Is!
' .:ft'
I. V
11
1^
r
A SHOET OUTLINE
OP THE
HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Edinburgh : Printed by T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty
A SHORT OUTLINE
OF THE
HISTORY OF RUSSIA
BY
B. J. L.
IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL. II
EDINBURGH: PRIVATELY PRINTED
1900
CONTENTS
CHAPTER LXXVII
PAGE
The Patriarch Nikon and the Affairs of the Church ..... 1
CHAPTER LXXVIII
The Little Russian Question — Bogdan Hmelnitzki and the Annexation of Little Russia
to the Moscovite State, 1654 ....... 6
CHAPTER LXXIX
Struggle with Neighbours on account of Little Russia ..... 8
CHAPTER LXXX
Reign of Feodor Alexe'evitch, 1676-1682— Changes at the Commencement of the new
Reign ........... 12
CHAPTER LXXXI
General View of the Moscovite State — Definition of the Moscoyite State . . 17
PERIOD V
THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE, UNDER PETER THE GREAT AND HIS
SUCCESSORS, TILL OUR OWN TIMES
CHAPTER I
Reign of Peter the Great, 1682-1689-1725— Peter Alexe'evitch chosen Sovereign-
Divided Power — Regency of Sophia Alexe"evna, 1682-1689 — loann and Peter reign
conjointly, 1689-1696— Death of loann, 1696 . .... 52
CHAPTER II
Reign of Peter the Great, 1689-1725— Administration of Peter during the first five
Years subsequent to Sophia's Overthrow— Expeditions to Azoph — Shipbuilding
Companies — Organisation of a great Embassade — Conspiracy of Tseekler — Peter's
Journey abroad . . ..... .» ;i ... 66
VOL. II. b
vi OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
CHAPTER III
PAGE
Revolt of the Strelitz, 1698 — Peter's return from abroad— Shaving of the Beard and
change of Dress— Investigation of the Strelitz — John Eeinhold Patkul . . 71
CHAPTER IV
From the Commencement of the Northern War till the Victory of Poltava, 1701-1709
— Subsequent Events, 1710-1711 — Defeat of the Russians at Narva, 19th
November 1701 . . . . . . . . .75
CHAPTER V
War with Turkey, 1711— Continuation of the Northern War, 1712-1713 — Disagreement
between Peter and his Allies — Peter's Journey to France, 1717 ... 91
CHAPTER VI
Death of Boris Petrovitch Sheremetev, 17th February 1717 — Death of Alexei Petrovitch,
June 26, 1718 — Conclusion of the Northern War — Peter adopts the Title of
Emperor, 1721 — Foundation of the Russian Fleet celebrated, August 1723 — War
with Persia — Canal of Ladoga — Foundation of the Academy of Sciences, 1724 —
Coronation of Catherine, May 7, 1724 — Relics of St. Alexander Nevski trans-
ported to St. Petersburg, August 30, 1724— Death of Peter the Great, 28th
January 1725 ......... 95
CHAPTER VII
Succession to the Throne — Peter the Great and his Family .... 102
CHAPTER VIII
Peter's Reform of Administration and of different Classes .... 107
CHAPTER IX
Domestic Economy — Armies — Institutions — Family Life ..... 109
CHAPTER X
The Clergy and the Raskolniks, or Old Believers . . . . , 112
CHAPTER XI
Characteristics and Signification of Reform introduced in Russia by Peter the Great . 115
CHAPTER XII
Co-operators of Peter the Great ... . 118
CONTENTS vii
CHAPTER XIII
PAGE
Reign of the Empress Catherine i. (Ekaterina Alexdevna), 1725-1727 . . 126
CHAPTER XIV
Reign of Peter n. (Alexe"evitch), 1727-1730— Men shikov .... 142
CHAPTER XV
Reign of the Empress Anna loannovna, 1730-1740 ..... 154
CHAPTER XVI
Regency of Biron and of Anna Leopoldovna — Ephemeral Reign of loann Antonovitch,
1740-1741 170
CHAPTER XVII
Anna Leopoldovna . . . . . . . . . .174
CHAPTER XVIII
Biron Regent — Regency of Anna Leopoldovna . . . . . .178
CHAPTER XIX
Reign of Elizaveta Petrovna, 1741-1761— The Bodyguard— Movement against Foreigners 181
CHAPTER XX
Interior Administration during the Reign of Elizaveta Petrovna .... 188
CHAPTER XXI
Characteristics of the Russian Nobles during the Reign of Elizaveta Petrovna . . 190
CHAPTER XXII
The Lower Classes . . . . . i . . • • 193
CHAPTER XXIII
Literature and Science . . . . . . . . . 195
CHAPTER XXIV
Elizaveta Petrovna . 197
viii OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
CHAPTER XXV
PAGE
Reign of Peter in. (Feodorovitch), from December 25, 1761, till July 6, 1762 . 200
CHAPTER XXVI
Reign of Catherine ii. (Alexeevna), 'the Great,' 1762-1796 L *^ . . . 203
CHAPTER XXVII
Legislative Committee — Regulations concerning Provinces, or so-called Governments of
Russia .......... 207
CHAPTER XXVIII
Measures taken regarding different Classes — Attention paid to Economy . • 210
CHAPTER XXIX
Southern Regions — Schools and Literary Movement . . . . . 212
CHAPTER XXX
First War with Turkey, 1768-1774 . 217
CHAPTER XXXI
The Plague— Poogatschev . . . . . . . . .218
CHAPTER XXXII
The Crimea— Second War with Turkey— The Crimea annexed to Russia, 1783 . . 222
CHAPTER XXXIII
Restoration of western Russian Regions — Question concerning Dissenters — Conference
of Bar . . . . ....;•;. . :«;, '•* > - . 224
CHAPTER XXXIV
The Constitution of May 3, 179J, and the Fall of Poland . . . e;*..,-. . 228
CHAPTER XXXV
Princess Tarakanova ... . . ... . * .. . • 230
CHAPTER XXXVI
Catherine n. as a Woman and an Empress ...... 233
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER XXXVII
PAGE
Catherine's Inner World ......... 237
CHAPTER XXXVIII
Two Periods— Death of Catherine n., 6th November 1796 . . . .239
CHAPTER XXXIX
Reign of the Emperor Pavel Petrovitch, 1796-1801— Paul's Childhood . . .244
CHAPTER XL
The Crown Princess Natalia Alexeevna ....... 247
CHAPTER XLI
The Empress Maria Feodorovna ........ 250
CHAPTER XLII
Paul ascends the Throne, November 6, 1796 ...... 252
CHAPTER XLIII
Soovorov"s Italian Campaign, 1799 ........ 253
CHAPTER XLIV
A Chapter dedicated to Lovers of the Marvellous — Narration of the Grand Duke Pavel
Petrovitch concerning his Vision of Peter the Great, quoted from Andre'ev's Work
(pp. 411-417) . 258
CHAPTER XLV
Family of the Emperor Paul : First Consort, Augusta Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt —
Second Consort, Sophia Dorothea of Wiirtemberg (Maria Feodorovna) : Sons —
Eldest Son and successor, Alexander I. — Second, Constantine, married Julia,
Princess of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Anna Feodorovna)— Const an tine's second Consort
was a Polish lady, Countess Grudzinska, who subsequently received the Title of
Princess Lowicz — Third, Nicholas I. — Fourth, Michael , . . . 263
CHAPTER XLVI
Reign of Alexander i. (Pavlovitch), 12th March 1801— 19th November 1825 . . 264
x OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
CHAPTER XLVII
PAGE
Napoleon invades Russia . . . -. . ' * . . 266
CHAPTER XLVIII
Interior Government during the Reign of Alexander i. . . . . . 277
CHAPTER XLIX
Question concerning Succession to the Throne — Military Revolt of December 14, 1825 . 281
CHAPTER L
Reign of the Emperor Nicholas I. (Nikolai Pavlovitch), 1825-1855 . . . 288
CHAPTER LI
Insurrection in Poland, 1830 — Enterprises in Volhynia and Lithuania . . . 290
CHAPTER LII
The 'United Greeks' join the Eastern Church -. . . . . . 294
CHAPTER LIII
The Crimean War, 1853 — The Caucasus — Death of the Emperor Nikolai Pavlovitch, 18th
February 1855 ......... 295
CHAPTER LIV
Nikolai Pavlovitch as a Sovereign ........ 298
CHAPTER LV
The Emperor Nikolai Pavlovitch as a Man ....... 302
CHAPTER LVI
Family of the Emperor Nikolai Pavlovitch . . . . . . 306
CHAPTER LVII
Reign of the Emperor Alexander u. (Nikolaevitch), ' the Martyr Sovereign,' ' the
Liberator,' 1855-1881 307
CONTENTS xi
CHAPTER LVIII
PAGE
The Last Moments of Alexander n. ....... 318
CHAPTER LIX
Extracts from contemporary Russian Newspapers ...... 321
CHAPTER LX
Chronological List of Remarkable Events during the Reign of Alexander n. . . 327
CHAPTER LXI
Family of the Emperor Alexander n. ....... 331
SHORT OUTLINE OF
THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
CHAPTER LXXVII
THE PATRIARCH NIKON AND THE AFFAIRS OF THE CHURCH
NIKON (or Nicetas, while in the world) was born in 1605, when the stormy epoch
of Russian history denominated ' the troublous times' occurred, and under whose
influence his childhood was passed. He was of Mordvi origin, born in the village
of Viliameenov, near Nijni-Novgorod, and was the son of a peasant. Nikita
(Nicetas) soon lost his mother. His father married a second time, and Nikita had
much to suffer from his stepmother's temper, so that even his life was more than
once in danger. In early years, Nikita showed a very strong will, unusual
capacity, and a marked inclination for a monastic life. Young Nikita meanwhile
managed to learn to read and write, which, at that remote epoch, proved certain
means of advancement even to those of little talent. Great strength of mind and
energy did not long allow Nikita to remain in the sphere to which he originally
belonged. The gifted youth was a remarkable figure among the crowd, and was
soon destined to move onwards. At a later period, it was remarked that the
persecution he had suffered in childhood, from his stepmother, for ever afterwards
left evil traces in his disposition. He entered a monastery on probation, but, at
the desire of his parents, he was summoned thence, once more to the world.
He then married and received the living of a priest when only twenty years old.
In that sphere his talent was so apparent that the Moscow merchants urged him
to go to that capital. Nikita lived ten years with his wife. During that space
they lost their three children, which he considered a sign that God had destined
him for a monastic life. Nikita thereupon separated from his wife, persuaded her
also to enter a cloister, and himself withdrew to the hermitage of Anzersk, in a
desert spot near the White Sea. There he adopted the monastic garb. The fame of
his strictly ascetic life quickly spread to northern monasteries and finally reached
Moscow. In 1646 he appeared there and produced a deep impression on the pious
VOL. II. A
2 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
young sovereign, Alexei Michaelovitch. By his express desire, Nikita, or Nikon
henceforth, was appointed archimandrite of the Novospaski monastery. In that
capacity he every week appeared at the palace, in order to converse with Alexis.
Meanwhile, Nikon lost no opportunity to intercede for the oppressed, as well as for
widows and orphans. In 1648 Nikon was consecrated as metropolitan of Novgorod.
Not only did Nikon there exercise unlimited control over church affairs, but he
also acquired influence on civil administration. Besides, the sovereign's esteem for
Nikon was even more augmented after the famous Novgorodian revolt, quelled by
the firmness of the metropolitan. When Joseph, patriarch of Moscow, died, the
vacant patriarchal chair was offered to Nikon, but he refused it. Whereupon, in
the Cathedral of the Assumption (at the Moscow Kreml), Alexis and those around
him, with tears, implored Nikon not to reject this dignity. Nikon, then turning
to the boyards and people, inquired: 'Would they honour him as a pastor and a
father ? Would they allow him to organise the church ? ' All present swore to
1652— Nikon do as he desired. Then Nikon consented, and was consecrated patriarch of
patriarch of MOSCOW in 1652.
Moscow.
The naturally pious, impressionable mind of Alexei Michaelovitch was soon
entirely influenced by the patriarch. The latter received every mark of confidence,
and was even intrusted with nearly the complete administration of state, during
any temporary absence of the sovereign. Like the father of Michael Feodorovitch,
Nikon, too, in documents, entitled himself ' August Sovereign.' Philaret,
however, had borne that title not merely as patriarch, but as the sovereign's
father.
As far as clerical affairs were concerned, Nikon's most important act was the
correction of books used in church service. During the course of time, many
mistakes had gradually appeared in church manuscripts, from the ignorance
of scribes and copyists. When the art of printing became known in Moscow,
these mistakes were of course repeated in printed books. Not only so ; along with
mistakes, various statements were made, not in accordance with the statutes of
the Russo- Greek church.
For example, the word lisoos (Jesus) should have been written Isoos. The
mass should be performed with seven pieces of holy bread, and not with five. Two
fingers, but not three, should be bent while making the sign of the cross. The
beard and whiskers were not to be shaved, etc. But, after all, these comparatively
trifling differences of opinion were not supremely important to many, but merely
served as pretexts to show discontent with the Moscovite clerical hierarchy, and
especially with the influence of Western civilisation, which already began to
appear.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 3
As we have previously remarked, the correction of church books began during
the reign of Michael Feodorovitch.
The commencement of the art of printing in the Moscovite state dates from
the reign of loann iv. (1534-1584). Then there came from western Europe two
workmen (printers), Ivan Feodorov and Peter Mstislavetz. They organised the
first printing-press in Moscow in 1553. The first book there printed was a copy
of The Acts of the Apostles. In 1565 Feodorov and Mstislavetz were both
accused of heresy, and forced to seek safety by flight. Their chief accusers were
scribes and copyists, of course highly displeased at the new order of things, because
it rendered copying of no longer use. Notwithstanding, the art of printing books
had already taken root in Moscow.
Feodorov and Mstislavetz retired to western Russia, and, for some time, printed
church books at a small spot named Zabloodov, in the present government of
Grodno, and on the estate of a Polish pan (nobleman), Hodkevitch. Then
Mstislavetz worked in Vilna, in the Russian typography of Mamonitch. Feodorov
continued his labour at Ostrog (government of Volhynia) at the estate of Prince
Constantine Ostrojski.
A very rare copy of the Scriptures in Russ, and called the ' Ostrojski edition/
still exists.
At first, the correction of church books was intrusted to Dionysius, the
celebrated archimandrite of the Trinity cloister, and to some monks, but they
were persecuted and imprisoned for the supposed heresy they had introduced in
the corrections. The latter were thereupon confided to others, who likewise
maintained the above-mentioned opinions and transferred them to the newly-
printed church books. In order to decide the questions which thus arose, Nikon
summoned a Clerical Council in 1654. It was then resolved to correct the books
according to the old Russian manuscripts, which, for that purpose, were collected
in large numbers in Moscow. The corrected copies and new editions for service
were next distributed among different churches. Books of previous editions Nikon
everywhere ordered to be removed. But against these measures part of the
clergy, who disliked Nikon for his severity, rose in open opposition. They
excited the people by telling them that the patriarch had introduced heretical
innovations and corrupted the purity of the faith. Whereupon those favourable
to the old church books broke out into loud complaints against the patriarch.
Meanwhile, the cruel punishment which the stern Nikon inflicted on the un-
submissive clergy, subordinate to him, rendered them martyrs in the judgment of
the people. From this epoch, books printed by the patriarch Joseph, or the old
editions, acquired a hallowed signification for those displeased with the new
4 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
corrections. The former were carefully concealed. It was thought that with them
only could one pray aright, while Nikon, on the contrary, was considered Anti-
christ. Those who adhered to the old church books received the name of ' Old
Believers,' or ' Raskolniks.' The chief leaders of the ' Raskolniki ' were priests
named Lazarus and Nikita Poostosviat, a diakon (under clergyman), Feodor, and
especially an arch-priest Avvakoom, distinguished by extensive reading, as well as
a bold, energetic disposition. His numerous compositions, written in glowing,
powerful language, had great success amongst the people.
The patriarch Nikon, after exciting against himself many of the clergy and
people, soon made enemies among the boyards also. He, besides, did not fail to
abuse his influence over the sovereign, bu£ desired to secure as a permanent right
the administrative importance only conferred by the personal inclination of Alexei
Michaelovitch. In fact, Nikon aimed at making secular power subservient to the
clergy. That aim, however, could not succeed in the Moscovite state, where the
sovereign's sway was absolute. Irritated by Nikon's arrogance and demands for
perfect submission, many boyards hated him, and tried to weaken the preference
of Alexei for his favourite. The efforts of the boyards were crowned with success
all the sooner because Nikon despised their petty intrigues, and especially because
Alexei himself began to grow tired of his dependence on the unyielding patriarch.
Soon Alexei showed coldness in his intercourse with Nikon, followed by an open
rupture, in consequence of which Nikon voluntarily quitted his charge.
On one occasion, when Teimooraz, sovereign of Georgia, was entertained at the
Moscovite court, and, contrary to the usual custom, Nikon was not invited there
(1658), the patriarch sent to inquire the reason. Whereupon the boyarine
Hectrov, exasperated, drove the messenger out of the palace and beat him with a
stick. The enraged patriarch first demanded redress by writing, but he could
obtain no positive answer. Then he endeavoured to have a personal interview
with Alexis after service in church. But the boyarine Romodonovski came to
announce that Alexis would not be present. Nikon was highly incensed. He
flt'.w into a storm of passion, and scolded the boyarine, who, in turn, reproached
the patriarch with pride. Nikon could bear that no longer, and gave full vent to
his fury. After the liturgy, he, with a loud voice, intimated to the people that
he was no longer patriarch of Moscow. He placed his pastoral staff near the
image of the Vladimirski Virgin, put on a simple monk's attire, and finally, in the
vestry, wrote a letter to Alexis, begging him to indicate a cell as a suitable
retreat. Nikon, seated on the steps of the estrade, awaited an answer. Twice
Alexis sent the boyarine Troobetzkoi to exhort Nikon, but in vain. A third
time the boyarine came and intimated to Nikon that he had the sovereign's
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 5
permission to choose a dwelling for himself. Nikon evidently hoped that Alexis
would come to have a personal interview, to persuade his friend, and in no wise
uwaited such an answer. Accompanied by a great crowd, Nikon then went on
foot from the Cathedral of the Assumption (at the Moscow Kreml) to the
cloisteral dwelling of the Voskresenski, and immediately afterwards to his
favourite Yoskresenski monastery, better known by the name of 'the New
Jerusalem,' built by himself.
Alexis, however, did not soon decide the affair concerning his former friend.
During several years their dispute was still prolonged, and the quarrel was
eagerly fomented by the boyards. It was, moreover, also prolonged by Nikon's
unflinching obstinacy. Finally, a Clerical Council was assembled, under the
presidency of two Eastern patriarchs, those of Alexandria and of Antioch. Nikon
was then judged and condemned. He was deposed and exiled as a captive to
the Bielozerski lerapontov monastery (government of Novgorod), 1666. After
his fall, he, notwithstanding, did not lose courage, but even till his death still
showed an unbending disposition.
In Soloviev's larger History of Russia (vol. ii. pp. 332-335), he gives curious
details of Nikon's captivity. The once powerful, arrogant patriarch greatly
missed the comfort and even the luxury to which he had become accustomed
during the days of his prosperity. Alexis used to send various articles from time
to time to his former friend. Among these articles were different kinds of fish,
dried fruits, preserves, and also fur to line a pelisse. Nikon, however, wrote, while
returning thanks for these gifts, that there was too little fur for the desired
purpose, and that in his actual abode there was no opportunity to buy more
fur. He accordingly begged Alexis to send an additional supply, which the
latter did.
The books corrected by Nikon were approved by the same council which had
deposed him from the dignity of patriarch. Notwithstanding, in spite of this
approval, many priests and monks would in no wise consent to make use of these
newly-corrected books. At the Solovetzk monastery (government of Archangel)
this affair led to open revolt. But the government, then occupied in the south
by quelling Razine's insurrection, could not send large forces to the north.
Thanks to the strong walls of the monastery, the ' Raskolniki ' maintained a siege
during the protracted space of eight years. Only in 1676 (22nd January) the
voevode Mesherinov took the monastery by assault and hanged the chief rebels.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
CHAPTER LXXVIII
THE LITTLE RUSSIAN QUESTION — BOGDAN HMELNITZKI AND THE ANNEXATION OF
LITTLE RUSSIA TO THE MOSCOVITE STATE, 1654
DURING the first years of Alexei Michaelovitch's reign, a new and very serious
revolt of the Ukraine Cossacks against the Polish aristocracy took place. This
terminated by the separation of Little Eussia from Poland and the annexation of
the former to Moscow. The leader of this popular insurrection was Bogdan
Hmelnitzki, urged to a desperate struggle with the Poles by a thirst for personal
revenge.
Zinovius Hmelnitzki, better known by the name of Bogdan, was the son of a
Cossack centurion. Bogdan received a good education for the time, and soon
began to advance from the circle of his associates, the town Cossacks, by his
bravery and his talents. He also speedily distinguished himself in battles with
the Tartars, the Turks, and Moscovites. Finally, he occupied the post of a
military scribe. Although outwardly Hmelnitzki professed entire submission to
the Polish republic, notwithstanding, some of the pans (nobles) who oppressed
Ukraine, taught by experience of previous Cossack revolts, began to look with an
evil eye on the clever scribe. He was especially hated by Tschapleenski, under
starost of Tschigeerine. Not far from that spot, Hmelnitzki possessed a farm-
house named Soubotovo, to which the under starost laid claim. On one occasion,
Tschapleenski, with a crowd of followers, attacked the farmhouse, set fire to the
corn in the barn, and seized Bogdan's wife. Hmelnitzki was forced to save
himself by taking flight. He then complained to Konetzpolski, starost of
Tschigeerine, but on receiving no redress, next went to Warsaw to seek justice
from the Polish senate. However, in any law-plea between a petty Polish noble
and a Cossack, judges usually took the part of the former. Hmelnitzki finally
applied to the king, who knew Bogdan personally and protected him. But
Vladislav felt his want of power in the diet, and accordingly declined to
participate in the affair. As for Hmelnitzki's complaints of the oppression
exercised on the inhabitants of Ukraine, it is said that the king simply replied :
' The Cossacks have a sword ! ' Whereupon Hmelnitzi went to join the Zaporog
Cossacks, excited them to revolt, and received aid from the Crimean khan. The
Cossack Rada (assembly) chose Hmelnitzki as hetman, and resolved to declare
war on Poland. In all Ukraine great agitation took place ; for the people only
awaited a suitable opportunity to rise in arms once more against their oppressors.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 7
The first encounters of Hmelnitzki with the Polish forces at Joltaia Voda, or
Yellow Water, and at Korsoom, 1648, terminated in complete defeat of the Poles.
These successes raised all Ukraine. Bondmen formed numerous gangs of robbers,
who plundered whatever they could find, and laid the castles of their masters in
ruins. These marauders also set fire to Romanist churches, and put Jews — renters
of estates — to a cruel death. The pans were forced to flee from the fury of the
populace. At that epoch King Vladislav died; and the interregnum which
ensued still more favoured the success of the insurrection. When the deceased
sovereign's brother, John Casimir, was finally elected king, he, in person, took
command of the troops. But at Zborovo, in Galicia, the Poles were on every side
surrounded by Cossacks and Tartars. Then the king consented to peace, by
which the old rights of the Cossacks were renewed, besides the grant of many
new privileges.
However, the treaty of Zborovo did not prove permanent. According to its
stipulations, the number of ' enregistered Cossacks ' was limited to 40,000. The
remaining bondmen, forming part of the troops, were obliged to return to the
condition of serfs, and to work for those very nobles who had been but recently
expelled from their possessions by the enraged people. When the hetman by
strong measures tried to enforce these statutes, great discontent against him was
manifested by the populace of Ukraine, so that he was finally forced to abandon
his attempts. On the other hand, the Poles also did not perform some promises
of the treaty. For example, they did not give the metropolitan of Kiev a place
in the senate. Hmelnitzki again summoned the aid of the Crimean khan, and
again began a new war. But this time it was unfavourable to him. John Casimir
assembled a large force. In a battle at Berestesck, the khan suddenly abandoned
the Cossacks, and they were completely overthrown. At Belaia Tserkov (i.e.
White Church), government of Kiev, a new peace was concluded, by which the
number of 'enregistered Cossacks' was diminished to 20,000. The position of Little
Russia then became the same as it was before the insurrection. The Cossacks, and
especially the peasants, moved in whole crowds towards the adjacent Moscovite
Ukraine, where vast tracts of hitherto unpopulated country were soon peopled by
Little Russian colonies and villages.
On seeing the impossibility of struggling alone against Poland, Hmelnitzki,
even at the beginning of the insurrection, had carried on conferences with the
Moscovite court, and begged Alexei Michaelovitch to take Little Russia under
his protection. After the treaty at Belaia Tserkov, Hmeluitzki, with great
perseverance, renewed his entreaties ; while he added that, if reduced to extremity,
he was ready to submit to the Turkish, sultan. The Moscovite government at
8 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
first enacted the part of mediator between the Cossacks and Poland, and demanded
the fulfilment of the treaty of Zborovo; but the Poles rejected that demand.
Besides, one constant subject of dispute between the governments of Moscow
and Poland was the diminishing of the Russian sovereign's titles. This
was particularly apparent in intercourse with commanders along the frontier
lines.
In order to decide the important questions concerning Poland and Little
Russia, Alexei Michaelovitch held a meeting of the states-general (Zemskaia
Dooma) in 1653. In this assembly it was decided to accept the proposals of
Hmelnitzki and to declare war on Poland. During the following year, a pompous
Moscovite embassy, at the head of which was the boyarine Bootooiiine, arrived
at Periaslavl. There a general Cossack 'Rada' also assembled, and, at the
hetman's proposal, the Cossacks swore allegiance to the sovereign of Moscow,
8th January 1654.
Little Russia Subsequently, Moscovite functionaries went to the Ukraine towns, and received
Moscow ^th ^e oa^ °^ alle»iance fr°m Little Russian armies on both sides of the Dnieper.
January 1654. The chief conditions of annexation were as follows : — The number of permanent
troops was estimated at sixty thousand. The Cossacks themselves had the right
to choose a hetman, entitled to receive foreign ambassadors. The privileges of
towns and of petty nobles remained as before. In towns the administrators
were to be Little Russians, and they were to collect revenues.
CHAPTER LXXIX
STRUGGLE WITH NEIGHBOURS ON ACCOUNT OF LITTLE RUSSIA
THE war which then broke out with Poland was very favourable to the Moscovites.
Alexei Michaelovitch, with numerous forces, joined the campaign. In person he
besieged Smolensk and forced it to surrender. From White Russia the Moscovites
advanced to Lithuania and took Vilna, Kovno, and Grodno. At the same time,
Hmelnitzki, strengthened by imperial forces, attacked the Poles from the south-
east, and advanced towards the Vistula. To complete the misfortunes of the Poles,
they were also attacked from the north by the warlike Swedish king, Charles x.,
who subdued Poznane and took Warsaw and Cracow. In this critical position,
Poland was saved by the intervention of the Austrian court, and also by the
rivalry which existed between the Russians and the Swedes. The ambassadors of
the Emperor (Ferdinand in.) gave Alexei Michaelovitch the hope that at the
death of the childless Casimir the Poles would elect the Moscovite sovereign as
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 9
king of Poland. Thus the latter state would be annexed to Moscow without
war. Alexis then agreed to a truce, while he retained for himself both Little and
White Russia (1656). He next turned his arms against the Swedes, as stronger,
more dangerous neighbours than the Poles.
Thinking that the time had come to advance towards the shores of the Baltic
Sea, Alexei Michaelovitch entered Livonia, took several towns there, and besieged
Riga. But at that city the Russians met with a check. The war was then
continued with varying success. Meanwhile, conferences took place. They
terminated by the peace of Kardis (1661), by which the Russians returned all
conquered towns to the Swedes. Moscow was prompted to make these con-
cessions on account of sedition in Little Russia, and renewed war with Poland.
Zinovius Bogdan Hmelnitzki had, with great displeasure, learned the cessation
of war between Moscow and Poland. He died some months after the truce had
taken place. In Little Russia, sedition immediately ensued. The chief cause of
it was the election of a hetman. This depended on the free choice of the
Cossacks. There were always several candidates for the said dignity, and, of
course, each had his own party. Besides, the annexation of Little Russia to the
Moscovite state was not yet permanent. Meanwhile, the simple Cossacks and
the populace were favourable to union with Moscow ; but the elder Cossacks, and
especially those in office, showed preference for the Polish aristocracy.
Even during Bogdan's life, the Cossacks chose his successor in the person of his
young son Youree. But soon after Bogdan's death, the general scribe Veegovski,
with the aid of his partisans, seized the hetman's staff of command.
Concerning Veegovski's election, the following narration is recorded : —
' On pretext of friendship for the deceased hetman, Veegovski urged Youree
Hmelnitzki at first to refuse the hetman's dignity, and only to accept it after
repeated entreaties. This proceeding apparently very much pleased the Cossacks.
Veegovski also promised to resign his post as general scribe if Hmelnitzki did
not continue hetman. A Cossack " Rada " was appointed at Tschigeerine. Thither
assembled the commanders, each with several Cossacks of his army. Veegovski
liberally treated the Cossacks to a good dinner and abundance of corn-brandy.
He thus gained their good-will by his hospitable reception. On this occasion, the
" Rada " assembled in a court adjoining Hmelnitzki's house. When a considerable
number appeared, the gates were shut, and a large crowd remained beyond them.
Youree Hmelnitzki, in reality, resigned his former dignity, placed on a table the
ensigns of his office, i.e. a staff of command and a mace, and then left the house.
Next came Veegovski, who also resigned his post of general scribe, placed on a
table an inkstand, the token of his occupation, and then went away. The
VOL. II. B
10 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Cossacks shouted that they would once more elect Youree; but the latter
continued to decline the proposal on account of his youth and inexperience.
Whereupon some of Yeegovski's partisans proposed that Youree should remain
hetmaii; but that, while he was at school, Veegovski should command the
armies. The scribe demanded time for consideration of the subject. Three days
then elapsed, after which the "Kada" once more assembled and elected Yeegovski
as temporary hetman.'
Veegovski betrayed Moscow, and in a secret treaty with the Poles (at
Godiatsch) promised to restore Little Russia to Poland. But a considerable
number of Cossacks, who had joined the Moscovite voevodes, rose in arms against
Yeegovski. The hetman, aided by the Crimean khan, defeated his opponents at
Konotop (1659), but, being abandoned by the khan, was finally obliged to flee
to Poland. After Yeegovski, the hetmans followed each other in rapid succession —
Youree Hmelnitzki, Teteria, Brivohovetzki. Meanwhile, Little Russia was divided
into two parts, one on the left, the other on the right bank of the Dnieper.
The inhabitants of the former sided with Moscow, while the latter sympathised
with Poland.
During this interval, as the Poles did not observe the conditions of a treaty
of peace, Alexei Michaelovitch was forced to renew war with Poland. That
second Polish war was, however, unfavourable to him. A great part of conquered
regions in Lithuania and in White Russia again fell into the hands of the enemy.
Fatigued by a protracted struggle, both states held conferences ; and finally, the
boyarine Ordeeu-Nashokine, a famous Moscovite diplomatist, concluded a truce
of thirteen years with Poland (1667) at the village of Androosov, near Smolensk.
By that truce, Moscow retained Smolensk, the left bank of the Dnieper in Little
Russia, and, besides, the town of Kiev, for the space of two years. But that
ancient city was never returned. The western part of Ukraine was again assigned
to Poland.
However, with the conclusion of the war, sedition did not terminate in Little
Russia. The hetman of the western regions, the bold and ambitious Doroshenko,
seized the eastern side also ; for there the people were discontented on account of
new imposts imposed by Moscow. Doroshenko thought to form all Little Russia
into his own domains, and then to seek protection from the 'Turkish sultan.
But on the left bank the adherents of Moscow soon gained the ascendency. They
chose Samoeelovitch for their hetman. Meanwhile, general danger on the side
of Turkey urged the Moscovite and Polish governments to unite in forming a
defensive alliance against a powerful enemy. The western side of the Dnieper,
whither the sultan twice came with large forces, suffered terrible devastation.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 11
Only the victory of the Polish king, John Sobieski, elected to fill the throne in
1674, saved Poland from utter humiliation. The struggle with Turkey and the
Little Russian question were, however, both yet undecided, at the epoch when
Alexei Michaelovitch passed away (1676), January 29, in his forty-seventh 1676— Death
of Alezei
year. Michaelo-
During the latter years of this sovereign's reign, his personal friendship was ^itch> 29th
particularly shown to the boyarine Artaman Serge'evitch Matve'ev, who possessed
great influence at court, and who, at the same time, was remarkable for his
enlightenment and his partiality to European customs. The latter, at this epoch,
gradually began to appear among the higher classes of Russian society.
Matveev was son of a secretary, and, after Athanasius Lavreortievitch Ordeen-
Nashokine, became ambassador. His influence was also much felt during the
decision of affairs in Little Russia. Matve'ev's position at court was still higher,
when Alexis, at the death of his first consort, Marie Meeloslavski, married Natalia
Kirilovna Nareeshkine, a relative of Matve'ev's, and brought up at his house.
Through Matve'ev's influence, dramatic representations began to take place at
court — ' Comedians' Acts,' as they were then called, and directed by a foreigner
named Yagan Godfrid. The subjects of these pieces were taken from sacred
history. In 1673, in Yagan Godfrid's house, there was a theatrical school in a
part of Moscow still named ' The German Market.' By Matve'ev's orders, twenty -
six boys, sons of citizens, attended the school.
Soloviev remarks, in his smaller History of Russia (p. 219), that Matve'ev,
probably on account of his insignificant origin, only obtained the rank of boyarine
towards the very close of Alexei's reign, although so long previously possessed of
his confidence. As we have already remarked, Matve'ev was essentially a man
of progress. His house was furnished in the European style, adorned by pictures*
clocks, etc. But the most important change in Matve'ev's domestic life was,
that guests came not only to eat and especially to drink, as was then generally
the case, but to hold rational conversation also. Matve'ev's wife was, besides,
not shut up like a captive. She received her husband's visitors and entertained
them.
Perspective drawing was among other arls introduced in Russia by Matve'ev.
Feodor Michaelovitch Rtischev, chamberlain of Alexei, was another individual
to whom this sovereign showed preference.
Near Moscow Rtischev founded a monastery (now the Andre'evski almshouse),
and there, from among the Little Russian monks, organised a learned brotherhood
and a school. In that monastery Rtischev sometimes passed the whole night in
conversing with learned recluses. He likewise built an almshouse at his own
12 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
expense. On selling one of his estates, he diminished the price on condition that
the new proprietor would promise to treat the peasants well. Rtischev bestowed
land on the town of Arzamas (government of Nijni-Novgorod), knowing that
its inhabitants were in want, but had not means to procure what was neces-
sary. While on his death-bed, Rtischev implored his heirs to be kind to their
peasants.
Alexei Michaelovitch, by his first consort, Marie Meeloslavski (who died
March 1669), had a large family. His eldest son Alexis died at the age of sixteen
(1670). Two remaining sons were Feodor and Ivan (John). The daughters
were Marfa, Sophia, Catherine, Mary, Theodosia, Anna Eudoxia, and another
princess whose name is not recorded.
In a curious and now very rare work, entitled Description of Moscow during
the Reign of Alexei Michaeloviteh, by an Englishman, Dr. Collins, at the court
of Alexis, a strange statement is made — namely, that great complaints were
uttered because Marie Meeloslavski had too many daughters. On that account,
there was even on one occasion question of shutting her up in a cloister, and of
choosing another Czarine.
The second consort of Alexei Michaelovitch was Natalia Kirilovna Nareeshkine
(married in January 1671). Her children were Peter the Great, born May 30,
1672, and two daughters, Natalia and Theodora. The latter died in 1678.
CHAPTER LXXX
REIGN OF FEODOR ALEX^EVITCH, 1676-1682 — CHANGES AT THE COMMENCEMENT
OF THE NEW REIGN
1070 1682. THE new sovereign was a pupil of Simeon Polotski,1 and had received a very good
education for the times. Feodor Alexe'evitch, however, was only fourteen years
old and of remarkably delicate health. The question accordingly arose: 'Who
would obtain his confidence ? ' Meanwhile, different parties began to be in a
state of agitation. As we have already seen, the individual in whom Alexei
Michaelovitch had most confided was Artaman Serge'evitch Matve'ev. But
1 Simeon Polotski was a learned monk from White Russia, to whom Alexei Michaelovitch had
confided the education of his sons. Polotzki was an indefatigable author. He wrote against the
Raskolniks a work entitled The Rod of Government, 1688. He besides composed eulogies in verse
as well as sermons and even dramatic pieces, the subjects of which were generally derived from
sacred history. Polotzki likewise collected many foreign works containing ancient and modern
rules for morality, sentences, maxims, descriptions of vice and virtue, and translated them into
Russian verse, in order that they might thus be more attractive and easily committed to memory.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 13
Matve'ev was the nearest to Feeder's stepmother, Natalia Kirilovna, and her son,
the Czareevitch Peter. Matve'ev was accordingly hated by the relatives of
Alexei's first consort, the Meeloslavskies and their friends. Thus, when a son
of Mary Meeloslavski occupied the throne, the other Meeloslavskies and their
like-minded partisans seized the opportunity to overthrow Matve'ev. He was
accused of the 'black art' and negligence of the sovereign's health. First, he
was sent in exile to Kazane, and then to Poostozersk (government of Archangel),
besides being deprived of property and the rank of a boyarine. It was in vain
that the old man wrote to Feodor and to different nobles, compared his own fate
to that of Belisarius, and implored Feodor to imitate the goodness of the emperor
Titus. Matve'ev, too, added that he had been condemned without judgment, and
had not once been confronted with his accusers. He also stated that he and his
son could nowhere in Poostozersk buy bread for two ' dengii.' Notwithstanding,
only towards the close of Feodor's reign the fate of Matve'ev was alleviated. He
was removed from Poostozersk to the town of Looch (government of Kostroma),
and one of his estates was restored to him. The dying Nikon had also permission
to be removed from Bielo-ozero (government of Novgorod) to the Voskresenski
monastery, but he expired on the way, and when he had reached Yaroslavl.
The Meeloslavskies, however, did not after all succeed in obtaining the most
prominent posts during the brief reign of Feodor Alexe'evitch. They were
occupied by Yazeekov and Lichatchev.
WAR AND TRUCE WITH THE TURKS, 1676
While these changes were going on at court, war still continued in the south
with Doroshenko, against whom Prince Gregory Romodonovski and the hetman
Samoilovitch marched before Tschigeerine in 1676. Doroshenko, seeing the
impossibility of defending himself, surrendered Tschigeerine, and resigned the
hetmanship ; but the affair did not even then terminate, for the Turks did not
wish to give up Ukraine. In August 1677 a Turkish force of forty thousand 1677.
men besieged Tschigeeriue. The besieged defended themselves with the courage
of despair, and, meanwhile, Prince Romodonovski and the hetman Samoilovitch
hastened to their deliverance. The Turks and Tartars could not prevent these
auxiliary forces from crossing the Dnieper, and were defeated by them on one
side, while on the other the besieged evacuated Tschigeerine. During July of
the following year (1678) twice the number of Turks again besieged Tschigeerine.
Once more Romodonovski and Samoilovitch marched to its aid, but on that
occasion could not prevent the Turks from destroying Tschigeerine by excavations.
Finally, at the commencement of 1681, a truce of twenty years was concluded
14 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
at Bachtschisaria with the Turks and Tartars, by which Russia ceded to Turkey
western Ukraine, the previous domains of Doroshenko, reduced to utter de-
vastation. The remainder of Ukraine and the Zaporog districts were, however,
permanently assigned to Moscow (1681).
The protracted war on account of Ukraine had totally ruined and depopulated
south-western Russia. Samoil Velitchko, at the commencement of the eighteenth
century, i.e. at the epoch of war between Peter I. and Charles XIL, while, along
with Cossack forces, traversing Volhynia and collateral Ukraine (on the western
side of the Dnieper), thus expresses himself in his annals : —
' I saw many towns and castles depopulated and with ruined walls, where
formerly the labour of human hands had filled hill and dale, but which now are
only refuges for wild animals. The walls of Constantinov, Berditchev, Zbaraj,
Sokola, and others which we traversed during our march, contain but a few
poor inhabitants. Other spots are empty, ruined, mouldering, overgrown witli
grass ; only serpents and different reptiles find shelter there. I saw the extensive
fields of collateral Ukraine, the wide valleys, woods, spacious gardens, beautiful
oak forests, rivers, ponds, lakes, all deserted, covered with moss and reeds. Is
this the same Ukraine which the Poles called " The Paradise of Poland " ?
Before Hmelnitzki's war, Ukraine was indeed a second "land of promise, a
land flowing with milk and honey." I also saw in many spots human skeletons,
dry, bare, and having only the sky as a covering.'
ABOLITION OF ANCIENT FAMILY RIGHTS, OR STRIFE FOR PRECEDENCE
After the expedition of Tschigeerine, another important question arose
regarding the reorganisation of the forces. We already saw that during the
reign of Michael Feodorovitch, not only were foreigners invited to adopt military
service in Russia, but certain armies were formed of Russians who had learned
the foreign art of war. It now became necessary to reorganise all Russian
forces. At "the beginning of 1682 Feodor Alexe'evitch intrusted that important
undertaking to Prince Vasili Vasilievitch Golitzine and certain other chosen
military functionaries. The latter thereupon suggested various alterations.
Among them was the absolute necessity of abolishing ancient family rights, or
strife for precedence ; and this was deemed expedient not only in the army, but
in embassades, in fact everywhere, so that each, from great to small, should
unconditionally be in the position assigned him by the sovereign. On January 12
an assembly was summoned, consisting of the higher clergy and members of
the council. Their opinion was then read aloud. Feodor Alexeevitch likewise
added that the devil himself had sown a strife for precedence in the hearts of
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 15
the Russian people, from which great evil in everything had ensued, and from
which armies had suffered defeat in battle ; that his grandfather, his father, and
he, too, had done much to eradicate this evil Then Feodor asked the assembly,
' Should this strife for precedence be abolished, or should it remain unnoticed
and continue as before ? ' The patriarch loachim answered that strife for
precedence was the source of all evil, therefore he, along with the whole clergy,
knew not how to thank the sovereign for his intention to eradicate it. The
secular members of the assembly next added that they agreed with the patriarch.
Whereupon Feodor Alexe'evitch ordered the books of the nobiliary to be brought
forth, and said : ' For the entire eradication and eternal oblivion of all petitions
and notes concerning precedence, let us order these books to be committed to
the flames.' Those present replied : ' May that God-hating, brother-hating strife
for precedence perish by fire, and may its memory remain no more at all for
ever.' The books were then burned. Feodor Alexe'evitch next intimated that
he would order some genealogical books to be compiled, in which certain
families were to be inscribed according to their distinction.
This strife for precedence was so universal that sometimes, while the enemy
Avas actually before the walls of a town, the troops within refused to march
under command of the chief voevode because his ancestors had been less famous
than those of others in the army.
The following curious details we quote from Ilovaiski (pp. 196-197) : —
'At the Moscovite court a strife for precedence was the cause of frequent
disputes. For example, when the sovereign gave a dinner to the members of
the council, they were seated according to the degree of their distinction; but
all of a sudden it happened that one boyarine would not sit lower than another,
and then began to petition the sovereign to decide the difference. Whereupon
the sovereign ordered the refractory boyarine to be seated by force. The
boyarine, however, scolded and stormed at his rival, screaming the while that
although the sovereign ordered his very head to be cut off, he would for nothing
in the world sit lower than another. Finally, he crept below the table. The
sovereign next commanded the noisy boyarine to be dragged forth and taken
to prison. Besides this punishment, for a similar offence others were added
in form of beating with sticks or flogging from the knout. At length the
quarrelsome boyarine, from a decree of the council, was sentenced "to deliver
up his head to his adversary," according to the expression of the times. The
ceremony of "delivering up the head" was as follows. Two officials seized the
disputant by the arms, and led him to a court near his rival's house. The three
above mentioned were accompanied by a secretary or clerk. The disputant was
16 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
finally placed at the lower steps of a staircase. The master of the house then
came to the stair. Whereupon the secretary or clerk intimated that the sovereign
had ordered and the other boyards had decreed the sentence concerning this
boyarine, namely, that he should 'deliver up his head.' The house master
returned thanks for the sovereign's favour, and then liberated the humiliated
rival, gave the secretary or clerk presents, and finally went next day to do
obeisance to the sovereign.
'As far as the strife for precedence was concerned, the boyards manifested
extreme obstinacy for a particular reason, or, in other words, not only did one
individual acknowledge himself of inferior position to another, but his whole
race, too, occupied a lower place than that of his successful rival. Consequently,
in service, the posterity of one family was placed on a lower footing than that
of others.'
THE SLAVONIAN GREEK AND LATIN ACADEMY
During the reign of Feodor Alexe'evitch was organised a higher institution
or academy. A monk named Timothy, on his return from Greece, told Feodor
of the sad position which the Greek church occupied in the East from want of
instruction among the clergy. Then Feodor resolved to organise an institution
where thirty children were assembled from all ranks. Feodor next wrote to
the patriarch, beseeching him to send to Moscow teachers well instructed in
Greek, Latin, and in science. Above all, it was requested that these teachers
should be firm adherents of the Greek faith. Feodor also desired that this
institution should be like other European academies. Statutes were then issued
for the new institution. In them, Feodor stated that, like Solomon, he had
ascended the throne while still young, and desired nothing more earnestly than
to obtain heavenly wisdom — the parent of a sovereign's duties, the origin, the
protector of all prosperity. The superior or director of the academy could only
be Russian or Greek, and the latter received the patriarch's certificate of
belonging to the Greek church. Individuals of all conditions and ages were
permitted to acquire learning at the academy, but none were allowed to have
teachers of foreign languages at home, though all who wished to send their
children to the academy could do so. The pupils who there successfully finished
their studies were appointed to posts in accordance with their merits, and, being
considered particularly well educated, obtained the sovereign's special favour.
All learned foreigners who came to Russia were subjected to an examination
at the academy, and only those approved by it were received into the service
of state. The academy was, moreover, obliged to observe that any of a different
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 17
religious creed did not propagate it amoug members of the Greek church. The
director, besides, remarked the conduct of all foreigners who embraced the Greek
faith. The director and teachers also paid special attention that no books
prohibited by the church were circulated among the pupils. All convicted of
blasphemy against the Greek church were given up to be judged by the director
and the teachers, and if the accusation was in reality true, the criminal was
condemned to be burned alive. In this wise the Moscow Academy, although
a secular rather than an exclusively clerical institution, was, notwith-
standing, founded with an intention to preserve the church intact from foreign
teaching.
Feodor Alexeevitch lost his son, Elias, and his consort, Agafia Simeonovna 1682— Death
Grooshetskaia, in 1681. Notwithstanding the feeble health of the
sovereign, Yazeekov persuaded him to contract a second matrimonial alliance
with Marfa Matveevna Apraxine. That took place in February 1682; but after
the marriage Feodor's illness increased, and he died on April 27 of the same
year, aged twenty.
CHAPTER LXXXI
GENERAL VIEW OF THE MOSCOVITE STATE — DEFINITION OF THE MOSCOVITE STATE
BY the name of the Moscovite state was comprised a north-eastern principality,
including the territories of the Moscow princes, augmented towards the east by
vast regions, subsequent to the conquest of three empires, i.e. Kazane, Astrachan,
Siberia. It, however, happened that not all the Russian people, and not all
Russian districts, were under the sway of the Moscovite sovereigns. For many
still belonged to Poland and to the Grand Princes of Lithuania. Accordingly,
the words Russia, Russian, the Russian Empire, were rarely used. It was only
in the titles of the Moscovite sovereigns that these words signified the union of
all Russian districts as natural and proper, although for a time violated. The
reigning Prince of Moscow entitled himself Autocrat, Great Sovereign, Czar,
and Grand Prince of all the Russias.'
Certainly the Poles were in no wise pleased with these titles, and tried to
alter them when the peace of Polianovka was concluded ; but in Moscow none
consented to do so. Nay, more, Alexei Michaelovitch, after successful war
against Poland, took the additional title, 'Autocrat of all Great, Little, and
White Russias.'
As we have already remarked, contraction or incorrect enumeration of the
VOL. II. C
18 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
imperial titles in documents was a fruitful source of dispeace between the
Poles and Russians of that epoch, who, in intercourse with all foreign powers,
insisted that the titles of their sovereign and the names of the various districts
over which he ruled should be minutely and exactly enumerated.
Besides the conquest of Kazane, Astrachan, and a great part of Siberia,
annexation of Little Russia, with the districts of Kiev and Sieversk, had much
augmented the geographical extent of Russia. Its boundaries at this period
were as follows : At the north, the Northern and part of the Frozen Ocean ;
towards the east, the vast regions of Siberia ; at the south, the possessions of
China, the lands of the Kirgees, the Nagai Tartars, the Crimean horde, and the
Turkish empire ; towards the west and the north-west the boundaries of Russia
often altered, but, from the reign of Michael Feodorovitch, Russia was separated
from Poland and Lithuania by the Dnieper, and from Sweden by Ingermanland
and Carelia. Accordingly, Russia, with its Siberian territories, comprised two
hundred and sixty thousand geographical square miles.
INTERCOURSE OF Moscow WITH THE EAST AND WEST
The Moscovite state, situated at the extremity of Europe and near the
boundaries of Asia, was, of course, far removed from other countries which took
part in European history. Moscow was, moreover, constantly repulsed from the
west by the inimical states of Poland and Sweden, possessed its own religious
belief, was occupied by onerous internal affairs, and, above all, was hampered by
poverty of means. In a word, for these different reasons, the Moscovite state
could not yet be enumerated among other European countries. But towards the
east Moscow triumphantly issued in a struggle with the weakened, ruined Tartar
horde. Moscow was, besides, much more powerful than its eastern neighbours.
It was opposed neither by Kazane, Astrachan, nor even by Siberia. Moscow
had only difficulty in repulsing the Crimean robbers, for it was separated from
them by vast steppes, and was besides forced to pay an annual tribute to the
khan in order to prevent his inroads. But if Moscow was more powerful
than its eastern neighbours, uncultivated barbarians, it was, notwithstanding,
weak compared with western states, more skilled in the art of war. For this
reason it was that in the history of the Moscovite state we observe that it
constantly extended towards the east, but suffered defeat at the west. Only
during the reign of Alexei Michaelovitch, in consequence of the annexation of
Little Russia and successful war with Poland, Moscow made acquisitions towards
the west, and then was also obliged to encounter immediate collision with
Turkey.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 19
THE SOVEREIGN
At the head of the Moscovite state was the sovereign autocrat, possessed of
unlimited power over his subjects. Supreme power, thus invested in Moscow,
has indeed a great and peculiar historical signification. It represented political
union by combining scattered, petty principalities into one state, and thus formed
a compact mass of different races dispersed in the plains of eastern Europe.
Moscovite autocracy gave the Russian people a solid political organisation which
enabled them to become victorious during the long struggle with eastern and
western neighbours, who had profited by the enfeebled condition of the country
during the epoch of the appanaged princes.
It is remarkable that among the Slavonian races the Russians alone have
maintained independent development and have formed a mighty nation.
The posterity of appanaged princes and nobles, poor in means, could not
oppose the gradual concentration of power around Moscow. They were not
long permitted to remain rulers of districts or commanders of armies, because
military expeditions were brief and voevodes were often changed. These poor
nobles lived in Moscow. They had their own houses near the palace of the
Kreml, and were constantly before the sovereign's eyes. Every morning they
came to bow down before him, then they went again after dinner to vespers.
These nobles, in writing, styled themselves 'bondmen of the sovereign.' The
least important, in presenting him petitions, wrote their names with contractions.
The most distinguished, until the epoch of John the Terrible, retained permission
to write their entire names, but then all began to use contractions. The most
distinguished dignity was that of boyarine. Then came the Okolnitchi, or
individuals near the sovereign, from okolo, near. The higher nobles, admitted to
the state council, ' Dooma,' were called ' Doomni nobles.' Sons of the highest
families began their service at court as Spalniki (spal, to sleep), gentlemen of
the bedchamber, or as Stolniki (from stol, a table), gentlemen of the table.
The spalniki were, however, considered more honourable, because nearer the
sovereign's person. They in turn slept in his room and served him. The
stolniki, during state dinners, presented dishes to the sovereign and his guests.
The sons of the most distinguished individuals, after being spalniki, were
immediately created boyards; others, less remarkable, were made okolnitchi.
In important circumstances the sovereign summoned a council (dooma) in
order to deliberate on the best measures to be taken. The council was composed
of boyards, okoluitchi, and doomni nobles. If the sovereign wished to consult
with them concerning any secret affair, he assembled only those nearest his
20 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
person, i.e. boyards and okoluitchi, who had received that rank after being
spalniki. In the most important cases, the patriarch and other high clergy
were likewise summoned to the council. John the Terrible began to summon
members from other conditions. These councils were denominated Sobori. They
were of frequent occurrence during the reign of Michael, when the state still
suffered after the devastation of the 'troublous times/ and made constant
appeals to the states-general and to the people for necessary supplies. At the
commencement of Alexei's reign, assemblies also took place, but as the state
became more powerful they were no longer required.
Ilovaiski (p. 199) remarks that the greater part of Russian boyards' families
are descended chiefly from foreign immigrants — Lithuanian, German, and especially
Tartar moorzas (princes). The celebrated Russian historian, Karamzine, is said
to be of Tartar origin. His ancestor was Kara Moorza.
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that aristocracy formed
a select circle or caste, nearly inaccessible to other classes. According to
their distinction, however, the boyards were formed into several grades,
from the position they held at court, in the civil administration, or in the
army.
A middle degree was formed by the nobles (' Dooriani '), and a still lower,
very numerous class consisted of ' the boyards' children ' (militia of princes and
nobles), but these again were subdivided into several sections.
It is in the following terms that foreigners who visited Russia, such, for
example, as Herberstein and Anthony Possevin, describe the unlimited power of
the Moscow Grand Princes (Ilovaiski, pp. 198-199): —
' The Russians are convinced that their sovereign directly executes the will
of Heaven ; hence the frequent expressions in common conversation, " It is
decreed by God and the sovereign," " God and the sovereign know." As for
the Grand Prince, he considers as his own particular property not only districts,
but everything contained in them.'
Herberstein bears witness to the zeal with which the Russians served their
sovereign. ' I saw,' says Herberstein, ' one of the most distinguished Moscovite
functionaries, who had formerly been ambassador in Spain. He was an old
man. He met us as we were on our way to Moscow. He rode forward on
horseback, took all manner of trouble, and exerted himself like an ardent youth.
The perspiration was actually streaming from his face. When I expressed
astonishment at his energy, he exclaimed in a loud tone, "Ah, Baron, we do not
serve our sovereign in your fashion." '
Subsequent to the reign of John the Terrible the boyards endeavoured to
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 21
make use of the tumult during the 'troublous times,1 in order to restrict the
sovereign's power and to augment their own. They guided Vasili Shooiski, and
dictated conditions when the Polish king's son Vladislav was elected sovereign
of Moscow.
According to some authorities, although not quite authentic, such, for
example, as that of Kosheehine, Michael Romanov was elected to fill the
vacant Russian throne on certain stipulations, and that he did nothing without
the advice of the boyards ; but during the period that his father, the patriarch
Philaret, administered affairs these stipulations were forgotten, in consequence of
the hatred the people felt towards an aristocracy of boyards, and the general
preference for monarchical power. As for Alexei Michaelovitch, he already
ruled with absolute sway. In presenting petitions the Russians used to compare
their sovereign to God Himself; but Feodor Alexe'evitch, in simplicity and
Christian humility, prohibited this.
' The Moscovite princes were surrounded by numerous courtiers. The latter
were composed of individuals belonging to the higher classes, whose rank or
honour depended on the greater or less proximity to the sovereign's person.
In general, the Moscovite court was distinguished by Oriental magnificence,
along with strict performance of certain ceremonies.1
'The special honour shown to the sovereign demanded that all should
approach the palace on foot, after leaving horses and conveyances at a particular
distance. The right of freely entering the palace was assigned only to court
dignitaries, and even for them, according to their distinction, certain restrictions
existed. Not all who appeared at the sovereign's court could unrestrainedly
penetrate to every apartment of the palace. The boyards, the okolnitchi, the
doomni nobles, and others near the sovereign in that respect enjoyed great
preference. They might penetrate directly even to the higher chambers, i.e. those
occupied by the sovereign himself. There, as usual, they daily assembled at
the entrance (hall), and awaited the Grand Prince's exit from the interior
apartments. The nearer boyards, after "biding their time," went finally into
the room or cabinet of the sovereign. For the others the upper chambers were
quite inaccessible. The stolniki, striaptschi (officers-in-waiting), courtiers, colonels
of strelitz, head officials, secretaries, and others in service, generally assembled at
the staircase of the bedchamber, the only spot in the palace where they could
come at any time with entire freedom.' — Domestic Life of the Russian Sovereigns,
Zabeline.
1 After successful war with Poland, Alexei Michaelovitch entitled himself 'Autocrat of Great,
Little, and White Russias. '
22 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
SECRETARIES
' All business in a written form was transacted by secretaries of the council,
or state secretaries, simple secretaries, and copyists or clerks. In the Moscovite
state strange opinions existed, according to which distinguished individuals
surrounding the sovereign's person considered themselves exclusively destined
to the military calling, and despised the service of the pen as less honourable
than that of the sword. The former would, in fact, have been degrading to
them; and however important the position of state secretary in reality was,
distinguished persons did not adopt it. Secretaries were usually sons of priests
or of traders.' (Soloviev, p. 225.)
PETTY NOBLES
The middle class of nobles and the ' boyards' children ' were obliged to serve
all their lives where the sovereign indicated. Their chief duty was military
service. In return for it these petty nobles, besides money and corn wages, also
received land and hereditary property. The former was only a life-rent; the
latter was entire possession, and became the inheritance of posterity. Meanwhile,
as the ' boyards' children ' formed the classes of petty nobles and proprietors, the
boyards themselves and some noble families concentrated vast possessions in
their hands, and sometimes owned several thousands of peasants.
The individuals liable to be taxed, or to pay imposts, were the inhabitants of
suburbs and peasants. The former consisted of population in the neighbourhood
of towns — traders who paid dues to the treasury of the crown. In order that its
revenues might be collected constantly and regularly, the population of suburbs
was obliged to remain in one spot, as peasants were bound to the soil. The more
considerable among the suburban population were styled 'better people,' while
the others were called ' less.' In administrative point of view, these classes were
enumerated by hundreds and by villages. Besides paying dues, these inhabitants
of suburbs were obliged to send to the sovereign's service various individuals as
functionaries and sworn men.
In towns there existed special higher ranks of traders, namely, so-called
' merchant-guests,' ' hundreds of merchant-guests,' and ' cloth hundreds.' From
among them an overseer named a 'head' was appointed, in order to collect
various dues for the crown, such, for example, as those at the custom-house, from
pothouses, and at the ' sable treasury.' In case of loss or arrears, these ' heads '
supplied the deficiency from their own property. Therefore their service was
sometimes ruinous. But, on the other hand, they enjoyed certain rights and
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 23
privileges, such as to possess inhabited land. These higher commercial grades
were filled by the very richest from the so-called ' black hundreds ' (of the
common people), both in Moscow and in other towns (Ilovaiski, p. 201).1
PEASANTS
With regard to land, peasants were divided into three classes. First, those
who lived "on ground belonging to the sovereign; second, those who inhabited
land of individuals in service ; third, those occupying land belonging to monas-
teries or to the clergy in general.
The first were again subdivided into two classes — the 'Dvortzovi' (dvor, a
court), who paid to maintain the court; the second were peasants of so-called
' black districts/ or ' black ploughs,' who paid dues to the treasury of the crown,
for there was also a tax on the number of ploughs employed by one household.
As we already saw, towards the close of the sixteenth century peasants lost
the right of freely removing from one spot to another, and were annexed to the
soil. But they did not soon become accustomed to that change. Accordingly,
removing continued for long afterwards. Even the very act of annexation was
neither complete nor unconditional; for in some instances, according to subse-
quent ukazes, peasants were permitted to remove from one petty proprietor to
another. After the lapse of five years a proprietor had no longer the right to
reclaim a runaway bondman and to bring him back again. Subsequently, how-
ever, the rights of serfdom were more developed. Michael Feodorovitch protracted
the term from five to ten years for fugitive bondmen to return to their former
master. But, according to the ' OolojenieY or ' Code of Alexei Michaelovitch,' that
term was abolished entirely. Peasants, with their families and posterity, belonged
to the land on which they were inscribed, according to books dating from 1626.
Proprietors, meanwhile, gradually began to extend their power over peasants,
so that the latter could with difficulty obtain justice from their masters. During
the second half of the seventeenth century, nobles already sold peasants and gave
them as part of a dowry, without land, and at the close of the same century
the peasant was little better than the property of his owner. Sometimes,
however, peasants themselves voluntarily became bondmen in order to avoid
paying taxes to the crown, as the latter did not exact payment from bondmen.
1 According to a Russian historian, Kaeedanov (p, 80), so-called 'boyards' children' and
' princes' children ' were the militia of princes and nobles. This was at a remote period of Russian
history, i.e. from 1224 till 1462. At a later epoch (from 1613 till 1682) the above-mentioned author
(p. 207) states that ' boyards' children ' formed a middle class between noblemen and peasants.
These ' boyards' children ' served under the jurisdiction and command of boyards. They served as
military, and performed other duties.
24 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Constant removals and flight in a thinly populated country became evils
keenly felt in the Moscovite state. Fugitive peasants and bondmen often went
to the Don or to the Zaporog Cossacks, or hid in forests and formed gangs of
highway robbers. During the whole course of the seventeenth century govern-
ment was forced to carry on an incessant struggle with that great evil.
Emissaries were sent in all directions to seek out fugitives. They were brought
back to their master, and highway robbers were hanged. •
REVENUES OF THE GROWN — ARMIES
The small amount of population, compared with the vast extent of country, as
also the hitherto feebly developed condition of trade and commerce, caused the
revenues of the crown to be small. In fact, they were insufficient for a state
constantly enlarging, especially when protracted, expensive war was carried on,
such, for example, as took place during the reigns of Michael Feodorovitch and
Alexei Michaelovitch. The revenues of the crown amounted to one million
three hundred thousand roubles, besides the so-called ' Siberian treasury,' or, in
other words, fur sent from Siberia. In modern times the income of the Russian
empire varies. In 1888 it amounted to nine hundred and twenty-two millions,
with an expenditure of eight hundred and eighty-seven millions.
An important source of revenue to the Moscovite state consisted in tribute
levied not on individuals, but on whole communities, who shared the tribute
among the different members. The population of suburbs paid by the number
of houses inscribed in a book, for each suburb. Nearly all merchants and traders
were liable to pay tribute. Besides the ordinary dues, there were constantly
collections made for the extra wants of the government, such, for example, as
money to ransom prisoners from the Tartars, and named ' prisoners' money.' At
times there were also express collections for military expenses. Among them
the most considerable were the furnishing of warriors along with provisions in
war, the supply of post-horses for ambassadors and imperial functionaries, the
repairing of forts, building of the crown bridges, etc. In general, the financial
system of the Moscovite state was confused, and levied unequally on various
conditions of the people and on different parts of the principality.
Many inhabitants of suburbs and so-called ' black plough peasants,' by pledging
themselves to private proprietors, or by joining the strelitz or Cossacks, thus
avoided paying imposts to the state. Meanwhile, town and country communities
were obliged to pay the part of these fugitives, which thus became very onerous,
so that not a few were ruined, while a deficit took place in the treasury. On the
other hand, from the custom of ancient Russian princes, who granted monasteries
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 25
and even private individuals' property exempt from taxes, this still more increased
the inequality with which they were levied.
Land granted to those in service was insufficient to maintain them. Thus
during a campaign they received pay. Expenditure for the maintenance of forces
was yet more increased when, during the seventeenth century, the necessity of
hiring foreign soldiers was felt. Then also were formed armies of Russians
instructed in the foreign art of war. Those armies even bore foreign names,
such as riders, dragoons, soldiers. But that was only the commencement of a
new order of things.
The mass of the armies was composed of courtiers, who did not lose their
original military signification of militia. For all those ' spalniki ' (gentlemen of
the bedchamber) and ' stolniki ' (grand masters of the table) of the sovereign
formed an army or guard. Then there were nobles and boyards" children besides
'town Cossacks.' All these were military who usually lived at their own
property, but assembled in event of war. The strelitz, forming the garrisons
of towns, fulfilled the duty of police-officers, lived with their families in separate
suburbs, and during leisure from service carried on different trades. Along with
the artillery were gunners, who also lived in separate suburbs. In addition to
these ordinary forces, during war there were recruits and volunteers. These
were enumerated not by persons but by households. So, too, were strelitz and
soldiers. Finally, along with the Moscovite forces were Cossacks — those from
the steppes of the Don and the Terek. Tartars also formed an addition to the
forces. The military went to war with firearms, cross-bows, and helmets. By
universal testimony the Moscovite armies defended towns much better than when
fighting on the open field. That arose from want of skill in the art of war, and
likewise because the mass of the forces was not constantly under arms.
JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION
The form of judicial administration was at first simple and uncomplicated in
Russia. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in the judgment of viceroys
and governors of districts were to be found ' starosts ' (bailiffs) and ' sworn men,'
elected from among town and country communities, and generally known as
'judgment men.' During the reign of John the Terrible (1533-1584) many
communities obtained the right of self- judgment, i.e. they were judged by their
own chosen members. But subsequently they lost that right, and judgment was
invested in the hands of district commanders. Judicial administration was
essentially verbal. The chief proofs in judgment were written documents,
witnesses, and oaths. In criminal cases a general investigation concerning the
VOL. II. D
26 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
crime took place among inhabitants of the spot, or of any suspected individual.
The ancient ordeals of water and iron we no longer find. In their stead the
cruel custom of judicial torture was introduced. The following were some forms
of torture : — Needles were pushed under the nails of the accused, or they were
hung over a fire and thus slowly roasted. Sometimes also they were beat with
whips on the bare back, or the head was shaved and cold water poured over it.
PUBLIC OFFICES
The administration of justice was concentrated in so-called public offices or
Preekazii. The sovereign constantly gave orders to one of those near him to
administer one particular affair, or several of the same sort, or perhaps some
entirely different. Those so chosen had helpers in the persons of secretaries and
clerks. Therefore a ' public office ' was formed. However, as the ' office ' had its
own expenses, they were defrayed by contributions collected from those who paid
taxes in the towns to which the office belonged. As the state became more
powerful, the administration of each new affair occasioned the organisation of
another public office, so that the number of them was constantly increasing.
Towards the second half of the seventeenth century there were above forty
public offices. At the termination of a law plea, he who gained it received a
so-called 'right document.' The right of judging serfs, save in capital crimes,
belonged to the proprietor himself. In the tortures and modes of execution then
prevalent, we remark the rudeness and cruelty of the times. The usual means of
execution were hanging, quartering, breaking on the wheel, and impaling. The
most frequent punishments for other offences were the whip and the stick, from
which not even boyards themselves were exempt. The creditor of an insolvent
debtor had a right to place the latter ' in distraint/ or to beat him with sticks
for some hours every day till he paid his debt. Proprietors, instead of exposing
themselves to this punishment, usually sent their serfs to be ' distrained.'
COATS-OF-ARMS
During the epoch of the appanaged princes each of them had his own crest
or coat-of-arms, amongst which, in course of time, and on the decay of the
appanaged system, the most important crest was that of the Moscovite princes —
i.e. a red shield on which a knight on horseback pierces a dragon with a pike.
From the time of loann in., 1462-1505, on the occasion of his second marriage to
a Greek princess, Sophia Paleologa, 1472, the crest of her family was finally
adopted as that of all Russia — i.e. on a gold field a double-headed black eagle
with outspread wings, and crowned with two crowns.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 27
Alexei Michaelovitch ordered the Russian crest to be the said double-headed
eagle with raised wings, and crowned with three crowns. On the eagle's breast
was represented the crest of Moscow, properly so-called, or a red shield on which
St. George is seen piercing a dragon. In the present crest of Russia the double-
headed eagle has only two crowns.
NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF RUSSIA — TRADE AND INDUSTRY
European travellers of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries
represent the Moscovite state as a vast level region, thickly covered with pine
and birch forests, and in all directions traversed by large navigable streams. The
soil of the country was (and still is) sandy in some spots, but generally productive,
and yielding abundance of all belonging to a temperate zone. From the great
extent of Moscovy its climate was unequal. Regions near the capital of the state
were remarkable for pure healthy air. What especially attracted the attention of
foreigners was the marked contrast of nature during summer and winter. While
the latter prevailed terrible cold was felt, and the whole country was shrouded
with a thick covering of snow. On the contrary, during summer, after the
melting of snow and the frequent inundation of rivers, forests, meadows, ai d
fields revived and soon were covered with luxuriant green, while the heat of
summer became as great as the winter's frost.
The chief productions of the country were as follows: — Agriculture caused
various kinds of grain to grow in abundance. The culture of bees was likewise
extensive in woody Moscovy, and thus furnished a considerable quantity of honey
and wax. The rivers abounded in fish, and the forests were full of game.
Hunting of wild animals was also important, as thereby many kinds of valuable
fur were obtained, such as those of different foxes, sables, squirrels, and ermine?.
The best furs were taken from Siberia to the districts of the Petscbora and of
Perm. Notwithstanding, all these natural productions were so little worked,
that they yielded the inhabitants scarcely the most necessary articles. Agriculture
was at a considerably low degree. Its progress was hindered by the scanty
population, and by the development of serfdom, which was a bad encouragement
for the labour of peasants. According to the testimony of foreigners, although
corn was at a low price, the latter was variable. From the mismanagement of
householders in villages, famine often took place. Then it also was that rich
individuals who had heaped up an extra store of corn took the opportunity to
sell it at as high a price as possible. The great centre of trade in the Moscovite
state was the capital itself, i.e. Moscow. Even its very appearance denoted an
28 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
essentially commercial character. It was full of markets, courts to accommodate
so-called ' merchant guests,' as well as trading rows and shops. In that city were
also to be seen traders from many European and Asiatic nations. The sovereign
himself also took immediate part in trade. From Moscow the commercial
movement was extended in different directions — along the Volga, in Lithuania,
in Novgorod, and at the White Sea.
Towards the east by the Oka and the Volga was the way to Astrachan. In
that capital there constantly lived merchants of different nations, such as Persians,
Bokharans, Armenians, etc. They traded chiefly in silk and cotton textures.
On that way lay the important harbours of Nijni-Novgorod and Kazane. From
Nijni to Astrachan, in spring and in autumn, there were annual caravans of
vessels belonging to the crown and to private merchants. However, their course
in sailing was not without danger. The whole lower current of the Volga pre-
sented one vast desert country, in which caravans were often attacked by gangs of
robbers, and became their prey in spite of a convoy consisting of a detachment
of strelitz. From the Volga upwards, along the Kama, was the principal way to
Siberia. In that direction corn and military stores for those in service were
transported to Siberia, while from it, by the same way, were imported valuable
furs. The chief commercial spots in western Siberia were Verhotoori^ (present
government of Perm) and Tobolsk. During the second half of the seventeenth
century individuals in service, along with Russian traders, penetrated further and
further towards the east. They levied tribute on the native tribes, erected small
forts, and thus extended the boundaries of the Moscovite state to the shores of
the eastern ocean and to the lower current of the Amoor. Then began trade
with China, and Nertschinsk became an important spot in that commerce. In a
western direction from Moscow, to Lithuania and Poland, the chief way was
through Smolensk. From Poland the best horses were brought for the imperial
stables. Towards the south-west, from Turkish domains, Greek merchants some-
times came to Moscow with ornaments for women, harnesses for horses, and
different kinds of fruits. However, the direct road to Moscow was by no means
without danger to these traders on account of the Zaporog Cossacks. For that
reason merchants chose another way by Polish possessions. The most commercial
towns of south-western Ukraine were Kiev and Pooteevle (government of Koursk).
Southern nomad races, such as the Nogai Tartars, brought towards the territories
of the Moscovite state large droves of horses, which, for the greater part, were
bought for the imperial stables.
Towards the north-west was the way to Novgorod and to Poland. During the
reign of John m., 1462-1505, the commerce of Novgorod with the Hanseatic
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 29
towns nearly ceased. It was renewed during the reign of Vasili in.,1 but no
longer on a scale so extensive as before. The opening of the way to the White
Sea by the English, the devastation of the old city by John the Terrible, the
troublous times, the loss of the Baltic shores, one after another, ruined the pro-
sperity of Novgorod. Notwithstanding, during the seventeenth century Novgorod
and Pskov were still among the number of the richest and most flourishing of
Russian towns. To them came chiefly Swedes and Germans. From these cities
was the way to go abroad, as also to the ports of Narva and Riga.
The most important way to the White Sea from Moscow was by the com-
mercial towns of Yaroslavl and Vologda, then by the river Soohona to Oostiog,
and further by the Northern Dvina to the port of Archangel. The first foundation
of that town — by the name of Novi-Holmogor — was in 1584, the year when John
the Terrible died. But after the destruction of Novi-Holmogor by fire, a new
town was built (1657) called Archangel, from an adjacent monastery dedicated to
the Archangel Michael. Trade with that town made the Russians acquainted
with England, and, in general, with western Europe. In London a commercial
company was formed named ' The Russian Company.' From the second half of
the sixteenth century, European vessels, with different articles of trade, came to
the port of Archangel. At first exclusive privileges were enjoyed by Englishmen,
who organised trading companies in various interior towns of Russia. But in
that respect they were gradually rivalled by other merchants, such as Dutch,
German, and French. Moreover, as we already saw, during the reign of Alexei
Michaelovitch, 1645-1676, the English were deprived of the right to trade in
every spot free of duty, and were limited to carry on commerce in Archangel
alone.
From western Europe Russia imported articles made of metal, cloth, linen,
wine, herrings, sugar, cotton, firearms, gold and silver money, different spices, etc.
The custom-house officials usually selected the best articles of commerce, and
bought them for the sovereign. These articles were partly used at the imperial
court, and partly destined for sale. From Russia foreigners exported raw
materials, the most considerable of which was fur. Then followed wax, honey,
leather, tallow, caviare, flax, hemp, and different kinds of grain. Russian traders
rarely went with their goods to western Europe. In fact, such journeys were
unfavourably regarded alike by the Moscovite government and by foreign
merchants.
' On one occasion a native of Yaroslavl went with various furs to Amsterdam ;
but the Dutch made an agreement with each other and bought nothing from the
1 1505-1533.
30 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Russian. In this wise he was forced to return to Archangel with his wares.
There the very same merchants bought all his goods at a high price. From their
own confession they acted so to prevent Russian traders from going abroad.'
(Ilovaiski, p. 211.)
As far as interior trade was concerned nearly each suburb served as a market for
its neighbourhood. The great distance between towns, and the difficulty of com-
munication, induced merchants generally to assemble at certain spots, and to form
fairs. These fairs generally took place at the same period as church festivals, and
were held near the church. The fairs at the property of monasteries were
particularly remarkable. In general, merchants went more willingly there
because peasants on church land were richer than those elsewhere, and also
because custom-house officials interfered less with trade on the ground of
monasteries. Amongst these fairs the most celebrated was the Makarievski, near
the cloister of Saint Macarius Jeltovodski (at the yellow waters).
Among the Russian traders of the seventeenth century we meet with so-
called ' companies/ i.e. several individuals combined their capital for commercial
undertakings.
In Siberia, trade was thus especially carried on. Some petty traders and
commercial peasants from districts had ' pedestrian companies,' or hawkers, who
carried about articles of commerce. For example, these ' pedestrian companies '
sent hawkers to sell images in the Ukraine towns.
Foreigners who visited Russia spoke of its inhabitants as a people essentially
inclined to trade and to industrial activity. All remarked the extraordinary
address and skill of Russian merchants, although they also possessed a bad
quality, injurious to trade — in other words, a want of honesty (see Ilovaiski, p. 112).
The habits of asking several times more than the real value of an article, swearing
that it was at a low price, in a word, deceitful practices, were much in vogue among
Russian traders. Such peculiarities showed the want of enlightenment, and the
corruption of the national character. Another circumstance had also injurious
influence on trade. In all the chief markets, Russian merchants suffered detriment
from contact with imperial articles of commerce. For example, if a merchant
appeared at Archangel, he could not begin to sell till all the imperial articles
were sold, and they consisted of the best, selected purposely for the sovereign.
In fact, some branches of commerce were exclusively in the hands of the crown,
such, for example, as expensive furs, the sale of corn-brandy and other articles.
In general, trade in the Moscovite state had very limited freedom. At every
movement goods were subjected to minute inspection, and numerous duties were
paid for them. Some were, however, abolished, or changed for others, by Alexei
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 31
Michaelovitch. Besides, merchants often suffered offence from voevodes or state
officials. Some too, who even themselves belonged to trading companies, did not
hesitate to harass merchants, and to take bribes.
Fletcher, the English ambassador at the court of Feodor loannovitch, remarks
in his Description of Russia that a Russian merchant, on unpacking his goods,
used to look carefully and timidly around, to see that no imperial functionary was
near, as the latter chose the best goods gratis, for the sovereign's trade. Ilovaiski,
however, adds (p. 112) that Fletcher, as a foreigner, did not understand many
peculiarities of Russian life, and hence often depicted what he saw in gloomy
colours.
Means of communication, from one spot to another, at that remote epoch, were
of course in a primitive state. The usual time for travelling was in winter. Then
the roads between large towns, such, for example, as Moscow and Yaroslavl, were
covered with long lines of sledges, filled with merchandise. Sometimes from
seven to eight hundred sledges were seen. In summer the chief means of com-
munication consisted in rivers. But sailing on them was accompanied by diffi-
culty, on account of frequent low water, so that the goods were often placed on
trucks. At that epoch, canals were yet unknown in Russia. Finally, trade in
general suffered not a little from highway robbers.
As far as manufactories were concerned, they were but little diffused in the
Moscovite state at this period, and those which did exist were, for the greater part,
in the hands of foreigners. At the imperial court of Moscow many foreign
artisans constantly lived. Among them were casters, gold and silver smiths, etc.
Gradually they formed in Moscow a whole colony, established at a spot which
still bears the name of ' the German village.' During the seventeenth century
we meet with cloth and linen manufactures, but they were exclusively for the
imperial court. The first foundry for cast-iron was organised near Toola, by a
Dutch merchant named Vinioos. That took place during the reign of Michael
Feodorovitch (1613-1645). Subsequently, a Hamburg merchant, Marcelius,
organised other foundries on the rivers Kostroma, Sheksna, and Vaga. During
the reign of Alexei Michaelovitch (1645-1676) were founded the ironworks of
Olonetz. There cannons were cast and firearms made.
MONEY
Several kinds of money were at this epoch current in Russia. They were
silver and copper coins belonging to Moscow, Tver, Pskov, and Novgorod. Two
hundred coins were equal to one rouble. The latter now contains one hundred
kopecks. At first these coins were not struck, but were simple pieces of silver
32 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
representing money. The Russian rouble was worth two ducats. Small copper
money was called 'poolii.' On the Novgorodian coins the Grand Prince was
represented, seated on a throne, and before him a man bowing his head. On the
coins of Pskov a human figure, half-length, was seen with a prince's crown.
Others, struck at a later period, had the impression of a bull's head, crowned. On
the Moscovite coins was a rider on horseback, sometimes with a sword, and
sometimes with a pike, piercing a serpent. The coining of money was intrusted
to private individuals ; but they were obliged to add their name to the coin.
Alexei Michaelovitch restricted the right of coiuing money to the crown alone, and
founded 'the Mint' in Moscow. There, by his orders, silver roubles and half-
roubles were struck, bearing the crest of all Russia.
ARTS AND SCIENCES
The genius of civilisation and enlightenment in Russia, delivered from the Tartar
yoke, began to revive, to act and to aim at perfection. During the reign of John
in., 1462-1505, some productions of the fine arts appeared. Artistic activity in
Russia, as formerly, chiefly consisted in erecting and adorning churches. For
besides their religious signification, they in fact served as the only means for
diffusing a taste for the fine arts among the masses of the people. Nearly all
important constructions were executed under the inspection of foreign architects,
who, from the time of John in., were constantly obtained from Italy and Germany.
These architects erected the walls of the Moscow Kreml, several of its halls, and
also the cathedrals of the Archangel Michael and of the Assumption. Aristoteli
Fioraventi of Bologna was the architect of these buildings.
According to Karamzine, from the testimony of Italian annals, there were two
architects, Rudolpho Fioraventi and Alberto Aristoteli, though in Russian annals
these names are confounded and given to one individual.
The following details are mentioned in annals, concerning the reconstruction
of the Assumption Cathedral, chief among the hallowed spots of Moscow
(Ilovaiski, p. 213): —
' The metropolitan Peter, on removing from Vladimir to Moscow (1323), begged
the Grand Prince, loann Danilovitch Kaleeta, to erect a stone cathedral in honour
of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin. " If thou wilt listen to me," added
Peter, " thou wilt become more glorious than all other Russian princes, and thy
race shall be mighty. This town will be more famous than all other Russian
towns. Prelates shall dwell in it. Its hands will weigh heavily on the shoulder
of its enemies, and my bones shall rest in it." '
Accordingly, the cathedral was founded in 1326, and completed during the
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 33
following year. Saint Peter (of Moscow) did not survive till the completion of
the sacred edifice. He was interred in one part of the church. But the latter
began to fall to ruin about a hundred and fifty years afterwards. Moreover, it
was too small for the gradually growing population of Moscow. So the Grand
Prince loann in. ordered it to be demolished, and rebuilt on a much larger scale,
after the model of the Vladimirski Cathedral of the Virgin, founded by Andre*
Bogolioobski (the Pious). The walls of the new building already reached to the
roof, when suddenly the whole erection fell down, from the instability of the
material, and the inexperience of the builders. Then the Grand Prince sent to
Italy, in order there to seek for a good architect. The latter was found in the
person of Aristoteli Fioraventi. Masons to build the new cathedral were taken
from Pskov. The roof was made by Novgorodian workmen, and covered with
' German ' iron. The Assumption Cathedral (Oospenski Sobor) was erected by
Aristoteli during the space of three years — or five, according to the archimandrite
Joseph in his Guide to the Remarkable Spots and Hallowed Localities of Moscow
(p. 3). At last, in 1479, it WAS terminated and consecrated by the metropolitan 1479 —
Herontius. The interior painting of the walls (alfresco), was completed during the Cathedral0"
reign of the following Grand Prince Vasili loannovitch (1505-1533). After a rebuilt.
great fire which took place in Moscow, John the Terrible (1533-1584) ordered the
domes of the cathedral to be covered with sheets of gilt copper. Michael Feodoro-
vitch, while restoring Moscow after the devastation of the Poles, ordered the walls
of the cathedral to be painted anew, on sheets of plated gold, in this wise : from
the old painting an outline was made, which then was placed on the same spot. The
image-painting of the cathedral was again renewed during the reign of Catherine n.
(1762-1796), and after the devastation of the French in 1812, while Alexander i.
occupied the throne. In the Assumption Cathedral repose the remains of the
metropolitans and patriarchs of Moscow. Next in importance to the ' Oospenski
Sobor' (Assumption Cathedral) is that of the Archangel Michael, the patron
saint and guardian angel of the ancient Russian princes. The Archangel Cathedral
was also first built by Kaleeta (1333), but renewed by John in. (1462-1505). In
that sacred building are the tombs of the ancient Grand Princes and sovereigns of
Moscow. In the latter capital there were already not a few artisans, both foreign
and native. Pskov was famous for its masons ; Novgorod, for its carpenters,
carvers, and painters. However, they were insufficient. John in. already forbade
any Livonian prisoners to be sold in Lithuania (if they knew a trade), and ordered
them to be brought to Moscow. As far as architectural taste was concerned, the
influence of the Byzantine style, during the fifteenth century, gradually began
to give place to that of western Europe. But in painting, the Byzantine taste
VOL. II. E
34 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
continued to prevail much longer. Besides images, remembrances of it are still
preserved in the miniature designs in manuscripts of the lives of saints, copied and
illustrated by monks in monasteries.
In ancient Russia, the art of painting images was considered a sacred work,
and was under immediate inspection of clerical power. Traditions concerning
image-painting were carefully transmitted from one generation to another.
Russian image-painting was divided into three principal sorts or schools, i.e. the
Novgorodski, the Strogonovski, and the Moskovski. The Novgorodian style of
image-painting is chiefly preserved in old churches of Novgorodian districts.
They, more than others, retained the Byzantine style. The Strogonovski school,
named from its protectors, the rich merchants Strogonov, was chiefly diffused in
north-eastern towns. The images of that school, compared with others, are dis-
tinguished by beauty of execution and brilliancy of colours. The representative
of the Moscovite school was a monk of the Trinity cloister, named Andre" Rooblev
(fifteenth century). Subsequently, in Moscow, there was a so-called 'Imperial
School of Image-painting,' placed under inspection of the public office for armour.
During the second half of the seventeenth century the representative of that
school was the well-known Simeon Ooshakov. The best image-painters were
always summoned from other towns to Moscow; so, in that city, there gradually
appeared some difference in the manner of designing images. Besides, Moscow
image-painting was, to a certain degree, influenced by foreign artists, summoned
to Russia by Michael and Alexis.
The ' Raskolniki,' or Old Believers, along with the ' new ' or corrected church
books, also rejected ' new ' images, i.e. those not painted according to the ancient
manner. The Raskolniks too, in church service, would not adopt the ordinary
singing, borrowed from Greece, but continued to sing in a monotonous tone, with
nasal sounds, considered as the ancient Grecian style, and named ' Demestvenni.'
But in general, Russian art was in no flourishing condition at this period. The
chief reasons why art was little developed in Russia were the want of general
enlightenment and the poverty of the state. Luxury and magnificence were only
to be seen in the capital, particularly at the imperial court, where were collected
all the best home and foreign productions. So that while in churches of the
capital and in imperial halls were to be found abundance of silver and gold vessels,
adorned with precious stones, in simple rural places of worship the vessels were
partly of pewter and partly of wood.
TOWNS AND VILLAGES
Towns, as previously, were generally forts, destined to defend the neighbouring
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 35
population from the enemy. Whenever government received news that the
enemy had invaded any district, orders were sent to those in service to come from
adjacent spots to towns, along with their families and provisions. Corn was
hidden in ditches. Intimation was also given, that if any refused to come to
towns, but meanwhile were made prisoners, they were themselves to blame for
disobeying orders, and government would not ransom them.
Russian towns were generally divided into three parts. In the interior was
the fort or kreml. The spots near the kreml were called suburbs, sometimes
surrounded by a wall or earthen rampart. Beyond the suburbs (posadi) were the
outskirts or villages on the highroad (slobode), so called on account of exemption
from taxes, which exemption they enjoyed compared with simple villages. Not
unfrequently these outskirts were named from the occupation of their inhabitants,
such, for instance, as ' The Fish Village,' ' The Drivers' Village,' ' The Village of
Strelitz,' ' The Cossacks' Village,' etc. Town walls were generally of wood. Only
in more considerable towns they were of stone, with high battlements. At the
walls were towers of two and sometimes of three stories, with openings for firing
cannons or arquebuses. Around the walls were frequently placed double or even
triple rows of posts, to render entrance into the town more difficult. At the
south, frequently threatened by the Tartars, were earthen ramparts, with forests in
defence. In that direction only forts were seen. Ordinary villages were rare.
The interior of towns, as previously, was occupied by buildings of the crown,
such, for instance, as public offices, the voevode's dwelling, the granary of the
crown, with supplies of corn for those in service. There were likewise the so-
called 'dwellings of siege,' for neighbouring proprietors, who, during an inroad
from the enemy, assembled in towns.
THE CHURCH
"With the creation of the patriarchate, the power of the chief prelate of the
Russian church was not increased, so that, in general, the condition of the church
in the Moscovite state differed little from what it had been in ancient Russia.
The choice of a patriarch, if the sovereign himself had no one in view, was made
by lot, from among several candidates appointed by an assembly of the clergy in
Moscow. In the event of any important circumstance connected with the church,
a council of clergy was assembled. As the sovereign, in weighty state affairs, was
wont to summon the patriarch and the higher clergy for advice, so also voevodes in
towns consulted with the archbishop in important affairs. In the Moscovite
state the higher clergy enjoyed the rights of interceding with secular power
concerning the unhappy, of asking pardon for the guilty, or at least, for mitigation
36
of punishment. In towns, citizens oppressed by voevodes applied to the arch-
bishop and begged his intercession. Priests were chosen by the parishioners, who
presented a written testimonial to the archbishop, that the individual was a good
man. If, by particular request, a proprietor obtained the nomination of a priest
from among his own peasants, the children of the priest born before he entered
holy orders remained peasants, but those born afterwards were free. As, during
the sixteenth century, the Council of 1557 endeavoured to eradicate disorder in the
church, so too, in the seventeenth century, the famous Council of 1667 decreed
that on festivals none were to work or to trade, that priests were to instruct their
children, and thus to prepare them to take orders. The same council also strongly
condemned the ignorance of the clergy, particularly in the country. Diakons
(under-priests) and priests were prohibited from leaving one church and going to
another. Monks were likewise forbidden to rove about ; supposed anchorites and
fanatics were not allowed to wander in towns and villages. The clergy were not
permitted to trade. The same council also changed a decree established in 1621,
and decided that Romanists who embraced the Eusso-Greek faith should not be
baptized a second time.
In ancient Russia, during the course of years, monachism became much
extended, and was important by its peculiar signification. In distant desert
regions of the state, monachism aided the act of tilling the ground. Peasants,
attracted by exemption from imposts, gladly settled on monastic land. There
they cultivated the fields and transformed hitherto waste spots into blooming
meadows. The greater numbers of monasteries at that epoch were also fortresses
which, particularly during the 'troublous times,' rendered great service to the
state. During the period of the appanaged system in ancient Russia, the monks
themselves chose the abbot. But in the Moscovite state abbots were sometimes
nominated by a bishop, and, in the most famous monasteries, by the sovereign
himself. First-class cloisters (Lavrii) were generally exempt from episcopal
judgment, and were under the direct jurisdiction of the patriarch.
The frequent bequests of pious individuals, during several centuries, con-
centrated much property in the hands of monasteries. But piety alone did not
prompt many thus to sacrifice their possessions. As monasteries were exempt from
various imposts levied by the crown, not a few proprietors, in order to live more
quietly, gave their lands to monasteries on certain conditions. In this wise,
government was deprived of much ground which was necessary for distribution
among the military. Also, in consequence of privileges granted to monasteries,
government lost a considerable part of its finances. On the other hand, the
possession of inherited laud withdrew the attention of recluses from religion, and
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 37
induced them to think too much of secular affairs. Moreover, the wealth thus
amassed also tended to corrupt monastic morals. While loann ill. occupied
the throne (1462-1505), the famous anchorite Nil Sorski, in the Clerical Council
of 1504, raised the questions: 'Should a recluse possess land? Since he had
renounced the world and the things thereof, should he not cease to have worldly
cares ? Should he not maintain himself by his own labour ? '
Nil Sorski was supported by the recluses of Bielozersk (government of
Novgorod) ; but the metropolitan, the bishops, and the eloquent Joseph Sanine,
on that occasion, maintained the rights of monasteries. These questions were
renewed during the reign of Vasili III. (1505-1533). The opinions of Nil Sorski
were developed by two-well known monks, Vassian Kosoi, and the learned
Maximus the Greek. But loann iv. acted in a more decided manner than his
predecessors. During his reign, in the ' Stoglav Council/ hierarchs and monasteries
were deprived of the right of buying land without the sovereign's permission;
and, during subsequent councils, it was forbidden to bequeath estates to monas-
teries in order to pay for masses to obtain the soul's repose.
In general, the education of the Russian clergy, at that remote epoch, was
insufficient compared with its high calling. Parish priests, in distant localities,
had but little instruction. In a word, they were more occupied by the care of
procuring daily bread, than by instructing their parishioners. Karamzine even
affirms that some priests actually could not read, and thus were obliged to learn
the church-service by heart. Judicious individuals, even among the clergy
themselves, not unfrequently expatiated dn the ignorance of their brethren ;
while means to enlighten them were suggested in councils. Meanwhile, much
ignorant, foolish, superstitious belief still existed among the people, such as
confidence in charms, incantations, prognostics, etc. In many spots, heathen
festivals and sacrifices were still religiously observed.
The great degree to which heathen superstition still prevailed, particularly
where Finnish population abounded, is proved by a document of Macarius,
archbishop of Novgorod, to the clergy of the Votzkaia Piatena, one of the five
districts of Novgorodian territory, in 1554.
' I have been told,' wrote the archbishop, ' that in your neighbourhood many
Christians have abandoned the true faith. They no longer go to church nor to
confession, and pray to trees and stones. Many eat ordinary food during the
Petrovski fast,1 offer sacrifices to demons, and summon magicians to pray. The
dead are not taken to parish churches for burial, but are interred under heaps of
1 A summer fast of the Greek church. The said fast terminates on June 29, the day dedicated
to the memory of Saints Ptter and Paul, and is consequently called Petrovski.
38 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
earth in villages, and in presence of magicians. The latter are also summoned
when a child is born, in order to give him a name, or to offer sacrifices beside the
dead, to hateful demons, etc.' (Ilovaiski, p. 224.)
Thirteen years later, the successor of Macarius, the archbishop Theodosius,
also addressed the same clergy and mentioned the same customs. The ' Stoglav
Council' of 1551 likewise indicates various disorders among the lower classes of
the Russian people. On some festivals, such, for example, as Saint John's Day
(June 24), both men and women abandoned themselves to licentious games and
performed different heathen rites. False prophets and prophetesses, with bare
feet and disordered hair, went about in villages and narrated marvellous visions.
But where Christianity had taken root, i.e. among the middle and higher classes,
particularly also among purely Russian population, attachment to the Greek
church and great piety were remarkable. One foreign ambassador of the
sixteenth century speaks of the pious Moscovites with respect. 'Never,' says
he, ' do they pass a church, a monastery, or even a chapel, but they immediately
dismount from horseback, or descend from a carriage, fall on their knees, and
three times pronounce the words, " Lord, have mercy upon us ! " And, if they
approach a church in which service is going on, they do not pass it without
entering the sacred building and listening to the litany.'
After the so-called ' Jewish heresy,' the Russian church was more than once
disturbed by strange teaching. In order to struggle against it, clerical councils
were generally summoned. Thus, during the sixteenth century, the famous
heresies of Matvei Bashkine and of Theodosius Kosoi took place. They denied
the church dogmas concerning Jesus Christ. The lower clergy and the people,
however, strenuously opposed any innovation : and we have already seen that the
correction of church books during the time of Nikon occasioned the formation of
a sect, ' The Raskoluiks,' whose numbers at the close of the seventeenth century
vastly increased.
As far as foreign races belonging to the Moscovite state were concerned during
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the greater part of Finnish tribes at the
north and east of Russia were idolaters, while Tartar regions adhered to the
faith of Islam. Notwithstanding, thanks to the labours of some earnest preachers,
Christianity began to spread among these races.
' The patriarch Nikon, himself of Mordovski origin, was especially anxious to
Christianise and to Russify the Mordvii (an originally Finnish people, eventually
inhabiting the neighbourhood of Kazane). With Nikon's benediction, Misael,
archbishop of Riazane, zealously undertook the conversion of the Kasimov
Tartars and the Mordovski race of the Mokshan. Travelling from one spot to
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 39
another, he preached Christianity, baptized heathens, cut down sacred groves, and
burned wooden houses in heathen cemeteries. In this wise he converted some
thousands. But in one Mordovski village the idolaters met the archbishop with
bows and clubs. When he, clad in his clerical robes, began to urge the people
to receive baptism, the Mordvii fired a shower of arrows, and the archbishop fell
fatally wounded (1655). Above his tomb, in the Archangel Cathedral of Riazane,
is still preserved his blood-stained mantle.' (Ilovaiski, p. 225-226.)
ENLIGHTENMENT
Many foreigners who visited Russia during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries were astonished at the innate ability of the Russians, and their capacity
for mental culture. But of course, from unfavourable historical circumstances,
enlightenment in the Moscovite state was at a considerably low degree. From
the thirteenth century, i.e. from the epoch of the Tartar yoke, Russia was at once
estranged from Europe, while the Russian people held immediate constant inter-
course with fierce Asiatic barbarians, who left deep traces on the organisation of
government and on the customs of the people. On the character of the Moscovite
state there was also reflected an influence of Byzantine traditions, the conductors
of which were hierarchs, literature, and jurisdiction. These traditions, moreover,
belonged to the latest period of Byzantine enlightenment, i.e. at the epoch of its
decline.
Although during the second half of the fifteenth century the Moscovite state
did begin to hold intercourse with European powers, that intercourse was, not-
withstanding, long confined to diplomatic communication alone, as also the act
of summoning foreign artisans for the service of government. Russians were
not yet allowed to go abroad for instruction, and science was not protected by
the higher classes in Russia. Moreover, the Moscovite clergy, constantly afraid
of foreign heresy, looked with an evil eye on western Russian schools and on
learned men in no wise opposed to Western ideas. In order to preserve the
church from them, we have already noticed the Slavonian, Greek, and Latin
Academy, organised during the reign of Feodor Alexe'evitch. The first teachers
of the academy were the learned brothers, loannikius and Sophronius Lichoodi.
In that institution the pupils chiefly learned the Greek and Latin languages, as
well as philosophy and theology. Subsequently, however, the Lichoodi, for some
offence, were subjected to persecution and removed from the academy.
As there was a want of secular schools, monks and the learned clergy were,
at this epoch, nearly the only teachers of the people. In mental culture, boyards
and other nobles were but little superior to the lower orders. All education
40 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
consisted in learning how to read and write ; and these arts were not attained by
all boyards. The entire system of education consisted in terror and punishments.
The rod was considered a necessary accompaniment to all teaching.
The more enlightened regions of the Moscovite state were towards the west,
i.e. in the neighbourhood of Europe. Novgorod, thanks to its trade during a
lengthened period, served as the chief means of communicating European civilisa-
tion to Moscow. But, towards the close of the sixteenth century, the ancient
capital fell to decay. During the seventeenth century, Novgorod's place, as
regards Moscow, was occupied by Little Russia, with its schools and printing-
presses, its clerical authors and learned men, whose education took place at the
epoch of the struggle against the union and Catholicism. Such were Smotritzki,
Kopeestenski, Mogila, Gisel, and others. At the same time, the influence of
Polish civilisation and Polish literature became greater. The constant arrivals of
European tradesmen, merchants, officers, and ambassadors, could not be without
influence on Russian society. During the seventeenth century, European customs,
although feebly, yet perceptibly, penetrated the higher Moscovite circles. While
Ordeen Nashokine administered Polish affairs, there appeared the first newspapers
in Moscow — courants, in manuscript, although exclusively designed for the court.
In them were inserted translations from foreign newspapers and communications
concerning different events in Europe. Amongst the Russian boyards, the first
to adopt the manners and customs of the west was Matveev,1 under whose
inspection the first theatre was organised at the Moscovite court. In a previous
chapter, we have already remarked that theatrical representations in Russia, as
in the West, had originally a religious character. In Little Russia, so-called
'mysteries' or dramas were introduced from Poland. The subjects of these
pieces were derived from sacred history. They were generally acted by the
pupils of clerical schools. These pupils (Boorsakii) often went to the houses of
rich citizens, and sang sacred verses under the windows. In return the
boorsakii received money and eatables. During great festivals, the pupils used
to carry about boxes of two or three rows in height, in which were shown
representations of Christ in the Manger and other surroundings. In these boxes
were also shown different dramatic scenes from the life of the people. The chief
actors therein were frequently a poor gypsy, a cowardly Jew, a boasting Pole,
and an audacious Zaporog Cossack. These were puppets, pushed about by wires,
while the conversation or dialogue was maintained by two men behind the stage.
In Moscovite Russia there were also street representations of puppets, as well as
learned bears, etc.
1 During the reign of Alexei Michaelovitch.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 41
During the reign of Alexei Michaelovitch, German dancers and musicians
were summoned to the Moscovite court. They asked the sovereign's permission
to enliven his theatre. Alexei applied to his father-confessor for advice. The
confessor replied that the German actors might perform, at court, because the
emperors of Byzantium had allowed such amusements. In presence of the
imperial family and the Germans at the palace, several ' mysteries ' were performed,
such, for instance, as Judith cutting off the head of Holofernes, how Ahasuerus
ordered Haman to he hanged, etc. The musical orchestra on these occasions was
composed of Matve'ev's own servants, taught by Germans. Alexei was delighted
with these representations. He commissioned Matv^ev to organise a permanent
theatre, to send Russians as pupils to the Germans, to summon new actors
from Germany. The best Russian 'mysteries' at the close of the seventeenth
century were those of Simeon Polotzki and Dmitri Rostooski. (See Ilovaiski,
p. 224-230.)
According to the same author, the most remarkable dramatic representation
of that remote epoch was the so-called ' stove act.' It took place before
Christmas in some large towns, in cathedral churches. During morning service,
church servants, while singing sacred hymns, represented the Bible narration of
three youths cast into a burning fiery furnace, but saved by an angel. The said
' stove ' consisted of a wooden tower, lighted by inflammable grass,
Amongst the religious rites of that epoch was the magnificent procession of
Palm Sunday, borrowed from Byzantium. The patriarch, seated on horseback,
represented Christ entering Jerusalem on an ass. The sovereign himself held
the horse's bridle. In front was transported on a cart a decorated willow-tree,
around which were boys dressed in white, who sang hymns of thanksgiving.
LITERATURE AND POPULAR POETRY
The book literature of ancient Russia chiefly consisted in collections of
manuscripts, which, for the greater part, have been preserved till our own times.
Amongst those manuscripts the first place was occupied by Precepts, composed
by fathers of the church. The Precepts were divided into reading for each
day. Secondly were biographies of saints, belonging in general to the Russian
and Greek churches. A remarkable Great Martyrology was collected by the
metropolitan Macarius, a contemporary of John the Terrible. The Petscherski
Lives of the Fathers were composed in Kiev during the fifteenth century. Then
follow collections of Bible stories, rejected because not acknowledged by the
church. The collections called Bees form a transition from religious to secular
literature. They are generally divided into chapters of a moral tendency,
VOL. II. F
42 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
such, for example, as discussions on wealth, on poverty, on virtue, on malice,
justice, etc.
In order to diffuse knowledge concerning universal history, Chronographies
were composed, borrowed for the greater part from Greek annals. In these
Chronographies were enumerated events from the creation of the world, and
especially Byzantine events. To furnish information concerning ancient Russia
numerous collections of annals existed. Sometimes extracts were made from
annals in a regular form, i.e. from the reigns of succeeding princes. These
extracts were considered as genealogical books. Sometimes also Codes from
Annals were composed. The most remarkable Code from Annals was composed
by order of the patriarch Nikon. During the fifteenth century, Moscovite annals
assumed a particularly official character, and were written at the court of the
Grand Princes. During the sixteenth century, annals began to replace a
Nobiliary. In the former, secretaries inscribed the chief events at court, as
also the acts of boyards in service. During the same century (sixteenth)
appeared historical records of contemporaries. Such, for example, was Prince
Andre* Koorbski's composition on the Reign of John the Terrible. During the
seventeenth century, annals nearly ceased, and records assumed a prominent
place. The most remarkable records of that period were those of Abraham
Palitzine, cellarist of the Trinity cloister. His records are entitled Narrations
of the Siege of the Trinity Monastery, and also of the Sedition then in Russia.
Soloviev calls Abraham Palitzine 'the good cellarist of the Trinity cloister,
who liked so much to talk of himself.' Another curious contemporary composi-
tion is entitled Concerning Russia during the Reign of Alexei Michaelovitch, by
Kosheehine, secretary of the Polish Public Office. Kosheehine's work was
written in Sweden, whither the author fled from Moscow about the year 1654.
Written memorials of ancient Russia, and, at the same time, important
materials for its history, are to be found in various documents, conventions,
regulations, complaints of different epochs. The fullest collection of such acts
is to be found in editions of the Archaeological Commission, instituted in 1834 in
order to print material for Russian history.
A valuable source of information for the history of Russia, its manners and
customs, previous to the reign of Peter the Great, may also be found in the
considerably numerous descriptions of foreigners during the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries. The authors of these descriptions, for the greater part, visited
Russia as ambassadors or travellers. Such, for example, were Baron Herberstein,
Anthony Possevin, Fletcher, Adam Olearius, Baron Meirberg (Austrian ambassador
at the court of Alexei Michaelovitch). Sometimes also foreigners who described
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 43
Russia were in the Moscovite or Polish service, such as Jacques Marjaret, a
French officer of the guards of Boris Godoonov, and of the first false Dmitri ;
Collins, an English M.D. at the court of Alexei Michaelovitch ; a learned Serb
named Krijanitch ; and others.
As for the history of south-western Russia from foreign sources, the most
remarkable is A Description of Ukraine, by a Frenchman, Beauplan. From
among Russian sources we find the annals of Velitchka, a clerk in chancery of
the Little Russian forces, at the close of the seventeenth and beginning of the
eighteenth centuries. From Polish sources, concerning the history of Lithuanian,
Russia, the most authentic are the Chronicles of Streekovski (sixteenth century).
During the seventeenth century a great want was felt of a complete history
of Russia. That want was at first manifested in Little Russia. In Kiev, a
collection of extracts was printed from annals and from other narrations con-
cerning ancient Russia till the reign of Feodor Alexe'evitch. The said collection
was entitled Synopsis or Abbreviation. It is attributed to Innocent Gisel,
archimandrite of the Kiev Petscherski cloister.
For a lengthened period — till the time of Lomonosov, reign of Elizaveta
Petrovna, 1741-1761 — that was the only elementary work on Russian history.]
Secular or essentially light literature in ancient Russia consisted of a great
many stories or novels, which formed the favourite subjects for reading or verbal
narration, and, like more serious works, were also to be found in manuscript
collections. Many of these tales are evidently of foreign origin, frequently
borrowed from the East, from the Arabian Nights, or from the West by means of
Poland ; sometimes too from Italian chivalrous romances. But the tales were
generally rewritten in Russian style. Many edifying legends also took the form
of novels. Some of them are satirical stories, in which popular wit exposes the
weak side of social existence. Such, for example, was a narrative entitled
Shemiakine 's Judgment, a satire on unjust, greedy judges.
Towards the close of the seventeenth century there appeared a feeble com-
mencement of the independent Russian novel of romantic character.
Meanwhile, as books furnished the mental food of those able to read, and,
on account of scarcity were only to be procured by the wealthy, the artistic wants
of the people were gratified by numerous and varied songs, the productions of
popular fancy and popular feeling. Amongst those songs, the first place was
occupied by those of an epic character. The heroes of these epic songs appeared
as knights. They personified a princely militia struggling with inimical neigh-
bours, particularly Asiatic races. The latter are sometimes represented as
countless hosts, or sometimes as fantastic serpents or other monsters. The
44 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Russian knights generally assemble around the Grand Prince Vladimir, ' the
Red or Beautiful Sun,' who entertains them at magnificent feasts, and then
sends them forth to perform fabulous exploits.
At the princely feast the knight eats and drinks according to his immeasur-
able strength. To him is poured out
( A goblet of green wine, containing a pitcher and a half,
And an ox's horn full of sweet wine, the third part of a pitcher ' !
and the knight,
' Taking the goblet with his hand,
Empties it at a single draught ' !
The most famous among these popular ideal heroes are Ilia Moorometz (a
peasant knight), Dobrinia Nikititch (a boyarine knight), and Alesha Popovitch.
Besides these princely epic songs, which chiefly originated in southern Russia,
there were also others belonging to the north or to Novgorodian Russia. In the
latter, along with the prince's court and militia, appears in the background the
popular national assembly or Vietsche*. The heroes of these songs are enterprising
guests or independent Novgorodians. In general, these songs date from the
epoch ot appanaged Russia ; yet they are preserved in the mouth of the people
till this day.
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in Moscovite Russia there
were peculiarly ' imperial songs ' which celebrated the reign of John the
Terrible, his conquests, his feasts, his boyards. There were likewise songs
concerning Alexei Michaelovitch, etc.
Meanwhile, in Little Russia a wide field was opened up for epic Cossack songs
or 'doomii.' The subjects of these songs are the exploits of hardy Cossacks,
and especially of favourite hetmen. These songs were composed by popular poets
or maudore-players. At the same time, there also appear 'robbers' songs' in
praise of Stenko Raziue, or other famous atamans.
Along with epic poems may be classed those of a religious nature. The latter
were chiefly sung by wayfarers or pilgrims. In such verses we remark a mixture
of heathen belief and Christianity. One strange work, entitled The Pilgrim's
Book concerning the Final Judgment, thus describes the origin of the world:
4 White light is from the Lord ;
The beautiful sun, from the face of the gods ;
The bright moon, from the breast of the gods ;
The dark night, from thoughts of the Lord, etc. ;
Bright .stars, from the garments of the gods.'
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 45
As far as the lyric songs of the people are concerned, many of them have a
depressed, sad tone, an echo of monotonous struggle with life and a representation
of rugged natural scenery, as well as the prolonged sufferings of the Russian
people during various phases of their historical existence. Little Russian songs
are especially distinguished for tender, melancholy feeling, while, on the contrary,
those of Great or Central Russia have unbridled gaiety, showing an expansive
nature, untiring activity, and thoughtless mirth.
One curious old song, ' Gore" Zlotschasti^ ' (Grief of the Unlucky), describes the
struggle between good and evil concerning strong drink.
A promising youth leaves home without his parents' blessing. Then comes
a wicked tempter in form of a demon, Gore*. The latter entices the young man,
so that he drinks away all his property and goes roving about the world. But
even then he is not abandoned by the tempter. Whereupon the youth wishes
to throw himself into a river. Goid, however, prevents him from doing so. The
youth next tries to return home, but Gore" intercepts the way. The constant
pursuit, as is usual in popular songs, is represented in a poetic form :
' A bright young falcon took flight, but Gor6
Follows like a white hawk.
The youth flew like a dark-blue pigeon,
Gore" follows him like a green vulture.
The youth continues his way on foot,
And Gore" takes him by the right arm.'
Overcome by the pursuit of the wicked Gore", the youth seeks refuge in a
cloister, which, according to the pious belief of the times, was a spot exempt from
all sublunary evil, and where Gor^ dared not appear. (See Ilovaiski, pp. 231-235.)
DOMESTIC LIFE
The court adjacent to each house was surrounded by a sharp-pointed fence.
The house was generally placed in the centre of the court, and consisted of several
habitable buildings, united by passages, or covered corridors. The houses of the
rich had a lower story, destined for servants or for stores ; while apartments of
the family were above. In a boyarine's court were many separate buildings for
his numerous domestics, as well as for various necessary household supplies. A
wealthy nobleman of that epoch had everything at home, and what he required
was prepared by his servants. Beyond the chief court was a second, destined
for carriages, domestic fowls, cattle, etc. Then there were a garden and a steam-
bath or washing-house. The latter was a necessary appendage to every consider-
able dwelling.
46 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
The outward ornaments and furniture within private dwellings were not
distinguished either by riches or variety. The carriage-entrance, shutters,
balustrades, and other outward parts of a house were generally of carved wood,
with different designs. There were also pitcher-shaped columns. In the
dwellings of the poor, the windows were small and covered with a skin or
bladder. In rich houses the windows were covered with mica, or Moscovy glass,
on which were painted figures in different colours. In interior rooms, the chief
space was occupied by an image of the Virgin, sometimes set in silver in an
image-case with folding-doors. Images filled up the whole front corner, and
before them was hung a lamp, lighted on the eve of great festivals (as is still
the case in Russian houses). Ornaments for the walls consisted of pictures
painted on wood, whose monstrous execution pleased the by no means fastidi-
ous taste of the ancient Russians. The subjects of these pictures were gener-
ally religious. One favourite representation was that of the Final Judgment,
accompanied by various torments of hell. Sometimes, too, the pictures were
scenes from popular stories, amusing or satirical. The popular humour thus
at times assumed a coarse form, without any art whatsoever. One well-
known picture, called ' Mice burying a Tom-cat,' depicted the different stages of
intoxication.
But a model of art and elegant taste of that epoch was to be seen in the
palace of Kolomensk, the summer residence of Alexei Michaelovitch, at seven
versts from Moscow, and situated amid gardens, on a picturesque bank of the
Moskva, The palace was built of wood, with a stone foundation, and presented
a group of various-coloured erections, of different form and size. In them were
carved doors, windows, staircases, balconies, pillars, varied-shaped roofs of green
colour, with shining copper ridges. There were also terraces and pyramid-like
towers, decorated with eagles or iron weathercocks. Near the windows of
Moscovy glass were twisted gilt columns. Foreigners spoke of the Kolomensk
palace as a beautiful toy. Simeon Polotzki sang its praise in verse. The palace
stood till the reign of Catherine n. (1762-1796), when it fell to decay and was
finally removed ; but plans and drawings of it still remain.
The ancient Russians, on great festivals, liked to give sumptuous entertain-
ments and to wear costly clothing. But in general great carefulness was
universal. Karamzine mentions that fashion then did not change as in our own
times, so that each wealthy boyarine had expensive garments which served several
generations. Notwithstanding, silver vessels and other objects of luxury were
used but seldom, and were carefully preserved.
In the dress of ancient Russians the favourite colour was red. In fact, the
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 47
adjectives ' red ' and ' beautiful ' were then synonymous. A distinctive mark of
princes and boyards was the high hat made of expensive fur, and with a peaked
velvet summit. The upper classes, in Eastern fashion, closely covered the head,
while the hair was cut short. But the longer the beard was, the more honourable
did it appear. The attempt of the Grand Prince Vasili loannovitch to shave the
beard had no success, because the clergy rose in arms against the innovation.
In general, in Russia, the ancient form of men's attire is still preserved in the
vestments of the so-called ' white ' or secular clergy.
Women's dress was usually distinguished by many different colours, and a
number of small ornaments. At that epoch, stoutness, in both sexes, was esteemed
necessary for beauty. Foreigners speak of Russian women as sufficiently handsome
and good-looking, but in towns women were universally accustomed to paint with
red and white. Andr^ev mentions that even during the reign of Catherine II.,
i.e. about one hundred years ago, it was customary to hire maid-servants with or
without their own paint.
At an earlier epoch, those disposed to avoid the use of paint were subjected to
positive persecution. According to the testimony of the Holstein ambassador, the
famous Adam Olearius, who visited Moscow during the reign of Michael Feodoro-
vitch (1613-1645), the following incident occurred when the consort of a dis-
tinguished nobleman, Prince Ivan Borisovitch Tscherkassov, a beautiful woman,
did not wish to paint, the wives of the other boyards rose in arms against her.
It was affirmed that she despised the ancient customs of her country, and thus put
her equals to shame. These Russian boyarinii, by means of their husbands,
actually forced the beautiful princess to paint. ' Thus she appeared like a lighted
candle in the rays of the sun.' (Ilovaiski, pp. 219-220.)
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
Until the second half of the seventeenth century, when the influence of Western
civilisation began, although feebly, to be felt in the higher ranks of Russian society,
the same customs and popular belief which we now find only in country
villages were then universal at the court of the sovereign, in the dwellings of
nobles, in the huts of peasants. In domestic life the higher orders were alone
distinguished from the lower by having more means and by keeping their wives
and daughters in utter seclusion. The Czarines and Czarevnii lived unseen ; and,
when it did happen that they went on pilgrimage, the windows of their
conveyances were carefully covered with silk, while a numerous troop of
bondmen surrounded the travellers. It even sometimes occurred that the
daughters of distinguished individuals had actually never been to church
48 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
previous to their marriage. To teach a girl to read was considered quite useless.
This sad state of affairs, of course, resulted from the want of enlightenment
and the baneful influence of Eastern barbarism. During the epoch of the
appanaged system in Russia, women had enjoyed a certain amount of freedom,
but during the thirteenth century their position underwent a change in the
higher classes. Women were separated from the society of men, and were shut
up in apartments, where they spent their whole life, doomed to inaction and
weariness. Spinning, embroidering with gold or beads (usually vestments for the
clergy, or church ornaments), the society of maid-servants — a monotonous kind of
living — filled up the time of boyards' wives and daughters. Marriage, on both
sides, was entirely arranged by parents. The consent of the young couple was not
even asked. In general, the bridegroom could not see his bride till the very end
of the wedding. Hence, much deception frequently occurred among the boyards'
families. For example, instead of the daughter promised, another, with some
defect, was substituted. Or if the relations of the bridegroom came to look at the
bride, in her stead they saw a pretty maid-servant. Only Christian understanding
of marriage softened the slave-like fate of women, and raised them to the position
of friends. Book-learned Russians of the sixteenth century, in the following
traits, represent an ideal Woman : — ' She uncomplainingly submits to the elder, i.e.
to her husband and to his parents, diligently busies herself with housekeeping,
lightens the sad position of bondmen in the house, and performs other exploits of
Christian charity, such as fasting, almsgiving, and prayer.'
In general, the aim of these ideal women was ascetic. Penetrated by deep
faith, they denied themselves the pleasures of life, and carried on a constant
struggle with their passions, sometimes represented in form of the devil.
The peculiar views of ancient Russians concerning the intercourse between
husband and wife were derived from the Domostroi, or Rules for Family Life.
The Domostroi was written by a priest of the Annunciation Cathedral, Sylvester,
the same who enacted so prominent a part during the reign of John the Terrible.
In the said book, Sylvester instructs his son Anfimus how to organise his house-
hold, how to conduct himself towards his wife, how to bring up his children, etc.
Among other remarks, Sylvester gives the following advice : — ' If a wife, son, or
daughter is disobedient to the husband, or father, or mother, the husband should,
in private, beat the offender with a whip, but neither with his fist nor with a stick,
so as not to disfigure any one, or to spoil his or her health.' (Ilovaiski, p. 228.)
As far as the conveniences of domestic life were concerned, most inhabitants
of the Moscovite state were little in advance of their ancestors, Russians of the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. True, the treasury of later sovereigns was
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 49
richer than that of the Grand Princes of Moscow had been. The former, too,
possessed more costly ornaments in form of gold, silver, and precious stones,
more distinguished servants, more horses, more conveyances lined with cloth and
velvet. A great many dishes were daily prepared in the imperial kitchen.
The tables of the wealthy were also remarkable for abundance. Land produced
all manner of eatables. The rich showed their wealth by keeping many bondmen
and horses. Notwithstanding, dwellings were in reality narrow and bare. Stone
houses, as formerly, were uncommon. Benches and tables covered with carpets
were the only furniture. Decorated images were the only ornaments of houses.
In fact, their construction was so simple, that wooden houses, ready for erection,
were actually sold at markets. The streets were paved with wooden planks.
(Till recently, this was also the case in St. Petersburg.) Then, as now, frequent
conflagrations were like scourges in Russia. But especially in ancient times the
people suffered much from precautions taken against fires. For example, in
summer, from May till September, the inhabitants of towns were forbidden to heat
stoves, either in private houses or in baths, so that in order to prepare food, stoves
were placed in kitchen-gardens, or in other spots far from the house. That was
particularly onerous to the inhabitants of northern towns, exposed to cold wind.
So that at their request they were allowed to heat in cloudy weather, as also on
certain days of the week and on great festivals.
The thinly-populated country and the vast extent of forests gave ample space
to gangs of robbers, who much injured rural population, and especially did harm
to trade. Even in the very capital, robberies were frequent. During the
carnival, robbers composed of persons in every grade went about in large gangs,
with arms, and beat and plundered those they met.
The peculiarities of the Moscovite court, its frequent intercourse with Asiatic
nations, the constant enmity of neighbouring European states, gave foreign inter-
course with Moscow an Oriental character. In that intercourse, suspicion pre-
vailed which far surpassed the limits of suitable and necessary prudence. That
peculiar form of diplomatic intercourse began to predominate during the reign of
John the Terrible, at which epoch transactions injurious to the state were
discovered between Lithuanian ambassadors and some nobles. An ambassador
was henceforth considered as a man who came with evil intentions to remark and
report all he saw ! Therefore it was that he was kept shut up and not permitted
to hold intercourse with any. Nay, even those who approached the ambassador's
residence were arrested. The official who held direct intercourse with an
ambassador was obliged, in his presence, to praise the power and hospitality of
the Moscovite state. Then, if the ambassador broached any important or unpleasant
VOL. II. G
50 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
question, the official was to feign ignorance of it. When an ambassador passed
through a town, its inhabitants were ordered to appear in crowds, dressed in their
best, so that a foreigner might only see a large wealthy population. In any
intercourse with the Moscovite state, foreigners were especially enjoined in no
wise to diminish or to mutilate the titles of the great sovereign, To insist on
their correct enumeration was supposed to maintain its honour, and was con-
sidered a very important affair. To be an ambassador was not considered a
special honour. Hence, in general, second-rate dignitaries were alone nominated
to fill that position. Rarely, only in circumstances of peculiar importance,
especially in intercourse with the Polish court, were highly-placed plenipotentiary
boyards appointed as ambassadors. During the seventeenth century, the appear-
ance of foreign residents in Moscow, and Moscovite functionaries at neighbouring
foreign courts, already indicated a change in the character of diplomatic inter-
course.
'Foreigners who at this epoch visited the Moscovite state observed that it
had a very dark side. Russians themselves also were aware of that. The church
and government both inveighed against these evils and demanded amendment.
Foreigners, however, as we have already noticed, could not fail to be struck with
the wonderful ability of the Russians. "Ignorance enchains that people; but
how great, how terrible will it become when enlightened ! " was the expression of
these strangers. And, indeed, we cannot but recognise the moral force of a people
who triumphed over almost insurmountable obstacles. For the Russians were
placed in the most unfavourable historical circumstances. Such, for example, as
the following : — the neighbourhood, the incessant struggle and intercourse, with
Asiatic barbarians, the vast extent of the country, a rigorous climate, placed far
from the sea, far from those European states more favoured by circumstances, and
therefore able to promote civilisation, Russia, notwithstanding, succeeded in
maintaining its European, Christian type, and laboured the while incessantly with
the most scanty means. It populated vast regions in eastern Europe and northern
Asia, and there laid the foundation of Christian enlightenment,
' And although in unceasing struggle with unfavourable circumstances, amid a
hard and poor existence, it neither lost its moral force nor its ability to aim at a
better future, After triumphantly terminating a struggle with the East, and
becoming tranquil subsequent to the internal sedition at the commencement
of the seventeenth century, the Moscovite state at that very time began more
and more to hold intercourse with the West, and to borrow from it the fruits of
civilisation, although with interruption, in a one-sided manner, with hesitation, as
is usually the case at the commencement of an undertaking. And at the same
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 51
time, as the internal need of intercourse with the "West was more and more felt,
one important obstacle to its accomplishment was removed, in the gradual weak-
ness of the Polish state, an event particularly remarkable during the reign of Alexei
Michaelovitch. Sweden alone remained as a barrier between Europe and Moscow,
by retaining for itself the shores of the Baltic. To overcome that final obstacle,
to satisfy that greatly felt necessity of the Moscovite state, were acts destined to
be accomplished by the youngest son of Alexei Michaelovitch — Peter the Great.'
With this chapter terminates the fourth period of the history of Russia, i.e.
the epoch comprised between the abolition of the Tartar yoke in 1480 and the
reign of Peter I., 1682-1725.
The fifth period dates from the reign of Peter till our own times.
(See Soloviev's Abridged History of Russia, p. 230-232.)
52 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
PERIOD V
THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE, UNDER PETER THE GREAT AND HIS
SUCCESSORS, TILL OUR OWN TIMES
CHAPTEE I
REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT, 1682-1689-1725 — PETER ALEXE"i;VITCH CHOSEN
SOVEREIGN — DIVIDED POWER — REGENCY OF SOPHIA ALEX^EVNA, 1682-1689
— IOANN AND PETER REIGN CONJOINTLY, 1689-1696 — DEATH OF IOANN,
1696
AT this epoch there was no fixed law in Russia concerning inheritance of the
throne. Feodor Alexe'evitch had made no arrangement regarding his heir. Next
in age to the deceased sovereign was the Czarevitch loann. But he was weak
both physically and mentally. Accordingly, common sense suggested that his
claims to the throne should be overlooked, and that they should be conferred on
his younger stepbrother Peter. True, the latter then was only ten years old.
Notwithstanding, he was endued with great bodily -strength and no ordinary
capacity. The patriarch Joachim and the greater part of the nobles were of
opinion that Peter should be proclaimed sovereign. The patriarch accordingly
ordered the people to assemble in an open space of the city, and asked them :
' Which of the two brothers, loann or Peter, must reign ? ' ' Peter Alexeevitch ! '
was shouted by the multitude. So the patriarch blessed Peter as reigning
sovereign.
DIVIDED POWER — THE CZARINE-DOWAGER NATALIA KIRILLOVNA AND THE
CZARE"VNA SOPHIA ALEXEEVNA
But sedition soon ensued, for it was profitable to not a few. Peter, as we
have already mentioned, was son of Natalia Kirillovna Narishkine, the second
consort of Alexei Michaelovitch. During the reign of her stepson Feodor she
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 53
had experienced a bitter lot. She had lived in seclusion, while her second father,
Matve'ev, who had sheltered and brought her up, was sent into exile. All that
had taken place through the malice and intrigues of the Miloslavskies and
their friends. The former, it will be remembered, were the relatives of Alexei
Michaelovitch by his first consort, Mary Miloslavskaia ; but now their reign
was over, and it was the turn of Natalia to appear as a prominent personage in
the government. According to the then existing custom in Russia, it was on
the Czarine-Dowager that two important duties devolved, namely, guardianship
of the yet minor son, together with administration of the state. Natalia's first
act was to recall Matvdev from his exile in Looh (government of Kostroma).
He was once more brought to Moscow, there to fill the same place he had
occupied during the reign of Alexei. Of course the Miloslavskies and their
friends had henceforth little to expect. For this very reason it was that they
made use of every possible effort to oppose the decree by which Peter had been
chosen to fill the throne instead of Mary Miloslavski's son, the elder Czarevitch
loann. The opposite party also especially desired that Natalia should not be
regent. But who was to enact the principal part in this daring opposition to
the established order of things ? loann could do nothing for himself. It
therefore remained that his sister, the ambitious Sophia Alexe"evna, should
execute the plan of the Miloslavskies. As we have already seen, during the
reign of Alexei Michaelovitch new customs had begun to penetrate to the
imperial palace. Thus a considerable change was already effected in the mode
of life hitherto led by the princesses of the reigning dynasty. They were
henceforth no longer doomed to the strict seclusion in which they had formerly
been .kept. This change, together with the greater degree of freedom granted
them, induced Sophia Alexe'evna, the most energetic and ambitious of the family,
to appear in court circles. She, besides, had acquired information by reading
and by conversation with enlightened individuals, particularly the wise, well-
informed Prince Vasili Vasilievitch Golitzine. In this wise, Sophia began to
exert influence on those around her. It may therefore be easily understood why
she felt it peculiarly hard to renounce all this, as she was forced to do after
her own brother Feodor's death. In consequence of it, and of events above
narrated, administration of affairs had passed to Sophia's widowed stepmother,
Natalia, and to the irritated Matveev. Sophia had now no other perspective
than gloomy captivity, from which endeavours must be made to escape. She
accordingly sought means to avert misfortune, but lawful means there were
none; illegal measures could alone be found. They consisted in profiting by
the discontent and agitation prevalent among the armed masses of the strelitz.
54 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
REVOLT OF THE STRELITZ
15th May The discontent and agitation above mentioned originated from the lawless
of the~strelitz. Proceedings of those who commanded the militia or strelitz. The latter did
not receive pay, and were forced to work for their oppressors. Even during
the reign of Feodor Alexe'evitch this agitation had begun. When Peter was
chosen to fill the throne, the strelitz presented a petition to the new government,
which showed weakness. Without any investigation of the affair, the commanding
officers were found guilty, and, although punished, were left in their posts. The
strelitz were thereupon exasperated, and began to take law into their own hands,
formed a sort of assembly or council, and by general decree the hated commanders
were sentenced to be thrown down from a belfry. After allowing themselves
this violence, the strelitz did not, however, fail to be aware that they had
acted illegally, that the government would become stronger, and that then it
would certainly punish their lawless proceedings. Notwithstanding, from the
palace itself they were led to believe that the imperial family had need of
their services, in return for which the offenders would not only receive pardon
for the past, but would obtain new rights and ample rewards. Besides, Sophia
and her like-minded associates, the boyarine Ivan Michaelovitch Miloslavski
and two brothers Tolstoi, endeavoured to spread reports among the strelitz that
a Dr. Von Gaden, formerly in Moscow, had poisoned Feodor Alexe'evitch at the
suggestion of the Czarine Natalia ; that the Czarevitch loann had been unjustly
excluded from the throne ; that the Narishkines were making attempts on his
life ; that the strelitz should save the prince and chasti^ traitors to him ; that
the boyards were on the point of doing so by means of the strelitz. These
reports produced the desired effect among the strelitz, and soon afterwards they
received a list of the names of traitors who should be put to death.
15th May During the morning of May 15, 1682, Sophia's like-minded associates rode off
to an army of strelitz with the news that the Narishkines had strangled the
Czarevitch loann. The strelitz were soon in commotion. Amid the sounds of
the alarm-bell and the beating of drums, an army amounting to 15,000 men
rushed to the Kreml, shouting the while that vengeance was about to overtake
traitors and murderers of the imperial race. When the strelitz reached the
palace they loudly demanded the heads of the Narishkines, assassins of the
Czarevitch. Whereupon the Czarine Natalia led out both the brothers, loann
and Peter, to the great staircase, in order to prove that they were safe and sound,
loann, besides, added that no attempt had been made on his life. So the sedition
was about to terminate. Matveev and the patriarch, by wise exhortations,
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 55
entirely succeeded in disarming the strelitz, and went back to the palace in
order to quiet the Czariue. But, unfortunately, Prince Michael Dolgorooki,
commander of the strelitz, began to scream at them, and in a threatening tone
ordered them to disband. So they once more became excited. They rushed to
the staircase, seized Dolgorooki, and threw him down ; below, where he fell, he
was caught on a pike. Others seized Matve'ev, who had also the same fate.
The courtiers fled in terror, and delivered up the palace to the fury of the strelitz.
With loud shouts, ' It is time for us to choose whom we need,' the enraged rebels
rushed forward. Everywhere, even in the church, under the altar, they searched
to see that none of the Narishkines or their like-minded associates had hidden,
for their names were on the fatal list. Any who were found were immediately
seized, thrown down the stair, and caught below on a pike. The rebels meanwhile 1682.
made mistakes, by confounding one person with another. Thus many perished.
The Czarine's brother, Ivan Kirillovitch Narishkine, succeeding in hiding himself,
so that the strelitz could not find him during the first day; but on the next
they came for him, and also did not find him. On the third they once more
appeared, when the Czarine was forced to give him up. He was first tortured,
and then stuck on a pike. ' Now we are satisfied,' vociferated the rebels. ' May
God grant our sovereign health. Let him judge the remainder, and we shall
willingly die for him.'
The strelitz meanwhile thought not of any change in the government, but
Sophia thought of it ; for she alone acted at that epoch of general terror and
anarchy. At her instigation the strelitz sent some of their chosen members to
the palace in order to demand that both brothers, i.e. loann and Peter, should
reign conjointly. Accordingly, a council was summoned, composed of different
individuals in office (of course, those in Moscow), and they agreed to this
arrangement.
On May 23 twenty-nine strelitz once more appeared with a new demand,
or in other words, that on account of the princes' youth government should
meanwhile be confided to their sister, Sophia Alexeevna, Consent to that was
obtained also.
REGENCY OF SOPHIA ALEXEEVNA, 1682-1689 — MOVEMENT AMONG
THE RASKOLNIKS
Sophia thus attained her aim ; in other words, supreme power was vested in
her hands. Matve'ev and the most energetic of the Narishkines were no more.
Her stepmother was removed from government. However, Sophia had obtained
her desire by means at once illegal and dangerous. Constant care was thus
56 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
necessary in order to retain her power; for others also endeavoured by unlawful
means to further their own ends. Amongst the first to do so were the
Ruskolniks, and likewise Prince Ivan Andre'evitch Hovanski, the new commander
of the strelitz, nominated by Sophia herself.
The chief representatives of the Raskol, or sect of the so-called Old Believers,
who adhered to ancient, uncorrected books of church service, were Avakoom,
Lazare, and the diakon (or uuder-priest) Feodor. During the regency of Sophia
Alexe'evna it so. happened that the Raskolniks in the armies of the strelitz
thought to profit by their triumph in order to demand from the higher clergy
direct answers to the questions: 'Why did they hate the ancient church books?
Why did they reject the .old faith and adopt the new, or that of Latin Borne ? '
Next on the scene appeared old Raskolniks, interdicted for the sect of a priest
Nikita (Nicetas), surnamed Poostosviat. Monks, too, joined Hovauski, while he
declared to them that he favoured the old faith, and promised it his co-operation.
Let it be kept in mind that the subjection of the Solovetzki revolt, as well as
torture, imprisonment, and executions, had not diminished the Raskol during the
reigns of Alexei-and Feodor.
Notwithstanding, the greater part of the strelitz did not uphold the Raskol.
' That is not our affair, but that of the patriarch,' said they. Still, Nikita did
not lose courage, because he hoped for Hovanski's protection. So the Raskolniks
openly taught their belief, in public places of the city, or where trade was carried
on. The people thereby became excited, and on June 5 Nikita Poostosviat,
accompanied by a large crowd, appeared at the Kreml in order to summon the
patriarch to the Red or Beautiful Square, a central part of Moscow, and there
to hold an open disputation with him. The patriarch, however, was unwilling to
appear in the midst of the city without some of the imperial family, as he
feared the violence of the people. The Raskolniks also were afraid to go to
the palace, in case they might there be seized and made captives. At last the
regent Sophia decided that the disputation should take place at the palace, in
the Angular Hall, in presence of herself, her stepmother Natalia Kirillovna, and
the two young sovereigns. The Raskolniks rushed with noise into the hall, and
there began to read old prayers, disrespectful to the memory of Alexei and
Feodor. In vain did Sophia endeavour to restrain them, especially Nikita. At
length, actually shedding tears of vexation, she turned to the chosen members of
the strelitz, and thus addressed them: 'At what are you looking? Is it suitable
for such peasants to come and revolt before our very eyes ? It is impossible
for us to live longer here. Let us go to another town, and thence inform the
people of this disobedience and uproar.'
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 57
The chosen members thereupon replied, that from the concourse and agitation
of the people it was impossible to take immediate measures against the
Raskolniks, but that it would be better to await a convenient moment for so
doing. Thus the disputation was prolonged till the evening. Under pretext of
the late hour, the Raskolniks were then dismissed. They were also told that
on the following day they would learn the sovereign's decision. The Raskolniks,
in triumph, left the palace, while shouting, ' We have overcome ! ' But their
triumph was of short duration ; they were greatly in minority. Sophia meanwhile
acted with so much dexterity that, during the space of a week, the leaders of
the Raskol were seized. Nikita was beheaded, others were shut up in captivity,
while the remainder dispersed in various directions.
HOVANSKI'S OVERTHROW
Sophia had thus got quit of some dangerous Raskolniks; but it was more
difficult to get quit of Hovanski, who had entirely gained the goodwill of the
strelitz by granting all their wishes. As for the strelitz, they never named
Hovanski otherwise than 'father,' and were ready to obey him in everything.
On seeing the devotion of this powerful militia, Hovanski forgot himself. He
offended the regent by his self-will, and the nobles, too, by his pride, his boasting,
and undervaluing their services. Finally, he excited the strelitz, and encouraged
them to revolt. They believed reports circulated that measures were taken
against them. At length, on September 2, while the imperial family was at
Kolornensk, a denunciation appeared against Hovanski. He was accused of
endeavouring to destroy the imperial family by aid of the strelitz, afterwards to
kill the boyards, and to declare himself sovereign. According to contemporaries,
all these false charges were made by the Miloslavskies in order to hasten
Hovanski's overthrow. Be that as it may, however, Sophia resolved to execute
what she had threatened during the agitation caused by the Raskolniks, in
other words, to quit Moscow, and to raise the nobles and boyards' children
against the strelitz. Under pretext of performing a pilgrimage, she went from
Kolomensk to the Sabbas Storojevski monastery, and thence to the Trinity cloister
(Troitza). Not far from it she halted, at the village of Vozdvijinsk. She thence
issued documents to different towns, summoning those in service to aid in
quelling a revolt of the strelitz and of Hovanski. The latter and his son were
both seized on the way to Troitza, to which they were going on Sophia's
invitation. They were then taken to Vozdvijinsk. In vain the accused de-
manded a trial ; both father and son were beheaded. On learning the fate of
VOL. n. H
58 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
their favourite commander, the strelitz were at first in a state of excitement, but
afterwards they recollected themselves. They knew that they were powerless.
Besides, they also heard that a large force was assembled at Troitza. They then
begged the patriarch's intercession. It was accepted. But the regent demanded
that chosen members among the strelitz should themselves bring their submission
to her. Accordingly, as it is said, three thousand men went to the monastery
with ropes round their necks, and carrying a block and an axe in their hands.
Pardon was thereupon granted, on condition that henceforth no more mutiny
appeared amongst them. Sophia then gave command of the strelitz to an
energetic man, entirely devoted to her interests. We allude to Shakloveeti, a
peasant's son, and consequently not formidable, because of insignificant origin.
He was secretary of the council; he had been promoted to that position after
being a clerk. (See Soloviev's History of Russia, p. 237, and Ilovaiski, p. 239.)
INTERIOR ADMINISTRATION OF THE REGENT SOPHIA
The interior administration of the regent Sophia, in spite of its brief duration
and the seditious state of the country, was, notwithstanding, remarkable for
several wise arrangements and laws.
It had hitherto been the custom that a debtor, till he by labour had paid
what he owed, was delivered up to his creditor. But at this epoch care was
taken not to separate husbands from wives. It was decreed what particular sum
should be equivalent to a year's labour. A creditor was, moreover, obliged to
promise by writing that he would not act cruelly towards such a workman.
After the death of the debtor, his widow and children were not forced to pay
his" debts if no property of the deceased remained, A woman who killed her
husband was no longer doomed to be buried in the earth with only her head
above ground. Decapitation was henceforth to be the punishment of such
criminals. Death was no longer to be the sentence of the blasphemer; after
being beaten by the knout, the offender was sent into exile. In these measures
we cannot fail to remark a degree of leniency compared with previous times.
Unfortunately, however, there was as yet no leniency shown towards the
Raskolniks; quite the reverse. Among these sectarians of that epoch there
besides began to appear diverse heretical opinions. Some of these fanatics even
deemed it necessary to inflict torment on themselves, such, for example, as
burning their own bodies. This was indeed considered a salutary exploit. But
these fanatics met with no mercy from government. The so-called Old Believers
were flogged by the knout, while impenitent heretics perished in the flames.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 59
Then the persecuted fled in different directions. Some went towards the Polish
and Swedish boundaries ; others fled to the steppes of the Don and the Koom.
Besides a struggle with the Raskol, there were at this epoch also hot disputes
with Romanists. One general subject of disputation was, 'When did tran-
substantiution take place — at the moment the Holy Spirit was invoked, or while
the words " Take, eat, and live," were pronounced ? ' The latter opinion, according
to the testimony of the patriarch Joachim, had been brought to Moscow by
young men who had gone to Poland in order there to learn Latin. This opinion
was at first maintained by the famous Simeon Polotzki, and then by his pupil
and friend, the clerk Simeon (or, in the monastic state, Sylvester) Medviedev.
The latter has left curious notes of contemporary events. According to the
expression of the times, 'Medviedev was a man of great mind and acutely
learned.' He was the founder of the Zaikonespasski monastery and the friend
of Shakloveeti, while both were ardent partisans of Sophia. As such, Medviedev
could the more easily propagate his opinions. Against them the chief opponents
were the brothers Lichoodi, Loannikius, and Sophronius. Their disputations
so much arrested the attention of the public that not only the clergy, but lay
members of society and even women, used to argue concerning transubstantia-
tion. The opponents of Medviedev named his opinions ' the bread- worshipping
heresy.'
PEACE WITH POLAND, 1686
Among exterior acts of administration during Sophia's regency, the most
remarkable was the permanent peace and alliance with Poland, followed
by war with Turkey. As in former times Smolensk had been the great
obstacle to peace between Moscow and Poland, so now the chief obstacle was
Kiev. According to the peace of Androosov, Poland had ceded Kiev to Moscow
only for a time. But Moscow in no wise wished to return that essentially
Russian city. As for Poland, it was by necessity alone reduced to a permanent
confirmation of the peace of Androosov, and at this epoch Poland was exactly in
a similar position. For its famous and warlike king, Ian Sobieski, in spite of
his renown, could not alone struggle against Turkey, and was therefore forced to
seek the aid and alliance of Moscow. There, consent was given to alliance only
on condition of permanent peace, which would confirm Russia in the possession
of Kiev and all the acquisitions of Androosov. In 1686, when this peace was
eventually concluded, tears of vexation filled the eyes of the heroic Ian Sobieski,
so onerous were the conditions for Poland and so advantageous were they for
Moscow.
60 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
CAMPAIGN IN THE CRIMEA
1087. That profitable peace was, however, purchased by war with Turkey. The
empire and Venice were at this epoch allies of Poland. By advancing to the
Crimea, the Russian forces were to hinder the khan from aiding Turkey. Thus
did Moscow decide on seeking its sworn enemy in its own regions. But the
expedition to the Crimea, across boundless steppes, was exceedingly difficult for a
large army to accomplish.
Sophia's favourite, Prince Vasili Vasilievitch Golitzine, began the march
during the spring of 1687, at the head of a hundred thousand men, joined by the
hetman Samoilovitch, with fifty thousand Cossacks. The Russian army on its
way did not meet with Tartars, but encountered an enemy still more dangerous,
i.e. a fire in the steppes. The horses began to perish from fatigue and want of
food in the burning plains, while the troops were enfeebled by the heat of July,
and by a fine soot in the air, so dense that adjacent objects were with difficulty
discerned. Golitzine thereupon assembled a council of war, which decided to
return. This failure was made use of by Samoilov's enemies, for he had made
not a few on account of his pride and his love of gain. These enemies presented
denunciations against Samoilovitch to Golitzine, adding at the same time that
the hetman was inimical to the Moscovite state, and that if the regent would
not consent to depose him the Cossacks themselves would do so and elect
another. Thus Samoilovitch was deposed, and with difficulty was saved from the
fury of the enraged Cossacks by the protection of Prince Golitzine. The old
hetman was sent in exile to Siberia, and in his stead Ivan Stepanovitch Mazeppa
was chosen.
Mazeppa was a remarkably cunning man, but pretty well educated for his
time.
Ilovaiski (p. 240) mentions a statement made in the biography of a petty
Polish nobleman named Paska, that Mazeppa during his youth had served at
the court of the Polish king, Ian Casimir. While there, one pan (nobleman) was
highly incensed because Mazeppa had paid too much attention to his wife, and
vowed revenge. The nobleman accordingly seized Mazeppa, stripped him naked,
bound him to the back of a horse, and set it free in the open fields. The
horse was a native of Ukraine, and wended its course thither. The Cossacks
there found Mazeppa half dead, and for a lengthened period he disappeared. At
last he again was seen in Ukraine, in the army of the hetman Doroshenko. But
Mazeppa betrayed Doroshenko and favoured Samoilovitch, whose children were
taught to read and write by Mazeppa. Finally the latter, by Samoilovitch's aid,
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 61
procured the important post of military scribe. Notwithstanding, Mazeppa
betrayed Samoilovitch, and was even the chief cause of his fall.
Mazeppa's election as hetman was favoured by Prince Golitzine.
During the spring of 1689 Golitzine undertook a second expedition to the 1689.
Crimea, with an army as large as before, and along with the new hetman
Mazeppa. On this occasion the steppes were crossed without misfortune'.
The khan, with all his forces, could not prevent the Russians from reaching
Perekop. But as Golitzine saw no advantage to be gained by taking that fort,
and as it became impossible to remain longer in these regions, for want of water,
grass, and wood, he returned.
CONVENTION or MERTSCHINSK
Thus terminated two unsuccessful enterprises to the Crimea, undertaken
during Sophia's regency. In 1689 was concluded the Convention of Mertschinsk
with China. The Russian plenipotentiary Golovine, having little correct informa-
tion concerning a distant spot like eastern Siberia, consented to cede to China
both banks of the river Amoor. In consequence of this treaty the fort of
Albazine, defended so bravely by the Cossacks against the Chinese, was
demolished, 1689.
CHILDHOOD AND EARLY EDUCATION OF PETER THE GREAT
At the very time when both the interior and exterior of the Moscovite state
were already becoming accustomed to see Sophia at the head of government, her
regency was notwithstanding at its close. Her elder brother loann, indifferent to
everything, was in no wise formidable to her. But the regent's danger gradually
increased with the growth of her younger stepbrother Peter. We have already
mentioned that his lot had been sad after his father's death, and during the reign
of Feodor Alexe'evitch. On the decease of the latter, the young prince for a brief
interval had been surrounded by the dazzle of supreme power. But for that
temporary distinction the child-sovereign and his mother were doomed to pay
dearly. Thus the position of the Czarine Natalia, after the revolt of the strelitz,
was no better than it had been during Feodor's reign, although her son Peter was
entitled sovereign, and although he had been crowned along with his elder step-
brother loann. Peter, as the son of Alexei's second consort Natalia, was hated
by the all-powerful regent. Indeed, he was, as it were, a sovereign in disgrace.
Accordingly, none paid any attention to him, or thought of his education. It is
true that during Feodor's reign Peter had been taught to read and write. But
his teacher, a secretary named Zotov, was a servile man, who neither by moral
62 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
nor mental qualities could ever obtain any influence over a child endued by
nature with no ordinary capacity. With Zotov's lessons the education of Peter
terminated; and henceforth he was left to himself. Such was the mental culture
of a boy full of ardour, with an insatiable thirst for knowledge and unwearied
patience for research. On seeing any new object he would stop and examine
it minutely, not content till his curiosity was satisfied. Besides, he himself
would immediately set to work and try to put his knowledge into practice.
' Peter did not walk, he ran,' say his contemporaries. Thus we can more easily
understand his ardent nature, his energetic disposition, unequalled in history.
To gratify his longing for activity, knowledge, and investigation, Peter found but
a narrow sphere in the forsaken palace of his lonely, widowed mother. In that
deserted dwelling there was no one like Simeon Polotzki, who might have
induced the young prince to remain at home, while communicating useful
information to him, or exercising a salutary influence over him by endeavouring
to restrain his juvenile impetuosity. Peter found no such individual in his
mother's residence; and none troubled themselves to procure a mentor for the
young prince. Peter was accordingly sad and dull in the palace. He therefore
ran out into the street. There he assembled many youths of his own age, and
they amused themselves with military games. The latter gradually assumed a
more extensive form, so that at last Peter formed two regiments named the
Preobrajenski and the Simeonovski (from two villages near Moscow). To join
these regiments volunteers were invited, and they soon appeared from among
different classes. All, without distinction, were received; while various grades
were granted according to ability. At length Peter quitted the palace entirely,
and also totally renounced former customs and traditionary habits observed by
previous sons of Moscow princes. Young and full of force, he rejected all
remembrances and influence of the past, and thereby more fully prepared himself
for the important part of a reorganise)', which he was about to enact.
However, military amusements alone did not entirely engross the attention of
Peter. He had, as we have already remarked, an insatiable thirst for knowledge.
While playing at military games, and forming armies, he showed a desire for
progress in the art of war according to the most recent European tactics; the
representatives of that art were at hand. In Moscow an entire suburb (now a
street), still named ' the German village,' was full of hired foreign officers. To
them young Peter accordingly applied for information. In this wise a new
world was opened up to him, to which he at once became attached. Certainly
these foreign officers could not teach Peter a great deal, as they themselves were
nut learned. However, they were, in general, lively, clever men who had seen
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 63
much. Their narrations displayed to Peter the whole Western world of marvels,
the marvels of civilisation. The narrators showed the wealth of that world
compared with the poverty of the world in Russia. Peter was thus inflamed with
an ardent desire to see that civilisation, and to judge it for himself. He longed,
too, to introduce it into his own country. In that lively, unceremonious circle
of foreigners, Peter, of course, gradually became quite estranged from previous
customs observed at the palace, and followed by the ancient princes of Russia.
Amongst the foreign officers above mentioned, Peter formed an especial friend-
ship for Frangois (Yakovlovitch) Lefort,1 a native of Geneva, remarkable for his
lively, open, liberal disposition. His want of selfishness, and his sincere attach-
ment to Peter, still more confirmed the esteem of the latter. As a friend and a
favourite companion, Lefort had great influence on Peter. In order to learn
arithmetic, geometry, the art of fortification, etc., the young prince, then fifteen,
sought out a teacher for himself in the person of a Dutchman named Timmerman.
In former times sons of the Moscow princes did not receive a scientific education.
True, Peter's elder stepbrother, Feodor, had done so, but with clerical character-
istics, by means of the clergy. Peter, however, had no such clerical instructor.
The young prince himself had directly applied to Western foreigners for instruc-
tion in science. Hence the secular character of education given to Russian
princes subsequent to the reign of Peter; but, previous to him, science, although
admitted, was, notwithstanding, under guardianship of the church, as we saw
from the statutes of the Slavonian, Greek, and Latin academy, during the reign
of Feodor Alexe'evitch.
Ilovaiski (p. 241) mentions that Francois Lefort had come to Russia to seek
his fortune in the imperial service while Alexei Michaelovitch occupied the
throne. A Scotsman, General Patrick Gordon, was also much esteemed by
Peter, and was one of his chief teachers in the military art. Subsequently
Gordon became Peter's confidential adviser.
In Regulations for Marine Service, Peter himself (in a preface) gives the follow-
ing details concerning the commencement of the Russian fleet : —
In 1688, on one occasion, Peter chanced to be along with Timmerman at a
village named Izmailov, near Moscow, and was examining some old things which
had belonged to Nikita Ivanovitch Romanov (cousin of Michael). The young
prince found a foreign vessel, of a form unknown to him, and at once turned to
Timmerman for explanations. Timmerman said that it was an English boat,
which, by aid of sails, could not only sail with the wind, but even against it.
1 Till this day one ward of Moscow bears the name of L*fortovski Tschast (t.e. administrative
division ward).
64 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
The astonished prince then asked if there was any one who knew how to make
the boat sail. Timmerman thereupon recommended a Dutch shipbuilder named
Brandt, who, during the reign of Alexei Michaelovitch, had helped to build
vessels for the Caspian Sea. Brandt complied with Peter's wish, launched the
boat on the rivulet Yaooza (a tributary of the Moskva), and taught' Peter how to
steer. Peter was soon so enchanted with the boat that he had it first conveyed
to a pond at Izmailov, and then to the lake of Periaslavl. But the young prince
was not content with one boat alone. By Brandt's aid a whole flotilla of vessels
was constructed to sail on the lake of Periaslavl.
Even Peter's marriage to Evdokia (pronounce Yev-do-kee-ia) Feodorovna
Lopouchene (in January 1689, when he was only seventeen years old) did not
allure him from his favourite occupation. But he was drawn from it for a time
by sedition in Moscow.
OVERTHROW OF SOPHIA, 1689
1689— Over- The military amusements of young Peter in no wise alarmed Sophia. How-
throw of ever, as he was gradually growing up, an open rupture between him and the
evna. ambitious princess-regent became inevitable. Sophia, notwithstanding, consoled
herself that Peter's actual occupations withdrew him from Moscow, and especially
from state affairs. Her partisans, meanwhile, made constant allusions to the
young prince's jovial life, in order to blacken him in the eyes of the people.
' Our sovereign Sophia,' said they, ' is always praying to God, while there [i.e. at
Peter's residence] one only hears playing on the organ and the violin.'
The regent's real danger, however, consisted in Peter's militia, his guard of
young daring volunteers. But, after all, the hatred of Sophia and of her partisans
was chiefly directed not against Peter exclusively, but against his mother, the
Dowager-Princess Natalia Kirillovna, who along with two of her chief supporters,
Leo Kirillovitch Narishkine and Prince Boris Alexe'eviteh Golitzine, did not cease
to express displeasure at Sophia's ambition ; for the latter princess entitled her-
self 'Autocrat Sovereign of all the Russians/ and mischief-makers faithfully
reported to her all said against her by Natalia. Sophia's chief partisan,
Shakloveeti, who would lose all by her fall, scrupled at no measures to postpone
that event. 'Whatever happens to thee, sovereign princess, it were better for
thee to name thyself Czarine ! ' said he to Sophia. And sure enough, in order to
confirm her power, Sophia did indeed wish to be crowned; but the coldness
with which the strelitz received the proposal caused her to delay her project for
a time. During this interval Shakloveeti excited the hatred of the strelitz
against the Czarine Natalia. But the same strelitz, who formerly had so quickly
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 65
hastened to save the young princess, did not now stir to murder Natalia.
Shakloveeti had full command of only five men, ready to do all he wished.
Accordingly, on the evening of August 7, 1689, when Shakloveeti assembled
the strelitz at the Kreml, under pretext of defending Sophia, against whom he
pretended that Peter and his guardsmen were marching, two strelitz set off at full
speed to the village of Preobrajenski, where Peter was then living, in order to tell
him of his danger. Peter was alarmed. He hastily mounted his horse and rode
to the Trinity cloister. He was followed by his mother the Czarine, along with
her daughter (Natalia Alexdevna) and Evdokia (Peter's consort). All his adherents
soon joined him, as did also a whole regiment of Looharev's strelitz, who brought
reports of all Shakloveeti's movements. Sophia now found herself in a critical
position. She used every effort to bring Peter to Moscow, but in vain. She
would have sent the patriarch to make peace between her and her brother ; but
the patriarch remained at the Trinity cloister. The chief guide of Peter was
Prince Boris Alexe'evitch Golitzine, who arranged all wisely and with decision.
By Peter's orders the greater part of the strelitz went to Troitza. On seeing the
unfavourable turn of events, Sophia herself set off for that cloister in order to
make an amicable arrangement with her brother, but she was forced to turn
backward. Then there appeared an ambassador from Peter with orders to seize
Shakloveeti and Sylvester Medviedev, the learned abbot of the Zaikonospasski
monastery, along with their accomplices. In vain did Sophia urge the strelitz
and people to take her part. They did not do so. Foreigners in the Russian
service, and inhabiting ' the German Village/ went to Troitza by Peter's orders ;
and at last the strelitz themselves forced Sophia to give up Shakloveeti, who was
executed at Troitza along with his accomplices. Sophia was then obliged to
withdraw to the Novodevitche monastery. Her favourite, Prince Vasili Vasilie-
vitch Golitzine, for upholding Sophia's ambition, and also for his mismanagement
during the second campaign in the Crimea, was exiled to Poostozersk (government
of Archangel), as was also his son. Medviedev was deposed for heresy and then
executed as a traitor. Peter, at the age of seventeen, thus became sole sovereign
of Russia. His elder stepbrother, loann, still continued to bear the honorary
title of reigning prince, and was so styled in all documents. Yet although on
solemn occasions he appeared with all the insignia of royalty, he, notwithstanding,
took no real part in state affairs. He died in 1695.
loann Alexe'evitch married Paraske"eva Feodorovna Soltikov. They had
several daughters — Mary, Theodosia, Catherine, Anna, and Prascovia. This
princess contracted a morganatic alliance with Colonel Mainonov (according
to Andreev's work, Representatives of Power in Russia after Peter I., p 67). Anna
VOL. II. I
66 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
married the duke of Coin-land, and was afterwards reigning empress of Russia
from 1730 to 1740. Catherine married Charles Leopold, duke of Mecklenburg.
Their daughter, Elizabeth Anna, married Prince Anthony Ulric, duke of Brunswick.
Anna was mother of the unhappy loann VL, born 24th August, 1740, became
emperor 28th October of the same year, was dethroned in December 1741, and
assassinated in the prison of Schlusselburg, July 1764.
CHAPTER II
REIGN OF PETER THE GREAT, 1689-1725 — ADMINISTRATION OF PETER DURING THE
FIRST FIVE YEARS SUBSEQUENT TO SOPHIA'S OVERTHROW — EXPEDITIONS TO
AZOPH — SHIPBUILDING COMPANIES — ORGANISATION OF A GREAT EMBASSADE
— CONSPIRACY OF TSEEKLER — PETER'S JOURNEY ABROAD
September 12, FROM September 12, 1689, Peter's actual reign accordingly began, when he was
mencament of onty seventeen years old. But on account of his extreme youth he took no real
Peter's reign. parfc jn administration. Thus the first period subsequent to the overthrow of
Sophia was passed in a state of inaction, as there was then no remarkable Russian
statesman. In this wise, no important acts of interior or exterior policy took
place. During that interval Peter completed his own education as he had
commenced it, or, in other words, his time was passed between military amuse-
ments, shipbuilding, picking up information everywhere, and immediately putting
that information into practice. In fact, the young sovereign was an unwearied
workman. He only rested from his labours in gay parties of his favourite
companions. We have already mentioned that among them prominent places
were occupied by Fran£ois Lefort and Patrick Gordon, although the latter
(according to Soloviev, p. 244), on account of a certain coldness and caution
resulting from Jesuitical education, could not so fully gain the confidence of
youth as did the lively, open-hearted Genevese Lefort. Gordon had entered the
Russian service during the reign of Alexei Michaelovitch ; and although not
possessed of brilliant military talent, this Scotsman was, notwithstanding,
brave, experienced, and conscientious. At the period of which we now write,
although Peter showed marked preference for foreigners and foreign customs, yet
there were two distinct parties at his court, i.e. the old and the new, at open
enmity with each other. And Peter again, on account of his extreme youth, had
not acquired sufficient firmness of will to assign the victory to the very party
which he actually favoured.
The patriarch Joachim had died. In his testament he implored the young
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 67
sovereign to abandon ' cursed heretics ' (i.e. foreigners), and to remove them from
commanding Russian armies. Besides, concerning the choice of a successor to the
patriarchal dignity, there was again strife between the above-mentioned parties.
The new party, headed by Peter, desired that the learned Marcellus, metropolitan
of Pskov, should be elected patriarch, while the old party, dreading that Marcellus
would too much favour innovations and foreigners, proposed Adrian, metropolitan
of Kazane, as a suitable candidate, for it was known that he considered shaving
of the beard as a blasphemous heresy. But Peter, in spite of his own conviction,
yielded to the old party ; and Adrian was accordingly elected patriarch.
EXPEDITIONS TO AZOPH, 1695
Notwithstanding, the triumph of the old party could not long continue. The
young sovereign openly favoured innovations. In letters he already signed his
name ' Petrus ' and ' Piter.' In mock battles the commander of the Russian side,
Prince Feodor Rodonomovski, was entitled ' Generalissimus Frederick.' Although
so much attracted by military amusements, Peter, however, did not forget his
fleet, which still continued to be augmented at Periaslavl. 'For some years,'
writes Peter, ' I gratified my wish to sail vessels on the Lake of Periaslavl. But
at last it became too narrow for me. So I went to the Lake of Koobenski
(government of Vologda), although, also, it was not wide enough. Whereupon I
decided on viewing the sea itself; so I asked my mother's permission to go to
Archangel. Many times did she endeavour to dissuade me from so long and
dangerous a journey, but on seeing my great desire to undertake it, she at length
gave an unwilling consent for me to set out.'
Accordingly, during the summer of 1693, Peter went to Archangel, sailed on 1693 — Peter's
the White Sea, saw foreign vessels, admired them, built some for himself, and ^g*]*0 rc
ordered others to be bought in Holland.
In 1694 the Dowager Czarine Natalia Kirillovna died, and Peter again went 1694— Death
to Archangel. On returning thence he gave a great mock battle, known as
' Kojoohovski's campaign.' ' And although at that time,' wrote Peter, ' we thought
of little else than martial games, they, notwithstanding, predicted real events.'
One of them was an expedition to Azoph during the summer of 1695; for war
with Turkey had commenced while Sophia was regent, on account of alliance
between that country and Poland, and hostilities still continued. After sending
the boyarine Boris Petrovitch Sheremetev with a large force from Moscow and
Little Russian Cossacks against the Crimea by the lower Dnieper, Peter himself,
at the head of another army, went by water along the Moskva, the Oka, and
the Volga to Tzaritzine, thence by land to the Don, and finally along that stream
68 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
to Azoph. The army was despatched under command of three generals —
Golovine, Lefort, and Gordon — who decreed all together, with consent of the
'Bombardier Peter Alexe'ev of the Preobrajenski regiment,' for so Peter was
called in the army. In the fleet he was named ' Boatswain.'
But the campaign was disastrous to the Russians from the inexperience of the
leaders, and also from want of proper engineers. Excavations made caused more
damage to the Moscovite army than to the Turks. Storming was undertaken
prematurely without unison in movement ; so that finally Peter resolved to raise
the siege and return to Moscow in the month of November. But the greatness of
a remarkable man like Peter is even more apparent in failure, because it did not
reduce him to despair. He was only stimulated to greater activity. By Peter's
orders, during one winter no fewer than thirty-four vessels were built at Voronej.
In Moscow, on purpose for them, he organised a marine regiment of which
Lefort was nominated admiral, while the generalissimus of the land armies was
the boyarine Alexei Lemeonovitch Shein.
1696. After the death of loann Alexeevitch, elder stepbrother of Peter (in 1696),
the latter reigned alone. Soon afterwards he went to Voronej, whence he wrote,
1696-1725 — although then a sovereign autocrat and sole occupant of the throne — 'And we,
* ** according to the command of God, and like our first parent Adam, eat bread in
alone. the sweat of our brow.' In April the army moved from Voronej. ' Peter Alexeev '
was now promoted to the rank of captain, and commanded his own vessel. The
newly-created Russian fleet obstructed the course of the Turks to Azoph. During
the day Peter conducted the siege and threw the bombs himself. He spent the
night on board his own vessel, and from it remarked the Turkish fleet. ' Sister,'
wrote he to the Czarevna Natalia Alexeevna, ' Thou writest in thy letter that I
should not go near the shots and cannon-balls, but they come near me ! Order
them not to do so ! '
On seeing help come from no quarter, and in despair at the courage of the
Zaporog Cossacks and those of the Don, the inhabitants of Azoph capitulated on
July 1 9. After repairing the fortifications of Azoph, Peter returned victorious to
Moscow, which he entered by the building erected for the occasion, and still
known as ' The Triumphal Gate.'
SHIPBUILDING COMPANIES, 1696
But Peter did not long rest after the expedition to Azoph. In November it
was decided in the imperial council that clergy possessing land on which were
eight thousand peasants' families, and lay proprietors on whose ground were ten
thousand, should build one vessel rigged and armed, while traders and inhabitants
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 69
of suburbs were to build twelve vessels for bombarding. Consequently pro-
prietors, or holders of land, were obliged to appear in Moscow in order to decide
with whom to build vessels or to form 'shipbuilding companies.' Dockyards
were made at Voronej, while workmen were summoned from Venice, Denmark,
Sweden, and Holland. As a spot for a haven, on the Sea of Azoph, Taganrog
was chosen. A proposal was made to unite the Volga and the Don by a canal
(between Ilovlei and Kameeishinko). Finally, in order that with time the
Russians might become good sailors, Peter sent fifty young 'spalniki' and
' stolniki ' to Venice, England, and Holland, there to learn shipbuilding and the
art of steering vessels.
THE ORGANISATION OF A GREAT EMBASSADE, 1696
But the energetic Peter could not be satisfied with merely sending youths
abroad in order to learn arts and sciences. That system had already been known
in Russia. He longed himself to see and judge of Western civilisation. He
had no time to wait till those sent to foreign lands returned enlightened by
knowledge. He was in a hurry, and could brook no delay. Moreover, Lefort
kept constantly urging that Peter should see the marvels of civilisation in
western Europe : and Peter's ardent imagination responded to the suggestion.
Accordingly, towards the close of 1696 it was decided that a great plenipo-
tentiary embassy, composed of Generals Golooine and Lefort, along with a state
secretary, Voznitzine, should go abroad to various courts — such as those of the
empire of England, Denmark, Rome, Brandenburg, Holland, and Venice. The
suite of the embassy was composed of nobles and volunteers. Amongst the latter
was one named Peter Michaelov, i.e. the sovereign himself.
During his absence, the government of Russia was confided to three noble- 1696-1697.
men — Leo Kirillovitch Narishkine, Prince Boris Alexe'evitch Golitziue, and
Prince Peter Ivanovitch Prozorovski. Moscow was assigned to the command of
Prince Feodor Yourievitch Prozorovski. Under command of another Prince
Romodonovski — Michael Grigorievitch — an army was moved towards the
Lithuanian frontiers. In Poland, King John Sobieski had died ; so the election
of his successor had commenced. Russia, and its ally Austria, opposed the
election of the French Prince Conti, in alliance with the sultan. Romodonovski,
in case of need, was to act powerfully against France and its party.
CONSPIRACY OF TSEEKLER, 1697
In February 1697, when all was prepared for the departure of the great 1697.
embassy, news reached Peter that an attempt on his life had been made by
70
Tseekler, Lokovnine, and Poushkine. The recent sedition had turned Tseekler's
hot head. At first he had been an ardent partisan of Sophia. Notwithstanding,
he eventually was one of the first to go over to Peter's side, in 1689. But at
this period (i.e. 1697), chilled by Peter's coldness, Tseekler was ready to enact
the part of Razine, or, in other words, to spread revolt among the Don Cossacks ;
and, along with them, to devastate Moscow. However, along with Tseekler were
persons of distinction, such as Lokovnine and Poushkine, who maintained that
Peter had ruined them all, and would send them beyond the seas. There were
also Cossacks who wished to sack Moscow at one extremity, while strelitz did
so at another.
PETER'S JOURNEY ABROAD, 1697-1698
1697-1698. After the execution of Tseekler and his like-minded associates, the great
embassy left Moscow in the mouth of March. At Riga, before which, not long
previously, the forces of Alexei Michaelovitch had stood, the Swedish commander
looked with an evil eye on the embassy, and would not allow Peter to see
the fortifications of the town. This greatly exasperated him. However, a
different reception awaited the young sovereign from the duke of Courland and
the elector of Brandenburg, who gave him royal entertainment, in spite of his
incognito. As for Sophia Charlotte, electress of Hanover, and her daughter
Sophia, electress of Brandenburg, these princesses, in their epistolary correspond-
ence, describe their impressions of the young Russian sovereign.
It was at the town of Coppenburg (not far from Hanover) that Peter paid
them a visit. It is thus that both express themselves concerning him : —
'Peter of Russia is very tall of stature, well made, and remarkably good-
looking. He is endued with great vivacity of mind. His answers are prompt
and concise. But in spite of the brilliant qualities which Nature has accorded
him, he is deficient in polite manners. Had he received a better education,
he would be a perfect man.'
'The Moscovites, when dancing with us, imagined that the springs of our
stays were our bones ; and Peter was heard to remark : " These German women
have devilishly hard bones ! "
' These remarks were occasioned by Peter's inability to restrain himself, his
rude habits, and want of refinement.' (Soloviev, p. 247 ; Ilovaiski, p. 244.)
On reaching Holland, Peter remained there for several months. He stopped
at the town of Sardam, or Zardam. There, by the name of Peter Michaelov, he
was inscribed as a shipbuilding carpenter at the wharf, where he was daily seen
working with an axe in his hand. But he was not long allowed to do so in
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 71
peace. News quickly spread at Sardam that the young Moscovite carpenter
was none other than the reigning sovereign himself. Accordingly, he was soon
annoyed by the officious curiosity of crowds who came to gaze at him.
After remaining a week at Sardam, he removed to Amsterdam. In that town,
for four months, he worked at the wharf of the East India Company, along with
his companions — volunteers of the Russian embassy.
In order to complete his knowledge of shipbuilding, Peter, in 1698, went to
England. There, for more than two months, he applied himself to that art
in the small town of Deptford, and took sixty different pupils and artisans into
the Russian service. As regarded sailors, he specially chose them in Holland.
On quitting England, King William gave Peter a yacht and also a model of
a vessel containing one hundred and twenty cannons. In that yacht, The Royal
Transport, Peter returned to Holland, and there spent the greater part of his
time on board. The Russian sovereign next wended his steps to Vienna. In
that capital, after obtaining a promise from the Emperor Leopold that he would
endeavour to conclude peace with Turkey, Peter resolved to go to Venice, in
order there to continue the study of shipbuilding. But" instead of doing so, he
was obliged to hasten back to Moscow ; for news came that a revolt had suddenly
broken out among the strelitz.
CHAPTEE III
REVOLT OF THE STRELITZ, 1698 — PETER'S RETURN FROM ABROAD — SHAVING OF THE
BEARD AND CHANGE OF DRESS — INVESTIGATION OF THE STRELITZ — JOHN
REINHOLD PATKUL
THE strelitz, whom Sophia Alexdevna had vainly endeavoured to revolt in 1689
when they were living quietly in Moscow, rose in rebellion during the year 1698, 1698— Revolt
and invited Sophia to fill the throne. This was especially the case when they °
were sent to undertake any distant, arduous expedition. Four regiments, removed
from Azoph to the Lithuanian frontiers and to Veleeki Looki (government of
Pskov), loudly murmured. ' What is our service ? ' said they. ' We suffer from
the boyards and rove about among them, for the third year.' Accordingly, two
hundred strelitz fled to Moscow. But they were driven thence by soldiers, and
returned to the regiments, with a letter from the Czarevna Sophia Alexe'evna.
' Now you are badly off,' wrote the princess, ' and afterwards you will be still
worse. Go to Moscow, in order that you may succeed. Nothing is heard
of Peter.'
72 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Agitation was then visible in the armies. It was also reported that the
sovereign had died abroad ; that the boyards wished to make away with his son,
the Czarevitch Alexei Petrovitch ; finally, that it was necessary to go to Moscow
— to defeat the boyards, to overcome the Germans, likewise to destroy the
so-called ' German Village.' During spring the strelitz were removed to Toropetz
(government of Pskov). Thence each regiment was ordered to occupy a different
town. As for fugitives, they were sent into exile. But the strelitz thereupon
broke out into open rebellion. They seized arms, cannons, drove away command-
ing officers, and, in their stead, chose strelitz. Finally, all moved towards
Moscow. (Soloviev, p. 248.)
The rebels were met by the boyarine Shein, and by the Scotsman, General
Patrick Gordon, who on June 18 encountered the strelitz near the Voskresenski
monastery (or the so-called 'New Jerusalem'), on the banks of the Istra. It
was in vain that their leaders were urged to submit. The strelitz, in reply,
enumerated their services, their sufferings during marches, etc. They, moreover,
feared Prince Rodomonovski, who ordered them to be beat, none knew wherefore.
Besides, the report was current that Germans were marching against Moscow —
' Germans who followed the customs of using tobacco1 and of shaving the beard —
to the utter violation of all decorum.' Whereupon the commanders of the army
ordered the artillery to act ; and, after four discharges, the broken ranks of the
strelitz, without any proper leader, dispersed in terror. Not only so : nearly all
the rebels were caught. Then investigation commenced. Torture was inflicted ;
one hundred and thirty individuals were hanged ; while the rest were imprisoned
iii various towns and monasteries.
PETER'S RETURN FROM ABROAD
Meanwhile Peter returned from travelling in foreign countries. After there
witnessing the marvels of civilisation in western Europe, his great desire was to
introduce that civilisation in his own empire. To accomplish that important aim,
it was, however, essential that Russia should hold intimate intercourse with the
West. In a word, it became necessary to accomplish the project of loann iv., or
to obtain at least one haven of the Baltic Sea. On the way from Vienna to
Moscow, Peter, in Galicia, met the new king of Poland, Augustus II., elector of
Saxony, and communicated to him the intention of Russia to make war on
Sweden.
1 We have already mentioned that the use of tobacco had been strictly prohibited during the
reign of Michael Feodorovitch (1613-1645).
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 73
SHAVING OF THE BEARD AND CHANGE OF DRESS
Peter reached Moscow, August 25, 1698. The next day he ordered the 1698.
nobles to shave their beards. This was the first, and for many the most difficult,
step in the way of separation from the past; for the beard was the sign of
the old party, which waged war with beardless foreigners, intercourse with whom
Peter deemed essential. The nobles, and in general those at court, were forced
to remove that honourable adornment. It was left only to the clergy and to
peasants. As for those belonging to other conditions, they paid a tax for the
right of wearing a beard. The shaving of the beard dealt a powerful blow to
that narrow nationality especially attached to external trifles which distinguish
one people from another — a nationality, moreover, which hindered the progress
of enlightenment. Accordingly, to such persons the shaving of the beard was
considered in the same light as persecuting the sectarians called the ' Raskolniks/
or Old Believers, because the latter placed all their hope of salvation in the use
of old books for church service, as well as the observance of old rites and customs.
It is needless to add, such individuals thought that to shave the beard was
a mortal sin. At the same time, those in service, as also citizens, were ordered
to change their dress — a long, flowing Asiatic attire — and to adopt the garb of
European nations. From the commencement of the eighteenth century, Peter
also decreed that the new year should be celebrated, not on September 1, as
had hitherto been the case in Russia, but on the 1st of January, as in other
European countries. At a still earlier epoch, the new year in Russia was
celebrated on the 1st of March.
INVESTIGATION OF THE STRELITZ, 1698-1699
Of course, all these sudden changes caused the greatest discontent and loud 1698-1699.
murmurs among the people. Peter was, moreover, dissatisfied with Shein's
investigations of the strelitz, near the Voskresenski monastery, and commenced
them again, accompanied by the most hideous tortures. Peter was also convinced
that his sister Sophia had been guilty, although that was not proved when Shein
investigated the culprits. (See Soloviev, p. 249.) All the strelitz dispersed in
prisons of towns and monasteries were sent to Moscow. Sophia and her sister,
the Princess Marfa Alexe'evna, were publicly accused. In order to pronounce
their sentence, Peter chose judges from among different classes of society. Sophia
and Marfa were forced to take the veil. The strelitz who had participated in
the revolt were executed, except those under age. In fact, the armies of the
strelitz were gradually abolished.
VOL. II, K
7.4 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Ilovaiski (p. 246) narrates that when, in public parts of Moscow, gibbets were
erected, the patriarch Adrian appeared before Peter, with an image of the Virgin,
and implored mercy for the condemned. Peter, highly incensed, replied : ' Where-
fore hast thou removed that holy image? Withdraw, and put it again in its
place ! Know that I honour God and the Blessed Virgin not less than thou
dost: but know also that it is my duty to protect the people and to punish
evil-doers.'
' The bodies of the executed strelitz remained on the place of punishment for
five months, to the terror of the people. The Red (or Beautiful) Square was
strewn with headless corpses, and the walls of the so-called white and earth
towns were lined with the bodies of those who had been hanged. At the
Devitche' Pole' (Maidens' Field) were strung up several strelitz, holding petitions
in their hands, before the windows of the apartments of the Princess Sophia
Alexdevna.
In 1699, Peter's consort, Evdokia (pronounce Yevdokeeia) Feodorovna, was
forced to take the veil, in the Pokrovski monastery of Souzdal. There she was
named Elena. Peter, from his education and unsettled habits, could not become
accustomed to domestic life. He was constantly at work, and only sought
recreation in the society of his gay companions, among whom were Lefort and
other foreigners. Evdokia too, was unable to exert any influence on her husband ;
for she had been brought up in strict seclusion, and had, besides, adopted the
antiquated ideas then prevalent in Russia. Thus the tastes and habits of husband
arid wife were at total variance. Not only so: Evdokia could not be pleased
with Peter's mode of life, spent away from his family. Moreover, she did not
conceal her discontent. Peter was accordingly much irritated, and the result
was — a divorce.
JOHN REINHOLD PATKUL
1699. After concluding investigations regarding the strelitz, Peter set out for
Vorong. During his absence, Frangois Lefort died (February 1699). Peter
already found vessels built in Voronej by the so-called ' companies ' ; and, during
the spring of 1699, he sailed along the Don to the sea. In August he sent
his own ambassador, Ookraintzus, in a Russian vessel to Constantinople, in order
there to hold friendly intercourse with the Turks. They, however, were surprised,
not to say terrified, by this proceeding. Peter, notwithstanding, hastened to
terminate war with Turkey ; for he was about to commence a struggle with
Sweden, and was urged to do so by the famous Patkul.
John Reinhold Patkul was a Livonian gentleman. When Charles xi. occupied
75
the Swedish throne, a decree was issued, in virtue of which all crown land
granted by the documents of former kings was to be taken from the nobility,
and that decree extended to Livonia also. Not only was this the case : the
knights of that province were ordered to deliver up the documents entitling them
to hold their ancient possessions ; and these documents were not easily found.
Whereupon the Livonian knights began to murmur loudly, and to oppose the
confiscation or 'reduction' of their estates, according to the expression of the
times. One of the most zealous upholders of the knights was Captain Patkul,
a man of brilliant qualities, well educated, exclusively devoted to the interests
of his own class, ardent, decided, unwearied in pursuing the aim he had in view.
The bold defence of his cause, and the means he employed to further it in
Livonia, gave great offence at Stockholm. To that was joined the hatred of
an enemy who did all in his power to injure Patkul. We allude to Gastfer,
governor-general of Kiga. Consequently Patkul was summoned to Stockholm
and delivered up to judgment. On seeing that the judges were determined to
accuse him as a criminal of state, Patkul fled from Sweden, where, sure enough, he
was condemned to death. As a fugitive, he avoided the pursuit of the Swedish
government ; and by feigned family names he roved about from one country
of Europe to another. There he studied sciences, and especially he formed a plan
by which Livonia was to be delivered from the dominion of Sweden. That plan
was proposed by Patkul to Augustus, king of Poland, and consisted in the
project that Poland, Kussia, and Denmark should at one and the same time take
up arms against Sweden. Poland was to obtain for itself the restoration of
Livonia and Esthonia ; Eussia was to obtain Ingria and Carelia ; Denmark, the
possession of Holstein-Gottorp, whose duke was married to Ulrica Eleonora,
sister of the young Swedish king, Charles XII.
CHAPTER IV
FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE NORTHERN WAR TILL THE VICTORY OF POLTAVA,
1701-1709 — SUBSEQUENT EVENTS, 1710-1711 — DEFEAT OF THE RUSSIANS AT
NARVA, 19TH NOVEMBER 1701
AT the beginning of the eighteenth century, great changes had taken place
in northern Europe. A new order of things had appeared.
At that epoch Peter the Great reigned in Russia, and Charles XII. occupied
the throne of Sweden. Both possessed extraordinary talent and an inflexible
will. But the chief difference between them was that while the will of Peter
76 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
was guided by reason, the will of Charles, on the contrary, was too often
influenced by individual passion. Both aimed at mighty deeds : but while those
of Peter were directed by calculation and according to the means of his empire,
Charles frequently thought only of executing his plans in spite of difficulty,
and even if unable to surmount it. So striking a contrast in the dispositions
of these two monarchs was sufficient to decide the fate of their respective
kingdoms, and did, in fact, do so.
By the aid of Russia, but contrary to the desire of France, Augustus n.,
elector of Saxony, had been chosen king of Poland. Luxury, corrupt morals,
religious persecution, and the cruel yoke which enslaved the people, reduced
Poland to utter weakness. For these reasons it was that the Poles, in spite
of all their efforts, could undertake no decided part in northern Europe. Prussia
at this epoch appeared as a kingdom; and the new state gave indications of
future glory. The Danish throne was meanwhile occupied by the courageous
Frederick iv., whose efforts to obtain the duchy of Holstein-Gottorp frequently
disturbed the peace of Denmark.
Such was the state of things in northern Europe, where a war broke out
which lasted twenty years. No wonder that it occurred and that the struggle
continued so long, for monarchs like Peter I. and Charles XII., the chief actors
in the war, were not soon discouraged. Besides, the reasons which occasioned
the war were alike important to all the kingdoms which participated in the
contest.
War with Peter, to the full extent, felt the disadvantages of the peace of Stolbov. He
saw perfectly well that while Russia did not command in the Baltic and Black
Seas it would always remain an Asiatic rather than a European state. En-
couraged by his success in war with Turkey, he resolved to extort from Sweden
the ancient possessions of Russia, or the regions near the Gulf of Finland. To
establish his power in the Baltic Sea — thereby to elevate Russia to the condition
of a western European state, thus to open up new, necessary, numerous outlets
for its commerce — such were the designs of Peter. Meanwhile his passion for all
concerning the sea was favoured by external circumstances.
The Poles had raised the elector of Saxony, Augustus II., to the throne, on
one condition, among others, namely, that he would annex to Poland its former
province, Livonia. At first sight this seemed in no wise a difficult undertaking ;
for the Livonians were highly discontented with the Swedish government.
Augustus entered fully into the views of Patkul, and sent an ambassador to
Moscow, in order to urge Peter's alliance against Sweden; and tempted him
by the perspective of advantageous acquisitions on the shores of the Baltic.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 77
Peter was, of course, in no wise indifferent to the persuasion. He with joy
agreed to an alliance which he himself had previously proposed to Augustus.
Peter, however, intimated that he would only begin war with Sweden when he
had made peace with Turkey. During the spring of 1700, the kings of Denmark
and Poland began war with Sweden. In July, Ookraintzev, the Russian am-
bassador, succeeded in concluding peace with Turkey for thirty years. Azoph,
with all its old and new fortifications, remained to Russia, while the Crimean
khan renounced his claims to the annual present of remembrance, hitherto sent
to him from Moscow. On August 18, Peter learned that peace with Turkey
had been concluded. Next day he issued a manifesto to intimate war with
Sweden, and ordered his army to march forward to besiege Narva. Peter,
however, took up arms against Sweden when both his allies, the kings of
Denmark and Poland, had already suffered defeat. At this time Frederick of
Denmark was endeavouring to conquer Holstein. Charles XIL, in May, appeared
before Copenhagen, and Frederick, in order to save his capital, was obliged
to sign peace at Traveodal (18th August), by which he abandoned alliance with
Russia and Poland, acknowledged the independence of Holstein, and paid to
Sweden the expenses of the war. Having thus finished with Denmark, Charles
next proceeded to Livonia. News of his approach caused a panic ; and Augustus
of Poland immediately raised the siege of Riga. But Charles for a time left
that enemy, and advanced towards Narva against the Russians. The forces of the
latter amounted to from thirty-five to forty thousand men, chiefly raw recruits
of the previous year, and commanded by the Duke de Croix, whom Peter
had taken into his service, on the recommendation of the Emperor Leopold.
Charles xn. had a force of about eight thousand five hundred men. He, moreover,
tried by sudden movement to throw the Russians into confusion, the rather that
they had no confidence in their foreign commander.
On November 19th, during a terrible snowstorm and drift, Charles soon 1701, Novem-
appeared before the Russian force, repulsed the inexperienced crowd, and seized ^er{ 1J?~~~t
the artillery. The foreign officers and generals hastened to deliver themselves up Narva,
as prisoners ; for they dreaded to be killed by the exasperated Russian soldiers.
Among other prisoners were the Duke de Croix and Prince Dolgorookov. Only
two regiments of the guards — the Preobrajenski and the Limeonovski — kept their
ground against the Swedes till night was advanced. Charles then held conference
with the Russian generals. He also promised to liberate the Russian armies,
along with cannons and standards, but that promise was not entirely kept. The
Russians lost six thousand men.
On hearing of the defeat, Peter exclaimed : ' I know that the Swedes will yet
78 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
conquer us more than once ; for they are our teachers in the art of war ; but with
time we will repay them for their teaching.'
Peter, moreover, was not offended by the mockery of the Swedes, and was glad
that Charles liberated eighteen thousand Russians, taken prisoners before Narva,
from contempt of them. Peter then proposed peace to Charles on condition that
Ingria should be ceded to Russia. But Charles replied that he would hold
conference concerning peace, in Moscow. ' My brother Charles/ said Peter, ' acts
the Alexander of Macedonia ; but I hope that in me he will not find a Darius
Codoman.'
Peter's dread that Charles would penetrate to the interior of Russia, after the
defeat of Narva, was, however, not realised ; for Charles wended his way to
Poland, intending there to depose Augustus from the throne. Peter, meanwhile,
reorganised his armies, and ordered extra bells of monasteries to be melted into
cannons. But his desire that other states would co-operate with Russia was not
granted. Denmark would in no wise consent to violate the peace of Traveodal,
while the Poles declared that they would only form alliance with Russia if it
ceded to them Kiev and Smolensk. Such demands were of course impossible.
Peter accordingly was reduced to seek help in himself alone. Thus hostilities
were renewed.
1702. Field- marshal Sheremetev twice defeated the Swedes, commanded by General
Slippenbach. And while Peter was fortifying the mouth of the northern Dvina,
in order to defend Archangel from a dreaded attack of the Swedes, Sheremetev
entered Livonia and took possession of Marienburg. The conquest of that town
is remarkable in Russian history, because, amongst the scenes of bloodshed which
there ensued, a young woman named Martha Skovronskaia was made prisoner ;
and she was destined by Providence to a singular fate. After embracing the Russo-
Greek faith, she was known as Ekaterina Alexeevna, eventually became the second
consort of Peter the Great, and subsequent to his death (1725) was Catherine I.,
reigning empress of Russia. Peter married her in 1707. In 1712 (6th March)
he solemnly acknowledged her as his consort. In 1724 (7th May), she was
declared empress and crowned in Moscow. As Peter's consort, Catherine partici-
pated in all his labours and expeditions, while, at the same time, she possessed
the happiest influence over him, by soothing his irritability during the periodical
convulsions from which he suffered. To this subject we shall, however, revert in
a subsequent chapter.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 19
SUCCESS OF THE RUSSIANS IN LlVONIA — FOUNDATION OF ST. PETERSBURG,
16TH MAY 1703
But the growing fame of Peter exposed him to many new trials ; for at one and 1701-1702.
the same time he was forced to carry on a double struggle, first, against outward
enemies, compared with whom he so soon showed his great superiority, and then
again with still more dangerous inward foes, averse to all innovation, and eager to
spread discontent among the people. Yet Peter did not lose courage. On the
contrary, he at once used every means to ensure a more successful continuation of
the war. And circumstances even aided him to do so ; for Charles, after leaving
Slippenbach with a small force to defend Livonia, himself advanced against his
third enemy, Augustus of Poland, and remained some years in the territories of
the latter kingdom. Peter meanwhile made the best use of the interval, ' while
the Swedes were sticking fast in Poland,' as he expressed himself. Nearly the
whole of 1701 passed in insignificant skirmishes on both sides. Only, in December,
Sheremetev attacked the chief force of Slippenbach and defeated it, at the village
of Erestfer. During the summer of 1702, Sheremetev, promoted to the rank of
field-marshal for the victory at Erestfer, overcame Slippenbach a second time,
near the farm of Humelshof, after which the Russians frightfully devastated the
whole of eastern Livonia. A report was then spread that the Swedes wished to
seize Archangel, the only port the Russians possessed in a European sea. So
Peter hastened to defend Archangel. However, the report proved false. Then
Peter moved onwards from Archangel towards the spot where former Russian
possessions were adjacent to the sea, but where, at this epoch, the Swedish banner
waved on old Russian fortifications. Peter besieged Noteburg the (ancient
Novgorodian Oreshok), took it (October 11), and called it Schliisselburg (key-town),
for the stronghold, built at the source of the river Neva from Lake Ladoga, is, in
reality, as a key to the sea. The entrance to the Gulf of Finland was defended
by a small fort named Neuschantz, on the right bank of the Neva. On May 1 the
fort was taken, razed to the ground, and in its stead, May 16, 1703, was founded a Foundation of
new fortress, near the mouth of the Neva, and the so-called Lust Island (Island bun^Ma,6" 16
of Pleasure), which now forms the part of St. Petersburg, called ' the Peters- 1703.
burg side.' That fortress was, in reality, St. Petersburg, the new capital of
Russia.
The latter had thus eventually reached the sea, towards which it had been
aiming for so many years. In order to defend the newly-founded maritime town
from the side of the sea, Peter built the fort of Kronslot, on a sandbank near the
island of Kotline, which shut the entrance to the mouth of the Neva, On that
80 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
low-lying island and around it was subsequently raised the fortress of Cronstadt.
For the new Baltic fleet a wharf was built at Olonetz. Two remaining Russian
towns were taken from the Swedes, Koporie* and lam. The latter was named
1704. lamburg. In 1704 Dorpat (now called Youriev) and Narva were also taken.
There was only one fisherman's hut on Lust Island when the new fort was
founded there.
The new capital was placed under the special protection of St. Peter, and
from him was called St. Petersburg.
All of a sudden, the bleak deserted region at the mouth of the Neva dis-
appeared, as if by the touch of a magic wand. The country became enlivened and
changed. The thick forests were removed, the surrounding marshes drained. In
order to erect the fort, twenty thousand men, summoned from all parts of the
empire, were daily at work. But Peter himself wished to superintend all. So
he lived in a small adjacent wooden house, with two rooms, like those he had
inhabited at Sardam. The small dwelling above mentioned still exists. The first
occupants of the new town were those who had lived in the ruined Swedish fort
of Neuschantz. From Kalooga, Mojaisk, and Vereia (government of Moscow)
came Russian merchants. Already, in November 1703, appeared in the mouth of
the Neva the first foreign (Dutch) vessel, with a cargo of wine and salt. Greatly
delighted, Peter went to meet the vessel, and himself acted as harbour-pilot.
When the vessel reached the haven, no duty was charged for the cargo. Peter
then made presents to the owner of the vessel and to all the sailors. With equal
gladness he also welcomed other foreign vessels, and allowed their crews to treat
him to wine and coffee.
The first victory over the Swedes at sea was gained about the same time as the
foundation of St. Petersburg. The Swedish fleet, not yet aware that Neuschantz
had been taken, approached the mouth of the Neva, and sent beforehand two
vessels there to cast anchor. Peter, however, had yet no vessels ready on the
Neva. He accordingly placed his guardsmen in boats during the night, suddenly
sailed along with them towards the Swedish vessels, and at dawn attacked them.
After a brave defence, both frigates were captured. Peter was unusually pleased
with this exploit, his first success in the Baltic Sea, and himself wrote concerning
it to his companions-in-arms, ' to congratulate them on the occasion of this new
victory, such as had never yet occurred.'
Peter, moreover, allowed himself to be rewarded for the success, and received
the insignia of the order of St. Andrew from the hands of the Admiral Count
Golovine.
The foundation of St. Petersburg and the fort of Cronstadt occasioned alarm
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 81
in Sweden and also in western Europe. The Swedes particularly began to
perceive with grief that Russia was destined one day to crush their might. The
English and other nations urged Charles xn. no longer to despise the Russians ;
but he heeded no such suggestions. His great aim was to depose Augustus from
the Polish throne.
Ilovaiski narrates (p. 248) that when, in 1704, the Russians by storm took
Narva, at which they had been defeated in 1701, excited by victory the soldiers
began to plunder and to murder in the conquered town. They were with difficulty
restrained by Peter and his generals. Subsequently, on entering the burgo-
master's house, Peter threw his blood-stained sword upon the table and exclaimed :
' Do not be afraid ! That is not Swedish, but Russian blood, shed for your
defence ! '
Meanwhile, Charles was constantly continuing to turn about in the direction
of Augustus. The latter was a precious ally of Peter, not certainly on account of
any help given in war; for the moment the Swedes appeared in one corner,
Augustus fled to another. But, at all events, he detained Charles in Poland, and
that was in Peter's favour. The Swedish king would in no wise make peace with
Augustus, but was determined that he should be deposed, that his place should
be filled by another, favourable to Sweden, and then Charles hoped to terminate
war with Russia and to sign peace with Peter in Moscow. Patkul, displeased
with Augustus, had entered the service of Peter, and in the capacity of Russian
imperial minister was at the court of Poland. Part of the nobles went over to
the side of Charles. The remainder continued to uphold Augustus. At length
Charles forced the diet to depose Augustus, and to choose Stanislav Leschinski,
voevode of Poznan, as king of Poland. But even then, Charles did not attain his
aim; for Leschinski displeased many, and Augustus still continued to maintain
his position in Poland.
In order to maintain his ally, Peter, during the spring of 1705, moved his 1705.
forces towards the western Dvina. He crossed that river, and took Courland and
Vilna. His chief force, of about 35,000 men, was concentrated at Grodno, where
a large fortified camp was organised. But at the very moment when the struggle
at the west was becoming more and more important, Peter was obliged to
withdraw part of his troops to the south-east, to Astrachan, where revolt had
broken out.
A certain individual named Stephen, son of a strelitz, had fled from Moscow
to Astrachan. There, for the space of three years, he had excited discontent by
circulating the most absurd reports. He confidently affirmed that very arduous
service and a new religion were to be introduced. By the latter, the worship of
VOL. II. L
82 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
idols was to take place. The Russian empire was to be divided into four parts,
and all Russian girls were to be given in marriage to Germans. In order to
prevent such things, it accordingly became necessary that all Germans should be
put to death. The inhabitants of Astrachan were the more excited, because they
had suffered not a little from the avidity and violence of those in authority. This
had especially been the case when orders were given to change the old fashion
of dress for the new.
On July 29, no fewer than a hundred weddings took place, from the dread of
being obliged to give daughters in marriage to Germans. During the night of
the 30th, a revolt broke out. The rebels rushed to the fort, killed the voevode and
several officers, and sent documents summoning the Cossacks to rise in arms.
Peter at once sent Field-marshal Sheremetev against the rebels. He took
1706. possession of Astrachan on March 13, 1706, after a fierce engagement. And at
the same time, Charles, making use of winter roads, suddenly moved from
Warsaw to Grodno, and cut off the Russian army from the spot whence supplies
were expected. All hope of aid from allies had forsaken the Russians, because
General Shulenberg, commander of the Saxon and Russian troops on the
borders of Poland and Silesia, had suffered complete defeat from the Swedes at
Fraustadt.
Peter's dejected state of mind at this epoch is seen from his letters. ' 0
God!' wrote he, during the spring of 1706, and before the Sunday of St.
Lazarus (March 25) — '0 God! add a little weight to our scale; for without
that, it cannot be balanced! We, along with the approaching festival of St.
Lazarus, are in a hell of terrible grief ! Grant, 0 Lord, that we may rise to life
again like him ! '
But although Peter felt all the difficulty of his position, he did not despair.
He sent instructions to his army in Grodno how to retreat ; and, thanks to his
plan, the army reached Kiev with little loss. Charles then quitted the marshes
of Lithuania, turned again to the west, and marched towards Saxony, there
to deal Augustus a final blow in his hereditary domains. And the calculation of
1706— Peace Charles was correct. In order to save Saxony, Augustus, in September 1706,
concluded peace with the Swedish king at Altranstedt, by which he (Augustus)
renounced the crown of Poland in favour of Stanislav Leschinski,1 broke off
alliance with Russia, and was not ashamed to deliver up the unhappy Patkul
to the Swedes. This took place without Peter's consent, and contrary to his
expectation. Charles then condemned Patkul as a traitor. He had a horrible
death, and was broken on the wheel. Augustus concluded the peace of Altran-
1 Voevode of Poznan.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 83
stedt in secret from the Russians, and was even beside Menshikov's army when
that favourite of Peter (October 18) defeated the Swedish general Mardefeld
at Kalish.
CHARLES APPROACHES THE BOUNDARIES OF RUSSIA — REVOLT OF CONRAD
BOOLAVINE, 1707-1708
After concluding the peace of Altranstedt, Charles had but one remaining 1706-1708.
foe, Peter. The latter, meanwhile, although preparing for defence, notwithstanding
used every means to make peace. He sought the intervention of foreign powers.
He even consented to be satisfied with only one haven at the Baltic Sea. Charles,
however, would not yield a single point. He wished to conclude peace in
Moscow; and as Peter trusted little to the success of war, he sent orders to
fortify that capital. Towards the close of 1707 Charles crossed the Vistula. In
January 1708 he occupied Grodno, and aimed at overtaking the Russian forces
then placed in Lithuania. They, according to Peter's plan, constantly retreated
from the boundaries and devastated the country through which they passed, in
order to prevent it from furnishing supplies to the enemy. But at the very
moment when Russia was straining every nerve to prepare for a terrible struggle,
a great revolt (like that of Razine) took place among the Cossacks of the Don.
Soloviev (p. 255) makes the following remarks, which appear surprising to a
reader of the present day : — ' The epoch when Peter the Great occupied the throne
of Russia, and which, seen by us from the far distance, seems so brilliant, was,
notwithstanding, in reality very onerous to the people. In order to maintain
prolonged, difficult war, and at the same time to introduce new organisation, great
sacrifices were demanded, while the means of the country were scanty. The
frequent recruiting told heavily upon the population. Taxes, too, were oppressive.
Accordingly, to escape from both, a whole crowd of discontented individuals, as in
old times, fled to the Don, to join the Cossacks there. The result of this was
that the position of those who remained became still worse.'
Peter, of course, could not see all that with indifference ; so towards the close
of 1707 he sent a commander, Prince Youree Vladimirovitch Dolgorookov, to the
Don, with orders to seek out fugitives and to send them back again to their
former dwellings. Dolgorookov sought out three thousand fugitives. But at
that very time, a document was issued among the Cossacks, urging them in no
wise to allow Dolgorookov to enact the part of a catch-poll. Agitation then began.
A large gang of the so-called 'hungry Cossacks' assembled around Conrad
Boolavine, elder of Bachmoot, who suddenly, during the night, attacked Dol-
84 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
gorookov's detachment, and destroyed it along with its leader. Boolavine was,
however, soon afterwards defeated by the loyal Cossacks, sent against him by the
ataman Maximo v, and then fled to the Zaporog Cossacks. From their encamp-
ment, during the spring of 1708, Boolavine appeared at the river Hoper (a
tributary of the Don) and began to circulate seditious letters. They intimated
that the Cossacks had risen in arms for the true Christian faith, and for their very
orthodox sovereign, but against princes, boyards, and Germans, who were turning
all aside from the veritable belief. Having assembled a large crowd of ' hungry
Cossacks,' Boolavine defeated the imperial force and took possession of Tscherkask,
chief town of the Cossacks ; l there he put to death the ataman Maximov, along
with other elders, and was himself proclaimed ataman. While Boolavine thus
took law into his own hands, the leaders of different seditious gangs, such as
Nekrasov, Hochlatch, etc., proceeded along the Volga. They took Saratov,
Tsaritzine, and Kamuishine. Their associate Golii cut off the Soomski regiment
and distributed seditious documents. He thus wrote : ' We have nothing to do
with the lower orders ; we have to do with the boyards. As for you " hungry
Cossacks," come from all towns, on horseback and on foot, naked and with bare
feet, you will have horses, arms, clothing, and wages in money ! ' The agitation
extended even to Tambov. But the triumph of Boolavine was of short duration.
His associate Dranii was defeated by the imperial forces, and perished in the action.
Another detachment of the rebels was overcome before Azoph ; and at the same
time the leader of the imperial troops, Prince Vasili Vladimirovitch Dolgorookov,
brother of the commander killed by Boolavine, approached Tscherkask. The
Cossacks opposed to Boolavine then gained the ascendency, and besieged him in
his own house. Boolavine at first made a defence, but finally, on seeing the
impossibility of longer doing so, shot himself (July). Tscherkask surrendered to
Dolgorookov ; but the revolt was not totally quelled till November, as Nekrasov
and Golii had still to be overcome, because they yet continued hostilities on the
upper Don, and Donetz Nekrasov was forced to flee. He went to the Kuban, along
with two thousand Cossacks, and there submitted to the Crimean khan. Golii
also took flight, after a total defeat. Dolgorookov at length completely destroyed
the camps of rebel Cossacks. According to contemporary records : ' The chiefs of
the insurgents and others who were caught were hanged in groups of ten. The
gibbets were fastened to rafts, and the latter were floated along the Don. All
neighbouring inhabitants were thus overawed, and were the more easily subdued.'
1 In the regions of the Don. Another town, Tscherkasi, is in the government of Kiev.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 85
BATTLES AT DOBRO AND LIESNO, 1708 — IVAN STEPANOVITCH
MAZEPPA — His TREACHERY
Meanwhile, during the summer of 1708, Charles defeated a detachment of
Russians at Golovtschine, and occupied Mogilev : there he expected to be joined
by Loevenhaupt, who was coming from Lithuania with large supplies. However,
for want of provisions, Charles did not await Loevenhaupt, but advanced towards
Mstislavl, through woods and marshes, along a devastated region, where, at the
village of Dobro, part of his forces suffered defeat by the Russian commander,
Prince Michael Michaelovitch Golitzine. In spite of his general's advice, Charles 1708— Defeat
did not return to Mogilev to join Loevenhaupt, but wended his way towards °t
Ukraine. Peter, meanwhile, profited by this movement. He pursued Loeven-
haupt and defeated him at the village of Liesno, near Propoisk, at the river Soj
(government of Mogilev), 28th September. The Swedes lost ten thousand men,
besides their artillery, and, more than all, the whole of their provisions, which
were so very important to Charles. ' There was the first trial of soldiers,' said
Peter, 'because there, for the first time, Russians defeated Swedes with equal
numbers.'
Charles, after sacrificing the force of Loeveuhaupt and the provisions, next
hastened towards Little Russia.
Subsequent to Bogdan Hmelnitzki, there was not one Little Russian hetman
who quietly finished his life while yet exercising the functions of hetmanship.
Alexei Michaelovitch would not believe the denunciations brought against
Vuigovski. Pooshkar fell a sacrifice to that unbelief, and Vuigovski betrayed.
Youree Hmelnitzki also betrayed. Mnogogrieshni was convicted of treachery,
and finished his days in exile. Samoilovitch was likewise thus convicted and had
the same fate. Alexei Michaelovitch would not credit the accusations brought
against Vuigovski, and afterwards repented of his unbelief. Concerning the
affairs of Mnogogrieshni and Samoilovitch, the Moscovite government did give heed
to the accusations. Then ensued complaints that these denunciations were false,
and that government had punished its truest servants in order to please their
enemies. Accordingly, the position of the Moscovite government regarding the
hetmans became exceedingly embarrassing ; and not less difficult was the position
of the hetmans themselves. The hetman (or chief commander) was chosen in a
noisy assembly of his partisans, who had gained the ascendency ; but his rivals
and enemies sought every opportunity to injure him after his election, which had
taken place contrary to their wishes. As a safeguard from their malice, the
hetman usually surrounded himself by hired troops, composed of persons belonging
86 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
to every class of foreigners ; and the latter excited the hatred of the Little
Russians. As the hetman's enemies could not openly overcome him by force,
they endeavoured to injure him in Moscow by there bringing accusations against
him to the sovereign. The hetman was meanwhile between two fires. On the
one hand were the demands of the Moscovite government, which exacted that
Little Russians should participate in the general life of the state, by performing
duties incumbent on all the other members of the population. On the other
hand were the demands of the Cossacks, who wished to be as independent as
possible of the government, and to perform few duties exacted by it. Such was the
position of Samoilovitch's successor, Ivan Stepanovitch Mazeppa, an exceedingly
clever, artful, well-educated old man, and a pleasant talker in company. A lover
of worldly pleasure Mazeppa was also, and had passed through not a few adventures
during his early youth.
According to Ilovaiski (p. 269, eighth edition), there is an account of Mazeppa,
given by a Polish nobleman named Paska, in his notes. It seems that Mazeppa,
when young, had served at the court of the Polish king, Ian Casimir. There
Mazeppa had paid too much attention to the wife of a pan (nobleman), and thereby
deeply incensed him. The nobleman seized Mazeppa, bound him naked to the
back of a horse, and set it at liberty in the fields. The horse was a native of
Ukraine, and wended its way towards that country ; there the Cossacks found
Mazeppa half-dead. Afterwards he disappeared for some time, and was heard of
no more. But several years later he was seen in the army of the hetman
Doroshenko. Mazeppa then betrayed Doroshenko, and devoted himself to the
hetman Samoilovitch. In the house of the latter, Mazeppa taught the children,
and by aid of Samoilovitch obtained the important post of military scribe. But
Mazeppa betrayed Samoilovitch as he had betrayed others, and was even one of
the chief causes of Samoilovitch's fall. The election of Mazeppa as hetman was
accomplished by Prince Golitzine.
Peter was very fond of Mazeppa, and had full confidence in him notwithstand-
ing all the denunciations brought against the old hetman (aged seventy years).
It was reported that Mazeppa was trying to form Little Russia into a separate
state, and to place it under the power of Sweden. Still, however, the denuncia-
tions, by their vagueness, only convinced Peter that Mazeppa had many enemies.
And, sure enough, while the Swedish king was far away it did indeed seem strange
to think that the clever Mazeppa would betray Peter.
Circumstances had, however, meanwhile changed. The victorious Charles had
approached the Russian frontiers with the design of concluding peace in Moscow.
Thus the deceitful old hetman could not resist temptation. Even Peter himself
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 87
did not consider the designs of Charles impossible. Hence orders were given to
fortify the Russian capital. Mazeppa besides calculated that Peter, with his
inexperienced forces, could never become conqueror in the struggle. Mazeppa,
accordingly, began to hold intercourse with Charles and with the Polish king,
Stanislav Leschinski.
Ilovaiski states (p. 250-251, thirteenth edition) that the chief mediatrix in
intercourse between Mazeppa and Leschinski was a certain Princess Dolski,
an acquaintance of the hetman. In corresponding with the princess, Mazeppa
for a lengthened period made use of very vague expressions, and awaited the
result of circumstances. The princess, however, knew his weak side. Under
pretext of friendship, she informed him that on one occasion, while at a banquet
along with Field-marshal Sheremetev and another Russian general, they both told
her that Menshikov was laying a snare for Mazeppa, wished to overthrow him and
to be elected hetman of Ukraine in his stead. Mazeppa, alarmed, then became
more accessible to Polish influence. Meanwhile Mazeppa's secret intercourse with
the enemies of Russia was known to certain Cossack elders, and also to the
general military, judge Kotchoobei. Vasili Leontievitch Kotchoobei had a
daughter Matrena (pronounce Matriona), the hetman's goddaughter. Mazeppa
was then a widower, and thought of marrying a second time. In spite of his
advanced age, he made a proposal of marriage to Matrena Kotchoobei. Her
parents, however, opposed it, because it was forbidden by the Russo-Greek
church that a godfather should marry his goddaughter. But Matrena, either
really attached to Mazeppa, or ambitious to become wife of a hetman, fled from her
father's house to that of Mazeppa. And, although the latter sent back the young
person to her parents, they notwithstanding considered themselves dishonoured,
and henceforth became the hetman's bitterest enemies.
Vasili Leontievitch Kotchoobei, along with Iskra, formerly colonel at Poltava,
accordingly denounced to Peter that Mazeppa was a traitor. But as the latter
had faithfully served Russia for more than twenty years, Peter would believe
no evil concerning him. Nay, more, Peter ordered Golovkine and Shafirov to
examine Kotchoobei and Colonel Iskra by torture. Old Kotchoobei could not
support the torments inflicted upon him, and confessed that he had denounced
Mazeppa from malice, while Colonel Iskra also acknowledged that he had followed
the suggestions of Kotchoobei. Subsequently both these offenders were sent to
Mazeppa, whose camp was then pitched not far from Bielaia Tserkov (i.e. White
Church, government of Kiev), and there they were publicly executed.
So Mazeppa, for this time, was saved from trouble ; but his position became
more and more difficult. For he was merely the sport of circumstances, and was
88 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
placed as a weak object between two powerful foes. From fear of the victorious
Charles, Mazeppa held intercourse with him, yet was afraid to break off with
Peter also, as only the entrance of the Swedes into Ukraine could save the traitor
from imperial vengeance. Mazeppa, meanwhile, was obliged to promise Charles
aid from the Cossacks, and notwithstanding wanted courage to persuade them
to join the Swedes. But deceit and falsehood aided the base old man. In order
to avoid commanding the troops, he feigned dangerous illness. During this
interval Charles entered Ukraine. Mazeppa was then suddenly cured. He
marched forward with a small detachment of troops devoted to him, crossed the
Desna (October 26), declared his treachery, and on the 29th joined Charles. The
greater part of the Cossacks, however, remained true to Peter. General Menshikov
then stormed and took the hetman's capital, Batoorine. Mazeppa was anathe-
matised ; and his effigy was hanged by an executioner.
In Mazeppa's stead, Ivan Hitch Skoropadski was chosen hetman. He soon
afterwards issued a document in which he asked the Little Russians: 'What can
we, orthodox Christians, expect from the king of Sweden ? Is he not a foreigner
and of a different religion ? And even if he wished to defend us, how can he do
so at a great distance from the Baltic Sea ? And how can he be the defender of
our church, since he is opposed to it ? ' These appeals to the common sense of
the people did not remain without result ; so that the Swedes, instead of being
well received in Little Russia, were already exposed to a popular war. Sudden
attacks were made on Swedish detachments. Their horses were carried off, and
provisions were hidden. Two colonels, Apostol and Galagine, left Mazeppa and
returned to Peter's side. Even Mazeppa himself, on seeing that his calculations
were incorrect, began once more to hold intercourse with Peter, and promised him
important information regarding the Swedish king. Peter accepted the proposal,
and agreed to forget the past entirely. Mazeppa, however, found no opportunity to
render Peter any important service, and accordingly remained beside Charles.
BATTLE OF POLTAVA, 27i'H JUNE 1709 — SUCCESS OF THE RUSSIANS IN THE
REGIONS OF THE BALTIC
1709. Thus Charles received but little aid from his ally Mazeppa; while a very
powerful helper appeared to the Russians in form of an unusually cold winter,
during which birds fell frozen to the ground. The Swedes felt the frost all the
more that they were not furnished with warm clothing. During the spring of
1709, the troops of Charles were reduced to thirty thousand men, worn out by
fighting and privation. The Swedish army was placed between the rivers Psel
and Yorskla.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 89
The chief camp was at Booditch, north of Poltava. In vain did Charles await Battle of
aid from Turkey and Poland. Only the Zaporog Cossacks joined the Swedes : 2° j^g
but on March 14 the Cossack fort was taken by the imperial forces. Even
earlier, at the close of April, Charles had besieged Poltava, though unsuccessfully.
The siege lasted a month. On June 4, Peter joined his army encamped on the
left side of the Vorskla, and separated from Poltava by an impenetrable marsh.
In order to save the town, which could no longer defend itself, Peter resolved
to attack the enemy, and crossed the Vorskla. Before the battle, Peter thus
addressed his army :
' Soldiers ! the hour has come which must decide the fate of our native
country ! So you must not think that you fight for Peter alone, but for
the state also. Peter is destined to enact his part for his dynasty, for the
orthodox faith and church. You must not also be alarmed by the glory of our
enemies — hitherto invincible : for it is false ! You yourselves have more than
once witnessed the victories we have gained over them. But during the battle,
keep before your eyes truth and God, who fights for us. Trust to Him alone,
as the Almighty, in the hour of contest : and as for Peter, be assured that he
does not esteem his own life precious, if Russia only lives, together with your
devotion, your glory, your prosperity.'
Whereupon Prince Golitzine in the name of the armies replied :
' Sire ! thou hast already seen our labour, our exploits, our zeal, our victories !
We are still the same ! We trust in God ; and are ready to die for the church,
for thee, for our native country ! '
Thus was it written in God's book of judgment that the fate of Russia should
be decided on the plains of Ukraine, and on the banks of the, till then, little-
known river Vorskla.
On June 27, before sunrise, the Russians saw the enemy advancing under
command of Generals Sparre, Ross, and Slippenbach. At first the Swedes seemed
to gain an advantage, but they pursued the retreating Russians, and were thus
separated from the detachment of General Ross. Then the Swedes were met by
the Russian artillery and pressed into a declivity, surrounded by a wood. General
Ross, meanwhile, fought like a hero. The Swedes in the declivity might have
easily helped him ; but Peter ordered Menshikov to attack them. Menshikov did
so, defeated the Swedes, and took General Slippenbach prisoner. Then General
Ross, surrounded on all sides by Russians, was forced to yield himself as prisoner
of war.
About 9 o'clock A.M. the action became general between the two armies.
Peter, meanwhile, was exposed to the greatest danger. His hat and saddle were
VOL. II. M
90 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
both pierced by shot. Still he maintained presence of mind, and perfectly
performed his duty as commander. The battle was prolonged till 1 2 o'clock, and
terminated in the complete overthrow of the Swedes. Field-marshal Renschild,
Chancellor Count Piper, Maximilian, prince of Wurtemburg, Generals Stakelberg
and Hamilton surrendered as prisoners of war. Nine thousand Swedes of inferior
rank were killed, 3000 were made prisoners. Charles, badly wounded in the
leg, rode about in a conveyance between the ranks of the army. Suddenly a
cannon-ball hit the conveyance, and the king fell to the ground. At first his
soldiers thought he was killed, and were consequently in a state of agitation.
Charles, however, revived, and ordered his soldiers to carry him on two crossed
pikes.1 But in vain did he endeavour to encourage his troops. They were
entirely overthrown.
After offering up a prayer of thanksgiving on the battlefield, Peter, surrounded
by his companions-in-arms, sat down to dine. At the same table he also seated
his prisoners, the Swedish generals, as guests. Amid the thunder of cannons,
Peter proposed a toast to the health of his teachers in the art of war. ' Who are
these teachers?' inquired Field-marshal Renschild. 'You Swedish generals!'
replied the sovereign. ' Please your majesty, you have acted too cruelly towards
your teachers ! ' rejoined Renschild.
Charles scarcely escaped being made a prisoner. Along with Mazeppa and a
small number of Swedes, the king crossed the Dnieper, and wended his way
towards the Turkish frontiers. The Swedish forces, commanded by Loevenhaupt,
were forced to surrender to Menshikov. Charles halted at Bender. There he
placed himself under protection of the Turkish government, and strove to excite
it against Russia. Mazeppa terminated his inglorious career by death two months
after he reached Bender.
SUBSEQUENT EVENTS FKOM 1710 TILL 1711
The victory of Poltava overthrew the power of Sweden — till then, supreme in
northern Europe subsequent to the Thirty Years' War. Sweden's place was
henceforth occupied by Russia. Previous to the battle of Poltava — ' that famous
victory, the Russian revival/ as it was named by contemporaries — the chief
historical parts had been enacted by western European nations of Germanic and
Roman race. But with the battle of Poltava, a new state appears in eastern
Europe, in form of Russia. With it, also, the Slavonic race acquires new
importance.
1 A chair in which Charles was borne, wounded, from the battlefield of Poltava, is still carefully
preserved in the Armoury Hall of the Moscow Kreml.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 91
All those previously conquered by Charles soon raised their heads against
him. The elector of Saxony and the king of Denmark hastened to violate the
peace they had made with Sweden. Without the aid of Charles, Stanislav
Leschinski could not maintain himself on the Polish throne, and was forced to
withdraw to Pomerania. Augustus was then again declared king of Poland.
The chief scenes of action were once more removed to the Baltic Sea. Riga,
Dinamund, Pernay, Revel, Viborg, Kegsholm, were taken by the Russians in
1710. Then Peter gave his niece Anna loannovna (subsequently reigning
empress of Russia) in marriage to the duke of Courland. But in 1711 Peter I'll,
was forced to quit the north, because Charles xn. and the French ambassador had
succeeded in raising Turkey against Russia.
CHAPTER V
WAR WITH TURKEY, 1711 — CONTINUATION OF THE NORTHERN WAR, 1712-1713
— DISAGREEMENT BETWEEN PETER AND HIS ALLIES — PETER'S JOURNEY TO
FRANCE, 1717
AT the commencement of 1711, Peter began to prepare for war with Turkey, after
learning that his ambassador there was shut up as a prisoner. Not only so : the
Russian sovereign had conceived the bold design to penetrate to the heart of
Turkish possessions by the aid of those professing the same religion, and, for the
greater part, of the same race as himself. Moldavia, Wallachia, Servia, Montenegro
promised him aid. Augustus of Poland also obliged himself to send 30,000 men.
Thus the allies amounted to 90,000. The Russians numbered 40,000. Peter was,
in fact, allured by promises ; and, all too soon, was in the very same position as
Charles xn. had recently been in Little Russia. Peter marched to Moldavia, through
steppes, during the heat of summer, which entirely fatigued his troops. Cantemir,
hospodar of Moldavia, had promised to furnish the Russians with supplies. But,
finding himself as a weak object placed between two powerful foes, he had
recourse to cunning. On the one hand, he feared the Turks, feigned fidelity to
the sultan, and only openly declared partisanship with Russia when the van of
the imperial force was actually entering Jassy. Notwithstanding, all the
Moldavian nobles were very far from following the hospodar's example. Thus,
although Cantemir was proverbially ' a very wise man, and one most able in
council,' yet he helped Peter quite as little as formerly Mazeppa had helped
Charles xn. The supplies were not prepared ; and Brankovan, hospodar of
Wallachia, in spite of his promises, had joined the Turks. The latter, meanwhile,
commanded by the grand vizier, had crossed the Danube. On July 9, Peter, on
the banks of the river Pruth, with a force of 38,000 men, was surrounded by Turks
numbering 200,000. Their attack had, however, been repulsed with great loss to
them ; but at the same time, the position of the Russians was well-nigh desperate.
For they were without provisions, and cut off from water.
During the approaching night, the Turks, by Poniatovski's advice, had dug a
trench around the Russian camp, and constructed a battery, so that they only
awaited the arrival of the artillery in order to open a general firing on the whole
Russian army. On that decisive night, Peter withdrew to his own tent, and there
gave himself up to melancholy thoughts. All seemed to be lost. Two alternatives
alone remained — to ask for peace, or to risk a battle. But neither promised
success. All Peter's generals, too, were overcome by sadness and distrust.
Here follows an episode of national history which Russian painters love to
represent.
Catherine, as usual, had accompanied her husband, and she was accordingly
with him on this occasion. She alone was courageous. Not only so ; she thought
of concluding an advantageous peace with the Turks. She thereupon summoned
a council of war, communicated her plan, and demanded that it should be made
known to the sovereign. But no one dared to do so ; for Peter had given strict
orders that he should be left alone. Thus Catherine herself resolved to go to
him. She accordingly went to his tent. Peter was at first displeased, but finally
yielded to her suggestions. Immediately, Field-marshal Sheremetev was sent
with a letter to the grand vizier, and with proposals of peace. Catherine, at the
same time, added all the precious ornaments she had, and a considerable sum
of money.
Meanwhile Peter had little hope of any treaty concerning peace. Accordingly,
as he had alone the good of his native country in view, he wrote a letter to the
senators, and frankly stated all the danger of his position. He expressed himself
in the following terms : ' Without God's aid, nothing can save me. I must either
die or give myself up as a prisoner! In the first instance, choose another
sovereign worthy to reign over Russia ; and in the second, do not execute any of
my orders, if even they are written by my own hand ! ' (Kaledanov, p. 298.)
When the grand vizier had read the letter brought by Sheremetev, he (the
vizier) showed it to Pouiatovski and asked his opinion of it. ' I scarcely think,'
replied Pouiatovski, ' that the commander of 200,000 Turks will hold conference
with an army of 20,000 men already in his power!' 'But what answer must I
give the Russians ? ' said the vizier. ' The thunder of 400 Turkish cannons will
be an answer ! ' exclaimed Poniatovski.
Peace, however, was concluded, certainly not an advantageous peace for Peter.
He was obliged to restore Azoph to the Turks, as well as three forts which he had
constructed. He was likewise forced to promise that he would no longer interfere
with the affairs of Poland, and that he would allow Charles xu. free exit to his
dominions. On informing the senate that peace had been concluded, Peter wrote :
' Although the transaction was not made without regret — for I was compelled to
cede towns to acquire which I have taken so much trouble, and incurred so much
loss — notwithstanding, I do think that the sacrifice will bring us advantage in
another way, unquestionably more profitable ! '
CONTINUATION OF THE NORTHERN WAR — DISAGREEMENT BETWEEN PETER AND
HIS ALLIES — PETER'S JOURNEY TO FRANCE
The advantages to which Peter alluded were connected with the war at the 1712-1713.
north-west, and acquisitions obtained on the shores of a European sea. During
1712 and 1713, the Eussians, along with their allies, the Saxons and the Danes,
continued to expel the Swedes from Pomerania. In 1713, at the beginning of
May, the Eussian fleet, amounting to two hundred vessels, sailed from St.
Petersburg to the sea under command of Admiral Apraxine. Peter himself also
commanded part of the fleet, and assumed the title of rear-admiral. Helsingfors
and Abo (the chief towns of Finland) were taken. The library of Abo was then
transported to St. Petersburg. The Swedes retreated to the interior of the
country, but Admiral Apraxine and Prince Golitzine (Michael Michaelovitch)
followed them step by step, and, after defeating them at Tammersfors, occupied
nearly the whole of Finland. In 1714 (July 25) Peter defeated the Swedish fleet 1713-1714.
at Angout, and occupied the island of Aland. The Swedes were there seized with
a panic. All the forces that could possibly be collected hastened to defend
Stockholm.
Peter, meanwhile, gradually more and more confirmed his power on the shores
of the Baltic Sea, and threatened Sweden itself. During this interval, Charles XII.
was uselessly losing time in Turkey, while endeavouring to excite the sultan
against Eussia. At length, in November 1714, after passing through Hungary
and Germany, Charles appeared at Stralsund, besieged by allies whose numbers
were now augmented by the Eussians and Hanoverians. But even the hero's 1715-1716.
presence did not save that town in 1715. During 1716, the Swedes lost Wismar,
their last possession in Germany. But at the capitulation of Wismar, disagree-
ment took place among the allies on account of Mecklenburg. At the beginning
of 1716, Peter gave another of his nieces, Ekaterina loannovna, in marriage to 1716.
Charles Leopold, duke of Mecklenburg. Peter then promised to use every effort
94 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
in order to secure the towns of Wisrnar and Warnemund for the duke, and to main-
tain his cause against all enemies, both exterior and interior. Among the latter,
in particular, were the Mecklenburg nobles, with whom he was on very bad terms.
In return, the duke allowed Eussian merchants to live, to trade freely in all his
dominions, and likewise to build Russo-Greek churches there. He also promised
to give Russian troops passage through his territory, and to build storehouses for
them at the imperial cost. The Mecklenburg nobles were thereupon exasperated.
They dreaded alliance with Russia, and did all in their power against Peter.
They besides endeavoured to expel Russian troops from Mecklenburg, and
especially to make dispeace between the Russian sovereign and his allies by
alarming the latter. Finally, insinuations were made concerning Peter's ambition,
and of his intention to confirm his power in Germany. And the nobles could all
the more easily succeed in their intrigues because a Mecklenburg nobleman
named Bernstorf was minister in Hanover, and possessed the entire confidence of
the Elector George, king of England. Two other Mecklenburgers were also in
the service of Denmark, and had much influence on the king. Consequently the
allies would not admit Russian forces into Wismar. The suspicion shown by the
Danish king, while Peter was in Denmark with forces destined to be disembarked
on the Swedish coast, still more irritated him against the allies, especially the
elector of Hanover, king of England. Accordingly, towards the close of the year,
Peter went to Holland. There Gortz, minister of Holstein, in the service of the
Swedish king, was endeavouring to put various plans into execution. They were
to reconcile Russia and Sweden by their united force ; to dethrone George, king
1717. of England; finally, in his stead, to place the Pretender (James III., Stuart) upon
the throne. But these plans were disclosed and did not succeed. Thus, on seeing
that nothing was to be expected from allies, Peter resolved to undertake a journey
to France, in order to form close alliance with the duke of Orleans, then regent
during the minority of Louis xv. Peter also thought of marrying his daughter
Elizaveta Petrovna to the young king ; but the match was subsequently broken
off. In Paris, state apartments in the palace of the Louvre were prepared for
Peter ; but he declined to occupy them, and took up his abode in an ordinary
dwelling.
In a previous chapter we have already quoted the remarks of two German
princesses regarding Peter, and the impression he produced upon them during his
first journey abroad in 1697. At a later epoch, namely, in 1717, the French thus
described his personal appearance : — ' Peter of Russia is tall, remarkably handsome,
rather thin, and of a dark complexion. His eyes are large and bright. His glance
is penetrating, and even sometimes fierce, especially when a convulsive movement
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 95
is seen in his face. His movements are sudden and irregular. No restraints of
society hinder his actions. An air of majestic audacity distinguishes a sovereign
who feels himself everywhere master. While walking along the streets, he goes
into the workshops of tradesmen, stops before each object, and always displays
extensive information. Articles merely elegant, or exclusively for pleasure,
interest him little. But all that is useful, all concerning navigation, trade, or
necessary arts, excites his curiosity. And even then, he causes astonishment at
the correctness of his ideas, and shows as much capacity for learning, as eagerness
for knowledge.'
In a capital essentially brilliant and famed for luxury, Peter was distinguished
by the extreme simplicity of his dress. He wore a coat made of coarse, cheap
cloth, a broad girdle from which hung a sword, a short round wig, without powder,
a shirt without frills. (Soloviev, pp. 262-3.) Ilovaiski (p. 254) states that when
Peter was in Paris during 1717, on seeing Richelieu's statue he exclaimed:
' Great man ! I would have given thee one-half of my empire, on condition that
thou hadst taught me how to govern the other ! '
CHAPTEE VI
DEATH OF BORIS PETROVITCH SHEREMETEV, 17TH FEBRUARY 1717 — DEATH OF ALEXEI
PETROVITCH, JUNE 26, 1718 — CONCLUSION OF THE NORTHERN WAR —
PETER ADOPTS THE TITLE OF EMPEROR, 1721 — FOUNDATION OF THE RUSSIAN
FLEET CELEBRATED, AUGUST 1723 — WAR WITH PERSIA — CANAL OF LADOGA
— FOUNDATION OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 1724— CORONATION OF
CATHERINE, MAY 7, 1724 — RELICS OF ST. ALEXANDER NEVSKI TRANS-
PORTED TO ST. PETERSBURG, AUGUST 30, 1724 — DEATH OF PETER THE GREAT,
28TH JANUARY 1725
AT this epoch, Peter met with a great loss by the death of his brave companion- 1716.
in-arms, Boris Petrovitch Sheremetev, 17th January 1716. Soon after, another
still greater loss awaited the sovereign. We allude to the death of his son Peter,
heir-presumptive to the throne. The young prince died in his fifth year. His
birth had occasioned joy to his father ; and now the latter was overwhelmed by
the decease of Catherine's only remaining son. It is said that Peter shut him-
self up alone, and for three days remained without food. But the exhortations
of Catherine and of Prince Dolgorookov finally succeeded in dissipating the
sovereign's gloomy thoughts. 1718— Death
J of Alexei
As this epoch, Alexei Petrovitch also died. We shall, however, subsequently Petrovitch.
96 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
revert to the subject. We must now proceed to notice the conclusion of the
Northern War.
1717-18. Peter had not fully attained his aim by 'a journey to France; for France at
that period had formed close alliance with England. On returning to Holland, the
ministers who accompanied Peter had a secret interview with Gortz, who pro-
mised to conclude peace between Russia and Sweden. Consequently, during the
spring of 1717, conferences were held at Lefoe, one of the islands of Aland,
between Peter's plenipotentiaries, Bruce and Osterman, and those of Charles XIL,
Gortz and Gillenborg. It was then stipulated that Russia should be confirmed in
the possession of Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and part of Carelia, in return for which
Russia was to aid Sweden not only to regain its former possessions in Germany,
but also to obtain Norway. Augustus was to renounce the Polish throne, which
should then be restored to Stanislav Leschinski. However, the violent death of
Charles XIL, in 1718 (December), at the siege of Frederikshall, where he was shot,
destroyed all these plans.
On learning the tragic fate of the Swedish hero, Peter exclaimed : ' Ah, brother
Charles ! How I regret thee ! ' and shed tears.
The death of Charles XIL occasioned great changes in the cabinet of Stockholm.
The king's younger sister, Ulrika Eleanora, ascended the throne. She was the
consort of Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, and was proclaimed queen, although a
nearer heir existed in the person of her nephew, Charles Frederick of Holstein,
son of her elder sister, Hedwige Sophia.
Soon different parties were formed in Sweden ; and the most powerful of them
was unfavourable to Russia.
17191720. It is accordingly not surprising that Gortz was executed as a traitor. The
conferences of Aland were terminated ; and the Swedes, although with great
sacrifices, concluded peace with all their enemies, except Russia. England took
the part of Sweden, and sent it a fleet of twenty-eight vessels and several frigates.
1720. But all that did not overawe Peter. He merely remarked : ' I twice proposed peace
to my brother Charles, once from necessity, and again from magnanimity. Now
I shall extort terms from Sweden by force ! '
Peter was meanwhile persuaded that the duke of Holstein, then living in
Vienna, was heir-presumptive to the Swedish throne. Accordingly, the young
prince was invited to St. Petersburg, and acknowledged as bridegroom of Anna
Petrovna, Peter's eldest daughter. He, moreover, refused to conclude peace with
Sweden till it restored the duke his possessions in Holstein, and until he was
declared heir to the Swedish throne. This powerful protection shown to the
young prince terrified the Swedes. Peter, besides, wished to prove that he was
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 97
not overawed by the English fleet. He therefore sent vessels and troops, com-
manded by Apraxine, to Sweden. They devastated the shores of that country till
within seven miles of Stockholm. The Swedes were in terror. The queen
Ulrika Eleanora ceded her rights to her husband, Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, and 1721.
he was declared king of Sweden.
At length peace was concluded between that country and Russia at Neustadt, 1721, August
3Q Peace of
30th August 1721. The Russian plenipotentiaries were again Bruce and Oster- Neustadt.
man. Sweden ceded to Russia Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, part of Carelia, and
part of Finland. Thus the constant aim of the Moscovite sovereigns, since John
the Terrible, was at length attained. In other words, Russia had obtained the
shores of the Baltic Sea.
In Petersburg, that important event was celebrated by a masquerade pro-
longed for a whole week. On October 22nd, Peter heard service in the Cathedral
of the Trinity. After service, the convention of peace was read aloud. Then
Theophan, archbishop of Pskov, preached a sermon, in which he enumerated all
the glorious exploits of the sovereign on account of which he was justly entitled,
' Father of his native country, Emperor, and the Great.' Whereupon the Chan-
cellor Golovine pronounced a speech in the following terms : ' By the labour and
guidance of your imperial majesty, we have issued from the darkness of ignorance
to the theatre of glory in this world, and, so to speak, we have been brought forth
to actual life from a state of non-existence. Thus have we been joined to the
society of political nations.' The speech terminated by exclamations of ' Vivat !
Vivat ! Vivat, Peter the Great ! Father of his native country ! Emperor of all
Russia ! '
These words, repeated by a crowd in church, and without, were proclaimed
amid the sounds of trumpets, kettledrums, and drums, together with the firing of
guns and cannons. The new emperor replied to the senators, ' that, with all his
heart, he thanked God ; but, while hoping for peace, he would not grow weak in
preparation for war, so as to avoid the fate of the Greek monarchs. It is necessary
to aim at the good of all ; thus the condition of the people is lightened.' (Soloviev,
p. 264.)
WAR WITH PEKSIA, 1722
When Peter had thus concluded war in Europe, he next thought of his 1722.
position in Asia. For a lengthened period, European traders had endeavoured to
obtain free passage along the Volga to the Caspian Sea and the shores of Persia,
and had proved to the Moscovite government that Russia, from its geographical
position, should be the medium of commerce between Europe and Asia. Even
VOL. II. N
98 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
during the reign of Alexi Michaelovitch, by means of an Armenian company, an
attempt had been made in Moscow to concentrate the commerce of Persian silk
in Russia. In 1716, Peter had endeavoured to find out a way by water from the
Caspian Sea to India, to form artificial junction between the Baltic and the
Caspian Seas ; and having confirmed his power in the former, by the peace of
Neustadt, he now endeavoured to gain a firm footing on the shores of the latter.
During the spring of 1722, Peter sailed along the rivers Moskva, Oka, and Volga
to Astrachan, and in July issued a manifesto that he would declare war on Persia
if the powerless shah did not offer any return for the offence experienced by
Russian merchants at Shemach. In July, the emperor quitted Astrachan, along
with his troops and fleet. In August, Tarki was taken. After the defeat of
Machmood, sultan of Ootemish, Derbent was occupied. But further success was
arrested for want of food, as the vessel which was bringing corn was detained by
a storm. In a council of war, it was accordingly decreed to terminate the cam-
paign for that year, to leave a garrison in Derbent, and to return to Astrachan. In
November, Colonel Shipov was sent to occupy the districts of Giliani, and Peter
returned to Moscow. The war, meanwhile, was successfully continued even in the
emperor's absence. Shipov defeated the Persians at Resht. During the summer
of 1722, General Matiooshkine took Bak. In autumn, the ambassador of the
shah Tochmas concluded a treaty in St. Petersburg, by which Peter incurred the
obligation to send the shah troops against all rebels, and to confirm his possession
of the Persian throne, in return for which the shah ceded to Russia the towns of
Derbent and Bak, with their districts Gilian, Mazanderan, and Astrabat.
FOUNDATION OF THE RUSSIAN FLEET CELEBKATED, HTH AUGUST 1723
1723. Peter constantly kept in view the interests of the duke of Holstein, and there-
fore sent Basse vitch to Stockholm, as a minister entirely devoted to the young
prince. Moreover, the formidable Russian fleet, under pretext of a manoeuvre,
appeared again in the Baltic Sea. The fleet consisted of a hundred galleys, twenty
vessels, and fourteen frigates. They were visible from Stockholm. The Swedes
and Danes were terrified. Had they calculated twenty years ago that so for-
midable an adversary would soon appear ? Influenced by fear, the Swedes
consented to grant the Duke of Holstein an annual income of 25,000 thalers, and,
besides, to keep him in view as an heir to the Swedish throne. On returning as
real commander in the Baltic Sea, Peter, in Revel, laid the foundation of the
famous haven of Rogerwick, and afterwards proceeded to Petersburg. This
expedition on sea was his last.
The emperor now saw that his work on the banks of the Neva had been
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 99
successful ; and, as if he had a presentiment that but a short time would yet be
granted to him, he resolved to celebrate the foundation of the Russian fleet.
According to his orders, the little boat in which he had once sailed on the Foundation of
river Yaooza was brought from Moscow to Cronstadt and there launched, amid Jj^J ^jj*
the firing of cannons. brated, August
The festival was celebrated with magnificence. All foreign ministers then in '
St. Petersburg were invited to be present. The little boat, ' the small grandfather
of the Russian fleet, sailed under the imperial flag, between rows of large and
numerous grandsons.' l The rudder was held by Peter himself, and the rowers
were vice-admirals. Each vessel which the little boat approached saluted it with
all the artillery, while the little boat also answered by three shots. The thunder
of cannons was thus heard all along the Gulf of Finland. The brilliancy of the
festival was heightened by the presence of Catherine and a magnificent court.
The scene closed by general rejoicing, prolonged till night was far advanced.
THE CANAL OF LADOGA
St. Petersburg, constantly augmenting in extent and population, meanwhile
more and more, felt the necessity of uninterrupted communication with the
southern and interior districts of Russia. Indeed, thus alone could the new
capital obtain articles needful for life. The navigable tributaries of the Volga,
such as the Msta, the Volhov, the Neva, presented these means. It remained only
to join the rivers Msta and the Tvertza at Vuishaia Volotschka, and Peter did so.
Besides, the Lake of Ladoga, exposed to all winds, was a great hindrance to vessels
which sailed upon it. In consequence of the storms which frequently occurred
there, not a few vessels, with their crews, had already perished, while St. Petersburg,
too, was thus exposed to want of provisions. These obstacles, however, Peter over-
came. His great idea was that strength had been given him to lift a heavy
burden. This is, in fact, inscribed on a medal struck when he conquered Esthonia
and Livonia : Sunt mihi, quce valeant in talia pondera vires.
Peter accordingly resolved to make a canal along the banks of Lake Ladoga,
from the source of the Neva to the mouth of the Volhov ; and, although the canal
was to be extended over one hundred and five versts and in the direction of many
marshy spots, these obstacles, notwithstanding, did not discourage Peter. At first,
the canal was commenced under the superintendence of General Peesarev, but
afterwards was continued by General Munnich, a native of Oldenburg, who had
1 It is known that Peter named the little boat which gave him the idea of forming a Russian
fleet, ' a little grandfather, who had large and numerous grandchildren ! '
We have seen the little boat, which is still carefully preserved.
100 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
entered the Russian service. Munnich is au individual remarkable for the important
services he rendered to Russia, and also for the vicissitudes of his own fate. In
order to construct the canal, Peter spared no expense; and 25,000 men were
constantly employed at the work.
FOUNDATION OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
1724. Amid similar occupation, Peter, in accordance with the views of Leibnitz,
founded in St. Petersburg an Academy of Sciences. Its president was the
emperor's own medical man, Blumentrost, and its members included many learned
foreigners, invited to Russia. The duties of the academy were to diffuse useful
knowledge in the empire, to compose works for education, to give instruction by
means of public lectures, etc. But the great founder of this temple of science
did not survive till it was opened. That took place after his decease.
During Peter's expedition to Persia, he celebrated his fiftieth year. He was
now fifty-two. His naturally strong constitution seemed to promise long life ;
but extraordinary labour, a constant strain on his energy, combined with excess of
various kinds, and inattention to his health, told upon him and undermined his
strength. Besides, he was continually oppressed by the gloomy thought that, after
his death, all the fruits of his labour might perhaps disappear. He thus felt him-
self approaching the tomb. On feeling his strength decline, he hastened to
intimate his intentions and will regarding a successor to the throne. Although,
on February 5, 1722, a statute had been issued concerning inheritance to the
throne of Russia, by which a Russian monarch had a right to appoint a successor,
notwithstanding none knew on whom Peter's choice would fall. Many nobles
flattered themselves with the hope that perhaps they might be chosen, but, contrary
to their expectation, this was not so. The rare qualities of Catherine had long ago
arrested the attention of Peter. As his faithful companion, she had participated
in various difficult expeditions of his eventful life. Thus it seemed to him that,
after his decease, she might continue his great work. Accordingly, in order to
prepare Russia to see her on the throne, Peter resolved that she should be solemnly
crowned and declared empress. Catherine's coronation therefore took place, with
great magnificence, in Moscow, May 7, 1724. Peter himself placed the crown of
1724, 7th May Russia on Catherine's head. Overcome with emotion, the newly-made empress,
of Catherine ^n tears, threw herself at the feet of her husband and benefactor, and wished to
m Moscow. embrace his knees ; but Peter did not allow her to do so. ' Thou art worthy to
wear a crown, although not born of imperial race ! ' exclaimed he. Next day,
Catherine, seated on the throne, received the congratulations of the clergy, the
highest dignitaries, and others. Among those who congratulated her was Peter
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 101
himself, as Admiral Peter Michaelov. Then, in honour of Catherine, Peter
instituted the company of the Cavalier Guard, to whose members were appointed
the ranks of ensign-bearer and lieutenant of the army, while the emperor himself
assumed the rank of captain.
RELICS OF ST. ALEXANDER NEVSKI TRANSPORTED TO ST. PETERSBURG,
30TH AUGUST 1724
After quitting Moscow and reaching St. Petersburg, Peter resolved to transport Relics of St.
the relics of St. Alexander Nevski from Vladimir to the spot rendered famous £lex»nder
.... . Nevski trans-
by the victories of that ancient hero — i.e. the banks of the Neva. And this was ported to St.
accomplished. The sacred relics were met in triumph. Peter placed them in the
Alexander Nevski monastery, which he had founded, and where they still repose, 1?24-
honoured and venerated.
In spite of Peter's declining health, in October he went to Schlusselburg, in Events at
order to celebrate the taking of that fort. Thence he went to Olonetz, to inspect
the foundries there. In one of them he himself forged a mass of iron, weighing 1724.
three poods (one Russian pood is equal to forty English pounds). Then, after
examining salt-boiling at Staraia Roosa, he went to see the work at the canal of
Ladoga. He next purposed to go to Sesterbek to investigate a foundry there,
where armour was made. Thus he did not halt at St. Petersburg, but proceeded to
the village of Lachta, at seven versts from the capital, and on the Gulf of Finland.
It was a stormy autumn evening. Peter then remarked that a boat full of sailors
and soldiers, sailing from Cronstadt, was about to be cast on a sandbank by winds
and waves, and was thus exposed to the greatest peril. Peter immediately sent
sailors from his own yacht to help the boat ; but they could do little. Some of
them were even carried away by the current. Whereupon he reached the sand-
bank, threw himself into the sea, with water up to the breast, attained the boat,
and saved several of its crew from certain death. But foreseeing the disastrous
effect that the exploit might have on his health, he gave up the intention to go to
Sesterbek, and returned to St. Petersburg. Catherine was alarmed on hearing what
had occurred at Lachta ; but Peter endeavoured to quiet her fears. ' I am well
now,' exclaimed he. ' Munnich's work at the canal of Ladoga has cured me ! We
shall soon have a great pleasure. We shall embark in a light boat on the Neva,
and then disembark at Moscow, in Golo vine's garden.' But alas! Peter knew
not that he would never see Moscow again ! In saving others at Lachta, he had
injured his own health. His heroic act had caused a severe cold, which increased
his previous illness. But, although oppressed by suffering, Peter did not forget
the interests of the duke of Holstein, aud held conferences with Sweden and the
102
emperor of Germany concerning the restoration of the young prince's domains.
On the name's-day of Catherine, Peter solemnly betrothed his daughter Anna
Petrovna to the duke. The ensuing festivities seemed to lessen the emperor's
sufferings.
However, he was doomed to grief at this period. It soon appeared that,
even among the highest functionaries, traitors were to be found. Investigations
then ensued. Mons, the first gentleman of the chamber, and his sister Balk, lady-
in-waiting to the empress, and her favourite, were both accused of extortion and
abuse of power. Others also were found guilty. In spite of Catherine's tears and
entreaties, Peter was inflexible. The offenders were accordingly punished, and one
was executed. These victims of Peter's severity were the last. The event had,
meanwhile, a pernicious influence on his already shattered health. All saw that
the fatal hour was nigh. But Peter alone remained calm. In order to disperse
the sad thoughts of those around, he resolved to celebrate the coming New Year of
1725. 1725. His illness then seemed less severe ; but it increased as the month advanced,
and was finally incurable. He then partook of the Holy Communion. His
sufferings were, during this interval, intense. 'Learn from me what a weak
mortal man is/ said he to those near him. For three days and nights Catherine
faithfully watched beside the death-bed of her consort. An unusually hard struggle
between life and death ensued. But, at last, death gained the ascendency ; and
1725, on January 28, 1725, at five o'clock in the afternoon, Peter passed away, in his
DeathYf Peter fifty-third year. His remains continued uninterred till March 8. At his funeral
the Great. in St. Petersburg, in the Cathedral of Peter and Paul, Theophan Prokopovitch,
archbishop of Pskov, pronounced a touching, eloquent panegyric on the deceased.
Although it was short, a whole hour was, notwithstanding, necessary for its
deliverance, as the archbishop himself was bathed in tears, and his words were
interrupted by sighs and sobbing of his hearers.
CHAPTER VII
SUCCESSION TO THE THRONE — PETER THE GREAT AND HIS FAMILY
PETER left behind him many distinguished individuals, whose names will
frequently appear in the subsequent history of Eussia ; but to whom would he
leave his new empire ? As we have already seen, his early education had rendered
him little suited to domestic life ; and his first consort, Evdokia Feodorovna
Lopouchine, obtained no influence over him. On the contrary, they were so totally
different that no harmony could exist between them. Evdokia was, in fact, firmly
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 103
attached to the antiquated ideas then prevalent in Russia, and with an evil eye
viewed Peter's reforms. Thus a divorce ensued, and she was obliged to take the
veil. Peter and Evdokia, however, had a son Alexei, born in 1690. Till the age
of nine years the boy had been left beside his mother, displeased with a husband
seldom at home, and, when he was there, no cheerful guest. It is thus not
extraordinary that Alexei had no affection for his father. Then Evdokia was
removed to a monastery. Peter, as before, was constantly absent. He was only
like a stranger in his own house. True, he did pay a certain degree of attention
to the education of his son. The young prince, meanwhile, showed capacity for
learning, and had a taste for reading. However, only one kind of books seemed to
interest him ; or, in other words, all concerning the church. His favourite con-
versation, too, was with the clergy, and regarding sacred literature. As frequently
happens, the son was totally unlike his father, but very much resembled his grand-
father and great-grandfather. Alexei Petrovitch was, besides, physically quite
unfitted for the life of constant movement and activity so remarkable in Peter.
Peter, meanwhile, considered that his great work could alone be continued and
completed by the untiring energy of his successor. But these demands, at total
variance with Alexei's natural disposition, only irritated him, and rendered him
still more averse to the innovations of Peter. The latter was thus urged to exact
a radical change of his son's inclinations. Besides, not a few individuals, displeased
with the changes Peter had introduced, gladly espoused the cause of his son.
There were also many for whose interest it was to augment the enmity already
existing between the young prince and his father. Alexander Danilovitch
Menshikov was especially one of that class, as we learn from Ilovaiski's state-
ments (p. 271). Alexei was accordingly surrounded by the upholders of the
old party, in whose society and conversation he found the same pleasure that
had formerly been experienced by Peter in intercourse with Lefort and others
like him.
Such was the state of affairs, and such was Alexei's open preference for
ancient Russian customs, when in 1711 he was obliged, by Peter's command,
to marry the Princess Sophia Charlotte Cecilia of Brunswick Wolfenbiittel
Blankenburg, who still continued, even after her marriage, to profess the
Lutheran faith. The union was a very unhappy one. On that account Peter
blamed his son alone. Sophia died in 1715. She left two children, a son,
afterwards Peter II., and a daughter Natalia.
We subjoin the following quotation from Andre"ev's fascinating work, entitled
Representatives of Power in Russia after Peter I. (p. 28): —
'There is a legend which affirms that Alexei's consort, the Princess Sophia
104 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Charlotte, did not in reality die, but only pretended to be dead, and had a mock
funeral. Then she is said to have disappeared and assumed the name of Countess
Konigsmark. Finally she was seen in Louisiana and in the Isle of France, where
she married a common sergeant, and henceforth lived as a private individual.
But all these statements belong to the region of fancy, even of an author who
deemed it necessary to quote some romantic details found among the documents
of Duclos.'
Peter, seeing that every means failed to transform his son, thus wrote to
him : —
' The grief that I feel concerning the future lessens the gladness I experience
at my present success, for I clearly see that thou despisest all the means which
would render thee capable to reign after me. Thine incapacity I call self-will,
for thou canst not plead want of mind or of physical strength. By means of
military exploits, we have issued from previous darkness. We have caused
ourselves to be known to other nations, while we have forced them to esteem us.
Yet thou dost not wish to hear of military affairs. I demand of thee not labour,
but good-will. I myself am but a man, exposed to death. To whom shall I
leave my empire ? If thou dost not change, know that I shall deprive thee of
inheritance. Know also that if I have not spared my own life, and do not still
spare it, for my country and my subjects, is it possible that I shall spare thee ?
It is better to have good strangers than one's own who are worthless.'
To this, Alexei replied that he was unfitted to reign, and had no views of the
throne. To which Peter returned that he had no confidence in the assurances of
his son, and that he should either alter his manner of life or become a monk. It
is said that Alexei's partisan, Kikine, then exclaimed, while addressing the young
prince : ' Go into a cloister ! There the monkish cowl will not be nailed to
your head.'
Alexei thereupon testified his wish to retire from the world and to become a
recluse. Pete?, however, delayed the decision of so important an affair. On
going abroad, at the commencement of 1716, he gave his son six months for
deliberation. But on receiving no answer when that time had expired, the
emperor once more wrote, in order to demand a decided reply. If Alexei agreed
to all that was required, he was, moreover, ordered to join his father abroad.
The young prince replied that he would go, and, sure enough, he did leave
St. Petersburg ; but, instead of joining his father, went to Vienna, to the G-erman
emperor, Charles VL, under whose protection Alexei placed himself, while affirming
that he endeavoured to escape from persecution and death. Alexis had left
Russia along with Euphrosine, his favourite, a common girl of Finnish origin.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 105
In order to avoid his father's pursuit, Alexis quitted Vienna and went to Tyrol,
to the castle of Erenberg, and then to Naples, to the castle of St. Elmo. But
all his precautions were vain. Peter sent Tolstoi and Roomiantzov to find out
the hiding-place of Alexei, and to demand that he should be delivered up by
the Emperor Charles vi. In case of a refusal Peter threatened war. Then
Charles allowed Tolstoi to go to Naples, and to persuade Alexei in a personal
interview to return. Tolstoi, too, did more. He artfully gained Euphrosine to
his side, and by her aid endeavoured to urge the prince to comply with his
father's demands. Entire pardon of the past was, besides, promised. At first,
Alexis would in no wise consent, but finally he agreed to return to Russia along
with Tolstoi. On the one hand, the prince was alarmed at the thought that
Peter himself would appear in Italy ; on the other, Alexis believed in promised
pardon. It, in fact, had deprived the Emperor Charles of all pretext to detain
the young prince. At the beginning of 1718 Alexei was accordingly brought
first to Moscow, and thence to St. Petersburg. He was then shut up in prison,
and surrounded by a strict guard. Peter next demanded that his son should
renounce all claims to the throne, and even pardoned him, on condition that he
disclosed every particular concerning his flight, and named all who had advised
or aided him to leave Russia. Investigations then began, accompanied by the
most hideous tortures, in order to discover if Alexis and his party desired to
restore the ancient order of things. Under the influence of torment many
discoveries were made. It soon appeared that Alexei cherished the utmost
antipathy to his father's reforms, as well as towards those surrounding Peter, and
even to the latter himself. Chopin, in his Histoire de Russie, mentions that
Alexei owned how on one occasion, during confession, he had acknowledged a
desire for Peter's death. ' You are not the only one who does so. We (priests)
desire it also,' was the father-confessor's reply. Finally, many were convicted of
having encouraged the young prince's enmity to Peter, and of urging the former
to become a temporary monk, in order subsequently to quit the cloister. Kikine
and others had given that advice. It furthermore came to light that Alexei's
mother, Evdokia (or Elena), the involuntary nun, could in no wise become
accustomed to her monastic retreat, but still continued to call herself empress,
and eagerly awaited the time when she would once more appear in the world
surrounded by the honours of her previous position there. Not only so : Dosetheus,
archbishop of Rostov, had been encouraging her to cherish that hope by his false
predictions and would-be visions. It was likewise disclosed that Evdokia had
held intercourse with Peter's sister, the Princess Maria Alexe'evna, and also with
General Gliebov, After torture, many clerical and lay individuals, who had
VOL. n, o
106 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
participated in the unhappy affair of Alexei Petrovitch, were executed. Among
them were Dosetheus, Kikine, Gliebov, and others. Evdokia was shut up at
New Ladoga and the Princess Maria Alexe'evna in Schlusselburg. Whereupon
Peter formed a council of one hundred and twenty-four persons, including the
highest dignitaries. They decreed that Alexei should be condemned to die. The
sentence, however, was not put into execution, as the unhappy young prince
Death of meanwhile expired in prison, June 26, 1718.
Such are the statements made by Russian historians — the most authentic,
such as Soloviev, Ilovaiski, etc. Andre'ev, however, in his work above quoted,
makes the following remarks (p. 28) : —
' After some time, by Peter's orders, Alexei Petrovitch was privately put to
death in prison by the hand of General Veide'. The dissolute life and cruelty of
the young prince were blamed as the causes of his consort's premature decease.'
The death of Alexei Petrovitch is, however, one of those mysterious historical
events concerning which the whole truth will never be known. Andre'ev is the
first Russian author who has dared to write so frankly on the subject. Indeed,
we are not a little amazed that his work, containing such remarks, is permitted
to appear in print.
The unhappy affair of Alexei is a dark stain on Peter's otherwise glorious
reign. The tragic event clearly proves that the cruelty inherited by the Russians
from an early period still existed and was in full force at the commencement of
the eighteenth century.
In 1711 (1712 according to Soloviev) Peter had solemnly acknowledged the
Livonian prisoner, Martha Skovronskaia, as his wife. She was then known by
the names of Ekaterina Alexe'evna. Unlike Evdokia Lopouchine, who was
fanatically attached to ancient Russian customs, Catherine was, on the contrary,
one who better understood Peter's aims and mode of life. She constantly
accompanied him in his campaigns, and possessed a truly "wonderful influence
over him. This was 'especially the case when he was afflicted by periodical
convulsions, occasioned, it is said, in consequence of poison administered to
him by Sophia during his childhood.
Peter and Catherine had a large family. Soloviev (p. 282) mentions two of
their sons, Paul and Peter, both of whom died in early childhood.
The daughters of Peter the Great were — Anna Petrovna, duchess of Holstein
(mother of Peter in.) ; Elizaveta Petrovna, afterwards reigning empress of Russia
from 1741 till 1761; a third daughter, Natalia, died soon after her father.
Mention is also made of a daughter, Margarita Petrovna, who died in infancy.
In February 1721 Peter issued an ukase, by which a sovereign of Russia had
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 107
a right to choose a successor, or to disinherit the latter, if unworthy to fill the
throne.
The celebrated preacher, Theophan Prokopovitch, archbishop of Pskov,
then wrote a composition, entitled Truth, the Will of Monarchs, in which he
endeavoured to prove the wisdom of these decrees.
But Peter did not himself profit by the new law he had made, for he died
before he had named a successor.
It is said that, on feeling his last hour at hand, he sent for his daughter Anna,
and exclaimed, ' Give all to ' Then he fell back and expired, ere he had time
to add more.
CHAPTER VIII
PETER'S REFORM OF ADMINISTRATION AND OF DIFFERENT CLASSES
AMONGST other changes introduced in Russia by Peter the Great, one of primary
importance concerned the transformation of different classes of society. The
prohibition of strife for precedence had already weakened the hereditary Moscovite
aristocracy, and Peter dealt a final blow at the distinction of the boyards by
opening the way to the highest posts alike to individuals of totally insignificant
origin as well as to foreign emigrants. In this wise the manner of service and
the sovereign's favour were considered in reality higher than distinguished birth.
In his Table of Rank (1722) Peter divided all conditions in service, like those of
the Germans, into fourteen classes. Each class corresponded to a certain grade,
military or civil. At that epoch, several orders were likewise instituted, such
as those of St. Andre*, 'the first-called,' and also of St. Catherine. Certain
tokens of distinction were likewise conferred on individuals who had served
faithfully or for a lengthened period. Such measures determined the particular
rank of those in office, in the same form as it still exists in Russia. The classes
of functionaries, having different grades, were chiefly filled by persons from
among landed proprietors or those who had formerly been in service. They
then received the general appellation of ' nobles.' Persons of any other class who
had attained the first rank of an officer in the army, or the eighth class of civil
service, thus obtained a right to be entitled ' hereditary nobles.' Peter rendered
hereditary landed property equal to that merely conferred for service, but he
also confirmed the duty of each nobleman to serve during his whole life. Those
who avoided service forfeited their property. The voevodes, or commanders of
provinces, were ordered to assemble noblemen's sons, from ten to thirteen years,
108 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
in order to inscribe them for military service. Those unfit for it were to be
civilians. In 1714 Peter also endeavoured to introduce the law of primogeniture,
by which the eldest son, or one son appointed by the father, should inherit the
whole property. It thus remained entire, and could not be sold to strangers.
The inhabitants of suburbs were divided by Peter into three sections. The
two first were called ' guilds.' They were composed of merchants and of different
artisans. The third was formed of the poorest inhabitants of towns. In the
population of villages two sections were, besides, formed — the so-called ' polooniki,'
or peasants who still retained the right to remove from one spot to another, and
who also tilled the ground in return for a certain part of the crops ; the second
section consisted of the ' odno-doortzi,' or those in service who had become poor.
They, on equal footing with the peasants, were obliged to pay poll-tax, but,
notwithstanding, retained the right to possess serfs.
The change of the previous duties levied on land into the poll-tax occasioned
the first revision of the class which paid that assessment. In 1719 they
amounted to six millions. In that revision, or census, peasants belonging to
landed proprietors were classed together with bondmen - serfs. Both were,
however, obliged to pay poll-tax and to become recruits. Indeed, for exact
compliance with these regulations landed proprietors were held responsible. The
last measure finally confirmed peasants as the property of landed proprietors.
In 1721, however, Peter forbade peasants to be sold otherwise than as a whole
family together.
The administrative measures of Peter tended to introduce more simple, uniform
management. Thus, instead of the previous division of the country into districts,
which had become complicated and confused during several centuries, Peter
divided Russia into twelve governments, which, in turn, were subdivided into
provinces. At the head of the first were placed governors or general-governors ;
at the second were voevodes. Those under them in authority were called by
the foreign names of landrichters, commanders, landraths, commissaries, etc. The
administration of districts was concentrated in the chancery or seal-office of
governors and of voevodes. In 1711, instead of the former council of boyards,
was instituted the senate, as the highest place in government for administrative,
judicial, and financial affairs. At first, the senate was formed only during the
periods of the sovereign's frequent absence from the capital, and consisted of
nine senators. But subsequently (1718) the senate became permanent, and the
number of its members went on gradually increasing. In the senate affairs
were not otherwise decided than by the unanimous decree of all the members,
and confirmation of that decree was ratified by the procurator-general. At a
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 109
later epoch, the public offices of Moscow were transformed by Peter into so-called
' colleges,' organised according to the Danish and Swedish manner, and submitted
to the senate. In these courts or colleges affairs were decided by majority of
votes. Of course, when these colleges were opened it became necessary to find
individuals who could properly transact business. Peter therefore invited foreign
jurists to Eussia. But as they were unacquainted with the Russian language,
they required interpreters. Peter, besides, tried to obtain scribes in Austria
from among Bohemians and Moravians, as the latter could sooner learn Russ.
In order to prepare functionaries to transact business in these college-courts, in
1716 forty young Russian scribes were sent to learn at Konigsberg. Besides,
Swedish prisoners who had acquired Russ had proposals to enter service in
these colleges. The introduction of aulic judges in the most considerable towns
shows an attempt to separate the judicial part from the jurisdiction of district
administrators. Peter likewise endeavoured to render traders and manufacturers
free from the jurisdiction of voevodes by instituting burgomasters, chosen by
citizens from their own sphere. All classes of traders thus submitted to the
tribunal of burgomasters in Moscow (1699). In chief towns magistrates were
also instituted from among chosen individuals. However, the collegiate system
did not produce the desired results ; for the presidents of colleges and courts of
justice made use of their privileges and other formalities by submitting to
colleagues, and decided an affair according to their opinion. In the administration
of justice, verbal accusations were permanently changed for those in writing.
In towns and districts Peter instituted the beginning of a police, whose duties
were to maintain the order and safety of society. Notwithstanding, special
establishments of police were not yet founded. Their duties were imposed on
governors, voevodes, etc. Only for capital cities a general-police-master (General
Devier) was nominated. (Ilovaiski, pp. 255-258.)
CHAPTER IX
DOMESTIC ECONOMY — AKMIES — INSTITUTIONS — FAMILY LIFE
EVEN arnid the most important state affairs, Peter's attention was likewise turned
to minute details of domestic economy. Thus permission was granted to find
out mines and to work them, while paying a certain percentage to proprietors
on whose lands mines were discovered. Orders were also given to cut corn with
scythes instead of sickles. Many Russian youths were also sent abroad in order to
learn different trades, etc. Manufacturing industry, which till this period had
110 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
hardly existed in Russia, was created by the untiring energy of Peter the Great.
During his reign more than two hundred manufactories and mills were built.
In order to facilitate commercial intercourse in the interior of the country, he
paid the utmost attention to the means of communication between one spot and
another. Several good roads were accordingly made, and we have already noticed
the construction of the canal of Ladoga, so essential to St. Petersburg.
Indeed, the foundation of that capital, in a marshy, desert spot, far removed
from the centre of the country, cost immense efforts and sacrifices, as we previously
remarked. Many of the poor workmen, summoned from distant parts of the
empire to build the new city, perished while doing so from heavy labour and
from disease. Peter sometimes commanded stone-building to be everywhere
stopped, and ordered every mason to be sent to the banks of the Neva. Some-
times the town was inundated by water. Accordingly, it thus became necessary
to raise the ground by means of carried earth.
Other objects of Peter's special care were the army and the fleet. In order
to form regular troops, a better system for recruits was introduced. All classes
which paid imposts were obliged to furnish one recruit from a certain number
of individuals. Only traders could purchase exemption from being recruits.
The nobles furnished officers for the army. Young noblemen generally began
their service in the ranks of the guards, where the best soldiers were chosen
from among the regiments of the army. All the interior organisation of land
forces was copied from the Germans, and the military were dressed in German
uniform. The equipment of the fleet was principally taken from Dutch models.
The Russian fleet consisted of forty-eight vessels of the line and eight hundred
small ships. The greater part of the regular forces (which amounted to 200,000)
found a position in different governments (provinces) in houses of the town and
village inhabitants.
Concerning popular instruction, Peter's attention was especially turned towards
the clergy and the nobles. For the former, institutions were founded in every
diocese. At that epoch the influence of Little Russian schools was peculiarly
felt — particularly that of the Kiev Academy — in the enlightenment of the Russian
clergy. For nobles and functionaries elementary schools were opened in provinces,
where pupils of the Moscow Mathematical School were sent as teachers. In
fact, noblemen had not the right to marry till they had learned to read and
write. Besides, some institutions were founded for special classes, such as
engineers, the marine, and a school for clerks. At the same time, also, learned
works on artillery, fortification, history, etc., began to be translated. Peter,
besides, sent many youths abroad, in order that they should become acquainted
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 111
with marine service. Even in the very Russian alphabet transformation was
effected. Instead of former inconvenient letters, used by the church for con-
traction, others, like those of the Latin alphabet, were introduced. We have
already noticed the foundation of the Academy of Sciences (1724).
Peter the Great, also, did not leave the family life of his subjects unremarked.
He openly took up arms against the antiquated Oriental habit of shutting up
women in domestic captivity, and, on the contrary, strove to develop social life.
With these aims he introduced in the capital so-called 'assemblies/ at which
nobles and others of the wealthier classes should, during the winter, on a certain
day, receive guests of both sexes, invited and uninvited.
Berchgoltz, gentleman-in-waiting in the suite of the duke of Holstein (Peter's
son-in-law, consort of Anna Petrovna), lived several years in Russia, and kept a
diary from 1720 till 1725. From it we become acquainted with some customs
of that epoch. While describing the above-mentioned assemblies, Berchgoltz, in
conclusion, remarks : —
' But what chiefly displeases me in these assemblies is, first of all, that in the
dancing-room, where ladies are present, men smoke tobacco and play at draughts.
Hence there is an unpleasant smell and also a disagreeable tumbling noise.
In the second place, the ladies are all seated apart from the men, so that it is
impossible to talk with the former. While they do not dance, they all sit like
so many dumb beings and look at each other.' (Ilovaiski, p. 260.)
From these remarks we clearly see that, women being hitherto quite un-
accustomed to the society of men, and also on account of rudeness in the
latter, beneficial changes could by no means be easily effected.
Besides these assemblies, Peter, on various festivals, had masquerades and
processions, in which jesters enacted a chief part. Festivities at court, as well
as the launching of a new vessel, were usually accompanied by joyous drinking
matches, during which none had a right to refuse incessant toasts. Peter, in
fact, formed a special company called 'the general drinking college.' It had
twelve cardinals and a prince-pope as the head. They were obliged to drink
more than others on the occasion of imperial festivals. Berchgoltz, however,
seems to consider that institution as a satire.
Peter also insisted that henceforth a bride and bridegroom should have time
to become acquainted with each other. He then appointed an interval of six
weeks between the betrothal and marriage, so that the latter might be broken off
if unpleasant to either party. Hitherto, marriages in Russia had been arranged
entirely by parents or guardians, without the consent of bride and bridegroom,
and sometimes when they did not even know each other.
112 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
CHAPTER X
THE CLERGY AND THE RASKOLNIKS, OR OLD BELIEVERS
ONE important change effected in church government by Peter the Great was
that he abolished the patriarchate, which often came in collision with the
imperial power. When the patriarch Adrian died (1700) — an adherent to old
customs and an enemy to new innovations — Peter did not appoint a successor,
so that affairs belonging to the jurisdiction of the patriarch were transacted by
Stephen Yavorski, metropolitan of Riazane. He was then entitled ' guardian of
the patriarchal see.' Besides, in order to administer affairs of the church, a
kind of college was instituted, formed of the higher clergy, and named ' The
Most Sacred Synod' (1721). The president of the synod was the above-mentioned
Stephen Yavorski, one of the most eloquent preachers and among the best clerical
writers of his time. A well-known work by him is entitled The Signs of a
coming Antichrist, written to refute the sectarian teaching of an author named
Taleetzki, who in Peter's reforms saw the signs of a coming Antichrist. (Taleetzki
was executed.) Another work, The Stone of Belief, was written by Yavorski
against Protestant doctrines spread in Moscow by a physician, Tveritinov, and
his associates. The Stone of Belief was printed after the death of Peter. The
latter, however, eventually cooled towards Yavorski, as he somewhat favoured
old customs, and was against reform. Peter then paid more attention to Theophan
Prokopovitch, archbishop of Pskov. Theophan was commissioned by Peter to
write regulations for the synod. These regulations stipulated that each bishop
should have his own school, in order to prepare the clergy to fill their sacred
office. Unlettered sons of church servants were to be made soldiers. The
act of entering monastic life, and also the former freedom of monks, were both
considerably restricted. Inspection of monastic affairs, such, for example, as
management of their revenue and peasants, Peter assigned to a particular tribunal
for monasteries, composed of lay members. In order to limit the number of
monks, Peter ordered old men and retired soldiers to live permanently in
monasteries. Part of the monastic revenue was henceforth to be devoted to
almshouses. The greater part of family affairs previously referred to the
judgment of the church, Peter, by law, remitted to the judgment of the
laity. He also repeated an ukase of his father, Alexei Michaelovitch, that all
professing the Russo-Greek faith should be present at church on festivals. For
failing to be so, a fine was imposed. Foreigners had nearly entire freedom to
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 113
profess their own religion, while, on the contrary, rigorous measures against the
Raskolniks, or so-called Old Believers, were still in full force.
However, the persecution, begun during the reign of Alexei Michaelovitch,
not only did not eradicate the schism, but, on the contrary, excited the schismatics
to energy and fanaticism. The persecuted took refuge in northern forests, or
the steppes of the Don and the Volga, or, in different directions, fled towards
the Swedish and Polish frontiers, and there formed entire companies. In fact,
from the epoch of Peter's reforms, the so-called Raskol or schism began to
augment still more, and at last had not only a religious, but even a political
signification. For many of Peter's innovations and his zealous imitation of
foreign customs were misunderstood by the common people, who saw in them
only violations of nationality and of the Russo-Greek faith. Such, for example,
were considered the use of tobacco, the shaving of the beard, the alteration of
ancient national costumes, the abolition of the patriarchate, etc. Not only so :
the severe measures which accompanied these reforms, the heavy taxes which
burdened the people, the laborious work imposed upon them, still more excited
the spirit of discontent. Those bolder and more obstinate fled to forests, to
steppes, or even went abroad, and there joined the Raskol.
But towards the close of the seventeenth century, among the schismatics
themselves there was division. The priests of the Raskolniks, nominated before
the Moscow council of 1667, in course of time all died out, and their places were
filled by those who had 'seceded from the Russo-Greek (or Pravoslavni) church.
Moreover, they had been appointed by so-called Nikonite bishops (or those who
accepted corrected church books). Accordingly, many of the Old Believers did
not consider the new as really priests. Others, however, did so. The first
party of the Raskol was called Bez-pop-ovshina, or sect without priests. The
second was named Pop-ovshina, or sect with priests. But each of these sects
was again subdivided into several parties. The Pop-ovshina chiefly spread among
the woods of Kostroma and Nijni-Novgorod (Kerjenski), along the Don and
the Kuban, in the Tscherneegov districts, even in Siberia and on the Vetke'
(government of Mogilev, then beyond the Polish frontiers). The Bez-pop-ovshina,
or sect without priests, chiefly spread in the ancient Novgorodian districts, or in
the forests of Olonetz and the northern regions, towards the White Sea. There,
especially, many Raskolniks found refuge after the taking of the Solovetsk
monastery. There also was formed the sect, so famous in history, and named
the Veeigoretzki hermitage.
The active, energetic nature, so remarkable in the character of these Northern
inhabitants, accustomed to a constant struggle with the severe climate of their
VOL. IL p
114 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
country, not a little aided the great extension of the Raskol ; silent, impenetrable
forests, stormy lakes, wild rocks, ravines, marshes, presented places of shelter,
seldom exposed to interruption by government functionaries. Accordingly, there
it was that adherents of old customs and fugitive serfs wended their way. They
cleared the forest valleys, tilled the ground, planted corn, built hermitages, and
in general led a laborious existence. At the first appearance of military, sent
to destroy the hermitages and to capture the hermits, the latter were always
ready to quit one place of refuge for another. Sometimes, too, carried away by
religious fanaticism, they shut themselves up in their monasteries and set fire to
them. These hermits or ancient monks, distinguished by the gift of utterance,
by piety, and. by constant study of Scripture, became instructors of others, and
obtained vast influence over the society of schismatics. Among such were
especially remarkable Daniel Vikoolov, as well as the brothers Andr^ and
Simeon Denisov (posterity of the Princes Meeshetzki). They founded and
built on the river Veega a general retreat, or so-called Veegovski hermitage
(1695), which ultimately became the centre of the Bez-pop-ovshina. The brothers
Denisov left some compositions much esteemed by the Raskolniks. Two works
of Simeon Denisov are particularly diffused among the Old Believers. The
first is a History of the Fathers and Sufferers of Solovetzk. The second is entitled
The Clerical Orchard, or the Russian Vine. In the former are details of the
revolt of the Raskolniks at Solovetzk. In the latter are described different acts
of the early teachers of the Easkolniks, such as those of Paul, bishop of
Kolomensk, and of the archpriest Avvakium, etc.
Although Peter I. acknowledged the civil existence of the Raskol, he,
notwithstanding, did so with oppressive restrictions. He ordered an exact
enumeration to be made of the Raskoluiks, and on them were levied double
taxes. Besides, the schismatics were not allowed to enter the civil service.
They were obliged to wear a peculiar costume. For wearing the beard a
separate duty was likewise paid. During the latter years of Peter's reign
(especially after the affair of Prince Alexei Petrovitch), severity towards the
Raskolniks increased.
Peter, however, not only endeavoured to act against the Raskolniks by means
of punishment, but he also made use of persuasion. According to his desire,
the senate sent to Olonetz and the northern maritime districts a certain monk
named Neophite, in order to hold disputations with the Old Believers. Neophite
thereupon proposed more than a hundred questions. In reply to them a whole
book was written, chiefly by Simeon Denisov, and entitled Maritime Replies
(1723). But even at an earlier period (1719) the Pop-ovshina sectarians,
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 115
inhabiting the Kerjiuski hermitages, presented to Pitirem, bishop of Nijni-
Novgorod, a similar book, known by the name of Kerjinski Replies. Nearly all
the more celebrated bishops of Peter's time wrote works against the RaskoL
The most remarkable of them are from the pen of the mild, truthful St.
Dmitri, metropolitan of Eostov. In them he mentions many other sects. But
these compositions produced little effect. In general, during the struggle against
the schism, preaching and exhortation could not be successful, from the want of
public schools for the people, and also from the small degree of enlightenment
which prevailed among the teachers nearest to the lower orders. We allude to
the village clergy. In fact, the country priests of that epoch could scarcely
read, while their scanty means of subsistence induced them to pay more attention
to their small portion of ground than to the instruction of their flocks. One
contemporary of Peter I., named Pososhkov, a commercial man, in his work
entitled Penury and Wealth, thus remarks : — ' In Russia, our village priests live
by their labour, and are in no wise distinguished from peasants who work the
ground. The peasant is at the plough, and the priest is at the plough. The
peasant reaps corn, and the priest reaps corn, while the holy church and the
spiritual flock are set aside. From this agricultural work many Christians die
without confession and communion.' Pososhkov then continues to describe how
individuals unable even to read were, notwithstanding, made priests. Archbishops'
servants received gifts from new candidates for holy orders, made them learn some
psalms by heart, then, in presence of the archbishop, the candidates were obliged
to read. As they appeared to do so fluently and well, the archbishop thereupon
gave them his blessing as priests. Karamzine also mentions that during the
reign of John the Terrible (1534-1584) many priests learned the church service
by heart, as they were totally unable to read (see Ilovaiski, pp. 260-264).
CHAPTER XI
CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNIFICATION OF REFORM INTRODUCED IN RUSSIA
BY PETER THE GREAT
THE numerous hindrances and grief which Peter the Great experienced from the
upholders of ancient customs induced him not unfrequently to make use of
severe measures, in order to execute his plans of reform. Those who dared to
disobey imperial ukazes were sometimes mercilessly beaten with sticks, or sent
into exile, and there compelled to work as felons. Not unfrequently, too, the
guilty were deprived of property and even of life. To see that orders were strictly
116 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
obeyed, new officials called fiscals, i.e.. spies or informers, were appointed. These
fiscals were placed in each college, in each chancery of the government ; and in
every provincial town, one was to be there. Sometimes even two were nominated.
For the benefit of the fiscals was assigned half the money paid in fines. Beform
occasioned frequent expressions of discontent, and there were especially a great
many libels. In order to investigate similar affairs, Peter instituted the ' Preobra-
jenski Public Office,' in Moscow (about 1702). The commander of that office was
the stern Romodonovski, a favourite of the sovereign, who received from him the
title of Prince Caesar. Those who wished to denounce designs against Peter, and
denunciation in such cases was obligatory, pronounced the expression, ' Word and
deed ! ' The denunciator and those whom he accused were immediately taken for
investigation and tortured in the torture-chamber of the secret chancery.
The reform introduced by Peter I. aimed at copying European customs and
institutions. But these foreign customs and institutions, transported to Russian
soil, did not always suit the natural condition of the country and the character of
the people. In fact, much good effected by ukazes speedily lost its strength and
was abused, simply because it did not suit the Russians, and was not in accordance
with their degree of enlightenment.
Pososhkov thus complains of the want of justice and the oppression of the
lower classes : — ' With us, faith is sacred and beneficial ; but judicial administration
is worth nothing, and pays no attention to imperial ukazes. Each acts according
to his own habits; so that peasants leave their homes and actually flee from
injustice. Until regular judicial administration is introduced in Russia, we will
never be rich, and we will not obtain good fame.'
According to Pososhkov, one great source of evil to peasants was that they
could neither read nor write. For many impostors came to the country, brought
with them false ukazes, and then levied unjust fines. Concerning the difficulties
with which the great reformer-sovereign had to struggle, Pososhkov remarks : —
' Our great monarch drags up the mountain a burden fit for ten, while a whole
million is dragging in an opposite direction under the mountain. So how is he
to maintain the contest ? '
But notwithstanding all the obstacles which Peter had to encounter, his
untiring activity, without example in history, communicated new life and strength
to the Russian state, and consequently to Russian nationality also. In this wise,
no sovereign had ever better merited the surname of ' The Great.'
The most visible features of that wonderful activity are more especially
remarkable in administrative and social reform. By it Peter improved the
mechanism of state, and promoted concentration of the empire. He facilitated
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 117
the further approach of Russia towards western Europe, and the immediate
adoption of European science. He created many branches of industry, and
increased commercial activity. By the speedy formation of regular armies, by
the organisation of a fleet, by obtaining the shores of the Baltic Sea, he succeeded
in elevating Russia to a high degree of power, and laid the foundation of its
influence on the system of European politics.
One contemporary, in his writings, thus expresses himself concerning
Peter :—
'This monarch has caused our native country to be compared with others.
He has taught them to know that we are a people. In a word, at whatever we
look in Russia, all has its beginning in him : and, whatever happens in future,
we will draw from his resources.' llovaiski truly says (p. 266): —
' The second half of the seventeenth century was essentially the moment in
history when, on the continent of Europe, great efforts were made to promote the
concentration of states and the formation of regular armies. The chief represen-
tative of these efforts was Louis xiv. of France.'
Concerning Peter's own views of results produced in Russia by his activity,
and particularly the progress of civilisation, we may partially infer from the
remarks of Weber. The latter, as resident of Brunswick, was in St. Petersburg
during the reign of Peter the Great, and subsequently published a work entitled
Transformed Russia (Das Veranderte Eussland).
'In 1714,' says Weber, 'Peter, on one occasion, was celebrating the launching
of a newly-built vessel. On the deck he was seated surrounded by his ministers,
generals, and some of the so-called " Old Russian People," i.e. the old boyards, who
by no means willingly saw his innovations. Turning towards these boyards,
Peter said : " Which of you brothers, thirty years ago, would have thought that
now, here, on the shores of the Baltic Sea, you would work along with me dressed
in German costume, and that we would build a city on land conquered by our
labour and our bravery ? And did you think that you would see so many brave,
victorious soldiers and sailors from among the Russian people, so many learned
sons returned to their own homes from foreign lands, so many foreign tradesmen
and artisans in our country ? And did you think that you would live to see us
so honoured by foreign potentates ? Historians indicate Greece as the ancient
cradle of all sciences, whence, by the will of Providence, they were expelled and
went to Italy, and then were spread in all European countries. But the
negligence of our ancestors forbade these sciences to penetrate further than
Poland. For at that epoch the Poles, as well as the Germans, were in the same
darkness as we were until now. But by unremitting labour of their sovereigns,
118 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
these nations have opened their eyes, and have adopted the arts, sciences, and
customs of ancient Greece."
' Then Peter continued to remark that now was the turn of Russia, i.e. of the
Russians (or more particularly those present), to aid him in his undertakings, and
to show unconditional obedience.'
CHAPTER XII
CO-OPERATOES OF PETER THE GREAT
PETER THE GREAT distinguished himself by the peculiar art of selecting suitable
individuals to aid in the execution of his important plans.
A prominent place among statesmen who surrounded the reformer-sovereign
is assigned to Alexander Danilovitch Menshikov. After the death of FranQois
Lefort (1699), Menshikov was nearest the monarch's person; for when Peter
attained mature age, although he still continued to distinguish foreigners and to
attract them to his service, he, however, did not nominate them to the first place
in the state.
The tradition concerning Menshikov, that during his early youth he had sold
pies, is not confirmed. Menshikov'had received very little education, but, along
with great talent, he also combined much ambition and love of gain. As a new
individual, and one, moreover, in all indebted to what was new, Menshikov had
no sympathy with old customs, and thus still more pleased the reformer-sovereign.
But Menshikov, although a zealous co-operator of reform which did not interfere
with his own interest, notwithstanding always preferred it to the good of the
state ; so that more than once he was convicted of extortion, and only by Peter's
special favour escaped from merited punishment. Besides, Menshikov had not
sufficient magnanimity to resist the temptations attendant on extraordinary
success. He forgot himself, became self- conceited, and thought, by arrogant
manners, to obliterate the remembrance of his humble origin. And the tempta-
tions were indeed strong; for Peter conferred on his favourite a position
above that of a subject. But Peter, at the close of his reign, cooled towards
Menshikov.
Another prominent place at the court of Peter the Great was occupied by
Count Boris Petrovitch Sheremetev, a talented, enlightened man, one of the
Russian nobles belonging to the second half of the seventeenth century who had
allured Peter towards the West and its civilisation. Field-marshal Sheremetev,
when already forty-five years old, went abroad in order to study military sciences,
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 119
He returned to Russia dressed according to the German fashion, -which much
delighted Peter. Sheremetev's military exploits we already noticed, during the
description of the Northern War ; while tradition still preserves the remembrance
of his moral worth, his benevolence, his extreme honesty and generosity.
At the court of Peter the Great, the representative of an ancient, celebrated race
— that of the Golitzines — was the senator, Prince Dmitri Michaelovitch, a man of
great mind, but of a stern, even somewhat cruel disposition. His aristocratic pride
was affronted because Peter promoted those of low origin to prominent places, and
because those individuals were much nearer the sovereign and possessed more
power and influence than Golitzine himself. Prince Dmitri Michaelovitch was
likewise highly displeased at the distinction conferred on foreigners in Russia,
and he had been at enmity with the unhappy Patkul. Finally, Prince Dmitri
could in no wise become reconciled to Peter's second marriage to the Livonian
prisoner, Martha Skovronskaia, afterwards Ekaterina Alexe'evna.
A marked contrast to Prince Dmitri Michaelovitch Golitzine was his brother,
Prince Michael, brave, generous, magnanimous, honest to a fraction, one of the
most attractive among all Peter's nobles. However, like his elder brother, Prince
Michael Michaelovitch Golitzine had also no particular admiration for foreigners.
Notwithstanding, these very foreigners spoke in raptures of his mind, his affability,
his bravery and magnanimity. Of Prince Michael Golitzine it is narrated that,
after the battle at Liesno, Peter liberally rewarded Golitzine, but asked what
other favour he yet desired. ' Sire,' replied Golitzine, ' pardon Prince Repnine ! '
Repnine was Golitzine's enemy. It is also narrated of Prince Michael Golitzine,
that when already field-marshal and father of a numerous family, he, notwith-
standing, would not seat himself in presence of his elder brother, Prince Dmitri
Michaelovitch.
Another distinguished contemporary and co-operator of Peter the Great was
Count James Daniel Bruce, known for his learning. According to popular
tradition, Bruce was considered an astrologer and acquainted with the black art.
A calendar still circulated in Russia bears his name. Broosovski Street, where
Bruce's house formerly stood, still exists in Moscow. His father, Colonel William
Bruce, had also been in the service of Russia. He was descended from an ancient
Scottish race, said to be allied to King Robert the Bruce.
Ilovaiski states (p. 267) that at the court of Peter the Great there were
three men who never accepted bribes, but who were known for their remarkable
honesty. Count James Daniel Bruce was one. The others were the wise,
enlightened Field-marshal Count Boris Petrovitch Sheremetev, and the noble,
O
brave, magnanimous Prince Michael Michaelovitch Golitzine. For although many
120 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
of Peter's co-operators were undoubtedly endued with talent, and were useful to the
state, they, however, were not always possessed of moral worth.
'Indeed, the chief vices of that half-civilised period/ continues Ilovaiski,
' were to amass wealth at the cost of the state, to accept bribes, to conceal truth
from Peter, if that truth prejudiced personal interest. Sometimes Peter, when
enraged by frequent cheating, severely punished dignitaries convicted of extortion
and theft. For example, he executed the chief-fiscal Nesterov, and ordered
Prince Gagarine, governor of Siberia, to be hanged. Those immediately near
Peter's own person were more frequently punished by fines, or even by blows
from a good thick stick in his hand.'
Another upright nobleman of this period was the senator Prince Yakov
Feodorovitch Dolgorookov, magnanimous, brave, true. He even had frequently
courage openly to disagree in opinion with Peter, although the latter scarcely
tolerated contradiction. It is said that once Dolgorookov went so far as to
arrest an ukaze of the great sovereign, because it was contrary to the good of his
subjects.
Tatischev, in the preface to his History of Russia, gives the following details
concerning Prince Yakov Feodorovitch Dolgorookov : —
'In 1717 Peter, on one occasion, while at a banquet, was conversing with the
nobles regarding acts of his father, Alexei Michaelovitch, and the patriarch Nikon.
Whereupon Count Moosine Poushkine began to undervalue Alexei Michaelovitch
compared with Peter. The latter was, however, grieved, and, rising from the table,
said : " By blaming my father, and hypocritically praising me, thou reproachest
me more than I can bear." Then approaching Dolgorookov, and standing near
his chair, Peter continued : " Thou scoldest me more than any. Sometimes even
thy keen disputes offend me so much, that I can hardly support them. But I see
and feel that thou lovest myself and the state sincerely, and that thou speakest
the truth. I therefore thank thee in my heart. So now, I beg of thee to speak
of my father's actions and of mine own without hypocrisy."
' " So be it, sire ! " replied Dolgorookov. " Sit down, and I shall think over it."
Then, after thinking a little, and stroking his long moustache, according to his
usual custom, he rejoined : " The most important acts of a sovereign are three.
The first is inward administration, and one urgent affair is the administration of
justice. In that, thy father did more than thou hast done. Another affair
concerns all that is military. Thy father did much in this wise, and did much
good to the state ; but thou, by organising regular forces, hast shown the way how
his plans, impossible to execute, have been put aside. So hast thou done all
anew, and brought all into better condition. The third of thy important acts
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 121
concerns the fleet. In forming it, in establishing alliance and intercourse with
foreigners, thou hast done much more for the state and acquired more glory
for thyself than thy father did. So all this I hope thou wilt receive as the
truth!"'
Peter patiently listened to all, rose, kissed Dolgorookov, and exclaimed : ' Well
done, good and faithful servant ! thou hast been faithful over a few things, I will
make thee ruler over many things : enter thou into the joy of thy lord ! ' (See
Ilovaiski, p. 68.)
In secret commissions and investigations Peter's right hand was the incon-
stant, double-minded, talented Count Peter Andre'evitch Tolstoi.
Tolstoi had participated in the strelitz revolt, which favoured the Princess
Sophia Alexeevna, but he had managed to escape punishment ; and, in order to
please Peter, went abroad to learn when already a man past forty. Peter pardoned
Tolstoi, and placed him highly, on account of his gifted mind. Tolstoi, however,
had gradually mounted the social ladder by the protection of his relative, General-
Admiral Apraxine, and also by making presents to influential personages.
Golovkine, chancellor (or manager) of foreign intercourse, known for his grasping
disposition, procured Tolstoi, for money, the important post of Russian ambassador
at Constantinople. On returning from Turkey, Tolstoi gave Menshikov 20,000
roubles, and, through his help, became one of the individuals nearest the
sovereign's person. Peter, however, did not forget Tolstoi's antecedents, or, in
other words, that he had taken part in the strelitz revolt ; and therefore did not
believe in his newly professed fidelity. It is even said that more than once, in
merry drinking parties, Peter pulled off Tolstoi's big wig (then in fashion), patted
him on the head and exclaimed : ' O head, head ! If thou wert not so clever, I
would long ago have given orders to cut thee off!' (Ilovaiski, p. 268.)
In 1722, after instituting in the senate the important post of general-
procurator, Peter assigned it to the talented Yagoojinski, raised from the humble
ranks of life. As a dignitary who inspected every department of administration,
Yagoojinski was surnamed 'the sovereign's eye.'
The rank of general-admiral was borne, during Peter's time, by Count Feodor
Alexe'evitch Golovine. and afterw^ds by Count Feodor Matve'evitch Apraxine.
Golovine, however, was chiefly occupied with foreign intercourse. After Golovine,
foreign affairs were managed by Count Gavreel (Gabriel) Ivanovitch Golovkine, in
capacity of grand chancellor. The vice-chancellor was Baron Shafeerov, promoted
from being a clerk at the public office of ambassadors. Shafeerov rendered great
service to the state, especially in difficult intercourse with Turkey, after the peace
VOL. II, Q
122 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
of the Pmth. But, during the last years of Peter's reign, enmity between
Menshikov and Shafeerov ruined the latter. Deprived of all his duties, he
was exiled.
In the diplomatic line the Princes Dolgorookov, Gregory Ivanovitch, and
Vasili Lookitch, Count Andre* Artomonovitch Matve'ev, and Prince Roorakine
were known. In the same line also began the career of Artemeus Voleenski
and the subsequently celebrated Alexei Petrovitch Beztoojev.
In the financial department, Alexander Alexandrovitch Koorbatov was
especially remarkable. He was a man of humble origin, and became known to
Peter on account of forming the project of stamped paper.
Baron Osterman, son of a German pastor, also became famous during Peter's
reign. Osterman had an acute, penetrating mind, and was a first-class diplomatist
of his time. He rendered many services to his new country. To him Peter
was indebted for the advantageous conditions of the Neustadt peace. Indeed,
according to Peter's opinion, ' Osterman was one who never made mistakes in
diplomacy.'
However, in spite of brilliant mental qualities, Osterman was at the same
time double-minded, deceitful, and unscrupulous regarding means he employed to
gain his ends.
Another foreigner who enacted a distinguished part at Peter's court was
Munnich. He only entered the Russian service in 1721. As an excellent engineer,
Munnich's services were important at the construction of the canal of Ladoga. In
1724, Peter, when already attacked by his last illness, remarked: 'The labour of
my Muunich has made me well!'
Amongst the first nobles of Peter's court, and among the first Knights of St.
Andrd, was the Little Russian hetman Mazeppa, but we have already seen how he
finished his career. Indeed, Mazeppa's treachery decided the fate of the hetmans
in Peter's mind ; so that he gradually began to think of abolishing that dignity.
Skoropadski, a man by no means far-sighted, was exactly an individual such as
Peter needed in order to commence this preparation : for Skoropadski was but
the shadow of a hetman. In order to prevent treachery on the hetman's part,
and also to prevent revolt against him, a functionary from Great or Central
Russia was appointed conjointly to administer affairs along with the hetman.
Another important step in establishing equality between Great and Little Russia
was the fact that inhabitants of the former began to be landed proprietors in the
south. Besides, Skoropadski made presents of several districts to Menshikov and
Shafeerov. Then, according to Peter's desire, Skoropadski gave his daughter in
marriage to Tolstoi, a native of Great Russia, and the hetman's son-in-law obtained
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 123
command of the Nejinski regiment. This was the third step: for a native of
Great Eussia became commander of a Little Eussian army.
In 1722, a Little Eussian college was instituted, while the Brigadier
Viliameenov and six staff officers were ordered to be placed near the hetman.
During that very year Skoropadski died, and his successor was not chosen,
' because,' as Peter intimated, ' the treachery of other hetmans did not admit of
haste in the decision of so important an affair as a new election, and because, also,
it was necessary to seek out a trustworthy, well-known individual to fill a
position so responsible.'
Of course the previous Moscovite clergy, from the scantiness of their informa-
tion, could not aid Peter in his important work of reform. On that account, he
chiefly promoted the learned men of Kiev to the first places in the church, such,
for example, as Stephen Yavorski, Dmitri of Eostov, and Theodosius Yanovski,
archimandrite of the Alexandrovski cloister. An able defender of reform
appeared in the person of the gifted Theophan Prokopovitch.
In 1706, on one occasion when Peter was in Kiev in the Sophiovski cathedral,
at the conclusion of the service a young monk pronounced an oration. He cleverly
alluded to political events, spoke eloquently, but without the scholarly bombast
of preachers at that epoch. Peter inquired the orator's name, and learned that it
was Theophan Prokopovitch. Theophan, during his early youth, had studied at
the Kiev academy. Then he completed his education at a Jesuit college of
Eome, and eventually became one of the teachers in the academy of Kiev.
After the battle of Poltava, Prokopovitch had met Peter in Kiev, and
pronounced a speech of congratulation. Peter felt attracted to the talented
monk, and some years afterwards summoned him to St. Petersburg and made
him an archpriest.
In his sermons and compositions, written on occasion of Peter's most important
acts of administration, Prokopovitch from reason and Scripture endeavoured to
prove the sacredness of a sovereign's will, and blamed, as ignorant men, the
adherents of old customs. In religious questions, Prokopovitch showed a certain
degree of free-mindeduess, and disliked restriction in his mode of life, for which
reasons he more than once was accused of heresy by those envious of his fame, or
others adverse to reform.
Among remarkable archpriests of Peter's time we must also mention St.
Metrophan, bishop of Voronej, and Job, metropolitan of Novgorod. The latter,
from the archpriest's funds, founded schools, hospitals, and refuges for orphans in
Novgorod.
After the battle of Narva (19th November, 1701) Peter ordered the
124 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Novgorodians, without distinction of rank, age, or sex, to dig a trench around the
town. General murmurs then ensued. Whereupon the venerable archpriest,
aged eighty years, was the very first to issue from the town, simply clad, with a
spade in his hand, and began to dig the earth. Thus quietness was restored.
(See Ilovaiski, p. 270; also Dictionary of Celebrated Russians, by D. Banteesh-
Kamenski.)
DOMESTIC HABITS OF PETER THE GREAT
As a strict administrator of state, Peter observed carefulness even in the most
minute details of everyday life. Only on great occasions did Catherine appear
in magnificence at his court. Otherwise, extreme simplicity was remarkable in all
surrounding him. The list of his courtiers included a few ' denschiki,' or soldier-
servants; and his annual expenditure amounted to from thirty-five to fifty
thousand roubles. His usual dinner consisted of a very few ordinary dishes, and
did not continue longer than half an hour. As he disliked fish, he on fast days
merely ate bread and fruit. His favourite beverage was Russian kvass (or small
beer). His usual attire was an army uniform. Not unfrequently, the Autocrat
of the North was to be seen wearing mended worsted stockings and old patched
shoes. As he observed carefulness in all, he attentively remarked the mode of
life led by his subjects, and endeavoured to find out if they had heaped up
wealth by extortion. In the latter case, he severely punished them.
Peter the Great spent little time in repose. His sleep was not prolonged more
than five hours. It also not unfrequently happened that if he awoke during the
night he would order candles and a slate to be brought. Then he would write
down his projects for the following day. At three o'clock A.M. he left his bed,
and for some time continued to read. Then he dressed, listened to reports, and
gave them his decision. Afterwards he went to inspect manufactories, foundries,
and wharves for shipbuilding. In the latter he very often used himself to work.
At eleven o'clock A.M. he sat down to dine. After dinner, he rested a little, and
then went to visit schools, hospitals, etc. The evening he passed in friendly, lively
conversation. He seldom supped, and at ten o'clock he already felt sleepy.
Besides these daily occupations, he likewise made different regulations and
statutes, kept up correspondence with foreign powers, and with private individuals
from whom he hoped to obtain useful information, to be introduced in Russia,
He also exercised his troops. Nearly each day he was present in the senate or
at the admiralty, and as for shipbuilding wharfs, it was truly remarked that
' not one nail was fastened without his inspection.'
Even during moments of apparent leisure, Peter the Great found relaxation in
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 125
what would have appeared labour to others. Such, for example, was the founda-
tion of St. Petersburg. He also took delight in collecting and arranging Russian
annals, as well as in forming a library at the mint He likewise put in order a
great many articles which he had bought when abroad. Among them were
paintings, objects of natural history, surgical instruments, and tools for carpentry.
In the latter art he indeed excelled. He was also fond of studying German, as
well as astronomy and other sciences. He used to read Latin authors, and
carefully examined school-books translated into Russ from other languages.
After transforming his empire, Peter the Great issued regulations for the
clergy, the military, the so-called college courts, and for magistrates. Statutes
were made for the marine, for the police, for manufactories and commerce. The
synod, the senate, college, courts, and chanceries were instituted. Establishments
for instruction were also built, such as the marine academy, the medical college,
a clerical seminary, besides town and village schools. Libraries were also formed,
such as those of the museum and of the mint. Two hundred books were printed,
and others prepared for printing. Russian towns amounted to fifty-five. There
were nine havens. Individuals who paid imposts were estimated at a hundred
and fifteen thousand ; vessels and frigates at fifty-five ; other different vessels at
eight hundred ; copper cannons at seven hundred, and those of cast-iron at twelve
thousand. The revenue of the state was estimated at ten millions of silver
roubles.
Thus could Peter, on his death-bed, truly say to Russia : ' See how I have left
thee ! ' and such, in fact, is the inscription on a medal struck after the great
monarch's decease.
APPENDIX
PETER i. was wont to acknowledge his greatest faults, i.e. a violent, ungovernable
temper and a love of strong drink. ' I have reformed my empire, but not myself ! '
he used to say.
Of his untiring activity we have already spoken. ' Seest thou, brother ! '
exclaimed Peter, on one occasion, while addressing a marine officer, ' although I
am an emperor, I, notwithstanding, have corns on my hands because I work so
much, and in order to set you a good example. I desire, if even in old age, to see
worthy assistants and servants of Russia ! '
Peter was, besides, ever ready to acquire knowledge, and to augment the scanty
information he had obtained in early youth. His daughter, Elizabeta Petrovna,
used afterwards to relate how, on one occasion, her father saw her and her sister
126 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
learning their lessons, and with a sigh exclaimed : ' Ah ! had I learned as I ought
when young ! '
We have already seen that Peter did not usually remain long in the capital.
His various military expeditions and journeys obliged him to travel about in
different directions. These journeys were undertaken without any pomp, either
in sledges, or in so-called ' kibeetkas ' (tilt- wagons). Then he was accompanied
only by his 'denschik' (soldier-servant), and several youths who acted as
chancery clerks. From among them there were sometimes, at last, well-known
servants of the state.
CHAPTER XIII
REIGN OF THE EMPRESS CATHERINE I. (EKATERINA ALEXEEVNA) — 1725-1727
THE question, ' Who was to be the successor of Peter I. ? ' caused the nobles
to be divided into two parties. One was formed of those who adhered to the
ancient order of things, and who wished to place on the throne little Prince Peter,
grandson of the late emperor and son of the unhappy Alexei Petrovitch. The
chief upholders of that party were the G-olitzines. But the newer nobles raised to
power by Peter the Great opposed the choice of Peter Alexe'evitch. This was
also the special opinion of those who had acted against his father. The leaders of
the second party were Menshikov, Tolstoi, Theophan Prokopovitch, and the
minister of Holstein, Count Bassevitch, who was then at the court of Russia, along
with the duke of Holstein, bridegroom of Anna Petrovna.
Soloviev affirms (p. 282) that during the very night of Peter's last agony, the
nobles had a violent dispute regarding his successor. Prince Dmitri Michaelovitch
Golitzine and his associates proposed that the little Prince Peter should be elevated
to the throne, under the regency of the empress, along with the senate. To these
proposals, however, Menshikov, Tolstoi, and Apraxine replied that contest and
agitation would only ensue, while the best way to maintain the power and glory of
Russia was to proclaim Catherine autocrat-empress, since her merits had already
been acknowledged by her solemn coronation. The adherents of Catherine became
all the more powerful because their side was taken by the guards. The soldiers
shouted, ' We have lost a father ; but we have still a mother left ! ' As for the
officers, they openly said that they would break the heads of the old boyards if
the latter opposed the empress. Whereupon Catherine was confirmed in possession
of the throne.
The new sovereign then intimated her desire to continue and complete all that
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 127
Peter had begun. Accordingly, from his plan, an expedition commanded by
Baring was sent in order to solve the question : ' Is Asia joined to America ? '
In 1726, at the opening of the Academy of Sciences, a new order was instituted 1726.
— that of Alexander Nevski, also from Peter's suggestion.
Then his eldest daughter Anna Petrovna was given in marriage to Charles
Frederick, duke of Holstein, intimated by Peter before his death as his daughter's
bridegroom. But if, in some respects, haste was made to execute several plans of
Peter, on the other hand one of his most important institutions was altered. We
allude to the senate, which lost its original signification. For over it was placed
the upper secret council, into which the highest senators entered. Such were
Menshikov, Apraxine, Golovkine, Tolstoi, Prince Dmitri Michaelovitch, Golitziiie.
Along with the Russian nobles of the upper council was also the foreigner Baron
Osterman. Indeed, the latter was necessary from his capability of supporting
protracted sedentary labour, his aptitude for business, his wonderful information,
and his knowledge of foreign languages. It was the first instance of a foreigner
receiving so important an appointment. The duke of Holstein was likewise
included in the upper council. The senate and synod were deprived of the title
of ' Administrative.' The former then began to be entitled ' High.'
The members of the upper secret council presented reports to the empress
concerning peasants — forming the greater part of the population — how they were
ruined by high taxes and by the oppression of officials, so that the former fled to
Poland, or elsewhere, and joined the Easkol. It was also stated that affairs in
colleges were judged neither with promptitude nor regularity. Thus many who
there presented petitions were ruined. Sources for the revenue of state were
scanty. Expenditure greatly surpassed the annual income, and no order existed
in the management of the treasury. As many functionaries were found to be
superfluous and only burdened the people, they were dismissed, and judical judg-
ment was assigned to voevodes. To them also were submitted town magistrates.
The latter arrangement concerning magistrates was, however, a violation of one
important institution of Peter the Great, and one much wanted in ancient Russia,
i.e. to deliver the people from the judicial judgment of district administrators. The
previous arrangement, that forces should be quartered in districts, was found
onerous to peasants. Accordingly, it was henceforth decreed to quarter troops in
the suburbs of towns. Means taken to augment the revenues of state and to lessen
its expenditure were as follows : — the collection of arrears, the imposition of new
taxes, the number of functionaries was decreased, their salaries were diminished.
Finally, to certain officials, instead of regular income, voluntary donations of those
who presented petitions were offered.
128 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
The important undertaking of forming a new code of laws was continued,
although slowly, during Catherine's reign. In order to accelerate its work, the
commission was to be augmented by two members of the clergy, the military,
citizens, and magistrates. As for the clergy, they were forbidden, without command
of the synod, to consecrate monks, except widower-priests or diakons (under-
clergy).
Concerning popular instruction, besides the institution of the Academy of
Sciences, the following regulations are remarkable : — Peter the Great had ordered
all colleges and chanceries to send to printing-presses and to print ' reports of all
important circumstances regarding the knowledge of the people.' But, after the
death of the reformer-sovereign, the directors of popular instruction in colleges and
public offices deemed the publication of such reports unnecessary. Catherine,
however, heard that this had taken place without her knowledge, and ordered the
printing of the said reports to be continued.
Shafeerov, recalled from exile, formerly vice-chancellor of foreign intercourse,
was commissioned to write a History of Peter the Great ; and, in order to do so, was
furnished with necessary information. Orders were then given to send merchants'
children first to Riga and Revel to learn, and then abroad.
Concerning manners and customs of that epoch, we remark one special order
of the empress. That was nothing less than inspection of boxing- matches. For
sometimes those who took part in them would beat their opponents with knives
or stones, or throw sand into their eyes.
According to the law made by Peter the Great, Catherine had the right to
name as her successor whomsoever she pleased.
The greater number of the higher ranks, and also of the people, favoured Peter
Alexe"evitch. On his side, too, was the all-powerful Menshikov, because he had
quarrelled with the duke of Holstein, whose consort, the Princess Anna Petrovna,
the party opposed to Peter wished to see on the throne.
In short, to ensure a solid position during Peter's reign, Menshikov had per-
suaded the empress to consent to a marriage between his daughter Mary and the
young grand prince. So the party of Anna Petrovna lost power. But the pride
and bad temper of Menshikov caused him to have many enemies. They, however,
were unable to injure him during Catherine's life; and not a few of them were
exiled to Siberia and elsewhere. Among such were Count Devier, Tolstoi,
Peesarev, and others.
A singular fate was that of one individual, on whom Peter the Great bestowed
special favour. We allude to Theodosius Yanovski, archpriest of Novgorod, and
a high-class member of the synod when Catherine ascended the throne. His
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 129
pride and obstinacy caused his ruin. For allowing himself to utter offensive
remarks concerning Catherine, he was arrested, tortured in the secret chancery, and
exiled to the monastery of St. Nicholas, at the mouth of the northern Dvina.
There Yanovski was kept in close captivity, in a damp dungeon, and known by
the name of ' Monk Fedos.' His former post was filled by the subtle, pleasing
Theophan Prokopovitch.
The reign of Catherine I. was disturbed by the appearance, in the east, of two
pretenders, who called themselves Prince Alexei Petrovitch. Both were executed
in St. Petersburg.
Catherine died on May 6, 1727. Peter IL, Alexe'evitch, was then proclaimed
emperor.
In Andre'ev's fascinating work entitled Representatives of Power in Russia after
Peter L, we find the following curious details of the Empress Ekaterina
Alexe'evna : —
'MARTHA, THE PRISONER OF MARIENBURG
' At the very time when Peter was forming plans against Sweden, in his
wooden palace of Praobrajensk, afterwards surrounded by combustibles and set on
fire by his own hand, in order that no remembrance of his enmity to that state
might remain, a pestilential malady was devastating Livonia. In one parish thus
depopulated among others, the pastor and the greater part of his parishioners had
died. Pastor Gluck, superintendent of the Marienburg and Lake Papus districts,
resolved to visit the said parish, and did so. On entering the deceased pastor's
house, Gluck saw a little girl, who ran towards him, called him " Kapa," and asked
for something to eat. Pastor Gluck was overwhelmed with business; but the
child teased him, so that he was forced to give her a share of his attention. Who
was she ? It was not difficult to guess that little Martha had been sheltered by
the late pastor ; but it was much more difficult to know whence she came and
who her parents were. Moreover, Pastor Gluck did not stop to ask these questions.
Who indeed would answer them ? Accordingly, without more hesitation, he took
the little girl home to his wife, and Martha was henceforth brought up along with
his own children. Not as their equal, however, but only as a servant, for she
received no intellectual instruction and could neither read nor write. Neverthe-
less, Martha grew up a well-formed healthy young girl, although devoid of mental
culture. Soon, however, Pastor Gluck and his wife began to observe with uneasi-
ness that Martha pleased their son. They therefore desired to give her in
marriage, if a suitable opportunity to do so occurred. And the opportunity did
occur. A dragoon named Johann, belonging to the Swedish guard then quartered
VOL. II. R
130 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
in Marienburg, made a proposal to Martha, and Pastor Gluck consented to the
match. But not long did fate destine Johann and Martha to remain together.
' It was at the epoch when Peter the Great, after recovering from the defeat of
Narva, began step by step to take Livonia from Charles xn. of Sweden. The turn
to seize Marienburg came next. The Swedish forces occupying that town receded.
The Russians advanced. The Swedish major left in Marienburg could no longer
think of defence. A detachment of Sheremetev's army approached the town, and
awaited its voluntary surrender. Among others who went to meet the victors
was Pastor Gluck. He was accompanied by all his household, including Martha,
whose young husband had newly gone to rejoin the Swedish army, and separated
from Martha to see her no more.
' Pastor Gluck was a man of tact. He took along with him a Bible in Slavonian,
and as he spoke Russ, he did not fail to intimate that he might be useful to Peter.
We are ignorant of the effect produced by the Slavonian Bible. We, however, do
know more concerning one person who accompanied the pastor. That was Martha.
As a prisoner, the booty of war, she was taken to Sheremetev, the Russian com-
mander-in-chief, and Pastor Gluck returned quietly to the town. The combined
effects produced by the Slavonian Bible and by Martha were, that after some time
Pastor Gluck opened a boarding-school in Moscow.
'At Sheremetev's headquarters, Martha soon met with Menshikov. Ville-
bois, a gentleman-in-waiting on Peter the Great, positively declares that
Menshikov was speedily captivated by Martha. As for the latter, she was more
likely to be pleased with Menshikov as a younger and better-looking man than
Sheremetev. Martha did not merely show the submission of a slave in intercourse
with her new protector. In fact, very soon, it would have been difficult to say
who was the greater slave in Menshikov's house, the haughty favourite of Peter
the Great, or the wife of Johann the Swedish dragoon !
1 At Menshikov's house, Peter met with Martha, and soon carried her off. But
for a certain captain of the guards, Villebois, who in his diary took notes of what
he saw, much concerning Martha's first intercourse with Peter would be unknown.
This is especially the case when, some time afterwards, Martha was sent to Moscow,
to live with a lady from whom Villebois directly obtained many details. Martha
went to Moscow under the special care of a confidential officer of the guards com-
missioned by Peter to see that every attention was shown her. Daily reports
concerning her health were sent to him. She lived in a retired part of the old
city, and inhabited a dwelling simple in exterior, but amply furnished within.
Peter, however, at first endeavoured to keep his intercourse with her secret, and
used to visit her quietly. It notwithstanding came to pass, after some time, that
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 131
the Livoniau prisoner Martha was transformed into the Empress Ekateriua
Alexe'evna. There is, however, foundation for supposing that even after the
birth of her eldest daughter, Anna Petrovna (1707), Catherine continued to be
called Katerina Vasilevskaia, living in St. Petersburg in 1709.
' But who in reality was Martha ? Who were her parents ? It may be that
Pastor Gluck troubled himself little about the origin of a poor girl he had taken
from charity ; but of course, as the favourite of Peter I. of Russia, her past history
awakened more interest. Was she the natural daughter of a serf-woman and
a Livonian proprietor (Rosen), as an English author (Mottley) affirms ? He wrote in
1764. Or was Martha the daughter of a peasant from the village of Logovina in
Lithuania, the property of a petty nobleman named Laoornetzki ? Mottley not
only states that Martha was born near Dorpat, in the village of Ringen, where her
mother lived at the cost of Colonel Rosen, but adds that, in Ringen, Martha was
taken for education by a pastor, who, being very poor, handed her over to Pastor
Gluck. However, the details in the notes of Villebois seem more probable as to
the way in which Martha became an inmate of Pastor Gluck's house, more so than
those of an English author who wrote about ten years after the circumstances he
narrates had been communicated to him. So we shall follow the statements of
Villebois. The family of Villebois was at Peter's court. Mademoiselle Villebois
was indeed one of the ladies-in-waiting, nearest the Empress Catherine's person.
Thus, according to Villebois, Martha's father, Samoilo, fled with her mother from
Lithuania to Livonia. Martha was baptized by a Romish priest. Her parents
both died of a pestilential illness, as did also the pastor who had sheltered her.
Afterwards, in the house of a Protestant pastor, she was brought up as a Protestant.
The narration of Villebois seems to us more probable, because subsequently
Martha's relations were found ; and, in reality, they were Lithuanian Catholics.
Some say they had no family name. According to others, they were called
Skovoroshenkami, Skovorotzkami, subsequently from euphony pronounced
Skovronski. Martha's brother Charles lived and died a Catholic. The fact of
her having been baptized according to the rites of that religion was known to
contemporaries. Martha, as a Russian empress, became Ekaterina Alexe'evna, and
of course then embraced the Russo-Greek faith. All these changes of religious
belief occasioned, in contemporary court circles of Peter's time, a piece of would-
be wit, to the effect that " 1'impe'ratrice Catherine a beaucoup de religion."
' Finally, let us not forget that Peter himself used every possible means to find
out Catherine's relatives. Even the very way in which her brother Charles was
discovered proves that Catherine had been born in the Catholic family of
Skovronski, that her elder brother remembered her, that eventually her relations
132 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
took interest in her fate. If we also consider that Peter's daughters, Anna and
Elizaveta, were both born before he acknowledged his intercourse with Catherine,
and only afterwards did he contract a legal union with her, a man who paid so
little attention to public opinion as Peter did would certainly not have hesitated
to acknowledge that his wife was the natural daughter of Colonel Rosen, as
Mottley affirms. These statements concerning Anna and Elizaveta Petrovna
we particularly learn from Villebois and Weber, the Brunswick resident in
St. Petersburg at that epoch.'
Whence, then, the endless contradictory disputes concerning Catherine's
parentage? Andre'ev adds that doubtless party spirit had much influence on
the subject. Let us remark, in passing, that neither Elizaveta Petrovna nor Peter
in. wished to acknowledge Catherine's first marriage to Johann, the Swedish
dragoon. They said he was only her bridegroom, although Andre'ev states that her
marriage is undoubted. Weber decidedly mentions that Peter's secret marriage
to Catherine only took place in 1711. Elizaveta Petrovna was born in 1709.
THE EMPRESS EKATERINA ALEXE"EVNA
Peter's intercourse with Martha Skovronskaia long remained unknown, even to
those surrounding his person, or, at least, he thought so. But soon the secret
could no longer be kept. Martha embraced the Russo- Greek faith, and henceforth
was named Ekaterina Alexe'evna. Her godfather was Peter's sou Alexei. Peter
then no longer went alone to the house where Catherine lived. He was often
accompanied by ministers or confidential individuals. Conversations regarding
different affairs were carried on ; and all remarked that although in general Peter
disliked when women meddled with serious subjects, he notwithstanding always
respectfully listened to Catherine's remarks. For, strange to say, the unlettered
Livonian peasant, by her sound common sense and simple unsophisticated
reasoning, often extricated those present from difficulty, and cast new light on
the question discussed.
Ekaterina received the official title of ' Gosoodarina ' — 'Gnadige Frau' in
German. But ' Gosoodarina ' in Russ signifies more than ' Gnadige Frau.' And
although near the sovereign's person, Catherine yet seemed invisible to others.
Even after the birth of the Princesses Anna and Elizaveta Petrovna, Catherine was
officially considered as wife of the court cook. Helbig says that only in 1710 she
was entitled ' Fraulein.' Her two daughters were born in Moscow, in the same
house to which she was taken from Livonia by the captain of the guards. At
last, in 1711, Peter resolved to marry her. That was before his expedition to
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 133
Turkey ; and Catherine was already so indispensable to Peter that he no longer
separated from her. She had a remarkable moral influence over him. If inter-
cession for any one was required, it was always to Catherine that petitions were
addressed.
But Bassevitch, the minister of Holstein, mentions another singular fact. We
have already noticed the periodical convulsions to which Peter was subject.
They were supposed to result from poison, administered to him in early youth
by his sister Sophia. The commencement of an attack was recognised by a
peculiar nervous twitching of the mouth. Peter was truly frightful to behold
when thus assailed. A storm of passion burst forth on all present. He then
thought that every one was making an attempt on his life. Violent headache,
during the space of three days, succeeded the attack. Such was the case till his
intercourse with Catherine. After a scarcely perceptible movement of the mouth,
Catherine was summoned. She came and began to speak to him. The sound of
her voice seemed to possess a magic influence on Peter. The attack became less
powerful. Then he fell asleep for three hours, reposing on Catherine's shoulder.
During all that time she remained motionless, in order not to disturb him. Peter
then awoke, strong and fresh, and the headache passed.
No wonder that a person so indispensable to Peter made him at last decide to
marry her ! Peter's sister, Marfa Alexe'evna (sometimes also called Mary), advised
him to do so. Marfa Alexe'evna, however, eventually turned against Peter and
took the part of his first consort, Evdokia Lopouchine. But, before consenting to
a union with Catherine, it was previously necessary to elevate her in public
opinion. The Turkish campaign presented a suitable occasion to do so. Let us
remark, in passing, that wherever Peter went, Catherine accompanied him. At
the river Pruth, we have already noticed the difficult position in which Peter was
placed, and how Catherine extricated him from it, by collecting all the objects of
value she had, and making a contribution from the soldiers, in order to send the
grand vizier a present, and thus to gain his favour. In fact, but for Catherine,
Peter would perhaps sooner have consented to be made prisoner, or even to perish,
rather than to take a step which seemed to commit him. But Catherine saved
him from this dilemma.
Andre'ev, notwithstanding, affirms that the proceeding has been overrated.
For Catherine and the others well knew, that whatever they sacrificed would
be restored to them with interest. Be that as it may, however, her presence of
mind was praised and made a means to render her popular with the army.
Peter, in fact, required to lead to the hymeneal altar a woman surrounded by a
halo, as one who had saved Russia.
134 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
It is said that Catherine advised Peter not to intimate their marriage by a
second ceremony, but Peter had already resolved to submit to public opinion-
Accordingly, their union was openly declared (1712). Martha Skovronskaia was
transformed into the sovereign's consort, the Empress Ekaterina Alexe'evna, and
their children were henceforth entitled Imperial Highnesses.
Peter could at length in no wise exist without Catherine. Where he went, she
went. At Astrachan, during the expedition to Persia, she was forced, on account of
the terrible heat, to shave her beautiful fair hair, which she had dyed black, and to
wear a warm fur hat to protect her head from the burning sun. While accom-
panying Peter in his campaigns, Catherine drove in a separate conveyance. That
of Peter was always distinguished by extreme simplicity, that of Catherine by
pomp. Peter, in fact, liked to surround her with luxury and magnificence.
Strange to say, Catherine was still the same mild, simple being as of old. Her
elevation had not rendered her haughty ; and in no wise did she forget what she
had been. Not only so : she actually seemed as if she had been created for her
new position ; so that Peter, subsequently, used to express surprise at her capacity
for being an empress. She formed a court, which, at that period of transition,
was still distinguished by the existence of some old Russian customs, but where
German taste predominated. Foreign guests were in fact astonished at the
elegance and brilliancy of Catherine's court, so little to be expected from the
previous Esthonian servant-girl ! Catherine gave her children a suitable education,
although she herself never wished to learn reading and writing, even when she
became empress. She always used to say that her chief study now was how to
please Peter ; and that was enough for her. When she accompanied him during
his military expeditions, she left her children to the care of a French governess.
In ordinary conversation, she used to call Peter ' Batooshka ' (Daddy). She would
listen without anger to his account of his own intrigues ; although they usually
ended with assurance that none could be compared with her. To please Peter,
she instituted at her court a sort of chief-butler, or prince-pope, in a woman's
dress, and whose duty it was to intoxicate both men and women present. We
have already mentioned the hard drinking which formed a hateful peculiarity of
Peter's court. This was chiefly the case on great festivals. When the ladies
became quite tipsy, Peter used to converse with them alone, or accompanied by
some confidential individual. For Peter's reasoning was, that ' what a wise man,
if sober, keeps in his mind, a drunkard has at his tongue's end.' Indeed, all drank
at Peter's court. Catherine drank, and her young daughters were taught to drink.
Elizaveta Petrovna, unfortunately, afterwards only too well profited by the early
lessons thus given. She and her sister Anna, while yet children, were sometimes
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 135
forced to swallow a fiery cordial, mixed with pepper, which made the saliva run
from their mouths for a quarter of an hour.
As for Peter himself, his doctor Areskine used to say ' that he was possessed
by a whole legion of sensual demons.'
Bassevitch states that Catherine implored Peter to pardon Alexei, and to shut
him up in a cloister, if his offences merited punishment. Although that is
recorded by one who could only say what was good of Catherine, it notwith-
standing agrees with the general mildness of her disposition. She sincerely loved
Alexei's unhappy consort, Sophia Charlotte Cecilia, and watched over their
children, both during Peter's life and afterwards also. Catherine used often to
say to Peter that as their own son, Peter Petrovitch, was of very delicate health,
Alexei's children should be brought up so as to maintain the honour of the Russian
throne. In general, Catherine cannot be called an ambitious woman. It is true
that, even before having the prospect of becoming empress, she asked Peter to
form a separate principality for her, consisting of the Baltic regions conquered
from the Swedes. That, however, may be attributed to the influence of Menshikov.
For Menshikov retained his influence over Catherine, even after she became
empress. In fact, it was owing to Catherine's intercession that Menshikov was
frequently saved from Peter's stick. Peter used to call Catherine and Menshikov
' the children of his heart/ and each strove that Peter's favour should not be with-
drawn from the other. Notwithstanding, the avidity of Prince Ijorski (Menshikov)
often did exasperate Peter. Indeed, latterly, he cooled towards his favourite. At
first, Menshikov was very glad that Catherine had replaced Peter's former
favourite, Mademoiselle Mous-de-la-Croix, a very unamiable person, while Catherine,
on the contrary, very often interceded for the unhappy Menshikov. Menshikov it
probably was who urged the naturally unselfish Catherine to accept money from
those who presented petitions to Peter, and to place that money in banks of
Amsterdam and Hamburg. At least, the third party in that transaction decidedly
was Menshikov. As for him, his attachment to Catherine was evidently never
sincere. Witness his violent dispute with Bassevitch concerning succession to
the throne. A man who owed so much to Catherine as Menshikov did, notwith-
standing dared to say that her daughters could not reign, because they were born
during the life of her first husband, Johann the Swedish dragoon, from whom she
had not been divorced. Consequently, the young princesses were not lawful heir-
esses to the throne. The latter remark, perhaps, was true regarding Anna Petrovna.
It is said that Peter secretly married Catherine after January 1707, although, as
we have already mentioned, Weber maintains that the secret union only took
place in 1711. The marriage was openly acknowledged in 1712. According to
136 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Basse vitch, who was well informed on such subjects, Anna Petrovna was born
January 27, 1707. Be that as it may, however, it was certainly not for Menshikov
to bring all that up against Catherine, in a dispute with the minister of Holstein.
As for the Swedish dragoon Johann, there are different reports concerning
him. According to some, he participated in the expedition of Charles xn. to
Russia, fought at Poltava, was made prisoner, like many other Swedes, intimated in
Moscow the relationship he (Johann) bore to Catherine, and thus hoped to
mitigate his fate. But, in spite of all that, he was sent along with not a few of
his countrymen to Siberia, and there he died in 1718, i.e. after the birth of all
Peter's children by Catherine. Whether Peter knew these particulars or not is
uncertain. On the other hand, there is a statement that Peter did try to find out
Johann, in order to make him some amends for the loss of his wife. But all
attempts to do so were fruitless, and it was supposed he had been killed. As for
Catherine, she knew nothing for certain, whether Johann had been in Russia or
not ; and, from the day on which they separated at Marienburg, she saw him no
more. However, on meeting the Swedish general Slippenbach, as prisoner, she
reminded him that Johann had served in his corps, and remarked : ' Was not my
Johann a brave fellow ? ' Slippenbach would have been a bad courtier had he
not replied that he was proud of the honour of having such a youth under his
command, although the Swedish general could scarcely be personally acquainted
with a simple dragoon, who himself was ignorant of the fate awaiting his wife.
Catherine's interview with her brother Charles was brought about, according
to Villebois, in this wise. It once happened that the Polish ambassador,
travelling from Moscow to Dresden, heard, in a dirty little spot of Lithuania, how
a servant-boy in an inn was quarrelling with his fellow-servants, and screamed out
with all his might that he had but to say one word to some powerful relatives,
and then all those against him would have unpleasant news. The ambassador
narrated the whole scene as a joke, in a letter sent to Moscow. During the
eighteenth century, as also in the present day, letters did not always keep secrets.
The statements of the Polish ambassador finally reached Peter. By his desire
Repnina, governor of Riga, sought out the servant-boy who had spoken so
mysteriously, and obtained information regarding him. It then was proved that
the very servant in question was Charles Samoilov, Catherine's own brother!
To save appearances; an affair against him was set on foot, and he was brought
to St. Petersburg. Peter saw him at the house of Shape'elov the court steward, and
listened to the affair. Then Charles Samoilov was ordered to return the next day.
Catherine, seated in a corner near a window, also listened to what was going on.
Catherine changed countenance when the young man, so like herself, was con-
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 137
versing with the sovereign. At last, Peter led him towards her. ' There is thy
sister/ said he. ' Kiss the hem of her garment and her hand, as empress ; and
then, kiss her as a sister.' Whereupon Catherine fainted. And it is easily
understood why she did so. She saw again the brother she had not seen for
many years, and who recalled to her mind not a few remembrances of the
past.
THE EMPRESS CATHERINE I.
For some time Peter had thought of crowning Catherine; and, finally, his
design was executed in Moscow, on May 6, 1724.
Peter, in fact, knew that, as an autocrat, his will was sufficient for Catherine's
elevation to the throne. Notwithstanding, how could he answer for the future ?
He was only too well aware that those who most hypocritically flattered her
during his life might be the very first to become her enemies when he had passed
away. On November 15, 1723, he issued a manifesto, in which he quoted
examples of Greek emperors who had crowned their consorts, and concluded by
intimating that he himself had resolved to crown Catherine also. He did still
more. In presence of state dignitaries he expatiated on Catherine's services to
the empire — the care she had taken of his health, the fatigue she had undergone
while accompanying him in different expeditions ; above all, how she had saved
Russia at the campaign of the Pruth.
So the coronation took place with unusual magnificence.
But, only a few months afterwards, what a change was visible in intercourse
between the imperial couple !
Peter was enraged at Catherine. Her income was stopped, so that she was
forced to borrow the sum of a thousand ducats from her three maids-of-honour,
Olsoofiev, Kampesshausen, and Villebois. The said sum was to be bestowed on
Peter's favourite servant, Vasili Petrovitch, to make him intercede in her favour.
But Peter, with his own hands, tore in pieces the document which decreed
Catherine heiress of the throne.
Whence this change ?
In 1724 Catherine was thirty-eight years old, but court politeness considered
her age only as thirty-five. Certainly, she was no aristocratic beauty. The size
of her slippers — still preserved to posterity — occasioned the Countess Choiseul-
Gouffier, on seeing them, to remark sarcastically that ' the Empress Catherine was
on excellent footing with this lower world ! ' But notwithstanding the want of
refined elegance, nature had bestowed on Catherine a well-grown, healthy, fresh
exterior. She had beautiful fair hair. Her blue eyes and her features in general
VOL. ii. s
138 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
had a charm peculiar to themselves, but which escaped the painter's art, so that
no good portraits of her remain. She was an excellent horsewoman and a good
dancer, although latterly she only danced with Peter, who was very fond of
dancing when young. She merely walked with others. Catherine's disposition
was a strange combination of feminine gentleness and manly daring. Accessible
and kind to those around her, she not unfrequently soothed Peter's storms of
passion, and did not even dread to stand face to face with him alone.
In 1726, when the English and Danish fleets appeared at Revel, with hostile
intentions to Russia, Catherine — then reigning empress — wished herself to take
command of the Russian fleet, and to lead it against the enemy. Not long before
her death, Catherine, dressed in the uniform of a colonel, was reviewing the
guards ; and, while the Simeonov regiment was forming into a square, a ball,
fired by an unknown hand, passed near her, and killed a rich Russian merchant
on the spot. But none remarked that Catherine changed countenance. She
continued the review as if nothing had happened. If we add to these qualities
her singularly lively temperament, we are not surprised that at thirty-eight she
could still please. Peter's excesses, on the contrary, had rendered him prematurely
old. We must keep all this in mind, in order to explain the affair between
Catherine and Mons de la Croix, gentleman-in-waiting, and which made so
much noise during the interval between Catherine's coronation and the death
of Peter.
That great sovereign was decidedly one who acted on the maxim, ' Do not do
as I do ; but do as I bid you.' We have already seen that he himself talked
quite openly and joked concerning his love intrigues; but he judged those of
Catherine more severely.
Peter's former favourite, Mademoiselle Mons de la Croix, subsequently married
General Balk, and then became one of Catherine's ladies-in-waiting. Mme. Balk
encouraged the affair between her brother and the empress; and when Peter
knew all, his wrath was extreme. He wished to have a public judgment of the
case. He himself took food to Mons while the latter was in prison, so that no
one else should see him. Baron Osterman and Count P. Tolstoi were, however,
so alarmed at the scandal of a public trial, that they actually threw themselves on
their knees before Peter, and implored him to alter his resolution, while assuring
him at the same time that, if he did not, no prince would marry his daughters.
So Peter yielded. Mons and his sister, Mme. Balk, were accused of extortion, for
intercession with the empress, and thereby violating the law made in 1714
concerning bribery. But every one knew the real offence.
Once, during a dark autumn afternoon, while the affair of Mons was being
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 139
judged, Peter came into his daughters' room while a Frenchwoman was giving
them a lesson, shared also by a little girl brought up along with the two princesses.
The Frenchwoman told Villebois afterwards that Peter was frightful to behold.
His face was deadly pale, and his eyes seemed to burn with fire. He strode
about the room, taking long steps, and from time to time casting angry glances
at his daughters. Peter usually carried about with him a folding hunting-knife.
He took it out, opened and shut it at least twenty times. Meanwhile, all present,
one by one, passed into a neighbouring apartment. Only the little French girl,
in terror, crept under the table, and thus witnessed the following scene. Peter,
in a storm of passion, beat his fist upon the table and walls, threw his hat on the
floor, and then rushed out of the room, while he slammed the door with such
violence that the hinges were loosened.
At another time, Peter was standing beside Catherine at a window of the
palace. ' Seest thou that Venetian glass ? ' said he to her. ' It is made of simple
materials ; but, thanks to art, it adorns a palace. I can restore the glass to its
former nothingness ! ' So saying, he smashed it in pieces. Catherine easily
understood the allusion ; but she did not lose presence of mind.
' You may do so ; but is that worthy of you, sire ? ' answered she. ' And will
your palace become more beautiful by a broken glass ? '
Peter made no reply. The cool reasoning of Catherine calmed his irritation.
Mons was executed. He, however, was not overwhelmed on hearing of his
doom. Before death, he gave his confessor a watch, with Catherine's portrait.
Afterwards, under the lining of his coat, was found another portrait of Catherine,
set in diamonds. A third portrait he succeeded in giving a confidential
individual when arrested. Mons's sister, Madame Balk, was sentenced to receive
eleven strokes of the knout, although in reality she received only five. Then
she was exiled to Siberia. Peter took Catherine to see the blood-stained head of
Mons ; for at that epoch the Asiatic custom of exposing the members of those
executed still prevailed. Catherine was led so that her dress touched the
scaffold ; and Peter attentively watched the expression of her face.
Catherine believed in dreams. She liked to tell them to those around her,
and to ask their explanation.
Two weeks before the death of Mons, she had a dream which deeply impressed
her. She saw that her bed was suddenly covered with serpents, which crept
about in different directions. One of the serpents — the largest of all — threw
itself on her, began to wind its rings around her and to stifle her. Catherine
however, struggled with the serpent and succeeded in overcoming it. Then all
the other smaller serpents quickly disappeared from her bed. She explained the
140 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
dream by affirming that a great danger threatened her, but that she would
surmount it. And circumstances proved her interpretation correct.
After the execution of Mons, Peter himself also soon passed away. What
did Catherine then do ? She kept her husband's remains for forty days unburied,
during which interval, for half an hour each morning and evening, she wept
beside the dead. Villebois remarks that those at court were amazed at the
number of Catherine's tears. Two Englishmen, then in Russia, daily visited
Peter's remains, and looked on Catherine's excessive weeping as a sort of miracle.
Villebois continues, that on witnessing it he was deeply touched, as at the
representation of Andromache. Peter's body continued so long exposed to view,
that, finally, the strong odour of decomposition was perceptible in all the palace.
At that time, Natalia Petrovna, youngest daughter of Peter and Catherine, died
suddenly of fever, probably occasioned by the foul air.
After Peter's death, Levenvold (gentleman-in-waiting) was in great favour
with Catherine for the space of nine months, and subsequently so likewise was
young Sapicha. The latter eventually married Catherine's niece, Sophia Karlovna
Skovronskaia. She was the only one of that family at Catherine's court. Her
brother Karl (Charles) Samoilovitch — Sophia's father — although he received a
large estate and was entitled ' gentleman-in-waiting,' had, notwithstanding, neither
orders nor rank. During Peter's life, the Skovronskies remained in the country,
in their native place, and care was only taken that they should want for nothing.
Catherine, on ascending the throne after her husband's death, summoned her
relatives to St. Petersburg, although Karl Samoilovitch's wife — a Lateesh — cried
bitterly and begged that they might be left in their native spot.
Catherine did not long survive Peter. Shortly before her death she had
another dream, of which she again gave a true interpretation. She thought she
was seated at table surrounded by her courtiers. Suddenly Peter's shade
appeared dressed in the ancient Roman toga. Peter beckoned Catherine to
approach him. She did so, and he bore her aloft into the clouds. While flying
along with him, she cast a glance down on the earth. There she saw her children
surrounded by a crowd of persons, belonging to all nations, violently disputing
with each other. Catherine's explanation of her dream was that she would soon
die, and that after her death anarchy would ensue in the state.
During April 1727, Catherine fell ill. On April 29, her death was
anticipated, from constant, violent vomiting. However, sleep, prolonged for five
hours, in the arms of her daughter Anna Petrovna, seemed to promise a
favourable issue. Then the empress became worse, and after some days she
expired (5th May).
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 141
Andrdev is of opinion that the reports of foreign authors concerning
Catherine's death are unfounded; we mean, that she died from slow poison,
and that it was administered to her by Menshikov. ' Such statements/ Andrdev
continues, ' were probably made on account of Menshikov's violent disputes with
Bassevitch regarding succession to the throne, combined with the circumstance
of the shot fired at Catherine during the review of the guards. Finally, the
symptoms of the empress's last illness — i.e. constant vomiting — also seemed
suspicious. These reports, however, as totally unfounded, deserve only to be
mentioned.' (Pp. 26-27.)
Chopin, in his Histoire de Russie, is, notwithstanding, of a different opinion.
Not only does he give credence to the reports concerning Catherine's death, but
he accuses her and Menshikov of shortening Peter's days, after the violent affair
of Mons and his sister.
On May 5, 1727, an eventful life drew to a close in the palace of the Russian
sovereigns, the life of a simple peasant-woman, born in a Lithuanian hut, yet
destined to die as empress of a powerful state ! True, there have been many
examples of those in humble life attaining greatness. But, for the most part,
they were either individuals endued with remarkable gifts, or with powerful will,
or they knew how to make use of favourable circumstances, and to push a way
forwards.
But Catherine I., on the contrary, was distinguished by no such qualities.
She was raised to the throne, thanks to fate, thanks to Peter ! Thus it is hardly
surprising that, even as autocrat-empress, she still retained some peculiarities of
Martha, the prisoner of Marienburg. When elevated to the throne, she refused
to learn reading and writing, because her chief study, she said, was to please
Peter. She was all her life long under Menshikov's influence. She was not
ambitious, and ascended the throne, so to speak, from circumstances, or because
Menshikov and Bassevitch wished it. She never forgot what she had been.
She was not ashamed of her past life, nor did she repulse those belonging to her.
Magnificence and pomp did not dazzle her. She was unaltered by the remem-
brance of her once poor lot. In fact, she remained the same, whether as an
unlettered servant-girl, or the flattered titled occupant of a throne; and that
praise can be bestowed only on a few.
To Andr^ev's fascinating work, Representatives of Power in Russia after
Peter I. (pp. 1 to 27) we are indebted for the above details of Catherine I.
142 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
CHAPTER XIV
REIGN OF PETER II. (ALEXE~EVITCH), 1727-1730 — MENSHIKOV
IMMEDIATELY after Catherine's death, Menshikov brought the young emperor from
the palace to his house, and there only allowed his own relatives or trusty
individuals to surround the sovereign. Peter then nominated Menshikov
generalissimus, and was betrothed to his daughter Maria (Mary) Alexandrovna,
although the bridegroom of twelve years old was by no means pleased with his
bride of sixteen ! In letters to the emperor, Menshikov addressed him as a son,
and signed them ' Your father.' Menshikov's next proceedings were to order his
own name and those of his children to be inserted in almanacs along with
names of the imperial family, and to form a project of uniting his son in marriage
to the emperor's sister, the Princess Natalia Alexe'evna. But so much restraint
had been evident in all these purposed alliances, that Andre"ev mentions how, on
one occasion, the young emperor asked his chief instructor, Osterman, by what
law in Russia individuals were forced to marry against their will. Osterman
was a ready diplomatist; and as he had then still cause to fear Menshikov,
simply replied that, from historical reasons, sovereigns were often obliged to
contract a union averse to their inclination. But these ' historical reasons ' did
not appear clear to the young emperor. It is even recorded (by Andre'ev) that
Peter, on his knees, actually implored his sister Natalia to break off his marriage
to Mary Menshikov.
In the youthful sovereign, not a few remarked a germ of the merits and
faults of his grandfather Peter I. Peter n. was naturally clever, lively, soon
learned what he was taught, and even by physical development was unusually
tall and strong for his age. True, after sleepless nights, often spent in driving
about the streets with his friend Ivan Alexe'evitch Dolgorookov, and constant
fatiguing hunting-parties, Peter's sunburnt countenance appeared somewhat
thin ; yet he seemed several years older than he in reality was. The blue eyes
and fair hair of the grandson did not, certainly, resemble the dark complexion of
Peter the Great. Notwithstanding, there was a strange similarity in the habits
of both. The grandson, like the grandfather, had immense self-love, desired that
all should be done as he wished, quietly listened to advice, but eventually took
his own way. The peculiarities of Peter n. were that he showed more sympathy
with those around him, and was generous even to lavishness. But in a young
lad of his age all that was very natural. The celebrated remark of Peter n. in
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 143
the senate, that, like Vespasian, he would endeavour that none should quit his
presence with a sorrowful countenance, perhaps was suggested to the young
prince by the study of history, but it may be also that it was his personal
opinion. Unfortunately for himself, he too soon became independent. Those
around made him a grown-up man while he was still a child. He might have
been an excellent sovereign had he remained till a certain age under wise, active
guardianship. But the boy was too early made to stand upon his own feet.
The germs of good in his disposition began to be stifled, and evil qualities took
root. He grew self-willed, rough in his treatment of those around him, and took
pleasure in causing them needless trouble. While Menshikov was still in power,
Peter was to a certain degree restrained. His occupations were even regulated
by a programme of the upper council. "We do not, however, remark that these
regulations were followed, even during the time of Menshikov's administration.
After his fall, Peter gave up study entirely. But we must not anticipate.
As we have already mentioned, the principal instructor of Peter n. was
Osterman. Henry Osterman, the Westphalian, was already transformed into
Andr^ Ivanovitch Osterman, and had married a Russian, Marfa Ivanovna, born
Streshneva, and related to the imperial family by the second consort of Michael
Romanov, Eudoxia Looianovna Streshneva.
According to the testimony of Lady Rondeaux's journal (quoted so frequently
by Andr^ev), Osterman had an agreeable exterior. His conversation was
attractive and affable, when he did not enact the part of a minister. He was a
cunning diplomatist, and had deep knowledge of men.
As for Menshikov, if formerly insupportable by arrogance, he was still more
unbearable when invested with full power. His first act then was to take for
himself from the treasury the sum of a hundred thousand roubles. He next
reduced the sum destined for the maintenance of the imperial court, from seven
hundred thousand roubles to a hundred and fifty thousand. His behaviour
towards his imperial ward was in no wise that of a devoted subject, but rather
that of an all-powerful guardian. This is proved by his treatment of Peter's
friend, Ivan Dojgorookov. Menshikov's enemies could do nothing to injure him
openly, so they were forced to act in secret. As chief instructor to Peter n., the
vice-chancellor Baron Henry Osterman was aided by the steward of the imperial
household, Prince Alexei Gregorievitch Dolgorookov. His son Ivan Alexe'evitch,
a youth of eighteen, had been brought up at the house of his grandfather, the
Russian ambassador at Warsaw. Even during Catherine's life, Ivan Dolgorookov,
on one occasion, threw himself at the feet of the child-prince Peter, testified
devotion to his father's memory, and begged for his confidence. According to
144 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Andre*ev (p. 46), Ivan Dolgorookov was ' a good fellow,' but flighty, not particularly
well educated, and rather empty. He had, however, a kind heart ; and his better
nature certainly did appear after intercourse with his bride, Natalia Borisovna
Sheremeteva. She was a singularly noble-minded woman, who did not abandon
her bridegroom even in misfortune — though urged to do so by her relatives — but
married him and shared his subsequent exile. She has left an interesting
journal which she wrote for her sons, describing what she saw on her way
to Siberia. In a subsequent chapter, we shall have occasion to quote some of
her remarks.
Peter 11. responded to the friendship of Ivan Dolgorookov. Soon the two
•
became inseparable, slept in the same room, and were like brothers.
"When Ivan Dolgorookov heard that Peter was to marry Mary Menshikov, he
loudly expressed his opinion against the projected union. That was sufficient to
make the young man be removed from court, and sent, without any rank, to a
regiment ; which proves that Menshikov paid little regard to the personal feelings
of his ward. But especially regarding pecuniary affairs did Menshikov make
himself hateful to the young emperor and to his sister, Natalia Alexdevna. On
one occasion, Menshikov learned that an individual in service at court, out of
three thousand roubles given to him, had remitted part of the money to the
emperor. Menshikov was enraged. He loaded the court official with reproaches,
and threatened to deprive him of his office. At another time, Peter asked for
five hundred ducats. Menshikov desired to know for what purpose. The young
emperor replied that he had need of the money. He received it, and then sent it
to his sister. That again irritated Menshikov, and he resolved henceforth to keep
strict guard over his ward. But a still more remarkable incident took place
regarding a silver service, presented to Peter by the town of Yaroslavl. The
emperor gave the service to his sister. Menshikov three times sent to the
princess to demand the service again. The third time, Natalia Alexe'evna
sent away Menshikov's messenger, while saying to him that she remembered
Menshikov was not a sovereign, and had no right to act as he did. Finally, there
is the well-known anecdote of the nine thousand ducats presented to Peter
by the masons of Petersburg. Peter sent them to his sister. Menshikov,
meanwhile, met the officer carrying the plate with the money, and ordered it to
be taken to his (Menshikov's) own house, and remarked that the emperor was
still young, and did not know how to dispose of so large a sum. All these
proceedings irritated Peter against Menshikov, and made an enemy of the
Princess Natalia; also the latter had, besides, great influence over her brother.
Menshikov might surely have remarked the unusually decided disposition of
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 145
Peter, and, moreover, that he did not like to be treated as a little child. Accord-
ingly, Menshikov's fall was not unexpected.
During this interval Menshikov became dangerously ill, and his enemies took
the opportunity to hasten his fall. When he recovered and began as formerly
to administer affairs — not suspecting what had happened — suddenly, on September
6, 1727, the emperor intimated that he would no longer live in Menshikov's
house, but in the summer palace. On September 8, the former administrator
was subjected to arrest. On September 9, he was deprived of his rank and decora-
tions, and sent, for permanent residence, to Oranienburg (government of Eiazane),
which town belonged to him. At first he was permitted to retain his property.
Oranienburg, however, was but a halting-place. Soon exile to Berezov in
Siberia ensued.
When Menshikov's overthrow actually took place, his enemies began to
accuse him of what he probably had not even imagined. Among other
accusations, it was affirmed that he had formed the following plans : — to borrow
ten millions of roubles from the Prussian court — with the aid of that sum, to
seize the Russian crown — finally, to repay the Prussians twenty millions of
roubles. Others maintained that Menshikov had endeavoured to fill the
Preobrajenski regiment with individuals devoted to himself. That report is
certainly much more probable. Menshikov and his clever sister-in-law Arsenieva
— i.e. wife's sister, as the word Svoiatchenitza particularly signifies in Russ — were
sent to Berezov (government of Tobolsk) in Siberia. The other members of the
family voluntarily went there also. Menshikov's wife — Daria Michaelovna —
did not long survive her misfortunes. She had shed so many tears, that she
became blind, and finally died while on the road to exile. Daria Michaelovna,
in despair, had thrown herself at Ostermau's feet and embraced his knees, but
he remained inflexible. The poor woman was individually pitied, yet nothing
could be done for her.
Strange to say, however, Alexander Danilovitch Menshikov showed more
philosophy in exile than he had often done while in prosperity. When arrested,
fourteen millions of roubles and one hundred and five pounds, weight of gold
vessels were taken from him. Notwithstanding, his retreat from St. Petersburg was
magnificent. He quitted the city in sumptuous conveyances. They amounted
to forty-two carriages, which followed each other in long succession. It was
accompanied by a guard, commanded by a captain, and formed of one hundred
and twenty guardsmen. An immense crowd brought up the rear. Menshikov's
wealth was besides heaped up on carts. He did all to avert the misfortune of
exile. He wrote to the emperor in order to justify himself, and implored per-
VOL. II, T
146 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
mission only to live quietly, far removed from government. Menshikov also
addressed petitions to the Grand Princess Natalia Alexe'evna, in which he entitled
her ' Your Majesty ' ; but all was of no avail. His wealth was taken from him at
Tver. There he was placed in a common peasant's cart, and thus he continued
his journey.
According to Andre* ev (p. 42), when Menshikov reached his destination in
Siberia he received the sum of ten roubles (£2) a day for his maintenance, which
allowed him to live almost in luxury in the prison of Berezov ; but he seemed to
be again transformed into the simple Alexander Menshikov whom Peter I. had
met in early youth. Menshikov allowed his beard to grow, and was to be seen,
axe in hand, aiding to build a church he erected at his own cost in the neighbour-
hood of the prison.
Had his ambition for ever disappeared ? We can hardly tell. Not if his
enemies are to be believed. They affirmed that anonymous letters in his praise
were found at the Kreml, and that they had not been put there without his know-
ledge. It is also said that Menshikov gave a thousand ducats to the confessor of
the Dowager Czarine Evdokia Feodorovna, and a letter to the young emperor,
warning him against his new friends and reminding him of former services. But
these proceedings only injured the exiled. He was henceforth guarded more
strictly, and all who held intercourse with him were condemned to death. How-
ever, Menshikov did not long survive his misfortunes. He had acquired a habit
of bleeding himself so often, that he finally grew weak. He would not ask
medical aid. He spoke little to those around him ; and even, it is said, hastened
his death by refusing food. He died in 1729.
Soon after reaching Berezov, the former bride of Peter IL, Mary Menshikov,
died also. In these regions there is a tradition that Prince Feodor Dolgorookov,
after taking a foreign passport and secretly reaching Berezov, there married Mary
Menshikov. She died at the birth of twins.
In 1825, nearly a hundred years afterwards, her tomb was disturbed. The
civil governor of Siberia, Banteesh-Kamenski, wished to discover Menshikov's
grave. The remains of Mary Menshikov were found in good preservation, in
consequence of thick ice around. But when exposed to the air, during a warm
summer day, the body of course decomposed.
Strange to say, in 1827, i.e. a year and a half later, Banteesh-Kamenski again
ordered the grave to be opened, and in his own presence, so much did he wish to
be sure if that was the tornb of Menshikov or not. But decomposition had
already advanced so far that the features of the dead could not be recognised.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 147
THE DOLGOROOKOVS
When Menshikov fell, few regretted him. ' The vainglory of the exceedingly
proud Goliath has passed and been brought to nought ! ' wrote one contemporary
to another — i.e. Pashkov to Tscherkasov. ' That exceedingly proud Goliath ruined
by the powerful hand of God ! All rejoice at this ; and I too, sinful mortal,
praise the Trinity that I remain without any fear ! All is going on well ; and
now none have cause to dread, as was perpetually the case while Prince Menshikov
was in power.'
Notwithstanding, events soon occurred which caused some to regret Menshikov.
Immediately after his fall the emperor declared himself of age, intimated that he
would preside at the secret council and participate in administration. But these
were merely promises and nothing more. Study was interrupted. Administration
of state affairs did not accord with the emperor's years, and soon pleasure became
the sole occupation of the young sovereign. The Dolgorookovs obtained influence
over Peter. His instructor Osterman was no longer heeded. His admonitions
were even considered tiresome. It is narrated that on one occasion Osterman
reproached Peter and added that he himself in a few years would be the very
first to order Osterman's head to be cut off if he did not openly warn the young
sovereign against the abyss towards which he was advancing, and that he,
Osterman, would give up his post as instructor. Peter was touched, threw
himself on Osterman's neck and implored him not to leave his post. But that
very evening the thoughtless young prince renewed his reckless mode of life.
Peter had an innate dislike to the sea and ships, but he was passionately fond of
hunting and pleasure. Eventually he followed the advice of those who urged
him to remove to Moscow along with the court (9th January 1728). The
foreigners at court, including Osterman, anticipated that removal with dread,
as it seemed to threaten an end of the great work commenced by Peter I. These
apprehensions were, however, superfluous. For the individuals who surrounded
Peter n., and who for the time had complete sway over him, belonged neither to
the party of old nor new Russians, but simply thought of their own private
personal advantage. The very same Pashkov, who had so rejoiced at Menshikov's
fall, not long afterwards again wrote to his friend Tscherkasov in no cheerful
tone. The former expressed himself in the following terms: 'The new time-
pleasers have occasioned so much disturbance that all are in danger at court.
Each fears another ; and firm hope is to be found nowhere ! '
Some even began to regret Menshikov. The Dolgorookovs, in fact, followed
his example, i.e. they allowed no one to have admittance to the young emperor.
148 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
The Czarine-Dowager Evdokia Feodorovna — set at liberty when Peter n. ascended
the throne, and brought to Moscow — could not have an interview alone with her
grandson. Andre'ev, however, mentions that, as far as the Empress Evdokia was
concerned, neither Peter n. nor his sister Natalia had any sympathy with their
grandmother. Peter always wished to have a third person present during any
visit to her, and Natalia Alexeevna used to take her aunt Elizaveta Petrovna with
her when obliged to visit Evdokia. That was probably to avoid discussing state
affairs with the old lady, who was said to be ambitious ; and as she had not yet
lost all traces of former beauty, in spite of excessive stoutness, worldly thoughts
still lingered in her mind. During the life of Peter L, Evdokia had been known
as the recluse Elena, and while in the monastery had inscribed ' meat ' as ' fish.'
But while her grandson occupied the throne, the Dievitche monastery had been
transformed for her into an imperial palace.
Here we must not omit to notice more particularly Evdokia's granddaughter,
the young Princess Natalia Alexeevna — Peter's sister and his good angel ! She
had the greatest friendship for Osterman. Thus the old statesman and the
youthful czarevna formed a kind of alliance, whose object was to preserve Peter
from the evil influence of his surroundings. Natalia Alexe'evna was only one
year older than her brother ; but mentally, she was much his senior. She was
neither pretty nor even attractive ; notwithstanding, she was unusually developed
for her age. In intercourse with others she was kind and lively. She was,
besides, very fond of reading, and was by no means a child when her brother
ascended the throne, Natalia Alexe'evna had, moreover, an independent dis-
position, so that injurious outward influence did not easily do her harm. She at
once understood that among all Peter's courtiers his best friend was Osterman.
Hence her friendship for the latter. But alas ! all too soon, she was destined to
leave this world. Peter sincerely loved his sister. Her influence over him was
great. Thus, while it continued, Osterman did not yet lose all hope of bringing
his thoughtless young ward back to the right path. The Dolgorookovs also
remarked that, and endeavoured to remove Natalia Alexe'evna from her brother ;
for then only could these ambitious nobles hope to execute their plans. The
journey to Moscow for the coronation presented an excellent opportunity to the
Dolgorookovs. The coronation, however, was postponed, as the Russian merchants
sent to Lyons to buy silk stuffs had not yet returned. Both Natalia Alexe'evna
and Osterman dreaded the journey, though it was unavoidable. Their next efforts
were that, at least, it should not be prolonged.
So the court went to Moscow. The fears of Natalia Alexeevna and Osterman
were only too well founded. Soon the Dolgorookovs gained complete power over
149
Peter. They constantly took him to hunt beyond Moscow. The hunting-parties
were prolonged for days, and sometimes even for weeks together. After hunting,
the young sovereign was entertained at luxurious, noisy feasts, during which his
skill in shooting was praised. The number of game he had killed was counted ;
and then plans for new excursions were formed. State affairs were utterly
neglected. In a word, the Dolgorookovs did as they pleased. Alexei Dolgorookov
was an empty, insignificant man, who had not much real influence over Peter.
Prince Vasili Lookitch Dolgorookov was, however, more dangerous, for he was
well educated, cunning, and experienced. He in fact it was who entirely directed
the affairs of his other relatives. Prince Vasili next tried to separate Peter from
his favourite aunt, Elizaveta Petrovna ; for she was also an obstacle to the
Dolgorookovs. As for Natalia Alexe'evna, she went to the hunting-parties in a
different detachment from her brother ; but if she did not go to them she could
not see him at all. The violent exercise proved too much for her health, and she
sickened.
The Dolgorookovs, meanwhile, triumphed. After the coronation the court
still remained in Moscow, which meant that the influence of Natalia Alexe'evna
and Osterman declined.
Natalia Alexeevna felt this keenly. Except her friendship for Osterman she
was utterly alone amid the crowd of talkers and flatterers who surrounded her.
Her illness was thought to be consumption. It gradually increased until at
length it terminated fatally. Five couriers were then sent in haste to inform
Peter, who was at a hunt. At length he arrived, shed tears over his dead sister,
removed to another palace, and finally all went on as before. Andre"ev remarks
that doubtless the uncomfortable old palace had had an evil effect on the already
shattered health of Natalia Alexe'evna,
More than all others, Osterman mourned the untimely death of the young
princess. He remained at home and received no one, even those he most trusted.
After some days all remarked the great loss the old statesman had experienced ;
for along with Natalia Alexe'evna he buried his last hope of Peter's reform. And
not without cause did Osterman feel alarm. The great work of Peter I. seemed in
danger. The extreme Eussian party triumphed ; and foreigners had no longer a
constant protectress in Natalia Alexe'evna. In fact, Osterman felt that the only
advantage for Russia was to reconcile the ancient order of things with the reforms
introduced by Peter the Great.
With Natalia Alexe'evna the good genius of Peter n. had taken flight to
another world.
After Natalia's death Peter was entirely in the hands of the Dolgorookovs,
150 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Osterinan, always prudent and politic, waved his hand and left full power to
these ambitious nobles, while he remained steward of the imperial household and
instructor of the young emperor only in name. Peter was also withdrawn from his
aunt, Elizaveta Petrovna ; and she, thanks to the intrigues of the Dolgorookovs,
was often in utter want. When she complained of this to her nephew his answer
was : ' That is not my fault. My orders are not obeyed ; but I shall find means
to break my chains ! '
In September, 1729, the emperor left Moscow, accompanied by the Dolgorookovs,
and did not return till November. During that period he had been ill, and then
he had promised to marry Ekaterina (Catherine) Dolgorookova, daughter of
Prince Alexei and sister of Peter's favourite, Ivan Dolgorookov. But that was
the last triumph of the family. Peter had evidently become tired of the
Dolgorookovs. He seldom saw his bride ; and he even again began to be intimate
with Osterman. In the family of the Dolgorookovs themselves there was also
discord, so that a change was anticipated. It came, but not in the manner
expected.
Andre'ev mentions (p. 30) that several extraordinary projects of marriage had
already been formed for Peter n. At one time there had been question of uniting
him to his step-aunt, Natalia Petrovna (youngest daughter of Peter the Great),
but her early death had frustrated that measure — a measure to which the
Empress Catherine was by no means averse, as it seemed to unite the claims of
two families to the throne of Russia. Then Osterman had proposed to unite
Peter and another step-aunt, Elizaveta Petrovna, although she was several years
his senior. She was then seventeen and Peter was only eleven. Osterman,
moreover, argued that if the relationship was too near, in early times brothers
had married sisters.
At the ceremony of betrothal between Peter n. and Ekaterina Alexeevna
Dolgorookova all the members of the imperial family (except the Dowager-
Empress Evdokia Feodorovna) were obliged to kiss the hand of the emperor's
bride.
According to Andreev, Ekaterina Dolgorookova was a beautiful, but arrogant,
malicious young person. She was at open enmity with her brother Ivan ; and
was even blamed for his subsequent arrest and violent death. We, however,
must not anticipate.
On the Epiphany (January 6) Peter went in a sledge, along with his bride,
to the ceremony of consecrating the water. In order not to sit beside Catherine
Dolgorookova, he stood on a foot-board behind her sledge. Peter still treated
her only with distant politeness. She, also, was cold and sad as heretofore. The
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 151
courtiers had remarked that at a ball, given on occasion of the betrothal, the
emperor remained only a few minutes. Andre'ev mentions (p. 53) that Catherine
Dolgorookova had previously been attached to Melezino, a young secretary of the
German embassade. Be that as it may, however, Peter n., on January 6, 1730,
was present at the religious ceremony of consecrating the water, and remained in
the open air not less than four hours. The frost was keen, and the young
emperor was too lightly dressed, so that he caught a chill. The illness soon
became serious, and proved to be smallpox. In delirium Peter called for Andre"
Ivanovitch (Osterman), and ordered a sledge to go to the Princess Natalia
Alexe'evna.
Poor youth ! An untimely death, like that of his sister, awaited him also.
On January 19 — the very day fixed for the young emperor's marriage — a
stiffened corpse was all that remained of Peter n. !
During his death agony the Dolgorookovs assembled and forged a testament,
by which they endeavoured to prove that the young emperor had chosen a
successor in the person of his bride Catherine Dolgorookova. Her brother Ivan
is even said to have run through the palace halls shouting : ' Long live the
Empress Catherine ! ' But all that did not succeed.
In a word, the reign of the Dolgorookovs was over. Exile alone awaited
them ! All avoided them as if they were lepers — all except the singularly noble-
minded Natalia Borisovna Sheremeteva, bride of Ivan Dolgorookov, who affirmed
that she loved her bridegroom for himself alone, and that she would never forsake
him. She accordingly became his wife, and accompanied him to exile. She thus
acted in spite of advice given by her relatives, who urged her to abandon him.
Natalia Borisovna has left an interesting description of her journey to Siberia.
But even there Peter's former favourite, Ivan Dolgorookov, did not escape. He
had been imprudent enough to speak disrespectfully of the Empress Anna
loannovna by calling her 'a Swede,' etc., and also to criticise her favourite,
Biron. That was sufficient ! In general, the Dolgorookovs were closely watched
during exile. They had managed to take along with them some objects of value,
which, however, were confiscated ' The ruined one ' (as Peter's former bride was
styled in official documents) was likewise asked to deliver up the portrait of her
imperial bridegroom ; but she avoided doing so. A strict watch was kept over
the Dolgorookovs, so much so, that in these regions there was a proverbial ex-
pression to the effect that ' those who ate pancakes with the Dolgorookovs were
taken to answer for it at Tobolsk ! '
We have already mentioned Ivan Dolgorookov's imprudence of speech. His
words were reported to the Empress Anna and her all-powerful favourite Biron.
152 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Ivan Dolgorookov was then arrested, taken to Novgorod and there executed, by
being broken on the wheel. His brothers and sisters were afterwards sent in
captivity to different monasteries.
Andrdev states (p. 53) that Catherine Dolgorookova never forgave her brother
Ivan for not giving her some objects of value, which had belonged to the Grand
Princess Natalia Alexe'evna. Catherine accordingly vowed vengeance on Ivan,
and instigated a younger brother Alexander to denounce Ivan to government as a
dangerous individual. In those days a denunciation ruined both the innocent and
the guilty. Alexander Dolgorookov was at last so shocked at the terrible con-
sequences of what he had done, that he tried to kill himself by ripping up his
stomach. It, however, was sewed together, and he recovered. According to
popular tradition, when, long afterwards, Alexander Dolgorookov returned from
exile, and lived in Moscow, the lower orders there surnamed him 'the prince
with the ripped-up stomach.'
As for Peter's former bride, the Princess Catherine Dolgorookova, she suffered
not a little, like the rest of her family. Doubtless she felt this all the more keenly
that she had not been brought up like women in ancient Russia, or in a state of
semi-captivity. She and her brother Ivan had both passed their early days
at the house of their grandfather, the Russian ambassador at Warsaw, so they
were modernised.
It is said that Catherine Dolgorookova was kept as a prisoner in different
monasteries. In one (at Bielozersk, government of Novgorod) she was shut up in
a separate wooden wing, and the door of her cell was fastened by two locks. The
light only penetrated by a small aperture, instead of a window. But soon even
that was closed. Andre'ev also states (p. 64) that in general Catherine Dol-
gorookova was proud and unbending towards those near her. On one occasion, a
nun whom she had offended shook a broom at her. 'Esteem light even in
darkness ! ' haughtily exclaimed Catherine. ' I am a princess, and thou art only
a bondwoman ! '
An important personage from St. Petersburg once visited the monastery.
Catherine did not rise at his entrance, and did not even turn towards him.
He accordingly went away uttering threats. Soon the last rays of light were
excluded from her cell by the aperture being closed. None were allowed to
enter it, save a man who watched her ; and two girls were even flogged because
they had looked through a chink of the cell.
In 1745 the Empress Elizaveta Petrovna recalled Catherine Dolgorookova
from exile, the same person whose hand the subsequent empress had once
kissed, as the young emperor's bride. Catherine at length married A. R. Bruce.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 153
Arrogant till the very last, on her death-bed she ordered all her dresses to be
burned, so that none might wear them after her.
EXTERIOR ADMINISTRATION DURING THE REIGN OF PETER IL
Among acts of exterior administration during the reign of Peter n., the
question concerning Courland began to be discussed. There, after the death of
Frederick William, consort of the Princess Anna loannovna (niece of Peter I.),
Frederick's aged, childless uncle Ferdinand administered affairs. The Courlanders
wished to proclaim as his successor the famous Maurice of Saxony, natural son of
the Polish king, Augustus II. The Poles, however, wished to add Courlaud to
their own country ; but Russia frustrated both measures.
In Asia, Count Ragoojinski concluded a treaty with China, on the river Boor.
It was agreed that both states were freely to carry on trade on the boundaries, at
two spots, namely, at the Russian village of Riachta and at the Chinese Mamiam-
atchina. Once in three years a Russian caravan was to be sent to Pekin, and
there to carry on commerce without paying duty. Russians also obtained a right
to maintain there four members of the clergy and six youths to learn the Chinese
language.
INTERIOR ADMINISTRATION
During the reign of Catherine L, as we already saw, town magistrates were
subjected to voevodes; and while Peter n. occupied the throne, even when
Menshikov administered affairs, chief magistrates were abolished.
In order to judge merchants of St. Petersburg, three chosen individuals were
appointed. Foreign merchants were ordered to judge their affairs at the so-called
' Commercial College.' Under Osterman's presidency was founded what had already
been proposed during Catherine's reign, or, in other words, a ' Commission of
Commerce.' Government intimated that merchants of a whole town, or
separately, might, through the governor and voevode, send to the ' Commission ' a
representation concerning what might be useful to commerce. The ' Commission '
was especially convenient regarding the system of ransoming, and making
regulations concerning bills of exchange.
As formerly, measures were taken to prevent peasants from fleeing to Poland,
to the Cossacks in the steppes, and also against highway robbery. In the districts
of Penza and elsewhere, large gangs of robbers rode about, set fire to the
houses of villagers and nobles, tortured and robbed proprietors and peasants. At
length, so great were the atrocities committed, that it became necessary to send a
regiment of dragoons in order to subdue the offenders.
VOL. II. U
154 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
As regards instruction of the clergy, a ukaze of Peter the Great was confirmed,
which ordered all monasteries to send young monks to the Moscow Slavo-Greek
and Latin academy. For the rector of that academy had informed the synod
that no monks were sent, so that he had only five pupils. Finally, during the
reign of Peter II., one barbarous custom was abolished. We allude to that of
placing in the interior of St. Petersburg stone pillars, with stakes, on which were
stuck the bodies and heads of executed criminals.
LITTLE RUSSIA
In Little Russia, during the reign of Peter n., the hetmanship was reinstated.
On October 1, 1727, the Rada, or Council of Cossacks, assembled at Gloohov
(government of Tscherneegov) by the secret councillor, Naoomov, sent from
St. Petersburg, proclaimed a hetman in the person of Apostol, colonel of Mirgorod,
an old man, aged sixty-eight. The youngest son of Apostol was sent to St. Peters-
burg as a hostage. Naoomov remained beside the hetman for advice, and in the
capacity of imperial minister. As previously there had been many complaints
in the general council, it was decided that three members should be from Great
and three from Little Russia, under presidency of the hetman. Those displeased
with the judgment of the general council might present a petition to the
emperor, at the college for foreign affairs. In order to collect revenue, two
officials were appointed, one from Great and one from Little Russia. The in-
habitants of Great or Central Russia were allowed to buy land in Little Russia,
while Little Russians might likewise do so in Great Russia.
CHAPTER XV
REIGN OF THE EMPRESS ANNA IOANNOVNA, 1730-1740
BY the death of Peter n. the male line of the Romanov dynasty became extinct.
Two candidates for the vacant throne — in the persons of Elizaveta Petrovna,
younger daughter of Peter the Great, and his grandson Peter (Charles Peter
Frederick Ulrick), son of Anna Petrovna — were put aside, and preference was
shown to the posterity of loann Alexe'evitch, elder stepbrother of Peter i.
loann had left three surviving daughters — Catherine, Anna, and Prascovia.
Peter I., from political motives, had united his second niece, Anna loannovna, to
the duke of Courland ; but their married life lasted only a short time — only six
weeks (according to Andreev, p. 68). The duke died on the way from St. Peters-
burg to Courland, and while he accompanied his consort there.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 155
When the dowager-duchess of Courlaud — Anna loannovna — was finally
selected as a successful candidate for the throne of Russia, Prince Dmitri
Michaelovitch Golitzine proposed to the upper secret council that imperial power
should be restricted. The proposal was accepted, and one member of the council,
Prince Vasili Lookitch Dolgorookov, went to Anna loaunovua, then in Mitau, with
an offer of the throne, but under condition of limited power. Anna loannovna
accepted both proposals, and signed a document to 'that effect. The upper
council then summoned an extra assembly of nobles, military, and clergy, to
whom it was intimated that the new sovereign had decided to limit her power ;
and that was made to appear as a voluntary act of Anna herself. Whereupon
those present signed a written acquiescence, ' that, if such was the will of her
imperial majesty, they were entirely pleased with it.'
Notwithstanding, great agitation and discontent were soon manifested against
the members of the upper council on account of their arbitrary act. Accordingly
the councillors were forced to admit that, besides themselves, other important
personages had likewise a right to pronounce an opinion concerning the new form
of government. So the councillors were eventually obliged to promise that in the
event of any important state affairs, senators, generals, members of colleges, etc.,
should also be summoned for decision. Clergy, too, were to be included, if the
affairs concerned the church. Among other conditions made by the upper council,
one was that the empress should certainly reside in Moscow. The said council
included eight members, i.e. the chancellor Golovine, two princes Golitzine, four
princes Dolgorookov, and the vice-chancellor Osterman. The latter, however,
as a foreigner, refused to give his opinion, and then feigned illness, in order to
avoid appearing in the council. Meanwhile, during the month of February, the
new empress arrived in Moscow. The nobles then began to assemble in groups.
Opinions differed ; and various projects were formed concerning organisation of
government. When Anna loannovna reached Moscow the upper councillors and
their partisans immediately surrounded her, and strove to keep her apart from all
who seemed to them suspicious. But it was difficult to oppose numbers, and
powerful antagonists, who acted both secretly and openly. The party of those
who favoured absolute power began to hold private intercourse with the empress,
although they could with difficulty do so, because closely watched by the
councillors. The chief leaders of the former were Princes Tscherkacski and
Troobetzkoi, guided by Theophan Prokopovitch and Osterman. One morning
(February 25) a large deputation of nobles waited on the empress, and presented
a petition to her, that they might be allowed to deliberate on the new form of
government proposed by the upper council, which had left their request un-
156 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
heeded. The empress consented. The partisans of unlimited power were, however,
afraid to lose time, and that very day presented a second petition to her majesty,
requesting her to adopt the absolute government of her ancestors. The upper
councillors, taken by surprise, dared not oppose the movement, especially when
they saw that the guards favoured the deputation. Anna loannovna thereupon
ordered the first document which she had signed to be brought. She then tore it
in pieces. She was crowned as autocratic sovereign in the month of April ; and
at the beginning of the year 1732 she removed to St. Petersburg.
FALL OF THE UPPER COUNCIL
The upper secret council was abolished. The act of endeavouring to intro-
duce limited power in Russia failed. Those who had supported that measure
were at first left in peace ; but afterwards, under various pretexts, they were
exiled or even executed. Princes Vasili Vladimirovitch and Alexei Gregorievitch
Dolgorookov, as well as Prince Dmitri Golitzine, died in captivity. Those
executed were Princes Yasili Lookitch, and the favourite of Peter n., Ivan
Alexe'evitch Dolgorookov. We have already mentioned his admirable wife,
Natalia Borisovna, born Sheremeteva, who was earnestly persuaded, by her
relatives, to abandon her bridegroom when in adversity; but, as we previously
remarked, their advice remained unheeded. After her husband's tragic death, she
ended her pure, martyr-like life in a cloister.
THE GERMAN PARTY — BIRON
During the reign of Anna loannovna, the old Russian nobles were forced to
retreat before the so-called 'German Party/ whose representatives were Biron,
Munnich, Osterman, and Levenvold, a gentleman-in- waiting. In general, while
the throne of Russia was occupied by the successors of Peter L, not a few of those
educated at his difficult school subsequently administered affairs. These indi-
viduals, promoted on account of their talents or services, did not allow the reforms
of the great sovereign to die out, and maintained the new form which political
administration had assumed in Russia. But gradually these enlightened men, so
useful to the state, disappeared, and a totally different class was seen near
the throne. That class was formed not of the well educated and gifted, but
merely consisted of those pushed forward by court intrigues, and who owed
success either to boldness, or even, sometimes, to outward personal qualities.
Amongst such persons we especially remark the chief favourite of Anna loannovna,
Johann Ernest Biron, or Biren, a native of Courland. One condition made with
Anna, when she was elected to fill the throne of Russia, was, that she should not
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 157
bring Biron along with her; but, notwithstanding, he soon afterwards found his
way to Moscow.
Biron had long since desired to enter the Russian service, and even during
the reign of Peter I. had endeavoured to procure a post at the court of the
Princess Sophia Charlotte, consort of Alexei Petrovitch, but was rejected as a man
of low birth.
According to Andre'ev (p. 69), Biron, Biren, or Biiren, was son of a Courland
forester. The latter had bought land, but could not pay the full price for it.
Andre'ev, however, thinks that Princess Natalia Dolgorookova, in her journal,
exaggerates when she states 'that Biron's ancestors had made shoes for her
relations.' The princess's description of the Empress Anna loannovna, Andre'ev
likewise does not credit. We allude to the remark that ' Anna was a head taller
than all the guardsmen, between whose ranks she entered Moscow.'
Be that as it may, however, Biroii certainly could not boast of ancient descent.
Hence, the Courland aristocracy rejected his claim to nobility, and thought they
had good cause to do so, even when he was already in vogue at the court of the
duchess. Johann Ernest had studied at the Konigsberg university, but obtained
no remarkable education there ; and, if we may believe his contemporary Munnich,
knew no language save German and the dialect of Courland. Biron with
difficulty read a German letter containing French or Latin quotations. There
was, however, another reason why Konigsberg should leave a remembrance in the
mind of young Biron. On one occasion, during a midnight ramble with some of
his fellow-students, he quarrelled with the night-watchmen, and killed one of
them. For so doing, Biron was sentenced to remain three years in prison. He
spent nine months there, and was only then liberated on condition that he would
pay a fine of 700 thalers, or return again to prison.
But if Biron had not seriously studied at the university, he there at least had
acquired a taste for reading, and, even in Konigsberg, commenced to form his
subsequently extensive library. On returning to his own country, he occupied
the post of tutor in a private family, but not for long. He finally resolved to
seek his fortune. His favourite motto was : ' II faut se pousser au monde.' And
with what recommendations did he begin his career ? He could be very pleasant
when he wished to be so, and would have been good-looking had the disagreeable
expression of his eyes not spoiled his features. Vain, proud, cruel at heart, he
concealed his evil inclinations by seeming refinement of a man of the world. He
had philosophic opinions concerning religion. The Russians, indeed, considered
him as an unbeliever, because he read letters while others were going to church.
That was especially remarked at the time when his sins began to be noted in
158 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Russia. He was a professed card-player, and did not scruple to cheat his partner.
Indeed, the latter sometimes allowed Biron to do so on purpose, in order to gain
his favour. Subsequently, when the word of Biron decided the fate alike of the
strong and weak, during one game at cards he used to pocket a million of roubles.
He was a first-rate judge of horses, which justified the opinion of the Austrian
ambassador, Ostein, concerning Biron, namely, 'that he spoke of horses like a
wise man, but whenever he began to talk of men, he lied like a horse.'
Fiery by nature, when Biron was angry he forgot all his fine manners, and used
language which shocked ears already far from being fastidious. His anger,
notwithstanding, soon passed, and afterwards he was capable of being persuaded.
One good trait in Biron's character was that he did not tell falsehoods ; so that
when he could not say the truth, he said nothing at all.
Such was the young adventurer who came to St. Petersburg and Moscow, in
order to seek his fortune. In these two capitals he, however, had no success, and
returned again to Courland. Some time afterwards he gained admission to the
court of the dowager-duchess Anna loannovna, Bestoogev, chief manager of
the duchess's household, who gave him the situation, used subsequently to remark
that ' Birou came from Moscow without a coat, and was admitted to the court of
Courland without any rank.'
However, the youthful courtier soon managed to worm himself into the
duchess's favour; and hence his eventually brilliant career.
All that took place during the reign of Peter the Great. Amongst the number
of Courland deputies who came to congratulate Catherine I. on her ascension of
the throne, we again remark Biron. That association, however, appeared so
degrading to two ancient Courland noblemen, Baron Reizerling and Baron
Fittenhoff, that they made a complaint to the empress because Biron had been
chosen. Baron Reizerling even gave in his demission. The result was that
Catherine did not receive Biron as a deputy. But, in spite of all that, Catherine
was not unwilling to consult the courtier of Anna loannovna when obliged to
buy horses. Catherine even sent Biron to Breslavl for that purpose. (See
Andre" ev's work, above quoted, pp. 69-71.)
The unexpected events which subsequently happened in Moscow soon elevated
the ambitious chamber-subaltern, and afterwards gentleman-in-waiting at the
court of the duchess of Courland, and transformed him first into a count, and
then into a reigning duke !
But in spite of any qualities which might have made Biron occupy a certain
position in society, he was, notwithstanding, totally unfitted to fill the highest
place after the sovereign, and to administer affairs of state, for he had actually no
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 159
capacity as an administrator, and, what was still worse, he viewed Russia only
with the eyes of a foreigner. Gifted foreigners, such as Osterman and Munnich,
became attached to Russia, as the sphere of their brilliant success. They, in fact,
wished to be useful to Russia, because they could be so, and desired to gain
renown for their utility. But the low-minded Biron had no such aims. He did
not like Russia. He despised the Russians, and only made use of his high position
to aggrandise himself as much as possible. With such views and aims, Biron
could, of course, occasion great evil in Russia ; for he was completely in-
different to the atrocities committed by those in his service, if only they
enriched him. His spies were everywhere. They constantly brought threatening
denunciations. The latter, in turn, were followed by hideous torture, exile, and
execution. Biron meanwhile so surrounded the empress by persons devoted to
himself, that the complaints of the people never reached her ears, and she
believed that her subjects were happy.
THE MISFORTUNES OF BIRON'S TIME
The chief misfortunes of Biron's time were physical, such as famine and
pestilential illnesses. In the second place, there were financial requisitions
undertaken without compassion, or any regard to circumstances. Moreover, as
these means occasioned universal discontent, Biron next endeavoured to maintain
his power by severity and denunciations. But these measures only rendered
matters still worse, and occasioned new troubles. When Anna loannovna
ascended the throne, the arrears of state amounted to several millions. Biron
thereupon turned all his attention to that point as a means of enriching himself.
Notwithstanding the statements of voevodes concerning the extreme poverty of
the peasants, the severest measures were enforced in order to obtain payment,
and when these measures did not succeed, officers of the guards were sent to keep
voevodes and their associates in chains till all was paid. In consequence of such
violence the tax-gatherers acted in self-preservation. From peasants all was
taken that could be found. Proprietors and starosts were removed to towns,
detained there often for whole months, and sometimes died of starvation in
crowded prisons. Loud complaints ensued, but informers lurked all around. In
fact, since the days of Boris Godoonov, no greater misfortunes had been ex-
perienced. This dark epoch was rendered still worse by the execution of
imprisoned noblemen — the Dolgorookovs and Golitzines. Several archbishops
were deposed. Theophilakt Lopatinski, archbishop of Tver, who had written
a work On tlie Lutheran and Calvinistic Heresies, suffered hideous torture, and
then was imprisoned in the fort of Petropavlosk. Any priest who forgot to offer
160 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
up a special prayer on an imperial birthday or name's-day was deposed, flogged
with the knout, and exiled to Siberia.
But the fate of Artemius Volinski, a cabinet minister, was especially remark-
able. Even during the reign of Peter the Great, Volinski became known in the
diplomatic line. While he was governor of Astrachan and Kazane, he stained
his reputation by plundering and cruelty. When Anna ascended the throne he
was promoted to be cabinet minister. Volinski was famed for his talents, but
was also known as a bad-tempered, insupportable man. Unquiet, vain, arrogant,
constantly pushing himself forward, he suffered no equals, and was always ready
to use hateful violence towards inferiors, by subjecting them to the barbarous
tortures of the Middle Ages. When Volinski became cabinet minister he came
into inimical collision with Osterman, and offended Biron, who vowed to ruin
him. Volinski presented the empress with a note, in which he painted many
courtiers in black colours. Osterman and others were among those included
in the description. The note produced an unfavourable impression on Anna
loannovna, who felt displeased because Volinski had presumed to give her
instruction. Besides, Volinski, in a fit of anger, had publicly beaten Trediakovski,
a well-known writer and secretary of the academy. Then, when Trediakovski
went with complaints to Biron, Volinski forgot decorum so far as to give
Trediakovski a second beating in Biron's very apartments. This exasperated
Biron to so great a degree, that he implored the empress to deliver up Volinski
to judgment. 'Either he or I must give way,' exclaimed Biron, on his knees
before Anna loannovna. Accordingly, Volinski was delivered up. He was
accused of state crimes, underwent hideous torture, and was then executed. So,
likewise, were two individuals intimate with him. Others were beaten with the
knout, and exiled. Volinski's children were also sent to Siberia. His sons were
compelled to become soldiers, without a fixed term for service. His daughters were
obliged to take the veil. But, although hated during life, Volinski, after death,
acquired the glory of a martyr-patriot, because he had fallen a victim to the
cruelty of Biron. Valinski thus lost his life from endeavouring to struggle with
the German party. It, indeed, became all the stronger on account of the Russian
nobles being disunited. Many of the highest amongst them were not ashamed to
humiliate themselves before the arrogant favourite, and with servility sought his
good-will. Even the very amusements in vogue at this epoch — such, for example,
as the great number of jesters in the houses of the wealthy — still more showed
the gloomy character of the period. A famous masquerade and the wedding of
Prince Golitzine — one court jester — took place during the unusually severe winter
of 1740, and were so organised as to amuse the empress, who then complained of
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 161
sadness. In order to appear at the masquerade, many native inhabitants, in their
national costumes, were brought from all parts of Russia ; and for the newly
married pair was erected a house made of ice, with all its furniture of the
same material. According to Andre'ev (p. 77), Prince Golitzine was made a jester
because, while abroad, he had dared to embrace the Romish faith. For the
occasion of the prince's marriage, very silly, unseemly, would-be congratulatory
verses were composed by Trediakovski, known in the history of Russian literature
as an unwearied labourer in science, but, notwithstanding, only a sorry composer
of rhymes. The part he enacted as court poet, in fact, differed little from that
of a jester. It was during the preparations for the said masquerade that the
above-mentioned quarrel between Trediakovski and Volinski took place. The
latter was manager of the comic festivity. (Ilovaiski, p. 279.)
INTERIOR ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNMENT
During Anna loannovna's reign the upper secret council was abolished
(March 1730) and a ruling senate was formed, as it had been while Peter i.
occupied the throne. But soon, instead of the upper secret council, there
appeared the cabinet, whose members were called cabinet ministers. One old
evil, from which ancient Russia had so greatly suffered, still continued. We
allude to the injustice and oppression exercised by voevodes ; so that at the very
commencement of Anna's reign, she was obliged to issue an ukaze, by which
orders were given that voevodes should be changed every two years. At the end
of that time each voevode was commanded to appear in the senate, with an
account of his administration. If the voevode proved to be punctual, and if no
complaints had been made against him during a year, he was permitted again to
be chosen as voevode.
Anna loannovna was also forced to complain that the compilation of the
code of laws did not advance, although many still testified the injustice of
judges. The empress accordingly gave orders that the code should be completed ;
and, for that purpose, chose suitable individuals from among landholders, the
clergy, and merchants.
The law concerning entail was abolished, because it did not seem to suit
Russia, where the parents were accustomed to give equal division of property to
sons ; whereas, when land was entailed on the eldest son, money, corn, and
cattle were given to younger sons. They could do little without land, and the
eldest son could not cultivate land without money, corn, and cattle.
In 1736 a law was issued concerning the service of landholders. A father
who had two, or several, sons, might leave one at home in order to manage the
VOL. II. X
162 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
property. But the latter son was obliged to learn reading and writing, and at
least arithmetic, in order that he might be suitable for civil service. The other
sons were obliged to become military. Till this period no particular time had
been fixed for the service of petty nobles. It accordingly happened that they
remained in the army till old age, and when they returned home they were
unable to manage their property. Thus it was henceforth decreed that petty land-
holders should learn from the age of seven till twenty years, then serve twenty-five
years, and afterwards, if they wished, they might retire. For illness or wounds,
permission was granted to retire before that time. The younger sons of nobles,
more suited for civil than military service, were ordered to be distributed among
colleges. It was the duty of secretaries to teach these youths the regulations
of administration, as well as law, geography, arithmetic, grammar, etc. The
younger sons of nobles, who learned at home, were examined at the ages of
twelve and sixteen years. Those found deficient in knowledge of religion, as well
as in arithmetic and grammar, were sent to be sailors, without a fixed term for
service. These precautions and severe measures of government show how little
demand for instruction existed among petty nobles.
In 1736 the empress complained that the children of many officers, nobles, and
others, did not appear for examination, but concealed themselves in different ways,
while some entered the service of noblemen, and then were accused of various
crimes: 'For idleness is the root of all evil. And although schools in towns
had been opened for those under age, yet the latter, not discerning their own
interest, fled from science, and thus ruined themselves.'
On seeing the importance of the guards, Anna loannovna augmented their
number. To the Preobrajenski and Simeonovski regiments were added those of
Izmailov and one of cavalry. At Munnich's suggestion, the empress assigned the
same amount of pay to Russian officers and to foreigners. At Munnich's suggestion,
also, the cadet corps was founded in St. Petersburg, at first for two hundred pupils
and then for three hundred and sixty. That corps was, however, not purely
military. From it pupils entered both civil and military service. Those who
showed special talent for science might perfect themselves in it by instruction
from professors at the academy of sciences. The pupils at the cadet corps had
military exercises only once a week, ' in order not to form a hindrance to any
other science.'
Ilovaiski (p. 280) remarks that in general, during the reign of Anna loannovna,
interior administration and the constant continuation of business were superior
to those of her predecessors and successors.
In fact, enlightenment gradually began to advance, although its traces were
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 163
far from being very visible in all classes of society. True, there existed not a
little brilliancy and luxury ; but even they only veiled the real rudeness of the
times. Witness, for example, the quarrel between Volinski and Trediakovski.
The pitiful part enacted by doctors attached to the army we learn from the
notes of Fisher, then chief physician. It is in the following terms that he
expresses himself : ' A staff-officer wishes to keep a doctor constantly in his own
room, to make him a servant and to ask him to comb a wig. And if the doctor
does not appear obliging enough, he is subjected to complaints, fines, and other
humiliating proceedings on the part of a staff-officer. But the doctor who
consents from fear or bribery to become a man-servant, is not obeyed. He
is in fact despised, and does not visit the sick. Such doctors live chiefly in
the apartments of staff-officers, while others, offended by staff-officers, refuse
to serve.' (Soloviev, p. 294.)
In Little Russia, during the reign of Anna loanuovna, Apostol quietly
continued to be hetman till his death, which took place in 1724. Government
did not name his successor: but administration was invested in a so-called
'college' composed of six members, three from Great and three from Little
Russia.
Outward administration was directed by Osterman, while Anna loannovna
occupied the throne. Austria and France in turn sought alliance with Russia.
Osterman, however, persuaded the empress to form alliance with Austria as more
useful ; for the latter country being nearer to Russia, might be more beneficial
to it than the distant France. Not only so, Austria might help or hinder Russia
in intercourse with Poland and Turkey, while France had less influence in
that way.
Towards the east, Russia abandoned the plan of Peter the Great regarding
conquests on the shores of the Caspian Sea. Accordingly, at the commencement
of 1732, the provinces conquered by Peter were restored to Persia. In fact, their
unhealthy climate had rendered them only a burying-ground for the Russians.
During the following year, 1733, Augustus IL, king of Poland, died.
Russia and Austria acted in concert and wished his successor to be his son
Augustus ill., elector of Saxony, who promised the Russian government to act in
concert with it concerning Courland, and to endeavour that Poland should
renounce claims to Livonia. The opponent of Augustus was his father's old
rival, Stanislav Leschinski, who was at this epoch maintained by France in
consequence of his daughter Mary having married the French king Louis XV.
Accordingly, Stanislav was proclaimed king of Poland. But the approach of
Russian troops, commanded by Lacey, forced Stanislav to withdraw from Warsaw
164 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
to Dantzig. Profiting by these events, the Saxon party proclaimed Augustus,
and Lacey marched forward to besiege Stanislav in Dantzig, but, having few
troops, could not act with success. In Russia complaints were made that things
went slowly at Dantzig, so Lacey was replaced by Munnich. But even he, with
the same means as Lacey had had, could do little. However, when Munnich
received reinforcements in form of troops and vessels which brought provisions
and artillery, Stanislav fled, and Dantzig surrendered. The siege of that town,
prolonged for one hundred and thirty-five days, cost the Russians more than eight
thousand men.
But soon Munnich had a more extensive sphere for his brilliant military talent
in the war with Turkey, commenced in alliance with Austria, on account of
invasions from the Crimea. Lacey conquered Azoph. In 1736 Munnich took
Perekop and frightfully devastated all the western part of the peninsula, even to
Batchesaria. In 1737 Lacey devastated the eastern part of the Crimea, and
Munnich took Otschakov. In 1 739 Munnich gained a great victory at Stavootschena,
took Hotin, crossed the Pruth, and boasted that that river, once the scene of a
shameful treaty, had finally become famous for the Russians. Munnich, in fact,
next purposed to advance to the Danube. That brilliant success, however, cost
very dear. The marches were difficult. Vast steppes had to be traversed, and
Munnich was not remarkable as a general who spared the lives of his soldiers. In
order to prove the difficulty of these campaigns in steppes, it is sufficient to add
that the troops were obliged to carry about their supplies of wood and water.
Biron meanwhile, without his own will and unintentionally, had contributed
to Munnich's fame by urging the empress to nominate him chief commander of the
Russian forces in the war with Turkey. For Biron envied and hated Munnich,
and wished to remove him from court. Biron's envy and hatred to Munnich had
been roused because the empress, on visiting the canal of Ladoga, had praised
Munnich's work and honoured him with great confidence.
But while Munnich was obtaining victories over the Turks, Austria was
repeatedly unsuccessful, and asked for peace. Besides failure, French gold had
influenced Austria to act thus. Austrian ministers were by no means indifferent
to such bribery ; and began to persuade the Emperor Charles vi. that Russian
armies professing the Greek faith were much more dangerous to Austria than
Turks, because the most of Austrian subjects in Transylvania, Hungary, Croatia,
Dalmatia, and Istria were of the same religion as the Russians. Finally, other
European states were alarmed at the prospect of Russia seizing Constantinople
and monopolising the trade of the Levant. Thus Austria accepted the mediation
of Villeneuve, the French ambassador at Constantinople. The Empress Anna, on
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 165
seeing that no aid came from her allies, and on hearing that Persia was about to
conclude peace with the Turks, was, moreover, alarmed at the amount of loss the
Russian troops had sustained, and disquieted by the discord between commanding
officers. For all these reasons, Anna earnestly desired peace, if only the con-
ditions of the shameful treaty at the Pruth were annulled. Peace accordingly
was concluded in September 1739. Austria made great concessions to Turkey.
Russia, however, gained nothing except a part of the steppes between the Boog
and the Dnieper. It was furthermore stipulated that the Turks should raze
Azoph to the ground. So terminated a war in which a hundred thousand
Russians had perished !
At the same time as Munnich was conquering the Turks, Biron, without any
conquest or difficulty, became reigning duke of Courland. In 1737 Ferdinand,
the last of the Retlers, died childless. On learning his death, the court of St.
Petersburg ordered Russian forces from Riga to enter Courland in order to
maintain Biron's election as duke. So Biron was elected by a majority of votes
of the Courland nobles, who, formerly, had refused to consider him as one of
themselves.
BlRON A REIGNING DUKE — DEATH OF THE EMPRESS ANNA lOANNOVNA,
OCTOBER 17, 1740
The new duke did not, however, go to Courland. He remained in Russia, where
he wished to confirm his power.
The Empress Anna meanwhile desired to confirm the posterity of her father,
loann Alexe'evitch, in the possession of the throne. She therefore married her
niece, Princess Anna (formerly Elizabeth) Leopoldovna of Mecklenburg (daughter of
Duke Charles Leopold and the Czarevna Ekaterina loannovna) to Prince Anthony
Ulrick of Brunswick-Luneburg ; and when from that union a son Ivan was born,
August 24, 1740, he was proclaimed heir to the throne of Russia. At this period
the empress became dangerously ill. On October 5 she grew gradually worse.
Then Biron used every means to be appointed regent during the minority of the
young Prince loann (Ivan), and was supported by the cabinet ministers Prince
Tscherkasov and Bestoojev-Rumine, as well as Munnich also. But Bestoojev-
Rumine was especially urgent for this measure. In a consultation of cabinet
ministers and other distinguished individuals, it was decided that no one was
more capable of governing the state than Biron. So the empress was petitioned
to appoint him regent till Prince loann reached the age of seventeen years. The
petition was thereupon granted.
On October 17, 1740, the Empress Anna loannovna died, aged forty-five, and
166 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
all finally swore allegiance to the Emperor loann and to the regent duke of
Courland.
In Andre'ev's fascinating work entitled Representatives of Power in Russia after
Peter I., from which we have already so frequently quoted, we find the following
interesting details, pp. 67-80 : —
' The elder stepbrother of Peter the Great, loann Alexeevitch, and his consort
Prascovia Feodorovna Soltikova, left three surviving daughters, Catherine, Anna,
and Prascovia. During this epoch at court, as we have already mentioned, it
was customary to keep a great many jesters. But the dwelling of the Dowager-
Czarine Prascovia Feodorovna was literally a refuge for jesters and oddities of
all sorts. In that assemblage of idiots, one crazy clerk, Timofei Archipovitch,
was esteemed a prophet. He always foretold that Anna loannovna would become
a nun, and never named her otherwise than Anfeesa. His prediction, however,
was not fulfilled ; for fate destined to Anna a more remarkable position than
her sisters.
' The sphere in which these three princesses were educated did not certainly
promise much for their mental culture. And had it not been for their uncle
Peter L, their education would probably have been still worse than that they
received. He engaged as their teacher Osterman, brother of the subsequently
famous Andre" Ivanovitch. The former, according to the testimony of contem-
poraries, was rather an empty man ; although he thought a great deal of himself.
However, as a person of European education, he was at least able to communicate
some information to his pupils. Among other accomplishments, the young
princesses were taught to dance; for at this epoch times had changed, and
Peter I. had introduced many customs at court unknown previously, when women
were kept in Oriental seclusion.
' The youngest of the sisters, Prascovia loannovna, was pale, thin, of delicate
health, and not pretty in appearance. She afterwards contracted a morganatic
marriage with General Mamonov; and, although she danced by Peter's orders,
yet she was somewhat inclined to lead a life of semi- captivity, anciently in vogue
for Russian women. But both her sisters, Catherine and Anna, married foreigners,
reigning princes. These two princesses seemed more capable of profiting alike by
the lessons of Osterman, and also those of a certain dancing-master, Ramburg.
He was one known as ' able to give instruction in dancing, elegant movements of
the body, and the art of paying compliments both in French and in German.'
These arts, however, do not seem to have brought much profit to Stephen
Ramburg. He did not receive regular payment for his lessons ; and many years
afterwards he was forced to petition that the debt might be paid. The fact is
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 167
that the family of loann Alexe'evitch had but a small income. Peter the Great
did not assign his relatives much to maintain their imperial rank. Their revenue
was, however, subsequently increased ; but that was during the reign of Peter u.
' Ekaterina loannovna, the eldest of the sisters, was given in marriage to Charles
Leopold, duke of Mecklenburg, a man of stern, severe disposition, with whom she
spent only a short period in his domains. She left him and returned to Russia
along with her little daughter Elizabeth, subsequently named Anna when she
changed the Protestant faith, in which she had been baptized, for that of the
Russo-Greek. Ekaterine loaunovna was a woman of short stature, stout, and not
bad- looking. She was very simple in intercourse ; and was considered more than
commonplace in spite of her frequent attempts at wit in conversation, or even
perhaps because of them, as the cynical predominated in her rather than the
satirical.
' Of the three sisters, Anna was decidedly the most presentable. She was tall,
firmly built, yet withal well-made and not bad-looking. Her hair was black, her
complexion dark, her eyes deep blue. She had a lively, agreeable disposition.
Lady Rondeau speaks of Anna loannovna as a kind, accessible person, so
unaffected that one could address her as an equal. We, however, also know from
Berholtz that she was at the same time capable of making herself esteemed. The
latter quality seems to indicate that she was not devoid of mind. Her education
certainly could not be very brilliant, even as regarded the exterior. Subsequently,
although she lived amongst Germans, she merely learned their language enough
to understand it, but did not risk speaking it. Other foreign languages she did
not know.'
As we have already seen, Peter I. had united his niece to the duke of
Courland from political motives. Russia already occupied the Baltic shores to
Courland, and finally the turn to possess that duchy had also come. But Peter
preferred to acquire it rather by family alliance than by force of arms. Anna
received only a small dowry ; and Russian troops were removed from the duchy.
Anna's dowry was not yet even paid, when her consort suddenly died after six
weeks of married life, and while he was accompanying the duchess on the way
from St. Petersburg to Courland. The young widow was pretty well received there,
and individuals in service visited her as their duchess. That was perhaps partly
from fear of her uncle's troops, and partly also from the memory of her husband.
But in general, the widowed life of the duchess began to be very monotonous, so
that her only pleasure consisted in occasional visits to St. Petersburg. It is accord-
ingly scarcely surprising that she consented to marry even Maurice of Saxony.
Menshikov, who had hoped to become duke of Courland, went there. It was
168 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
during that very journey that his enemies thought to overthrow him ; and in fact,
he was only saved from arrest by the intercession which Bassevitch offered to
Catherine. On learning that Menshikov had arrived, Anna went at noon,
accompanied only by one maid-servant, to Eiga. She halted in that town, and
sent to inform Menshikov that she desired to see him. Menshikov came, and
then Anna urged him to arrange a marriage between her and Maurice of Saxony,
also a candidate for the ducal coronet of Courland. Menshikov was troubled ; for
Maurice only awaited a similar union in order to triumph over his opponents, and
among them was Menshikov. The latter, however, tried to dissuade Anna from
this union as unsuited to her, because Maurice was of illegitimate birth. We
have, however, seen that Anna wished to change her monotonous life in the capital
of Courland, where she was watched by a Russian marshal of the court.
Indeed, it was this monotony which accounted for her paying attention to a
man like Biron.
THE EMPRESS ANNA IOANNOVNA
Even when Anna loannovna became autocratic empress, she notwithstanding
still retained much simplicity of life at court. In the morning she attended to
business, although in reality it was submitted to Biron's decision. At twelve
o'clock she dined along with the family of Biron. Her ordinary attire consisted of
a black skirt, a red waist, and a handkerchief tied over her head. She often did
handiwork, and while thus engaged conversed with the Birons as equals. Some-
times, too, she played at billiards. She was besides a good shot, and hunting was
her favourite pastime. At her court, twice a week there was bear-baiting.
Occasionally she played at cards. When she lost she paid her debt in gold. In
1736 an Italian opera appeared in St. Petersburg, and the empress used to visit
the opera quite simply dressed. She even sometimes then wore a dressing-gown.
That simplicity in private life presented a marked contrast to the pomp at
court receptions, or when Anna loannovna appeared in state. On such occasions
her carriage was frequently surrounded by forty-eight footmen. That of Biron
was followed by twenty-four, while those of other dignitaries had twelve. In fact,
it was forbidden to appear twice at court in the same dress. Pounds of gold and
silver thread were employed at Lyons in order to prepare stuff for Russian noble-
men's garments. Luxury, nay, profuseness, was inculcated. This is supposed to
have been the suggestion of Biron, who endeavoured to ruin the Russian nobles,
whom he hated and despised. How otherwise can we account for the contra-
dictory tastes shown by Anna loannovna ? We mean her love of simplicity in
private, and her sumptuous attire on state occasions.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 169
Indeed, if we see contradiction between what Anna liked and what she often
did, this is only one among many similar examples. Anna loannovna was
naturally a woman of good heart and very compassionate. She mingled her
tears with those of the Dowager-Empress Evdokia, when both met for the coro-
nation in Moscow, which to them caused so many remembrances. Notwith-
standing, there is a tradition that Anna loannovna, on one occasion, ordered a
court cook to be strung up before the palace windows, because he had made
Russian pancakes with rancid butter! The said tradition is reported by
Snegeerev, and doubtless may be attributed to one of Biron's bitterest enemies.
Accordingly, Andrdev thinks that it cannot be believed. Yet Anna had a
wonderful command of tears, which freely flowed whenever she heard a sad story
or a description of cruelty. There is, however, positive proof that her evil
surroundings did deteriorate her naturally kind disposition. Biron's little sou
once ate too many strawberries in the court garden, and consequently had pain in
the stomach. True, the tutor had forbidden his pupil to eat too much fruit ; but
the spoiled child was wayward, and paid no attention to orders. When the
empress heard what had happened, what did she do ? She ordered Schwartz — the
tutor — to sweep the streets dressed as a felon ! Even Biron himself was ashamed
of this proceeding. He gave Schwartz a thousand roubles and a passport to go
abroad. But the bad influence of Anna's surroundings appeared even in her
amusements. She had six jesters. Probably she paid tribute to the education
she had received at the palace of her mother, Prascovia Feodorovua. At Anna's
court, however, those who had no inclination to be jesters were obliged to enact
that degrading part. Among such was Prince Golitzine, in joke surnamed
Kvasnine. We have already mentioned this nobleman. Prince Volkonski, another
of Anna's jesters, had also the duty of attending to her hunting-dogs. The
remaining jesters were Apraxine, Balakeerev, Pedrillo, and Kosta. The two last
were foreigners. They received an order, created in joke for them, that of
St. Benedetta. A smaller order of St. Alexander Nevski was to be worn in
the button-hole.
It has been again justly supposed that, in all these proceedings, Biron
endeavoured, as much as possible, to degrade ancient Russian families, under
pretext of amusing the empress.
Andreev (p. 79) affirms that Anna, at first, was really attached to Biron.
She was constantly in his society, and in that of his wife and children. The
latter, Anna loved as her own. But that Biron had ever any attachment to
Anna is doubtful. His cynical expressions in her presence often shocked her.
That says little for his attachment. Each word and act of the empress was
VOL. II. Y
170 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
reported to Biron. His spies were all around ; and no spy was more useful than
his wife in keeping watch over the empress. Madame Biron was a little woman,
terribly marked by smallpox, yet not totally disfigured by that deadly foe to
beauty, and her neck was of dazzling whiteness. Harsh in her judgment and
speech, the arrogant Fraulein Treiden, when married to the imperial favourite,
became still prouder. As duchess of Courland, she signed her name merely
' Benigna,' as a royal personage ; obtained the right not to stand in the empress's
presence, like princesses of royal blood ; gave her hand to be kissed as that of a
reigning sovereign, and received guests while seated on a sort of throne. Some of
Benigna Biron's dresses cost four hundred thousand roubles. One was trimmed
with pearls amounting to a hundred thousand roubles. She also wore diamonds
valued at two millions of roubles. As for her husband, he did what he liked with
the state treasury. He bought an estate worth ten millions of florins, and
possessed diamonds amounting to double that sum. When arrested, it is said
that in his house were found an immense number of valuable articles and twenty-
eight millions of roubles ! (Andre'ev, p. 80.)
But Biron's system of spies evidently wearied Anna loannovna, especially
towards the close of her life. Then she was heard to say that she only felt quiet
when he quitted her bedroom. In fact, Biron had no attachment to Anna, and
merely used her as a means to obtain an end, or, in other words, to gratify his
ambition. He endeavoured to conceal her last illness and to treat it lightly.
When the French ambassador in St. Petersburg, four months previous to Anna's
death, intimated to his court that the empress gave no hope of recovery, in Russia,
and even at court, thanks to Biron, none knew the real state of affairs. In short,
through Anna, Biron had obtained what he sought. When she ascended the
throne of Russia, the emperor of Austria raised her chief gentleman-in-waiting to
the rank of count of the German empire, and sent him his portrait along with a
hundred and twenty-five thousand francs. Some years later, Biron became
duke of Courland. Anna's death opened up to him a way to the regency
in Russia.
CHAPTEE XVI
REGENCY OF BIKON AND OF ANNA LEOPOLDOVNA — EPHEMERAL REIGN OF IOANN
ANTONOVITCH, 1740-1741
ILOVAJSKI (eighth edition, p. 314) narrates that when the dying Empress
Anna loannovna signed the document concerning the regency, Biron was
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 171
delighted. The duke thanked the surrounding ministers for their zeal in
maintaining the interest of their native country ; and, carried away by a fit of
eloquence, is said to have uttered his well-known meaningless phrase : 'Sirs, you
have acted like Romans ! '
A. P. Bestoojev Rumine, more than any one, had endeavoured to procure the
regency for Biron, as the latter had nominated him to be cabinet minister in the
place of Volinski, after the latter's execution.
Biron's regency, however, lasted only three weeks. The infant-prince, loann
Antonovitch, was merely the nominal autocrat of Russia ; for all power was really
vested in the hands of Biron. Even Munnich, who had aided in procuring the
regency for the duke of Courland, had done so with the hope of being nominated
generalissimus of the troops. But Biron, as a thoroughly ambitious man, could
support none equal to himself, and, besides, dreaded to increase Munnich's power.
Accordingly, his desire was not granted. Whereupon Munnich began to think
of overthrowing the Biron, as one to whom all submitted with fear and trembling.
Munnich then offered his services to the emperor's mother, Anna Leopoldovna, and
received her consent to carry out his plan. During one night, accompanied by
eighty grenadiers, Munnich went to the summer palace, and there arrested the
duke. He and his family were then sent in exile to Siberia, to the town of
Peleem. Munnich himself had even drawn the plan of a house, destined to be
occupied there by Biron. A new regent was next proclaimed, in the person of
the Princess Anna Leopoldovna.
But even the overthrow of Biron did not tranquillise Russia, and only
occasioned another more decided change. Anna Leopoldovna was totally unfitted
for administration. She passed whole days shut up in her own apartments, in
the society of her inseparable favourite, Julianna Mengden. Thus all business
was entirely enacted by the prime minister Munnich. The princess-regent,
however, had a husband, Prince Anthony. The latter in no wise wished to
cede the first place to Munnich. The prince himself was, meanwhile, little suited
for independent action ; but he was guided by Munnich's rival, Osterman.
Osterman and Prince Anthony thereupon began to alarm the princess-regent,
and to tell her that Munnich was a dangerous individual, who never hesitated to
accomplish his aims, no matter what sacrifice they cost. To terrify Anna Leo-
poldovna was not difficult. Ilovaiski (eighth edition, p. 314) also states that she
was prejudiced against Munnich by Count Linar, ambassador of Saxony at the
court of Russia. Munnich, meanwhile, seeing that his enemies were supplanting
him, gave in his demission, expecting, however, that it would not be accepted.
It was so, notwithstanding (March 1741). Munnich thereupon retired to private life.
172 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Thus Osterman became all-powerful, but not for a lengthened period. He
did not foresee the storm gathering above his own head. Discord also soon began
between Anna Leopoldovna and her husband, so that the court was divided into
two parties; while among the people complaints were everywhere heard that,
even after Biron's overthrow, things were no better.
At this epoch, in western Europe, war was about to break out concerning the
inheritance of Austrian possessions. Frederick II. of Prussia took up arms
against Maria Theresa, and desired to form alliance with Russia. Accordingly,
guided by policy and knowledge of human nature, Frederick nattered Munnich.
Although himself experienced in military art, Frederick consulted Munnich con-
cerning it, and urged him to take the part of Prussia. By Munnich's efforts, the
former alliance between Russia and Prussia was renewed. Osterman, on the
other hand, favoured Austria and the alliance with Poland and Saxony. He,
besides, urged the princess-regent to adopt his plan, and to abandon alliance
with Prussia. Grieved at these proceedings, Munnich resolved to retire from
administration.
During this interval, the Swedes commenced hostilities against Russia, with
the desire to regain all lost by the peace of Neustadt, in eluding even St. Petersburg.
Another pretext for war also was, that the Russians had excluded Elizaveta
Petrovna and the dynasty of Holstein from the throne. For the mother of
Anna Petrovna's consort — duke of Holstein — was a Swedish princess, Sophia
Hedwige, sister of Charles xn. of Sweden. But soon the efforts of the Swedes to
obtain lost possessions proved vain. Field-marshal Lacey routed them completely
at Vilmanstrand. With this glorious event, the brief reign of loann Antonovitch
came to a close.
Another important change was at hand.
After the horrors of Biron's administration, the mild sway of Anna Leopold-
ovna might have proved a boon to the Russians. However, not a few were
discontented that the throne was occupied by a prince, son of a foreigner, while
the daughter of Peter the Great, Elizaveta Petrovna, still lived.
The fate of that princess was indeed remarkable. During the life of her
august father, the duke of Holstein wished to marry her, as she pleased him
more than her elder sister, Anna Petrovna. Soon the French proposed to unite
Elizaveta to their young king, Louis XV. According to the testament of
Catherine L, Elizaveta was destined as the consort of a prince of Holstein,
bishop of Liibeck. We have already seen that Osterman purposed to unite her
in marriage to her nephew, Peter II. Then, during his reign, there was a project
of marrying her to Charles, margrave of Prussia.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 173
A prince of Wolfenblittel was also among other pretenders to her hand. Biron,
at one time, thought of uniting her to his own son, and then to raise both to the
throne. During the regency of Anna Leopoldovna, the Persian shah, Tachmas
Kooli Khan, sought the hand of Elizaveta Petrovna. Biron's brother Charles
was likewise another of her admirers ; but none of these matrimonial proposals
succeeded.
The sudden change of government, to which we have alluded above, could
only be effected in the name of one person — that is to say, Elizaveta Petrovna,
daughter of Peter the Great.
During the reign of Anna loannovna, Elizaveta had purposely kept aloof from
all political intrigues, and had led a retired life. But even that did not prevent
her from being an object of jealousy and suspicion, on account of her birth and
claims to the throne.
We have already mentioned that Elizaveta's partisans were numerous,
because around her was concentrated a sort of national movement. But, at the
same time, among the highest Russian dignitaries, there was not one energetic
enough to act in her name. In fact, the chief actors in the conspiracy
which placed Elizaveta Petrovna upon the throne were two Frenchmen —
Che'tardie, the French ambassador in Petersburg, and Lestocq, a French doctor
at court.
Chopin, in his Histoire de Russie, states that on one occasion Lestocq showed
Elizaveta two sketches of herself which he had made. One represented her in
regal robes, with a crown on her head and a sceptre in her hand. The second
sketch showed Elizaveta covered with a monastic veil, and surrounded by
instruments of torture. Lestocq thereupon addressed her thus: — 'Choisissez,
madame, ou d'etre impe'ratrice, ou d'etre enferme'e dans un couvent, et de voir
vos fideles serviteurs livre*s aux bourreaux ! '
On this occasion, so important a change of government could not be effected
by civilians. It was necessary that it should be accomplished by armed force.
But, we repeat again, there was no one to take the part of commander. Elizaveta
Petrovna was accordingly obliged to do so herself — to do what Munnich had done
for Anna Leopoldovna. But it can easily be understood that Elizaveta hesitated
before she did so. However, there was no time for hesitation. Many knew of
her intercourse with Che'tardie, and that he was urging her to lay claim to the
throne. Elizaveta was thus surrounded by terrible danger. Meanwhile, the
guards, faithful to her, had received orders to march to Finland against the
Swedes. During the night of November 25, 1741, seven of the Preobrajenski
guards appeared before Elizaveta Petrovna, and thus addressed her: — 'Little
174 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Mother ! to-morrow, we must begin a campaign and set out on our march.
Meanwhile, thou wilt remain in the hands of thy worst enemies ! It is impossible
to wait another minute ! ' So there was no alternative. Elizaveta Petrovna
conducted the soldiers to the palace, where Anna Leopoldovna and her family
were arrested. During the same night, Munnich, Osterman, and Golovkine were
also arrested.
Elizaveta Petrovna, without any opposition, was proclaimed empress. At first
she wished to send Anna Leopoldovna and her family abroad, but subsequently
this resolution was changed. The former emperor, loann Antonovitch, was shut
up in the fort of Schllisselburg. Anna, her husband, and their other children,
were sent in exile to Holmogori (government of Archangel), where Anna died in
1746. Her husband died in 1774. loann perished, assassinated in Schliisselburg,
in 1764 (5th July). (Soloviev, pp. 298-299.)
According to Ilovaiski (p. 282), Elizaveta Petrovna went at night to the
barracks of the Preobrajenski regiment, and addressed the soldiers. Three
hundred of them then immediately followed her.
A committee was thereupon formed to judge Munnich, Osterman, Golovkine,
Levenvold, and other partisans of the former government. They were condemned
to death ; but the empress changed the sentence to exile. Osterman was exiled
to Berezov, where he died. Munnich was sent to Peleem. Biron was recalled from
banishment, and allowed to live at Yaroslavl. Munnich, in Peleem, for twenty
years occupied the very house hitherto inhabited by Biron. It had been on
purpose built for him, from a plan drawn by Munnich. The exiled Dolgorookovs
who still survived were permitted to return to Petersburg. (Soloviev, p. 299.)
During this interval, Munnich did not waste time in useless regret while
exiled. He founded an institution at Peleem, and there taught young men.
Thus the same hand that formerly had waged war against the Turks, afterwards
traced geometrical lines and figures. Munnich finally once more appeared in
St. Petersburg, as a venerable man of eighty years old.
CHAPTEE XVII
ANNA LEOPOLDOVNA
IN Andreev's fascinating work, from which we have already so often quoted, we
find some interesting details of Anna Leopoldovna. Among others are the
following (pp. 81-85): —
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 175
' The Empress Anna loannovna died of the same illness— the stone — which
shortened the lives of both her sisters.
' We have already seen that Anna loannovna adopted her niece Anna (formerly
Elizabeth) Leopoldovna, while her mother, Ekaterina loannovna, did not live
with them in the palace, but had a separate dwelling in another house. As much
attention was paid to the posterity of the young princess as to herself, thus there
was soon question of her marriage. Accordingly a German prince, Anthony
Ulrick of Brunswick-Luneburg, was brought to St. Petersburg to be educated
along with Anna Leopoldovna. It was hoped that constant intercourse during
early years would occasion attachment between them. But this hope was not
realised ; for, at the very first glance, Anna disliked her bridegroom. The young
princess was a sullen, reserved, obstinate, capricious child. When reproved for
these faults, she merely replied that probably she had inherited them from her
parents, who were also like her. When Anna Leopoldovna first saw Prince
Anthony, he was a boy of fourteen years old, short of stature, effeminate in
appearance. He stammered, was quiet and simple, with very limited capacities.
In a word, the bride and bridegroom were totally unsuited. Biron soon perceived
that ; and then it was that he conceived the idea of uniting Anna to his own son.
But the plan was frustrated by the obstinacy of the princess. The scythe had
hit a stone.'
When Lady Rondeau1 (whose notes are quoted by Andr^ev) saw Anna
as a little girl, she did not promise much. She had not an attractive personal
appearance, while, at the same time, she was serious and even sulky. When
older, Anna became still more reserved, spoke little, and never laughed. She
was harsh in expression, and could not support subordination. All who
knew her felt sure she disliked Prince Anthony, simply because he was her
destined bridegroom. When Biron was all-powerful, Anna also hated him,
because he exacted submission from every one. Accordingly, whenever she
understood what his plans concerning herself in reality were, she consented
to marry Anthony Ulrick, who at least had a gentle disposition, while Peter
Biron, on the contrary, was said to be even more malicious than his father. True,
the latter was hasty ; but after a time his anger passed. The son, however, was
not soon appeased. Certainly the education of Biron's children had not tended
to improve them. We have already mentioned how incensed the Empress Anna
loannovna was at Schwartz, tutor of the young Birons, when one of them had
eaten too many strawberries, and how she punished the tutor for what she
considered as his negligence. A similar punishment was also inflicted on Kirsh,
1 Wife of the British ambassador in St. Petersburg.
176 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Biron's house-steward, simply because, on one occasion, he had dared to complain
of the duke's children. They, indeed, allowed themselves all sorts of liberties,
such, for example, as pouring wine on passers-by, beating (with rods) the feet and
legs of attendants at court. Levenvold used then to spring up, so that the strokes
of the rods might not fall on his silk stockings ; but others were less accommo-
dating. And, if any one complained to the duke of his children, he replied :
' What is the matter ? Are you tired of service ? If so, you may retire.'
Peter Biron was then fifteen and the Princess Anna was twenty. No wonder
that she was terrified at the prospect of such a bridegroom, and at once repulsed
him ! Thus she consented, as we have already said, to marry Prince Anthony.
He was then a youth of twenty, fair, with wavy locks. When, clad in a light
silk jacket, embroidered with gold, he went to thank the empress for the hand of
her niece, and for obtaining the consent of the latter, Anna Leopoldovna felt that
she had no cause for thankfulness. She therefore gave full vent to her sadness.
' That has all been done by you — cursed ministers ! ' exclaimed she, addressing
Volinski, and no longer able to restrain her indignation.
Although the Princess Anna had been brought as a child to Russia, and
educated there, she was, notwithstanding, by no means Russian. That, however,
is easily explained by the fact that while the Empress Anna loannovna occupied
the throne, the court was full of Germans, and Anna Leopoldovna had lived
exclusively amongst them. So she was half a foreigner. She had, besides, not
even tact and good taste enough to conceal her contempt and dislike of Russians.
That explains why, on one occasion, after the empress's death, the Princess Anna,
on not finding Apraxine — a gentleman-in- waiting — at his post, and on hearing
that he was sleeping, called him ' one of that Russian rabble ! ' Indeed, contempt
towards all Russians was a remarkable feature of Biron's school, at which Anna
Leopoldovna had been educated. Anna, however, in her heart, hated Biron
also.
When Anna Leopoldovna became mother of the future Emperor loann Antono-
vitch, she saw with indifference how Biron, by means of thirty thousand roubles
given to Bestoojev, and by other means also, supplanted her in obtaining the
regency, and himself became regent. For, although Anna was harsh and irritable,
she, notwithstanding, had no real strength of character, and was unfitted for
administration.
In personal appearance Anna Leopoldovna was of middle height. She had
a full countenance. Her hair was dark and her eyes black. There was nothing
particularly attractive in her exterior ; and certainly it was in no wise improved
by art. For the princess did not like to dress according to the fashion of the
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 177
times, but she chose fashions of her own. It was then customary for ladies
to wear hoops ; but Anna, even when regent, wore quite plain dresses, and
used to put a simple handkerchief on her head when she went to church.
During the life of the Empress Anna loannovna, the princess detested court
receptions, because at them it was necessary to be elegant, and especially because
it was also necessary to bow down before the hated Biron. Plain in attire, the
princess was also plain in speech and in intercourse. She only seemed at home
in a small circle of those around her, particularly foreigners, among whom she
had grown up. But court society did not suit her. She liked frankness and
hated dissimulation. Far from possessing much worldly affability, she was
sometimes even harsh in speech. She used to judge others by their countenances,
and by the impression they produced upon her. She herself was so open in
intercourse, that she could not conceal her sympathy or antipathy.
Anna Leopoldovna was, however, a woman neither without mind nor heart.
She liked to read French and German books, particularly dramas, passages from
which she herself used to declaim. She preferred scenes in which an oppressed
princess sympathised with those in a similar position. From a love of the
drama to romance, there is but a step; and the life of Anna Leopoldovna did
not pass without a romance. When she was only sixteen, her attention was
attracted by the singularly beautiful appearance of the young Count Linar,
ambassador of Saxony at the court of Russia. Interviews between Anna and
Linar were arranged by Aderkas, Anna's governess. Linar endeavoured to break
off Anna's purposed marriage to Prince Anthony. Probably that was done at
her request. But Prince Anthony was protected by the empress. When she
knew what was going on, request was made that Linar should be recalled. As
for the governess Aderkas, she was sent back to Germany.
The eldest son of Anna Leopoldovna and Prince Anthony was named
loann.
The Empress Anna loannovna was a pious woman. She ordered a thanks-
giving for the birth of the young prince to be offered up in all churches of the
empire. The imperial infant was then entirely under her care ; and she was his
only sponsor at his baptism. He could only be dressed and undressed in presence
of Benigna Biron. Soon it appeared that the little prince was weak and sickly.
We must merely hope that his delicate health was not increased by the fond care
of Madame Benigna ! As for the Princess Anna Leopoldovna, it seemed quite
natural that she should be completely estranged from her son ; and no one saw
any violation of maternal feeling in that act. Princess Anna, however, tolerated
the separation only during the life of her aunt.
VOL. II. Z
178 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
CHAPTER XVIII
BIRON REGENT — REGENCY OF ANNA LEOPOLDOVNA
THE Empress Anna loannovna had newly expired. The court was full of
mourners. Anna Leopoldovna sat weeping in a corner of the room where the
dead empress lay. Biron also shed tears, and moved about from one spot to
another, without knowing what to do. But after a short interval, when all began
to be quiet, preparations were made for reading the testament of the deceased
sovereign. On seeing Prince Anthony standing behind Princess Anna's chair,
Biron approached, and with his usual irony remarked that 'perhaps his royal
highness also would be pleased to hear the empress's last will.' All listened
attentively to it, although not a few present remembered how the Dolgorookovs
had tried to prove that Peter n. had made a testament, forgetting that the young
emperor, till he lost consciousness, had fully hoped to recover, and afterwards
he was unable to make any arrangement. Anna loannovna, too, was unprepared
for death. She dreaded to mention it in conversation. Thus the said testament
might only be an imposition of Biron himself. Notwithstanding, Biron was
proclaimed regent during the minority of the Emperor loann Antonovitch.
Soon afterwards, the senate conferred on Biron the title of ' royal highness.' He
had thus attained the most exalted position which could be occupied by a subject.
To the regent was assigned an annual income of five hundred thousand roubles,
while Prince Anthony — the emperor's father — was to receive three hundred
thousand. The Austrian government, at the commencement of Anna loaunovna's
reign, had brought luck to Biron, by buying him presents to the amount of
200,000 thalers : and as he also had large sums placed in foreign banks, he had
an annual income of four millions of pounds, besides what the senate assigned
him. He accordingly had ample means to bribe and buy the services of those
around him, as well as to maintain the pomp of his court. All turned towards the
newly rising sun : and those who formerly had kissed the hand of Prince Anthony,
now deemed it necessary to show the same servile attention to Biron. In a word,
the spoiled favourite of fortune, who in 1715 was nearly sent out of St. Petersburg
because he had dared to solicit the post of gentleman-in- waiting at the court of
Sophia Charlotte, consort of Alexei Petrovitch, now had his hand kissed by the
most distinguished Russians.
But the medal had also another side. Biron felt insecure because his chief
prop — the Empress Anna loannovna — was no more. He had been constantly
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 179
m her society, and thus had had the opportunity to acquire knowledge concerning
the duties of a sovereign. Certainly, he had also abundant leisure to do so.
For while Anna found amusement in looking at her six jesters, placed in a row
near the wall, and forced to beat each other without mercy, Biron could hardly
be amused by such proceedings.
During the ten years of Anna loannovna's reign, Biron had made himself
cordially detested by the Russians, and he in turn also hated and despised them.
Hence his dread of the future.
As we have already seen, the Princess Anna Leopoldovna tolerated separation
from her son only during the life of her aunt. Thus the infant emperor remained
beside his mother. But a strange report was spread, that they were to be
separated, and that Biron intended to send her and her husband away from
Russia. Anna was terrified, disclosed her fears to Munnich, and begged his
protection. Meanwhile, Munnich only awaited the princess's consent in order to
act against Biron.
At two o'clock in the morning, near the palace where Biron lived, and where
still lay the empress's remains, a detachment of soldiers, along with Munnich's
adjutant, Manstein, and accompanied by Munnich himself, appeared. They
surrounded the palace. Munnich then intimated that the emperor's mother had
ordered the regent to be arrested. Biron was so universally hated that little
persuasion was necessary to make the guards admit the soldiers to the palace.
Thus there was no alarm. Maustein, followed by some men, without noise,
easily made way to the regent's bedroom. The door, however, was shut.
Manstein then broke it open. Biron and his wife awoke in terror, and at
once understood what had happened. Benigna Biron began to scream on seeing
the stately form of Manstein near the bed. Biron himself seemed ready to
hide under it, but Manstein seized him immediately. A struggle then ensued.
One soldier had his hand bitten by the regent while endeavouring to stuff a
handkerchief into his mouth. But resistance only rendered the assailants cruel,
and they dealt Biron at least twenty wounds, although they were small. His
hands were finally tied by an officer's scarf, and as he lay, in under-linen, he
was carried out of the palace, whereupon a soldier's overcoat was thrown
over him; he was then put into a sledge and transported. Benigna, in night-
dress, rushed after her husband into the street. There a soldier seized her and
took her to Manstein, but he ordered her to be taken back to the palace. The
soldier, however, would not take the trouble to do so. He simply threw her on
a heap of snow, and went away. An officer who chanced to see her there
recognised her, and accompanied her back to the palace, whence she was
180 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
removed on that very day, first to the Alexandrovski monastery and then to
Schliisselburg.
During the morning, Biron was also sent to Schliisselburg. In the same
conveyance which removed him were seated two officers with loaded pistols.
Biron wore a dressing-gown, and above it a mantle lined with ermine, which
he usually had on while riding about the town. He pulled his hat low over
his face ; yet the people recognised him, and demanded that he should uncover
his features, and show them to view.
Immediately after the regent's arrest, all dignitaries were ordered to appear
at the palace. Osterman knew nothing of what was going on, and when he
received orders from the Princess Anna — then regent — he, as usual, feigned
illness in order to avoid appearing. However, when Munnich explained what
had taken place, Osterman was quickly cured, and came to congratulate Anna
Leopoldovna.
Biron had not miscalculated his aim when he was instrumental in recalling
Count Linar, ambassador of Saxony to the court of Russia. Anna soon again
began to feel his influence. In fact, that was one reason why discord speedily
broke out between her and her husband, Prince Anthony. As for Linar, he
hoped to enact the same part as Biron had done during the reign of Anna
loannovna (Andre'ev, p. 108).
But the regency of Anna Leopoldovna was of short duration. ' Uneasy lies
the head that wears a crown.' And so the princess was doomed to experience.
Andre'ev states that she and her husband were in a continual state of terror.
They daily changed their bedroom, in order that none might know where they
slept. Soon afterwards another conspiracy placed Elizaveta Petrovna on the
throne of Russia (see Andre'ev, pp. 88-106).
A detachment of the Preobrajenski regiment proclaimed Elizaveta Petrovna
their mother-empress, and accompanied her to the regent's palace. The sentinels
on guard were about to sound the alarm, but Lestov ripped up the drums with
a knife, so there was no noise. Meanwhile the Preobrajenski were already at
the palace. All therein were plunged in repose. Elizaveta herself awoke the
guards. The soldiers with her were ready to use violence, but Elizaveta distinctly
said that if they shed blood she would not go with them. The soldiers then
became quiet, and the arrest took place without disturbance, simply as if they
had performed an ordinary duty. The princess-regent awoke. Elizaveta was
before her. Indeed, it was Elizaveta who awoke Anna. In an instant all was
understood. No complaints, no reproaches, were uttered. Anna Leopoldovna
then dressed, and she was led out of the palace. The infant emperor was asleep.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 181
Whereupon a number of guards, with noise, surrounded his cradle. On seeing
so many strangers, he began to cry. Elizaveta was sorry for the child, and
caressed him. He was then taken out of the palace, after his mother. Amid
the confusion, Anna Leopoldoviia's little daughter Catherine was let fall, and
in consequence remained deaf and dumb for her whole life afterwards (see
Andre'ev, p. 116).
CHAPTER XIX
REIGN OF ELIZAVETA PETROVNA, 1741-1761 — THE BODYGUARD — MOVEMENT
AGAINST FOREIGNERS
AFTER punishing the adherents of the former government, the new empress
generously rewarded those who had aided her to ascend the throne. The
Preobrajenski regiment, which had taken so prominent a part in the transaction,
received the special designation of 'Life Bodyguard/ and Elizaveta nominated
herself its captain. The under officers and common soldiers were promoted to
the rank of hereditary nobles, and besides obtained landed property, so that
each soldier possessed twenty-nine serfs. As for Lestocq, he acquired the rank
of actual secret councillor, received handsome presents and a pension of seven
thousand roubles. Schwartz, a music-teacher, who had also participated in the
conspiracy, was made a colonel (Andre'ev, p. 117).
It is somewhat remarkable that the French ambassador, Che'tardie, who took
the chief part in the conspiracy, was by no means prepared for its success. He
was even amazed when he learned what had occurred. Meanwhile Che'tardie
was playing a very advantageous game. In order to aid the undertaking he
advanced the sum of forty-nine thousand ducats, and eventually received from
Elizaveta money and presents to the amount of one million five hundred thousand
pounds. It is supposed that Che'tardie favoured Elizaveta Petrovna, not merely
from political motives, but also because he was personally influenced by her
extreme beauty. Frederick II. of Prussia was of that opinion regarding Che'tardie ;
and, in general, we infer that romantic sentiments had not a little aided the
above-mentioned drama.
Thus Elizaveta Petrovna occupied the throne. Bonfires blazed all around.
The soldiers guarded their 'mother -empress.' Noise and drinking-matches
prevailed in barracks and in all the city. But at length the loud demonstrations
ceased. Peter's daughter, a woman naturally without ambition, who would
have continued so had she been left in peace, began to reign.
182 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
During this interval a powerful movement against foreigners and foreign
officers became manifest. This was especially the case in the war between
Russia and Sweden, while the Russian troops were in Finland. Munnich's
former adjutant, Manstein, then in the Russian service, narrates the following
circumstance in his notes (Ilovaiski, p. 285) : —
' While the army was before Viborg, two Swedes came to the camp of the
Russians with letters to the commauder-in-chief. The soldiers of the Preobrajenski
and Simeonovski regiments thereupon spread a report that foreign officers were
holding intercourse with the enemy, and wished to betray the Russians. On
hearing this, several hundred rebels assembled and resolved to destroy all
foreigners. But at that critical moment General Keith rushed into the crowd,
seized one of the ringleaders, and ordered a priest to prepare him for death.
In terror the rebels dispersed, and those most guilty were punished.'
SUCCESSOR TO THE THRONE — CHIEF PERSONAGES DURING THE REIGN OF
ELIZAVETA PETROVNA
After excluding the posterity of loann Alexe'evitch from the throne, Elizaveta
Petrovna hastened to confirm the succession on the dynasty of Peter the Great.
She accordingly adopted her nephew, Charles Peter Frederick Ulrick, duke of
Holstein, her sister Anna Petrovna's son, then fourteen years old. He came to
Russia, and on embracing the Russo- Greek faith was henceforth known as Peter
Feodorovitch. In November 1742 he was declared heir to the throne of Russia,
six months after Elizaveta's coronation, which took place in Moscow, April 28 of
the same year. In 1744 a bride for the hereditary grand duke came to Russia in
the person of the Princess Sophia Augusta Frederica Dorothea of Anhalt-Zerbst.
The princess was born at Stettin, in Prussian Pomerania, April 21, 1729.
Her father, a general in the Prussian service, was governor of Stettin. Sub-
sequently, after a cousin's death, he became reigning prince, and removed to
his small domains. Zerbst, or more correctly Serbsk, is situated on the Elbe,
at that time on the boundary of Prussia and Saxony. The young princess's
mother was of the Holstein family, so that the bride was a distant relative of
her future consort, Peter Feodorovitch. Frederick II. of Prussia, more than any
other, principally desired the marriage, as he thus hoped to become closely allied
to Russia. The young princess arrived there at the age of fifteen, accompanied
by her mother, loanna Elizabeth. During the following year the bride embraced
the Russo-Greek faith, and was henceforth known as Ekaterina Alexe'evna. She
married Peter in 1745. Catherine's father, duke of Anhalt-Zerbst, was named
Christian Augustus.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 183
Among the chief personages at the court of Elizaveta Petrovna, we first
of all remark Count Alexei Gregorievitch Razoomovski. He belonged to a
family of Little Russian Cossacks. His singularly beautiful voice first attracted
Elizaveta Petrovna's attention, and, thanks to her favour, Razoomovski, from
being merely a court chorister, was afterwards promoted to a field-marshal, and
then received the rank of count. He was a man without remarkable eifts and
D *
had not received much education. But, at all events, he was good and upright.
Besides he did not abuse the power which he possessed at court, and had sense
enough not to meddle with what he felt beyond his capacity.
The Counts Shoovalov had much more sway in administration during
Elizaveta's reign than Razoomovski.
Count Peter Ivanovitch Shoovalov was a highly gifted man, but his morals
were light, and he was remarkable not only for great dissimulation, but also
because he changed his opinions according to circumstances. Not only so, he
diminished his useful services and stained his reputation by avidity. His
relative, Ivan Ivanovitch Shoovalov, was of a totally different stamp. He was
amongst the best individuals of his time. He, in fact, was the chief representative
of higher inspirations and a better order of things. From the commencement of
reform, introduced by Peter I., till this epoch, civilisation, arts, and sciences had
merely been considered from a material point of view, or as means by which
the state might be rendered more powerful, and which ensured more comfort to
its inhabitants. Now new and better ideas were prevalent. They made all
understand the necessity of interior, moral transformation of men and society.
Finally, it was felt that true enlightenment consists in clearly comprehending the
duty of one individual towards another, that human beings should be treated as
such, and not as Volinski and many like him had treated them. During the
reign of Peter the Great and subsequently, it was felt that individuals should be
rendered suitable for service by receiving a certain amount of education, or, in
other words, that they should be able to read and write and to know calculation.
But now it was acknowledged that society would not advance much with so
limited a form of education, and that moral training was also requisite; true
enlightenment, by which alone good citizens could be formed. These new views
and aims were especially felt in Russia during the second half of the eighteenth
century, and doubtless were not a little fostered by a knowledge of French
literature, which diffused more humane ideas. Thus, while Elizaveta Petrovna
occupied the throne, we remark a softening of manners and an awakening
consciousness of human dignity. As we have already observed, the chief
upholder of these new and better inspirations was Elizaveta's favourite, Count
184 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Ivan Ivanovitch Shoovalov, distinguished not merely as a nobleman who pro-
tected enlightenment, but especially because, in his own person, he showed
the fruits of enlightenment. Besides, Count Ivan Ivanovitch was one whose
reputation was spotless. He never stained his good name by accepting bribes.
He was devoid of all petty ambition. One very rare feature at this epoch was
remarkable in Count Ivan Ivanovitch Shoovalov. We allude to his kindness
towards inferiors. In general, in intercourse with others, he maintained a
' noble urbanity,' as his contemporaries expressed themselves, resulting from the
acknowledgment of human dignity in himself and in his fellow-men. All who
knew him affirmed that they never approached him without experiencing a
peculiar kind of gladness (Soloviev, p. 301).
EXTERIOR POLICY
During the reign of Elizaveta Petrovna, exterior policy was administered by
Alexei Petrovitch Bestoojev Rumine, already known by diplomatic service
rendered to Peter L, and speedily promoted by Anna loannovna on account of
Biron's favour. Bestoojev, however, fell along with Biron. But when Elizaveta
Petrovna became empress, Bestoojev's friend Lestocq begged her majesty once
more to elevate Bestoojev, and to make him vice-chancellor. The chancellor was
the old Prince Alexei Michaelovitch Tscherkasski, at whose death Bestoojev
became chancellor (1742).
The first solicitude of the new government was war with Sweden. For
although the Swedes had commenced hostilities on Russia under pretext of
upholding Elizaveta Petrovna's rights, notwithstanding, when Elizaveta made
them felt, the views of her defenders altered, and they demanded restoration of
the part of Finland which Peter I. had taken from them. But the war only
proved the weakness of Sweden and the strength of Russia. The Russians,
I743_peace commanded by Lacey, took town after town in Finland. Finally, in 1743,
of Abo. peace was concluded at Abo, by which Russia received the province of Kroo-
mengorsk, while the river Kumen was designated as boundary between the
two states.
Meanwhile, Lestocq and Bestoojev became enemies. Lestocq endeavoured to
confirm the alliance of Russia with France and Prussia against Austria and
England. Bestoojev was opposed to that alliance. Che'tardie a second time
came to Russia, in order to maintain the interest of his own court, i.e. to uphold
Lestocq and to overthrow Bestoojev. But the chancellor knew of the conspiracy
formed against him, used every means to avert the blow and to ruin his
adversaries. He seized the correspondence of Che'tardie and showed it to the
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 185
empress. In the said correspondence there was question of bribery, and proof
was given that Lestocq was paid for his services by the French court. Finally,
Che'tardie, in his letters, used very unfavourable expressions concerning Elizaveta
herself; consequently, Chetardie was sent out of the country. Lestocq was
exiled, first to Ooglitch (government of Yaroslavl), and then to Oostioog (govern-
ment of Vologda). Chopin, iff his Histoire de Russie, says that Lestocq was
tortured three times. Other authors, however, do not make this statement.
Lestocq was an unprincipled, exceedingly bad man, as we shall subsequently
have occasion to remark.
The struggle between Lestocq and Bestoojev is characteristic of court intrigues
at that epoch. Foreign policy was the cause of this enmity. For, while Lestocq,
bought by French gold, aimed at promoting the alliance between Russia and
France, Bestoojev deemed that it was more advantageous for Russia to seek
alliance with Austria. Lestocq, in order to injure his rival, raised a report of a
conspiracy. Two ladies of the highest circles — Natalia Lopoochine and the
Countess Bestoojev, wife of the upper house-steward, brother of the chancellor —
were accused of plotting, along with the Austrian ambassador, Marquis de Botta,
in order to restore the exiled family of Brunswick to the throne of Russia.
Countess Bestoojev and Natalia Lopoochine (the latter along with her husband
and son) were tortured, publicly beaten with the knout, and then had their
tongues cut out. Finally, the accused were banished (1743). Such punishments 1743.
proved that under French jackets embroidered with gold there still beat cruel
hearts, while the brutal practices of ancient Russia yet existed even in the
highest society of that epoch. And yet Elizaveta, on the night of the conspiracy
which raised her to the throne, made a vow that, in case of success, she would
put none to death during her reign. (See Ilovaiski's Outlines of Russian History,
eighth edition, pp. 317-318.)
During this interval the affairs of western Europe attracted the attention of
the Russian court. The war for the inheritance of Austria continued, and
Frederick n. of Prussia triumphed. The Empress Maria Theresa everywhere
sought help. Elizaveta Petrovna had just cause of discontent with Austria,
whose minister, the Marquis de Botta, then in St. Petersburg, had participated in
the conspiracy we have already mentioned. But, by the advice of Bestoojev*
Elizaveta made peace with Maria Theresa, formed alliance with her, and sent
her a force of thirty-seven thousand men. Their appearance in Germany, under
command of Prince Repnine, contributed much to the termination of war for
the Austrian dominions. Austria, England, France, and Prussia then concluded
peace at Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748.
VOL. n. 2 A
186 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
PARTICIPATION OF RUSSIA IN THE SEVEN YEAES' WAR — REASONS WHICH
OCCASIONED IT
It may be said that the war for the inheritance of the Austrian dominions
was but the introduction to another important, bloody struggle, namely, the
Seven Years' War. v
Austria considered the conditions of peace concluded at Breslau and at
Dresden, in virtue of which it ceded Silesia to Prussia, humiliating to itself,
and therefore thought of revenge and of beginning a new war with Frederick n.
Austria thus sought allies, and urged the chief states of Europe to join its
cause, including even France, although France had for a lengthened period been
the rival of Austria, with a view to maintain the equilibrium of Europe. While
all Europe was during this interval awaiting the issue of events, the flames of
war broke out in America, and quickly spread to Europe. The spirit of
the times, the establishment of the mercantile system in Europe, the aim of
Europeans to conquer colonies, Cromwell's celebrated law concerning navigation,
the immense wealth obtained by Holland from external trade — all these reasons
aroused more and more the spirit of envy and hatred among Europeans, and
produced this war — the first fruits of the mercantile and colonial systems, from
which issued many other wars of the same kind, prolonged to our own times.
The disputes in America between the French and English concerning
boundaries of colonies led to war. It began by the French taking the island of
Minorca, which belonged to the English. The intention of France to seize
Hanover excited all Europe and hastened war, already prepared by the cabinet
of Vienna. Prussia resolved to defend Hanover, which belonged to the king of
England. Austria took up arms against Prussia with the hope and intention
to obtain Silesia again. Russia desired to join its forces to those of Austria.
Saxony also joined Austria, in anticipation of founding its own greatness on the
ruins of the Prussian monarchy. Sweden entertained similar views, made
alliance with France, and opposed Prussia. Many reigning German princes
joined Austria. Some of them took the part of Prussia, and not a few remained
neutral. In this wise broke out the struggle in Europe known by the name of
the Seven Years' War.
In 1756 Frederick n. commenced this struggle, in October, by invading
Saxony and taking Dresden. ' I do not fear my enemies in Austria and France,'
said he, ' if only Russia remains quiet ; but what shall I do if I am obliged to
fight with the Russians also?' And what he feared took place. In 1757 a
Russian army of eighty-three thousand men, commanded by Apraxine, crossed
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 187
the Prussian frontiers. Memel surrendered. On August 30, Apraxine com-
pletely beat a Prussian force, headed by Lewald, at Gross Egernsdorff; but,
instead of profiting by the victory and advancing further, Apraxine retreated to
Poland, as if he had been defeated. The ambassadors of France and Austria
thereupon loudly complained to the empress of Apraxine's proceeding, which
clearly proved a desire to shield the king of Prussia. The empress ordered
Apraxine to appear in St. Petersburg, and there to give an account of his actions.
His documents were seized, and, according to them, it was discovered that
Apraxine had acted by the advice of his friend, the chancellor Bestoojev.
Apraxine was delivered up to judgment, and died of a stroke after the first
interrogation. Bestoojev was then accused 'of extensive and injurious designs,
of enmity to the sovereign, and attempts at violating her safety.' He was
therefore exiled to his estates, and Count Michael Vorontzov was nominated to
his post as chancellor.
One Russian author, Kaidanov (p. 334), states that the retreat of the Russians
after the victory of Gross Egernsdorff took place in consequence of Bestoojev's
policy. At that epoch the empress was very ill. In the event of her death,
Bestoojev formed a plan to remove Prince Peter Feodorovitch from the throne,
and in his stead to proclaim the little Grand Duke Paul Petrovitch sovereign,
under the tutelage of his mother, the Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alexeevna.
Bestoojev had had the misfortune to incur the displeasure of Peter Feodorovitch.
Hence it was that the chancellor deemed it necessary to have an army in
readiness, and ordered Apraxine to return immediately to Russia.
These circumstances were remarkably favourable to Frederick IL, and probably
not a little aided him to gain the victories of Rosbach and Leiten. Meanwhile
the empress recovered. She rejoiced to hear that the Russians had triumphed at
Gross Egernsdorff, and was displeased at Apraxine's retreat.
In 1758 the Russian forces, commanded by Fermor, a second time entered 1758.
Prussia. The Cossacks and Kalmucks frightfully devastated the country. On
August 14, between Darmeetzel and Tsorndorff, Fermor met Frederick II. himself.
In that bloody battle, renewed twice, the Russians lost 19,000 killed and 3000
prisoners. The Prussians lost 11,000 men. In 1759 a third campaign in Prussia 1759.
took place, under command of Count Saltikov. Frederick was completely
defeated by the Russians, between Frankfort-on-the-Oder and Koonersdorff 1759— BattI
., , , of Koonera-
(1st August), so that the famous king of Prussia considered himself >st, and dorff> llth
began to think of committing suicide, as the only means to save his honour. August.
During the campaign of 1760, the Russians, commanded by Tschernishev, took
Berlin, but not for a lengthened period. The campaign of 1761 was undertaken 1761.
188 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
under command of Bootoorline. At that time, in Pomerania, in different skir-
mishes, Soovorov began to distinguish himself. Roomiantzev took Colberg. The
means of Frederick n. were exhausted. His only ally — England — was about to
abandon him. But he was saved by the death of the Empress Elizabeth Petrovna,
which took place December 25, 1761, in her fifty-third year.
CHAPTER XX
INTERIOR ADMINISTRATION DURING THE REIGN OF ELIZAVETA PETROVNA
IN December 1741, Elizaveta Petrovna intimated that, in the administration of the
state, she desired to restore the same order of things which had existed while her
father, Peter the Great, occupied the throne. That order had been abolished by the
upper secret council and then by the cabinet. Elizaveta restored to the senate its
former signification. The compilation of laws did not much advance during the
empress's reign. In order to facilitate the labour, Elizaveta devised a special plan.
That was to compose separate parts of the code, and to assign them to select
individuals from various departments which concerned those parts. To listen to
the code, chosen persons were summoned from each province from among the
nobles and merchants. On September 30, an ukaze was issued to abolish capital
punishment. In its stead the knout and exile were adopted. Since this epoch,
capital punishment has ceased in Russia, except for political crimes.
As the Empress Elizaveta Petrovna was much attached to the Russo-Greek
faith, she took special care that religious services should be suitably performed, and
that churches and images should be kept in order, also that parents should instruct
their children in religion. For that purpose catechists were sent to various
districts. In 1751 a new and revised edition of the Bible was printed and sold.
In 1754 orders were given to elect bishops and archbishops from Great Russia,
which proved that learning had there made progress among the clergy. The
Raskol, or schism, in the church did not meanwhile diminish. There were even
frequent cases of fanatical schismatics, who burned themselves to death. In the
town of Oostioog (government of Vologda), on one occasion, there were no fewer
than fifty-three persons who burned themselves at the same time, while one hundred
and seventy-two also did so in Siberia. In 1761 a law was made which prohibited
the clergy from using violent measures while investigating schismatics. This
order was issued from the fact that in one house one hundred and fifty Raskolniks
intimated that they had determined to destroy themselves in order to escape
from the plunder and devastation of those sent against them.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 189
As regards armies, one important act was accomplished during the reign of
Elizaveta Petrovna. That was the division of Eussia into five parts, from which
recruits were to be taken. An annual recruiting was to be made of one man from
a hundred, but not in all the state, only in the fifth part, so that the act of furnish-
ing recruits happened to each part once in five years. In 1751 Servians pro-
fessing the Russo-Greek faith in Austrian dominions were permitted to settle in
the south of Russia. The land there granted then received the name of New
Servia. From Turkish domains, emigrants were also allowed to come, provided
they were of the Greek religion. Four armies were formed of these Servians.
Instead of placing old officers and soldiers in monasteries, as had hitherto been
the case, a so-called ' Invalid's Home ' was founded in Kazame, like that in Paris.
In the governments of Kazame, Nijni-Novgorod, Voronej, and Bielgorod, alms-
houses were erected for disabled soldiers. Towards the close of Elizaveta
Petrovna's reign, endeavours were made to organise refuges for widows and
orphans of those in service. Monasteries were chosen in Moscow for that purpose,
and inquiries were made as to how such institutions were conducted abroad. In
1760 a government lottery was formed for wounded officers and soldiers.
In 1754 a government bank was instituted, for the purpose of lending money
to prevent those being ruined who borrowed from private individuals; for the
latter took interest amounting to ten, twelve, and even fifteen per cent., ' which
is not done in the whole world,' adds the ukaze. Government likewise made
every effort to promote inward commerce.
Count Peter Ivanovitch Shoovalov was chiefly instrumental in establishing
these measures, while Ivan Ivanovitch Shoovalov particularly turned his attention
to means which demanded enlightenment and instruction.
In 1755 a university and two gymnasiums attached to it were founded in Moscow 1755.
according to the plan of Shoovalov. The university was especially for nobles and
those of various classes. One gymnasium was for nobles, the other for different
ranks. Moscow was particularly chosen as the city in which the university should
be founded, for various reasons. First of all, many nobles and those of different
ranks lived there. Then the situation of the city was central and easily reached.
Living, at that epoch, was moreover cheap in Moscow. The university had three
faculties, those of jurisprudence, medicine, and philosophy, with ten professors.
Shoovalov, moreover, maintained the necessity of founding schools and gymnasiums
in different governments. In Orenburg a school was erected for the children of
those in exile. In 1761 double pay was assigned to doctors who desired to go
abroad in order to complete their knowledge of medicine.
But in spite of all these endeavours to advance civilisation and enlightenment,
190 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Elizaveta Petrovna, towards the close of her reign, had cause to complain bitterly
of inward enemies, who hindered progress. Such, for example, were unjust judges
who took bribes. Other internal enemies also existed in form of highway robbers,
who continued to perpetrate great crimes. Along the Oka to Kazame, gangs of
fifty men used to sail about. They captured vessels and set fire to villages.
Chinese government caravans going to Siberia scarcely escaped from the cannons,
while voevodes paid but little attention to such proceedings. Even in Moscow,
too, as in the days previous to Peter the Great, the followers of nobles robbed both
during the day and during the night. On the Oka, above Nijni, in two vessels,
there appeared no fewer than eighty robbers, perfectly well armed with cannons.
A force sent against them by government was defeated.
As for Little Russia, during the reign of Elizaveta Petrovna, in 1743, while the
empress went on pilgrimage to Kiev, the elder Cossacks presented a petition,
begging that they might be allowed to choose a hetman. The senate then received
orders to consider the subject. The senate, however, hesitated, because the hetman
its members had in view was still receiving his education abroad. He was Cyril
Gregorievitch, younger brother of Alexei Razoomovski. At last the Cossack
assembly or ' Rada ' took place at Gloohov, and Cyril Razoomovski, at the age of
twenty-two, when already president of the Academy of Sciences, was elected
hetman (1750).
CHAPTER XXI
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RUSSIAN NOBLES DURING THE REIGN OF
ELIZAVETA PETROVNA
' A LOVE of luxury, which began along with the imitation of manners and customs
of western Europe, greatly increased during the reigns of Anna loannovna and
Elizaveta Petrovna. The higher classes of Russian society surrounded themselves
with the outward brilliancy of European civilisation, and zealously copied the
fashions of the west. Besides, the custom of living above one's means also
became universal — a custom very remarkable in half -educated society.
' Women, delivered by Peter I. from the state of Oriental seclusion and thral-
dom in which they had hitherto been kept, were speedily carried away by luxury
and a love of expensive attire. They felt the power of beauty. They were no
longer restrained by outward obstacles. Besides, they had no moral support in
their surroundings, and therefore were soon dominated by passion. For these
reasons, among women of the upper classes of society at this epoch light morals
were very frequent.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 191
' An honourable exception to this remark was, notwithstanding, to be found in
the person of the noble-minded Princess Natalia Borisovna Dolgorookova (born
Sheremeteva), of whom we have already frequently made mention."
' But although changes so important had been partially introduced, yet, in the
greater part of Russian society, there still prevailed the same patriarchal manners,
customs, and belief which had been characteristic before the reign of Peter the
Great. The education of youth, which forms the chief solicitude of civilised
nations, had in reality advanced but little at this epoch. Distinguished personages
began to adopt the custom of teaching their children foreign languages ; and it
not unfrequently happened that the teachers then chosen were foreign emigrants,
among whom some had frequently been servants or hairdressers. Consequently,
they were totally unfitted for their new occupation. Count Ivan Ivanovitch
Shoovalov hoped that by founding a university in Moscow, these incompetent
teachers, who often received a high salary, would be replaced by Russian pre-
ceptors. The instruction of those who were not rich consisted, as formerly,
merely in being able to read church books in Slavonic. These persons gener-
ally began by learning the alphabet, then they read the breviary and finished
with the psalter.
' Manstein mentions in his notes that Biron was exceedingly fond of outward
show and pomp. Hence, Anna loannovna strove to render her court one of the
most brilliant in Europe, and regretted no expense for its adornment, while the
courtiers of that epoch eagerly seconded her desire. But at first, showy dress
rarely combined elegance and taste. Very often an individual was to be seen
clad in rich attire, but with an ugly wig on his head, and seated in a sorry convey-
ance, drawn by bad horses. The same remark was also applicable to the houses
of Russian nobles. On the one hand, silver and gold sparkled, while on the other^
the eye was shocked by untidiness and dirt ! Meanwhile, in consequence of the
increase of luxury, large sums went abroad. It therefore sometimes happened
that foreign speculators, who opened warerooms for fashion in St. Petersburg,
would, in the space of two or three years, amass a considerable capital.
' During the reign of Elizaveta Petrovna, luxury among ladies of higher ranks
attained an incredible degree. The empress herself, indeed, gave the example in
this respect. She liked to dress handsomely, and changed her attire several times
a day. After her death, no fewer than fifteen thousand dresses were found in her
wardrobe, together with a corresponding number of other articles for a lady's
costume. At this period, taste had besides made great progress. Thus, during
Elizaveta Petrovna's reign, St. Petersburg was adorned with magnificent buildings,
from the plans of an Italian architect, Count Kastrelli. Among those buildings
192 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
the first place is occupied by the Winter Palace, built towards the close of the
empress's reign.
' Regarding the condition of provincial nobles at that epoch, we learn many
curious details from the Notes of Major Danilov.
'The first instruction of Danilov was received from a village sexton, who
tormented children by forcing them to remain too long seated in one position, and
by frequently using the rod, then considered as a necessary accompaniment of
learning. Subsequently, Danilov entered a school for the artillery in Moscow.
There, the teacher was a subaltern who rarely for one day appeared at the school
without being in a state of intoxication. Consequently, he flogged his unhappy
pupils without mercy. Danilov, while yet a child, visited his relative, the voevode
of Dankov (government of Riazane). Before Christmas, the voevode used to send
Danilov along with his own son, to sing carols in different parts of the district.
The two youths were also accompanied by servants and several empty sledges.
Every day the sledges returned to the voevode, full of corn and living fowls. On
such occasions, the voevode's servants collected this sort of contribution even from
houses where the boys had sung no carols.
' Besides, Danilov's Notes narrate that an ordinary occurrence at this epoch
was the appearance of robbers, who plundered the houses of proprietors. Narra-
tions are also given of peasants who revolted against landholders, and who were
only subdued by forces sent from towns.
' As for bribes, the great extent to which they existed amongst officials we learn
from the following circumstance: — Danilov's son-in-law, after the death of his
brother, inherited a large estate. But other relatives began to dispute with him ;
and only on receiving a village with fifty peasants did the secretary decide in the
son-in-law's favour. After receiving the estate, the new heir began to neglect his
service. However, as a nobleman of that epoch could not take his demission from
his own desire, Danilov's son-in-law took an annual leave of absence from his
regiment. On that account, he made presents to the military secretary ; each time,
the latter received twelve peasants, with their wives and children. The military
scribe was, notwithstanding, more conscientious than the secretary, and took only
one peasant for the passport.
'Bolotov, another nobleman who has left Notes, records many curious,
interesting details of provincial life at that epoch. For example, several of his
acquaintances, petty nobles and landholders, used frequently to visit at the
estate which belonged to his mother. The amusements of these guests were
nearly the same as during the seventeenth century. " In the morning," says
Bolotov, "at our house there was, in general, a lunch fit for holidays. Then
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 193
followed dinner. After it, we rested a little. We next ate again. This was
followed by tea ; and, finally, we supped. On awaking, we once more began to
eat as before."
' At the same time, we learn from many law pleas, preserved till the present day,
that the intercourse of neighbouring proprietors was rarely amicable, on account
of indistinctly defined boundaries between their possessions. Attacks on neigh-
bours, violent fighting, seizing of land, were the order of the day. Yet, from the
very fact of the above-mentioned Notes existing at all, we notwithstanding do
learn that the number of enlightened persons who began to adopt new European
ideas was gradually augmented.
' In fact, Bolotov himself was an example that amongst the Russians of that
epoch a knowledge of Western literature commenced to be diffused. He spent his
last money in order to obtain books, and did not cease to read them even while
participating in military expeditions.' (Ilovaiski, pp. 287-289.)
CHAPTER XXII
THE LOWER CLASSES
AFTER the reforms introduced in Russia by Peter I., the distinction between the
higher and lower classes of the people became greater. The former more and
more adopted foreign customs, while the lower ranks remained true to the usages
of the ancient Russians. Besides, the existence of bondage and the want of public
schools formed insurmountable barriers to the mental progress and the material
prosperity of the rural population.
Servitude continued to extend by legislation, even after Peter I. Thus,
peasants were prohibited from acquiring immovable property in towns and dis-
tricts, from making contracts, from renting farms. Proprietors were permitted to
sell serfs as recruits, and could also send them in exile to Siberia. Government,
moreover, took care that none should avoid paying dues to the crown, and
bestowed special attention on serfs who belonged to no particular condition — such,
for example, as church-servants, workmen without a master, and other so-called
1 roving individuals.' They were simply included as belonging to the proprietor
on whose land they lived. So great an extent of bondage was favoured by the
spirit of the times, prevalent during the existence of powerful minions at court ,
who thought merely of their own personal advantage. Provincial administration
still presented an irregular combination of ancient Moscovite regulations and
the institutions of Peter I. The measures taken for the safety of society were
VOL. II. 2 B
194 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
particularly defective. The oppression of landed proprietors, the injustice of voe-
vodes, still continued, and occasioned great trouble. Peasants rebelled against the
tyranny of their possessors in the only way they could do so, or, in other words,
by running away and not unfrequently afterwards forming gangs of highway
robbers. In order to subdue the rebellious inhabitants of villages, detachments of
military were sent there, and the soldiers beat and plundered the villagers.
Against highway robbers it was much more difficult to struggle. Besides the
weakness of the rural police, and the negligence of the voevodes, robbers were
favoured by the thinly-populated districts, the difficulty of communication, as well
as the vast extent of forests and steppes. Robbery was chiefly carried on near the
Volga, whose desert banks abounded in convenient lurking-places. We have
already alluded to the crimes perpetrated by these robbers, and mentioned that
they sometimes even fought with government troops. And, although Cossacks had
outlived their ancient condition, they notwithstanding lent a helping hand to this
scourge of Russian land. The Cossacks of the Volga aided robbery in the south-
east, while the Zaporogs, along with runaway peasants, made marauding excursions
in neighbouring Russian and Polish provinces.
The helpless condition of villages attacked by robbers we learn from the
Notes of the Princess Natalia Borisovna Dolgorookova. After Anna loannova's
ascension of the throne, the Dolgorookovs received orders to withdraw and to live
in one of their distant villages. The Dolgorookovs went there, with a long line
of conveyances, and accompanied by many followers.
' Once,' writes Princess Natalia Borisovna, ' we came with the intention to pass
the night at a small village situated on the banks of a very wide river. We had
only halted and pitched our tents, when an immense number of peasants — all the
population of the village — rushed towards us, threw themselves at our feet, wept,
and exclaimed : " Save us ! You have arms ! To-day a letter was thrown us,
with a warning that robbers will come, beat us to death, and then burn our houses !
Help us ! Save us from a dreadful death, for we have no means of defence ! We
have only axes ! This is a place infested with robbers ! Last week, in the
neighbourhood, a village was quite ruined ! The peasants fled, and the village
was burned ! "
The travellers did not sleep during the whole night. They made all ready for
defence. But probably the robbers heard of what was going on ; for, that night
at least, they did not appear.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 195
CHAPTER XXIII
LITERATURE AND SCIENCE
FROM the epoch of reform introduced by Peter the Great, the influence of Western
literature was felt in Russia. That influence, however, also introduced a slavish
imitation of European models, and augmented secular literature in Russia. The
representatives of this new literature were, at the same time, zealous upholders of
Peter's reforms. Among the first of such was Prince Antioch Kantemir (son of
the Moldavian hospodar who became a Russian subject during the reign of
Peter L). Kantemir was Russian ambassador in London and in Paris. He was
known as the author of satires. They are written in ponderous verse, according
to Latin and French models. Kantemir especially ridiculed the defects of con-
temporary higher classes, such, for example, as laziness, petty vanity, etc. As a
specimen, one satire derides ' the envy and pride of malicious nobles.'
A certain Aretophil, a lover of virtue, meets a sorrowful nobleman and asks
him 'why he is sad, like one in search of a patriarch's rank, or who has not
suitably placed his stud of horses ? Has he been forbidden to drive tandem, or to
wear a rich garment, or to swaddle his servant in gold ? Did he not shuffle the
cards properly ? Was the wine expensive ? ' etc. etc.
It turned out that the nobleman was in grief from envy. Persons sprung
from the lower classes received rank and estates, while he — the issue of distin-
guished, glorious ancestors — remained in the shade! Aretophil proved to the
nobleman that in reality his ancestors were glorious by their services, but that he
himself was only experienced in playing at cards, in judging foreign wine and
fashionable dress !
From the reign of Elizaveta Petrovna the French language began to be much
spoken among the upper classes of Russian society, and a close imitation of French
literature, particularly the false classic, was also observable. At the head of that
school was Soomorokov, whose tragedies and comedies were written in a bombastic
style. But contemporaries, having as yet no other more elegant dramatic com-
positions in Russ, were pleased with Soomorokov's writings, and surnamed him
' the Russian Racine.' Soomorokov was also the first director of a public theatre,
founded in 1756.
Public dramatic representations in Moscow had commenced during the reign of
Peter I. They, however, ceased when the court removed to St. Petersburg. During
the reigns of Anna loannovna and Elizaveta Petrovna, there was generally a
company of foreign actors at court. Russian pieces were sometimes acted by
196 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
pupils of the cadet corps. From their example Feodor Volkov, son of a merchant
of Kostroma, a singularly gifted man, arranged theatrical representations in
Yaroslavl. On hearing of his success, Elizaveta Petrovna summoned him and his
associates to St. Petersburg. Among them was the famous actor Dmitrevski. These
performers constituted the first Russian troupe of the imperial theatre in the new
capital.
To this epoch also belongs Lomonosov's activity. His native place was on
the shores of the White Sea — the rugged country of hardy mariners. Son of
a fisherman of Holrnogori (government of Archangel), Lomonosov ran off to
Moscow, in order there to satisfy his ardent desire for learning. He studied in
the Moscow clerical academy, and completed his learning in Germany with the
famous philosopher Wolff. Finally Lomonosov acquired the renown of a learned
man and a great writer. The literary energy of Lomonosov was many-sided. He
wrote Russian history, grammar, poems, although his strong points were natural
philosophy and chemistry. Lomonosov, however, rendered special service to the
language of Russian literature by endeavouring to purify it from a mixture of
foreign words and ponderous Slavonian church phrases. In his panegyric odes,
in praise of events during contemporary reigns, Lomonosov imitated German and
Latin poets. His odes are high-flown and bombastic; but, at least, they are
distinguished by purity and harmonious language, hitherto unknown in Russian
book-literature. Lomonosov took a lively interest in the plan of the first Russian
university founded in 1755.
The desire of Peter I., in organising the Academy of Sciences, had been to
form Russian teachers there. But that desire was not realised. The St. Petersburg
academy became a meeting-place for German men of science. In general, they
did not understand the Russian language, and were besides at enmity with those
Russians who gradually began to enter the circle of the academy. Lomonosov
was especially opposed to the German party. Notwithstanding, that did not
prevent the St. Petersburg academy from rendering important service to science in
general. It was the want of higher instruction which prompted Elizaveta's
favourite, Ivan Ivanovitch Shoovalov, to found the university of Moscow.
During the following year (1756) the university began to publish the
Moskovski Viedomosti (' Moscow Newspaper ') from the model of the ' Petersburg
Newspaper,' issued by the Academy of Sciences.
In 1767, also by Shoovalov's desire, an Academy of the Fine Arts was opened
in St. Petersburg for Russian architects, painters, and sculptors.
While authors among the higher classes of Russian society strictly copied
foreign writers, the lower orders were quite content with a considerable circulation
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 197
of secret schismatic (Easkolnik) literature. These compositions were chiefly
aimed against the introduction of new ideas, and praised persons who had suffered
from attachment to the old faith. These works were frequently circulated in
manuscript, and greatly awakened the interest of adherents to the ancient belief.
Some of the above-mentioned books were also printed in western Russian
monasteries.
CHAPTER XXIV
ELIZAVETA PETROVNA
IN Andrdev's fascinating work entitled Representatives of Power in Russia after
Peter I. (pp. 117-137), we find many curious, interesting details of the Empress
Elizaveta Petrovna. Among others are the following : —
' On the autocratic throne of Russia there appeared a woman with the merits
and defects of an ordinary individual, who, till mature age, had not aspired to
imperial power, and who was elevated to an exalted position by the course of
passing events. Elizaveta Petrovna accordingly felt herself incapable of govern-
ment ; and that gives a peculiar tone to her whole reign. The private habits, the
personal character, the individuality of Elizaveta, had considerable influence on
each act of her administration.
'Elizaveta Petrovna had received a European education. She had become
unaccustomed to the French language during the reign of Anna loannovna, and
had nearly forgotten how to speak it. But, on the other hand, she had not
forgotten how to dance. Notwithstanding her more modern training, there was
much in Elizaveta Petrovna which showed a remnant of ideas prevalent in ancient
Russia. For example, she was persuaded that a husband had a right to beat his
wife. Thus, when Safonov (married to the empress's cousin, born Hendrikova)
beat his wife, Elizaveta Petrovna allowed that he might do so, and only sentenced
him to a three days' arrest because " no one dared thus to chastise a relative of
the empress " !
'Elizaveta Petrovna had naturally much self-love, and did not keep any
jesters. She even disliked to hear others ridiculed in her presence. She, however,
paid tribute to the times by having a fool, named Aksakov, in her service.
' He was well known from the fact of having frightened the empress, on one
occasion, by bringing her a hedgehog. Elizaveta, in terror, ran away. The
hedgehog reminded her of a mouse, and she particularly dreaded mice.
'Elizaveta Petrovna had an especial horror of death. When obliged from
economy — during the reign of Anna loannovna — to wear a black mantle lined
198 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
with white, there was no alternative ; but, in general, she hated mourning. She
was very superstitious, and could in no wise bear to look on the dead. In 1755,
a ukaze was issued which forbade a corpse to be carried past the palace.
Elizaveta Petrovna would in no wise enter a house where there was a dead body.
When Apraxine, the victor of Gross-Egernsdorff, died, after his first judgment, in
a building of the crown at Tsarskoe Selo, near St. Petersburg, his remains were
removed thence under a tent. Elizaveta's extreme susceptibility was also
observable on other occasions. Once a report was spread that an unknown
individual had been found in the empress's bedroom, where he had penetrated
with the intention to make an attempt on her life. Elizaveta then, for many nights
afterwards, slept in different apartments, so that none might know where she
reposed. Her nervous condition was doubtless also augmented by her turning
night into day, and day into night. She used to go to the theatre at eleven o'clock
at night. All courtiers were then obliged to appear. Those who failed to do so
were fined fifty roubles. During Elizaveta's reign the nobles began to give
musical evening parties, but they concluded long before court receptions did so.
Supper was there served after midnight. The empress lay down to sleep at five
o'clock in the morning ; thus, the greater part of the day was spent in repose. At
that time, any conveyance was forbidden to pass over a bridge near the palace,
in case the noise might awake her majesty ; and if the sentinel on duty was in
bad humour, he would not then allow even foot-passengers to cross the bridge.
'When about to fall asleep, Elizaveta Petrovna liked to hear the stories of
old women, or common traders, taken for that purpose from the street. They
used meanwhile to rub her heels, and then she began to doze. Even after that
happened, if the old women present continued to jabber too loud, then old
Tschoolkov would call them to order. Tschoolkov usually slept on a small
mattress in the empress's room. At first he had heated stoves in the palace ; but,
by Elizaveta's favour, he was promoted to the rank of general-in-chief. Some-
times Elizaveta got up earlier than little Tschoolkov. If that was the case, she
would go and drag him from his bed. " Now ! now ! my little white swan ! "
exclaimed Tschoolkov, raising himself and patting her shoulder.
' We have already mentioned Elizaveta Petrovna's passion for display. She
herself used to dress all her maids-of-honour at their wedding, and lent them her
own diamonds for the occasion. To prevent ladies from wearing the same dress
twice at a court reception, a stamp was put upon the dress. Elizaveta Petrovna
liked sometimes to wear man's attire, which suited her remarkably well on account
of her tall, fine figure. Masquerades were indeed fashionable, where women
dressed as men and men like women ; but men disliked that custorn very much.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 199
The man's attire of Elizaveta Petrovna is still preserved in the armoury hall of
the Moscow Kreml.
'There is a tradition that one admirer of Elizaveta Petrovna was a certain
Alexei Yakovlovitch Shoobine, a handsome young guardsman. But we have
already mentioned that Elizaveta Petrovna was little better than a captive during
Anna's reign, and was surrounded by spies. Shoobine was accused of being one of
Elizaveta's political adherents. He was arrested, shut up in prison, and there, it
is said, put into a stone box in which he could neither sit, stretch himself out, nor
stand. He was at length sent in exile to Kamtschatka, and there forced to marry
a woman of that country. Long afterwards, when Elizaveta ascended the throne,
she recalled Shoobine from exile, and is said to have offered him her hand.
But he had changed during exile. He was no longer the Shoobine of old. So he
declined the honour. He was, however, promoted to the rank of general, and
received an estate in the government of Nijni-Novgorod.'
Andreev also mentions a young prince of Holstein, to whom Elizaveta was
engaged and to whom she was also deeply attached, but he died young.
Most Russian authors maintain that Elizaveta Petrovna was unmarried.
Andreev, however, distinctly states (p. 124) that she was united to Alexei
Gregorievitch Razoomovski, although the marriage was not publicly acknowledged.
Andreev praises Razoomovski for magnanimity of character. Both Alexei and his
brother, Cyril Razoomovski, were remarkable for extreme personal beauty.
The Razoomovskis had moreover the good sense not to be ashamed of their
humble origin, and laughed when the Kiev Academy tried to prove their descent
from the Lithuanian Prince Gedemin.
We have already mentioned Lestocq, Elizaveta Petrovna's French doctor.
He was an unprincipled, bad man. He sold his services to the foreign power
which paid him best. Elizaveta herself often used to say that if Lestocq could
poison all her subjects with one spoon, he would do so. In fact, for receiving
money from the Prussian government, and for poisoning Ettinger, a functionary
who knew of the transaction, Lestocq was put in prison. There he tried without
success to starve himself to death. When arrested, 40,000 roubles were taken
from him. Eleven thousand only were returned. The remainder was spent.
Eight hundred roubles were said to have been required for pens and paper during
his trial. Finally, Catherine n. liberated Lestocq and gave him a pension of
7000 roubles, as well as thirty hacks of land in Livonia. Andreev, however, states
that Lestocq's fall during the reign of Elizaveta Petrovna was merely occasioned
by the intrigues of his enemies.
200 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
CHAPTER XXV
REIGN OF PETER III. (FEODOROVITCH), FROM DECEMBER 25, 1761, TILL
JULY 6, 1762
1761-1762. ACCORDING to the testimony of most Russian authors, Peter Feodorovitch was
good-natured but unfortunately without penetration. In spite of his brief reign, he
notwithstanding effected several important beneficial changes. In the first place,
a manifesto was issued, in virtue of which the nobles were no longer obliged to
serve. Henceforth] they could do so or not, according to their own desire. The
second amelioration introduced by Peter in. consisted in the abolition of the
secret chancery, together with the denunciations and tortures accompanying it, for
they had produced most injurious effects on the morality of the people, and in fact
were sources of constant abuse. Real culprits very often made denunciations
only to gain time and to escape from merited punishment. Others raised evL
reports from malice, or calumniated the innocent, while not a few, involved in
investigations, were separated from their families and prevented from participating
in public and private affairs. Peter in. abolished the secret chancery, and
prohibited denunciations. It was also forbidden to persecute schismatics
(Raskolniks) ; and those who had fled to spots at the frontier were allowed to
return. Certain regions in Siberia were assigned them as colonies. Forgiveness
was also granted to peasants insubordinate to proprietors, if the former showed
repentance. During the reign of Elizaveta Petrovna, 80,000 individuals had been
exiled. Peter in. recalled 17,000 of them, among whom were Biron and Field-
marshal Muniiich.
As for external policy, the first act of Peter in. was to form close alliance
with Prussia. In fact, Peter had unbounded admiration of Frederick n. Part of
the Russian troops which had been fighting against the Prussians received orders
to join Frederick's army. The others were commanded to return home. At the
same time, Peter was planning war with Denmark. He indeed began to prepare
for a campaign, in order to settle a dispute between the Danish king and the duke
of Holstein concerning Schleswig. But a sudden change of government prevented
the execution of these plans.
Peter in. had an utter want of tact, and took no pains to conceal his dislike
of everything Russian. These defects, joined to his preference for foreigners, his
extravagant admiration of Frederick n. of Prussia, a foolish preference for Holstein
troops to the detriment of Russian soldiers, the severity of newly introduced
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 201
military discipline, occasioned great discontent among the guards. Meanwhile,
the said discontent, and the too great self-reliance of Peter himself, did not escape
the observation of the talented, audacious Catherine, so that Peter in. was finally
forced to relinquish the throne in her favour.
Catherine's chief assistants in this important act were the brothers Orlov
and the Princess Dashkov. They made use of a large party among the guards
favourable to Catherine.
Dmitri Setschenev, archbishop of Novgorod, was likewise on her side, and
was seconded by the other clergy, who were displeased at the intention of
Peter in. to confiscate church property.
One morning (June 28, 1762), while the emperor was at his favourite summer
residence of Oranienbaum, Catherine arrived in St. Petersburg from Peterhoff.
The guards immediately swore allegiance to her ; and their example was followed
by the whole capital. On learning what had happened, Peter formed various
plans for his own defence, but at the same time undertook nothing decided. In
his suite was Field-marshal Munnich, who, in spite of his advanced age and
lengthened exile, still continued true to his energetic, ambitious disposition.
Munnich indicated the fort of Cronstadt to Peter. The emperor, however, hesitated
to separate from his detachment of Holstein troops. All of a sudden, the news
came that Catherine, with a well-trained army of 15,000 men, was on the way to
Peterhoff. Only then did the emperor and his suite embark and set sail for
Cronstadt. But it was too late. The Cronstadt garrison had meanwhile gone
over to the side of the empress. It was in vain that the unwearied Munnich
endeavoured to support Peter by suggesting to him several means of defence.
The emperor was completely discouraged, returned to Oranienbaum, and signed
an act of abdication. Some days afterwards lie perished — assassinated at Ropsha.
In the Secret Autobiography of Catherine II. she gives a deplorable picture of
what, we doubt not, is suffered by most of the portionless, miserable German
princesses who renounced their religion and bartered their peace of mind in
exchange for the exalted position obtained by becoming consorts of the grand
dukes of Russia.
Catherine herself gives full details of her wretchedness during the first period
of her married life. Peter in. she describes as a coarse, ignorant, stupid, brutal
man, whose only pleasures were smoking, drinking, and tormenting animals. At
the Russian court, Catherine was treated with scorn as the daughter of a poor,
petty German prince. She was constantly made to feel that a great honour had
been conferred upon her by being received as a member of the imperial family of
Russia. In fact, at one time Catherine's position at court became so insupportable
VOL. II. 2 c
202 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
that she implored permission to return to her mother again. The Empress
Elizaveta Petrovna, however, persuaded her to remain.
According to Andre*ev (p. 156), when Catherine was overwhelmed with grief
at her father's death, the empress sarcastically remarked that ' after all he was
not a king. Consequently, his daughter was not obliged to mourn over him for a
whole week ! '
Elizaveta Petrovna during her latter years was little else than a coarse
virago, seldom sober. She had but too well profited by the lessons both her
parents had given her in the hateful vice of hard drinking.
After the birth of Paul, Catherine was left quite alone and completely
neglected. Eighteen maid-servants were stuffed into one room near her own
apartment, yet not one showed her kindness. The discomfort, disorder, and even
dirt, of palaces — particularly temporary summer residences — were indescribable.
So Catherine was alone in the saddest sense of the term. Her only consola-
tion was reading, of which she was passionately fond. Indeed, she gradually
educated herself, as she knew but little on her arrival in Russia. Hence it is
that while following all the details of her eventful life, as narrated by her, we
so far understand, if we can never justify, the gradual deterioration visible in
her character. Then also we ask ourselves, ' In her place, would we have acted
differently ? '
In the manifesto issued by Catherine to announce the death of Peter in., it
was said to have been occasioned by a hemorrhoidal colic. The remains were
anatomised. Catherine mentions in her Secret Autobiography that ' the deceased
emperor's heart was very small.' A few days after his demise, the empress
invited her subjects to say farewell to Peter's corpse, ' without malice,' ' without
entertaining bad remembrances.' From the same source we also learn that
Peter III. said, ' Russia was not destined for him, nor he for Russia ; and that in
it he would perish.' Chopin, in his Histoire de Mussie, states that although the
marks of a violent death were evident, still, in order to prevent impostors from
enacting the part of the deceased sovereign, his body was exposed to view according
to the prevalent custom in Russia. For three days the corpse remained at the
Nevski cloister. The late emperor lay in a simple coffin. Four candles, one at
each corner, burned there. Peter was dressed in a shabby Holstein uniform.
The hands were folded on the breast, and on the large white gloves were the
stains of blood. We have already mentioned that the body had been anatomised.
No magnificence, no pomp distinguished the burial in a poor grave. But thirty-
four years afterwards Peter's remains were exhumed from that humble resting-
place, and were again interred, with regal splendour. (Andre'ev, p. 168.)
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 203
We translate the following passage from Chopin's Histoire de Russie : —
' The less a people is free, the more is the public mind prone to adopt extreme
measures. Thus in despotic states half measures are unknown. The despot must
strike a blow, or fall. A subject, in a similar alternative, must either succeed or
submit to capital punishment. This twofold necessity — one resulting from the
other — explains the sanguinary revolutions with which we so frequently meet in
the history of Russia, and in that of Oriental nations. Thus, in order fully to
understand past events in a country whose constitution differs entirely from our
own, we must endeavour to place ourselves in the historic centre which belongs
to these events.'
Chopin furthermore maintains that the death of Peter ni. was a terrible
necessity. He was totally unfitted to reign. He despised the Russians and
Russia. He was about to involve the latter in an expensive, useless war. Exiles
sometimes returned from Siberia, such, for example, as Biron and Munnich.
Catherine had advanced too far to retreat ; and at this juncture she was reduced
either to strike a decisive blow or herself to fall.
CHAPTER XXVI
REIGN OF CATHERINE II. (ALEXtfEVNA), 'THE GREAT* — 1762-96
AN audacious woman, of light conduct, born in one of the petty German courts,
allied to many royal dynasties of Europe, now usurped the throne of all the
Russias. The circumstances previous to this event, as well as the tragedy which
made it incontestable, all seemed to prognosticate a stormy, difficult reign.
Endued by nature with brilliant, varied talents, Catherine had gradually educated
herself by literary occupation. We have already mentioned her passion for
reading, and that it had proved her only solace during the first most miserable
period of her married life. She had paid particular attention to the works of the
best French authors of the epoch. Besides, after patient, unwearied application,
she had acquired thorough knowledge of the language, history, and customs of the
Russian people. In a word, she had prepared herself for a great work awaiting
her, i.e. the administration of government in Russia. Penetrating, well skilled in
making use of circumstances, successful in finding those who could execute her
plans, her rare gifts called forth universal admiration. To the capability of a
sovereign she likewise combined aspirations for fame and love of magnificence.
The first years of Catherine's reign did not, however, pass quietly, for many
204 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
had become accustomed to sudden changes, and hoped thereby for individual
advancement.
One memorable attempt to alter the new order of things was made by a
sub-lieutenant, Vasili Morovitch, belonging to a regiment of Smolensk. It is well
known that the discontented formed a project to liberate loann Antonovitch,
the prisoner of Schllisselburg, and to place him on the throne. But that was
impossible, as the last spark of reason in the prince's mind was extinguished by
long captivity. Frederick n. of Prussia is blamed as the chief cause of that
captivity; and Andreev (p. 176) distinctly maintains that Frederick did all in
his power to prevent the family of Brunswick from again obtaining the throne of
Russia. In fact, Frederick distrusted his relatives, and used habitually to affirm
that 'his best allies were his nearest relations.' Andrdev (p. 174) also mentions
that Frederick n. in his Notes declares that young Prince loann had had opium
administered to him, so that he might become an idiot.
Elizaveta Petrovna had spared loann; but he had become a subject of
uneasiness to Catherine; and she was one who never hesitated to crush all
obstacles in her path, or to commit a crime to ensure her own safety. Such was
the state of affairs when Mirovitch made an attempt to liberate loann, and to
proclaim him emperor. loaun's guards had meanwhile received orders — during
the reigns both of Elizaveta and Catherine — to kill the young prince, if any
endeavoured to set him free. Andreev states (p. 179) that the judges who tried
Mirovitch found out that he had acted against Catherine from personal enmity,
and because he had been the victim of injustice through not receiving part of the
confiscated property of his grandfather, a partisan of Mazeppa.
Chopin firmly maintains that Mirovitch was the hired accomplice of Catherine
herself against loann, who occasioned her uneasiness as a rival claimant to the
throne. Thus Mirovitch expected a reward instead of being sentenced to death.
'In fact/ adds Andreev (p. 181), 'Mirovitch was only condemned to die when
it was observed that the murder of loann produced a deep impression on the
people.' That Mirovitch was the hired agent of government, Andreev thinks
so far probable, though he adds that positive proof of this is not found.
During the night between the 4th and 5th of July, loann Antonovitch was put
to death in cold blood by his keepers, while he was asleep, and when Mirovitch
failed to liberate the unhappy young prince.
Mirovitch was executed, and the revolt was thus quelled. It was, notwith-
standing, followed by many others ; so that Catherine's throne seemed to be
undermined in all directions.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 205
CHIEF PERSONAGES OF CATHERINE'S EEIGN
As a true follower of Peter i., Catherine n. often assigned important
positions to individuals of insignificant origin, but withal talented and capable
of executing her plans. Amongst these personages, we especially remark the
brothers Klov, Gregory, and Alexis, who, more than any others, had aided
Catherine to ascend the throne, and who were especially known for their bold
decided dispositions. In the second place were the brothers Panine, Nikita
(Nicetas) and Peter — wise, well-educated noblemen, whose advice was esteemed
by the empress. They carried on diplomatic intercourse, and obtained European
celebrity by their famous project of armed neutrality, whose aim was to defend
the marine trade of neutral states, and was chiefly directed against English
cruisers (1780) at the epoch of the North American War.
In the diplomatic line, after the Panines, Count Bezboroako especially
distinguished himself during Catherine's reign. Prince Viazemski, too, was
remarkable. For thirty years he occupied the important post of general-
procurator of the senate. Count Seevers, as governor of Novgorod, obtained
universal esteem, from his useful administration and for his arrangement of
communication by water.
The court distinction of Gregorii Gregorievitch Orlov was,' however, eventually
transferred to Gregorii Alexandrovitch Potemkine. We have already mentioned
him and his participation in the terrible scene enacted at Ropsha, June 28, 1762.
Potemkine was the son of a petty nobleman far from rich, and a native of Smolensk.
Potemkine, junior, first studied in the newly opened gymnasium of Moscow, and
then passed to the university. There, however, he was expelled for laziness, and
before he had completed the course of study. He next went to St. Petersburg,
and entered the Horse Guards. Tall and good-looking, he was soon remarked by
the empress. Andreev mentions (pp. 195-196) that Catherine accorded Potemkine
her special favour from 1774 till 1776, and that during these two years he
received from her thirty-seven thousand peasants and nine millions of roubles.
To brilliant talents Potemkine united great ambition. Thus he speedily acquired
immense influence on state affairs, and continued to maintain that influence till
a short time before his death, in 1791. When in full power he liked to form
extensive plans difficult to execute. His chief services consisted in colonising
the new Russian country, of which he was general governor; his energetic
measures in order to obtain the Crimea ; the organisation of a fleet in the Black
Sea ; the reforms which he made in the army, while he was president of a military
college, etc. For example, he introduced more suitable arms and uniforms,
206 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
ordered cue-wigs to be cut off, and the fashion of powdering the hair to be
discontinued, changed three-cornered hats for those of a lighter form, etc. It
was indeed more than necessary to do so, as in Andre'ev's work (p. 279)
we learn the following curious details regarding the military hairdressing of
that epoch : —
'The curls and cues then worn caused no small trouble to the soldiers.
They sometimes began to arrange their hair the evening before a parade. The
hair was smeared with tallow and then sprinkled with rye-flour, as being cheaper
than powder. But when already thus prepared for parade it was dangerous if
the soldiers fell asleep. The curls ran the risk of being crushed, and besides, rats
are fond of tallow and rye-flour, so that in fact they often ate the cues of the
soldiers who fell asleep.'
Towards the close of Catherine's reign, the personage who chiefly possessed
her confidence was Platon (Plato) Alexandrovitch Zoobov, remarkable for exces-
sive arrogance and inclination to favour court intrigues.
Ivan Ivanovitch Betzkii was at this epoch remarkable as an organiser of
educational institutions in Russia. Betzkii used to say to Catherine : ' Peter the
Great created people in Russia ; your majesty has inspired them with souls ! '
In the military department two generals of that epoch by their victories
added much outward brilliancy to the reign of Catherine n. They were
Roomiantzev and Soovorov. The latter, on account of delicate health during
childhood, had been destined by his father to civil service; but on remarking
his son's inclination for military affairs, the father changed his intention, and
eventually inscribed his son as a soldier of the Guards. Young Soovorov
had, however, no powerful protection at court. Accordingly, for a considerable
period he continued to serve in the lower ranks as a subaltern, but he had
meanwhile opportunity to become acquainted with military service in all its
details, and likewise to study the character of the Russian soldier. Of this
information Soovorov eventually made excellent use. The Seven Years' War gave
him the first opportunity to display his wonderful military talent.
Soovorov's father at first by no means approved the inclination of his son
for military affairs, and not un frequently blamed his awkwardness, reserve, and
a habit of shutting himself up in his own room. It is said that on one occasion
Soovorov, senior, received a visit from a neighbouring proprietor, an old general
of artillery, named Hannibal. He was descended from a negro brought in
childhood from Holland by Peter the Great, and placed in the military service of
Russia. Peter had thus named him as an African, and in remembrance of the
hero of antiquity.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 207
While conversing with his guest, the master of the house did not conceal his
disapproval of his son. The guest thereupon went upstairs to young Alex-
ander's room, in order to see how he was occupied. On remarking the books,
maps, and plans with which the boy was absorbed, the old man was astonished,
and advised Soovorov, senior, to yield to his son's inclinations. When Alexander
Soovorov at length attained high rank in the army, he graduallly began to enact
the part of an oddity. He led an original mode of life, allowed himself many
strange proceedings in intercourse with others, made use of quaint Russian
enigmas and proverbs ; so that in would-be jest he often uttered the most biting
sarcasm. It is thought that Soovorov, on the one hand, chose to enact the
part of an odd fellow in order first to attract the attention of the Empress
Catherine, and, on the other, to avert the influence of envy and of court intrigues.
(Ilovaiski, p. 299.)
CHAPTER XXVII
LEGISLATIVE COMMITTEE — REGULATIONS CONCERNING PROVINCES, OR SO-CALLED
GOVERNMENTS OF RUSSIA
PETER I. had attempted to issue new laws, as the code of his father (Alexei
Michaelovitch) was no longer suited to the wants of the state. Peter's successors
had renewed the attempt, and for that purpose had formed a committee; but
the undertaking did not advance. Meanwhile, the embarrassed state of the
finances, the administration of justice, and the management of districts demanded
better legislation. Catherine, while as yet only hereditary grand duchess, had
carefully examined interior administration, and clearly saw its deficiencies.
It is thus that she herself, when empress, wrote to Nikita Ivanovitch
Panine concerning the condition in which she found Russia on ascending the
throne : —
' The Russian land forces, while in Prussia, had not received pay for two-
thirds of a year. The finances were in so great disorder that, during the Seven
Years' War, when Elizaveta Petrovna wished to borrow two millions of roubles
in Holland, none supported the loan. Consequently Russia had no credit. In
the interior of the empire, peasants attached to foundries and monasteries were
in open disobedience to authority, and they were about to be joined by the
serfs of landholders. The senate gave no heed to the' abridgment of an act for
appeal, but paid attention only to the act itself, with all the details, so that
reading a document relative to the pasturage of the town of Masalsk occupied
208 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
the first six weeks while the senate was sitting after I ascended the throne. In
governments (provinces) regulations of the senate were so badly executed that
the first, and even the second, ukaze generally remained unheeded. Hence a
proverbial expression : " The third ukaze is awaited." Functionaries in voevodes'
seal-offices did not receive their salary. Thus they were permitted to maintain
themselves on gifts, although bribes were strictly forbidden,' etc. (Ilovaiski,
p. 300.)
Hence it was that at the very commencement of Catherine's reign she
earnestly endeavoured to ameliorate the administration of state affairs. To effect
this important purpose in all details, she summoned a rural (zemski) council,
called ' Committee for the composition of a plan for a new code.' The committee
was formed of deputies belonging to different conditions, and filling various
government posts. The deputies were not to be under twenty-five years of age.
They received salary and enjoyed certain privileges. They were chosen by vote.
Those who elected the deputies furnished them with written instructions. The
number of the deputies was five hundred and sixty-five.
In form of direction, the empress herself wrote eloquent 'Precepts,' chiefly
borrowed from the works of Bekkaria, On Crime and Punishment, and from
Montesquieu (Esprit des Lois), regarding government, law, the duty of citizens,
the system of punishments, etc.
On June 30, 1767, the committee in great pomp commenced its labours in
Moscow, in the angular hall of the Kreml. During the first assemblies, important
discussion took place concerning state reform. The question of emancipating the
serfs was even discussed, and that the empress herself desired. Notwithstanding,
most of the deputies opposed the measure. Meanwhile, the deputies proposed
to confer on her majesty the titles of ' the Great,' ' the Wise,' ' the Mother of her
Country.' To these sounding proposals Catherine modestly replied that the last
was the only one she could accept, although it was the duty of every mother to
love her children. 'Posterity,' she added, 'would decide her title to the first ;
and God alone is " Wise." '
The sittings of the committee were divided into general assemblages and
separate committees for different institutions of state. But during the following
year (17 6 8), on account of war having begun with Turkey, the general assemblages
ceased, and part of the deputies dispersed. A separate committee continued for
five years to form projects, under the guidance of Prince Viazemski, general
procurator of the senate. Notwithstanding, the question of a new code was
left undecided. However, the labours of the committee were not without
important results. They furnished government with much information con-
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 209
cerning the interior condition of the country, and greatly influenced Catherine's
subsequent administration, especially of districts.
REGULATIONS REGARDING PROVINCES, OR SO-CALLED GOVERNMENTS OF
THE EMPIRE
Catherine completed the work of Peter I. in concentrating district ad-
ministration. Russia was divided into fifty governments or provinces. Their
dimensions were determined by the amount of population (in each, there were
from three to four hundred thousand souls). These governments were divided
into districts, administered by civil governors. Sometimes several governments
were under the administration of one governor or viceroy, possessed of great
power, and who inspected all branches of government. Along with organi-
sation of governments, a system for the administration of justice in certain
places was introduced, and that continued till recent times in Russia. The said
division was introduced during the space of twenty years. At the same time a
general measure of land was taken. According to the new division of old towns,
their number was insufficient for the administration of districts. Thus, during
Catherine's reign, two hundred villages were made into towns. However, many
of them were only remarkable for poverty, and eventually disappeared from
the list.
In Tver, its viceroy, Count Seevero, who had taken an active part in the
organisation of provinces, opened the first transformed government (January
1776). Then he opened the government in Novgorod. The opening took place
in the following manner: — The viceroy assembled the neighbouring nobles.
A solemn religious service next ensued. A manifesto concerning the new
government was read. Speeches in its praise were made. Next, certain individuals
were chosen to fill different posts. The choice was accompanied by festivities,
such as dinners, balls, masquerades, in imitation of those at court. The nobles
begged permission to erect a monument in honour of the empress; and a
deputation was sent to thank her for her solicitude. All these circumstances
prove the progress which Russia had made in civilisation since the time of
Peter I. It doubtless had been much advanced by the acquisition of the Baltic
provinces ; as from them there was a constant influx of German officials, both
civil and military. In general, the government of Catherine II. paid great
attention to the outward appearance of towns, by increasing in them the number
of wide streets, and also by augmenting stone buildings. Besides the beauty of
VOL. II. 2 D
210 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
towns, the economy of forests was likewise kept iii view ; and precautions were
taken against conflagrations, then, as now, scourges in Russia.
Amongst the monumental buildings of Catherine's time, we remark the Kreml
of Moscow, the senate-house, with an elegant circular hall, built from a plan of
the architect Kozakov. Another excellent architect of that epoch was Bajanov.
In St. Petersburg, Catherine founded the Isaac Cathedral. The day dedicated to
the memory of St. Isaac was the birthday of Peter I. (May 30). The cathedral
was completed during the reign of Alexander n. On the open space opposite to
the cathedral the empress erected a monument to Peter I. He is represented
on horseback. The pedestal of the statue is a granite rock. The monument was
unveiled in 1782. (Ilovaiski, p. 302.)
CHAPTER XXVIII
MEASURES TAKEN REGARDING DIFFERENT CLASSES — ATTENTION PAID
TO ECONOMY
ALONG with the organisation of governments, new regulations were made regarding
the position of different classes. Here also the empress continued the reforms
begun by Peter I., while she more distinctly determined the signification, rights,
and duties of various classes. In 1785 was published the so-called 'Town
Position,' concluding by an organisation of 'town society.' The latter was
composed of inhabitants belonging to the classes which paid dues — i.e., merchants,
burghers, and members of corporations. Merchants were divided into three
guilds, according to the amount of their capital. Those who possessed less than
500 roubles were called burghers. As for tradesmen, they were according to
their occupation divided into corporations, like those in western Europe. All
the inhabitants who paid dues assembled together and formed what was called a
' general town council,' in order to choose a mayor from among their own circle,
and six members for three years, to form what was styled 'the six-membered
council.' The latter, presided over by the mayor, was constantly to attend to
affairs of the town, its revenues, its expenditure, its buildings, etc. But the ' six-
membered council ' was especially to see that crown dues were paid. In fact, the
whole society was in this respect responsible.
During the same year (1785) a 'grant charter' was also given to the class of
nobles, to determine their rights and privileges, as the chief supporters of the
throne. The exemption of a nobleman from state service was confirmed. He
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 211
was likewise exempt from dues and from corporal punishment. The landed
proprietors from each government formed their own society of nobles. They
obtained a right to assemble once in three years in the government town, to
consult regarding affairs of their class, and to choose persons from their own sphere
to perform certain social duties, such, for example, as government and district
marshal of nobility, chief of the rural (zemski) police, bailiffs of districts,
etc. The nobility obtained the exclusive right to possess serfs. Peter i. had
permitted certain merchants to have their own peasants, for manufactories and
foundries.
Although, as we have already seen, Catherine n. had much desired the
emancipation of serfs, especially at the commencement of her reign, notwith-
standing, serfdom attained its highest degree, according to legislation, while the
empress occupied the throne.
During the first year of her government, the peasants in certain districts were
in open insurrection against proprietors. The rebels were, however, subdued
without bloodshed by military detachments. But in the district of Viazemsk,
the serfs of Princes Dolgorookii made so great resistance that cannons had to
be fired.
The enlightened, humane Catherine II. fully comprehended all the baneful
influence of serfdom on the public morals, and also its hindrance of instruction.
But her views on this subject met with so much opposition from the nobles, that
she was forced to relinquish her plan of reform among the peasants. Not only
so : a new regulation was made which confirmed the powers of proprietors. For
example, on account of frequent complaints that land-holders ill-treated their
peasants, the latter were forbidden to complain of their masters, under penalty
of the knout, exile, or sentence of perpetual labour as galley-slaves. Mean-
while, the number of serfs greatly increased, in consequence of the custom of
giving peasants belonging to the crown as rewards for services rendered to
the government.
Catherine II. executed one important plan which Peter I. had in view : that
was, the sequestration of church property. Soon after ascending the throne she
appointed a committee to estimate the exact amount of church land and revenues.
By one ukaze of 1704 all the church peasants of Great or Central Russia 1764.
(amounting to 900,000) were consigned to the jurisdiction of a so-called ' College
of Economy.' Instead of the previous poll-tax, they were henceforth obliged to
pay a rouble and a half for each individual. A new civil list was made of
monasteries and archiepiscopal churches. They were in future to receive a
certain salary from the ' College of Economy.' Besides, they were still to retain
212 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
several popular appurtenances. The property thus taken away by the ' College
of Economy' either passed to private individuals or to other departments of
the state.
Of course, this measure produced much discontent among the clergy.
Arsenius Matzievitch, metropolitan of Kostov, was particularly opposed to
the new order of things, for which opposition he was degraded and imprisoned.
One remarkable financial measure of Catherine's reign was the introduction
of bank-notes or paper money. The inconvenience of a great number of copper
coins was felt, and thus induced the government to introduce bank-notes
similar to those in western Europe. Banks for this purpose were organised in
1768, both in St. Petersburg and in Moscow, with capital of a million of roubles of
metal money. But after some time, various wants of the state, as well as frequent
war, induced government to augment the number of these bank-notes to 150
millions of roubles. Consequently, the increased currency of paper money caused
it to fall in value, while the price of goods became higher. Along with the
banks for the nobility and merchants, founded by Elizaveta Petrovna, Catherine
instituted a government loan bank, for lending to nobles and inhabitants of towns
at five per cent. (1786).
During the reign of Catherine IL, great attention was also paid to crown
revenue received from taverns. Hitherto, a mixed system had been carried
on. The sale of strong drink was partially undertaken by certain chosen
individuals among traders, and called ' tavern heads ' (by village bailiffs,
during the reign of Peter I.), or partially it was given on lease to private
individuals.
Catherine n. formed a committee to investigate the question, and the com-
mittee decided in favour of leases (1765). (Ilovaiski, p. 302-305.)
CHAPTER XXIX
SOUTHERN REGIONS
FROM the gradual increase of centralisation in the Russian empire, Little Russia
and the Zaporog districts could no longer maintain their separate existence. Even
during the life of Cyril Razooinovski the dignity of hetmanship was definitely
abolished (1764), and a general governor of Little Russia was appointed in the
person of the subsequently famous Roomiantzev-Zadooniaski. Little Russia, like
other parts of the empire, was then divided into governments, and peasants were
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 213
declared serfs of the proprietor on whose land the ukaze of 1783 had found them.
There also church property was sequestrated.
The Zaporog Sietsch or Cossack assembly had likewise outlived its century.
When southern Russian steppes were peopled and the organisation of new Russian
governments began, then the Zaporog Cossacks appeared in the midst of Russian
districts. But the former destination of the Zaporogs — i.e. to defend the southern
frontiers from the incursions of Crimean Tartars — had no longer any reality, on
account of altered boundaries. Meanwhile, the restless Zaporogs did not wish
to relinquish old habits, and, with bands of robbers, frequently attacked neigh-
bouring villages and towns.
By order of the empress, the Cossack Sietsch (assembly) was occupied by a
Russian detachment, and the Zaporog forces ceased to exist (1775). Part of them
went to Turkey and there became Turkish subjects. Others removed towards the
river Kooban, and formed an army of Black Sea Cossacks, who, at the close of
Catherine's reign, received the island of Fanagoria, along with land between the
Kooban and the sea of Azoph. But previously, the Volga Cossack forces were
removed to the Terek as a chastisement for protecting robbers, and also for
participating in Poogatschev's revolt. At the Terek, as formerly, the Cossacks
continued to serve Russian land, by defending its boundaries against the inroads
of marauding Caucasian mountaineers.
The population of southern Russian steppes began, as we have already seen,
during the reign of Elizaveta Petrovna. Several thousands of Slavonian families,
chiefly Servians from Austrian and Turkish dominions, became Russian subjects,
and settled on the boundaries of Ukraine near the source of the Ingoolina region,
which received the name of New Servia. The government of Catherine n. like-
wise endeavoured to people the southern fertile but uninhabited regions of Russia,
by inviting foreign colonists to settle there, at the same time granting them
certain privileges, and even help to pay their first domestic expenses. The
invitation was accepted by several thousand Germans, who established them-
selves chiefly along the Volga, in the districts of Samara. Government likewise
endeavoured to restore to Russia the Raskolniks (Schismatics) who had gone
abroad. Those who returned were promised entire forgiveness. Besides,
Raskolniks were no longer obliged to pay double taxes, to wear a particular dress,
and to shave the beard. As for the 'Old Believers,' or adherents to old-
printed church books in New Russia, at Potemkine's request they were permitted
to have their own churches and priests, ordained by orthodox (Pravoslavni)
bishops (1785). These 'Old Believers' thus formed the so-called 'Church of
one Belief,'
214 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
SCHOOLS AND LITERARY MOVEMENT
Regarding the measures adopted for popular instruction during the reign of
Catherine IL, much attention was paid to form a system of regular, permanent,
general schools. In order to execute this plan the empress appointed a
' Committee for the Organisation of Popular Schools' (1782). According to the
plan of the committee, it was purposed to introduce in district towns small
popular schools for elementary instruction of children belonging to all classes,
and in government towns to found 'chief popular institutions.' Projects were
also formed to open several universities; but these plans were only partially
executed. In a few towns, ' chief popular institutions ' were organised, but not
one university was opened.
It was principally General Ivan Ivanovitch Betzkii who was instrumental
in promoting the advancement of instruction by founding schools. At his
suggestion 'foundling institutions' were established in St. Petersburg and in
Moscow. Betzki's efforts, too, obtained the commencement of private schools
for women, such, for example, as that in the St. Petersburg Smolni monastery
(for young ladies of noble birth, on the plan of the French institution of
St. Cyr), in which education had a monastic character. The foundation of
the cadet, the engineer, and the artillery corps augmented the number of
military institutions.
Betzkii also earnestly desired that Russians should be educated, in] order that
they themselves might instruct their children: for the latter could not regard
foreigners as their parents ; and foreigners, besides, were unacquainted with the
popular customs and the religion of the Russians.
Notwithstanding the patriotic sentiments of Betzkii, however, the influence of
French customs and literature on the higher classes of Russian society made
great progress during the reign of Catherine II. That influence was chiefly
remarkable in softening manners, while that was not a little aided by the
enlightened views of the empress herself.
The executions which took place during the reigns of Peter I. and of Anna
loannovna, as well as flogging with the knout and other hideous punishments of
Elizaveta Petrovna's time, had begun to pass into traditions : and although torture
was still employed in judicial interrogations, yet it was not to such an extent and
not so cruelly inflicted as formerly.
Poroshine, one of the Emperor Paul's teachers, narrates in his Notes that once
while dining along with his imperial pupil, the conversation chanced to turn on
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 215
the well-knowu affair of the cabinet minister Volinski. Nikita Ivanovitch Panine,
chief tutor of the heir, remarked, that not long previously, he had read the trial,
and that it nearly gave him paralysis, so strong was the impression produced by
a description of the torments inflicted on Volinski! Another time, while at
dinner, Count Panine, on comparing various reigns with that of Catherine II., gave
the following example : — A general, who at one time was along with the hetman
Razoomovski, was heard to say that ' persons of the present day were mere milk-
sops, impossible to scold ; whereas formerly the stick was in full swing and none
dared to say a word ! '
Imitative literature made great progress during the reign of Catherine IL, and
chiefly flourished under protection of the court. Poets followed Lomonosov's
example and continued to compose panegyric odes. The representative of that
class was Derjavine. A retired colonel's son, his first learning was obtained at
the gymnasium of Kazane. Then he began service in the ranks of the Guards, and
eventually became state secretary of the empress. In heavy, sonorous, but
expressive verses Derjavine chiefly sang the praise of Catherine under the name
of ' Felicia/ and extolled the important events of her reign.
The representative of satiric literature at that epoch was the talented Von
Veezen. In his comedies, especially those entitled The Brigadier, The Minor,
The Spoiled Child, he attacked two visible defects of contemporary society. On
the one hand, the unwise, purely outward imitation of French customs, with the
total want of moral training; on the other, the rude manners and prejudices
which noblemen inherited from Russian ancestors. Periodical literature, in form
of journals during Catherine's reign, had likewise a satirical tone.
The beginning of Russian journals in literature originated at the close of
Elizaveta's reign: and the first satirical journal, entitled The Laborious Bee,
belonged to the well-known Soomorokov. But special progress in journalistic
literature took place during the first half of Catherine's reign, or between the
years 1769 and 1775.
At that epoch there appeared a whole family of journals — Each Sort of Every-
thing, The Drone, The Infernal Soil, The Painter, and others. The chief task of
one and all was to show contemporary society its weak side. The attacks of
journalistic satire were [principally directed against two classes of individuals,
i.e. functionaries who traded in the administration of justice by accepting bribes,
and those who strove to shine by means of superficial education and fashionable
European customs.
Among satirical works of the epoch we may mention the so-called Letter-
216 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Writer by Koorganov, composed of original and translated anecdotes, witty
proverbs, precepts, etc. The Letter- Writer was a continuation of previous
collections, such as The Bee, and, towards the close of the eighteenth century,
became a favourite book of the people. Koorganov was son of an under-om'cer,
and for about fifty years served as teacher in the marine cadet corps.
Catherine n. herself took a lively interest in literary and scientific labour.
She used to compose moral tales for children, dramatic pieces for her own private
theatre (in the hermitage), and notes on Russian history. In order to promote
scientific knowledge of the natural productions and inhabitants of her empire,
Catherine sent expeditions of learned men to distant regions of the country, such,
for example, as those of Pallas, Lepechine, G-ildensted, and others. When the
celebrated Princess Dashkov was named president of the Academy of Sciences in
1782, the academy began to issue a monthly journal named Collocutor of Favourite
Russian Words, in which Catherine herself, as well as some of her courtiers and
the best-known writers of the period, took part. Among the latter were Derjaviue,
Bogdanovitch, Von Veezen, Kniajnine, Kapniste, etc. The said journal, however,
like others, soon ceased.
One of the most noble participators in the promotion of Russian enlighten-
ment and literature during the second half of the eighteenth century was Nikolai
Ivanovitch Novikov, who devoted himself to education of the middle classes
of the people.
At first editor of several satirical journals, Novikov in 1781, along with
Schwartz, professor of the Moscow university, formed 'The Friendly Learned
Society,' whose objects were to translate and print books for the people, to sell
the said books at the cheapest possible price, nay, even to distribute them gratis
in order to aid the poorest who desired to learn. Many rich distinguished
individuals contributed to the society, whose influence on the young generation
was most beneficial. Guided by the 'Friendly Society,' Karamzine, the sub-
sequently famous historian of Russia, completed his education. But, towards
the close of Catherine's reign, literary movements and private societies were sub-
jected to considerable restriction. (That originated from the anxiety caused by
the French Revolution. Along with the unbelief and materialism of French
philosophers of the eighteenth century, spread abroad in Europe, opposed to
them was the mystical teaching of St. Martin and other idealists. At the
same time the number of secret mason brotherhoods augmented. They were
founded under pretext of benevolent aims. They likewise appeared in Russia,
and even became fashionable there; but, when the French Revolution broke
out, these brotherhoods incurred suspicion of harbouring various political
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 217
projects. Novikov, as a follower of religious mysticism of the Martinists
and masons, did not escape such suspicion. He was arrested and shut up in
the fort of Schliisselburg (1772), but was liberated from prison by Catherine's
successor.
Amongst productions of clerical eloquence at that epoch, we especially remark
the sermons and other moral and religious compositions of three celebrated arch-
bishops of the Russian church, i.e. Gregory Konisski, bishop of Bieloruss, St.
Tichon, bishop of Voronej, and Plato, archbishop and subsequently metropolitan
of Moscow.
As a specimen of the artless but powerful preaching of Tichon, we may
mention his sermon preached on the following occasion. In Voronej, from ancient
times it was the annual custom before the Petrovski Fast (in the month of June)
to have a popular festival in memory of Yareelo, the heathen god of spring. The
festival was accompanied by unseemly games, fighting matches, etc., and in
general had heathen characteristics. In 1765, on the first day of the Petrovski
Fast, Tichon appeared at an open space in the midst of an unruly crowd, and, by
the force of his words, stopped the games. On the following Sunday he appointed
a solemn service in the cathedral, and there pronounced to the people an exhorta-
tion which touched the very depths of their hearts. The above-mentioned festival
was thenceforth discontinued.
Plato, from the Trinity cloister, where he was archimandrite, was summoned to
St. Petersburg, and appointed teacher of religion to the Grand Duke Paul (Pavel)
Petrovitch. Plato often preached sermons in the court church. After one of
his sermons there the empress was deeply touched, shed tears, and exclaimed :
' Father Plato makes us all do whatever he wishes. If he wishes us to weep,
we weep.'
Plato especially touched his hearers by his panegyric on Peter the Great
pronounced on the occasion of a victory gained by the Russian fleet over the
Turks (1770). (Ilovaiski, pp. 307-311.)
CHAPTER XXX
FIRST WAR WITH TURKEY, 1768-1774
DURING the reign of Catherine IL, Russia greatly extended its boundaries by the
restoration of Russian regions in the west, and also by Turkish-Tartar conquests with Turkey,
in the south.
VOL. II. 2 E
218 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Along with war against the Confederation of Bar in Poland, Catherine was
also obliged to carry on a struggle with Turkey (1768-1774).
Excited by the French court and the Polish confederates, the sultan intimated
his hostile intentions to Russia, because a gang of Little Russian Cossacks had
burned the neighbouring village of Balta. Such was the trifling pretext which
made him declare war. He ordered Obrieskov, the Russian ambassador, to be
shut up in the castle of Seven Towers. The empress could not send a large
force against Turkey: but Roomiantzev, who was appointed commander- in-
chief, knew, even with small means, how to overcome many enemies. In
reply to his request for reinforcements, Catherine simply said: 'The Romans
did not wish to know the number of their enemies, but only asked where
they were.'
The most glorious epoch of the first Turkish war was in 1770, when
Roomiantzev obtained two brilliant victories over the Turks — the first on the
banks of the Larga, where the khan's army of a hundred thousand men was dis-
persed ; the second on the banks of the Kagoola, where the grand vizier's force
of a hundred and fifty thousand men was defeated, while Roomiantzev had only
seventeen thousand.
During the same year a Russian squadron appeared in the Archipelago,
obtained a victory over the Turkish fleet, and burned it in the haven of Tschesme.
In that action two officers, Spireedov and Grieg, especially distinguished them-
selves, although the chief commander of the squadron was Count Alexis Orlov.
On the latter was henceforth conferred the surname of ' Tschesmenski.'
During the following year (1771), Prince Vasili Dolgorookov made a successful
incursion in the Crimea. The war was prolonged for three years, and at length
terminated by peace concluded in the Russian camp of Kotschook-Kainardji, near
Silistria. By that peace, Russia obtained part of the shores at the Sea of Azoph
and the Black Sea (Azoph, Kertsch, Kinbourn). To Russian merchant-vessels
free trade was opened in the Mediterranean Sea. The Tartars of the Crimea,
Boodjak, and the Kuban were declared independent of Turkey. The sultan was
obliged to pay 4,500,000 for the expenses of the war (1774).
CHAPTER XXXI
THE PLAGUE — POOGATSCHEV
MEANWHILE, as Russian armies were gaining brilliant victories beyond the
boundaries of the empire, in the interior not a little was suffered on account of
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 219
physical misfortunes and great popular agitation. The plague penetrated from
Moldavia to Russia, and began to spread in Moscow (1771).
When Count Saltikov, chief commander of the capital, quitted the plague- 1771— Plague
stricken city, the superstitious people revolted and murdered the Archbishop m Ru"ia-
Ambrosius, because he wished to remove the Bogolioobski image of the Virgin
from St. Barbara's gate (Varvarski), where the people rushed in crowds and thus
spread the infection.
Ambrosius Zertis Kamenski, then archbishop of Moscow, was an enlightened,
well-educated man, who had gained the ill-will of the ignorant by the suppression
of several abuses, especially by prohibiting the scandalous concourse of unplaced
priests, hired to perform service in private churches. On hearing that crowds
collected at the Bogolioobski image, Ambrosius ordered the pitchers for money to
be sealed up, also the removal of tents where offerings were kept and sold. The
archbishop even wished the image to be taken down. Hence the fury of the
Moscovite populace and their massacre of him. Insinuations were likewise made
that doctors had thrown poison into wells, and thus had occasioned the plague.
On September 16th, 1771, on hearing the archbishop's orders, the multitude
exclaimed as with one voice : ' The archbishop is a godless man ! He removes
the treasury of the Ho)y Virgin ! He also wishes to deprive the people of her
defence ! He has probably agreed with doctors to poison the people. Orthodox
Christians willingly suffer from injustice of 'the administration. If there was no
fumigating in streets and hospitals, the plague would long ago have ceased.'
The alarm-bell was thereupon rung. The populace began to run in a crowd
without knowing wherefore. But soon an aim was found. Shouts were heard :
' To the Kreml ! to the Kreml ! Let us ask Ambrosius why he does not wish us
to pray to the Mother of our Lord ! Doctors throw poison into the wells ! ' All
then rushed to the Kreml, to the archbishop's house; but they did not find
Ambrosius, and began to demolish everything in his apartments. General
Eropkine, with a force, succeeded in clearing the Kreml, and the rebels were
obliged to retire ; but next day they seized Ambrosius in the Donskoi monastery
and killed him. After ruining two houses for quarantine, the rebels next
proceeded to the Kreml, there to complete the devastation of the archbishop's
house, and to plunder a merchant's cave under the Tschoodev monastery. In
answer to exhortations of the chief commander, a prince of Georgia, and also tc
those of the brigadier Mamonov, stones were thrown. Then General Eropkine
ordered his soldiers to fire on the drunken crowd. Above a hundred were killed
and one hundred and forty-nine seized. The remainder took flight. It appeared
that the rebels were chiefly composed of serfs, merchants, workmen from
220 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
manufactories, and ' Raskolniks ' (schismatics). Count Gregory Orlov was like-
wise sent from St. Petersburg to subdue the agitation in Moscow. In October
the number of deaths diminished; and in January 1772, government declared
Moscow delivered from the plague. So the ancient capital became tranquil, but
two years later the whole empire was convulsed by the so-called ' Poogatschevski
revolt.' (Toloviev, pp. 323-324 ; Ilovaiski, pp. 311-313.)
We have already seen that subsequent to the ' troublous times,' the Cossacks
twice rebelled against government : in the reign of Alexis Michaelovitch, under
command of Razine, and, while Peter the Great occupied the throne, under
command of Boolavine. After Peter, during the first half of the eighteenth
century, in Cossack regions various pretenders appeared ; but they did not succeed
in creating open revolt. Finally, while Catherine n. occupied the throne, several
pretenders had endeavoured to enact the part of Peter in. One of these
individuals, mentioned by Chopin in his Histoire de Eussie, was a Greek named
Stephano. He endeavoured to excite the Montenegrins against Russia. Stephano,
however, was pardoned and eventually admitted to Catherine's service. Mean-
while, both abroad and in Russia, strange reports were circulated that Peter in.
was still alive. A fugitive Don Cossack named Emilian Poogatschev declared
himself to be the deceased emperor, and took command of the Yaik (Ural)
Cossack armies.
The Yaik Cossacks, a branch of those on the Don, became known in history
from the commencement of the seventeenth century. They had the ancient
organisation of a community. Fishing had always formed their chief wealth.
Their central point was the Yaik fort. Peter I. placed them under jurisdiction
of the military college and determined their service.
During the reign of Anna loannovna, the beginning of the Orenburg military
line took place, i.e. a line of small forts along the Ural and its tributaries. These
forts on the one side cut off the Bashkirs from the Asiatic steppes and confirmed
them on Russia, and on the other formed hindrances to the incursions of the
Kirgees. The garrisons were composed of Cossacks and old soldiers. Subse-
quently the Yaik forces were discontented with the restriction of their former
freedom. They murmured and not unfrequently revolted. A revolt during 1771
was especially remarkable.
The Calmucks, roving about in the steppes of Saratov and Astrachan, irritated
by the oppression of Russian officials, all of a sudden, to the number of thirty
thousand tilt-wagons, moved beyond the Yaik, and went along towards the
Chinese boundaries. The Yaik army was then ordered to pursue them, but
would not obey, and killed General Traubenberg.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 221
Severe punishment for these offences seemed, however, only more to irritate
the Cossacks. At last, General Freimann, sent from Moscow, subdued the revolt
by force of arms. The ringleaders were punished with the knout, while many
others were exiled to Siberia or made soldiers. The previous Cossack administra-
tion was abolished and replaced by a commander of Yaik. Quietness, however,
was not restored among the forces. 'There will be more yet!' exclaimed the
pardoned rebels; 'we will shake Moscow also.' Secret conferences then took
place in wayside inns and in lonely farmhouses. A leader alone was wanted.
At length, Emilian Poogatschev appeared. He had held much intercourse with
the Raskolniks, and frequented their retreats in Vetka and in the Irgeesk
hermitages. In 1772 he went to the Yaik, and persuaded the Cossacks to flee to 1772.
the Kuban to the districts of the Turkish sultan. The forces of government then
seized him, and he was sent to Kazane ; but he escaped from it by aid of rich
Raskolniks. Again he hid in farmhouses of the Yaik, and, after making agree-
ments with several Cossacks, he openly assumed the name of Peter in. Some Poogatschev
hundreds soon assembled around him and raised the standard of rebellion. A f°mmence8
his revolt.
detachment of Cossacks sent against him went over to his side. The fort of
Iletzk was the first stronghold which capitulated to him without fighting. Its
ataman wished to defend himself, but the Cossacks received Poogatschev with the
ringing of bells, while bringing him bread and salt, offered in token of hospitality,
according to the ancient Russian usage. Poogatschev then ordered the faithful
ataman to be hanged.
The boundary forts, through treachery of the garrisons, began to fall into the
hands of the rebels, while the commanders generally perished on the gibbet.
But Orenburg and the fort of Yaik manfully maintained a siege. In all the
country along the Volga there spread an insurrection of peasants, to whom
Poogatschev promised liberty. To the insurrection of Cossacks and peasants
was joined a movement of Raskolniks, especially numerous among the Cossacks.
Poogatschev promised the Raskolniks ' a cross and a beard.' Peasants belonging
to Ural manufactories and fugitive felons also joined the pretender. Different
races of eastern Russia, such, for example, as the Bashkeers, the Calmucks, the
Mordvii, etc., also revolted. In this wise was renewed the time of Stenko
(familiar name of Stephen) Razine. Even in Moscow itself the lower orders were
secretly agitated, and evidently awaited Poogatschev with impatience. The first
movements of forces sent against the rebels were unsuccessful: the affairs of
government, however, began to improve when General Bibikov was nominated
commander-in-chief. But he soon died, and his place was filled by Count Peter
Panine.
222
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Meanwhile, the pretender burned Kazane, took Penza, Saratov, etc. Only
with the greatest effort was this terrible revolt subdued. More than once
defeated by Colonel Michelson, Poogatschev was finally surrounded by imperial
forces, given up by his associates into the hands of government and brought to
Moscow, where he was executed (1775).
CHAPTER XXXII
THE CRIMEA — SECOND WAR WITH TURKEY — THE CRIMEA ANNEXED TO
RUSSIA, 1783
THE Crimean khanate, acknowledged independent by the peace of Kootschook-
Kainardjsk, could not long maintain its independence and its inward tranquillity
from the conflicting influence of Eussia and Turkey. When civil discord began
among the Tartars, and khans were deposed, Russia interfered with the internal
affairs of the peninsula, and raised Shagine Girei to the throne. Persuaded by
Catherine's agents, Shagine Girei soon abdicated, and was sent to live at Kalooga.
The Crimean Moorzas (princes) took an oath of allegiance as Russian subjects.
The Turkish sultan, after some hesitation, at last agreed that the Crimea should
be annexed to Russia (1783). In this wise, a nest of robbers which during the
course of three centuries had plundered and devastated Russian land was at
length rendered harmless; and Russia attained its natural limits towards the
south. The administration of the newly acquired province was confided to
Prince Gregory (Grigorii) Alexandra vitch Potemkine, who assiduously laboured to
organise the southern desert country, and founded several towns there, Herson,
Ekaterinoslavl, Nikolaev, Sevastople.
At Potemkine's desire, the empress, in 1787, accompanied by a numerous and
brilliant train of followers, visited Taurida. At Kanev (government of Kiev) she
was joined by the Polish king, Stanislav Augustus Poniatovski. Joseph n.,
emperor of Austria, also met the imperial suite. The surroundings of that journey,
arranged by the powerful favourite Potemkine, were distinguished by theatrical
characteristics. For example, when the gilt yacht of the empress sailed along the
Dnieper, on its banks — hitherto desert and uninhabited — all of a sudden there
appeared flourishing villages, crowds in holiday attire and troops performing
exercises. All that was got up on short notice ; and the people were assembled
from distant spots. Meanwhile, Potemkine ordered heaps of goods to be brought
from Moscow and other towns to Herson, in order there to open a magnificent
bazaar. On returning, he arranged a manoeuvre near Poltava, to represent the
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 223
victory gained there by Peter i. over the Swedes. Descriptions of Catherine's
journey to Taurida are to be found in the notes of the French and Austrian
ambassadors, Count Segur and Prince de Lyne, both in the imperial suite.
(Ilovaiski, p. 315.)
The weakness of Turkey occasioned the so-called 'Greek project' to be
formed at the Russian court. In other words, the Turks were to be expelled from
Europe, and a state was to be created, including Moldavia, Wallachia, and part of
Bessarabia, under the sceptre of a Russian monarch. The names of Catherine's
elder grandsons — Alexander and Constantine — seemed to refer to this project It
was specially favoured by Potemkine. Similar ideas regarding Turkey occasioned
unity between Catherine and the Austrian emperor, Joseph n. They accordingly
formed a close alliance. Then the Turkish court, excited by the English and
Prussians, a second time declared war on Russia (1787).
The chief command of the Russian forces during the second Turkish war was
undertaken by Potemkine ; but his personal exploits were limited to the taking of
Otschakov, after a difficult siege, which cost much. The glory of that war chiefly
belongs to Soovorov, who performed many doughty deeds, the most remarkable of
which were his victories at Foxhani and at Rimnik, from which he received the
surname of Rimniski ; Soovorov also took the strong fort of Ismail. But the 1788.
Russian allies, i.e. the Austrians, were unsuccessful. Joseph II., instead of con-
centrating his force of two hundred thousand men and attacking the enemy,
adopted a defensive system, and left different parts of his army along the frontier
like a cordon.
At the same time, Russia was obliged to carry on a struggle at the north-west
with the Swedish king, Gustavus in., who thought to profit by the war with
Turkey, in order to take Finland from the Russians. The war with Sweden had
variable success and was chiefly carried on by sea. The Russian admirals were
Grieg, Tschichagov, and Krootz. The war terminated by peace, concluded in the
valley of Verelsk (1790). Both states retained their former boundaries. During
the following year, after Potemkine's death, peace was concluded with the Turks 1790.
at Jassy, by which Russia obtained a tract of land between the Boug and the
Dniester. Russia likewise confirmed its sway on the northern shores of the Black
Sea. The death of Joseph II. and diplomatic interposition of England and Prussia 1791.
— alarmed at the increasing power of Russia — occasioned the postponement of
Catherine's further, views on Turkey.
During the last year of the empress's reign there was war between Russia and
the Persian shah, who attacked regions beyond the Caucasus under Russian pro-
tection. Count Valerian Zoobov was sent against Persia, and took Derbent : but
224 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
his progress was arrested by the empress's death (1796). Her successor terminated
war with Persia. (Ilovaiski, p. 315.)
CHAPTER XXXIII
RESTORATION OF WESTERN RUSSIAN REGIONS — QUESTION CONCERNING
DISSENTERS — CONFERENCE OF BAR
WHEN Augustus in. of Poland died in 1763, the question concerning the election
of a new king divided the nobles into parties. Catherine II. desired to raise Count
Stanislav Poniatovski to the Polish throne. He had attained her favour when he
was along with the English ambassador in St. Petersburg. Accordingly, Russian
forces moved towards Poland. Frederick II. of Prussia also took the side of
Poniatovski ; thus his party gained the ascendency.
After the election of Poniatovski, attention was turned to the Polish dissenters.
In spite of the loss of Little Russia, towards the east, during the seventeenth
century, the Polish clergy endeavoured by every possible means to convert the
inhabitants of western Russia professing the Russo-Greek faith to that of the
so-called ' Union ' and to Romanism. When Kiev was finally added to the
Moscovite state, western Russia lost its central point for the church. The progress
of the ' Union ' was henceforth greater, and, in the eighteenth century, among
western Russian bishoprics only one — that of Bielorooskaia — still retained a
Russo-Greek hierarchy.
The means used to convert the Russo-Greeks to the 'Union' were not the
same as the Poles had formerly employed. For example, orthodox (Pravoslavni)
priests were offended in every possible manner, and forced to join the ' Union.'
If they resisted, proprietors gave their churches and parishes by violence to
' Union ' priests. The Pravoslavni were not allowed to build new churches, or to
repair the old ones already falling to ruin. In fact, the people professing the
Russo-Greek (Pravoslavni) faith were purposely kept in ignorance, poverty, and
oppression ; schools for them were forbidden to be erected. Not only so ; about
the middle of the eighteenth century the Polish clergy had missionaries in south-
western Russia, who, with the help of military detachments, by force took away
Russo-Greek churches for the ' Union.'
Even churches of the ' Union,' too, were in a pitiful condition. When the
Pravoslavni were sufficiently weakened in western Russia, the Poles next began
to convert the ' Unionists ' to Latinism. ' Unionist ' clergy were exposed to open
contempt, and viewed with envy the wealth and privileges of Romanist priests.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 225
In the church-service of the 'Unionists' there were perpetual changes which
resembled Eomish rites. For example, there were visible altars, organs, the ring-
ing of bells, etc. The ' Unionist ' clergy began to cut their hair, to shave their
beards, to wear the dress of Romanist priests, etc.
From the time of Peter the Great, the political influence of Russia was con-
firmed in Poland ; and inhabitants there, professing the Russo-Greek faith, began
to apply to the Russian government for redress against religious persecution.
But representations of Russian ambassadors and residents in Warsaw in favour
of the Pravoslavni remained nearly without result. The weakness of the Polish
government rendered it unable to protect the oppressed from offence and violence.
During the reign of Stanislav Pouiatovski the influence of Russia in Poland
increased. Russian plenipotentiaries administered in Warsaw in the empress's
name, and Russian forces scarcely quitted the boundaries of Poland. Then the
question concerning dissenters assumed a more decided turn.
A zealous agent of that question was found in the Beelorooski bishop, George
Kouisski, previously archimandrite of Kiev and rector of the Kiev academy. In
1763 he presented to the empress a complaint against the persecution of the
Pravoslavni by Romanists in western Russia. On the occasion of Catherine's
coronation Konisski made an eloquent speech in which he compared the difference
between the prosperity of the Russo-Greek church in the east, and its poverty and
oppression in the west.
The Russian court thereupon — along with the Prussian — demanded of the Poles
that dissenters, including Pravoslavni and Protestants, should enjoy the same rights
and privileges as Romanists. But the Poles would listen to no concession in that
respect. During the diet of 1766, when one deputy began to speak in favour of 1706.
dissenters, he was nearly torn in pieces by his enraged associates. Then Catherine
commissioned Repnine, her plenipotentiary in Warsaw, to form a confederation of
dissenters. Accordingly, during the following year, two confederations were
formed, one of the Pravoslavni at Slootsk, and another of Protestants at Torn.
The diet, however, still continued inflexible. The most zealous upholder of the
Romanist party was Solteek, bishop of Cracow. Repuine then used energetic
measures. He ordered the arrest of Solteek and some others of the Romanist
party (Zalooski and Rjevooski). Under convoy they were sent to Russia. The
diet then became more yielding, and signed a treaty with Russia, to the effect
that those who professed the Russo-Greek faith should have entire religious
freedom restored. By the same treaty, Russia also promised to continue the
existing order of things in Poland.
The condition of Poland was, meanwhile, a pitiful one. The Polish diet,
VOL. II. 2 F
226 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
although possessed of legal power, generally terminated without any result,
because the so-called liberum veto of each member had a right to hinder any
resolution passed, or ' to tear the diet in pieces,' according to the expression of the
times. This revocation was always pronounced by some petty noble, bribed either
by Polish magnates or by foreign courts. Kingly power had even degenerated to
so great a degree, that the sovereign himself could take no measure for the interior
defence of the state, or for transforming antiquated political organisation. Mean-
while, the nobles enjoyed every right and privilege, while the lower classes were
kept in a condition of ignorance and oppression. They thus remained alien to
the political interests of the country. Administration was full of anarchy. The
magnates were their own judges, and quarrelled with each other. As for the
dignitaries of state, they were not ashamed to accept money in order to become
the arms of foreign courts and to sell their native country. In such circum-
stances, the once powerful Poland became weak to the highest degree. For a
lengthened period it had already depended on neighbours who coveted its
provinces.
But Catherine's growing influence on Poland meanwhile aroused the suspicion
of other states. Some Polish nobles — Krasinski, one of the Pototzkies, and the
family of Poolavski — with the hope of French aid, formed a confederation in the
Polish town of Bar. Its projects were to abolish the rights of dissenters and
to remove Poniatovski from the throne (1768). Repnine thereupon began
military action. The confederates, badly armed and commanded by several
leaders, each nearly independent of the other, could not withstand the attack of
regular Russian forces. The latter were, notwithstanding, few in number ; for at
that time war was beginning with Turkey.
The Duke of Choiseul, prime minister of Louis xv., sent aid to the confeder-
ates, in the persons of French officers. Among the latter was Dumouriez, sub-
sequently famous during the French Revolution. Dumouriez, in his Mtmoires,
gives a very bad opinion of the confederates. The unruly petty Polish nobles
observed no discipline, drank to excess, robbed, made no difference between their
own followers and strangers. The chiefs surrounded themselves with luxury,
were at enmity with each other, while their enmity not unfrequently broke out
into open contests. (Ilovaiski, pp. 318-321.)
UKRAINE
Beyond the Dnieper, in Polish possessions, the old national and religious
hatred between the Pravoslavni and the Polish, nobles at this epoch raged in all
its fury. The Zaporog Cossacks and gangs of robbers once more appeared as the
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 227
terrible avengers of the oppressed lower classes. The chief leader of these
marauders was a certain Maximus Yelesniak, a Zaporog and former lay-brother of
the Tschigirinsk Matrenisk monastery. The abbot of that monastery, Melchizedek
Yavorski, like George Konisski, was a zealous partisan of the Pravoslavni
church against the ' union ' and Romanists. Yelesniak assembled a large number
of Zaporogs and robbers, and began ruinous incursions on the domains of the
Kiev voevode, ravished many spots, including villages and noblemen's castles, put
to death many petty nobles and Jews (1768). The most dreadful act of the
insurrection was the so-called ' Oomanski massacre.' The town of Ooman
belonged to Count Pototzki, who there kept a detachment of Cossacks for the
defence of his property. But these Cossacks, guided by their centurion Gonto,
went over to Yelesniak's party, took the town along with him, and massacred
nearly all the inhabitants. The rebels then proclaimed Yelesniak hetman of
Ukraine. His army was augmented by new crowds. The Polish government,
occupied with the confederation, could send only a feeble force against him. To
aid the Poles, Catherine ordered General Kretchetnikov to march forward. The
revolt was then subdued, and the Cossacks suffered frightful punishment. But
even afterwards, the Zaporogs nearly every summer made marauding inroads on
Ooman. That epoch was known among the people by the names of Kolievshiui
and Palievshini. The latter word is derived from the name Paleia, one of the
Little Russian colonels, known for his bitter enmity to the Poles, during the
reign of Peter I.
Four years later, the Confederation of Bar was abolished. At that period,
among the courts of Russia, Prussia, and Austria there was an agreement, the
result of which was the first division of Poland.
FIRST DIVISION OF POLAND, 1773
Russia received the northern and eastern parts of White Russia. More than First div
any other, Frederick n. of Prussia urged that division. During the same year J??^ *'
(1773) appeared the celebrated bull of the Pope, to disband the order of the
Jesuits. According to Catherine's will, that bull was not intimated in neigh-
bouring White Russian provinces, and the order continued to exist there till
1820. In general, Catherine as much as possible aimed at liberating the
Romanist provinces of her empire from the immediate influence of the Pope.
With that intention she endeavoured to concentrate the administration of their
churches in the hands of a special hierarch, and appointed as bishop of the Romish
church in Russia the wise, enlightened Sestrentsevitch, who subsequently w
promoted to the dignity of metropolitan.
228 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
CHAPTER XXXIV
THE CONSTITUTION OF MAY 3, 1791, AND THE FALL OF POLAND
1791. AT this epoch a party was formed among the Polish nobles which endeavoured
to effect great changes of government. These changes chiefly aimed at upholding
the state, which tended to fall. At the head of this transforming party were
Ignatius Pototzki, Malachovaki, Kollontai, and other patriots. In spite of
counter action from conservatives, the patriots really succeeded in proclaiming a
new constitution, May 3, 1791. The crown was no longer to be elective in the
house of Saxony. The king was to possess executive power. The liberum
veto was to be abolished. At the same time, a decided movement took place
against Russia, then at war with Turkey and Sweden. But these wars soon
terminated.
Constitution During the following year (1792), a confederation, formed of adherents to the
1792. former government, was assembled at Targovitz. Felix Pototzki, the great
crown hetman Branitzki, and the entire crown hetman Rjevooski, appealed to
Catherine for help ; and Russian forces instantly entered Poland. The Polish
government could not offer powerful resistance ; while hope of aid from Prussia
was vain. The Polish army, commanded by the king's nephew, Joseph Ponia-
tovski, and General Kostiooshko, endeavoured to resist, but, after a battle at
Doobeuka, was forced to yield. Finally, King Stanislav Augustus himself, on
Catherine's demand, consented to the confederation of Targovitz. Thus the
constitution of May 3 was abolished. Subsequently, the empress formed an
Second agreement with the king of Prussia, and the second division of Poland took
, . . . . *~> <J 9
1793. place- Russia for its share received the regions of Volhynia and Minsk (1793).
At this period the Russian plenipotentiary in Poland was Count Seevers,
formerly governor of Novgorod. To him was assigned the difficult task of urging
the diet to cede districts already lost in reality to Poland by its second division.
On this occasion an extra diet assembled at Grodno. After some hesitation, the
members yielded to the demands of Seevers, and confirmed a decree authorising the
cession of land annexed to Russia. But the diet obstinately refused to make any
such convention with Prussia, to which had been assigned purely Polish land. In
vain did the Prussian ambassador threaten to declare war. Seevers was therefore
forced to adopt extreme measures. He ordered four of the most obstinate
deputies to be arrested and sent out of Grodno. Whereupon the diet thought to
maintain silence concerning the cession of land ; and the famous so-called ' Dumb
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 229
Assemblage' took place. To all questions regarding a convention with Prussia
the deputies remained completely mute. They then received intimation that they
would not be permitted to leave the hall till they gave a decided answer. But the
deputies still kept silence. During this interval the night was far advanced.
At length morning came. Three o'clock struck. Finally the diet yielded, but
at the same time protested against the extreme measures adopted.
The French Revolution, then in full force, withdrew the attention of western
Europe from eastern countries. Soon the very existence of the Polish state was
at an end.
Patriotic, secret societies, with the hope of saving Poland, raised an insurrec-
tion. It was hastened by the recall of the mild, enlightened Seevers. His place
was occupied by Igetstrom, a brave general, but not remarkable for great sagacity.
The insurrection began in Cracow, in March 1794, and thence quickly spread 1794.
northwards. A commander and dictator was chosen in the person of General
Thadeus Kostiooshko, who had participated in the North American war, and had
then developed his military talent. The Russian detachment stationed in War-
saw was taken unawares, and lost two thousand men. But soon Russian and
Prussian forces arrived, while the Polish leaders, one after another, began to be
defeated. Kostiooshko himself was made prisoner at Matziovitz.
Kostiooshko, desirous to hinder the junction of two Russian corps — those of
Soovorov and Ferzen — on the way to Warsaw, moved onwards to meet the latter,
with a force of 8000 ; but, deceived by false information, saw before him a much
more powerful army. Kostiooshko then withdrew to a spot called Matziovitz, on
the right bank of the Vistula, and south of Warsaw. Shut up in that marshy,
woody locality, he next ordered General Poninski to come with aid as soon as
possible. Ferzen, without losing time, followed the Poles, and on September 30,
1794, attacked their camp from different sides. After a protracted, obstinate
action, the Poles were gradually weakened, and still General Poninski did not
come. Kostiooshko made a last desperate effort to wrest the victory from
Ferzen's hands. At the head of chosen cavalry, he rushed into the Russian
ranks; but, enfeebled by a wound, fell fainting to the ground. Some foreign
writers state that the Polish hero then threw away his sword, and exclaimed :
' Finis Polonise ! ' (Ilovaiski, pp. 32 1-323.) .
Covered by a mantle of grey cloth, the dictator was with difficulty recognised
by the Russians. Several of the Cossacks immediately crossed their pikes, so as
to form a stretcher, and bore the wounded man to the Russian camp. The victory
was complete. Scarcely 1500 Poles succeeded in saving themselves by passing
through the woods to Warsaw.
230 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Subsequently, Soovorov, along with Ferzen, after terrible storming, took
Praga, a suburb of Warsaw, and there the war concluded.
The leaders of the Polish insurrection withdrew to foreign countries. King
Stanislav Augustus abdicated, and went to live in St. Petersburg, where he spent
his last days. He died during the reign of Catherine's successor.
1795— Third Poland was then definitively divided among Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
Poland11 C The ^rst receive(i as its share Lithuania and the Polish vassal dukedom of
Courland. The last duke of Couiiand was Peter Biron, son of Ernest Biron, to
whom Catherine restored the duchy. Peter Biron renounced his rights in favour
of Russia, and, in return, received a pecuniary recompense. (Ilovaiski, p. 324.)
CHAPTER XXXV
PRINCESS TARAKANOVA
WE have already mentioned that although Catherine II. was naturally kind-
hearted and inclined to clemency whenever she could exercise it, she, notwith-
standing, never hesitated to commit a crime in order to get rid of a dangerous
rival. In a word, she had gone too far to retreat, and her position was such that
she was obliged either to crush all obstacles which crossed her path, or herself
perish by them.
One individual who disturbed the empress's peace of mind was to be found
in the person of the Princess Tarakanova, or Daraganova, who called herself a
daughter of Elizaveta Petrovna and Alexei Gregorievitch Razoomovski.
Princess Tarakanova had a confused remembrance of her childhood. She had
always lived abroad, and there all gave credit to her story. A report was also
current that the Polish nobleman, Radzivil Charles Radzivil — a man of weak
disposition and of varying principles — had carried off the princess from Russia
to Poland, and thence to Italy, in order to act through her, as a political agent,
against Catherine II. The Polish patriots, too, had the same idea. Accordingly,
the empress commissioned her favourite, Alexei Orlov, to go to Italy, there to
seize Princess Tarakanova, and to bring her to St. Petersburg.
The young person in question always wrote her name c Elizabeth, Princess of
Vladimir,' which especially irritated the Empress Catherine.
Andre'ev (p. 186) makes the following statements: — 'In the Notes of the
Abbe Gorani, it is stated that the Princess Tarakanova was the youngest of three
daughters, by the marriage of A. G. Razoomovski and Elizaveta Petrovna. A
young man, who also bore the name of Prince Tarakanov, subsequently lived in
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 231
Russia, and died in consequence of overturning some liquid on himself while
making chemical experiments along with his teacher.'
Andreev credits the statements of the Abbe* Gorani concerning Princess
Tarakanova, and thinks that they agree with the date she gave of her own birth
—i.e. 1745.
Alexis Orlov was of gigantic stature, and of remarkably beautiful personal
appearance, in spite of a scar on his face, from which lie was surnamed 'Le
BalafreV His strength was extraordinary. A silver tray, which he quite easily
rolled up as a scroll, is still kept and shown as a curiosity in the arsenal at
Tzarskoe Selo, an imperial summer residence near St. Petersburg.
Alexis Orlov used to squeeze an apple between his fingers ; and on one
occasion he, without difficulty, raised a wheeled conveyance in which Catherine n.
was seated.
Alexis Orlov enacted a prominent part during the whole reign of Catherine.
He survived her, her son, and died at an advanced age during the reign of her
grandson. Participation in the events which preceded Catherine's ascension of
the throne, the burning of the Turkish fleet at Tschesme, the seizing of Princess
Tarakanova in Italy, are the three chief events of Alexei Orlov's life.
We have already noticed the intercourse between Princess Elizabeth Tara-
kanova and Radzivil; but the latter was not one capable of conducting an
intrigue. As for Princess Tarakanova, according to the testimony of con-
temporaries, she was a fascinating woman of the world, but at the same time
one in whom feminine weakness predominated over ambition. True, she called
herself the daughter of Elizaveta Petrovna, but that was only what she (Tara-
kanova) had been told by others, and herself believed. And even, although she
styled herself ' Elizabeth, Princess of Vladimir,' she, notwithstanding, had no
ambitious designs against Catherine.
It is said that Radzivil's estates had been confiscated on account of his
intercourse with Princess Tarakanova; but that, on his return to Warsaw, he had
an interview with Prince Repnine, who restored his estates on condition that
he would break off all connection with the princess.
There is, however, no doubt that Polish patriots desired to make use of
Elizaveta Petrovna's daughter as a political arm against Catherine n. Not only
so : Andreev distinctly states (p. 87) ' that those who counted on Princess
Tarakanova's influence were connected with Poogatschev's revolt' If strange
reports were circulated that even in St. Petersburg there were partisans of
Poogatschev, it is evident that the Poles participated in it. Some of them
were even found beside him.
232 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Catherine, accordingly, became alarmed. Elizaveta Tarakanova might be
dangerous. She was a rival, an obstacle which must be removed. Catherine,
indeed, called the princess ' a liar and a vagabond ' — ' a liar,' because she called
herself 'Princess of Vladimir'; 'a vagabond,' because she had always lived
abroad in different countries.
"While Elizabeth Tarakanova was in Italy, her surroundings were of the
simplest kind, as her means were then very limited.
When Alexis Orlov went to Italy, he made the princess's acquaintance, and
pretended to be in love with her. He also feigned great displeasure against the
empress. The princess also returned Orlov's seeming affection. Whereupon a
priest and other functionaries, dressed up for the occasion, performed a mock
marriage ; so that the princess imagined herself the wife of Orlov. But that all
this was a mere sham there can be no doubt, because, afterwards, Orlov told the
empress, 'that, if such was her desire, he was even ready to marry Princess
Tarakanova.' (Andreev, p. 189.)
One day Orlov invited the princess to visit his vessel, then in sight of land.
The princess went. While examining the vessel, the scene suddenly changed.
Captain Litvinov advanced, and announced to the princess that she was arrested.
To save appearances, however, Orlov was seemingly arrested also. The vessel
then set sail, and transported both to St. Petersburg. There, a dungeon in the
fort of Petropavlovsk awaited the princess. In spite of all exhortations to the
contrary, she still continued to call herself Elizabeth, and to repeat previous
statements regarding her origin. All this exasperated the empress. The captivity
of the princess then became more and more strict. Interrogation followed inter-
rogation. Sometimes an officer and two soldiers remained day and night in the
princess's dungeon. Worn out, mentally and physically, she fell into a consumption.
In that condition she had a son, afterwards known by the names of Alexander
Alexeevitch Tschesmenski, who attained the rank of general in the Russian service.
According to report, when Alexei Orlov used to visit the princess, even the
neighbouring guards overheard how loudly and bitterly she reproached him, while
he sat silent and confused. From day to day the princess became weaker, so that
at last her end seemed near. Then no more was known of her ultimate fate.
Some suppose that she perished, drowned in her dungeon, during an inundation
of the river Neva, in 1777, and when, of course, she was unable to save herself.
That terrible scene has been represented in a well-known picture by Flavitzki.
The princess is seen standing erect on her miserable bed. Near her, rats are also
jumping up and trying to escape. The water is pouring through the prison-
window, and has nearly reached the princess's feet.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 233
Some have, however, supposed that Elizabeth Tarakanova died a natural
death, from consumption, and was buried under the floor of her dungeon, hence-
forth surnamed ' The Alexeevski Ravine.'
At a later period, when every one had forgotten Princess Tarakanova, at the
Ivanovski monastery in Moscow there lived an old recluse named Dosetheeia.
She spent her time in the strictest retirement, while she occupied a large, well-
appointed cell. She was rarely seen, for she could listen to the church service
without showing herself. Sometimes very highly placed, important personages
visited Dosetheeia. It was observed that Alexis Orlov constantly rode round one
side of the Ivanovski monastery. Dosetheeia was an enigma to all the other
nuns of the cloister. They did not know her, and were ignorant of her previous
name. But on one occasion she herself spoke of her past history to G. I.
Golovine. Dosetheeia then said that she had lived abroad, and had been brought
to Russia. Golovine was at that time a young girl, but, had she known previous
events, she might there have sought the individual said to have been interred in
the ' AlexeVvski Ravine.' At Dosetheeia's funeral the highest persons in Moscow
were present. She lived till the reign of Alexander I., and died in 1810. On her
tombstone was inscribed that she was born in 1745.
Alexander Alexe"evitch Tschesmenski was merely called ' the pupil,' but not
acknowledged as the son of Alexis Orlov.
The latter also lived to be old. His last days were chiefly spent in improving
the breed of horses. The Moscovites surnamed, or rather nicknamed, him
' Aleehan.' Latterly, Count Alexis no longer participated in political events.
(Audre'ev, p. 190.)
CHAPTER XXXVI
CATHERINE II. AS A WOMAN AND AN EMPRESS
' Ix the lives of great and influential individuals, the trivialities of domestic life
and personal habits are interesting, because they disclose much of the true
character,' says Andre"ev (pp. 205, etc.).
Catherine rose at six o'clock in the morning, while all in the palace were still
asleep. She dressed, without awakening any one, and herself lighted the stove.
A favourite maxim of hers was, ' Live, and let live.' Thus the empress strove
to trouble those around her as little as possible. While the slumbers of those in
the palace still continued, she began to write. ' It is impossible to pass a single
day without writing,' said she to her secretary, Greebovski ; and the remark was
made when she had already attained advanced age.
VOL. II. 2 G
234 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
In the morning, Catherine drank very strong coffee, which was latterly
forbidden on account of the hurtful effect it had on her health. In fact, the
full-blooded habit of body and the apoplectic stroke which occasioned her death
were said to have been brought on by the constant use of such coffee. The small
biscuits, eaten along with the coffee, the empress shared along with her favourite
little dogs. Catherine was very fond of some small English dogs sent to her by
Dr. Dimsdale. In general, she liked animals, and they liked her. A dog, in the
same room where she was, always approached and lay down at her feet. Apes
would jump on her shoulder. Parrots, shy of every one else, allowed her to
scratch their heads. After a great fire in St. Petersburg, pigeons flocked in numbers
to the palace. Catherine ordered them to be fed. This extraordinary woman is
said to have fascinated human beings also. Thus it not unfrequently happened
that enemies became her friends.
In the morning, Catherine received her secretaries, and listened to the
communications of ministers. While they read aloud, she did handiwork of
some kind, such as knitting or embroidering on canvas. But, according to
Derjavine, during the latter years of the empress, she was so preoccupied with
political plans that she scarcely heeded documents concerning the interior of
Russia.
Catherine dined at one or at two o'clock. In general, three or four dishes
sufficed for her. She never took wine. Only latterly, by the doctor's advice, she
daily took a glass of Madeira. Her favourite beverage was currant syrup, mixed
with water. After dinner, she either read herself, or Ivan Ivanovitch Betzki read
aloud to her. Catherine did not like novels. Scientific works, both old and new,
chiefly interested her. The empress sometimes played at billiards. In the
evening, she frequently played at cards, her favourite games being Boston,
piquet, and cribbage. In the evening also, the empress occasionally held
receptions in the so-called ' Hermitage.'
In summer, the court removed to Tzarskoe Selo (i.e. imperial village), a
residence in the neighbourhood of St. Petersburg. Andre'ev (p. 208) states that the
name of the said residence was derived from a young girl called Sarat, who lived
in an adjacent village, first designated as Sarskoe and then Tzarskoe Selo. There
are two beautiful palaces in that locality ; and tradition still preserves details
concerning the dances of nymphs and Cupids in the woods, to the sound of music
at Tzarskoe Selo. There, too, in one strange tower, a table suddenly appeared
from the floor, and all sorts of delicate dishes were presented to guests. There
was, likewise, a mysterious tree. While seated in its shade, the visitor seemed to
be surrounded by sparkling fountains.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 235
In intimate, chosen society, Catherine liked to be seen on a footing of equality
with those present. Proud and majestic as an empress on the throne, notwith-
standing, when in a small circle, she preferred to shine by mental attractions and
those of a woman in high life, rather than by the mere outward advantage of
rank. According to Chopin (in his Histoire de Russie), Catherine II., in private
conversation, was the most charming of women.
She had no jester at court ; yet she liked those who amused her. Such was
L. N. Narishkine, an exceedingly witty, sarcastic man.
Catherine neither lunched nor supped. At ten o'clock in the evening she
generally used to drink a glass of boiled water, and then went to bed.
Of middle height, but well-knit frame, Catherine possessed a remarkable
amount of vital force. Her biographer, Soomorokov, declares that electric
sparks sometimes issued from her silk dress, or from sheets she had used, and
that on one occasion an attendant, who helped to dress the empress, after
touching her body received a powerful shock in the hand.
In consequence of leading a mode of life so regular and moderate, it is not
surprising that Catherine II. long retained a youthful appearance. Even at a
period when many feel old age, she still rose early, although somewhat later than
before ; and she no longer dressed alone, but was aided by an attendant.
Concerning the personal appearance of Catherine II., opinions differ, and that
is natural ; for her mental qualities were so varied, that they influenced the
expression of her features, and the latter seldom bore the same expression for a
lengthened period. Eichardson, who was in Russia in 1768, said that Catherine
was prettier than any of her subjects whom he saw. Her smile had a peculiar
charm. Her full, pleasant countenance retained much freshness till her death
(at sixty-seven). Even after sixty years of age, Catherine was still wonderfully
youthful. She had all her teeth. Her hands yet remained beautiful; but her
sight had gradually weakened, so that she used magnifying spectacles in order to
read. We have already mentioned the peculiar fascination Catherine exerted
on many. ' Heavens ! ' exclaimed Derjavine, when, on one occasion, he presented
a report to the empress. 'Heavens! who- can withstand that woman?' 'Please
your majesty,' continued he, addressing Catherine, ' you are not a human being !
To-day, I swore to myself that I would not speak to you-; but, against my will,
you make me do what you wish.' ' Is that really true ?' was Catherine's reply.
All those who served Catherine n. were happy. The secret is easily explained.
She endeavoured to make their life easy. Site had constant consideration for the
feelings of others, and never needlessly occasioned pain. ' I praise with a loud
voice, but I blame quietly,' was one of her favourite expressions. As can be
236 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
easily imagined, her kindness was often abused ; and the cheating that went on
at her court was simply fabulous. According to Andre'ev (p. 2 1 4), when only one
hundred candles were wanted, one thousand two hundred were taken.
The portraits of Catherine differ according to the epoch at which they were
painted. During her youth — prolonged far beyond ordinary limits — her features,
combining majesty with an earnest desire to please, presented a most attractive
study for a painter. Her eyes, of a charming grey, that appears black in the
evening, had a brilliancy which escapes the artist, but varied the spell of her
countenance. The forehead was large and open, the eyebrows lightly marked,
the nose half aquiline, the mouth fresh and graceful. The chin, a little prolonged,
became fuller as years advanced. The neck was of remarkable beauty. The hair,
of a chestnut colour, was raised in the antique fashion, and admirably suited the
general effect of the features. Catherine II. was of middle height ; but the full
chest made her appear much taller. Never was an air more majestic. Never was
a forehead better suited to wear a crown.
We deeply regret that the private life of Catherine the Great is stained
by immorality of the grossest description and by miserable intrigues of her
favourites. We are likewise forced to blame her for the wealth she squandered
on them. But unfortunately we remark the same extravagance in the history
of other monarchs. Andreev (p. 215) truly adds that 'at Catherine's court
her favourites were only in power while able to render service to their country,
but never did their will predominate over that. Only Zoobov, with limited
mental qualities, occupied the first place in the council ; but that was when
Catherine's own powers were somewhat enfeebled. Ermolov, however, states
that Zoobov knew Russia better than any of his contemporaries. In not a
few cases Catherine confessed that she considered ordinary individuals only
as playthings. She often appeared to be led by others, while in reality she
obliged them to follow her own plans.
In writing to Catherine, the Prince de Ligne remarked truly : ' Many speak
of the St. Petersburg cabinet. I know not one of smaller dimensions. The
said cabinet extends from one temple to another, and from the upper part of the
nose to the hair.'
' It was in the midst of her glory, beautiful still, that the great Catherine
passed away, and before time had lessened the activity of her powers ; she had
not the mortification of outliving herself by attaining decrepit old age. It was in
all the majesty of the throne that she descended to the tomb ! ' (Chopin's
Histoire de Russie.)
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 237
CHAPTER XXXVII
CATHERINE'S INNER WORLD
FROM numerous descriptions given by others of Catherine II., and also from what
she herself has written, we are enabled to form a pretty correct idea of her inner
world, of her daily thoughts, of her literary occupations, of her political plans.
For penetration and flexibility of mind, Catherine n. was surpassed by few
contemporaries ; but her specially remarkable qualities were great ambition and
love of fame. She used to say that had she been born a man, and had her lot
been different in youthful years, she would not have spared her head in the
first battle, while pursuing fame. At another time she remarked that had she
lost only one of the thirteen American provinces taken from the English king,
she would have fired a shot into her forehead.
That Catherine possessed much decision of character was well known to
contemporaries. The Prince de Ligne affirmed that he verily believed that
Catherine would not lose courage if even the whole universe fell to atoms around
her. When already a girl of fourteen, she had dreamed of one day becoming
autocratic-empress of Russia. During the space of twenty years she had
gradually prepared herself for that position. Andre"ev states (p. 159) that
on one occasion the Prussian ambassador Mardefeldt, while conversing with
Catherine, was utterly astonished by her mind and enlightenment. He then said
to her in French, ' If I am not quite stupid, your imperial highness will at last
reign alone ! ' 'I accept your prediction,' replied Catherine, also in French.
Not only so : Catherine constantly put the questions to herself, ' When she
had in reality obtained power, how would she make use of it in order to become
worthy of her rank ? How could she promote the interests of Russia ?'
From her domestic unhappiness she found consolation in reading, and in
preparing to occupy the throne of a Russian empress. The glory of Russia
was henceforth her glory. She used often to say that she acknowledged only
two nations in Europe, i.e. Russia and Great Britain. Unlike many other
sovereigns of foreign origin, Catherine zealously endeavoured to become thoroughly
acquainted with the language of her new country. She frequently remarked that
Russ combines the riches of German with the euphony of Italian, and should
therefore become a universal language. In writing to Voltaire she reminded him
that his native tongue was poor compared with Russ, and that, in order to
write French, one should be an author like him. As we have already seen,
238 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Catherine was fond of writing, and wrote a great deal in Russ in different
styles — remarks on history, comedies, tales, stories for children, etc. In the
disputes between Lomonosov and the German members of the St. Petersburg
academy, Catherine took the part of the former and always showed esteem for
Lomonosov, although evil tongues whispered that he had written his Russian
grammar while surrounded by bottles, and while he was tipsy. Soon after
Catherine ascended the throne, she and the Princess Dashkov went to visit
Lomonosov. They found him at work. The empress showed him every attention,
invited him to dinner, and told him that there would be ' tschee ' — the famous
Russian soup of cabbage.
Catherine II. likewise became well acquainted with the history of Russia.
Peter the Great was the model she desired to imitate. His representation was on
her snuff-box, which latterly she told one of her attendants to keep, when the
doctor forbade her to snuff.
While looking at the portrait of Peter, Catherine confessed that she con-
stantly asked herself the questions : ' Would he have approved her actions ?
Would he have done so ? '
Whatever the secret belief of the friend and correspondent of French
philosophers in reality was, Catherine scrupulously observed all the rites of the
Russo-Greek church. She conversed with Diderot, and yet was enchanted with
the eloquence of Plato, metropolitan of Moscow, who, in answer to Diderot's
question, ' Did he believe ? ' made a talented reply from the text, ' The fool hath
said in his heart, There is no God' (Psalm xiv. 1).
From Catherine's letters we know that while in Kiev during a fast, she ate
little else than potatoes.
When on her journey to the Crimea, she ordered a prayer to be offered up at
Poltava to commemorate the battle gained there by Peter the Great. With her
own hands she hung on his tomb a standard taken from the Turks at Tschesme.
It was Catherine who erected the magnificent equestrian monument in St.
Petersburg, executed by the sculptor Stephen Falconet, in memory of the great
sovereign. The inscription is ' To Peter I. — Catherine II.'
The war-steed stands on a block of Finnish marble, weighing more than
a hundred thousand poods (one pood = forty English pounds). The block was
originally still larger, but it was broken while being transported. To remove it
was exceedingly difficult, and Andre"ev states (p. 220) that seven thousand
roubles were offered to the individual who could manage to bring the block safely
to St. Petersburg. Already had a hundred and sixty thousand roubles been spent
on the transportation, when the immense mass of rock was nearly submerged while
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 239
being brought across the Neva. Belzki was intrusted with the care of trans-
portation, and he was in despair. However, all terminated successfully.
According to Derjaviue, towards the close of Catherine's reign she used to
say that if she could occupy the throne for two hundred years, all Europe would
submit to her sway. She used likewise to remark that she came poor to Russia,
but had paid her debt to it, by leaving it the Crimea and Poland.
Catherine IL was, moreover, magnanimous. She knew how to forgive. We
have already mentioned the wonderful art of fascination which she possessed ;
she actually made enemies become her friends. All seemed to be necessary to
her in order to accomplish her plans. Melgoonov and Volkov, both in favour
with Peter ill., found occupation during her reign. Catherine was even far from
wishing to be revenged on one who had previously loaded her with humiliation.
We allude to Elizaveta Romanovna Vorontzova, the favourite of Peter HI.
Catherine gave her a sum to pay her debts, and afterwards took her daughter as a
maid-of-honour. Catherine also subsequently placed Field-marshal Munnich near
her person, although he had taken the part of Peter m., and advised him
energetically to oppose her.
Catherine II. used to say that when an autocrat, she had never abused her
power; but autocratic government she deemed the only means of keeping
together the different people and races forming the Russian empire.
Catherine paid attention to literature as an amusement. She did not like
romances. She, however, took pleasure in listening to narrations, and even herself
wrote stories.
We have already mentioned Catherine's patience and perseverance in com-
pleting her own education ; for she was ignorant on her arrival in Russia. She
attentively read, page by page, the celebrated Historical and Critical Dictionary
of Peter Bayle. Finally, she acquired wonderful proficiency in writing French.
In studying Russ, too, her patience was unwearied. (Andre'ev, pp. 216-228.)
CHAPTER XXXVIII
TWO PERIODS — DEATH OP CATHERINE, 6TH NOVEMBER 1796
ANDRE'EV (p. 229) makes the following remarks : — ' Since the epoch when political
life in Russia has assumed its present form, and has been more extensively
developed, two entirely different periods are remarkable in the reigns of its
sovereigns. The new emperor ascends the throne with the best intentions. At
240 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
first he is a model of activity. He only thinks of the good of his people. All his
attention is turned to internal reform.
' But suddenly a shock is felt. Some unexpected obstacle appears. A change
takes place. Apathy ensues. Desire for thorough reform grows weaker, and, if
the sovereign feels strong inclination for exertion, he turns it to external affairs
— to war and conquest rather than to internal reform. This we especially
remark when the representative of power is one initiated in independent action.
Such was the case during the reigns of John the Terrible, of Paul, of Alexander I.,
and also of Catherine n. Peter I. forms an exception to the above remarks. He
ascended the throne without any elevated ideal, and terminated his career without
deviating from the one great plan he had formed — in other words, to bring Russia
into the circle of European states.'
Andre"ev then notices the peculiar part often enacted by the heir to the throne
of Russia. John the Terrible, in a fit of passion, killed his eldest son. Alexis,
heir of Peter I., was put to death by his father's commands. Peter in.
(Feodorovitch) and Catherine IL were closely watched during the reign of
Elizaveta Petrovna. So much was this the case, that at one time Peter begged
Elizaveta's permission to go abroad on pretext of ill-health. As for Catherine, we
have already noticed how wretched she then was. The moral atmosphere which
she also breathed was such that she gradually became depraved. Pope's striking
lines are singularly applicable to her —
' Vice is a monster of so frightful mien,
As, to be hated, needs but to be seen ;
Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face,
We first endure, then pity, then embrace.'
Catherine's heir, Pavel Petrovitch, led a retired life at Gatchino (an imperial
residence near St. Petersburg). He lived on a small income, and was far removed
from the court.
Thus, standing as it were aside, the heir to the throne remarks all the
mistakes of the actual government; and when in turn he, too, occupies the
throne, he strives to avoid them. But years pass ; the sphere which surrounded
his predecessors influences him also, and gradually he becomes like them.
We particularly notice two distinct, entirely different periods in the reign of
Catherine II. She occupied the throne during the lengthened space of thirty-
four years ; and, at the close of her life, she was no longer what she once had
been.
At first she had eagerly desired the emancipation of the serfs ; but she was
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 241
forced to abandon the project because it met with so much opposition from the
nobles. She also had endeavoured to issue a new code of laws. The plan of this
code, composed by herself and chiefly suggested by foreign authors, was replete
with wisdom and humanity. As far as penal legislation was concerned, one
important clause introduced was : ' That it was better to let ten guilty individuals
escape, than that one should be punished unjustly.'
In a word, the plan proposed by Catherine n. for the new code was so liberal
that her advisers were obliged to reject half of the original presented to them by
the empress. Andreev states (p. 230) that in France Choiseul committed to the
flames a copy sent to him in French.
But years produced a great change in Catherine. The French Revolution,
with all its horrors, ensued. The death of Louis xvi. and of Gustavus in. of
Sweden made a deep impression on the empress, and caused her to adopt
repressive measures.
During the first years of Catherine's reign great efforts were made to promote
economy in the expenditure of the state. The debts of Peter I. and of Anna
loannovna were paid, as well as three-fourths of those left by Elizaveta Fetrovna.
In 1765, five and a half millions of roubles were economised. But gradually
these efforts grew weaker. The magnificent prince of Taurida (Potemkine)
introduced every possible luxury, and Catherine herself eventually spent
enormous sums on her favourites.
Catherine, too, when she at first occupied the throne, was the friend of
philosophers and literary men. Voltaire she used to call 'her good protector.'
But, during her later years, the empress wished to know nothing of philosophers.
Voltaire's bust was removed from its place and thrown into a corner. So was
that of Fox. Washington, from being formerly considered by Catherine as a hero
and the deliverer of his country, was finally changed into a rebel. Plato Zoobov,
Catherine's echo at that epoch, also spoke against philosophers.
In fact, Catherine openly opposed the French Revolution. She intimated that
she wished to hold no iutercpurse with a people who had executed their king.
Accordingly communication with France was forbidden. It was decided to
acknowledge the eldest prince of the French royal family as sovereign. Two
millions of roubles were given by Russia in aid of the French princes. The
Russian fleet, along with those of Sweden and England, cruised on the coast
of France. Indeed, Catherine prepared for open war with that country during
her latter years.
We have already mentioned Catherine's great ambition and excessive self-
love. Both received a heavy blow by an event which occasioned the first
VOL. n. 2 H
242 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
commencement of apoplexy, when the empress heard that the young king of
Sweden, Gustavus iv., officially received in St. Petersburg as the bridegroom of
the beautiful Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna, had suddenly broken off the
projected alliance. The attachment was real between Gustavus and Alexandra;
but Catherine made the unreasonable condition that their children should profess
the Russo-Greek faith. The king was therefore exasperated. Catherine's
countenance changed on learning what had happened, The blood rushed to her
face; and it is supposed that the blow thus dealt to her self-love occasioned
her death.
The beautiful Princess Alexandra Pavlovna subsequently married Joseph,
prince of Hungary, and died soon afterwards. Gustavus iv. of Sweden was also
unhappy. Forced by circumstances to abdicate, he died in exile. He married
Frederika, princess of Baden, sister of Louisa, known in Russia as Elizaveta
Alexeevna, consort of Alexander I.
Andre'ev (p. 239) truly remarks: — 'Catherine II. was naturally ambitious and
knew in what true glory consists. She desired to diffuse good and happiness
around her. Thousands, eager to possess these blessings, flocked to her
presence. Tims the millions behind saw not the light of that sun which shone
only on a few ; and Catherine was not genial enough to rise above the level
of the adjacent crowd, and to let the rays of her good intentions and humanity
shine on all.'
Catherine's last illness was sudden. True, she had latterly suffered from a
swelling of the feet. Wounds on them had also ensued ; and when they healed,
that was supposed to have been the chief cause of her death. (Andreev, p. 210.)
But in general her appearance was so wonderfully youthful for her age that
the Prussian ambassador Tauentzen, who saw her in April 1796 — six months
previous to her decease — wrote that she looked like one who would yet live
for many years.
At Gatchino, near St. Petersburg, the residence of the Grand Duke Pavel
Petrovitch and his consort Maria Feodorovna, news came on November 5, 1796,
that the empress was dangerously ill. Pavel at once hastened to her. In the
Winter Palace Catherine lay in agony, and with difficulty separated from life,
only partially paralysed by the apoplectic stroke. Contemporaries affirm that
Pavel manifested deep, sincere grief at the sight of his mother's hopeless
condition. During more than thirty hours did the death-agony continue; for
Catherine only expired on the evening of November 6. While the terrible
struggle continued she tore all the linen which covered her. Her last piercing
scream was hoard even in a nemhbourin^ house.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 243
Catherine's remains had been imperfectly embalmed, and accordingly soon
began to decompose. Notwithstanding they were shown, with all due pomp, to
those who came to bid her a last farewell. The dead empress was clad in a
sumptuous dress of silver brocaded silk, trimmed with costly Spanish lace. A
crown was placed on her head by the new empress-consort Maria Feodorovna,
Except peasants, all were permitted to approach to kiss Catherine's hand, and
to say adieu.
The Emperor Paul desired at the same time to show every possible mark of
respect to the memory of his late father, and that he, too, should be interred with
imperial honours. By the emperor's command, the remains of Peter in. were
therefore exhumed from their humble tomb in the cemetery of the Alexander
Nevski cloister. They were then clothed in regal robes, placed in a handsome
coffin, and exhibited along with those of Catherine. Both consorts were thus
together committed to the grave. The inscription on their sepulchre is, ' Divided
during their life : reunited after their death.'
The imperial regalia were on purpose brought from Moscow to St. Peters-
burg for the occasion of the interment, and by the emperor's express desire
they were carried by Count Alexis Orlov and Prince Bariatinski.
It was then observed by those present that the usually arrogant, self-confident
Alexis Orlov followed the funeral car with staggering steps, downcast eyes, and a
countenance pale as death. After the funeral, Orlov received orders to quit
Russia. He then travelled in Germany and in the south of Europe.
In Chopin's Histoire de Russie we find the following remarks : — ' If Catherine II.
usurped the throne of Russia she certainly in no wise usurped her surname — i.e.
" the Great." But she merited it by conquests, by vast extent of territory added
to her empire, by administrative genius, by reform introduced in judicial judg-
ment, by enlightened protection of arts and sciences.
' Catherine would also be great in the characteristics of her private life if we
could but separate the lightness of her morals from the real generosity, nobility,
benevolence, devotion to the duties of a sovereign, combined in that extraordinary
mind.
' Catherine did much for the present, but still more for the future. Her reign
was in fact, and could only be, a magnificent continuation of Peter's great work.
None indeed understood the reformer sovereign better than Catherine; and,
thanks to their united efforts, Russia now occupies a primary position among
European states.'
244 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
CHAPTER XXXIX
REIGN OF THE EMPEROR PAVEL PETROV1TCH, 1796-1801 — PAUL'S CHILDHOOD
IN Andre*ev's fascinating work, Representatives of Power in Russia after Peter /.,
we find many curious details of the childhood and early youth of the Emperor
Paul.
Immediately after his birth lie was taken from his mother and totally
appropriated by the Empress Elizaveta Petrovna. The latter showed sincere
affection for the young prince. She surrounded him by a whole crowd of nurses,
and at all hours of the day came to visit him. These nurses, however, told
the child so many wonderful stories concerning the empress that little Paul,
when he had attained the age of five years, used to tremble like a leaf whenever
Elizaveta Petrovna approached him. Perhaps in consequence of the child's
dislike to her, or because Elizaveta afterwards cooled towards Paul, her sub-
sequent visits to him became fewer and fewer.
During Paul's infant years, the constant intercourse with ignorant, foolish,
superstitious nurses produced the very worst effect on his naturally sensitive
mind. Idle tales of house-spirits, witches, and apparitions had in fact so un-
strung the nerves of the little boy, that in terror he rushed under the table when
the door of a room was violently shut. Even after attaining a more advanced age
Paul had a singular dread of storms.
The above-mentioned society of nurses had so prejudiced Paul against Nikita
Ivanovitch Paniue, who was appointed by Elizaveta Petrovna as the prince's tutor,
that, for a whole month before the latter entered on his new duties, Paul cried
bitterly.
Panine truly was stern and cold, though one of the most enlightened men of
his time. He was, moreover, noble and generous. At a later period, when he
received rich presents from the Empress Catherine II., he shared them with his
secretaries, because he said they had aided him with his- work.
Perhaps, however, Elizaveta Petrovna would not have chosen Panine as the
tutor of Paul had she continued to feel her first affection for the young prince.
But, as we have already seen, not only had that cooled towards him, but towards
his father, Peter Feodorovitch, also. Thus there was even a report that she
intended to disinherit the latter in favour of loann Antonovitch, and that he
had been secretly brought from Schliisselburg to St. Petersburg with the desire
to know if she could name him her heir.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 245
At a later period, however, there seems to have been attachment between the
imperial pupil and his tutor, Nikita Pauine ; for while the latter was on his
death-bed, Paul visited him and kissed his hand.
But in spite of Panine's strictness, Paul was in other respects much indulged.
He had a separate court. A whole crowd of flatterers surrounded him. He had
considerable sums of money at his disposal ; and, very often, he was allowed to
read books quite unsuited to his age.
Is it then astonishing that in his disposition there appeared peculiarities
which might not have existed had his surroundings been different? This
experience did not pass unheeded by the Empress Catherine in the education
of Paul's sons, Alexander and Constantine.
Paul's nature was singularly sensitive. His most remarkable quality was
imagination. He speedily seized ideas expressed by others, even while seeming
not to listen to their words.
The history of the Knights of Malta produced a powerful effect on his mind.
He constantly played at being one of the knights. The signification of dreams
was also much observed by Paul, and he paid great attention to them. He,
however, slept very soundly ; so that on one occasion, while yet an infant and
still in the care of women, he fell out of his cradle without awakening. Very
often what Paul imagined he supposed actually to exist. Nervousness and a
certain precipitation of character were perceptible in him, along with inconstant
impressions. Sometimes he would suddenly become attached to certain in-
dividuals, and then, without visible cause, he cooled towards them. After rising
in the morning, he dressed hastily. He was annoyed if obliged to wait long for
food. At table he used to swallow large pieces of food in order to finish dinner
faster. He was very fond of masquerades, and, before they began, he would look
repeatedly at his watch during a single hour.
It is necessary to become acquainted with the peculiarities of Paul's dis-
position, and to combine them with his physical individuality. Indeed, we can
only regret that there was no one beside him to attend more to his bodily
condition. For example, he was punished by being forced to eat what he
disliked ; and if he was ill afterwards, that was attributed to his habit of
swallowing large pieces of food improperly masticated. Medical science has
long since proved that an excited imagination is connected with deranged
digestive organs.
Paul was a lively child, with expressive features. He was constantly in
movement, and liked to run and spring. Andrdev (p. 244) affirms that in
general there was much similarity between Paul and his father Peter in.
246 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Paul began to read very early, and especially he learned much by heart ; too
much, some thought, and blamed Pauine for it, as the young prince's studies had
commenced under his direction. Paul, however, forgot all he had thus learned,
after a severe illness he had while the court was in Moscow in 1763.
The young prince had; notwithstanding, a very ingenious mind, which
appeared on many occasions. Once it happened that Osterwald, his teacher of
history, while enumerating the successors of Ninus along with Paul, counted
thirty sovereigns, not one of whom possessed any good quality. After the
lesson, five water-melons were sent by the empress. All were cut, but only
one was suitable. ' See ! ' exclaimed Paul, ' among thirty sovereigns there was
not one estimable ; and among five water-melous'there is at least one good ! '
Paul knew history thoroughly. Mathematics he learned tolerably well,
thanks to the influence of another tutor named Poroshine. The young prince
disliked German, and only learned it partially. Paul often spoke French ; but he
laughed at those whose conversation was a mixture of French and Russ. Paul's
dislike to German was attributed also to Poroshine's influence ; for, in general,
Paul not unfrequently adopted and repeated the remarks of others. Poroshine
tried to insinuate that Paul was one of the Romanov dynasty, as grandson of
Peter the Great.
Efforts were made to correct Paul's faults by appealing to his self-love.
Letters were shown to him, said to have been written by strangers, who affirmed
that in Europe judgment was pronounced concerning the life of the heir to
the Russian throne, and other particulars connected with him.
Paul had naturally excessive self-love. Once, at the theatre, he was displeased
because, in the parterre, the spectators began to applaud without a previous sign
from him. But, on the other hand, even when a child, Paul was disgusted with
the flatterers at court. On one occasion, when they applauded him before
he even began to dance, he exclaimed, ' Oh ! the court ! the court ! ' But, in
spite of an unusually lively imagination, Paul did not like the theatre. He used
to say that he liked retirement, and that, had he been a girl, he would have
become a nun in the Srnolna monastery. At one time, in his own apartments, he
even formed what he styled the 'Pavlovski cloister,' of which Panine was the
prior and Paul himself a monk perpetually on duty.
'Paul was naturally generous, and had one of the kindest hearts in the world.
He gave with perfect grace, especially when there was question of atoning for any
injustice. He never forgot his old nurses, and they, in turn, kept locks of his
hair as sacred relics.' (Chopin's Histoire, de Russie.)
Once, while dressing, he saw an earwig creeping on the floor, and could not
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 247
refrain from screaming in order to save it from being crushed. At twenty-seven
years of age Paul shed tears on separating from his guardian, Saltikov. When
Paul was already emperor, he, from personal conviction, wrote to Sonine,
governor of Riazane, concerning an unhappy woman accused of having secretly
interred her dead- born child. Paul insisted that she should not be given up to
judgment, and added that the event alone was sufficient punishment for her.
Chopin, in his Histoire de Russie, narrates that when Paul ascended the throne
he himself went to visit the Polish hero, General Kostiooshko, in prison, told him
that he was free, and offered him a high position if he would enter the service of
Russia. That, however, Kostiooshko declined from conscientious motives.
Paul was hasty, but his anger soon passed. He used to ask Poroshine's
pardon after they had a quarrel. On a nature like that of Paul much could be
effected by kindness, while, on the contrary, severity only produced obstinacy.
Once at table Paul was so stubborn that Saldern remarked to those present, ' C'est
une tete de fer ! ' Paul was then sent out of the apartment. ' In spite of all
the good qualities of your imperial highness, you may make yourself hated ! '
exclaimed Poroshine, exasperated beyond endurance. Perhaps the expression
was too harsh ; but such words touched the sensitive mind of Paul, and taught
him to amend.
In general, in Paul's disposition there was much that promised well. What
was amiss might have been corrected by a judicious education, and especially by
good example. But, if his intellectual culture was good for the times, as far as
his moral training was concerned there was much to be desired. His physical
training was so imperfect that the mistakes of his teachers were but too evident.
(Andre'ev, pp. 240-247.)
CHAPTER XL
THE CROWN PRINCESS NATALIA ALEX^EVNA
As a little child we have seen that Paul had a passionate, sensitive nature. In
the apartments of the Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, where he lay in his cradle, he
was carefully covered with down quilts and fur. Indeed, the numerous nurses,
among whom he spent his early years, coddled him like an enervated hothouse
plant. He was physically developed very early. From his naturally strong
imagination, romantic stories made much impression on him at eleven years of
age, and even earlier. When a boy of ten he used to write on the window-
panes the name of the maid-of-honour who pleased him most.
248 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Catherine II. was far from discouraging such sentiments in Paul. On the
contrary, she used to ask him to tell her, as a great secret, which of her maids-of-
honour he admired. But although Paul could not conceal such sentiments
from his teacher, the young prince, notwithstanding, avoided talking frankly to
his mother. So he merely answered her question by replying, ' All are the same.'
Let us, however, not forget that even from his earliest years Paul never
seemed to feel at ease in the society of his mother. Poroshine remarks in his
Notes that, although in general Paul played well at billiards with others, he
always played badly with Catherine. At a later period, foreigners at the Russian
court used to observe that Paul, in his mother's presence, seemed as before a
judge. As for the maids-of-honour, on seeing the indulgence with which
Catherine was disposed to view any preference of her son, they resolved in turn
to profit by circumstances, and were rather free in their intercourse with the
young prince. They used to wink from the windows at ' dear Pooniooshka,' as
they styled him, and were sometimes much offended if he did not dance with
them but with others.
Catherine, at an early period, began to seek a suitable bride for Paul. Her
confidential agent, Asseburg, already had visited one German court after another,
in order to make a choice for the heir to the Russian throne. Among many
princesses whom Asseburg saw, one seemed to please him especially. She was
Dorothea of Wurtemberg. Her age, however, did not admit of a choice, for she
was then only ten years old. But the Baroness Oberkirch — Princess Dorothea's
friend of childhood — remarks in her journal that when ten years of age Dorothea
already appeared fifteen, so much was she physically developed. Dorothea was
subsequently the Empress Maria Feodorovna.
At length, however, Asseburg's attention was specially turned towards Princess
Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt ; and, after much hesitation, she was eventually
chosen, though Catherine greatly preferred Dorothea of Wurtemberg, and would have
selected her if possible. Catherine was particularly charmed by the expression of
goodness so remarkable in the portraits of Dorothea. Meanwhile, the choice of
Wilhelmina of Darmstadt was greatly favoured by Frederick n. of Prussia. -The
landgravine of Darmstadt and her three daughters were accordingly invited to
St. Petersburg. Eighty thousand gulden were assigned from the Russian treasury
for the expenses of the journey. So Princess Wilhelmina of Darmstadt was
chosen. She was united to Pavel Petrovitch, and was henceforth known in Russia
by the names of Natalia Alexe'evna. But her married life was of short duration.
At first, all seemed to smile on her. Catherine, not unfrequently at discord with
her son — chiefly from the intrigues of Panine and Potemkine — during the first
249
period after Paul's marriage became more cordial with him. The large and small
courts grew intimate. Nikita Panine and Potemkine made peace for a time.
Indeed, Catherine used to say that her daughter-in-law had restored her a son.
P>ut peace and union did not long continue. A struggle again began between
Panine and Potemkine. Potemkiue was jealous of Paul's influence on Catherine,
and endeavoured to keep him removed from business. Paniue, on the contrary,
who had acquired and still possessed influence on his former pupil, maintained
that, as the latter was of age at that epoch, he should accordingly participate in
affairs of state. That naturally produced distrust in Catherine. A clever,
ambitious young daughter-in-law, too, might become dangerous, if Panine's
suggestions were followed. It also seemed to Catherine that she had discovered
some of Natalia's secret thoughts. Reports were even current that the crown-
princess endeavoured to be popular with the people. Catherine remembered the
part she herself had enacted towards her husband, and grew alarmed. Meanwhile
the proud, independent spirit of Natalia was not such as to allow of any
explanation, if she considered her own cause just. The retired life led by the
Grand Duke Paul and his consort did not dispel the doubts entertained by
the large court. Saving young Andre* Kirilovitch Razoomovski, few frequented
the society of Paul and Natalia. The latter had, moreover, acquired much
influence over the sensitive nature of Paul, from her cleverness and decided
disposition.
Cast-era insinuates that Catherine was also jealous of the favour which the
young grand duchess showed Andr^ Razoomovski, and did not hesitate to make
inj urious remarks to Paul concerning his consort. She, in turn, felt indignant at
unworthy suspicion of her, and thought of retaliating on her mother-in-law.
But all misunderstanding terminated by an unexpected, sad event, i.e. the
death of Natalia Alexeevna at the birth of her first child.
Castera, in his Life of Catherine II., again states that the empress committed
another crime, which occasioned the untimely demise of Natalia. Chopin,
however, in his Histoire de Russie, does not confirm the statement. He does
not even mention it.
Andre'ev (p. 254) makes the following remarks concerning the hapless young
princess : —
' Similarity of names has little signification in history. Notwithstanding, we
cannot fail to observe that in the disposition and fate of the second Natalia
Alexeevna, who died during the eighteenth century, there is something in common
with the first daughter of Alexis Petrovitch and granddaughter of Peter the
Great. The mind of both princesses was soon developed. Both desired to benefit
VOL. II. 2 I
250 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
those dear to them. The mind of both was an obstacle to the selfish calculation
of others. Both faded early in life, scarcely mourned by the persons they wished
to sustain, and were followed to the grave with, indifference by individuals to
whom the untimely fate of the two young princesses opened up the way.'
Thus Paul, while still in early youth, became a widower.
CHAPTER XLI
THE EMPRESS MARIA FEODOROVNA
BY a strange turn of destiny it eventually happened that the princess who at
first had pleased Catherine more than any others, at last became the consort of
Paul Petrovitch.
Natalia Alexdevna died ; and it was unnecessary to hesitate concerning
his second wife. She was already chosen by Catherine — i.e. Dorothea of
Wiirtemberg.
Princess Dorothea was born in 1759, and brought up at the parental castle of
Montbeliar in Wiirtemberg. She had eleven brothers and sisters. The family
was related to Frederick II. of Prussia; and by his special desire Dorothea
was brought up in the Lutheran faith, although her father was a Romanist.
Dorothea's mother was unwilling that her children should adopt French customs,
which at that epoch were gradually progressing in German courts, and in the
higher circles of society. So Dorothea's governess was German — Frau Hendel,
a rigid, reserved personage. At a later period, when Dorothea was already
hereditary grand duchess of Russia, she wrote to the friend of her childhood,
Baroness Oberkirch : ' Kiss the dust from the slippers of Frau Hendel ! '
From Frau Mokler — wife of her brother's tutor — Dorothea had already heard
much concerning Peter I. and Russia. For Frau Mokler was born Baroness
Lefort — descended from FranQois Lefort, the teacher and friend of the great
sovereign.
According to Baroness Oberkirch, from early childhood Dorothea took a
wonderful interest in the country destined to become her future home. Baroness
Oberkirch also remembered how Dorothea used on purpose to sneeze while
trying to pronounce a very difficult Russian name, and that by so doing she
caused shouts of laughter to proceed from her younger brothers and sisters.
' But, fortunately,' added the baroness in a playful tone, ' the gentleman who
bore the said family name died before Dorothea's wedding, otherwise he might
have occasioned her a constant cold in the head ! '
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 251
Indeed, Dorothea had heard so much concerning Russia, that when at last
there was question of her marrying a Russian prince, she accepted the proposal
as the appointment of fate, and rejoiced at the brilliant future awaiting her.
But her childish gladness was sometimes also overshadowed. 'Terrible mis-
fortunes frequently happen to sovereigns,' exclaimed she. 'Who knows what
destiny has assigned to me ? ' But the sadness soon disappeared. Dorothea and
her friend then began to practise bowing before the armchairs, as at a state
reception, in order not to appear to disadvantage at Catherine's court. 'I
dread Catherine,' said Dorothea ; ' she terrifies me. I am sure she will think me
very stupid. Oh, if I could only please her and the grand duke !'
As we have already mentioned, Catherine was attracted by the expression of
goodness remarkable in Dorothea's portraits. Corberon said of her that she
would simply remain a woman and nothing else. Dorothea's nature was indeed
essentially feminine. She was fond of children, and especially she delighted in
flowers. In appearance, too, she was comely. So, when she reached St. Petersburg,
she could scarcely fail to please Pavel Petrovitch. Andre'ev, besides, remarks
(p. 256) that portraits, in general, gave an imperfect impression of Dorothea's
features. Thus, among five likenesses of her, taken soon after marriage, only one
was tolerable. As empress, she retained her youthful appearance and freshness,
even at fifty, according to the testimony of living witnesses. This was doubtless
favoured by her most remarkable characteristics, i.e. an equal temper, great
patience, love of order in all.
Catherine felt attracted towards the portrait of Dorothea at twelve years old,
and begged that she and one of her brothers and sisters might be sent to St.
Petersburg, in order to educate and establish them. That was the case when
another princess was already chosen as the bride of Paul. But fate decreed that
Catherine's first desire should be granted. In other words, Dorothea was in St.
Petersburg, not as the ward of Catherine, but as consort of the hereditary grand
duke. Henceforth Dorothea was known in Russia by the names of Maria
Feodorovna.
The newly married pair lived in great concord. We, moreover, learn from
the letters of Maria Feodorovna to the Baroness Oberkirch, that for several years
subsequent to the union of Paul and Maria, they still continued to look on each
other with lovers' eyes.
From Maria Feodorovna's natural disposition, she could not fail to be a
devoted, loving mother. She could with difficulty be persuaded to separate
from her children when it was decided that she should go abroad with her
husband.
252 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
While in Paris, some observations of Paul concerning the French are
interesting. On one occasion, among the surrounding crowd he heard the
remark made that he was ugly. 'Although the French are polite,' said Paul,
addressing the Russian ambassador in Paris, ' yet it is impossible to deny that
they speak very frankly.'
Paul was charmed with Queen Marie Antoinette ; so much so that Maria
Feodorovna felt a slight shade of jealousy, according to the testimony of Baroness
Oberkirch.
As a devoted mother, Maria Feodorovna, of course, wished to educate her
children herself, but Catherine's will was that they should be brought up beside
her, in St. Petersburg, and under her special observation. That, however, was in no
wise because she disliked her daughter-in-law. But subsequently, when Maria
Feodorovna was already mother of grown-up children, in order to see them she
was obliged, several times a week, to drive over a very bad rond from Gatchiuo
to St. Petersburg. In Maria Feodorovna's domestic life all was, moreover, far from
being a thornless path. The sum of thirty thousand roubles (assignation) was a
scanty pittance for the hereditary grand duke of Russia, and for the maintenance
of his court. Besides, Maria Feodorovna often accompanied her consort on
horseback to military exercises during severe cold. In 1788 Paul himself, in a
document destined to be published in the event of his death — when there was
question of his being appointed to active service in the army — thanked Maria
Feodorovna for her patience.
In subsequent chapters we shall, however, often have occasion to mention
this empress.
CHAPTER XLII
PAUL ASCENDS THE THRONE, NOVEMBER 6, 1796
PAVEL PETROVITCH was born September 20, 1754. Of his childhood and early
youth we have already given details.
From the retired life he led at Gatchino and his secluded position there, he
had ample time and opportunity to remark the mistakes of the actual government.
Thus, on ascending the throne, he showed the utmost zeal in promoting reform.
One of his first decrees seems as a sort of protest against the ambition of his
mother. In other words, women are excluded from succession to the throne, or,
at all events, till male posterity becomes extinct. The male descendants of
princesses may, however, lay claim to succession, if none of the elder line yet
remain.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 253
At a later period the Emperor Nicholas I. repeated and confirmed these
regulations. Not only so : all princes of the imperial family, on coming of age,
are obliged to take a solemn oath that they will iu no wise disregard the
established laws of succession to the throne of Russia.
As Paul himself, while grand duke, had often experienced embarrassment
from a limited income, he likewise decreed that a suitable maintenance should be
assigned for members of the imperial family.
At the commencement of the new reign, in several districts many peasants,
deceived by false reports of liberty, refused to obey their proprietors, and were
only subdued by armed force. However, soon afterwards a manifesto was issued
to forbid any from forcing peasants to work on holidays. During the course of a
week proprietors might also only exact three days' labour from their serfs (1797).
In 1798 it was forbidden to sell peasants in Little Russia apart from land.
These measures, of course, tended to limit the power of proprietors. In general,
in administration of rural affairs Paul completed the institutions of Catherine,
but in some of them he made considerable alteration. Besides, in consequence
of new political theories which then agitated the west of Europe, youths were no
longer permitted to be sent abroad for education. In compensation, the nobles
of the Baltic provinces were, however, allowed to open a university at Dorpat
(now Youriev), 1799.
At this epoch, also, private printing-presses were shut. New regulations
concerning censorship were issued, and stricter inspection of the printing of books
took place. Only those works in which there was nothing against the Russo-
Greek faith and the Russian government were allowed to appear in print.
The union of the so-called 'Old Believers' to the national church, begun during
the reign of Catherine II., continued while Paul occupied the throne ; and a right
to have their own places of worship was extended to all bishoprics.
The individual chiefly instrumental in promoting these measures was Plato,
the wise, enlightened metropolitan of Moscow.
CHAPTER XLIII
SOOVOROV'S ITALIAN CAMPAIGN, 1799
So far as the external policy of the Emperor Paul was concerned, he at first
earnestly desired to maintain peace, for Russia was already enfeebled by previous
war, and therefore required rest.
Paul likewise turned special attention to the finances, which, after Catherine's
254 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
decease, were in deplorable disorder. With a view to correct the currency of
paper money, the emperor ordered several millions of so-called 'assignation
roubles ' to be burned in his presence.
Paul put a stop to the military preparations commenced by Catherine against
the French Revolution, but two years afterwards the constant extent of French
conquests induced the emperor to conclude an alliance with England and Austria
against France.
The command of the forces sent to Italy to aid the Austrians was given to
Soovorov. The latter, at the commencement of Paul's reign, had lost the new
sovereign's favour.
Paul was exceedingly fond of military service. He was unwearied in making
efforts to organise the army. In it he introduced strict discipline, along with
the Prussian fashions of powdered curls, shoes, etc. All these innovations were
highly distasteful to old Field-marshal Soovorov, who had been accustomed to
administer the affairs of his own army in a very different and in a totally
independent manner. Thus he asked his demission and obtained it.
On receiving a small stick, by which the cues and curls of the soldiers were
to be measured, Soovorov exclaimed : ' Hair-powder is not fit for cannons ! Curls
are not firearms ! A cue is not a short sabre ! I am not a German, but a born
Russian ! '
These words, repeated to Paul, led to a misunderstanding between him and
the field-marshal.
Soovorov then resided at his own estate in the government of Novgorod and
in the district of Borovuzk.
Subsequently, however, at the epoch of Soovorov's famous 'passage of the
Alps,' Paul acknowledged all the merits of the great commander, and said that any
ordinary reward offered to him was too little, as he should be an angel !
In a previous chapter we have noticed some of Soovorov's eccentricities.
Indeed, he did nothing like any one else, and totally rejected the established
rules of society. His speech was laconic. He used enigmatical expressions. He
had phrases of his own. He twisted himself, made faces, and jumped about
while walking. Very often the field-marshal would interrupt conversation with
ministers and officers concerning the most important affairs, in order to mention
his own domestic servants or his cook. Suddenly, too, Soovorov would break off
a conference, run about the room, or hop on one leg. "When Soovorov adopted
the military calling, he continued to lead a life Spartan-like to the highest
degree. He rose at dawn, ran about the camp in his shirt, crowed like a cock,
and dined at eight o'clock in the morning. In dress, too, he had his own peculiar
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 255
fashions. He had likewise his own system of intercourse with subalterns.
Strict towards each in the fulfilment of duty, he, at the same time, was not
afraid of becoming intimate with the soldiers (Soloviev, p. 360). Soovorov jested
with them, and amused them by his original remarks. In conversing with
subordinates, he demanded candour and courage, together with prompt, exact
answers. The words, ' I do not know,' were totally forbidden. When Soovorov
suddenly turned to an officer or a soldier with some absurd question or remark, it
was absolutely necessary to answer in the same tone. He who gave a quick,
witty reply was deemed a wise, good fellow, while any who became confused and
mute were called ignorant. Soovorov thus gained his ends. First of all,
numerous anecdotes of him reached the Empress Catherine; and, secondly, he
obtained immense popularity among the soldiers, who esteemed him as one of
themselves.
After Soovorov's demission, and while he resided at his own estate, he there
also continued to lead a most original mode of life. He used to sing in the choir
during church service, or read the New Testament there ; he rang the bells, and
played with the village boys. But as he was in disgrace, he was under the
inspection of the police. That, however, did not prevent him from keeping a
strict eye on political events then passing in Europe. This occurred while Paul
occupied the throne.
Towards the close of Catherine's reign, Soovorov was appointed to command
an army sent to aid Austria against France; but the empress's death altered
these plans.
In spite of Soovorov's eccentricities, he was well versed in several sciences,
and knew nearly all European languages. One Russian author, Kaeedanov
(pp. 409-410), affirms that there was much in Soovorov which none understood,
and that the cruelty for which he was generally blamed has been greatly
exaggerated.
The disfavour into which Soovorov fell at the commencement of Paul's reign
was, notwithstanding, only temporary. Suddenly circumstances changed. By
the desire of Francis, emperor of Austria, Paul appointed Soovorov commander-in-
chief of the combined Russo- Austrian armies, and the old man gladly accepted
the appointment.
The Italian campaign rendered Soovorov's name famous. But the fruits of 1799.
his brilliant victories in Italy (on the banks of the Adda, the Trebia, and at
Novi) were frustrated by the unwise measures and the envy of the Austrian
war-council. After accomplishing the unexampled passage of the Alps into
Switzerland, Soovorov retired to Bavaria.
256 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
After the victory at Novi, Soovorov received orders from northern Italy to
march towards Switzerland, in order to change the force of the Archduke Charles
and to join the Russian corps of Reemski-Korsakov. But, on seeing the gigantic
Alps and their threatening chief, St. Gothard, the Russian troops were dismayed.
The difficulty of the enterprise terrified even them, in spite of all their courage.
Murmurs then broke out. On observing them, Soovorov ordered a ditch to be
dug, and added in a decided tone : ' Here let me be buried. I cannot outlive my
fame. You are not Russians. You are no longer my soldiers. Death alone
remains for me ! '
The soldiers were confused. They rallied round their favourite commander,
crossed St. Gothard, and entered Switzerland. After scattering a French force
on the way, Soovorov advanced by narrow paths scarcely known to the bravest
hunters. He crossed the famous so-called Devil's Bridge, and descended to the
Muttathal, or valley. But there he learned that Korsakov, prematurely left by
the Archduke Charles, had been defeated at Zurich by the French general
Masse"na, and had retreated towards the north. Massdna, with sixty thousand
soldiers, endeavoured to shut up Soovorov in the Muttathal, and Soovorov had
only twenty thousand. In so desperate a condition he summoned a council of
war. It decided to turn towards Glaris, and to force a way through the French
army. In vain did Masse"na try to block up the passage. He was completely
defeated. After surmounting extraordinary obstacles, the Russians at length
issued from the mountains and breathed freely. (Ilovaiski, eighth edition, p. 366.)
During this never-to-be-forgotten campaign, the Russian troops, under com-
mand of their favourite field-marshal, performed prodigies of valour, and overcame
the very obstacles of nature itself. Although brought up in a cold or temperate
climate, the soldiers unweariedly fought under the burning Italian sun, in the
valleys of the Po. These patient warriors were accustomed only to the level
plains of their own country, but, notwithstanding, although hungry, ragged, and
nearly with bare feet, in damp weather, ascended the snow-covered, cloud-capped
summits of the Alps, and, aided by bayonets, cleared a way of escape from
the French.
The Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovitch was in Soovorov 's army, and took
an active part in this campaign.
Ilovaiski (thirteenth edition, p. 328) — quoting from Milivotine's History of the
War between Russia and France in 1799 — narrates that when at last the worn-
out Russian troops reached the summit of Mount St. Gothard, Soovorov went
to the so-called hospice or house of entertainment for travellers there. The
Capuchin friars came out to meet him. The prior, a venerable man of seventy,
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 257
with hair white as snow, invited the field-marshal to enter the refectory, where
a simple repast had been prepared. 'No, holy father,' exclaimed Soovorov,
'however hungry we are, it is our first duty to pray to God. Offer up a
thanksgiving, and then let us go to table.'
At this epoch an expedition composed of united Anglo-Russian troops in
Holland terminated unsuccessfully. Whereupon Paul, displeased with his allies,
recalled the Russian armies to their own country. Not only so : he even began
to hold intercourse with Bonaparte, first consul of the French Republic, and
finally resolved to declare war on England. The emperor, however, died suddenly
(March 11, 1801), during preparations for the war.
Paul perished, assassinated. His naturally over-sensitive, exceedingly kind
disposition had been soured by a bad education and by unfavourable surroundings,
so that latterly he became a monomaniac. His fixed idea was that those near
him were making attempts on his life. His suspicion, accordingly, became
intolerable, both to himself and to others. He used to change his bedroom every
night, in order that none might know where he slept. Even his own family was
not exempt from distrust. He entertained the ideas of arresting and imprisoning
his consort and sons. The most despotic, unreasonable, extraordinary commands
were constantly given by him. As for the people, they were ignorant of the
recent losses of the army, which had much irritated Paul, and accordingly
thought him insane. Favours and disgrace quickly and unexpectedly followed
each other. Numbers of individuals disappeared in a mysterious manner. Chopin,
in his Histoire de Eussie, makes the following remarks : —
'In order to escape from the glance of the autocrat, vast numbers of
inhabitants quitted St. Petersburg. Those obliged to remain there, either by their
occupation or from other causes, only in trembling and with uncovered head
passed the palace of St. Michael, where, like a second Louis XL, the gloomy
Paul, surrounded by informers, made a list of persons condemned.
'Accordingly, his death was decreed. It is said that when he consented to
form alliance with the first consul, and along with him to dictate laws to all
Europe, he (Paul) ordered a map to be brought. Then, drawing a line from the
source of the Oder to its mouth, he exclaimed, " Let all the people of the west be
under French influence, and let those of the east remain under the influence of
Russia ! " '
Andreev (p. 289) mentions one unreasonable command of Paul. We mean,
that all who rode in a carriage, on seeing the sovereign, should descend and
bow down before him. Ladies were permitted to do so while standing on the
carriage-step.
VOL. II. 2 K
258 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
' Whether on horseback or in a conveyance, the emperor daily took out-of-door
exercise. In bad weather, or when the streets of St. Petersburg were dirty, very
amusing scenes sometimes took place, when elegantly dressed noblemen were
obliged to descend from their carriage, in order to bow to the emperor as he passed.
On one occasion, a similar incident had even a tragic conclusion. A certain
teacher of music, Mr. Daloko, well known in his time, on meeting his majesty at
a spot where the road was exceedingly muddy, regretted to spoil a pair of silk
stockings, and stood on the carriage-step, like a lady, to bow to Paul, who
approached. It was thought that Daloko, as a foreigner, had perhaps done so on
purpose. Thus, to punish him, he was ordered to walk three times round the
Red Gate. Poor Daloko on reaching home, either from fright or from cold, fell ill
of fever and died.'
Yet Paul was naturally generous, and gave with perfect grace, especially when
there was question of atoning for any injustice. We can only regret that he
was soured by a bad education, and that, latterly, unfortunate circumstances
obscured his reason.
CHAPTER XLIV
A CHAPTER DEDICATED TO LOVERS OF THE MARVELLOUS
NARRATION of the Grand Duke Pavel Petrovitch concerning his vision of Peter
the Great, quoted from Aiidre'ev's work (pp. 411-417): —
' The psychologist or the physiologist would with difficulty find another
nature more worthy of attentive study than that of the Emperor Paul. His
imagination was often so lively, that what he only supposed, seemed to him
really to exist. Even when a boy of ten years old, that peculiarity was remarked
by his tutor Poroshine. And so the prince continued to the end of his life. He
believed in dreams and in prognostics. We may mention his dream during the
night before he ascended the throne. The dream is reported to us in Rastopchine's
Notes. It seemed to Paul that three times he was raised aloft by an invisible
power. Armfeldt also reports Paul's words concerning a dream he had on the night
before his death. He thought that a very tight brocade jacket was forced so
violently on his back, that he felt ready to scream from pain.
' The erection of the Michael Engineer Corps, in which Paul spent the last
months of his life, and where he died, is also directly connected with his belief in
visions and prognostics. Otherwise, the soldier who affirmed that he had seen
St. Michael at the spot on which the Engineer Corps now stands, would never
have been believed.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 259
' In the present day, medical science has proved that an over-excited imagi-
nation frequently proceeds from indigestion ; and certainly, from Poroshine's Notes,
this theory is confirmed. At the age of ten years, Paul's vivid imagination
astonished his teachers; and at that very time he constantly suffered from
indigestion. Vomiting and violent headache were likewise frequent symptoms of
his complaint. Poroshine, not knowing how otherwise to explain these ailments,
used to maintain that they probably were occasioned by Paul's habit of swallow-
ing large pieces of food imperfectly masticated, because he disliked to sit lung
at table.
'The narration we are about to quote concerning the grand duke's vision of
Peter I., combined with other circumstances of the same kind, more fully discloses
to us the psychological peculiarities of that most remarkable man.
'In 1782 Pavel Petrovitch, along with his young consort Maria Feodorovna,
went to travel abroad. Not a few details of that journey are to be found in the
Notes of the Baroness Oberkirch.
' Baroness Oberkirch was from childhood the friend of Princess Dorothea of
Wiirtemberg, subsequently the Empress Maria Feodorovna, and, along with her
and her consort, travelled in France, Belgium, and Germany. Pavel Petrovitch
much esteemed the baroness. The empress, too, continued to retain her early,
girlish attachment to her friend. On one occasion, when the grand duke made
the baroness a present of fruit, Maria Feodorovna is said even to have felt a
slight shade of jealousy, as she also did when Paul expressed his great admiration
of the French queen, Marie Antoinette, when he saw her in Paris.
'On July 10, 1782, in Brussels, Pavel Petrovitch was travelling under the
name of the Comte du Nord, and was supping in company. The grand duchess
was not at table, as she was fatigued by the journey, and by the theatre, which the
travellers had visited immediately after reaching Brussels. The supper, perhaps, or
the warm summer evening, gave a peculiar tone to the conversation. It soon turned
to the marvellous, and to stories concerning visions, etc. E;ich narrated something
wonderful from his own experience. The grand duke alone remained silent
' Here,' continues Andre"ev, ' we quote literally from the Notes of the Baroness
Oberkirch (ii. pp. 94-100). And the Notes of the baroness are worthy of credence.
Everything interesting which she heard she immediately committed to paper.
For example, not long previously she had written down a narrative of the Prince
de Ligne, after hearing it from him. The Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna did
the same also ; although, after all, the prince's narrative of how he had been
present, dressed as a nun, when a young person took the veil, does not much
interest us, even if it produced a deep impression on his hearers.
260 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
' " But what does your imperial highness say ? " exclaimed the Prince de
Ligne, turning to Paul. " Have you nothing to relate ? Is it possible that the
marvellous does not exist in Russia? Or have evil spirits and sorcerers not
succeeded in bewitching you with their enchantment ? "
' The grand duke raised his bead. " Koorakine knows," said he, " that, like
others, I have also something to narrate. But there are recollections which I
strive to banish from my memory : I already have suffered not a little from them."
' Silence reigned in the apartment. The grand duke looked at Koorakine, and
his glance expressed a sad, oppressive feeling.
' " Is it not true that something very strange once happened to me ? " said
Paul, addressing Prince Koorakine.
' " So strange, your imperial highness, that in spite of all my confidence in you,
I can only attribute it to a transport of imagination," replied Koorakine.
' " No ! " said Paul, " it was true, literally true ; and if Madame Oberkirch
gives her word of honour not to tell my wife, I shall narrate to you what took
place. But allow me, gentlemen, to beg that you will keep my story secret," added
the grand duke, laughing, "for certainly it would be very unpleasant if in all
Europe a story were repeated regarding a vision in which I take part."
' (" We all promised ; and, at least, as far as I am concerned," says the Baroness
Oberkirch, " I have kept my word. For, should these notes ever see the light,
not only the former, but even the present generation will have passed from the
scene ; and none among the living will remain who will be interested in this
narrative ! So I shall repeat it, word for word, as I heard it from the grand
duke.")
' " One evening, or rather night," said his imperial highness, " I was walking
in the streets of St. Petersburg, accompanied by Koorakine and two servants.
Koorakine and I had passed the evening together in my palace, while conversing
and smoking. So we thought to refresh ourselves by taking a moonlight walk.
The weather was not cold. It was a moonlight night of our spring, but certainly
not the spring of southern countries. Our conversation was neither concerning
religion nor any other serious subject, but, on the contrary, was cheerful ; and
Koorakine made jests regarding the persons we met. One servant walked some-
what in advance of me. and another followed Koorakine, while he himself followed
at some steps behind me. The moonlight was so bright, that in it one could
easily have read a letter, consequently shadows were exceedingly dark. On
turning the corner of one street, in the deep entrance of a gateway I suddenly
remarked a tall, thin figure, wrapped in a Spanish mantle, and with a military hat
drawn down over the eyes. He seemed to be waiting for some one. No sooner
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 2G1
had I passed him, than he advanced and came towards my left side, without
saying a word. I could not see a single feature of his face. It appeared to me
that, while walking along the pavement, his feet made a strange noise, as if one
stone were striking another. I was amazed ; and the feeling which took possession
of me was still stronger, when I felt a lead-like chill in all my left side, which was
near the unknown. I shivered, and turning towards Koorakine, said
' " ' Fate has sent us a strange companion ! ' ' What companion ? ' replied
Koorakine. ' The man walking at my side, who, it seems to me, may easily be
remarked by the noise he is making.'
' " Koorakine opened his eyes in amazement, and observed that no one was
walking at my left side.
' " ' How so ? Dost thou not see the man between myself and the wall of the
house ? '
""Please your imperial highness, you yourself are walking so near the
wall of the house, that it is physically impossible for any one to be between
it and you.'
' " I stretched out my hand, and, sure enough, I touched stone. But still the
unknown was there, and followed me step by step, while the noise of his feet was
like a hammer striking against the pavement. I looked at him more attentively
than before, and beneath his hat shone eyes so bright that I have seen none like
them either before or since. He stared directly at me, and produced on me a
kind of fascination.
' " ' Ah ! ' exclaimed I, addressing Koorakine, ' I cannot tell thee what I feel ;
but it is something extraordinary ! '
' " I trembled, neither from terror nor from cold. I felt a peculiar sensation in
all my members ; and it seemed to me as if the very blood froze in my veins.
Suddenly, from under the mantle which covered the unknown resounded a deep,
sad voice. It exclaimed, ' Paul ! '
' " I was influenced by unseen power, and mechanically answered, ' What do
you want ? '
' " ' Paul ! ' said the voice again, and this time it seemed more sympathetic, but
still with a shade of sadness. I could not answer a word. The voice once more
called me by my name, and the unknown at length halted. I felt an inward
impulse to do the same.
' " ' Paul ! Poor Paul ! Poor grand duke ! '
' " ' Dost thou hear ? ' said I to Koorakine, who had also halted.
' " ' Nothing,' replied he — ' nothing at all ! '
'"But as far as I myself am concerned, that voice till now resounds in mine
262 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
ears ! I made a desperate effort over myself, and asked the unknown who he was
and what he wanted.
' " ' Who am I, poor Paul ? I am he who takes interest in thy fate, and who
wishes that thou shouldst not become too much attached to this world, because thou
shalt not inhabit it long. Live by the laws of justice, and thine end will be
tranquil. Dread the reproaches of conscience. To a noble mind there is no
punishment greater.'
'"He again began to walk, while he looked at me with the same penetrating
glance. I then stopped, and so did he, for I felt the necessity of advancing
towards him. He did not speak, and I had no particular wish to address him. I
walked behind him, for he was now walking before. Where he went I did not
know. Koorakine wishes to believe nothing about it. Look, he is laughing. He
thinks it was only like a dream.
'"At length we reached a large open space, between a bridge across the Neva
and the building of the senate-house. The unknown walked directly towards one
particular part of the plain, which seemed already prepared for him. I, of course,
followed him, and then halted. ' Farewell, Paul ! ' said the unknown. ' Thou wilt
see me again, here, and elsewhere.'
' " At the same time, his hat seemed raised as by itself; and mine eyes met the
eagle glance, the dark brow, and the stern features of my great-grandfather, Peter I.
When I recovered from my amazement and terror, he was no longer beside me.
'" On that very spot, the Empress Catherine is about to erect a monument,
which will soon occasion the surprise of all Europe. I allude to an equestrian
statue on granite, and representing Peter. The statue is placed on a rock. I did
not advise my mother to select that spot, chosen, or rather divined, by the vision.
I cannot describe my feelings when I first saw that statue. I dread the thought.
' " I dread the feeling of the fear I felt. And, in spite of all that Prince
Koorakine says, that it was only a dream while walking in the streets, the
minutest details of that vision are still in my memory. I maintain, as before, that
it was a vision : and all connected with it is still as distinctly before me as if it
had happened yesterday.
' " On returning home, I found that my left side was literally petrified by cold,
and I only felt a certain degree of warmth a few hours afterwards, when I lay
down in a warm bed and covered myself up as much as possible.
' " I hope my story pleases you ; and if I have made you wait, at least it has
been for something."
' " Please your imperial highness, do you know what all that signifies ? "
inquired Prince de Ligne.
' " It signifies that I shall die young ! "
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 263
' " Pardon me if I differ from your opinion. I presume that it directly proves two
things. In the first place, it is better not to walk at night, when one is sleepy, and-
especially, it is better not to walk too near a frozen stone wall in a climate like
yours. I cannot deduce other conclusions from it. The shade of your illustrious
ancestor existed only in your own imagination, and I doubt not that on your
overcoat there remained dust from the wall of the house." '
' " That story," continues the Baroness Oberkirch, " as you may imagine, produced
a deep impression on us all. Few heard it ; for the grand duke never wished to
make it known. Till this day (1782) the grand duchess never heard it. It would
have terrified her.
' " On returning to my own room, I immediately committed what I had heard
to writing, as I indeed always did concerning what was most important, limiting
myself merely to remarks which might aid my memory regarding subjects of minor
interest.'"
On further reading the remarks of the baroness, we see that Paul seemed to
regret having confided his secret to his wife's friend. He even endeavoured to
persuade her that the narration was composed on purpose to tell a terrible
adventure in turn. But the baroness was an acute observer; thus it was not easy
first to persuade her, and then to shake her belief.
On August 17 (29th N.s.) of the same year (1782), Pavel Petrovitch and
his consort were at Montbeliar, on a visit to Maria Feodorovna's parents, when a
letter was there received from St. Petersburg, announcing that on the 18th of that
month the statue of Peter the Great had been solemnly unveiled in presence of the
Empress Catherine. "When the letter was read, Paul put his finger on his lips and
made a sign to the baroness. The baroness attentively observed him, and remarked
that he tried to smile, but that a deadly paleness overspread his countenance.
That clearly proved to her whether he had merely jested or spoken truly
during the memorable night at Brussels.
N.B. — The Memoires of the Baroness Oberkirch terminate in 1789.
CHAPTER XLV
FAMILY OF THE EMPEROR PAUL
FIRST CONSORT — Augusta Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt (Natalia Alexe'evna).
Second consort— Sophia Dorothea of Wurtemberg (Maria Feodorovna).
SONS
1. Eldest son and successor — Alexander I.
2. Constantino, married Julia of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Anna Feodorovna).
264
Constantino's second consort was a Polish lady, Countess Grudzinska, who
subsequently received the title of Princess Lowicz.
3. The Emperor Nicholas I.
4. Michael, married Frederika Charlotte Mary, princess of Wiirtemberg —
(Helena Pavlovna). They had five daughters —
1. Elizabeth, married the duke of Nassau, and died soon afterwards.
2. Catherine, married George, duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
3. 4, and 5. Mary, Alexandra, and Anna, died in infancy.
DAUGHTERS OF THE EMPEROR PAUL
1. Alexandra, married Joseph, prince palatine of Hungary, and died soon
afterwards.
2. Helena, married the duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
3. Mary, duchess of Saxe- Weimar.
4. Olga, died in infancy.
5. Catherine, first married a duke of Holstein Oldenburg, and then William I.,
king of Wiirtemberg.
6. Anna, married William II., king of the Netherlands.
CHAPTER XLVI
REIGN OF ALEXANDER I. (PAVLOVTTCH), 12TH MARCH 1801 —
19TH NOVEMBER 1825
ALEXANDER PAVLOVITCH was born December 12, 1777. He was the favourite
grandson of Catherine n., and, under her special care, he received a very good
education.
During the reign of Alexander I., Eussia again extended its boundaries, acquired
remarkable influence on the political events of Europe, and finally obtained a high
degree of outward splendour.
Nearly the whole of the first half of this reign was a continuation of uninter-
rupted war.
In 1808 hostilities began with Sweden, because the latter country refused to
join the alliance of northern states against England. The theatre of the war was
Finland. Eussian armies, commanded by Count Buxhaven, expelled weak Swedish
forces from these regions, and obliged the impregnable fort of Sweaborg to
surrender.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 2G5
During the following winter, also, Russians, under command of Barclay de 1809.
Tolly, crossed the Gulf of Bothnia on ice (near the Strait of Kvarken) and attacked
Sweden itself. Then Gustavus iv., king of Sweden, was obliged by circumstances
to abdicate. His uncle and successor, Charles xin., concluded peace at Fridrichs-
ham, by which Russia obtained Finland, to the river Tornea, along with the
islands of Aland in the Baltic Sea. In a diet assembled at Borgo (March 1809)
Alexander I. confirmed the ancient organisation of Finland, and granted it its own
government, with the title of ' grand principality,' to which was added the province
or government of Viborg, i.e. the part of Finland conquered by Peter I. and
Elizaveta Petrovna, which had already become half-Russianised.
Meanwhile, in the south, war broke out with Turkey ; for the Porte, excited by 1800-1812.
Napoleon I., violated some clauses of the convention of peace.
This war continued, with variable success, till the command of the Russian
army was given to Count Kamenski. He forced the Turks backwards to the very
Balkan mountains ; but death terminated his exploits. Kamenski's successor,
Kootoozov, allured the grand vizier to the left bank of the Danube, and then
completely defeated him. At length the sultan consented to make peace, which
was concluded at Bucharest. Turkey ceded the region of Bessarabia to Russia,
and the river Pruth became the boundary. At the same time, Russia carried on
a successful war with Persia, in the country beyond the Caucasus, for the
possession of Georgia. During this war, the Russian generals Tsitzianov, Goodo-
vitch, and Kottiarevski especially distinguished themselves.
But all these combats were insignificant compared with the great struggle
which Russia was destined to carry on with the first conqueror of the age,
Napoleon Bonaparte. The most powerful states hastened to form a coalition, in
order, by their united strength, to arrest the rapid extent of French dominion in
Europe. At first, Russia acted against Napoleon, and in alliance with the
Austrians, to whose aid Alexander sent armies commanded by Kootoozov. The
campaign, however, terminated by the defeat of the Russo- Austrian forces at
Austerlitz, in Moravia (1805). Austria concluded peace, and Russia continued Austerlitz,
1605.
war during the following year, but in alliance with Prussia.
The second war was as unsuccessful as the first. Napoleon scattered the
Prussian forces before Jena, attacked the Russian army, then commanded by Battle at
... , . , . . Jena, ltx.'6
General Benniugsen, and, after some indecisive actions, dealt it a crushing d
at Friedland. Finally, the Emperor Alexander concluded peace with Napoleon Peace of
at Tilsit, in 1807.
The province of Bielostok, belonging to Prussia, was ceded to Russia, and both
emperors promised each other mutual aid in future war.
VOL. II. 2 L
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Russia, moreover, agreed to close its ports to English vessels, or, in other
words, to take part in the so-called ' continental system,' by which Napoleon
endeavoured to ruin English trade. During the ensuing war between Napoleon
1809. and Austria (1809), Russia, according to conditions of the peace of Tilsit, sent an
auxiliary force to the boundaries of Galicia; but eventually, Russia declined
decided action against Austria. At the termination of the war, Russia obtained
part of eastern Galicia. (Ilovaiski, p. 331.)
CHAPTER XLVII
NAPOLEON INVADES RUSSIA
1809-1812, BUT the alliance between the French emperor and Russia could not be dur-
able. The absolute laws which Napoleon dictated to all Europe soon became
insupportable. The causes of rupture were the following circumstances : — In the
first place, Napoleon evidently aimed at reinstating the kingdom of Poland.
Then he seized the possessions of the duke of Oldenburg, a relative of the
Emperor Alexander, and paid no attention to protests of the Russian court.
Besides, Russia was much embarrassed by the ' continental system,' because the
export of its raw material had greatly decreased. The so-called ' assignation
bank-notes' had much fallen in value, and the price of goods had increased.
Accordingly, dreading the total derangement of finances, the Russian government
did not strictly observe the 'continental system,' and, in order to lessen the
export of silver money, put a very high duty on some objects of luxury obtained
from France. Napoleon thereupon assembled immense armies to make war on
Russia. Besides French troops, there were auxiliary regiments from Lombardy,
Illyria, Tuscany, Naples, Holland, Austria, Hesse-Darmstadt, Bavaria, Wiirtem-
btii-g, Westphalia, Baden, Mecklenburg, Spain, Portugal, and Poland. The
French forces amounted to six hundred thousand men. (Soloviev, p. 373.)
On June 10, 1812, Napoleon thus addressed his armies : — 'Soldiers, — A second
Polish war has begun ! The first terminated before Friedland and at Tilsit.
Russia is allured by fate ! It will not avert its doom. Is it possible it thinks we
have changed? Are we not the warriors of Austerlitz ? The second Polish war
will be as glorious for France as was the first ; but the peace that we conclude
will be durable, and will terminate the fifty years' haughty influence of Russia on
the affairs of Europe. Onward! Let us cross the Niemen, and carry our arms
towards the boundaries of Russia! ' (Ilovaiski, p. 331.)
Accordingly, on June 11, 1812, the French crossed the Niemen, between
Kovno and Grodno.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 2G7
The Emperor Alexander was at Vilna when he heard of the enemy's 1812.
invasion. He at once gave orders to his army, and concluded with the following
words : —
' I need not remind commanders and our soldiers of their duty and bravery !
In them, from ancient times, flow the mighty conquests of Slavonian blood!
Warriors ! you defend your religion— your native country— your freedom ! I am
with you ! The commencement is from God ! '
The mandate — given in the name of Count Saltikov, president of the state
council — terminated thus : —
' I shall not lay down arms till not a single enemy remains in my
empire.'
BARCLAY DE TOLLY — BAGRATION— KOOTOOZOV
The forces of the Russians amounted to 250,000 men (Ilovaiski, p. 331).
They were divided into two armies, one of which was placed in the government
of Viliia, and the other in that of Grodno. The commander-in-chief of the first
army was the minister of war, Barclay de Tolly (of a Livonian family), an
experienced general, well versed in his occupation. His desire to correct
deficiencies and to eradicate abuses in the army urged him to effect its
reorganisation, which doubtless was most beneficial, but which occasioned the
discontent and ill-will of his powerful predecessor, Count Araktscheev, who
endeavoured to injure him in every possible way. As for Barclay, his chief
characteristic was distrust. Thus he himself used to do what he might have
confided to subordinates, and thereby embarrassed the administration of the
armies. Not only so: Barclay's manners were dry; he wanted the art of being
able to address Russian soldiers. Accordingly, the troops and the people
considered him as a foreigner, which, during a popular war, was a misfortune.
The commander-in-chief was persuaded that it was better to avoid a decisive
battle with the greatest general of the age, and that it was safer to retreat to the
interior of the country before the enemy's superior force. But these measures
were opposed by the popular feelings, and besides, they discouraged the troops.
Barclay was, moreover, obliged to conceal his intentions, and sometimes in his
orders he did not intimate what circumstances and necessity demanded. So the
armies murmured at the extreme caution of their chief, and showed distrust in
him as a German.
The commander of the second army was Prince Bagration, a brave general, of
Georgian origin. Bagration was a favourite of Soovorov and the delight of the
army. His energy was unwearied ; he was the first to appear in battle, and the
268 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
last to retreat. Less cultivated and capable of administration than Barclay,
Bagration, however, surpassed him in the art of inspiring the troops with courage,
and of addressing Russian soldiers. Both armies had met at Smolensk, but their
action on the same scene was inconvenient. Each commander only paid
attention to the obstacles he encountered, and did not consider the position of
the other.
In a manifesto issued by the Emperor Alexander on July 11, he thus
addressed the people : —
' May the enemy meet with a Pojarski in each nobleman, a Palitzine in each
of the clergy, a Miniore in each citizen. Let us all unite ! With the cross in our
hearts, and arms in our hands, no human power can subdue us ! '
In Smolensk, the nobility intimated willingness to furnish twenty thousand
warriors for the general armament. On July 11, Alexander arrived in Moscow,
and was there received with universal joy. The Moscovite nobles offered to
furnish eighty thousand warriors, and to contribute three millions of roubles.
The merchants promised ten millions. The general number of volunteers in
Russia amounted to 320,000 men, and contributions were not less than a
hundred millions of roubles. But even then, freely-made sacrifices did not
terminate. ' Please tell us when it is time to burn our houses,' said peasants to
the soldiers, while preparations were immediately made to destroy all on the
enemy's approach. (Soloviev, p. 374.)
The Emperor Alexander, on hearing the popular opinion concerning the
action of the great army, gave the decision of so important an affair to a special
committee. It decreed that it was necessary to nominate one commander over
both armies. The choice fell on the venerable Prince Michael Ilarionovitch
Kootoozov, then aged sixty-seven years. Kootoozov had become known during
the reign of Catherine n. He was promoted by Roomiantzov, and was a favourite
of Soovorov. Kootoozov had, moreover, distinguished himself as a diplomatist
while ambassador at Constantinople. He was also famous by the recent brilliant
termination of the Turkish war, and finally was appointed general of the St.
Petersburg armies. Caution, reserve, even cunning, were the chief characteristics
of Kootoozov. Soovorov used to say : ' Kootoozov is wise, very wise ! Reebas
himself will not deceive him ! '
Reebas was an admiral, well known for his artful disposition, and fertile in
resources.
The appointment of Kootoozov to command both armies was hailed with joy
by the troops and the people. On August 17, he arrived at the headquarters of
the general force.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 269
' How indeed could one retreat with such fine fellows ! ' exclaimed Kootoozov,
on saluting the honorary sentinel.
' Kootoozov has come to beat the French,' said the soldiers. The report was
then brought that a large eagle had soared aloft and hovered over the commander's
head when he went round the camp. All awaited a battle; the enemy was
not far distant. On the following day, however, orders were given to retreat.
(Soloviev, p. 376.)
BORODINO
But the retreat was not of great length. The armies halted at Borodino, in the
district of Mojaisk, and at a hundred and eight versts from Moscow. On
August 26, a general engagement took place. With not more than a hundred
thousand, the Russians met a force of a hundred and thirty thousand French.
The action began at dawn, and only terminated in the evening. On both
sides the loss was immense.
The centre and right wing of the Russian army were commanded by Barclay
de Tolly, and the left wing by Bagration. Napoleon, as usual, strove to break into
the centre, and to scatter the left wing. The best French marshals were Ney,
Davy, and Murat. They, with a mass of infantry and cavalry, bore down upon
the force of Bagration. The latter long and bravely supported the attack of the
enemy; but at length a fatal wound forced him to quit the battlefield. His
army got into disorder, and moved backwards. Then Napoleon, unsupported by
his marshals, missed a favourable moment. In Bagration's place Kootoozov sent
General Dochtoorov. The Russians regained their position, and repulsed further
attacks. Meanwhile, in the Russian centre, the French were heroically repulsed.
They were commanded by Eugene de Beauharnais, Napoleon's stepson. After a
battle of ten hours, the enemy's attack terminated, and the remainder of the day
was spent in incessant, cruel cannonade.
MOSCOW ABANDONED BY THE RUSSIANS AND OCCUPIED BY THE FRENCH
After losing many generals (among whom were Bagration and the brave
Count Kootaisov) and nearly the half of his army, Kootoozov did not decide on
renewing the battle on the following day. He accordingly retreated beyond
Mojaisk.
Napoleon proclaimed a victory. The Russians prepared for a battle before
Moscow ; and the populace there became excited, because inspired by patriotic
appeal from the governor-general, Count Rastopchine. But the Commander-in-
chief decided to sacrifice the ancient capital, in order to save the army.
270 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
When the Russian forces were drawn out towards the south-western side
of the town and prepared for battle, Barclay de Tolly first remarked to the
commander-in-chief the unfavourable position, traversed by ravines, and having
the river Moskva behind. In case of a defeat, the army might easily be
destroyed by the enemy's superior numbers. Kootoozov accordingly summoned
a council of war. In a small village named Feolee, near Moscow, in a peasant's
hut, the generals assembled. They were Barclay, Benningsen, Dochtoorov,
Konovnitzine, Raevzki, Ermolov, etc. The commander-in-chief proposed two
questions : Should a general engagement take place ? or should Moscow be
ceded without a battle? Opinions differed. Benningsen, who had lost the
battle at Friedland, warmly opposed Barclay, who urged a retreat, because, if the
army were destroyed, not only Moscow, but all Russia would be in the enemy's
power. After listening to arguments on both sides, the commander-in-chief gave
orders to retreat. Accordingly, the troops passed through Moscow and took the
road to Riazane (2nd September). The brave General Miloradovitch commanded
the rear-guard and protected the retreat of the army. But it was necessary to
give it time to quit the city, which was in a condition of terrible alarm, and was
actually blocked up by carts, laden with the goods of those who were also going
away. Miloradovitch proposed to the celebrated Murat — commander of the
French vanguard — to conclude a truce of a few hours, in order to clear Moscow
for the French. In case of the proposal being refused, Miloradovitch promised to
fight till the last man fell, and to leave only ruins behind. Murat accepted the
proposal.
Ilovaiski (p. 334) narrates the following curious incident: —
' At the time when the Moscow garrison was evacuating the Kreml and passing
through the town, the band of the regiment was playing; this, in the existing
sad circumstances, produced an unfavourable impression, and caused murmurs
among the soldiers and the inhabitants. The hasty Miloradovitch reproached the
general who commanded the garrison. " But if a garrison, at the surrender of a
fort, receives permission to retire freely," rejoined the simple-minded general,
" the retreat is accompanied by music. At least, that is stated in the regulations
of Peter the Great." " Is there any question of the surrender of Moscow in the
regulations of Peter the Great ? " shouted the enraged Miloradovitch. " Order
your music to cease ! "
Moscow was already abandoned by the greater part of its inhabitants. All
valuable property of the crown and also archives were removed. The next care
of Kootoozov was to transport the sick and wounded. Fire-engines were likewise
taken away. Orders were given to break barrels of wine in wiiie merchants' courts.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 271
All barges on the river Moskva, with private property or that of the crown, were
burned. Stores of provisions were destroyed. A few police officials were left in
the city, in order to set it on fire. On September 2, the Russian troops began to
evacuate Moscow. They were immediately followed by the French. « So here is
the famous town at last!' exclaimed Napoleon, on viewing Moscow from the so-called
' Poklonnaia Gora,' or Hill of Salutation, where Russian peasants are accustomed
to bow at the sight of Moscow, as a mother-city. At the Dorogomeelovski Bridge,
Napoleon alighted from horseback, and awaited a deputation of the citizens. But
he waited in vain. No one came. On hearing that Moscow was abandoned
by its inhabitants, he did not wish to believe it, and demanded a deputation.
However, only a few foreigners appeared. They confirmed the report that the
citizens had gone away, with the exception of a small number of French and
German traders. There still also remained some Russians of the lower ranks.
After passing the night at the Dorogomeelovski village, on the following mornin^
(September 3), at three o'clock, Napoleon removed to the Kreml and took
possession of the palace. But, the previous evening, fires broke out all around,
and during the night, from the 3rd till the 4th of September, flames encompassed
the greater part of the city. At noon on the 4th, fire also appeared in the Kreml.
Thus the conqueror, with great difficulty, made his way out of the burning town,
and took up his quarters at the Petrovski palace, near Moscow.
It is said that Count Rastopchine had made all possible preparations for the
fearful conflagration ; and after a dinner given to invited guests, himself set fire
to his beautiful country-house in the village of Voronov. (Andre'ev, p. 316.)
Thus, instead of rich booty, abundant provisions, and especially comfortable winter
quarters, on which the French had counted, they found only ruins and hunger.
During the space of three days, three-fourths of Moscow had burned, while the
greater part of the churches were devastated and plundered.
Nearly all the Russians who remained in Moscow were in rags, and without
shoes. Many fed from roots in neighbouring kitchen-gardens, or ate wet corn,
found in the remnants of barges at the river. The French also did not fare better.
On fires, lighted with expensive furniture and pictures, torn books, or Russian
images dragged from the corners of rooms, hung kettles, in which horse-flesh was
cooked. On the streets, heads of sugar were seen tossing about, as well as
bags of coffee and boxes of sweetmeats, but bread was scarcely to be found.
' The conflagration of Moscow took place without the emperor's knowledge.
Indeed, despair seemed to seize all classes of Russian society,' says Andreev
(p. 316).
Meanwhile, the heroic sacrifice made by the Russians in thus destroying their
272 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
ancient capital greatly embarrassed Napoleon, He felt himself in a new position,
and was, as it were, put out of his way. In vain did he make proposals of peace to
the Emperor Alexander. They remained unnoticed. In vain also were threats made
to march against St. Petersburg. Threats were of no avail. When Kootoozov's
messenger, Colonel Misho, brought the emperor news that Moscow had been
sacrificed, he was deeply touched by the colonel's narratives of the suffering of
the citizens and the army. ' Tell every one,' replied Alexander, ' that when I
have but one soldier remaining, I shall summon my faithful nobles and good
villagers, and lead them myself ! When every source has been drained, I shall
allow my beard to grow ; and rather will I consent to rove about in the wastes of
Siberia, than to sign conditions shameful to my native country and to my good
subjects, whose sacrifices I know how to appreciate ! ' (Soloviev, p. 377.)
KOOTOOZOV AT TAROOTEENA — THE PARTISAN AND POPULAR WAR
But soon the scene was changed. The conflagration of Moscow was the last
great sacrifice of the Russians. During five weeks which the French spent in
Moscow, their terrible plunder completed the disorder and disorganisation which
gradually appeared in Napoleon's army with its first step towards the boundaries
of Russia. A few days after quitting Moscow, Kootoozov suddenly left the
Riazane road. Thus he deceived the enemy pursuing him, and, by a skilful
movement, went to the old Kalooga road. In this wise he protected Kalooga,
with its large store of provisions, Toola, with its manufactories of arms, and
communication with the southern fertile regions of the empire. On September
20, Kootoozov pitched his camp at Tarooteena on the river Naro. 'Ta routine
a de'route Napoleon ! ' said Kootoozov, who was a witty man, and liked to make
puns. But Tarooteena enacted only a secondary part in the terrible tragedy.
The partisan war began. Besides, cold and hunger overcame the French ; so that it
was only necessary to pursue them. By surrounding the French army with posts,
the Russians prevented Napoleon's soldiers from obtaining provisions. In a word,
the most fearful scenes were everywhere witnesed during this famous retreat.
Sometimes prisoners were buried alive in the earth ; or the French themselves,
rendered inhuman by hunger, ate human flesh, and said that, although it was
terrible to do so, it at least tasted better than that of horses. The falling of
frozen bodies into ditches had a metallic sound. They were piled up one on
another in masses; and on those heaps of corpses the light-minded French
soldiers sat and played at cards ! (Andreev, p. 316.)
In Moscow, the French had had neither bread nor meat ; so they shot crows,
ate cats, or the flesh of horses which had died. Thus illnesses of all sorts broke
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 273
out. To make matters still worse, there was no fuel for fire, so necessary during
the damp, cold nights of a Russian autumn. This of course caused new illnesses.
But, at the very same time, the Russian forces at Tarooteena fared better. Carts
with provisions reached them from all quarters, and in consequence of generous
contributions sent by the inhabitants near Moscow, and from southern govern-
ments, the Russian soldiers had nearly each day portions of meat and wine. The
Russian army, in fact, grew gradually stronger and stronger, while that of the
French became weaker and weaker. ' Two hundred and sixty-six thousand
bodies of the French were burned in the four governments of Moscow, Smolensk,
Minsk, and Vilua' (Audre'ev, p. 317).
THE FRENCH EVACUATE Moscow
At length (October 6) the Russians acted on the offensive. Commanded by
Benningsen, they attacked and defeated the French vanguard, led by Murat.
The engagement took place at the river Tscher-nish-na, about ten versts from the
Tarooteena camp. Napoleon was reviewing his troops at the Kreml, when news of
tliis defeat reached him. He immediately stopped the review, and gave orders to
evacuate Moscow. He left the city to the command of Marshal Mortier, who had
orders to blow up the Kreml, to raze its walls to the ground, and to destroy all
public buildings, except the Foundling Institution. At midnight, on October 11,
the arsenal at the Kreml took fire. The palaces there were devastated. The
tower of John the Great was much injured. Only the cathedrals remained entire.
On October 11, when the French evacuated Moscow, it was immediately occupied
by General Ilovaiski and Cossacks. (Soloviev, p. 379.)
At this critical period, the Russian people were inspired by thoroughly
patriotic feeling. They patiently supported all losses and sufferings. The nobles
of different governments, at their own cost, armed three hundred thousand
warriors. All ranks and conditions contributed a hundred millions of roubles for
the expense of the war. It was indeed altogether popular. (Ilovaiski, p. 335.)
The Don Cossacks, at the summons of their ataman Platov, every one took
up arms, constantly harassed the retreating French, and cut them off in vast
numbers. Indeed, the 'Great Retreat' was accompanied by a whole series of
battles. The French were finally obliged to return to the ruined road of
Smolensk, where they perished in thousands from cold and hunger. The entire
way was actually covered with their bodies.
On the banks of the Berezeena the Russian generals thought to surround
Napoleon. His rear-guard was followed by Kootvozov with his chief force.
From the north came Vittenstein, who, till this period, had protected the way
VOL. II. 2 M
274 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
to St. Petersburg. He defeated the French at Polotzk. From the south hastened
the army of the Danube, after terminating the Turkish war. That army was
commanded by Admiral Tschish-a-gov. Napoleon, however, succeeded in passing
the river, but with terrible loss. This was effected by a mistake of Tschish-a-gov,
whose duty it was to block up the way of the French, and to prevent them from
crossing the Berezeena. Accordingly, only a miserable remnant of the once
splendid French army reached the Russian frontier.
After passing the Berezeena, the frost amounted to 30°. [Napoleon himself
left Russia in a simple peasant's sledge; and on reaching Warsaw exclaimed,
with indifference, 'There is but a step from the sublime to the ridiculous.'
(Kaeedanov, p. 437.)
But, even after the expulsion of the French from Russia, the war did not
terminate ; for the Emperor Alexander decided that the struggle should continue
till the dominion of France in Europe was at an end. Prussia, first among the
German states, abandoned alliance with Napoleon, and its armies joined those of
1813 1814. Russia. But the power of the French emperor was only overthrown when
Austria joined the alliance against him, and after he lost a battle, which lasted
three days, at Leipsic. The allied armies entered France, deposed Napoleon,
and reinstated the dynasty of Bourbon. Napoleon, for himself and his son,
was obliged to renounce all claim to the throne, but retained the title of emperor,
and received the administration of the island of Elba.
20th October At the Congress of Vienna, where the Russian emperor occupied the primary
position among European sovereigns, the chief decisions were: to alter the
changes in Europe caused by the success of French arms ; and, in many
instances, to restore different countries to their previous condition. Russia, as
a reward for aid against the French, received a large region of the duchy of
Warsaw, which Napoleon had formed from land belonging to Prussia and Austria.
Some regions were also returned to these states ; and the remainder, under the
name of the kingdom of Poland, was assigned to the special government of the
Emperor Alexander (1815).
During the year 1814, the theatre of war was France. Napoleon was defeated
at Brienne, but somewhat retrieved his fortune by overcoming Marshal Bliicher.
But Napoleon was again defeated at Laon, and at Arsis-sur-Aube. The
victory of the allies at Fere-Champenoise opened them the way to Paris, towards
which they advanced (March 17). After a hot engagement on the 18th, from
the heights of Belleville and Montmartre — chiefly carried on by the Russians —
Paris surrendered. On March 19, the Emperor Alexander and the king of
Prussia triumphantly entered the capital.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 275
Early in 1815, on learning that great discontent existed in France against the
new government, Napoleon secretly quitted the island of Elba and hastened to
Paris, without meeting any opposition. Louis xvm. was forced to flee from his
capital to Belgium, and Napoleon was again proclaimed emperor. Hoping to
strengthen his position, he intimated to the allied powers that he desired peace
and was willing to fulfil all the conditions of the treaty of Paris. But the
sovereigns of Europe declared him an enemy of public peace, and deprived him
of the protection of law. In vain did he endeavour to withdraw Alexander
of Russia from the alliance of European sovereigns, by communicating to him
a secret convention, said to have been found among the documents of Louis xvm.,
and formed by Austria, England, and France against Russia. Alexander remained
true to the common cause of Europe. Three armies were immediately formed
against France : one from southern Germany, under command of General
Schwartzenberg ; the Prussians, with General Bliicher, from the lower Rhine ;
and the English and Dutch, under Wellington, from Belgium. The Russian
armies, then in Poland, were also to move to the banks of the Rhine. Napoleon
appeared with his forces in Belgium, but lost a battle against Wellington at
Waterloo, 18th June 1815; was forced a second time to renounce; and, by a 1815— Battle
decree of the allied sovereigns, was sent in exile to the island of St. Helena. °8th j*^
Louis xvm. then returned to Paris. The Hundred Days' reign of Napoleon
cost France very dear. Besides the limitation of its frontiers, it was obliged to
pay the heavy contribution of 800 millions, and for seven years to cede to the
allies eighteen forts in north-eastern regions. However, by the solicitation of
the Emperor Alexander, one million was deducted from the contribution, and
the occupation of the forts was limited to two years. In 1818, at the Congress Congress of
of Aix-la-Chapelle, where the Emperor Alexander was present, along with the c£"p£iiet
emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia, it was decided to withdraw the 18 1 8.
allied forces from France. (Soloviev, pp. 331-382.)
In 1815 (14th September) Alexander, the king of Prussia, and the emperor Sacred Alli-
of Austria formed the so-called ' Sacred Alliance,' whose chief aims were to
defend the Christian religion, to promote peace, to confirm the existing political 1815.
condition of Europe.
CONGRESSES OF TROPPAU, NOVEMBER 1820 — OF LAYBACH, JAUUARY 1821—
AND OF VERONA, OCTOBER 1822
In consequence of union among the most powerful states of Europe, re- 1820 1822.
volutionary movements ceased in different directions. But in Spain the bad
276 OUTLINE OF THE HISTOKY OF RUSSIA
government of Ferdinand VII. caused agitation among the troops, and discontent
was also shared by the people, so that the king was forced to accept a limitation
of his power. This also occurred in Naples. Portugal and northern Italy were
likewise agitated. Consequently, in 1820, a congress took place at Troppau,
formed by the plenipotentiary states, Russia, Austria, England, Prussia, and France,
in presence of the Russian and Austrian emperors. A second congress was
formed at Laybach (January 1821), to which the king of Naples was also invited.
It was decided to restore order by force of the allied armies. Thus, Naples and
Piedmont were rendered tranquil. To decide the affairs of Spain, a congress met
at Verona, October 1822, where, with the consent of the five powers, it was
decreed that the French king, Louis xvni., should send his armies beyond the
Pyrenees. The French took possession of Madrid, and confirmed royal power.
THE GREEK QUESTION
During the latter days of Alexander I., he was much occupied by the Greek
question. At the epoch when the people of Europe triumphed over Napoleon
and overthrew the commencement of universal dominion, not tolerated by modern
Christian history, the Greeks, oppressed by Turkey, also strove to revive. In
Vienna, in 1814, there was formed a society called Heteria, whose aim was to
enable Greeks to promote a general revival by means of education. As the
society possessed considerable means, it educated young Greeks at European
universities, and founded popular schools in Greece. One active member of the
society was Count Capodistaria, a Greek in the island of Corfu, state secretary of
the Emperor Alexander, and a famous diplomatist of the time. Another zealous
member of the Heteria was a general in the Russian service, Prince Alexander
Ipsilanti, son of the hospodar of Moldavia. Ipsilanti was among the number
of those who cannot wait long ere putting an idea into execution. In 1821 he
appeared in Moldavia, and summoned the Greeks to a general rising in favour
of their religion and freedom. Consequently, there was a movement in the Morea
and in the islands of the Archipelago. The Emperor Alexander, occupied with
affairs in the west, showed displeasure at Ipsilanti's proceedings. But the sultan
did not wish to believe the sincerity of that displeasure, and became inimical
towards Russia. The Turks in Constantinople mercilessly massacred the de-
fenceless Greeks. The patriarch Gregory and two bishops were crucified in
church on Easter Sunday. The Russian ambassador left Constantinople, and
Russian forces began to assemble at southern frontiers. European states,
however, feared that Russia would become too powerful on the ruins of Turkey,
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 277
and, by moderation, succeeded in postponing war for four years, but did not
succeed in preventing Turks from putting Christians to death. War thus became 1824-1825.
inevitable. But, on November 19, 1825, the Emperor Alexander, after a short 1825 -Death
illness, died of fever at Taganrog °£ the
Emperor
In 1824 a terrible inundation of the Neva, in St. Petersburg, was among the Alexander i.,
last events of Alexander's reign. 19th No.
vember.
The Emperor Alexander's consort was Louisa Mary Augusta, princess of
Baden (Elisaveta Alexeevna). They had two daughters, Mary and Elizabeth,
who both died in infancy.
CHAPTER XLVIII
INTERIOR GOVERNMENT DURING THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER I.
IN a manifesto issued by Alexander I. when he ascended the throne, he intimated
his intention 'to administer the state according to the law and the heart of
Catherine n., and to continue her exceedingly wise decrees.' A ukaze was
immediately published to permit the free passage of Russians and foreigners
abroad, as was the case in 1796. Nobles and citizens belonging to guilds were
exempt from corporal punishment, as were also priests and diakons (priests'
assistants). Rural parishioners were also freed from the necessity of labouring
church lands. The severe laws concerning censorship, which had existed during
the previous reign, were mitigated. Each was permitted to have a private
printing-press, as was the case while Catherine occupied the throne. The
inspection of books was confided to civil governors, who employed the directors
of public schools for that purpose. By a ukaze of April 2, 1801, the so-called
' secret expedition ' was abolished, and, in order to investigate public offences, or
affairs of that sort, it was decreed that they should be submitted to the ordinary
course of justice.
In general, during the reign of Alevander Pavlovitch, some remarkable
efforts were made to restrict the power of those who possessed serfs. For
example, proprietors convicted of treating their serfs cruelly were deprived
of them, and they were placed under guardianship. The custom of giving
land with peasants, to reward private individuals for service, was discontinued.
The peasants of the Baltic provinces received personal freedom without being
provided with land.
As regards the administration of justice, very important changes were made ;
278 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
or, in other words, the decided prohibition of torture and of all prejudiced
interrogation. Milder measures were likewise employed towards the schismatics
or Raskolniks. On February 20, 1803, there appeared a ukaze concerning the
enfranchisement of proprietors' peasants, after concluding certain conditions.
Peasants and villages thus enfranchised by proprietors, along with land, were
to form a separate class, called ' free agriculturers.' The first who expressed a
wish to enfranchise peasants was Count Sergius Roomiantzev. Indeed, the
favourite idea of Alexander I. was the total abolition of serfdom. But the
greater number of the dignitaries argued that the peasants were as yet in-
sufficiently prepared for entire freedom, and that so sudden a change endangered
the tranquillity and integrity of the empire.
Alexander Pavlovitch, at the commencement of his reign, was, like Catherine,
obliged in one ukaze to express himself thus : ' With heartfelt regret we remark
that the pernicious habit of taking bribes not only exists, but is diffused even
among those who should abhor a proceeding so hateful, and should use every effort
to make it cease.'
In order to afford the clergy more means to act on the public mind by
exhortation, care was taken to organise clerical institutions. Their maintenance
was increased by a grant given to the church of an exclusive right to sell wax-
candles in the institutions. A committee was then formed for clerical schools.
In 1814, regulations were published for the academy, the seminary, and clerical
institutions.
As far as secular education was concerned, we remark that, as during the
reign of Catherine u., large and small popular schools began to be organised. For
the greater part they, however, existed only in name. While Alexander occupied
the throne, means for actual existence were granted to these institutions. Large
popular schools were called gymnasiums, and the smaller were denominated
district institutions. Besides, for elementary instruction, parish schools were
formed. Institutions for teachers were founded in Moscow and in St. Petersburg.
Professors from abroad were also engaged. The universities of Moscow, Vilna,
and Dorpat (now called Youriev), which had previously existed, were re-
organised, while new universities were founded in Kazane, Harkov, and finally
in St. Petersburg.
During the first period of Alexander's reign, the individuals nearest his person
were Novosiltzev, Tschartoreejski, Strogonov, and Kotchoobei. Prince Adam
Tschartoreejski, as a Pole, and having constantly the idea of Poland's restoration,
was particularly dangerous to Russia. He was administrator of public institutions
in Vilna, where the young generation was brought up in a Polish spirit. Instead
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 279
of the previous council, summoned on important occasions, and formed of indi-
viduals appointed by the sovereign in 1801, a permanent state council was formed.
In 1802 the ministry was organised.
From the year 1806, Count Speranski obtained great influence in the affairs 1806.
of state. Speranski was son of a village priest in the government of Vladimir.
The former first learned at the local seminary, but gradually advanced on
account of his uncommon talents. He was chiefly promoted by Kotchoobei.
Speranski bore the appellation of state secretary ; but he was in reality considered
as prime minister. His chief activity was observable in the reorganisation of the
state council and the ministry, as well as his measures for correcting the finances.
But Speranski had many enemies. Courtiers envied his elevation and influence.
Officials were angry because he forced them to pass a new examination before
receiving promotion. Finally, the people grumbled; for Speranski had aug-
mented taxes. In March 1812, at the prospect of war with Napoleon, Speranski
for some unknown reason fell into disgrace. First, he was exiled to Nijni-
Novgorod, and then to Perm. In 1814 he was permitted to live at his own
estate in Novgorod. Then he was governor of Penza, and afterwards general
governor of Siberia. At a later period, Speranski returned to St. Petersburg,
and occupied a place in the state council ; but he no longer possessed his former
influence. Siberia was then divided into three provinces, or so-called governments,
all under the administration of one general governor; The condition of that vast
country — so richly endowed by nature — was, notwithstanding, a sad one at the
epoch of which we now write. Local administration was far from the centre
of government, and consequently, during a lengthened period, had been remark-
able for arbitrary measures. In these remote regions, bribes and other abuses
of officials were carried on to a great extent — much more so than in many parts
of the empire. During the brief period of two years which Speranski passed
in Siberia, with his usual energy he strove to eradicate local abuses, and formed
several projects in order to ameliorate administration. Among others, according
to his suggestion, Siberia was divided into two governments, east and west.
Subsequent to the patriotic war, the remarkable aim at transformation, which
had distinguished the first years of Alexander's reign, ceased. Even in the
disposition of the emperor himself a great change had taken place. Experience
and intercourse with various individuals had rendered him less confiding than
before. From the epoch of the Congress of Vienna (20th October 1814),
Alexander Pavlovitch paid more attention to outward policy, by maintaining
the ' Sacred Alliance,' and by endeavouring to subdue revolutionary movements
in Europe. Hence his constant participation in subsequent European congresses—
280 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
those of Troppau, Laybach, Verona. During this half of Alexander's reign, Count
Araktscheev possessed much influence on inward politics. He took an active
part in forming military colonies on property of peasants belonging to the crown
(in Novgorod and some southern governments). Such colonies were according to
the model of Austrian military boundaries, in order to diminish the expense of a
regular army, and were to combine agriculture and military service. But, in
practice, the institution did not justify its aim. (Ilovaiski, pp. 342-343.)
Among statesmen of Alexander's reign, Admiral Mordveenov is worthy of
note. In the state council he constantly raised his voice against abuses,
especially regarding the monopoly of wine.
Literature, during the reign of Alexander Pavlovitch, is remarkable by the
appearance of a History of the Russian State, by the celebrated Karamzine.
Unfortunately, the author died ere completing his work, so that it terminates
at the so-called ' troublous times,' or epoch of anarchy, when the ancient dynasty
of Rurik became extinct in the person of Feodor loannovitch, son of John the
Terrible (1598), and the election of Michael Feodorovitch, first sovereign of the
Romanov dynasty, took place in 1613.
Solo vie v (p. 387) remarks, concerning Karamzine, that he was ' essentially a
representative of Catherine's century, and all his views belonged to that epoch :
discontent with the period of transformation, discontent with outward borrowed
forms of western European civilisation, a longing for inward moral perfection, for
revival, for mind, feeling, sensitiveness ; finally, in consequence of the discontent
of Peter's age, a natural sympathy for ancient Russia. All that which we observe
in literature of Catherine's reign, we also find in Karamzine's History of the
Russian State.'
The close of that celebrated work at the 'troublous times,' the want of an
exact history of the seventeenth century, that bridge between ancient and modern
Russia, for a lengthened period tended to spread the opinion that new Russian
history is the consequence of a voluntary deviation from the ancient right way ;
when, in reality, it is the necessary result of ancient Russian historical life.
During the reign of Alexander i., another valuable historical work appeared
in the form of Schletzer's Nestor, a model experiment of critical composition given
to ancient Russian annals.
The talented and highly educated Schletzer was summoned to Russia by
Mtiller during the latter half of the eighteenth century. Schletzer devoted his
entire energy to the completion of the sources of Russian history, of which he
became passionately fond. Notwithstanding, unpleasantness with the members
of the academy obliged him to quit Russia. But, even among his numerous
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 281
occupations in Germany, he could not forget his old favourite, Nestor. Accord-
ingly, his Annals, modernised, appeared in the nineteenth century.
CHAPTER XLIX
QUESTION CONCERNING SUCCESSION TO THE THRONE— MILITARY REVOLT OF
DECEMBER H, 1825
FROM the year 1820 a revolutionary movement had pervaded all Europe, and
speedily assumed the form of secret societies. In Germany, this was particularly
remarkable in universities, which had most important influence on the country.
Towards the south, in the peninsulas of the Pyrenees and the Apennines, the said
movement was prevalent in armies, and it was manifested in this especial form
in Russia. There, during the latter years of Alexander i., two secret societies
existed. One was in the north, in St. Petersburg. Another in the south was
composed of officers who served in armies in these regions. But the two
societies differed in aim ; for while in the north speculations of limited monarchy
were entertained, in the south many hoped to establish a republic. In both
societies there were, however, determined individuals ready to adopt any extreme
measures in order to effect a change of government.
Chopin even states that a project was formed to assassinate the sovereign.
Alexander i., when already in Taganrog, and immediately before his death,
knew details of plans formed by members of the southern society. The emperor's
decease, and the subsequent disturbance concerning the question of succession to
the throne, suggested to the northern society the idea of executing its intentions
by a military revolt.
The dispute regarding succession to the throne had risen in this wise. As the
Emperor Alexander had no son, the next heir was the Grand Duke Constantino
Pavlovitch. He, however, in 1820, had been divorced from his consort, the
Grand Duchess Anna Feodorovna, and had married a Polish lady, Countess Joanna
Grudzinska, of petty nobility, who afterwards received the title of Princess
Lowicz. A law was likewise made, that if a prince of the imperial Russian family
contracted a union with any one neither of royal nor ducal race, he could not
transmit the rank of grand duchess to his consort, nor could their children lay
claim to the throne. Now, Constantino Pavlovitch was exactly in this position,
so that, by his second marriage, he gave up his right of succession to the throne
of Russia (1822).
Then the emperor (August 16, 1823) issued a manifesto in which intimation
VOL. II. 2 N
282 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
was made concerning Constantino's voluntary refusal of his rights, which were
accordingly transmitted to his younger brother, Nikolai Pavlovitch.
The manifesto was carefully preserved in the Cathedral of the Assumption in
Moscow. Three other copies were also kept respectively in the synod, in the
senate, and in the state council, with the condition that, in case of the emperor's
death, the manifesto preserved in the Assumption Cathedral and in the state
council should be opened before any decision was made. Very few, however,
knew of these arrangements. Even the Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovitch him-
self had only vague ideas on the subject, and considered it by no means decided.
It seems very extraordinary that a decree of so great importance should not have
been made public; but we only record facts. "When news of the emperor's death
reached Warsaw, the Grand Duke Constantino distinctly intimated that he would
not reign, but himself swore allegiance to his younger brother Nicholas as the new
emperor. But in St. Petersburg the Grand Duke Nicholas know nothing of the
manifesto preserved in the Assumption Cathedral of Moscow, and of other
decrees. He accordingly considered that his duty was to swear allegiance to his
brother Constantine, and to receive the oath of others also to him. Even when
Nicholas was informed of the late emperor's intentions, it was not deemed
necessary to alter the oath given to Constantine, so that it was distributed by a
ukaze of the senate to all parts of the empire. Meanwhile, a report was spread
among the people that whether or not Constantine had really renounced his
rights to the throne was not yet fully decided by the senate. Thus all felt
doubt and alarm. During the interval, also, daily assemblages of secret societies
took place in St. Petersburg. These assemblages were even permitted by the
general governor, Count Miloradovitch, who was persuaded that they had merely a
literary aim. But soon news reached St. Petersburg from Taganrog concerning a
widespread conspiracy among armies in the south. In fact, from these very
news the Emperor Alexander himself, only a few days before his death, ordered
several individuals to be arrested. On December 12, the Grand Duke Nicholas
received a letter from Constantine, in which the latter decidedly intimated his
refusal of the throne; and then another manifesto was composed, to intimate the
accession of Nicholas.
December 14 was the day fixed for the intimation of the new manifesto.
On the previous evening members of the secret society resolved to act ; but there
was want of union and decision in their plans. On the morning of the 14th,
when the armies of the guards were assembled in order to take the oath of
allegiance, some of them showed resistance. Excited by the assurances of con-
spirators that the renunciation of Constantine was untrue, the soldiers seized their
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 283
arms, wounded several officers who tried to restrain them, and, with cries of ' Hurrah,
Constantino ! ' rushed to the plain of the senate, accompanied by a mob, also shout-
ing the same words, without understanding their meaning. To the word ' Con-
stantine' was likewise added ' Constitution' (Konstitootia). Now, as the latter word
in Euss is of the feminine gender, some of the ignorant vulgar imagined that
' Konstitootia ' was the wife of Constantine. Count Miloradovitch rode towards the
rebels and strove to reason with them, but fell mortally wounded. 'To survive
fifty- two battles and to die thus ! ' exclaimed the old general, a hero of 1812. The
rebels then began to fire ; but those still loyal assembled round the emperor, who
rode out to the plain. An attack of cavalry against the rebels had no success.
The attempts of the clergy also to reason with the insubordinate were fruitless.
The short December day was already drawing to a close, whereupon the emperor
ordered the artillery to act; that forced the insurgents to flee, and the plain was
soon cleared. During the following night some members of the secret society
were arrested. On December 14 also the arrival of thirteen members of
the southern society had taken place. But even these arrests did not prevent
movements of conspirators in the south. They persisted in maintaining that
Constantine had not renounced his rights, and summoned every Russian to defend
him. The insurgents took Vasilkov and then Kiev, but were met and completely
defeated by government troops. Subsequently the whole conspiracy was dis-
covered. One hundred and twenty-one persons were found guilty, and five of
them were hanged. (Soloviev, pp. 388-390.)
In Andreev's fascinating work entitled Representatives of Power in Russia
after Peter I. (pp. 368-374), we find the following interesting account of events
which preceded the accession of Nicholas I. to the throne : —
'Troubled agitation prevailed among those present in the court church of
St. Petersburg when a courier from Taganrog brought news that the Emperor
Alexander Pavlovitch was no more. In 1819 the Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlo-
vitch knew that he was nominated heir to the throne after Alexander. Several
individuals knew that also. But the emperor died in Taganrog. The Grand
Duke Constantine Pavlovitch was in Warsaw. The state documents which
indicated Nicholas heir to the throne were not published. To complete all that,
it was a secret to none that both in the army and among many private in-
dividuals there was a widespread conspiracy against the existing government.
In fact, the course of events was such as to render every one thoughtful.
There was no room for indecision. In the state council different opinions
prevailed. The greater number of the members, aware of the late emperor's
arrangements concerning succession to the throne after his death, were of
284 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
opinion that the lawful heir was Nikolai Pavlovitch. But the minister of
justice — Prince Lobanov Rostovski — held the opinion 'that the dead can have
no will/ consequently, that the throne belonged to Constantine Pavlovitch. As
for Nicholas, he at once terminated the dispute by himself swearing allegiance
to his elder brother Constantine, and by acknowledging him as emperor.
Thus a sort of interregnum took place. Constantine remained inflexible in
his determination to renounce his rights to the throne, and reprimanded all who
addressed him as 'your majesty.' On the other hand, Nicholas had sworn
allegiance to his brother. Thereupon dignitaries, the inhabitants of St. Peters-
burg, and soon all Russia, did the same. The position of affairs increased
agitation among the masses and augmented the difficulties of government concern-
ing the conspiracy ; for details of it were already known. An officer named
Sherwood had disclosed all to the Emperor Alexander during the last days of his
life. A sum of fifty-six thousand roubles, a house, the word 'Faithful' added
to his family name, the rank of hereditary Russian nobleman, a coat-of-arms, a
hand upraised, as if in the act of swearing allegiance (the hand surrounded by
clouds), the motto 'Faithful' — such were the rewards assigned to Sherwood.
The ancestor of the latter was an Englishman, a certain John Sherwood, a
mechanic, who came to Russia at an earlier date. But even these rewards do not
prove that the general features of the conspiracy were unknown to the govern-
ment at that period. Subsequently all details were discovered. When Sherwood's
denunciations were fully investigated, the Emperor Alexander could, however, take
no part in what was going on, for he already lay unconscious on his death-bed.
But at that time there was beside him a most energetic individual in the person of
the little, round, hasty Deebitch — ' the field-marshal tea-urn,' as he was familiarly
denominated. On his own responsibility he undertook measures against the
conspirators. The chief measure was the arrest of Paul Pestel, who was with
his regiment in Little Russia. The arrest took place on December 14, and
doubtless the government was indebted to that measure for the fact that
the conspiracy of the army in the interior of Russia only came to an engagement
on January 4, 1826, between a detachment led by Mooraviev-Apostol and
Bestoojev-Rumine, on the way from Vasilkov to Kiev, and the division of General
Rota. The encounter had, notwithstanding, no serious results. But at first none
in St. Petersburg knew of the measures adopted by Deebitch. He was, how-
ever, subsequently rewarded by the Emperor Nicholas.
' Prostrate yourself before your brother Constantine ! ' exclaimed the empress-
mother, Maria Feodorovna, in French, and addressing herself to Nikolai Pavlo-
vilch, when news came from Warsaw that Constantine positively refused the
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 285
throne. ' He is worthy of honour, and is magnanimous in his inflexible deter-
mination to leave you the throne. Prostrate yourself before him ! '
' But before I proceed to prostrate myself before him, as you say, mamma,'
rejoined Nicholas, also in French, ' perhaps you will be so kind as to explain
to me the reason why I should do so; as I do not know which makes
the greater sacrifice in similar circumstances — he who refuses, or he who
accepts.'
And Nikolai Pavlovitch was right. He accepted the throne in exceedingly
difficult circumstances. There seemed no doubt that the new reign would
commence with a drama, perhaps even a tragedy; and what part would he
enact in either ? That was still undecided.
And, sure enough, Nikolai Pavlovitch soon learned more fully all the difficulty
of the part which had fallen to his lot.
A lieutenant of the Hunters' Guards, named Yakov (James) Rostovtzev,
wrote a letter to the new emperor and disclosed the plan of the conspiracy.
Afterwards he had an interview with Nikolai Pavlovitch. Rostovtzev, how-
ever, begged one great favour, and it was, that no reward would be given for
his disclosures. The emperor granted the favour; and until 1835 Rostovtzev
remained only as an insignificant officer.
The communication of Piostovtzev meanwhile produced agitation among the
conspirators. 'If the sheaths are ripped up, we can no longer conceal our
swords,' was their device at that time. They accordingly decided to make haste.
But the new emperor also took precautions. An oath of allegiance to him must
ensue. ' I bless and decide ! ' exclaimed Philaret, metropolitan of Moscow —
as is reported in tradition — when after the first oath sworn to Constantino,
another was demanded to Nicholas. Capital cities and then all Russia swore
allegiance to the new emperor. But, as had been anticipated, a critical day in
St. Petersburg was that on which the guards were to take the oath, i.e. on
December 14.
Great alarm prevailed in the palace and in the imperial family when reports
came that the discontented and those who had sworn allegiance to Constantino
had assembled on the Isaac's Plain. Then the young emperor intimated his
intention to appear on the spot, and either to return to the palace as sovereign
of Russia, or to die in asserting his rights. On previous occasions, Nicholas had
also shown firmness of character. On learning what was passing in different
regiments already, previous to taking the oath, he had summoned their generals
to his presence and had asked them, 'Did they acknowledge him emperor?'
An affirmative reply ensued. Then Nicholas stepped backwards, his figure
286 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
erect, his head held high. ' If so,' rejoined he, ' you at this moment answer with
your head for the fidelity of your troops.'
History proves that at a critical moment firmness of disposition is more
important than a host of partisans. And so it was in the present instance. The
bravery of Nicholas obtained adherents to him, even among those who, in other
circumstances, would have joined the conspirators.
In brilliant military uniform, with a ribbon across his shoulder, and without
an overcoat, in spite of the cold, the handsome young emperor rode forth from the
Winter Palace to subdue the rebels. Nikolai Pavlovitch was of remarkable
personal beauty, and his form was symmetry itself. A crowd of soldiers at the
monument of Peter I. was gradually augmented by others, who caine from
various parts of the city, but, notwithstanding, did not amount to more than
a tenth of those assembled against them. The troops still loyal surrounded the
insurgents. But although this was the case, one detachment of the latter still
extended even to the Winter Palace. That detachment met the emperor
himself. ' To whom do you swear allegiance ? ' said Nicholas, addressing the
foremost soldiers. ' To Constantine,' was the reply. ' Then go there,' rejoined
the emperor, pointing to the statue of Peter I.
The whole plain was filled by an excited crowd. The emperor, while riding
onwards, met the historian Karamzine, then in failing health. His dress was
in disorder, and he was without a hat. He hastened towards Nicholas, and
then went to the Winter Palace. There, in terror and expectation, awaited
the two empresses — Maria Feodorovna, mother of the emperor, and Alexandra
Feodorovna, his consort. Karamzine was the only witness of that terrible
moment endured by the princesses when a son and a husband went forth to
face an unknown future. On news of the disturbance, the infant heir to the
throne — subsequently Alexander n. — had been hastily brought from the
Anitchkov Palace, and was safely guarded in the Winter Palace by a detach-
ment of Finland archers.
Meanwhile the emperor rode onwards among the people, who everywhere
received him with respect. But when exhortations were vain, and when General
Miloradovitch was killed, a suspicious excitement appeared among the crowd.
It was evident that the example of obstinacy had a bad effect on the masses.
When the Horse Guards, who made an attack, were repulsed because their
horses were not suitably shod for frozen pavements, and consequently slipped,
some near the emperor kept on their hats. Nicholas saw the unfavourable
impression produced on the people. 'Hats off!' shouted he, and the hats
immediately fell. Danger evidently did not threaten from that quarter. But in
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
another it did. The emperor's younger brother, Michael Pavlovitch, was only
saved by three sailors, who succeeded in knocking a pistol from the hands of
Koohelbeker.
It is more than probable that Nikolai Pavlovitch also incurred danger. From
the surrounding crowd an officer, with a black band on his head, approached the
emperor. The officer was Yakoobovitch. It was afterwards said that he held a
dagger concealed. Yakoobovitch was one of the conspirators who thirsted for
blood, and was only restrained by more moderate associates from putting his
sanguinary plans into execution. A man of thought, and in no wise a red-hot
revolutionary, was Rile'ev. It is reported that, on his knees, he besought
Yakoobovitch to abandon his desperate plan of assassinating the sovereign. That
was even during the life of Alexander I. Rile'ev threatened to inform against
Yakoobovitch, or even to kill him, if he continued obstinate. On the day of
the revolt, Yakoobovitch's plan was to send the drunken mob to devastate
the palace ; but Rile'ev again prevented that, and the head police-master of
St. Petersburg had ordered that on December 14 all the vodka (Russian corn-
brandy) should be poured into a ditch, as if he anticipated the possibility of
excess.
At length the ominous sound of firing was heard, which indicated that the
insurgents refused to submit. For many years afterwards that firing left a
trace on one member of the imperial family. The two empresses had been
informed that a discharge of artillery would only take place in the event of
non-submission to the emperor. When his mother, Maria Feodorovna, heard the
roar of cannon at a very short distance from the palace, she threw herself on her
knees. Alexandra Feodorovna, the emperor's consort, was in an agony of terror ;
and, according to Grimm, so great was the shock she experienced, that during her
whole life afterwards she had a nervous twitching of the face.
Several mouths subsequent to that fatal day, the Duke of Wellington was
sent by the English government as the royal representative at the coronation of
the Emperor Nicholas. Once the duke asked Nikolai Pavlovitch in conversation
what the young empress felt at the critical moment of the revolt on December
14. It is said that the duke wanted tact. Certainly, but a little considera-
tion might have made him feel that he had touched a sensitive chord in the
emperor's heart by alluding to so delicate a subject. Nicholas at first gave no
reply. But the duke did not understand the intentional silence, and repeated
the question.
When angry, the emperor's features had a ferocious expression. A dark
cloud crossed his countenance as he answered : ' What did the empress feel, my
288 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
lord duke, at that moment ? Nearly what you yourself felt when Bliicher had
not yet come to aid you at Waterloo ! '
The reply was caustic; but the duke had provoked it.
Let us, however, return to the events of December 14, 1825. The revolt
was quelled. Nikolai Pavlovitch returned to the palace as emperor, whose
right none disputed. There he met Prince Troobetzkoi, pale and confused. But
lately he had been the head of the conspirators, the most influential member of
the northern society, and its supposed dictator. A feeling akin to contempt
appeared on the emperor's countenance when the head and guide of the con-
spiracy repented and now implored that his life might be spared. Nicholas
ordered him to sit down and write the following laconic letter to his wife :
' I am well, and will continue to be well ! ' In this wise the life of Troobetzkoi
was spared.
As for the soldiers who had participated in the revolt, they were sent to the
Caucasus, there to merit pardon by fighting againt the mountaineers.
CHAPTER L
REIGN OF THE EMPEROR NICHOLAS I. (NIKOLAI PAVLOVITCH), 1825-1855
THE internal policy of this reign is distinguished by a strictly conservative
character. While retaining institutions of the state, inherited from predecessors,
the government of Nikolai Pavlovitch continued to expand several particular
branches of these institutions, especially the edition of a code of laws.
We have already seen that from the reign of Peter the Great till that of
Nicholas L, each successive sovereign had undertaken extensive legislative labour,
notwithstanding it had failed to attain its chief aim, or, in other words, the
formation of a new code. Meanwhile, the more Russian society was developed,
the greater want was felt, not only of suitable laws, but even of a proper
collection of them. Hence much difficulty and many abuses ensued. The
delay in judging affairs was extreme. It was calculated that in the various
judicial tribunals of the empire two millions eight hundred and fifty thousand
law-pleas had accumulated. A hundred and twenty-seven thousand individuals
under judgment were shut up in prison. From the year 1821, in the government
of Koursk alone, six hundred and sixty ukazes of the senate had not been
executed. Local revenues had not been verified for many years, and the accounts
were full of inaccuracy (Soloviev, p. 391). The emperor at once took legislative
labour into his own inspection, and confided it to one who had endeavoured to
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 2«9
form a code during the reign of Alexander I. We allude to Michael Michael-
ovitch Sperauski. Not only was he experienced, but he had learned much from
the very failure of his plans. The project of forming a code was decided. Not only
so: it was also decreed that a collection of laws already existing should at ome
be made. In order to accomplish this, all laws were collected, commencing with
those of Alexei Michaelovitch. Thus in 1830 a complete copy of all laws of the is3u-i;-:i3.
Russian empire was published, and in 1833 a code appeared of laws already
existing. Finally, in 1835, a special penal code was issued, particularly for u>:«o.
correctional punishment or that of capital crime. Ukazes subsequently issued
were collected in separate volumes, and joined to the chief collection as a con-
tinuation.
We have seen that Peter the Great had introduced an obligatory law of
entail, which was abolished during the reign of Anna loannovna. While Nikolai
Pavlovitch occupied the throne, that law could be made according to desire. In
order to prevent tradesmen from becoming nobles by means of service to the
state, so-called ' citizens of note ' were created. For the convenience of trades-
men a commercial court of justice was formed.
As regards public instruction, new regulations were made. Two institutions
were founded : one for professors, in order to educate youths abroad, so that
they themselves might eventually become professors ; another for peda-
gogues, where teachers for schools were educated. Instead of the university
of Vilna, which had been closed, another — that of St. Vladimir — was opened
in Kiev. A military academy, an institution for jurisprudence, a technical
institution, were also founded. However, in 1848, particular measures, occasioned 18-is.
by circumstances, were adopted concerning public instruction. The number of
those admitted to universities was limited. The custom of sending youths abroad
for education was discontinued. In universities the chair of philosophy was
suppressed.
EXTERIOR POLICY — WAR WITH PERSIA — WAR WITH TURKEY
Among events of exterior policy at this epoch, an important place is occupied 18-'
by the war with Persia concerning boundaries (1826-1828). General Paskevitch,
then appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian armies at the Caucasus,
became famous. His victories at the taking of Erevani and at Elizavetpol wt-re
especially remarkable. By a peace concluded at Turkmantschai, Fet-Ali-Shah
ceded to Russia the khanates of Erivan and Nachetchivask, and paid a contribu-
tion of 20,000,000 roubles.
The Persian war, however, had not even terminated, when Russia was imolved
VOL. n. 2 o
290 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
in another struggle with Turkey, in consequence of protection shown by the
Russian emperor to Greeks who had revolted against Turkish sway. In October
1827— Battle 1827, the Russians participated in the famous battle of Navarino in the haven of
no' that name. There the Turkish -Egyptian fleet was destroyed by English, French,
and Russian vessels. Russian armies, under command of Count Vittenstein,
entered the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, crossed the Danube, and
took possession of Varna during the spring of 1828. In the following year, Count
Deebitch, the new commander of the army, defeated the grand vizier, crossed the
Balkan mountains, and occupied Adrianople. Meanwhile, in Asia, Paskevitch
took the forts of Kars and Ahaltzeets, and occupied Erzeroum, the capital of
Turkish Armenia. Then the sultan, Mahmoud II., concluded peace with Russia
in Adrianople in 1829. He ceded to Russia the eastern shores of the Black Sen,
declared Moldavia, Wallachia, and Servia under Russian protection, opened free
passage to Russian vessels in the Danube and in the Dardanelles, and acknow-
ledged the independence of the kingdom of Greece.
Concerning European powers, the Emperor Nicholas, with his usual firmness,
retained the commencement of the ' Sacred Alliance.' Thus, in 1849, when France,
Germany, and Italy were convulsed by revolutionary movements, Russian armies
inarched forward to aid Austria against an insurrection of the Hungarians, who
were speedily subdued. (Ilovaiski, pp. 346-347.)
CHAPTER LI
INSUREECTION IN POLAND, 1830 — ENTERPRISES IN VOLHYNIA AND LITHUANIA
IN 1815 the Emperor Alexander I., by a grant charter, had secured to the kingdom
of Poland a separate political organisation (very liberal for that epoch), including
a national diet and armies formed of Poles. Thanks to that organisation and
inward tranquillity, the material prosperity of Poland began to be developed. In
a word, agriculture, trade, industry, and literature, during the space of fifteen
years, made remarkable progress. Notwithstanding, among the people, among
students and in the army, secret societies were formed, whose objects were to
excite the public mind and to aim at the restoration of total national independence.
(Ilovaiski, p. 347.)
As \ve have seen, Russia was on friendly terms with France. That intercourse,
and the amicable relationship of Prussia, constantly restrained the unfriendly
designs of Austria and England. But in 1830 the revolution of July overthrew the
elder branch of the Bourbons from the throne of France, and occasioned a change
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 291
in intercourse between that country and Russia. The new government of Louis-
Philippe of Orleans, as the result of a revolution, from that very cause alone
could in no wise obtain the favour of the Emperor Nicholas, constantly favourable
to the conservative principle ; and all the more so because, in consequence of the
French revolution, similar disturbance had ensued in other countries, particularly
in Poland.
Indeed, the Poles soon forgot the magnanimity of the Emperor Alexander
Pavlovitch, who committed to oblivion the aid given by Poland to Napoleon in
his war with Russia. Not only so : the privileges granted to Poland by Alexander
urged the Poles to dream of a period when their country would become an
independent, powerful state. The chief aims of Polish patriots were to effect
greater separation from Russia, and to enlarge their own kingdom by joining to
it the western provinces restored to Catherine n. These aims were doubtless
favoured by the fact that the primitive Russian population in the said provinces
belonged to the lower orders, chiefly serfs. As for proprietors and those of a better-
educated class, they chiefly consisted of Polish nobles who professed the faith of
Rome. The system of education in Poland, too, at the commencement of the
nineteenth century, had certainly an influence on subsequent events. By the
efforts of Prince Adam Tschartoreeiski, curator of the educational district of
Vilna, the number of schools in Lithuanian and White Russian districts had
greatly augmented. The teachers there were, besides, Poles, and instruction was
conducted in a Polish spirit. The educational district of Vilna included nearly
the whole of western Russia; and the academy of Vilna had been promoted to
a university by Alexander I. in 1803. In south-western regions, Count Thadeus
Tschatzki was inspector of institutions in the governments of Kiev, Podolia, and
Volhyuia. The chief object of his care was the foundation of the Kremenetzk
gymnasium, subsequently formed into a lyceum.
Meanwhile, secret societies gradually urged the Poles to resistance. In the
diet of Warsaw, which met once in two years, open opposition was shown to
Russian government. Revolutionary movements in western Europe, especially
in Spain and in Italy, augmented the agitation in Poland. At length the
revolution of July in Paris revived hope of aid from France, and hastened the
action of the Poles. Among them, individuals more moderate and wiser, although
they doubted success, had, notwithstanding, too little courage to oppose the popular
revolutionary party, chiefly formed of the military and students. The moderates,
accordingly, in silence left the field of action to the revolutionists.
During the night of November 17, a crowd of conspirators (composed chiefly 1830.
of pupils from the military school) rushed to the palace of Bellevedere, occupied
202 OUTLINE OP THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
by the viceroy of Poland, the Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovitch. The grand
duke had succeeded in saving himself, on seeing that the Polish armies took the
part of the insurgents. Constantine Pavlovitch then withdrew to WarsaW.
At first the insurrection was inconsiderable, and the greater part of the
Polish regiments remained faithful to the government. But the Polish officers
immediately near the grand duke assured him that the disturbance in the streets
had arisen ' from the erroneous idea of the people and the armies that the
Russians had attacked the Poles and were putting them to death. So, to quiet
them, it was better for the Russians, not to interfere, and thus to prove that they
had been calumniated.' (Ilovaiski, p. 348.)
Accordingly, during that night the Russians were restrained from energetic
action ; and on the following day the insurrection had already become general.
Constantine Pavlovitch thereupon assembled the Russian armies in a neigh-
bouring village. In it there appeared a Polish deputation for conference. The
deputies were Princes Tschartoreeiski and Loobetzki, Count Ostrovski and the
historian Leleyvel. After various explanations, the deputies demanded the
restoration of ancient Polish provinces. The grand duke was amazed at so
strange a demand, and for some minutes did hot answer a word. Then he coldly
replied : ' I am not authorised by my brother to talk of that subject.'
Soon the insurrection spread all over the kingdom and penetrated even to
Lithuania. The commander-in-chief of the Polish armies and the dictator at the
commencement of the struggle was General Hlopitzki, who had formerly fought
under the banners of Kostiooshko. The Emperor Nikolai Pavlovitch then sent
a force of a hundred thousand men to Poland. The commander of that army,
Count Deebitch, gained a bloody battle at the village of Grochov, near Warsaw ;
but, as he did not immediately make a decided attack on the capital, the Polish
army had time to recover and to supply its loss. General Skjinetzki, who had
replaced the severely wounded Hlopitzki, thought, by an unexpected blow, to
annihilate the corps of Russian guards, who occupied a separate position between
the Narev and the Boog, under the command of the Grand Duke Michael
Pavlovitch. Field-marshal Deebitch-Zabalkanski, with the chief army, hastened
to the relief of the guards, and gained a second obstinate battle with the Poles
before Ostrolenka, Subsequently he died of cholera, which was then raging in
Russia. That fatal malady had another distinguished victim in the person of the
Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovitch. Deebitch's place was then occupied by
Count Paskevitch Erivanski.
Chopin, in his Histoire de Russie, states that public report imputed the death
of Deebitch to poison administered by General Orlov. The latter had been sent
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY. OF RUSSIA 293
to the army by the emperor. Chopin, however, adds that there is no proof of the
said suspicion; and that Deebitch, already ill, probably died from the effects of
a drinking revel. The Princess Lowicz, second consort of the Grand Duke
Constantino Pavlovitch, soon after his death was also carried off by cholera.
ENTERPRISES IN VOLHYNIA AND LITHUANIA
Enterprises in Volhynia and Lithuania form remarkable episodes of this war.
Secret societies and constant intercourse with revolutionists in Warsaw had
gradually influenced the minds of Polish Romanist nobles in western Russian
governments. Youths belonging to the petty nobility only awaited the appearance
of Polish armies in order to act openly, and promised to raise a revolt in the
whole country. To effect these aims, General Dvernitzki's detachment was sent
from the kingdom of Poland to Volhynia and to Podolia. But the hope of
powerful aid in these provinces was disappointed. Russian peasants in no wise
showed inclination to join the reyolt, but even opposed it. Only small detach-
ments of the petty nobility were formed, augmented by the followers of nobles.
Besides, in Volhynia, General Dvernitzki met an able adversary in the person of
General Reediger. The Polish commander was soon obliged to rush towards the
Austrian frontiers and to enter Galicia, where his soldiers were discerned by
Austrians.
The enterprise undertaken in Lithuania was much more considerable, par-
ticularly towards the north, i.e. in Jmood and Samogitia. There, Polish
proprietors successfully formed bands of" Lithuanian peasants, belonging to the
same religion as themselves. Proprietors were likewise aided by the Romish
clergy, who abused their influence over the village population. These bands
began to ravish all that was Russian ; and, in case of defeat on the open field,
they sought refuge in their extensive impenetrable forests. A corps of regular
Polish forces, under command of Gelwood, was sent to aid the sedition in
Lithuania, but, after entering its capital, Vilna, was repulsed, so that the second
expedition terminated as unsuccessfully as that of Dvernitzki.
During this interval, there was disunion in the Polish camp. Two parties
were formed there. One was aristocratic, at the head of which was Prince Adam
Tschartoreeiski. Another was democratic. One of its leaders was the historian
Leleyvel, professor of the university of Vilna.
Such was the state of affairs when the Russian commander Paskevitch was
gradually advancing towards Warsaw with his troops. Before storming the
capital, he, however, endeavoured to make peace. The Poles were distinctly told
that if they immediately acknowledged the Emperor Nicholas as king, and did
294 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
not insist on western Russian provinces being added to Poland, all other demands
might easily be granted. The Poles, notwithstanding, replied that they had
taken up arms for the independence of their country, according to boundaries of
ancient times, and comprising land conquered from Russia. ' To such conditions
one can only reply by cannon shots ! ' exclaimed the Russian commander.
Skjinetzki and his successors, Malachovski, Dembrinski, etc., were unable to
prevent the advance of Russian troops towards Warsaw. Accordingly, on August
25, 1831, Paskevitch stormed Volio, a suburb of the city. Next day, after
desperate opposition, Warsaw also surrendered. Thus the revolt was subdued,
and its chief leaders fled abroad. In 1832 the grant charter of the Emperor
Alexander I. was abolished, and the kingdom of Poland was henceforth incor-
porated as part of the Russian empire, and on equal footing with its other districts.
The universities of Warsaw and Vilna were closed, as was also the lyceum of
Kremenetzk. Two years after this epoch, the university of St. Vladimir, in
Kiev, was opened for western governments. (Ilovaiski, pp. 349-350.)
CHAPTER LII
THE 'UNITED GREEKS' JOIN THE EASTERN CHURCH
AFTER the Polish insurrection had been subdued, a most important measure
effected in western Russia was the abolition of the ' Union.'
Even during the reign of Catherine II., when western districts were restored
to Russia, many United Greeks showed a strong desire to join the Eastern
church, and not a few did so. But, at the close of the eighteenth century, that
movement ceased. The administration of United churches was confided to a
Roman Catholic college, instituted in St. Petersburg for Romanists of the Russian
empire. However, about two millions of inhabitants still continued United
Greeks. The Poles did all in their power to convert these Unionists to
Catholicism. But even in the United church discord reigned. The white
clergy (i.e. priests) constantly complained of harassment from the United monks
of the Basilianski order. For the Basilians seized the best church property, and,
in general, were zealous allies of Catholicism.
During the reign of Nikolai Pavlovitch, great attention was paid to church
affairs in western regions. The best individuals among the United clergy began
to favour union with the Pravoslavni (Russo-Greek) church. The chief upholder
of this plan was Joseph Siemashko, subsequently metropolitan of Lithuania. He
was aided by Bloodov, minister of the interior. In 1828, in order to administer
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
affairs of the United Greek church, the emperor had instituted a special Uni
Greek college, presided over by the United Greek metropolitan. Most of the
Basilianski monasteries were closed, and a special seminary (at Jirovitzach, near
Slonime, government of Grodno) was founded for the education of the Uniti-d
clergy. At the same time, efforts were made in the United church to purify the
service from a mixture of Romish rites, and also gradually to prepare the way
for union with the Pravoslavni.
The Polish insurrection hastened that union (1831). Yet the Catholic party
did all in its power to oppose the movement. Proprietors, too, making use of
their power over serfs, endeavoured to dissuade the latter from joining the Eastern
church. Then the decision was taken to abolish the Union by a solemn act of
administration.
In 1839 a large number of United Greek priests and clergy assembled in
Polotzk, where they composed an exact description of their church, and, at the
same time, begged the emperor to include them along with the Pravoslavni
Russians. To that petition the following confirmation was given : — The Union
should still retain the episcopate of Holm, in the kingdom of Poland ; and,
beyond the boundaries of Russia, the Russian United Greek church should exist
in Galicia.
Furthermore, in order to guarantee the village population — chiefly Russian and
Pravoslavni in western provinces — from the oppression of Polish Catholic nobles,
a so-called 'inventory of the position' was issued. Distinct statements were
made concerning the obligations of peasants and the rights of proprietors regarding
the labour of serfs. The ' inventory ' was first introduced in Kiev by aid of the
general governor, Bibikov. But in the governments of White Russia and Lithuania 1847.
this new regulation did not appear before the commencement of the following reign.
CHAPTER LIII
THE CRIMEAN WAR, 1853 — THE CAUCASUS — DEATH OF THE EMPEROR NIKOLAI
PAVLOVITCH, 18TH FEBRUARY 1855
A NEW rupture between Russia and Turkey soon ensued. The cause of dispute
was precedence at the holy places of Jerusalem. Russia favoured the claims of 1853.
Greek Christians in Palestine, and maintained their rights. The Porte, however,
refused the demands of the Emperor Nicholas. Accordingly, Russian armies,
commanded by Prince Gortschakov, crossed the boundaries and occupied the
principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (1853). During the same year, the
296 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
Russian fleet in the Black Sea, under command of Admiral Nacheemov, destroyed
a Turkish squadron at Sinope. England and France were, however, alarmed for
the existence of Turkey, and sent it aid both in arms and by a fleet, with a view
to maintain the equilibrium of Europe. Sardinia also joined them. Austria,
although it had been saved by Russian aid against the Hungarian insurrection,
likewise assumed a threatening position towards Russia. The latter state had
accordingly a struggle with four powers. The allies, making use of a large fleet,
appeared in nearly all Russian seas, at the Baltic, the Black, the White seas, and
at the shores of Kamtschatka, The chief scene of action was, however, in the
1854. south. In September 1854, the Russian armies evacuated the principalities, and
returned by crossing the Pruth. But, at the same time, a powerful Anglo-French
fleet landed forces of the allies in the Crimea, at Eupatoria. Prince Menshikov,
chief commander of the Russian forces, gave a battle on the banks of the Alma,
but was defeated. The enemy, by sea and land, then besieged Sevastopol, in
whose haven the fleet of the Black Sea was shut up. During the space of eleven
months, an obstinate, bloody struggle was carried on at Sevastopol. In its
defence, the Russian engineer Totleben was particularly distinguished ; and,
amongst seamen, the admirals Korneelov and Nacheemov, both of whom fell in
battle. Attempts of Russian generals to storm the Anglo-French camp on the
heights of Inkerman, and at the Black Stream (Tschernaia Rietschka), terminated
unsuccessfully; and the Russian army, which had always been an object of
peculiar care and interest to the Emperor Nicholas, fought with its usual courage
and self-sacrifice. But the allies were favoured by superior knowledge in the
art of war, as well as by better arms and more complete means of communication.
For example, while the allies easily obtained supplies by means of their fleet, at
that epoch intercourse between central Russia and the Crimea, through vast
steppes, was merely carried on by simple roads. For Russia had then only one
railway, that between St. Petersburg and Moscow.
1855— Death During the siege of Sevastopol, 18th February 1855, the Emperor Nicholas I.
isth'r1 b^8 1 ' ^e(*' an(* was succeeded by his eldest son, Alexander II.
ruary. War was meanwhile continued with unabating vigour.
On August 27, after a frightful bombardment of three weeks and a desperate
attack, the French took possession of the Malachov heights, i.e. the chief defence
of Sevastopol. Meanwhile, in Asia Minor, towards the southern boundaries of
the Caucasus, Russian arms had nearly constant success in engagements with the
Turks. The conquest of the fort of Kars, by General Mooraviev, hastened the
1856— Peace conciusion Of peace. At length, war terminated by the peace of Paris, March 18,
of Pans,
March 18. 1856. Conquests on both sides were returned. The mouths of the Danube were,
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 297
however, assigned to Turkey. The Black Sea was declared neutral and free to
trading vessels of all nations.
The finances of the Russian empire, even at the epoch of the continental system,
were in an embarrassed condition. War from 1828 till 1831 still more deranged
them. But during a subsequent period of peace, prolonged for sixteen years, thanks
to the efforts of Count Kankrine, minister of finance, things began to amend. The
value of bank-notes was raised, and metal currency was abundant. The Crimean
war, as a struggle between three of the most powerful nations, of course demanded
great efforts and sacrifices. But, from a moral point of view, that war was
beneficial to Russia by showing its social wants. Thus, with a new reign,
amelioration began. A new epoch in Russian history was at hand. Besides the
above-mentioned war, the reign of Nicholas I. is distinguished by an incessant
struggle with the mountaineer races of the Caucasus.
Towards the close of Paul's reign, the sovereign of Georgia, George XII., on
dying, left his kingdom to the Russian emperor. Thus Georgia was annexed to
Russia. Then the chain of the Caucasus appeared among Russian possessions ;
and a constant strife was carried on with the mountaineer races there. At first
the Russians contented themselves with defensive movements against the repeated
attacks of marauding robbers. General Ermolov was appointed commander-in-
chief of the Russian forces (1816), and gradually their power became extended in
these regions. Notwithstanding, Russian progress was hindered by the appearance
of a new Mussulman sect, called Muridism, which, about the period of 1830, began
to spread quickly among the mountaineer population of the Caucasus. In this
wise many hitherto petty, scattered tribes became united in a general religious
fanaticism. Among leaders of Muridism the most powerful and dangerous to
Russia was Shamyl, who had assumed the distinguished clerical title of Imam.
Harassed in many directions, the Russians were forced to augment their numbers
considerably, and likewise to carry on an arduous, obstinate struggle with the
formidable imam. It was in vain that, from time to time, Russian armies formed
expeditions in various mountainous directions, burned and devastated tented
villages of the Tscherkass tribes. These excursions were merely occasional, and
the subjection of the native races advanced slowly. Solid progress was only
effected when dense forests were all cut down, and when more regular, constant
attacks were made. Meanwhile the influence of Muridism was considerably
enfeebled ; and the mountain races began to grow tired of their despotic imam.
Finally, in 1859, Shamyl, besieged in his impregnable village fort of Gooneb, 1859.
surrendered as a prisoner of war to Prince Bariatinski, viceroy of the Caucasus ;
and all the eastern part of these regions thereupon submitted to Russia. Shamyl
VOL. II. 2 P
298 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
subsequently lived in Russia, and his son was educated in a Russian military
school. (Ilovaiski, pp. 354-355.)
CHAPTER LIV
NIKOLAI PAVLOVITCH AS A SOVEREIGN
THE third son of the Emperor Paul was not educated in childhood and early
youth with the idea that he would ascend the throne of Russia. Had this been
so, there is no doubt that much iu his first training would have been different.
But gradually Nicholas became accustomed to the prospect of wearing the crown,
and accordingly he began to prepare for that exalted position. His attempts at
self-improvement were also doubtless much aided (Andre'ev states, p. 375) by
the influence of an enlightened, well-educated consort. Nikolai Pavlovitch, how-
ever, foresaw all the difficulty of his future career. Moreover, he was noble-
minded enough to feel no shame of his desire to learn.
Andre'ev likewise continues to remark (p. 376): 'In order fully to understand
the spirit prevalent during the reign of Nikolai Pavlovitch, we must pay special
attention to the circumstances under which he ascended the throne. That im-
portant act, at the very commencement, was stamped by a sad drama, which could
not fail to cast a shadow on the future. For, scarcely had the young sovereign
openly claimed his rights, when he was at the same time obliged to use severe
measures. Let us also not forget that previous to the reign of Nikolai Pavlovitch,
Araktsche'ev had, for nearly fourteen years, been chief ruler in Russia ; and his
sternness was well known. The star of Araktscheev, notwithstanding, set when
the young emperor ascended the throne; and henceforth the person nearest the
sovereign was Kleiumichel, Araktsche'ev's former secretary. In fact, Nikolai
Pavlovitch chose new individuals who had nothing in common with Araktsche'ev's
time. There is also no doubt that the personality of Nikolai Pavlovitch soon
subdued surrounding advisers, so that they merely became the fulfillers of
his will.'
During the reign of Nicholas I., three words stamped on the standards
of interior policy were — Pravoslavie (the Russo-Greek religion), Autocracy,
Nationality. For religion and government cannot fail to go hand in hand.
Religion maintains 'the powers that be,' — and they, in turn, uphold religion.
That is an old truth. An absolute sovereign, like the Emperor Nicholas, could
not do otherwise than preserve ' Pravoslavie.'
As for nationality, the third word inscribed on the new emperor's standard,
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 299
he himself was quite Russian, both in education and in his mode of life. He
could not bear slavish imitation of all that was foreign. Of course, the sovereign's
individuality influenced the character of his government, ' Documents presented
to a Russian emperor should be written in Russ,' remarked Nikolai Pavlovitch,
during the first period of his reign, on one occasion, when Count Kankrine
transmitted an account of finances written in French. Not only so: Nikolai
Pavlovitch did not favour travelling of Russians in foreign countries. When
Tschitschagov presented the permission of the late emperor to live in France,
Nikolai Pavlovitch erased Tschitschagov's name from the list of state councillors.
In answer to that, Tschitschagov returned the document, which entitled him to
receive a pension of fifty thousand roubles. In fact, passports to go abroad were
not obtained without considerable difficulty. Noblemen were not permitted to
remain longer than five years in foreign countries; merchants, not more than
three years. Certainly, to preserve nationality alone was not the only motive
which urged these measures.
Subsequent to the war of 1812 Russia occupied a primary position in military
affairs among Continental powers. Thus the Emperor Nicholas to a certain
degree might, like his brother Alexander i., decide the fate of Europe. But at
this epoch, western states, particularly England, strictly observed all the political
movements of Russia with regard to its neighbours. Indeed, a dread of the
' Northern Colossus ' had augmented with the increase of Russia's military power,
subsequent to the fall of Napoleon. (Andre'ev, pp. 376-377.)
When Nikolai Pavlovitch ascended the throne (1825), the Caucasus was a 1825.
constant military school for the Russians, but a school which cost Russia very
dear. The emperor on one occasion took Shamyl's little son — then a cadet —
in his arms, and remarked to some Russian officers who were examining the
corps, that 'Shamyl had confided the education of his son to a Russian
sovereign.' Shamyl's exploits had, however, demanded great sacrifices. It is
calculated that during the reign of Nikolai Pavlovitch the Caucasus annually cost
Russia twenty thousand soldiers. (Andre'ev, p. 379.)
But although Nikolai Pavlovitch was a thoroughly Russian man, totally averse
to slavish imitation of every foreign usage, he, notwithstanding, was in no wise
averse to profit by new inventions, especially those likely to benefit his own
country. Andre'ev (p. 380), in fact, mentions that the emperor himself rode in
the first St. Petersburg omnibus, in order to show that such a mode of conveyance
might be adopted by others save those of the lower orders.
In 1840 the emperor had a dispute with Count Kankrine concerning the project
of making a railway between St. Petersl urg and Moscow. Nikolai Pavlovitth
300 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
was much in favour of the railway. Yet all -his ministers opposed it. Only one
— Kleinmichel — was on the emperor's side. Kankrine, as minister of finance,
might surely have foreseen the immense advantage of railways to Russia.
Notwithstanding, he was their greatest opponent. Indeed, he openly declared
that the railway was ' downright stupidity ; and that in* twenty years hence there
would not be one railway in all the Russian empire.' Let us, however, not forget
that the opinion was expressed in 1840. Audre'ev (p. 381), moreover, ridicules
Count Kankrine, and affirms that he wished to adopt various professions — those
of M.D., architect, man of letters, minister of finance — and was exceedingly angry
when doctors made him understand that he was a bad physician, or when
architects thought his plans incorrect.
As for his literary attainments, their inferiority is proved by his compositions.
Concerning his ability as minister of finance, he was merely useful as far as
economy was regarded ; and it certainly was absolutely necessary at the epoch of
which we now write. Kankrine was accordingly rewarded by Nikolai Pavlovitch
in a regal manner ; for the emperor used often to say that ' ingratitude is the
most hideous of all vices.'
It is said that Kankrine, when already a count and in receipt of four hundred
thousand roubles per annum, was still economical in his habits, and desired to
introduce economy in Russian finances. Unfortunately for Russia, notwithstand-
ing, they were administered by one possessed of little foresight, and besides
opposed to new inventions. As minister of finance, Kankrine might have
undertaken the construction of the first Russian railway. Thus the American,
Wistler, would perhaps not have been appointed to execute so important a plan ;
and perhaps also the railway would not have cost the Russian treasury the
colossal sum of a hundred and twenty millions of roubles! (Andre'ev, p. 381.)
Events which occurred in France during the year 1830 could, of course, in no
wise obtain favour in the eyes of an autocratic sovereign like Nikolai Pavlovitch.
When the French ambassador told the emperor that Thiers and Guizot were the
right and left hands of King Louis-Philippe, Nikolai Pavlovitch replied that,
from the way in which business was conducted, the king had evidently two
left hands.
Among nations in which prevailed the order of things introduced by the
' Sacred Alliance,' preparations were made for war against France. Prussia
prepared to do so, and awaited aid from Russia, Field-marshal Deebitch —
already surnamed ' Zabalkanski ' — was then in Berlin, in order to carry on
conferences. He was dining with the king when the latter received news of
the insurrection in Warsaw.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 301
'Field-marshal, have you heard of the revolt in Warsaw, where, according to
your owu account, there is a force of a hundred thousand men, whom you
promised us to act against France ? ' said the king to Deebitch.
It is known that after the insurrection the Poles declared that among the
papers of the Grand Duke Constantino PavLovitch, some proved that Russia was
then prepared for a struggle with France.
When the ashes of Napoleon I. were transported to his own country from
St. Helena, the Emperor Nicholas offered the French government a block of
the best porphyry, to place on Napoleon's tomb. Reverence for his memory
was as an arm against the Orleans dynasty in the hands of its opponent. Nikolai
Pavlovitch had the highest opinion of Napoleon's talents. The Russian emperor's
proposal was accepted with gratitude.
Then came the memorable year of 1848. At that epoch Russia aided in
subduing the revolutionary movement in Hungary; but Hungarian patriots
maintained that Russian money, rather than forces, had done so. In 1849,
however, Austria acted in an unseemly manner towards Russia. A solemn
promise had been made to the Russian commander, Paskevitch that the lives
of the Hungarian generals who had commanded the insurgents should be
spared. But the promise was not kept. The generals were executed. Ever
afterwards, Paskevitch could not without horror hear the name of the Austrian
general Hainan, and called him 'a murderer.' We note also the words of
the Emperor Nicholas at Warsaw, near the monument of John Sobeiski :
'Sobeiski and I were both simpletons! We aided Austria, only to see its
ingratitude ! '
Andre"ev, however, states (p. 384) that a desire to aid Austria against
Hungary was not the only motive which urged Russia to subdue the Hungarian
insurrection. There was another reason, and it was that in the revolutionary
army there were twenty thousand Poles !
Be that as it may, however, the war of 1848 left traces in Russia, for then
a decided plan was formed to emancipate the serfs. Nikolai Pavlovitch, in fact,
affirmed that he would do all in his power to effect so important a movement.
It is said that even in 1846 Count Kiselev had made a project regarding the
emancipation, but it was deferred by the events of 1848.
It is remarkable that during that year the emancipation of the serfs was
considered as a purely social aim, whereas, when it actually occurred in a later
reign, the important act confirmed the union between the government and the
people, and tended to confirm the power of the former.
' But at the very period when the Russians imagined their own country the
302 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
most powerful in the world, a blow from the west was aimed at Russia.
The Crimean war broke out. It disclosed much hitherto unseen. It dissipated
the mirage produced by a peace of thirty years ; and, when the mirage vanished,
the Colossus — at whose signal the magic shade had been summoned which
terrified all Europe — was no longer among the living.' (Andrdev, p. 385.)
CHAPTEE LV
THE EMPEROR NIKOLAI PAVLOVITCH AS A MAN
TALL of stature, stately, symmetrically formed, a countenance stamped with manly
beauty, a naturally proud bearing, the person of the Emperor Nikolai Pavlovitch
was such that, when once seen, it could never be forgotten.
' What eyes ! In all my life as a sailor I have not before seen such eyes ! '
exclaimed a Swedish admiral when Nikolai Pavlovitch landed at Stockholm, and
fixed his penetrating gaze on the admiral.
And that cold, scrutinising glance was capable of fascinating most natures
and of rendering others confused. It was doubtless the peculiar personality of the
young sovereign which produced so powerful an effect on the surrounding masses
during the memorable day of December 14, 1825. On another occasion, agitation
prevailed among the people in St. Petersburg in 1830. An enraged crowd
blamed doctors for poisoning the water and for the appearance of cholera, rushed
to hospitals, threw out beds, and next attempted to kill the doctors. The city
authorities were on the point of summoning armed force, when suddenly, on an
open space, Nikolai Pavlovitch himself appeared. He was excited. His glance
seemed on fire. He stopped and stood upright in his conveyance, among the
angry multitude. ' Who are you ? ' shouted the emperor. ' Are you Poles or
Frenchmen ? The Poles put my beloved brother to death. Will you do the
same to me ? Fall on your knees ! '
And the mass, swayed as if by the influence of a magic wand, knelt down.
In 1827, at the commencement of his reign, Nikolai Pavlovitch seemed
somewhat pale and thin; but, subsequently, he became stouter, which much
improved his symmetrical proportions. It was thought that the uniform of
the Cossacks particularly suited him. But, indeed, Nikolai Pavlovitch always
wore uniform, and only appeared in the dress of a civilian when abroad. At
home, in Russia, Nikolai Pavlovitch wore a military overcoat instead of a
dressing-gown. In fact, the tight, closely-fitting military costumes adopted by
the emperor are said to have injured his health. One English doctor —
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 303
Grenville— indeed, from physical observations, correctly foretold the period of
the emperor's death.
'St. Petersburg is a Russian capital, yet it is not Russia,' said Nikolai
Pavlovitch, on one occasion, to the French ambassador, Custines. 'You must
see Moscow and Nijni-Novgorod.'
Nikolai Pavlovitch himself liked to see Russia and to drive about at full speed
from one spot to another. So fast did he drive, indeed, that once he was thrown
out of his conveyance and had a broken collar-bone. Thus he was forced to halt,
and to undergo treatment in the town of Tschembar (government of Penza).
Having had a military education in early life, the Emperor Nikolai Pavlovitch
was ever afterwards very fond of all that concerned the military. While yet
grand duke, and while he inhabited the Anitchkov palace, were to be seen hung
up on the walls of some apartments drawings of all the different costumes of
Russian armies. And, when emperor, Nikolai Pavlovitch had a dinner-service
with the same designs. The emperor also liked paintings which represented
battles. The celebrated French military painter, Horace Verney, once received
as presents from the emperor a pair of beautiful horses, a Russian sledge, and
a coachman sent on purpose to Paris.
Nikolai Pavlovitch liked to read Homer's Iliad, in Grietitch's translation. So
absorbed was the emperor on one occasion with the said work, that he was too
late for a court ball.
Nikolai Pavlovitch was also fond of the theatre, although it was less
interesting at that epoch than representations given abroad, on account of the
strict censorship. Notwithstanding, nothing was spared to attract the best
actors to St. Petersburg — 'that Greece and Italy, without marble and sun,'
according to Custines; or, 'the most magnificent but the dullest of European
capitals,' according to Wellington.
The domestic life of the Emperor Nicholas was remarkable for its extreme
simplicity, copied probably from the example of his elder brother, Alexander I.
Nikolai Pavlovitch slept on a simple mattress stuffed with hair. He often
rose before dawn. A military overcoat, instead of a dressing-gown, showed
his dislike to luxury. The emperor's dinner was simple. It consisted only
of a few dishes, not unfrequently quite Russian. The emperor ate with appe-
tite, and generally finished dinner very soon. He was remarkably sober. He
did not like tobacco, and disliked that those near him should smoke. In the
evening he drank two or three glasses of strong tea. Regarding the use of time
he was very exact. Each hour had its own occupation.
In private life the Emperor Nicholas strove to be a true gentleman. He was,
304 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
besides, eager to know the opinions of foreigners, and what they wrote about him.
He seemed to feel that, as sovereign of so vast an empire, the eyes of all were
turned towards him. Hence the immense number of foreign works on Russia,
and entitled ' Rossica,' collected in the public library of St. Petersburg.
As we have already noticed, the remarkable personal appearance of the
Emperor Nicholas could not fail to make a profound impression on the masses.
On seeing Nikolai Pavlovitch in Rome, in the full uniform of the Horse Guards,
Traustiverinetz, in a transport of admiration, exclaimed : ' What a pity that thou
art not our sovereign ! '
Nikolai Pavlovitch was then riding on his way to visit the Pope.
But, on the other hand, the cold, stern, scrutinising gaze of the Emperor
Nicholas was such that few had courage to tell him the truth.
' Those around your majesty seldom dare to be frank,' wrote Colonel
Rostovtzev, when he disclosed to the emperor the details of a conspiracy on
the first day after he ascended the throne. During a personal interview with
Rostovtzev, the emperor embraced, kissed him, thanked him for his frankness,
and urged him henceforth to live in the Winter Palace; but Rostovtzev, as
we already mentioned, refused every reward. Andre'ev (p. 391) mentions another
occasion when none dared to tell Nikolai Pavlovitch the true state of affairs.
The incident even assumed a comical form. While in Kiev the emperor wished
to visit a hospital The patients, excited by the news, rose from their beds
in order to see his majesty arrive. But the emperor was very prompt in his
movements, and was already on the point of entering the ward, so that the
patients had not time to go to their own beds. Great disorder then ensued, and
each rushed to the bed nearest him. Meanwhile the emperor entered. He then
saw with amazement that many patients had not at all the illness marked on a
slate near the bed. The doctor of the hospital was accordingly changed, although
he was in no wise to blame ; because none had sufficient courage to say what in
reality had occurred.
In Nikolai Pavlovitch there were, in fact, two men combined — one, an
emperor; another, a private individual and father of a family. Nikolai Pavlovitch
proudly looked into the eyes of Europe, but Russians he considered as devoted
subjects and his own children. Brilliancy and magnificence must surround the
throne of the Russian sovereign ; and, at that epoch, the court of St. Petersburg
was considered the first in Europe as regarded outward display.
Notwithstanding, that brilliant sphere was scarcely where Nikolai Pavlovitch
felt most at home. During court receptions it was even remarked that he spoke
but little to foreign ambassadors, and left that chiefly to his consort the empress.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 305
'Ma chore, iios beaux jours sont passes!' exclaimed Nicholas to Alexandra
Feodorovua, on leaving the Auitchkov palace with her, when about to comineuce
his reign.
As for the intercourse of Nikolai Pavlovitch with those around him, there \\a->
a marked difference in his manner towards foreigners and towards Russians. The
latter he ever regarded with paternal feelings.
' That is a family affair ! Europe has no right to meddle with it ! ' exclaimed
the Emperor Nicholas regarding the revolt of December 14, 1825. The reply
was made to foreign ambassadors, who begged permission to accompany his
majesty when about to subdue the insurgents. And the remark showed the
sovereign's real character.
Catherine II. and Paul had both correspondents in Europe; and, during the
reign of Alexander I., a French newspaper was published in St. Petersburg in order
to inform Europe of what was passing in Russia. We have already noticed that
the Emperor Nicholas liked to know the opinions of foreigners regarding himself.
He, in fact, often received and conversed with those who visited Russia; and, not
imfrequently, on such occasions he appeared in a most favourable light, and left
a pleasant remembrance of himself. As for Russian authors of the epoch, they
submitted to the emperor's influence. Nikolai Pavlovitch showed every atten-
tion and kindness to the dying historian Karamzine, and assigned him special
apartments in the palace of Taurida, where there was a garden in which he could
walk. The emperor, too, was liberal towards Karamzine's family. Jookovski,
at this epoch, was inseparable from the imperial domestic circle.
Even the self-willed Pooshkine, whose biting satire had so often got him
into disgrace, turned over a new leaf.
Andreev (p. 398) narrates the following details concerning the incorrigible
poet : —
'It was necessary to correct Pooshkine otherwise than by punishment.
Accordingly, a state messenger, one fine day, brought him from captivity to
Moscow, at the time of the emperor's coronation there. In travelling costume,
covered with dust, the poet was conducted directly to the palace of the Kreml
to the emperor's presence.
' " Tell me frankly," said Nikolai Pavlovitch, addressing the poet, " would st
thou have participated in the revolt of December 14 hadst thou then been in
St. Petersburg ? "
' " Certainly, please your majesty ! " was the reply. " All my friends had
joined the conspiracy. I could not have done otherwise than go with them,
and, thank God, my absence saved me from ruin ! '
VOL. II. 2 Q
306 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
'"Come, now, Pooshkine, thou hast played enough of tricks during thy time,"
continued the emperor ; " thou must be serious now ! Henceforth, I myself shall
be thine only censor. Send directly to me all that thou writest."'
And Pooshkine did become serious. His restive muse was subdued. He was
subsequently a gentleman-in-waiting at court. He was the husband of a court
beauty, and became a man of the world. He no longer indulged in biting satire,
but wrote his famous tragedy of Boris Godoonov.
Impartiality obliges us also to state that generous proposals were likewise
made to the widow of Reeteev, one of the December conspirators executed. If
law had punished him as a criminal, history is more disposed to unveil the past ;
and there can be no doubt that Reeteev's moderation had prevented his associates
from bloodshed — it may even be, from shedding the sovereign's blood. Such was
the merit of one who had been a member of the northern society. Thus govern-
ment proposed a pension to Reeteev's widow, which she, however, declined.
History, in this wise, cannot fail to see that tribute was paid to the memory of
the deceased. (Andre'ev, pp. 398-399.)
The following anecdote also leaves a good remembrance of Emperor Nikolai
Pavlovitch : —
On one occasion, while driving alone in the streets of St. Petersburg, the emperor
met a very poor funeral, attended only by a few mourners. Nikolai Pavlovitch —
with the touching respect which Russians always show towards the dead — at once
took off his hat, and then ordered the coachman to follow the simple funeral
procession. On seeing that the emperor joined it, it soon became an immense
crowd. Whereupon Nikolai Pavlovitch, addressing those near him, said, ' Now,
friends, take my place,' and retired.
After making investigations, it turned out that the deceased had been a poor
but honest official, unable to make any provision for his family. So Nikolai
Pavlovitch, as he considered Russians his own children, placed the dead man's
sons at school, and granted a pension to his widow.
CHAPTER LYI
FAMILY OF THE EMPEROR NIKOLAI PAVLOVITCH
CONSORT — Princess Charlotte, daughter of King Frederick William II. of
Prussia and Louisa of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; known in Russia as Alexandra
Feodorovua.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 307
SONS
Alexander IL, Constantine, Nicholas, Michael
DAUGHTERS
Mary, subsequently duchess of Leichtenberg ; Olga, queen of Wiirtemberg;
Alexandra, married Prince Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, and died soon afterwards, at
the birth of her first child.
CHAPTER LVII
REIGN OF THE EMPEROR ALEXANDER II. (NIKOLAEVITCH), 'THE MARTYR
SOVEREIGN,' 'THE LIBERATOR,' 1855-1881
GREAT was the joy in Moscow on April 17 (29, N.S.), 1818, when the Grand
Duchess Alexandra Feodorovna gave birth to her first son, subsequently the
Emperor Alexander 11.
His uncle, Alexander I., then occupied the throne. He was at that time in
the south of Russia ; but, on hearing the glad news, he hastened to Moscow. On
May 5, the baptism of the infant prince took place in the Tschoodov monastery
(at the Kreml), and prayers of thanksgiving were offered up for the birth of
an heir.
After the death of Alexander I. in Taganrog (19th November 1825), when
his younger brother, Nikolai Pavlovitch, became sovereign, his eldest son,
Alexander Nikolaevitch, was proclaimed heir-apparent to the throne of Russia.
Two individuals immediately near his person, and who had much influence on
his mind, were General Charles Merder and the celebrated Russian poet, Vasili
Andre'evitch Jookovski.
' These two excellent men,' says Safonov, in his Historical Sketch of the Lift
and Reign of Alexander II. (pp. 7-8), 'strove to instil into their illustrious pupil's
mind, that not merely the outward distinctions of royalty place a sovereign at
au unattainable height, from which he may be considered as the father of his
people ; but that a monarch is only indeed great when he possesses qualities
necessary for his exalted position ; that in order to govern millions, he must
have a mind able to feel and to understand the wants of his people; that the
man chosen by God to occupy the important position of a sovereign is, not-
withstanding, himself only a man, who must at last render an account of his
actions to God ; finally, that the sway of a monarch is powerful and indestructible
when it relies on the love of the people.'
308 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
From General Merder's Notes, we learn that the youthful companions who
shared the amusements and the education of Alexander Nikolaevitch were
Vielgorski and Patkul.
We learn many interesting details from General Merder's Notes.
In 1829, when the Emperor Nicholas, with his family, went to Warsaw and
thence abroad, General Merder remarks : —
'March 19. — When the Grand Duke Alexander learned from the empress
that he would accompany her to Warsaw, he repeated to me what he had heard,
and then asked : " Where will so many horses be obtained ? It will be a great
misfortune for the poor peasants," continued he, " to take away their horses at
the very time when they are most needed."
' I replied, that sympathy and consideration for that useful class were highly
commendable and did him honour.'
General Merder furthermore remarks that the grand duke, when he did
undertake the said journey, paid the utmost attention to its most minute details,
and expressed pity on witnessing the extreme poverty of many peasants'
huts.
' It was peculiarly agreeable to me,' writes General Merder, ' to see the
readiness with which the young prince drew out his purse in order to offer its
contents to a poor widow and her three little children.'
From subsequent remarks concerning the education of General Merder's young
pupils, he tells us that from the number of weeks during which the grand duke
and Vielgorski received marks of distinction they obtained full praise. Then
they had permission to put aside a certain sum for benevolent purposes. At the
end of the year calculation was made which pupil had collected more, and,
consequently, who had more means for benevolence.
As the journal proceeds, Merder, however, adds : ' But now it is time to
put away childish things. It is time to think of strictly performing duty; of
obtaining esteem ; of aiming at personal merit, which cannot be without strong
will, without constant self-restraint.'
In a work entitled The Churchman's Companion (vol. vi., July to December,
pp. 144-152), there is a most interesting 'Biographical Sketch of the late
Emperor Alexander II. of Russia,' by W. H. Allen, who remarks : —
' As a child, this unfortunate prince was over-educated and over-drilled, till he
narrowly escaped softening of the brain when seventeen. At the age of seven,
when he had no longer a youthful amusement, Marshal Marmont wrote with
astonishment of the skill with which he manoeuvred the soldiers under his
command, during a review, in the midst of twenty-two thousand men.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 309
'At eight the following rule of life was laid down for the young grand duke,
and faithfully carried out :— He rose at six o'clock A.M., dressed, attended to his
devotions, breakfasted, and prepared his lessons, which lasted from seven to
nine, from ten to twelve, and from five to seven. The first pause was filled
up by visits to his parents and the parade-ground, the second by a walk and
dinner at two o'clock. As the breakfast consisted— after the usual Russian
fashion — of a simple cup of tea and a dry roll, he ought to have dined with
appetite. His lessons ended at seven. Then the boy had gymnastic exercises,
followed by supper, after which he had to write a journal and to give his tutor
a recapitulation of the day's work. At ten he invariably retired to rest; and
history was read to him till he fell asleep. His holidays were not to extend over
six weeks in the year ; and they were to be occupied exclusively with military
exercises, in company with the cadet corps.
' The subjects of which the child's lessons consisted seemed singularly unfitted
to aid an autocrat in his duties. Besides, of course, arithmetic, there were the
elements of geometry, philosophy, grammar, logical theories, physical geography,
mineralogy, botany, zoology, anthropology, statistics, morals, metaphysics, natural
and revealed religion — all these were instilled into him between eight and twelve
years of age. Political rudiments, political geography, history and the laws of
other nations, which were added, may have been more useful. Notwithstanding,
after the boy had passed a brilliant viva voce examination on these subjects, in
presence of the Russian court and some invited guests (April 1835), the Emperor
Nicholas observed that "a strong fist was much more necessary to govern
Russia than all that learning." '
When the prince had sufficiently digested these subjects, he was to learn
French, German, Polish, English, drawing, and music.
Such were the early childhood and youth of Alexander Nikolaevitch.
At a later period — May 2, 1837 — the young grand duke quitted St. Petersburg
in order to undertake a journey to various governments (provinces of the Russian
empire). Subsequently he was the first of the imperial family who visited distant
Siberia.
Its inhabitants received him with rapture. 'Formerly our country was
Siberia, now it has become Russia ! ' exclaimed they.
While admiring the picturesque scenes of these remote regions, the grand
duke was also struck by the abundance and wealth of natural productions ;
but he also saw that they were nearly unworked in consequence of the
poverty of the thin population. The sad position of exiles in Siberia also
struck the compassionate mind of the young prince. So much was this the
310
case, that he implored the emperor to mitigate their sufferings ; and the request
was granted.
On returning from Siberia the grand duke took another direction, and visited
the central governments of Russia.
The journey of the heir-apparent lasted about eight months, and it was like
a ' student's apartment, in which the future emperor saw the distinctive features
and wants of his native country,' to quote an idea expressed by the metropolitan
Philaret in an address to the grand duke.
From 1838 till 1839 the grand duke visited various European countries. He
passed some time in Sweden, as he was desirous to become acquainted with
the manners and customs of his neighbours. Then he visited Denmark, Prussia,
Austria, Italy, Holland, and England. Everywhere he was especially interested
in the condition of the working-classes. Not unfrequently, too, he used to go into
the cottages of peasants and to converse with them.
In 1840 the grand duke again went abroad; but curiosity to see foreign
countries was not the only motive which prompted him to travel a second time.
His chief object was to choose a bride in the person of the Princess Mary, then
sixteen years of age, and daughter of the duke of Hesse-Darmstadt. The
princess came to Russia, and on April 16, 1841, amid the universal joy of the
people, was united in marriage to the Hereditary Grand Duke Alexander
Nikolaevitch. She was henceforth known in Russia by the names of Maria
Alexandrovna.
Meanwhile, political events, to which we have already alluded, led to the
Crimean war, in which the Hereditary Grand Duke Alexander took a personal
part. Then came the death of his father, the Emperor Nicholas, who was
succeeded by his eldest son, Alexander ir.
When peace was proclaimed in Paris (March 18, 1856), the new sovereign
devoted himself exclusively to promote the good of his own subjects.
' It would be too long to enumerate all the reforms with which Alexander II.
has endowed his country,' wrote a Swiss resident in St. Petersburg, in April
1881, to the BiUiothkque Universelle, a magazine published at Lausanne. 'It is
enough to say that, apart from those well known, such as the emancipation of the
serfs, judicial reform, the introduction of provincial self-government, the press
laws, conscription made obligatory to all, there is not a single department of
public life which has not received some amelioration or some benefit due to his
initiative. Literature and art have always enjoyed his special protection. His
tender heart could see no suffering without being moved by it, and the army
always remember the frequent visits he paid to it during the last war, and
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA an
the consoling words he was particularly skilled in addressing to every wounded
man. His death itself was caused by the good feeling which prevented him
from leaving a fatal spot without assisting the men who had fallen in hi*
service, and this last act of his life has greatly enhanced his popularity.'
'For such a eulogium on an autocrat to proceed from the pen of a
republican,' continues Allen, 'argues that the subject of it must have possessed
some merit ; and even with the levelling tendencies of the present day, the ruler
of one hundred millions of human beings and the sovereign of the seventh part
of the globe can, under no circumstances, be an object of indifference to the
world at large.
' But it cannot be passed over that Alexander n. possessed a certain weakness
of character which led him into error too commonly the snare of kings, though
his faults have been greatly exaggerated.'
Who, indeed, is perfect ? And before condemning any one, should we not ask
ourselves the impartial question, 'How would we also have acted in similar
circumstances, and had we been exposed to the same temptations ? '
Be that as it may, however, let us once more allude to startling statements
made by Allen in his 'Biographical Sketch of the Emperor Alexander of
Russia ' : —
'Before the new code of laws promulgated in 1865, there were neither
witnesses, jury, nor barristers employed before a judge, who generally managed
the case by a private arrangement with the richer of the two parties concerned.
A young nobleman, in the first year during which Alexander n. occupied the
throne, set a pack of hounds to tear in pieces a serf-boy, an only son, who had
been negligent in the care of a favourite dog, and the nobleman was stabbed to
the heart by the boy's indignant father. A soldier who casually met an officer
had to halt, uncover, and stand cap in hand till his superior had passed. There
was said to be only one official in the government of Moscow who would refuse a
bribe, and a Russian could not travel without paying a tax of £40, to be renewed
every year he was absent. In some cases letters were actually bought from
the postman, who, if he delivered them at all, expected a fee. Only three
hundred students could enter universities during the reign of the Emperor
Nicholas, that sovereign being of opinion that the said number would supply
as many officials as were needed for the public service ; and miles of land, now
cultivated by freed serfs on the Volga, were then a virgin forest and rank grass.
Yet Mr. Pobodonostzov, who was tutor to the Emperor Alexander in.,
declares that the restless, feverish state of the country now is due to the reign
of Alexander n. having been twenty-six years of uninterrupted reform, and that
312 OUTLIXE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
it ouly requires a period of cessation from all reform, which would give it rest.
And there are Englishmen long resident in Russia who ask, 'Do the Russians
show themselves so just and true in all their dealings, either with the state or
with inferiors, as to assure us that a Russian parliament would pay the interest
on the foreign debt as faithfully as it has hitherto been paid by an autocrat ?
Would the upper classes take upon their own shoulders their fair proportion of
taxes ? or, would not the peasants be more likely to be deprived of some
privileges which they obtained from Alexander n. ? Would the punctuality on
railways now enforced by the crown be regarded by a people to whom the value
of time or of accuracy in speech is quite unknown ? And would not the credit
and consequent external strength of the empire be lowered by internal discord,
broken engagements, and imprudent foreign wars ? In short, have the Nihilists
given any more proof than the Taeping rebels in China that they are fit to take
part in the government of the empire whose administration they are so anxious
to upset ? '
Certain it is that measures practicable and beneficial in England would be
utterly impossible in Russia, where the people have been accustomed not only to
absolute government, but even to harsh treatment, and where mildness only
appears as another form of weakness.
' One great difficulty in the way of reform in Russia is,' continues Allen, ' that
while one party is ready to adopt measures fit to undermine society, another side
thinks that the government has already advanced much too far in liberalism, and
would willingly induce it to retrace its steps.
' There was no subject on which the Emperor Alexander n. was more opposed
than in promoting education among the working-classes — as he publicly said, ' to
enable them to resist the peculation and oppression of their superiors.' And he
opened universities to women students against the advice of all his ministers,
and permitted women to qualify as physicians, from the want of medical advice
in the provinces. That this sudden extension of education among a hitherto
exceedingly ignorant people should have no drawbacks is hardly to be expected.'
It is ever so in similar circumstances. Proud of superior attainments, many
of the young generation consider their parents as ignorant, set their authority at
defiance, and too early become independent.
Towards 1863, heavy clouds overhung the political atmosphere. The Polish
insurrection, instigated by the emperors of France and Austria for the sake of
weakening Prussia's ally, and carried on by the Austrians and emigrant Poles,
gave the greatest uneasiness to the Russian court ; and when it was followed by
the Austrian and Prussian war, the Russian empress's entire sympathy was with
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
her Austrian relative, whom she had advised her brother, the duke of Darmstadt,
to assist with his army, while her consort inclined to his old uncle in Prussia.
In 1870 the same difference of opinion existed on the subject of the Franco-
German war.
' Anarchy, ruin, and bloodshed are all that revolutionists, during twenty-six
years, have been able to bestow on Russia,' says Allen. ' The Crimean war seeuis
to have given birth to Nihilism, which was practically unknown iu the reign of
Nicholas I. The destruction which its votaries are said to have caused in Russia
by frightful conflagrations, between 1859 and 1864, far surpassed the famous
conflagration of Moscow in 1812. Cathedrals, ancient archives, noble palaces,
whole streets, containing the homes of the rich and poor, the entire town of
Simbirsk, powder magazines, a third part of St. Petersburg, had all been
consumed since 1860 by the hands of political barbarians. The Russian
conspirators were encouraged by German Socialists, who doubtless had a double
motive in urging these destructive measures in Russia. But that their advice
should have been followed to this extent, argues an extraordinary degree of
fanaticism and shortsightedness on the part of Russian revolutionists. Too late,
they now perceive that all their evil deeds have failed to produce the desiied
effect, but have rather tended to promote loyalty in Russia.'
One important reform of Alexander n. was the abolition of corporal
punishment.
The long intercourse held between Russians and Tartars had greatly de-
teriorated the manners and customs of the former. Thus they had adopted from
their Oriental conquerors many barbarous, cruel punishments of criminals, such,
for example, as merciless flogging with the knout, blows from a cudgel, pouring
molten metal down the throat, burning over a slow fire, etc. When Russia
was freed from the Tartar yoke, such hideous cruelty was gradually softem-d,
especially by the influence of Christianity and civilisation. Notwithstanding,
remnants of Middle Age barbarism still remained in the present century. "SYe
allude to splitting the nostrils, branding the face and other parts of the body, the
knout, the whip, the cat, running the gauntlet, and 'other treasures of Tartar
civilisation,' as Safonov calls them (p. 88).
When Alexander I. occupied the throne, noblemen, guild merchants, priests,
and diakons (lower clergy) were exempt from corporal punishment. Then
splitting the nostrils and the Tartar knout were abolished. During the reign of
Nicholas I., blows of the whip were considerably lessened. But when the humane
Alexander n. became emperor, by two manifestoes (1855-56) he decreed that
criminals should be exempt from corporal punishment. This was to be effected
VOL. II. 2 R
314 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
not only in Russia, but especially in Poland, where various tortures were inflicted
by way of admonition, even during interrogation of those accused.
In March 1861, by special desire of the Grand Duke Nikolai Alexandrovitch,
a project was formed for the abolition of corporal punishment.
On April 17 (the emperor's birthday), 1863, Alexander n. abolished the
punishments of the knout, the whip, the cat, running the gauntlet, and branding
the body. Rods were only to be used when any other punishment seemed
impossible.
Let us, however, remark in passing that even now, in remote parts of the
empire, ugly stories come to light concerning officials who abuse their power.
Thus it not unfrequently happens that unfortunate criminals die from over-
flogging.
In 1875 the Christians of Bosnia and Herzegovina took up arms against
Turkish oppression. They were also joined by the Servians and Montenegrins.
Russian volunteers took an active part in the struggle. But the Servians were
finally beaten at Dioonish. Russia thereupon declared war on Turkey in 1877.
The Turks were finally overcome, and the war terminated by the peace of Sail
Stephano, 19th February 1878 — the memorable anniversary of the emancipation
of the serfs.
But other European powers considered the conditions of the peace of San
Stephano too advantageous for Russia. England particularly, in person of
Lord Beacons field, minister of foreign affairs, opposed these conditions. The
policy of England was, moreover, upheld by Austria, France, and even Prussia.
Thus new conferences ensued in Berlin, where, only on January 9, 1879, peace
was finally concluded between Russia and Turkey. Such was the result of this
famous war, which amazed all Europe by the bravery and power of endurance
shown by the Russian soldiers. The famous Field-marshal Moltke, who knew
Turkey well during the war of 1828-29, followed every step of the army in
1877-78. On a map he made special marks to indicate the movements of the
Turkish and Russian troops. When Plevna fell, November 28, Moltke ordered
the map to be removed, as neither side could go further. On learning the serious
intention of the Russians to cross the Balkan mountains during winter, he at first
would not believe it, and, as a friend, advised them to abandon an enterprise
impossible to accomplish.
Notwithstanding, the Russians did accomplish what seemed impossible.
' If the memories of the treaties of Paris and Berlin have somewhat dimmed
the glory of Alexander IL'S reign, there is, however, no doubt at all that he is not
the less regarded with gratitude and regret by the great mass of the Russian
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 315
people. But a sovereign who has endured a defeat has lost his attraction, for the
time at least, in the eyes of the higher class in Russia ; and although Alexander n.
accomplished his aim in restoring his empire to the position it enjoyed in his
father's reign, there is no doubt that the two treaties in which, to avoid another
sanguinary war, he yielded to the demands of united Europe, were the real
causes of the conspiracy which ended so fatally, and that if the treaty of San
Stephauo had been carried out, he would have been left to die a natural death,'
says Allen.
To quote a second time from the letter of a Swiss resident in St. Petersburg,
mentioned above, we see the following comment on the recent murder of
Alexander II. : —
'A glance at Russia now is enough to disprove all that the revolutionists
have told us of the people's impatience to throw off the yoke of a tyrant ; for the
passionate attachment of the nation to its sovereign has never been greater than
at this moment. No one recollects such universal sorrow in St. Petersburg and the
provinces. Loud sobs are heard in all the churches, where masses are being
served incessantly. The newspapers are filled with accounts of apoplectic strokes,
of mental alienation, and of suicide, produced by the terrible event, and they are
the universal subjects of conversation. All agree on the necessity of taking
energetic measures to prevent such frightful crimes.'
To revert again to Allen's ' Biographical Sketch of the Emperor Alexander n./
we find the following remarks : —
'In the case of Alexander ii., much of the useless study which was forced
into his juvenile brain might have been exchanged for the physical vigour cf
which it deprived him. Throughout his life he was tormented by asthma, and
latterly by a partial paralysis of the throat, supposed to proceed from cerebral
congestion, which interfered with his speech, and for which lie sought occasional
relief at Ems. When he was but twelve years old, he was wounded in the ankle
by an assassin, and had a stiff' joint for the rest of his life. But the numerous
plots of which he was the object had a more innocent victim in the amiable and
suffering empress, and her much-enduring life was closed in a gloom which she
had done little to deserve. If, in her younger days, she had been supposed to
be ambitious and too anxious for personal influence over her husband's empire,
for years past she had only been known to Russia by her charity and acts of
devotion. Deterred from visiting the Crimea, after the poisoning of two sentinels
on guard at the palace of Livadia, she went to Cannes in 1880, as it was hoped,
when absent, she might lose the dread, which had haunted her for a long period,
of a revolution in Russia.
316 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
'"Those who approached her," wrote the friend and mouthpiece of Prince
Bismarck, "describe a fearful picture of the anguish with which this princess,
whose complaint was incurable and only a question of time, followed the progress
of political events. She was uneasy, above everything, as to the future of her
eldest son, whom she pictured to herself surrounded by perils of all sorts, and
whom she constantly advised to follow out the national desires. After the
attempt to blow up the emperor's train outside Moscow, she was seized with a
passionate desire to see her husband and children again, till the doctors yielded
to her prayers, and allowed her in mid-winter to return to the shores of the
Xeva. A few days after she had reached the Winter Palace, the explosion under
the dining-room took place (5th February 1880). This had an almost fatal effect
upon her, and she existed only by the aid of an artificial atmosphere till the
following June 3, when mercifully relieved by death."
' On the last morning of his life the Emperor Alexander II. signed a decree
for the assembly of a species of states-general, which was to be published in
newspapers on the following day. The decree was suspended in consequence of
his murder, and the advisers of Alexander HI. undoubtedly pointed out to the
new monarch that the present disorders were due to his father's liberal measures,
and that a strong despotism alone could keep the empire together. But,
unfortunately, it was not a strong despotism, and revolutionists took advantage
of the confusion of affairs to incite the peasantry against the Jews in Poland and
southern Russia, under pretext of avenging the assassination of the sovereign
who had protected and improved the position of his Hebrew subjects, till he was
styled "the Jew emperor" by the more bigoted among the Poles. At first, the
Nihilist chief, Prince Krapotkine, wrote in favour of this movement; but when
he and his like-minded friends saw the bad effect it was making in western
Europe, they changed their tactics, and pretended that the peasants were urged
on by the Russian government. Unfortunately for the revolutionists, the reports
of the British consul and of the Jewish rabbi at Odessa prove too clearly that
forged documents, purporting to be orders from the emperor, were largely
distributed in the towns and villages near railways, all of them urging these
attacks, and that revolutionists then tried to make capital of them by pointing
out to the middle classes the weakness of the government in not being able to
protect life and property, far less to extend its dominions in accordance with the
national ambition.
' One of the most pleasing traits in the character of Alexander n. was his
attachment to his suffering mother, by whose bedside he kept watch for the last
four nights of her life. To spare her feelings, he would never allow himself to
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA :;i:
be addressed iii the regal style in her presence after his father's death, and she
gratefully acknowledged this affection in a codicil to her will, added a few
months before her own decease. It was thus that the dying empress expressed
herself : —
" It was due to the pious care that my children showed me in my saddest
hours, after the death of my much-loved husband, that I did not sink under such
an unexpected calamity. Their love has preserved my life, especially the ever-
watchful care and tenderness of my beloved son, the Emperor Alexander.
Sustained by such warm, filial love, I have been able to withstand the most
terrible strokes of fate. From the depths of my heart I thank you, my dear son
Alexander, my fondly loved daughter-in-law Marie, and all my equally beloved
children. May Heaven requite you for it, and your posterity also. You will read
these lines when I am no more; but within me there live the faith and the
conviction that the bonds which have united us and made us cling together here
will not be finally rent asunder by death, and that the blessing of your father
and my own will follow and shield you through your whole lives."
'The poor empress-mother was decidedly no prophetess, but, at all events,
while she lived she had been an object of mutual interest to her family, which
seemed to have been sometimes needed after she passed away.
'Alexander n. and his consort now lie buried in the fortress -church of
St. Petersburg, not in the chancel, with their predecessors, but lower down in
the nave, among those princes and princesses who never reigned. Alexander
Nikolaevitch and Maria Alexandrovna had long selected this spot for themselves,
for the sake of being near the daughter (Alexandra) and the son (Nicholas) who
had died before them. The four tombs, covered with flowers, are enclosed in one
railing — the sovereigns in front, the small sarcophagus of the little Grand Duchess
Alexandra behind her father's, and that of the Hereditary Grand Duke Nicholas
behind his mother's. There was room for only one more tomb among the
emperors and empresses who are buried in the chancel, and it was reported in
St. Petersburg that the Nihilists hoped Alexander II. would be placed there ; and
they would have tried to make the people believe that Providence never intended
another emperor to reign, as there was no space left for him.
'Some very touching memorials are placed on the imperial tomb — among
others, a wreath from the peasants of Bulgaria, " To the memory of their Liberator,"
and a wreath from the distant town of Irkutsk in Siberia.'
318 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
CHAPTER LVIII
THE LAST MOMENTS OF ALEXANDER II.
IN Safonov's Historical Sketch of the Life and Reign of Alexander II. (p. 134), we
find the following remarks : —
' During the twenty-six years of Alexander ii.'s reign, so many great and humane
acts were accomplished by that never-to-be-forgotteu sovereign-liberator, that a
description of them will furnish inexhaustible subjects for future historians of
Russia.
' Notwithstanding, we are compelled to transcribe in the pages of contemporary
annals the mournful fact that secret societies of monsters existed, who could in
no wise pardon the emperor's reforms.
'On April 4, 1866, a secret revolutionary society named "Hell" produced a
fiendish adherent in the person of Karakozov ; but God, by the hand of a simple
Russian peasant, Komisarov, averted a blow aimed at the sovereign. On May 25,
1867, a Polish emigrant, Berezovski, disgraced his nation by an attempt made
on the emperor's life during a visit he paid to Paris ; and the French police had
no small trouble to rescue Berezovski alive from the hands of the enraged French
people, desirous personally to deal with an individual who thus transgressed the
sacred rights of hospitality.
'On April 2, 1879, a new attempt on the life of the Russian sovereign was
made by Soloviev; but God again spared the emperor. In 1880, Russia was on
the point of celebrating the anniversary of one who, during twenty-five years,
had devoted his whole life to promote the good of suffering humanity. For on
March 7, 1879, Alexander n. had ordered the abolition of personal imprisonment
for debt. In January 1880, commands were given to open new judicial institutions
in Kiev, Volhynia, and Podolsk. All knew that on such occasions some beneficial
measures for the people would ensue. But, as if to deride the popular feeling,
the seditious once more committed a diabolical deed. On February 5, 1880, in
the evening, an explosion took place under the dining-room of the Winter Palace in
St. Petersburg. On that occasion ten sentinels on duty were killed and forty-
four of the Finnish bodyguards were wounded, but none of the imperial family
suffered. At length the 19th of February came. Russia peacefully celebrated
the auspicious event. The emperor then ordered half the arrears of the people to
be remitted. In a word, had tares not sprung up to choke the good seed, all
seemed even yet to promise a prolonged, glorious reign.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 319
On Sunday, March 1 (13, N.S.), Alexander n. was at a parade of the troops March i (13,
iu the riding-school of the Engineer Corps. When the parade concluded, the J^jj/JJ1"
emperor went to lunch with his cousin, the Grand Duchess Ekaterina Michaelovna, Alexander u.
in her palace. After leaving the grand duchess, and while on his way homewards,
dynamite was thrown under his carriage. It was consequently half shattered,
and some persons near were wounded, although the emperor himself escaped
unhurt; and although it was still possible to drive on in the carriage, and the
coachman urged his majesty to do so, on seeing the wounded lying around, the
emperor alighted from the carriage and went to see aid given to the sufferers. At
that moment a criminal was seized. He turned out to be an individual named
Kusakov. He was armed with a dagger and a loaded gun. On hearing the
question among the crowd, ' What has happened to the emperor ? ' his majesty
made the sign of the cross and replied, ' Thank God, I am safe.' ' But look,'
continued the emperor, pointing to the wounded. 'And is God still to be
thanked ? ' said the criminal. At that instant a second explosive missile was
thrown. A frightful crash ensued. A mass of snow was scattered all around,
mixed with shreds of cloth, while thick white smoke obscured the light. A cry
of horror escaped from the crowd. The emperor fell. Some officers and sailors
approached and raised him. He was in a deplorable condition. Both his legs
were shattered under the knee ; the flesh hung about in pieces, and his face was
covered with blood. At that moment the emperor's brother, the Grand Duke
Michael, approached. It was then purposed to carry his majesty to the nearest
house, there to render the most urgent services. But on hearing the proposal,
the emperor said, 'Take me to the palace; I wish to die there.' Then the
emperor was wrapped up in an officer's mantle, belonging to some one near, and
finally conveyed to the Winter Palace.
On the spot where the crime took place, no fewer than eighteen persons were
killed and wounded. The second criminal also fell a victim to his evil deed.
Fatally wounded and frightfully disfigured, he was transported to a hospital,
where, without mentioning his name, he died unrepentant the same evening.
The emperor was meanwhile taken to the palace. After the first bandaging made
by the court doctors, the emperor felt somewhat better. The imperial confessor,
the archpresbyter Bajanov, at once profited by the temporary amelioration, and
administered the holy communion to the sufferer. At twenty-five minutes to
four the same afternoon, the emperor expired.
When the sad news became generally known in St. Petersburg, grief, humiliation,
shame, seized the whole capital. Warerooins, coffee-houses, and all other public
resorts were immediately closed. The event had newly occurred, but it seemed
320 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
improbable, impossible, that a crime so frightful, so unprecedented, had actually
taken place. A sovereign who had emancipated his people from bondage, from
the whip, from running the gauntlet, from branding ! A sovereign who had
ameliorated every department of public administration, who had shared the
privations of soldiers during war, who had loaded his subjects with benefits !
Could it be that he had thus fallen a victim to the designs of monsters ? And
in whose name was the crime committed ? What did those who had killed the
father of his people desire ? They desired to act according to their own teaching ;
and it was to inculcate murder, explosions, underground excavations. They
acknowledged neither God, nor religion, nor family ties, nor individual property.
For example, if one man amasses capital to maintain himself and his household,
his wealth is not his own, but he must share it with drones and parasites. His
wife also is not his own, but belongs to the community. There is no marriage,
and if children are born they should not be brought up by their parents, but by
society. Such teaching, however, is against even the laws of nature, for animals
live in pairs and bring up their own young. Such teaching can find no footing
amongst honest men. Evil deeds, notwithstanding, at that period agitated all
Russia and all Europe.
Each foreign court hastened to testify the deepest sympathy to the new
emperor and profound respect for the memory of the ' sovereign-liberator/
The people, overwhelmed with grief, hastened to the house of God, and there
before the altar found consolation in prayer.
On the spot where Alexander II. fell, a church has been built, dedicated to
the Resurrection of Christ the Saviour.
' Our very proximity to the epoch prevents us from fully appreciating all that
Alexander II. did for Russia,' continues Safonov in the preface to his work. ' On
reading notes presented to the authorities of St. Petersburg concerning the
proposal to build a church on the spot where the emperor fell by the hand of
his enemies, because they could not pardon all the reforms he had introduced, we
remarked in the prospectus the following heartfelt words : —
' " March 10, 1881.
' " When years pass away, when contending passions are at rest, when the
dread and weariness of the present time are forgotten, in our places a new
generation will appear; but the memory of a sovereign who liberated millions
from bondage will never die in the hearts of the people. Surrounded by a halo
of glorious deeds/ and crowned by a martyr's death, his majestic, suffering, mild
image will stand high in history, and crowds will hasten to pray at the spot
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 321
stained by his blood as long as Russia lives and while the Russian signs himself
with the cross -that symbol of immense, divine suffering and love."
'Events are so numerous, and individuals who devoted their mind, energy
and labour to accomplish the great reforms of the «« sovereign-liberator " are in
part still alive, while some are already in the tomb; but they have left records
which explain the circumstances of that reign.
'When ages have rolled away, and perhaps in presence of new military
victories, the exploits of Russians at the Caucasus, at Sevastopol, in Poland in
Asia, at the Danube, will be effaced from the memory of succeeding generations.
But that peaceful conquest which liberated twenty-two millions of bondmen, and
raised them to the position of citizens, will never be forgotten in future ages.'
(See Preface to Safonov's Historical Sketch of the Life and Reign of Alexander //.)
CHAPTER LIX
EXTRACTS FROM CONTEMPORARY RUSSIAN NEWSPAPERS
ALL connected with the death of Alexander u. has a mournful interest peculiar
to itself. We accordingly subjoin extracts translated from contemporary Russian
newspapers, which appeared on March 10 (22, N.S.), 1881. See The Russian
Courier of the same date.
'After lunching with her imperial highness the Grand Duchess Ekaterina
Michaelovna of Mecklenburg-Strelitz,1 the emperor drove from her palace, alone,
in a close carriage and accompanied by a Cossack. The police-master Dvorjitzki
drove behind in a sledge. On turning towards a street named the Moika, a
bomb was thrown under the imperial carriage, which was partially shattered
behind.
'The emperor gave immediate orders to stop. The coachman, however,
turned round and said, " Sit still, please your majesty, and I shall drive you on."
The emperor, notwithstanding, a second time called out " Stop ! " and accordingly
the carriage halted. The emperor thereupon alighted. An officer of the guards
then hastened towards him. " Nothing has happened ; I am safe and sound ! "
exclaimed his majesty. " But look ! " continued he, pointing towards a severely
wounded individual — Capri — a pianist, well known to the St. Petersburg public.
The officer immediately raised the wounded man and helped to drive him home.
1 The emperor's first cousin by the father's side. Ekaterina Michaelovna was daughter of the
Grand Duke Michael Pavlovitch, brother of the Emperor Nicholas I.
VOL. II. 2 S
322 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
At that time the emperor approached a criminal who had newly been seized, and
who, of course, was an object of general attention. Thereupon a second bomb
was thrown under the very legs of the emperor. In this wise they were both
shattered below the knee, while splinters wounded the stomach and face. The
police-master Dvorjitzki was also wounded. He, however, helped to raise the
emperor, along with the aid of some sentinels and sailors, who approached on
hearing the explosion. One and all, they succeeded in placing the emperor in
Dvorjitzki's sledge. By this time his majesty was nearly unconscious. Several
Cossacks and other persona on the spot were also killed, and many were
wounded.'
Quoted from an announcement of the minister of the interior, Count Loris
Melikov.
Colonel Dvorjitzki (the police-master), also an eye-witness of the crime, thus
narrates what he saw : —
'On driving alongside of the fence at the Michaelovski Garden, by the
Ekaterinski Canal, and ere reaching the Theatre Plain, I suddenly heard a
stunning blow, and saw white smoke, which for some minutes obscured all the
spot. The crash and fall of a mass of window-panes then ensued. The horses of
the emperor's carriage and my own then stopped. I leapt out of the sledge ; and
on seeing that the emperor's carriage was injured, and that the emperor was
opening the door, I hastened forwards to help him. He alighted and signed
himself with the cross. His majesty's first question was: "Is the criminal
seized ? " I looked around, and on seeing that the crowd had caught some one,
I replied, " Yes, he is seized, please your majesty." I afterwards added : " Sire,
be pleased to go into my sledge and to drive off immediately to the palace."
" Very well," said the emperor ; " but first, show me the criminal " ; and his
majesty went towards a young man, who was seized by the hands, and asked his
family name. I did not hear what it was ; but I only urged the emperor to drive
off. His majesty again said : " Very well ; but first, show me the spot where the
explosion took place." His majesty then went to the cavity which had been
made by the bomb. There was a smile on his face. He evidently was under the
influence of gratitude to divine Providence. But at that very moment something
singular occurred. Another bomb, more powerful than the first, was thrown. I
myself, struck in the back, fell forwards on my hands. But at the moment of my
fall, I heard a groaning voice which exclaimed, " Help ! " I jumped on my feet
and saw the emperor lying on the ground, in a half-sitting posture. He was
leaning on his hand. He was breathing heavily, and apparently was trying to
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 323
raise himself. I summoned up all my strength and tried to help the emperor. Then
my eyes met a horrible scene, which made my very blood freeze. The emperor's
legs were both shattered below the knee. There were no remains of boots or
under-linen. There was only a bloody mass of flesh, skin, and bone. Blood was
flowing like a stream. I shouted for help. Many from the surrounding crowd
approached, most of whom were wounded. At that moment the emperor's
brother, the Grand Duke Michael, drove forward. The emperor was thereupon
placed in my sledge and transported to the Winter Palace. When his majesty
was removed from the sledge, it was actually swamped by the quantity of
blood from the wounds. At last, when the emperor was removed, I became
unconscious.'
The following narration is also that of another eye-witness, an tinder-officer
of the 8th Fleet Crew, printed in a newspaper entitled The St. Petersburg Leaf.
Although apparently it is contradictory to the testimony of some other witnesses,
yet we think it necessary to quote it. Concerning the emperor's last moments,
each word is important, and should be retained for history. The narration is as
follows : —
' We — i.e. some sailors and myself — hastened to the spot where the explosion
had taken place. The emperor had then only alighted from the carriage, more
than a third of which had been shattered by the explosion. We went forward.
The emperor was then going towards the fence of the qnay. Suddenly, a new
explosion took place, and the emperor fell. We hurried to him and placed him
in a sledge. To whom it belonged, I do not know. When we had placed his
majesty in it, he raised his head, turned towards me and said : " Sailor lad, give
thy handkerchief and put it on my head." Blood was flowing like a stream.
" Please your majesty," said I, " my handkerchief is very dirty, so I cannot offer
it to you." " That is nothing, sailor lad. Give it. Put it on my head and close
my eyes."
' The emperor then seemed to lose consciousness, but after a little, recovered
and said : " Where is nay son and heir ? Is he alive ? " " He is alive, please your
majesty." The emperor made the sign of the cross and then added : " Thank God !
Take me away." The explosion was so great, that in neighbouring houses, in two
stories, the double windows were broken.
' On hearing the explosion, the Grand Duke Michael hastened from the palace
of the Grand Duchess Catherine and followed in the emperor's traces. The grand
duke arrived at the time when the emperor, covered with blood, was placed in a
sledge. The emperor still looked around him, and evidently recognised the grand
324 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
duke. From the palace a carpet was brought out, the emperor was put upon it,
and was thus transported to the bed in his own private apartment. The bed
was placed alongside of the writing-table at which he usually wrote. Then the
hereditary grand duke, his consort, and other members of the imperial family
arrived, together with the doctors. The sufferer lay motionless and uttered low
groans. He was carefully undressed. Blood was on his face. Both his legs were
shattered. The lower part of his 'stomach was also injured. The terrible loss
of blood rendered the emperor's position hopeless. The medical men spoke
of amputating both legs, but before they finally decided to do so, his majesty
expired.'
From the Peterboorgskaia Viedomosti we quote the following details : —
'On investigation of the emperor's state, it appeared that both legs below
the knee were transformed into masses of separate fibres, on which hung pieces
of bone and flesh ; the softer parts bore traces of burning. On the left upper
eyelid were also marks as of burning. The glove on the right hand was stained
with blood. As he approached the Winter Palace, the emperor seemed to lose
consciousness, from the great loss of blood. A few muscles remaining were the
only junctions between the knees and the lower parts of the legs, for the bones had
been totally shattered by the explosion. Doctors Krooglevski and Markus first
appeared, and immediately endeavoured to aid the sufferer. Dr. Dvoriashiue, of
the 4th Battalion of Imperial Archers, was accidentally in a neighbouring building,
and on hearing the exclamation, " The emperor is wounded ! " at once hastened
to the palace, and at the door of his majesty's apartment met Dr. Krooglevski.
" Bring all necessary for amputation, as soon as possible," said he. Dr. Dvoriashiue
rushed to Dr. Krooglevski's abode, and speedily returned with the appliances.
Dr. Botkine was already on the spot, and with the utmost attention followed the
beating of the heart. Bandages were then placed on the legs above the knees.
It was also decided to bandage the right hand. When Dr. Dvoriashine took off
the blood-stained glove, the hand bore traces of burning. The nuptial ring was
also bruised flat. The bandage was then put on. Dr. Botkine thereupon remarked
that the heart beat more distinctly, and that breathing was stronger. The imperial
confessor — the archpresbyter Bajanov — then profited by the favourable interval,
and administered the holy communion to the sufferer. It was a solemn moment.
It seemed as if hope revived. But fate decreed otherwise. Dr. Botkine remarked
that the beating of the heart became more feeble. Breath also grew_ fainter, till
finally, at twenty-five minutes to four P.M., Alexander n. expired. All the
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 325
members of the imperial family then in St. Petersburg were assembled near the
death-bed of their august relative.'
Another periodical, entitled Gazeta Poriadok, or Gazette of Order, mentions
that ' not long before the fatal event above narrated, a small parcel, seemingly con-
taining pills, was sent addressed to the emperor, and came by the St. Petersburg
post from Paris. On the pill-box was the signature of a " Doctor Jus." The
pills were, besides, wrapped up in a paper, which contained strong recommendation
of the accompanying remedy, especially for asthma and rheumatism. The pills
reached their destination safely, and in no wise occasioned the suspicion of
Podliagine, the emperor's servant, who told his majesty of their arrival. The
emperor was always much interested in remedies for the above-mentioned
ailments, so he gave the small parcel to Dr. Botkine. The latter, on reaching
home, took off the outward cover of the little box, and saw that it was tied by a
thread, the ends of which somewhat projected. He then pulled one of the threads,
but heard a slight crack, like that of a pop-gun. Dr. Botkine then thought that
it was merely a trick ; but, as he had received the parcel directly from the
emperor's hand, suspected nothing dangerous, and accordingly put the parcel
aside. However, the emperor's alarm, when, after asking about the pills, the
doctor mentioned the cracking sound, caused serious attention to be paid to the
parcel. It was then sent to Count Loris Melikov, minister of the interior. On
careful examination, it turned out that this was a new attempt on his majesty's
life — an attempt conceived with truly diabolical craft and boldness. The would-
be pills contained so large a quantity of dynamite that its explosion was sufficient
not only to kill two or three persons standing near, but even to tear them in
pieces. On undoing the parcel of pills, Dr. Botkiue owed the safety of his life
merely to the fact that apparently the mechanism called into action by the
projecting ends of the strings, and which produced a noise, had either been injured
by damp, or was in some other way spoiled, and thus could not produce the
desired effect.'
According to another newspaper — The New Times (Novoi Vremia) — ' Pills were
only mentioned on the outward cover of the box. Its real contents were not
pills, but an apparatus for explosion. On the ticket of the box, and annexed
to a letter sent from abroad along with the pills, was the signature of " Dr.
Lejuge.'"
The newspaper above quoted then continues to describe the scene of the last
attempt on the emperor's life : —
326 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
' At the moment of the explosion which occurred yesterday, Matetschev, one of
the Cossacks, lay dead, somewhat behind the imperial carriage. Near the
pavement of the quay, another Cossack, seated on the coach-box along with the
coachman Mantzev, was leaning forward exhausted and convulsively grasping
the coach-box. On the same pavement, about thirty steps onwards, lay a poor
boy, groaning and moaning. Near him was a basket with meat, which he had
been carrying on his head. He was fatally wounded by a splinter from the bomb.
Not far from him stood an officer, also wounded, and leaning in a languishing
condition on the fence of the quay. In front, not far off, lay a sentinel on the
ground. Some workmen, carrying a sofa, also stood stupefied there. At last,
rather aside, a man was seen to withdraw hastily. He had long locks fastened to
his hat, and wore a dark-blue overcoat. The emperor immediately pointed to
him, and then went towards the wounded officer and the boy. But his majesty
had not yet walked half the distance between him and them, when a new
explosion took place, and white smoke appeared all around. That was the second
bomb thrown by the criminals, one of whom, as is supposed, stood on the ice on
the canal. At the spot where the first explosion took place, a small cavity had
been formed ; where the second explosion happened there was, however, no cavity,
probably because, during the first explosion, the carriage had offered some
resistance to the action of the gas. On the surrounding snow were seen pieces
of grey cloth, as if from a military overcoat. On the pavement of the canal lay
a heap of things, hats, swords, coats, etc., surrounded by several soldiers of the
Pavlovski regiment. There, near a pool of blood, lay tossed about an officer's
overcoat with a fur collar; fragments of a broken sword; the hat of a police
functionary ; fragments of wood ; shreds of black cloth, probably from the
Cossack's costume. There also was a basket with meat, and not far distant a
small soft sofa, without a cover. To-day a large crowd is flocking to the spot
where the crime took place.'
In another newspaper, entitled The Beehive, March 3, 1881, a curious fact is
mentioned as follows : —
' About two weeks ago, the emperor remarked that every morning two pigeons
lay killed near the window of his private apartment. It turned out that a large
bird of prey — some said a kite, others an eagle — had taken up its abode on the
roof of the Winter Palace. For several days all attempts to kill the bird proved
fruitless. The event discomposed the emperor ; he considered it as a bad omen.
At length a trap was placed, and the bird's foot caught therein. The bird,
however, had strength enough to drag the trap to a neighbouriiig square, but was
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 327
there caught. The bird turned out to be a kite of unusually large dimensions,
so that it will be stuffed and kept in a museum.
' On March 1, 1881 (the fatal day), about ten o'clock in the evening, a strange
object was witnessed : a large bright comet was seen in the sky. The comet had
tails— one above; another, still longer, below. The whole appeared for about
twenty minutes.
' When the last fatal attempt was made on the emperor's life, an extraordinary
discovery took place. A whole street in St. Petersburg had been excavated, with
the intention of there forming a mine for explosive materials. Some time
previously, an underground shop had been hired by an individual who called
himself a peasant, named Kobozev. He pretended there to carry on trade in
milk and cheese.
' One evening, it was found out that Kobozev and a young woman who lived
beside him as his wife had both disappeared and left the shop empty. The
police then came and found the shop full of sand, as well as different instruments
for digging. An underground excavation for a considerable distance had been
made, and reached nearly to the middle of the street. The excavation was
evidently intended as a mine, in which an explosion was to blow up part of the
city, where the emperor was expected to pass.'
CHAPTER LX
CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF REMARKABLE EVENTS DURING THE REIGN OF
ALEXANDER II.
1855, 19th February. — Alexander n. ascended the throne of Russia.
1855, 12th July. — By imperial command, a separate department was formed
in St. Petersburg for the arrest of debtors, and named, ' House for the
detention of negligent debtors.'
1855, July. — A new and improved code of military law was issued.
1856. — Termination of the Crimean war. Peace of Paris concluded, 18th March.
1856, 26th August. — Solemn coronation of Alexander II. in the Cathedral of
the Assumption, in Moscow.
1856, December.— Limitation of the right to acquire nobility according to
grades.
1857, November 20.— First mandate of the emperor to the governor-general
of Vilna, concerning the amelioration of peasants' condition.
328 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
1858. — New code of laws of the Russian empire published, previously
edited in 1857.
1858. — By the treaty of Aigoonsk the territory along the river Amoor was
annexed to Russia.
1858, November. — By imperial decree, those who had attained the age of
sixty years, and who were afflicted by illness, could not be sent in exile
to Siberia, either by administration or by sentence of societies, or by
proprietors.
1859. — Shamyl besieged in his impregnable fort of Goonib, surrendered as a
prisoner of war to the Russian viceroy, Prince Bariatinski, and all the
eastern part of the Caucasus submitted to Russia.
1859. — Military service of common soldiers abridged.
1860. — Limitation of the power of putting fetters on criminals.
1861. — Emancipation of the serfs.
1861, 19th February. — New organisation of peasants' condition, and land
assigned to them.
1862, 8th September. — Thousandth anniversary of the foundation of the
Russian state, at Novgorod.
1862, 29th September. — Intimation of judicial reform, founded chiefly on
verbal interrogation.
1863. — Abolition of monopoly of wine. Reorganisation of the town council
in Moscow and in Odessa, according to that of St. Petersburg. Abolition
of corporal punishment, saving for a few exceptions. New regulations
for universities. Institution of a new council to ameliorate the condition
of the Russian clergy.
1863. — In January, in some parts of the kingdom of Poland, in consequence
of recruiting, attacks were made on several Russian detachments. In
Polish forests and in western governments of the empire, bands of rebel
Poles appeared. Towards the close of the year the revolt was subdued.
General Mooraviev was then nominated commander of the north-
western country, and Count Berg viceroy of the kingdom of Poland.
In September, the diet of Finland was convoked for the second time
since the annexation of Finland to Russia.
1864, 1st January. — New zemski (rural) administration in the empire.
1864, 19th February. — Manifesto granting land to Polish peasants.
1864. — During the spring of the same year, the conquest of western Caucasus
was completed, while the newly appointed viceroy of that region, the
Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevitch, was in office.
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 329
1865.— New press laws, which limited the decision of the censor.
1865, 16th July.— Few tradesmen were permitted to remove from western
governments, and to settle in various districts of the empire.
1865.— Law concerning the obligatory sale of confiscated or sequestered land
in the west.
1865, 10th December. — Laws concerning those who violated regulations
concerning dramatic representations.
1866, April.— New courts of justice opened in St. Petersburg and in Moscow ;
judges of peace appointed there.
1866, 19th February. — Reorganisation of finances, postal and provincial
administration in the kingdom of Poland. (The latter was divided into
ten governments or provinces.)
1867. — By treaty, Russian possessions in North America were ceded to the
United States, for a pecuniary recompense.
1867, llth July. — A general governor was nominated in Turkestan and in
regions occupied by Russian troops in 1866, beyond Seer Daria.
1869. — A ukaze of May 26 exempted the children of priests and of church
servants from being obliged to follow the clerical calling.
1870, 16th July. — New regulations concerning the administration of towns,
founded on the commencement of self-government, and putting aside
different classes in the choice of individuals to fill civic functions.
1870, 19th October. — By a circular of Prince Gortschakov, chancellor of the
empire, one clause of the Peace of Paris was changed, by which the
Black Sea was declared neutral. In this wise, Russia again obtained a
right there to maintain a fleet of war.
1870, 4th November. — Preliminary preparation for obligatory military service
in Russia.
1871, June. — Count Tolstoi, minister of public instruction, augmented classic
element in middle schools.
1873. — Campaign of the Russians in Heeva, under command of the Turkestan
general-governor Von Kaufman. The Russian troops overcame all
difficulties of the expedition, in sandy deserts, devoid of water, and took
Heeva, May 29.
1877-8. — Russo-Turkish war. Deliverance of the Slavonians.
1878, 19th February. — Peace of San Stephano.
1879, 19th January. — Conferences in Berlin.
1879-81.— Conquest of the Techintzi, a race occupying the eastern regions of
the Caspian Sea.
VOL. II. 2 T
330 OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
It is thus that Safonov, in his Historical Sketch of the Life and Reign of
Alexander II. (p. 125), describes the Techintzi : —
' Towards the east of the Caspian Sea dwells the race of the Techiutzi. They
are known in all Asia for their bravery and military daring.
'The Techintzi are distinguished by tall stature and remarkable strength,
by which they profit in order to make predatory incursions on the Bucharts and
Persians. Not only do the Techintzi attack caravans which they meet on their
way, but often, assembled in bands of several men, cross the Persian frontiers,
enter neighbouring villages, and there demand cattle and money.
'The Techintzi take women prisoners; and on the slightest contradiction,
make free use of the scourge and sabre, both of which they wield to perfection.
The cowardly Persians dare not offer opposition, well knowing that instead of
only a few, a large baud of Techiutzi will come and slaughter the whole village,
to the last inhabitant.
'The very name of Techinetz terrifies a Persian. It is said that once several
Techintzi attacked a Persian prince who was travelling in his own country, along
with his followers. The latter fled, and the Techintzi overtook the prince. He
remained alone on the spot, when he was overtaken by the elder of the Techintzi.
The prince possessed great strength, and threw down the Techinetz ; then pressing
his knee on his enemy's breast, drew out a dagger and was about to slay him.
At that moment the Techinetz exclaimed —
' " How darest thou, dog, raise thy vile dagger on me ? Knowest thou not that
I am a Techinetz?"
' At the word Techinetz, the prince was seized with terror, and fled at full
speed.
' The Techintzi possess admirable horses, and are at the same time famous
archers. Their sabres cause wounds so deadly, that few recover from them, or
even remain alive after being struck down. To split a skull in two at a single
blow, or to cut off an arm from the shoulder, or to cut a body in two, is nothing
to a Techinetz. In engagements, hand to hand, the Techintzi not unfrequently
wrest arms from the Russian soldiers, or, with an iron grasp, break their pikes.
' The Techiutzi finally began to make inroads on Russian frontiers and to
plunder the Geomoods, the Goklans, and other tribes friendly to Russia.
' Then Russian troops marched against the Techintzi, but the brave young
Russian general Lazareff, who commanded the Russians, fell ill and died (1879).
He was replaced by General Lamakina. When he advanced towards the fort of
Geok-Tepe, the Techiutzi made a bold sally ; even the women shot at the Russian
troops, and fought with them. The Cossacks seized one pretty young Techinetz
OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA 331
girl, and brought her as a prisoner of war to General Lamakina. The general, by
an interpreter, said to her : " Fear not ! No harm will be done to thee ! "
' " I fear nothing ! " replied she proudly. " You may do to me what you wish ;
but you all, Giaours, may be terrified and fear us ! Not one of you will leave our
country alive ! "
' From esteem for courage so remarkable, the prisoner was set at liberty.
' This single example, however, shows with what a race the Russians had to
struggle. At a later period, 12th January 1881, the celebrated Russian general
Skobelev conquered the Techintzi, by taking their fort, Geok-Te"pe", whereupon
the whole race submitted to " The White (or Great) " Sovereign of Russia.
'The Turks surnamed Skobelev " Ak-Pasha," or "White General." (White,
in Oriental language, signifies great.) '
CHAPTER LXI
FAMILY OF THE EMPEROR ALEXANDER II.
FROM the marriage of the Emperor Alexander n. (16th April 1841) to the
Princess Mary of Hesse-Darmstadt (daughter of Duke Louis II.), known
as empress of Russia by the names of Maria Alexandrovna, there was
born a daughter, Alexandra Alexandrovna, 18th August 1842. This
princess died in 1849.
On 8th September 1843 was born a son, the Hereditary Grand Duke Nikolai
Alexandrovitch, who died 12th April 1865.
In 1845 was born a son, subsequently the Emperor Alexander nr.
In 1847, a son, the Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovitch.
In 1850, 2nd February, a son, the Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovitch.
In 1853, 5th October, a daughter, Mary (Maria Alexandrovna), now duchess
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
In 1857, 22nd April, a son, Sergius Alexandrovitch.
In 1860, a son, the Grand Duke Pavel (Paul) Alexandrovitch.
The Empress Maria Alexandrovna died 22nd May (3rd June, N.s.) 1880.
THE END
Printed by T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty
at the Edinburgh University Press
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11