him. A grandson of 
Barbarus Franccsco Barbaro, the Venetian friend of Poggio, 

he had been educated at Verona, Rome, and Padua. He trans- 
lated Themistius and Dioscorides, as well as the Rhetoric of 
Aristotle. He claimed to have corrected 5000 errors in the text 
of the elder Pliny. 

In 1494, at the age of" forty, died a notable member of the 
Florentine Academy, Angelo Poliziano, familiarly 
known as Politian (1454 — 1494)- By the age of 
thirty, he was tutor to Lorenzo's children, and professor of 
Greek and Latin Literature in Florence. Among those from 
England, who attended his lectures, were Grocyn and Linacre. 
The authors professorially expounded by him included Homer 
and Virgil, Persius and Statius, Quintilian and Suetonius. He 
was one of the first to pay attention to the Silver Age of Latinity ; 
and he justified his choice partly on the ground that that Age had 
been unduly neglected, and partly because it supplied an easy 
introduction to the authors of the Golden Age. A singular 
interest was lent to his lectures on Latin and Greek authors by 
his impassioned declamation of Latin poems composed by himself 
in connexion with the general subject of his course. The four 
extant poems of this type are known by the name of the Sylvae. 
The first in order of time is connected with the Eclogues of Virgil 
(1482); the next, with the Georgics and with Hesiod ; the third, 
with Homer; and the last, apparently, with a general course of 
lectures on the ancient poets (i486). Among the authors, in 
whose textual criticism he was interested, are Terence, Lucretius, 
Propertius, Ovid, Statius, and Ausonius, as well as Celsus, 
Quintilian, Festus, and the Scriptores Rei Rusticae. His copy 
of the editio princeps of Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, and Statius, 
published in 1472, formerly in the Laurentian Library, is now in 
the Corsini palace in Rome. He made a special study of the 
Pandects of Justinian, the celebrated MS of which was removed 
from Pisa to Florence in 141 1. The most learned of his extant 
productions is his Miscelia?iea (1489). Among the many topics 
discussed in its pages are the use of the aspirate in Latin and 
Greek, the chronology of Cicero's 'Familiar Letters', the evidence 



CHAP. XXl] POLITIAN. SANNAZARO IQT 

in favour of the spelling Vergilius in preference to Vtrgilius, the 
details of the discovery of purple dye, and the differences between 
the aorist and the imperfect in the signatures of Greek sculptors. 
In his Latin prose, Politian was an eclectic, with an eccentric 
fondness for rare and archaic words. In his history of the Pazzi 
conspiracy, the model he selects is Sallust. He wrote Greek 
poems at the age of seventeen, and, by his verse translation of 
four books of the Iliad^ gained the proud title of Homericus 
juvenis. His other translations include poems from Moschus and 
Callimachus and the Greek Anthology, with part of Plato's 
Charfnides^ and Epictetus, and a flowing rendering of the historian 
Herodian. In Latin, as well as Italian, verse, Politian was a born 
poet. 

The Academy of Naples came into being during the reign of 
Alfonso of Aragon (1442-58). The centre of this The Academy 
Academy was the poet and courtier, Antonio of of Naples 
Palermo, better known as Beccadelli (1394 — 1471). On the 
death of Alfonso, it was organised as a club under 

Pontano 

the influence of the poet Pontano (1426 — 1503), 

who was distinguished for the purity of his Latin prose and the 

graceful elegance of his Latin verse. His poems 

are the theme of one of the elegies of Sannazaro 

(1458 — 1530), one of the ablest members of the .Academy, the 

author of Latin idylls on the Bay of Naples, and a Virgilian poem 

on the Birth of Christ, in which the work of twenty years is 

marred by an incongruous imitation of classical models. Most 

of the prominent members of this Academy were poets. One 

of the exceptions is Valla, who has already been noticed in 

another connexion ^ 

The Roman Academy owed its origin to Pomponius Laetus 
(1425 — 1498), a pupil of Valla, whom he succeeded xhe Roman 
as the leading spirit among the Roman humanists. Academy 
Greek he declined to learn for the curious reason that he was 
afraid that it might spoil his Latin style The members of the 
Academy assumed Latin names, and celebrated the foundation 
^ p. 184 supra. 



T92 ITALY [CENT. XV 

of Rome on the annual return of the festival of the Palilia. They 
also revived the performance of the plays of Plautus. In 1468 
the Academy was suppressed for a time, on the ground of its 
political aims and its pagan spirit ; Pomponius was imprisoned 
in the Mausoleum of Hadrian. Between Pomponius' release 
from prison and his death, he produced editions of Curtius and 
Varro {c. 1470), commentaries on the whole of Virgil, including 
the minor works (1487-90), and editions of Pliny's Letters and 
of Sallust (1490); he also annotated Columella and Quintilian, 
and paid special attention to Festus and Nonius Marcellus. The 
Academy which he founded flourished once more under Julius II. 
Its palmy days were in the pontificate of Leo X, when it included 
the most brilliant members of the literary society of Rome. 



S. H. 



13 




Aloys'- piv5-manvtiv5- R: 



Aldus Manutius. 

From a contemporary print in the Library of San Marco, Venice, 
reproduced as Frontispiece to Didot's Aide Manuce; p. 196 infra. 



CHAPTER XXII 

THE PRINTING OF THE CLASSICS IN ITALY ' 

While we gratefully recall the preservation of Latin manu- 
scripts in the mediaeval monasteries of the West, as well as the 
recovery of lost Classics by the humanists of the fourteenth and 
fifteenth centuries, and the transference to Italy of the treasures of 
Greek literature from the libraries of the East, we are bound to 
remember that all this would have proved of little permanent avail, 
but for the invention of the art of printing. 

Printing had been introduced into Italy by two Germans, 
Sweynheym and Pannartz, who had worked under Fust at Maintz. 
They set up their press first at the German monastery of Subiaco 
in the Sabine mountains (1465) and next at the palace of the 
Massimi in Rome itself (1467). At Subiaco they produced the 
editio princeps of the De Oratore of Cicero. At Rome they reprinted 
that work, and added the earliest edition of the Brutus and 
Orator (1469); moreover, they produced the editiones principes of 
Cicero's Letters and Speeches^ Caesar, Livy, Gellius, Apuleius, 
Virgil, Lucan, and Silius (1469-71), the prefaces being generally 
written by Giovanni Andrea de' Bussi, bishop of the Corsican see 
of Aleria, who also saw through the press their Ovid of 147 1. 
Cardinal Campano edited Quintilian and Suetonius for Philip de 
Lignamine, and Cicero's Philippics for Ulrich Hahn (1470). 
Pomponius Laetus edited for Georg Lauer the first edition of 
Varro De Lingua Latina (147 1), and the second of Nonius 
Marcellus (1476). In Venice, the first edition of the elder Pliny 
was produced by John of Spires in 1469^ At Florence, Bernardo 
Cennini printed the commentary of Servius on the whole of Virgil 
(1471-72). By the year 1500 about 5,000 books had been 
produced in Italy, of which about 300 belong to Florence and 
^ See list of Latin Editiones Principes on p. 198 infra. 

13—2 



196 ITALY [cent. XV 

Bologna, more than 600 to Milan, more than 900 to Rome, and 
2,835 to Venice, while presses were set up for a short time in fifty 
places of less importance. 

Before the year 1495 ^^^Y ^ dozen Greek books had been printed 
in Italy, viz. the Greek grammars of Lascaris^ and Chrysoloras^; 
two Psalters^; Aesop"* and Theocritus'^', the 'Battle of the Frogs 
and Mice'^, and Homer'', with Isocrates^ and the Greek Antho- 
logy ^ This last was in capital letters, and was succeeded in 
Florence by similar editions of Euripides, Callimachus, ApoUonius 
Rhodius, and Lucian. The latter were, however, preceded by the 
earliest of the Greek texts printed in Venice by Aldus Manutius. 

Aldus Manutius (1449 — 15 15) is the Latin form of Aldo 
Aldus Manuzio, whose original name was Teobaldo 

Manutius Manucci. At the press which he founded in 

Venice, the model for the Greek type was supplied by the Cretan 
Marcus Musurus and most of the compositors were natives of 
Crete. The Greek books published by Aldus between 1494 and 1504 
included Musaeus, Theocritus and Hesiod, Aristotle, Sophocles, 
nine plays of Aristophanes, eighteen plays of Euripides, Herodo- 
tus and Thucydides, with Xenophon's Hellenica^ and, lastly, 
Demosthenes. After an interval caused by the troubles of war, 
we have first the Greek rhetoricians, including the first edition of 
Aristotle's Rhetoric and Poetic, and next, the Moralia of Plutarch. 
Another interval, due to the same cause, was followed by the 
publication of Pindar, with the minor Attic Orators, and Plato, 
and Athenaeus. As a printer of Latin Classics Aldus had been 
preceded in Venice by John of Spires (1469), Nicolas Jenson, and 
Cristopher Valdarfer (1470). In 1501 Aldus began that series of 
pocket editions of Latin, Greek, and Italian Classics in small 8vo, 
which did more than anything else towards popularising the Classics 
in Italy. The slanting type then first adopted for printing the Latin 
and Italian Classics, and since known as the ' Aldine ' or ' Italic ' 
type, was first used in 1501 in the Aldine editions of Virgil, Horace, 

^ Milan, 1476; Vicenza, 1488. ^ Venice, 1484; Vicenza, 1490. 

2 Milan, 1481-6. ** Milan, c. 1479. 

^ Milan, c. 1493. ^ Venice, i486. 

7 Florence 1488. ^ Milan, 1493. 
• Florence, 1494. 



CHAP. XXIl] ALDUS AND PAULUS MANUTIUS IQ/ 

Juvenal and Persius. The later Ivatin texts included Valerius 
Maximus (1502), Pliny's Letters (1508), and Quintilian (1514)- 
In 1499 Aldus had married the daughter of Andrea Torresano 
d'Asola, who had, twenty years previously, bought up the printing 
business of Nicolas Jenson. In course of time Aldus and his 
father-in-law, Andrea, went into partnership, and the above edition 
of Pliny's Letters^ printed in aedibus Aldi et Andreae soceri, supplies 
us with the first public record of the fact. In the twenty-one years 
between 1494 and 1515, Aldus produced no less than twenty-seven 
editiones principes of Greek authors and of Greek works of referenced 
By the date of his death in 15 15, all the principal Greek Classics 
had been printed. Before 1525 the study of Greek had begun to 
decline in Italy, but meanwhile an interest in that language had 
happily been transmitted to the lands beyond the Alps. 

Paolo Manuzio (15 12 — 1574), the youngest son of Aldo, 
published a series of Ciceronian works, beginning Pauius 
with the complete edition of 1540-6, and including Manutms 
commentaries on the Letters to Atticus (1547), and to Brutus and 
Qidnius (1557), and on the Pro Sextio (1556). One of the 
daintiest products of his press is the text of Cicero's De Oratore, 
Brutus and Orator^ printed in Italic type, with his own corrections, 
in 1559. He had a branch house in Rome, on the Capitol, and 
it was mainly in Rome that he lived from 1561 till his death in 
1574, producing scholia on the Letters Ad Familiares (1571) and 
on the Pro Archia (1572). His comments on Cicero's Speeches 
were posthumously printed in 1578-9, arid his celebrated com- 
mentariiis on the Letters Ad Familiares in 1592. 

Paolo bequeathed his business to his son Aldo Manuzio the 
younger (1547 — 1597), the second edition of Aldus 
whose work on Orthography (1566) contains the Manutius 11 
earliest copy of an ancient Roman calendar of b.c. 8 — a.d. 3 
discovered by his father in the Palace of the Maffei and now 
known as the Fasti Maffeiani. After little more than a century 
of beneficent labour in the cause of classical literature the great 
house of printers came to an end when the younger Aldus died 
in Rome without issue in 1597. 

^ Nine of these 27 'editions' included two or more works, 69 in all besides 
the 27, making a total of 96. 



Editiones Principes of Latin Authors. 



Date 


Author 


Editor 


Printer 


Place 


1465 


Cicero, £>«■ Officiis, Paradoxa 




Fust and Schoeffer 


Maintz 


c. 466 


Cicero, De Officiis 




Ulrich Zell 


Cologne 


465 


Cicero, De Oratore 
Lactantius; 1467 Aug. C«V.Z>^i 




Swey nheym and Pannartz 


Subiaco 


1467 


Cicero, ad Familiares 






Rome 


1469 


CiceTO,De Or., Brutus, Orator 




. .. 


.. 




Apuleius 


Jo. Andreas de Buxis 


.. 


.. 




Gellius 










Caesar 






.. 




Lucan 




. . 






Pliny, Hist. Nat. 




J. de Spira 
Sweynheym and Pannartz 


Venice 


c. 1469 


*Virgil 
Livy 

Cicero, ad Attictim 


.. 


Rome 


1470 


•• 




;; 




Sallust 




Vindelin de Spira 


Venice 




* Juvenal and Persius 










Priscian 




. • 






Cicero, Rhetorica 




N. Jenson 






Justin 










Quintilian, Inst. Or. 


Campanus 


(Phil, de Lignamine) 


Rome 




Suetonius 


_ 


. . 


, ^ 


c. 1470 


Cicero, Philippicae 


,. 


Ulrich Hahn 






Terence 




(Mentel) 


(Stras.sburg) 




Valerius Maximus 




. . 






Boethius, De Phil. Cons. 




Han.s Glim 


Savigliano 




Tacitus, Ann. 11— 16, Hht., 




Vindelin de Spira 


Venice 




Germ., Dial. 








I47I 


Ovid 


Franc. Puteolanus 


Azzoguidi 


Bologna 




Silius Italicus 


Jo. Andreas de Buxis 


Sweynheym and Pannartz 


Rome 




Cicero, Orationes 






^_ 




Pliny, Epp.. libri viii 
Pomponius Mela 


Ludovicus Carbo 


(Chr. Valdarfer) 


(Venice) 




Zarotus 


Zarotus 


Milan 




Nonius 






(Italy) 




Florus 




Gering,Crantz, Friburger 


Paris 




Varro, Z..Z..; c.l47i*Curtius 


Pomponius Laetus 


Georg Lauer 


Rome 




Eutropius 










Aem. Probus, i.e. Nepos 




N. Jenson 


Venice 


c. 1471 


Horace 






(Venice) 




*Martial 


G. Merula 


Vindelin de Spira 


Venice 


1472 


Plautus 

Tib., Prop., Cat , Stat. Silv. 


•• 








Macrobius 




N. Jenson 






Ausonius and Calpurnius 


Bart. Girardinus 


Bart. Girardinus 


." * 




Scriptores de Re Rustica 


Merula and Colucia 


N. Jenson 






Manilius 


Regiomontanus 


Regiomontanus 


Nuremberg 


c. 1473 


Lucretius 




Ferrandus 


Brescia 


1474 


Valerius Flaccus 




Rugerius and Bertochus 


Bologna 




Amm. MarceUinus, libri 13 


Sabinus 


Sachsel and Golsch 


Rome 


c. 1474-84 


Seneca, Tragoediae 




Andreas Gallicus 


Ferrara 


1475 


Quintilian, Decl. 3 


Dom. Calderinus 


Schurener 


Rome 


1475-83 


Statius 




Octavianus Scotus 


Venice 


1475 


Hist. Aug. Scriptores 


Bonus Accursius 


Philippus de Lavagna 


Milan 




Seneca, Moralia et Ef>p 




Moravus 


Naples 


1477 


Dictys Cretensis 


MasellusBeneventanus 


(Philippus de Lavagna) 


Milan 


1478 


Celsus 


Bart. Fontius 


Nicolaus Alemannus 


Florence 


I48I 


Quintilian, Decl. 19 


Jac. Grasolarius 


Lucas Venetus 


Venice 


1482 


Claudian 


Barn. Celsanus 


Jac. Dusensis 


Vicenza 


c. 1482 


Plin. /»««,, Tac. Agr., Petron. 


Puteolanus, Lanterius 


(Zarotus) 


(Milan) 


i486 


Probus 


Franc. Michael 


Boninus 


Brescia 


c. i486 


Vitruvius 

Frontinus, De aquaeductibus 


Joan. Sulpitius 


G. Herolt 


Rome 


1487 


Vegetius, Aelian, Frontinus 




Eucharius Silber 




1494 


Quintilian, Decl. 138 


Thad. Ugoletus 


Ang. Ugoletus 


Parma 


1498 


Apicius 


Ant. Motta 


Guil. Signerre 


Milan 


1498-9 


Cicero, 4 vols, folio 


Alex. Minutianus 


Guilelmi fratres 




1502 


Prosper, Sedulius 


Aldus Manutius 


Aldus Manutius 


Venice 


c. 1508-13 


Symmachus 


Bart. Cyniscus 


Bern, de Vitalibus 




I5I5 


Tacitus, Aniial. i — 5 etc. 


Beroaldus II 


Steph. Guilleroti 


Rome 


1520 


Velleius Paterculus 


Beatus Rhenanus 


Jo. Froben 


Basel 


1533 


Amm. MarceUinus, libri 18 


M. Accursius 


Silvanus Otmar 


Augsburg 
Troyes 


1596 


Phaedrus 


Pierre Pithou 


J. Odot 



* The Virgil of c. 1469 (Mentelin, Strassburg), the Juvenal of c. 1470 (Ulrich Hahn, 
Rome), and the Martial ofc. 1471 (Rome), are possibly earlier than the above editions. 



Editiones Principes of Greek Authors. 



Date 


Author 


Editor 


Printer 


Place 


c. 1478 


Aesop 


Lat. trans. Rinutius 


(Bonus Accursius) 


(Milan) 


i486 


* Ba tracho myomachia 




Leonicus Cretensis 


Venice 


1488 


Homer 


Dem. Chalcondyles 


Bart, di Libri for 

Bern. Nerli 
(Uderic Scinzenzeller) 


Florence 


1493 


Isocrates 






c. 1493 


Theocritus, i— 18, and He- 
siod, Opera et Dies 




(Bonus Accursius) 


Mil'a'n 


1494 


Antkologia Graeca 


J. Lascaris 


Laur. deAlopa 


Florence 


c. 1495 


Euripides, Med. Hipp. 

Ale. Andr. 
Callimachus, 1—6 








c. 1494-5 


Miisaeus 


Lat. trans. Musurus 


Aldus Manutius 


Venice 


14958 


Aristotle, 5 vols, folio and 
Theophrastus.^/^/./^/^w^. 


Aldus Alanutius 


•• 


•• 


1496 N.S. 


Theocritus, 1—30, Rion, 
Moschus, Hesiod,Theognis 








1496 


Scriptores Gramniatici 


Guarino, Pohtian etc. 


, , 


_ , 




Apollonius Rhodius 


J. Lascaris 


Laur. de Alopa 


Florence 




Lucian 








1497 


Zenobius 


Bened, Ricciardini 


Phil, de' junta 


Florence 


1498 


' Phalaris' 


Bart. Capo d' Istria 


Printers from Carpi 


Venice 




Aristophanes, 9 plays 


Aldus et Musurus 


Aldus Manutius 


., 


M99 


Epp. Graecae 
Astrononiici ve teres 
Dioscorides and Nicander 


Aldus Manutius 


•• 


•• 




' Etymologicum Magnum' 


Musurus 


Zach. Callierges 






Simplicius in Ar. Categ. 




Z. Callierges 






Suidas 


Dem, Chalcondyles 


Printers from Carpi 


Milan 


1500 


Ammonius in v voces 




Z. Callierges 


Venice 




Orpheus 




Phil. Junta 


Florence 


1502 


Stephanus Byz. 
Pollux _ 


Aldus Manutius 


Aldus Manutius 


Venice 




Thucydides 








.. 




Sophocles 








.. 




Herodotus 








.. 


1503 


Euripides, 18 plays 








.. 




Ammonius in Ar. Interp. 








, , 




Ulpian and Harpocraiion 








,, 




Xenophon, Hellenica 








.. 


1504 


Philostratus, vita A poll. 
Philoponus in Ar, 








,. 










. . 




Demosthenes 


Aldus et Carteromachus 








1508 9 


Rhetores Graeci (incl. Ar. 


Aldus Manutius 






,. 




Rhet. Poet.) 








1509 


Plutarch, Moralia 


Aldus et Demetrius 
Ducas 


Aldus et Andreas Asul. 


•• 


1512 


Dionysius Periegetes 


Bondenus, & printer 


J, Maciochus 


Ferrara 


1513 


Pindar, Lycophron etc. 
Orationes Rhet. Gr. 


Aldus Manutius 


Aldus et Andreas Asul, 


Venice 




Plato 


Aldus et Musurus 


• i 


,, 


1514 


Alex. Aphrod. in Ar. Top. 


Aldus Manutius 




,, 




Athenaeus 


Aldus et Musurus 


^^ 


, , 




Hesychius 




.', 




1515 


Oppian, Halientica 


Bern. Junta 


Phil. Junta 


Florence 


1516 N.S. 


Aristoph. Thesm. Lys. 








1516 


Testantentujti Novttnt 


Erasmus 


Jo, Froben 


Basel 




Xenophon 


Euphrosynus Boninus 


Phil. Junta 


Florence 




Pausanias 


Musurus 


Aldus et Andreas Asul. 


Venice 




Strabo 


Ben. Tyrhenus 







* Possibly preceded by the unique Batrachomyomachia, c. 1474 (Ferrandus?, Brescia), in 
the Rylands Library, Manchester, 



Editiones Principes of Greek Authors {continued). 



Date 


Author 


Editor 


Printer 


Place 


1517 


Libanius 


Coelius Calcagninus 


Jo. Maciochus 


Ferrara 




Didymus, Homerica 


J. Lascaris 


Ang. Collottius 


Rome 




Aristides 


Euphrosynus Boninus 


Phil. Junta 


Florence 




Plutarch, Vitae 


Phil. Junta 






g:r 


Complutensian Polyglott 


Cardinal Ximenes 


Arnold Gul. de Brocario 


Alcal'a 


Biblia Sacra Graeca 


Andreas Asulanus 


Aldus et Andreas socer 


Venice 




Aeschylus, 6 plays 


Fr. Asulanus 








Porphyrius, Homerica 


J. Lascaris 


' Monte Caballo ' 


Rome 


1525 


Galen, in 5 parts 
Xenophon, Opera 


Asulani fratres 


Aldus et Andreas Asul. 
Aldi in aedibus 


Venice 


1526 


Hippocrates 


Fr. Asulanus 


Aldus et Andreas Asul. 




1528 


Epictetus and Simplicius 




T.Anton, etfr.de Sabio 




1530 


Polybius 


Vine. Opsopoeus 


Jo. Secerius 


Hagenau 


1532 


Aristophanes, 11 plays 


Simon Grynaeus 


Cratander 


Basel 


1533 


Diogenes Laertius 


Hieron. Froben et 
Nic. Episcopius 


Hieron. Froben et 
Nic. Episcopius 


•• 




EucHdes 


Simon Grynaeus 


Jo. Hervagius 


, . 




Ptolemaeus 


Erasmus 


Hieron. Froben et 
Nic. Episcopius 


•• 


1535 


Arrian 

Stobaeus 


Jo. Bapt. Egnatius 
Victor Trincavelli 


J. F. Trincavelli 


Venice 


1539 


Diodorus, 16—20 


Vine. Opsopoeus 


Jo. Oporinus 


Basel 


1544 


Josephus 


Arnoldus Arlenius 


Hieron. Froben 






Archimedes 


Thomas Gechauflf 


Jo. Hervagius 




1545 


Aelian, Var. Hist., etc. 


Camillus Peruscus 




Rome 


1546 


Dionysius Halic. 


Rob. Stephanus 


Rob. Stephanus 


Paris 


1548 


Dion Cassius, 36—58 








1542-50 


Eustathius, 4 vols. 


Majoranus & Devarius 


Ant. Bladus 


Rome 


1551 


Dion Chrys. 


F. Turrisanus 


F. Turrisanus 


Venice 




Appian 




Car. Stephanus 


Paris 


1552 


Aelian, Tactica 
Aeschylus, 7 plays 


Robortelli 


Spinelli 


Venice 


1553 


Menander, Frag. 




F. Morel I 


ParLs 


1554 


' Longinus ' 


Robortelli 


Jo. Oporinus 
H. Stephanus 


Basel 




Anacreon 


Putschius, & printer 


Paris 




Aretaeus 


Jac. Goupyl 


Andr. Turnebus 




1555 


Apollodorus, Bibl. 


Ben. Aegius 


Ant. Bladus 


Rome 


1556 


Claudius Aelian, Opera 


C. Gesner, Robortelli, 
Gillius 


Gesneri fratres 


Zurich 


1557 


Aeschylus, c. Ag. 323—1050 
Maximus Tyrius 


Victorius 

H. Stephanus 


H. Stephanus 


Paris 


1558 


Marcus Aurelius 


Xylander et C. Gesner 


And. Gesner 


Zurich 


1559 


Diodorus, i — 20 


H. Stephanus 


H. Stephanus 


Geneva 


1565 


Bion, Moschus 


Adolf Mekerch 


Goltzius 


Bruges 


1566 


Poetae Gr. Principes 


H. Stephanus 


H. Stephanus 


Paris 




Aristaenetus 


J. Sambucus 


Plan tin 


Antwerp 


1568 


Antonius Liberalis, 
Phlegon, Apollonius 


Xylander 


Thomas Guarinus 


Basel 


1569 


Nonnus, Dionysiaca 


Falkenburg 


Plan tin 


Antwerp 


1572 


Plutarch, Opera 


H. Stephanus 
Guil. Canter 


H. Stephanus 


Paris 




Stobaeus 


Plan tin 


Antwerp 


1580 


Plotinus 


Lat. trans. Ficinus 


Petrus Perna 


Basel 


1583 


Hierocles 


Jo. Curterius 


Nic. Nivellius 


Paris 


1587 


' Empedocles,' Sphaera 


Florent Chrestien 


F. Morel II 




1589 


Polyaenus 


Casaubon 


J. Toinaesius 
M. Manger 


Leyden 


1594 


Andronicus Rhodius 


Hoeschelius 


Augsburg 


1598 


lamblichus 


Jo. Arcerius Theo- 
doretus 


Aegid. Radaeus 


Franeker 


1601 


Photius, Bibliotheca 


Hoeschelius 


Jo. Praetorius 
Seb. Cramoisy 


Augsburg 


1621 


Diophantus 


CI. G. Bachetus 


Paris 




Erasmus (1523). 

From the portrait by Holbein in the salon carrd of the Louvre. 
(Photographed by Messrs Mansell.) 



BOOK VIII 

THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 
CHAPTER XXIIl 

ERASMUS 

Our survey of the early history of scholarship beyond the 
bounds of Italy will here be preceded by some account of 
Erasmus, so far as his remarkable career was connected with 
Classical Scholarship. 

Erasmus was born at Rotterdam in 1466. In his ninth year 
he was sent to school at Deventer, where the 

Erasmus 

mediaeval text-books of Grammar were still in 
use. In 1484 he was removed to a school at Bois-le-Duc, 
distinctly inferior to that at Deventer; in 1487 he entered an 
Augustinian monastery near Gouda ; and in 1492 was ordained 
priest. The ten years spent in that monastery happily left him 
much leisure for study, and among the works that he there wrote 
was an abridgement of the Elegantiae of Laurentius Valla. In 
Paris he learnt a little Greek, but made his living mainly as a 
teacher of Latin, counting among his pupils one of his future 
patrons, the youthful Lord Mountjoy, whom he accompanied 
to England in 1499. He was welcomed by Colet at Oxford, 
and by More and Warham in London. Early in the following 
year he returned to Paris, there to resume the work which he 
describes in the pathetic words : — ' my Greek studies are almost 
too much for my courage, while I have not the means of pro- 
curing books, or the help of a master '\ He is conscious that 
^ Ep. 123, i ^%l Allen. 



204 [cent. XV f 

'without Greek the amplest erudition in Latin is imperfect '\ 
In 1500 he produced his Adagia, and, in the following year, an 
edition of Cicero De Officiis, besides working at Euripides and 
Isocrates. For part of 1502-3 he resided at Louvain, where 
he studied Lucian in the newly published Aldine text of 1503. 
His return to Paris was followed by a visit to London, where 
(early in 1506) he presented Warham with a translation of the 
Hecuba^ and Fox with a rendering from Lucian. In June he 
left for Italy, visiting Turin, where he received the degree of 
Doctor in Divinity ; Florence, which appears to have attracted him 
but little; Bologna, where he worked quietly at Greek; Venice, 
where (as a guest of Aldus) he prepared a second edition of his 
Adagia; and Padua, where he attended the lectures of Musurus. 
He then passed through Florence and Siena to Rome, where 
he was far less interested in its old associations, its 'ruins and 
remains', its 'monuments of disaster and decay', than in the 
libraries and in the social life of the papal city. Returning to 
England in 1509, he published his famous satire, the Moriae 
Encomium. Soon afterwards he found a home in Cambridge^, where, 
under the influence of John Fisher, bishop of Rochester, he 
became Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity. His rooms were 
near the south-east corner of the inner cloistered court of Queens'. 
It was there that in October, 151 1, he taught Greek to a little 
band of Cambridge students, using for his text-book the Grammar 
of Chrysoloras, and hoping to begin that of Theodorus Gaza, 
if he could obtain a larger audience ^ Meanwhile, he was aiding 
Colet in his great design for the school of St Paul's by writing 
his treatise De Ratione Studii (151 1), as well as a work on Latin 
composition, De Copia Rerum et Verborum (15 12), and a text- 
book of Latin Syntax, founded on Donatus (15 13). He was also 
beginning to prepare his edition of St Jerome, and his text of the 
Greek Testament. Early in 15 14 he left Cambridge with a view 
to the publication of these works at Basel in 151 6. 1516 was 
also the date of the first edition of his famous Colloquies. The 
years between 15 15 and 1521 were spent mainly at Basel and 

1 Ep. 129, i 301 Allen. 

^ Aug. 151 1 — ^Jan. 1514. He had paid a brief visit in 1506 (Allen, i 590 f). 

^ Ep' 233. i 473 Allen. 



CHAP. XXIIl] ERASMUS 205 

Louvain, where he aided in organising the Collegium Trilingue 
for the study of Hebrew, Greek and Latin. In the spring of 
1522 he returned to Basel, making it his home for the next seven 
years. He there published his Ciceronianus (1528), a celebrated 
dialogue on Latin style, in which he vigorously protests against 
limiting the modern cultivation of Latin prose to a slavish and 
pedantic imitation of the vocabulary and phraseology and even 
the very inflexions of Cicero. In the same year he also produced 
his treatise De Recta Latini Graecique Sermonis Pronimtiatione^ 
which, in process of time, led the northern nations of Europe to 
adopt the ' Erasmian ' pronunciation of Greek in preference to 
that which Reuchlin had derived from the modern Greeks and 
had introduced into Germany. In 1529 he gave to the world 
the maturest of his educational treatises in a work De Pueris 
statim ac liberaliter Erudiendis. In the same year he left Basel 
for Freiburg on the verge of the Black Forest, where he was still 
living when his edition of Terence, the most important of his 
classical recensions, was published in 1532. In 1534 he returned 
to Basel, and worked at his edition of Origen. He was engaged 
on a new edition of his Letters^ and on other work, when he died 
in the summer of 1563. 

Erasmus is a representative not so much of Greek as of Latin 
scholarship, and of Latin verse far less than of Latin prose. The 
strength as well as the occasional weakness of his character, and 
the wide extent of his influence, are amply attested in his Letters. 
His varied learning is best seen in his Adagia^ where his erudite 
illustrations of the meaning of ancient proverbial phrases are often 
curiously diversified by pungent criticisms on modern priests and 
princes ; and the same satirical element is constantly recurring in 
his Colloquies. He has rendered service to the cause of education 
not only by his general treatises on the subject, but also by the 
lucid text-books on syntax and style that soon superseded the dull 
mediaeval manuals. He translated into Latin the Greek Grammar 
of Theodorus Gaza, and supplied a Latin Syntax founded on 
Donatus. He represents scholarship on its formal side, grammar, 
style and rhetoric. He promoted the study of models of pure 
Latinity, such as Terence and Cicero. His own editions of Latin 
authors comprise Seneca (1515 ; ed. 2, 1529), Suetonius (15 18), 



2o6 [cent. XV f 

certain works of Cicero (1518-32), with Pliny (1525), Livy (1531), 
and Terence (1532). His Greek texts belong to the last five 
years of his life and include Aristotle (1531) and Ptolemy (1533). 
He also produced recensions of St Ambrose, St Augustine and 
St Chrysostom, with three editions of St Jerome. Lastly, we 
cannot forget his editio princeps of the Greek Testament (1516)^ 

Even as Petrarch marks the transition from the Middle Ages 
to the Revival of Learning, so, in the early history of learning, 
Erasmus marks the transition from Italy to the northern nations 
of Europe. Before turning to those northern nations, we propose 
to notice the foremost Scholars of Italy in the age that immediately 
succeeded the Revival of Learning. 

^ See, inter alia, ] ebb's £rasmt^s, Cambridge, 1890, Woodward's Erasmus 
on Education, Cambridge, 1904, and P. S. Allen's Erasmi Epistolae, vols, i — iii 
(1484 — 1 5 19), Oxford, 1906 ff. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

ITALY FROM 1 5 27 TO 160O 

The Sack of Rome in the month of May, 1527, marks the end 
of the Revival of Learning in Italy, but not the end Literar 
of the History of Scholarship in that country. Criticism. 
Vida's didactic poem De Arte Poetica (1527), the 
first of a long series of volumes on the theory of poetry published 
in Italy during the sixteenth century, accepts as the text-book of 
literary criticism the Ars Poetica of Horace, while it finds the 
true model of epic verse in the Aeneid of Virgil. Meanwhile, 
in 1498, the treatise of Aristotle On the Art of influence of 
Poetry had been imperfectly translated into Latin Aristotle's 
by Giorgio Valla of Piacenza {c, 1430-99); and it 
was in this form that Aristotle's treatise was first known in the 
Revival of Learning. The Greek text was afterwards printed for the 
first time in the Aldine edition of the Rhetores Graeci (1508); but 
the modern influence of this famous work dates from 1536, and by 
1550 the critics and poets of Italy had assimilated its teaching. 

The foremost representative of Classical Scholarship in Italy 
in this century is Petrus Victorius (1499 — 1585). 
In 1536-7 he produced in three volumes an 
edition of the Letters and the philosophical and rhetorical works 
of Cicero. In Florence he was successively professor of Latin, 
Greek, and Moral Philosophy. In Latin scholarship he paid 
special attention to Cicero's Letters', he also edited Cato and 
Varro, De Re Rustica (1541), and Terence (1565) and Sallust 
(1576). In Greek his greatest works are his Commentaries on 
Aristotle's Rhetoric (1548), Poetic (1560), Politics (1576) and 
Nicomachean Ethics (1584). For the second Juntine edition of 
Sophocles (1547) he collated certain ancient mss in Florence 
(doubtless including th^ CQd^^ Laurentianus) so far as regarded 




SENj^TORE c^y-' 
JK04CQUE INFfRE^V^E 



e/i/te^Ue ^ietto OuaO^ 



LETTERATO INSfOm 
^mE CONTE PALATJNO 
km^^ Py^PA GIFIJO Hi- 
ll ANNO MCCCCXCIX- 
. MDZXXXl^ 




Lfi dRoma mil' cf/l"' Ca/^ i^etto) 



ViCTORIUS. 

From the portrait by Titian, engraved by Ant. Zaballi for the Ritraiti 
Toscani, vol. I, no. xxxix (Allegrini, Firenze, 1766), 



CH. XXIV] VICTORIUS. ROBORTELLI 209 

the Oedipus Tyrannus^ Oedipus Coloneus, and Trachiniae. He 
produced editions of Plato's Lysis^ and Xenophon's Memorabilia 
(1551), Porphyry, De Abstineniia (1548), Clemens Alexandrinus 
(1550), Dionysius of Halicarnassus on Isaeus and Dinarchus 
(1581), and Demetrius, De Elocutione (1562). In Greek verse, 
he published the editio princeps of the Electra of Euripides (1545), 
a play discovered in that year by two of his pupils, and the first 
edition of Aeschylus which contained the complete Agamemnon 
(1557)- Twenty-five books of Variae Lectiones^ ox Miscellaneous 
Criticisms, published in 1553, were followed by thirteen more 
in 1569, and re-issued in the complete folio edition of thirty-eight 
books in 1582. None of the attempts to attract Victorius to Rome 
or Bologna had any permanent result ; to the last he remained 
true to Florence, where, after a hale old age, he died at the age 
of 86. Among his editions of Greek authors, the highest place 
for wide and varied learning was generally awarded to his com- 
mentary on Aristotle's Rhetoric^ while his contemporary Robortelli 
lauded him as the only scholar who had really thrown light on 
the text of Cicero. 

Francesco Robortelli (15 16 — 1567) held professorships at 
Lucca, Pisa, Venice, Padua, and Bologna. In 1548 

, , . . ... r K  1 , Robortelli 

he produced his important edition of Aristotle s 
treatise on the Art of Poetry, a thin folio volume including a 
critical revision of the text, a Latin translation, and a learned and 
suggestive commentary. In the course of the latter he reviews 
the question of aesthetic imitation, discusses the reason why 
tragedy deals only with persons of importance, and, in his inter- 
pretation of Aristotle's famous definition of tragedy, describes 
terror and pity as ' purging ' the mind of those emotions, and 
diminishing their effect in real life, by familiarising the spectator 
with their representation on the stage. His next important work 
was an edition of Aeschylus, including the scholia (1552), in 
which he revised the text, and did much towards restoring the 
metre. In the same year he published Aelian's Tactics with a 
Latin translation, and with illustrations copied from ancient mss. 
He was the first to print the celebrated treatise On the Sublime^ 
which here appears as the work of ' Dionysius Longinus ', an 
attribution which remained unchallenged until 1808. The only 
s. H. 14 



210 ITALY [CENT. XVI 

Other work that need here be noticed is the folio volume of 
1557 including a treatise on the Art of Criticism, two books of 
emendations, and a comparison of the chronology of Livy with 
the dates in the extant Roman Fasti. The short treatise On the 
Art of Textual Criticism claims to be the first of its kind. It still 
deserves respectful remembrance, for it really broke new ground. 
The author here notes the general characteristics of L^tin mss, 
and the different kinds of handwriting, indicates some of the 
principal causes of corruption and the corresponding means of 
restoration, and lays down certain rules for conjectural emendation. 
The chronological work published at the same time, and the 
earlier Fasti Capitolini of 1555, are connected with his memorable 
quarrel with his learned fellow-countryman, Sigonius. 

Sigonius(<r. 1524 — 1584) was born at Modena, and at Modena 
he died, after having held professorships at Venice, 
Padua, and Bologna. All his important productions 
are connected with the history and antiquities of Rome. In 1555, 
while still at Venice, he published his folio edition of Livy and 
his Fasti Consulares, with an ample commentary on the latter 
in the following year. The last two works were the first in 
which accurate criticism was applied to the chronology of Roman 
history. Their author also broke new ground in his treatises on 
the legal rights of the citizens of Rome and the inhabitants of 
Italy and the Provinces (1560-7). Roman Antiquities are 
further represented in his treatises on Roman names, and Roman 
law-courts (1574), the latter work being lauded by Gibbon as 
written 'with much learning and in a classic style '^. Moreover, 
he traced the fortunes of Rome from the days of Diocletian to 
the end of the Western Empire in a folio volume consisting of 
twenty books, the first modern work that fully deserves the name 
of a history (1578). In 1583 a printer in Venice produced a 
volume purporting to be the Consolatio of Cicero, liber... nunc 
primum repertus et in lucem editus. Sigonius maintained in two 
' Orations ' that it was the work of Cicero, while others suspected 
that it was the work of Sigonius himself. The evidence of the 
clausulae proves that it was not written by Cicero^. 

* c. 45 (iv 506 Bury). 

2 Cp. E. T. Sage, The Pseudo- Ciceronian Consolatio, Chicago, 19 10. 



CHAP. XXIV] NIZOLIUS. FAERNUS. MURETUS 211 

During the life-time of Sigonius, the study of Cicero, but not of 
Cicero alone, was well represented by scholars bearing the Latin 
names of Nizolius, Majoragius, and Faernus. The 
first of these, whose name was Mario Nizzoli (1498 — 
1566), published the first edition of his Observationes in Ciceronem, 
in two folio volumes (1535), with references to the pages 
of the Aldine text. This important work of reference was 
republished under the more intelligible title Thesaurus Ciceronianus 
(Basel, 1568); it was revised by Alexander Scot under the title of 
Apparatus Latinae locutionis, with references to the sections of his 
edition of the whole of Cicero (Lyons, 1588); Lexicon Ciceronianum 
was the title adopted by Facciolati (1734), and later editions of this 
valuable work are still in use. From 1547 to 1562 he was a professor 
at Parma, and was brought into controversy with the Milanese pro- 
fessor, Majoragius (15 14 — 1555)- The latter had attacked the 
Paradoxes of Cicero (1546); and the controversy that arose was 
only concluded by the early death of Majoragius. NizoHus, 
in one of his contributions to this controversy, popularly called 
the Antibarbarus Philosophicus (1553)*, attacks the scholastic 
terminology, which was still predominant in the study of the logic 
and metaphysics of Aristotle, and pleads for a wider recognition 
of the best authors of Greece and Rome. The treatise was 
reprinted by Leibnitz in 1670, with a notable preface recommend- 
ing the work as a model of philosophical language that was free 
from barbarism. 

It was not until after the death of Faernus in 1561 that the 
classical world of Rome welcomed the publication 
of his edition of Cicero's Philippics^ with the pro 
Fonteio^ pro Flacco and in Pisonem (1563), and his recension 
of Terence (1565), both of which works were highly com- 
mended by Victorius. His celebrated rendering of a hundred 
Aesopian fables into Latin verse was similarly published by 
command of the Pope (1564). 

In 1560 Muretus arrived in Rome. From 1546 to 1560 Marc- 
Antoine Muret (1526— 1585) lectured at Poitiers, 
Bordeaux, and Paris. Mysterious charges of heresy 

^ De veris principiis el de vera ratione philosophandi contra pseudo- 
philosophos. 

14-2 



212 ITALY [cent. XVI 

and immorality led to his suddenly leaving Paris for Toulouse, 
and thence for Venice, where he held a professorship of humanity 
for four years (1555-8). After living in Padua and Ferrara, he 
was finally a professor in Rome for more than twenty years 
(1563-84). 

At Venice, his friendship with Paulus Manutius led to his 
publishing at the Aldine Press his editions of Catullus, Horace 
and Terence, Tibullus and Propertius, the Catilinarian Orations 
of Cicero, and a commentary on the first book of the Tusculan 
Disputations. In 1563, during a visit to Paris, he published 
an edition of Cicero's Philippics. During his early time in Rome 
he lectured on Aristotle's Ethics., and on Roman Law. Forbidden 
to lecture on Law, he discoursed on Cicero, De Finibiis., and 
on Plato's Republic. Forbidden to lecture on Plato, he took 
refuge in expounding Juvenal and Tacitus, the De Officiis and the 
Letters of Cicero, the De Providentia of Seneca, and the Rhetoric 
and Politics of Aristotle. His translation of the first two books 
of the Rhetoric, and his commentaries on the Ethics^ Oeconomics, 
Topics, Plato's Republic i, 11, and his notes on Tacitus and Sallust, 
were afterwards printed. Most of his published works were closely 
connected with his lectures. Far more interesting than any of 
these were the Variae Lectiones, which appeared in three in- 
stalments, the first eight books in 1559, the next seven in 1580, 
and the last four in 1585. Scaliger says more than once that 
Muretus thoroughly understood Aristotle's Rhetoric ; he adds that 
Muretus was a very great man, that he satirised the Ciceronians 
and at the same time expressed himself in a thoroughly Ciceronian 
style, without confining himself to that style, like the rest. He 
was long regarded as a classic model for modern Latin prose. 
But he was himself fully conscious of the importance of Greek. 
'AH that was lofty in thought ' (he declared) ' was enshrined in the 
literature of Greece '\ During the twenty years, in which he 
lectured under no small difficulties and restrictions in Rome, 
he foresaw the decline of learning in Italy and made every effort 
to arrest it. 

1 Or, II iv (i 236 Ruhnken). 




BuDAEUi 



From the engraving in Andre Thevet, Portraits et vies des hommes illtistres 
(Paris, 1584), p. 551- 



CHAPTER XXV 

FRANCE FROM I47O TO I 60O 

In France, where the early stages in the Revival of Learning 
were mainly marked by Italian influence, the chief centres of 
intellectual life were the Royal Court, and the University of Paris. 
The Revival of Learning was promoted by the introduction of 
printing. In 1470 Michael Frey burger of Colmar, Ulrich Gering 
of Constance, and Martin Crantz, were invited to set up a press in 
the precincts of the Sorbonne. The first book printed in France by 
these German printers was the work of an Italian humanist, — the 
model Letters of Gasparino da Barzizza (1470). In the next year 
the editio princeps of Florus was produced by the same printers; 
their Sallust (1471) was soon followed by Terence, and by Virgil's 
Eclogues and Georgics, Juvenal and Persius, Cicero, De Oratore, 
Tusculan Disputations and De Officiis (1472), and Valerius 
Maximus. 

The study of Greek was slow in making its way in France. 
In 1509 the text of three treatises from Plutarch's Moralia was 
printed in Paris by Gourmont, who had established the first 
Greek press in Paris, producing in 1507 a little volume of extracts 
from the gnomic poets called the libei' gnomagyricus, the first 
Greek book printed in France. In the same year, he printed the 
Frogs and Mice of 'Homer', the Works and Days of Hesiod, and 
the Erote?nata of Chrysoloras. He also printed Musaeus and 
Theocritus, and (in 1528) the Ecclesiazusae of Aristophanes, and 
Demosthenes and Lucian. The text of the whole of Sophocles 
was completed by Simon Colinaeus on Dec. i6th, 1528. 

The following year was the date of the publication of the cele- 
brated Comtnentarii Linguae Graecae of Budaeus. 

, . . Budaeus 

Guillaume Bude (1467 — 1540), who was born m 

Paris, was the son of a wealthy civilian who had a considerable 



2l6 FRANCE [CENT. XVI 

collection of books. It was not until the age of 24 that he 
became a serious student and began to form his Latin style on 
the study of Cicero. Under Francis I and Henry II his fame as 
a Greek scholar was one of the glories of his country. In 1502-5 
he produced a Latin rendering of three treatises of Plutarch; in his 
'Annotations' on the Pandects (1508) he opened a new era in the 
study of Roman law; and, in 15 15 (n.s.), he broke fresh ground 
as the first serious student of the Roman coinage in his treatise 
De Asse. It was the ripe result of no less than nine years of 
research, and in twenty years passed through ten editions. The 
original aim of his Commentarii (1529) was the elucidation of 
the legal terminology of Greece and Rome, and, amid all the 
miscellaneous information here accumulated, that aim remains 
prominent. The material stored in his pages was incorporated 
in the Greek Thesaurus of Henri Estienne. The little volume 
De Fhilologia {i^T,o) is a plea for the public recognition of classical 
scholarship, in the form of a dialogue between Budaeus and 
Francis I. In his extensive treatise De Transitu Hellenismi ad 
Christianismum (1534) he describes the philosophy of Greece as 
a preparation for Christianity, and defends the study of Greek 
from the current imputation of 'heresy'. His French treatise, 
De r Institution du Prince, written in 1 5 1 6, was not printed until 
1547. He here declares that 'every man, even if he be a king, 
should be devoted to philology', which is interpreted as 'the love 
of letters and of all liberal learning'. Such learning, he adds, can 
only be attained through Greek and Latin, and of these Greek is 
the more important. 

Perhaps his most important, certainly his most permanent, 
service to the cause of scholarship was his prompting Francis I 
to found in 1530 the Corporation of the Royal Readers. It had 
no official residences, or even public lecture-rooms. It was many 
years before it attained the dignity of a local habitation and the 
name of the College de France.  

The year 1527 was memorable as that in which the famous 

Robert printer and scholar, Robert Estienne, or Stephanus 

Estienne (1503 — i559),first assumed an independent position 

as a publisher. His Thesaurus Linguae Latinae, published in 

a single volume in 1532, as a reprint of ' Calepinus ' (1502), 



CHAP. XXV] HENRI ESTIENNE. J. C SCALIGER 21/ 

became in its final form an entirely new work in three folio 
volumes (1543). It was not until 1544 that he turned his 
attention to Greek, and produced a series of eight editiones 
principes, beginning with Eusebius (1544-6) and going on with 
Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1546-7), Dio Cassius (1548), and 
Appian (15 51). These books were printed in a magnificent type 
designed in 1541 by the last of the professional calligraphers, 
Angelo Vergecio. The first book in which all the three alphabets 
of the new type were used was the folio edition of the Greek 
Testament (1550). This Testament had already been printed in 
duodecimo in 1546 and 1549, and long remained the standard 
text, being ultimately even described as the textus receptus in the 
Elzevir edition of 1633. 

As a printer and a scholar he was even surpassed by his 
son, Henri Estienne (1531 — 1598), whose editions Estienne 
of ancient authors amounted to no less than 58 
in Latin and 74 in Greek, 18 of the latter being editiones principes. 
He was specially attracted to the Greek historians. In Italy he 
discovered ten new books of Diodorus (ed. 1559). He ruined 
himself over the publication of his Thesaurus Graecae Linguae 
(1572) and his Plato (1578). The former, in five folio volumes, is 
his greatest work. It has been twice re-edited in modern times, 
and, as a Greek lexicon on a large scale, is still unsurpassed. 
The text of Plato held its ground for two centuries until the 
Bipontine edition of 1781-7, and it is a familiar fact that all 
modern references to Plato recognise the pages of ' Stephanus '. 
His first publication was the editio princeps of 'Anacreon' (i554)> 
and the text of that edition was not superseded for three centuries. 
His Aeschylus, edited by Victorius (1557), was the first to include 
the complete Agamemnon. 

The Ciceronianus of Erasmus had appeared in 1528. The 
French were not unnaturally offended by the way in which their 
great Greek scholar, Budaeus, had been rather unceremoniously 
mentioned in the same breath as the Parisian printer, Badius. A 
reply was prepared in the very next year by JuHus juiius Caesar 
Caesar Scaliger (1484 — 1558), a scholar of Italian scaiiger 
origin, who, after spending 42 years in Italy, had betaken himself 
to the French town of Agen on the Garonne. In 1531 he 



2l8 FRANCE [CENT. XVI 

published an oration defending Cicero from the attacks of 
Erasmus, and maintaining that Cicero was absolutely perfect. 
Erasmus treated this abusive tirade with silent contempt ; where- 
upon Scaliger prepared a still more violent and vain-glorious 
harangue, which was not published until late in 1536, a few 
months after the death of Erasmus. A more creditable pro- 
duction of Scaliger's is his treatise De Causis Latinae linguae 
(1544), an acute and judicious work on the leading principles of 
the language. A far more comprehensive work is his Po'etice 
(1561), one of the earliest modern attempts to treat the art of 
poetry in a systematic manner. He here deals with the different 
kinds of poems, and the various metres, together with figures of 
speech and turns of phrase, criticises all the Latin poets ancient 
and modern, and institutes a detailed comparison between Homer 
and Virgil to the distinct advantage of Virgil, while the epics 
of Homer are regarded as inferior to the Hero and Leander of 
' Musaeus'. 

During the controversy raised by the Ciceronia?tus, Scaliger 
wks not alone in his championship of Cicero. He 
was supported by Etienne Dolet (1506 — 1546), 
whose 'Dialogue on the imitation of Cicero' (1535) was less 
violent than Scaliger's first oration, but it was treated by Erasmus 
with the same silent contempt. The two folio volumes of his 
Commentarii Linguae Latinae were published by Gryphius in 
1536-8. The work has been justly described as 'one of the 
most important contributions to Latin scholarship produced by 
the sixteenth century '^ and its almost simultaneous appearance 
with the second edition of the Latin Thesaurus of Robert 
Estienne marks an epoch in the history of Scholarship. The 
Thesaurus^ aiming at practical utility, naturally follows the order 
of the alphabet; the 'Commentaries', ' more scientific and criti- 
cal' in their method, follow the sequence of meaning, and are 
mainly concerned with Ciceronian usage. Dolet was the first to 
translate any part of Plato, or the 'Platonic' writings, into French. 
His rendering of the Axiochus and Hipparchus^ probably made 
with the help of a Latin version, was published in 1544. A 
redundant phrase in a single passage of his rendering of the 
^ Christie, Etienne Dolet, 242 f, ed. -i 899. 



CHAP. XXV] TURNEBUS. DORAT. LAMBINUS 219 

former dialogue laid him open to the imputation of attributing 
to 'Plato' a disbelief in the immortality of the souP, and, strange 
to say, this charge contributed in no small degree to his execution 
in 1546. 

The eloquent appeal addressed in 1529 to Francis in the 
preface of the 'Commentaries' of Budaeus, together with the 
enlightened cooperation of Lascaris, led in 1530 to the foundation 
of the 'Corporation of the Royal Readers' with teachers of Greek, 
Hebrew and Mathematics, who were in the first instance five 
in number. The Royal Readers in Greek included 

■' Turnebus 

Turnebus (from 1547 to 1565), Dorat (1559 to 
1588) and Lambinus (1561 to 1572). The first of these, 
'Adrianus Turnebus' of Andelys in Normandy (1512— 1565), 
was a specialist in Greek textual criticism. As Director of the 
Royal Press in 1552-6, he published a series of Greek texts, 
including Aeschylus (1552), and Sophocles with the scholia of 
Triclinius (1553)- He also edited Cicero's Laws^ and Philo and 
Oppian; and commented on Varro and the elder Pliny. Late 
in life he completed his most important work, the thirty books of 
his Adversaria, in which a large number of passages in ancient 
authors are boldly emended or judiciously explained. 

Jean Dorat {c. 1502 — 1588) published his edition of the Pro- 
meiheus Vinctus (1549) ten years before his appoint- 
ment as one of the Royal Readers. He left behind 
him conjectural emendations on other plays of Aeschylus, which 
give proof of learning, acumen, and poetic taste. Hermann 
preferred him to all the critics on Aeschylus. 

Denys Lambin, or Dionysius Lambinus (1520 — 1572), won 
a wide reputation by his great editions of Latin 
authors. The first of these was his Horace (1561). 
He had gathered illustrations of his author from every source; 
and he had collated ten mss, mainly in Italy. The text was 
much improved, while the notes were enriched by the quotation 
of many parallel passages, and by the tasteful presentment of the 
spirit and feeling of the Roman poet. Within the next two years 
he had completed, in November 1563, his masterly edition of 
Lucretius (1564). He had founded his text on five mss; three 
1 ah yap ovk ^<rei, 'tu ne seras pas ri'en du tout \ Christie, 461 2. 




Joseph Justus Scaliger. 

From the frontispiece of the monograph by Bernays; portrait copied from 
the oil-painting in the Senate-House, Leyden ; autograph from Appendix 
ad Cyclometrica in the Royal Library, Berlin. 



CHAP. XXV] JOSEPH JUSTUS SCALIGER 221 

of these he had collated in Rome, a fourth was lent by his 
friend, Erricus Memmius, and the fifth, collated on his behalf by 
Turnebus, was that in the monastery of St Bertin in Saint-Omer, 
and is now known as the 'Leyden quarto'. He had also examined 
the earlier editions, and had studied the old Latin grammarians; 
while, with a view to his commentary, he had ransacked the 
Greek and Latin Classics. He claims to have restored the true 
reading in 800 passages, and the superiority of his text over those 
of all his predecessors *can scarcely be exaggerated ' ^ To the 
preparation of his brilliant edition of the whole of Cicero, which 
appeared in 1566, he only gave two years and a half, and some 
of his alterations of the text are regarded as unduly bold. In 
1569 he edited Cornelius Nepos. He had already completed his 
commentary on twelve of the plays of Plautus, and was beginning 
the thirteenth, when his life came to an end. 'His knowledge of 
Cicero and the older Latin writers, as well as the Augustan poets, 
has never been surpassed and rarely equalled'^. 

The excellence of the Latin style of Lambinus was admired 
by Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540 — 1609). He was 
the constant companion of his father, Julius Caesar 
Scaliger, during the last four years of that father's life. Between 
the ages of fourteen and eighteen, he was required to produce 
daily a short Latin declamation, and also to keep a written record 
of the perennial flow of his father's Latin Verse. It was thus 
that he acquired his early mastery of Latin. But he was already 
conscious that 'not to know Greek, was to know nothing '^ 
Hence, on his father's death, he went to Paris to attend the 
lectures of Turnebus; but, finding these too advanced for his 
purpose, he was compelled to be his own teacher. With the aid 
of a Latin translation, he worked through the whole of Homer in 
twenty-one days; and, in four months, he perused all the Greek 
poets. During his four years in Paris, he became intimate with 
Canter, and with Dorat, who introduced him to a nobleman of 
Poitou, Louis Chasteigner, Lord of La Roche-Pozay. With this 
nobleman Scaliger travelled for four years in Italy, giving his 

^ Munro's Lucretius, pp. 14 — 16^. 

2 Munro, u.s. 

3 Scaliger, Epp. p. 51 (L.B. 1627). 



222 FRANCE [CENT. XVI 

main attention to inscriptions, and devoting a whole winter to 
Thucydides. In his patron's family he lived from time to time 
for thirty yt^ars (1563-93), moving from castle to castle in Poitou 
and Limousin. 

He gave early proof of his study of Varro (1565), and edited the 
Catalecta of Virgil (1573). These were followed by his editions 
of Ausonius (1574), of Festus (1575), and of Catullus, Tibullus, 
and Propertius (1577). He regarded the Italian type of Scholar- 
ship, with its fancy for the imitation of the ancients, as a frivolous 
pursuit, and he had no sympathy with Italian scholars in their 
hap-hazard alterations of classical texts. He was the first to 
point the way to a sounder method of emendation founded on 
the genuine tradition of the mss; but, when he had made his 
mark as a textual critic by his editions of Festus and the Latin 
poets above mentioned, he left the path, that he had struck out, 
for a profound and protracted study of ancient history and the 
subject-matter of the -Classics. The transition is marked by his 
Manilius (1579), where his interest in textual criticism is thrown 
into the shade by his study of the astronomy of the ancients. 
His Manilius thus serves as an introduction to the comprehensive 
system of chronology set forth in his folio volume De Emendatione 
Temporum{i^%^). The publication of this work placed him at 
the head of all the living representatives of ancient learning. 
In 1590, Justus Lipsius, who had for the last twelve years been 
the leading professor at Leyden, applied for leave of absence, and, 
during that absence, became a Catholic. After some delay, 
Scaliger consented to fill the vacant place, and the stores of 
learning, that he had accumulated for thirty years as a native 
of France, were, for the last fifteen and a half years of his 
life, surrendered to the service of the Northern Netherlands. 
His disinclination to lecture was duly respected; all that the 
authorities at Leyden desired was his living and inspiring presence 
in that seat of Protestant learning. His laborious study of 
ancient chronology and history was no longer broken, as of old, 
by constant changes of residence, or by alarms arising from 
religious wars in the provinces of France. As a groundwork for 
the study of primitive tradition, he selected Jerome's translation of 
the Chronicle of Eusebius. 



CHAP. XXV] CASAUBON 223 

From the fragments of the Eusebian text, he divined that the Chronicle, in 
its original form, must have consisted of two books; that the second alone, 
with its chronological tables, was represented in Jerome's translation, while 
the first had comprised extracts from the Greek authorities on the ancient 
history of the East. With the aid of a manuscript chronicle by a Greek monk, 
Georgius Syncellus, and a chronological list of all the Olympic victors down to 
the ■249th Olympiad and other evidence, he was enabled to restore the Greek 
Eusebius, which he printed as part of his great Thesaurus Teniporum {1606). 
His conjecture as to the character and contents of the first book of Eusebius 
was confirmed long afterwards by the discovery of an Armenian version (1818), 
which also included the Olympic lists. 

During his residence at Ley den, apart from his great Thesaurus 
Temporum he produced editions of Apuleius (1600) and Caesar 
(1606), and went on correcting the text of Polybius to the very 
end of his life. Of his productions in Latin verse, two thirds 
are translations, including a Latin rendering of the whole of the 
Ajax of Sophocles, and the Cassatidra of Lycophron, and many 
Greek versions from Catullus and Martial. He not only supplied 
a large part of the materials, but also devoted no less than ten 
months to the construction of 24 admirably methodical Indices to 
Gruter's Latin Inscriptions (1602), thus laying the foundations of 
the science of Epigraphy. He had no sympathy with the fashion of 
publishing Miscellanea or Adversaria^ he preferred to deal with 
the exposition and criticism of each author as an undivided 
whole. He not only exhibits a remarkable aptitude for the 
soundest type of textual emendation; but he is also the founder 
of historical criticism. His main strength lay in a clear con- 
ception of antiquity as a whole, and in the concentration of vast 
and varied learning on distinctly important works*. 

Isaac Casaubon (1559 — 1614), who was eighteen years younger 
than Scaliger, was born at Geneva of Huguenot 

. ° Casaubon 

parents. He was learnmg Greek from his father, 
with Isocrates, ad Demonicum, as his text-book, when the news of 
the massacre of St Bartholomew's drove them to the hills, where 
the lessons in Greek were continued in a cave in Dauphine. 
He hardly began any consecutive study until the age of twenty, 
when he was sent to Geneva, there to remain for the next eighteen 

^ On Scaliger, see especially the learned monograph of Bernays (1855), 
aiid Mark Pattison's Essays, i 13': — 243. 



224 FRANCE [CENT. XVI 

years (1578-96). He there read all the Greek texts that he 
could find, besides buying transcripts of unpiiblished mss. In 
an exhaustive course of reading he made a complete survey of 
the ancient world. In 1596 he left Geneva for Montpellier, where 
there was a greater interest in the Classics, the medical course 
including Hippocrates and Galen. For three years he lectured to 
students of mature years on Roman law and history, on Plautus 
and on Persius, on Homer and Pindar, and on Aristotle's Ethics. 
Though Latin was the theme of most of his public lectures, his 
private reading was mainly Greek. Early in 1599 he was invited to 
Paris by the king, who desired his aid in a proposed 'restoration' 
of the university. He waited on the way for more than a year 
at Lyons, while he superintended the printing of his 'Animad- 
versions' on Athenaeus. In 1604 he was appointed sub-librarian 
to De Thou in the Royal Library, where he eagerly ransacked 
the MSS in his charge, besides supplying materials from their 
stores to scholars abroad. His ten years in Paris were the 
happiest period of his life. After the assassination of Henry IV 
(1610), Casaubon was urgently pressed to become a Catholic, 
but his own feelings were in favour of the via media of the 
Anglican Church, and he accepted an invitation to England, where 
he was welcomed by James I, and was assigned a prebendal stall 
in Canterbury with a pension of ;£3oo a year. He paid visits to 
Cambridge and Oxford, and was delighted with both. His stay 
in England lasted only for three years and eight months ; and, 
in his strenuous labours in the refutation of Baronius, he some- 
times sighed over his unfinished Polybius. He looked upon 
England as 'the island of the blest '\ but it was in that island 
that his life of long-continued labour and of late vigils came to 
a premature end at the age of 55. 

His earliest work was concerned with Diogenes Laertius (1583). 
His father had recommended him to read Strabo, and the son 
produced a commentary on that author in 1587, which is still 
unsuperseded. This was followed by the editio princeps of 
Polyaenus (1589), and by an ordinary edition of the whole of 
Aristotle (1590). It is not until we reach his commentary on the 
Characters of Theophrastus (1592), that we find a work that is 

1 Ep. 703. 



I 



HAP. XXV] CASAUBON 225 

marked by his distinctive merit, an interpretation of a text of the 
most varied interest founded on wide reading and consummate 
learning. The number of Characters in this edition is raised 
from 23 to 28 by the addition of five from the Heidelberg Library. 
His notes on Suetonius (1595) continued to be printed in extenso 
down to 1736. One of his greatest works was his Athenaeus; 
his text of 1597 was followed by his 'Animadversions' of 1600, 
the whole of which were reproduced by Schweighauser in 1801. 
But the absence of ethical motive led to the editor feeling a lack 
of interest in this author, and he was more strongly attracted 
to biography and to history. In the preface to the Historiae 
Augustae Scriptores (1603) he holds that 'political philosophy 
may be learned from history, and ethical from biography'. The 
ethical interest is strong in his Persius (1605), on which he had 
lectured at Geneva and Montpellier, and his commentary on the 
Stoic satirist, of which Scaliger said that the sauce was better than 
the meat, was reprinted in Germany as late as 1833, and has 
I been ultimately merged in Conington's edition. In 1605 he 
^ also published a masterly monograph, in which a clear distinction 
was once for all drawn between the satyric drama of the Greeks 
and the satiric poetry of the Romans^ The former, derived from 
croLTvpoL, Satyrs, is exemplified by the Cyclops of Euripides; the 
latter, from satura^ that is, lanx satura, a 'medley', by the Satires 
of Horace, Persius, and Juvenal. He was interested in the prac- 
tical wisdom of Polybius, and his edition of that author, promised 
in 1595, was published in 1609, with a preface of 36 folio pages 
of masterly Latin prose urging the importance of classical history 
as a subject of study for statesmen. The four years spent on this 
work were mainly devoted to the Latin translation; a small volume 
of notes was posthumously published in 161 7. Casaubon lives in' 
his Letters and in his Ephemerides, a Latin journal largely inter- 
spersed with .Greek, recording his daily reading and his reflexions 
for the last seventeen years of his life. Here and in his Letters, 
the Latin is that of a perfect master of the language, though it 
fails to attain 'the verve and pungency' of the style of Scaliger^. 

^ De satyrica Graecorum poesi et Rotnanorum satira, ed. Rambach, Halle, 

1774- 

2 On Casaubon, see the Life by Mark Pattison, 2nd ed. 1892. 

S. H. 15 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE NETHERLANDS FROM I4OO TO 1 575 

During the fourteenth century the Brotherhood of the Common 
Groot and Life was founded in the Netherlands. Among its 
Radewyns chief aims were the transcription of mss and the 

promotion of education in a religious spirit. In and after 1400 
many schools were founded by them in the Netherlands and in 
Northern Germany. In these schools the moral and religious 
education was based on the study of Latin, thus preparing the 
way for the humanists in Northern Europe. Among the pre- 
-,. , cursors of humanism trained in these schools, 

Nicolaus 

Cusanus as well as in Italy, were Nicolaus Cusanus (1401 — 

J Wessel 

1464), who bequeathed to his birthplace of Cues 
on the Mosel a valuable collection of Greek and Latin mss; and 
Johann Wessel of Groningen (1420 — 1489), the lux mundi of 
his age, who learnt Greek in Italy and counted Rudolf Agricola 
and Johann Reuchlin among his pupils in Paris \ 

The School at Deventer was revived, and that of Bois-le-Duc 
founded by the Brotherhood. Deventer was the first, and Bois- 
le-Duc the second of the schools of Erasmus. That 

Erasmus 

eminent humanist, who belongs to the Netherlands 
by virtue of his birth, is so cosmopolitan in his character and in 
the varied regions of his activity, that his career has already been 
reviewed at an earlier points The Collegium Trilingue for the 
study of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, was founded at Louvain in 

15 17 by Jerome Busleiden. After the death of the 

Busleiden ^ ' ^ ■^ 

founder, no one did more than Erasmus to ensure 
the realisation of his friend's design, and, but for Erasmus, the 

1 On Wessel, see P. S. Allen, The Age of Erastnus, 19 14, pp- 9 — 13, 
29—32. 



CHAP. XXVI] CANTER. CRUQUIUS 22/ 

Collegium Trilingue could hardly have survived the first ten years 
of its existence. 

Willem Canter of Utrecht (1542 — 1575), who studied under 
Dorat in Paris, afterwards lived as an independent 

T • TT W. Canter 

scholar at Louvain. He opens a new era as an 
editor of the Tragic Poets of Greece. His Euripides, a sexto- 
decimo volume of more than 800 pages (15 71), is the first in 
which the metrical responsions between strophe and antistrophe 
are clearly marked by means of Arabic numerals in the margin, 
and the text repeatedly corrected under the guidance of these 
responsions. His editions of Sophocles (1579) and Aeschylus 
(1580) were posthumously published. The former remained in 
common use for more than two centuries. 

Another notable name is that of Jacob Cruquius, the professor 
of Bruges, whose edition of Plorace, begun in 1565 
and completed in 1578, supplies us with our only 
information as to the codex antiquissimus Blandinius, borrowed 
from the library of a Benedictine monastery in Ghent, and burnt 
with the monastery after it had been returned to the library. 

During the progress of the Horatian labours of Cruquius, an 
event took place that marks an epoch in the history of scholarship 
in the Netherlands, the foundation of the university of Leyden, in 
memory of the heroism displayed by its inhabitants during its 
famous siege in 1575. While Louvain continued to be the leading 
university of the Southern (or Spanish) Netherlands, Leyden 
became the foremost seat of learning in those Northern Nether- 
lands, which threw off the Spanish yoke and formed themselves 
into the 'United Provinces' in 1579- The first period in the 
history of scholarship in the Netherlands has now ended: the 
foundation of Leyden marks the beginning of the second. 



15- 



CHAPTER XXVII 

ENGLAND FROM C. 1 460 TO C. 1 60O 

In the Revival of Learning the first Englishman who studied 
Greek was a Benedictine monk, William of Selling, 
or Celling, near Canterbury (d. 1494). He went 
to Italy in 1464 and studied for three years at Padua, Bologna, 
and Rome. On his return, he brought back many mss, and en- 
deavoured to make a home of learning in the monastery of Christ 
Church, Canterbury, of which he was Prior from 1472 to 1494. 
He also visited Rome in 1469 and 1485. 

In the school of Christ Church, Selling inspired with his love 
of classical learning his pupil and nephew, Thomas 
Linacre {c. 1460 — 1524), who went to Oxford about 
T480, was elected Fellow of All Souls in 1484, and accompanied 
Selling on his embassy to the Pope in 1485-6. It was during 
this visit to Italy that Selling introduced Linacre to Politian in 
Florence. In Florence Linacre studied Latin and Greek under 
Politian and Chalcondyles. A year later he went to Rome. 
After leaving Rome for Venice, he made the acquaintance of 
Aldus Manutius, and was enrolled as an honorary member of his 
Greek Academy. On his return to England he translated the 
commentary of Simplicius on the Physics and of Alexander on 
the Meteorologica of Aristotle. His translation remained un- 
published, but his renderings of several treatises of Galen saw the 
light, De Sanitate Tuenda and Methodus Medendi in Paris (15 17 
and 1519)^ and De Temperamentis at Cambridge (1521). In 
1509 he had been appointed physician to Henry VIII. His 
appointment as tutor to the princess Mary led to his preparing 
a Latin Grammar, which was composed in English, though it 



CHAP. XXVIl] LINACRE 229 

bore the Latin title, Rudimenta Grammatices {c. 1523): it was 
afterwards translated into Latin by Buchanan. A far more 
important work was Linacre's treatise De Emendata Strudura 
Latini Sermonis (1524), which was reprinted abroad with a 
letter from Melanchthon recommending its use in the schools of 
Germany \ 

Modern English Scholarship begins with Linacre and his 
friend William Grocyn {c. 1446 — 15 19), elected ^^.^^ ^ 
Fellow of New College in 1467. He was over 
forty when he joined Linacre in Italy, where he attended 
the lectures of Politian and Chalcondyles between 1488 and 
1490. It was probably not until his return from Italy in 1491, 
that the teaching of Greek began to be effective in Oxford. In 
1496 he left for London, where More became his pupil. 

During the short time spent by Erasmus in Cambridge (Aug. 
151 1 — Jan. 1 5 14), he gave unofficial instruction in 
Greek, beginning with the catechism of Chrysoloras, 
and going on to the larger grammar of Theodorus Gaza. 

When in 1516 Bishop Fox, who had been Master of Pem- 
broke College, Cambridge, founded Corpus Christi Greek at 
College, Oxford, he made provision for lecturers Oxford and 

, . . • . 1 ^ 1 -, T • Cambridge 

who were to give mstruction m the Greek and Latm 

Classics. This was the first permanent establishment of a teacher 

of Greek in England. 

Among the pupils of Erasmus in Cambridge was Henry 
Bullock, Fellow of Queens' (1506), who kept Greek alive in 
Cambridge, till it was taken up in 15 18 by Richard Croke 
{c. 1489 — 1558), the minister and discipulus of Buiiock 
Grocyn (probably in London). Croke became Croke 
Scholar of King's, and afterwards Fellow of St John's. After 
studying at Cambridge in 1506-10, he worked in Paris 151 1-2 
under Erasmus and Aleander, and, in 15 15-7, taught Greek 
with signal success at Cologne, Louvain, and Leipzig, where he 
counted Camerarius among his pupils. After eight years' absence 
abroad, he returned from Dresden to Cambridge in 15 18, and, 

1 See J. F. Payne's Introduction to Linacre's Galen {181 1), and William 
Osier's Linacre Lecture (Cambridge), 1908. 



230 ENGLAND [CENT. XVI 

having been formally appointed Reader in Greek, delivered two 
orations on the importance and utility of that language (1520). 
The Regius Professorship of Greek, founded in 1540, was con- 
sirjohn ferred on John Cheke (1514-57), 'who taught 

cheke Cambridge and king Edward Greek.' Within two 

years of Cheke's appointment, we find Roger Ascham (15 15 — 
1568), Fellow of St John's, writing to another 

Ascham , r ^ • i n • i • 

member of the same society on the nourishmg 
state of classical studies in Cambridge. In the course of his 
Scholemaster the Latin books that he recommends are the Letters 
and Speeches of Cicero, with Terence, Plautus, Caesar, and Livy. 
He also maintains that the best method of learning Latin is that 
of translation and retranslation. His place in the History of 
Scholarship cannot be better summed up than in the language of 
Fuller: — 'Ascham came to Cambridge just at the dawning of 
learning, and staid therein till the bright-day thereof, his own 
endeavours contributing much light thereunto '^ 

Meanwhile, Latin scholarship was well represented in Scotland 
by a humanist who was born before Cheke and 
Ascham, and survived them both. George Buchanan 
(1506 — 1582) studied in Paris in 1520-2 and at St Andrew's in 
1524. He taught Latin in Paris 1526-34, and Bordeaux 1540-3, 
and again in Paris 1544-7. Invited to teach at Coimbra in 1547, 
he was imprisoned by the Inquisition from 1549 to 155 1. After 
returning to Paris in 1553, he was a travelling tutor in France 
and Italy in 1554-9, and finally returned to Scotland early 
in 1562. His earliest work was his Latin translation (1533) 
of Linacre's English Kudimenta Grammatices. His scholarship 
is best represented by his Latin version of the Psalms in 
various metres, mainly produced during his imprisonment in 
Portugal. Henry and Robert Stephens, in all their editions 
(1566 etc.), describe the translator as po'etarum nostri saeculi 
facile princeps. Even in his Hfetime his Latin Psalms were 
studied in the schools of Germany, and they remained long in use 
in the schools of Scotland. His Rerum Scoticarum Historia^ a 



^ Fuller's Worthies (1662) in Yorkshire, 209. Cp. in general Mayor's ed. 
oi i]\Q Scholemaster, 1863. 



CHAP. XXVll] ASCHAM. BUCHANAN 23 1 

folio volume in twenty books, was published in the year of his death 
(1582). His instincts as a humanist prompted him to select Latin 
as the language of this work, which was read with interest by the 
scholars of Europe for two centuries \ 

1 On Buchanan, cp. P. Hume Brown, George Buchanan, Humanist and 
Reformer (1890); also Life by D. Macmillan (1906); and Essay by T. D. 
Robb, included in Glasgow Quatercentenary Studies, 1907. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

GERMANY FROM I460 TO 1616 

In 1 46 1 the astronomer Johann Miiller of Konigsberg, near 
Coburg, who is best known as Regiomontanus 
tanuf°"'°"' (1436— 1476), accompanied Bessarion to Italy, 
where he made a complete copy of the tragedies 
of Seneca, learnt Greek, and produced Latin translations of the 
works of Ptolemy, and the Conic Sections of ApoUonius of Perga. 
He finally settled at Nuremberg, where he published the first 
edition of the astronomical poem of Manilius (1472). 

A place of honour among the early humanists of Germany 
is justly assigned to the famous Frisian, Roelof 
gnco a Huysman, or Rodolphus Agricola (1444 — 1485), 
who was born near Groningen. He studied law and rhetoric at 
Pavia between 1469 and 1474. In 1475 ^^ ^'^^^ ^^ Ferrara, and 
studied Greek under Theodorus Gaza. In 1479 — 1484 he lived 
mainly at Groningen. In 1484 he went to teach at Heidelberg 
on the invitation of Dalberg, bishop of Worms, whom he accom- 
panied to Rome in the following year. Shortly after his return 
he died. At Heidelberg he was apparently more effective in his 
private and personal influence than in his professorial teaching. 
The highest praise must be bestowed on his renderings from Lucian. 
He also translated the Pseudo-Platonic Axiochus, and Isocrates, 
Ad Demonicum, and edited the declamations of the elder Seneca. 
His principal work, De inventione dialectica (15 15), was a notable 
treatise on rhetoric. His slight treatise on education (1484) was 
welcomed as a libellus vere aureus when it appeared in the same 
volume as the corresponding works of Erasmus and Melanchthon. 
He is remembered as an earnest opponent of mediaeval scholas- 



I 



» 



CHAP. XXVIIl] REUCHLIN. MELANCHTHON 233 

ticism, and he certainly did much towards making the study of 
the Classics a vital force in Germany'. 

His younger contemporary, Johann Reuchlin (1455 — 1522), 
studied Greek at Paris in 1473 and in 1478, and 

_, , . 1 r TT- Reuchlin 

m the mterim, at Basel m and after 1474. His 
Vocabularius Breuiloquus^ a Latin dictionary founded mainly on 
mediaeval manuals, was there published anonymously in 1475, 
and, in less than thirty years, passed through twenty editions. 
He taught Greek, as well as Latin, at Basel, Orleans and Poitiers. 
He describes the results of his learning and teaching Greek as 
follows : ' To Latin was then added Greek, the knowledge of 
which is necessary for a liberal education. We are thus led back 
to the philosophy of Aristotle, which cannot be really compre- 
hended until its language is understood '^ In 1482, and again in 
1490, he went to Italy. In Rome he won the admiration of 
Argyropulos by his mastery of Greek. On a subsequent visit in 
1498 he learnt Hebrew, which was thenceforward the main 
interest of his life. He spent twenty years at Stuttgart, and two 
at Ingoldstadt, and for the last year of his life was professor of 
Greek and Hebrew at Tubingen. In the study of Hebrew he 
came into conflict with the obscurantists of the day, but his cause 
was supported by the enlightened humanists of Germany. It was 
in defence of Reuchlin that the barbarous Latinity and the 
mediaeval scholasticism of his opponents were admirably parodied 
in the Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum (15 16-7). 

Melanchthon (1497 — 1560), who was educated at Tubingen, left 
his mark on the history of education in Germany, 
not only as a lecturer on Virgil, Terence, and the 
rhetorical works of Cicero, and as Professor of Greek at Witten- 
berg, but also as a keen advocate for a thorough training in 
grammar and style. He produced works on Greek (15 18) and 
Latin Grammar (1525-6), and many editions of the Classics, 
besides text-books of all kinds, which remained long in use. In 
conjunction with colleagues inspired by the same spirit, he 
published a series of commentaries on Cicero's rhetorical works, 
on Terence and Sallust, on the Fasti of Ovid, the Germania of 

^ Cp. P. S. Allen, The Age of Erasmus, 14 — •ii, 25 — 32. 
^ Ep. 250. 



234 GERMANY [CENT. XVI 

Tacitus, and the tenth book of Quintilian, as well as on selections 
from Aristotle's Ethics and Politics. The series included editions 
of Hesiod and Theognis, and the Clouds and Plutus of Aristo- 
phanes, with translations of Pindar and Euripides, and of 
speeches of Thucydides and Demosthenes. Of his numerous 
' Declamations ' the most celebrated is that on the study of the 
classical languages, and especially on the study of Greek, de- 
livered as his inaugural lecture at Wittenberg (151 8). He had 
no sympathy with the paganising spirit of many of the Italian 
humanists : the principles of Christianity were part of the very 
life-blood of the pr acceptor Germaniae. 

Joachim Camerarius of Bamberg (1500 — 1574), after becoming 
the intimate friend of Melanchthon at Wittenberg, 
held classical professorships at Nuremberg (1526), 
Tiibingen (1535), and Leipzig (1541-74). His numerous editions 
of the Classics, without attaining the highest rank, are characterised 
by acumen and good taste. They include Homer, the Greek 
Elegiac poets, Theocritus, Sophocles, Thucydides and Herodotus, 
Theophrastus, Ptolemy and Galen, as well as posthumous editions 
of Aristotle's Ethics^ Politics^ and Economics. He also produced 
an extensive series of Latin translations of the Greek Classics. 
Among his editions of Latin authors (which included Quintilian 
and Macrobius) a place of honour must be assigned to his Plautus 
(1552), the text of which was founded on the codex vetus Camerarii 
(cent, xi), containing all the extant plays, and on the codex 
decurtatus (xii), formerly at Freising, containing the last twelve 
plays alone. Both of these belonged to the Palatine Library 
at Heidelberg, but were removed to the Vatican in 1623; the 
former is still in the Vatican, while the latter has been restored to 
Heidelberg. They are now known by the symbols B and C 
respectively. In critical acumen, Camerarius holds one of the 
foremost places among the German scholars of the sixteenth 
century. 

Melanchthon's pupil, Hieronymus Wolf (15 16 — 1580), who 

lived at Augsburg, made his mark by his repeated 

editions of Isocrates (1570 etc.), and Demosthenes 

(1572 etc.), with Latin translations and explanatory notes. For 

his Demosthenes, which was published in five folio volumes, he 



CHAP. XXVIII] XYLANDER. SYLBURG 235 

used a valuable ms in the Augsburg Library, the codex Augustanus 
primus, now at Munich. He also edited Suidas (1564), and three 
folio volumes of Byzantine historians. 

Wilhelm Xy lander of Augsburg (1532 — 1576), who was pro- 
fessor of Greek at Heidelberg, produced the editio 
princeps of Marcus Aurelius (1558), and important 
editions of Plutarch (1560-70), Strabo (157 1), and Stephanus of 
Byzantium (1568). He made good use of the mss accessible to 
him, and also gave proof of a singular acumen in the emendation 
of texts. His edition of Pausanias was completed by Sylburg 
{i^xd — 1'?96), who edited at Frankfurt the whole of 

\ JO ^y n ^ Sylburg 

Aristotle, and of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the 
three volumes of the Scrip tores historiae Romanae, and the gram- 
matical work of Apollonius Trept o-wra^ew?, and, at Heidelberg, 
the Latin writers De Re Rustica^ and the Greek Fathers, Clement 
of Alexandria and Justin Martyr. His main characteristics were 
a thorough knowledge of Greek, critical acumen, and an intelligent 
application of great powers of work. 



BOOK IX 

THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 



CHAPTER XXIX 

ITALY AND FRANCE 



In Latin scholarship the most pleasing product of the 

seventeenth century in Italy is to be found in the Prolusiones 

Acade77iicae of the Roman Jesuit, Famianus Strada 

Strada J •> 

(1572 — 1649), first pubhshed in 1617. I" the 
varied pages of this compact and compendious volume the 
author shows considerable taste in dealing with large questions 
of historical, oratorical and political style. He also presents 
us with six short poems skilfully composed by himself in the 
style of Lucretius, Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, Statius, and Claudian. 

In the same century Pindar and Horace were imitated by 
Italian poets, but classical learning was mainly limited to archaeo- 
logy and especially to the collection of Latin inscriptions and 
the reproduction of the coins and gems, the paintings and 
sculptures, of ancient Rome. 

We have seen that, in the latter part of the sixteenth century, 
the two greatest representatives of classical learning in France, 
Scaliger and Casaubon, were Protestants, who, in 1593 and 16 10, 
were compelled to leave their native land for the Netherlands and 
England. The Chair of Scaliger, which had long been left vacant 
at Leyden, was filled in 16^2 by the call of 

Salmasius r>. i • ^ j 

'Salmasms'. Claude de Saumaise (1588 — 1653) 
was a native of Saumur. In 1607 his early promise had been 
recognised by Casaubon. In that year, at the age of 19, he had 



CHAP. XXIX] SALMASIUS 237 

already discovered at Heidelberg the celebrated ms of the Anthologia 
Palatina of Constantine Cephalas, and was receiving letters from the 
aged Scaliger, to whom he sent transcripts of many of the epigrams, 
and by whom he was strongly urged to edit the work. The 
edition was repeatedly promised, but was never produced. At 
Heidelberg Salmasius was under the influence of Gruter, who 
contributed the notes to his early edition of Florus (1609). In 
his edition of the Historiae Augustae Scriptores (1620) he dis- 
tinguished himself less as a sound textual critic than as an 
erudite commentator. His most remarkable work is that entitled 
Plinianae Exercitationes, in which more than 900 pages are 
devoted to the elucidation of the portions of Pliny included in 
the geographical compendium of Solinus (1629). At Leyden 
he edited authors of minor importance only ; he also produced 
a learned treatise De Usuris (1638), which includes a historical 
survey of the subject, and insists on the legitimacy of usury for 
clergy and laity alike. In his Funus linguae Hellenisticae (1643) 
he contends that the language of the Greek Scriptures is not a 
separate dialect but the ordinary Greek of the time. In 1649, 
at the request of the exiled king, Charles II, he prepared his 
Defensio Regia Pro Carolo /(1649). The reply was entrusted to 
Milton, whose pamphlet, entitled Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio 
(165 1 ), teems with personalities, and the same is true of the 
rejoinder by Salmasius, which was his latest work. He left 
behind him a vast reputation for learning. 

Meanwhile, in the native land of Salmasius, Harpocration 
had been edited in 16 14 by Philippe Jacques de Maussac 
Maussac (1590 — 1650), president in Montpellier. Vaiesius 
That lexicographer was further expounded in 1682 by the 
disputatious pedant, Henri de Valois, or Vaiesius (1603 — 1676), 
who had been educated by the Jesuits at Verdun and Paris, 
and is known as the editor of Ammianus Marcellinus (1636) and 
of the Excerpta (Peiresciana) from Polybius (1634). 

The erudite scholar and historian, Charles du Fresne, sieur 
Du Cange (16 10 — -1688), who was born at Amiens, 
was called to the parliamentary bar, but devoted 
himself mainly to historical studies at Amiens (1638—68) and 
Paris (1668-88). He is best known for his great Glossary of 



238 FRANCE [cent. XVII 

mediaeval Latin, originally published in three folio volumes 
(1678), and a corresponding Glossary of mediaeval Greek in two 
(1688). The lexicographer of the latest Latinity was himself an 
accomplished writer, and the range of his learning not only 
included a variety of languages, but also extended over history 
and geography, law and heraldry, numismatics and epigraphy, 
and Greek and Latin palaeography. His lexicographical works 
were directly founded on the study of an infinite number of mss. 
His work on Byzantine History was illustrated by a two-fold 
commentary, including an account of the families, as well as the 
coins and topography, of Constantinople (1680). He is one of 
the greatest lexicographers of France, and his work in this depart- 
ment still remains unsurpassed. 

Tanaquil Faber of Caen (1615 — 1672), who taught at Saumur, 
was a diligent editor of Greek and Latin texts. 

T. Faber 

Among the former were Anacreon and Sappho, 
Dionysius Periegetes, Agathemerus, Apollodorus, ' Longinus ', 
and Aelian ; while the latter included Florus, Terence, Lucretius, 
Andre and "^i^^gil* Horacc, and Phaedrus. Faber's daughter, 
Anne Dacier Anne, was married to Andre Dacier (1651 — 1722), 
a member of the Academy, and Librarian in Paris. Dacier, 
besides producing new editions of Faber's Anacreon and 
Sappho, edited 'Festus and Verrius Flaccus' (1681). His 
translations included Aristotle's treatise on Poetry. He edited 
Horace, while the honour of producing a French translation of 
that poet was shared by his learned wife. Madame Dacier 
(1654 — 1720) was also the translator of Terence, and of three 
plays of Plautus, together with the Plutus and Clouds of 
Aristophanes, Anacreon and Sappho, and the whole of the 
Iliad and Odyssey. Her rendering of Homer is her master- 
piece. As an editor of the Classics, she is represented in Greek 
by her Callimachus ; and in Latin by Florus, Dictys and Dares, 
Aurelius Victor, and Eutropius. All these Latin works formed 
part of the celebrated series of the Delphin Classics. The general 
editor and organiser of the series was Pierre Daniel 
Huet of Caen (1630 — 1721), who from 1670 to 
1680 was the coadjutor of Bossuet in the tuition of the Grand 
Dauphin, the son of Louis XIV. Nearly sixty volumes were 



CHAP. XXIX] MABILLON 239 

produced in less than twelve years by thirty-nine editors at a cost 
equivalent to about ;£"i 5,000. The project marks an epoch in 
the history of classical literature in France. In addition to a 
Latin commentary, each of these editions had an ordo verborum 
below the text, and a complete verbal index. 

Huet survived for fourteen years his learned contemporary, 
Jean Mabillon (1632— 1707), one of the greatest 

. MabiUon 

ornaments of the Benedictme Order. He was a 
member of the abbey of Saint- Germain-des-Pres in the south of 
Paris for 43 years from the date of his entering it at the age of 
thirty-two to his death at the age of seventy-five. The general 
object of his great work De Re Diplomatica (1681) is to set fojth 
the proper method of determining the date and genuineness 
of ancient documents. During his tour in Germany in 1683 
he took note of Greek mss at Augsburg, and mss of Virgil at 
Reichenau ; and discovered a collection of Roman inscriptions, 
unknown to Gruter. 

Among the numerous mss acquired during a similar 
journey in Italy in 1685-6, was a fine copy of Ammianus 
Marcellinus. In 1701 the 'Academy of Inscriptions' was 
founded by Colbert, not with a view to the study of ancient 
inscriptions, but primarily for the composition of appropriate 
mottoes for the medals struck in honour of the exploits of 
Louis XIV. This Academy soon became the centre of the 
study of language and history in France. By the royal command 
Mabillon was nominated one of the original members. The 
guiding principle of his life may be found in the motto prefixed 
to the De Re Diplomatica which, among all his learned works, has 
the closest connexion with scholarship : scientia veri justique 
vindex. 




Lipsius. 

IVSTO 2-IPSIO LiTTERARVM STVDIIS FLORENTISSIMO SAPIENTIAE ARTIBVS 

Immortali ViRO loANNEs WovERivs Antverpiensis Hanc DIGNISSIMAM 
VVLTVS veritatem perenni aere svo aere et amore inscriptam 
cvLTVs 'et observantiae aeternvm symbolvm L. M. Curabat Ant- 
verpiae MTOCV. 



From Pierre de Jode's engraving of portrait by Abraham Janssens (1605). 
Reduced from large copy in Max Rooses, Christophe Plantin (1882), p. 342 f. 



CHAPTER XXX 

THE NETHERLANDS FROM 1 575 TO 1 7OO 

A NEW era in the History of Scholarship in the Northern 
Netherlands is marked by the foundation of the university of 
Ley den in 1575. One of the two greatest services rendered to 
Leyden by its first curator, Tanus Dousa, was his 

... . Lipsius 

happily inducing the great Latin scholar, Justus 
Lipsius (1547 — 1606), to take up his residence at Leyden in 
1579. At Louvain, he had specially devoted himself to Roman 
Law. He had spent two years in Italy (1567-8), examining 
inscriptions, and collating transcripts of Tacitus, without ascertain- 
ing the existence of either of the two Medicean mss. In 1572-3 
he held a professorship at Jena, where he became a Protestant. 
In 1574 he spent nine months in Cologne, and in the same year 
his great edition of Tacitus was published at Antwerp. In 1576 
he was lecturing at Louvain on the first book of Livy. At Leyden 
he was honorary Professor of History, from i579toi59i. In the 
latter year, when a controversy arose on the punishment of 
heretics, he asked for leave of absence, and quietly went to 
Mainz, where he was re-admitted into the Roman Church. He 
was succeeded at Leyden by Scaliger. In 1592 Lipsius accepted 
a call to his first university of Louvain, where, as professor of 
History, he lectured to large classes on the Roman historians and 
on the moral treatises of Seneca. His main strength lay in 
textual criticism and in exegesis. His masterpiece in this respect 
was his Tacitus, of which two editions appeared in his life-time 
(1574, 1600), and two after his death, the latest and best, that of 
1648, including Velleius. It was not until 1600 that the readings 
of the two Medicean mss were published (by Pichena), when one of 
the earliest of his emendations, gnarum (for G. navum) id Caesart^. 

1 Ann. i 5. 
S. H. 16 



242 THE NETHERLANDS [CENT. XVII 

was confirmed. The exegesis of his edition rests on a profound 
and accurate knowledge of Roman history and antiquities. It is 
a work that places him in the front rank of Latin scholars, but it 
must not be forgotten that he also produced editions of Valerius 
Maximus and Velleius Paterculus, and of Seneca and the Pane- 
gyric of the younger PHny. He is the model followed in the 
seventeenth century by members of the historical school of 
Strassburg in their editions of the Roman historians. His 
thorough acquaintance with Latin literature and Roman history 
is conspicuous in his numerous antiquarian treatises, especially in 
those entitled De Militia Roma?ia and Poliorcetica. His study of 
the authors of the Silver Age led to his abandoning the moderate 
Ciceronianism of his earlier Letters and of his Variae Lediones 
(1569) for a style founded on Tacitus and Seneca, and even on 
Gellius and Apuleius. Though he was fond of quoting Greek, 
his strength did not lie in that branch of scholarship. 

In the next generation a wide field of learning was covered 
by Gerard John Vossius (is 77 — 1649), who, in 

G. J. Vossius ; -' . , , ' Z. 

1622, was appomted professor of Eloquence at 
Leyden, and, after holding that office for ten years, accepted the 
professorship of History at Amsterdam in 1631, when Salmasius 
was appointed to fill the Chair of History at Leyden. The 
subjects of the most important works of Vossius were Grammar, 
Rhetoric, and the History of Literature. His earliest literary 
distinction was won at Leyden in 1606, when he published a 
comprehensive treatise on Rhetoric^ which, in the edition printed 
thirty years later, fills 1000 quarto pages. His text-book of 
Latin Grammar (1607) was repeatedly reprinted in Holland and 
Germany, while his learned and scholarly work on the same 
general subject, published in four volumes in 1635, under the 
title of Aristarchus^ sive de Arte Grammatica, went through 
several editions, the latest of which appeared at Halle after the 
lapse of two centuries. He also wrote a treatise De Vitiis 
Sermonis (1645). I"^ the interval between these two works on 
Grammar, he published two important treatises on the History of 
Literature, entitled De Historicis Graecis (1623-4) and Latinis 
(1627), and a new edition of the former appeared at Leipzig as 
late as 1833. His treatise on Poetry (1647) was a work of wide 



CHAP. XXX] MEURSIUS. D. HEINSIUS 243 

influence. His interest in Art is attested by his brief treatise 
De Graphke, while he is also the author of one of the earliest 
works on Mythology. He was a diligent collector of mss. These 
were inherited by his son, Isaac (16 18 — 1689), on whose death 
in England they were bought by Leyden. The codices include the 
two famous mss of Lucretius. 

The learned antiquarian, Joannes Meursius (1579 — 1639), 
edited Lycophron ii^Ql) and Cato De ag^ri cultura 

^ ^ \ j:'// d Meursius 

(1598), and became professor of History and of 
Greek at Leyden in 16 10. During the fourteen years of his 
professorial activity, he produced a standard edition of Hesychius 
of Miletus (161 3), and the editio princeps of the Elementa 
Harmonica of Aristoxenus (16 16); he also edited the Timaeus of 
Plato with the commentary and translation of Chalcidius (16 17). 
He wrote much on the Antiquities of Athens and Attica, and the 
vast amount of rather confused learning that he has thus collected 
has been largely utilised by later writers on the same subject. 
He commemorated the first jubilee of Leyden by producing, 
under the name of Athenae Batavae, a small quarto volume in 
two books, (i) a history of the Town and University, and 
(2) a series of biographies of the principal professors (1625). 
In the same year he accepted the professorship of History at the 
Danish university of Soroe, where he passed the last fourteen 
years of his life. His Opera omnia were published in 12 folio 
volumes at Florence in 1741-63. 

His contemporary, Daniel Heinsius of Ghent (i 580-1 — 1655), 
found a friend in Scaliger at Leyden, where he was 

1 _, - 1 X -1 • • . D. Heinsius 

appomted Professor and Librarian in 1605. His 
work on Greek authors, such as Hesiod and Aristotle's treatise 
on Poetry (161 1), was (except in the case of Theocritus) better 
than his work on Latin authors. In his pamphlet De Tragoediae 
Constitiitione (16 11), he deals with all the essential points in 
Aristotle's treatise, giving proof that he has thoroughly imbibed 
the author's spirit, and adding illustrations from the Greek tragic 
poets, and from Horace and Seneca. It was through this work 
that he became a centre of Aristotelian influence in Holland, 
France, Germany, and England. His transpositions in the text 
of the Ars Fo'etica and his verbal conjectures in the other works 

16 — 2 



244 THE NETHERLANDS [CENT. XVII 

of Horace (2nd ed.-i6i2) have been disapproved by Bentley and 
other critics; and his critical notes on Silius (1600), on the 
tragedies of Seneca (161 1), and on Terence (16 16) and Ovid 
(1629), are not much more valuable than those on Horace. His 
Ovid is his most important work in Latin scholarship; he also 
edited Livy (1634) and Virgil (1636). His criticisms on the Latin 
poets, and his Latin orations and elegiac poems, were highly 
praised by his contemporaries. 

His many-sided contemporary Hugo Grotius (1583 — 1645), 
who was educated at Leyden, was eminent as a 

Grotius . , "^ . 

statesman, a diplomatist, a theologian and a scholar. 
At the age of fifteen, under the influence of Scaliger, he began to 
prepare an edition of the mediaeval text-book of the liberal arts 
by Martianus Capella (published in 1599). The work was 
welcomed by Scaliger, who divined the editor's future greatness. 
In the year of its publication his father, fearing he might be unduly 
attracted to the pursuit of literature, removed him from Leyden 
as soon as he had taken the degree of Doctor in Law, and entered 
him as an advocate at the Hague. The early part of his public 
career was an unbroken series of distinctions. He was successively 
historiographer of the Netherlands, advocate-general of Holland 
and Zealand, a member of the States-general, and envoy to England. 
His earliest work on international law was the Mare Liberum 
(1609), and he was well content with the terms of the answer to 
that work in the Mare Clausum of the learned Selden (1636). 
In 16 1 9 the Arminian (or anti-Calvinistic) opinions of Olden- 
Barneveldt led to his being sentenced to death with the approval 
of the Synod of Dort, and Grotius, who sympathised with him, 
was condemned to imprisonment for life, but, after the lapse of a 
year and ten months, the prisoner made his escape. In March, 
1622, he fled to Paris. In the following year he produced his 
edition and translation of the poetic passages in Stobaeus, ac- 
companied by the treatises of Plutarch and Basil on the study of 
the poets, and followed, three years later, by excerpts from the 
tragic and comic poets of Greece. In the three short years 
between the publication of his Stobaeus and 1625 he composed 
his classic work JDe Jure Belli et Pads. In the same year he 
completed the Latin version of the De Veritate Religionis 



CHAP. XXX] GROTIUS. GRONOVIUS 245 

Christianae, His translation of Procopius was not published 
until ten years after his death. In 1635 he began his career as 
envoy of the queen Christina of Sweden at the court of France ; 
and, ten years later, he died at Rostock, on his way from Sweden 
to his native land. 

Apart from his important works in the domain of theology, 
law, and history, his productions as a scholar alone would be 
enough to lend distinction to his name. In his early youth 
he had commented on Martianus Capella; in 1601 and 1608 
respectively, he had written two Latin tragedies, on the Exile of 
Adam and the death of Christ. He had translated the Phoenissae 
of Euripides, and the poetic extracts in Stobaeus ; he had edited 
Lucan (16 14), and SiHus (1636); and had corrected the text of 
Seneca's Tragedies and of Tacitus. At Paris in 1630 he began 
his admirable renderings of the Planudean Anthology, which did 
not see the light until 150 years after the translator's death. His 
Latin poems give abundant proof of his poetic taste ; their author 
surpasses all the Latin poets of his age in the success with which 
he reproduces the spirit of classical poetry, and clothes modern 
thoughts in ancient forms. 

The next generation to that of Grotius is represented by 
Tohann Friedrich Gronov(i6ii — 1671). He was 

*' . Gronovms 

born at Hamburg and studied at Leipzig and Jena, 
entered Leyden in 1634, and completed his academic education 
at Groningen. Thereupon he travelled in France, Italy and 
England ; and the mss examined in the course of his travels 
supplied him with materials for his future editions of the Latin 
Classics. He owed his interest in scholarship to the influence of 
Vossius, Grotius, Daniel Heinsius, and Scriverius, and to the 
teaching of Salmasius. He was a Professor at Deventer in 1 642, and, 
in 1 659, he succeeded Daniel Heinsius at Leyden, while the younger 
Heinsius was one of his most intimate friends. His miscellaneous 
Observationes were warmly welcomed by Grotius (1639), and his 
commentary De Sestertiis was received with equal enthusiasm by 
Vossius (1643). ^s an editor, he devoted himself mainly to the 
classical writers of Latin prose, sharing with Lipsius a preference 
for the authors of the first century, and especially for those that 
gave peculiar scope for the elucidation of their subject-matter. 



246 THE NETHERLANDS [CENT. XVII 

His editions mark an epoch in the study of Livy, of both the 
Senecas, and Gellius and Tacitus. He also edited the great work 
of the elder Pliny. This preference for prose had possibly been 
inspired at Leyden by the example of Salmasius. The extension 
of his interest to the textual criticism of Latin poetry was due to 
the discovery of the Florentine ms of the tragedies of Seneca. 
His diatribe on the Silvae of Statius is an immature work, but, in 
his riper years, the acumen exhibited in his handling of prose is 
also exemplified in his treatment of the text of poets such as 
Statius, Seneca, Martial, and Phaedrus. His edition of Plautus 
is marred by an imperfect knowledge of metre, which has been 
noticed by Bentley. Markland^ the editor of Statius' Silvae^ has 
declared 'nunquam interituram esse veram eruditionem, donee 
Gronovii opera legentur'. 

The Latin poets were specially studied by Nicolaus Heinsius 
(1620 — 1 681), the only son of Daniel. He travelled 
in England, France, Italy, and Sweden. In 1651 
he resided in Italy as the envoy of queen Christina, represented 
the Netherlands at the Swedish court in 1654, was Secretary of 
State at Amsterdam in 1656, and was once more in Sweden in 
1659. In 167 1 he visited Moscow; he afterwards lived in retire- 
ment S. of Utrecht, and he died at the Hague. For a large part 
of his career he was engaged in diplomatic and political work ; 
he never held any academic appointment ; and it was only the 
leisure hours of his public life that he could devote to the 
pursuits of scholarship. His natural tastes inclined him to 
poetry. Of his three volumes of Latin verse, two had been 
published before he had edited a single Latin author. His 
practice in versification, his wide reading in classical and post- 
classical Latin, and his knowledge of Greek literature, made him 
an accomplished scholar, and a well-equipped editor of classical 
texts. As a textual critic, he had acquired an extensive know- 
ledge of various readings by his study of mss during his residence 
abroad. Few scholars have examined so many Latin mss, and 
his careful collations of such mss compare favourably with those 
prepared by others on his behalf. While Gronovius had devoted 
himself mainly to the writers of Latin prose, his friend, the 
younger Heinsius, was almost exclusively an editor of Latin poets. 



CHAP. XXX] N. HEINSIUS. GRAEVIUS 247 

He produced editions of Claudian, Ovid, Virgil, Prudentius, 
and Valerius Flaccus, besides leaving Adversaria on Catullus, 
Propertius, Phaedrus and Silius Italicus, published in 1742, 
long after his death. In Latin prose he only edited Velleius 
Paterculus, but he left behind him notes on Curtius, Tacitus, and 
Petronius. His editions of the Latin poets above-mentioned laid 
the foundation of the textual criticism of those authors, and he 
has thus obtained the title of sospitator poetarum Latinorum. He 
had a singular aptitude for conjectural emendation, while his vast 
reading enabled him to support his conjectures by parallel 
passages that were exactly to the point. His experience of 
public life preserved him from the perils of pedantry, and 
contributed to the formation of a sound and sober judgement, 
a practical sense of proportion, and an aptitude for clear and lucid 
expression. 

Johann Georg Graevius (1632 — 1703), educated at Schulpforta, 
and at the universities of Leipzig, Deventer and 

, Graevius 

Leyden, was professor of Eloquence at Duisburg 
and Deventer, and at Utrecht, where he lived and worked for the 
last forty years of his strenuous life. His Hesiod (1667) is almost 
his only edition of a Greek Classic ; his Catullus, Tibullus, and 
Propertius (1680), his only recension of any of the Latin poets. 
As a pupil of Gronovius, he limited his attention mainly to 
writers of Latin prose. He edited Cicero's Letters (1672-84), 
De Officiis^ Cato, Laelius, Paradoxa and Somnium Scipionis 
(1688) and the Speeches (1695-9), and also the Opera cum notis 
variorum, which extended to eleven volumes and then remained 
unfinished (1684-99). It is in his recension of Cicero's Letters 
that we may most clearly trace the salutary influence of Gronovius. 
He further edited the Latin historians, Justin, Suetonius, Florus, 
and Caesar. Finally he collected and reprinted the works of 
earlier scholars in his Thesauri antiquitatum Romanarum, in 
twelve folio volumes (1694-9); and his antiquitatum et his- 
toriarum Italiae, in nine (1704), continued by Burman (1725). 
Bentley supplied Graevius with a collection of more than 400 
fragments of Callimachus as his contribution to an edition of 
that poet begun by his correspondent's short-lived son (ed. 

.697). 



248 THE NETHERLANDS [CENT. XVH 

The learned Perizonius (1651 — 17 15), whose vernacular name 
was Voorbroek, was called to Leyden in 1693. 

Perizonius ^_.. , , ,. . , . . . 

His best work as an editor is his recension of 
Aelian's Varia Historia (1701). In his Origines Babylonicae et 
Aegyptiacae (17 11), he was the first to suggest the spuriousness of 
the royal lists of Manetho. His Animadversiones Hi s tor tcae {16^^) 
are recognised as a masterpiece of historical criticism, and as an 
anticipation of Niebuhr's method of dealing with the early history 
of Rome. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

In the reign of queen Elizabeth one of the most learned 
representatives of classical scholarship in England 
was Sir Henry Savile (1549 — 1622), who became 
Fellow and mathematical Lecturer of Brasenose, and (from 1585 
to 1622) Warden of Merton, and (from 1595 to 1622) Provost of 
Eton. In 1 59 1 he translated four books of the Histories, and 
the Agricola of Tacitus. In the Agricola (c. 8), the correction 
Intemelio for in templo is due to Savile. He collected mss, and 
secured the aid of scholars at home and abroad, for a great 
edition of Chrysostom, completed in eight folio volumes in 16 13 
at a total cost of ;£^8ooo, the paper alone costing a quarter of that 
sum. In splendour of execution, and in breadth of erudition, it 
far surpassed all the previous productions of English scholarship. 
The proofs were partly read by Casaubon. On the completion of 
this work Savile had the satisfaction of driving Casaubon in his 
coach from Eton to Oxford and showing him the Library and all 
the other sights of the University. 

Among those who aided Savile by their learning was Andrew 
Downes {c. 1549 — 1628), Fellow of St John's 
College, Cambridge, who, after migrating to 
Trinity in 1586, held the professorship of Greek for nearly forty 
years (1586 — 1625). Downes was one of the six final revisers of 
the authorised version of the Bible. He published his lectures 
on Lysias, De caede Eratosthenis (1593), and on Demosthenes, 
De Pace (162 1). 

A far wider range of study is represented by Francis Bacon 
(156 1 — 1629), who 'had taken all knowledge to be his province '^ 

^ Letter to Burleigh. 



250 ENGLAND [CENT. XVII 

In the Advancement of Learning (1605), the principal classical 
authors quoted are Cicero and Seneca, Livy and 
Tacitus ; Xenophon and Plato, Demosthenes and 
Aristotle. In the same work the absence of any adequate 
history of learning is noticed ^ We have, however, a ' survey ' or 
'general and faithful perambulation of learning'^; and indications 
of the author's familiarity with certain stages in its history. 

In 1652 the puritan divine and critic, Thomas Gataker 
(1574 — 1654), Scholar of St John's, and Fellow of 
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, published in a 
large folio a Greek text of the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, 
with a Latin version and a copious commentary, — 'the earliest 
edition of any classical writer published in England with original 
annotations '^ The Stoic philosophy is reviewed in the Intro- 
duction and many parallel passages from Greek and Latin 
philosophical writings are cited in the notes. His Adversaria 
Miscellanea (165 1) and Fosthuma, with an autobiography (1659), 
include many observations relating to classical antiquity. 

Gataker's slightly younger contemporary, the learned jurist, 
John Selden (1584 — 1654), M.P. for the university 
of Oxford in the Long Parliament, produced in 
1617 two works of profound learning, his 'History of Tythes ' in 
English, and his treatise De Diis Syris in Latin. As the author 
of the latter he earned from Gataker the epithet of TroA-D/xa^eWaro?. 
A more immediate service to scholarship was rendered in 1628-9 
by his publication of the Marmora Arundelliana, a description of 
the marbles brought from Asia Minor by the agent of Thomas 
Howard, the second Earl of Arundel (1586 — 1646). The greatest 
interest was excited by the two large fragments of a chronological 
table which, from the place of its original discovery, became 
known as the Marmor Parium. The table begins with Cecrops 
and goes down to 354 B.C., the latter part, ending with 263-2 B.C. 
(the year of its composition), having been losf^. The deciphering 
and interpretation were undertaken by Selden. In 1669, under 



1 11 i -2. 2 jj j)e(j^ ig_ 3 Hallam, iii 250^. 

■* A fragment covering 336 — 299 B.C. has since been found {Ath. Mitt. 
1897, 183). 



CHAP. XXXI] STANLEY. DODWELL 25 1 

the influence of Evelyn, the marbles were presented to the 
university of Oxford. 

In 1655-62 Thomas Stanley (1625 — 1678), of Pembroke 
Hall, Cambridge, published in four volumes a 
History of Philosophy, mainly derived from 
Diogenes Laertius. At the time of its publication, the field 
which it covered was almost untrodden ground. In the following 
year he produced his celebrated edition of Aeschylus (1663). 
It was far superior to all its predecessors, but at least 300 of 
the emendations that appear in the text were appropriated, with- 
out acknowledgement, from the partly unpublished proposals of 
Dorat, Scaliger, and Casaubon. It has served in its turn as 
the great source of illustrations for all subsequent editions of 
Aeschylus. It was described by Bentley as a 'noble edition'; 
it was republished in 1745, and afterwards revised by Porson and 
reprinted by Samuel Butler. 

In the same century the 'Cambridge Platonists,' best repre- 
sented by Henry More (1614 — 1687), Fellow of Cambridge 
Christ's, and Ralph Cudworth (161 7 — 1688), Fellow More"^^ ^ 
of Emmanuel and Master of Christ's from 1654 to Cudworth 
his death, are apt to show a lack of critical judgement in their 
confusion of Platonism and Neo-Platonism. The dialogues of 
Plato that chiefly interest them are the Theaetetus, Sophistes, 
Parmenides, and, above all, the Timaeus. Nearly half the second 
book of Cud worth's ' Immutable Morality ' consists of quotations 
from the Theaetetus, and the discussion of the Platonic Trinity 
in his ' Intellectual System ' mainly rests on the Timaeus and on 
the Neo-Platonists. Their favourite writers are Plotinus, and, in a 
less degree, Proclus and Hierocles, Themistius, Damascius, and 
Simplicius. 'They are,' as Coleridge says, 'Plotinists rather than 
Platonists.' 

Our present period ends in England with the names of Henry 
Dodwell and Joshua Barnes. Dodwell (1641 — 
171 1), Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, and 
Camden Professor of History in Oxford from 1688 to 1691, 
is best known for his chronological works. On ceasing to 
hold office, he produced his treatise De Cyclis Veterum (1692 
and 1 701). This was followed by his 'Annals' of Velleius, 



252 ENGLAND [CENT. XVII 

Quintilian, and Statius (1698), and of Thucydides and Xenophon 
(1702). 

Joshua Barnes (1654 — 171 2), Fellow of Emmanuel College, 
Cambridge, became Professor of Greek at Cambridge 
in 1695. In the previous year he had edited the 
whole of Euripides in a single folio volume, an edition reprinted 
at Leipzig and Oxford. This was followed by his Anacreon 
(1705), which attained a second edition, and by his Homer 
(1710-1), which, with all its imperfections, was a work of greater 
utility than any of its predecessors, and was not distinctly sur- 
passed for ninety years. Barnes, in his edition of Euripides, had 
accepted the ' Epistles of Euripides ' as the genuine writings of 
the poet ; Dodwell, in his treatise De Cyclis Veterum^ had followed 
the data presented by the ' Epistles of Phalaris ' in determining 
certain pomts of chronology. The errors of both were happily 
corrected when the spuriousness of the Epistles of Phalaris and of 
Euripides was conclusively proved by Bentley, who is the foremost 
representative of the next period of Scholarship. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

GERMANY IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

Germany, as well as England and the Netherlands, may claim 
a part in the career of Janus Gruter (1560 — 1627). 
His father was burgomaster of Antwerp. His 
mother was a learned and accomplished Englishwoman. He 
was educated at Norwich Grammar School, and in 1577 entered 
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. He continued his 
academic studies at Leyden, and subsequently held professorships 
at Rostock and Wittenberg. In 1592 he left for Heidelberg, 
where he spent the remaining thirty-five years of his life. In 
1602 he was appointed Librarian. In the same year he published 
his most important work, a Corpus of ancient Inscriptions, begun 
at the suggestion, and completed with the aid, of Scaliger. He 
produced editions of at least seventeen Latin authors, including 
Tacitus^ with the notes of nine previous commentators, Livy, and 
Cicero. The merit of dividing the books of Livy into the 
chapters now in use belongs to Gruter, who, in the preface to his 
last edition of that historian (1627), states that he had done the 
same for other authors, and that future editors were welcome to 
adopt the divisions which he had suggested. 

On the foundation of the university of Halle, in 1694, the 
professorship of Eloquence and History, and the office of 
University Librarian, were assigned to the many-sided scholar, 
Christoph Cellarius (1638 — 1707), the author of c 11 • 
numerous works on Grammar and Style, and on 
Ancient History and Geography. His most important work is his 
Notitia Orbis Antiqui, in two quarto volumes (i 701-6), with 
numerous maps. Seven of his fifteen editions of Latin historians 
and other authors were accompanied by maps, which were then a 
novelty in classical works. 



254 GERMANY [CENT. XVII 

In the early part of the century surveyed in the three preceding 
chapters, the first enthusiasm aroused by the Revival of Learning 
had already begun to languish in Italy and in other parts of 
Europe. During the seventeenth century the learning of Italy 
was almost exclusively concentrated on local and general archaeo- 
logy. It was partly in consequence of the predominating 
influence of the Roman Church that Italy had been diverted 
from the study of the pagan Classics, and that France had been 
deserted by Scaliger in 1593, by Casaubon in 16 10, and by Salma- 
sius in 1 63 1. In the land which they had left, those three great 
protestant scholars were succeeded by Jesuits, and by jurists, 
most of whom were surpassed in erudition, on the cathohc side, 
by the great lexicographer, Du Cange, and the learned palaeo- 
grapher, Mabillon. The age of Louis XIV, the founder of the 
Academy of Inscriptions (1663), was glorified in 1687-92 by 
Perrault, who, after a superficial survey of ancient and modern 
learning, assigned the palm to the latter, and thus gave the signal 
for a controversy which broke out once more in the days of 
Bentley. Meanwhile, in the Netherlands, classical learning was 
ably represented by men like G. J. Vossius and Grotius, by 
Daniel Heinsius and his distinguished son, by J. F. Gronovius, 
Graevius, and Perizonius. In England the century was adorned 
by the names of Savile and Bacon, Gataker and Selden, More 
and Cudworth, while, towards its close, the errors in historical 
or literary criticism which had marred the meritorious labours of 
Dodwell and of Barnes were destined to be triumphantly refuted 
in the Dissertations on the Epistles of Phalaris and of Euripides. 
Lastly, in Germany, the age of the Thirty Years War (like that 
of the Civil War in England) was unfavourable to the peaceful 
pursuits of learning. On the whole, it was a century of multi- 
farious erudition rather than minute and accurate scholarship, 
a century largely concerned with the exploration of Latin rather 
than Greek literature; but a new age of historical and literary 
criticism, founded on a more intelligent study of Greek, was 
close at hand with Bentley for its hero. We cannot, however, 
forget that it was in this century that the principles independently 
appHed by Niebuhr to the critical study of early Roman History 
were in part anticipated by the acumen of Perizonius. 



BOOK X 

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 



CHAPTER XXXIII 



ITALY 



In the eighteenth century some of the greatest achievements 
of Italian scholarship were connected with Latin lexicography 
and the study of Cicero. Before the publication of Forcellini's 
great lexicon in 1771, all the Latin dictionaries in general 
use in Italy and elsewhere were founded more or less on a 
work first published in 1502 by Ambrosius Calepinus {c. 1440 
— 1 511), who dedicated his work to the Senate and People 
of Bergamo. It was edited again and again, and overlaid 
with many additions. In France, Robert Estienne had been 
urged to reprint it in its original form, but the proposal ended in 
his producing a Thesaurus of his own, with the aid of Budaeus 
and others (1543). This was followed by Faber's Thesaurus 
(15 71), in which all the derivatives were arranged under the 
words from which they were derived. A series of revisions of 
Calepinus, Estienne, and Faber, appeared in Germany, culminat- 
ing in J. M. Gesner's Novus Thesaurus (1749). 

In 1680 a library and a well-equipped printing press were 
established at Padua by Cardinal Gregorius Barbadicus, who in 
1663 had been promoted from the bishopric of Bergamo, the 
former home of Calepinus, to that of Padua, the future home of 
Forcellini, whose fame was long unjustly obscured by that of 
Facciolati. Jacopo Facciolati (1682 — 1769) was born at Torregia 
in the Euganean hills, and Aegidio Forcellini 
(1688 — 1768) at Campo Sampiero, near Treviso. 
From their village-homes in the S.W. and the N.E. of Padua, 



256 ITALY [CENT. XVIII 

they came to the seminary of that place, Facciolati at the age of 
twelve, in 1694, and Forcellini at that of sixteen, in 1704, the 
year in which Facciolati took his first degree in theology. 
Facciolati was in due time invited to superintend the studies of 
the seminary, and the preparation of Greek, Latin and Italian 
lexicons for the use of the students. In the preparation of the 
Greek lexicon, which was a new edition of that of Schrevelius 
(1670), he had the aid of ForceUini and others, but the name 
of Facciolati alone appears on the title-page (1715). Again, the 
Italian lexicon was similarly prepared by P'orcellini (17 18), 
but it was not until after a protest on the part of 

Forcelhni . . ^ ^ 

Forcellmi s brother, that Forcellini's name was 
mentioned in the preface to the eighth edition (1741). Thirdly, 
at the revision of the Latin lexicon of Calepinus, Forcellini 
worked, under Facciolati, for three years, and the result appeared 
in 1 7 18. Facciolati, who seems to have really done a large part 
of the work, wrote the preface, but made no mention of Forcellini's 
name, merely referring to him as strenuissimus adolescens. 

Forcellini's experience in helping to edit ' Calepinus ' had con- 
vinced him that an entirely new work was necessary. Late in 
1 7 18, by the command of the bishop and under the leadership of 
Facciolati, the Studiorum Fraefectus, Forcellini began the Totius 
Latinitatis Lexicon^ and, after many interruptions reached the last 
word in the lexicon in 1753. After spending two more years in 
revising his manuscript, he handed it over to Ludovico Violato for 
transcription. In his preface he modestly states that his master, 
Facciolati, 'a name illustrious in the commonwealth of letters', 
had selected him to make the Latin Lexicon, not because of any 
special ability on his part, but because he was regarded as a 
person of sound health and capable of enduring even the most 
protracted labour. Thus, with his own hand, and under the 
advice and aid of his master, the almost interminable toil of 
nearly forty years had been brought to a close. He had added 
many gleanings from unfamiliar authors, and from inscriptions 
and coins ; he had paid special attention to orthography, to the 
proper arrangement of the several meanings of each word, and to 
copious citation of examples, making a point of never quoting any 
passage that he had not himself seen in its original context. 



CHAP. XXXIII] FORCELLINI. MURATORI 257 

When the vast undertaking was finished, ForceUini Hved on for 
some years in the seminary ; but, meanwhile, no one took any 
steps for the printing and pubHcation of his work. On May-day 
in 1765 he was permitted to leave Padua for his old home at 
Campo Sampiero ; and there he passed away early in April, 1768, 
in the 80th year of his age. The original manuscript and the 
transcript of his great lexicon were still in the library at Padua, 
when Cardinal Prioli became bishop. By his prompt command 
it was sent to press early in 1769. The title, as it left the hands 
of the transcriber, ran as follows : — 

I.atinitatis totius Lexicon in Patavino Seminario cura et opera Aegidii 
ForceUini elucubratiim, iussu et auspiciis Antonii Marini Card. Prioli 
episcopi edittim. 

But Facciolati, who was still aHve (being now in the 88th year of 
his age), felt annoyed at finding no mention of his own name. 
Accordingly, he caused the title to be recast as follows : — 

Totius Latinitatis Lexicon consilio et cura Jacobi Facciolati, opera et studio 
Aegidii ForceUini^ alumni Setninarii Patavini, lucubratum. 

This title, which has unfortunately led many to believe that 
the lexicon was, in a large measure, the work of Facciolati, was 
retained until the pubHcation of De-Vit's edition (1858 f). 
Facciolati himself had, in 1756, written to the librarian of 
St Mark's in Venice : — princeps huius operis conditor atque adeo 
unus Forcellinus est \ but, in publishing this letter in 1759 and 
1765, he omitted this sentenced Facciolati died in August, 1769. 
The printing of Forcellini's lexicon was completed in four folio 
volumes in 17 71. A new edition appeared in 1805, followed by 
those of James Bailey (1825), Furnaletto (1823-31), Schneeberg 
(1829-35), De-Vit (Prato, 1858-79), and Corradini (Padua, 
1864-90). 

Inscriptions continued to be collected and studied in many 
parts of Italy, but many of them were forgeries. The latter 
are not excluded with sufficient strictness even from the Thesaurus 
compiled by the great historian Lodovico Antonio Muratori (1672 
— 17^0), librarian at Milan and Modena, the most 

• 1 • ,1 • , , , IT,. Muratori 

mdustrious and the most widely learned Italian 
scholar of his time. He produced six folio volumes of Antiquitates 
^ De-Vit's Praef. p. xxxii. 
S. H. ' 17 



258 ITALY [CENT. XVIII 

Italicae Medii Aevi, in addition to the twenty-seven folio volumes 
of his Scrt'ptores, the eighteen quarto volumes of his Annali^ and 
the eight of his Anecdota Latina and Graeca. Even these are not 
all, as his total output amounted to forty-six volumes folio and 
thirty-four volumes quarto. By his calm and sober judgement, 
by his vast capacity for literary research, and by his unfailing 
championship of good sense in matters of scholarship, he exercised 
a most healthy influence on historical and antiquarian studies in 
Italy. 

To the school of Muratori belongs his contemporary and friend 
Scipione Maffei of Verona (1675 — 1755)' a dramatist 
and a scholar of the most varied accomplishments. 
In 1 7 13 he discovered the long-lost mss of the capitular library of 
Verona, and the results of his study of those mss marked an 
epoch in the history of Latin palaeography ^ His local patriotism 
prompted him to record the history of his native place in his 
Verona Illustrata (1732), and to describe its antiquities in his 
Museum Veronense (1749). In the latter the extant inscriptions 
are carefully and correctly copied. His treatise De arte critica 
lapidaria^ published after his decease in the supplement to 
Muratori's Novus Thesaurus^ gives proof of his keen and unspar- 
ing criticism of the inadequate work of other archaeologists. 

The study of Cicero is represented in the same century by the 
learned Jesuit, Girolamo Lagomarsini (1698 — 1773), 

Lagomarsini ,,,,,, /• ^- -i i i • 

who collated all the mss of Cicero accessible to him 
in Florence and elsewhere. These collations first became known 
to the world through Niebuhr. They have since been used for 
the Verrine Orations by K. G. Zumpt, the pro Murena by A. W. 
Zumpt, the pro Cluentio by Classen, the pro Milone by Peyron, 
the Brutus and De Oratore by Ellendt, and similarly by Baiter 
and Halm in the second edition of Orelli. But not a single work 
of Cicero was edited by the industrious collator himself. 

During this age Greek occupies a subordinate position. In 

the first half of the century Greek studies are well 

represented by Corsini (1702 — 1765), whose Fasti 

Attici, published in four quarto volumes in Florence (1744-56), 

laid the foundation for the chronology of the Attic Archons, 

^ Traube, Vorlesungen, i 44 — 47. 



CHAP. XXXIII] CORSINI. MARINI. VISCONTI 259 

while his Dissertations of 1747 dealt with the chronological and 
other problems connected with the panhellenic games. He 
also published two folio volumes on the Greek abbreviations for 
words and numerals (1749). His great work on Greek chronology 
was not followed up by any exactly similar work in Italy. 

During the next fifty years the eminent archaeologist, Gaetano 
Marini (1742 — 1815), published the inscriptions of 
the Albani Villa and Palace in 1785, and the great 
expectations thereby aroused were completely fulfilled in the two 
quarto volumes of the Inscriptions of the Fratres Arvales (1795), 
in which those inscriptions (which were previously known) were 
explained and emended, and no less than a thousand others 
published for the first time. 

The most famous member of the archaeological family of the 
Visconti, was Ennio Quirino Visconti (17^1 — 18 18), 

, , , . r 1 • , \ ' ^ , E. Q. Visconti 

who succeeded his father m the production of the 
celebrated work on the Museum Pio-Clementinum^ with illus- 
trations and descriptions of that important part of the Vatican 
Museum. Volumes 11 to vii (1784 — 1807) are entirely his work. 
In 1799, when some of the finest works of art were carried off 
by Napoleon, he accompanied them to Paris, where he produced 
an admirable account of the works of ancient sculpture entrusted 
to his charge, besides completing three important volumes on 
Greek Iconography. In 18 14 he was one of the first to recognise 
the transcendent importance of the Elgin marbles. He is the 
embodiment of the intelligent appreciation of the works of ancient 
sculpture awakened in Italy by the influence of Winckelmann. 



17 — 2 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

FRANCE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

In France, our first important name is that of Bernard de 
Montfaucon (1655 — 1741), who entered the Bene- 

Montfaucon ,• • /^ i , • 

dictine Order at Toulouse in 1675. He entered 
the abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Pres in 1687. He afterwards 
spent three years in Italy (1698 — 1701), exploring the great 
collections of mss, and devoting special attention to the Laurentian 
Library. While Latin alone had been the theme of Mabillon's 
treatise De Re Diplomatica^ the foundations of Greek palaeography 
were laid in the Palaeographica Graeca produced by Montfaucon 
in 1708, which, besides establishing the principles of a new science, 
comprised a list of no less than 11,630 mss. In 17 15 he completed 
the Catalogue of the Bibliotheca Coisliniana, a library belonging 
to the Due de Coislin, the prince-bishop of Metz, and including 
that of his grandfather, Seguier, the whole of which was afterwards 
bequeathed to the abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, and was 
ultimately incorporated in the Paris Library. His next great 
work, the Antiquite Expliquee, a vast treasury of classical anti- 
quities, was published by subscription in ten folio volumes in 
1 7 19. It supplied a comprehensive conspectus of all the 
antiquarian learning of the age, and it was long before it was 
in any way superseded. In the following year he produced in 
two folio volumes his Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum^ including all 
the catalogues of Europe, which the author had collected in the 
space of forty years. In learning, and in powers of work, he 
rivalled Mabillon, whom he excelled in his wider interest in 
classical antiquities, as well as in greater animation of manner. 
Among the literary enterprises of the Benedictines of the 
Congregation of Saint-Maur, those connected in different degrees 
with classical scholarship are the earlier volumes of the twelve 



CHAP. XXXIV] MONTFAUCON 261 

on the Histoire Literaire de la France (1733-63), a great work 
resumed by the Institut de France in 1814; 1\\q Art de verifier 
les dates in three folio volumes (1783-87); and Toustain and 
Tassin's Nouveau Traite de diplomatique in six quartos (1750-65). 

Classical archaeology was ably promoted by the Comte de 
Caylus (1692 — 1765), who travelled widely in the 
East, and spent four-fifths of his large income on 
the patronage of archaeology. He published a large number of 
monuments of ancient sculpture in the seven volumes of his 
Recueil d^ Antiqiiit'es (1752-67). He here includes nothing that 
he has not seen with his own eyes ; he tests the genuineness 
of every item, and gives proof of an artistic discrimination superior 
to that of Montfaucon. 

A popular type of Archaeology was represented by the anti- 
quary, Jean Jacques Barthelemy (1716 — 1795), ^^^ 
enjoyed the patronage of the Due and the Duchesse 
de Choiseul. He became keeper of the royal cabinet of medals 
in Paris, was familiar with several oriental languages, and was the 
founder of the scientific knowledge of Phoenician, and of numis- 
matic palaeography. He is still more widely known as the author 
of the Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece (1789), a work that, 
for thirty years, occupied all the author's leisure hours, and has 
long been held in high esteem as a popular account of the manners 
and customs of ancient Greece. 

The Comte de Choiseul-Goufifier (1752 — 181 7), the nephew 
of Barthelemy's great patron, travelled in Greece 
and Asia Minor from 1776 to 1782. Of the two Qouml^^' 
folio volumes of his Voyage Pittoresque en Grece, 
the first alone (1782) appeared before the outbreak of the 
Revolution. It was not until 1822 that the second volume of his 
Voyage was published, a work that aroused and maintained in 
France an increasing interest in the glorious scenery and the 
memorable associations of Greece. 

The Jesuit Academician, Gabriel Brotier (1723 — 1789), is best 
known in connexion with his edition of Tacitus 
(1771). Pierre Henri Larcher of Dijon (1726 — Larcher 

181 2) was an Academician and a Professor in 
Paris. His most important work was his translation of Herodotus, 



262 FRANCE [CENT. XVIIl 

accompanied with historical notes, in seven volumes (1786), which 
has been repeatedly republished. 



Alsace 

We may here make separate mention of a group of four 
Alsatian scholars : — Brunck, Oberlin, Schweighauser, and Bast. 
Their surnames suggest German descent, but the first three were 
subjects of France, for Strassburg had been captured by the 
French in 1681 and the rest of Alsace had already been annexed 
in the course of the Thirty Years' War. Richard 

Brunck ... 

Francois Philippe Brunck (1729 — 1803), born at 
Strassburg, was educated by the Jesuits in Paris, and served in the 
commissariat department during part of the Seven Years' War. On 
his return from Germany in 1760, he devoted himself to classical 
studies in Strassburg. His enthusiasm for the Greek poets led 
to his devoting his leisure to the critical revision of their texts. 
He had collations of Mss at his disposal, and ample means for 
the editing of their works. Under the title of Analecta from 
the Greek Poets, he published in three volumes a large number of 
Epigrams from the Greek Anthology (classified under the names 
of their authors), together with the Bucolic Poets and Callimachus 
(1772-6). He also edited Anacreon and Apollonius Rhodius. 
He was specially successful as a critic of the Greek drama. Thus 
he edited three plays of Aeschylus, seven of Euripides, and the 
whole of Aristophanes (1783) and Sophocles (1786-9). In his 
recension of Sophocles he opened a new era by removing from 
the text the interpolations of Triclinius, and by reverting to the 
Aldine edition and especially to the Paris MS A (cent, xiii), with 
which that edition generally agrees. The Laurentian MS was 
then practically unknown to scholars; it was not collated by 
Elmsley until 1820. 

Jeremias Jacob Oberlin (1735— 1806), ^^ Strassburg, edited 
Vibius Sequester, as well as Ovid's Tristia and Ibis^ 
Horace, Tacitus, and Caesar ; and was interested 
in archaeology, and palaeography, and in the history of lite- 
rature. 

Strassburg was also the place of the birth and education of 



CHAP. XXXIV] VILLOISON 263 

Johann Schweighauser(i742 — 1830), whose studies were mainly 
confined to the classical writers of Greek prose. 

.., . -r,ii' T-.' Schweighauser 

Thus he edited Appian, Polybius, Epictetus and 
Cebes, Athenaeus, and Herodotus. He also produced excellent 
lexicons to Herodotus and Polybius ; his Athenaeus (which 
included the whole of Casaubon's commentary) extended to 
fourteen volumes. His own notes invariably give proof of 
extensive reading, and are characterised by the minutest accuracy. 
Our group of scholarly Alsatians closes with the name of 
Friedrich Jacob Bast (1771 — 18 11), who is best 
known in connexion with the useful Commentatio 
Palaeographica^ which he contributed to Schaefer's edition of 
Gregorius Corinthius towards the close of his brief life of forty 
years. 

Homer was the theme of the most fruitful labours of Jean 
Baptiste Gaspard d'Ansse de Villoison (1753 — 

ovx-r-i- 1 ITT •!-• Villoison 

1805). His earliest work was the Homeric Lexicon 
of Apollonius (1773-4), followed by an edition of the Pastoralia 
of Longus (1778). In 1781 he drew attention to the importance 
of a MS of Homer in the Library of St Mark's in Venice. He 
was accordingly sent to Venice at the public expense to transcribe 
the scholia of this ms, which he published with ample prolegomena 
in 1788. His publication of the Venetian scholia on Homer 
supplied Wolf with arguments for his view that the current text 
of Homer differed from that of the Alexandrian critics. It is 
said that Villoison, who had hardly been conscious of the supreme 
significance of these scholia, was alarmed at the use to which 
they were put by Wolf in his attack on the traditional opinions 
on Homer. The last scholar of the old school had unconsciously 
forged the weapons for the first scholar of the new. 




Richard Bentley. 
From Dean's engraving of the portrait by Thornhill (1710) in the Master's 
Lodge, Trinity College, Cambridge (frontispiece of Monk's Life 0/ 
Bentley, ed. 2, 1833). 



CHAPTER XXXV 



ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

In the first half of the eighteenth century the greatest name 
among the classical scholars of Europe is that of 
Richard Bentley (1662 — 1742). He was educated 
at Wakefield Grammar School, and at St John's College, Cam- 
bridge. He took his degree as a high Wrangler at the age of 
eighteen, but, as there was no vacancy in the only two fellowships 
then open to natives of Yorkshire, Bentley was never a Fellow 
of his College. The College, however, made him headmaster 
of Spalding; a former Fellow, Stillingfleet, Dean of St Paul's, 
appointed him tutor to his son ; and, in the library of Stilling- 
fleet, one of the largest private libraries of the time, Bentley laid 
the foundation of his profound and multifarious learning. He 
accompanied his pupil to Oxford, thus obtaining constant access 
to the treasures of the Bodleian. At Oxford he published, as 
an appendix to an edition of the Chronicle of John Malalas of 
Antioch, his celebrated Letter to Mill {i6()i). In thaX Letter he 
gave the learned world the first-fruits of his profound study of the 
Attic Drama. He also announced his discovery of the metrical 
continuity (or Synapheia) of the anapaestic system. In less than 
a hundred pages, he corrected and explained more than sixty 
Greek and Latin authors. In 1697, his learned correspondent, 
Graevius, published an edition of the text of Callimachus, which 
had been prepared by his short-lived son. It was accompanied 
by a remarkable series of some 420 fragments collected by the 
industry and elucidated by the genius of Bentley. 

Meanwhile, a controversy on the literary merits of the ancients 
and the moderns, that had arisen in France, had found its way 



266 ENGLAND [CENT. XVIIl 

to England. Sir William Temple, in his Essay upon Ancient 
and Modern Learnings entered the lists as the champion of the 
ancients. His challenge to a further conflict is given in the 
following terms : 

*It may perhaps be further affirmed, in favour of the Ancients, that the 
oldest books we have are still in their kind the best. The two most ancient 
that I know of in prose, among those we call profane authors, are ^Esop's 
Fables and Phalaris's Epistles, both living near the same time, which was 
that of Cyrus and Pythagoras. As the first has been agreed by all ages since 
for the greatest master in his kind, and all others of that sort have been but 
imitators of his original ; so I think the Epistles of Phalaris to have more race, 
more spirit, more force of wit and genius, than any others I have ever seen, 
either ancient or modern '^ 

The challenge was partly taken up by Bentley's friend, William 
Wotton, of St Catharine's, who had migrated to St John's in 1682. 
In 1694, Wotton published, in his Reflections upon Ancient and 
Modern Learning, a calm and judicious examination of Temple's 
essay. On its appearance, Bentley assured his friend that the two 
books, which Temple had termed the ' oldest ' and ' best ' in the 
world, were in truth neither old nor good ; that the ' Aesopian ' 
Fables were not the work of Aesop, and that the Letters of 
Phalaris were a forgery of a later age. Meanwhile, a sudden and 
unwonted demand for the Letters had been aroused by Temple's 
splendid advertisement, and accordingly an edition was promptly 
prepared in 1695 by a youthful scholar of Christ Church, Oxford, 
the Hon. Charles Boyle. A new edition of Wotton's Reflections 
was soon called for, and in 1697 Bentley contributed his promised 
Dissertation on Aesop and Phalaris. 

Bentley begins by attacking the chronology. Taking 550 B.C. as the latest 
possible date for the age of Phalaris, he shows that, of the Sicilian cities 
mentioned in the Letters, Phintia was not founded till nearly three centuries, 
or Alaesa till more than 140 years, afterwards; and that the potter of 
Corinth, who gave his name to the 'Thericlean cups' presented by Phalaris 
to his physician, lived more than 120 years later. Again, the Letters ring the 
changes on the names of Zancle and Messana, whereas Zancle was not known 
as Messana until more than 60 years after the death of Phalaris. Similarly, 
they mention Tauromenium, though it was many generations before that name 
was given to the Sicilian city of Naxos. The phrase, 'to extirpate like a 

^ Miscellanea, part ii (1690); Works, i 166, ed. 1750. 



CHAP. XXXV] BENTLEY 267 

pine-tree ', which is used by the author, originated with Croesus, who began 
his reign after the death of Phalaris; another of his phrases, 'words are the 
shadow of deeds', was due to Democritus, more than a century later. The 
author was famiHar with later poets, Pindar, Euripides, and Callimachus ; 
he even mentions 'tragedies', a form of literature that came into being some 
years after the tyrant's death.. 

Bentley next attacks the language, which is Attic Greek, whereas the King 
of the Dorian colony of Agrigentum would naturally have written in the Doric 
dialect. Even the coinage is of the Attic and not the Sicilian standard^. 

Bentley also examines the Letters of Themistocles, Socrates, and Euripides, 
and proves that they were forged many centuries after the death of their reputed 
authors. The 'Aesopian Fables' are ascribed by Bentley to a prose paraphrase 
of the choliambics of Babrius executed by Maximus Planudes, the Byzantine 
monk of the fourteenth century. 

The attack on ' Phalaris ' was answered by a confederacy of 
the friends of Boyle. A second edition of the reply appeared 
in a few months ) a third, in the following year. At first, and, 
indeed, for long afterwards, popular opinion was against Bentley. 
Early in 1699, Bentley answered Boyle and his friends by pro- 
ducing an enlarged edition of his Dissertation. It is a work that 
marks an epoch in the History of Scholarship. It is an example 
of critical method, heralding a new era; yet it was long before 
its mastery was recognised. 

Bentley was Master of Trinity from 1700 to his death in 1742. 
During those forty-two years his many contributions to classical 
learning included an appendix to the edition of Cicero's Tusculan 
Disputations by John Davies, Fellow of Queens' (1709), in which 
Bentley gives proof of his familiarity with the philosophical works 
of Cicero and with the metres of the Latin Dramatists. In the 
following year he produced under an assumed name his emen- 
dations of 323 fragments of Philemon and Menander. The next 
year saw the publication of his memorable edition of Horace 
(17 11), in which the traditional text is altered in more than 700 
passages, a masterly work, which, however, does more credit to 
the logical force of his intellect than to his poetic taste. It is 
here that we find his celebrated dictum : — ' nobis et ratio et res 
ipsa centum codicibus potiores sunt'^. Bentley's skill in the 
restoration of Greek inscriptions was exemplified in the case of 

^ First Dissertation, p. 62, ed. 1697. 
^ On Carm. iii 27, 15. 



268 ENGLAND [CENT. XVIII 

inscriptions from Delos (17 21) and Chalcedon (1728). In the 
latter, his corrections of the faulty copies were completely con- 
firmed by the original. Early in 1726 he pubHshed an edition 
of Terence, in which the text is corrected in about a thousand 
passages, tnainly on grounds of metre. The same volume in- 
cludes an edition of Phaedrus and of the * Sentences ' of ' Publius 
Syrus '. The preface is followed by a Schediasma on the metres 
of Terence, which is the foundation of the scholarly treatment 
of that subject. Bentley has left his mark on the textual criti- 
cism of Plautus, Lucretius, and Lucan. In 1732-4 he was 
busy with an edition of Homer, in which the text was to be 
restored with the aid of mss and scholia^ and the quotations in 
ancient authors, and by the introduction of the lost letter, the 
digamma. The discovery of the connexion of this lost letter with 
certain metrical peculiarities in Homer had been made by Bentley 
as early as 17 13. Bentley's latest work was his recension of the 
astronomical poet, Manilius (1739). His relations to his scholarly 
contemporaries in the Netherlands are exemplified by his corre- 
spondence with the aged Graevius, who was one of the first to 
hail the dawn of Bentley's fame (1697). The criticisms on Aris- 
tophanes, which he sent to Kiister in 1708, clearly prove how 
much might have been achieved by Bentley in a complete edition 
of that author. In the same year he prompted the youthful 
Hemsterhuys to strengthen the weak points in his knowledge of 
Greek metre. 

The two centuries that elapsed between the call of Scaliger 
to the university of Leyden (1593) and the publication of Wolf's 
'Prolegomena to Homer' (1795) were an age of high distinction 
in Dutch Scholarship, and during the first half of the seventeenth 
century that Scholarship owed an incalculable debt to the healthy 
and invigorating influence of Bentley. As a scholar, Bentley was 
distinguished by wide and independent reading. He absorbed 
all the classical literature that was accessible to him, either in 
print or in manuscript ; but, unlike the humanists of Italy, he 
was not a minute and scrupulous imitator of the style of the 
Latin Classics. In textual as well as historic criticism, he had 
a close affinity with the great Scaliger. His intellectual character 
was marked by a singular sagacity. Swift and keen to detect 



CHAP. XXXV] MARKLAND. TAYLOR. DAWES 269 

imposture, he was resolute and unflinching in exposing it. His 
manner was, in general, apt to be haughty and overbearing, 
and his temper sarcastic and insolent. He had a strong and 
masterful personality, but his predominant passion was an un- 
swerving devotion to truths 

Bentley was on friendly terms with Jeremiah Markland 
(1693 — 1776), Fellow of Peterhouse. Markland 

11 • 1- • r ^ r- r r Markland 

producea an important edition of the Sywae of 
Statius (1728). In his Remarks on the Epistles of Cicero to 
Brutus (1745), he recorded his entire agreement with the doubts 
as to the genuineness of those Epistles, and of the Speeches post 
Reditum^ which had been expressed by James Tunstall (1708 — 
1762), Fellow and Tutor of St John's, and Public Orator. 
Markland (besides contributing to Taylor's Lysias) edited the 
Supplices of Euripides (1763) and the two Iphigeneias (1768). 
His best work as a Scholar was characterised by a peculiar com- 
bination of caution and boldness. 

Markland's Cambridge friend, John Taylor (1704 — 1766), was 
Fellow of St John's and successively Librarian 

. . Taylor 

(173 1-4) and Registrary (1734-51) of the uni- 
versity. He is best known as an editor of Lysias (1739), and of 
part of Demosthenes. He was the first to publish and expound 
(in 1743) the important inscription recording the accounts of the 
Delian Temple in 377-4 b.c.^ 

Richard Dawes (1709 — 1766), Fellow of Emmanuel, became 
master of the erammar-school at Newcastle upon 

Dawes 

Tyne in 1738. In 1745 he had the satisfaction of 
seeing his Miscellanea Critica published by the Cambridge Press : — 
The work is in five parts: — (i) corrections of Terentianus Maurus; 
(2) criticisms on Oxford editors of Pindar; (3) Greek pronunciation; 
differences between Attic and Ionic futures, and between the subj. and 
opt. ; and corrections of Callimachus ; (4) the diganuna ; (5) ictus in Attic 
poets, and emendations of the Dramatists. 

It is on this work that his reputation rests. His conjectures on 
Aristophanes have left their mark on Brunck's edition, and many 

^ On Bentley, cp. Life by J. H. Monk, 2nd ed. 1833 ; Correspondence, ed. 
C. Wordsworth, 1842 ; Jebb's Bentley, 1882 ; A. T. Bartholomew and J. W. 
Clark, Bibliography, 1908. 

2 Hicks, Gk Hist. Inscr. no. 82. . 



270 ENGLAND [GENT. XVIII 

of them have been confirmed by the Ravenna MS. He is best 
known in connexion with ' Dawes's Canon ', which declared that 
the first aorist subjunctive, active and middle, was a solecism after 
oTTCDs fXT]^ and ov jXTj^. In all such cases he insisted on altering 
the first aorist subjunctive into the future indicative. The fact 
is that, owing to the similarity in form between these subjunctive 
aorists and the future indicative, the second aorist was preferred 
to the first, if both were in use^. Dawes is honourably mentioned 
by Cobet, together with Bentley and Porson, Elmsley and Dobree, 
as one of those Englishmen, from whose writings, 'non tantum 
locis corruptis clara lux affulget sed paulatim addiscitur ars 
quaedam, qua verum cernere et eruere et ipse possis'\ 

Three years after the death of Dawes a work of far-reaching 
influence was privately printed by the eminent 
traveller and politician, Robert Wood {c. 1717 — 
1 771), whose travels in distant Syria had resulted in the publi- 
cation of his important works on the ruins of Palmyra (1753) 
and Heliopolis (1757). In 1769 the ancient associations of the 
Troad prompted him to print his Essay on the original genius 
and writings of Homer. His views were made known abroad in 
a review by Heyne, and the incidental opinion that the art of 
writing was not introduced into Greece until about 554 B.C. was 
partially accepted in 1795 in Wolfs Prolegomena. 

We may next notice a group of three Greek Scholars, all of 
them associated in various ways with Exeter. Ben- 
jamin Heath (1704 — 1766), town-clerk of Exeter, 
published notes on Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides in 1762. 
He has been recognised as one of the ablest of English editors 
of Aeschylus ^ and the latest English editor of Sophocles has 
described him as 'a critic of fine insight and delicate taste'". 
Jonathan Toup (17 13 — 1785) of Exeter College, 
Oxford, did much for the criticism of Suidas, and 
produced an edition of the treatise On the Sublime (1778), which 

^ Misc. Crit. ed. Oxon. p. 227 (iVr. Nub. 822). - ib. p. 221 {Nub. i^d). 
^ Goodwin, Moods and Tenses, § 363 f. 

* Or. de Arte Interpretandi (1847), 136. 
^ Euni. ed. J. F. Davies, p. 32. 

* Jebb's Introduction to text of Soph. (1897), xli. 



CHAP. XXXV] TYRWHITT. TWINING. GIBBON 2/1 

gave Porson the first impulse to classical criticism. As a pre- 
bendary of Exeter for the last eleven years of his life, he survived 
his younger contemporary, a physician of Exeter, 
Samuel Musgrave (1732 — 1780), who edited the 
whole of Euripides in 1778. 

Oxford was ably represented in this age by the widely accom- 
plished scholar, Thomas Tyrwhitt (1730 — 1786), 
Fellow of Merton (1755-62), and Clerk to the 
House of Commons (1762-8). He is celebrated as an editor 
of Chaucer, a critic of Shakespeare, and as the principal detector 
of the forgeries of Chatterton. All his works are characterised 
by wide reading, and by critical acumen. In 1776, following in 
the track of Bentley, he detected further traces of Babrius in the 
'Fables of Aesop'. He was the first to publish, from a ms in 
Florence, the Speech of Isaeus ' on the Inheritance of Menecles ' 
(1785). He also prepared an able edition of Aristotle's Treatise 
on Poetry, with critical notes and Latin translation, which was 
first published eight years after his death. 

Between Tyrwhitt's death in 1786 and the publication, in 
1794, of his edition of Aristotle's treatise, an important English 
translation of the same work with 'notes on the translation and 
on the original ', and ' two dissertations on poetical, and musical, 
imitation', was produced in 1789 by the Rev. 
Thomas Twining (1735 — i8o4)j l^te Fellow of 
Sidney Sussex, Cambridge. 

The greatest representative of Ancient History in the same 
age is Edward Gibbon (1737 — 1794), who, after 
spending fourteen ' unprofitable ' months at Mag- 
dalen College, Oxford, embarked on an extensive course of 
reading at Lausanne, including the whole of Cicero, and the 
Latin Classics in general, from the time of Plautus 'to the 
decline of the language and empire of Rome '. After re- 
gretting that he had not begun with Greek, he worked through 
half the Iliad and a large part of Xenophon and Herodotus. 
On returning to England in 1758 he served for two years and 
a half in the Hampshire militia, and it is in this connexion that 
he writes : — ' The discipline and evolution of a modern battalion 



2/2 ENGLAND [CENT. XVIII 

gave me a clearer notion of the phalanx and the legion ; and the 
captain of the Hampshire grenadiers... has not been useless to 
the historian of the Roman Empire '^ He also studied Homer, 
' Longinus ', and Horace. After a short stay in Paris he began 
the study of the great palaeographical works of Mabillon and 
Montfaucon. At Lausanne he spent a year (1763-4) on the 
topography of old Rome, the ancient geography of Italy, and the 
' science of medals '. All this was in preparation for his visit to 
Italy, in the course of which he formed the design of the great 
work of his life. In the fifteen years that elapsed between his 
earliest work, a French Essay on the Study of Literature (1761) 
and the publication of the first volume of the Decline and Fall 
(1776), he continued to read the Latin Classics and the original 
authorities on Roman History from Dion Cassius to Ammianus 
Marcellinus, and to study coins and inscriptions, as well as the 
great historical collections of Muratori. After his return to 
London, and on the death of his father (1770), he began the 
composition of his History. The first impression of the first 
volume (1776) was exhausted in a few days. On the publication 
of the second and third volumes (1781), ending with the fall 
of the Western empire, he hesitated for nearly a year as to 
continuing the work, returning meanwhile to the reading of 
Homer and Plato, and the Greek Historians and Dramatists. 
Resuming his study of the age of Justinian, he had nearly 
finished his fourth volume, when he left London for Lausanne 
(1783). P^our years later the composition of the last two volumes 
was finished. 'It was at Rome, on the 15th of October, 1764', 
as he * sat musing amidst the ruins of the Capitol, while the bare- 
footed fryars were singing vespers in the temple of Jupiter, that 
the idea of writing the decline and fall of the city first started 
to' his mind; and 'it was on the. ..night of the 27th of June, 
1787 ',. "that he 'wrote the last lines of the last page, in a 
summer-house' in his garden at Lausanne, near the 'covered 
walk of acacias', commanding 'a prospect of the country, the 
•lake, and the mountains '^ The fourth, fifth and sixth volumes 
of the original quarto edition were published in 1788. Later 
historians have traversed portions of the same vast field, and 
^ AiUob. 61. 2 ii)^ >jg^ 103 f. 



CHAP. XXXV] SIR WILLIAM JONES 273 

have treated those portions with greater fulness and minuter 
detail; but the work, as a whole, has never been superseded. 
The survey of the Roman Civil Law in the 44th chapter is 
well known as a masterly monograph, while the account of the 
Revival of Greek Learning in Italy which closes the 66th is 
a splendid and eloquent page in the History of Classical 
Scholarship. 

Two years before the completion of the great work of 
Gibbon, is the date that marks the birth of the sir wiiuam 
study of Comparative Philology. William Jones Jones 

(1746 — 1794), who was educated at Harrow, and became a 
Fellow of University College, Oxford, studied the grammar and 
the poetry of Persia, and in 1779 published an English trans- 
lation of the Speeches of Isaeus. In 1783 he was knighted as 
Judge of the High Court at Calcutta, and in the following year 
he founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal. He had passed from 
English and Attic law to the law of India, and from the study of 
Indian law to that of Sanskrit. In 1786, after the first glance at 
that language, he made the memorable declaration : — 

'The Sanscrit language, whatever may be its antiquity, is of a wonderful 
structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and 
more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger 
affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could 
have been produced by accident ; so strong that no philologer could examine 
the Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin, without believing them to have been sprung 
from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. There is a 
similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic 
and Celtic had the same origin with the Sanscrit. The old Persian may be 
added to the same family ' ^ 

In 1789 he pointed out the connexion between Sanskrit and 
Zend. As the far-sighted pioneer in the new field of comparative 
philology, he belongs to a century adorned in England by the 
names of those who had triumphantly extended the boundaries 
of the ancient empire of classical learning, — Bentley and Gibbon 
and Porson. 

At the close of the eighteenth century the greatest name 
among Endish scholars was that of Richard Porson 

° ° Porson 

(1759 — 1808). The son of the parish clerk at East 

^ Asiatic Researches, i 422 (1786), Works, iii 34 (1807). 
S. H. 18 




Richard Porson. 



From Sharpe's engraving of the portrait by Hoppner in the University 
Library, Cambridge. 



CHAP. XXXV] PORSON 275 

Ruston, in Norfolk, he gave early proof of the most remarkable 
powers of memory. Generous benefactors sent him to Eton, and 
to Trinity College, Cambridge. Elected Fellow of Trinity in 1782, 
he lost his Fellowship ten years later, solely because of his resolve 
to remain a layman. But the generosity of his friends immediately 
provided him with an annual income of ;£ioo, and, in the same 
year, he was unanimously elected Professor of Greek, the stipend 
at that time being only ;£4o. He lived mainly in London, 
where his society was much sought by men of letters. In 1806 
he was appointed librarian of the London Institution, and in 
1808 he died. He was buried in the ante-chapel of Trinity 
College. 

His literary activity is mainly limited to the twenty years 
between his reviews of certain editions of Aeschylus and Aris- 
tophanes, and his restoration of the Greek inscription on the 
Rosetta Stone (1783 — 1803). The first work that made him 
widely known was his Letters to Travis (1788-9), in which he 
proved the spuriousness of the text on the ' three that bear 
witness in heaven '\ thus supporting an opinion which had long 
been held by critics from Erasmus to Bentley, and had recently 
been affirmed afresh by Gibbon, who regarded the work as 'the 
most acute and accurate piece of criticism since the days of 
Bentley '^ This was immediately followed by his preface and 
notes to a new edition of Toup's Etnendations on Suidas (1790). 
Some corrections intended for an octavo edition of Aeschylus were 
published in the Glasgow folio of 1795^ His masterly edition 
of four plays of Euripides began in 1797 with the Hecuba-, it was 
continued in the Orestes (1798), Phoenissae (1799), and Medea 
(i8oi), where the editor's name appears for the first time. In 
1796 Hermann, at the age of twenty-four, had produced a treatise 
De Metris Foetarum. In the next year Porson published his 
Hecuba, in the preface of which he settled certain points con- 
nected with Greek metre in a sense contrary to that of Hermann, 
but without complete proof. In i8oo Hermann brought out a 
rival edition, attacking Porson's opinions; Porson replied in his 
second edition (1802). The supplement to the preface has been 

^ 1 St John, V 7. 2 Gibbon, Miscell. i 159. 

•^ Dr David Murray's R. and A. Foulis (Glasgow, 191 3), i2r f. 

18—2 



276 ENGLAND [CENT. XVIII 

justly regarded as 'his finest single piece of criticism '^. He there 
states and illustrates the rules of iambic and trochaic metre, lays 
down the law that determines the length of the fourth syllable 
from the end of the normal iambic or trochaic line, tacitly 
correcting Hermann's mistakes, but never mentioning his name, 
though, in the previous year, in a famous note on Medea, 675, 
he had made effective mention of that name five times over in 
the phrase : — quis praeter Hermannum. After Porson's death, 
Hermann, in a work published in 1816, honoured his memory 
by describing him as vir magnae accurataeque doctrinae'^, Porson's 
transcript of the Codex Galeanus of the lexicon of Photius in the 
Library of Trinity College, was published by Dobree in 1822, 
fourteen years after Porson's death. 

His services to scholarship were chiefly in the domain of 
textual criticism. In the study of Attic Greek, he elucidated 
many points of idiom and usage, and established the laws of 
tragic metre. He was singularly successful in conjectural emen- 
dation ; his emendations were the fruit of an innate acumen, 
exercised on an extraordinarily wide range of reading, and aided 
by the resources of a marvellous memory. Monk and Blom- 
field published his Adversaria (181 2); Kidd, his Tracts (18 15); 
Dobree, his Aristophanica (1820) and his transcript of Photius 
(1822); and Gaisford, his notes on Pausanias (1820) and Suidas 
(1834). His memory was also perpetuated by the establishment 
of the Porson Prize and the Porson Scholarship in Cambridge. 
Of himself the great critic modestly said : — ' I am quite satisfied 
if, three hundred years hence, it shall be said that one Porson 
lived towards the close of the eighteenth century, who did a 
good deal for the text of Euripides'^. 'For Cambridge and for 
England he became in a large measure the creator of that ideal 
of finished and exact verbal scholarship, which prevailed for 
more than fifty years after his death '^ It was Porson's friend 
Burney who happily described Bentley, Taylor and Markland, 
with Dawes, Toup, Tyrwhitt, and Porson, as forming the con- 

1 Jebb, in D. N. B. 

2 Elementa Dodrinae Afetricae, p. xiii, ed. 181 7; cp. Opi4sc. vi 93 f. 
^ Rogers, Table Talk, * Porsoniana ', 334. 

^ Jebb in D. N. B. 163. 



CHAP. XXXV] LE CLERC. BURMAN 277 

stellation of the Pleiades among the English scholars of the 
eighteenth century ^ 

The Netherlands 

In the Netherlands the age that corresponds to that of 
Bentley in England opens with the name of one whose pre- 
tensions to scholarship brought him into conflict with the great 
English critic. 

In 1709 Jean le Clerc of Amsterdam (1657 — 1736), the 
author of an Ars Critica on the study, interpretation 
and criticism of the Classics, produced an edition 
of the fragments of Menander and Philemon. In the course of 
his work he had given abundant proof of his ignorance of Greek 
metre, even printing passages of prose in lines outwardly re- 
sembling those of verse. Thereupon Bentley immediately wrote 
out his own corrections of 323 of the fragments, restoring the 
metre and exposing the many metrical mistakes committed by 
Le Clerc. The ms, under the assumed name of Phileleutherus 
Lipsiensis, was sent to a Dutch scholar at Utrecht, Pieter Burman, 
who had a feud with Le Clerc, and was only too glad to publish 
the MS. 

Pieter Burman (1668 — 1741), Bentley's ally in this feud, 
was a pupil of Graevius at Utrecht and of Jacob 

„ • T 1 • -i r Burman 

Gronovms at Leyden, and was appomted professor 
at Utrecht in 1696, and at Leyden in 17 15. As an editor he 
confined himself to the Latin Classics. Of the poets, he edited 
Phaedrus, Horace, Claudian, Ovid, Lucan, and the Poetae Latini 
Minor es, besides producing a new edition of the Valerius Flaccus 
of N. Heinsius, and leaving materials for an edition of Virgil 
posthumously published by his nephew. As an editor of Latin 
poets, he was regarded by Ruhnken as equal to N. Heinsius in 
learning, but inferior in acumen and in emendatory skill. He 
had access to the unpublished notes of his predecessor, but he 
is careless in his use of them ; he is less widely read in Greek ; 
and his editions are overloaded by a mass of ill-digested variants. 

^ Preface to Burney's Tentamen. Life of Porson in Cambridge Essays, 
1857, by H. R. Luarcl, who edited his Correspondence {CoxahxidgQ Antiquarian 
Society, 1867) ; also by J. S. Watson, 1861 ; and by Jebb in D. N. B. 




Hemsterhuys. 
From a photograph of the portrait painted by J. Palthe, in 1766. 



CHAP. XXXVj HEMSTERHUYS 2/9 

Of the writers of prose, he edited Petronius, Velleius Paterculus, 
Justin, Quintilian, Suetonius. 

As an industrious manufacturer of Variorum Editions (which 
were not invented by him, but brought into vogue by his 
example), he is naturally held in high esteem by his nephew, 
Burman TI, and by the other unwearied compilers who follow 
in his wake. His great powers of endurance and his laborious 
patience have led to his being described as the 'beast of burden' 
of classical learning. The five quarto volumes of his great 
Sylloge Epistolarum a Viris Illustribus Scriptarum are of per- 
manent value in connexion with the History of Scholarship in 
the Netherlands. 

The last of the great Latinists of the third age of scholarship 
in the Netherlands is Franz van Oudendorp (i6q6 — 

-,.,.-. Oudendorp 

1 761), for the last twenty-one years of his life Latin 
professor at Leyden. He produced in 1728 a quarto edition of 
Lucan, with variorum notes, and with the modern supplement by 
May, and this edition is generally preferred to that of Burman 
(1740). He also edited Frontinus, Caesar, and Suetonius. His 
Apuleius was published with a preface by Ruhnken in 1761. 

Burman W (17 14 — 1778), the nephew of the elder Burman, 
was born at Amsterdam, and studied at Leyden, 

. Burman II 

and was a professor at Franeker in 1736-42 and 
at Amsterdam from 1742 until near the end of his life. His 
most important work was his annotated edition of the Latin 
Anthology (1759-73). He also edited Aristophanes with the 
notes of Bergler, and Claudian with those of the elder Burman, 
to whom he was superior in his intellectual attainments, and 
especially in his knowledge of Greek. 

The honour of reviving the study of Greek in the Nether- 
lands belongs to Tiberius Hemsterhuys (1685 — 
1766), who was educated at Groningen, and at 
Leyden (under Perizonius). He was successively a professor at 
Amsterdam (1704), Harderwyk (1705), Franeker (17 17), and ulti- 
mately at Leyden (1740), where for a quarter of a century he kept 
the flag of Greek flying in the foremost of Dutch universities. 

In 1703, an edition of the Onomasticon of Pollux, which had been begun 
and abandoned by Lederlin, was transferred to the youthful Hemsterhuys. 



280 THE NETHERLANDS [CENT. XVHI 

Lederlin had prepared for the press the first seven books, and Hemsterhuys 
had already spent two and a half years on the last three books when he wrote 
his first letter to Bentley in July, 1705. At the suggestion of Klister, he asked 
for Bentley's opinion on ten passages in the last two books. Bentley, who was 
busy with his Horace when the letter arrived, immediately laid aside his work, 
seized his copy of Pollux, and promptly stated his opinion on most of the 
passages in a vigorous reply that fills six pages of print ^. In March, 1708, 
Hemsterhuys writes to express his regret that the edition of Pollux, published 
in 1706, had been printed too soon to allow of Bentley's suggestions being 
inserted. He promises to add them, with any further criticisms, at some 
future opportunity"^. Early in June, Bentley replied in a letter filling twenty- 
four pages of print, in which he examines all the Comic fragments in the tenth 
book, corrects the original text and the errors of the editor, and restores the 
true reading by means of his mastery of Greek metre and Attic usage. He 
incidentally states that he had bought the new edition of Pollux as soon as it 
appeared, and he congratulates the youthful editor on his industry, learning, 
judgement, acumen and accuracy; his only regret is that, in dealing with the 
quotations from the poets, the editor had not shown a sufficient knowledge of 
metre, and this knowledge he strongly urged him to acquire^. Hemsterhuys 
had been fully aware of the importance of these poetical passages, and had spent 
considerable pains upon them. Bentley's success in correcting them was the 
measure of his own failure. So deep was his distress that he determined to 
abandon Greek for ever, and for two months did not dare to open a Greek book. 
On reflexion, however, it occurred to him that he had not been justified in 
comparing a young scholar like himself with a veteran, who was the prince of 
critics; he was soon reconciled to himself and to the literature of Greece, and 
he resolved never to attempt the criticism of the Comic poets, until he had 
mastered all their metres. He made Bentley his great example, placing him 
above all the critics of his time, and never concealing his disapproval of any 
who enviously depreciated the intellectual grandeur of one whom they could 
not possibly rivaH. 

Two years after completing Pollux, Hemsterhuys edited some 
select dialogues of Lucian, with the Tabula of Cebes and moral 
maxims from Menander (1708). In 1720 he undertook an edition 
of the whole of Lucian, but only translated and expounded a 
sixth part of the text. The work was completed by J. F. Reitz, 
a schoolmaster at Utrecht (ed. 1743-6). In connexion with 
Aristophanes, Hemsterhuys contributed to Kiister's edition a 
version of the Birds (17 10), besides producing a masterly edition 
of the Plutus (1744). 

1 Correspondence^ 219 f. ^ ib, 263. f. '^ ib. 270 — 293. 

^ Ruhnken, Elogiwji- Hemsterhusii, 24 — 27. 



CHAP. XXXV] HEMSTERHUYS. WESSELING 28 1 

Hemsterhuys has had the supreme felicity of being immortal- 
ised by a laudator eloquentissirnus. The Elogium delivered in 
1768 by his devoted pupil Ruhnken, on resigning the office of 
Rector, is one of the Classics in the History of Scholarship. It 
presents us with the living picture of the perfect critic. 

The sagacity of the true critic is the rare and singular gift of nature. He 
must also be endowed with a wide erudition, a keen intellectual faculty, a vivid 
imagination, and a capacity for prompt and judicious decision. The know- 
ledge and the natural powers required of a critic were so singularly united in 
Hemsterhuys that one felt that Nature had aimed in producing in him the 
perfect type. All the world wondered at the singular keenness of his eyesight, 
which resembled that of the lynx or the eagle; but the keenness of his mental 
vision was far more wonderful. His intellectual vigour remained unimpaired 
to the eighty-second year of his age, which was also the last year of his life. 
He regarded a perfect familiarity with the classical languages, and especially 
with Greek, as the portal of all knowledge. He held that Latin was so closely 
connected with Greek, that to separate Greek from Latin was like parting the 
mind from the body. Muretus had not hesitated to say that those who were 
ignorant of Greek could not possibly have a perfect knowledge of Latin ^. 
Hemsterhuys derived from his knowledge of Greek so much assistance in the 
interpretation of the Latin poets, that he sometimes declared that students 
ignorant of Greek could not appreciate Latin poets such as Propertius or Horace. 
Even the gentle Casaubon^ had been roused to indignation by the saying of 
Lipsius-'^ that Greek was an ornament to a scholar, but not a necessity. Happily 
that opinion had not prevailed. Scaliger had founded in Holland the study of 
Latin combined wxih Greek, and that tradition had been maintained by a Grotius, 
a Heinsius, a Gronovius, and a Graevius. Subsequently, scholars who had 
neglected Greek, had once more begun to confine themselves to Latin. The 
need had arisen for another Scaliger, and that need had been supplied by 
Hemsterhuys^. 

Among those who came under the immediate influence of 
Hemsterhuys at Franeker was the Westphalian, Peter 
Wesseling (1692 — 1764), who learnt from Hemster- 
huys that no erudition, however varied and copious, was of any 
real avail without criticism. He is best known as the learned 
editor of Diodorus (1746) and Herodotus (1763). His edition of 
Herodotus owed much to the grammatical and critical element 
supplied by Valckenaer. 

^ Var. Led. ii 20. '^ Epp. 291, 294. 

^ Ep. 336, in Burman's Sylloge, i 376. 

* Ruhnken's Elogium Hemsterhusii, ed. 1768, 1789; ed. Frey, Teubner, 

1875. 



282 THE NETHERLANDS [CENT. XVIH 

It was at Franeker that Valckenaer (17 15 — 1785) became 
a pupil of Hemsterhuys, whom he twice succeeded 

Valckenaer r r r^ ^ l- ^ ,/ v 

as professor of Greek, first at Franeker (1741-66), 
and afterwards at Leyden (1766-85). As professor at Franeker, 
he edited Iliad xxii, with scholia (1747). His masterly work on 
Euripides, begun at Franeker in his edition of the Phoenissae 
(1755), "^^^ continued at Leyden in his Hippolytiis^ and in his 
Diatribe on the Fragments (1768). This was followed by his 
able edition of Theocritus, Bion and Moschus (1781). His Frag- 
ments of Callimachus, and his learned and brilliant treatise on 
the Alexandrian impostor, the Jew Aristobulus, were published 
after his death by Luzac. In erudition he surpassed all his 
contemporaries ; but he was mainly devoted to the study of the 
Greek poets, and was specially familiar with hellenistic Greek. 
The ' Greek triumvirate ' of the Netherlands comprises the 

names of Hemsterhuys, Valckenaer, and Ruhnken. 

David Ruhnken (1723-98) was a native of Northern 
Pomerania, who, finding from his professors at Wittenberg that 
an accurate knowledge of Greek hardly existed except in the 
Netherlands, followed the advice of Ernesti, who urged him to 
betake himself to Hemsterhuys at Leyden. He was delighted 
with the dignity and courtesy with which he was received by 
Hemsterhuys \ who thenceforth became his sole model and 
example. Ruhnken began with Greek, and read through all 
the Greek and Latin Classics in chronological order. The first- 
fruits of at least five years of study were his two Epistolae Criticae, 
(i) on Homer and Hesiod, dedicated to Valckenaer (1749), and 
(2) on Callimachus and Apollonius Rhodius, dedicated to Ernesti 
(17 51). Meanwhile, he had begun to help Alberti in his edition 
of Hesychius. In 1754 he edited the Platonic Lexicon of Timaeus^ 
from a transcript of a ms in the Coislin library, a specimen of 
which had been printed by Montfaucon. Its publication, with 
the learned notes of Ruhnken, drew the attention of scholars to 
the literary interest of Plato. 

In 1755 he went for a year to Paris, where he devoted a large 
part of his time to making transcripts and extracts from mss, 
besides becoming acquainted with scholars such as Musgrave, 
^ Wyttenbach, Vita Ruhnkenii. 



CHAP. XXXV] VALCKENAER. RUHNKEN 283 

Tyrwhitt, and Villoison. After his return, he was appointed, 
in 1757, to assist Hemsterhuys as Reader in Greek, and, four 
years later, succeeded to the I>atin Chair vacated by Oudendorp. 
He went once more through the Latin Classics, and entered with 
vigour on his three courses of customary lectures, (i) on Universal 
History, (2) on Roman Antiquities, and (3) on ' Eloquentia ', 
i.e. the public exposition of a Latin author. In this last his 
favourite subjects were Terence, Suetonius, Cicero, ad Familiares^ 
and Ovid's Heroides. By 1765 he had completed Alberti's 
Hesychius. The numerous renderings of extracts from the Greek 
Orators in Rutilius Lupus led to his prefixing to his edition of 
that work an elaborate Historia Critica Oratorum Graecorum 
(1768). While reading the Greek rhetoricians in connexion with 
Rutilius Lupus, he noticed a sudden change of style in the 
Rhetoric of Apsines, and thus discovered that the work of 
Apsines had been interpolated with passages from another 
Rhetoric, which he identified as that of Cassius Longinus. In 
this connexion he wrote a treatise De Vita et Scriptis Longini 
(1776), which Wyttenbach does not hesitate to pronounce 
' immortal '. * Hie ejus libellus apud intelligentissimos judices, 
triplicis artis, Historiae, Criticae, Eloquentiae, palmam tulit'. 
Shortly afterwards, C. F. Matthaei sent him from Moscow a 
transcript of the lately discovered Homeric Hymns to Dionysus 
and Demete?', and, within the space of two years, two editions of 
the same were pubHshed by Ruhnken (1780-2). Meanwhile, he 
had edited Velleius Paterculus (1779). In 1784 he began his 
complete edition of Muretus, whom he regarded as an admirable 
model of modern Latin. In 1795 ^' ^- Wolf's 'Prolegomena 
to Homer ' was dedicated Davidi Ruhnkenio Principi Criticorum, 
For the author he had the highest esteem, and it was with a 
peculiar pleasure that he read this work, even when he differed 
from its conclusions. Three years later, in the land of his 
adoption, the German student who had left his home to learn 
Greek at Leyden, passed away at the time when a new age of 
criticism was beginning to dawn in the land of his fathers. 

Ruhnken's portrait was drawn on an ample scale by his 
favourite pupil, Wyttenbach, who describes his master as en- 
dowed with every grace of mind and body, a well-built frame. 



284 THE NETHERLANDS [CENT. XVHI 

a dignified bearing, a cheerful countenance, skill in music and 
drawing, in riding and leaping, and in the pursuits of the 
chased 

Daniel Wyttenbach (1746 — 1820), who was born at Bern, 
studied for a time at the universities of Marburg 

Wyttenbach ,_,... ° 

and Gottmgen. Just as Ruhnken had left Witten- 
berg and had neglected Gottingen, to become a pupil of 
Hemsterhuys at Leyden, so Wyttenbach abandoned Gottingen 
in 1770 to live at Leyden for one memorable year under the 
tuition of Ruhnken. In the next twenty-eight years, he held 
professorships at Amsterdam (1771-99), and then returned to 
Leyden as Ruhnken's successor for seventeen years (1799 — 
1816). 

As a student at Leyden, Wyttenbach worked mainly under 
Ruhnken, but he also attended, and fully appreciated, the lectures 
of Valckenaer. The first-fruits of the year at Leyden were his 
edition of Plutarch, De sera Numinis vindida (1772). More 
than twenty years later this led to his undertaking a complete 
edition of Plutarch's Moralia for the Oxford Press. Six quarto 
volumes of Greek Text and Latin Translation (1795 — 1806) were 
followed by two volumes of Animadversions (1800-21) and com- 
pleted by an Index in two volumes of more than 1700 pages, 
pubhshed under Gaisford's superintendence in 1830. 

On the death of Ruhnken, Wyttenbach became the most 
influential scholar in the Netherlands. While he was still at 
Amsterdam, he had proved his aptitude for attracting promising 
students. At Leyden his influence was still greater. But almost 
all his pupils were formed on his own model, and, in their 
devotion to Greek Philosophy and to Cicero, became ' miniature 
Wyttenbachs'. Wyttenbach himself, who began with an un- 
bounded admiration for the critical works of Ruhnken and 
Valckenaer, found himself intellectually further and further 
removed from them, the nearer he came under their immediate 
and personal influence. Thus, his edition of the Phaedo (18 10), 
which has been far too highly praised, reflects the influence of 
Heyne rather than that of Ruhnken. The grammatical and 
critical method here gives place to an aesthetic type of com- 
^ Vita (L. B. 1799; ed. Bergman, ib. 1824; ed. Frotscher, Friberg, 1846). 



CHAP. XXXV] WYTTENBACH 285 

mentary, full of charm and elegance, but only too apt to ignore 
real difficulties, and not always distinguished by clearness and 
simplicity of expression. His monographs on leading repre- 
sentatives of Greek literature are far less elaborate in their method, 
far less rich in their results, than the works of Ruhnken and 
Valckenaer on similar subjects. He was more interested in the 
Greek than the Latin poets, but, strange to say, he does not 
apply that interest to the numerous poetic passages imbedded 
in the prose of Plutarch. Nevertheless, a permanent value 
attaches to his edition of the Moralia^ and to the efforts aroused 
by himself and his pupils for the understanding of the old 
philosophy, especially that of Plato and the Platonists. The 
highest praise must be assigned to his Life of Ruhnken, a work 
of absorbing interest to his scholarly contemporaries, which still 
retains its importance as a comprehensive picture of the Scholar- 
ship of the Netherlands, and not the Netherlands alone, in the 
age of Ruhnken. Like Ruhnken himself, he represents the close 
of the old order; he had no sympathy with the new direction that 
was being given to classical studies by Wolf 

Thus far we have surveyed the progress of scholarship during 
the eighteenth century in Italy and France, in England and the 
Netherlands. We have seen that, in the two Latin nations, the 
study of Latin continued to flourish by the side of the study of 
archaeology. In Italy, Greek was in a subordinate position, 
Corsini's Fasti Attici being the only important product of Greek 
learning, as contrasted with numerous publications connected 
with the study of Latin, culminating in the great lexicon of 
Forcellini. In France, the study of Greek was well represented, 
in the early part of the century, by Montfaucon's Palaeographia 
Graeca, and, towards its close, by Villoison's Venetian Scholia — 
the armoury from which Wolf drew some of the weapons for his 
famous Prolegomena. In England, Bentley's immortal Disserta- 
tion, originally written to correct an indiscriminate admiration for 
all the reputed works of the ' ancients ', placed the sequence of 
ancient literature in a proper historical perspective ; it also set an 
effective example of critical method, while it incidentally proved 
that, for the discussion of a complicated problem in Greek lite- 



286 THE NETHERLANDS [CENT. XVIH 

rature, the artificial Latin hitherto in fashion was a less adequate 
medium than the vigorous use of the mother-tongue. Bentley's 
influence as a Greek scholar had also a direct effect on Holland, 
and, through Holland, on Germany. It was owing to Bentley's 
encouragement that Hemsterhuys resolved on mastering the 
defects in his knowledge of Greek, and thus ultimately achieved 
so great a reputation that Ruhnken left Germany to learn Greek 
at Leyden, just as, in the next generation, Wyttenbach went to 
learn Greek from Ruhnken. Lastly, we may recall the influence 
exerted in Germany by Robert Wood's Essay, which inspired 
Heyne with a new interest in Homer, and supplied Wolf with 
part of the materials for his Prolegomena. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

GERMANY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

In the year 1700 the earliest of German Academies was 
ounded in Berlin. The intellectual originator of that Academy 
was the many-sided man of genius, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz 
(1646 — 1 7 16). A celebrated theologian of Augsburg, J. J. Brucker 
(1696 — 1770), author of the Historia Critica Fhilosophiae^ was 
elected a member of the Berlin Academy in 1731, but, in the first 
half of the century, the interests of classical learning were far less 
promoted by the Academy than by masters of German schools, 
who studied the Classics in connexion with the general history of 
literature. 

Foremost among these was Johann Albert Fabricius (1668 — 
1736), who, from 1699 to 17 n, was a master at 

, J. A. Fabricius 

Hamburg. He had already produced, m the three 
small volumes of his Bibliotheca Latina, a comprehensive bio- 
graphical and bibliographical work on the Latin literature of the 
classical period (1697)'. He was still holding a scholastic 
appointment when he began his far more extensive Bibliotheca 
Graeca, a work that, in the course of fourteen quarto volumes, 
traverses the whole range of Greek literature down to the fall of 
Constantinople (1705-28)^ The earlier work on Latin literature 
was subsequently continued in the five volumes of the Bibliotheca 
Latina mediae et itifimae aetatis (1734). The varied learning and 
indomitable industry displayed in these and other works may 
fairly entitle their author to be regarded as the modern Didymus. 
In the compilation of the Bibliotheca Graeca he was largely aided 

^ Finally revised ed. 1721 ; also in two vols, quarto, Venice, 1728 (better 
than Ernesti's ed. of 1773 f), and in six vols. Florence, 1858. 

2 Ed. Harless in 12 vols. 1790 — 1809 (incomplete); index, 1838. 



288 GERMANY [CENT. XVIII 

by Stephan Bergler {c. 1680 — c. 1746), the editor of Alciphron 
and Aristophanes. 

One of the greatest scholars in the eighteenth century was 
Tohann Matthias Gesner (1691 — 1761), for twenty 

J. M. Gesner \ 7 / /5 j 

years a school-master at Weimar, Ansbach, and 
Leipzig, and, for the last twenty-seven years of his life, professor 
at Gottingen. 

As a head-master at Leipzig, he published a Chrestomathia 
Graeca (1731), which promoted the introduction of the best 
Greek Classics into the schools of Germany. In the province of 
Latin literature, he did similar service by his selections from 
Cicero and the elder Pliny. In 1735 he edited the Scriptores 
Rei Rusticae^ which were soon followed by the Instiiiitio Oratoria 
of Quintilian, the Letters and Panegyric of the younger Pliny, and 
ultimately by Horace, and Claudian (1759). The preface to the 
latter proves that Gesner anticipated Heyne in introducing 
the principles of taste into the interpretation of the Classics. 
The whole range of classical Latin literature is traversed in the 
four folio volumes of his greatest work, the Novus Linguae ei 
Eruditionis Ro7na?iae Thesaurus (1749). 

Gesner was one of the foremost leaders of the movement 
known as the New Humanism. The Old Humanism had aimed 
at the verbal imitation of the style of the Latin Classics, and at 
the artificial prolongation of the modern life of the ancient Latin 
literature. This aim was gradually found to be impracticable, 
and, about 1650, it was abandoned. Latin was still taught in 
schools ; it also survived as the medium of university instruction 
and as the language of the learned world. But the ancient litera- 
ture came to be considered as a superfluity ; neglected at school, it 
was regarded simply as a waste and barren field, where the learned 
might burrow in quest of the facts required for building up the 
fabric of an encyclopaedic erudition. Such was practically the 
view of the School of Halle. 

The School of Gottingen, as represented by Gesner, found a 
new use for the old literature. The study of that literature was 
soon attended with a fresh interest. Thenceforth, in learning 
Greek (as well as Latin) the aim was not to imitate the style, 
but to assimilate the substance, to form the mind and to cultivate 



CHAP. XXXVl] GESNER. DAMM. SCHELLER 289 

the taste, and to lead up to the production of a modern literature 
that was not to be a mere echo of a bygone age, but was to have 
a voice of its own whether in philosophy, or in learning, or in art 
and poetry. The age of Winckelmann, Lessing and Goethe, was 
approaching, and Gesner was its prophet and precursor. 

He set a high value on the study of Greek literature : — Latin 
itself (he held) could not be thoroughly understood without 
Greek. Boys at school (he added) should not be allowed to give 
up Greek. After learning the elements of the Grammar, they 
should go on to easy reading, such as Aesop, Lucian and the 
Greek Testament, and afterwards take up Homer. The interest 
in Homer is a note of the New Humanism. 

In connexion with Gesner we may here notice some of the 
other lexicographers of the same century. Christian 
Tobias Damm (1699 — 1778), the head of the 
oldest gymnasium of Berlin, in 1765, made his mark with his 
great lexicon to Homer and Pindar. His prose translation of 
both was completed in 177 1. In his work in general he was 
prompted by a conviction that the Greek language and literature 
were superior to the Latin. He held that the imitation of Greek 
models was necessary to raise the level of German culture, and, in 
the increasing interest in Greek literature, he saw the sign of a 
new Renaissance. A very few years later, the 'imitation of Greek 
models' in the world of Art was to be the theme of the earliest 
work of his most famous pupil, Winckelmann, who was an 
enthusiastic student of Homer. 

As a Latin lexicographer, Gesner had in the next generation 
a worthy successor in Immanuel Johann Gerhard 
Scheller (1735 — 1^03)? whose Latin-German 
Dictionary^ was founded on an independent study of the 
authors, and on a careful and intelligent use of the best com- 
mentaries and lexicons. It was enlarged and improved in two 
later editions, and subsequently abridged by the lexicographer 
himself, who added a German-Latin Dictionary in 1792. He was 
charged with borrowing from Forcellini (1771) without mentioning 
his name. It was also alleged that his reading was mainly limited 
to Caesar, Cicero, and other classical authors. But his independ- 
^ 2 vols. 1783; ed. 2, in 3 vols. 1788; ed. 3, in 5 vols. 1804-5. 
S. H. 19 



290 GERMANY [CENT. XVIII 

ence has been vindicated, his wide reading and his other merits 
have since been fully recognised \ 

Scheller's counterpart among Greek Lexicographers is Johann 
Gottlob Schneider (17^0 — 1822), whose Greek 

J.G.Schneider , . , ^ ^ ^ , . , . , 

lexicon was the first comprehensive and inde- 
pendent work that had appeared in this department since the 
lexicon of H. Stephanus (1572)^. Schneider did much in the 
way of collecting and explaining technical and scientific terms. 
His knowledge of natural science, in combination with classical 
hterature, is exemplified in his editions of the zoological works 
of Aelian and Aristotle. He also edited the Politics and the 
second book of the Oeconomics^ and the whole of Theophrastus, 
Nicander, and Oppian, as well as the Scriptores Rei Rusticae^ and 
Vitruvius. 

Gesner's efforts as an educational reformer were ably seconded 
by Johann August Ernesti (1707 — 1781). In 
Leipzig, where he lived for half a century, he 
was for three years the colleague, and, for a quarter of a century, 
the successor of Gesner as head of the great local school. For 
the last seventeen of those years he was also professor of 
Eloquence in the university, and, on resigning both of those 
positions, in 1759, became professor of Theology for the last 
twenty-two years of his life. His reputation as a scholar depends 
mainly on the edition of the whole of Cicero, completed in six 
volumes in 1739, and supplemented in its third edition by 
historical introductions and critical notes (1777). The most 
permanently valuable part of the original work is the Clavis 
Ciceroniana^, an excellent dictionary of Cicero's vocabulary and 
phraseology, preceded by an index of Roman laws, and of 
geography and history. He also deserves the credit of having 
contributed much towards the wider diffusion of classical educa- 
tion in Germany. 

^ Prof. Mayor in Journal of CI. and Sacred Philology, ii 283 — 290 (1855). 

2 In two vols. 1797 f; ed. 2, 1805-6; ed. 3, 1819; Stcppl. 1821; abridged 
by F. W. Riemer, 1802-4. It has supplied the basis for the lexicons of Passow 
(1819-24 etc.), and Passow's for that of Rost and Palm (1841-57) and that of 
Liddell and Scott (1843 etc.). 

3 Ed. Rein, 1831. 



CHAP. XXXVI] SCHNEIDER. ERNESTI. REISKE 29I 

When Gesner died at Gottingen in 1 761, his vacant Chair 
was offered first to Ernesti, who, twenty-seven years before, had 
succeeded Gesner as a head-master in Leipzig. Ernesti declined 
the offer, and suggested the name of Ruhnken. Ruhnken also 
declined, and suggested Ernesti's former pupil, Heyne, whose 
distinguished career at Gottingen will be noticed in the sequeF. 
Ernesti appears to have deliberately ignored the claims of Reiske, 
who had been living for the last fifteen years in Leipzig and had 
already given proof of being among the foremost Greek scholars 
of the day. 

Johann Jacob Reiske (1716 — 1774) entered the university of 
Leipzig in 1732. He attended no lectures what- 
soever ; indeed, on Greek, there were none to 
attend. He worked by himself at a few Greek authors, but found 
Demosthenes and Theocritus too difficult at that stage of his 
reading. He also studied Arabic until 1738. In 1748 he attained 
the barren honour of being appointed ' extraordinary professor of 
Arabic ' at an almost nominal stipend, and even this was irregu- 
larly paid. But his knowledge of the language brought him into 
notice, and incidentally led to his appointment as Rector of the 
Nicolai-Schuk in Leipzig for the last sixteen years of his life. He 
thus obtained some of the leisure needed for the completion of a 
number of important editions of Greek authors. 

The earliest proof of Reiske's profound knowledge of Greek 
was his editio princeps of the work of Constantine Porphyrogenitus 
on the customs of the Byzantine court (175 1-4). His 'Ani- 
madversions' on Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes (1753-4), 
and his further ' Animadversions ' on Greek prose authors 
(1757—66), included some excellent emendations. The first- 
fruits of his study of the Greek Orators appeared in the form 
of a vigorous German translation of the Speeches of Demosthenes 
and Aeschines, with explanatory notes (1764). His edition of 
the Orators involved ten years of arduous labour. It extended to 
eight volumes (1770-3), followed by the 'Apparatus Criticus' and 
'Indices' to Demosthenes, in four. The last three of these were 
edited by his widow. 

He lived to see the publication of the first two of the six 
^ p. 299 infra, 

19 — 2 



292 GERMANY [CENT. XVIII 

volumes of his Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and the first of the 
twelve of his Plutarch. His important edition of Libanius was 
published by his widow, who also produced his Dion Chrysostom. 
Lastly, she added to the pathetic pages of his autobiography 
a brief sketch of his character, dwelling on his generosity, his 
transparent honesty, and his enthusiasm in the cause of learning. 

In the eighteenth century the study of Classical Archaeology 
received an important impulse from the teaching of 
Johann Friedrich Christ (1700 — 1756). In 1734 
he became professor of History and Poetry at Leipzig, and in 
a memorable course of lectures urged his audience to become 
familiar, not only with the literature, the inscriptions, and the 
coins of the ancients, but also with their architecture and 
sculpture, their gems and their vases. These lectures marked 
the beginning of archaeological teaching in Germany, and it was 
from this source that Lessing and Heyne derived their earliest 
interest in ancient art. 

While an interest in the artistic side of ancient life had been 
thus awakened by J. F. Christ, the permanent 

Winckelmann . . _ . . 

recognition of its importance was due to the genius 
of Johann Joachim Winckelmann (17 17 — 1768). The son of a 
cobbler at Stendal (about sixty miles W. of Berlin), he succeeded 
in learning Latin at the local school. In 1735 ^^ went to Berlin, 
to spend a year in learning Greek under Damm, and, after 
passing through the universities of Halle and Jena, soon found 
his early interest in miscellaneous learning merged in a keen 
admiration for Greek literature. During five years of hardship as 
a school-master, he devoted the greater part of his nights to the 
study of Homer and Sophocles, and Herodotus, Xenophon, and 
Plato. The six years that he subsequently spent near Dresden 
brought him within reach of the finest collection of works of 
sculpture and painting then to be found in all Germany. It soon 
became clear to Winckelmann that the study of art was hence- 
forth to be the main purpose of his life, and that he could not 
continue that study, to any serious purpose, without living in 
Italy ; and, as the only means for carrying out this design, he 
finally resolved on joining the Church of Rome. Before starting 
for the South he composed his earliest work, ' Thoughts on the 



CHAP. XXXVl] WINCKELMANN. LESSING 293 

Imitation of Greek works in Painting and Sculpture' (1755), 
where, in words that soon became memorable, he described 
Greek art as characterised by 'a noble simplicity and a calm 
grandeur'. The first two years of his residence in Rome were 
devoted to studying the great galleries of Sculpture and describing 
some of the finest works of ancient art in the Vatican Museum. 
He afterwards spent three months in Naples, examining the 
results of the recent excavation of Herculaneum and Pompeii. 
He also visited the great Greek temples at Paestum and Girgenti, 
besides studying the descriptions of works of Greek art in 
Pausanias, and the Greek conception of the Beautiful in Plato. 
All these studies culminated in the two quarto volumes of his 
classic 'History of Ancient Art' (1764), the earHest book in 
which the developement of the art of Egypt, of Phoenicia and 
Persia, of Etruria, and of Greece and Rome, is set forth in con- 
nexion with the general developement of political life and 
civilisation. The work was received with enthusiasm, and a 
second edition appeared in 1776. Meanwhile, in 1767-8, he 
had produced the two volumes of his Monumenti Antichi Ineditt, 
describing more than two hundred works of ancient art, mainly 
reliefs from Roman sarcophagi. In the following April, he left 
Rome for the North. He was bound for Berlin, where he pro- 
posed to see through the press a French edition of his great 
History. On his return to Triest, he was treacherously murdered 
by an Italian adventurer to whom he had shown some of the 
large gold medals he had recently received at Vienna \ The 
date of his birth, the 9th of December, has since been repeatedly 
commemorated by the publication of papers on classical art and 
archaeology in Rome, as well as in Berlin and in many other 
homes of learning in Germany. 

The services rendered by Winckelmann, in bringing the old 
Greek world into connexion with modern life, were 
continued in a still larger measure by Gotthold 
Ephraim Lessing (1729— 1781). He was only seventeen when 
he entered the university of Leipzig, where J. F. Christ was 
already lecturing on ancient art, and on Plautus and Horace. 

^ Justi, Winckelmann, sein Leben, seine Werke und seine Zeitgenossen, 
3 vols., 1866-72. 



294 GERMANY [CENT. XVIII 

Early in 1749 he went to Berlin, and, besides making his mark as 
a dramatic critic, produced three plays, one of them founded on 
the Trinummiis. He afterwards stayed at Wittenberg for less 
than a year, spending most of his time in the university library. 
After his return to Berlin, his interest in the drama led to his 
writing a treatise on the life and works of Plautus, a translation 
and examination of the Captivi, and an essay on the tragedies of 
Seneca. A still more important influence on his career as a critic 
may be traced to his study of Aristotle's Ethics, Politics, Rhetoric, 
and Poetic, and of the masterpieces of Greek tragedy, especially 
the plays of Sophocles. After nearly three years at Leipzig, he 
published at Berlin his ' Prose Fables ' and his ' Treatises on 
the Fable', the latter being among the best of his essays in 
criticism (1759). It was during his five years at Breslau (1760-5), 
that he began the best known of his critical works, his Laokoon, 
or, 'on the limits of Poetry and Painting', completed and pub 
lished at Berlin in 1766. 

Simonides had vividly described 'Poetry as a speaking Picture and Painting 
as a silent Poem', but Plutarch himself, in quoting this epigram, had observed 
that Poetry and Painting ' differ in their matter, and in their means of 
imitation'. Nevertheless, the limits of the two arts had been left undefined. 
Winckelmann himself 'saw no reason why Painting should not have as wide 
boundaries as Poetry', and inferred that 'it ought to be possible for the painter 
to imitate the poet'. He had also illustrated the 'noble simplicity and calm 
grandeur ' of Greek art by the subdued expression of pain in the sculptured 
form of Laocoon, who, in contrast to the Laocoon of Virgil, bravely endures 
his pain, 'like the Philoctetes of Sophocles'. 

Lessing, however, at the very outset of his Essay, shows that Philoctetes in 
the play, so far from suppressing his groans, fills the stage with loud laments, 
and, instead of supplying a contrast to Virgil's Laocoon, really resembles him. 
Winckelmann (he continues) had overlooked the essential difference between 
Sculpture and Poetry. The poet and the artist were equally right, both 
followed the principles of their respective arts. The sculptor did not 'aim at 
expressing a higher moral character in making his Laocoon suppress the cry of 
agony; he only obeyed the highest law of ancient art, — the law of beauty'. 
The artist is limited to a motnent of time; the poet is not. 'The artist 
represents coexistence in space, the poet succession in time\ This point is 
illustrated from Homer, and in particular from his vivid story of the making of 
the Shield of Achilles, which is far more life-like, far more truly poetic than 
Virgil's dead description of the Shield of Aeneas. In Homer the great work 
grows under our very eyes; scene after scene starts into life; while Virgil toils 



CHAP. XXXVl] LESSING. HERDER 295 

in vain by tediously drawing our attention to a series of coexistent images. 
Thus Lessing condemns dead description in poetry, as contrasted with life-like 
action and movement. 

Lessing's Laokoon is the most perfect specimen of his terse and transparent 
style, and' it owes part of its perspicuity to the avoidance of parenthesis. It 
was hailed on all sides M'ith enthusiasm. Goethe, then a student at Leipzig, 
afterwards said: — 'One must be a youth to realise the effect produced upon us 
by Lessing's Laokoon... T\\& phrase /// pictura poesis, which had so long been 
misunderstood, was at once set aside ; the difference between art and poetry 
was now made clear '^. Long afterwards, Macaulay read the Laokoon, 'some- 
times dissenting, but always admiring and learning ' ; it was one of the books 
that filled him 'with wonder and despair '2. 

The Laokoon remained a torso. Instead of completing it, the 
author left Berlin for Hamburg, where, as ' critic of the plays and 
actors', he produced more than a hundred chapters of brilliant 
dramatic criticism (1767-9). That criticism is mainly founded 
on Aristotle's treatise on Poetry. 

For the last eleven years of his life he was librarian at 
Wolfenbiittel. It was during this period that, in 1775, ^e spent 
nine months in Italy with a prince of Brunswick. On a day in 
Rome he was missed by the prince's attendants, who at last found 
him in the Vatican Museum gazing with rapture on the group of 
Laocoon. 

Lessing was the most versatile of men, a writer on theology 
and on aesthetics, as well as a poet, a critic, and a scholar. By 
his influence on his contemporaries he undoubtedly opened a 
new era in the appreciation of Homer and Sophocles ; he also 
promoted the intelligent study of Aristotle's treatise on Poetry, 
and threw a clearer light on the aims of Plautus and Terence, 
and on the merits of Horace and Martial. His wTitings have 
a never-failing charm that is mainly due to their clearness and 
precision, and to their classic purity of style ^. 

One of Lessing's most important allies in promoting an interest 
in Greek literature in Germany was Johann 
Gottfried Herder (1744 — 1803). Humbly born 
at Mohrungen, amid the marshes near Konigsberg, he was 

^ Dichtitng und Wahrheit, I c. viii. 

- Life, ii 8 (ed. 1878). Editions of Lessing's Laokoon by Blumner, 1876, 
and (with English notes) by Hamann, 1878; E. T. by E. C. Beasley, 1879, etc. 
^ Life, in English, by J. Sime, 1877, ^'^^ by H- Zimmern, 1878. 



296 GERMANY [CENT. XVIII 

grounded in Latin by an awe-inspiring master named Grimm. 
He regarded the Grammar of Donatus as a 'book of martyrdom', 
and Cornelius Nepos as the ' author of torment ' ; but he rejoiced 
in wandering in solitude beside the local lake and through the 
'Wood of Paradise', where, on a day in autumn, he burst into 
tears over the lines in which Homer compares the passing 
generations of man to the fading and falling leaves of the 
forest^ As a student at Konigsberg he was specially interested 
in Hebrew poetry, and in Pindar and Plato. In his maturer 
years we note three main periods : — first, the time at Riga 
(1765—9); next, the tour in France (1769), the visit to Strassburg 
(where he made a profound impression on the youthful Goethe), 
and the years spent as court preacher at .Biickeburg (177 1-6); 
and lastly, his residence in a similar position at Weimar (1776 — 
1803). 

It was at Riga that he published his three collections of Fragments on 
modern German literature (1766-7). 

The second of these includes a discourse on the study of Greek literature 
in Germany, emphasising the connexion between the taste of each people and 
its material environment in successive ages. In connexion with the inquiry, 
' how far have we imitated the Greeks ? ', he characterises the several branches 
of Greek poetry, and the foremost poets of Greece. He also urges that 
Homer should be translated^ Homer the true poet of Nature, whose song 
has a very different ring from that of Virgil and the artificial poets of 
modern times. 

In his second great work he imagines himself roaming through the 'wood- 
lands of criticism '. He has a high appreciation of Lessing's Laokoon, but he 
does still more justice to Winckelmann. 

Opposing Lessing's theory as to the Greek expression of the emotions, he 
maintains that Philoctetes does not shriek without restraint, while he demurs 
to the dogma that all poetry must represent action, a dogma limiting poetry to 
the epic and dramatic, to the exclusion of the lyric and the song. At a later 
point he insists that every work of Art or Poetry must be interpreted in the 
light of the people and the period, in which it came into being. 

It was on the deck at night, during his voyage from Riga, that 
he first formed his theory of the genesis of primitive poetry and 
of the gradual evolution of humanity. In France he drew up a 
scheme of educational reform, beginning by overthrowing the 

1 //. vi 146 f. 



CHAP. XXXVI] HERDER 297 

predominance of his old enemy, the Latin grammar, and in- 
sisting that, in education, variety was absolutely essential. 

As to languages, the mother-tongue must be thoroughly studied, French 
must be taught in conversation, Latin should be learnt for the sake of its 
literature, but even Latin is best taught by conversation. Greek and Hebrew 
follow in their turn, and the course is complete. 

At Strassburg in 1770 he wrote the Essay on the Origin of 
Language that was crowned by the Berlin Academy. The 
Academy had proposed the question :— ' Was man capable of 
inventing language, if left to his own resources, and, if so, by 
what means could he have invented it?' Herder answers the 
first part of this question in the affirmative ; and, in reply to the 
second, lays down four ' natural laws ' governing the invention 
and developement of language, and its division into various 
tongues. The essay was written in less than a month, but the 
subject had been long in his mind, and, fortunately (perhaps) 
for himself, he had no books to hamper him. The result has 
been recognised as an important part of the first foundations of 
Comparative Philology. 

He was still at Biickeburg when he published 'A New 
Philosophy of History', beginning with a sketch of the progress 
of man from his childhood in the East, through his boyhood in 
Egypt and Phoenicia and his youth in Greece, till in Rome he 
reached man's estate, and attained his still maturer years in the 
Middle Ages and in modern times. Similar opinions recur in 
his ' Thoughts on the Philosophy of the History of Mankind ' 
(1784-91). Near the middle he dwells on the 'Education of the 
Human Race', and, in the latter half, surveys the growth of 
civilisation in ancient times and in the Middle Ages, devoting 
two most suggestive books to Greece and Italy. ' With Greece 
the morning breaks\ — such are the opening words of the enthu- 
siastic passage on Greek life and history that was specially 
admired by Heyne and Goethe. He is peculiarly interested in 
Homer. He was in fact one of the first to elucidate the general 
character of the Homeric poems. He finds in them the fullest 
illustration of the idiosyncrasy of national poetry. 

His interest in ancient art is specially displayed in two 
treatises. In his work on Sculpture he observes with surprise 




Heyne. 
From C. G. Geyser's engraving of the early portrait by Tischbein. 



CHAP. XXXVI] IIEYNE 299 

that Lessing had not cared to distinguish between Sculpture and 
Painting. His short treatise ' on the Representation of Death by 
the Ancients ' suggests that the ' Genius with the inverted torch ' 
on Greek tombs is not (as Lessing held) Death, the brother of 
Sleep, but Sleep, the brother of Death, or possibly a mourning 
Cupid. Elsewhere, he insists on the importance, and indeed the 
necessity, of the study of ancient Art for the study of classical 
literature^ . 

Among professional scholars. Christian Gottlob Heyne (1729 — 
181 2) has been justly praised for the new interest 
in ancient Hterature and ancient art, which he 
awakened both by his teaching and by his published works. He 
was the eldest son of a poor weaver in Upper Saxony. Having 
no text-books of his own, he was compelled to borrow those of his 
school-fellows, and to copy out the portion required for each 
lesson. He complains that (like others since his time) he was 
compelled to make Latin verses before he had read any authors, 
or acquired any store of words. At the age of nineteen he went 
to Leipzig, there to endure all the miseries of a poor student's 
life. But he succeeded in gaining admission to the lectures of 
Ernesti, and it was thus that he first learnt what was meant 
by 'the interpretation' of the Classics. On the death of Gesner 
at Gottingen, Ernesti at Leipzig was consulted as to the choice of 
a successor. Ernesti suggested Ruhnken, and Ruhnken sug- 
gested Heyne, who had recently shown how much he knew of 
Latin literature by his Tibullus ; of Greek, by his Epictetus. In 
June, 1763, Heyne settled at Gottingen, where he lived for forty- 
nine years, loyally devoting himself to his duties as professor of 
Eloquence, as director of the philological Seminar^ as university 
librarian, as secretary of the local Academy, as editor of the local 
Review, and as an active administrator in business affairs con- 
nected with the University and with education in general. 

During a brief journey to Hanover, he perused Lessing's 
Laokoon (which had just been published), admiring the author's 
taste, which he considered superior even to that of Winckelmann, 
and agreeing with Lessing in his depreciation of Virgil in com- 
parison with Homer. The immediate influence of Winckelmann 
^ Cp. H. '^^s\Xi%oxi% Herder and his Times, 1884. 



300 GERMANY [CENT. XVIII 

and Lessing is manifest in the fact that, in the very next year, 
Heyne announced for the first time a course of lectures on 
archaeology (1767). Much of his reputation rested on the 
excellent manner in which he trained the future school-masters of 
Germany in his small and select Seminar. 

Heyne was not an original genius. He was a many-sided 
scholar, who studied and expounded ancient life in all its 
successive phases, and became the founder of that branch of 
classical teaching that deals with the study of Realien, the science 
of * things' as contrasted with that of 'words', archaeology (in its 
widest sense) as contrasted with language and literature. He 
was 'the first who with any decisiveness attempted'... 'to read in 
the writings of the Ancients, not their language alone, or even 
their detached opinions and records, but their spirit and character, 
their way of life and thought'^ 

The criticism and exposition of ancient poetry is represented 
in his editions of Tibullus, Virgil, Pindar, and the Iliad. Of 
these editions the most important, as a whole, is the Virgil, the 
least successful part being the treatment of the subject-matter of 
the Georgics. His edition of the liiad, which cost him fifteen 
years of labour, has far less permanent value. His interest in the 
subject was mainly aroused by the publication of Robert Wood's 
Essay on the original Genius of Homer (1769). The work, as 
a whole, was practically a compilation, and the date of its appear- 
ance (1802) inevitably suggested a comparison with Wolf's 
Prolegomena (1795), a comparison which was bound to be to the 
disadvantage of Heyne. 

Heyne is the founder of the scientific treatment of Greek 
mythology. He also wrote much on ancient history. In the 
domain of art he followed the lines laid down by Winckelmann. 
He had neither the enthusiasm and the artistic penetration of 
Winckelmann, nor the critical and philosophical acumen of 
Lessing; but he surpassed both, in a full and accurate knowledge 
of antiquarian details, and in a trained aptitude for methodical 
historical investigation. 

* On the whole' (says Carlyle), 'the Germans have some reason to be 
proud of Heyne : who shall deny that they have here once more produced 
^ Carlyle, Heyne, in Misc. Essays ^ ii iii (ed. 1869). 



CHAP. XXXVl] HEYNE. ECKHEL. SCHUTZ 3OI 

a scholar of the right old stock ; a man to be ranked, for honesty of study and 
of life, with the Scaligers, the Eentleys, and old illustrious men, who... fought 
like giants... for the good cause?' Pointing to the example of the 'son of 
the Chemnitz weaver,' he adds: — 'Let no lonely unfriended son of genius 
despair!'^  

While the study of coins was one of the many departments of 
learning that attracted the notice of Heyne, it was 

. . , , Eckhel 

the life-work of his contemporary, Joseph Eckhel 
(1737 — 1798), the founder of the scientific study of Numismatics. 
Early in life he had begun that study as a teacher at various 
schools in Vienna. To extend his knowledge, he left in 1772 for 
Italy, where he was invited to rearrange the collection of coins 
belonging to Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany, the second son 
of the Empress Maria Theresa. On his return, the Empress 
appointed him professor of Antiquities in the university of Vienna, 
and director of the Imperial Cabinet of Coins and Antiques 
(1775-6). Rearranged the coins according to his own system, 
and published in two folio volumes a complete catalogue, which 
is a model of its kind (1779). The same system was applied to 
all the extant ancient coins in the eight volumes of his classic 
work, the Doctrina Numorum Veterum'^. The general Intro- 
duction deals with the history of Greek coinage, the technique, 
weight, value and size of coins, the right of mintage, the officials 
of the mint, inscriptions, types of coins, etc., etc. The fourth 
volume closes with general observations. The remaining four 
begin similarly with an Introduction and end with general 
observations on Roman coinage. A modern expert, who dedi- 
cates his work to the memory of Eckhel, characterises the 
Doctrina Numorum Veterum as 'a marvellous compendium of 
wide research and profound erudition, a work which can never 
be altogether superseded'.^ 

Our survey of the eighteenth century in Germany must close 
with the name of Christian Gottfried Schiitz, who 

Schiitz 

lived far into the nineteenth (1747 — 1832). He was 

^ Misc, Essays, ii 113. Cp. F. Leo, in Gottingen Festschrift (Berlin, 1901), 

155—234- 

2 Vienna, 1792-8; also Addenda and portrait, 1826; ed. 4, 1841. 
'^ B. V. Head, Historia Numorum, 1887, Preface. 



302 GERMANY [CENT. XVIII 

for many years professor at Jena and at Halle. A man of wide 
attainments, and remarkable freshness and force of intellect, he is 
well known as an editor of Aeschylus. He is perhaps better 
known, as an editor of Cicero. After commenting on the 
Rhetorical works, and on all the Letters in chronological order, 
he produced a complete edition in twenty volumes, ending with a 
lexicon and with various indices. 

We have seen that, early in the eighteenth century, the whole 
range of Greek and Latin literature was traversed by the erudite 
Fabricius. The Latin scholars, Gesner (1731) and Ernesti (1773), 
promoted the study of the Greek Classics in the schools of 
Germany. Reiske taught himself Greek at Halle (1732), while, 
in 1743 and 1770, Ruhnken and Wyttenbach learnt their Greek 
at Leyden. But, between those dates, the land which they 
deserted was awakened by Winckelmann to a new sense of the 
beauty of Greek art (1755), ^"^ learnt from Lessing the principles 
of literary and artistic criticism (1766). Winckelmann and 
Lessing had an immediate influence on Heyne's teaching at 
Gbttingen (1767). Germany was next impelled by Herder to 
appreciate Homer as the national poet of a primitive people 
(1773); the popular ear was won for Homer by the poetic version 
of Voss (1781-93); and the close of the century saw the triumph 
of the New Humanism with Homer for its hero. In and after 
1790 we find its foremost representatives in the literary circle 
of Weimar and Jena, in Herder, in Goethe and Schiller, and in 
Wilhelm von Humboldt. The last of these was the earliest link 
between that circle and F. A. Wolf, who, in the time of transition 
from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century, was destined, 
by his published work and by his professorial teaching at Halle, 
to do two eventful things : — to raise the Homeric question by the 
pubhcation of his Prolegomena (1795), ^'^^ ^^ ^^P ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ 
province of classical learning, and find in a perfect knowledge of 
the many-sided life of the ancient Greeks and Romans the final 
goal of the modern study of the ancient world. 




F. A. Wolf. 



From Wagner's engraving of the portrait by Jo. Wolff (1823). Frontispiece 
to S. F. W. Hoffmann's ed. of Wolfs Alterthtims- IVissenschaft, 1833. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 

F. A. WOLF AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 

Friedrich August Wolf (1759 — 1-824) ^^^ long been 
regarded as marking the beginning of a new era. 
His father was the schoolmaster and organist of a 
little village south of the Harz, and it was to his mother that he 
owed the awakening of his intellectual life. His memory was as 
remarkable as that of Porson, who was born in the same year. 
His parents soon removed to Nordhausen, where, by the age of 
twelve, he had learned all that his instructors could teach him. 
Towards the end of his school-days he became his own teacher. 
Starting once more with the declensions, he 'read with new eyes 
the Latin and Greek Classics, some carefully, others more 
cursorily ; learnt by heart several books of Homer, and large 
portions of the Tragedians and Cicero, and went through Scapula's 
Lexicon and Faber's Thesaurus''^. 

On the 8th of April, 1777, he entered his name in the 
matriculation-book of the university of Gottingen as Studiosus 
Philologiae. The Pro-Rector, a professor of Medicine, pro- 
tested : — " Philology was not one of the four Faculties \ if he 
wanted to become a school-master, he ought to enter himself as a 
' student of Theology ' ". Wolf insisted that he proposed to study, 
not Theology, but Philology. He carried his point, and was the 
first student who was so entered in that university^. The date of 
his matriculation has been deemed an epoch in the History of 
German Education, and also in the History of Scholarship, He 
next waited on the Rector, Heyne, to whom he had presented a 

1 Pattison's Essays, i 342 f. 

2 There had been .isolated entries of philologiae studiosi at Erlangen in 
1749-74 (Gudeman's Grundriss^ 221^). 

S. H. 20 • 



306 GERMANY [CENT. XVIII f 

letter of introduction a year before. Hastily glancing at this 
letter, Heyne had then asked him, who had been stupid enough 
to advise him to study ' what he called philology '. Wolf replied 
that he preferred ' the greater intellectual freedom ' of that study. 
Heyne assured him that ' freedom ' could nowhere be found, that 
the study of the Classics was 'the straight road to starvation,' 
and that there were hardly six good chairs of philology in all 
Germany. Wolf modestly suggested that he aspired to fill one 
of the six ; Heyne could only laugh and bid farewell to the future 
* professor of philology ', adding that, when he entered at Gottingen, 
he would be welcome to attend Heyne's lectures gratis. At 
Gottingen he worked mainly by himself; to save time, he 
spent only three minutes in dressing, and cut off every form of 
recreation. At the end of the first year, he had nearly killed 
himself, and, after a brief change of air, resolved never to work 
beyond midnight. By the end of the second, he had begun to 
give lectures on his own account, and, half a year later, was ap- 
pointed, on Heyne's recommendation, to a mastership at Ilfeld. 
There he remained for two years and a half, married, and, for 
little more than a year, was head-master of Osterode. At both 
places he made his mark. At Ilfeld he began to brood over the 
Homeric question, and also to work at Plato. In 1782 he pro- 
duced an edition of the Symposium, in which he followed a recent 
innovation by writing the notes in German. His aim throughout 
was to interest young students in the study of Plato. In the 
preface he introduced an adroit reference to Frederick the Great, 
'the philosopher on the throne', and to his 'enlightened minister'. 
This preface, and the proof of his success as a school-master, led 
to his being invited by the minister to fill a chair of ' Philosophy 
and Pddagogik ' at the university of Halle. He had been com- 
missioned to remove from Halle the only reproach to which it 
was then open, — that of not being a 'school of philology'. In a 
few years he entirely changed the spirit of the university, and, 
'through it, of all the higher education in Germany, waking in 
schools and universities an enthusiasm for ancient literature 
second only to that of the Revival in the sixteenth century". 
One of the means whereby he raised the level of classical studies 

^ Tag- und Jahres-Hefte 1805. 



CHAP. XXXVII F. A. WOLF 307 

was the institution in 1786 of a philological Seminarium for the 
training of classical teachers. The other was his work as a public 
lecturer. During his twenty-three years at Halle, lecturing on the 
average for rather more than two hours a day, he gave at least 
fifty courses on classical authors. His lectures were fully prepared 
beforehand, but were delivered with the aid of only a few notes. 
Goethe, who, in 1805, more than once prevailed on one of the 
professor's daughters to conceal him behind a curtain in the 
lecture-room, tells us that the language impressed him as 'the 
spontaneous utterance of a full mind, a revelation springing from 
thorough knowledge, and diffusing itself over the audience '^ 
His aim was, not to communicate knowledge, but to stimulate 
and suggest. The spirit of critical inquiry that breathed through 
all his lectures was symbolised by the fact that the sole ornament 
of his lecture-room was a bust of Lessing. 

Everything that he wrote arose out of his public teaching. 
Early in his career he had produced an edition of Hesiod's 
TJieogonia (1783), of all the Homeric poems (1784-5), and of 
four Greek plays (1787)^ His reading of Demosthenes in con- 
nexion with Attic Law bore fruit in his edition of the Leptines 
(1789), which was welcomed by scholars, not excluding Heyne, 
while the way in which Greek Antiquities were treated in the 
Prolegomena inspired one of Wolf's greatest pupils, Boeckh, with 
the design of writing his ' Public Economy of Athens '. 

Even Wolf's famous Prolegomena to Homer {i"]^^) had a purely 
casual origin. His text of 1784-5 being out of print, he was 
asked to prepare a new edition, and, as there were to be no 
notes whatsoever, he proposed to write a preface explaining the 
principles on which he had dealt with the text. He did far more 
than this, for he roused into life the great controversy known as 
the Homeric question. Some of the points connected with the 
earlier stages of this controversy may here be noticed. 

Josephus^, writing about 90 A.D., had held that the art of writing 'could 
not have been known to the Greeks of the Trojan war', and 'they say' (he 
added) 'that even Homer did not leave his poetry in writing, but that it was 
transmitted by memory, and afterwards put together from the separate songs ; 

1 Aesch. Ag., Soph. 0.7'., Eur. Phoeii.^ Arist. Ecd. 
^ Contra Apionetti^ i 2. 

20 — 2 



308 GERMANY [CENT. XVIII f 

hence the number of discrepancies'. This passage had been noticed in 1583 
by Casaubon, who remarked that ' we could hardly hope for a sound text of 
Homer, however old our MSS might be '. Bentley, in 17 13, had supposed that 
a poet named Homer lived about 1050 B.C. and '•wrote a sequel of songs and 
rhapsodies... These loose songs were not collected together in the form of an 
epic poem till Pisistratus' time, above 500 years after'. In 1730, the Italian 
scholar, Vico, had maintained that 'Homer' was a collective name for the 
work of many successive poets ; but Vico's views were at this time unknown 
to Wolf. He was, however, familiar with Robert Wood's Essay on the 
Original Genius of Homer (1769). Only seven copies had then been printed, 
but one of them had been sent to Gottingen, and was reviewed by Heyne in 
1770. It was soon translated into German. In the course of some pages on 
the learning of Homer, Wood had argued that the art of writing was unknown 
to the poet. Wolf refers to this passage, and builds his theory upon it^. The 
scholia of the codex Venetus of the Iliad, published by Villoison in 1788, 
supplied evidence as to divergencies between the ancient texts. Wolf main- 
tained that these divergencies were due to the Homeric poems having 
long been transmitted by memory alone. He contended that it was impossible 
to arrive at the original text, and that an editor could aim at nothing more 
than a reconstruction of the text of the Alexandrian age. 

The Prolegomena, written in great haste, formed a narrow octavo volume of 
280 pages. The author begins by discussing the defects in the existing editions, 
due to an imperfect use of Eustathius and the scholia. He next reviews the 
history of the poems from about 950 to 550 B.C., and endeavours to prove the 
four following points : — 

'(1) The Homeric poems were composed without the aid of writing, which 
in 950 B.C. was either wholly unknown to the Greeks, or not yet employed 
by them for literary purposes. The poems were handed down by oral recita- 
tion, and in the course of that process suffered many alterations, deliberate or 
accidental, by the rhapsodes. (2) After the poems had been written down 
circa 550 B.C., they suffered still further changes. These were deliberately 
made by 'revisers' (5ta(r/cei;ao-Ta/), or by learned critics who aimed at polishing 
the work, and bringing it into harmony with certain forms of idiom or canons 
of art. (3) The Iliad has artistic unity ; so, in a still higher degree, has the 
Odyssey. But this unity is not mainly due to the original poems ; rather it has 
been superinduced by their artificial treatment in a later age. (4) The original 
poems, from which our Iliad and our Odyssey have been put together, were 
not all by the same author',^ 

In the Prolegomena Wolf supposes that Homer 'began the weaving of the 
web' and 'carried it down to a certain point', ^ and, further, that Homer wrote 
the greater part of the songs afterwards united in the Iliad and Odyssey. In 

^ Proleg. c. 12, n. 8. 

2 Jebb's Homer, 108 f ; cp. Volkmann's Geschichte und Kritik der Wolfschen 
Prolegomena, 1874, 48 — 67. 
•^ c. 28 ad finem, and c. 31. 



CHAP. XXXVIl] F. A. WOLF 309 

the preface to the text, dated March 1795, he adds, 'it is certain that, alike in 
the Iliad and in the Odyssey, the web was begun, and the threads were carried 
to a certain point, by the poet who had first taken up the theme... Perhaps it 
will never be possible to show, even with probability, the precise points at 
which new filaments or dependencies of the texture begin: but. ..we must 
assign to Homer only the greater part of the songs, and the remainder to the 
Homeridae, who were following out the lines traced by him.'^ 

' He has himself told us, in memorable words, how he felt on turning from 
his own theory to a renewed perusal of the poems. As he steeps himself in that 
stream of epic story which glides like a clear river, his own arguments vanish 
from his mind ; the pervading harmony and consistency of the poems assert 
themselves with irresistible power ; and he is angry with the scepticism which 
has robbed him of belief in one Homer.'"'' 

At first, not a single authoritative voice was raised in favour of 
Wolf's views in Holland, England, or France. In Germany they 
were welcomed by Wilhelm von Humboldt, and by the brothers 
Schlegel ; but they were disapproved by the poets, by Klopstock 
and Schiller and Wieland, and by Voss, the translator of Homer. 
Goethe was at first in favour of Wolf, but, writing to Schiller in 
1798, he was more than ever convinced of the unity of the Iliad. 
It was not until the next generation that the Prolegomefia bore 
fruit in the continued study of the Homeric question. 

Wolf was still at Halle when he edited Cicero's four orations post reditum 
(1801). Their spuriousness had been suspected by Markland (1745); their 
genuineness had been maintained by Gesner (1753). Markland's suspicions 
were approved by Wolf, who in the following year even denied the genuineness 
of the pro Marcello. Not a few of the faults criticised by Wolf have since 
been removed with the aid of better mss. Wolf's opinion was approved at the 
time by Boissonade in France, but the investigations have been characterised 
by Madvig as 'superficial and misleading'. 

The twenty-three years of Wolf's memorable career at Halle 
were brought to a sudden end in October, 1806, when the French 
troops took possession of Halle, and the French general closed 
the university. Under the advice of Goethe, Wolf spent part 
of his enforced leisure in revising his survey of the domain of 
classical learning, which was to be the opening article of the 
' Museum ' of Alterthums- Wissenschaft founded by Wolf and his 
pupil Buttmann in 1807. He lived at BerHn for the remaining 

1 Praefat. p. xxviii (Jebb, 109). 

2 ib. xxi f (Jebb, no). 



3IO GERMANY [CENT. XVIII f 

seventeen years of his life, but it proved impossible for the State 
to utiHse his abilities either at the Board of Education or in the 
newly-founded University (1810). Thenceforth he produced little, 
and that little not of the best quality. A serious illness in 1822 
was followed two years later by his being ordered to Nice ; on his 
way, he died at Marseilles, where a Latin epitaph marks the ap- 
proximate site of his grave. His greatest work is to be found, not 
in the books that he produced, but in the pupils that he stimulated 
to be the future leaders of classical learning in Germany during 
the first half of the nineteenth century. He himself claimed 
to be a teacher rather than a writer, and his published works 
were only parerga. But in the broad survey of the whole range 
of classical learning, which formed part of his teaching, he was 
the first to present a systematic description of the vast fabric 
that he called by the name of Alterthums- Wissenschaft^ to arrange 
and review its component parts, and to point to a perfect know- 
ledge of the many-sided life of the ancient Greeks and Romans 
as the final goal of the modern study of the ancient world. Like 
Bentley, to whom he was drawn by the admiring sympathy of 
a kindred genius, he was one of the founders of a right method 
in the historic criticism of ancient literature. Like Herder, he 
regarded the Iliad and the Odyssey as part of the popular poetry 
of a primitive age, but it was not until the next generation that 
his theory as to the origin of those poems was widely discussed by 
scholars. 

While Wolf, with his views as to the divided authorship of the 
songs composing the Homeric poems, appealed to 

Voss 

scholars alone, and received little recognition even 
from scholars in his own age, the ear of the German people had 
happily been won for Homer by Johann Heinrich Voss (1751 — 
1826), whose most important work was his admirable translation 
of Homer into German hexameters. His Odyssey (1781) sur- 
passed all previous attempts to render the original in German 
verse. It was followed twelve years later by his Iliad (1793), 
and by a closer rendering of the Odyssey^ which, in the opinion of 
competent critics, is not an improvement on his earlier version. 
He applied the same principles of rigidly literal translation to his 
subsequent rendering of the whole of Virgil, and the MetaJtwrphoses 



CHAP. XXXVII] VOSS. HUMBOLDT. GOETHE 3II 

of Ovid, as well as Tibullus, Propertius, and Aristophanes ; but 
his method had by that time become unduly mechanical, and he 
failed to represent either the variety of Aristophanes or the charm 
of Ovid. 

Among the contemporaries of Wolf there were several men 
of mark, who, without being professional scholars, ^ ^ Hum- 
had, in different degrees, a close connexion with t)oidt 
the scholarship of that age. Wolf had a loyal friend in Wilhelm 
von Humboldt (1767 — 1835), ^^en a leading Prussian statesman, 
the elder brother of Alexander, the celebrated naturalist and 
traveller. During the year and a half (1809-10), in which 
Humboldt was at the head of the educational section of the 
Prussian Home Office, the university of Berlin was founded (18 10), 
and the general system of education received the direction which 
it followed (with slight exceptions) throughout the whole century. 
A visit to Spain, in 1799 f, during the four years of his residence 
in Paris, had meanwhile led to his taking an interest in the 
general history of language. His greatest work in this depart- 
ment, that on the ancient Kawi language of Java, posthumously 
published in 1836-9, begins with a remarkable introduction on 
' Diversity of Language, and its Influence on the Intellectual 
Developement of Mankind '. It may be added that, after all his 
linguistic studies, he came to the conclusion that the Greek 
language and the old Greek culture still remained the finest 
product of the human intellect. 

As a student at Leipzig, Goethe (1749 — 1^32) had been 
profoundly impressed by Lessing's Laokoon, and by 
the writings of Winckelmann ; at Strassburg, he 
had been prompted by Herder to study Homer. Under the 
influence of the Homeric translations of Voss, he meditated 
the composition of an Achilleis ; and, at the suggestion of 
Wilhelm von Humboldt, studied Wolf's Frolegome?ia, and once 
more read the Iliad. 'The theory of a collective Horner^ (he 
writes) ' is favourable to my present scheme, as lending a modern 
bard a title to claim for himself a place among the Homeridae\ 
In the spring of 1796, he thanks Wolf for that theory; in 
December, he ' drinks to the health ' of the scholar, ' who at last 
has boldly freed us from the name of Homer, and is even bidding 



312 GERMANY [CENT. XVIII f 

us enter on a broader road'; and he writes in the same spirit on 
sending Wolf a copy of Wilhelm Meister. But, after abandoning 
his proposed Achilleis^ he returns to the old faith, and sings his 
palinode in Ho?ner wieder Hoiner. 

Schiller (1759 — 1805) had been well grounded in Latin, but, 
in the study of the Greek masterpieces, he had to 

Schiller ^ . . . 

rely on translations. Yet his conception of the old 
classical world and of the difference between the ancient and the 
modern spirit had a great effect on his countrymen. In his Essay 
'On naive and sentimental poetry' he is peculiarly felicitous in 
comparing the merits of several of the ancient poets. 

It was under the influence of Schiller that the characteristics 
of the ancient drama were fruitfully studied by 

August 

Wilhelm von A. W. von Schlegcl (1767 — 1 845), who had at- 
^^^ tended Heyne's lectures at Gottingen, and in 1796 

was appointed professor at Jena, where he made the acquaintance 
of Goethe and Schiller. After studying Sanskrit in Paris, first 
under the Indian civilian, Alexander Hamilton (1762 — 1824), and 
next under Bopp, he became professor at Bonn in 18 18 and held 
that position for the remaining twenty-seven years of his life. 
He is best known as the author of the ' Lectures on Dramatic 
Art and Literature,' delivered in 1808 before a brilliant audience 
in Vienna. Nearly half of the thirty Lectures deal with the 
Ancient Drama, and of these few, if any, are more familiar than 
the Lecture comparing Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides in 
their treatment of the theme of Electra. 

While the Greek Drama was reviewed in a critical spirit by 
Friedrich A. W. von Schlcgcl, the Epic poetry of Greece 

von schiegei attracted the attention of his younger brother, 
Friedrich (1772 — 1829). Early in life, in 1797, he had produced 
the first volume of his historical and critical inquiries on the 
Greeks and Romans, including an extensive treatise on the study 
of Greek poetry. Instead of completing the work, he began 
another, on the History of Greek and Roman Poetry. Among 
his later works the most important is the short treatise ' On the 
Language and Wisdom of the Indians' (1808), the fruit of his 
study of Sanskrit under Alexander Hamilton. An important 
impulse was thus given to the comparative study of language in 



CHAP. XXXVIlJ MATTHIAE. HEEREN. NIEBUHR 313 

Europe. The elder brother's example, as a lecturer in Vienna, 
was ably followed by Friedrich in 18 12, in a course of Lectures on 
the History of Literature, Ancient and Modern (181 5). 

Among the pupils of Heyne at Gottingen was August Matthiae 
(1760 — 18^1^), a son of the custos of the University 

\ / y oj/J •'A. Matthiae 

Library, who had adopted the Latinised name of 
Matthiae instead of the German name of Matthiesen. For the 
last thirty-three years of his life, he was Director of the gymnasium 
at Altenburg. The most important of his works was his larger 
Greek Grammar \ He also published an extensive edition of 
Euripides in nine volumes, with the Fragments and the scholia 
(1813-29); a tenth volume includes addenda to \h& scholia^ and 
Indices (1837). 

The study of History was. well represented at Gottingen by 
Heyne's pupil, son-in-law, and biographer, Arnold 

Heeren 

Hermann Ludwig Heeren (1760 — 1842). He pro- 
duced, in 1793, the first volume of his well-known work on the 
Politics and Trade of the foremost peoples of the ancient world ; 
and, in 1799, his Handbook of the History of Ancient States, 
with special reference to their constitution, their commerce, and 
their colonies. He also published, in 1797 — 1801, a History of 
the Study of Classical Literature from the Revival of Learning, 
with an Introduction on the History of the works of the Classical 
authors in the Middle Ages. In the second edition of 1822 this 
work is entitled a History of Classical Literature in the Middle 
Ages, the first part going down to the end of the fourteenth 
century, and the second including the Humanists of the fifteenth. 
A shorter life was the lot of another historian, the historian of 
ancient Rome, Barthold Georg Niebuhr (1776 — 

r. \ K r 111- • -1 • 1 • Niebuhr 

1 831). After holdmg civil appomtments at his 
birth-place, Copenhagen, he entered the service of Prussia, and 
in 1 8 10 was appointed professor in the newly- founded university 
of Berhn. His lectures on Roman history were attended by a 
distinguished audience, and thenceforth he regarded the history 
of Rome as the main interest of his life. He completed the first 
two volumes of his History in 1812. He was Prussian ambassador 
at Rome in 1816-23. For the rest of his life he settled at Bonn, 
1 1807; ed. 3, 1835. 



314 GERMANY [CENT. XVIII f 

where he delivered lectures on ancient history, ethnography and 
geography, and on the French Revolution. 

In his History of Rome he describes ' the poems, out of which ' 
(in his view) ' the history of the Roman kings was resolved into 
a prose narrative ', as ' knowing nothing of the unity ivhich 
characterizes the most perfect of Greek poems ', thus ignoring the 
results of Wolf's Prolegomena. But the critical spirit, which 
inspired Wolf, was in the air, and its influence affected Niebuhr. 
His theory that the early legends of Rome had been transmitted 
from generation to generation in the form of poetic lays was not 
new. It had been anticipated by the Dutch scholar, Perizonius^, 
but Niebuhr was not aware of this fact until a later date. 

Niebuhr's work marks an epoch in the study of the subject. 
His main results, such as his views on the ancient population of 
Rome, the origin of the plebs, the relation between the patricians 
and the plebeians, the real nature of the ager publicus^ and many 
other points of interest, have been acknowledged by all his suc- 
cessors. He was the first to deal with the history of Rome in a 
critical and scientific spirit. His History of Rome grew out of his 
lectures at Berlin. The same theme was predominant in certain 
courses of lectures delivered at Bonn, which were not published 
until after his death. The main interest of his greatest work, the 
History of Rome, has been found in its 'freshness, its elation of 
real or supposed discovery, the impression it conveys of actual 
contact with a great body of new and unsuspected truths '^ His 
theory of the derivation of ancient Roman history from popular 
lays was refuted by Sir George Cornewall Lewis, in his Essay 071 
the Credibility of Early Roman History ; and archaeological dis- 
coveries have corrected his attitude of general scepticism as to 
early traditions, but the main pillars of his grand structure are 
still unshaken. 

Niebuhr's work as a scholar was far from being confined to 
the domain of History. In 18 16, with the aid of Buttmann and 
Heindorf, he published in Berlin an improved edition of the 
remains of Fronto (which had been printed for the first time 
in the previous year from the Bobbio ms found by Angelo Mai 
in Milan). Late in the summer of 1816, on his way to Rome, 

1 Animadversiones Historicae {1685), c. 6. '-^ Garnett in Erie. Brit. 



CHAP. XXXVIl] NIEBUHR. SCHLEIERMACHER 315 

he discovered, in a palimpsest of the Capitular Library at Verona, 
the ' Institutions ' of the Roman jurist, Gaius ; he immediately 
informed Savigny, and an edition of the work was accordingly 
published by the Berlin Academy. In Rome he discovered in a 
Vatican ms certain fragments of Cicero's Speeches pro M. Fonteio 
and pro C. Rabirio (ed. 1820). In 1822 he addressed, to a 
young friend, a memorable letter, in which he sets forth a high 
ideal of a scholar's life. The authors specially recommended for 
study are Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Pindar, with Hero- 
dotus, Thucydides, Demosthenes and Plutarch, and Cicero, Livy, 
Caesar, Sallust and Tacitus. All these were to be read with 
reverence, not with a view to making them the themes of aesthetic 
criticism, but with a resolve to assimilate their spirit. This (he 
declares) is the true ' Philology ' that brings health to the soul, 
while learned investigations (in the case of such as attain to them) 
belong to a lower leveP. 

Among Niebuhr's friends in Berlin was Georg Ludwig Spalding 
(1762 — 181 1), who produced the first three volumes 

. . . Spalding 

of a memorable edition of the Institutio Oratoria of 
Quintilian (1798 f ). 

The popularisation of Plato was an important part of the work 
of Schleiermacher ( 1 768 — 1 834), who, as a professor, schieier- 
and as a university-preacher at Halle in 1804, had "^a<^er 
been familiar with Wolf, and had been stimulated by that scholar 
in his Platonic studies. When Halle became part of the new 
Napoleonic kingdom of Westphalia, both of them fled to Berlin. 
Schleiermacher's translation of Plato included all the dialogues 
except the Laws, Epinomis, Timaeus and Critias (1804-10). It 
was the earliest successful attempt to render a great writer of 
Greek prose in German of an artistic and literary type. His 
Introduction presented a complete survey of Plato's works in 
their relation to one another. The dialogues were there divided 
into three groups: — (i) preparatory or elementary dialogues; 
(2) dialogues of indirect investigation ; (3) expository or con- 
structive dialogues, — a division taking inadequate account of 
chronological sequence. 

1 Brief an einen jungen Philologen, translated by Julius Hare, On a Young 
Man^s Studies, in the Educational Magazine^ 1840. 



3l6 GERMANY [CENT. XVIII f 

The circle of scholars at Berlin included Ludwig Friedrich 
Heindorf (1774 — 18 16). Born in Berlin, he was a 
pupil of Wolf at Halle. After teaching for a time 
in the city of his birth, he was appointed to a professorship at 
Breslau (181 1-6), and died soon after his acceptance of a call to 
Halle. He is well known in connexion with an edition of twelve 
dialogues of Plato (1802-10). His editions of Cicero, De Natura 
Deorwn, and of the Satires of Horace, both published in 18 15, 
are specially useful for their explanatory notes. 

Berlin was the scene of the active life of the distinguished 
grammarian, Philipp Karl Buttmann (1764 — 1829). 
His best-known work was his Greek Grammar, first 
published as a brief outline in 1792, and constantly expanded and 
rearranged and improved in many subsequent editions. In its 
expanded form, it was known as the 'intermediate Grammar '\ to 
distinguish it from the new School Grammar of 181 2 ; and from 
the 'Complete Grammar' of 1819-27, to which additions were 
made by Lobeck. The success of his ' Intermediate Grammar ' 
was due to its remarkable clearness, and the introduction of this 
Grammar led to a marked improvement in the Greek scholarship 
of the schools of Germany. In his Lexilogus'^ he proves himself 
an acute investigator of the meanings of Homeric words, and 
displays a keen sense of the historic developement of language, 
but is obviously unconscious of the importance of the principles 
of comparative philology. 

The textual criticism of the Greek Classics was ably represented 
by Immanuel Bekker (1785 — 187 1), who was born 
and died in Berlin. He studied at Halle under 
Wolf, who made him inspector of his 'philological seminary'. 
He gave early proof of his familiarity with the Homeric poems 
in his reviews of Heyne's Iliad and of Wolf's Homer. On the 
foundation of the university of Berlin in 1810, he was appointed 
to a professorship, which he held for sixty-two years without 
making any considerable mark as an academic teacher. But he 
set a brilliant example to all the younger generations of scholars 
by the industry and the ability that he lavished on the collation 

1 E. T. 1840; ed. 3, 1848. 

2 1818-25; ed. 4, 1865; also E.T. 



CHAP. XXXVII] HEINDORF. BUTTMANN. BEKKER 317 

of Mss and the preparation of improved texts of important authors. 
The number of mss that he collated, either in whole or in part, 
exceeded four hundred. In 1810-12 he was sent by the Berlin 
Academy to work in the Paris Library. The firstfruits of his 
labours in France appeared in the editio princeps of Apollonius 
Dyscolus, On the Pronoun (181 1). In 1817-19 he was collating 
the MSS of Aristotle in the libraries of Italy. On his return he re- 
visited Paris. Part of 1820 was spent in Oxford, and, after a few 
further visits to England, he returned to Italy in 1839. With the 
exception of the lyric and the tragic poets, there is hardly any 
class of Greek authors whose text has not been definitely improved 
by his labours. He produced two editions of Homer ; the first, 
published in Berlin in 1843, was founded on the principles of 
Wolf, and aimed at restoring (so far as practicable) the recension 
of Aristarchus; the second, pubHshed at Bonn in 1858, was an 
attempt to attain an earlier text than that of the Alexandrian 
critics. The principles, on which this edition was founded, were 
mainly set forth in a series of papers, which were presented to the 
Berlin Academy and afterwards published in a collected form^ 
For the two volumes of the text of Aristophanes, published in 
London with the ancient scholia in 1828, he collated afresh the 
Venice ms, and the Ravenna ms. On the basis of a careful colla- 
tion of MSS, he edited Thucydides with the scholia, as well as 
Pausanias and Herodian. He also prepared new editions of 
Herodotus, Polybius, Dion Cassius, Diodorus, Appian, Josephus, 
and the Lives of Plutarch, as well as the ' Bibliotheca ' of Apollo- 
dorus, together with Heliodorus and Lucian. There is less 
originality in his work on the twenty-five volumes which he con- 
tributed to the Corpus of the Byzantine Historians. A marked 
advance is, however, shown in his editions of the whole of Plato 
(with the scholia and a full critical commentary)-, and the whole 
of Aristotle ^ His edition of all the Attic Orators was published 
first at Oxford (1822), and in the following year at Berlin. 
New materials for the history of Greek Grammar and Rhetoric 
were provided in the three volumes of his Anecdota Graeca, and 
new texts of grammatical works in his editions of the Syntax 

^ Homerische Blatter, 1863-72. 

2 8 vols., 1816-23. 3 4 vols., 1831-36. 



3l8 GERMANY [CENT. XVIII f 

of Apollonius, the Bibliotheca of Photius, the lexicons of Harpo- 
cration and Moeris and Suidas, the Homeric lexicon of Apollonius, 
and the Onomasticon of Pollux. His extraordinary activity as an 
editor seems to have left him little energy for anything else ; he 
was held in the highest esteem by scholars, but he did not shine 
in ordinary conversation. It was said of the editor of some sixty 
volumes of Greek texts, and the collator of more than four hundred 
Mss, that he could be silent in seven languages. 







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Gottfried Hermann. 



From Weger's engraving of the portrait by C. Vogel (1841); frontispiece to 
Kochly's Gottfried Hermann (1874). 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 



HERMANN AND BOECKH 



In the generation next to that of Wolf, the two great scholars, 
Gottfried Hermann and August Boeckh, were conspicuous as the 
heads of two rival schools of classical learning. The first was 
the grammatical and critical school, which made the text of the 
Classics, with questions of grammar and metre and style, the main 
object of study. The second (already represented by Niebuhr) 
was the historical and antiquarian school, which investigated all 
the manifestations of the spirit of the old classical world. The 
precursors of the first school were to be mainly found among the 
scholars of England and Holland ; those of the second, among 
the scholars of France. The first was concerned with words, the 
second with things ; the first with language and literature ; the 
second with institutions, and with art and archaeology. The 
adherents of the first were twitted by their opponents with a 
narrow devotion to notes on classical texts ; those of the second 
were denounced as dilettanti. It is now, however, generally agreed 
that, while, in theory, the comprehensive conception of the wide 
field of classical learning formed by Boeckh is undoubtedly 
correct, in practice a thorough knowledge of the languages is the 
indispensable foundation for the superstructure. 

Hermann (1772 — 1848) was born at Leipzig. Matriculating 
at the early age of fourteen, he there attended the Gottfried 
lectures of F. W. Reiz, who pointed out the Hermann 
importance of the study of metre, and set before him the example 
of Bentley. From Reiz, whom he always remembered with 
gratitude, he learnt three things in particular, (i) never to study 
more than one writer, or one subject, at a time, (2) never to take 
any statement on trust, and (3) always to be able to give a good 
s. H. 21 



322 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

reason for holding any opinion which he deemed to be true. 
Passing rapidly through the preliminary stages at Leipzig, he 
became professor of Eloquence in 1803 and of Poetry in 1809. 
His lectures, which were usually delivered in Latin, were simple 
and clear in style, and free from all striving for rhetorical effect; 
but they were inspired with a keen enthusiasm for the old classical 
world. His main interest, however, was in the study of the ancient 
languages^ and he always insisted on the supreme importance of 
a first-hand acquaintance with the ivritings of the ancients. In 
an early work he urged that a strictly logical and rational method 
should be applied to the study of Greek Grammar (1801), and 
he was also the founder of metaphysical Syntax ^ In his writings 
on ancient metre he had no important modern precursors except 
Bentley and Porson. Bentley's only separate treatise on the 
subject was his brief Schediasma on the metres of Terence, while 
Porson had been led by a careful observation of facts to formulate 
rules for the ordinary iambic and trochaic metres of the Greek 
drama. Hermann began by studying the ancient authorities, above 
all Hephaestion, expounding and correcting them by the light of 
his own study of the Greek poets. The results were mainly 
embodied in his Elenienta Doctrinae Metricae (1816). He also 
elucidated the rhythms of Greek poetry by the effective recitation 
of passages from the poets, and for this purpose he abandoned 
the customary Reuchlinian method of pronunciation for one which 
was closely akin to that of Erasmus. 

Among his published works a foremost place must be assigned 
to his editions of the Greek tragic poets. As a specimen of his 
Aeschylus, he put forth the Eumenides in 1799, ^^^ more than fifty 
years elapsed before the appearance of his posthumous edition of 
the whole (1852). His work on Sophocles was connected with 
that of his pupil, Erfurdt, who besides nearly completing a 
critical edition, began with the Antigone a smaller edition for the 
use of students ; the series was completed by Hermann in 
181 1-25. Between 1 810 and 1841 Hermann produced separate 
editions of thirteen plays of Euripides. The only play of 
Aristophanes that he edited was the Clouds. 

^ Cp. W. G. Hale's Century of Metaphysical Syntax., in the Proceedings of 
the St Louis Congress, 1904, vol. iii. 



CHAP. XXXVIII] HERMANN 323 

His mature opinions on the Homeric question are presented 
in his papers of 183 1-2. 

Wolf had held that the weaving of the Homeric web had been carried down 
to a certain point by the first and chief author of the poem, and had been con- 
tinued by others. Hermann, improving on this opinion, suggested that the 
original sketch of our Iliad and our Odyssey had been produced by the first 
poet, and that the later poets did not carry on the texture, but completed the 
design within the outline that was already drawn ^. 

Hermann made many valuable contributions to the criticism 
and exposition of the Homeric Hymns, and of Hesiod. The 
appendix to his edition of the Orphica (1805), showing, on 
metrical and linguistic grounds, that the date of these poems falls 
between that of Quintus Smyrnaeus and Nonnus, has been re- 
garded as worthy of the genius of Bentley. 

Pindar was the theme of his life-long study. As early as 1798 
he had contributed to Heyne's Pindar a treatise on the poet's 
metres. In a later paper he showed that the language of the 
different odes had an Aeolic or a Doric colouring which varied 
with the rhythm in which they were composed. 

His work was mainly limited to the Greek poets. In his 
papers on Greek Inscriptions (mainly on those in metre), he 
severely criticises the way in which they had been handled by 
archaeologists such as Boeckh and Welcker^ 

The Greek Society, which he founded at Leipzig, numbered 
nearly 200 members during the half-century of its existence. 
It is these who in a special sense founded the school of 
Hermann, and they included scholars of such note as Passow, 
Thiersch, Meineke, K. F. Hermann, Trendelenburg, Spengel, 
Classen, Ritschl, Sauppe, Haupt, Bergk, Koechly, Bonitz, and 
Arnold Schaefer. 

While Hermann, the representative of pure scholarship, con- 
centrated his attention on the language, and especially on the 
poetry, of the old Greek Classics, it was the historic interest that 
predominated in the case of his great contemporary, August 
Boeckh (1785—1867). At Halle the influence of Wolf led to his 

* Jebb's ^c'w^r, ii9f. 

2 Ueber Herrn Professor Boeckh' s Behandlung der grieckischen Inschriften 
(1826); also Opusc. iv 303 — 332, v 164 — 181, vii 174 — 189. 

21 — 2 




rnf^^ 



^ "k^ ^^^^ 77t>Al^ ^^^(Pkoms^/'os . 






j^fi^' fi<>-iyM. 



BOECKH. 

From the frontispiece to Max Hoffmann's August Boeckh (1901). 



CHAP. XXXVIII] BOECKH 325 

concentrating himself on the Greek Classics, while the lectures of 
Schleiermacher guided him to the special study 
of Plato. In 1807 he became a professor at 
Heidelberg. The greater part of his important edition of Pindar 
must have been practically finished while he was still at Heidel- 
berg, at a time when he was more interested in the literary than 
the historical and antiquarian aspects of classical learning. The 
first volume was published in 181 1, and it was completed in 1821 
with the aid of his friend, Ludolph Dissen, who wrote the com- 
mentary on the Nemean and Isthmian Odes. In the spring of 
181 1 he left Heidelberg for the position of professor of Eloquence 
and of Classical Literature in the newly founded university of 
Berlin, and for 56 years he continued to be one of the chief 
ornaments of that seat of learning. 

In the historical and antiquarian province of classical learning 
Boeckh is represented by two important works, which have laid 
the foundation for all later research in the departments with which 
they are concerned. The first of these is the Public Economy of 
Athens^ which supplies us with a full and systematic statement 
of the economic side of the Athenian constitution in its actual 
working^. The second is the Corpus Inscriptioniim Graecarum. 
The first two folio volumes of the Corpus (1825-43) were edited 
by Boeckh, the third (1845-53) by Franz, the fourth was begun 
by Ernst Curtius and continued by Adolf Kirchhoif (1826 — 1908), 
and the whole was completed when Roehl's Indices were published 
in 1877, more than fifty years after the work had been begun by 
Boeckh. Kirchhoff" also edited the first volume of the Corpus 
Inscriptionum Atticarum (1873). The volume on the Attic 
Inscriptions of the Roman Age (1878-82) was edited by Wilhelm 
Dittenberger (1840 — 1906), who also edited in the Corpus 
Inscriptionum Graecarum part of the inscriptions of Northern 
Greece (1892-7), and published a comprehensive Sylloge of Select 
Inscriptions (1883; 2nd ed. 1898 — 1901). 

In editing the inscriptions of Greece, Boeckh applied his 
mathematical and astronomical knowledge to the investigation of 
important points of chronology. His mathematical skill is also 

1 1817 (E. T. 1828 and 1842); ed. 2, 1851 (E. T. Boston, 1857); 
ed. 3, 1886. 



326 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

shown in his examination of the weights, the coinage- standards, 
and the measures of the ancients (1838), a work that gave the 
first impulse to all subsequent investigations. His wide and 
comprehensive view of the various branches of classical learning 
was attested in the course of lectures repeatedly given by him at 
Berlin and since published by one of his pupils ^ 

The list of his pupils includes not a few distinguished names. 
He was keenly interested in the subsequent career of K. O. Miiller 
at Gottingen, and of Edward Meier at Greifswald and Halle, and 
in the later work of Gerhard in Berlin. Among his other pupils 
were Gottling and Doderlein, Trendelenburg and Spengel, Droysen 
and Preller, Lepsius and Diinker, Otto Jahn and Bonitz, and 
Ernst and Georg Curtius. Some of them, such as Trendelenburg 
and Spengel, had already been pupils of Hermann, and several of 
the foremost of Hermann's pupils, such as Ritschl, Kochly, and 
Arnold Schaefer, were among the warmest admirers of Boeckh. 
Hermann and Boeckh, as the great representatives of pure and 
applied scholarship respectively, are men of whom all the votaries 
of classical learning may well be proud. At a later point we shall 
return to Boeckh's devoted pupil and friend, K. O. Miiller. Mean- 
while we must briefly trace the careers of some of the scholars 
who belonged to the school of Hermann. 

^ Encyklopddie unci Methodologie der philologischen Wissenschaften, ed. 
Bratuscheck (1877), 824 pp.; ed. 2 (1886). 



CHAPTER XXXIX 

GRAMMARIANS AND TEXTUAL CRITICS 
FROM LOBECK TO RITSCHL 

One of the earliest and most distinguished of the pupils of 
Hermann was Christian August Lobeck (1781 — 
i860), who taught at Wittenberg in 1802-14, and 
was professor at Konigsberg for the remaining 46 years of his 
life. Hermann himself has dwelt in glowing terms on the 
profound learning that pervades every page of his pupil's edition 
of the Ajax. The same learning, combined with a singular 
faculty for grouping large masses of facts under general laws of 
language, is manifest in his second great work, his edition of the 
Atticist, Phrynichus (1820), where the last 300 pages are mainly 
devoted to the laws of word-formation in Greek. Similar subjects 
are treated in his Faralipomena Grammaticae Graecae (1837) and 
his Pathologia Sermonis Graeci (1843-62). All of these works are 
marked by a singularly comprehensive knowledge of the whole 
range of Greek literature, by an acute perception of real or 
apparent analogies, and a fine sense of the life of the language. 
His clear insight and wide erudition enable him to deduce 
definite laws and rules of usage from an almost overwhelming 
multitude of details. His interest in the history of Greek 
religion is mainly exemplified by his Aglaophamus (1829), ^ 
masterly work of astounding learning, comprising all that was 
then known as to the Eleusinian, Orphic, and Samothracian 
mysteries. 

One of the pupils of Lobeck, Gregor Wilhelm Nitzsch 
(1790 — 1 861), is best known as an early and an 

N itzsch 

effective opponent of Wolf's theory on the Homeric 

question. While Wolf regards Homer as a primitive bard, who 



328 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

began to weave the web of the Homeric poems, and only carried 
it down to a certain point, Nitzsch looks upon him as 'a great 
poetical artist who, coming after the age of the short lays, framed 
an epic on a larger plan ' '. Thus Wolf places Homer at the 
begimting oi the growth of the poems, Nitzsch nearer to the end. 
Nitzsch regards the Iliad as mainly the work of Homer, but this 
view does not exclude the introduction of minor interpolations 
and changes at a later date. The Odyssey he considers to be 
the work of perhaps the same poet, who (he holds) was more 
original here than in the Iliad. He also observes that some 
of the 'Cyclic' poems of the seventh and eighth centuries B.C. 
presupposed our Iliad and Odyssey in something like their present 
form. 

Among the correspondents of Nitzsch none, perhaps, agreed 
more completely with his views on Homer than 
Karl Friedrich Nagelsbach (1806 — 1859). His 
published works include two important volumes on Homeric and 
Posthonieric Theology (1840-57), and a widely appreciated treatise 
on ' Latin Style ', with special regard to the differences of idiom 
between Latin and German prose I 

The foremost of Lobeck's pupils at Konigsberg was Karl 
Lehrs (1802 — 1878), who was one of his master's 
colleagues for the last 29 years of that master's life, 
and was himself the head of the Konigsberg School for 18 years 
after. Under Lobeck and Lehrs the School was distinguished by 
a special interest (i) in the history of grammatical studies among 
the Greeks from the beginning of the Alexandrian to the end 
of the Byzantine age, (2) in the study of the language, metre and 
composition of the Greek Epics, from Homer down to Nonnus 
and his imitators, and (3) in the investigation of the religious 
opinions of the Greeks, with special reference to the ethical 
content of the myths, excluding all attempts to interpret those 
myths by means of the phenomena of Nature. Lehrs made his 
mark in all three lines of research. The first is well represented 
by his ' Homeric Studies of Aristarchus '^, and by his volume on 

^ Jebb's Homer, 121. 

2 Lateinische Stilistik, 1846; ed. 9 (Iwan Miiller, with full Index), 1905. 

^ De Aristarchi Studiis Homericis, 1833, 1865"^, 1882^ (506 pp.). 



CHAP. XXXIX] LEHRS. THIERSCH 329 

the Scholia to Pindar (1873); the second by his Quaestiones 
Epicae \ and the third by his ' Popular Essays '. His researches 
on the Greek Grammarians have won a far wider approval than 
his criticisms on Ovid's Heroides, and on Horace, many of whose 
Odes he rejected (1869). 

Among the earliest and most important of the pupils of 
Hermann was Friedrich Wilhelm Thiersch (1784 — 

o^ x T , 1 \ ' "f Thiersch 

i860). In 1807 he was drawn to Gottmgen by 
Heyne ; two years later he left for Munich, where his success 
as a school-master led to his being entrusted with the direction 
of a philological Seminar, which was incorporated in the Bavarian 
university in 1826. He also lectured on Greek Art, after 
studying the sculptures in the Louvre and the British Museum 
(18 1 3-1 5), as well as the Aeginetan marbles, which the Crown 
Prince Ludwig had acquired in 181 2 for the Munich Glyptothek 
finally opened by Ludwig, as King, in 1830. Thiersch's interests 
in art were still further extended by half a year's absence in 
Italy (1822-3). Thiersch took an important part in reviving 
an interest in classical studies at Munich, and also in the 
organisation of the schools and universities of Bavaria. His 
contributions to classical learning fall under three heads : — 
(i) Greek Grammar; (2) criticism and interpretation of Greek 
poetry ; (3) archaeology, including topography and epigraphy. 
He was also interested in the language and the history of 
modern Greece. 

Among other professors in the Bavarian university, may be 
mentioned Georg Anton Friedrich Ast (1778 — 
1 841), who, besides editing the Characters of 
Theophrastus, made his mark as an expositor of Plato, crowning 
all his Platonic labours by the publication of his celebrated 
Index; Leonhard Spengel (1803 — 1880), the editor of Aristotle's 
Rhetoric \ and Carl Prantl (1820 — 1888) the Platonic and Aris- 
totelian scholar, whose best known work is his ' History of the 
Study of Logic in the West'. 

Classical education in Bavaria was also ably promoted by 
Ludwig Doederlein (1791 — 1863), who began his 

Ti*^ • 1 1 r^, . , , Doederlein 

university career at Munich under Thiersch, and 

was a professor at Erlangen and for more than 40 years head- 



330 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

master of the local school. Interesting and stimulating as a 
lecturer, and impressive and eloquent as a head-master, he was 
apt to be unduly subtle as a writer of works on Latin Synonymns, 
and on Greek and Latin Etymology ^ 

Turning to Greek lexicographers, we note that Franz Passow 
(1786 — 1833), for the last 18 years of his life pro- 
fessor at Breslau, devoted himself to the laborious 
task of producing in 1819-23 a greatly enlarged and improved 
edition of the Greek lexicon of J. G. Schneider (1750 — 1822), 
then one of the senior professors at Breslau. The work was so 
largely altered that, in the fourth edition, Passow's name alone 
appeared on the title-page (1831)''^. 

Among modern Latin lexicographers a place of honour is due to Karl 
Ernst Georges (1806 — 1895), who spent nearly the whole of 
his life at Gotha. His German-Latin lexicon was completed 
in 1833^ and accepted at Jena in lieu of a dissertation for his degree. The 
series of excellent Latin-German lexicons had been begun by that of Scheller 
(1783). On the death of Luenemann in 1830, the preparation of a new 
edition of Scheller was taken over by Georges, whose name appears on the 
title-page of the edition of 1837. Of the seventh edition in two volumes, 
filling 6,,o88 columns, 15,000 copies were printed in and after 1879. This work 
was confessedly founded on those of Gesner, ForceUini, and Scheller, as well 
as on his own extensive collections. It was warmly eulogised by Wolfflin, the 
organiser of the new Thesaurus^ now in course of publication. Georges him- 
iself began a Thesaurus, continued by Miihlmann down to the letter K. In 
his later years, when his sight began to fail, he prepared a useful lexicon of 
Latin Word-forms (1890). By 1891 six editions of his small Latin-German 
and German-Latin Handworterbuch, and five of the corresponding Schul- 
worterbuck, had been published. His German-Latin lexicon was the foundation 
of the English-Latin work of Riddle and Arnold. 

The Greek Comic Poets were the principal theme of the 
literary labours of August Meineke (1700 — 1870), 

Meineke "^ /^ . . „ \ 

who came under the immediate influence of 

^ Lat. Synonymen und Etymologien^ 6 vols. (1826-38); Lat. Synonyinik 
(1839, 1849^); Lat. Etyni. (1841); Horn. Glossarium, 3 vols. (1850-8). 

^ It was subsequently made the foundation of a large lexicon prepared by 
V. C. F. Rost, in conjunction with Friedrich Palm and other scholars (1841-57). 
Meanwhile, Wilhelm Pape (1807 — 1854) had added to his Lexicon of 1842 a 
lexicon of proper names, which, in Benseler's improved edition of 1863-70, 
became an admirable work of reference. 

3 Ed. 7, 1882. 



CHAP. XXXIX] MEINEKE. BERGK. DINDORF 33 1 

Hermann at Leipzig and was for 31 years a head-master in 
Berlin, where, as a scholar, he was the peer of the leading 
professors : — Boeckh and Bekker, Buttmann and Lachmann. 
As an editor of important classical works, he was the first since 
Bentley to make his mark on the criticism of Menander and 
Philemon (1823). His 'Critical History of the Greek Comic 
Poets' appeared as an introduction to his 'Fragments of the 
Comic Poets', which filled three further volumes (1839-41). 
The fifth volume was published in two parts, including an ex- 
cellent index (1857). Meanwhile, a new edition of the Fragments 
had appeared in two volumes (1847). Meineke's work on Attic 
Comedy was completed by his text of Aristophanes, with a pre- 
fatory Adnotatio Critica (i860). 

In Meineke's ' Fragments of the Comic Poets ', the fragments 
of Aristophanes were collected by Meineke's 
assistant-master and future son-in-law, Theodor 
Bergk (181 2 — 1881), who afterwards published several editions 
of the plays. He is best known as the editor of the Poetae 
Lyrici Graeci, a work remarkable for the felicity of the editor's 
emendations. The first edition, that of 1843, was followed by 
improved editions in 1853, 1866, and 1878-82. 

The text of the Greek dramatists is associated with the name 
of Karl Wilhelm Dindorf (1802 — 1883), who passed nearly the 
whole of his life in Leipzig. He began his career 

, • • , Dindorf 

as an editor by completmg in seven volumes 
(1819-26) an edition of Aristophanes begun by two other 
scholars. Among his earliest works were editions of Pollux and 
Harpocration. For the Teubner series of Greek texts with 
critical notes, begun in 1824, he edited Homer, Aeschylus, 
Sophocles, Aristophanes, as well as Aeschines, Isocrates, Demos- 
thenes, and the Memorabilia of Xenophon. For the Clarendon 
Press at Oxford he edited all the Greek dramatists, together with 
notes and scholia (1832-63). The text of the whole was first 
printed in a single volume in 1830, the well-known Poetae Scenici 
Graecij which attained a fifth edition in 1869. He edited, for the 
Didot series, Sophocles and Aristophanes, with Herodotus, 
Lucian, and part of Josephus; and, for the Clarendon Press 
(besides the dramatists). Homer and Demosthenes with the 



332 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

scholia; also the scholia to Aeschines and Isocrates, the lexicon 
of Harpocration, and the works of Clement of Alexandria. 
Among the texts prepared by him for other publishers were 
Lucian, Athenaeus, Aristides, and Themistius. From 1833 to 
1864 the main part of the revision of Didot's Paris edition of 
Stephanus' Thesaurus Graecitatis was done by the brothers 
Dindorf, who had begun to help as early as 1831. The younger 
brother, Ludwig (1805 — 1871), produced editions of Hesiod, 
Euripides, Dion Chrysostom, and the Greek Historians, including 
Thucydides, Xenophon, Diodorus, Dio Cassius, Polybius, the 
Historici Graeci Minores^ with Zonaras, and the Didot edition of 
Pausanias. 



Grammarians and Lexicographers. 

A * Greek Grammar, with special reference to the Homeric 
dialect', first published in 18 12 by F. W. Thiersch, 

Thiersch ' r- j 

led to a controversy on Homeric moods with 
Hermann. His shorter Grammar (18 15) was much enlarged in 
its fourth edition (1855). 

His younger contemporary, Karl Wilhelm Kriiger (1796 — 1874), produced 
. a well-known Greek Grammar for Schools^, which is divided 

into two parts, (1) on the Attic, and (2) on the other Dialects. 
This arrangement is convenient for educational purposes, but it conveys a false 
impression as to the historic developement of the language. The rules are, 
however, stated with clearness and precision, and are illustrated by excellently 
chosen examples. Kriiger declined to recognise in his Grammar any of the 
results of Comparative Philology. 

As a Greek Grammarian, Kriiger found an able rival in Raphael Ktihner 
{1802 — 1878), whose large Greek Grammar in two volumes 
(1834-5)^ is a vast repertory of grammatical lore, which has 
attained a third edition in four volumes under the editorial care of Blass and 
Gerth (1890 — 1904). He also produced a Greek Grammar for Schools (1836), 
and a still more elementary work on the same subject (1837), which has gone 
through many editions, together with corresponding works on Latin Grammar 
(184 1 etc.). On retiring from his mastership, he published a large Latin 
Grammar (1877-9), which is a monument of learning and industry. 

^ GHechische Sprachlehre, Berlin, 1843; ed. 5, 1873-9. 
2 Transl. by W. E. Jelf, 1842-5. 



CHAP. XXXIX] BERNHARDY 333 

The study of Greek Dialects was advanced by Heinrich Ludolf Ahrens 
{1809 — 1881). He also published a Grammar of the Homeric 
and Attic Dialects^, and an important critical edition of 
Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus. 

While 'Scientific Greek Syntax' had been ably treated by Bernhardy 
in 1829, Syntax was well represented in the elementary Greek . 

Grammars produced in South Germany (1856 etc.) by 
Baumlein (1797 — 1865), and in North Germany (1868) by Aken (1816 — 1870). 
The Grammar of the Attic Inscriptions was successfully handled by Konrad 
Meisterhans (1858 — 1894) 2. 

The first to set a distinctly higher standard in the History 
of Classical Literature was Gottfried Bernhardy 

Bernhardy 

(1800 — 1875), professor at Halle for the last 46 
years of his life. His History of Roman Literature (1830)^ was 
followed by a History of Greek Literature (i 836-45 )1 In both 
the subject is divided into two parts, (i) a general account of 
the historical developement of literature in chronological order; 
and (2) a special account of its several departments, with 
biographical and bibliographical details on each author. This 
division involves the frequent repetition, in the special portion, 
of points already mentioned in the general survey ; and, although 
three volumes are devoted to Greek literature, the special history 
of Greek Prose is never reached. In 1832 he published a 
System of Classical Learning, in which Grammar is treated as 
the instrument of that Learning, and Criticism and Interpretation 
as its elements^ while a subordinate place is assigned to the History 
of Art, with Numismatics and Epigraphy ^ He also published 
a large volume on the ' Scientific Syntax of the Greek Language ', 
in which Syntax is treated in relation to the History of Literature 
(1829). His interest in the History of Greek Literature prompted 
his important edition of Suidas, which was not completed until 

1853. 

Bernhardy's work on Roman Literature found a rival in that 

1 1853 ; ed. 2, 1869. 

^ Grammatik der attischen Inschriften 1885; ed. 3, 1900. 
^ Grundriss der rbmischen Litteratur, ed. 5, 1872. 

* Grundriss der griechischen Litteratur, ed. 4 in 3 vols. (1876-80); ed. 5 
of vol. i, 844 pp. (ed. Volkmann, 1892). 

^ Grundlinien zur Encyklopddie der Philologie, 420 pp. (1832). 




Lachmann. 
Reduced from A. Teichel's engraving of the photograph by H. Biow. 



CHAP. XXXIX] LACHMANN 335 

of Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel (1820 — 1878), who taught at 
Tubingen during the last 34 years of his compara- 
tively short life. His work on Roman Literature 
(1870), the fourth edition of which was supplemented by L. Schwabe 
(1882) and translated by G. C. W. Warr (1900), though not 
characterised by the profundity and the originality of Bernhardy, 
excelled in clearness of style and arrangement. A fifth edition is 
in course of publication. 

The large Latin Grammar of Karl Gottlob Zumpt (1792 — 
1849), who passed most of his life in Berlin, was 
limited to classical prose. First published in 18 18, 
it passed through many editions and was translated into English. 
It held its own in Germany until it was superseded in 1884 by 
that of Madvig. 

Latin Grammar and Lexicography were the main interests of Reinhold 
Klotz (1807 — 1870), whose admirable ' Handbook of Latin 
Style ' owed its excellence to the author's constant study of 
Cicero. His intermediate Latin Dictionary (1853-7) ^^s to have been founded 
throughout on the direct study of the Latin Classics, but pressure on the part 
of the publishers led to a certain unevenness in the execution, and also to the 
introduction of errors arising from unverified references borrowed from the 
Dictionary of P>eund (1834-45)^, which is little more than a compilation from 
Forcellini. 

Karl Lachmann (1793 — 185 1) studied for a short time at 
Leipzig under Hermann, and for six years at 
Gottingen. Meanwhile he had taken his degree 
at Halle on the strength of a dissertation on Tibullus (181 1). 
In 1818-24 he was a professor at Konigsberg, and, for the 
remaining 26 years of his life, he was one of the foremost pro- 
fessors in Berlin. As a Latin scholar he produced, besides his 
early edition of Propertius (18 16), a second edition of that poet, 
together with Catullus and Tibullus (1829). Late in life he 
produced his masterly edition of Lucretius (1850). As to the 
merits of this work, it will be enough to quote the generous 
eulogy written by another great editor, Munro : — 

'This illustrious scholar, great in so many departments of philology, sacred, 
classical and Teutonic, seems to have looked upon Latin poetry as his peculiar 

1 b. (of Jewish parents) 1 806, d. 1 894 (at Breslau). 



336 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

province. Lucretius, his greatest work, was the main occupation of the last 
five years of his life, from the autumn of 1845 to November 1850. Fortunately, 
he had the full use for many months of the two Leyden MSS. His native 
sagacity, guided and sharpened by long and varied experience, saw at a glance 
their relations to each other and to the original from which they were derived, 
and made clear the arbitrary way in which the common texts had been con- 
structed. His zeal warming as he advanced, one truth after another revealed 
itself to him, so that at length he obtained by successive steps a clear insight 
into the condition in which the poem left the hands of its author in the most 
essential points.'...' Hardly any work of merit has appeared in Germany since 
Lachmann's Lucretius, in any branch of Latin literature, without bearing on 
every page the impress of his example'^. 

Lachmann's study of Wolfs Prolegomena led him to apply 
the principles of that work to the great German epic of the 
Niebelungen-7ioth, and to show that the latter could be resolved 
into a series of twenty primitive lays (1816). More than twenty 
years afterwards he applied the same principles to the Homeric 
poems themselves. 

He 'dissected the Iliad into eighteen separate lays. He leaves it doubtful 
whether they are to be ascribed to eighteen distinct authors. But at any rate, 
he maintains, each lay was originally more or less independent of all the rest. 
His main test is the inconsistency of detail. A primitive poet, he argued, 
would have a vivid picture before his mind, and would reproduce it with close 
consistency. He also affirms that many of the lays are utterly distinct in 
general spirit '2. 

Lachmann was also the true founder of a strict and methodical 
system of textual criticism. He has laid down his principles most 
clearly in the preface to his edition of the Greek Testament. 
These principles were applied by Lachmann in all his editions 
of Latin or Greek or German texts. His aim in all was, firstly, 
the determination of the earliest form of the text, so far as it could 
be ascertained with the aid of mss, or quotations ; and, secondly, 
the restoration of the original form by means of careful emenda- 
tion. Here and elsewhere his great example is Bentley. His 
own influence ' on the general course of philological study ' was 
'probably greater', says Nettleship^, 'than that of any single man' 
during the nineteenth century. ' Many scholars who never saw 
him, and to whom he is only known by his books, have been 

1 Munro's Lucretius, i p. 20^ f. ^ Jebb's Horner,^ u8f. 

• 3 Essays, i 9. 



CHAP. XXXIX] HAUPT 337 

inspired by the extraordinary impulse which he gave to critical 
method ; Greek, Latin, and German philology have alike felt the 
touch of the magician.' 

The Berlin professorship vacated by the death of Lachmann 
was filled for the next 2 1 years by his friend Moritz 

. . Haupt 

Haupt (1808 — 1874), the pupil and the son-in-law 
of Hermann. Lachmann and Haupt had much in common. 
Both of them were inspired with a keen interest in German as 
well as Classical Scholarship, and both of them devoted their 
main energies to the criticism of the Latin poets. Haupt's 
Quaestiones Catullianae (1837), a work of special importance in 
connexion with the textual criticism of Catullus, was succeeded 
by his critical editions of the Halieutica of Ovid, the Cynegetica 
of Gratius and Nemesianus, and the Pseudo-Ovidian Epicedion 
Drusi. His entry on his professorship in Berlin was marked by 
his treatise on the Eclogues of Calpurnius and Nemesianus. He 
also published a school-edition of the first seven books of Ovid's 
Metamorphoses^ and elegant editions of Catullus, Tibullus and 
Propertius, and of Horace and Virgil. Haupt, like Lachmann, 
perpetuated in an intense form the polemical spirit of his master, 
Hermann. His lectures on the Epistles of Horace at Berlin, 
which began with an exposition of the principles to be followed 
in constituting the text, and included a running fire of criticisms 
on Orelli, were attended by Nettleship, who then learnt for the 
first time to appreciate the true greatness of Bentley. 

Haupt was born two years later and died two years earlier 
than a still greater scholar, Friedrich Ritschl 
(1806 — 1876). At Leipzig and Halle his early 
interest was directed towards the Greek poets. His four years 
of university teaching at Halle (1829-33) were followed by a call 
to Breslau. The rest of his life falls into three periods during 
which he was professor first at Breslau (1833-9), "^^t at Bonn 
(1839-65), and finally at Leipzig (1865-76). 

His interest in Plautus was first displayed at Breslau. In 
1836-7 he visited Italy and spent several months in deciphering 
the Ambrosian palimpsest of Plautus at Milan. In 1841 he 
started a series of papers on Plautus, which were published with 
additions in 1845 under the title of Parerga^ and won for him 
s. H. 22 




RiTSCHL. 



Frgm a lithograph of the drawing by A. Hohneck (1844), published by Henry 
and Cohen, Bonn, with autograph and motto, nil tarn difficilest quin quae- 
rendo investigari possiet (Ter. Haut. 675). 



CHAP. XXXIX] RITSCHL 339 

the name of sospitator Plauti. In 1848 he began his edition of 
Plautus, and, by the end of 1854, had pubUshed nine plays \ 
He produced new editions of these nine, and entrusted the 
preparation of the rest to three of his ablest pupils : — Gustav 
Lowe, Georg Gotz, and Friedrich Scholl. Ritschl's papers on 
Plautus, and his edition of the text, mark an epoch in the study 
of that author. It is to be regretted that he did not begin his 
work on Plautus at an earlier date, and that he was diverted from 
the completion of his edition by taking up a number of points 
incidentally suggested by his Plautine studies. He was thus 
prompted to investigate the history of the Latin language. But 
the most important monument of his labours in this department 
is his great collection of Ancient Latin Inscriptions^. Many 
points of early Latin Grammar are here illustrated, either in the 
descriptive letter-press or in the elaborate indices. It was followed 
by an important paper on the History of the Latin Alphabet ^ 
Again, his examination of the early fortunes of the plays of Plautus 
led him to inquire into the literary activity of Varro ''. He also 
wrote an important paper on the survey of the Roman Empire 
under Augustus ^ 

, At Bonn he was a most successful teacher for 26 years, but, 
owing to unfortunate differences with one of his colleagues, he 
resigned his professorship and withdrew entirely from Prussia, to 
spend the rest of his life at the Saxon university of Leipzig. 

^ Trinumtmis, Miles ^ Bacchides (1849) ; Stichiis, Pseudolus (1850) ; 
Menaechnti {1851); Mostellaria (1852); Persa, Mercator (1854). 
* Priscae latinitatis nionumenta epigraphica (1862). 

3 Kleine Schriften, iv. 691 — 726. 

4 ib. iii 352—592- ^ iii 743 f- 



22- 



CHAPTER XL 

EDITORS OF GREEK CLASSICS 

The text of the Greek tragic poets is associated with the name 
of August Nauck (1822 — 1892), who in 1841-6 studied at Halle, 
mainly under Bernhardy. After holding scholastic 
appointments in Berlin, he was in 1859 elected a 
Member of the Academy of St Petersburg, where he was also 
professor of Greek Literature in 1869-83. His first important 
work was an edition of the Fragments of Aristophanes of 
Byzantium (1848), suggested by Bernhardy. His text of 
Euripides (1854) was succeeded by an excellent edition of the 
Fragments of the Greek Tragic Poets (1856), the final edition 
of which appeared in 1889, and was followed by a complete 
index in 1891. The second edition of his Euripides included 
Prolegomena on the life, style, and genius of the poet, in which 
the subject is tersely and succinctly treated, while the original 
authorities are added in the notes. Like Porson and Elmsley, 
for both of whom he had a high admiration, he was specially 
strong in his knowledge of metre. From 1856 onwards he was 
repeatedly engaged in the critical study of Sophocles. Every few 
years he produced a new revision of Schneidewin's school-editions 
of the several plays. He also published texts of the Odyssey 
(1874) and the Iliad (1877). While his first decade at St Peters- 
burg had been mainly devoted to Sophocles, and his second 
to Homer, the third was assigned to Porphyry and his circle. 
Here, as in his earlier work, the first impulse had come from 
Bernhardy. 

Homer and Pindar formed a principal part of the wide 

province of Greek Hterature which was illustrated 

by the life-long labours of Wilhelm Christ (1831 — 

1906), for forty-five years a professor in the university of Munich. 



CHAP. XL] NAUCK. CHRIST. KAIBEL 341 

Under the influence of Boeckh, he ultimately edited a text of 
Pindar, followed by a commentary (1896). His comprehensive 
hand-book of Greek Literature has passed through several editions. 
He was one of the most versatile of scholars. He was capable of 
examining in archaeology, and of lecturing on ancient philosophy, 
besides taking an interest in astronomy. 

A commentary on the Electra of Sophocles (1896) was one of 
the finest of the works produced by Georg Kaibel 
(1849 — 1 901), for the last five years of his life pro- 
fessor at Gottingen. His principal works, beside the edition of 
the Electra^ were his critical text of Athenaeus (1886-90), his 
Epigrammata Graeca ex lapidibus collecta (1878), his collections 
of the Greek Inscriptions of Italy and Sicily and the West of 
Europe (1890), the edition of Aristotle's Constitution of Athens^ 
in which he was associated with his life-long friend, Wilamowitz 
(1891), and his independent work on the 'Style and Text' of the 
treatise (1893). He had only published the first part of his 
proposed edition of the ' Fragments of the Greek Comic Poets ' 
(1889), when his brief life came to an end. 

Turning from editors of Greek poets to those whose work lay 
in the field of Greek prose, we note that an excellent edition of 
the text of Plato was produced at Ziirich by Baiter, Orelli, and 
Winckelmann (1839-42). Of these Johann Caspar 
Orelli (1787 — 1849) also prepared an important 
critical text of the whole of Cicero (1826-38), the second edition 
of which was completed by Baiter and Halm (1846-62). Of his 
many other works the best known are his annotated editions of 
Horace (1837-8) and of Tacitus (1846-8). 

Orelli's principal partner in the edition of Plato, and his 
successor in that of Cicero, was Johann Georg 
Baiter (1801 — 1877), who was associated with 
Sauppe in an important edition of the Oratores Attici. 

Baiter's colleague as editor of the Oratores Attici, Hermann 
Sauppe (1809 — 1893), studied under Hermann at 

Sauppe 

Leipzig, held appointments for twelve years at 
Ziirich, and was subsequently director of the gymnasium at 
Weimar (1845-56), and classical professor for many years at 
Gottingen (1856-93). It was at Zurich that he was associated 



342 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

with Baiter in the comprehensive edition of the Attic Orators in 
two large quarto volumes (1839-50), the first containing the text 
founded on the best mss, and the second the scholia^ with Sauppe's 
edition of the Fragments, and a full Index of Names. He was 
the first to improve the text of Lysias, Isocrates, and Demosthenes, 
by closely following the best MS of each. 

An able and comprehensive edition of Isaeus was published 
in 1 83 1 by Georg Friedrich Schomann (1793 — 
1879), who, for nearly the whole of his long Hfe, 
held scholastic or academic appointments at Greifswald. His 
love of concrete facts attracted him to the difficult and almost 
unexplored province of the constitutional system and legal pro- 
cedure of Athens. In conjunction with Boeckh's favourite pupil, 
Meier, he produced in 1824 an important work on Attic 
Procedure \ His interest in Attic law led to his producing his 
translation (1830) and his annotated edition of Isaeus (1831). 
In 1838 he produced his systematic Latin work on the Public 
Antiquities of Greece^, followed in 1855 by his German 'Hand- 
book' on the same subject^ In 1854 he published his able 
critique on Grote's treatment of the Constitutional History of 
Athens ^ 

The History of Attic Eloquence was made the theme of an 
admirable historic survey by Friedrich Blass (1843 
— 1907), who studied at Gottingen under Sauppe, 
and distinguished himself as a classical professor at Kiel in 1876- 
92, and at Halle for the remaining fifteen years of his life. His 
history of Greek oratory from the age of Alexander to that of 
Augustus (1865) was followed by the greatest of his works, the 
four volumes of Die Attische Beredsamkeit (1868-80), which 
attained a second edition in 1887-98. For the Teubner series 
he edited texts of all the Attic Orators except Lysias and Isaeus. 
His critical texts of the 'A^iyvatwi/ Tvoknda. (1892) and of Bac- 
chylides (1898) passed through several editions. His treatise on 

^ Der attische Process, 1824; ed. Lipsius, 1883-7. 
^ Antiquitates juris publici Graecorum, 1838. 

3 Handbuch der griechischen Alterthiimer, 1855-9 (E. T. vol. i, 1880); ed. 4 
Lipsius, 1897 — 1902. 

* E. T. by Bernard Bosanquet, 1878. 



CHAP. XL] SCHOMANN. BLASS. BONITZ 343 

the pronunciation of Ancient Greek' and his Grammar of New 
Testament Greek were translated into English. His published 
works frequently brought him into friendly relations with English 
scholars. 

From the scholars who studied the Attic Orators we turn to 
the exponents of Greek philosophy. Histories of 
Greek and Roman Philosophy (1835-66), and of 
the influence of Greek Philosophy under the Roman Empire 
(1862-4), were published by one of the editors of Aristotle's Meta- 
physics^ Christian August Brandis (1790 — 1867), who was 
professor at Bonn from 1821 to his death in 1867. 

Eduard Zeller (18 14 — 1908), for 35 years professor in the 
university of Berlin, was the author of a well- 

Zeller 

known History of Greek Philosophy in three 
large octavo volumes (first ed. 1844-52). 

The able Aristotelian, Hermann Bonitz (1814 — 1888), was 
for thirteen years a schoolmaster at Dresden, 

Bonitz 

Berlin, and Stettin, and for eighteen a professor 
in Vienna, where he helped to reorganise the schools and uni- 
versities of Austria (1849-67), after which he returned to Berlin 
as Director of the School ' am Grauen Kloster ', where he com- 
pleted in 1870 his great Index Aristotelicus, which had been 
preceded by important works on Plato and Aristotle. He was a 
perfect master of that province of classical learning, which in- 
cludes Greek philology and Greek philosophy. 

Theodor Gomperz (1832 — 1912), who spent the larger part of 
his life in Vienna, was well known as the decipherer 

/. , TT 1 r r Gomperz 

and interpreter of the Herculanean fragments of 

Epicurus and Philodemus, and also as the author of an able work 

on the Greek philosophers^. 

The Religion, Philosophy, and Rhetoric of the Greeks were 
only a part of the wide field of learning traversed 
by Hermann Usener (1834 — 1605), who was pro- 
fessor at Bonn for the last thirty-nine years of his life. The 
breadth of his erudition is attested by writings on the most varied 
themes. He published editions of important scholia on Aristotle, 

1 1870 etc.; E. T. of ed. 3 by W. J. Purton (Cambridge, 1890). 

2 Griechische Denker, ed. 3, 191 1 f; E. T. i9oof. 



344 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

and of the rhetorical works of Dionysius of Halicarnassus. His 
Epicurea is a critical collection of all the ancient authorities on 
Epicurus, with an elaborate introduction and excellent indices. 
He also wrote on the history of Greek and Roman Grammar, 
on ancient Greek metre, and applied the comparative method to 
the History of Religion. 

The History of the Greek Novel was the theme of a brilliant and masterly 
work published in 1876 by Erwin Rohde (1845 — 1898)^ Next 
to the History of the Greek Novel, he attacked the problem 
connected with the growth of the ancient history of Greek literature. The 
third of his three main interests as a scholar, his interest in Greek Religion, 
reached its culminating point in his Psyche (1891-4)2. His main thesis was 
that the cult of souls was the most primitive stage of religious worship 
throughout the world, and that there was no reason for excepting the Greeks 
from this general rule. The apparent inconsistency of this cult with the 
Homeric theology was solved by an analysis of the earliest epics, showing in 
Homer, and still more in Hesiod, the existence of rudimentary survivals of a 
more ancient cult. The religion of the old Epics was thus put in a new light ; 
and the Homeric theology stood out against the dark background of an earlier 
type of religion. 

^ Der griechische Roman und seine Vorldufer, 1876; ed. 2, 1900. 
2 Ed. 2, 1897. 



CHAPTER XLI 



EDITORS OF LATIN CLASSICS 

RiTSCHL was succeeded at Leipzig by one of the earliest of his 
pupils, his able biographer, Otto Ribbeck (1827 — 
1898), who held office for the remaining 21 years 
of his life. His work was mainly limited to the history and the 
criticism of the earlier Latin poets. He published an important 
collection of the Fragments of the Latin Dramatists ^ a work on 
Roman Tragedy in the age of the Republic^, and a valuable 
History of Roman Poetry in three volumes ^ He also published 
a comprehensive critical edition of Virgil, in five volumes^, as 
well as a smaller edition of the text. His work on Virgil had 
been preceded by his text of JuvenaP, and was succeeded by 
his Epistles and Ars Po'etica of Horace, in both of which he 
evinced an inordinate suspicion of textual interpolations. 

Latin and Greek Scholarship were alike represented by 
Johannes Vahlen (1830 — 1912), a pupil of Ritschl 
at Bonn. His earliest fame was won by his work 
on Ennius'^, and by his edition of the epic fragments of Naevius^ 
In Vienna, during the middle period of his life (1858-74), he 
produced important papers on Aristotle, on the Greek rhetorician 
Alkidamas, and on the Italian critic Lorenzo Valla, as well as 
able editions of Aristotle's treatise on Poetry ", and of Cicero De 

1 1852-5; ed. 2, 1871-3; ed. 3, 1897-8. 

2 1875. '' 1892, 18942. 
* 1859-68, abridged ed. 1895. 

^ 1859. Cp' Der echte und der unechte Juvenal {i%6^). 

** Quaestiones Criiicae, 1852; Reliquiae, 1854. 

'' Naevi de bello Punico reliquiae, 1854. ^ 1868, 1874, 1885. 



34^ GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

Legibus. In Berlin, during the rest of his life (1874 — 1912), he 
carried on the high traditions of Lachmann and Haupt, and, 
towards the close of his long career, published the final edition 
of his early work on Ennius (1903). 

The Latin poets were specially studied by Lucian Miiller 
Lucian (^^S^ — 1 898) who, after living for five years in 

Muiier Holland (mainly at Leyden), and for three at 

Bonn, was appointed professor of Latin Literature at St Peters- 
burg, where he worked for the remaining twenty-seven years of 
his life. In t86i he published his treatise De re metrica, on the 
prosody of all the Latin poets except Plautus and Terence. A 
compendium of the same appeared in 1878, together with a 
summary of Latin orthography and prosody, followed by a text- 
book of Greek and Latin Metres \ His critical acumen was 
attested in his edition of Lucilius (1872), which was followed by 
a sketch of the life and work of that poet, ending with a restoration 
of a number of scenes from his Satires (1876). In 1884 he wrote a 
work on Ennius, and published the remains of that poet, and the 
fragments of Naevius' epic on the first Punic War. In the follow- 
ing year he edited the fragments of the plays of Livius Andronicus 
and of Naevius, and published a work on the ' Saturnian Verse '. 
The fragments of the old Roman poets led him to Nonius, and he 
accordingly produced in 1888 an edition of that grammarian and 
lexicographer, extending over 1127 pages, the index alone filling 
55. This led him to write a treatise on Pacuvius and Accius 
(1889 f), followed by two works of general interest on the artistic 
and the popular poetry of the Romans (1890). After that date 
he prepared three important works : (i) an enlarged edition of his 
De re metrica (1894) ; (2) an annotated edition of the Satires and 
Epistles of Horace for the use of scholars (1891-3); and (3) a 
similar edition of the Odes and Epodes, posthumously published 
in 1900. He held that, for a great scholar, it was essential that 
he should have, not only wide learning and clear judgement, but 
also a strong power of concentration on a definite field of labour. 
It was this that led to his own success in the province of Latin 
poetry. But he was far from neglecting Greek, for he also held 

1 1880; ed. 2, 1885; transl. into French, Italian, Dutch, and English. 



CHAP. XLI] MULLER. BUCHELER. LEO 347 

that, without Greek, a fruitful study of Latin was impossible. 
He was a skilful writer of Latin verse, and insisted on the practice 
of verse composition as a valuable aid towards the appreciation 
of the Latin poets. 

One of Lucian Miiller's rivals as an editor of Latin poets was 
his former pupil at Bonn, Emil Baehrens (1848 — 
1888), who for the last eleven years of his Hfe was 
Latin professor at the Dutch University of Groningen. His 
principal work was his edition of the Po'etae Latini Minores in five 
volumes (1879 — 1883). I" the laborious preparation of this work 
he examined more than 1000 mss. It was supplemented by his 
Fragmenta Po'etarum Romanorum (1886). 

Latin scholarship was ably represented by Franz 
Biicheler (1837— 1908), professor at Bonn for the 
last 38 years of his life. His editions of Frontinus, On Aqueducts^ 
and of the Pervigilium Veneris, were followed in 1862 by the first 
of his critical editions of Petronius. His brief monograph on the 
Latin Declensions and Conjugations (1862), expanded by Havet 
in French (1875), was thence re-edited in German (1879). ^"^ 
1886 and 1893 ^^ produced the second and third editions of 
Jahn's Persius, Juvenal and Sulpicia; in 1895 the Carmina Latina 
Epigraphica. He was also a specialist in the dialects of ancient 
Italy. His scattered researches on the Iguvine inscriptions 
were collected and completed in his Umbrica (1883), and Oscan 
and Pelignian inscriptions were repeatedly elucidated by his 
skill. 

Latin scholarship was no less ably represented, at Gottingen, 
by Friedrich Leo (1851 — 19 14), who produced 
editions of Plautus, of Virgil's Culex, of Seneca's 
Tragedies, of Juvenal and Persius, and of Venantius Fortunatus. 
He also made his mark by his exhaustive treatment of Saturnian 
Verse, of Plautine Metre, and of monologue in the Greek and 
Latin drama. His Plautine Researches include a complete 
history of Roman Comedy. His mature opinions on the studies 
of a life-time are partly preserved in his latest work, the brilliant 
first volume of his History of Latin Literature, which traces the 
progress of Latin verse and prose from Livius Andronicus to 
I^ucilius. He here maintains that Latin literature, though deeply 



348 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

indebted to that of Greece, was a continuation of that literature 
on lines determined by the genius of the Roman peopled 

From verse we turn to prose. On an earlier page Orelli has 
been mentioned as an editor not only of Horace, but also of 
Tacitus and of Cicero. On Orelli's death in 1849, the second 
edition of his Cicero was continued and completed in 1862 by 
Baiter and Halm. 

Karl Felix Halm (1809 — 1882) was a native of Munich; he was 
appointed Rector of the newly founded gymnasimn 
in 1849, and in 1856 director of the public library 
and professor in the university. His editorial labours were mainly 
limited to the field of Latin prose. His first edition of Cicero's 
seven Select Speeches with German notes (1850-66) was followed 
by a text of eighteen (1868). He also published a critical edition of 
the Rhetor es Latini Minores and of the Institutio Oratoria of Quin- 
tilian. He further edited Tacitus and Florus, Valerius Maximus, 
Cornelius Nepos and Velleius Paterculus, besides contributing to 
the Vienna Corpus of the Latin Fathers, and to the Monumenta 
Germaniae Historica. 

In the Monumenta Germaniae Historica the third volume of 
the Poetae Latini aevi Carolini was ably edited in 

Traube 

1886—96 by Ludwig Traube (i86t — 1907), who 
was connected, for practically the whole of his academic career, 
with the university of Munich, where he was professor of the 
Latin Philology of the Middle Ages for the last five years of his 
life. He was an eager and able pioneer in an obscure and 
intricate region of classical learning, and by his independent 
research he acquired a profound knowledge of mediaeval palaeo- 
graphy, and of the history of the survival of the Latin Classics. 
In connexion with the literature of the early Middle. Ages, he 
edited the Orations of Cassiodorus, and elaborately investigated 
the successive changes in the text of the Rule of St Benedict. 

^ Cp. W. M. Lindsay in Classical Review, 1914, 30 f, and E. A. Sonnen- 
schein, ib. 206 f. 



CHAPTER XLII 



COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGISTS 

The founder of the comparative study of language in Germany 
was Franz Bopp (1791 — 1867), who Hved in Paris 
from 1812 to 1815, studying Arabic and Persian 
under Silvestre de Sacy, and teaching himself Sanskrit with the 
help of the Grammars of Carey (1806) and Wilkins (1808). He 
was a professor in Berlin for the last forty-six years of his Hfe. 
From the publication of his earliest work on the comparison of 
the conjugational system of Sanskrit with that of Greek, Latin, 
Persian, and German (18 16) to the very end of his career, he was 
engaged in the unremitting endeavour to explain the origin of the 
grammatical forms of the Indo-Germanic languages. This was 
the main object of his 'Comparative Grammar' (1833). The 
science created by Bopp has been since applied to Greek and 
Latin, and a sure foundation has thus been laid for the Etymology 
of those languages \ 

Foremost among the labourers in this field was Theodor 
Benfey (1809 — 1881), who lived at Gottingen for 
the greatest part of his life. In the introduction to 
his ' lexicon of Greek roots ', which was the first scientific treat- 
ment of Greek Etymology (1839-42), he drew up a scheme for 
a series of works treating of Greek Grammar in the light of 
Comparative Philology. Most of his subsequent publications 
were directly connected with Sanskrit. In 1869 he produced his 
able History of the study of language and of oriental philology in 
Germany. 

^ Cp., in general, P. Giles, Manual of Comparative Philology (1895) 
§§ 39 — 44» ^J^d the brief sketch in J. M. Edmonds' Comparative Philology 
(Cambridge, 1906), 189 — 200. 



350 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

Benfey's pupil, Leo Meyer (1830 — 1910), completed in 1865 
the second volume of his Comparative Grammar of 

L. Meyer . . ^ 

Greek and Latin ^, dealing only with the doctrine 
of sounds and the formation of words. Meanwhile, he had 
published a brief comparison between the Greek and Latin 
declensions (1862). His Grammar remained unfinished, but he 
investigated the Greek aorist (1879), ^^^ finally published in 
1 90 1-2 a Handbook of Greek Etymology. 

The recognition of the comparative method among Greek and 

Latin scholars and school-masters was mainly due 

G. Curtius 

to Georg Curtius (1820 — 1885), the younger brother 
of the historian of Greece. For the last twenty-four years of his 
life he was a professor at Leipzig. In his inaugural lecture he 
stated that it was his purpose, as professor, to bring Classical 
Philology and the Science of Language into closer relation with 
each other ^. His principal works were his 'Greek Grammar for 
Schools' (1852), his 'Principles of Greek Etymology' (1858-62), 
and his treatise on the 'Greek Verb' (1873-6). His 'Principles 
of Greek Etymology' reached a fifth edition in 1879^ The first 
Book contains an introductory statement on the principles, and 
the main questions, of Greek Etymology ; the second deals with 
the regular representation of Indo-Germanic sounds in Greek, 
exemplified by a conspectus of words or groups of words arranged 
according to their sounds; and the third investigates the irregular 
or sporadic changes. 

Following in the track of the Swede, J. Ihre^ the Dane 

Rasmus Cristian Rask (1787 — 1832) made a partial 

discovery of the law underlying the relations between 

the mute consonants (more especially the dentals) in Gothic, 

Scandinavian, and German. This discovery had an important 

influence on Jacob Grimm (1785 — 1863), who, in 

the second edition oihh Deutsche Grammatik (1822), 

^ 2 vols., 1861-5; ed. 2 of vol. i, in two parts, 1270 pp., 1882-4; Benfey, 

591- 

2 Philologie und Sprachwissenschaft, 1861 (also in A7. Schr. i) ; cp. Die 

Sprachvergleichung in ih7-em Verhdltniss zur cL Philologie (1848^), E. T. 
Oxford, 185 1. 

3 E. T., Wilkins and England, 1875-6; ed. 2, 1886. 

4 Enc. Brit, (iQiof) s.v. Grimm. 



CHAP. XLII] CURTIUS. CORSSEN. BRUGMANN 35 1 

fully and scientifically enunciated the law as to the consonantal 
relations between (i) Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, (2) High 
German, and (3) Low German (including English), which is 
known as 'Grimm's law'\ 

But this law has its exceptions. The discovery that these 
exceptions were due to the original accentuation of the Indo- 
Germanic languages was made by the Dane, K. A. 
Verner (1846 — 1896). He was not a classical 
scholar, and, even in his own province of Comparative Philology, 
he only published three papers ; but the name of the author of 
' Verner's law' (1877) will be long remembered in the history of 
the science of language^. 

The changes of the Latin consonants and vowels were ably 
investigated by Wilhelm Corssen (1820 — 1875), 
who, in his work on the * Pronunciation, Vocalisa- 
tion, and Accentuation of the Latin language '^ dealt with the 
orthography, pronunciation, and prosody of Latin in connexion 
with the old Italic dialects, and in the light of comparative 
philology. 

The results of the various investigations on vocal changes 
were summed up in a series of ' laws of sound ' by 
August Schleicher (1821 — 1868), in his 'Compen- 
dium of the Grammar of the Indo-Germanic languages '\ But the 
theory of the original vowels was revolutionised in 

«^, ,n- . r -rr ^ -n, K Brugmanii 

1876 by the discoveries of Karl Brugmann^ as to 
the nasal sonants {m and n) in the Indo-Germanic languages, 
showing that various apparent inconsistencies 'depended on a 
law pervading the whole group '^. In the same year the principle 
that phonetic laws have no exceptions was laid down by Leskien 
of Leipzig. This was accepted two years later by Osthoff of 
Heidelberg and Brugmann of Leipzig, who, with ^he New 
Hermann Paul of Munich, are the most pronounced Grammarians 
of the ' New Grammarians '. They have also laid special stress 

1 Max Muller's Lectures on the Science of Language, Ser. ii, Lect. V; 
Giles' Manual of Com p. Phil., §§ 39, 100. 

2 Giles, §§ 42, 104. ^ 1858-9; ed. 2, 1868-70. 
4 1861; ed. 2, 1866; E. T. 5 Now of Leipzig, b. 1849. 
« Giles, § 42. 



352 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

on the fact that phonetic laws are liable to be counteracted by 
' False Analogy ". They have further insisted on the importance 
of the study of the psychology of language. 

The leading representative of that study had been H. Steinthal 
(1823 — 1899), professor in Berlin from 1863 to his 

Steinthal i • i 

death. Among his works may be mentioned his 
Essay on assimilation and attraction in their psychological aspects 
(i860), his Introduction to the Psychology of the Science of 
Language (187 1), and his History of that Science among the 
Greeks and Romans (ed. 2, 1890 f). 

^ Cp. Paul's 'Principles of the History of Language' (E. T. 1888), and 
Brugmann's Grundriss (E. T. 1888 f), and 'Short Comparative Grammar' 
(1904). 



CHAPTER XLIII 

ARCHAEOLOGISTS AND HISTORIANS 

Down to the time of Winckelmann and Heyne the in- 
vestigation of the political, social, religious, and 

. . i-rz-i • ij 'J ij- Karl Otfried 

artistic life of the ancients had occupied a subordi- Muiier 

nate position in comparison with the study of the 
Greek and Latin languages. The new impulse then given had 
been carried forward by Niebuhr and by Boeckh, while, among 
their immediate successors, the most brilliant and versatile, and 
the most widely influential, was Karl Otfried Miiller (1797 — 1840). 
In Berhn, under the influence of Boeckh (18 16-7), he acquired 
a new interest in the history of Greece. He began by pubHshing 
in 1 81 7 a monograph on the ancient and modern history of 
Aegina. Part of this work was on the Aeginetan Marbles, which 
had been discovered in 181 1, and had been acquired for 
Munich in 1812. In 18 19 he was appointed professor of 
Alterthumswissenschaft at Gottingen ; in the following year he 
gave a course of lectures on Archaeology and the History of 
Art ; and he continued lecturing on these and on other subjects 
with ever increasing success until the end of the summer-term of 
1839. In September of that year he left for Italy and Greece, 
and on the first day of August, 1840, he died at Athens of a fever 
contracted while he was copying the inscriptions on the wall 
of the Feribolos at Delphi. 

His early work on Aegina was followed, three years later, by 
that on 'Orchomenos and the Minyae ' ; in 1824, by the two 
volumes of the 'Dorians'; and, in 1828, by his 'Etruscans'. 
Five years later, he published his edition of the Eumenides^ with 
a German rendering and with two Dissertations, (i) on the repre- 
sentation of the play, (2) on its purport and composition, a work 
s. H. 23 



354 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

which brought him into conflict with Hermann. In the same 
year he produced a critical edition of Varro, De Lingua Latina. 
He also emended and annotated the remains of Festus, together 
with the epitome of the same by Paulus. 

In the domain of classical archaeology, he produced a con- 
siderable number of separate treatises, as well as a comprehensive 
conspectus of the whole field. The latter is embodied in his 
well-known 'Handbook of the Archaeology of Art' (1830, etc.). 
The 'History of Greek Literature', which he began in 1836, was 
left unfinished on his departure for Greece. The work was com- 
pleted by Donaldson, who wrote chapters 38 — 60 for the edition 
published in three volumes in 1858. 

'As a classical scholar, we are inclined (says Donaldson) to prefer 
K. O. Miiller, on the whole, to all the German philologers of the nineteenth 
century. He had not Niebuhr's grasp of original combination ; he was hardly 
equal to his teacher, Bockh, in some branches of Greek... antiquities; he was 
inferior to Hermann in Greek verbal criticism ; he was not a comparative 
philologer, like Grimm and Bopp and A. W. Schlegel, nor a collector of facts 
and forms like Lobeck. But in all the distinctive characteristics of these 
eminent men, he approached them more nearly than most of his con- 
temporaries, and he had some qualifications to which none of them attained. 
In liveliness of fancy, in power of style, in elegance of taste, in artistic 
knowledge, he far surpassed most, if not all, of them ' ^. 

While K. O. Miiller, even in his study of ancient mythology 
and art, mainly followed the historical method of 

Welcker , , ' , ^ .... . , , , 

research^ the poehc and artistic side 01 the old 
Greek world had won the interest of his predecessor at Gottingen, 
Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker (1784 — 1868), who was born thirteen 
years before him, and survived him by no less than twenty-eight. 
During his stay in Rome in 1806-8 he came under the influence 
of the able Danish archaeologist, Zoega, subsequently writing his 
life, and translating and publishing his works. In 18 19, after 
holding professorships at Giessen and Gottingen, he was appointed 
professor at Bonn, where he was also librarian and director of the 
Museum of ancient Art, the earliest institution of the kind. At 
Bonn he remained for nearly fifty years ; late in Hfe he spent two 
years travelling in Greece, Asia Minor, Italy and Sicily. 

i On the Life and Writings of K. 0. Miiller, p. xxxi, in Hist, of the Lit. 
of ancient Greece^ l xv — xxxi (with portrait). 



CHAP. XLIII] WELCKER. GERHARD 355 

His general aim was to realise and to represent the old Greek 
world under the three aspects of Religion, Poetry, and Art. His 
researches in Greek mythology were embodied in the three 
volumes of his Griechische Gotterlehre {id><^']-62). In the earlier 
part of his career he had been attracted by the Greek lyric poets 
and Aristophanes. In an edition of Theognis, he arranged the 
poems according to his own views, adding critical and explanatory 
notes and full prolegomena. Of his works on the drama, the 
most extensive was that on the 'Greek Tragedies in relation to 
the Epic Cycle'. As a preliminary to this he had produced 
a work on the Epic Cycle itself. 

His main strength as an archaeologist lay less in the history of 
art than in its interpret atio?i. He was a member of the ' Roman 
Institute for Archaeological Correspondence ' from its foundation 
in 1829, and frequently contributed to its publications, and to 
other archaeological periodicals. The most important of his 
papers were collected in the five parts of his Alte Denkvidler 
(1849-64), which had been partly preceded by the five volumes 
of his Kleine Schriften (1844-67). 

While Welcker's interests traversed the literary as well as the 
artistic sides of the old Greek world, a narrower 

Gerhard 

field was covered by his friend and fellow-labourer, 
Eduard Gerhard (1795 — 1^67), who regarded archaeology as 
'that part of the general science of the old classical world which 
is founded on the knowledge of monuments', and claimed for it 
an independent place by the side of ' philology ' in the narrower 
sense of that term. He visited Italy in 1819-20 and 1822-6, 
and again in 1828-32, and in 1833 and 1836. In 1837 he 
became director of the Archaeological Museum in Berlin, and 
was a full professor from 1844 to his death in 1867. 

His best known works are his four volumes on Greek vase- 
paintings, his descriptions of Etruscan mirrors, and his numerous 
papers on the mythology and cult of the Greeks. During his 
third stay in Rome (1828-32), he took in hand the foundation of 
the 'International Institute for Archaeological Correspondence'. 
On the anniversary of the birth of Winckelmann, the 9th of 
December, Gerhard, Kestner, Fea, and Thorwaldsen met at 
Bunsen's official residence and drew up a scheme for the new 

23—2 



356 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

Institute, which was founded in 1829, on April 21, the traditional 
date of the founding of Rome. 

Gerhard's biographer was the able and scholarly archaeologist, 
Otto Jahn (1813 — 1869), for the last fourteen years 

Jahn 

of his life professor at Bonn. His earliest interest 
in archaeology was aroused by his visits to Paris in 1837 and 
Rome in 1838, when he came under the influence of Emil Braun. 
His work in archaeology, apart from an Introduction to the study 
of Greek Vases (1854), comprises a large number of masterly 
monographs. His text-books for university lectures included the 
Story of Cupid and Psyche from Apuleius, the Description of the 
Athenian Acropolis in Pausanias, the Electra of Sophocles, 
the Symposium of Plato, and the treatise on the Sublime. All 
except the last were embellished with illustrations from works of 
ancient art. His annotated school-editions included the Brutus 
and the Orator of Cicero. His critical recensions comprised 
Persius (1843) and Juvenal (1851), followed by a new edition of 
both (1868). His latest work, that on the Greek inscribed reliefs 
of mythological and historical scenes, was edited after his death 
by his nephew and pupil, Adolf Michaelis (1835 — 19 10), pro- 
fessor of Classical Archaeology in the university 
of Strassburg from 1872 to 1907, the able author 
of a standard work on the Parthenon (187 1), as well as an 
interesting History of the German Archaeological Institute (1879), 
a full description of the ' Ancient Marbles in Great Britain ' 
(1882), and a brilliant survey of the 'Archaeological Discoveries 
of the Nineteenth Century' (2nd ed. 1908)^ 

Archaeological research in many lands was promoted by 
the excavations initiated by Heinrich Schliemann 

Schliemann /^ ^\ai r • -i ^ in 

(1822 — 1890). At the age of eight, he resolved on 
excavating the site of Troy ; at the age of fourteen, he heard a 
miller's man, who had known better days, recite a hundred lines 
of Homer, and he then prayed that he might some day have the 
happiness of learning Greek. At the age of twenty-five, he 
founded an indigo business at St Petersburg, and by the age of 
thirty-six had acquired a sufficient fortune to be able to devote 
^ Adolf Michaelis zum Geddchtnis (Triibner, Strassburg), 191 3, with 
portrait, biography, and complete bibliography. 



k 



CHAP. XLIIIj JAHN. BRUNN. OVERBECK 357 

himself entirely to archaeology. His memorable exploration of 
Mycenae was fully described in 1877 ; that of 'Troy', on the hill 
of Hissarlik, in 1880 and 1884, and that of Tiryns in 1885. 
When the archaeological world was looking forward to his 
proposed exploration of Crete, he died suddenly in Naples. He 
was buried at Athens. His desire that his body should there rest 
in the land of his adaption was carried out by Dorpfeld, who had 
taken a leading part in the excavations at Tiryns, and who after- 
wards published an important work summing up the results of the 
exploration of Troy, which was finally completed by Dorpfeld 
alone (1902). 

In Rome, a new life was given to the Archaeological Institute 
by Heinrich Brunn (1822 — 1894), who resided 

Brunn 

there from 1843 to 1853, the year of the publica- 
tion of the first volume of his well-known ' History of the Greek 
Artists'. After a brief interval at Bonn, he lived once more in 
Rome from 1856 to 1865, when he became professor at Munich, 
holding that position with conspicuous ability for nearly thirty 
years. Many of his published papers were preparatory to a 
comprehensive 'History of Greek and Roman Art', the early 
portions of which were printed in 1893-7. A volume of Essays 
entitled Griechische Gotterideale "^^.^ published by himself in 1893; 
his minor works have since been collected in three volumes ; and 
a series of fine reproductions of ' Monuments of Greek and 
Roman Sculpture', begun in his life-time, has been continued 
since his death. The discovery in modern times of many works 
of ancient art unrecognised by Pliny or Pausanias has led to 
a closer attention to the analysis of artistic style. The pioneer in 
this new movement was Heinrich Brunn. 

An important history of ancient sculpture^ was published by 
Joannes Overbeck (1826 — 1890* a native of Ant- 

•^ ^ i'O/' Overbeck 

werp, who was Professor of Classical Archaeology 
in Leipzig from 1858 to his death. All the Greek and Latin 
texts on ancient art are collected in his Schriftquelle?i. Mythology 
in art is the sphere of his great series of illustrations connected 
with the heroes of the Theban and the Trojan cycle, and with 
the gods of Greece. He also wrote a standard work on Pompeii. 

1 Ed. 4, 1894. 



358 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

The Chair vacated by Brunn in 1891 was filled by his famous 
pupil, Adolf P'urtwangler (1853 — 1907). As an 
enthusiastic and stimulating lecturer he attracted 
students from every quarter of the civilised world. He had the 
mastery of an expert in the departments of vases, gems and 
works of sculpture; he was an original discoverer in the domain 
of numismatics ; and a constructor of catalogues that bore the 
stamp of his own genius. His 'Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture' 
(1893) was promptly translated into English. The modern know- 
ledge of ancient gems rests mainly on the three vast volumes 
of his great work on the subject (1900). In Greece he explored 
Aegina, Orchomenos and Amyclae. At Aegina, as the result of 
excavations begun in 1901, he discovered inscriptions which led 
him to identify the so-called temple of Zeus or Athena as the 
shrine of Aphaia, a local counterpart of Artemis. His exploration 
of Aegina was the theme of his latest work, and it was soon after 
his last visit to that island that he met his end in Athens, falling 
on Greek soil as a martyr to the cause of classical archaeology. 
Conrad Bursian (1830 — 1883), who has done due honour to 
archaeology in connexion with the history of classi- 
cal philology, was for the last nine years of his life 
a professor at Munich. He travelled in Greece in 1852-5, and 
published an important work on its Geography in 1867-72. In 
1877 he founded an important periodical for the annual survey 
of the progress of classical learning \ He spent his last ten 
years on the crowning work of his life, his ' History of Classical 
Philology in Germany'^. 

Otto Benndorf (1838 — 1907), a pupil of Otto Jahn, published 
an important work on Greek and Sicilian vases, and 
a monograph on the metopes of Selinus. He 
took part in the exploration of Samothrace, of Lycia, and of 
Ephesus ; and was placed at the head of the Austrian Archaeo- 
logical Institute on its foundation in 1898. 

The whole of the Orbis Veteribus Notus was traversed in the 
course of the life-lonsr labours of Heinrich Kiepert 

Kiepert 

(18 18 — 1899), who began his travels m Asia Minor 

^ Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der classischen Alte7-thu??iswissenschaft. 
•' 1271 pp. (1883). 



CHAP. XLIIl] E. CURTIUS. DROYSEN 359 

in 1 84 1, and was afterwards professor of Geography in Berlin. 
Apart from many separate maps of the highest degree of 
excellence, the publications by which he is best known are his 
comprehensive and lucid text-book of Ancient Geography (1878), 
his Atlas Antiquiis (1859) and his Atlas von Hellas (1872). His 
Atlas Antiquus has attained a twelfth edition, and the publication 
of his Formae Orbis Antiqui has been continued since his death. 
Greek topography and Greek history were illuminated by the 
genius of Ernst Curtius (1814 — 1896), a native of 
Liibeck, who had no sooner come to the end of his Historians: 

. . E. Curtius 

Lehrjahre at Bonn and Gottingen and Berlm than 
he began his four years of Wanderjahre in Greece (1836-40). 
His travels and researches bore fruit in an admirable work on the 
Peloponnesos (1851-2). He was a professor in Berlin from 1843 
to 1856, and at Gottingen from 1856 to 1868, when he returned 
to BerHn, and was one of the ornaments of that university for the 
remaining twenty-eight years of his life. His History of Greece 
was pubhshed in 1857-67 \ while he was still at Gottingen. It has 
justly been regarded as a brilliant achievement. The author's 
travels had enabled him to give a vivid impression of the geo- 
graphical characteristics of the country. The narrative was lucid 
and interesting, and literature and art found due recognition in its 
pages. The successful completion of the archaeological explora- 
tion of Olympia in 1875-81 was largely due to his influence. 
Apart from his early work on the Peloponnesos^ and the 'History' 
of his maturer years, we have the fruit of his old age in a 
comprehensive and well-ordered ' History of the City of Athens ' 
(1891). 

The earlier and the later ages of Greek culture, the Hellenic 
as well as the Hellenistic, are ably represented in 

Droysen 

the brilliant works of Johann Gustav Droysen 
(1808 — 1884), professor of History in Berlin for the last twenty- 
five years of his Ufe. The Hellenic age is represented in his 
admirable renderings of Aeschylus and Aristophanes, and in his 
proof of the spuriousness of the documents in the De Corona ; 
the Hellenistic, in his earliest historical work, that on Alexander 
the Great (1833), followed in 1836-42 by his well-known history 
1 Ed. 6, 1888; E. T. by A. W. Ward, 1868-73. 




Theodor Mommsen. 



From the original drawing by Sir William Richmond {1890), now in the 
possession of Prof. Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff. 



CHAP. XLIII] HOLM. MOMMSEN 361 

of the successors of Alexander. In their second edition, these 
works were fused into the three volumes of his great ' History of 
Hellenism' (1877-8). 

The Life and Times of Demosthenes were elucidated in 
1 8^6-8 in an admirable historical work by Arnold 

^ . . ■' A. Schaefer 

Schaefer (1819 — 1883); second edition, 1885-7. 

The able historian of Sicily and Greece, Adolf Holm (1830 — 
1900), was, like Ernst Curtius, born at Liibeck. 

Holm 

The year 1870 saw the result of the labour of 
fifteen years in the publication of the first volume of his 'History 
of Sicily'. The second volume (1874) brought the history down 
to the eve of the first Punic War. From 1877 to 1883 he was 
professor of History at Palermo. In 1883 he produced, in 
conjunction with Cavallari, a great archaeological work on the 
topography of Syracuse. In 1883-96 he held a professorship at 
Naples, spending most of his time on his ' History of Greece', 
which he finally brought down to the Battle of Actium . Freeman 
has spoken of ' the sound judgement of Holm ' as a historian of 
Sicily, and an English review of his History of Greece justly 
commends its 'conciseness', its 'sound scholarship', and its 
'conscientious impartiality'. In the spring of 1897 he left Italy 
for Freiburg in Baden, where, at the close of the year, he wrote 
the preface to the third and last volume of his ' History of 
Sicily', published four and twenty years after the second. It 
includes no less than 200 pages (with plates) on the coinage 
alone, and it gives us an instructive comparison between Cicero's 
accusation of Verres and the modern impeachment of Warren 
Hastings. 

Roman History and Roman Antiquities, as well as Latin 
Inscriptions and the criticism of Latin authors, 

. . Mommsen 

formed part of the wide field of learning traversed 
by Theodor Mommsen (181 7 — 1903), Professor of Ancient 
History and a member of the Academy in Berlin for the 
last forty-five years of his life. He had begun by making his 
mark in the study of Roman Law. He next produced his two 
linguistic works, his ' Oscan Studies' (1845-6), and his 'Dialects 
of lower Italy' (1850). During his absence in Italy (1845-7) 
1 4 vols., 1886-94; K.T. (with Index) 1894-8. 



362 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

he had studied inscriptions with the aid of Borghesi and Henzen, 
and he subsequently published his ' Inscriptions of the Kingdom 
of Naples' (1852). In that work he showed a consummate skill 
in applying the results of epigraphical research to the elucidation 
of the constitutional history and the law of the Italian com- 
munities. He also published in 1850 a valuable treatise on 
Roman Coinage, which, in its expanded form, became an 
authoritative history of that subject'. 

Such were the preliminary studies that paved the way for his 
'Roman History', a work in three volumes (1854-6)^, ending 
with the battle of Thapsus. It was a history, not of Rome alone, 
but also of Italy, from the earliest immigrations to the end of 
the Roman Republic. The plan of the series unfortunately pre- 
cluded the quotation of authorities, and points of detail were 
attacked by critics who desired to revert to the view of Roman 
History that had been held before the time of Niebuhr, and to 
accept the tradition of the Roman annalists, and of the other 
writers who uncritically transcribed, or rhetorically adorned, the 
work of their predecessors. Mommsen afterwards took up the 
History of Rome at a later point, by publishing a work on 
the Roman rule of the Provinces from Caesar to Diocletian^. 
In connexion with his Roman History he had meanwhile pro- 
duced a work on Roman Chronology^. The controversy excited 
by this work served to stimulate a renewed activity in the field of 
chronological investigation. 

Many of Mommsen's papers on Roman history and chronology 
and public antiquities, and on the criticism of historical autho- 
rities, were collected in the two volumes of his 'Roman Re- 
searches '^ While the absence of quotations from authorities 
was one of the characteristics of the widely popular ' History of 
Rome', students and specialists found an abundance of learned 
details in the work on 'Roman Public Law'", which takes the 
place of the corresponding portion of the Handbook of Roman 

1 t86o; Fr. T. 1865-75. 

2 Ed. 9, 1903-4; E. T. 1862, new ed. 1894-5. 

=* 1885 (with 8 maps); ed. 5, 1894; E. T. 1886; ed. ^, 1909. 

^ 1858 ; ed. 2, 1859. 5 j^omische forschtmgen (1863-79). 

6 Rdmisches Staatsrecht, 1871-88; Fr. T. 1887-96; Abriss, 1893. 



CHAP. XLIII] MOMMSEN 363 

Antiquities begun by W. A. Becker and continued by Joachim 
Marquardt (1812 — 1882). The revision of this Handbook by 
Marquardt and Mommsen made it practically a new work\ 

The early preparations for a Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 
are associated with the name of August Wilhelm Zumpt (18 15 — 
1877), who aimed at little more than extracting and rearranging 
the inscriptions that had been already published. His papers on 
inscriptions brought him into frequent conflict with Mommsen, 
who laid his own scheme before the Academy in 1847. This 
scheme, which ensured a strictly scientific exploration of the 
whole field, was approved, and its execution was entrusted to 
Mommsen, whose great powers of work and capacity for organisa- 
tion ensured its complete success^. Mommsen's edition of the 
Digest (1868-70) formed the larger part of the subsequent edition 
of the Corpus iuris civilis (1872, etc.)^ He also edited the 
Monumentum Ancyranum"^, the Edict of Diocletian (1893), and 
the Codex Theodosianus (1904-5)^. His edition of Solinus 
appeared in 1864^. To the Monumetita Ger??iamae Historica^ he 
contributed editions of the Chronicle and the Official letters 
( Variae) of Cassiodorus, of the Romana and the Getica of 
lordanes (the latter being an abridgement of a lost work of 
Cassiodorus), and of the Chronica Minora of centuries IV to VH. 
A volume of his Speeches and Essays was published in 1905 ; the 
series of his Collected Writings, beginning with three volumes on 
Roman Law (1905-7), is followed by those on Roman History, 
and on Philology. 

Mommsen was the greatest of German scholars since the time 
of Boeckh. Beginning with Roman jurisprudence, he applied to 
the investigation of Roman History the strict intellectual training 

^ Vols, i — iii were prepared by Mommsen ; iv — vi (on Roman administra- 
tion) and vii (on private life) by Marquardt. 

2 The volumes containing the early Latin (i), oriental (iii), and central and 
southern Italian (ix, x) inscriptions were edited by Mommsen ; the inscr. of 
Spain (ii) and Britain (vii) by HUbner ; those of S. Gaul by O. Hirschfeld ; of 
Pompeii etc. (iv) by Zangemeister; of N. Italy (xi) and Rome (vi) by Bormann, 
Henzen and Huelsen. 

^ Including Institutiones, ed. P. Kruger. 

4 1865; ed. 3, 1883; Fr. T., 1885. 

^' In conjunction with P. M. Meyer. ® Ed. 2, 1895. 



364 GERMANY [CENT. XIX 

that he had derived from the study of Roman Law. Equally 
skilful in negative criticism, and in the art of the historic recon- 
struction of the past, he brought to bear on the science of history 
a singular mastery of the science of language. He combined 
breadth of learning with a lucid and a lively style, and vast 
powers of work with a genius for scientific organisation \ 

Latin Epigraphy and Archaeology were the special province 
of Emil Hiibner (18^4 — iQoi), professor in Berlin 

Hubner . . . 

for the last thirty-one years of his life. His travels 
in Spain resulted in his volumes on the ' ancient works of art at 
Madrid', on the Inscriptions of Spain^, and on the ' Monumenta 
linguae Ibericae'. His travels in England were undertaken with a 
view to the Latin Inscriptions of that country ^ Among his most 
useful works were his elaborate and comprehensive Outlines of 
the History of Roman Literature, of Latin and Greek Grammar, 
and of the History of Classical Philology 1 

Researches on the constitutional customs of Athens were 
summed up in an important series of Studien 
published in 1887 f by Wilhelm von Hartel of 
Vienna (1839 — 1907). 

We have lingered long in the lands united by the common tie 
of the German language, but we have seen far less of Austria and 
of German Switzerland than of Northern and Southern Germany. 
No part of those lands has been so prolific in classical scholars as 
the protestant North. It is true that the birthplace of Boeckh 
was in Baden, but the principal scene of his learned labours was 
Berlin. Classical education was reorganised in Bavaria by Thiersch, 
in Austria by Bonitz, both of them North Germans born beside 
the same stream in Saxony. German Switzerland has been repre- 
sented partly by Baiter and Orelli ; Austria by the cosmopolitan 
Otto Benndorf, and by Theodor Gomperz and Wilhelm von 
Hartel. From our survey of 'Germany', in the widest sense of 
the word, we now turn to the latest fortunes of the land which 
was the earliest home of the Revival of Learning. 

^ Bibliography in Zangemeister, T. M. als Schriftsteller (1887), completed 
by E. Jacobs, 188 pp. (1905). 

2 C. I. L. vol. ii. 3 c. /. L. vol. vii. ^ 1876 ; ed. 2, 1889. 



CHAPTER XLIV 



ITALY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

Early in the nineteenth century one of the foremost scholars 
in Italy was the learned Jesuit, Angelo Mai ^ 
(1782-1854). 

As Librarian of the Ambrosian Library in Milan {181 1-9), he published, 
from MSS formerly at Bobbio, fragments of six Speeches of Cicero ^ the 
correspondence of M. Aurelius and Fronto, portions of eight Speeches of 
Symmachus, fragments of the Vidiilaria of Plautus, as well as scholia and 
pictorial illustrations from the Ambrosian MS of Terence (1814-5). During 
the rest of his life, as Librarian of the Vatican Library in Rome, he published 
from a Vatican palimpsest large portions of Cicero's lost treatise De Republica 
(1822), collected the remains of the prae-Justinian Civil Law (1823), and 
summed up his wonderful work as an editor of hitherto unknown texts by 
producing from the MSS of the Vatican three great series, often volumes each, 
the Scriptorum veterum nova collectio (1825-38), the Classici auctores (1828-38) 
and the Spicilegiurn Romamim (1839-44). He was made a Cardinal in 
1838. 

Comparative Philology has been well represented by Domenico 
Pezzi of Turin (1844 — 1906), whose principal work, 
La lingua greca antica (1888), begins with a his- 
torical sketch of the study of Greek, followed by a systematic 
account (i) of the phonology and morphology of the language, 
and (2) of the Greek dialects; and by Graziadio 

• . , Ascoh 

Ascoli of Milan (1829—1907), whose Critical 

Studies, and lectures on Comparative Phonology, have been 

1 Pro Scauro, Tuliio, Flacco, in Clodium et Curionem, de acre alieno 
Milonis., and de rege Alexandrino (18 14; ed. 2, 181 7). 



366 ITALY [cent. XIX 

translated into German, while his edition of the ' Codice Ir- 
landese' of the Ambrosian Library is an important aid to the 
study of Celtic \ 

Among Latin scholars, a place of honour is due to Vincenzo 
De-Vit (1810 — 1892), whose revised and enlarged 
edition of Forcellini, begun before 1857, was com- 
pleted in 1879. This was supplemented by his Onomasticon^ 
extending from A to O (1869-92). Forcellini has also been 
edited anew in 1864-00 by Fr. Corradini (1820 — 

Corradini ... . 

1888). This edition was completed by Perin, who 
(like Corradini and De-Vit, and Forcellini himself) was an 
alumnus of the Seminary of Padua. 

Domenico Comparetti, who was born in Rome (1835) and 

became professor of Greek at Pisa and Florence, 

Comparetti • • , 

produced a critical text of Hypereides, pro Euxen- 
tppo, and of the Funeral Oratio7i (186 1-4). He is widely known 
as the author of the standard work on ' Virgil in the Middle 
Ages '^. He subsequently published an important edition of the 
' Laws of Gortyn ' (1893), and a text and translation of 
Procopius. 

Classical Archaeology has been studied in Italy with ever 
increasing success. In the first half of the century 

Archaeologists r i r i • • 

one of the foremost authorities on ancient archi- 

Canina ... , r. ^\ 

tecture was Luigi Canina (1795 — 1856), who 
published in Rome in 1844 the second edition of his classic 
work in twelve volumes, entitled Z' architettura antica. The 
most distinguished archaeologist in all Italy was Bartolommeo 
Borghesi {1781 — 1860), who spent the last thirty- 
nine years of his life in the Italian Republic of 
San Marino. His activity was mainly devoted to the study of 
coins and inscriptions. He produced two volumes on the new 
fragments of the Fasti Consulares (1818-20), and his collected 
works filled nine volumes (Paris, 1862-84). The Corpus In- 
scriptionum Latinarum owed much to his friendly aid. 

One of the most important achievements of Giovanni Battista 



1 Giles, Comp. Phil. § 41. 

2 1873; ed. 2, 1896 (E.T. 1895). 



CHAP. XLIV] DE ROSSI 367 

de Rossi (1822 — 1894) was the publication of all the early 
collections of Roman inscriptions \ He took part in 
collecting the inscriptions of Rome for vol. vi of the 
Corpus. He also did much for the study of Roman topography, 
including the ancient lists of the Regions of the City. As the 
author of Roma Sotterranea (1864-77) he is justly regarded as 
the founder of the recent study of Christian Archaeology in 
Rome. 

^ Sylloge Einsidlensis etc. in Inscr. Christianae, vol. ii, pars i (1888), and 
in C. I. L. vi init. (1876-85). 



CHAPTER XLV 

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

In the first half of the nineteenth century one of the most 
eminent scholars in France was Jean Francois 

Boissonade * 

Boissonade (1774 — 1857), who, in the course of 
nine years (1823-32), produced the twenty-four volumes of his 
annotated series of Greek poets. A greater novelty characterises 
his publication of the first edition of the Greek translation of 
Ovid's Metamorphoses by Maximus Planudes (1822), the editio 
princeps of Babrius (1844), the five volumes of his Anecdota 
Graeca^ and his Anecdota N'ova. The larger part of his editorial 
work was connected with the later writers of Greek prose, such 
as Aristaenetus and Philostratus. 

Latin lexicography is represented by Louis Marius Quicherat 
(1799 — 1884). For his J'hesaiirus Po'eticus Lins;uae 

Quicherat ^ '^^ ... 

Latinae, first published m 1836, he worked through 
all the Latin poets. This was followed in 1844 by his Latin and 
French Dictionary. His Dictionary of Latin Proper Names (1846) 
included about 19,000 items, while his Addenda Lexicis Latinis 
(1862-80) supplemented the existing lexicons with more than 
2OO0 words. His French and Latin Dictionary of 1858 filled as 
many as 1600 pages of three columns each, and passed through 
26 editions. To these three Dictionaries he devoted thirty years 
of his life. The same department of learning was represented in 
his edition of the Latin lexicographer and grammarian, Nonius 
(1872). 

An excellent Greek and French lexicon was produced by 

his contemporary Charles Alexandre (1797 — 1870). 

Alexandre ^, . ^ (^ , , . , l' .\. 

The eminent French lexicographer, Maximilien 

Paul Emile Littre (1801 — 1881), began his brilliant 

and varied career as a student of medicine. In 1839 he com- 



CHAP. XLVj MILLER. EGGER. MARTIN 369 

menced his celebrated edition and translation of Hippocrates, 
which was completed in ten volumes in 1861, and laid the 
foundation of the modern criticism of the author. 

Mediaeval Greek was the field of labour mainly cultivated by 
Benigne Emmanuel Clement Miller (1812 — 1886), 

, • 1 . 1 • , . , _ .'^ Miller 

who, in the course of his researches in the Pans 
Library and elsewhere, became one of the most expert palaeo- 
graphers in Europe. He also worked in the libraries of Italy 
and Spain. Among the mss brought to Paris from Mount Athos 
in 1840, he fortunately identified part of the Philosophuniena of 
Origen, and edited it for the Clarendon Press (1851). In his 
Melanges de litterature grecque he published, among many inedited 
texts, the Etymologicum Florentinum and the Ei. parvum, with 
certain works of Aristophanes of Byzantium and Didymus of 
Alexandria. 

The eminent scholar, Emile Egger (181 3 — 1885), began his 
literary career by editing ' Longinus ' On the Sub- 
lime^ and Varro De Lingua Latina (1837). These 
were followed by the fragments of Festus and of Verrius Flaccus 
(1839), and by an edition of Aristotle's treatise on Poetry'. 
This last was originally appended to his excellent essay on the 
'History of Criticism among the Greeks' (1850), which was 
republished separately after the author's death. His ' elementary 
notions of comparative grammar' (1852) was the earliest work 
of its kind in Europe ; and, under the title of ' Apollonius 
Dyscolus' (1854), he published an essay on the history of 
grammatical theories in antiquity. Apart from his essay on the 
History of Criticism, his most important and most popular work 
was his ' History of Hellenism in France' (1869). He was him- 
self one of the first in France to assimilate the strict and scientific 
methods of German scholarship, and to clothe its results in the 
lucid and elegant style characteristic of his countrymen. 

Thomas Henri Martin (1813 — 1884) began his career as a 
scholar with a critical analysis of Aristotle's treatise 

^ Martin 

on Poetry. The two volumes of his studies on 
Plato's Tiinaeus (1841) included the text and explanatory trans- 
lation, analysis and commentary, and a series of treatises showing 
^ 1849 ; ed. 2, 1S74. 
S. H. 24 



370 FRANCE ' [CENT. XIX 

a wide knowledge of ancient Music, Astronomy, Cosmography, 
Physics, Geometry and Anatomy. 

His second great work, the Philosophie Spiritualiste de la 
Nature in two volumes (1849), was an introduction to the ancient 
history of the physical sciences, with an admirable survey of the 
study of the natural sciences among the Greeks down to 529 a.d. 

The able Aristotelian, Charles Thurot (1823 — 1882), pub- 
lished valuable papers on Aristotle's Rhetoric, Poetic. 

Thurot ^ ^ 

and Politics, and on the Anunaliutti Historia and 
the Meteorologica. As a Latin scholar, he was mainly interested 
in the History of Education and in the Grammatical Studies of 
the Middle Ages. He did much towards making France familiar 
with the results of foreign scholarship ; he was a great admirer of 
Madvig, and, in his lectures, drew special attention to the value 
of the first volume of the Adversaria Critica. 

Brilliancy of style, combined with a sympathetic insight into 
Latin literature and a genuine interest in Roman 

Boissier . 

archaeology, was the leading characteristic of 
Gaston Boissier (1823 — 1908), professor of Latin literature at the 
College de France (1865), and Member of the French Academy. 
He is best remembered as the author of an admirable work on 
'Cicero and his friends,' of 'Roman religion from Augustus to 
the Antonines,' and of the no less admirable volumes entitled 
La Fin du Paganisnie. As a felicitous restorer of the old Roman 
world, he attained the highest degree of success in his Promenades 
archhlogiques on Rome and Pompeii, followed by ' Horace and 
Virgil' and BAfrique Romaine. 

Seven plays of Euripides (1868) and the principal speeches of 

Demosthenes (1873-7) were ably edited by Henri 

Weil (18 18 — 1909), who also published a critical 
text of Aeschylus \ 

The Latin Classics were the field of labour chosen by Louis 

Eugene Benoist(i83i — 1887), whose main attention 

Benoist ^ ^ j t • i Cr- •, t 

was devoted to Lucretius and Virgil. In conjunction 
with his able pupil, O. Riemann, he produced an edition of Livy, 
XXI — XXV (188 1 -3). He was thoroughly familiar with the work 

* Aeschylus, 1884, 1907-; Ehides, 1897 — 1900; cp. Melanges H. Weil, 1892. 



CHAP. XLV] GRAUX. WADDINGTON 371 

of the Latin scholars of Germany, and his editions were distinctly 
superior to those that had hitherto held the field in France. 

Benoist's pupil, Othon Riemann (1853 — 1891), published an 
admirable work on the language and grammar of 

. „ ^ . Riemann 

Livy, and two editions of an excellent Latin 
Syntax (1886-90)1. 

The highest distinction in Greek palaeography was attained 
by Charles Graux (1852— 1882), who was repeatedly 
sent to explore the mss of foreign libraries. In 1879 
he published a catalogue of the Greek mss of Copenhagen ; and, 
during his journeys in Spain, he examined the contents of no less 
than sixty libraries, and found the materials for his Essay on the 
origins of the department of Greek mss in the Escurial, which 
includes a sketch of the Revival of Learning in Spain-. After 
his early death in the thirtieth year of his age, his memory was 
honoured by the publication of a volume of papers contributed 
by seventy-eight of the leading scholars of Europe ; while his 
literary remains were collected in memorial volumes including an 
edition of Plutarch's Lives of Dej7iosthenes and Cicero^ founded on 
the Madrid ms, a revised text of part of Xenophon's Oeconomtcus, 
and the treatise on fortifications by Philon of Byzantium. 

Aristotle was expounded, as well as translated, by Barthelemy 
Saint-Hilaire (1805 — 1895), whose translation of Barthelemy 
Aristotle, begun in 1832, was completed in 1891. Saint-Hiiaire 

The ' physiology ' of Aristotle was the subject of a thesis by 
Charles Waddington (1810 — to 14) a member of 

° ^ ^ ^^/ C.Waddington 

an Enghsh family which settled in France in 1780. 

He also wrote on the authority of Aristotle in the Middle Ages 

(1877). 

The study of epigraphy and numismatics was ably represented by his 
cousin William Henry Waddington (1826 — 1894), who was W. H. Wad- 
educated at Rugby and at Cambridge, where he was a dington 
Chancellor's Medallist in 1849. He was the ambassador of France to England 
in 1883-93. His early travels in Greece and Asia Minor resulted in a series of 
works connected with the coinage and inscriptions of Asia Minor. He also 
published the ^ Fasti of the Asiatic provinces of the Roman Empire' (ed. 2, 

^ Since enlarged in Riemann and Goelzer, Gram. Comparie du Grec et 
dii Latin, 2 vols. (1899 — 1901). 

'^ Bid/, de P Ecn'e des hantes etudes, XLVI (1880). 

24 2 



372 FRANCE [CENT. XIX 

1872). Attracted mainly towards the solution of difficult problems of 

chronology, he regarded the sciences of epigraphy and numismatics solely 

as aids to the attainment of historic truth. 

Among the distinguished representatives of Classical Archaeology in 

Archaeologists France was Millin (1759 — 1818), who introduced into classical 

Millin archaeology the terms monuments antiques and antiquity 

figtiree ; Quatremere de Quincy (1755 — 1849), who, in his illustrated volume, 

Le Tupiter Olympien (1814), was the first to enable archae- 
Quatremfere , . r , • c . , , , 

ologists to form a clear conception of the chryselephantme 

Clarac work of the ancients; Clarac (1777— 1847), whose vast 

collection of outlines published in the Musde de sculpture antique .. .vfSiS, 

the foundation of all subsequent works on ancient sculpture ; 

Letronne Letronne (1787 — 1848), the author of works on ancient 

geography, astronomy, and on Greek and Roman coinage, 

Le Bas ^^^ ^^^ Greek and Latin Inscriptions of Egypt ; Philippe 

Le Bas (1794 — 1860), part of whose Voyage arch^ologique eti 

Grhe et en Asie Mineure was published in 1847-8, and was continued in 

1861-2 by W. H. Waddington and by P. Foucart ; 

exier Texier (1794 — 1860), the explorer of Asia Minor whose 

Luynes results were published in 1849; ^^ ^^^ ^^ Luynes (1803 — 

1867), who played an important part in the early history of 

the Archaeological Institute, was the liberal patron of archaeological work at 

home and abroad, and left all his vast collections of works 

C. Lenormant ^j- ancient art to the Museum in the Paris Library ; Charles 

Lenormant (1802 — 1859), the discoverer of the fine relief of 

F. Lenormant the divinities of Eleusis, and his son Fran9ois (1837 — 1883), ^ 

versatile explorer in the most varied fields of archaeology, 

epigraphy, and numismatics. 

The School of Athens was founded in 1846. It has explored and excavated 

The School i^i Asia Minor, in Cyprus, Syria, North Africa and even in 

of Athens Spain, as well as in Greece, in Thrace and Macedonia, and 

in the islands of the Aegean. It has won fresh laurels at both of the ancient 

shrines of Apollo, at Delos and at Delphi. Among its early members, 

Fustel de Coulanges (1830 — 1889) is best known as the author of La Citi 

Antique (1864). Among other eminent archaeologists trained in this school 

are L. A. Heuzey (1831), the explorer of Acarnania and Macedonia ; 

Georges Perrot (1832— 1914), the explorer of Galatia and Bithynia, and 

joint-author of an important History of Ancient Art; Paul Foucart (b. 1836), 

an expert in Greek Epigraphy ; Theophile Homolle (b. 1848), the explorer of 

Delos and Delphi ; and Salomon Reinach (b. 1858), author of a Manual 

of Classical Philology, a treatise on Greek Epigraphy, and many other works ^ 

During the nineteenth century in France classical learning 

had no darker days than those of the First Empire. The first 

^ G. Radet, VHistoire etVCEtivre de P^cole Fran^aise d^Athenes, 1901. 



CHAP. XLV] THE SCHOOL OF ATHENS 373 

Napoleon studied Caesar for his own purposes \ and the third 
followed his example^. Under the Restoration, Latin was 
recognised anew in 1821 as the proper medium of instruction 
in philosophy, but this recognition was withdrawn after the 
Revolution of July, 1830. A literary reaction, however, ensued, 
a reaction connected with the notable names of Abel Frangois 
Villemain and Victor Cousin. Cousin, who had studied philo- 
sophy and educational organisation in Germany, and had written 
inter alia on Aristotle's Metaphysics^ was Minister of Public 
Instruction in 1840. Villemain (1700 — 1870), the 

-^. . , . ^ '^ ' Villemain 

Minister of 1839, had published a romance on the 
Greeks of the fifteenth century, and a popular treatise on Roman 
Polytheism. He is a representative of the rhetorical side of 
classical scholarship. 

A more solid type of erudition was represented by the 
Minister of 1875, Henri Alexandre Wallon (181 2 

Wallon 

— 1905), for many years 'perpetual secretary of 
the Academy of Inscriptions, who, in the early part of his 
career, had produced a learned history of ancient slavery. His 
able contemporary, Jean Victor Duruy (i8ti — 
1894), the author of well-known Histories of Rome 
and Greece, crowned his many services as Minister by the 
establishment of the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes in 1866. 
The date has been recognised as marking a renaissance of 
classical studies in France. The characteristic of this renaissance 
has been described by the author of the Manuet- de Philologie as 
an alliance between the French qualities of clearness and method, 
and the solid learning of other nations ^ 

1 Precis des guerres de Cdsar, ed. Marchand, 260 pp. (1830). 

"^ Hist, de Jules Caar {iS6s-6). 

3 S. Reinach, Manuel de Philologie, i 13. 




COBET. 



Reproduced from a copy of the presentation portrait drawn 
by J. H. Hoffmeister and lithographed by Spanier. 



CHAPTER XLVI 

THE NETHERLANDS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

(i) Holland 

At Leyden the principal professorship in Classics was filled 
in 1822-48 by Peerlkamp (1786 — 1865), the author 
of an excellent account of the lives and works of the 
modern Latin poets of the Netherlands^ and also of a celebrated 
edition of the Odes of Horace (1834), which gave rise to a con- 
siderable controversy. He devoted his undoubted critical acumen 
to the detection of interpolations in the Odes^ with the result that 
only about one-fourth of the whole was left unchallenged. His 
method of criticism found favour with a few eminent scholars in 
Germany, but was rightly repudiated by Munro^. Near the 
beginning of the Aeneid, which he edited in 1843, '^'^ rejects a 
passage closely imitated by Ovid.' He subsequently edited the 
Ars Poetica in 1845 and the Satires in 1863, but his reconstruc- 
tion of the former is infelicitous, and hardly one of his conjectures 
on the latter can be accepted, though his wide reading in the 
Latin poets has enabled him to contribute much towards the in- 
terpretation of the text. In Peerlkamp a hypercritical spirit was 
combined with undoubted learning and acumen, and his editions 
of Horace had at least the merit of adding a new stimulus to the 
study of that poet. 

As Professor at Leyden, Peerlkamp was succeeded in 1848 by 
the greatest of the modern Greek scholars of the 

° Cobet 

Netherlands, Carolus Gabriel Cobet (18 13— 1889). 

The high promise of his Prosopographia Xenophontea^ produced 

' De vita, doctrina et facultate Nedtrlandoruin qui carmina latina com- 
posueriinl {1838). 

•^ King and Munro's Horace, xviii. 



3/6 HOLLAND [cent. XIX 

when its author was only twenty-three, aroused among the fore- 
most scholars of Holland the expectation that its author would 
rival the fame of a Ruhnken or a Valckenaer. In 1840 he was 
sent by the Royal Institute of Amsterdam on a mission to the 
Italian libraries. His term of absence was extended to five years 
in all, and by the end of that time he had become an experienced 
and accomplished palaeographer. He had also incidentally won 
the friendship of a congenial English scholar, Badham. 

On his return, he was appointed to an 'extraordinary' pro- 
fessorship at Leyden, and delivered an inaugural address which 
is one of the landmarks of his career (1846)^. As has been well 
said, we here have ' Cobet himself — strong, masculine writing, a 
style clear and bracing. ... Every sentence has its work to do, and 
there is a moral force behind it all, an intense enthusiasm for 
truth, a quality that marks the whole of Cobet's critical work 'I 
Of the works published after his appointment as full professor in 
1848 the best known were the Variae Lediones (1854)^ and the 
Novae Lectiones (1858), followed, twenty years later, by others of 
the same general type, the Miscellanea Critica (1876) mainly on 
Homer and Demosthenes, the Collectanea Critica (1878), and the 
critical and palaeographical observations on the ' Roman An- 
tiquities ' of Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1877). He reluctantly 
edited Diogenes Laertius for Didot, without any prolegomena 
(1850). He also published excellent texts of two speeches of 
Hypereides (1858-77), and of Xenophon's Anabasis and Hellenica 
(1859-62) and of Lysias (1863). He was long the mainstay of 
the classical periodical Mnetnosyne, which derived a new life from 
his vigorous contributions. 

While Cobet shared with his fellow-countrymen their aptitude 
for conjectural criticism, he rose superior to them in the strict 
severity of his scientific method. With Cobet, the ars grammatica 
(or the intimate knowledge of the language, and its historical 
developement, attained in the course of constant reading) was 

^ ratio de arte interpretandi grammatices et critices fundamentis innixa, 
36 pp. + 123 pp. of notes, 1847. 

2 W. G. Rutherford, in Ct. Rev. iii 472. 

^ 399 PP- 5 ^d- "2, + Supplementum (399 — \oo) + Epimetrum (401 — 681), 
1873. 



CHAP. XLVI] COBET 377 

combined with an intelligent use of the best mss, as the pre- 
liminary condition for the ars critica, i.e. the detection and the 
correction of corruptions of the text. On these principles he 
proposed in the pages of Mnemosyne^ and of his Variae and 
Novae Lectwnes, a large number of emendations on Greek authors. 
The merits and the defects of his method are there made manifest. 
His marvellous familiarity with Greek, his wide reading, the skill 
derived from the study of many mss, enabled him to detect the 
source of a corruption, and to divine the appropriate remedy. 
On the other hand, his excessive confidence in the rules founded 
on observations made in the course of his reading, is open to 
criticism. No sooner has he ascertained what he regards as a 
fixed rule of Greek usage, than he remorselessly emends all the 
exceptions. But it cannot be questioned that he supplies the 
student of textual criticism with golden rules for his instruction, 
and the advanced scholar with rich stores of interesting and 
stimulating information. 

Reiske was more highly appreciated by Cobet than by the 
Germans of his own day. He had a high regard for the Dindorfs, 
for Bergk, Meineke and Lehrs, and for the best points in the 
work of Nauck. He was ever eager in confessing his debt to ' the 
three great Richards ', Bentley, Dawes, and Porson, and the later 
representatives of the Porsonian school, Elmsley and Dobree. It 
was through Cobet that the traditional English method, which 
was in danger of being forgotten in England itself, became 
dominant in Holland and attained a still wider range. It would 
be difficult to compare Cobet with any other scholar than Scaliger 
or Bentley. He himself regards Scaliger as an 'almost perfect 
critic '\ while he resembles Bentley in his 'high-handed, hard- 
hitting criticism,' and in his 'consciousness of power '^ 

In the Northern Netherlands, during the whole of the century, 
the staff of classical professors in each university continued to be 
small; and those professors, besides being responsible for ele- 
mentary and advanced courses on Latin and Greek, were 
compelled to give more or less popular instruction on Greek 
and Roman History and Antiquities. In their published works, 

^ De arte interpretandi, 25. 

'^ W. G. Rutherford, in CI. Rev. iii 470-4. 



3/8 HOLLAND [cent. XIX 

as contrasted with their oral teaching, the dominant note was 
textual criticism. 

As a Latin scholar and as the editor of Terence and Horace, 
Bentley had had little influence on Dutch scholarship. Editions 
of the Latin Classics, modelled on those of Burman, with a 
confused mass of prolix variorum notes, remained long in vogue. 
The acquisitive instinct of Holland seemed to delight in con- 
stantly adding to the accumulating pile of erudite annotation. 
Happily, however, in the latest Dutch edition of Cicero's Letters 
to Atticus^^ the notes are never over-loaded with unnecessary 
detail, but are always brief and terse and clear; and the same 
is true of a still more recent edition of Aristophanes ^ The 
influence of Bentley, as a Greek scholar, had been effectively 
transmitted through Hemsterhuys to Valckenaer and Ruhnken, 
and ultimately through Ruhnken to Wyttenbach. But the 
attention of those scholars had not been concentrated on the 
Greek authors of the golden age. Lucian, even more than 
Aristophanes, had been studied by Hemsterhuys, who bestowed 
on Xenophon of Ephesus the time that he might well have 
reserved for Xenophon of Athens ; the Alexandrian and Helle- 
nistic writers, no less than Herodotus, had been explored by 
Valckenaer ; the researches of Ruhnken ranged over a wide field 
of literature extending from the Homeric Hymns to Longinus, 
and from the early Greek Orators to the late Greek Lexico- 
graphers ; while Wyttenbach, who edited only one dialogue of 
Plato, devoted the largest part of his life to Plutarch. The time that 
Hemsterhuys and his followers thus lavished on the ' Graeculi ', 
on late writers like Lucian and other artificial imitators of the 
genuine Attic authors, was repeatedly lamented by Cobet, who 
found his main occupation in studying the great originals them- 
selves, and in ascertaining and enforcing a fixed standard of Attic 
usage. The love of reducing classical texts to the dead level of 
a smooth uniformity had already been exemplified by Latin 
scholars, such as N. Heinsius and Broukhusius, who had attempted 
to assimilate the vigorous and varied style of a Catullus or a Pro- 
pertius to the monotonous uniformity of an Ovid. The same 

1 Ed. Boot, Amst. 1865 f ; ed. 2, 1886. 
'^ Ed. van Leeuwen, Leyden, 1896 f. 



CHAP. XLVI] THONISSEN 379 

love of uniformity was exemplified (as we have seen), in the case 
of Attic Greek, by Cobet and his immediate followers. Such a 
tendency may even perhaps be regarded as a national characteristic 
of the clear-headed and methodical scholars, who dwell in a land 
of straight canals rather than winding rivers, a land of level plains 
varied only by a fringe of sand-dunes, a land saved from devasta- 
tion by dikes that restrain the free waters of the sea. But, as we 
look back over the three centuries and more which have elapsed 
since the foundation of the university of Leyden, we remember 
that it was the breaking of those dikes by the orders of William 
the Silent that brought deliverance to the beleaguered city, and 
that the heroism of its inhabitants was then fitly commemorated 
by the founding of its far-famed university. 

Leyden, founded in 1575, and Utrecht, in 1636, have long 
been the principal seats of classical learning in the Northern 
Netherlands. 

(ii) Belgium 

While textual criticism is a prominent characteristic of Dutch 
scholarship, the study of classical archaeology and of constitu- 
tional antiquities has been admirably represented among natives 
of Belgium. Among the most recent and the most important 
of these is Jean Joseph Thonissen (1816 — 1891), an 

. . , ,. . . , ^ ; Thonissen 

emment jurist and pohtician, who was for 36 years 
professor of Criminal Law at Louvain, and, in 1884-7, Home 
Secretary and Minister of Public Instruction. He included in 
the long series of his historical and legal writings a luminous work 
on Criminal Law in primitive Greece and at Athens. His study 
of modern socialism was preceded by an examination of the Laws 
of Crete, Sparta and Rome, as well as the institutions of Pytha- 
goras and the Republic of Plato. His papers on the criminal law 
of India, Egypt, and Judaea, and his two large volumes on the 
same subject (1869), were succeeded by his work on the Criminal 
Law of Legendary Greece and on that of Athens under the 
democracy, the evidence as to the former being directly derived 
from Homer and Hesiod. For Athenian Law he relies on the 
Attic orators and other ancient texts. 



38o BELGIUM [cent. XIX 

He begins with a brief review of the sources of our information. In the 
second book, he deals with the different kinds of penalties ; in the third, he 
classifies the offences against the state, against the person etc. ; in the fourth, 
after some general considerations, he examines Plato's and Aristotle's opinions 
on punishments. He closes with reflexions on the general character of the 
Athenian system of penalties, its merits and its defects^. 

While the Criminal Law of Athens was one of the many 

subjects that attracted the attention of Thonissen, the Political 

Institutions of Rome were the principal theme of the life-long 

labours of Pierre Willems (1840 — 1898), professor 

p. Willems ^ . _ , ^ r u- IT XT • 

at Louvam for the last 33 years 01 his lire. He is 
best known as the author of standard works on the Political 
Institutions of ancient Rome. In 1870 he published his com- 
prehensive treatise on ' Roman Antiquities '^, which in all 
subsequent editions bore the title of Le droit public romain^. 
His treatment of a somewhat dry subject is characterised by a 
remarkable clearness of style. It was the first complete work of 
the kind that had been written in French. It passed through 
six editions, and was ultimately translated into Russian. An 
even higher degree of success attended the publication of his 
great work on the Senate under the Roman Republic''. The 
work was carefully discussed, and elaborately reviewed in 
Germany and elsewhere. Mommsen, who was not lavish of 
citations from the works of other investigators, made an ex- 
ception in the case of Willems ^ Willems showed in general 
a greater affinity with the German and Dutch than with the 
French type of classical learning. He was more interested in 
the pursuit of positive facts than in the elegant literary analysis 
of the Classics. His courses of lectures dealt with a consider- 
able variety of classical authors, together with Latin inscriptions. 
They also included a general outline of the whole province of 

^ Le Droit penal de la Rdpublique ath^nienne, precede d'une itude stir le 
droit criminel de la Grece Ugendaire, 490 pp., 1875. 

2 Les antiquith romaines envisag^es au point de vue des institutions politiqties, 
532 pp. (Louvain, 1870). 

^ Jusqu'h Constantin in ed. 187-2, '74; Jiisqu'a Justinien in ed. 1880, '83, 
'88 (nearly 700 pp.). 

^ Le Sinat de la r^publique romaine; i {La cotnposition), ii [Les attribu- 
tions du Senai), iii {Registres), 1878— 1885 ; 638 (7242)4-784+115 PP- 

^ Pref. to Romisches Staatsrecht, in ii (1888) p. vi. 



CHAP. XLVl] WILLEMS 38 1 

'classical philology', which he defined as 'the science of the 
civilisation of Greece and Rome'. He was profoundly impressed 
with the importance of maintaining classical studies in inter- 
mediate and in higher education. 

Scandinavia 

Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the three constituent parts 
of the ancient Scandinavia, formed a single kingdom until 1523. 
At that date Sweden became independent, while Denmark 
remained united with Norway. In 18 14 Norway was separated 
from Denmark and was united to Sweden until 1905, when 
Norway seceded from Sweden. Thus Scandinavia now consists 
of three separate kingdoms. 

The university of Denmark has its seat at Copenhagen, 
having been founded under papal sanction in 1479, ^^^ re- 
founded on protestant principles in 1539, and having since been 
rebuilt in 1732 and finally reorganised in 1788. 

The desire of the Norwegians for a university of their own 
remained unsatisfied until the foundation of the university of 
Christiania in 181 1. Meanwhile, in Sweden, the university of 
Upsala had been founded in 1477, and that of Lund in 1668. 

Denmark 

In Denmark the preparation of text-books of Latin Grammar 
was a prominent part of the work of her classical scholars in the 
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Most of those scholars 
were men of a highly interesting type, but of little more than 
local reputation. A wider recognition was won by the repre- 
sentatives of classical archaeology, whose studies were largely 
pursued in Italy. Among those were Zoega ( 1755 — 

Zoega. 

1809), the author of miportant works on Egyptian 

obelisks and on Roman bas-reliefs ; Brondsted 

(1780 — 1 841), who wrote on Panathenaic vases and on the 

'Bronzes of Siris': F. C. Petersen (1786 — 18=59), 

1 . ; , , , Petersen 

the author 01 an Introduction to Archaeology ; 
and Kellermann (1805 — 1837), who gave proof of 
high promise in Latin Epigraphy. 




Madvig. 
From a photograph reproduced in the Opuscuia Academica (ed. 1887). 



CHAP. XLVI] MADVIG 383 

The foremost representative of scholarship in Denmark was 
Johan Nicolai Madvig (1804 — 1886), who was pro- 
fessor of Latin at Copenhagen from 1829 to 1880. 
In and after 1848 he was a member of the Danish Diet, Inspector 
of all the Schools of Denmark, and for three years Minister of 
Education. He was President of the Council from 1856 to 1863, 
and continued to take part in politics until he reached the age of 
seventy. Throughout the whole of his long life of more than 
80 years, he was never seriously ill, and his mental powers 
remained unimpaired to the very end. 

His best work was devoted to the study of the Latin language 
and to the textual criticism of Cicero and Livy. His duties as 
professor involved the preparation of the Latin programs of the 
university, afterwards published in his Opuscula Academica (1834- 
42)^ He attained a European reputation by his masterly edition 
of Cicero, De Finibus (1839)^ one of those standard works which 
instruct and stimulate the student, nor only by the knowledge they 
impart, but also by the way in which they impart it. His Latin 
Grammar (1841), followed by a volume of 'Observations' (1844), 
was translated into all the languages of Europe. 'The great 
merits of the book are its clearness, and grasp of the subject, 
within the limits which the writer sets himself; its power of 
analysis, and its command of classical usage '^. Meanwhile, he 
was pursuing those wider studies of the text of the Greek as 
well as the Latin Classics, which bore fruit in his Adversaria 
Critica. In 1846 he produced his Greek Syntax. 

When he resumed his professorship in 185 1, on ceasing to be 
Minister of Education, his study of Roman Constitutional History 
led to his devoting his main attention to Livy. He produced his 
well-known Emendationes Livianae in i86o^ and his edition of the 
text, in conjunction with Ussing, in 186 1-6. In 187 1-3 he 
published the two volumes of his Adversaria Critica, with an 
admirable introduction on the general principles of textual 
criticism, illustrated by examples, and followed by an Appendix 
in 1884. Meanwhile, he had produced an important work in two 

1 Ed. 2, 1887. 2 Ed. 3, 1876. 

'^ Nettleship, ii 10 f. 4 Enlarged ed. 1877. 



384 DENMARK [CENT. XIX 

volumes on the Constitution and Administration of the Roman 
State (1881-2). 

From the outset of his career as a scholar, his special field 
had been verbal criticism. He had a remarkable aptitude for 
conjectural emendation. In Cicero, pro Caelio, no less than six 
of his corrections were subsequently confirmed by the ms formerly 
in the abbey of St Victor. But his conjectures were not all of 
equal value ; he was certainly less successful with the text of Plato 
than with that of Cicero ; and he himself regretted that he was 
not more familiar with the style of the Greek Tragic Poets. 
Verbal criticism he regarded, however, as a means to an end, and 
that end was the vivid realisation and the perfect presentation of 
the civilisation of Greece and Rome, whether in literature, or in 
public or private life. 

All the classical scholars of modern Denmark were trained 
by Madvig during the half century of his tenure of the Latin 
Professorship. His, general character was marked by a hatred 
of empty talk and exaggerated phrases, a strong sense of justice 
and an unswerving integrity. He had a singular grace and ease 
of manner. In carrying out, however, the principle of his 
favourite motto, ' speaking the truth in love ', he often appeared 
to emphasise the first part of that motto even more than the 
second \ 

The scholar associated with Madvig in his edition of the text 
of Livy was Johan Louis Ussing (1820 — 1905), for 
55 years professor at Copenhagen. Madvig had 
inspired him with a keenly critical temper, without succeeding in 
interesting him either in Roman Institutions or in Latin Syntax. 
His own masterpiece was an annotated edition of Plautus 
(1875-87), in which his sobriety as a textual critic is suggestive 
of the influence of Madvig. He also published a commentary 
on the Characters of Theophrastus, and on Philodemus De Vitiis 
(1868), and a brief sketch of Greek and Roman Education'^. 
Early in his career, on the prompting of Madvig, he had applied 
himself to the study of archaeology, and this was also one of his 
latest interests. He was the founder of the Museum of Classical 

^ Cp. John Mayor in CI. Rev. i 123 f, and Nettleship's Essays, ii i — 23. 
2 1863-5; Germ, trans. 1874, 18852. 



CHAP. XLVI] NORWAY AND ICELAND 385 

Archaeology at Copenhagen, and bequeathed to the Museum his 
collection of archaeological books. 

Denmark also produced two notable Comparative Philologists, 
Rask and Verner. The discovery of ' Grimm's law ' was partially 
anticipated by Rask ; and it was Verner who happily explained its 
apparent exceptions-'. 

Norway and Iceland 

' Verner's law ' was further investigated by a native of Norway, 
Sophus Bugge (1833 — 1907), a versatile representa- 
tive of Scandinavian scholarship, who was for more 
than 40 years professor of Comparative Philology in the Nor- 
wegian university of Christiania. 

Among natives of Iceland may be mentioned Paul Arnesen 
(1776 — 1 851), whose Greek and Latin Dictionary 

Iceland 

was the first of its kind in Denmark (1830); and 

Sveinbjorn Egilsson (1791 — 1852), who produced, in verse as 

well as prose, a magnificent translation of the whole of Homer. 

Sweden 

During the Revival of Learning it was the school of Law at 
Perugia which supplied a link between the Italian Sweden : 
humanists and certain scholars of Sweden. Thus Rogge 
Conrad Rogge, a Swede of Westphalian origin, who graduated 
at Leipzig, resumed his studies by spending five years at Perugia 
(1455-60). During his stay in Italy he bought a copy of 
Lactantius still preserved at Strengnas, where he was bishop 
from 1479 to his death in 1501. He was the earliest of the 
Humanists of Sweden. 

The spirit of the Revival was still more strongly represented 
by the brothers Johannes and Olaus Magni. The The brothers 
elder of these, Johannes Magni (1488 — 1544)5 Magni 

studied at the Catholic universities of Louvain and Cologne, and 
received a degree in Theology at Perugia. As the last of the 
Catholic bishops of Sweden, he wrote a Latin history of all his 

^ See p. 350 f, stipra. 
S. H. 25 



386 SWEDEN [cent. XIX 

predecessors, and also a history of 'all the kings of the Goths 
and Swedes ', which is a still more uncritical performance than 
the illustrated 'history of the northern nations' published in 
Rome in 1555 by his younger brother, ' Olaus Magnus' (1490 — 

1557)- 

In Sweden the Reformation of 1527 was followed by a pale 
reflexion of the Italian Renaissance. By the orders 

Latin verse . , , . , 

of 157 1 and 161 1, the boys m the highest class 
of the public schools were required to write a set of Latin 
verses once a week. The model was Virgil ; and, even in the 
case of versifiers of maturer years, the poem which was a per- 
fect cento of Virgilian phraseology was invariably deemed the 
best. 

The university of Upsala, formally founded by a Swedish 
archbishop in 1477, was splendidly endowed by 
Gustavus Adolphus (161 1-32). In his reign a 
professorship was accepted by Johannes Loccenius (1589 — 1677), 
a native of Holstein, the first foreign scholar who made his 
permanent abode in Sweden. He did something for the sound 
and scientific study of the Classics. His Curtius went through 
20 editions, but only one of them was printed in the North. 

In 1630 Gustavus Adolphus founded in Livonia the uni- 

Dorpat versity of Dorpat ; and, during the minority of his 

and Abo daughter, Christina, a university was founded for 

P'inland at Abo, to be ultimately transferred in 1827 to Hel- 

singfors. 

Queen Christina, the successor of Gustavus Adolphus, is 
connected with the history of scholarship by her 

Christina's .... 

patronage of patronage of learnmg durmg the ten years of her 
earning rcigo ( 1 644-54), and during the 35 years of her exile 

(1654-89). Scholars were invited from the Netherlands and 
France. Strassburg sent three of the representatives of her 
flourishing school of Roman history. But the only one of these 
scholars who made Sweden his permanent abode was J. G. Scheff'er 
(1621-1679), who was a professor at Upsala for the last 31 years 
of his life, and became the true founder of classical philology in 
Sweden. After resigning the throne in 1654, the daughter of the 
great champion of the Protestant cause in Europe joined the 



CHAP. XLVI] UPSALA AND LUND 387 

Church of Rome, and, for the rest of her life, Hved mainly in 
Rome, where she permitted Spanheim to reproduce her coins and 
medals in his great work on Numismatics. 

Of the 13 Greek professors at Upsala down to 1700, not a 
few were in the habit of writing original Greek verse, but they 
rarely edited Greek authors, and such authors were seldom of 
special importance. But they deserve credit for continuing to 
cultivate the exotic plant of Greek learning, which had flourished 
for a time at the court of Queen Christina. 

The further fortunes of classical learning at Upsala need not 
be pursued in the present work. Lund was the university of 
a versatile professor of Greek, Esaias Tegner (1782 — 1846), 
whose dithyrambic war-song made him in 1808 the Tyrtaeus of 
Sweden. Famous as the most popular of Swedish poets, he was 
a Greek professor from 181 2 to 1824, and, for the rest of his 
life, a bishop. In two of his letters he strongly approves of 
Latin verse composition as an indispensable part of a classical 
education. The Greek professorship was subsequently held by 
K. V. Linder and K. A. Walberg, the joint authors of a Swedish- 
Greek lexicon (1862), and by Christian Cavallin, who produced 
a Greek Syntax as well as a Latin Dictionary. Of works on 
Latin literature by Swedish scholars one of the most useful is 
the comprehensive Latin treatise on the Life and Style of the 
younger Pliny published in 1872 by J. P. Lagergren, afterwards 
rector of the school at Jonkoping. 

Not a few of the foremost scholars in Scandinavia have 
derived considerable benefit from studying in foreign univer- 
sities, and from travelling (or residing) in Italy and Greece. 
It is the lands last mentioned that have naturally supplied the 
best training to her archaeologists, from the time of Zoega down 
to the present day. Again, an intimate knowledge of the 
Scandinavian languages has been the starting-point from which 
men like Rask and Verner and Sophus Bugge have attained a 
notable position among the Comparative Philologists of Europe ; 
and, lastly, in the province of the language and institutions of 
ancient Rome, any country might well be proud of a Latin 
scholar like Madvig. 



25- 



\ 



CHAPTER XLVII 

GREECE, RUSSIA, AND HUNGARY 

(i) Greece 

The first step towards the recovery of Greek independence 
was a literary revival of the Greek language. Among the scholars 
who applied their knowledge of ancient Greek to giving a literary 
Eugenics character to the language of the modern Greeks, 
Buigaris ^j^g earliest name of note is that of Eugenios 

Biilgaris (17 16 — 1806), the first reformer of the traditional 
ecclesiastical type of Greek education. He was director of 
schools at loannina, Mount Athos and Constantinople. He 
subsequently spent ten years in Leipzig, writing works in ancient 
as well as modern Greek (1765-75), and was placed at the head 
of a school for young Russian noblemen in St Petersburg. His 
masterpiece in ancient Greek was his rendering of the Georgics 
and Aeneid in Homeric verse; ancient Greek was also the 
language of all his strictly philosophical writings, while modern 
Greek was the medium used in his more popular publications. 

Modern Greek was still more effectively moulded into a 
literary form by the far-reaching influence of Ada- 
mantios Koraes (1748 — 1833). A native of Smyrna, 
he was allowed by his father to abandon a business career and to 
enter the medical school of Montpellier, where he distinguished 
himself as a student of medicine (1782-8). He removed to Paris 
in 1788, and there devoted himself to literary labours for the 
remaining forty-five years of his life. 

Patriotism and a passion for learning were the two guiding principles of his 
whole career. The most important of his literary undertakings, the ' Library 
of Greek literature ', was inspired by a distinctly patriotic motive. Long before 
the outbreak of the Greek revolution, four brothers of the wealthy house of 



CHAP. XLVIl] KORAES 389 

Zosimades consulted Koraes as to the best means for accelerating the regenera- 
tion that had already begun in Greece. Koraes advised the publication of 
the old Greek Classics with notes in ancient and introductions in modern 
Greek. Such was the origin of the celebrated 'Greek Library', a series of 
seventeen volumes edited by Koraes in 1805-26. The prodromos (contain- 
ing Aelian's Varia Historia, Heracleides Ponticus, and Nicolaus Damascenus) 
was followed by two volumes of Isocrates, six volumes of Plutarch's Lives, four 
of Strabo, the Politics and Ethics of Aristotle, the Memorabilia of Xenophon 
with the Gorgias of Plato, and lastly the Leocrates of the Attic orator 
Lycurgus. All these were printed by Didot in an exquisitely neat type 
specially designed for the series, the whole cost of publication was met by 
the munificence of the brothers Zosimades, and many copies were gratuitously 
distributed among deserving Greek students in Hellenic lands. Meanwhile, 
Koraes was producing a series of ' parerga ' in nine volumes, including (intei' 
alia) the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, five political treatises of Plutarch, 
Cebes and Cleanthes, with the Encheiridion of Epictetus, and the two volumes of 
Arrian's version of his discourses (1809-27). He also produced an edition of 
Iliad i — iv (181 1-20) and translated Herodotus into modern Greek. The 
five volumes of his Atakta (1828-35) were largely concerned with Greek 
lexicography. In his writings in general he aimed at assimilating the 
language of literature with the living language of modern Greece, and, even 
in his most scholarly works, he showed his interest in the idiom of the people, 
while others abandoned this intermediate position and went to the extreme of 
ignoring the living language and urging the adoption of an artificial style 
founded on the grammar and the literature of ancient Greece. His character 
is thus summed up by Finlay : — 

'Koraes... was the great popular reformer of the Greek system of instruction, 
the legislator of the modern Greek language, and the most distinguished 
apo.stle of religious toleration and national freedom... He was indifferent to 
wealth, honest and independent, a sincere patriot, and a profound scholar... 
He passed his life in independent poverty, in order that he might consecrate 
his whole time, and the undivided strength of his mind, to improve the moral 
and political feelings of the Greeks. His efforts have not been fruitless. He 
methodized the literary language of his countrymen, while he infused into their 
minds principles of true liberty and pure morality '^ 

Among the leading scholars of the Greek Revolution was 
Georgios Gennadios (1786 — 18154), who in 1820 

° ^ ' "^ ' G. Gennddios 

became the head of the Greek School in Bucharest. 
The study of Demosthenes and Plutarch had inspired him with 
the love of liberty, and, under his enthusiastic teaching, his pupils 
were thoroughly imbued with the spirit of patriotism. 

^ Finlay, History of Greece, v 285 Tozer. See esp. D. Thereianos, Ada- 
mantios Koraes, 3 vols. (Trieste, 1889-90). 



390 GREECE [cent. XIX 

While Koraes remained abroad, editing the Greek Classics 
in a patriotic spirit and arousing the martial ardour of his 
countrymen by a new edition of his o-aX-Trta/xa TroA-e/xto-rr/piov, 
Gennadios actually fought in the war. While Koraes was a great 
writer, Gennadios was a great teacher. It is from his Greek 
Grammar of 1832 that the modern Greeks learnt their own 
ancient language for at least three generations. 

In 1824 the first university of modern Greece was founded at 
„ . . . Corfu. The founder was the famous philhellene, 

Universities ^ ' 

of Corfu Frederick North, fifth Earl of Guildford (1766— 

1827), who was then Governor of the Ionian Islands. 
Under the name of the ' Ionian Academy ' this university lasted 
for forty years, that is until 1864, when the Ionian Islands were 
ceded by England to Greece. Meanwhile the university of 
Athens had been opened in 1837. As the 'national university 
of Greece', it has since celebrated in 191 2 the completion of the 
seventy-fifth year of its existence. 

The controversy as to the best literary language for the modern Greeks turns 
mainly on the question whether the literary language should be founded on the 
language of the people or on the language of the purists. Of the purists 
a majority have followed in the general lines of the compromise between 
colloquial and classical Greek advocated by Koraes, while some have urged 
a return to a more strictly classical standard. This apparently inter- 
minable controversy is preeminently one that must be settled by the Greeks 
themselves. 

Another important controversy, that on the pronunciation of Greek, must 
Greek pro- here be very briefly noticed. The earlier stages of this con- 
nunciation troversy have been duly set forth by Blass^. The ' Erasmian' 
method, dating from 1528, prevails in various forms throughout Europe, and 
has even been accepted in Russia. The modern Greeks in general hold that 
their own pronunciation has descended to them by an unbroken tradition from 
the Greeks of the classical age. This view has, however, been refuted by 
their foremost living scholar, G. N. Hatzidakis, who has shown that neither 
the ' Erasmian ' nor the modern Greek pronunciation can be identical with 
any single ancient pronunciation of the language, although he admits that, in 
many points, and especially with regard to the vowels, the ' Erasmian ' method 
comes theoretically nearer to the truth 2. 

1 Pronunciation of Ancient Greek (E. T. 1890), 2 — 6. 

2 ' AKadr]iii€t.Ka dvayvwa/jLara (1904), 284 f (Krumbacher's Festrede, 1903, 
p. 91). 



CHAP. XLVIl] RUSSIA 391 



(ii) Russia 

In Russia, the systematic study of the classical languages 
goes back to the seventeenth century. In the 
ecclesiastical 'Academy' of Kiev, founded in 1620, 
Latin was thoroughly studied from 1631 to the end of the 
century. From Kiev the study of the Classics was transmitted 
to Moscow. The printing-school, founded at Moscow in 1679, 
was the first institution involving the study of Greek, that was 
subsidised by the government. Throughout the eighteenth 
century, the Slavo-Greco-Latin Academy (founded in 1685) was 
the principal source of classical learning. 

The university of Moscow was founded in 1755; those of 
Kazan and of Kharkov in 1804; St Petersburg in 

Universities 

1819, and Odessa m 1865. The university of 
Vilna, founded in 1803, was superseded in 1833 by those of Kiev, 
which was placed on the same level as the other universities 
in 1863-84. At these universities some of the professors of 
Russian birth owed part of their education to Germany. Thus, 
in Moscow, Timkovski (1785 — 1820) studied at Gottingen, and 
Kriukov (1809 — 1845) in Berlin; in St Petersburg, Blagoviest- 
schenski (1821 — 1891) at Leipzig and Heidelberg. Others, 
again, were of German parentage, such as Kroneberg (1788 — 
1838), whose Latin-Russian Dictionary passed through six 
editions; and Karl Joachim Lugebil (1830 — 1888), a student 
at St Petersburg, whose best-known works were connected with 
Athens: — (i) On Ostracism, and (2) On the History of the 
Athenian Constitution \ 

The university of Dorpat, founded in Livonia by Gustavus 
Adolphus in 1632, was reconstituted by Alexander I in 1802. 
Four years previously, all Russian subjects had been recalled 
from the universities of Germany, but Dorpat remained a centre 
of German influence from 1802 to 1895; thenceforward the 
Russian language alone was allowed to be used in the lecture- 
rooms. 

The earliest of the German scholars, who resided in Russia 

' Jahrb.f. d. Phil. Suppl. iv— v (i 861-71). 



392 RUSSIA [cent. XIX 

for a large part of their lives, was Christian Friedrich Matthaei 

Germans in (^744 — i^ii), best known for having discovered 

Russia: ^t Moscow in 1 780 a MS of the Homeric Hymns, 

c. F. Matthaei including the Hymn to Demeter (first published 

by Ruhnken) and twelve lines of a Hymn to Dionysus. One 

of Hermann's pupils, Christian Friedrich Graefe 

(1780 — 1 851), who became professor, librarian, and 

keeper of Antiquities at St Petersburg, studied Meleager and 

the Bucolic poets, and edited Nonnus (1819-20). 

F. Vater . . ^ . 

Friedrich Vater (1810 — 1866) studied in Berhn, 
where he died. Of his earlier works, the best known is his edition 
of the Rhesus (1837). His papers on Andocides, begun in Berlin, 
were continued at Kazan, and he also published in Moscow an 
edition of the Iphigenia in Aulis (1845). During the forties, 
classical studies in Russia were much influenced by German 
scholarship, as represented by Boeckh and K. O. Miiller on the 
one hand, and by Ritschl on the other. The last t^t^ years of 
Nauck the life of Nauck (1822-92), and the greater part 

L. Miiller of ^^ ^^st 28 years of that of Lucian Miiller 

(1836-98), were devoted to the teaching of Greek and Latin 
respectively at St Petersburg^ 

Among Russian representatives of classical archaeology may be mentioned 

Archaeologists Von Stackelberg (1787 — 183'4), who studied at Gottingen, 

Stackelberg and spent many years in Dresden and in Greece and Italy 

in the study of archaeology, but did not return to Russia until the last year of 

his life; and Stephani (1816 — 1887), who studied at Leipzig, 

was professor at Dorpat (1846-50), keeper of the Antiquities 

of the Hermitage at St Petersburg for the last 37 years of his life, and the 

author of many important monographs on the archaeological discoveries in 

South Russia. 

(iii) Hungary 

Hungary was among the homes of humanism in 1464-90, 
during the rei^n of Matthias Corvinus, whose library 

Hungary , . 

was scattered on the occasion of the capture of the 
capital by the Turks in 1526. Latin long remained in use as a 
living language in Hungary; the debates of the Diet were con- 
ducted in Latin until 1825 ; but there was little interest in 
1 See pp. 340, 346, supra. 



CHAP. XLVIl] HUNGARY 393 

classical literature until the middle of the nineteenth century, 
when there was a revival of learning attested by numerous 
translations of the Classics, as well as the publication of classical 
text-books. Among those who aimed at producing 
works of more permanent value was Ivan Telfy 
(1816 — 1898), Greek Professor at Budapest, the compiler of the 
Corpus Juris Attici (1868), and his successor, Eugen 
Abel (1858— 1889). At Budapest Abel attracted 
the attention of the restorer of classical learning in Hungary, 
Emil Thewrewk de Ponor^ In 1877 he laid the foundation of 
his knowledge of palaeography, and of the history of humanism 
in Hungary, in the study of certain mss from the library of 
Matthias Corvinus, which were then restored by the Turks. In 
1886 he succeeded Telfy as professor of Greek, but held that 
position for three years only, dying at Constantinople on the eve 
of his examination of the ancient mss of that city. 

His published works included critical editions of the Homeric Hymns and 
Epigi-ams, and the Battle of the Frogs ajid Mice. His Hungarian commentary 
on the Odyssey was preceded by a Homeric Grammar published in 1881, a year 
before that of Monro. He also edited two volumes of scholia on Pindar. 
Among his publications connected with the history of humanism in Hungary 
were his Analecta on the Hungarian humanists, and his article on the Hungarian 
universities in the Middle Ages. His work in this department is of special 
importance for the period between 1464 and 1526. 

^ Born 1838; editor of /^?^/«^ (1889-93). 



CHAPTER XLVIII 

ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

The Porsonian tradition passed for a time from Cambridge 
to Oxford in the person of Peter Elmsley (1773 — 
1825) of Winchester and Christ Church, for the 
last two years of his life principal of St Alban Hall and Camden 
professor of Ancient History at Oxford. He spent the winter 
of 1 81 8 in Florence, studying the Laurentian ms of Sophocles. 
He collated the ms in 1820, and the earliest recognition of its 
superiority is to be found in the preface to his edition of the 
Oedipus Coloneiis (1823). In 18 19 he aided Sir Humphry 
Davy in examining the Herculanean papyri in the Museum of 
Naples. 

His most important works were his editions of Greek plays, all of them 
published at Oxford, namely the Acharnians of Aristophanes, the Oedipus 
Tyrannus and Oedipus Coloneiis of Sophocles, and the Heraclidae, Medea., 
and Bacchae of Euripides. In his Medea he observed that an editor's duty 
consisted in two things : — correcting the author's text, and explaining his 
meaning ; the former duty had been discharged by Porson, while the latter 
had been neglected. In all his editions of Greek plays, Elmsley devoted 
himself mainly to the illustration of the purport of the text, and to the 
elucidation of the laws of Attic usage. His merits as a scholar were highly 
esteemed by Hermann, whose edition of the Bacchae was published solely as a 
supplement to that of Elmsley. 

Among the merits of Elmsley was a high appreciation of the 
value of the Laurentian ms of Sophocles. His 

Gaisford 

careful edition of the scholia in that ms was brought 
out by Thomas Gaisford (1779 — 1855), who was appointed Regius 
professor of Greek at Oxford in 181 2, and was also dean of Christ 
Church for the last twenty-four years of his life. 

In 18 fo he first made his mark by his edition of Hephaeslion's Manual on 
Metres, Of his subsequent publications the most important are his Poetae 



CHAP. XLVIIl] GAISFORD. BUTLER. DOBREE 395 

Minores Graeci and his editions of Herodotus, Stobaeus, Suidas, and the 
Etymologicum Magnum. It was in allusion to the last two ponderous tomes 
that the future lexicographer, Robert Scott, in his Homeric verses, described 
Gaisford as SiJw 5oXtx6(r/cia irdWuv \ Xe^iKct dvcr^daraKTa. With a view to his 
editions of the Greek poets, and of Stobaeus and Suidas, he spent four 
months at Leyden studying the MSS in the Library, and the learning and 
industry which he bestowed on the Greek Poets were highly eulogised by 
Hermann ^. 

A certain deflexion from the critical Porsonian tradition is 
exemplified by Samuel Butler (1774 — 1839), head- 
master of Shrewsbury from 1798 to 1836, in his 
edition of Aeschylus, in four quarto volumes (1809-15) with 
Stanley's text of 1663, the Greek scholia^ all the notes of Stanley 
and his predecessors, and selections from those of subsequent 
editions. It was ably reviewed by C. J. Blomfield^, who 
denounced it as ' an indiscriminate coacervation ' of all that had 
been ' expressly written on Aeschylus '. Butler, in the course 
of his reply, remarks that ^ probably no man ever undertook a 
work of this nature with so little assistance. Of the many 
thousand passages ' from ancient authors ' not one has been 
pointed out to me by any learned friend '. He honestly confesses 
to certain mistakes, but 'continually betrays the jealousy which 
Parr's circle entertained towards the Porsonians '^. 

The Porsonian type of scholarship, represented at Oxford by 
Elmsley, was maintained at Cambridge by Dobree, 

Dobree 

Monk, and C. J. Blomfield. The first of these, 
Peter Paul Dobree (1782 — 1825), Fellow of Trinity, edited (with 
many additions of his own and in particular with his own com- 
mentary on the Plutus) Porson's Aristophanica (1820), which was 
followed by Porson's transcript of the lexicon of Photius (1822). 
When Monk vacated the Regius Professorship of Greek, Dobree 
was elected in his place and held that position for the two re- 
maining years of his life. His Adversaria on the Greek Poets, 
Historians, and Orators, were posthumously published in four 

^ Opiisc. vi 98 ' der fleissige und gelehrte Gaisford '. 

2 Edin. Rev., Oct. 1809, ^"^ Jan. 18 10; Feb. 181 2 (full extracts in 
J. E. B. Mayor's ed. of Baker's Hist, of St John's Coll. ii 908 — 921). 

3 Letter to the Rev. C. /. Blomfield., 18 10 (J. E. B. Mayor, 911 — 915). 



396 ENGLAND [CENT. XIX 

volumes (183 1-3) by his successor, Scholefield\ and his transcript 
of the Lexicon rhetoricum Cantabrigiense was printed in 1834. While 
Dobree was a follower of Porson in the textual criticism of Aris- 
tophanes, he broke new ground as a critic of the Attic Orators, 
and of Demosthenes and Lysias in particular. 

Following in the footsteps of Porson and Elmsley, James 
Henry Monk (1784 — 1856), Fellow of Trinity, and 
professor of Greek from 1809 to 1823, edited four 
plays of Euripides, the Hippolytus and the Alcestis, while he was 
still professor, and the two Iphigeneias, when he was already 
bishop of Gloucester. The year of his consecration as bishop 
was that of the publication of his admirable Life of Bentley 
(1830). 

Monk's fellow-editor of Porson's Adversaria in 181 2 was 
Charles James Blomfield (1786 — 1857), Fellow of 

C. J. Blomfield , . . . . . 

Irinity, who edited with notes and glossaries the 
Prometheus^ Septem, Persae, Agamem?ton and Cho'ephoroe (1810-24), 
and would doubtless have edited the Eumenides, had he not been 
made a bishop in 1824. The best part of his edition of Aeschylus 
was the glossary. He also edited CalHmachus (181 5), and con- 
tributed to the Museum Criticum (1814-26) editions of the 
fragments of Sappho, Alcaeus, Stesichorus and Sophron. His 
E. V. Biom- younger brother, Edward Valentine Blomfield 

^^^^ (1788— 18 1 6), Scholar of Caius and Fellow of 

Emmanuel, translated Matthiae's Greek Grammar. 

In 1825 a contemporary of Blomfield and Burges, James 
Scholefield, Fellow of Trinity (1789 — 1853), was 
elected over the heads of Julius Charles Hare and 
Hugh James Rose to the Greek professorship vacated by Monk's 
successor, Dobree. His edition of Aeschylus (1828, 2nd ed. 
1830) was the earliest English attempt to embrace in a single 
volume the results of modern criticism on that poet. Scholefield 
was not endued with the acumen of a Bentley or a Porson, but 
he fully appreciated their skill and readily accepted the results 
of their able contributions to the criticism of the text. Dr 
Kennedy was 'accustomed to regard him as a strong, sound, 

^ Ed. Wagner in 2 vols. 1874, with the Observationes Aristophaneae of 
1820. 



CHAP. XLVIll] KENNEDY. WORDSWORTH. BLAKESLEY 397 

Greek scholar, with fair critical acumen, but not endowed with 
that brilliant imagination, and exquisite taste, which are the 
scholar's vis divinior''^. 

Among the ablest of Samuel Butler's pupils at Shrewsbury 
was Benjamin Hall Kennedy (1804 — 1889), Fellow 
of St John's, head-master of Shrewsbury from 1836 
to 1866, and professor of Greek from 1867 to 1889. 

His best-known works are his ' Latin Primer ' and his ' Public 
School Latin Grammar'. He also published, with translations 
and notes, the Agamemnon of Aeschylus, the Oedipus Tyrannus 
of Sophocles and the Birds of Aristophanes, as well as the 
Theaetetus of Plato. His school-edition of Virgil was followed 
by an edition of the text. His name is associated with a large 
number of admirable renderings in Greek and Latin Verse ; he 
was the principal contributor to the Sabrinae Corolla^ and the 
sole author of Between Whiles. 

Dr Kennedy's younger brother, Charles Rann Kennedy 
(1808 — 1867), Senior Classic in 1831, was called 

,1 , . , , , , r C.R.Kennedy 

to the 'bar, and is best known as the translator of 
Demosthenes. Intermediate in age between the two Kennedys 
was Thomas Williamson Peile (1806 — 1882), head- 

^ ' T. W. Peile 

master of Repton, a pupil of Samuel Butler, whom 

he gratefully remembers in his elaborate editions of the Agamemnon 

and Choephoroe (18^0). Christopher Wordsworth 

r. , ^ , r y Wofdsworth 

(1807 — 1885), nephew of the poet, son of the 
Master of Trinity, and Senior Classic in 1832, travelled in Greece 
and discovered the site of Dodona^; he was afterwards head- 
master of Harrow, and ultimately bishop of Lincoln. As a 
classical scholar he is well represented by his Athens and Attica 
(1836), by his 'pictorial, descriptive, and historical' work on 
Greece (1839 etc.), and by his edition of Theocritus^ Among 
the contemporaries of the younger Kennedy was 
Joseph William Blakesley (1808— 1885), Fellow of ^^^^"^''^ 
Trinity, and ultimately dean of Lincoln. Breadth of geographic 
and historic interest, rather than minute scholarship, w^as the main 
characteristic of his able edition of Herodotus (1852-4), 

^ Memoir^ 358. 2 Qrecce^ p. 247, ed. 1839. ^ 1^44 and 1877. 



398 ENGLAND [CENT. XIX 

In the Cambridge Classical Tripos of 1832 the first place 
was assigned to Edmund Law Lushington (181 1 — 
1893), of Charterhouse and Trinity. He had the 
highest reputation as professor of Greek for many years at 
Glasgow \ and one of his ablest pupils has recalled his 'certainty 
of touch' and 'unfailing strength of presentation '^ In the 
epilogue to In Memoriam^ Tennyson told of his ' wearing all that 
weight of learning lightly like a flower '. 

The second place in the same Tripos was awarded to Richard 
Shilleto (1809 — 1876), of Trinity, for more than 
forty years famous as a private tutor in Classics. 
He was a great master of Greek idiom, and his skill, in Latin as 
well as Greek, is attested by the numerous compositions which 
have appeared in Sabrinae Corolla^ the Arundines Cami, and in 
a special volume of his collected versions (1901). His edition of 
Demosthenes De Falsa Legaiione, a masterpiece of its kind, was 
written, printed, and published in the marvellously short interval 
of five months (1844). His long-expected edition of Thucydides 
might well have been brought to a successful completion, "had it 
been begun while he was still in the prime of life. As it was, 
only two books were ever published (1872-80). 

Shilleto's distinguished contemporary, William Hepworth 
Thompson (18 10 — 1886), was Regius Professor of 
Greek from 1853 to 1867, and, for the last twenty 
years of his Hfe, Master of Trinity. Singularly effective as a 
professorial lecturer on Euripides, Plato, and Aristotle, he un- 
happily published little besides his excellent edition of Archer 
Butler's Lectures on the History of Greek Philosophy (1855), and 
his admirable commentaries on the Phaedrus and Gorgias of Plato 
(1868-71). 

Thompson had a high appreciation of that strikingly original 
and independent scholar, Charles Badham (18 13 — 
1884), who, after taking his degree at Wadham 

1 1838-75; inaugural discourse On the Study of Greek (1839). 

2 Lewis Campbell, in CI. Rev. vii 476, and ib. 425-8. Among his other 
pupils were W. Y. Sellar and D. B. Monro, whom he inspired with a life-long 
interest in Homer. In scholarship, his chief admiration was for Hermann and 
Boeckh. 



CHAP. XLVIIl] BADHAM. COPE. DONALDSON 399 

College, Oxford, and travelling for seven years in Germany, 
France and Italy, proved his affinity with the Cambridge school of 
scholarship by becoming a member of Peterhouse. In 1854 he was 
appointed head-master of Edgbaston, and, from 1867 to his death 
in 1884, he was professor of Classics and Logic at the University 
of Sydney. He edited the Iphigenia in Tauris, the Helena, and 
the Ion of Euripides, the Fhaedrus and Philebus, the Euthydemus 
and Laches^ and the Symposium of Plato. In scholarship he was 
especially attracted to the school of Porson, and of Cobet. He 
received an honorary degree at Leyden in i860, in 1865 he dedi- 
cated to Cobet his edition of the Euthydemus and Laches, and it 
was on his deathbed that he dictated his latest letter to the great 
Dutch scholar. 

One of the foremost candidates for the Greek Professorship 
vacated by Thompson in 1867 was Edward Meredith 
Cope (1818 — 1869), who was educated under 
Kennedy at Shrewsbury, and is best known as the author of an 
elaborate Introduction to the Rhetoric of Aristotle (1867), the 
precursor of a comprehensive edition, which was posthumously 
published (1877). His translation of the Gorgias was printed in 
1864; that of the Phaedo, after his death. He criticised the 
views of Grote on the Sophists in a series of papers in t\\Q Journal 
of Classical and Sacred Philology, but it was to Grote that he 
dedicated his Introduction to the Rhetoric. 

Among Thompson's ablest contemporaries was John William 
Donaldson (181 1 — 1861), Fellow of Trinity, and 

' Donaldson 

head-master of the School at Bury St Edmund's 
(1841-55). In his New Cratylus he gave a considerable impulse 
to the study of Comparative Philology in England; in his Var- 
ronianus he advanced a theory of the Gothic affinities of the 
Etruscans. He published a comprehensive treatise on the Theatre 
of the Greeks; he edited Pindar (1841), the Antigone of Sophocles 
(1848) and a text of Thucydides (1859); he also completed 
K. O. Miiller's History of Greek Literature (1858), and wrote an 
interesting and suggestive work entitled Classical Scholarship and 
Classical Learning (1856). His Complete Latin Grammar was 
enlarged in i860 ; his Greek Grammar attained a third edition 
in 1862. 



400 ENGLAND [CENT. XIX 

A wider variety of interests was represented by Donaldson's 
younger contemporary Frederick Apthorp Paley 

^^^ (1816— 1888), of Shrewsbury and St John's. He 

first made his mark by an edition of Aeschylus with Latin notes 
(1844-51), followed by an English edition (1855, etc.), which is 
widely recognised as his best work. He also edited Euripides, 
Hesiod, Theocritus, and the Iliad, as well as several plays of 
Sophocles, with Ovid's Fasti, and Propertius. In the preface to 
his ' Euripides ' he protests against the purely textual notes that 
were the characteristic of the Porsonian school. An incidental 
remark of Donaldson's on certain resemblances between Quintus 
Smyrnaeus and the Iliad led him to produce a series of papers, 
maintaining that the Homeric poems in their present form were 
not earlier than the age of Alexander, and that it was mainly 
through oral tradition that they reached the age of Thucy- 
dides. 

The same school sent to Cambridge an accomplished scholar 
in the person of William George Clark (182 1 — 

W. G. Clark o \ 

1878), who ably filled the office of Public Orator 
from 1867 to 1869, and was Fellow of Trinity for the last 34 
years of his life. In 1858 he published in his Pelopofifusus the 
results of his Greek tour in the company of Thompson. A 
critical edition of Shakespeare designed in i860 was successfully 
completed by Clark and Aldis Wright in 1866. He also designed 
an edition of Aristophanes, devoted part of 1867 to examining 
the Mss at Ravenna and Venice, and began a commentary on 
the Acharnians'^, which his failing health compelled him to 
leave unfinished. His name has been commemorated by the 
establishment of the 'Clark Lectureship in the Literature of 
England '. 

Clark's contemporary, Churchill Babington (182 1 — 1889), 
Churchiu Fellow of St John's, and Disney professor of 

Babington Archacology from 1865 to 1880, produced in 

185 1-8 the editio princeps of four of the speeches of Hypereides, 
beginning with the ' Speech against Demosthenes ' and ending 
with the ' Funeral Oration '. 



^ Notes on Ach. i — 578 \n Journal of Philology, v'ln 177 f, ix i f, 23 f. 



CHAP. XLVIII] PALEY. CLARK. JEBB 4OI 

Born a year later than Clark and Babington, Hubert Ashton 
Holden (1822 — 1806), Fellow of Trinity, and head- 

^ . " ^ H. A. Holden 

master of Ipswich School from 1858 to 1883, 
edited a text of Aristophanes with an oiiomasticon^ and produced 
elaborate commentaries on the Seventh Book of Thucydides, 
the Cyropaedeia, Nieron, and Oeconomicus of Xenophon, eight 
of Plutarch's Lives, and the Fro Plancio, Pro Sestio, and De 
Officiis of Cicero. 

Richard Claverhouse Jebb (1841 — 1905), of Charterhouse, 
Fellow of Trinity, took his degree as Senior Classic 
in 1862. He was elected Public Orator of Cam- 
bridge in 1869, was Professor of Greek at Glasgow from 1875 
to 1889, and at Cambridge from 1889 to his death. For the last 
fourteen years of his life he was M.P. for his University, was 
knighted in 1900, and in the summer of 1905 attained the 
crowning distinction of the Order of Merit. 

He will long be remembered as the editor of Sophocles 
(1883-96) and of Bacchylides (1905), and as the author of the 
'Attic Orators '^ His other works included 'The Characters of 
Theophrastus ', an ' Introduction to Homer ', with lectures on 
Modern Greece, on Greek poetry, and on Humanism in Educa- 
tion^, monographs on Erasmus and on Bentley, and a brief life of 
Porson^ In 1883 he took a leading part in founding the British 
School at Athens, and he was President of the Hellenic Society 
for the last sixteen years of his life. A humanist in the highest 
sense of the word, he had 'not only mastered the form of classical 
Hterature', but had 'assimilated its spirit, and applied it to the 
understanding and criticism of modern Hfe'. His 'Attic Orators' 
revealed to the literary world the fact that one who was ' among 
the first of living Greek scholars' was himself 'an artist in English 
prose '^ His 'Sophocles' has been justly characterised as 'one 
of the most finished, comprehensive, and valuable works, in the 
sphere of literary exposition, which this age or any has pro- 
duced '^ The same qualities were exhibited in his 'Bacchylides*, 

1 1876; ed. 2, 1893. 

^ Reprinted in Essays and Addresses, 506 — 544. 

'^ D. N. B. •* Quarterly Review, 1881. 

•^ Verrall in Biogr. Jahrh. 1906, 77. 

S H. 26 




Richard Claverhouse Jebb. 



Reproduced (by permission) from a photograph taken by 
Messrs Window and Grove, London. 



CHAP. XLVIII] JEBB. HOLMES. ARCHER-HIND 403 

where the defects of the ms left still further scope for restorations 
worthy of a genuine Greek poet. His powers as a composer of 
Greek lyric verse had already been proved by his three Pindaric 
odes\ His volume of Translations includes not a few fine 
renderings in Latin as well as Greek verse, while his mastery of 
a highly felicitous form of Latin prose was exemplified in the 
speeches delivered by him during his tenure of the office of 
Public Orator^. He has been aptly described as ' one of the 
most brilliant scholars and one of the most accomplished men 
of letters of his time — a great humanist, who, in his combination 
of wide learning, consummate critical faculty, and exquisite taste, 
had few equals and perhaps no superiors, among his contem- 
poraries '^ It has also been well said that he was unconsciously 
portraying his own gifts when he translated, in his memorable 
monograph on Bentley, the passage in which that great scholar 
says that wide reading and erudite knowledge of all Greek and 
Latin antiquity are not enough for the modern critic of a classical 
author : — 

' A man should have all that at his fingers' ends But besides this there 

is need of the keenest judgment, of sagacity and quickness, of a certain divining 
tact and inspiration, as was said of Aristarchus — a faculty which can be 
acquired by no constancy of toil or length of life, but comes solely by the gift 
of nature and by the happy star "*. 

The briefest mention must here suffice for other notable 
representatives of the Greek scholarship of Cam- 
bridge. Arthur Holmes (1837 — 1875), ^ brilliant 
composer, of Shrewsbury and St John's, edited the Midias and 
De Corona of Demosthenes. R. D. Archer-Hind 
(1849 — 1910), of Shrewsbury and Trinity, produced 

^ Printed in the new ed. of the Translations, 1907. 

2 e.g. Camb. Univ. Reporter, 23 June, 1874, 481-6. 

3 The Times, 11 Dec. 1905, p. 6. 

^ The Times, u. s.; cp. S. H. Butcher in Class. Rev., Feb. 1906, 71 f; 
A. W. Verrall in Appendix (427 — 487) to Lady Jebb's Life and Letters of 
Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb, with portrait, 1907, and J. D. Duff in D. N. B. 
The collected Essays atid Addresses (1907) have among their subjects Sophocles 
and Pindar, the age of Pericles and the Speeches of Thucydides, ancient organs 
of public opinion, and the exploration of Delos, together with Caesar, Lucian, 
Erasmus and Samuel Johnson, ' Humanism in Education ' and other kindred 
topics. 

26 — 2 



404 ENGLAND [CENT. XIX 

excellent editions of the Fhaedo and Timaeus of Plato, as well as 
a volume of admirable Translatiofis into Greek Verse and Prose. 
Samuel Henry Butcher (1850 — 1910), successively 
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Univer- 
sity College, Oxford, Professor of Greek in the University of 
Edinburgh from 1882 to 1903, President of the British Academy 
and M.P. for the University of Cambridge, was associated with 
Andrew Lang in a memorable translation of the Odyssey. He 
also published a compendious work on Demosthenes, with two 
volumes of a critical edition of the text. A critical text and 
translation of Aristotle's Treatise on Poetry were included in his 
repeatedly published work on Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Art ^ 
He is also remembered as the author of two volumes of suggestive 
and inspiring lectures on ' Some Aspects of the Greek Genius ', 
and 'On the Originality of Greece'^. 

Arthur Woolgar Verrall (185 1 — 191 2), Fellow and Lecturer 
of Trinity, and, during the last year of his life, 

Verrall 

Professor of English Literature, produced able 
editions of the Septem Contra Thebas, and of all the three plays 
of the Oresteia of Aeschylus. He also wrote a masterly review 
of the merits of Sir Richard Jebb as a scholar and a critic, and 
especially as an editor of Sophocles^. Lastly, he rehabilitated the 
dramatic reputation of Euripides by his edition of the Medea^ by 
his translation, etc., of the Ion, and by his three volumes of Essays 
(i) on 'Euripides the Rationalist'; (2) on 'Four Plays', namely 
the Andromache, Helen, Heracles, and Orestes; and (3) on 'the 
Bacchants\ In his editions of plays of Aeschylus and Euripides, 
he gave proof of a singular aptitude for verbal emendation, while 
in all his work on the tragic poets of Greece, he displayed the 
highest degree of literary insight*. 

The sole memorial of the exact and varied scholarship of 
Robert Alexander Neil (1852 — 1901), Fellow and 
Tutor of Pembroke, is an able edition of the 
Knights of Aristophanes (1901). 

1 1875, 1897, 1902, 1907. 

2 Harvard Lectures, 1904, new ed. 191 1. 

2 Appendix to Life by Lady Jebb, pp. 427 — 487. 
* Cp. M. A. B. in Classical Review, xxvi 172 f. 



CHAP. XLVIII] BUTCHP:R. VERRALL. ADAM. JOWETT 405 

His friend, James Adam (i860 — 1907), Fellow and Tutor 
of Emmanuel, left behind him, as his masterpiece 
in classical scholarship, an elaborately annotated 
edition of Plato's Republic (1902). At Aberdeen in 1904 he 
aroused the keenest interest by his Gifford Lectures on The 
Religious Teachers of Greece^ published in 1908, and followed by 
his collected papers, entitled The Vitality of Platonism and other 
Essays (191 1). Part of the brief life of Walter 

V -^ / Headlam 

George Headlam (1866 — 1908), Fellow and Lec- 
turer of King's, was devoted to emending and translating 
Aeschylus. His critical keenness is imperfectly represented by 
his incomplete edition of the Agamemnon (1910), but his Book 
of Greek Verse (1907) gives ample proof of his exquisite taste as 
an interpreter and an imitator of the Greek poets. 

In the generation succeeding that of Elmsley and Gaisford 
Greek scholarship was well represented at Oxford by 
Henry George LiddeU (181 1 — 1898) of Charter- and 

house, Dean of Christ Church, and by Robert Scott 
(181 1 — 1887) of Shrewsbury, Master of Balliol and Dean of 
Rochester, the joint authors of the standard Greek and English 
Lexicon. Founded partly on that of Passow, the first edition 
appeared in 1843; the eighth in 1897. 

As Master of Balliol, Scott was succeeded in 1870 by Benjamin 
Jowett (18 1 7 — 1893), who in 1855 had succeeded 
Gaisford as professor of Greek. In the domain of 
classical learning, the foremost of his plans was an Oxford edition 
of the principal dialogues of Plato. The Philebus was edited in 
i860 by Edward Poste (182 1 — 1902), the Theaetetus (1861) and 
the Sophistes and Politicus (1867) by Professor Lewis Campbell ; 
and the Apology by Riddell (1867). Jowett's own part in the 
scheme was a long-delayed edition of the Republic with text, notes, 
and essays, in which he was associated with Professor Campbell 
(1894). Meanwhile, he had conceived the design of a complete 
translation of Plato, which was happily accomplished in 187 1. 
This was followed by his translation of Thucydides (1881) and 
\hQ Politics of Aristotle (1885), both of which were accompanied by a 
Commentary. All these three great works are justly recognised as 



406 ENGLAND [CENT. XIX 

masterpieces of English, and his rendering of Plato in particular, 
with its admirably written Introductions, has done much towards 
popularising the study of Plato in England and elsewhere. 

Jowett's contemporary, Mark Pattison (1813 — 1884), Rector of 
Lincoln, was deeply read in the History of Scholar- 

Pattison . 

ship, especially that of the Renaissance in France, 
as is proved in part by his Life of Casaubon and his Essays on 
Scaliger. 

Intermediate in age between Pattison and Jowett was George 

Rawlinson (1815 — 1902), Fellow of Exeter, Camden 

G, Rawlinson ,- . • t-t- i ^ ,- ^ 

professor of Ancient History, and Canon of Canter- 
bury, who produced in 1858 a standard translation of Herodotus, 
with notes and essays. 

Comparative Philology was ably represented at Oxford by 

Friedrich Max Miiller (1823 — iQoo), who studied 

Max Mtiller i r^ , ,,. • ' 

under Bopp and Schelling in Berlin and under 
Eugene Burnouf in Paris. Defeated in i860 in his candidature 
for the Chair of Sanskrit at Oxford, he gave two admirable courses 
of Lectures on the Science of Language at the Royal Institution 
(186 1-4), which made the general results of the study of Compara- 
tive Philology familiar to Englishmen, and led to his appointment 
to a professorship of that subject at Oxford in 1868. Comparative 
Philology was part of the wide province explored by Edward Byles 

Cowell (1826 — 1903), of Magdalen Hall, Oxford 

Cowell 

(1854), president of the Sanskrit College, Calcutta, 
and afterwards professor of Sanskrit at Cambridge for the last 
36 years of his life. 

An excellent edition of the Ethics Wwh an English commentary 

and illustrative essays (1857, 1884^) was the most 

important classical work published by Sir Alexander 

Grant (1826 — 1884), Scholar of Balliol and Fellow of Oriel, and 

ultimately Principal of the university of Edinburgh. 

In 1854 two annotated editions of the Politics were simul- 

Eaton and taneously published at Oxford, that of J. R. T. 

Congreve Eaton, Fcllow of Merton, and that of Richard 

Congreve (1819 — 1899), Fellow of Wadham. Both editors are 

repeatedly mentioned in the comprehensive work of Mr W. L. 

Newman (1887 — 1902). 



CHAP. XLVIIl] MONRO. RUTHERFORD 407 

Among Oxford scholars who devoted special study to the Greek 
poets was William Linwood (1817 — 1878) of Christ 

*^ . Linwood 

Church, whose best-known works were a lexicon to 

Aeschylus, and an edition of Sophocles with brief Latin notes 

(1846). John Conington (1825 — 1869), in the early 

part of his career, edited the Agamemnon (1848) 

and Cho'ephoroe (yi^^l) of Aeschylus, and afterwards completed the 

Spenserian rendering of the Iliad by P. S. Worsley 

(1835 — 1866), the translator of the Odyssey {\?i(i\). 

Among the most successful of Homeric translations was the 

rendering of the Iliad in blank verse, published in 

° ^ Lord Derby 

1864 by the Earl of Derby (1799— 1869). The 

Homeric poems were the central theme of the life-long labours 

of David Binning Monro (1836 — 1905), Provost 

of Oriel for the last twenty-three years of his life. 

His Grammar of the Homeric Dialect (1882) is a monument of 

sound and solid learning. His latest work was an edition of the 

second half of the Odyssey (1901), with valuable Appendices 

extending to more than 200 pages. 

Greek scholarship had a singularly able and vigorous repre- 
sentative in the person of William Gunion Ruther- 

.^ Rutherford 

ford (1853 — 1907), who was under Lewis Campbell 

at St Andrews, and under Jowett at Balliol. His six years 

as a master of St Paul's, under the inspiring influence of 

Mr F. W. Walker, were followed by eighteen as headmaster at 

Westminster. 

His Elementary Accidence of Attic Greek (1878) briefly embodying some of 
the results of his researches, has been incorporated in the admirably lucid First 
Greek Grammar {Accidence and Syntax) of 1891. He made his mark mainly 
by his New Phrynichus (1881), which, under the guise of a commentary on the 
grammatical rules of an Atticist of the second century, was really a com- 
prehensive treatise on the history and on the distinctive characteristics of 
Attic Greek. It was the work of a loyal, but independent, follower of 
Cobet. The New Phrynichus was soon succeeded by an elaborate edition of 
Babrius {1883). His Fourth Book of Thucydides (1889) exemplified the 
theory that the text of that author had been corrupted by the addition of 
numerous 'adscripts'. The two volumes of the Scholia Aristophanica (1896), 
in which he 'arranged, emended, and translated ' \\vq. scholia to the Ravenna Ms, 
were followed by a third volume of commentary and criticism under the title of 
'A chapter in the history of annotation ' (1905). 



408 SCOTLAND [CENT. XIX 

Among the Greek scholars of Scotland we may here mention 

William Veitcli (1794 — 1885), a private tutor in 

Edinburgh, whose Greek Verbs, Irregular and 

Defective, first produced in 1848, and afterwards thrice reprinted 

by the Clarendon Press, embraces ' all the tenses used by Greek 

writers, with references to the passages in which they are found '. 

John Stuart Blackie (1809 — 1895), was for thirty years professor 

of Greek at Edinburgh (i8i;2-82). His principal 

classical work mcludes two volumes of a vigorous 

and flowing translation of the Iliad in a ballad measure of fourteen 

syllables, followed by a volume of ' philological and archaeological ' 

notes, and preceded by another of ' Dissertations '. In the course 

of these he arrives at the conclusion that there is ' a soul of truth 

in the Wolfian theory, but its operation is to be recognised among 

the rude materials which Homer used and fused, not among the 

shapely fragments of the finished work which Pisistratus collected 

and arranged '. These Dissertations deserve an attentive perusaP. 

The Homeric question, ably discussed by Blackie, was more 

minutely studied by an admirable Greek scholar of 

Geddes .... 

northern Britain, William Duguid Geddes (1828 — 
1900), professor of Greek at Aberdeen from 1856 to 1885. He 
produced an interesting edition of the Phaedo (1863). 

In his Problejti of the Homeric Poems (1878) he accepted Grote's definition 
of the original Achilleid as consisting of Iliad i, viii, xi — xxii, and maintained 
that the rest was composed by a later poet, the author of the Odyssey, who 
'engrafted on a more ancient poem, the Achilleid, splendid and vigorous 
saplings of his own, transforming and enlarging it into an Iliad, but an Iliad 
in which the engrafting is not aV^soIutely complete, where the "sutures" are 
still visible '. ' The kinship between the Odyssey and the " non- Achillean " 
book of the Iliad is recognised especially (i) in the mode of presenting 
Odysseus, Hector, Helen, and some other persons ; (2) in the aspects of the 
gods and their worship ; (3) in ethical purpose ; (4) in local marks of origin, — 
the traces of an Ionian origin being common to the Odyssey with the non- 
Achillean books of the Iliad, and with those alone '. The work ' will always 
rank as a very able and original contribution to the question '2. 

Lewis Campbell (1830 — 1908), Greek Professor at St Andrews, 
1863-92, edited Sophocles, and several dialogues 
of Plato, and was the able author of ' Religion in 
Greek literature '. 

1 Life by A. M. Stoddart, new ed. 1896. "^ Jebb's Homer, 125 f. 



CHAP. XLVIII] KEY. MUNRO 409 

Among Latin scholars in England we note the name of 
Thomas Hewitt Key (1799 — ^875), of St John's 
and Trinity, Cambridge, professor of Latin (1828- 
42) and of Comparative Grammar (1842-75) at University 
College, London, and also head-master of University College 
School (1828-75). His essays on Terentian Metres and other 
subjects were published in a collected form in 1844, his 'Philo- 
logical Essays ' in 1868, and his work on the 'origin and develop- 
ment ' of language in 1874. His Latin Grammar had already been 
completed in 1846, while his Latin Dictionary was posthumously 
printed at Cambridge from his unfinished MS in 1888. 

A revised text of Horace, with illustrations from ancient gems, 
selected by the learned archaeologist, C. W. King, 
was produced in 1869 by Hugh Andrew Johnstone 
Munro (18 19 — 1885), educated at Shrewsbury, Fellow of Trinity, 
and first professor of Latin in the University of Cambridge. He 
held the professorship for three years only (1869-72), but, in 
those years, he gave the first impulse to a reform in the English 
pronunciation of Latin ^ In 1864 the fruit of many years of 
strenuous study appeared in his masterly edition of Lucretius, 
with critical notes and a full explanatory commentary, and a 
vigorous rendering in English prose. Of the editor it has been 
justly observed, that of Lachmann and Ritschl, ' though a sincere 
admirer, he was no slavish imitator ; but rather an independent 
discoverer in regions which their labours made accessible to other 
explorers 'I His later works include an edition of the Aetna of 
an unknown poet, ' Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus ' and 
Emendations of the fragments of Lucilius^ He was hardly less 
masterly as a Greek critic. In 1855 he was the first to maintain 
the Eudemian origin of the fifth book of Aristotle's Ethics*, and 
late in life he paid special attention to the text of Euripides. His 
Ti'anslations into Latin and Greek Verse^ are justly held in high 
repute. 

^ Pamphlet, 1871 ; Palmer and Munro's ^y/Az/^wj, 1872. 

2 W. H. Thompson mjourn. of Philol. xiv 107 f. 

^ Journ. of Philol. vii 292 f, viii 201 f. 

^ Journal of CI. and Sacred Philol. ii 58 — 8 r. 

^ Privately printed, 1884; published (with portrait), 1906. 




Hugh Andrew Johnstone Munro. 
From a photograph by Sir WiUiam Davidson Niven. 



CHAP. XLVIIl] MAYOR. WILKINS. CONINGTON 41 I 

The Professorship of Latin vacated by Munro's resignation in 
1872 was filled for the next 28 years by John Eyton 
Bickersteth Mayor (1825 — 1910), of Shrewsbury 
and St John's, whose erudite edition of 'Thirteen Satires of 
Juvenal' was first published in 1853 in a single volume with notes 
at the foot of the page. The later editions were in two volumes, 
ending with the fourth edition of vol. i (1886), and the third of 
vol. 11(1881). Not a few of the comprehensive notes are recognised 
as remarkably complete collections of the literature of the subject 
concerned ; for example, those on Roman recitations, on the 
worship of the Emperor, on astrology in Rome, and on ancient 
vegetarians. Among his other works may be mentioned his excellent 
First Greek Reader^ his editions of Cicero's ' Second Philippic ' 
and of the ' Third Book of Pliny's Letters ', and his bibliography 
of Roman Literature, founded on that of Hiibner. 

A standard edition of Cicero, De Oratore, was prepared for 
the Clarendon Press in 1879-92 by Augustus Samuel 
Wilkins (1843 — 1905), of St John's College, Cam- 
bridge, for thirty-four years professor of Latin at Owens College, 
Manchester, who also edited Cicero's Speeches against Catiline and 
Horace's Epistles, contributed to the ninth edition of the Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica the long and important articles on the Greek 
and Latin languages, and, in conjunction with Mr E. B. England, 
translated G. Curtius' Principles of Greek Etymology^ and also 
his work on the Greek Verb. His fine scholarship and his wide 
literary knowledge gave real value to his editions of classical texts, 
and he also did good service in introducing to English readers the 
results of German research. 

The first professor of Latin at Oxford was John Conington 
(1825 — 1869), who held the Latin Professorship for 
the last fifteen years of his short life. He is widely 
known as the editor of Virgil (1863-71) and of Persius (1872). 
Besides translating both of these poets into English prose, he 
rendered into English verse the whole of Horace, and the Aeneid. 
His rendering of Horace was regarded by Munro as ^on the whole 
perhaps the best and most successful translation of a Classic that 
exists in the English language ', while, in the judgment of the 
same scholar, his edition of Virgil ' displays a minute diligence, as 



412 ENGLAND [CENT. XIX 

well as a fine taste, a delicate discrimination, and a mastery 
of language, which it requires long study properly to appreciate '^ 

William Young Sellar (1825 — 1890), a Fellow of 

Oriel, held the Professorship of Humanity at Edin- 
burgh for the last twenty-seven years of his life^. Immediately 
before his appointment (1863), he produced his 'Roman Poets of 
the Republic ', a masterpiece of literary criticism, which was 
happily followed in due time by similar works on Virgil (1877), 
and on ' Horace and the Elegiac Poets' (1892)^ 

Conington's work on Persius was edited by his successor in 

the Chair of Latin, Henry Nettleship (1839 — 1893). 

He completed the latter half of his predecessor's 
edition of the Ae?ieid. In 1875 he planned a great Latin dic- 
tionary, but was only able to publish a tenth part of the proposed 
work, under the title of ' Contributions to Latin Lexicography ' 
(1889)^. He was familiar with the ancient Latin grammarians, 
and especially with the successive epitomes of Verrius Flaccus. 
Many of his most valuable papers have been collected in the two 
volumes of his Essays (1885-95). 

The professorship vacated in 1893 t)y the death of Henry 

Nettleship was next held for twenty years by 

Robinson Ellis , • ,. / v , , 

Robinson Ellis (1834 — 1913), who was best known 
as the learned editor of Catullus. The critical text was published 
in 1867, 3,nd the Commentary in 1878. He had himself dis- 
covered the Oxford manuscript of that poet, but he permitted 
another editor, Baehrens, to be the first to recognise its real im- 
portance. Yet his work on Catullus is marked by wide erudition, 
delicate scholarship, and critical acumen ; while his separately 
published metrical version has many touches of true poetry. He 
was also known as. the learned editor of the Ibis (1881), and of 
Velleius Paterculus, Avianus and Orientius, of the Aetna, the 
Appendix Vergiliana, and the Elegiae in Maecenatein ; and as the 

"^ Journal of Philology, ii 334-6. 

2 He had previously been assistant to Professor W. Rarrsay in Glasgow 
(185 1-3) and assistant professor and professor of Greek at St Andrews 
(1853-63); he had also contributed to the Oxford Essays admirable papers 
on Lucretius (1855) and on The Characteristics of Thucydides {\%i^i). 

^ With Memoir by his nephew and pupil, Andrew Lang. 



CHAP. XLVIII] IRELAND 413 

author of the Nodes Manilianae. From first to last, the leading 
characteristic of his work was an unswerving and unselfish love of 
Latin learning for its own sake'. 

Among Latin scholars in Ireland we note the name of James 
Henry (1796 — 1876) who produced in 1853 his 
' Notes of a Twelve Years' Voyage of Discovery in 
the First Six Books of the Aeneis '. His personal knowledge of 
all the best mss and editions of Virgil is embodied in the four 
volumes of his larger work, the Atneidea (1873-89), which in- 
cludes many original and valuable contributions to the inter- 
pretation of the text. Textual criticism was the 
forte of Arthur Palmer (1841 — 1897), Professor 
of Latin (1880) and Public Orator (1888) at Trinity College, 
Dublin. He was specially interested in the criticism of the Latin 
Elegiac poets and of Plautus. H e edited the Amphitruo of Plautus, 
the Satires of Horace, and the Heroides of Ovid. 

Palmer's able colleague, Robert Yelverton Tyrrell ( 1 844 — 1 9 1 4), 
held the Professorship of Latin in Trinity College, 
Dublin, from 187 1 to 1880, that of Greek from 
1880 to T898, and the ofifice of Public Orator from 1899 to 1904. 
During his tenure of the Latin Professorship, he produced his 
first edition of the Bacchae of Euripides, and, while he held the 
Greek Professorship, he edited the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus, 
and undertook (in 1879) an edition of the ' Correspondence of 
Cicero ', which, with the erudite aid of Dr L. C. Purser, he brought 
to a successful conclusion in 1900. His singular skill as a writer 
of Greek and Latin verse is attested by his numerous contri- 
butions to the ' Dublin Translations' of 1882, and to the playful 
pages of the periodical which derived its name from the Greek 
game of Kottabos. He also published an Anthology of Latin 
Poetry, and Lectures on that subject, as well as a collection of 
' Essays on Greek Literature ', and an edition of Sophocles. His 
devotion to the modern as well as the ancient drama was com- 
bined with a keen wit and a felicitous style, and his appreciations 

^ Cp. obituary notices, by Gilbert Murray, in Classical Review, I9i3» 286 f, 
and by his successor, A. C. Clark, in Proceedings of the British Acadetny, 
vol. vi. 



414 ENGLAND [CENT. XTX 

of great writers gained a new value from his own delight in 
literary form'. 

From editors of Greek and Latin Classics we pass to the 
Historians: historians. Connop Thirlwall (1797— 1875) who 
Thiriwaii ^^^g ^^ school-fellow of George Grote at Charter- 

house^ became a Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity, and afterwards 
Rector of Kirby Underdale, in Yorkshire (1834-40), and Bishop 
of St David's (1840-74). He produced the first volume of his 
History of Greece in 1835 and the last in 1844. His work as 
a historian was characterised by soundness of scholarship and 
refinement of style, by a judicial temper and a fine sense of 
proportion. 

His school-fellow, George Grote (1794 — 1871), had embarked 
on his history as early as 1823, but did not publish 
his first volume until 1846, or his last until ten 
years later. Though Thirlwall and Grote not unfrequently met, 
the former knew so little of his school-fellow's plans, that he was 
heard to say, 'Grote is the man who ought to write the History of 
Greece'; and, when it appeared, he welcomed it with a generous 
enthusiasm. As a historian, Grote shows the keenest sympathy 
with the Athenian democracy, and even with the Athenian dema- 
gogue ; but he is an intelligent interpreter of the ancient historians 
of Greece, and his opinions on the political and economic condition 
of Athens derive fresh weight from his experience as a banker and 
as a Member of Parliament. His great work on Plato, published 
in 1865, was a solid contribution to the intelligent study of that 
philosopher. Of his proposed sequel ^m Aristotle only two volumes 
were completed (187 2) I 

Historians of Greece and Rome alike are indebted to the 

chronological researches of Henry Fynes Clinton 

(1781 — 1852), of Westminster, and Christ Church, 

Oxford, Member for Aldborough (1806-26), the learned author of 

the Fasti Heiknici [1^24.-2,2) and the Fasti Romani {i^^^-^o). 

^ Cp. J. P. M(ahaffy) in Athenaeum, 26 Sept. 1914; see also Hermathena, 
no. XL, 1914. Latin Speeches by Palmer (1888-98), and by Tyrrell (1899 — 
1904), in Trinity College, Dublin, Speeches of Public Orators, 1909. 

^ Cp. Life (with portrait) by Mrs Grote, and Minor Works (with sketch of 
Life by Bain), 1873. 



CHAP. XLVIIl] HISTORIANS 415 

Thomas Arnold (1795 — 1842), head-master of Rugby and pro- 
fessor of History at Oxford, did much for the 

. . Arnold 

historical and geographical elucidation of Thucy- 

dides (1850-5), and left behind him a splendid fragment of 

a History of Rome (1838-43), ending with the close of the second 

Punic War. Arnold's history was written under the influence of 

Niebuhr. Twelve years later an ' Inquiry into the Credibility of 

Early Roman History' was published by Sir George 

Cornewall Lewis (1806 — 1863), of Eton and Christ 

Church, Oxford, who translated Boeckh's ' Public Economy of 

Athens', edited Babrius, and wrote on the 'Astronomy of the 

Ancients '. The ' History of the Decline of the 

Roman Republic' (1864-74), written with special 

reference to the evidence of ancient authorities, was the last work 

produced by George Long (1800 — 1879), Fellow of Trinity, 

Cambridge, and Professor at University College, London, who also 

edited Cicero's Orations and translated thirteen of Plutarch's 

Roman Lives^ as well as the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, and 

the Manual of Epictetus. The ' History of the Romans under the 

Empire' was written in 1850-62, at the College living of Lawford, 

by Charles Merivale (1808 — 1894) of Harrow and 

St John's, Cambridge, who was dean of Ely for the 

last twenty-five years of his life. 

The comparative study of ancient institutions was successfully 
pursued by Henry James Sumner Maine (1882 — 
1888), of Pembroke College, Cambridge, suc- 
cessively professor of Civil Law at that university, legal member 
of the supreme government of India, professor of Jurisprudence 
at Oxford, and Master of Trinity Hall, and ultimately professor of 
International Law, at Cambridge. His best-known works are 
'Ancient Law' (1861), 'Village Communities' (187 1), 'Lectures 
on the Early History of Institutions' (1875) ^"<^ 'Dissertations 
on Early Law and Custom' (1883). 'The impulse given by 
Maine ' to the intelligent study of law ' in England and America 
cannot be overrated... At one master-stroke he forged a new 
and lasting bond between law, history, and anthropology '^ 

^ Sir F. Pollock, Oxford Lectures^ 1890, 158. 



4l6 EN(}LAND [cent. XIX 

The ' Unity of History ' was the theme of the memorable Rede 
Lecture delivered at Cambridge in 1872 by Edward 
Augustus Freeman (1823 — 1892), Fellow of Trinity 
College, Oxford, and Regius Professor of Modern History at 
Oxford for the last eight years of his life. Nine years had 
already passed since Polybius had been fruitfully studied by 
F'reeman in the preparation of the volume in which he had 
' traced the action of the federal principle in the Achaian league ' 
of B.C. 281 — 146. A visit to Sicily in 1878, followed by three 
long sojourns in the island between 1886 and 1890, bore fruit in 
the single volume on Sicily in the 'Story of the Nations ' (1892), 
and in the four volumes of the History of Sicily from the earliest 
ti?Jies (189 1 -4) down to the death of Agathocles in 289 B.C., — 
volumes founded on a thorough study of Pindar and Thucydides 
and other ancient authorities. The author's essays on ' Homer 
and the Homeric Age ', on the ' Athenian democracy ', on the 
' Attic historians ', on ' Ancient Greece and Mediaeval Italy ', 
and on ' Mommsen's History of Rome ', have been reprinted 
in the second and third series of the Historical Essays 

(1873-9). 

The teaching of Roman history at Oxford was greatly advanced 
by the inspiring influence of Henry Pelham (1846 
— 1907), Fellow and Tutor of Exeter, who, in 1889, 
became professor of Ancient History and Fellow of Brasenose, 
and, in 1897, President of Trinity. His small volume of 'Out- 
lines of Roman History' (1890) has been described as 'the most 
useful', and 'the most able, sketch of the subject that has yet 
been published '. He did not live to publish his proposed 
' History of the Roman Empire '. His ' Collected Papers ' were 
edited by his successor, Professor Haverfield, in 191 1. 'Follower 
and personal friend of the great Mommsen, he conceived the 
study of antiquity in its larger and severer sense'. He took 
a leading part in the foundation of the British School at Rome 
(1901), and was one of the original Fellows of the British Academy 
(1902). 

One of the foremost of the Greek topographers of the nineteenth 
century was William Martin Leake (1777 — 1860), 

Leake . . ... . , 

who, on retirmg from active military service in 18 15, 



CHAP. XLVIIl] ARCHAEOLOGISTS 417 

devoted all his energies to the cause of classical learning. His 

reputation as a learned and scientific topographer rests on his 

' Researches in Greece' (1814), his 'Topography of Athens and 

the Demi' (1821, 2nd ed. 1841), his 'Journal of a Tour in Asia 

Minor' (1824), his 'Travels in Northern Greece' (1835-41), his 

' Morea' (1830), and his ' Peloponnesiaca ' (1846). His work on 

Athens was the earliest scientific reconstruction of the ancient 

city with the aid of all the evidence supplied by Greek literature, 

inscriptions, and works of art. His collection of Greek marbles 

was presented by himself to the British Museum in 1839, while 

his library and the great collection of coins described in his 

' Numismata Hellenica' (1839) were purchased by the University 

of Cambridge, which has placed his bust in the vestibule of the 

Fitzwilliam Museum. 

The cause of classical archaeology was ably advanced by 

Charles Thomas Newton (181 6 — 1894), of Shrews- 
Newton 
bury and of Christ Church, Oxford. His work in 

the British Museum began in 1840 and ended with the twenty-four 

years of his tenure of the office of Keeper of the Department of 

Greek and Roman Antiquities (1861-85). 

In 1846 his attention was arrested at the Museum by some fragments of 
reliefs from the Castle of the Knights of St John at Budrum, the ancient 
Halicarnassus. He divined that these reliefs must have once belonged to the 
great monument erected in memory of Mausolus. In 1856 he explored the site 
of the Mausoleum, and recovered a large part of the noble sculptures that 
adorned the tomb. From Didyma near Miletus he sent home a number of the 
seated archaic figures that lined the approach to the temple of Apollo at 
Branchidae. From Cnidos he brought away the colossal lion, probably set up 
by Conon in memory of his victory over the Spartan fleet in 394 B.C., as well 
as a famous statue of the seated Demeter, and an exquisite statuette of Per- 
sephone. The record of all these acquisitions is enshrined in his official 
History of Discoveries ai Halicarnassus, Cnidus, and Branchidae (1862), and 
in his popular Travels and Discoveries in the Levant (1865). 

Meanwhile, he had been appointed Consul at Rome, whence 
he was recalled two years later to fill the place of Keeper of Greek 
and Roman Antiquities at the British Museum, an appointment 
that marked the dawn of a true interest in classical archaeology in 
England. In 1880 he collected his papers of 1850-79 in a single 
volume entitled Essays in Art and Archaeology^ including his 
s. H. 27 



4l8 ENGLAND [CENT. XIX 

excellent Essay on Greek Inscriptions. Even when he had retired 
from the office of Keeper in 1885, he continued to edit the great 
collection of the Greek Inscriptions of the British Museum. His 
marble bust stands in the noble hall built under his direction 
for the sculptures he had discovered at the Mausoleum of Hali- 
carnassus. 

In the study of Greek Architecture an eminent position was 
attained by Francis Cranmer Penrose (1817^ — 1903) 

Penrose 

of Winchester School and of Magdalene College, 
Cambridge. As 'travelling bachelor of the university' (1812-5), 
he studied architecture at Rome and Athens, where he was led 
by the theories of Pennethorne to determine the hyperbolic curve 
of the entasis of the columns of the Parthenon. Pie resumed his 
measurements in the following season under the auspices of the 
Society of Dilettanti, and the results were published in The 
Principles of Athenian Architecture^. An expert in Astronomy, he 
elaborately investigated the orientation of Greek Temples. He 
was the first director of the British School of Archaeology at 
Athens, where his name is commemorated in the Penrose Memorial 
Library. 

In the field of Roman Archaeology, Robert Burn (1829 — 1 904), 
of Shrewsbury and of Trinity College, Cambridge, produced 
a comprehensive work on Rome and the Campagna (187 1), which, 
at the time of its publication, was the best book on the subject in 
English, and bears ample evidence of careful study of the 
classical authors and the modern topographical literature. This 
work was succeeded by that of the Oxford bookseller, John 
Henry Parker (1806 — 1884), whose Archaeology of Rome appeared 
in 1 874^-6, and, ultimately, by the two volumes of the Remains of 
Ancient Rome, revised and enlarged in 1892 by John Henry 
Middleton (1846 — 1896) of Exeter College, Oxford, and Director 
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. 

The study of classical archaeology has been fostered in England 
by the foundation of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic 
Studies(i879), and bythe institution of the British School of Archae- 
ology at Athens (i883f) and at Rome (1901). Early in the nine- 
teenth century the pure scholarship of the Porsonian school was 
1 1851, enlarged ed. 1888. 



CHAP. XLVIIl] LITERARY DISCOVERIES 419 

still in the ascendant. At the end of its first quarter, in the fancy of 
a writer who failed to forecast the future, the ' last rays ' of English 
scholarship 'were seen to linger on the deathbed of Dobree'\ 
But, since that date, much has been done for the accurate study 
of Greek and Latin literature; the ancient Classics have also been 
popularised by means of admirable modern renderings of the 
great master-pieces ; the Greek drama has been revived ; new 
periodicals have been founded for promoting and for recording 
the advance of classical research. Late in 1903 we have seen the 
birth of the Classical Association, which aims at ' promoting the 
development and maintaining the well-being of classical studies ', 
while a new interest in the Classics has also been aroused by the 
triumphant progress of classical archaeology. 

Many of the charred rolls of Greek papyri discovered at 
Herculaneum in 1752, including fragments of Literary 
Epicurus and Philodemus, were published, not only discoveries 
at Naples in and after 1793, but also at Oxford in 1824 and 
1 89 1. Private and public enterprise has since discovered a large 
variety of papyri from the sands of Egypt. The first of the 
literary papyri to come to light was the last book of the Iliad, 
acquired by W. J. Bankes in 1821, and fragments of many other 
portions of the Homeric poems were afterwards found ; but a far 
keener interest was awakened by the recovery of lost Classics. The 
two parts of a large roll containing three of the speeches of Hype- 
reides were independently obtained in 1847, and the same orator's 
Funeral Oration in 1856. About 1890 the British Museum 
acquired a remarkable series of literary papyri, including part of the 
Philippides of Hypereides, the 'AdrjvaLoyv TroAireia of Aristotle, and the 
Mimes of Herodas, followed in 1896-7 by the Odes of Bacchylides. 
Scholars awoke to find themselves living in a new age of editiones 
principes. Paeans of Pindar, plays of Menander, and a large part 
of a satyric drama by Sophocles, have since been discovered on 
the site of Oxyrhynchus. 

1 Church of England Quarterly Kevietu, v (1839) 145. 



27—: 



CHAPTER XLIX 

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

The earliest centre of classical learning in the New World was 
Colleges and Harvard College, founded at Newtown near Boston 
Universities [^ 1 63 6, and deriving its name from John Harvard 
of Emmanuel (1607 — 1638). On May 2, 1638, four months 
before the death of John Harvard, Newtown assumed the name 
of Cambridge, in memory of the university with which many of the 
colonists were connected. 

Next, in order of time, came the old ' College of William 
and Mary', founded in 1693 at Williamsburg, the ancient 
capital of Virginia. The College was burnt down in 1705, 
restored in 171 1, destroyed in the Civil War, reopened in 
1865, and made a state-institution in 1906. It now has only 
240 students, but it has been the Alma Mater of statesmen, 
including four Presidents of the United States. Then followed 
the 'collegiate school of Connecticut', founded at Saybrook in 
1 701, and transferred to New Haven in 17 16, which in 1718 
took the name of ' Yale College ' from its benefactor Elihu Yale. 
Princetown, founded elsewhere in 1746, was transferred to its 
present home in 1757. In Philadelphia, at the instance of 
Benjamin Franklin, an Academy was founded in 1751, and, 
forty years later, was merged into the ' University of Pennsyl- 
vania '. In 1754, George II founded in New York an institution 
known as King's College until 1787, when its name was changed 
into Columbia College, reorganised as a university in 1890. 
These were the six earliest centres of learning in the United 
States. The sixth was soon followed by the Brown university, 
now established at Providence, Rhode Island (originally founded 
elsewhere in 1764). 



CHAP. XLIX] COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 42 1 

Among the universities founded in the nineteenth century 
may be mentioned those of Virginia at Charlottesville (18 19), of 
Michigan at Ann Arbor (1837), of Wisconsin at Madison (1849), 
the Cornell university at Ithaca (1865), that of California at 
Berkeley (1868), the Johns Hopkins university in Baltimore (1876), 
the Leland Stanford at Palo x\lto (1891), and, lastly, that of Chicago 
(1892). There are also between 400 and 500 universities or 
colleges of varying degrees of importance. The model for the 
old Colleges was mainly derived from England, that for the 
modern Universities mainly from Germany. 

We may now mention a few of the more prominent classical 
scholars, with some notice of their published writings, so far as 
they come within the scope of the present work. 

At Boston in 1836 a 'Greek and English Lexicon to the New 
Testament' was produced by an able scholar, Edward 

. Robinson 

Robinson (1794 — 1863), who m 1826-30 studied 

at Halle and also in Berlin, and, for the last twenty-six years of 

his life, was a professor of Biblical Literature in New York. 

Early in the century, as we are assured by a highly cultivated 
native of Boston, George Ticknor (1791 — 1871), 
' a copy of Euripides in the original could not be 
bought at any bookseller's shop in New England '\ In the 
course of his travels he met many eminent scholars, and, after 
four years of study in Germany, France, Italy, and Spain, de- 
livered at Harvard, as professor of the French and Spanish 
Languages and Literatures, an inaugural oration described as 
the ' utterance of the dpest scholarship America could then 
boast ' ^. 

Among Ticknor's fellow-students at Gottingen was his life- 
long friend, Edward Everett (1794 — 1865). As a 
young man of high promise, he had been appointed 
Ehot professor of Greek at Harvard in 181 5, on the understanding 
that he spent some time studying in Europe before entering on 
his professorial duties. He remained at Gottingen for two years, 
and he also travelled in Greece. In 18 19 he entered on his duties 
as a professor ; and, in that capacity, produced a translation of 

1 Ticknor's Life of Prescott^ P- I3» ed. 1904. 
"^ G. S. Hillard's Life of Ticknor^ i 320. 



422 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA [CENT. XIX 

Buttmann's Greek Grammar (1822) and a new edition of Jacobs' 
Greek Reader. He resigned his professorship for a poHtical career 
in 1826, represented the United States in London in 184 1-5, and 
was Secretary of State in 1852. His reputation mainly rests on 
the stately eloquence of his orations. 

Among the Greek professors at Harvard, Cornelius Conway 
Felton (1807 — 1862) held that position from 1834 
to i860, and was President of Ha.rvard for the two 
remaining years of his life. He annotated Wolf's text of the 
Iliad, with Flaxman's illustrations (1833, etc.), and also edited the 
Clouds and Birds of Aristophanes, the Agamemnon of Aeschylus, 
and \hQ Panegyricus oi Isocrates. He produced in 1849 ^ volume 
on ' Classical Studies ', including selections from the corre- 
spondence of several Dutch scholars. During his first visit to 
Europe (1853-4), he spent five months in Greece, and in 1856 
he published his ' Selections from modern Greek Writers '. His 
popular lectures on ' Greece, Ancient and Modern ', display his 
keen enthusiasm for the old Greek world. He was familiar with 
German literature and with the works of German scholars, but 
he refers more frequently to Heyne, Mitscherlich, and Wolf than 
to Hermann. 

Felton's exact contemporary, Evangelinus Apostolides So- 

E. A. phocles (1807 — 1883), emigrated to the New 

Sophocles ^Q^\^ in 1828. He taught Greek at Yale (1837 f) 
and for many years at Harvard (1840 — 1883), where he was 
appointed professor of Ancient, Byzantine, and Modern Greek 
in i860. Of his publications, the most successful was his Greek 
Grammar (1828 etc.), while the most important was his Greek 
Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods^. 

As professor of Greek he was succeeded in i860 by W. W. 
Goodwin (183 1 — 1912), the well-known author of 

Goodwin ^ ^ J n 

the ' Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the Greek 
Verb'^, who held the professorship until 1901. His 'Greek 
Grammar' passed through several editions between 1870 and 
1892. His admirable editions of the speeches of Demosthenes 
De Corona and Against Midias were published by the Syndics of 

1 1870, and 1887. 

^ 1859 etc.; rewritten and enlarged, 1889. 



CHAP. XLIX] HARVARD 423 

the Cambridge University Press. He also published a valuable 
treatise on the Agamemnon of Aeschylus. In 1882-3, as the first 
director of the American School at Athens, he prepared an im- 
portant paper on the Battle of Salamis, and finally dealt with the 
same subject in the Harvard Studies for 1906 \ 

John Henry Wright (185 2-1 908), who studied at Leipzig in 
1876-78, and was professor of Greek at Harvard 

, .1 , J- ^- Wright 

from 1887 to 1908, has been described by a veteran 
scholar as one 'whose life and work were an example to the 
younger generation '^ In 1888 he argued in favour of placing 
Cylon's attempt to seize the tyranny at Athens before, instead of 
after, the legislation of Dracon (621 B.C.); and in 1891 this 
opinion was confirmed on the recovery of Aristotle's Constitution 
of Athens'^. 

The Latin professorship at Harvard was held from 1832 to 
1851 by Carl Beck (1798— 1866), who had Hved 
in Germany for the first twenty-six years of his life. 
In 1846, on the eve of a visit to Europe, that fine Petronian 
scholar declared that ' he had never before had a pupil who could 
write Latin as well as Lane '. The pupil in ques- 
tion, George Martin Lane (1823 — 1897), took the 
professor's place for a single term ' with entire success'. In 1847, 
like Ticknor and Everett and Bancroft, he left for Germany, 
where he spent four years, attending the lectures of Schneidewin 
and K. F. Hermann at Gottingen, and those of Ritschl at Bonn, as 
well as courses at Berlin and Heidelberg. His review of an edition 
of Plautus in 1853 has been described by his biographer as 'pro- 
bably the first recognition ' in America ' of the results of Ritschl's 
studies'. He was Latin professor from 1851 to 1894. 'As a 
teacher', he 'had all that fine literary appreciation which 
characterizes the English school, combined, however, with the 
minute and exact knowledge of the Germans '. The chief work of 
his life was his excellent Latin Grammar^ completed and published 
in 1898 by his former pupil, professor Morris H. Morgan ; and 

^ Cp. H. W. Smyth in Harvard Graduates' Magazine, xxi, no. 81, pp. 
22—30. 

2 A.f. P. xxix 498. 

^ Cp. Haj-vard Studies, iii (1892) i — 74. 



424 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA [CENT. XIX 

it was mainly owing to his pamphlet of 187 1 that a reformed 
pronunciation of Latin was adopted in all the Colleges and 
Schools of the United States \ 

Lane's colleague as professor of Latin was James Bradstreet 
Greenough (1833— 1901), who held one of the 

Greenough \ ^ j ^ n 

two professorships of Latin for nearly twenty years 
(1883— 1901). 

He was the first to lecture on Sanskrit and Comparative Philology at 
Harvard (1872-80), and his services in fostering those studies ' the historian 
of American learning will not fail to recognise ' 2. He embodied the main 
results of his studies and discoveries in his contributions to the text-books 
known as (J. H.) ' Allen and Greenough's Latin Series'. Among these were 
his independent editions of Horace's Satires and Epistles, and Livy i, 11. His 
originality in the analysis of linguistic forms is exemplified in his essay on 
Latin Stem Formation in the tenth volume of those Studies, a series founded 
and in part edited by himself. 

The first professor of Classical Philology at Harvard was 
Frederic de Forest Allen (1844 — 1807), who, in 1868 

F. D. Allen . \ -tt j i /■> i 

-70, Studied under Georg Curtius at Leipzig, where 
he obtained his degree by a thesis on the dialect of the Locrians. 
He was professor of Ancient Languages at Cincinnati in 1874-9, 
and, after a busy year at Yale, became professor at Harvard for 
the remaining seventeen years of his life. In 1885-6 he was in 
charge of the American School at Athens ; in 189 1-2 he studied 
the scholia of Plato at Oxford and Paris, with a view to an edition, 
which he did not live to complete. 

It was during his time at Cincinnati that he prepared an excellent edition 
of the Medea (1876), and also a compact and comprehensive hand-book of 
Remnants of Early Latiti (1880), the value of which has been recognised in 
England and Germany. He produced the music for the performance of 
the Fhormio at Harvard in 1894, and it has been said of him by Professor 
Seymour that ' probably no other American scholar understood ancient Greek 
music so well as he ' -^ 

Latin scholarship at Harvard lost much by the death of Minton 
Warren (1850 — 1907), who, after holding scholastic appointments 

1 Memoir (with portrait) by Morris H. Morgan, in Harvard Studies, ix 
I — 12. 

2 Harvard Studies, xiv 10. 

^ A.J. P. xviii 375. Cp. /l/<?w^/VbyJ. B. Greenough m Harvard Sttuiies, 
ix 27—36. 



CHAP. XLIX] HARVARD 425 

for three years in the United States, pursued the advanced study 
of Comparative Philology and other subjects at Minton 

Leipzig, Bonn and Strassburg, where the bent of the Warren 

rest of his life was determined by the influence of the school of 
Ritschl. From 1879 to 1899 he presided over the advanced and 
graduate instruction in Latin at the Johns Hopkins university; 
in 1896-7 he was director of the American School in Rome; 
and in 1899 was appointed Latin professor at Harvard. From 
his College-days in Germany to his death he was mainly occupied 
in collecting materials for a critical edition of Terence, in which 
he was latterly associated with Prof Hauler and Prof. Kauer of 
Vienna. 'No American Latinist can point to a larger number... 
of able and productive scholars in his own field, who, if not 
members of his school, at least owed to him their inspiration 
and their method '\ 

Morris H. Morgan (1859 — 191 o) closed his career as a Greek 
and Latin scholar at Harvard by holding the pro- 

M. H. Morgan 

fessorship of Classical Philology from 1899 to 
19 10. He not only produced an excellent edition of Select 
Speeches of Lysias, and an admirable rendering of Xenophon's 
Treatise on Horsemanships but he was also a specialist on the Biblio- 
graphy of Persius and on the Language of Vitruvius. 

Harvard has taken a leading part in the modern revival of 
the Attic drama. It was there that in May, 1881, after seven 
months of preparation, the Oedipus Tyrannus was admirably acted 
in the original Greek^. Since then we have had the memorable 
performance of Agamemnon by members of the university of 
Oxford, the impressive and stimulating series of Greek plays 
at Cambridge, and the singularly interesting representations amid 
the idyllic surroundings of Bradfield ; while, at Harvard itself, the 
Oedipus Tyrannus of 1881 has been succeeded by the Agamemnon 
of 1906. 

The Greek Professorship at Yale was held from 1831 to 
1846 by Theodore Dwight Woolsey (t8oi — 1889), 
a graduate of Yale, who had studied for three years 

1 Cp. Prof. Wright in A.f. P. Dec. 1907, 489. 

2 Henry Norman's Harvard Greek Play (1882); cp. Jebb's Introd. to Oed. 
Tyr. p. 1 f. 



426 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA [CENT. XIX 

in France, as well as in Germany, where he attended the lectures 
of Welcker, Hermann and Boeckh at Bonn, Leipzig^ and Berlin 
respectively. During his tenure of the professorship, he edited 
the Antigone and Eledra of Sophocles, as well as the Alcestis^ the 
Prometheus^ and the Gorgias. As professor of Greek, he had an 
able successor in James Hadley (182 1 — 1872), who 
had also a genius for mathematics, and lectured 
with success on Roman Law. His best-known work was his 
Greek Grammar. His ' Essays Philological and Critical' (1873) 
were edited after his death by his distinguished colleague William 
Dwight Whitney, who generously described him as 'America's 
best and soundest philologist '. 

Hadley was succeeded by Lewis Richard Packard (1836 — 
1884), who studied in Berlin, and visited Greece 



(1857-8), and was a professor of Greek at Yale from 
1863 to 1884. In conjunction with Prof. J. W. White of Harvard, 
he projected the ' College Series of Greek authors ', afterwards 
edited by Professors White and Seymour. He produced a con- 
siderable variety of essays and lectures, which were posthumously 
collected under the title of ' Studies in Greek Thought '. 

W. D. Whitney (1827 — 1894), a member of a family remark- 
^^ -Q able for scholarly attainments and achievements, 

Whitney studied Sanskrit under Edward E. Salisbury at 
Yale in 1849, In 1850 he went to Germany^ spending three 
winter semesters under Weber, Bopp and Lepsius in Berlin^ and 
two summer semesters under Roth in Tiibingen. Salisbury's fore- 
sight and generosity led to Whitney's being appointed professor 
of Sanskrit (1854) and of Comparative Philology at Yale. In 
course of time a graduate school of philology was organised, 
which, shortly after 1870, included some of the ablest of the 
future professors in the United States. 

He published several important Sanskrit texts, and the value of his work 
was recognised by the award of the Bopp prize in 1870, followed by the 
crowning distinction of the Prussian Order of Merit. Meanwhile, he had 
produced his important Sanskrit Grammar. Among his best-known works 
were his Lectures on 'Language and the Study of Language' (1867), his 
' Oriental and Linguistic Studies ' (1872-4), and his volume on the ' Life and 
Growth of Language ' (1875), which was translated into five of the languages of 
Europe. 



CHAP. XLIX] YALE. COLUMBIA 427 

Yale was the university of Martin Kellogg (1828 — 1903), who 
in 1859-93 was professor of Latin first at the 

Kellogg 

College and afterwards at the newly founded uni- 
versity of California, of which he was president from 1893 to 1899. 
He is best known as the editor of an excellent edition of Cicero's 
Bruttis (1889). 

The teaching of Greek at Yale was for 27 years associated 
with the name of Thomas Day Seymour (1848 — 

\ 1 , . . . ^ Seymour 

1907), who spent two years at the universities of 
Leipzig and Berlin, besides travelling in Italy and Greece. He 
held a professorship of Greek at Yale from 1880 to the end of 
his life. Apart from a useful volume of ' Selected Odes of 
Pindar' (1882), his published work was mainly concerned with 
Homer. His ' Life in the Homeric Age ' was the ripe result of 
35 years of Homeric study. He was also the historian of the 
first twenty-five years of the American School at Athens. 

Henry Drisler (181 8 — 1897) held professorial appointments 
in Columbia College for more than fifty years, and, 
in his literary work, devoted himself almost ex- 
clusively to Greek lexicography, preparing American editions of 
Liddell and Scott (185 1-2) and of Yonge's English-Greek Lexicon 
(1858). The esteem in which he was held is attested by the 
volume of 'Classical Studies' dedicated to him in 1894 by nearly 
twenty of his most prominent pupils. 

Charlton Thomas Lewis (1834 — 1904), a graduate of Yale, 
who was for a few years a professor of Greek at Troy 

/ ,  ^ ,  n C.T.Lewis 

near Albany, produced in 1879 a new and revised 
edition of the Latin dictionary (1850) of Dr E. A. Andrews 
(1787 — 1858), another graduate of Yale, who founded his work 
on Wilhelm Freund's abridgement (i834f) of Forcellini. The 
part including all the words beginning with the letter A (216 pp.) 
was the work of Charles Lancaster Short (1821-86), professor of 
Latin in Columbia College, New York (1868 f). Charlton Lewis 
was a busy lawyer in New York, who was only able to devote his 
early mornings to the completion of his laborious task. ' Lewis 
and Short ' ^ was recognised by Nettleship as ' a real advance on 

1 'Harper's Latin Dictionary' (1879); also published by Clarendon Press, 
Oxford (1880). 



428 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA [CENT. XIX 

any previous Latin-English dictionary ', without embodying ' much 
of the results of modern research ' \ 

The professorship of Greek Archaeology and Epigraphy in 
. Columbia College was held in 1889-94 by Augustus 

Chapman Merriam (1843 — 1895), who was on the 
staff for nearly twenty-seven years. He edited, with notes and 
illustrations, 'the Phaeacian episode in the Odyssey^ (1880), and 
was director of the American School at Athens in 1887-8. He 
was the first scholar in the United States to devote himself mainly 
to classical archaeology. 

New York was the scene of the last six years of the scholarly 
life of Mortimer Lamson Earle (1864 — 1905), 
professor of Classical Philology at Columbia in 
1899 — ^905- H^ edited the Alcestis and Medea (1894, 1904) 
and the Oedipus Tyrannus (1901), while his latest work was an 
elaborate study of the composition of the first Book of Thucy- 
dides. His 'Classical Papers' were collected and published in 
1912. 

Among the Classical Institutions of the United States may be 
Classical mentioned the 'American Philological Association', 
periodicals founded in New York in 1868, which publishes 
Proceedings and Transactions. The American Journal of Philology^ 
founded at Baltimore in 1880, has been ably edited ever since by 
Professor Gildersleeve (b. 1831), whose paper on Oscillations and 
Nutations of Philological Studies is an interesting chapter in the 
History of Scholarship I The Harvard Studies ift Classical 
Philology have been pubHshed annually since 1890, and similar 
volumes have been published from time to time in connexion with 
Cornell and Columbia and the university of Pennsylvania. Two 
new periodicals, The Classical Journal and Classical Philology^ 
were started at Chicago in 1906. 

The Archaeological Institute of America (1879) has founded 

The Schools ^^ American Schools of Classical Studies at 

at Athens Athens (1881) and at Rome (189 s). Early in 

and Rome , \ , \ ^0/ .^ 

19 1 3 the latter became a part of the new American 
Academy in Rome. 

1 Academy^ xvii 199. 

^ fohns Hopkins University Circulai's, no. 150, March, 1901, 13 pp. 



CHAP. XLIX] ATHENS. ALEXANDRIA. ROME 429 

The School at Athens has had a most salutary effect on the 
staff of all the American educational institutions that have contri- 
buted to its original existence and to its continued prosperity. 




Medallion of the American School of Classical Studies 

AT Athens {1881). 

Panathenaic Vase, with olive-wreath and inscription, irapdhov 0tXas 0t\ot, 

Aesch. Eum. 1000. 

The Panathenaic vase on the medallion of the American 
School at Athens marks the close of our survey 

Retrospect 

of the two thousand five hundred years which began 

with the recitation of the Homeric poems at the Panathenaic 

festivals of the age of Solon. In the course of 

1 1 1 • n -111- Athenian age 

that survey we have briefly reviewed the history 
of the early study of poetry, the rise of rhetoric, and the 
beginnings of grammar and etymology, in the Athenian age. 
From Athens we have turned to Alexandria with Alexandrian 
its learned librarians, and its scholarly critics of ^^^ 

Homer and of other ancient poets. From Alexandria we have 
passed to Pergamon, and have taken note of the grammar of the 
Stoics, and of the influence of Pergamon on the literary studies 
of Rome. In the Roman age we have followed 
the fortunes of Latin scholarship from 169 B.C. to 
529 A. D. In Greek literature we have surveyed the literary 
criticism and the. verbal scholarship of the first century of the 
Empire, the grammar and lexicography of the second century, 
and, in the third, the writings of Diogenes Laertius, and of 
Porphyry. At the end of the first quarter of the fourth century 
we have seen Constantinople come into being as a new centre of 
Greek learning. We have witnessed the end of the Roman age 



430 THE MIDDLE AGES 

in 529A.D., — the memorable year in which the school of Athens 
was closed by Justinian in the East, and the monastery of Monte 
Cassino founded by St Benedict in the West. 

We have since traversed the eight centuries of the Middle 
Ages. Bec^inning with the East, we have noticed 

Middle Ages ,*. ^ ^. , \ , ^ 

the important services rendered by Byzantine 
scholars in the careful preservation and the studious interpretation 
of the Greek Classics. Turning to the West, we have seen in the 
monks of Ireland the founders of the monasteries of Bobbio and 
St Gallen. We have watched the revival of classical learning in 
the age of Charles the Great ; in the middle of the ninth century, 
we have marked the keen interest in the Latin Classics displayed 
by Servatus Lupus, the abbot of Ferrieres, and, near its close, we 
have hailed ' our first translator ' in the person of king Alfred. In 
the tenth century we have seen learning flourishing anew in the 
ancient capital of Aachen, and have elsewhere found in Gerbert of 
Aurillac the foremost scholar of his generation. We have identified 
the tenth and the eleventh centuries as the golden age of St Gallen. 
We have marked the rise of the age-long conflict between 
Realism and Nominalism in the twelfth century, the century in 
which' the school of Paris was represented by Abelard and that of 
Chartres by the preceptors of John of Salisbury. The thirteenth 
century was (we may remember) made memorable by ' the new 
Aristotle ', by the great schoolmen, Albertus Magnus and Thomas 
Aquinas, by translators such as William of Moerbeke, by Roger 
Bacon and Duns Scotus and William of Ockham, and finally by 
Dante, the date of whose great poem marks the close of the 
century, while the date of his death may well be regarded as the 
end of the Middle Ages. Lastly, we have traced the survival of each 
of the Latin Classics in the age beginning with the close of the 
Rornan age in 529 and ending with the death of Dante in 1321. 
At the Revival of Learning we have found in Petrarch ' the 
first of modern men', and the discoverer of Cicero's 

Revival of ^ • • • ^ r 

Learning Letters to Atticus \ in Boccaccio, the first student 

of Greek, and in Chrysoloras, the first public 

perio^d^of" professor of that language in Western Europe. 

schoiarsh^i ^^ havc watchcd the recovery of the Latin Classics 
by Poggio and his contemporaries, and that of the 



CHAP. XLIX] THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. CENT. XVI 43 1 

Greek Classics by Italian travellers in the East and by Greeks 
who fled for refuge to Italy, even before the fall of Constantinople. 
We have recorded the rise of the study of classical archaeology, 
the foundation of the Academies of Florence, Naples, Rome and 
Venice, and the publication of the editiones prmcipes of the Greek 
and Latin Classics by Aldus Manutius, and by other scholarly 
printers in Italy. We have seen the ' golden age ' of Leo X 
followed, under another Medicean Pope, by the sack of Rome in 
1527, an event which marks the close of the Revival of Learning 
in Italy. In the Italian age of scholarship the chief aim (as we 
have noticed) has been the ipiitatton of classical models of style 
and of life. 

An important link between the Revival of Learning in Italy 
and its diffusion in Europe has been found in the 

, , . r ^ • Erasmus 

Widely extended mfluence of the cosmopolitan 

scholar, Erasmus. The sixteenth century in Italy Century xvi, 

includes the names of Victorius and Robortelli, of ,^ , 

' Italy 

Sigonius and Muretus ; it is marked by a special 
interest in Aristotle's treatise On the Art of Poetry^ and also by 
the eager study of classical archaeology. The 
French period of classical learning, with its many- 
sided erudition^ begins with Budaeus, the inspirer The French 
of the foundation of the College de France. ^^"° 

Budaeus is soon followed by the printer-scholars Robert and 
Henri Estienne, the authors of the great Thesauri of Latin and 
of Greek. The elder Scaliger, an immigrant from Italy, is suc- 
ceeded by Lambinus, by the younger and greater Scaliger, and by 
Casaubon. 

In the Netherlands the influence of Erasmus is best seen in 
his fostering of the Collegium Trilingue of Louvain. 

T , -11 1 1 r 1 • r Netherlands 

In the period between 1400 and the foundation of 
the university of Leyden in 1575, the interests of Greek scholar- 
ship are represented by Canter who died in 1575, and those of 
Latin by Lipsius, who lived on to 1606. In 
England the study of Greek was begun in the 
fifteenth century by the Benedictine monk, William of Selling, and 
was continued by his nephew, Linacre, and by Grocyn, and, in the 
sixteenth century, by Sir John Cheke and his contemporaries. In 



432 CENTURIES XVII AND XVIII 

Scotland, during the same century, the foremost name in scholar- 
ship was that of Buchanan. The spread of learning in Germany is 
associated with the names of Agricola and Reuchlin, 

Germany 

followed by those of able and industrious preceptors 
such as Melanchthon and Camerarius^ and of erudite editors such 
as Xylander and Sylburg. 

The seventeenth century in Italy has proved to be mainly an 

Century XVII, ^8^ of archacologists and of imitators of the Latin 

Italy poets. In France its greatest names are Salmasius, 

France Du Cangc, and Mabillon. In the Netherlands 

Netherlands Lipsius was succcedcd in 1393 by Scaliger at 

Leyden, which was also the principal scene of the labours of 

Salmasius. In the period between 1575 and 1700, the natives of 

the Netherlands included Gerard Vossius and Meursius, the elder 

and the younger Heinsius, with Gronovius, Graevius, and Peri- 

zonius. In the seventeenth century in England we 

England . . 

have had Savile and Gataker and Selden, with the 
Cambridge Platonists. Towards the close we have seen the stars 
of Dodwell and of Barnes beginning to grow pale before the rising 
of the sun of Bentley. In the same century in 
Germany we have a link with England and the 
Netherlands in the name of Gruter. Improved text-books are 
associated with the name of Cellarius. 

The eighteenth century in Italy is marked, in Latin lexico- 
graphy, by the great name of Forcellini ; in Greek 
x^viiif chronology, by Corsini, and, in Italian history, by 

Italy Muratori. In France the foundations of Greek 

palaeography were laid down by Montfaucon, while 
a knowledge of the old Greek world was popu- 
larised by Barthelemy. Alsace was the home of able scholars, 
such as Brunck and Schweighauser. The century closes with 
_ , , Villoison, whose publication of the Venetian Scholia 

England ^ 

to the Iliad led to the opening of a new era in 

and Dutch Homcric controvcrsy. In England, in the first half 

^^"° of the century, our greatest name is that of Bentley, 

and in the second that of Porson. It is the age of historical and 

literary, as well as verbal, criticism. 

In the Netherlands, the native land of learned Latinists, it 



CHAP. XLIX] CENTURY XIX 433 

was under the influence of Bentley that Hemsterhuys attained his 
mastery of Greek. Hemsterhuys handed on the 

Netherlands 

tradition to Valckenaer and to Ruhnken, who m 
his turn was succeeded by Wyttenbach. The friendly relations 
between the English and Dutch scholars of this age have led to 
the eighteenth century being regarded as the English and Dutch 
period of scholarship. 

Meanwhile, Germany is represented by the learned Fabricius, 
by the lexicographers Gesner, Scheller and J. G. 
Schneider, by the Latin scholar Ernesti, and the 
self-taught Greek scholar Reiske. An intelligent interest in the 
history and criticism of ancient art is awakened by Winckelmann 
and Lessing ; Herder becomes one of the harbingers of the New 
Humanism ; and a new enthusiasm for classical learning is 
aroused by Heyne at Gottingen. 

Late in the eighteenth century the Homeric controversy is 
raised anew by F. A. Wolf, and is carried on with varying fortunes 
during the whole of the nineteenth century. 

The whole of that century belongs to the German period, which 
is characterised by the systematic or encyclopaedic type of classical 
learning embodied in the term Alterthiimswissenchaft. 

The early part of the century is the age of Wolf's contem- 
poraries, Humboldt and the Schlegels ; of Heeren centur xix 
and Niebuhr, Schleiermacher and Heindorf, Butt- 
mann and Bekker. After the death of Wolf G^'-'^any 
two rival schools of classical learning confront one The German 
another in the grammatical and critical school of penod 

Hermann, and the historical and antiquarian school of Boeckh. 
The school and the traditions of Hermann are represented in 
part by Lobeck, Meineke, Lachmann, Ritschl and Ribbeck, 
Sauppe and Blass. The school of Boeckh, who had been pre- 
ceded by Niebuhr and had Welcker for his great contemporary, 
is ably represented by his pupils K. O. Miiller and Bernhardy. 
Among independent scholars with a certain affinity with this 
school are the archaeologists, Jahn (a pupil of Hermann, as 
well as of Boeckh), and Brunn and Furtwangler; the historians, 
Curtius and Mommsen; the geographers, Kiepert and Bursian; 
palaeographers such as Traube ; investigators of ancient religions 
s. H. 28 



434 CENTURY XIX 

such as Usener and Rohde. In the Science of Language the 

principal names include Bopp and Benfey, Corssen and G. 

Curtius, Schleicher and Steinthal, and the ' New Grammarians ' 

of the present generation. In France the foremost 

names have been those of Boissonade and Quicherat, 

Egger and Thurot, Riemann and Graux, together with a long line 

of geographers, historians and archaeologists, whose work has 

been largely inspired by the French School of Athens. Classical 

archaeology has in fact proved the main strength, and the very 

salvation of French scholarship. In Holland, the 

greatest name has been that of Cobet, while Belgium 

is best represented by Thonissen and Willems, and 

Scandinavia 

the Scandinavian nations by Madvig. In Eneland 

England . . J b & 

the beginning and the end of the century have 
been marked at Cambridge by the names of Porson and Jebb. 
at Oxford by those of Elmsley and Monro, while the outer world 
United States claims the great name of Grote. In the United 
of America Statcs of America Greek was well represented at 
Harvard by Goodwin and others, and at Yale by Seymour, 
whose latest publication dealt with the earliest possible theme 
of classical study. Life in the Homeric Age. The present work 
began with the study of Homer, and with the study of Homer 
it ends. 

Addendum to p. 406, /. 4 

As Regius Professor of Greek at Oxford, Jowett was succeeded 
by Ingram By water (1840 — 19 14), Fellow and Tutor of Exeter, 
^^^ Reader in Greek from 1883 to 1893, and Professor 
^^ ^ from 1893 to 1908. He attained an European reputa- 

tion by his critical edition of the Fragments of Heraclitus (1873). 
He also produced an edition of the early Peripatetic, Priscianus 
Lydus (1886), and critical texts of Aristotle's Ethics^ and Poetics^ 
followed by a complete edition of the latter (1897). One of the 
most learned and scholarly of modern Hellenists, he was an eager 
and judicious collector of early printed and rare Greek books. 
His latest contribution to the Journal of Philology was an erudite 
article on 'The Latinizations of the modern surname', pleading 
for the retention of the Latin names by which the classical 
scholars of Europe were best known by their learned contem- 
poraries. 



INDEX 



MA stands for Middle Ages. 

An index figure added to a date {e.g. 1890'*) denotes the number of the 
edition to which reference is made. 



Abbo of Fleury, 135 

Abel, Eugen, 393 

Abo, university of, 386 

Academies of Florence, 188 f; Naples, 
191 ; Rome, 191 f 

Accentuation, 38 

Accius, L., 54 

Aero, Helenius, 58, 64 

Adam, James, 405 

Adamantius, 174 

Aegina, 358 

Aelfric, abbot of Eynsham, 125 

Aeschylus, 3, 11; Laurentian MS, 
175; ed. Robortelli (1552), 209; 
Victorius, 209, 217; Stanley, 251; 
Heath, 270; Porson, 275; Schiitz, 
302; Hermann, 322; Blomfield, 
396; Scholefield, 396; Paley, 400; 
Weil, 370; Wecklein; Supplices, 
Oberdick, Tucker ; 5.C.7:, Verrall, 
404; Agam., Choeph., Emn. ed. 
Wecklein, Wilamowitz, Verrall, 
404; Agam., Choeph. ed. Peile, 397; 
Conington, 407; Agam. ed. Ken- 
iisdy, 397, Headlam,405 ; Eum. ed. 
K. O. Miiller, 353, J. F. Davies, 
Sidgwick ; Choeph. , Eum. Blass ; 
Persae, Prickard ; P. V. Sikes-Will- 
son; revival of Agamemnon, 425; 
verse transl. Miss Swanwick, Lewis 
Campbell; Oresteia and Supplices, 
Morshead 

Aesop, in MA, 151; 211, 266, 271 

Aetna, ed. Munro, 409; Ellis, 412 

Agricola, Rodolphus, 232 

Ahrens, Heinrich Ludolf, 333 

Albertus Magnus, 133; 132 

Alcuin, 119 f 

Aldhelm, 117 



Alexander Aetolus, 35; Alexander of 

Aphrodisias, 85; of Hales, 132; of 

Villedieu, 156 
Alexandre, Charles, 368 
Alexandria, 30 f ; museum, 30 ; 

libraries, 3 1 ; Alexandria and Per- 

gamon, 51 f 
Alexandrian age, 30-46; 51 f; 

libraries, 31-33; librarians, 34- 

43 ; canon, 40 
Alfanus, 126 
Alfarabi, 95 
Alfred, (1) the Great, 123; {2) Alfred 

'the Englishman', 131 
Alkendi, 95 
Allegory, 5, 48, 102 
Allen, F. D., 424 
Alphabet, Greek, 20-2, 74 
Alsace, 262 
Amalrich, 127 

America, United States of, uni- 
versities etc., 420-9 ; classical 

periodicals, 428 
Ammianus Marcellinus, 170 
Ammonius, (i) pupil of Aristarchus, 

43 ; (2) neoplatonist, 88 ; (3) on 

Synonyms, 89 
Anacreon [ed. 1554), 217 
Analogy, 39,41, 56; ' false analogy ', 

352 
Andely, Henri d'. Battle of the Seven 

Arts, 159 f; ed. L. J. Paetow, 

1914 
Andocides, ed. Blass, Lipsius ; De 

Mystcriis (Plickie) and De Reditu, 

Marchant 
Andrews, E. A., 427 
Andronicus Callistus, 175 
Anomaly, 39, 51, 56 

28—2 



436 



INDEX 



Anselm, 126 

Anthology, Greek, (i) of Cephalas, 

1055 "237; (2) of Planudes, 105, 

187, 245; ed. Jacobs (1794-1814; 

181 3-7); Dubner-Cougny {1864- 

90) ; A nth. Palatina, i-ix, ed. 

Stadtmiiller (i 894-1 906) 
Anthology, Latin, ed. Bucheler-Riese 

(1894-97) 
Antigonus of Carystos, 49 
Antimachus, 8 

Antiphon, ed. Blass-Thalheim, 1914 
Antisthenes, 24 
Antithesis, 15 
Apollodorus of Athens, 43 
Apollonius, (i) Rhodius, 37; 36, 40; 

Laurentian MS, 175; ed. princeps, 

187; ed. Merkel (18542), Seaton 

(1900), Mooney (19 12) ; transl. 

A. S. Way (1901), Seaton (1912); 

(2) ' the classifier', 41 ; (3) Dyscolus, 

79, ed. Bekker, 317 
Arabian study of Aristotle, 94 f 
Archaeologists, Classical, 292, 353, 

366, 372, 381, 384. 416-8 
Archer-Hind, R. D., 403 f 
Architecture, 366, 418 
Arethas, 98 
Argyropulos, 183 
Aristarchus, 41 f; [74, 328 
Aristophanes, 7; ed. princeps, 187; 

ed. Bekker, 317; Dindorf, 331; 

Hold en, 401; Blaydes (1880-93); 

van Leeuwen (L. B. 1 885-1908) ; 

PliiHis, ed. Hemsterhuys, 280 ; 

Acharnians, W. G. Clark, 400; 

Merry ; Starkie ; Aves., Merry ; Eqtd- 

tes, Merry, Niel, 404 ; Niibes, Ratiae, 

Merry; Vespae, Merry, Graves, 
» Starkie; Concordance, Dunbar; 

transl. Frere [Ach., Eq., Aves); 

Rogers ; Scholia Aristophanica, ed. 

Rutherford, 407 
Aristophanes of Byzantium, 38; ed. 

Nauck, 340 
Aristotle, on Homer, 8 f; dramatic 
criticism in, 12 f; his criticism of 
poetry, 13; his didascaliae, 13 f; 
Grammar in Ar. 25 f; the fortunes 
of his Mss, 18 f 

expounded by Alexander of Aphro- 
disias, 85, Ammonius, 88, Philo- 
ponus, 88, Simplicius, 88 f, and 
David the Armenian, 89 ; Boethius 
on Aristotle, 68 f ; his translation 
of the Categories and De Inter- 
pretatione, 129, 133 



In Byz. Age, expounded by John 
Italus, 99 f, and Michael of Ephe- 
sus, 100 ; excerpts by Planudes, 
105; studied among Syrians and 
Arabians, 94 f, 129 f 

In MA in the West, 129-136, 138, 
139, 140, 141, 143; C. Wadding- 
ton on, 371 ; in university of 
Paris, 131 f; his Physics (139) 
and Metaphysics, 13 1 f; mediaeval 
translators, 138; in Dante, 143; 
renaissance controversy on Aris- 
totle and Plato, 181 f, 186 

ed. princeps (Ven. 1495-8), 199; 
196; ed. Erasmus (1531), 206; 
Casaubon (1590), 224; Sylburg 
(1584-7), 235; Bekker (Berlin, 
1831), 317; Diihner, Bussemaker 
and Heitz (Paris, 1848-73); 
Categories and De Inter pr eta- 
tione, transl. Notker Labeo, 126; 
Topics, Analytics, and Soph. El. 
transl. by Jacobus Clericus, 129; 
Historia Anivialiufii, transl. 
Gaza, 182, and Trapezuntius, 
184; Oec, Eth., Pol. by Bruni, 
173; Eth., Pol, Oec, De An., 
De Caelo, Argyropulos; Rhet., 
Poet., Eth., Pol. ed. Yictorius, 
207 ; Muretus on Eth., Oec, 
Top. 212; Met. transl. Bessarion, 
182 ; Poet. ed. princeps in Rhetores 
Graeci (1513), 196, 207 ; ed. 
Victorius, 207 ; Robortelli, 209 ; 
its influence in Italy, 207 ; 
ed. Tyrwhitt, 271 ; transl. 
Twining, 271 ; ed. Egger, 369; 
Susemihl(i882); Vahlen (1885^); 
Butcher (1907"'), 404; By water 
(1908); Rhet., ed. princeps in 
Rhetores Graeci (1513), 196; 
transl. Filelfo, 175, Trapezuntius, 
184; Rhet. i, ii, transl. Muretus, 
212; ed. Spengel, 329; Cope, 
399; transl. Jebb (ed. Sandys), 
191 ; Ethics, text. By water ; 
comm. Grant, 406 ; J. A. 
Stewart ; i-iv, Moore ; v, 409 ; 
transl. Peters, Welldon ; Politics, 
ed. Conring (1656) ; Susemihl 
(1872, '79, '82); Eaton, Con- 
greve, Newman, 406 ; transl. 
Jowett, 405, Welldon ; Thurot 
on Rhet., Poet., Pol. etc. 370; 
Constitution of Athens, 19, 99, 
419, 423, ed. Kenyon (1903-*) ; 
Kaibel-Wilamowitz, 341; Pier- 



INDEX 



437 



werden-Leeuwen ; Blass, 342 ; 
Sandys (1912^); Index Aristo- 
telicus by Bonitz, French transl. 
by Saint-Hilaire, 371; Grote on 
Aristotle, 414 
Aristoxenus, 27, 243 ; Harmonics^ ed. 

Macran, Oxford (1903) 
Arnesen, Paul, 385 
Arnold, Thomas, 415 
Art, Ancient, Winckelmann, 293 ; 
Perrot and Chipiez, 372 ; K. O. 
Muller's Archaeology of Art, 354 
Arts, liberal, Varro, 55 ; Martianus 
Capella, 67 ; Arts and Authors, 

i57f 

Ascham, Roger, 230 

Ascoli, Graziadio, 365 

Asconius, 61, 168; ed. A. C Clark 
(1907) 

Asper, Aemilius, 63 

Ast, Georg Anton Friedrich, 329 

Astronomy of the Ancients, G. C. 
Lewis, 415 

Ateius, L., Praetextatus, 56 

Athenaeus, 83; ed. princeps, 188; ed. 
Casaubon, 224 f, Schweighauser, 
263; Kaibel, 341 

Athens, Leake's Athens, 416 f; His- 
tory of the City by Curtius, 359, 
researches on constitutional customs 
by Hartel, 364; School of Athens 
closed by Justinian, 88; university 
(1837), 390; £cole fran^aise (1846), 
372 ; Deutsches archdologisches In- 
stil ut (1874); American School of 
Classical Studies (1882), 423, 427, 
428 f; British School (1886), 401, 
418; Athenian Age, 1-29 

Aurispa, 174; 172 

Ausonius, ed. Schenkl, Peiper ; 
Mosella, ed. De la Ville de 
Mirmont, Hosius 

Averroes, 130, 135, 140, 142 

Avianus, 151; ed. Ellis, 412 

Avicenna, 95, 130, 131, 142 

Babington, Churchill, 400 

Babrius, Tyrwhitt on, 271; ed. Bois- 

sonade (1844), 368; Lachmann and 

Meineke (1845) 5 G. C. Lewis, 415 ; 

Rutherford, 407; M. Croiset (1892); 

O. Crusius (1896) 
Bacchylides, ed. Kenyon (1897) ; Blass 

(1904^); Jebb (1905), 401 
Bacon, (i) Roger, 136 f; 130; 

(2) P^ancis, 249 f 
Badham, Charles, 398; 376 



Baehrens, Emil, 347 

Bagdad, 94 f, 129 

Baiter, Johann Georg, 341 

Balbi, 155 

Baltimore, 421 

Bamberg, 126 

Bankes, W. J., 419 

Barbaro, Francesco, 177 

Barnes, Joshua, 252 

Barthelemy, Jean Jacques, 261 

Barzizza, Gasparino da, 171, 215 

Bast, Friedrich Jacob, 263 

Beck, Carl, 423 

Becker, W. A., 363 

Bede, 117; 123, 150 

Bekker, Immanuel, 316 

Belgium, 379 f, 434 

Benedictine Order, 71 

Benfey, Theodor, 349 

Benndorf, Otto, 358 

Benoist, Eugene, 370 

Bentley, Richard, 265-9 '> portrait, 
264; on Phalaris, 26, 285; on 
Malalas, 94; Burney on, 276; in- 
fluence on Ilemsterhuys, 280, 337, 
378; Lachmann, 336; Haupt, 337; 
Cobet, 377; Life by Monk, 396, 
and by Jebb, 401, 403 

Bergk, Theodor, 331 

Berlin Academy, 287, 317 

Bernard of Chartres, 158 

Bernhardy, Gottfried, 383 

Bessarion, 182; 175 

Biondo, Flavio, 176; 171 

Blackie, John Stuart, 408 

Blagoviestschenski, 391 

Blakesley, Joseph William, 397 

Blass, Friedrich, 342 ; 390 

Blomfield, Charles James and Edward 
Valentine, 396 

Bobbio, 112 f; 71, 173 f, 314, 365 

Boccaccio, 165 f 

Boeckh, August, 323-6; portrait, 324 

Boethius, 68; 123, 128, 133, 150; 
De Consolatione, ed. Peiper; transl. 
H. R. James (1897) 

Boissier, Gaston, 370 

Boissonade, Jean F>an9ois, 368 

Boniface (Winfrid), 117 f 

Boot, L C. G., 378 

Bopp, Franz, 349 

Borghesi, Bartolommeo, 366 

Boyle, Hon. Charles, 266 

Braun, Emil, 356 

Brondsted, Peter Oluf, 381 

Brotier, Gabriel, 26 [ 

Broukhusius, 378 



438 



INDEX 



Brown university, 420 

Brucker, J. J., 287 

Brugmann, Karl, 351 

Brunck, Fran9ois Philippe, 262 

Bruni, Leonardo, 173 

Brunn, Heinrich, 357 

Buchanan, George, 230; 229 

Budaeus, 215 f 

Buecheler, Franz, 347 

Bugge, Sophus, 385 

Bulgaris, Eugenios, 388 

Bullock, Henry, 229 

Burman, Pieter, (i) 277; (2) 279 

Burn, Robert, 418 

Burney, Charles, 276 

Bursian, Conrad, 358 

Busleiden, Jerome, 226 

Bussi, Giovanni Andrea di, 178 

Butcher, Samuel Henry, 404 

Butler, Samuel, 395 

Buttmann, Philipp Karl, 316 

By water, Ingram, 434 

Byzantine age, 92-110; study of the 
Classics, 97, 108 f; preservation of 
the Classics, 108 f; scholars under 
the Palaeologi, 104 f; Byzantine 
scholarship, 106-9 

Caecilius of Calacte, 75 ; 40 
Caesar, on Analogy, 56 ; Caesar and 
the Alexandrian Library, 32 ; Caesar 
in MA, 152; ed. princeps 1469, 
198; ed. 1513, 177; ed. Kraner; 
Bell Gall. Peskett ; transl. E. T. R. 
Holmes ; vii, Compton ; E. T. R. 
Holmes, ' Caesar's Conquest of 
Gaul'; Bell. Civ. Peskett; Lexicon, 
Meusel 
Calepinus, Ambrosius, 255 
California, university of, 421, 427 
Callierges, Zacharias, 188 
Callimachus, 36; 32; ed. princeps, 
187, ed. Graevius and Bentley, 
265; Blomfield, 396; O. Schneider 
(1870); Wilamowitz (1897) 
Calvi, Marco Fabio, 177 
Cambridge, scholars, 229 f. ; 252 ; 
265-270; 395-405; Erasmus at, 
204; ed. Galen, 228; Platonists, 
251 ; Greek plays, 425 ; Leake 
collection of coins, 417 
Camerarius, Joachim, 234 
Campano, Giannantonio, 186 
Campbell, Lewis, 408; 405, 407 
Cange, Charles du Fresne, sieur du, 

237 
Canina, Luigi, 366 



Canter, Willem, 227 

Caper, Flavins, 63 

Casaubon, Isaac, 223 f; 281, 406 

Cassino, Monte, 71, 126, 166 

Cassiodorus, 69 f; in, 145, 363 

Cato, (i) De Agricultural 167; ed. 
Keil; ' Cato's Distichs' in MA, 
151; (2) Valerius Cato, 56 

Catullus in MA, 146; Salutati's MS, 
166; ed. princeps, 190; ed. Haupt, 
337; Robinson Ellis, 41 2; Baehrens; 
Schwabe ; Postgate ; Munro's Elu- 
cidations, 409 ; transl. T. Martin, 
Robinson Ellis 

Cavallin, Christian, 387 

Caylus, Comte de, 261 

Cellarius, Christoph, 253 

Celsus, Mss, 172, 177 ; ed. Daremberg 

Cennini, Bernardo, 195 

Censorinus, 64; ed. Hultsch 

Chalcidius, transl. of Plato's Timaeus, 
129, 143; ed. Wrobel (1876) 

Chalcondyles, Demetrius, 183; por- 
trait, 180 

Chamaeleon, 27 

Charisius, d^, 174 

Charles the Great, 119 f 

Chartres, 158 f 

Cheke, Sir John, 230 

Chicago university, 421 

Choeroboscus, 93 

Choiseul-Gouffier, Comte de, 261 

Christ, (i) J. F., 292; (2) Wilhelm, 340 

Christina, queen of Sweden, 386 

Chronicon Paschale, 93 

Chronology, 43, 67, 86, 222, 414 

Chrysippus, 49; 47 

Chrysoloras, Manuel, ro6 

Cicero, an analogist, 56 ; Cicero in 
MA, 150 f; studied by Servatus 
Lupus, 121 f, and Gerbert, 124 
Pro Archia discovered by Petrarch 
at Liege, 165, and ad Atticiim 
at Verona, 165; Ad Familiares 
discovered by Salutati, 167 ; 
Pro Cluentio, Roscio Amerino, 
Murena, Caecina, De lege agraria. 
Pro Rabirio, Pro Rabirio Pos- 
lumo,pro Roscio Comoedo, and in 
Pisonem, discovered by Poggio, 
1 70 ; De Oratore, Brutus, and 
Orator, discovered at Lodi, 171 
ed princeps, De Off., Paradoxa 
(1465), De Or. (1465), ad Favi. 
(1467), De Or., Brutus, Orator 
(1469), ad Atticufn, Rhetorica 
(1470), Philippicae {c, 1470), 



INDEX 



439 



Orationes (1471); Opera (1498- 

9)' 198 

ed. Bentinus (Cratander, Bas. 1528); 
Victorius (1534-7), 207; Rob. 
Stephanus (1539 etc.); Paulus 
Manutius (1540-6), 197; Car. 
Stephanus (1555) ; Lambinus 
(1566), 221 ; Gruter (i6j8), 255 ; 
Graevius (1685-99), ^47 '•> Lago- 
marsini's collations, 258 ; Ernesti 
(1739 etc.), 290; Schiitz, 302; 
Nobbe(i827, '69=^); Orelli(i826- 
30), Orelli, Baiter and Halm 
(1845-62), 341, 348; Klotz (1850- 
57 etc.); Baiter and Kayser 
(1860-9); C. F. W. Miiller 
(1878 f) 

Epp. Schiitz ( [809-13) ; Tyrrell and 
Purser (1879-94), 413; Wesen- 
berg (1880); C. F. W. Miiller 
(1896-8) ; transl.Shuckburgh ; ad 
Atticttm, Boot (1886-), 378; cp. 
K. Lehmann (1892) ; transl. Win- 
stedt(i9i2 f) ; ad Fam. Mendels- 
sohn (1893); Selections, Watson 
(1870), Tyrrell (1891) ; Boissier, 
' Cicero and his friends ', 370 

Orationes, Clark and Peterson 
(1907); Comni. Long, 415; pro 
Archia, Reid ; Balbo, Reid ; 
Caecina , Jord a n ; Caelio, Vol! graf ; 
Cluentio, Fausset; in Cat. Halm, 
Wilkins, 41 1; pro lege Manilia, 
Halm,Wilkins; J/<2;r^//(7, Ligario, 
Deiotaro, Fausset ; Milone, Reid, 
Clark; Murena, Heitland; Phil. 
King; Phil, ii. Halm, Mayor, 
411, Peskett ; pro Platicio, pro 
Sestio, Holden, 401 ; Pabirio, 
PJeitland ; post redinim, Wolf, 
269; pro Poscio Am. Landgraf; 
In Verrein i, Heitland-Cowie, 
iv, Hall, iv-v, E. Thomas ; 
Fragvi. 365; Asconius, 61, 168; 
ed. A. C. Clark, 1907 

Opera Rhetorica, Artis Phet. libri 
duo, Weidner (1878); De Or., 
Brutus, Orator, De Opt. Gen. 
Or., Part. Oral., Topica, A. S. 
Wilkins (1901) ; De Or., Prutus, 
Orator, Piderit (1859-65 etc.) ; 
De Or. Sorof, Wilkins, 411; 
Brutus and Orator (ed. 1469), 
195, ed. Jahn (1877 etc.), 356; 
Brutus, Kellogg (1889), 427; 
07-ator, 27,28, 29, ed. Heerdegen 
C1884), Sandys (i88§) 



Opera Philosophica, Acad. ed. Reid; 
De Am. Reid ; De Finibus^ 
Madvig (1876^), 383, E. T. by 
Reid (1883), and Rackham 
(1914); De Leg. Vahlen, 345; 
De Nat. Deorutn, Joseph Mayor 
(1885) ; De Off. Holden (1869^), 
40 r ; De Sen. Reid ; Ttisc. Disp. 
Kiihner (1874), i, ii, Dougan 
(1905); Macrobius on Somnium 
Scipionis, 67; spurious Consolatio, 
210; Lexica, Nizolius ; Ernesti's 
Clavis; Merguet, Orationes and 
Op. Philos. ; Handlexikon (1905) ; 
Zielinski, Cicero im Wandel der 
Jahrhunderte (1912^); Sihler, M. 
Tullius Cicero of Arpinum (New 
Haven, 1914) 
' Ciceronianus ' of Erasmus, 2 1 7 
Ciriaco of Ancona, 175 
Clarac, Comte de, 372 
Clark, William George, 400 
Clarke, Dr E. D., 98 
Classics, Byzantine study of the, 97 ; 
prejudice against the Classics, 144 f; 
the Greek Classics in MA, Plato, 
129; Aristotle, 129-136, 140; the 
Latin Classics in MA, 144-154; 
348; quest of the Classics in the 
renaissance, 163-175, 187; Systems 
of Classical learning, Wolf, 309 f ; 
Boeckh, 326 ; Bernhardy, 333 ; 
History of Classical Philology, 
Heeren, 313; Bursian, 358; biblio- 
graphy, Iliibner, 364; 'Classical 
Association of England and Wales', 
419 
Classicus, 63 
Cleanthes, 49 
Clerc, Jean le, 277 
Clinton, Henry Fynes, 414 
Cluni, Poggio at, 167 
Cobet, Carolus Gabriel, 375-7; 270; 

portrait, 374 
Colet, John, 204 f 
Columban, ri2 
Columbia, 420, 427 f 
Comic poets, Greek, 40, 330; Frag- 

menta, ed. Kock (1880-8) 
Comparetti, Domenico, 366 
Conceptualism, 128 
Congreve, Richard, 406 
Conington, John, 411; 407 
Constance, Council of, 167 
' Constantine ', 'donation of, 185 
Constantine Porphyrogenitus, ex- 
cerpts of, 98 



440 



INDEX 



Constantinople, foundation of (330), 
92 ; Latin conquest of (1204), T31 ; 
Turkish conquest of (1453), 92, 
110, 186; see also Byzantine age 

Cope, Edward Meredith, 399 

Corfu, university of, 390 

Cornell university, 421 

Corradini, Fr. , 366 

Corsini, Odoardo, 258 

Corssen, Wilhelin, 351 

Corvey, jji 

Corvinus, Matthias, 393 

Coulanges, Fustel de, 372 

Cousin, Victor, 373 

Cowell, Edward Byles, 406 

Crates of Mallos, 50, 52, 53 

Criticism, principles of textual, Robor- 
telli, 210; Lachmann, 336 f ; Mad- 
vig> 383 ; History of Criticism, 
Egger, 369; Saintsbury (vol. i, 1900) 

Croke, Richard, 229 

Cruquius, Jacob, 58, 227 

Cudworth, Ralph, 251 

Curtius, Quintus, in MA, 153 f; ed. 
Loccenius, 386; Hedicke (1867); 
Selections, Heitland and Raven 

(1879) 
Curtius, (i) Ernst, 359; (2) Georg 

350, 411 . 
Cusanus, Nicolaus, 226 

Dacier, Andre and Anne, 238 

Damascius, 88 

Damm, Christian Tobias, 289 

Dante, 142 f, 147 

David the Armenian, 89 

Davies, John, 267 

Dawes, Richard, 269 

Decembrio, Piero Candido, 185 ; 184 

Delphin Classics, 238 f 

Demetrius, (i) of Phaleron, 28, 30, 
32; (2) On Verbal Expression, 76; 
(3) of Scepsis, 50 

Demosthenes, 29; Didymus, 46 n.; 
Dionysius Hal. 74 ; Libanius, 
86; 01. Hi, De Chers. and De 
Corona, transl. by Bruni, 173 
ed. princeps (Ven. 1504), 196, 199; 
Lambinus (Paris, 1570); H. Wolf 
(Bas. 1572), 234; Taylor (1748- 
57), 269; in Oratores, ed. Reiske 
(1770 f), 291 ; Bekker (1822 f, 
1854), 317, Baiter-Sauppe (1841), 
341 ; ed. Dindorf (1825, '46), 331 ; 
Voemel (1843), Blass {1886), 
342, vols, i, ii, Butcher, 404; 
Or. Publicae, Voemel (1856 f); 



Weil (i88i2), 370; Phil. Wester- 
mann- Rosenberg (1891^); Reh- 
dantz-Blass (18938); Phil., 01., 
De Pace, Chers. Sandys (1910- 
19132); Mega lop. Fox (1890); 
Or. xiv-xvi, Flagg (1880); Or. 
Forenses Publicae, Weil (1883'-^), 
370; De Corona, Dissen (1837), 
Westermann, Simcox, Holmes, 
403 ; Blass (1890), Goodwin 
(1901), 422; Fals. Leg. Shilleto 
(1874'*), 398; Leptines, F. A. 
Wolf (1903), 307; Westermann 
(1903''), Sandys (1890) ; Meidias, 
Holmes, 403, Goodwin (1906) ; 
Androt. Ti/7iocr. Wayte (1882); 
Aristocr. Weber (1845) ; Or. Pri- 
vatae Sel. Paley-Sandys (1896^); 
Or. transl., C. R. Kennedy, 397 ; 
Or. Priv. Fr. transl. Dareste ; 
Dem. u. seine Zeit, A. Schaefer, 
361 ; Dem. Butcher ; Index, 
Preuss (1895) 
Denmark, 381 

Derby, Earl of, transl. Iliad, 407 
De Rossi, Giovanni Battista, 366 
Desiderius, abbot of Monte Cassino, 

126 
Devarius, Matthaeus, 187 
De-Vit, Vincenzo, 366 
Dicaearchus, 27 
Didascaliae, Aristotle's, 13 
Didymus, 45 
Digamma, 268 
Dindorf, (t) Karl Wilhelm ; (2) Lud- 

wig, 331 f 
Diodorus, transl. Poggio, 184 ; ed. 
princeps xvi-xx (Bas. 1539) ; i-xx, 
H. Stephanus (Gen. 1559), 217; 
Rhodomann (1604); Wesseling, 
1746; L. Dindorf (1828-31), 332; 
Bekker (1853), 317; Vogel (1888) 
Diogenes Laertius, 84; ed. Cobet, 

376 . 
Diogenianus, 77 
Diomedes, 66 

Dionysiac Victories, Aristotle on, 14 
Dionysius, (i) Aelius, 81; (2) 'the 
Areopagite', 123, 126; (3) of Hali- 
carnassus, 73 f; 25^ 40; ed. Usener, 
344 ; (4) ' Dionysius-Longinus ', 75 ; 
see Sublirne; (5) Thrax, 44 
Dissen, on Pindar, 325 
Dobree, Peter Paul, 395; 276, 419 
Dodona, 397 
Dodwell, Henry, 251 
Doederlein, Ludwig, 329 



INDEX 



441 



Doerpfeld, Wilhelin, 357 

Dolet, Etienne, 218 

Dominican Order, 132; 140; Vincent 

of Beauvais, 133; Albertus Magnus, 

133 ; Thomas Aquinas, 135 f ; 

William of Moerbeke, 135 f 
Donaldson, John William, 399; 354 
Donatus, Aelius, 66, 155; on Terence, 

172; his Grammar expounded by 

Remi of Auxerre, 123, ed. Fox 

(1902) 
Dorpat, university of, 386, 391 
Dositheus, 116 
Downes, Andrew, 249 
Dracontius, 174 
Dramatic poetry, 10; criticism of, 

ir 
Drisler, Henry, 427 
Droysen, Johann Gustav, 359 
Duns Scotus, 139; 156 f 
Duris, vase-painting by, frontispiece, 

10 
Duruy, Jean Victor, 373 

Earle, Mortimer Lamson, 428 

Eberhard of Bethune, 156 

Eckhel, Joseph, 301 

Edessa, 94 

Editiones principes, 198-200; 195-7; 

217 
Egger, Iilmile, 369 
Egilsson, Sveinbjorn, 385 
Einhard, 120; 151 
Elegiac poets, Greek, 40 
Ellis, Robinson, 412 
Elmsley, Peter, 394 
Encyclopaedia of History, Byzantine, 

98 f 
England, 1460-1600, 228-230; 1600- 

1700, 249-252; 1700-1800, 265- 

276; 1800-1900, 394-419; 43 1 'f, 

434 

English and Dutch period of Scholar- 
ship, 164, 265-286 

Ennius, 53; ed. Vahlen (1854, 1903), 
345 ' J- Wordsworth in Fragtn. 
(1874); L. Miiller (1885, and in 
Postgate's Corpus, 1894); Fragm. 
Trag. Ribbeck (187 1-3) 

Epic cycle, 355 ; Greek epic poets, 
40 

Epictetus, ed. Heyne (1756 etc.), 299 ; 
Schweighauser ( 1 798 f ) , 263 ; Koraes 
(1826), 309; Diibner; H. Schenkl 
(1894) 

Epicurus ; Usener's Epicurea, 344 

Epistolae Obscuroriim Virorum, 233 



Epsilon, 94 

Erasmus, 203-6; 226; 229; Cicero- 

niamis, 217; portrait, 202; Jebb's 

Erasfnus, 401 
Eratosthenes, 37 
Erfurt, Thomas of, 156 
Eric of Auxerre, 123 
Ernesti, Johann August, 290 
Estienne, (i) Robert, 216; (2) Henri, 

Etymological lexicons, 100 f 

' Etymologicum Magnum', 188; ed. 
Gaisforcl, 395 

Euclid, MS of, 98 

Euripides, 4, 11, 12 f, 14; Theseus, 
21; Alexander Aetolus on, 35; 
'Letters', 267 
Med., Hipp., Ale., Andr.,ed. prin- 
ceps (Flor. c. 1495), 187, 199; 
eighteen plays, ed. pr. (1503), 
188; 196, 199; Electra, ed. pr. 
(1545), 209; ed. Canter (i.«i70> 
227; Barnes (1694), 252; Mark- 
land, Suppl. (1763), Iph. AuL, 
Iph. Taiir. (1768), 269; Mus- 
grave (1778), 271; Porson, Hec, 
Or., Phoen., Med. (1797-1801), 
275; Valckenaer on, 282 ; Elms- 
ley, six plays, 394; Hermann, 
thirteen plays (1810-41), 322; 
A. Matthiae (1813-29), 313; 
L. Dindorf (1825) ; Gilbert 
Murray (i 901-10) ; Monk, Ale, 
Hipp., iph. A., Iph. T. (396); 
Fix (Paris, 1843); Hartung 
{1848-53); Nauck (1869-71^), 
340; Kirchhoff (18672); Paley 
(1858-60), 400; Prinz-Wecklein 
(1878-92) ; seven plays, Weil 
(1904^), 370; Ilel., Ion., Iph. 
T. Badham, 399 ; Bacchae, Elms- 
ley (182 f), 394, Tyrrell (1897^), 
413, Wecklein (1898^), Sandys 
(1904^), Bruhn (1891), Dalmeyda 
(Paris, 1908); Helen, Herwerden 
(1895); Heraclidae, Beck; -fl'(?ra- 
<-/^j, Wilamowitz (1895^); Hipp. 
Wilamowitz (1891) ; Ion, Verrall 
(1890), 404; J ph. A. England 
(1891); Iph. T. Bruhn; Medea, 
Verrall (1881), Arnim (i8862); 
Or., Phoen. Kinkel (1871) ; 
Suppl. Wilamowitz (1875); Tro. 
Tyrrell; Rhesus, Vater (1837) 
392; Index, Beatson, 1830; 
Fragtn. in Nauck, Tr. Gk Fr. 
with Index {1892); Schlegel on, 



442 



INDEX 



312 ; Verrall on (1895, 1905), 
404 ; textual criticism of, 409 ; 
Engl, transl. Way (1894-8, 19 12); 
six plays, Gilbert Murray (1902-7) 
Eusebius, 86; his Chronicle, 67; ed. 
Petermann and A. Schoene (1866- 

75) 
Eustathius, 102 f; ed. Bekker (1825- 

7), Dindorf (1875-7) 
Everett, Edward, 421 

Faber, (i) Basilius, Thesaurus (1571 

etc.), 255; (2) Tanaquil, 238 
Fabricius, Johann Albert, 287 f 
Facciolati, Jacopo, 255 f 
Faernus, 211 

Fasti Consulai-es, 210, 366 
Favorinus, 78 
Felix Felicianus, 176 
Felton, Cornelius Conway, 422 
Fenestella, 60 
Festus, Sextus Pompeius, 64, 185, 

393 n; ed. Lindsay (1913) 
Ficino, Marsilio, 189; 181; portrait, 

180 
Figulus, P. Nigidius, 56 
Filelfo, Francesco, 175 
Florence, 165, 166, 167, 173, 174, 

175, 176, 183, 195, 199, 200, 207, 

209; Academy of, 181; Council of, 

189 
Florus, in MA, 153; ed. Jahn (1852 

etc.); Halm (1854) 
Forcellini, Aegidio, 256 f; 289, 366 
Fortunatianus, 174 
Foucart, Paul, 372 
France, 163 f; 431 f; 434; 1470- 

1600, 215-225; 1600-1700, 236-9; 

1700-1800, 260 f; 1800-1900, 

368-373; Egger's nHelWiisme en 

France, 369 
Franciscan Order, 132 ; Alexander of 

Hales, Edmund Rich, Grosseteste, 

132; Roger Bacon, 136; Duns 

Scotus, 139 
Freeman, Edward Augustus, 416 
Freund, Wilhelm, 335 
Frontinus, 145, 172 ; De Aq. ed. 

Buecheler (1858), 347 ; Clemens 

Herschel (Boston, 1899) 
Fronto, 174; ed. Mai (181 5) and 

Niebuhr (1816), 314, 365; Naber 

(1867) 
Fulbert, bp of Chartres, 126 
P'ulda, 118 ; 170 
Fulvio, Andrea, 177 
Furtwangler, Adolf, 358 



Gaisford, Thomas, 394 ; 276 
Gaius, 315; ed. Krueger and Stude- 

mund (1877) 
Galen, 83 ; 95, 228 ; ed. princeps 
(Ven. 1525), 200; ed. Camerarius 
etc. (Bas. 1538), 234; Rene 
Chartier (Par. 1639-79) ; Klihn 
(182 1 f); Scripta Minora in Bibl. 
Teubn. 
Gallus, 1 1 3 
Gataker, Thomas, 250 
Gaza, Theodorus, 182, 184 
Geddes, Sir William Duguid, 408 
Gellius, Aulus, 63; MS of, 172; ed. 
princeps (Rome, 1469), 182, 198; 
ed. Hertz (1883-5) 
Gemistus Plethon, 181 
Gems, 358 

Gennadios, Georgios, 389 f 
Geographi Graeci Minores, E. Miller; 
C. Muller; Bursian, 358; modern 
geographers, Bursian, Kiepert,358; 
E. Curtius, 359; Leake, 416 f; 
Histories of Ancient Geography by 
Sir E. PL Bunbury (new ed. 1883), 
and H. F. Tozer (1897) 
Georges, Karl Ernst, 330 
Gerard of Cremona, 130, 131 
Gerbert of Aurillac, 124 
Gerhard, Eduard, 355 
Germany, 1460- 1616, 232-5; 1617- 
1700, 253 f; 1700-1800, 287-302; 
1800-1900, 305-364; 164, 432 f 
Gesner, Johann Matthias, 288 
Gibbon, Edward, 271 
Gildas, 1 1 2 

Gildersleeve, Basil Lanneau, 428 
Giocondo, Era Giovanni del, 174, 

176 
Goethe, 311; 307, 309 
Gomperz, Theodor, 343 
Gondisalvi, Dominic, 130 
Goodwin, William Watson, 422 
Gorgias, 5, 15 
Gourmont, 215 

Graefe, Christian Friedrich, 392 
Graevius, Johann Georg, 247 
Grammar and Etymology, beginning 
of, 20-26 ; grammar defined by 
Dionysius Thrax, 44 ; the Stoics, 
47 f; lauded by Cassiodorus, 70; 
in MA, 155 f; (Thurot), 370 
Grammarians, Greek, Dionysius 
Thrax, 44 ; Tyrannion, Didy- 
mus, 45 ; Tryphon, Theon, 46 ; 
Chrysippus, 49; Apollonius Dys- 
colus, 79; Aelius Herod ianus» 



INDEX 



443 



80 ; Theodosius, 87 ; Choero- 
boscus, 93 ; Theognostus, 94 ; 
Roger Bacon, 138; Chrysoloras, 
106; Theodorus Gaza, 182; Con- 
stantine Lascaris, 187; Matthiae, 
313; Buttmann, 316; Lobeck, 
327; Thiersch, 329, 332 ; Kriiger, 
332; Kiihner, 332; Ahrens, 333; 
G.Curtius, 350; Baumlein, Aken, 
333; Leo Meyer, 350; Pezzi, 
365 ; Gennadios, 390 ; Donald- 
son, 399 ; (Homeric Grammar) 
Abel, 393 n, Monro, 407 ; Ruther- 
ford, 407; Hadley, 426; Son- 
nenschein ; Greek verb, G. 
Curtius, 411; 'Greek verbs', 
Veitch, 408; Bernhardy's 'Scien- 
tific Greek Syntax', 333 ; Madvig's 
Greek Syntax, 383 ; Goodwin's 
Moods and Tenses^ 422; Gilder- 
sleeve's Syntax of Classical 
Greek (1900, 191 1-) 
Latin; Varro, 55; Palaemon, 60; 
Probus, 61 ; Scaurus, 62; Nonius, 
65 ; Aelius Donatus, dd ; Chari- 
sius, Diomedes, ()()\ Priscian, 
71 f; 'Virgilius Maro', 114 f; 
Remi of Auxerre, 123; yElfric, 
125 ; Helias, Alexander of 
Villedieu, Eberhard of Bethune, 
Johannes de Garlandia, Kilward- 
by, 156; Valla, 184; Perotti, 
185; Linacre, 229; Melanchthon, 
233; Kiihner, 332; Zumpt, 335; 
Madvig, 383 ; Kennedy, 397 ; 
Donaldson, 399 ; Key, 409 ; 
Roby ; Lane, 423 ; Gildersleeve 
and Lodge (1894) ; Hale and 
Buck (1903) 

'Grammarians', * The New', 351 

Grammatical terminology, 57; Lehrs 
on grammatical studies of the 
Greeks, 328 

Grant, Sir Alexander, 406 

' Gratian ', 'decree of, 185 

Gratius (or Grattius), 172, 337 

Graux, Charles, 371 

Greece, Public Antiquities, 342; 359; 
History, Thirlwall, 414; Grote, 
414; E. Curtius, 247; Duruy, 373; 
Holm, 361 ; Religioics Teachers, 
405; Modern Greece, 329, 388-390, 
401; Travels, 261, 353, 354> 356, 
357, 372, 4»7» 418 

Greek alphabet, 20-22 ; pronunciation, 
205; importance of Greek, 204, 212, 
221, 230, 233, 246 f ; Boccaccio's 



study of Greek, 165 f; prose 
authors translated under Nicolas V, 
183 f; Greek in Ireland, 115 f, in 
Paris, 140, in Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, 229; Mythology, 355 ; Law, 
Meier and Schomann, 342 ; Thonis- 
sen, 3 79 ; Telfy , 393 ; Lexicographers, 
see Lexicographers, Greek ; Litera- 
ture, lyric poets, ed. Bergk, 331; 
dramatists, Dindorf, 331 ; fragments 
of comic poets, 331, 34 1, ed. Kock ; 
tragic poets, ed. Nauck, 340; His- 
tories of literature, Fabricius, 287 ; 
K. O. Miiller, 354 ; Bernhardy, 
333; Christ, 341; Mahafify ; Jebb ; 
Tyrrell's Essays, 413 ; Histories of 
Philosophy, Stanley, 25 1 ; Brandis, 
Zeller, Gomperz, 343 ; Archer 
Butler's Lectures, 398 
Greek Testament, ed. Erasmus (15 16), 
206; 237; ed. Lachmann, 336; 
Blass on New Testament Greek, 

343 
Greek verse composition, Kennedy, 

397 ; Munro, 409 ; Jebb, 403 ; 

Tyrrell, 413; Archer-Hind, 404; 

Headlam, 405 ; Modern Greek 

plays, 425 ; Modern Greek, 390 
Greenough, James Bradstreet, 424 
Gregorio of Citta di Castello, 184 
Gregorius Corinthius, 104 
Gregory, (i) the Great, 11 1; (2) of 

Tours, 112 
Grimm, Jacob, 350 ; ' Grimm's law ', 

351, 385 
Grocyn, William, 229 
Gromatici, auctores, MS, 174; ed. 

Lachmann 
Gronovius, Johann Friedrich, 245 
Grosseteste, Robert, 132 f 
Grote, George, 414 
Grotius, Hugo, 244 
Gruter, Janus, 253 
Guarino of Verona, 177; 174, 184 

Hadley, James, 426 

Iladoardus, excerpts from Cicero, 151 

Halicarnassus, Mausoleum of, 417 

Halm, Karl Felix, 348 

Harpocration, 82 ; ed. princeps (Ven. 
1503), 199; Maussac, 237; Vale- 
sius, 237; Bekker, 318; Dindorf, 
332 

Hartel, Wilhelm von, 364 

Harvard, 420-5 

Hatzid^kis, G. N., 390 

Haupt, Moritz, 337 



444 



INDEX 



Headlam, Walter George, 405 
Heath, Benjamin, 270 
Heeren, A. H. L., 313 
Heindorf, Ludwig Friedrich. 316 
Heinsius, (i) Daniel, 234; (2) Nico- 

laus, 246 
Hellenic Society, 40 r 
Hellenism, 359 

Helsingfors, university of, 386 
Hemsterhuys, Tiberius, 279-281 ; 286, 

378 ; portrait, 278 
Henricus Aristippus, 130 
Henry, James, 413 
Hephaestion, 83 ; ed. Gaisford, 394 
Heracleides, Ponticus, 26 
Heracleitus, (i) of Ephesus, 24, 25; 

(2) the allegorist, 26 
Herculaneum, 412 
Herder, Johann Gottfried, 295 f; 

310 
Hermann the German, 130 
Hermann, Gottfried, 321-3; 275 f, 

394 ; portrait, 320 
Hermeias, 88 
Hermippus, 43 ; 40 
Hermolaus Barbarus, 190 
Herodas, 419; ed. Kenyon (1891); 

Biicheler ; Crusius ; Nairn 
Herod ianus, Aelius, 80 
Herodicus of Babylon, 52 
Herodotus, 4, 20, 77 ; ed. Wesseling, 

281; Schweighauser, 263 ; Blakes- 

l^y? 397 5 Stein ; iv-vi, vii-ix, 

Macan; transl, George Rawlinson 
Hesiod, 28 ; ed. Paley, 400 
Hesychius, (i) of Alexandria, 89 ; 

77; ed. princeps, 188; ed. M. 

Schmidt (1858-69), ed. minor 

(1863); (2) of Miletus, 90 
Heuzey, L. A., 372 
Heyne, Christian Gottlob, 299 f ; 

305 f; portrait, 298 
Hieronymus, (>() 
Hipparchus and Homer, 4 
Hippias, 4 
Hippocrates, 24; ed. princeps (Ven. 

1526), 200; ed. Kiihn (1825-7); 

Littre (1839-61), 369 
Hisperica Famina, 115 
Historical Criticism, Valla on, 184 f 
Histories of Greece, and Rome. See 

Greece, and Rome 
Holden, Hubert Ashton, 401 
Holland; (Erasmus), 203 f; Nether- 
lands, 1400-1575, 226 f; 1575- 

1700, 241-8; 1700-1800, 277-285; 

1800-1900, 375-9, 434 



Holm, Adolf, 361 

Holmes, Arthur, 403 

Homer and the rhapsodes, i ; Pei- 
sistratus and Hipparchus, 2 ; 
Pindar, 3; Aeschylus, Sophocles, 
2 ; Euripides, 4 ; Herodotus, 
Thucydides, the Sophists, 4 ; 
Aristophanes, 7 ; Plato, 6 ; Iso- 
crates, 7 ; Aristotle, 8 ; quotations 
from, 8 ; early editions, 8 ; Phi- 
letas, 34; Zenodotus, 34; Erato- 
sthenes, 37 ; Aristarchus, 41 f ; 
Dionysius of Halicarnassus on, 
74 ; Plutarch, 78 ; Tzetzes, 102 ; 
Eustathius, 103 ; Venice MS, A, 
174, 263, 308; Bankes papyrus 
of //. xxiv, 419; ed. princeps 
(Flor. 1488), 183, 199; ed. Barnes 
(17100,252; Clarke (1729-40); 
Ernesti (1759-64); Wolf (1804- 
7); Bekker (1858); La Roche, 
(1867-73); Leeuwen and Da Costa 
(L. B. 18972); Ludwig (1889- 
1902); Iliad, ed. Heyne, 300; 
Paley, 400; Leaf (1900-2^); 
Odyssey, ed. Ameis-Hentze; Hay- 
man (1866-82) ; Merry and 
Monro, 407 ; Od. and //. transl. 
Voss, 310; Pope; Worsley and 
Conington, 407 ; //. Cowper, 
F. Newman, Blackie, 408, Lord 
Derby, 407, Merivale; Lang-Leaf- 
Myers ; Od. Butcher-Lang, 404 
Homer, Jebb's ' Introduction,' 401 ; 
H . Browne, Homeric Study (1905); 
Finsler, Homer, (r) Der Dichter 
tmd seine Welt, 1914^; Homer in 
der N'euzeit, von Dante bis Goethe, 
igii; Seymour's 'Homeric Age', 
427, 434 ; Homeric Allegory, 
5, 48, 85 ; Mythology, 5 ; Theo- 
logy, 328 ; Homeric problems, 9, 
26, 85 ; the Homeric question, 
R. Wood, 270; Wolf, 307-9; 
Hermann, 323; Nitzsch, 327 f; 
Lachmann,336; Blackie, Geddes, 
408 ; Monro, Appendix to Od. ; 
Wilamowitz, Phil. Unt.; Lang, 
Homer and his Age (1906) ; Gil- 
bert Murray, The Rise of the 
Greek Epic (1907 etc.) 
Batrachomyomachia, Abel (1886), 
293; Ludwich (1896); Brandt 
in Corp. ep. Gr. 
Hymni Homerici, Baumeister 
(i860); GemoU (1886); Abel 
(1886), 293; A. Goodwin (1893) ; 



INDEX 



445 



Allen and Sikes (1904) ; Index, 
Gehring; transl. A. Lang (1899) 

Homolle, Theophile, 372 

Horace, early study of, 58, 64 ; in 
MA, 147 f; in Dante, 143 
ed. princeps {c. 147 1), 198; ed. 
Lambinus, 219; Cruquius, 227; 
Bentley (1711), 267; Orelli 
(18375, etc.), 341; L. Miiller, 
346 ; Keller and Holder ( 1 864 f ) ; 
King and Munro (1869), 409? 
Wickham (1874-96); Lehrs on, 
329 ; Odes, ed. Page (1883) ; Epp. 
and A. P. ed. Ribbeck, 345 ; 
ed. Wilkins (1885), 4.11; Sat. 
Palmer, 413; Index in Zange- 
meister's ed. of Bentley's Horace 
(1869); transl. Conington, 411 ; 
Epodes, Sat. and Epp. Howes 
(1845); Sellar on 'Horace and 
the Elegiac Poets', 412; Benoist, 
H. en France ; Stemplinger, 
Fortleben der Hor. Lyrik 

(1907) 
Hortus Deliciarnm, 144 
Hroswitha, 124 
Huebner, Emil, 364 
Huet, Pierre Daniel, 238 
Hugutio, 155 

Humanism, New, in Germany, 288 
Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 311 
Hungary, 392 f 
Hyginus, 60 
Hypereides, ed. Babington, 400 ; lyc, 

Eux. Schneidewin ; Eux. et Or. 

Fun. Cobet, 376 ; Comparetti, 366; 

Orat. Sex, Blass (1894^) ; Kenyon 

(1907) 

Iambic poets, Greek, 40 

Iceland, 385 

Ilium, 50, 356 

Inghirami, Tommaso, 174 

Inscriptions, Greek, 176, 267 f, 275, 
325, (Kaibel) 341 ; Meisterhans, 
Grammar of, 333 ; Latin, 176, 223, 

259' 339» 347. "363 f, 366 
'Inscriptions', French 'Academy of, 

239 

Ionic alphabet, i\ 

lordanes, 1 1 1 

Ireland, Greek in, 115 f 

Isaeus, ed. princeps in Orationes 
Khet. Gr. (Ven. 1513), 199; in 
Oratores Gr. H. Stephanus (Par. 
1575); ed. Schomann, 342; Buer- 
mann (1883); Wyse (1904); transl. 



(Sir) William Jones, 273; French 
transl. Dareste-Haussoullier (1898) 

Isidore of Seville, 113; 115; Etym. 
ed. Lindsay 

Isocrates, 7, 15; ed. princeps (Milan, 
1493), 183, 199 ; in Orationes Rhet. 
Gr. (Ven. 1513); ed. H. Wolf 
(Bas. 1553, 1570 etc.), 234; H. 
Stephanus (Par. 1593 etc.); Koraes 
(1807), 389; Benseler (1852 etc., 
ed. Blass, 1878) ; Drerup (1906- ); 
Paneg. etc. O. Schneider, Rauch- 
enstein, Sandys ; Index, Preuss 
(1904) 

Italy, Revival of Learning, 163 ff; 
1600-1700, 236 ; 1700-1800, 255-9; 
1800-1900, 365 f; 430-2 

Jacob, bp of Edessa, 94 
Jacobus Clericus of Venice, 129 
Jahn, Otto, 356 
Jebb, Sir Richard Claverhouse, 401 f ; 

portrait, 402 
Jerome, St., 66 
Joannes, (i) Mauropus, 100; (2) ben 

David, 130; (3) Scotus ('Erigena'), 

122; 127; (4) de Garlandia, 156 
Johannitius, 95 

John of Salisbury, 158; 129, 151 
Jones, Sir William, 273 
Jowett, Benjamin, 405 
Juba, 77 

Justin in MA, 153 
Justinian, 88, 190 
Juvenal in MA, 149; ed. princeps 

(Ven. c. 1470), 198; ed. Mayor 

(1853 etc.), 411 ; Ribbeck (1859); 

Jahn(i8682),356;Macleane(i8672); 

Weidner(i873); Friedlander(i895); 

Duff; Housman (1905); Leo, 347 ; 

transl. J. D. Lewis (1882") 

Kaibel, Georg, 341 

Kazan, university of, 391 

Kellermann, Olaus Christian, 381 

Kellogg, Martin, 427 

Kennedy, Benjamin Hall, and Charles 

Rann, 397 
Key, Thomas Hewitt, 409 
Kharkov, university of, 391 
Kidd, Thomas, 276 
Kiepert, Heinrich, 358 
Kiev, 'Academy' of, 391 
Kilwardby, Robert, 156 
King, C. W., 409 
Klotz, Reinhold, 335 
Koraes, Adamantios, 388 f 



446 



INDEX 



Kriukov, D. L., 391 
Kriiger, Karl Wilhelm, 332 
Kiihner, Raphael, 332 

Lachmann, Karl, 335 f 

Lactantius, ed. princeps (Subiaco, 

1467), 198; 385 
Lagergren, J. P., 387 
Lagomarsini, Girolamo, 258 
Lambert of Hersfeld, 126 
Lambinus, Dionysius, 219 
Landino, Cristoforo, 189; portrait, 

180 
Lane, George Martin, 423 
Lanfranc, 126 

Language, Herder on Origin of, 297 ; 
Science of Language, Max Mliller, 
406 ; Steinthal's History of Science 
of Language, 352 
Lapo da Castiglionchio, 184 
Larcher, Pierre Henri, 261 
Lascaris, (i) Constantine, 186; 175; 

(2) Janus, 187; 175 
Latin, alphabet, Ritschl,339; Antho- 
logy, 172; Grammar, see Gram- 
marians^ Latin \ pronunciation, 
409, 424 ; Dictionaries, stQ Lexico- 
graphers, Latin 
History of Literature, Fabricius, 
287 ; Bernhardy, 333 ; Teuffel, 
335 5 G. A. Simcox ; Mackail 
(18962) ; Schanz (1890 f) ; Zoeller- 
Martini (1910- ); Leo, 347; 
A. S. Wilkins (Primer) ; Sellar 
on Latin Poets, 412; Tyrrell on 
Latin Poetry, 413 
Latin prose, in MA, 157 ; Latin in 
Hungary, 392 ; Synonyms, 330 ; 
Style, Nagelsbach, 328 ; Klotz, 
335 ; Potts, Hints towards L. P. 
C. (1869) ; Verse Composition, in 
Sweden, 386, 387 ; England, 
Kennedy, 397 ; Munro, 409 ; 
J ebb, 403 ; Tyrrell, 413 
Law, Maine on Ancient, 415 ; Meier 
and Schoemann on Greek Law, 
342 ; Thonissen on Greek Criminal 
Law, 379 
Leake, William Martin, 416 f 
Le Bas, Philippe, 372 
Lehrs, Karl, 328 
Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 287 
Lenormant, (i) Charles, (2) Francois, 

372 
Leo Marsicanus, 126 
Leo, Friedrich, 347 
Leonicenus, 178 



Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, 293-5 ; 
296, 299 

Letronne, Jean Antoine, 372 

Lewis, (i) Sir George Cornewall, 415; 
Charlton Thomas, 427 

Lexicographers, Greek, 82; 89 f; 96; 
99 ; loof ; H. Stephanus, 217, 332 ; 
J. G. Schneider, 290; Rost (1818- 
20); Passow, 330; Benseler (1859 
etc.); Alexandre, 368; Liddelland 
Scott, 405; Drisler, 427; E. A. 
Sophocles, 422 ; Latin, 155 ; ^Ifric, 
125 ; Calepinus, 255 ; R. Stephanus, 
216; Faber, 255; DuCange, 238; 
Forcellini, 256f; Gesner, 288; Schel- 
ler, 289; Georges, 330; Freund, 
Andrews, Lewis, 427; Key, 409; 
W. Smith (1855); Nettleship, 412 

Leyden, university of, 223, 227, 243, 
279, 284, 379; MSS, 243 

Libanius, 86 ; ed. princeps (Ferrara, 
15 17), 200; Orationes, ed. Reiske, 
292 ; P'orster (1903- ) 

Libraries, Alexandrian, 31-33; Per- 
gamene, 33 ; Palatine, 60 

Liddell, Henry George, 405 

Liege, Cicero pro Archia discovered 
by Petrarch at, 165 

Linacre, Thomas, 228 

Linder, K. V., 387 

Linwood, William, 407 

Lipsius, Justus, 241 f, 281 ; portrait, 
240 

Literary Criticism, 10, 26, 207, 369 

Littre, Paul Emile, 368 

Livy, early recension of, 65 ; Livy in 
MA, 153; ed. princeps (Rome, 
c. 1469), 195, 198; ed. Campano 
(c. 1470), 186; Erasmus (1531), 
206; Sigonius (V^en. 1555 etc.), 210; 
Gruter (Frankf. 1608 etc.), 253; 
J. F, Gronovius (Variorum ed., 
Amst. 1665, 1679), 246; Crevier 
(Par. 1735-41) ; Drakenborch (L. 
B. 1738-46); Madvig and Ussing, 
383 ; Weissenborn, with German 
notes; Zingerle (1883); Conway 
and Walters (Oxford, 1914-) ; i, 
Seeley (1871); v, Whibley; vi, 
Stephenson ; xxi, Dimsdale ; xxi- 
XXV, Riemann and Benoist, 370 ; 
xxiii, xxiv, Macaulay ; xxvi-xxx, 
Riemann and Homolle ; xxvii, 
Stevenson ; Taine, Essai (1904^) ; 
Riemann, Etudes sur la langue 
(1887-) ; Kuhnast, Liv. Syntax 
(1871) 



INDEX 



447 



Lobeck, Christian August, 327 

Loccenius, Johannes, 386 

London, British Museum, 417 f; 419; 

University College, 409, 415 
Longinus, (i) Cassius, 84; (2) Pseudo- 
Longinus, 75 f ; 209, 369 ; see 
Sublime 

Louvain, 204, 226, 242, 379, 380 

Lucan in MA, 145, 148 ; ed. princeps 
(Rome, 1469), 195, 198; ed. Bur- 
man (L. B. 1740), 277; Bentley 
(1760), 268; Haskins (1887); Ho- 
sius (1892) 

Lucian, 78; ed. princeps {Y\ox. 1496), 
187, 199; ed, Hemsterhuys and 
J. F. Reitz (Amst. 1743), ^^o ; 
Jacobitz (1851); Bekker (1853), 
317; Dindorf (1858^), 332; Nilen 
1906-) ; transl. Fowler (1905) ; 
Harmon {191 3-) 

Lucilius, ed. Fr. Dousa (L. B. 1597); 
L. Miiller (1872), 346; Lachmann 
(1876); Munro on (1877-9), 409; 
ed. Marx (1904 f) 

Lucretius in MA, 146; MS discovered 
by Poggio, 169; ed. princeps (Bre- 
scia, c. 1473), 198; Mss, 243; ed. 
Lambinus (1564, '65, '70), 219; 
Lachmann (1850), 335 f; Bernays 
(1852); Munro (1864), 409; Brieger 
(1894); Giussani (1896); C.Bailey 
(1900); Merrill (1907); iii, v, Dufif 

Lugebil, Karl Joachim, 391 

Luitprand, 125 

Lushington, Edmund Law, 398 

Luynes, Due de, 372 

Lycophron, 35; ed. princeps (Ven. 
1513), 199; ed. Holzinger (1895) 

Lycurgus and Homer, i 

Lycurgus, Athenian statesman and 
orator, 1 1 ; Leocr. , ed. princeps in 
Orationes Rhet. Gr. (Ven. 15 13), 
199; ed. Maetzner (1836); Reh- 
dantz(i876); /«^<?;f,Forman(i897), 
376 

Lyric Poets, Greek, 40, 331 

Lysias, ed. princeps in Orationes Rhet. 
Gr. (Ven. 15 13), 199; ed. Taylor, 
269; Scheibe (1852, '74); Cobet, 
(1863); Thalheim (1901); Hude 
(1911); Or. Selectae, Rauchenstein ; 
Frohberger; Jebb (1880); Shuck- 
burgh (18852) 

Mabillon, Jean, 239 
Macrobius, 67 ; ed. princeps (Ven. 
1472), 198; ed. Eyssenhardt (1868) 



Madvig, Johan Nicolai, 383 f ; por- 
trait, 382 

Maffei, Scipione, 258 

Magni, Johannes and Olaus, 385 f 

Mai, Angelo, 365 

Maine, Sir Henry Sumner, 415 

Malalas, John, 93, 265 

Manilius, MS at St Gallen, 169 f; 
ed. princeps (Norimb. 1472), 198; 
Scaliger (Par. 1579, '9°' L. B. 
1600), 222; Bentley (1739), 268; 
ed. Robinson Ellis, 413; Garrod 
(191 1) ; Housman, i (1903), ii 
(1912) 

Manutius, (i) Aldus, 196; 188; por- 
trait, 194; (2) Paulus, 197; (3) 
Aldus n, 197 

Maps, 253, 358 f 

Marini, Gaetano, 259 

Markland, Jeremiah, 269; 246, 276 

Marmor Parium, 250; mar mora 
Artindelliana, 250 

Marquardt, Joachim, 363 

Marsuppini, Carlo, 173; 184 

Martial, 65 ; in MA, 149 ; ed. prin- 
ceps [c. 1471), 198; Perotti, 185; 
Schrevelius, Variorum ed. (L. B. 
1670); Friedlander (1886); Lindsay 
(1903 etc.) 

Martianus Capella, 26, 158; ed. 
princeps (Vicenza, 1499); Grotius 
(1599), 244; Eyssenhardt (1866) 

Martin, Thomas Henri, 369 

Matthiae, (i) August, 313; (2) Chris- 
tian Friedrich, 392 

Maussac, Philippe Jacques de, 237 

Mavortius, Vettius Agorius Basilius, 

59 . 
Maximianus, 169 ; ed. Webster (1909) 
Mayor, John Eyton Bickersteth, 411 
Medici, (i) Cosinio de', 172 f, 181, 

183; (2) Lorenzo de', 175 
Meineke, August, 330 
Meisterhans, Konrad, 333 
Mela, Pomponius, 68 
Melanchthon, 233 
Menander, 30; 267; 419; four plays, 

ed. Van Leeuwen (Leiden), six 

plays, ed. C. Robert (Halle), 1908 
Merivale, Charles, 415 
Merriam, Augustus Chapman, 428 
Merula, Georgius, 173 
Metre, 265, 275, 322, 346 
Metrodorus, 5 
Meursius, Joannes, 243 
Meyer, Leo, 350 
Michael 'Modista', 156 



448 



INDEX 



Michaelis, Adolf, 356 

Middle Ages in the West, iii-j6o; 

430 ; in the East, see Byzantine 

Age, 92-110 
Middleton, John Henry, 418 
Miller, B. E. C, 369 
Millin, Aubin Louis, 372 
'Modistae', 156 
Moeris, 82 ; ed. Bekker (1833) 
Momnisen, (i) Theodor, 361-4; por- 
trait, 360; (2) Tycho, ed. Pindar 

(1865); (3) August, author of Gr. 

Heortologie {1864) 
Monro, David Binning, 407 
Monk, James Henry, 396; 276 
Montfaucon, Bernard de, 260 
More, Henry, 251 
Morgan, Morris H., 425 ; 423 
Moschopulos, 105 
Moscow, university of, 391 
Miiller, (i) Friedrich Max, 406; (2) 

Karl Otfried, 353 f, 399; (3) Lucian, 

346, 392 
Munro, Hugh Andrew Johnstone, 

409; portrait, 410 
Muratori, Lodovico Antonio, 257 f 
Muretus, 211 f 
Musgrave, Samuel, 271 
Musurus, Marcus, 186; 187 
Mycenae, 357 
Mysteries, 327 
Mythology, 43 ; Preller, Gr. ed. 

Robert (1894) ; Rom. ed. Jordan 

(1881-3) 

Nagelsbach, Karl Friedrich, 228 

Naevius in Ribbeck, Trag. Rom. 
Frag. (1897'^); ed. Vahlen, 345; 
L. Miiller (1885), 346 

Nauck, August, 340 ; 392 

Neil, Robert Alexander, 404 

Nemesianus, MS, 172; ed. princeps- 
(Ven. 1534); ed. Haupt, 337 

Nepos, Cornelius, 152, 172; ed. Halm 
(i87i),NipperdeyandLupus(i879); 
illustrated ed. Erbe (18922) 

Netherlands, 1400-1575, 226 f; 1575- 
1700, 241-8; 1700-1800,277-285; 
1800-1900, Holland, 375-9 ; Bel- 
gium, 379 f; Erasmus, 203 f; Re- 
trospect, 431-3; Latin poets of 
the Netherlands, 375 

Nettleship, Henry, 412; 427 

Newton, Sir Charles, 417 

Niccoli, Niccolo de', 173; 168, 169, 
171 

Nicolas V, 183 



Nicolaus Cusanus, 172 

Niebuhr, Barthold Georg, 313 f 

Nisibis, 94 

Nitzsch, Gregor Wilhelm, 327 

Nizolius, Marius, 211 

Nominalism, 128 

Nonius Marcellus, 65; 171, 185; ed. 

L. Muller (1888), 346; Onions, 

lib. i-iii (1895); Lindsay (1902) 
Norway, 385 
Notker Labeo, 126 
Novel, the Greek, 344 
Numismatics, Eckhel, 301; Mommsen, 

362; W. H. Waddington, 371; 

B. V. Head, Histoi'ia Ntimorum 

Graecorum (1911^) 

Obelus, 38, 40, 41 

Oberlin, Jeremias Jacob, 162 

Odessa, university of, 391 

Olympia, 359 

Olympiodorus, 88 f 

Oratores Attici, ed, Bekker, 317; 
Baiter and Sauppe, 341 ; Blass, 
342 ; his Attische Beredsamkeit, 342 ; 
Jebb's ' Attic Orators ', 401 ; Ora- 
tores Graeci, ed. Reiske ; Greek 
Orators, 40 

Orelli, Johann Caspar, 341; 337 

Orientius, ed. Robinson Ellis, 412 

Orleans, i59f 

Orosius, 32, 123 

Orthography, 70 

Orus and Orion, 89 

Oudendorp, Franz von, 279 

Overbeck, Johannes, 357 

Ovid in MA, 148 ; Roger Bacon 
on, 172 ; Ibis discovered by 
Boccaccio, 166; ed. princeps (Bol. 
1471), 198; ed. D. Heinsius 
(L. B. 1629), 244; N. Heinsius 
(Amst. 1658-61^) ; Burman (Amst. 
1727); Ehwald (1888); Riese(i87i- 
4); Fasti, Merkel (1872=^), Paley 
(18642), H. Peter (1889); ^^^i- 
eutica, 172; Haupt, 337; Heroides, 
ed. Palmer (1898-), 413; /<5/j, Ellis 
(188 1 ), 412; Met. Magnus (18922); 
Tristia, Owen (Oxford, 1889) ; Ex 
Ponlo, Owen (Oxford, 18912) ; Met. 
transl. Golding (1567), George 
Sandys (1626), Dryden etc. (1717) ; 
Heroides and Amores, transl. 
Showermann (1914) 

Oxford, 137, 228 f, 249, 394, 425 f 

Packard, Lewis Richard, 426 



INDEX 



449 



Paderborn, 1-26 

Palaemon, 60 

Palaeographers, Mafifei, 258 ; Ma- 
billon, 239; Montfaucon, 260; 
Bast, 263; Miller, 369; Graux, 
371; Traube, 348; Sir Edward 
Maunde Thompson, Introduction 
to Greek and Latin Palaeography 
(Oxford, 19 1 2) 

Paley, Frederick Apthorp, 400 

Palmer, Arthur, 413 

Pamphilus, 77 

Panathenaea, 2 ; Panathenaic vase, 
429 

Panegyrici Latini, 172; ed. Baehrens 

Papias, the Lombard, 126, 155 

Papyri, 4 1 9 

Paris, printing-press, 1470, 215; Col- 
lei^e de France, 216 

Parker, John Henry, 418 

Parrasio, 174 

Parthenon, 356, 418 

Passow, Franz, 330 

Pattison, Mark, 406 

Paul, Hermann, 351 

Pausanias, (i) the 'Atticist', 81; {2) 
the traveller, ed. princeps (Ven. 
1516), 188, 199; ed. Xylander and 
Sylburg( [583), 235 ; Bekker (1826), 
317; L. Dindorf (1845), 332; Hit- 
zig and Blumner (1896- 1908), 
transl. and comm. Frazer (1898) 

Peerlkamp, Petrus Hofmann, 375 

Peile, fi) Thomas Williamson, 397 ; 
(2) John, his nephew (1838-1910), 
author of Introduction to Greek and 
Latin Etymology, 1869 

Peisistratus and Homer, 2, 28 

Pelham, Henry, 416 

Peloponnesus, E. Curtius, 359; W. G. 
Clark, 400 

Pennsylvania, university of, 420 

Penrose, Francis Cramer, 418 

Pergamon and Alexandria, fir f 

Peripatetics, 26 

Perizonius, Jacob, 248 

Perotti, Niccolo, 185; 178, 184 

Perrot, Georges, 372 

Persius, recension of, 65 ; in MA, 
150; ed. princeps (Rome, 1470), 
198; ed. Casaubon (1605), 225; 
Jahn, 356; Pretor {1868, 1907); 
Conington (1872, '74), 4I r ; Gilder- 
sleeve (1875); Leo, 347; biblio- 
graphy by M. H. Morgan (Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 1909^) 

Peter de Maricourt, 137 n. 

S. H. 



Petersen, F. C, 381 

Petrarch, 164 f; portrait, 162; Epp. 
ed. Fracassetti (1859-63) ; Nolhac, 
P^trarque et Vhujuanisme (1907^^) 

Petronius, 171 ; ed. princeps {c. 1^82), 
198; ed. Bticheler (1911-^), 347; 
transl. M. Heseltine, 191 3; biblio- 
graphy by Gaselee (1910) 

Petrus Helias, 156 

Pezzi, Domenico, 365 

Phaedrus in MA, 150; ed. princeps 
(Troyes, 1596), 198; ed. Bentley 
(1726), 268 ; Eyssenhardt; Robert, 
with facsimile of Codex Pithoeanus 
(1894) 

Phalaris, Letters of, 266 f 

Philetas, 34 

Philochorus, 82 

Philoponus, 33 

Philologiae, studiosns, 305 

Philology, Comparative, 273, 349- 
352, 365, 406 

* Phoenician ' letters, 20 

Photius, 95 f ; Bibliotheca, ed. princeps 
(Augsb. 1601) ; ed. Bekker (i824f) ; 
Textgeschichte, Martini (Leipzig, 
191 1); Lexicon, ed. Hermann; 
Porson and Dobree (1822), 276, 
395; Naber(i864f) 

Phrynichus, 8r ; ed. princeps (Rome, 
1517) ; Lobeck (1820), 327; Ruther- 
ford's ' New Phrynichus', 407 

Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni, 189 

Pindar, 3, 39, 105 f ; ed. princeps 
(Ven. 1513), 199; (Rome, 1515), 
188; Hermann on, 323; ed. Heyne 
(17731 1798. 1817), 300; Boeckh 
(1811-21), 325; Dissen (1830), 
325 ; Donaldson ( 1 841), 399; Bergk 
in Poetae Lyric i Graeci (1843, '53, 
^(i6, '78), 431; Tycho Mommsen 
(1864); Mezger (1880); Christ 
(1896), 341; Fennell (1893^ '99^); 
Gildersleeve (1885) '■» Seymour, 'Se- 
lected Odes' (1882); Schroder 
(1900^ 1908^, 1914^); transl. E. 
Myers (1874); Sandys (1915); 
Paeans, 4 19; Lehrs on Scholia, 
329; Index, Damm (1765), 289; 
Rumpel (1883) 

Planudes, Maximus, i04f, 368 

Plato, Ion, 6 ; Republic, 6 ; Prota- 
goras, 9 ; Phaedrus, 11, 16, 88 ; 
Gorgias, 16 ; Timaeus, 22 ; Cratylus, 
22 f, 24; Sophistes, 26; genera and 
species in Plato, 69 ; transmission of 
his dialogues, 1 8 ; divided into 

29 



450 



INDEX 



'trilogies' by Aristophanes of By- 
zantium, 39 ; Bodleian MS of, 98 
Plato in MA, 129; Phaedo, Meno, 
129; Timaeus, 129, 143; renais- 
sance controversy on Plato and 
Aristotle, 181 f, 186; Platonic 
Academy of Florence, 189; ed. 
princeps (Ven. 151 3), 188, 199; 
ed. H. Stephanus (Paris, 1578), 
217; ed. Bipont (1781- ), 217; 
ed. Bekker (1816-23), 317; Ast 
(18x9-32); Stallbaum (1827-60); 
Baiter, Orelli, Winckelmann (1839- 
42), 341 ; K. F. Hermann (185 1-3, 
'73 f); Schanz (1875-87); Burnet 
(1907) ; Apology^ ed. Riddell ; Apo- 
logy, Phaedo, ed. Wyttenbach ( 1 8 1 o) , 
284 ; Crito, Euthyphro, Adam, 405 ; 
Euthyd. Gifford ; Phaedo, Geddes 
(i8852),4o8;Archer-Hind('942),404; 
Phaedriis, Gorgias, Thompson, 398; 
Euthydemus, Symposium, Laches, 
Badham, 399; Symposium, Wolf, 
306; Jahn, 356; Hug-Schone 
(19093); R. G. Bury (1909); Phi- 
lebus, Poste, 405 ; Theaetetus, 
Sophistes, PolHictis, Lewis Camp- 
bell, 405 ; Protagoras, Wayte, A. M. 
Adam ; Republic, Jowett and Camp- 
bell ; Adam, 405 ; Laws, Comm. 
by C. Ritter (1898); Menexenus, 
Graves; Meno, E. S. Thompson; 
Parm. Maguire (1882), Waddell 
(1894); Timacus, Meursius, 243; 
Martin, 369; Archer-Hind, 404; 
Platonic lexicon of Timaeus, ed. 
Ruhnken, 282; Ast's Lexicon, 329; 
Grote's Plato, 416 
Plato, transl. by Ficino (1470), 189; 
Schleiermacher, 315; Jowett, 405; 
Letters and five dialogues transl. 
by Bruni, 173; Phaedrus, Lysis, 
Protagoras, J. Wright (1848); 
Gorgias and Phaedo, Cope, 399; 
Republic, Davies and Vaughan, 
(1852 etc.) 
Platonic doctrine of 'ideas', 127 
Platonism, 88, 405 
Platonists, Cambridge, 251 
Plautus, Accius on, 54; fabulae Var- 
ronianae, 55 n. ; in MA, 146; 
MSS; 172, 177, 234, 337 
ed. princeps (Ven. 1472), 198; ed. 
Camerarius (Bas. 1552), 234; 
Lambinus (Par. 1576), 221 ; Gro- 
novius (1664), 246 ; Ritschl (seven 
plays, 1848-54, 1871-94), 337 f; 



Fleckeisen (ten plays, 1859-63); 
Ussing (1875-86 etc.), 384; G. 
Gotz and F. Scholl (1892-6) ; 
Leo (1895), 347; Lindsay (1904-5) 
Amphitruo, Palmer (1890) 413 ; 
Havet (1895); Asinaria, J. H. 
Gray (1894); Aulularia, Wag- 
ner (1866) ; Captivi, Sonnen- 
schein, Lindsay ; Epidicus, J. 
H. Gray (1893) ; Menaechmi, 
Wagner (1876); Miles Gloriosus, 
Tyrrell, 413 ; Mostellaria, W. 
Ramsay (1869) ; Sonnenschein 
( 1 907'-^) ; Pseudolus, Auden ( 1 896) ; 
Rudens, Sonnenschein (1891); 
Trintimmus, Wagner (1872), J. 
H. Gray (1905) 
Pliny the elder, 61 ; in MA, 151 ; ed. 
princeps (Ven, 1469), 198 ; ed. 
Erasmus (1525), 206; Gronovius 
(1669), 246; Sillig (1851-8); Det- 
lefsen; Jan (1854 f) ; Mayhoff 
(1906 f); Chrestomathia, Urlichs 
(1857) ; Ancient Art (xxxiv-vi), ed. 
Sellarsand Jex-Blake(i896) ; transl. 
Philemon Holland (1601) 
Pliny the younger, in MA, 152; MS 
of Panegyricus, 172 ; Correspond- 
ence with Trajan, 174; Epp. MSS, 
177; ed. princeps, libri viii (Ven. 
1471), 199; Rome (1474); ed. 
Pomponius Laetus (1490), 192 ; 
libri ix, ed. Fra Giocondo (Ven. 
1508), 177, 197; G. Cortius (Amst. 
1734); J. M. Gesner (Leipzig, 1739, 
1770), 288; Gierig ([8oof); Keil 
(1870) ; Kukula (1908) ; trans. J. D. 
Lewis (1879); ^PP- S^i' Merrill 
(1903); LAb. i, ii, Cowan (1889); 
iii, Mayor (1880); vi, Duff (1906); 
Correspondence with Trajan, ed. 
E.G. Hardy (1889); Mommsen on 
Pliny's Life {Hist. Schr. i, 366- 
468) ; Lagergren on his style, 387 ; 
transl. J. D. Lewis (1879) 
Plutarch, 77; 173, 175; Moralia, ed. 
princeps (Ven. 1509), 196, 199; ed. 
Wyttenbach, 284 ; Bernardakes ; 
trans. Goodwin (187 1) ; C. W. King 
andA.R.Shilleto(i888);FzW(Flor. 
(1517), 200; ed. Sintenis (1839-46); 
eight Lives, ed. Holden, 401 ; Fr. 
transl. Amyot (1559); E. T., North 
(1612) ; Dryden (1683, ed. Clough, 
1874); Langhornes (1770, new ed. 
1876); vStewart and Long (1881); 
'Roman Lives', Long, 415 



INDEX 



451 



Poetae Latini Minores and Fragment a, 
ed. Bahrens, 347 ; — Lyrici Graeci, 
Bergk, 331; — Scenici Graeci^ Din- 
dorf, 331 

Poetry, Greek study of, 9; Aristotle 
on, 12; Lessing on Poetry and 
Painting, 294 

Poggio Braccioiini, T67-r72 

Polemon of Ilium, 49 

Politian, 190; 173 f; portrait, 180 

Pollux, 82; 77; ed. Hemsterhuys, 
(1706), 279 f; Dindorf(i824);Bekker 
(1846), 318; Bethe (1900- ) 

Polyaenus, ed. princeps (Lyon, 1589), 
274; 200; ed. Wolfflin (i860) 

Poly bins, Excerpts from, 99, 237 ; 
ed. Casaubon (1609), 225; Schweig- 
hauser (Leipzig, 1789-95; Oxford, 
1823), 263; Hultsch (i8882); Latin 
transl. Bruni, 173; Perotti, 185; 
E. T., Shuckburgh 

Ponipeius on Donatus, 167 

Pomponius Laetus, 191 f 

Ponor, Emil Thewrewk de, 393 

Pontano, Giovanni Gioviano, 191 

Porphyrio on Horace, 64, 

Porphyry, 85 ; his Introduction to 
Aristotle's Categories, 69, 128 

Person, Richard, 273 f; 395 ; por- 
trait, 274 

Praxiphanes, 28 

Prantl, Carl, 329 

Priscian, 71; 157; ed. prinreps {Ven. 
1470), 198; ed. Hertz 

Probus, 61; 63, 170, 174 

Proclus, 87 ; his chrestomathy, 
90 

Procopius, 245; ed. Haury; transl. 
Bruni, 173 ; Comparetti, 360 ; H. 
B. Dewing (191 4- ) 

Pronunciation, Latin, 112; Corssen, 
351 ; Greek, 390 

Propertius in MA, 150; ed. princeps 
(1472), 198; ed. Lachmann (1829-), 
335; Haupt (1868=^); L. Miiller 
(1870) ; Selections, Postgate, 1882- 

Prose, in Athenian education, 17 

Protagoras, 4, 9, 16, 23 

Prudentius, MS, 174; ed. Lanfranchi 
(Turin, 1896-8, 1902) 

Psellus, 99 

Ptolemaeus, (i) Soter, 30; (2) Phila- 
delphus, 30 f, 34 

Ptolemaeus, Claudius ; Almagest, 
130 

Punctuation, Greek, 25, 38 

Pythagoras, 5, 24 



Quatremere de Quincy, A. C, 372 
Quicherat, Louis (Marius), 368 
Quintilian, 62; 61; in MA, 152; 

studied by Servatus Lupus, 121 ; 

complete copy discovered by Poggio 

at St Gallen, 168 ; preferred to 

Cicero by Valla, 1 84 ; ed. princeps, 

Campano (Rome, 1470), 186, 198; 

ed. Spalding (1798-1834), 315; 

Bonnell (1854 etc.); Halm ( 1868 f); 

Meister (1886); liber x, Peterson 

(i89f) 
Quintus Smyrnaeus, 175, 187 ; ed. 

princeps, Aldus (Ven. 1504 f) ; ed. 

Rhodomann (Hanover, 1684) ; 

Kochly ; trans. A. 8. Way (1913) 
Quotations (from Homer), 8 ; Dante's 

quotations, 143 

Rabanus Maurus, 12 1 

Radulfus de Diceto, 154 

Raphael,' 177 

Rask, Rasmus Cristian, 350 ; 385 

Rawlinson, George, 406 

Raymund, abp of Toledo, 130 

Realism, 128 

Regiomontanus, 232 

Reinach, Salomon, 372 f 

Reiske, Johann Jacob, 291 ; 377 

Reiz, F. W., 321 

Religion, History of, 344 ; Roman 
Religion, 370 

Remi(gius) of Auxerre, 123 

Renaissance in Italy, causes of, 141 f 

Reuchlin, Johann, 233 

Revivals of learning, early, 141 ; Re- 
vival of learninijin Italy, 163 ff, 430 

Rhapsodes, Homeric, i, 3, 6; rhap- 
sode on vase facing p. i 

Rhetoric, rise of, 15; 17; G. J. 
Vossius on Rhetoric, 242 ; Volk- 
mann (1885^) 

Ribbeck, Otto, 345 

Rich, abp Edmund, 132, 136 

Riemann, Othon, 370 f 

Ritschl, Friedrich, 337!; 4^3> 4^5; 
portrait, 338 

Robinson, Edward, 421 

Robortelli, Francesco, 209 

Rogge, Conrad, 385 

Rohde, Erwin, 344 

Roma Sotterranea, De Rossi's, 367 

Roman historians (modern), Flavio 
Biondo, 176; Niebuhr, 314; the 
Roman Republic, Mommsen, 362 ; 
to the end of the First Punic War, 
Arnold, 415; Decline of the Roman 



452 



INDEX 



Republic, Long, 415; 'Romans 
under the Empire', Merivale, 415; 
Duruy, 373; Willems, Constitu- 
tional History, 380 ; Outlines, 
Pelham, 416; Gibbon's 'Decline 
and Fall of the Roman Empire ', 
272 

Rome, the Roman Academy, 191; 
the International (now German) 
Institute for Archaeological Corre- 
spondence, 355-7 ; the French 
School ; the British Academy, 418; 
the American Academy, 428 

Ruhnken, David, 282 

Russia, 391 f 

Rutherford, William Gunion, 407 

Saint-Hilaire, Barthelemy, 371 

St Gallen founded, 113; Poggio at, 

168 f 
St Petersburg, university of, 391 
Salisbury, Edward E., 426 • 
Sallust in MA, 152 ; ed. prmceps 

(Rome, 1470), 198 ; ed. Pomponius 

Laetus (1490), 192 ; Merivale 

(1882-); Cat. Summers (1900) 
Salmasius, Claudius, 236 
Salutati, Coluccio, 166; 165 
Sannazaro, 172, 191 
Sanskrit, 273, 312, 349, 406, 424, 

426 
Satyric drama, and satiric poetry, 

225 
Sauppe, Hermann, 341 
Savile, Sir Henry, 249 
Scaliger, (i) Julius Caesar, 217 f; (2) 

Josephus Justus, 221-3; ^^^^ 376> 

406; portrait, 220 
Scandinavia, 381, 387 
Scaurus, Q. Terentius, 62 
Schaefer, Arnold, 361 
Scheffer, J. G., 386 
Scheller, I. J. G., 289 
Schiller, 312 

Schlegel, A. W. and F. von, 312 
Schleicher, August, 35 1 
Schleiermacher, Friedrich E. D., 

315 
Schliemann, Heinrich, 356 
Schneider, Johann Gottlob, 290 
Schomann, Georg Friedrich, 342 
Scholarship, periods in modern his- 
tory of, 163 f 
Scholasticism, 127 
Scholefield, James, 396 
Schoolmen and the Classics, 127 f 
Schiitz, Christian Gottfried, 301 



Schweighauser, Johann, 263 

Scot, (r) Alexander, 211 ; (2) Michael, 
130 

Scotland, 230, 408 

Scott, Robert, 405 

Sedulius, hymns of, 174 

Seguier, Pierre, 107 

Selden, John, 250; 244 

Sellar, William Young, 412 

Selling, William of, 228 

Seneca, (i) the elder, ed. Kiessling; 
(2) in MA, 151; Moralia et Epp., 
ed. princeps (Naples, 1475), 198; 
ed. Erasmus (1515), 205; Opera 
omnia, ed. Eipsius [Trag. 1598; 
Op. Phil., 1605), 242; both the 
Senecas, ed. Gronovius (1649-58), 
246; ed. Haase ; Tragoediae, ed. 
Leo, 347 ; Select Letters, Summers 
(1910); Dialogues x, xi, xii. Duff 
(1914) 

Septuagint, 32 

Serapeum in Alexandria, 31 

Sergius of Resaina, 94 

Servatus Lupus, 121 f 

Servius, 66,195 ; ed.ThiloandHagen, 
1879-1902 

Seymour, Thomas Day, 427 ; 434 

Shilleto, Richard, 398 

Short, C. L., 427 

Sicily, History of, Holm, 361 ; Free- 
man, 416 

Sigonius, Carolus, 210 

Silius Italicus in MA, 150; MS dis- 
covered by Poggio at St Gallen, 
170; ed. princeps (Rome, 147 1), 
198; Grotius (1636), 245; Bauer; 
Summers in Postgate's Corpus 

{1905) 

Silvester II, 124 

Simplicius, 89 

Solinus, 68 

Solon and the Homeric poems, i 

Sophists, 4 

Sophocles, 3, 12; Laurentian MS, 
175, 394; ed. princeps {Wen. 1502), 
196, 199; Victorius (1547), 207; 
H. Stephanus (Par. 1568); W. 
Canter (1579); Brunck (1786-9), 
262; Hermann (1809-25), 322; 
Schneidewin( 1 849-54, etc.); Nauck 
(1867); Lewis Campbell (i88i2) ; 
Jebb (1883-96), 401 ; Tyrrell (1897), 
413; AJax, ed. Lobeck, 327; A71- 
tigone, Donaldson, 399 ; Electra, 
Jahn, 356; Kaibel, 341; O.T. and 
O.C, Elmsley, 394"; O.T., Ken- 



INDEX 



453 



nedy; Lexicon, Ellendt ; O.T. at 
Harvard, 425; transl. Plumptre, 
G. Young, Lewis Campbell, White- 
law 
Sophocles, E. A., 422 
Spalding, Georg Ludwig, 315 
Spanheim, Ezechiel, de praestantia 

etusumimmoriivi (Rome, 1664), 387 
Speech, parts of, 44 
Spelling, 21 

Spengel, Leonhard, 329 
Stackelberg, O. M. von, 392 
Stanley, Thomas, 251 
Statins in MA, 149 ; in Dante, 143 ; 

Silvae discovered by Poggio,.i7o; 

ed. princeps, with Tib., Prop., Cat. 

(Ven. 1472), 198; Markland (1728, 

ed. Sillig, 1827) ; ed. princeps of 

Opera omnia, Thebais, Achilleis 

and Silvae (Ven. 1475-83), 198 ; 

ed. Gronovius (Amst. 1653), 246 ; 

Baehrens ; Wilkins and Davies in 

Postgate's Corpus (1905) ; Silvae, 

Vollmer (1898), A. Klotz (1900), 

Saenger [Petropoli, 1909) ; transl. 

D. A. Slater (Oxford, 1908) 
Stephani, Ludolf von, 392 
Stephanus, (i) of Alexandria, 93; 

(2) of Byzantium, 90 ; (3) Robertus, 

216; (4) Henricus, 217, 332 
Steinthal, H., 352 
Stillingfleet, Edward, 265 
Stilo, L. Aelius, 54 
Stobaeus, 91; ed. princeps (1535), 

200; ed. Wacbsmuth and Heinse 

(1884-94) 
Stoics, Grammar of the, 47 f 
Straho, ed. princeps (Ven. 15 16), 199; 

ed. Xylander (1571), Casaubon 

(1587, 1620), Almeloveen (1707); 

Koraes (1815-9); Kramer (1844- 

52); Meineke (1852-3, i866"^) ; C. 

Mliller and F. Dlibner (1853-7) ; 

Selections, H. F. Tozer (1893); 

transl. by Guarino, 177 ; Fr. transl. 

Tardieu (1867-90) 
Strassburg, 262 ; school of Roman 

history, 242, 386 
Strophe and Antistrophe, 227 
Subiaco, 195 
Sublime, anonymous treatise on the, 

75 f; ed. princeps, Robortelli (Bas. 

1554), 209; Toup (1778), 270; 

Egger (1837), 369; Jahn (1867, '87, 

1905); Rhys Roberts, with E. T. 

(1907") ; trans. Havell (1890) and 

Prickard (1906) 



Suetonius, 62; de grammalicis, 53, 

172 ; de viris illustribns, 67 ; 

prata, 114; relliquiae,eA. Reiffer- 

scheid (i860) 

Vifae Caesaruvi, ed. princeps, 

Campano (Rome, 1470), 186; ed. 

Erasmus, 205 ; Casaubon, 225 ; 

Burman, 279; Oudendorp, 279; 

Roth (1858 etc.); Ihm ; transl. 

Philemon Holland; Rolfe (1914) 

Suidas, 99 ; ed. princeps (Milan, 1499), 

183, 199; ed. Gaisford (1834), 395; 

Bernhardy (1834-53), 333; Bekker 

(1854) 
Sulpicia, 174 
Sweden, 385 

Sweynheym and Pannartz, 195 
Sylburg, Friedrich, 235 
Symmachus, Q. Aurelius, 65 ; Epp. 

ed. princeps [c. 1508-13), 198; ed. 

Mai, 365; Seeck (Berlin, 1883) 
Synapheia, 265 
Syntax, metaphysical, 322 
Syrians, Aristotle studied by the, 94 f 

Tacitus, in MA, 154; M.ss, 166, 171 f; 
Boccaccio and Tacitus, 166, 171; 
ed. princeps of Ann. xi-xvi. Hist., 
Germ., Dial. (Ven. c. 1470), 198; 
Agricola {c. 1482); Opera omnia, 
ed. Beroaldo (Rome, 15 15); Lipsius 
(1574 etc.), 241 ; Gronovius (1672), 
246; Brotier (Paris, 1771), 261; 
Bekker (1825, '31); Orelli (1846- 
59; '59-84), 341; Halm (1874"'), 
348; Haase (1855 etc.); An7i. Fur- 
neaux ; transl. Ramsay ; Hist. He- 
raeus, Spooner (1891); transl. 
Church and Brodribb ; Agricola, 
Davis ; Germania, Furneaux ; Dia- 
logns, Peterson (1893), Gudeman 
(1898^); Lexicon, Gerber and Greef 

(1903) 

Taylor, John, 269, 276 

Tegner, Esaias, 387 

Telfy, Ivan, 393 

Temple, Sir William, 266 

Terence, Donatus on, 172; in MA, 
146; Boccaccio's MS, 166; ed. 
/r/mv/j (Strassburg, f. 1470), 198; 
ed. Erasmus, 206 ; Bentley, 268 ; 
Fleckeisen ; Umpfenbach; M.War- 
ren, 425; Parry (1857); Wagner 
(1869); Tyrrell (1902); Ashmore 
(1908); transl. Sargeaunt (1912); 
Phormio at Harvard, 424 

Terentianus Maurus, 63 f, 174 



454 



INDEX 



Texier, Charles Felix, 372 

Theagenes of Rhegium, 5 

Theocritus, ed. princeps, Id. i-xviii 
(Milan, c. 1493), 199; i-xxx (Ven. 
1496 n.s.), 199; (Rome, 1516), 
188; A]irens( 1855-9), 333? Words- 
worth, 397 ; Meineke (1856^) ; Zieg- 
ler (1879-^); Paley, 400; Wilamo- 
witz (1907); transl. Calverley, 
Lang, Edmonds 

Theodore of Tarsus, 116 

Theodoric of Chartres, 158; 129 

Theodosius, (i) of Alexandria, 44, 
87 ; (2) emperor, Theodosius the 
younger, 68 

Theognostus, 94 

Theon of Alexandria, 46 

Theophrastus, 18; On Style, 27, 74; 
IlisL Plant, ed. princeps (Ven. 
1495-8), 199; ed. D. Heinsius 
(1613); O/^ra, ed. Schneider, 290 ; 
Characters, ed. Casaubon (1592), 
224 f; Ast (1815 f), 329; Ussing 
(1868), 384; Jebb (19082), 401; 
Phil. Gesellschaft (Leipzig, 1897) ; 
Edmonds and Austen (1904) ; Diels 
(Oxford text, 1909) 

Thiersch, Friedrich Wilhelm, 329 

Thirlwall, Connop, 414 

Thomas (i) Magister, 105 ; (2) St 
Thomas Aquinas, 135; 156 f; por- 
trait, 134 

Thompson, William Hepworth, 
398 

Thonissen, Jean Joseph, 379 

Thucydides, 4, 75; ed. princeps (Ven. 
1502), 199 ; ed. H. Stephanus 
(1564); Bekker, with scholia (182 i 
etc.), 317; Poppo (1821-38, '43- 
75); Arnold (1848-57), 415; Don- 
aldson (1859), 399; Classen (1862- 
78 etc.); Hude ([898-1901); i, W. 
H. Forbes (Oxford, 1895) ; i, ii, 
Shilleto, 398 ; i-iii, v-vii, Marchant ; 
iii, vi, Spratt ; iv, Rutherford, 407 ; 
Graves ; vii, Holden, 401 ; viii, 
Goodhart ; Tucker ; Index, von 
Essen (1887); transl. Jowett, 405 

Thurot, Charles, 370 

Tibullus, in MA, 150; ed. princeps 
(Ven. 1472), 198; ed. Scaliger 
(1577, '82, 1 100), 222; Heyne 
(i777)> "299; Lachmann (1829, 
i85o4); Haupt (1853, 1879); L. 
Muller(i87o); Hiller (1885) ; Post- 
gate, Selections (f903), Text (1906) ; 
K. F. Smith (New York, 1913); 



Cartault, A propos du Corpus 

Tibulliamim (1906) 
Ticknor, George, 421 
Timaeus, Platonic lexicon of, 282 
Timkovski, 391 
Tiryns, 357 
Toledo, 130 

Toup, Jonathan, 270; 275, 276 
Tragedy, Greek, 12; Greek Tragic 

Poets, 40 
Trapezuntius, Georgius, 182, 184 
Traube, Ludwig, 348 
Traversari, Ambrogio, 172 
Triclinius, 106 
Troy, 50, 356 f 
Tryphon, 46 

Turnebus, Adrianus, 219 
Twining, Thomas, 271 
Tyrannion, 19, 45 
Tyrrell, Robert Yelverton, 413 
Tyrwhitt, Thomas, 271 ; 276 
Tzetzes, 10 1 

Ulpian, 87 

Upsala, university of, 386 f 

Upsilon, 94 

Usener, Hermann, 343 

Ussing, Johan Louis, 384 

Vahlen, Johannes, 345 
Valckenaer, Lodewyk Kaspar, 282 
Valerius Flaccus, in MA, 150 ; MS 
discovered by Poggio at St Gallen, 
168 ; ed. pi-inceps (Bologna, 1474), 
198; ed. N, Heinsius (Amst. 
1680); Burman (Utr. 1724); Thilo 
(1863); Schenkl ([871); Baehrens 
(1875); Bury in Postgate's Corpus 

(1905) 
Valerius Maximus in MA, 153; ed. 

/rmr^/j- (Strassburg, r. 1470), 198; 

ed. Lipsius (Ant. 1585), 242 ; 

Halm, 348 
Valesius, Henricus, 237 
Valla, Laurentius (Lorenzo), 184 f; 

345 

Variorum editions, Dutch, 279, 378 

Varro, M. Terentius, 55 f; 44, 48, 
57, 67 f, 185, 192 ; Ritschl on, 
339 ; De Lingua Latina, ed. prin- 
ceps (Rome, 1471), 198; Perotti, 
185 ; Spengel (1826, '85^) ; K. O. 
Miiller (1833); Egger (1837) ; Gotz 
and Scholl ( 1 9 1 o) ; De Re Rustica, 
Keil (1884-91) 

Vater, Friedrich, 392 

Vegetius, recension by Eutropius, 68 ; 



INDEX 



455 



MSS, 169 ; ed. princeps (Rome, 
1487), 198 
Veitch, William, 408 
Velius Longus, 63, 174 
Velleius Paterculus, MS, 174; ed. 
princeps, Beatus Rhenanus (Bas. 
1520) ; Lipsius (L. B. 1591, 
etc.), 242; Robinson Ellis (1898), 
412 
Verner, K. A., 351, 385 
Verrall, Arthur Woolgar, 404 
Verrius Flaccus, 60; 412 
Victorinus, C. Marius, 65 
Victorius, Petriis, 207 ; portrait, 208 
Vida, Hieronymus, de arte poetica, 

207 
Villemain, Abel Frani^ois, 373 
Villoison, Baptiste Gaspard d'Ansse 

de, 263 
Vincent of Beauvais, 133 
Virgil, early study of, 57 f; Servius 
on, 66 ; Macrobius on, 67 ; text 
of, 68 ; Virgil m MA, 147 ; in 
Dante, 143 
ed. princeps (Rome or Strassburg, 
c. 1469), 198; ed. Heyne (1767- 
75), 300; Ribbeck (1859-68), 
345 ; Conington (1863-71), 41 1 ; 
Kennedy (1876-8), 397 ; Henry 
on Aeneid, 413 ; Bticolics and 
Georgics, Martyn (174 1-9 etc.); 
Page ; transl. Conington ; Aen. 
in verse, Dryden, Conington ; 
Appendix Vergiliana, ed. Robin- 
son Ellis, 412; Culex and Copa^ 
Leo, 347 
'Virgilius Maro ', grammarian, 114 
Visconti, Ennio Quirino, 259 
Vittorino da Feltre, 177 f 
Vitruvius, Mss at Reichenau and 
St Gallen, 169; ed. princeps (Rome, 
c. i486), 198; ed. 1511, 177; ed. 
Rose and Miiller-Strubing ; M. H. 
Morgan on, 425 
Voss, Johann Heinrich, 310 
Vossius, (i) Gerardus Johannes, 242; 

(2) Isaac, 243 
Vulgate, 67; in MA, 157; in Dante, 
143 

Waddington, C. and W. H., 371 

Walberg, K. A., 387 

Wallon, Henri Alexandre, 373 



Warren, Minton, 424 f 

Weil, Henri, 370 

Welcker, Friedrich Gottlieb, 354 

Wessel, Johann, 226 

Wesseling, Peter, 281 

Whitney, W. D., 426 

Wilkins, Augustus Samuel, 411 

William (i) of Auvergne, 132 ; (2) of 
Moerbeke, 135 f 

Willems, Pierre, 380 

Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 292 ; 
296, 299, 355 

Winfrid (Boniface), 117 f 

Wolf, (1) Hieronymus, 234; (2) Fried- 
rich August, 305-310; 164, 263, 
270, 285 f, 302, 311; portrait, 304 

Wood, Robert, 270; 286, 300, 308 

Woolsey, Theodore D wight, 425 

Wordsworth, Christopher, 397 

Wootton, William, 266 

Wright, John Henry, 423 

Wycliffe, 139 

Wyttenbach, Daniel, 284 

Xenophanes, 5 

Xenophon, Hellenica, ed. princeps 
(Ven. 1503), 199; Opera, ed. 
Boninus (Flor. 1516); (Ven. 1525); 
H. Stephanus (1561, 1581); Mem. 
ed. Victorius (Flor. 1551); Opera, 
ed. W. and L. Dindorf, 331 f; 
J. Sauppe (1865 f, 1867 f); transl. 
Dakyns (1890-97); Andbasis and 
Hellenica, Cobet, 376 ; Anabasis, 
Schenkl (text, 1869); Vollbrecht; 
Pretor (1887-1907) ; Oecononiicus, 
Graux, 371; Cyrop., Hieron., Oec. 
Holden, 401; Cyrop. etc. transl. 
Filelfo, 1 75, Hellenica, transl. Bruni, 
173; ed. O. Keller (1890); Biich- 
senschiitz (1905-8) ; Agesilaus, 
Hailstone (1879); ^^<^''' Socratici, 
Schenkl (text, 1896); Mem. Kiihner 
( 1 902") ; Symposium, Wynans ( 1 88 1 ) 

Xylander, Wilhelm, 235 

Yale, 420, 425-7 

Zeno, 48 
Zenodotus, 34 

Zoega, Johann Georg, 381 ; 354 
Zumpt, (i) Karl Gottlob, 335; 
(2) August Wilhelm, 363 



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dint of restrained enthusiasm and a nice sense of proportion have imparted to 

plain chronicle the total effect of a creative achievement In its own line 

the value of this completed work can hardly be over-estimated." 

Saturday Review 

" Dr Sandys is to be congratulated on a brilliant performance; it is the 
first book on the subject in English on anything like so comprehensive a scale. 
The labour of research involved, though enormous, has not killed the freshness 
and human interest of the book ; the dry bones live." — Manchester Guardian 

"To venture on an almost untrodden field, to explore the obscure annals 
'of twenty-five centuries,' and not only to set forth the facts with scrupulous 
accuracy and absolute clearness, but also to estimate them with a critical and 
just judgment, — this is a task from which most men would have shrunk, but 
which Dr Sandys has achieved. To praise his work is needless, for the earlier 
portion of it has already received full and final approval. It is a work which 
will last, and in this noble tribute to the dead scholars of the past he has set up 
his own enduring memorial." — Spectator 

HARVARD LECTURES ON THE REVIVAL OF 

LEARNING. Petrarch and Boccaccio; The Age of Discoveries; 
Theory and Practice of Education ; The Academies of Florence, Venice, 
Naples, and Rome; The Homes of Humanism; The History of Cicero- 
nianism ; The Study of Greek. Crown 8vo. 4J. dd. net. (Cambridge 
University Press.) 
"A broad, sane, scholarly and fruitful survey of a momentous period." 

Pall Mall Gazette 

[P.T.O. 



ORATIONES ET EPISTOLAE CANTABRIGI- 

ENSES {1876 — 1909). Crown 4to. 10^. net. (Macmillan & Co., 
Ltd.) 

"Charming examples of polished Latinity Admirable specimens of brief 

and pointed criticism." — R. Y. Tyrrell, in Nature 



EURIPIDES.— Bacchae. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo. 

\2s. 6d. (Cambridge University Press.) 
"Almost, if not quite, unrivalled for finish and completeness among English 
editions of any classical author." — Spectator 

ISOCRATES. — Ad Demonicum et Panegyricus. Crown 

8vo. \s. 6d. (Longmans, Green & Co.) 
"An ample supply of exhaustive notes of rare excellence." — Athenaeum 

DEMOSTHENES.- Select Private Orations. Pro 

Phormione, Contra Stephanum, I, II; Contra Nicostratum, Cononem, 
Calliclem. 7'hird Edition. Crown 8vo. 7^-. 6d. (Cambridge 
University Press.) 

** It is long since we have come across a work evincing more pains, scholar- 
ship, and varied research and illustration." — Saturday Review 

DEMOSTHENES.— Speech against the Law of 

Leptines. Demy 8vo. 9^-. (Cambridge University Press.) 
" Worthily represents the highest level of English scholarship." 

Classical Review 

DEMOSTHENES.— (i) Philippic I, and Olynthiacs 

I — III. (2) On the Peace, Philippic II, On the Chersonesus, 

Philippic III. Revised edition. Two vols. Fcap. Svo. 5^. each. 

(Macmillan's Classical Series.) 

" Every side of the author is treated with sound judgment, excellent taste, 

and rare command of the literature." — American Journal of Philology 

ARISTOTLE'S CONSTITUTION OF ATHENS. 

Second edition, revised and enlarged. Demy Svo. \^s. 6d. net. (Mac- 
millan's Classical Library.) 
"Sir John Sandys' new edition, with its vast stores of material, is in- 
dispensable." — Cambridge Review 

THE *' ORATOR" OF CICERO. Demy Svo. 16s. 
(Cambridge University Press.) 
" Wide learning, finished scholarship, and elaborate completeness of 
execution." — Academy 

A COMPANION TO LATIN STUDIES. Royal Svo. 

With 141 illustrations. i8s. net. (Cambridge University Press.) 
" Dr Sandys and his collaborators have produced a notable work of 

reference, within a manageable compass The work appears to have been 

done extremely well The illustrations are good and adequate." 

Journal of Hellenic Studies 

[p.T.o. 



PA Sandys, (Sir) John Edwin 
51 A short history of i 

S32 classical scholarship from I 

1915 the sixth century B.C. to 

cop .3 the present day 

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