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i
D5
CZH-
SIGNS AND PORTENTS
IN THE FAR EAST
SIGNS AND PORTENTS
IN . THE FAR EAST
•lY
LVERARD COTES
WITH THIRTY-FIVR I'.I USl KA TIONS
METHUEN iv v' ■'».
36 EbSEX STKI'.r: r H.C
LONl)(V\
SIGNS AND PORTENTS
IN THE FAR EAST
BY
EVERARD COTES
WITH THIRTT-FIVB ILLUSTRATIONS
METHUEN & CO.
36 ESSEX STREET W.C.
LONDON
First Published in igof
n
;>
TO
MY WIFE
'^ ctirzo'
PREFACE
EVENTS of to-day in the Far East are
posters for to-morrow. No white man can
wander, as the writer of these pages did last
summer, through China, Manchuria, Korea, and
Japan, without having forced upon his sight some
of the inscriptions which these posters bear.
The impressions here set down are those of an
Anglo- Indian journalist who does not apologise for
his point of view, since the potentialities of India
as the coadjutor of Great Britain in the future of
the Far East can hardly be over-estimated. That
future is perhaps the most serious problem of the
twentieth century.
So immediate and dramatic, so big with possi-
bilities and crowded with incident, is the new
situation, that the writer publishes his report
believing that the evidence of an eye-witness
cannot fail to be of value where Anglo-Saxon
interests are so closely concerned and so plainly
threatened.
London
February. igo7
vil
CONTENTS
PAOX
PREFACE . . . . . . . vii
CHAPTER
I. THE CASE FOR ENQUIRY .... I
II. CHINESE IN BRITISH TERRITORY . II
III. THE SITUATION IN CANTON . .21
IV. THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT IN MIDDLE CHINA . 3 1
V. THE MISSIONARY ..... 47
VI. THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE . . .57
Vll. HANKOW AND ITS FACTORIES
VIII. TO PEKING BY RAIL ....
. IX. THE PEKING OF TO-DAY ....
X. THE COOLIE TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI
XI. PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS
XII. NORTHWARDS IN MANCHURIA .
XIII. AT MUKDEN
79
. 91
103
. 117
131
. 145
•• • -155
XIV. ACROSS SOUTH-EAST MANCHURIA . 161
XV. DIFFICXn^TIES IN KOREA ....
U
17
X SIGNS AND PORTENTS
CHAPTXS PAOB
XVI. THE FUTURE OF KOREA . . . I9I
XVII. THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT . . . . 203
XVIII. CONTRADICTIONS IN THE JAPANESE CHARACTER . 217
XIX. LIMITATIONS TO JAPANESE EFFICIENCY . . 227
XX. THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO .237
XXI. INDIA AS A LEVER IN THE FAR EAST 2$3
XXn. THE OX7TLOOK • • . . .263
XXIIL APPENDICES :—
a. THE ANGLO- JAPANESE TREATY 285
d. THE PORTSMOUTH TREATY .288
C, THE JAPANESE-KOREAN PROTOCOL 295
d. THE PEKING TREATY . . . .297
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
THE BLACK -HATTED STATUE IN THE HEART OF
CANTON, ..••.•.. FranHsfiiece
FAOMO
PAOB
YELLOW COLLEAGUES ; AND THE MAINLAND OF JOHORE . 1 8
THE JETTIES, FACTORIES, AND DOCKS OF THE CITY HAVE
NEVER BEEN MORE ACTIVE . . 32
A HOT MORNING SPENT IN INTERVIEWING SMILING CHINESE
OFFICIALS ....... 42
From a Photograph by Mr. S. Yamamoto, Peking
A HIGHER MORALITY THAN THAT WHICH EXISTS AROUND
A MORE HARMLESS-LOOKING SET OF PEOPLE WOULD BE
DIFFICX7LT TO IMAGINE . . . . .64
A CENTRE OF INDUSTRIES WHICH PROFOUNDLY AFFECT THE
ENTIRE COUNTRY ...... 80
IRON AND STEEL WORKS IN MIDDLE CHINA . .84
WHERE GREY KEEPS AND BATTLEMENTS TOWERED I02
From a Photograph by Mr. S. Yamamoto, Peldng
THE BROAD THOROUGHFARE WHICH TARTAR CONQUERORS
DROVE THROUGH THE PACKED CAPITAL THEY FOUND . I04
from a Photoi^ph by Mr. S. Yamamoto, Peldag
SIGNS AND PORTENTS
PAaNG
PAGR
WAS IN TIME TO INSPECT ONE OF THE LAST OF THE
GANGS OF COOLIES TO BE DESPATCHED TO SOUTH
AFRICA . . . . .118
THE SWAMPY HARBOUR OF NEUCHWANG . . . I28
IN PORT ARTHUR TO-DAY .... 140
OUTSIDE THE CITY ; A LOAD OF MANCHURIAN MILLET . 1 50
IN THE STREETS OF MUKDEN . . . 156
LOCOMOTION IN MUKDEN . . . 158
SUDDENLY THE WAY WAS PAVED WITH BIG SQUARE BLOCKS 160
DAYLIGHT SAW US AGAIN IN THE TRAIN . . . 168
IN HOMELY VOLUMINOUS WHITE PETTICOAT . . . 180
YELLOW CARDBOARD ROOMS OF THE DEAD QUEEN'S
QUARTERS . . . . . . 186
BENEATH THE WALLS OF AN OLD KOREAN CITY . . 202
DOCKYARDS IN KOBE AND OSAKA WHERE GUNBOATS WERE
BEING MANUFACTURED FOR THE CHINESE GOVERNMENT 2o6
TO SEE THE LACQUER AND GILT TEMPLES . . . 228
From a Photograph by Mr. Taniamuro, Kobe
AN EMERALD AND SAPPHIRE TRAINING GROUND FOR
JAPANESE SEAMEN . . , -2^2
From a Photograph by Mr. Tamamuro, Kob«
SIGNS AND PORTENTS
IN THE FAR EAST
CHAPTER I
THE CASE FOR ENQUIRY
i
► O UFFICIENT time has now elapsed since the
1^ conclusion of the war in Manchuria to permit
some opinion to be formed of the nature of the
changes in the Far East which began when Russia
was defeated by an Oriental power. Even earlier
than that it had become hard to realise that it was
' ever possible to dismiss Japan with a fan and a
tea-cup. About the same time, for most people, the
wooden bullets and sand-filled shells of another
campaign began to retreat into Chinese mythology.
Those of us who saw that happy fantasy, " The
Mikado/' upon the stage of twenty years ago have
in the memory an inimitable and quite unique pos-
session. Its gaiety and charm have vanished in the
clash of arms, and nobody can altogether feel them
now. Indeed the days of comic opera for the
presentation of these peoples are over. We look
2 THE CASE FOR ENQUIRY
rather for their alien appearance in the Concert of
Europe, and hope that it will not be an interruption.
Four years ago Russia was in firm possession of
the rich Chinese province of Manchuria ; Germany
was pushing westwards from her base at Tsingtao,
and threatened to absorb the entire Chinese penin-
sula of Shangtung ; France was creeping northwards
in Tonking ; Belgium was engaged in Middle China
in railway enterprises designed to link the French
in the south with their allies, the Russians, in the
north. England and America, the only European
powers whose policy appeared to be to mark time
in China, saw their influence and their markets
ever)n¥here threatened by their more aggressive
neighbours. To-day, aggression on the part of
all white nations is in abeyance. Everybody is
marking time.
The dismemberment of China which the world
had thought so imminent has been arrested. Russia
has been driven, snarling, from one lacerated limb.
France and Germany are slackening their grip
upon two other members. The mandarin is upon
his feet He understands the mortal danger he has
escaped so narrowly, and by no virtue of his own, and
apparently begins to realise the bulk and vast brute
strength that render him formidable to the world.
He regards Japan, Great Britain, and America, who
have been his preservers, with only one degree less
suspicion and hostility than he has for the enemies
from whom they have saved him. He is cramming
revolvers and cartridges into his waistbelt. His
THE CASE FOR, ENQUIRY 3
factories at Hanyang are busy making mausers and
modern field-pieces. His viceroys are drilling and
arming a hundred thousand followers. He is rudely
refusing to grant more concessions to European
exploiters, and makes no secret of his determination
to manage his own affairs, and to assimilate just so
much of the white man's science and civilisation as
shall enable him to bid defiance to the white man
himself.
Japan has turned from the brilliant demonstration
of her capacities before the world to the less con-
spicuous task of their consolidation. She is
developing her conquests, turning to new purposes
the powers of organisation and attention to detail
which enabled her to defeat Russia. She is by no
means resting upon her laurels, but having measured
her strength by a severe standard, is now taking
steps to maintain and increase it. With admirable
self-denial Japan is labouring to place her finances
in a position of stability. It is now plain that she
proposes to win commercial supremacy in the Far
East Her military preponderance is enabling her
to foster the industrial enterprises of her own people
in Manchuria and Korea. She is exercising
ingenuity to lessen European, American, and
Chinese competition in these countries while still
respecting, as far as may be compulsory, the letter
of the treaties she has signed. Her agents are
penetrating into every part of China, as military
experts, as professors, and as traders.
Manchuria, sullen in the misery of newly stained
4 THE CASE FOR ENQUIRY
battlefields, watches others exploit the marvellous
riches of her grain-fields and coal-measures. Korea
is in disorder, but it is the disorder of an awakening.
The little vassal empire is moving, clumsily and
painfully, but surely, out of her humiliating past, as
an appendage of China, into a more hopeful future
of incorporation with Japan. The potential energy
of Manchuria is still bound and inert in the pro-
tection of international jealousies and uncertain
claims; but that of Korea is now at the disposal,
manhood and markets, of one of the principals in
the situation, a considerable increase of power and
resources.
Attention centres upon the principals. Already
the cotton mills of Osaka and Wuchang rattle
defiance at those of Manchester and Lowell, and
the blast furnaces of the Yangtse and Kiusiu are
depriving those of Sheffield and Pittsburg of many
profitable contracts. The shipbuilding yards of the
Inland Sea and of the Shanghai estuary now appro-
priate a share in work that London and Glasgow
once monopolised. Togo and Kuroki have proved
that naval skill and military science are confined no
longer to European nations ; and across the Yellow
Sea, Yuan-Shih-Kai and Chan-Chi-Tung are demon-
strating that Chinese can be armed and drilled to
emulate Japanese troops. The recent boycott of
American goods in the Nanking and Kwantung
provinces has made it impossible to deny that the
Chinese share the Japanese capacity for concerted
action. As to the direction of that action, the
THE CASE FOR ENQUIRY s
indications seem clear. No one can read the
translations from the Shanghai and Canton native
papers, which appear in the Anglo-Chinese press,
or even walk amongst the sullen faces of the Peking
slums, without realising that anti-foreign feeling is
as widespread and aggressive as ever, with hints of
power to turn words to deeds.
The menace of all this is not confined to the
Far East. It looks over the Szechuen passes into
British India. It fills the minds of imaginative
Bengali Hindus in plains of the Hooghly, and of
polished Mahratta Brahmins in Deccan uplands,
with what Anglo-Indians name sedition. Its shadow
overtops the snows of the Sofaid-Kdt and stretches
to Kabul. Its voice has stirred up a new spirit of
unrest as far as Persia.
The situation is aggravated by the action of the
white labour parties in the principal British colonies
and in the United States. Canada imposes a pro*
hibitive Chinese poll-tax, and, but for respect for
English treaties, would have extended it to
Japanese. The United States have gone further.
California excludes Chinese workers and ostracises
Japanese school-children. A South African
hostility to Chinese labour competition has been
advertised in China by party misrepresentation in
England. Australian legislation against yellow
immigration has become widely known. Resent-
ment and matter for more resentment is accumu-
lating in Peking and Tokyo. Every individual
incident, no matter how remote, where Chinese or
6 THE CASE FOR ENQUIRY
Japanese receive unfriendly treatment at the white
man's hands, is remembered to be returned some
day with increment.
There was a time when the problem of the Far
East was a question of quarrels amongst European
powers over the apportionment of rights to exploit
the inheritance of the yellow race. It wears a
very different aspect now. The existence, not the
apportionment, of such rights is in dispute ; for it
is clear that the yellow race will no longer submit
willingly to exploitation of any kind. Many things
are said and shouted, but the purport of them all is
" Hands off." A mob may occupy the foreground,
but ordered battalions stand in the middle distance.
The white merchants of the ports, the white mis-
sionaries of the hinterland and the white officials
of the diplomatic centres are compelled to adjust
themselves to a new set of conditions.
Present developments have their roots in the
immediate past. In 1894 Japan and China were at
war to decide whose influence should predominate in
Korea. Yuan-Shih-Kai, who represented Chinese
interests at the court of Seoul, returned to Tientsin,
after the close of the struggle, full of the necessity
of adopting the methods which had made Japan
victorious. Subsequently, as Governor in Shantung,
and afterwards Viceroy in Chihli, Yuan-Shih-Kai
carried his beliefs into action. He has been the
organiser of an immense modernising movement in
Northern China. He has founded schools, built
roads, raised seventy thousand troops, introduced
THE CASE FOR ENQUIRY 7
European and Japanese military instructors, and
imported and manufactured modern weapons. He
was a member of the reform party in Peking which
had the ear of the Chinese Emperor before the
Boxer rising ; but he went over to the reactionaries
under the Dowager Empress, when trouble began,
and was thus instrumental in reducing the Emperor
to a stepmother's shadow. When the subsequent
wave of anti-foreign agitation swept over China and
Boxers besieged the Peking Legations, he kept aloof
in his own province. He avoided embroiling
himself through the years when Russia was annex-
ing Manchuria, and afterwards when Japan was
turning her out; and he has obtained the reward
of his caution in becoming the most powerful
man in China
This stout-bodied, energetic, pleasant-mannered
mandarin is now in the prime of life, not trusted
completely by either reformers or conservatives, and
with many bitter enemies in southern and central
China. The wave of reaction which is tidal in
China, periodically threatens but never submerges
him, and he continues to control the one efficient
organisation which exists for imposing the will of
an individual upon the country. Yuan-Shih-Kai
cannot altogether escape the reproach of being
a time-server; but he dominates Northern China,
and no survey of the situation in the Far East
could be made without consideration of his person-
ality, and reference to the sequence of events that
has made him what he is. The imperious old
8 THE CASE FOR ENQUIRY
Dowager Empress and her weak-minded stepson
are impotent figureheads beside this virile adminis-
trator. The time-worn Viceroy Chan-Chi-Tung,
who rules the central river provinces, carries far
less weight. Chan-Chi-Tung is to Middle China
very much what Yuan-Shih-Kai is in the north ;
but he belongs to an older and less efficient
generation. This ruler established the cotton-mills,
ironworks, and rifle factories which have made
Hankow famous. He has raised fifty thousand
men and armed and drilled them in modern fashion ;
but they are vastly less efficient than the force
controlled by Yuan-Shih-Kai. Manoeuvres were in
progress in Honan last autumn, in which the troops
of both Yuan-Shih-Kai and Chan-Chi-Tung took
part Yuan-Shih-Kai sent batteries of quick-firing
guns with his men, as a matter of course. Chan-
Chi-Tung discovered, at the last moment, that he
had only comparatively old-fashioned slow-firers to
set against the brand-new Krupps of the north.
His agents were busy in Shanghai last summer,
endeavouring to buy quick-firers from anywhere or
anybody, at no matter what cost, provided they
could be delivered immediately. Whether they
would shoot straight mattered little. They were
wanted to save Chan-Chi-Tung from being publicly
outdone, and for no other purpose. Yuan-Shih-Kai
means his guns for use ; and herein lies the diffe-
rence between his methods and those of most of
his predecessors. Yuan-Shih-Kai fills in the China
of to-day a place comparable, allowing for the
THE CASE FOR ENQUIRY 9
difference in the men, to that which Marquis I to
occupied in the Japan of twenty years ago. The
movement he is associated with is the leading fact
in the present Far Eastern awakening.
What is the significance of this new activity.^
Will it grow and strengthen until it raises the
Mongolian into an overbalancing factor in the
equipoise of the world, or has it limits that will
restrain its development and keep it from going
beyond local and temporary bounds ? Industrially
and commercially the yellow race is entering into
competition with the white. It is obvious that the
markets of the Far East are now in dispute. Is
British trade in danger in China and Japan alone,
or does competition threaten seriously over a yet
wider area ? The infection of the boycott has
shown itself mildly in Bengal. Is it to take hold
like the plague ? Japan has leapt suddenly into the
arena of the big military powers. Is China about
to follow her example ? Are the armies of Yuan-
Shih-Kai and Chan-Chi-Tung destined to sink back
into impotence, or to become the parents of efficient
forces exceeding those of the Mikado as the people
of China outnumber those of Japan ? In material
resources and in men there are the makings of nine
Japans in China. Are the nine units, or any of
them, capable of the organisation and development
which have enabled Japan to take a place beside
France and Germany in the politics of the world ?
And what is the real presage of Japan ? Are her
victories in war over Russia, her successes in peace
lo THE CASE FOR ENQUIRY
over Manchester and Pittsburg, preludes to still
wider conquests and more general commercial ad-
vance ? Japan has been the apt pupil of Western
races. Is she about to become their teacher? In
China she neighbours a race related to herself but
of g^ant growth. How far can this strange pair go ?
Japan has imported many of the ideas of modem
civilisation which make for stability and power.
Will she be able to reject those which tend towards
disintegration at home and weakness abroad ? She
has proved the efficiency of bureaucratic control of
her national energies; but will her proletariat be
contented to keep permanently in the background ?
What will become of her national policy if her
imitative faculty gives her a labour party organised
as in Australia and England?
The answers to all these questions depend, of
course, not only upon resources and odds of circum-
stance, but upon the temperament, the capacity,
and the character of the various yellow peoples
concerned. The problem of the Far East is im-
manent in the peoples of the Far East, more than
in the material facts which appear to equip them;
and Mongolians are so different from Europeans that
but few of the solving standards of the West apply.
CHAPTER 11
CHINESE IN BRITISH TERRITORY
IN every British port in the Indian seas, from
the coast of Bengal to that of the Straits Settle-
ments, the Chinese element is becoming increasingly
prominent. In Calcutta it is chiefly represented by
industrious artisans, including shoemakers and car-
penters, who find ready employment on the merits
of their work, though skilled native labour competes
at rates of pay which average about half what the
Chinese will accept in the same handicrafts. In the
year 1900, when a contingent of thirty thousand
troops was under urgent despatch from India to
represent Great Britain in the allied operations for
the relief of the Peking Legations, a strike amongst
the Chinese fitters in the Calcutta dockyard proved
sufiicient to delay the transports by at least a day.
As far as is known the strikers cared nothing for
the situation at Peking. I am here concerned only
with their importance in the labour market of the
capital of India. They appear rather unexpectedly
in other fields. In the annual race for the Viceroy's
Cup at Calcutta, which is the Derby of Asia, valu-
II
12 CHINESE IN BRITISH TERRITORY
able horses owned by Chinese from Burma and the
Straits Settlements not rarely compete. None of
them have ever won the premier event, but they
have carried off minor honours.
In Rangoon the Chinese merchant controls much
of the inland trade. He imports pickled tea from
the Shan States, and sells the Burman the pink silk
loanghi, often woven in China and dyed in Man-
chester, which is the national wear. He competes
seriously in the rice and timber trades, and has more
than a hand in the silver and jade mines on the
frontier. He is a respected and considered, if not
always permanent, citizen of the British Empire,
and when asked about his Emperor in Peking has
been known to protest with warmth that he has no
emperor but His Majesty King Edward. Matri-
monially he is more than an eligible among the
Burmese, whose women know how to value a
husband who can be relied upon to support them.
The extraordinary prosperity which has followed
British rule in the Straits Settlements would have
been impossible without Chinese industry and atten-
tion to detail, to supplement English, Scotch, and
Irish enterprise and administrative ability, in a
climate which is too enervating to allow white men
to do manual work. The Federated Malay States,
which represent an annual trade of thirteen million
sterling, depend for their revenue upon tin ore, for
which Chinese are the principal miners. As india-
rubber planters, as sugar growers and as general
dealers the Chinese fulfil essential functions.
CHINESE IN BRITISH TERRITORY 13
There is no more favourable centre in which
to observe the part which the Chinese is capable
of playing under British rule than Singapore,
where he finds what he probably considers the
most ideal conditions the world has to offer
him.
The town is the apex of a green promontory
which runs southwards from Siam and Burma, so
that ships bound for China from London and
Calcutta must sail within eighty miles of the
equator to round the furthest headland. The
long islands of Java and Sumatra compel vessels
sailing from Madagascar and South Africa to
take the same route as those from northern ports.
Rozhdestvenski s fleet, trailing eastwards to its fate,
passed within range of the powerful defence batteries
of the port. The officers of French and German
men-of-war, sailing to and from Saigon and Kiaochau,
are familiar figures in the luxurious Singapore Club ;
and a bo'sun s whistle on the bund would summon
able-bodied seamen of all colours. The almost daily
showers, which the grey skies of the tropics vouch-
safe to the settlement, prevent the heat from
becoming at any time fierce. A soft, hot-house
atmosphere plays through the rigging of a con-
gregation of steamers which can be matched in but
six other ports in the world, since the place, already
the gate for through traffic to the Far East, has
now become the principal distributing centre for
the trade of the Dutch East Indies and Northern
Australia.
14 CHINESE IN BRITISH TERRITORY
The wide wooden wharves, the grey stone graving
basins, and the clanging repairing shops of the
Tangong-Pagar Docks, the luxurious electric tram
service in the city, and the business-like railway
which runs to Johore, are all directed by Englishmen
and manned by Chinese. The broad thoroughfares
and substantial houses compare favourably with
those of the biggest Indian cities. Even the
poorest quarters have an air of comfort which
strikes those who are familiar with the wretchedness
of Calcutta bustees and Bombay slums. The bulk
of the quarter of a million inhabitants of the city
are Chinese. Chinese coolies, decorated, I cannot
say clothed, with blue Eton jackets and bathing
drawers, whisk fragile jinrickshaws through the
crowded traffic The men's brick-red limbs display
proportions that Greek sculptors might have copied.
Their dish-cover hats, which rise and fall rhythmi-
cally with the long, easy trot at which the vehicles
are propelled, add to the picturesqueness of the
conveyance. The passengers may be Europeans.
More often they are impervious Chinese ladies or
stout mandarin folk ; for the jinrickshaw maintains
its popularity as a means of locomotion against that
packing-box on wheels, the Indian cab. Even the
electric trams have failed to strike any fatal blow at
the business of the jinrickshaw coolies, though the
latter at one time thought themselves so seriously
threatened that they took to the dangerous expedient
of wedging stones into the rails — a. form of humour
which was not deprived of popularity until some
CHINESE IN BRITISH TERRITORY ij
severe sentences had been passed in the local police
court.
A group of chimney-stacks on one side of the
harbour reminds the visitor that the Straits Settle-
ments smelt more than half the total tin ore
produced in the world. Palatial buildings in the
business quarter are eloquent of the boom which
just now is making fortunes for both Chinese and
British india-rubber planters in the interior. Cart-
loads of luscious pineapples block the lanes outside
the city, on their way from the Chinese market-
garden to the European canning factory. Pros-
perity beams from corpulent Chinamen and smardy
turned out sahibs. Even that scantily clad problem
of the country, the gendemanly Malay, who sees no
merit in work, shares in the general well-being,
since the demands of the Chinese community for
fish provide him with profitable employment which
he can regard as sport
The settlement is not only thriving at the present,
but has entered upon developments which must
increase its importance in the future. More than a
million sterling, from the current revenue of the
Government, is being laid out in improving the
already splendid harbour-works. A site has been
found and Chinese labour is being employed to
dredge a graving-dock capable of accommodating
the biggest man-of-war afloat Chinese platelayers
are pushing a metre-gauge railway nor^wards, to
connect eventually with the Burma system. Already
it links Penang with Port Swettenham and carries
i6 CHINESE IN .BRITISH TERRITORY
sightseers from Singapore to the pseudo- Parisian
palace of the Rajah of Johore. At present the
narrow arm of the sea, which separates the island
of Singapore from the mainland of Johore, is
crossed only by a passenger boat; but a ferry
steamer is shortly to carry the train bodily across.
A small basin is to be cut on either bank as a
mooring dock ; and there will soon be no breaking
of bulk in the conveyance of produce from the
furthest inland plantation to the port
The Chinese, through whose industry all this has
been accomplished, pay their own way backwards
and forwards to their homes about Canton, and are
both thrifty and open-handed. Indentured Chinese
labour is a factor in Singapore ; but it is brought in
by the Chinese themselves. The British adminis-
tration provides only security for person and pro-
perty, and freedom to develop the rich resources of
the peninsula. Friendly give-and-take between the
British and Chinese communities is apparent upon
every side. Quarantine is strictly enforced against
Hongkong and Canton, by British doctors who
attribute the immunity of their island from such
diseases as plague and small-pox, to the ten days of
isolation they impose upon all deck passengers who
land from the unclean cities of the Further East.
The Chinese submits good-humouredly to what he
regards as a troublesome British fad. His sub-
scription to the clock, which the new town hall
tower has been built to conspicuously lack, will be as
liberal as if no such restriction had been imposed.
CHINESE IN BRITISH TERRITORY 17
The European puts up with an unsavoury fish-
market, and works cheerfully alongside more or less
unwashed yellow colleagues, knowing that there is
a rich harvest in tolerance. The Anglo-Indian
visitor notices absence of noise and wrangling in
the bazars. The jinrickshaw coolie accepts his legal
fare with comparatively little grumbling. A ship is
loaded by swarming pig-tailed dock-hands at the
jetties, with scarcely more shouting than would be
involved in putting the luggage of a single passenger
upon a cab in Calcutta. The Chinese of Singapore,
though obviously Asiatic in his limitations as well
as in his origin, is more self-reliant than the majority
of the inhabitants of India. In theory he considers
himself the white man's equal, though in practice he
bows to the more imperious virility of the West. A
dispute amongst the Chinese passengers, who fill
the decks of vessels plying between Singapore and
Hongkong, is unusual ; but when it occurs it is
sometimes lively, an affronted Chinaman not being
particular as to either instrument or method so long
as retaliation be swift and efiicacious. Such a
thing as a serious disturbance is almost unknown,
the respect commanded by British ship's ofiicers
being such that order can be restored with ease in
all ordinary qua,rrels among coolies.
The success of the combination of the two races
can only be described as phenomenal. A country
already containing half a million people, doing a
trade that attracts ten million tons of shipping
annually, and yielding a Government revenue of
i8 CHINESE IN BRITISH TERRITORY
twenty million dollars, is being developed at a rate
that promises enormous advance In the immediate
future upon these already remarkable figures. The
situation has a significance which makes it worth
considering in relation to the kind of progress the
Chinese have hitherto been able to make, with
infinitely greater possibilities, in their own country.
The deduction is obvious in Singapore, as in
Calcutta, Rangoon, Penang, and Ceylon, that the
efficiency as an industrial unit of which the Chinese
is capable under European rule is considerably
greater than that which he is likely to attain under
his own mandarins. But it is too soon for
deductions.
Twelve lead coffins have been safely stowed
aboard, for no Singapore Chinaman will trust him-
self to a ship that does not undertake to carry him
dead, as well as alive, into port A dozen is a good
many ; but it is well to be on the safe side, since
even one deceased Chinaman in excess of the
accommodation provided may be embarrassing in
the tropics. The volume of wire-stringed lute-
twanging that finds its way up from the hold shows
there is a full cargo of prosperous gentry who are
going to finish their days in Kwangtung, as the
Anglo-Indian seeks Devonshire, or the South
African Park Lane. Singapore and its empty
clock-tower have dwindled into daisies and dande-
lions in the hedge of a green field of harbour. In
front the headlands of the wide gate into the China
VKLI.OW COI.l.K.MJl'K
►1 ••
• • •
•••
CHINESE IN BRITISH TERRITORY 19
Sea stand open to us as they stood to Marco Polo.
There are no explorers among us ; their day is
over. They sailed to China ; we sail with China on
board. To the humbler observer there is all the
difference of five hundred years.
CHAPTER III
THE SITUATION IN CAJjITON
CERTAIN things are going on in Canton
which have direct bearing upon the change
that is coming over the outlook in China. A dozen
miles from the clamorous city, in the midst of the
swamps of rice cultivators and fishermen, may be
descried an institution which means much and is
typical of a great deal more. On the left, as the
steamer strains against the flood of the Canton
river, emerges what looks at first like a mass of red
and white poppies upon the brown mud bank. The
poppy-heads are tied to withered sticks. They grow,
as the steamer approaches, into Chinese banners on
the masts of a fleet of wooden guard-boats : the
hulls do not become visible at. once, since they are
almost exactly the same colour as the mud upon
which they have been beached. These guard-boats
are propelled by sails stiffened like gigantic Japanese
fans, with frequent ribs of split bamboo. They can
run down a river pirate junk, and might even pour
a volley of buckshot upon its crew ; but they belong
to the China which has already passed away. Out
31
22 THE SITUATION IN CANTON
in the dun-coloured stream, where the water from
the far hills of Yunnan goes swirling down to the
China Sea, a couple of lemon-coloured torpedo-
boats sulk in the grey midday light of a K wangtung
fog. These torpedo-boats, like the badly-kept Krupp
guns of the forts at the river mouth, belong to the
formidable but still inefficient China of to-day.
Upon the shore beyond the poppy-bed, strolling
about after a lecture given by smart Japanese
officers, are a number of well turned out Chinese
cadets in black uniforms, with queues curled up inside
their forage-caps. A boatload came aboard the
steamer, for it was the eve of the Ching-Ming
festival of ancestors, and g^eat - grand - parents'
graves, upon the hillsides further up the river, must
be honourably decorated, though descendants may
be engaged upon modern tactics and strategy that
may change the map of Asia. The lads are inde-
pendent little fellows, who are confident that they
will be the Kurokis and the Togos of the China of
to-morrow. I met nobody who could tell me how
many of them there are ; but the Wampu training
college by the poppy- bed is evidendy ^extensive ;
and it is but one of many of its kind in different
parts of the country. The training colleges are
connected with the modern arsenals, rifle factories,
and gun foundries which Chinese viceroys are
industriously erecting. They are turning out
officers as different from the mandarins of the
past as the modern mauser rifles and cartridges,
which the factories are producing by the hundred
THE SITUATION IN CANTON 23
thousand and the million, are different from the
ancient blunderbusses with which the Chinese
forces of yesterday were armed.
The guards of the pagoda gates in Canton are
still the effete mannikins of the past. They have
antiquated rifles, which they handed me readily
to examine as I passed on a tourist round of the
sights. The barrels were clean, but the cartridge
chambers were empty, and no ammunition could
be found to show me. The weapons have no
military significance, though they are about as
useful as most of those with which the corre-
sponding police in India are provided, and have
kiyonets which might be of service in the com-
paratively peaceful duty of controlling a Chinese
crowd.
The ancient battle-axes and muskets of a yet
older belligerence are also in use. They are to be
seen at the iron gates, which separate the spacious
foreigners' settlement from the herded Chinese city,
where policemen in scarlet stomachers and tarpaulin
hats g^rd night and day, as they have guarded for
decades, the unwelcome strangers from the West,
who are allowed to do their present business freely,
because the armament which is proceeding is
not yet sufficient to enable China effectively to
discourage them.
Evidence of this feeling was to be seen in every
local newspaper, oddly reminiscent of the spirit and
phrasing of the rampant Bengali press in Calcutta.
Extracts published in the Anglo-Chinese papers of
24 THE SITUATION IN CANTON
the south, during my stay in Canton, gave promi-
nence to allegations centreing round three particular
Chinese viceroys. The Chinese public was naively
told that Viceroy Yuan-Shih- Kai was moving in
connection with preparations for the establishment
of constitutional government in Peking, and that
he had selected representatives to study the manu-
facture of arms in Europe. Viceroy Chan-Chi-
Tung was described, in less masterful language, as
asking for and obtaining the permission of the
throne to establish an exclusively Chinese railway
engineering school at Wuchang. Viceroy Shum
Huen himself published the text of a long resolution
in which he made over the control of the whole
of the immensely important railways about Canton
to a company composed of Chinese gentry and
merchants. Other extracts gave the Chinese
public to understand that the grip of the foreigner
upon the country was being everywhere loosened,
that the fortifications upon the Yangtse were to be
increased ; and that fresh enterprise for the future,
and especially fresh enterprise in railways, was to
be kept entirely in Chinese hands. There is no
doubt about the energy with which this paper
agitation is being carried on. The movement has
a patriotic basis; but its more immediate motive
power appears to lie in a firm belief, upon the part
of the mandarins, that railway enterprise in China
will be fabulously profitable, and that its spoils must
not be allowed to pass into pockets other than their
own.
THE SITUATION IN CANTON 25
Rumour and speculation are predominant, but
there is no lack of accomplished fact. It was
unnecessary to go further than the railways at the
gates of Canton to observe an example, in the shape
of an immensely important undertaking begun by
Europeans and now in the hands of Chinese.
I give the particulars as I gleaned them from
men upon the spot, some told in the litde yellow
American cars that are plying upon the Canton-
Fatshan-Samshui line, others in Canton and Hong-
kong offices. The Canton-Samshui railway was
built by the American-China Development Com-
pany, who were the original holders of a concession
from the Chinese Government for the much-dis-
cussed grand trunk railway from Canton to
Hankow. The section that has been constructed
is a branch about thirty miles long. It carries
passengers backwards and forwards across the delta
between Canton and Samshui, the latter place being
a port upon the main stream, whereas Canton is
upon a tributary. Any day affords an opportunity
of seeing the enormous demand which is greeting
the introduction of this still novel facility from the
West. The river feeds the rail. On the day of my
visit I noted a big, flat-bottomed steamboat, with
four immense open decks, towering one above
another, each loaded with a black mass of Chinese
humanity, which was forcing her way up the river
through an almost solid collection of the rickety
sampan boats plying for hire about the port The
flat lurched heavily in spite of her enormous beam,
26 THE SITUATION IN CANTON
when a partial movement to see the approaching
shore took place on board, and might have capsized
with less stolidly fatalistic passengers, who would
have made a more general rush.
Other vessels, with two and three equally over-
crowded decks, were arriving from both up and
down stream ; and sampans besieged them all. The
ferry-women touting for fares gabbled like ten
thousand geese. The city drowsed upon one bank,
the electric lights barely extinguished in its gambling
dens, and wrapped us in the odour which emerges
from every gathering of Chinese dwellings — an
odour suggestive of freshly lacquered coffins, fried
grease, and badly constructed drains. Upon the
other bank stood the iron sheds of the railway
station, into which broad streams of people were
pouring from the boats. Industrious little trains
trotted up one after another and carried off the
contents of passenger pens, which were refilled
as fast as the people vacated them to get into the
carriages. The process continued until my own
steamer left, and is presumably going on now. I
was not surprised to hear that the railway was
taking an annual thirty per cent, upon its capital
cost, although it confined itself to the passenger
traffic, and did not attempt to cope with goods.
The permanent way is on the standard four-feet
eight-inches gauge, and is laid with substantial
seventy-five pound rails. The track is double and
stone-ballasted for a dozen miles to Fatshan, after
which it is single and ballasted only with sand.
THE SITUATION IN CANTON 27
The section upon the northern bank of the river, of
what Continental optimists once hoped would become
the connecting link in an all-Gallic railway, through
the very centre of China, to join Annam with the
Siberian system, lies neglected and unused. The
Samshui branch points southwards towards French
territory. The northern embankment beckons
towards Hankow ; but that is all that has yet been
accomplished. The Russo-Japanese war has changed
the ownership of the Manchurian connection. The
Hankow-Peking portion alone remains as it was
originally designed.
The Samshui branch is worked by a Chinese
staff, presided over by two capable Americans, who
are in the service of the Chinese Government.
Negotiations are going on for the construction, as a
purely Chinese undertaking, of the Canton- Hankow
line ; and the Viceroy of the Cantonese province
has been endeavouring to get the work begun. He
appears to have failed to raise the necessary money
direct, so has handed over the whole concern to an
association which calls itself the General Chamber
of Commerce of China Merchants. The official
proclamation announcing the transfer indicates
''nine large charitable institutions and seventy-
two guilds " to hold the property, as a temporary
measure, while the China Merchants are arranging
to increase the capital of the two million dollars they
have actually collected, to the twenty million re-
quired to finance the building of the line to Hankow.
The undertaking is capable of paying exceedingly
28 THE SITUATION IN CANTON
handsome interest on the capital that would be
required if the work were under economical
European management I heard in Hongkong
that the China Merchants can command the money
that is wanted. It has now to be seen to what
extent the endeavour to keep the company exclu-
sively Chinese will succeed, and whether, in that
case, construction will proceed as it should.
In the meantime, yet another important railway
project, and this time a British one, has come into
existence — the Hongkong- Canton Railway. This
line is to connect the mainland side of the Hong-
kong harbour with Canton. The country to be
traversed is easy ; and the linking up of a British
port, which now claims to handle more shipping
than London, with the biggest Chinese city in the
world, is certain to be profitable. The permanent
way for the section through British territory, about
thirty miles long, has been aligned by the British
Administration of Hongkong under Sir Matthew
Nathan. The portion through Chinese territory,
which is not so very much longer, is to be built
by Chinese agency when and if the money is forth-
coming. A beginning has been made upon the
British side ; and a track, which now serves as a
road, has been laid out for a few miles from the sea.
Confident announcements have lately been published
that the indigenous section is arranged for ; but the
traveller is not long in China before he learns to
believe only in what he sees, and no beginning had
been made when I was upon the spot.
THE SITUATION IN CANTON 29
The city of Canton is the focus of the life of
Southern China. The Portuguese recognised this
centuries ago when they built, at the mouth of its
shallow river, their harbour of Macao, which pros-
pered exceedingly until ocean-going ships outgrew
the depth of its anchorage and transferred their
patronage to its successful British rival, Hongkong,
leaving Macao to decay into a refuge for insolvent
debtors and a nest of gambling-houses. Hongkong
may justify all its pretensions, but its prosperity is
dependent upon the fact that it possesses the
nearest deep-water harbour to Canton, and is the
point where Cantonese river craft transfer their
produce to modern liners.
The Cantonese are agitators as well as traders,
and nurse many schemes besides that of doing
without the European. There is no doubt that a
movement has long flourished amongst them,
directed to no less a purpose than the overthrow
of the present dynasty and the restoration of pure
Chinese rule. This is aimed in part against Yuan-
Shih-Kai, but is also a manifestation of the feeling
which is at the root of the anti-foreign movement
that affects the European. To this sentiment the
Manchu is only less an outsider than the English-
man. The Cantonese is the same intractable to-day
that he has been for ages. He hates to be interfered
with even by a race so long and so closely related
to him as are his fellow-Mongolians from further
north. He is the Bengali of China, quicker witted
than the more manly races of the northern provinces,
30 THE SITUATION IN CANTON
but also less to be relied upon. Intrigue and
finesse, not swords or guns, are his national weapons
for both offence and defence. He will leave any
physical fighting that may have to be done to his
countrymen of the north, though he will figure as
prominendy, when it comes tc^ a division of the
spoil that may be won, as if he had taken his full
share of hardship and danger. When the Peking
Government was at war with Japan, the Cantonese
looked on while the armies of Chihli marched against
the invading forces of the Mikado. Nevertheless,
when Yuan-Shih-Kai was setting to work after
peace had been restored to lay the foundation of
that modernising movement which makes such
lavish promises for the future, his unpopularity in
South China did not prevent him from turning to
Canton for some of his best-qualified and best-paid
lieutenants.
The military academy and torpedo-boats outside
Canton may be less important, as items in the
military preparations of China, than corresponding
arrangements at such a place as Tientsin. The
southern provinces are no doubt rather noisy and
truculent than possessed of present fighting effi-
ciency ; but they are animated by as strong a
determination as any of their fellows to become
possessed of the power of offence which modern
armaments afford; and in the meantime, like
Bengal, they are not less conspicuous for being
more articulate.
CHAPTER IV
THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT IN MIDDLE CHINA
NOBODY can be many days in Shanghai
without hearing rumours of vaguely antici-
pated trouble. The European exploring the native
city may walk from one dark end of the narrow
alleys to the other, through groves of illuminated
name-boards, armies of chair-coolies, and hordes
of pariahs, without more embarrassment than is
occasioned by hurrying masses of busy humanity
intent solely upon their own affairs. Coolies,
laden with hides, kerosine oil-tins, or yet more
unsavoury burdens, hustle their way through the
crowd with warning shouts that are as strident
and aggressive when a white man is in the way
as when only their own countryfolk have to be
thrust against the wall. Jinrickshaw runners, when
inadvertently overpaid, do not hesitate to add a
detaining hand to arguments to prove they
should receive yet more. London cab-drivers and
Marseilles luggage-porters no doubt behave to
the stranger, under corresponding circumstances,
in ways that are at least as offensive ; but better
manners are so largely the rule to the east of Suez,
31
32 THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT
that European Shanghai may well suspect what
looks like a change for the worse. The revolver,
unusual in China, has been added to the equip-
ment of some of the men employed in connection
with the electric tramway that is to be laid down in
the Shanghai streets, in consequence of persistent
stories that an attempt will be made to interfere
with construction.
Signs of racial friction are much less marked
than was the case in Calcutta at the time of the
anti-partition agitation; but their existence is re-
cognised by merchants whose long experience of
China excludes the supposition that there is any
mistake. The jetties, factories, and docks of the
city have never been more active. Money is
being made and business transacted upon a scale
that fully maintains the claim of Shanghai to be
considered the Manchester of the Far East. On
the splendid wharves and jetties that astonish the
visitor by their extent and activity, and in the
spacious streets and palatial offices that stand for
a prosperity which enriches a million Chinese in-
habitants, exists nevertheless a feeling of insecurity
which is not the less real because it is indefinite,
nor lacking in significance because there are those
who deny the reasonableness of the grounds on
which it is based.
I found the possibility of another rising common
talk at every dinner- table. ''I've had to hide, before
now, for two days in a cellar to escape a riot, and
I see signs of another coming," was said to me
THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT 33
by the head of an important concern who thought
the general outlook threatening. The traveller
might have heard similar prophecies any time
within the last fifteen years in India, where half
a century of peace may have made the European
imaginative. But people who have lived in China
for ten years are usually experts in riots, of one
dimension or another, and are better acquainted,
like my friend, with the indications.
I have endeavoured to ascertain how this feeling
has arisen in so far as it is new ; and I gather that
several incidents have been contributing causes.
First and foremost is the Shanghai riot of
December, 1905. This was a very small afifair
of itself. A mob collected ; a Sikh policeman
was rough-handled and killed ; a few Europeans
were damaged and some shops were looted. The
streets were cleared by bluejackets and volunteers ;
a few volleys were fired, a score of rioters were
wounded, and the thing was over. The trouble
arose from an inter-racial dispute in which the
Chinese took the side of their own officials. The
widow of an unimportant up-country mandarin
arrived in the settlement with a number of slave-
girls, and was arrested by the European authorities
on the charge of having kidnapped her companions.
The Chinese officials claimed that their own jail,
and not the settlement jail, was the proper place
for her incarceration. The native newspapers
published exaggerated stories directed to showing
that the Europeans were encroaching upon Chinese
34 THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT
prerogatives. Although the question was entirely
technical, race feeling was aroused ; and the matter
was complicated by a natural impression amongst
the Europeans that the Chinese officials were
egging it on. It is alleged that the bringing of
the roughs who made the disturbance into the
settlement was connived at, that the Chinese troops
and police were not used as they should have
been to suppress the trouble, and that sufficiently
prompt and vigorous measures were not subse-
quently adopted to arrest the ringleaders.
The Taotai, or Chinese Governor of Shanghai,
was especially blamed, and complaint was so in-
sistent that he was eventually removed from his
office by the Peking Government, as a concession
to the Europeans. Immediately afterwards, how-
ever, he was given the signal honour of promotion
to the Governorship of Peking, which produced the
impression that his sympathy with the rioters was
shared by the supreme authority in the country.
The subsequent disturbance at Nanchang, of which
I shall have more to say hereafter, where a number
of missionsu-ies were murdered by a Chinese mob,
added to the tension of the situation. Rumours of
large fresh importations of modem weapons and
ammunition upon the part of the Chinese Govern-
ment, and undeniable activity in the arsenals and
cantonments in different parts of the country, are
pointed to as further evidence of the existence of a
definite movement hostile to the foreign element in
China.
THE ANTI.FOREIGN MOVEMENT 35
Every kind of exaggeration has resulted from
this state of affairs. I heard of Europeans who
had packed up their possessions in order to
facilitate escape when the rising should begin. The
more phlegmatic looked upon disturbances only as
a possible and not as an unavoidable contingency.
The British official view in Shanghai was also re-
assuring; though the fact could not be got over
that negotiations with the Chinese Government
were at a standstill in connection with most of the
pending concessions to Europeans for railways and
other commercial enterprises. It must be added
that I met both Englishmen and Americans^ espe-
cially amongst the missionaries, whose views are
entided to weight on account of their close asso-
ciation with the Chinese, who did not consider that
the general attitude of the people had become more
hostile of late. One of them, indeed, a missionary
of experience, whom I interviewed in the village in
which he is working within a hundred miles of
Nanchang, assured me that the only alteration he
had observed was the very marked one which took
place after the relief of the Legations in 1900, when
some respect for foreigners was introduced for the
first time in his experience. He maintained that
there had been since then no change for the worse.
This missionary was able to speak with candour of
the objectionable as well as of the admirable
qualities of the Chinese. He is one of the very
few white men in the country possessed of any
profound knowledge of their extraordinarily difficult
36 THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT
language, and I found scholars in Shanghai who
confirmed what he told me. Their view was that
the alarm is confined to those engaged in business,
who are not, as a rule, acquainted with Chinese,
the majority of the British merchants in Shanghai
being contented, they alleged, to work through
compradors, and being thus in a position to obtain
their information only at second-hand. They ex-
plained the fact that roughs were allowed to enter
Shanghai on the occasion of the riot, by the some-
what unconvincing statement that the city has an
open frontage five miles long which cannot be
guarded easily. The extent of the area concerned
and the imperfection of the Chinese official organi-
sation were cited in answer to the charge of supine-
ness in the matter of suppressing the disturbance
and arresting the ringleaders.
The nature of the calling of the missionary
inclines him to view his relations with the people
in a hopeful spirit, here as elsewhere. Such hope-
fulness may sometimes err on the side of charity,
and should not fail to be discounted to that extent
A reply given by the Taotai of Shanghai, when
he was approached by the United States Consular
authorities with a view to inducing him to prohibit
the boycott of American goods in Middle China,
throws a good deal of light upon the situation. It
was pointed out to him that Yuan-Shih-Kai had
stopped the boycott movement in Peking by the
simple expedient of issuing an official proclamation
against it. His answer was to the effect that what
THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT 37
was practicable in the north was utterly impossible
in Middle China.
"The people of Shanghai," he said, "are no
longer subservient to authority. They have learnt
from the foreigner to think and to act for them-
selves. They have become independent, and guard
so jealously free liberty to buy or to refuse to buy
from whom they will, that any attempt upon my part
to interfere in the matter would have exactly the
opposite effect to what is intended. It would itself
create further disturbance and set the people more
strongly than before upon the course they have
determined to adopt."
This attitude upon the part of the Chinese official
is characteristic, and it accounts for a very great
deal. British merchants read into it that the
Chinese officials are actively hostile. A()ologists
consider that they are well-meaning but helpless.
With reg^d to the promotion of the Taotai after
the riot, I can only report the explanation I found
current The conservatism of China is a proverb.
Although Shanghai is one of the biggest and most
prosperous cities in China, it is only sixty years old.
Its Taotai is therefore a mere magistrate, subor-
dinate to the Viceroy of ancient Nanking, important
only in decay. Under ordinary circumstances, pro-
motion from the Shanghai Taotaiship to the gover-
norship of Peking would merit the interpretation
which members of the mercantile community have
placed upon it ; but in this particular case the cir-
cumstances were special. The Taotai of the
38 THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT
moment was related by marriage to several high
officials at Peking, including Yuan-Shih-Kai him-
self. Some months prior to the riot he had been
given the honorary title of Provincial Treasurer,
which qualified him to look for elevation to a
governorship. The outcry raised against him by
the foreign element is sufficient to account for a
not necessarily premeditated movement upon the
part of his own people in his favour. His selection
for the governorship of Peking was the outcome of
such movement These explanations leave un-
touched the fact that though inter-racial relations
may or may not be worse, they are undeniably bad.
The official concerned may not impossibly play a
more prominent part in the future than in the
past. His own estimate of himself, given to a
distinguished American missionary in Shanghai
some time prior to the riot, may be quoted. " I
am one," he said, ''who can always be led easily
but never driven." The Shanghai merchants may
have failed to discern this feature of his character.
The armament question in Shanghai is less difficult
to understand, as both the city itself and the lower
reaches of the Yangtse river afford abundant evidence
of what is going on. By the courtesy of the officials
I was permitted to go over the Kiang - Nan
arsenal and gun factory, which stands upon the
river bank three miles above the city of Shanghai.
Here I found the manufacture of 1888 pattern
mauser rifles, of about '302 bore, in full operation.
The plant is complete though not very modern, and
THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT 39
is working up to its full capacity. Some three
hundred Chinese workmen are employed, and the
out-turn is from twelve to thirteen finished rifles
daily, the total number made in a month being
about three hundred. To arm a hundred thousand
men from this factory would thus take a quarter of
a century; but it must be remembered that the
works are but one out of many sources of supply.
The rifles are rough but serviceable, and are claimed
to have an average deviation of not more than about
three feet at five hundred yards* range. The barrels
are turned upon the lathe, and the details of
mechanism are cut out by machines, each devoted
to some one part The stocks are shaped mechani-
cally, from yellow wood imported from Korea. All
the machines are driven by steam power. The
steel is smelted upon the premises, the ingredients
being scrap-iron purchased locally and hematite ore
imported from the Hupeh province. The furnaces
comprise two up-to-date installations of the Siemens
open-hearth pattern, one being of fifteen tons'
capacity and the other of three tons. There are
also two air-blast furnaces, one of five tons' capacity
and the other somewhat smaller, which are used for
cast-iron work. The plant includes steam-driven
rolling-mills for both steel bars and sheets, also
hydraulic steel-pressing plant, lathes, planing, boring,
cutting, and rifling machinery big enough to admit
of the handling of guns up to twelve-inch calibre.
I saw in the shops two 9*2 guns, two six-inch guns,
and one 47 gun of modern design with Armstrong
40 THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT
pattern breech action, which I was told had been
built upon the premises from rough castings im-
ported from Europe. A disappearing carriage for
one of the 9*2 guns was being made in the
shops, but I saw no big guns actually under
manufacture.
A beautiful naval twelve-pounder with Armstrong
breech action, a couple of eleven-pounder mountain
guns, and one twelve-pounder field gun with Nor-
denfeldt breech-blocks were standing ready for
delivery, also a twelve-pounder field gun on low
carriage with Japanese-pattern recoil fork attached
to the wheels. A couple of ()ompoms, two 9*2 guns,
and several six-inch guns were also upon the pre-
mises for repair, but these were said to have been
imported. They were from a Chinese cruiser which
had run aground upon the coast. The guns appeared
to be in excellent order ; the barrels were absolutely
free from marks of corrosion. The six-inch and 47
weapons were fitted with spring and oil-cylinder
recoil absorbers, some of which were under repair.
The biggest guns which the factory has built were
four twelve-inch weapons used at Wei-hai-wei in
the Chino- Japanese war, of which two were subse-
quently carried off to Japan for use by the Mikado's
forces. The guns have outer steel sheaths shrunk
over inner steel cores, but no wire-winding plant
could be shown to me. The story of the building of
the twelve-inch guns seemed to me incredible, when
first I heard it, though at least one lathe capable of
taking such monsters was upon the premises; but
THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT 41
confirmation has since reached me. The work must
have taken a long time to execute. There is no
doubt about the capacity of the shops to manufacture
smaller ordnance. The possible out-turn of twelve-
pounder field guns is about fifty per annum, in addi-
tion to other work. The latest addition to the plant
is a fine hydraulic steel tension testing machine, but
no laboratory for proving the chemical composition
is upon the premises. Cast-iron shells up to the
9*2 size, with percussion fuses, were to be seen in
small numbers, and the introduction of plant for
making time-fuses and forged steel shell is being
talked about.
The works are staffed by Chinese artisans under
Chinese foremen, with two English engineers —
Messrs. Cornish and Atkinson — who supervise the
getting out of new plant and are responsible for
the surprisingly high standard of the work. A
courteous Chinese gentleman acts as secretary to
the concern.
Connected with the arsenal is a graving-dock
capable of taking a second-class cruiser. Attached
are extensive repairing shops. The fuse shop in
the factory is now being dismantled, with a view,
I understand, to erection in some more isolated
locality up-country. At Loong-Hwa, a couple of
miles further up the river and some five miles from
Shanghai, is a Chinese powder and small-arms
ammunition factory under Japanese management.
It produces a modified cordite with such high
explosive qualities as to have given some trouble
42 THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT
in the rifles. It is here that the mauser cartridges
are turned out.
I was desirous of seeing the Chinese forts which
guard the mouth of the river at Wusung a dozen
miles below Shanghai. These are said to be
capable of shutting off from communication with
the outside world the whole city of Shanghai with
all its cotton-mills, docks, and sixteen thousand
foreigners, as a cork shuts a bottle. A hot morning
spent in interviewing smiling Chinese officials in
the gaily-papered booths in the heart of the native
city, which do duty as the yamen of the present
Taotai of Shanghai, though backed by an intro-
duction of authority, resulted only in the reference
by telegraph to the Viceroy of Nanking of the
weighty question whether I might go inside the
fortifications. I therefore contented myself with an
examination from without the walls. I ran out
from Shanghai, by a well-appointed all- British
railway, which is part of the British and Chinese
corporation's line to Nanking. The permanent
way was open only for a few miles on both sides
of Shanghai, but was shortly to be completed to
Suchau, and to Nanking by September, 1907.
The original concession from the Chinese Govern-
ment contemplated future extensions to the rich
cities of Hangchau and Ningpo, on some of the
wonderful old canals that once connected the
Yangtse with Canton; but the China-for-the-
Chinese movement has intervened, and there is
a typical hitch. The Chinese Government allege
THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT 43
that they granted the concession upon the supposi-
tion that they could not raise the capital for them-
selves, and that it now lapses as this state of
things has changed with the growing confidence
of the local gentry in the profitiibleness of railway
enterprise. An appeal lies to the British Govern-
ment Meanwhile I passed a number of engines,
in all stages of construction from imported parts,
and was told by a friendly Sikh policeman, in un-
expected English, that I had reached the terminus
at Wusung forts.
The line ended abruptly a quarter of a mile from
the fortifications, and a tumble-down jinrickshaw
was soon trundling me to the spot. There proved
to be an earthen rampart twenty feet high upon the
low river-bank, close to the water at a point where
the navigable channel contracts into a narrow gut
On the top of the wall, without cover of any sort,
beyond what was afforded by shrapnel-proof steel
shields, were half a dozen six-inch and 47-inch guns.
There was nothing wrong with the weapons. The
waterway was completely commanded ; but behind
the guns was nothing but a low mud wall which
enclosed a strip of ground a few yards broad. The
country around is a low alluvial flat without obstacle
of any kind to interfere with a landing, either above
or below the fortifications. An enterprising enemy
would know what to do under these circumstances,
if his own guns proved insufficient to silence those
of the fort
Chinese sentries, armed with mauser rifles from
44 THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT
the factory, were on duty in blue canvas uniforms
at the gates, and a typical Chinese travesty of a
modern manoeuvre was in progress in a field near
by. A squad of some forty Chinese had been
arranged on a line in close order. An instructor
stood in front. At the first word of command the
men all lay down with deliberation. At the second,
they got up slowly. At the third, they marched
funereally forward in step for exactly ten paces.
At the fourth, they all lay down again and the
process recommenced. The only disquieting feature
vras revealed inside one of the gates, where some
bell-shaped metal receptacles, chained to others
that were like enormous drums, suggested that the
expedient of mining the navigable channel had not
been overlooked. Whether the mines would go
off in case of need would depend upon those doubts
of honesty and efficiency which dominate everything
else in China.
I left Shanghai at night by one of the sumptuous
British-owned river boats which ply to Hankow,
six hundred miles up the mud-laden Yangtse river.
The following day at Kiangyin, a little below the
treaty port of Chiukiang, a sight presented itself
which points to the Chinese Government's having
done to the main central waterway of their marvel-
lous country exactly what the Wusung forts en-
deavour to effect in connection with the Shanghai
river. At Kiangyin a hilly promontory juts out
from a line of neighbouring heights and squeezes
the waterway, which was previously like the Bristol
THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT 45
Channel, into a river which appears to be scarcely
a mile across. Glasses enabled me to make out
upon the hillside two modern "longtoms," which
were either nine-inch or twelve-inch Krupp guns.
There were also half a dozen smaller weapons
which appeared to be of about six-inch and 47-inch
calibre.
The Nanking Viceroy has now in all some thirty
thousand men with whom to hold these and other
positions. The tumble-down city of Nanking, at
which the boat stopped next morning in cold,
driving rain to put out cargo and some of the two
thousand Chinese it carried on its lower decks,
was full of these warriors, and drilling was going
on industriously. The men were armed with
mausers.
A further day's journey up the river to Kiukiang
were further forts g^uarding the narrow entrance to
the Poyang lake. In these the guns were hidden ;
but local information, which I believe to be trust-
worthy, had it that they were both heavy and
modem.
The river teems with laden junks, and is stirred
to its muddy bottom by frequent flats. Even ocean-
going steamers are sometimes to be met. Upon
the low banks were cultivators in the eternal blue,
labouring night and day at the pumps with which
they irrigate thousands of square miles of some of
the richest crops in the world. Always at the treaty
ports where I went ashore were well-built stone
houses and prosperous Europeans, also swarming
46 THE ANTI-FOREIGN MOVEMENT
Chinese cities. Everywhere were signs of the
enormous traffic which the Chinese guns profess
to protect, but everywhere also was the belief
that this protection does not bode well for the
interests of the foreigner.
CHAPTER V
THE MISSIONARY
A LUXURIOUSLY fitted steam flat conveys
travellers for six hundred miles up the
Yangtse river, from the seaport of Shanghai
to the hardly less busy river-port of Hankow.
Creaking junks slip downstream, conveying raw
cotton, green tea, country-made paper, hides, and
oil seeds, to be placed on board ocean-going
steamers for Europe. Others toil up by oar, sail,
and wonderful hand paddle-wheels, full of Man-
chester piece-goods, Sheffield cutlery, and American
kerosine oil, for stations on branch rivers in the
far interior. Neglected pagodas, muddy rice-fields,
swampy reed-beds and creeks suffocating with
anchored junks and poisoned with the emanations
of humanity, inarch monotonously past on either
bank, as the powerful steam-engines strain and
throb against the swirling ochre flood.
More noticeable than junks, crops, and native
cities are the nine-inch Krupp guns which again
and again poke menacing noses out of modern
fortifications upon the hills, and the imposing mis-
47
48 THE MISSIONARY
sionary houses and churches that occupy as com-
manding and even more frequent locations. I
place the churches and the guns in juxtaposition,
here as on the shore, for there is more than
physical propinquity to connect them. The mis-
sionaries become a factor in the situation before
Shanghai has dropped fifty miles into the rear,
and they grow steadily in importance further on.
For each European layman who joins the vessel
at the smaller intermediate ports, about two
clerics may be expected. At wayside stations
where I landed I always met missionaries, and
often no other white people. The tenacity of
purpose with which the missionaries work, in the
face of opposition from the Chinese and discourage-
ment from their own fellow-countrymen, must strike
every visitor. A typical propagandist in Middle
China said to me frankly —
'' I preach to empty benches ; but that is the
look-out of the Chinese. I give them my best.
If they will not hear I am not responsible."
He was living with his wife and children in a
solitary mission-house overlooking a native city.
All the members of his household wore Chinese
dress, to facilitate their intercourse with their
neighbours, and lived plain lives of industry and
daily self-denial. The missionary had acquired
some reputation for medical skill, and the Chinese
availed themselves freely of it. Amongst his
patients, at the time of my visit, was a feeble
individual, who had travelled a long distance for
THE MISSIONARY 49
physic for that common Chinese ailment which I
can describe only as opium poisoning. The man
was ill from over-indulgence» and went to the
missionary, as a matter of course, for help and
encouragement in making the effort necessary to
break himself of the habit. The missionary told
me he had many cases of the kind, and that he
was often successful with them.
It has been my good fortune to make the ac-
quaintance of keen American Methodists, solid
Canadian Presbyterians, British Anglicans, and
French Catholics, all engaged in the uphill work
of carrying Christianity to the Chinese, and most
of them prepared to speak frankly of their labours.
As a class, the missionaries command respect.
Many are good Chinese scholars. Most have
travelled widely in remote regions of the interior.
Their touch with the people is very much closer
than is that of the mercantile community, and
they play a part of a political importance that is
recognised by every one in China. Their detrac-
tors, and I am sorry to say these are many,
especially in mercantile and shipping circles, tacitly
admit this when they declare that eighty per cent
of the trouble that has arisen between Europeans
and Chinese has been connected with the missionary
movement. Consular officers deplore the lack of
acquaintance and consequent absence of sympathy
which exists between the missionary and mercantile
classes. This becomes significant when one re-
members that at least throughout the greater part
E
so THE MISSIONARY
of South and Central China, the merchants and
the missionaries comprise between them practically
the entire permanently resident European element
The merchant does business at the ports, his
transactions being large enough to affect the
welfare of millions of the manufacturing classes
in England and India ; but he goes little into
the interior and seldom speaks the Chinese lan-
guage! The missionary penetrates everywhere.
In many cases he assimilates himself with the
Chinese in every possible way. Generally, he
speaks the difficult language of the country with
fluency. Upon the whole, he lives comfortably
and is upon friendly terms with the inhabitants
around him. So far as he stands upon his own
merits and upon those of the religion with which
he is concerned, his position is admirable. Unfor-
tunately, gunboats and political intrigue are ever
behind him. If he gets into trouble with the
populace, fines out of proportion to what the
Chinese regard as the equivalent of the damage
done to him and to his property may be exacted.
If he be killed, however great may have been
the provocation given unknowingly in a country
where it is extraordinarily easy to offend popular
susceptibilities, his death is liable to be made an
excuse for pressing political demands which some-
times have little connection with him.
The merchant has difficulties with the Chinese,
' very similar to those with which the missionary
becomes occasionally familiar; but he is more
THE MISSIONARY Si
easily protected. The riot in secular Shanghai, in
t)ecember last year, was not unlike that which
occurred in ecclesiastical Nanchang in February.
Only in the one case volunteers, police, and blue-
jackets were at hand, and the disturbance was
quelled without very seriously aggravating the
ever-present race question, whereas in the other the
mob was unchecked. Six French priests and two
English missionaries were massacred, and a wide
wave of anti-foreign excitement arose which will
bring yet more nine-inch Chinese guns into
position.
Individuals may not be greatly to blame. The
various missionary bodies are pursuing their calling
to the best of their ability. They are bringing
medical aid to the sick, and are preaching a higher
morality than that which exists around them. The
Chinese officials are also doing what they can,
according to their lights. They are endeavouring
to avoid friction and to govern the country with as
little embarrassment as possible to themselves and
their people. But a situation exists that is always
potential for active trouble. The matter for wonder
is only that this trouble so seldom becomes grave.
The importance of the missionary question is so
considerable that I thought it worth while to go
some hundreds of miles out of my road in order to
visit Nanchang, a place which had acquired, by the
riot I have referred to, a claim to be considered
the fighting front of the church militant in China.
On my way up the Yangtse and Kan rivers and
52 THE MISSIONARY
across the Poyang lake to reach Nanchang, I called
at mission stations at Wulu, Kiukiang, Taku-Tang,
and Wochen. I also met numerous missionaries
connected with Shanghai, Nanking, and other
stations. The Protestants who talked with me
were unanimous in holding that there are few
countries in the world in which an unarmed stranger
can wander with greater personal safety than in
China, provided he does not interfere with the
people. Mr. L. Day, Agent of the British and
Foreign Bible Society, whom I met at Kiukiang, was
itinerating within thirty miles of Nanchang when
the riot was going on. He received no incivility
and was unaware that anything unusual was happen-
ing, until he arrived within the city walls three days
after the disturbance. Both Protestant missionaries
and Chinese officials consider that the riot was
directed solely against the Roman Catholics and
that the Protestants who perished were killed by
mistake. The Catholics do not deny this, though
they hold, quite properly, that the Chinese
authorities could and ought to have afforded pro-
tection.
The Chinese discriminate between Catholics and
Protestants because the French fathers, who repre-
sent Catholicism throughout the greater part of the
country, have made themselves an active power and
have thus come into collision with the mandarins ;
whereas this is not generally the case with the
Protestants. The French have unwisely insisted
upon the granting of mandarin's precedence to
THE MISSIONARY 53
their missionaries. For example, a French bishop
ranks not far from a Chinese governor. The
French missions are long established and have
become extraordinarily well-to-do and influential.
They pursue a consistent policy of backing up the
members of their congregations in secular as well
as in spiritual matters.
This has had exceedingly serious consequences.
The Chinese is possessed of a curious indifference
to death, which has won for him a not altogether
deserved reputation for courage. He is liable to
paroxysms of ungovernable excitement as brief as
they are furious while they last, during which he
may do almost anything. He is self-assertive and
touchy, but timorous and suspicious at heart, to an
extent which Europeans find difficulty in realising.
His normal state is that of a leaf blown about by
gusty alarms. He is for ever seeking something
behind which to shelter himself He sees in the
Catholic organisation in China, with its European
mandarins, its wealth and prestige, something
similar to but infinitely more powerful than the
secret societies which he has created in the hope
that they may help him. He has neither senti-
mental nor religious objection to adding another
ritual to the affairs of his daily life ; and he finds
in Christian baptism a means of strengthening his
position in regard to his enemies. In consequence
a Chinese with a lawsuit pending seeks out and
joins, if he can, whichever faith seems likely to
promise him the most influential support.
54 THE MISSIONARY
The Catholic Church was in his midst long before
the Protestants appeared. It has opened its arms
wide to receive him, believing, no doubt, that
regeneration would follow conversion ; and once it
has embraced him, it has made his interests its own
in a manner which has sometimes been more whole-
hearted than discriminating. The apparent success
of the system has been enormous. Chinese acknow-
ledging a spiritual overlord in the Pope are
numerous. Stately churches and extensive monas-
teries on commanding sites testify to the wealth
that has been acquired, not wholly by means of the
collection-plate. Business acumen and political
influence are valuable factors in the imposing result
I have been told that this Church owns land even
on the bund at Shanghai, on which important busi-
ness houses are located. A fine line of French
river steamers which started last April, running
between Shanghai and Hankow, is said to be
to some extent an ecclesiastical venture. The
Protestant denominations are much poorer.
The system has the grave drawback of creating
friction both with Chinese officials and with the
non-Catholic populace. The mandarins have tried
to play off the Protestants against the Catholics.
I have heard of one instance where they succeeded
temporarily, with results more startling than edify-
ing ; but the scandal ceased when the Protestant
missionary specially concerned was recalled by the
directors of the body to which he belonged. All
important negotiations between British missionaries
THE MISSIONARY 55
and Chinese officials have now to pass through the
hands of the consuls ; and I have been struck with
the creditable determination I have found amongst
missionaries of various Protestant denominations
to avoid external assistance in pushing their tenets.
Protestant progress is slow in consequence ; but
the best of the representatives of this faith are on
cordial terms with the Chinese officials, and are
thus in a position to narrow the gulf of mutual
suspicion which lies between themselves and their
neighbours.
CHAPTER VI
THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE
I ARRIVED at Nanchang late one afternoon,
on the first British-owned trading steamer to
visit the place after the riot. Blue-clad inhabitants
crowded the river- bank, and thrust eager, half-
shaven heads out of every visible door and window,
A steamer was evidently an event Following
experienced advice, I stepped, uninvited, into a
dinghy manned by Chinese soldiers in black
uniforms embroidered with red characters, which
lay amongst a mass of native craft besieging
the steamer. I was sculled promptly to the
nearest guard-house upon the bank. Here I found
myself in the embarrassing position of a fragile
curiosity thrust into unwilling hands, which would
be held answerable for any damage that might
befall it A guard of soldiers was told off to follow
me; and though there was no menace in the air
the curiosity of the crowd was not wholly friendly.
My guards tackled their troublesome responsibility
with noisy officiousness ; and the people were
shouted at and thrust out of the path with a com-
57
58 THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE
motion that brought comers and goers from distant
thoroughfares to supplement the occasion. The
city contains a million inhabitants. No doubt the
number who assembled was but a microscopic
fraction of the whole, but I found it quite big
enough to be convincing.
The place is of the characteristic Chinese type,
which huddles together closely for protection
within a high wall, crenellated and moated There
is no room for streets. Dark, narrow passages
serve for both highways and sewers, so my
progress was not as fast as I should have liked
to make it; but I reached the fine Methodist-
Episcopal Mission building outside the city at
last, where I was received with kindness and
courtesy. Within its walls I learnt something of
the quiet lives of unselfish devotion which mis-
sionaries lead in out-of-the-way parts of China,
and saw one of the hospitals in which sick and
infirm Chinese are nursed. In due course I was
given particulars of the catastrophe which had
overwhelmed, only six weeks previously, all the
branches of Christian endeavour inside the city,
and narrowly missed those without.
The Methodist-Episcopal missionaries live in
three roomy houses in a big, open compound, close
to the river. I found a wall in course of erection
around this compound, and was surprised at the
slightness of its structure. The entire mission had
so recently emerged from urgent danger that I
supposed the wall could be for no other purpose
THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE 59
than to resist mob violence, for which, however, its
proportions were totally insufficient. I remarked
upon this to the Rev. Edward James, the head of
the station, and was told that it was simply to keep
sneak thieves from the garden. It was a comment
upon the ordinary and the extraordinary risks of
mission life.
Late at night I returned to the steamer, my
guardians splashing in front tl^ough an odorous
ankle-deep mire, which became constantly more
liquid as the rain added to its volume, though I
stumbled occasionally over granite paving-blocks.
The populace was then in bed, and the procession
in front of me swayed weirdly in the feeble glow of
two enormous square lanterns, covered with yellow
oiled paper bearing red characters, which bobbed
up and down at the ends of long, willowy sticks.
At the river*bank we scrambled out of the mud,
over a fleet of wobbly junks and dinghies to get to
our boat. I was climbing, in the darkness, over an
ancient muzzle-loading cannon, on the stern of a
queer, square vessel, when two large pieces of red
paper, mysterious with Chinese, were thrust into
my hand. The lanterns were brought to assist,
and I was bidden, in cheerful pigeon English, to
" pay " two cards back. I demanded to be presented
to my visitors, but was told they were asleep upon
the Chinese guard-boat which, it appeared, I was
crossing. So they were not my visitors but my
hosts, and they had gone to bed ; but I was not
to escape the due circumstance of the occasion.
6o THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE
Eventually I reached the ship, where my lantern-
bearers lowered my self-conceit by declining, with
good-humoured condescension, the payment I
ventured to offer them.
The following morning a tall Chinese g^rd-boat
captain, Wu Mei Ting, presented himself, and proved
to be a capital fellow. He had been told off by the
foreign department of the local yamen, thanks to the
kind offices of my friends of the previous evening,
to conduct me over the city. Wu Mei Ting took
me in hand conscientiously. The ship's compra-
dor's mate was summoned to interpret what we had
to say to each other. A posse of Chinese police
was added to the party, and in a body we inspected
the charred ruins of the monastery, the schools, and
the mission-house, as the mob had left them, and
traced the locations of the various fatal tragedies of
the riot, about which my companion could speak
with the authority of experience.
At the time of the disturbances Wu Mei Ting was
in command of a single wooden guard-boat on the
river, the size of a London coal-lighter, which carried
a muzzle-loading cannon of pre-Taiping date, and
had a crew of five Chinese bluejackets armed with
ancient Spandal repeating rifles. At no small risk
to himself, but without firing a shot, Wu Mei Ting
made his way through the mob, and rescued and
brought into safety several European missionaries,
including ladies and children, who were hiding pre-
cariously in different parts of the city. The trouble
had roots which went a long way back, but its
THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE 6i
immediate cause was the ignorant but honest indig-
nation on the part of the Chinese at what they
believed to have been a crime committed by Roman
Catholic hands. The well*known story is that a
mandarin magistrate, who had a misunderstanding
with the French fathers over some disputes he was
responsible for adjusting, met his death as the sequel
to self-inflicted injuries received after dinner in the
monastery. Two distinct charges were brought by
the Chinese against the French fathers. One was
that of having put the mandarin into such a position
that he saw no alternative to suicide as a means
of escape from loss of "face," which respectable
Chinese dread more than death. The other was
the incredibly horrible one of having endeavoured
to murder the self-wounded man after he had
bungled in cutting his own throat.
To Europeans these two charges seem totally
distinct in nature and of very different degree.
The mandarin undoubtedly attempted suicide within
the walls of the monastery, and a further injury was
afterwards done to him ; but it does not follow that
the unfortunate French fathers who were massacred
were to blame. A British naval doctor, who
examined the corpse of the mandarin some time
after death, considered that all the injuries were
suicidal, but the examination could not be held soon
enough to establish this opinion beyond dispute;
and in view of the evidence of Dr. Charles, of the
Methodist-Episcopal Mission, who also saw the
remains, the Protestant missionary bodies have
62 THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE
wisely refrained from depending upon it. Even if
it be rejected altogether an alternative explanation
remains, which is accepted in some of the best-
informed European circles in Middle China. This
explanation suggests that the second injury was
inflicted by the Chinese, after the sufferer had been
carried off from the monastery. The murder, if
murder occurred, would then be attributable either
to desire upon the part of Chinese political agitators
to inflame the passions of the mob against Euro-
peans, or else to the less diabolical intention of
carrying out the wishes of the would-be suicide.
The majority of the Chinese of Nanchang did
not stop to consider any of these possibilities, but
greedily swallowed the monstrous allegation that
the French fathers had murdered the mandarin. A
minority, who might otherwise have hesitated, seem
to have been carried away by a typically mandarin
argument that the owners of a house in which an
ultimately fatal suicide occurs are responsible for
the catastrophe, even although they may have had
no direct connection with it
The antecedents of the riot are likely to remain
always a matter for surmise, but the events of the
disturbance itself are well ascertained. A mob-
meeting was held, and broke up with cries of
''Dahl Dahl Dahszf" (Strike! Strike! Kill!),
and then occurred an indiscriminate massacre of
foreigners. The Chinese authorities had posted
guards to protect the missionaries when the riot
threatened, and from the Chinese point of view the
THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE 63
men were true to their charge. They did not dare
to take the responsibility upon themselves of firing
upon the mob or of charging it with the bayonet,
when such a course alone would have saved the
situation; but they remonstrated with the rioters.
One of them even threw his arms round the most
unpopular of the priests and shouted, " Kill me, but
do not hurt this foreigner," getting his own head
laid open in consequence by a blow intended for
the priest Another soldier hid a little European
child under his coat, thereby saving its life. The
Chinese have no Riot Act, and except when
aroused, as the mob was on this occasion, are
possessed by such fear of responsibility and such
aversion to shedding blood that it is easy to picture
the guards vacillating until it was too late. There
may have been scarcity, or even entire absence of
cartridges for the antiquated rifles with which they
were provided ; but bayonets were available in any
requisite quantity ; and there need have been no
difficulty in calling in from outside troops armed
with serviceable weapons.
With these things in mind I stood upon a yellow
chunk of slippery granite, in an evil-smelling slough
of slimy filth, where were recovered the poor battered
remains of Mr. and Mrs. Kingham, British mission*
aries. Wu Mei Ting dripped cheerfully in the
rain, under a black European umbrella on the bank
above me, while I fumbled with cold, wet fingers
over a combination of aperture and exposure in
vain endeavour to photograph a black, closely-
64 THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE
barred door under a grey brick arch, where the
victims took temporary refuge before they were
kflled.
Alongside, balanced unsteadily on the nail-heads
as big as marbles of their greasy brown leather
boots, were a dozen Chinese soldiers, in black and
blue undress uniform, illuminated with yard-long
texts. Beyond, shambled a shabby, blue crowd of
idlers, attracted by the unusual presence of a
foreigner. The majority were stalwart coolies,
armed with stout wooden staves used ordinarily
to enable two men to share the weight in carrying
packages of green tea, but capable also of less
peaceful purpose, as the events of the riot had
proved At the moment it would be difficult to
imagine a more harmless-looking set of people ; yet
it was but a few weeks after the events I have been
describing. The crowd grew as we progressed. I
manoeuvred to photograph it when we reached the
open space where the massacre had been decided
upon, and again when we were going over the wet
heaps of fire-scarred bricks and tiles which are all
that can now be seen of once large and imposing
monastery and mission-houses; but the soldiers
thrust the people aside so promptly, when they
realised my movement, that the position I had
designed to catch them in was lost. I became
absorbed in the wall of the joss-house alongside
while I rearranged the focus. Then I swung round
suddenly for a snapshot, but the now practised
stampede was too quick for me«
C HAKMl.KSS-I.OOKIMi SKT Of I'EOl'I.K W.^I'LI'
THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE 65
Wu Mei Ting's flowered silk cape and expensive
pantaloons with sky-blue lining, were getting wet.
The black turquoise-studded spectacle-case and
cigarette satchel, chained to his brown leather belt,
looked limp and depressed. Even his queue was
draggled, and the state of his embroidered mandarin
boots was shocking ; so I hurried him over his
demonstration of the particular rubble-heaps which
represented the monastery rooms where the Chinese
magistrate dined and committed suicide. I excused
myself from hunting up more than a few of the
localities in the crowded thoroughfares and their
wet surroundings where the six unfortunate French
priests were severally overtaken by the mob and
beaten to death. At last oyr round was over, and
we backed politely into conveniently tilted Sedan
chairs, and were lifted upon the shoulders of our
respective quartettes of coolies in umbrella hats.
We left what had now become a very creditable
crowd, struggled through the name-boards and paper
lanterns of a gloomy burrow, and climbed up a
rickety wooden stair to the attic which is the public
dining-room of the leading hotel. It was dubiously
dark. At one end was a four-poster bed, with red
cotton quilt thrown back as the last occupants had
left it. At the other was a small square window
looking out over wet, brown tiles. In the middle
tottered a long trestle table, covered with a strip of
Manchester piece-goods, grey with grime and pat-
terned with stains. Tin-tipped chop-sticks, dinted
and polished with use, were set out upon the table
66 THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE
in pairs like school pens at an examination. Im-
memorial brass cruets, covered with delicate green
verdigris, further tempted the appetite.
The illuminated military inscriptions arranged
themselves sociably in the doorway, whence they
beamed and steamed upon the proceedings. They
were all wet and all warm. Wu Mei Ting waved
me courteously to a chain The assistant ship's
comprador, in long clerical coat, bright blue petti-
coat, white stockings and blue slippers with white
felt soles, seated himself in a friendly way between
us, and proceeded to demonstrate upon his own
person the method that is proper in Nanchang of
polishing the insides of the nostrils and the outsides
of the face and hands with a fiercely steaming dish-
cloth. Hurriedly, I explained that ill-health inter-
fered with my eating a midday meal. I was told
cheerfully that the hour when my host and his two
guests would dine had come. I will not dwell upon
the bounteous dishes of hot gelatinous tooth-combs
and child's puzzles which I took to be the sharks'
fins and maws of Indian trade with China, and the
recondite, round brown blobs which defied identifi-
cation, nor on the heaped-up plenitude of rice and
brown slippery things in boiling fluid that followed.
I sipped some green tea and arrack. My host and
the comprador's mate performed the necessary rites
with their chop-sticks to good purpose, and made
allowance for my foreign inability to consume my
share of the delicacies that were offered me.
While we were looking at the ruins it had not
THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE 67
been easy to get any connected account of the dis-
turbance from my companion. It was raining ; the
crowd pressed ; the picture was too evident and too
ghastly. Warmed and fed, in the comparative
privacy of the hotel, Wu Mei Ting became more
communicative, and between the courses gave me a
complete account of the ''fighting " and its prelimi-
naries from his own experience.
The ship's comprador s mate translated slowly, so
I enquired if there would be any objection to my
taking down his words for purposes of publication.
Permission was given with alacrity, and I present
the result. It is perhaps barely intelligible, but
it interested me not only as expressing the views
of a Chinese gentleman of intelligence who was
actually present at the riot, but also as being told
in a style suited to the requirements of our inter-
preter, and therefore not dissimilar to what one
Chinese in the crowd would have used to another
in describing the events. The narrative professed
to give particulars of three separate incidents. The
first two were disputes which led to the suicide of
the mandarin in the French mission-house. The
third related to the incidents immediately prior to
and during the riot.
TAe First Dispute.
"One man, Sing Song Chi, have got one house ;
Nanchang sixty miles far" (1.^., sixty miles from
Nanchang). *' French Chinese mission-men " (i.e.^
Chinese Catholic converts) *' lent money to house-
68 THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE
owner so house is belonging mission-men." (The
sum lent was) '^ not enough one thousand taels "
( i.e., le ss than one thousand taels). " Sing Song
Chi give house to mission-man as security to be for
three years — have got papers. Mission-men in one
and half years write it down for the mission-men's
house" {t.e., the Catholic converts claimed possession
before the alleged date for repayment had arrived).
" He put mission-men's letters over the door " {i.e.,
the converts took possession and had their names
inscribed over the door as owners). " Some people
saw the letters and unwilling " {i.e., disapproved)
•*and talk" {t.e., say) *' mission-men no have got
customs " {t.e., not acting according to custom) '* and
never trust French missionellies. And the people
they all together in one place. She wished to
fighting with the mission-men. Then the mandarin
hear them and send soldiers to catch two three men.
The missionellies " {t.e., the Catholic fathers) '' said
wish he catch all to prison " {i.e., complained that
enough had not been arrested). "If not, you must
pay my money one hundred thousand taels " {Le.,
claimed heavy damages for the threats against the
converts). '' Mandarin said the men cannot pay the
money." (This happened) *' three years ago."
The Second Dispute.
*' American Chinese mission-men fighting with
French Chinese mission-men about the pass-river
biddings " {i.e., a disturbance took place between
Chinese converts of the Amelican Protestant Mission
THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE 69
and Chinese converts of the French Catholic Mission
over the payment of ferry money). "Amelican
Chinese lose. Amelican mission Chinese man
make one boat for pass that river. French mission-
men pass river in boat and not pay passage money.
Amelican mission-man was boatmen. He want
two cash" {ue., fare demanded was less than one
farthing). " Then make fighting, and Amelican
mission Chinese have died five men. The man-
darin Kiang know it and catch three men, French
mission Chinese, put in the prison."
" Mr. Wang " {t.e., the Chinese name of one of
the French Catholic fathers) "wished tell the
mandarin let off his three mission men " (i.e., to
let off the Chinese Catholic converts accused of
killing the five Chinese Protestant converts). " The
mandarin said because that three men have killed the
five men they cannot be let off."
TAe Riot.
** Because " (i.e., on account of) '* this two kinds
of business Mr. Wang tell the mandarin Kiang to
take dinner in French missionelly house " {t.e., the
French father invited the mandarin in whose juris-
diction these two cases lay to dine at the mission-
house to discuss them). " The missionelly tell the
mandarin finish that case and make square the house
business too. Then the mandarin cannot promise
he. Mandarin say : * I cannot make promise. If
you want do as you talk I will die. I never
promise you ' " {i.e.y the mandarin was angry with
70 THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE
the Catholic father, and threatened to commit
suicide upon his premises if he pressed him any
more about these cases). ** Missionelly say,
' Suppose you die I finish that case — I no want
you do it'
" Mandarin then go house ; have got plenty
following. The missionelly get them away outside.
Mandarin stop there. The mandarin think he very
afraid and one boys come out and tell the people.
He say mandarin was laid down in the house and
tell the other mandarins" (ie., the mandarin was
excited, and went into an inner room of the mission-
house, and the father meanwhile dismissed the
mandarin's followers. Then a Chinese came out of
the house and told the people that something had
happened to the mafidarin).
** Mr. Wang " {i.e., the Catholic missionary) "said
he" {t.e., the mandarin Kiang) " killed by himself"
(i.e., had committed suicide). "The other man-
darins cannot tell who has killed him. No have
seen mandarin. No can talk. Then send men to
carry majidarin to his house. Mandarin waiting
two days long and then died " (i.e., the mandarin
was found speechless with his throat cut and was
carried off by his friends, and died after lingering for
two days). "He write, but no savvy what he
write. Afterwards the mandarins tell the missionelly
we no have seen whose one killed that mandarin.
We don't care, but this man was killed from here.
Doctor got said cannot save he. Then she was
died " (i.e.f the doctor could not save the wounded
THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE 71
mandarin's life, and the other mandarins said the
father was responsible for his death).
''AH the people wished mandarins to catch
missionelly to prison. The missionelly would not
go. Then they " {ue., the people) " wished to make
fighting. Some one gentleman tell the people don't
trouble that case. Have got big mandarin : will do.
The people then all together in the Pek-warju " (held
a mob-meeting). ** Then all the people gone to
missionelly house and make fire. Two missionellies
run away. Mr. Wang is run out by the passage
door and the public charge he. Mr. Wang passed
the Kingham house, and Mr. Kingham stand at his
own door" {i.e.y the mob fired the French mission-
house, and hunted the unfortunate priests through
the streets. One of them fled past a neighbouring
Protestant mission-house, and the occupant, Mr.
Kingham, went out to see what was happening,
thereby involving himself and his family in the
massacre that followed). '' The people did not care
whose one is French. Then pull Mr. Kingham
down and killed by stones. Soon Eulopeans all
run away and beating all killed. Four missionellies,
falling in the water, died. Mr. Wang died in the
road."
After the repast was over I persuaded Wu Mei
Ting to take me to see the courageous French
priest who, when the mob was close upon him in
the riot, carried off upon his back, into safety in
the city jail, a typhoid-stricken brother he was
72 THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE
nursing. He was the only priest in Nanchang to
escape unhurt, as the brother he rescued died from
exhaustion and exposure the same night I found
him alone with his books in a cellar-like chamber
below the level of a quagmire which filled the con-
fined yard in front of the building. Our talk was
limited by some lack of facility on my part in his
language; but this could not obscure the spirit
which inhabited the frail body of the man — a spirit
which sordid discomfort, solitude, and danger had
been unable to break. We spoke of the actual riot
only by implication, for its deeds of terror were too
fresh to be lightly recalled to one so terribly stricken
by it; but I learnt some additional particulars of
the disputes with the Chinese which had been pre-
liminary to it, and was impressed by the courageous
attitude of my host. ** Moi, je suis Fran^ais" said
this soldier of the Church who is holding alone the
ground on which all his friends and comrades have
suffered martyrdom. It was a pardonable boast.
Outside the big wooden gate that separated the
courtyard from a crowded slum Chinese sentries
paced up and down. They guarded the representa-
tive of a faith they feared but did not love.
From the French priest we went on to the
yamen, where the Chinese Governor, his Excel-
lency Hu Ting Kai, a keen-featured elderly
mandarin, was prepared to give his version of the
trouble with much detail, a highly educated Chinese
secretary acting as interpreter. The Governors
eyes flashed through his black-rimmed spectacles.
THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE 73
and his right hand went through a pantomime of
stabbing, while his left sought a small white goatee
beard as he pressed in rapid Chinese his reasons
for maintaining that the death of his magistrate
was not solely due to suicidal action, as the medical
officer of the first British gunboat to reach Nan-
chang after the outrage had held. He showed me
the original of Dr. Charles' report, in English, of a
post-mortem examination of the remains of the
mandarin, held about a fortnight after death. This
states that there were two injuries to the throat,
one of a typically suicidal nature, done with a sharp
instrument, the other caused with a blunt instru-
ment at a later time and with greater force. The
Governor also stated emphatically that he and his
officers had had trouble previously with one in-
dividual French priest and with one alone. Of
all the other missionaries in the province, including
American, British, and French, only good was said.
The Governor admitted that the Chinese soldiers
deputed to g^rd the missionaries did not fire upon
the mob in defence of their charge, but declared
that the mob was so large and the soldiers so few
that firing would not have prevented the massacre,
while it would have caused further loss of life. This
explanation differed little in effect from the even
more characteristically Chinese view taken by Wu
Mei Ting, who argued that to have fired upon the
mob would have been improper, as only a portion
of the crowd was attacking the missionaries, the
rest merely looking on!
74 THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE
"Some very good men. Some very bad men.
How shoot ? " was the interpreter's version of his
statement. Wu Mei Ting has demonstrated his amity
for the missionaries with action that cannot be mis-
understood, and he evidently believed what he said.
The Governor also argued, and I found his view
shared by the Protestant missionaries in Nanchang
and its neighbourhood, that there would have been
no disturbance if there had been no interference
with the course of Chinese justice where native
converts were concerned. The subject is an ex-
ceedingly delicate one, but I may venture again to
mention the wise course adopted by the Methodist-
Episcopal and some other missionaries, who have
refused the offer of mandarin rank, made to them
as a set-off against the exigence of the French
Fathers, and resolutely set their faces against
mixing themselves in any way whatever with the
temporal affairs of their converts. It was a pleasure
to notice the cordiality of the tone in which Gover-
nor Hu Ting Kai spoke of the local representatives
of the bodies I refer to.
After leaving the Governor's yamen, Wu Mei
Ting took me to see the five guard-boats, to the
command of which he had been promoted, in fitting
recognition of his courage and energy on behalf of
the Europeans in the riot I have previously
quoted the case of the Taotai of Shanghai, who
obtained promotion after failing to stop a disturb-
ance. The case of Wu Mei Ting shows that prefer-
ment in China may also be earned by other action.
THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE 75
Wu Mei Ting introduced me to an intelligent
Chinese lieutenant and paraded his crew. We
afterwards examined his muzzle-loading nine-
pounders and ancient repeating rifles, and dis-
cussed their possibilities ; but my polite curiosity
about the ammunition could not be gratified upon
the guard-boats any more than in the city, where
several of the sentries consented to my examining
their rifles, but could not show me a single cart-
ridge. Ammunition, I gather, is not considered
necessary in Central China for keeping up respect
for the military arm. Even the soldier's rifle is
often discarded. I asked some unarmed warriors,
who insisted upon escorting me through Nanchang
with lanterns, on the night of my arrival, what
protection it was possible for them to afford without
either guns or swords.
" The lanterns " they told my interpreter cheer-
fully, " are altogether sufficient."
Can it have been that the Chinese officials
thought the same when they set about protecting
the threatened missionaries?
Subsequent to the riot the inhabitants of Nang-
chang showed they are as timid as they are excit-
able. After rising in sudden fury, and massacring
their European neighbours indiscriminately, word
went round that British gunboats would arrive
'' with bullets as big as pumpkins " to make an end
of the city. Such a rush to escape then took place
that a ferryboat was overcrowded and sank, drown-
ing, I am credibly informed, no less than sixty
76 THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE
people. Native junks leaving for up-country were
able to demand and to obtain twenty taels for
carrying a passenger to places to which they had
been in the habit of taking him for just one tael.
The explanation of the panic must be looked for in
connection with the fact that the danger which threat-
ened the city was unknown and indefinite ; for no
one is more indifferent than the Chinese where
mere ordinary loss of life is concerned. The action
of the mandarin who brought on the riot by endea-
vouring to kill himself within the French mission
premises, is an illustration in point, for to kill one-
self under the roof or on the doorstep of an enemy,
for the express purpose of getting that enemy into
trouble, is a form of revenge that is much patron-
ised in China. The Governor assured me that the
stories which have been published to the effect that
this mandarin was in trouble at the time with his
own people were untrue ; but his evidence upon this
point must be received with caution.
At the time of my visit the streets of Nang-
chang were almost as safe for a European as are
those of London. The surviving missionaries, in-
cluding two ladies, had returned to their work. I
found an imposing French cruiser and two small
British gunboats which had been despatched to
protect the foreigners, lying idle at distant stations
upon the Yang^se river. The Nanchang incident,
however, is very far from closed. Never before
has a charge of murder, brought against Christian
missionaries, been so influentially supported and
THE NEMESIS OF THE MIXED MOTIVE 77
so universally believed. The definite accusation
levelled at the French fathers was very diffe*
rent from the vague assertions of child-killing by
which generations of Chinese agitators have stirred
up race hatred against Europeans. Never, at a
critical time, has a more unfortunate impression
been produced in the bazars. The cry, already
dangerously powerful, of ''China, at all costs, for
the Chinese alone," has received a stimulus which
has affected indigenous feeling from one end of the
country to the other.
Some time after my visit to Nanchang the
Chinese Governor whom I saw there was removed
from his post by the Peking Government in defer-
ence to representations made by the British and
French Legations. A necessary admission was
thus obtained as to the duties of mandarins in
the matter of protecting the lives of Europeans
from mob violence. This concession by the
Chinese did not prevent the holding at Peking, a
few days before I reached that centre, of a public
meeting at which representatives from different
parts of China were present, to show respect to the
memory of the Chinese magistrate whose suicide
was the cause of the riot The meeting was
orderly and attracted little attention. The Han-
yang rifle factory clicks even faster than it
clicked before, turning out mausers and Krupp
guns which are some day to prevent all inter-
ference, secular or clerical, in the affairs of the
country; but externally quiet reigns.
CHAPTER VII
HANKOW AND ITS FACTORIES
/^NE man say he smoke opeem. I think
V-x not true," observed my factotum conversa-
tionally, as he gazed at a gorgeously-coloured
portrait in the paper and wood shanty that serves
as a hall of reception at the Chinese Government
arsenal in Hanyang. The portrait as a work of art
was negligible ; but it interested me almost as much
as it interested Ah Wun. It was that of a simply-
dressed Chinese gentleman of seventy, with big
forehead, dreamy eyes, and nervous mouth, curi-
ously unlike what one would imagine to belong
to so material a personage as its original, the
Viceroy Chan-Chi-Tung, founder of the factories
that clanged on either side of us and blackened
the city across the river in front. Chan-Chi-
Tung is abused and belauded until one does not
know on which side the balance lies. He has
built cotton-mills, a mint, a military academy,
the best rifle factory in China, and the biggest
steel and iron works in Asia. He has got his
province into financial difficulty by his lavish
79
8o HANKOW AND ITS FACTORIES
expenditure ; but Hankow with its annexe the
crowded Chinese city of Hanyang, and its vis-d-vis
across the Yangtse, that human hive Wuchang,
is becoming a centre of industries which profoundly
affect the entire country. Hankow is six hundred
miles from the sea, yet ocean steamers cast anchor
opposite its fine esplanade and busy wharves.
It is the terminus of a railway by which already one
may travel through the heart of China to Peking,
and thence through Siberia to Moscow and Calais.
Its air is thick with factory coal -smoke, yet the
fresh aroma that crushed green tea alone produces,
pervades whole streets in the European quarter,
and makes one imagine oneself back in a garden in
Assam.
At Hankow the river rises and falls by forty feet,
with the alternate melting and freezing of snow
two thousand miles off in the highlands of Central
Asia. Hundreds of coolies are constantly engaged
in consequence, adding to the strength of the wide
granite-faced bund that already extends five miles
along the river face. Their shouts, as they hurry
with swinging baskets of river mud across the
principal thoroughfare, are a characteristic sound of
the place. It is upon the bund that the English,
Russian, German, French, and Japanese conces-
sions are arranged one after the other, so that each
nation owns a strip of river frontage. One finds
English and Russian merchants in big three-storied
'' hongs " which lounge complacently, with wide
verandahs open to catch every breeze. The
HANKOW AND ITS FACTORIES 8i
Germans live differently. In their concession
red-brick villas, with gables and gilt official eagles
just unpacked from Berlin, stand to attention in
self-conscious discomfort The Belgians have
dumped themselves down anyhow, with the odds
and ends of their railway. The Japanese have
staked out a claim on a bit of neglected fore*
shore ; but a fine line of steamers flying their
flag to the port is the principal evidence of their
occupation. Two British lines of flat-bottomed,
three-storied arks, with room for two thousand
Chinese coolies upon deck, and sumptuous accom-
modation for first-class passengers above, stump
the river by the aid of the best engines that
Scotland can build. A Chinese line imitates them
and a French one outdoes them in electric- lighted
top-heaviness. The Russians, the Germans, and
the Americans send sea-going craft to share in
the traffic.
Raw Yangtse cotton stares blanch-faced out
of coffin-shaped craft, which . dip their varnished
gunwales under water as they buffet their way with
pleated mainsails !o Wuchang, where steam-driven
looms and spinning-jennies whirr in the factories.
Gunny-covered bales, bursting with Bombay yarn,
still lumber heavily ashore from the river steamers ;
but Chan-Chi-Tung's mills know that their day is
coming.
The brick-tea industry is divided between
mandarin and Russian factories. The tea is
fired at the gardens up-country, and is brought
82 HANKOW AND ITS FACTORIES
down to Hankow to be compressed into smooth
black blocks. The extent and machinery of
the factories where the compressing is done is a
revelation to those who are familiar only with
the simple appliances which the Assam tea-trade
uses. At least a dozen establishments employ
steam power. Viewed from the river, the smoking
chimney-shafts are almost as imposing as those
of the industrial front of Calcutta. Electrically-
lighted premises emit the roar of machinery far into
the night Some of the processes are kept confi-
dential ; but the main operation, of squeezing
damped tea-leaves into solid masses, appears to
be simplicity itself. Both Russians and Chinese
employ Sikhs to guard their premises. The
labourers are all Chinese, who work behind closely
locked doors.
The brick-tea industry is not the only enterprise
in which Hankow sets India an example. At
Hanyang, three miles above the European settle-
ment, are iron and steel works, also rifle, cordite
and cartridge factories, which in point of time are
five years ahead of anything in India. They are
under Chinese managers who employ German,
British, and Japanese experts in various depart-
ments. In the early years of the undertaking
German engineers were in charge of the ironworks
only ; and British mechanics directed the rifle
factory. Characteristic dilBTerences with the British
employees resulted in the sending for more Germans.
The pay offered, of six hundred pounds sterling per
HANKOW AND ITS FACTORIES 83
annum, from the time of joining, with bonus, must
have been enough to attract some talent ; and the
men themselves say that the money was paid regu-
larly, and that the Chinese were liberal and con-
siderate masters. The difficulty, of course, was
just the fact that they were the masters. The
Britisher does best when he is on the top. So the
Germans came. For reasons of economy Japanese
are now displacing the Germans. I found twenty-
two Japanese assistants, of whom two were majors
in the Mikado's forces.
The manager of the rifle factory, a business-like
Chinese gentleman, educated at Tientsin, showed
me courteously over his establishment. His secre-
tary, another Chinese, acted as our interpreter.
Teutonic influence in the enterprise was shown
in our having to talk in German, that being the
only European language into which the secretary
could translate the Chinese of my host.
The manager of the iron and steel works was a
Chinese of another type. He was educated at
Hastings and London, and studied iron and steel
manufacture in both England and America. So far
as talk and behaviour were concerned, he would
pass anywhere as a remarkably keen, simple-
mannered, intelligent and cultivated Englishman.
He had recently returned to China from Europe,
where he had been supervising the purchase of
very extensive new plant. His secretary was a
young gentleman, also Chinese, also educated at
an English public school, and possessed of the
84 HANKOW AND ITS FACTORIES
manners that appertain thereto. If further testi-
mony were needed to the indelible stamp of these
institutions it was surely afforded by this young
Chinese. He had all the marks, and they went
oddly with his blue silk dressing-gown and em-
broidered felt boots. He was good-humouredly
bored at having to show me round ; but he
took me in the day's work, and on the whole
he was kind.
" I don't know a thing about these machines,"
he stated candidly, and checked my flow of inter-
rogation.
•* The fellows," he explained — about the Euro-
pean employees — "don't get at all bad pay."
He patronised me infinitely ; and I liked him
very much.
The shipping business, which is of considerable
magnitude, is in the capable hands of a British ex-
sea captain. The blast-furnaces are controlled by
Germans. The whole establishment is well organ-
ised. The rifle factory is not anything like so up
to date as the Indian one at Ishapore; but it was in
full working a good many years before the Govern-
ment of India brought themselves to the point of
undertaking anything of the kind. The blast-
furnaces, steel-making plant, and rolling mills have
long been turning out pig-iron, rails, and girders for
every kind of purpose, while the Tata scheme in
India is still only hoping to do the same. I
travelled by train for three hundred miles, from
Hankow to the Yellow River, the whole way over
INKS JN >[]I>II1.I-;
HANKOW AND ITS FACTORIES 8$
eighty-five lb. railway rails manufactured from the
ore in the Hanyang works ; and I have Sheffield
expert authority for the statement that there is not
much wrong with the quality.
Just now, the Hanyang steel factory is in a stage
of transition, as the Bessemer process, hitherto in
use, is being discarded, and the Siemens open-hearth
system introduced. The yards are piled high with
newly imported plant for rolling mills, furnaces, and
electric installation, to the value of ;^ 1 20,000, which
will take nearly two years to erect. When the
whole is in working the total output of steel is to be
about one hundred thousand tons per annum.
Two blast-furnaces, with modern steam blowers
and pumping plant, are still in operation, turning
out from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and
eighty tons of excellent pig-iron daily. This is to
be increased to four hundred tons when the new
steel plant is ready. The iron-ore and limestone
for the furnaces are brought up to the works in
substantial flats, towed by steamers, from the
Laishan mines, which are situated seventy-five
miles down the Yangtse. A railway twenty miles
long connects the iron mines with Shihuiyan, the
station upon the river where the flats pick up the
mineral. Most of the coal and coke travel by river-
steamer from Nganuen, near Ping Lsiang, three
hundred miles south of Hankow, on the Kangsi
border of the Hunan province. They are supple-
mented by Japanese coal brought in as ballast by
Japanese steamers that fetch pig-iron and ore. The
86 HANKOW AND ITS FACTORIES
iron ore claims to contain sixty per cent, of metal,
and to compare with the boasted Swedish article
in freedom from undesirable constituents. The
Nganuen coal does fairly well, though inferior to
the Japanese article. The railway, the flats, and
steamers all belong to the works.
The output of thirty-foot rolled rails has hitherto
been about one hundred and fifty per diem. It is
hoped to roll four times that quantity before long.
It is unlikely that there will be any difficulty about
a market Last year a consignment of pig-iron
was taken to San Francisco by an enterprising
company of shipowners in search of return freight
for vessels engaged in carrying American lumber to
China. The cargo sold at a large profit ; and the
trade may be expected to grow, as cheap freight by
steamers which would otherwise be travelling empty
can be relied upon. The Japanese Government is
another large buyer of the pig-iron, besides being
under contract to take annually one hundred
thousand tons of unsmelted ore from the mines.
The principal customer, however, is and always will
be China itself. The Hankow- Peking railway took
all the rails the factory could produce at the time
the line was being built ; but the section from the
Yellow River to Peking had to be constructed with
foreign rails, owing to the extent to which the out-
put of the factory was already booked for delivery
elsewhere. At present the steel used in the rifle-
making works at Hanyang is all imported from
Sheffield. Crucible steel for the purpose, made
HANKOW AND ITS FACTORIES 87
upon the spot, is to be one of the next develop-
ments.
The position of the iron and steel works in regard
to the Chinese Government is somewhat complicated.
Viceroy Chan-Chi-Tung initiated the enterprise
from provincial funds, spending in all some five
million taels (half a million sterling). For some
time an annual loss was made upon the working.
While this was still the case pressure to take over
the concern was put upon Shengkung Pao, the
fabulously rich ex*Taotai of Tientsin, who is now
one of the members of the Board of Public Affairs
in Shanghai. Shengkung Pao has since become the
principal owner, and has increased by ten million taels
the amount of the capital employed. The Chinese
Government has retained a share in the concern,
and shows the proprietary nature of its interest by
exempting supplies imported for the use of the
undertaking from the payment of customs duty.
The rifle factory is a purely Government venture.
It is equipped with extensive, steam-driven machine
shops containing plant far larger and of better
type than that employed in Shanghai. I found
the works in full operation, and was told that
they were turning out daily fifty completed rifles
and twenty thousand smokeless cartridges to match,
an estimate which I have reason to believe is
under rather than above the actuals. The rifles
are serviceable mausers, of the 1888 pattern, with
exposed breech action, tested up to a deviation of
five feet at five hundred metres range. The stocks
88 HANKOW AND ITS FACTORIES
are of locally grown walnut. The rifles are better
finished than those made at Shanghai. A European
who had done a good deal of shooting with them,
using the cartridges to match, told me that the
principal defect he found was some liability, on
the part of the exploded cartridge-case, to stick
on the breech after the barrel gets hot. This does
not entirely disable the weapon, but makes it neces-
sary to have a ramrod ready to facilitate extraction.
The cap of the cartridge is sometimes loose and
liable to fall out
The cartridges are sheathed with brass which is
rolled upon the premises. The bullets are encased
in nickel. The filling is done by automatic
machinery, which weighs the bullets and the
completed cartridges separately, and thus subjects
the measurement of the powder to a double
check. A percentage of the cartridges is proved
by firing. Each process of manufacture of both
rifles and cartridges is done by a series of spe-
cialised machines so arranged that it is possible to
follow the parts round the shops and see them
grow, step by step, from shapeless steel bars, brass
and nickel ingots, and walnut logs into the com-
pleted weapon.
The factory also makes quantities of a light
field-gun with Nordenfeldt-block breech action,
and short barrel mounted upon low field-carriage,
with fork recoil attachment to the wheels. The
gun is of 57 mm. bore. It carries a cast-iron
shell, with brass percussion fuse weighing about
HANKOW AND ITS FACTORIES 89
six pounds. It is a somewhat out-of-date but by
no means useless weapon. I saw a shed full of
the completed article which the factory claims to be
producing at the rate of about twelve per month.
The capacity of the shell factory was given me as
three hundred per diem ; but the quantity now
being turned out was not placed higher than three
thousand per month, and I should doubt its being
so much. The guns are intended so much more
for show than use, that a large ammunition supply
is not considered essential ; but this does not
apply to the rifles.
A small mountain gun, of 37 mm. bore, with
cast-iron shell to match ; the whole mounted upon
a mule pack-saddle, is also manufactured, but in
lesser quantity. I saw a modern quick-firing gun,
with shrapnel-proof shield, and was told that some
of its pattern had been made in the works ; but
none were under construction when I passed
through. Both the field and the mountain gun
are shaped upon the lathe out of solid steel
blocks imported from Europe. The planing and
rifling plant is very similar to that in use at the
Cossipore works of the Government of India ; but
there is this important difference, that the guns
have no separately-shrunk-on outer case, and no
wire-winding is attempted. A brass time-fuse was
shown to me as one of the articles manufactured in
the works ; but I saw none being made.
When I was at Hanyang some of the staff were
starting upon a four weeks' journey to Cheng-tu-fu,
90 HANKOW AND ITS FACTORIES
where the Chinese propose to found a big arsenal
and factory, which shall be so far from the sea and in
so ungetatable a location that it shall defy capture
in case of war. The idea is one that has long been
floating about in China. It contemplates that future
to which all Chinese look forward, when a struggle
with powers having command of the sea shall take
place. I do not pretend to be able to say whether
it will materialise. The difficulties that are to be
offered to the invading army apply also to the
transport of machinery and materials, and are very
considerable.
Hankow stands for Chinese enterprise. Its fac-
tories are in a transitional stage. Europeans and
Japanese own some of them and are employed as
experts in others, but the part taken by the Chinese
themselves increases continually.
CHAPTER VIII
TO PEKING BY RAIL
UP to quite recently the traveller who would
reach Peking overland from the valley of the
Upper Yangtse had to resign himself to five hundred
miles of weary stage driving, through country lanes
which are dust-heaps in fine weather, and often im-
possible bogs in wet. He was compelled to spend
night after night, for weeks together, in the miser-
able hovels with torn paper window-panes, which do
duty for inns in China, with filth and disease for
bedfellows, and discomfort and incivility in continual
attendance. The capital of China was as inacces-
sible by land as springless mule carts and absence
of macadam could render it. Now the journey can
be made without change from Hankow to Peking
by rail.
Up to last April one train started every day from
each end ; but it went forward only during daylight
hours, and took four days to traverse the line. The
carriages were the ordinary day coaches in use upon
lines in Continental Europe, and there were no
arrangements for sleeping. Each night the traveller
91
92 TO PEKING BY RAIL
had to turn out and seek shelter and food, as best
he could, in some Chinese city. I was one of the
first to travel by a very much faster and more
luxurious train, which started when I was at
Hankow to run once a week to Peking and back,
making the journey each way in thirty-six hours,
without stopping at night. It was probably the
only thing of its kind in China. It had bogie
carriages with sleeping arrangements upon the
wagon-lit principle, and boasted a comfortable
dining-saloon in which European food was .served
by Chinese waiters under a Belgian chef. The
language spoken upon the line was exclusively
French, but both Hankow and Peking money was
accepted.
I found my way ih a creaking jinrickshaw in
the dark to the gusty Hankow railway station,
where a civil French-speaking Chinese station-
master was in charge. All luggage was weighed,
but the excess charges were by no means un-
reasonable, and the usual Continental receipt was
given for it My fellow-passengers included Ger-
mans, Frenchmen, Chinese, Japanese, and British.
We stowed ourselves into comfortable berths, and
the train moved smoothly off to an accompaniment
of loud banzais from Japanese who were upon the
platform with their women-folk to say goodbye to
a compatriot.
Chinese newspapers were reporting at the
moment the existence of a rebellion in the pro-
vince of Honan, through which we were to pass.
TO PEKING BY RAIL 93
One of them went so far as to allege that four
hundred people had been killed ; but we knew
nothing of the story at the time, and J am afraid
I cannot describe our journey as even adventurous
in fancy. We found out afterwards that such dis-
turbance as had occurred had been put down
weeks before by some of the Nanking Viceroy's
troops. The published repyorts were both exag-
gerated and belated. Rebellion in China, one may
add in passing, is a large word for a comparatively
harmless affair as a rule. The people inform the
Governor that his exactions are in excess of custom
and that he must reduce them. If he agrees, the
matter ends. If not, there is a demonstration, and
perhaps some shooting; but this is only pre-
liminary to a compromise, for the Peking
Government never backs up its officials when
force has to be resorted to ; and the people seem
temperamentally averse to pushing any successes
they may obtain to extremes. The troops
boast of the numbers of the enemy they have
killed; but the fighting does not often amount to
very much. A typical story was told me of the
Taotai of a city through which I passed, who
claimed to have put down a rebellion, but ex-
plained, when pressed for particulars, that it had
not been necessary to fight, since by happy in-
spiration he had taken out a tiger skin, which
had so frightened the insurgents that they had
all run away.
The train travelled, during the night, northwards
94 TO PEKING BY RAIL
from Hankow through the flat valley of the Yangtse
river. Wooded hills came down on either side
pf us at dawn when we crossed the watershed
into the Yellow River basin. All the rest of the
five hundred miles to Peking the line stretched
through level country. The only big natural
obstacle was the Yellow River itself. The railway
traverses the middle of China. It has been built
by a company of enterprising Belgians, of whom so
many hard things have been said that I feel almost
apologetic in having failed to recognise any
iniquities. If the engineering work cost more
than the projectors expected, and if it be not as
solid as on some other railways, I can say only
that the train travelled remarkably steadily and
fast, t^at the food in the restaurant car was
good, tjie sheets in the wagon-lit clean, the
officials invariably civil, and the fare reasonable.
If the undertaking be, as has been alleged, an
integral ^rt of a Russo-French scheme to rule
an iron line across China from Tongking to
Siberia, and to squeeze Englishmen out of the
country, I must still admit that I found it a con-
venient link between the British ship which
landed me at Hankow and the British bank
which cashed my note of credit in Peking.
The line is immensely important. For patriotic
reasons I sympathise with the wish that my own
fellow-countrymen had had the building of it.
I admire the more the enterprise of the men who
secured the undertaking. The robber in me
TO PEKING BY RAIL 95
swelled with covetousness as the richness of the
country through which we travelled unfolded
itself. I found myself asking, again and again,
what could not Indian civilians have made of such
a land and its millions of industrious, peace-loving,
law-abiding inhabitants? For six hundred miles
from Shanghai to Hankow, as I sailed up the
Yangtse river, rice crops had stretched on either
bank as far as my eyes would carry. As the
railway brought me north I passed into the
temperate zone. The rice gave place to wheat
Carefully tilled fields bearing promise of heavy
harvest extended for five hundred miles at right
angles to my former route. I was tracing out the
bounds of plot of thirty thousand square miles of
rich agricultural land, heavily populated and in-
dustriously cultivated throughout Peasants at
wayside railway stations were in coats of padded
bed-quilt, with long months of wear inscribed upon
the seams. The houses grew substantial. A
winged stone screen, in blue brick frame, balanced
in front of every door to keep bad spirits out ; for
hobgoblins, as every child in China knows, cannot
get round a comer. Purple masses of pendulous,
tree-wisteria flower and white pear-blossom told
of spring returning to a northern land. It was the
last week in April, yet reasons of warmth made
me seek out a car step, in an angle where the full
heat of the sun could strike me and where the
bitter, dusty wind was fended off by the car in
front It is exhilarating to fly through Middle
96 TO PEKING BY RAIL
China on the Hankow-Peking wagon-lit's train-
step, and ridiculously safe where one has a stout
brass handle conveniently placed on either side»
as I had, to hold on to whenever a bridge beneath
was deep or the willow-shoots on the embankment
were swung suddenly away by an unexpected
siding.
At breakfast the Belgian conductor reported that
we were approaching the Yellow River bridge ; and
we at once sought the train windows for the
embankments that the school primers talk about
as protecting the country from flood. Presently
we thought that we had discovered what we were
looking for. The height climbed a hundred feet
in the distance upon the left, and was covered
with scrub-jungle, out of which rose joss-houses and
Chinese dwellings. But it, was rather too big and
too much like a natural line of hills to satisfy our
expectations. Another objection was that it was
not continued on the right of the track, where the
country stretched away indefinitely upon precisely
the same level as ourselves. Doubts about the
school primers' information began to gather in our
minds, and were confirmed when a gleam of water
flashed out of a yellow desert of sand at the point
where what we imagined to be the embankment
left off. The train stopped at tl>e foot of the hill.
A short tunnel through an outlying spur lay in
front. On the left was a flat-bottomed gully,
which ran into the range longitudinally, and
afforded a vista of irregularly piled-up loam
TO PEKING BY RAIL 97
covered with a framework of bushy trees. The
branches were thickening with budding leaves,
too small to throw any appreciable shadow upon
the glaring dust.
On the right a giant millipede strode on long
thin legs into- the distance across a waste of sand
and waters. The bridge was there indeed. The
spur, through which the railway tunnelled, alone
concealed its head. There was no embankment.
The line where the green crops ended and the
yellow parterre of sand and water began, stretched
away to the horizon without break in level. There
was nothing visible to prevent the pea-soup stream
from extending when in flood to any extent over
the cultivation. A schoolroom tradition was de-
stroyed which the hills on the left could not restore*
however like embankments they might seem. It
is possible that the Yellow River may live, else-
where in its long course, up to its old reputation
of a stream embanked upon either side until it is
high above the surrounding country. It does
nothing of the kind, so far as I could see, at the
point where the Belgian railway crosses it
There was barely time to take a photograph of
the gorge before the train plunged into the tunnel
through the spur, and the roar of reverberating
steel girders announced that we were upon the
bridge. Behind us, lining the channel upon the
left, was now the range of hills which ended
abruptly at the railway. In front the cobweb of
girders stretched out over what seemed to be
98 TO PEKING BY RAIL
some miles of a desert streaked with winding
streams. Cautiously we rumbled forward and
looked down through the open framework upon
alternating dusty stretches and rushing water far
below. In places the streams were grubbing, like
terrier after rat, at the base of the perilously slender
columns which supported the track. I wondered
how much of the foundations had been undermined
since the last train had crossed. Some of the dusty
stretches were dotted with hundreds of blue human
ants toiling to build up, at the more seriously
threatened points, breastworks of sand which the
water may or may not respect when it rises.
Down-stream, a hundred junks floated placidly
upon an expansion of the river, their sails gleaming
swan-like in the strong midday light.
The prolonged reverberation of vibrating girders
gave place at length to the substantial hum of
metalled permanent-way. We had reached the
further bank, where the train took heart and
quickened its pace. We sped through low-lying
country, across a flimsy embankment a few feet
high, which gives the river-bed on the northern
shore some slight hint as to the course intended
for it — a hint which is omitted altogether to the east
of the hills on the southern bank. Miserable huts,
where once were thriving villages, reminded us that
the population have not yet recovered from the
floods in which millions of human beings perished,
barely a generation ago ; but no sign appeared of
the famine which must even then have begun to
TO PEKING BY RAIL 99
pinch the people. The river still flows in the
channel which it carved in summer fury, when
it changed its course from the south to the north of
the Shantung Peninsula and adopted the Pechihli
Gulf, in place of the Yellow Sea, for its outfall. It
is an obstacle which must always cause much anxiety
to the railway.
At almost every station where the train stopped
we found a crowd of countrymen prepared to take
intelligent interest in our affairs. Of local traffic
there was little, for few but foreigners travel by
express in China, the man of the country preferring
cheaper means of conveyance. The people had
come from near and far to look at us. In only rare
instances did they either beg or endeavour to
dispose of inferior Chinese bronzes or more pre-
tentious curios from Birmingham. At every stop-
ping-place was a soldier in black coat and red
inscription, carrying an 1888 pattern mauser rifle
from the Hanyang arsenal, and proud to show us
how smartly he could come to attention at the word
of command. There was no ammunition in his
pouch ; but we felt we were being taken care of by
the Government, immanent somewhere as usual to
watch over the safety of the troublesome stranger.
We were received at a surprising number of
apparently insignificant halting-places by comfort-
able Belgian station-masters.
A pair of steel rails, glistening on a stone-ballasted
side-track which branched away upon the left, soon
reminded us that a British company, calling itself
ICO TO PEKING B7 RAIL
the Peking Syndicate, is developing a coal-field
in the middle of North- Western China, and will
supply mineral of good quality some day to both
Peking and Hankow.
Eruptions of rough earth, amongst smoodi green
crops, with a cypress-tree or two alongside, and a
substantial stone table in front, where ghosts can
sit conveniendy to read inscriptions engraved upon
stone pillars by pious descendants, became more
and more frequent features of the landscape, as the
second morning wore on. Presendy we entered a
region which was little else than a vast graveyard.
The horizon bristled with sharp-pointed earth heaps,
each representing a tomb. Not a single neglected
mound or protruding board was visible, though the
Chinese place the coffin merely upon the open
ground, and pile up earth on the top of it with-
out any attempt at sinking it below the sur&ce.
The heaps were in groups, each representing a
family, and sheltered by a mound to keep evil spirits
away and preserve the ^'fanshui" (good luck) of
the location. These mounds are generally upon the
north. It is on them that good spirits rest, with
one elbow upon the mythical tiger and the other on
the dragon that guard the resting-place of the dead.
Cultivation goes on around the graves. Well-fed
ox and corpulent donkey, yoked as a pair, drew
substantial carts past the train. Blue poke-bonnets
on wheels, with fine mules between the strings,
pottered along the hi^ways, the famous Peking
carts that even a Chinese country quagmire does
TO PEKING BY RAIL loi
not appal. Houses grew frequent Fruit-trees
covered with masses of pink blossom appeared on
every side. We passed through a stone archway
in an ancient wall, where grey keeps and battle-
ments towered upon the left, found ourselves in the
middle of an enormous Chinese city, and realised
Peking.
.«H
CHAPTER IX
THE PEKING OF TO-DAY
TO see the Peking of to-day the traveller should
climb out of the poisonous atmosphere of the
narrow streets, up the steep ramp of the Tartar wall.
There the wind blows keen and the air is com-
paratively pure. The straight thoroughfare, fifty
feet wide, covered with broken paving-stones, which
is the top of the wall, extends in front. On either
side are ruins of breast-high battlements. The
thoroughfare opens into a succession of squares
over the bastions. Enormous pagoda towers, with
crude pictures of g^n-muzzles painted upon the
shutters of the emplacements, strut at intervals
along the way. Southward, beyond the arched
Watergate where the Indian contingent scrambled
into the city when the Allies relieved the Legations
in 1 900, ripple the myriad roofs of the Chinese city,
sharply divided, beneath one's eyes, by the broad
thoroughfare which Tartar conquerors drove through
the packed capital they found. To the north, the
yellow porcelain tops of the Forbidden City and its
imperial palaces differentiate themselves in the pall
103
104 THE PEKING OF TO-DAY
of smoke, dust, and vapour that hangs over the
hived dwellings of lesser folk. On the horizon
to the left, the cathedral, where six years ago a
stout-hearted French priest and a few converts and
helpers denied entrance to besieging Boxer mobs,
raises a Christian pinnacle. Nearer in is the fine
American Methodist hospital, which helps the
missionary cause by filling a real want in the
city. Immediately below, a stone clock-tower
stands on guard over a prosperous British bank,
a lasting memento of fifty soon-spent millions fur-
nished to the Chinese Government A few well-
paved roads are visible in the neighbourhood of
the foreign Legations ; but they do not materially
alter the character of the place.
Mule carts still jolt silk-coated mandarins before
dawn to daylight audiences in the palace. Black,
powdery dust rises in the same clouds, to spread over
the tinned foods and bottled drinks which the globe-
trotter survives as hardily as ever. The dim curio-
shops in the evil-smelling lanes of the Chinese city
have restocked their looted shelves with ivories and
embroideries, and beg^n again their profitable trade.
The coolies who drag ramshackle jinrickshaws over
slimy refuse heaps, have dropped no note of aggres-
sion in their argumentative claims for more pay
than they are entitled to receive. The six years
which have passed since the relief of the Legations
have made no difference in the relative positions of
the middle-aged puppet Emperor and the imperious
Dowager he obeys. The old international jealousies
•»^
THE PEKING OF TO-DAY 105
still bristle bebind the ostentatiously concealed
emplacements of the herded Legations. But the
white man is no longer where he was. His repre-
sentatives continue to hold, with armed guards,
ground they seized at a time of war in the capital
of a people with whom they have since made peace ;
but this is merely one of the anomalies common
in the Far East. Great Britain and Japan have
accepted China as an independent power like them-
selves. The Americans are helping to keep up the
impression. France and Germany are trying to
look as if they had not got any Chinese property
about their persons, whether in Tongking, Shantung
or elsewhere. Small fry like Portugal, Spain, Italy,
Belgium, and Austria, which also hold semi-fortified
positions in Peking, are watching their bigger
neighbours uncomfortably. Defeated but still
magnificent Russia only is unconcerned ; and now
that one portal into China has been wrested from
her by Japan, is pushing hard at every other. The
Chinese are never tired of advertising that they
can do without the European. In Peking, one is
tempted, almost, to believe that the European is of
the same opinion, and that he is endeavouring to
behave in his battlemented Legation stronghold as
if he were upon sufferance or invitation.
A battered corner of the wall of the British
portion of the entrenchment has been left unre-
paired to show the marks of the cannon which
played upon it from the Imperial enclosure in 1900.
It bears in large, naive black letters the quotation,
io6 THE PEKING OF TO-DAY
" Lest we forget," but is inconspicuous in the
policy of forgetting which is in operation.
The Legation fortifications in Peking are neces-
sary. If they were removed the Europeans would
be unable to protect themselves and their women
and children from the periodical mob violence which
the Chinese Government has proved itself too weak
to control. The Anglo- Japanese- American policy
of preserving the autonomy and integrity of the
country, adopted for international reasons far re-
moved from Peking, has resulted in the compulsory
assumption by the white man of an attitude which
is foreign to his relations with every other alien race
in the world. In India, a vast Empire has been
built upon prestige. In China, prestige has been
allowed to disappear, and the European has to put
up in consequence with barely concealed contempt
and hostility, which are liable to develop at any
time into insult and injury.
China has taken, in her own slow way, the advice
continually proffered her from the West, to employ
foreigners to furnish her with armament and to
drill her soldiers. She has got together a great
deal of more or less modern material of war, and a
large force of men not altogether despicable, from
a fighting point of view, in spite of the essentially
peaceful character of her people. With Russia
defeated by a nation that China holds to be her
own inferior, and with France and Germany — the
only other nations likely to interfere with her
autonomy — in effectual check, she is forming the
THE PEKING OF TO-DAY 107
inflated opinions of her own position natural to
the Eastern mind. She has not forgotten the
catastrophe which befell her efforts in 1 900 to expel
the foreigner. She acquiesces in his presence as
an unavoidable evil, and protects his person with a
solicitude that is sometimes pathetic, in order to
avoid subsequent trouble ; but she has no respect
or liking for himself.
The progress in certain branches of Western
civilisation which China is making, is real and un-
mistakeable. What is even more apparent than
this progress, however, is backwardness in other
branches. With a soil far richer than that of
India and a population larger, more intelligent and
more industrious, China is utterly distanced by that
country in everything that public enterprise confers.
In isolated industries initiated for her by Europeans,
such as the iron and steel works at Hanyang and
the brick tea factories at Hankow, she holds her
own. In almost everything where her own people
have been long in charge, she lags lamentably
behind. The taxes levied by her officials are at
least as heavy, /^r capita^ as those raised in India,
yet the corruption in her public services is so great
that the total sum which finds its way into the
Imperial Treasury is only about one-tenth of what
the Government of India is able to spend upon
administration. China is burdened with a relatively
large national debt, yet she has practically no repro-
ductive public works to lighten the burden of the
interest. She does not own a tenth of the railway
io8 THE PEKING OF TO-DAY
mileage of India. The splendid canals, which cen-
turies ago doubled the present fertility of enormous
areas of territory, have fallen into ruin. The country
is almost innocent of metalled roads. Possessed of
a people amongst whom learning is a passion, her
educational institutions have but one advanced
student in the modern sense where those of India
have scores. The Calcutta University alone
possesses two thousand undergraduates. The Im-
perial University of Peking, which represents
modern learning in the capital, contained exactly
two hundred and forty students at the time of my
visit This university is one of the most deserving
and valuable institutions in China. Its foreign
professors are able and sympathetic, and, with
proper support, would make its future distinguished,
since finer raw material for intellectual development
than the Chinese student is not to be found in
Asia ; but it is fifty years behind the University
of Calcutta; and even the small amount of en-
couragement it receives from the mandarins is in-
secure. It was founded only three years ago, as a
sequel to the abolition of the Confucian examina*
tions; but the Peking reactionaries are already
undermining the basis on which it stands, and the
edict issued in January, 1907, which reintroduces
the Confucian standards, threatens to complete its
destruction. Other branches of Chinese official
enterprise are in an equally unsatisfactory position.
A postal system on European lines has been intro-
duced and has succeeded up to a certain point,
THE PEKING OF TO-DAY 109
thanks to its initiation having been placed in the
capable hands of Sir Robert Hart ; but here also
Chinese interference has prevented the development
which would have occurred in any better governed
country. I saw in Tientsin men who had travelled
long distances from the interior to collect at the
head office of the Transvaal Immigration Agency,
in person, sums as small as five Chinese dollars,
remitted to them from Johannesburg. They could
not get the money sent to their homes by postal
order, as would be done, as a matter of course,
in India, because the Chinese Post Office cannot
be depended upon to perform such service with
reliability.
The state of medical science may be judged by
the fact that when, in Nanchang, international com-
plications hung upon the curing of the magistrate
who cut his throat in the precincts of the French
mission, the man died because not a Chinese
doctor could be found, in a city of a million inhabi-
tants, capable of performing so elementary a
surgical operation as that of sewing up a by no
means considerable wound. In Canton a temple
flourishes as a dispensary ; but it affords no medical
treatment The patient gets what benefit he may
from kowtowing to the individual image, out of
sixty, which happens to be numbered to correspond
with the years of his age. The high-class Chinese
of Peking claim to be civilised, yet the Imperial
Palace in the Forbidden City has all the insanitary
and draughty discomfort of an ill-built shanty.
no THE PEKING OF TO-DAY
The Emperor ploughs with his own hands an
annual furrow in the grounds of the Temple of
Agriculture at Peking, to propitiate the wegtther ;
but he is helpless to save millions of the inhabi-
tants of the Yellow River valley who die when
the floods are excessive. His Imperial Majesty
mounts the carved marble platform of the Temple
of Heaven, and reads, for the information of the
deity, a periodical summary of the acts of his
administration ; but his officials still employ torture
in the ordinary course of their dispensation of
justice, and the rack, the thumbscrew, and the
dragon's stool are a much-used portion of the
equipment of every yamen.
*' I strung him up by the thumbs with my own
hands," remarked a mild-faced Taotai to a European
missionary ; "I was determined he should confess."
Yet the malefactor in this case was merely an
ordinary prisoner, accused of some purely domestic
crime, who had annoyed the officer of the law by
protesting that he was innocent.
The people of China are the most law-abiding
in the world ; but public opinion overrides the law,
being so strong that it is the ultimate court of
political appeal. The Government is one of in-
action exacerbated by tax-gathering. The officials
maintain their position, not by force, but because
of the respect which constituted authority com-
mands. They keep up soldiers and police to
enhance the dignity of their own positions, and,
incidentally, to suppress rebellions and catch, casti-
THE PEKING OF TO-DAY iii
gate, torture, or behead such persons as they con-
sider to be malefactors ; but all their actions are
limited by what public opinion will allow. Local
governors are appointed from Peking because the
people would not otherwise recognise the validity
of their authority ; but the imperial throne does not
interfere in the ordinary administration. The head
telegraph office at Peking, which handles the official
despatches of the capital, is about as large as would
be required in an up-country station in India. The
Court demands of its viceroys and governors, first,
that they shall remit it enough money to pay its
expenses, and, second, that they shall keep out
of trouble with the populace. Provided these two
conditions be fulfilled the officials may do very
much what they please. The towns are cesspools
of insanitation, with dark tortuous passages in place
of streets, and are devoid of the most elementary
conveniences. This state of things is not due to
ignorance. Close beside some of the worst of the
Chinese towns are European - managed foreign
settlements. Here everything is different The
streets are broad and well-lighted; electric trams,
waterworks and sewers are maintained efficiently.
Sanitation^ order and convenience are attended to,
because white men, and not Chinese, are responsible.
But Peking is full of illustrations of the great
possibilities of the Chinese. The massive walls
are monuments of industry. The carved temples
testify to a long plundered national art. I spent a
dusty afternoon looking for a magazine and powder
112 THE PEKING OF TO-DAY
factory which a German map indicated as existing
in the south-west corner of the Chinese city. I
discovered the buildings at length, but they were
deserted and in ruins. Alongside was something
at least as interesting. It was a Chinese paper
factory without appliances, other than a few vats,
sticks, and mats, yet turning out a product which
competes successfully, throughout China, with the
machine-made paper of Indian and German steam
factories. Pallid creatures stood up to their waists
in holes in the earthen floor of the hovel in which
die principal process was conducted, toiling early
and late, under conditions of incredible insanitation
and discomfort, each having to complete, as his
daily task, the manufacture of six hundred sheets
of coarse brown paper. I saw men handling the
mats that did duty for screens, with skill that would
have made them leading hands in any European-
run steam mill. Yet they are content to labour in
Peking for the remuneration of the meanest coolie.
Such sights must continue until an administration
arises capable of directing the great industrial
abilities of the people into more profitable channels.
There is no lack of intelligence in the ruling
classes. Only honesty of endeavour in the interest
of the public is required. At present the canker of
dishonesty destroys confidence in everything that
is official. Taotais of cities like Shanghai and
Tientsin, who are the presidents of the local
municipalities, make fortunes which are believed in
China to run into hundreds of thousands of pounds.
THE PEKING OF TO-DAY 113
When this is the case with superiors it i^ easy
to picture what goes on with subordinates. The
people are so extraordinarily honest in their private
dealings, and the officials rule them so largely by
sufferance, that it is reasonable to hope, with the
best informed foreign residents, for some efficient
endeavour from within to end the eternal official
squeezes that exist Honesty of administration is
of comparatively late growth, even in England.
America has attained it but partially, and Turkey
not at all. China is only in the position from which
Europe is emerging. Her ultimate regeneration
is in the line of natural probability ; but the be-
ginning so far made is small.
Progress, where it can be made out, is still
local and partial. Yuan - Shih - Kai, the Chinese
administrator oftenest quoted for efficiency, has
done much in his own province in training and
arming troops, founding schools, and building roads ;
but he is so solitary among his contemporaries as
to force the conviction that, as a class, Europeans
at present alone possess the qualifications required
for the government of the country. Europeans,
however, are being forced more and more into the
background. As exploiters of the produce and
suppliers of the markets they still prosper exceed-
ingly in co-operation with their Chinese partners,
though the recent boycott of American goods in
Shanghai and Canton has given them a foretaste
of what they may have to experience upon a larger
scale. They manage a certain number of mines
114 THE PEKING OF TO-DAY
and railways, but find increasing difficulty in en-
larging their borders in these directions. Their
influence has not been enhanced by the policy, now
in the ascendant, of relieving the Chinese Govern-
ment from fears of aggression upon the part of the
European powers. Dreams of administering China
as Great Britain administers India and France
Tongking no longer visit the pillows of political
attache in the Foreign Legations. Consul-Generals
and their satellite secretaries find their immediate
duties of obtaining concessions out of the Chinese
authorities quite onerous enough. If Chinese
officialdom were less occupied in accumulating
riches for its individual members it might preface
reform by buying so many modem guns and em-
ploying so large a staff of foreign military instructors
as to create a crisis ; for power only, not will, is
lacking for the complete expulsion of the European ;
but the financial aspect of the situation has proved
deterrent up to the present So far as the nationali-
sation of the Chinese army, announced in December,
1906, is real, it does not alter the situation. The
bringing of the whole or of any portion of the
forces raised by the viceroys of the various provinces
under the direction of the Peking War Office, would
be important only if the central administration
controlled the funds requisite to pay the soldiers.
This is not the case at present, since the viceroys
collect the bulk of the taxation with the exception
of the customs revenue, which is pledged for the
repayment of foreign loans. Intrigue and counter-
THE PEKING OF TODAY 115
intrigue go on to*day in Peking as they have gone
cm for centuries. A month ago the influence of
Yuan-Shih-Kai was increasing. To-day it has
received a check* Should it prevail eventually,
and Yuan*Shih-Kai establish himself as mentor to
the throne, and maintain his position when the
present Empress dies, it does not follow that he
will be supported in the southern provinces. Even
in the north the policy for which he stands will not
necessarily continue beyond his life.
The one factor in the situation which can be
counted upon to endure is the loyalty to existing
institutions of the Chinese people. I was shown
notices in Chinese character, pasted on the walls of
Peking, inviting subscriptions to a fund for paying
off the foreign debt. This fund was started
privately by a Chinese newspaper and is supported
by voluntary subscriptions only, yet it already totals
thirty thousand pounds — a sum which means in
China a very great deal more than in Europe. It
appeals to private endeavour to enable the dynasty
to abstain from levying new taxes to pay European
claims for Boxer outrages ; and the spirit which is
behind it is the strongest that exists in China. The
country is used to misgovemment, or rather to
absence of government ; but innovation, and par-
ticularly foreign innovation, is so resented that any
scheme, no matter how preposterous, which claims
to operate in the direction of ending it finds ready
support. The new Peking bids fair to be sur-
prisingly like the old.
ii6 THE PEKING OF TO-DAY
The point of assimilation in methods, and even
in morals, will no doubt some day come, and when
it does we may look for a tremendous accompani-
ment At present Western ideas seem little more
than boats upon the old ocean of the Chinese con-
sciousness. The mind of Kuang Hsu's four hun-
dred million subjects still sways to its own laws,
and pays little permanent heed to the disturbing
splash of alien oarsmen.
CHAPTER X
THE COOLIS TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI
A WIND-SWEPT sand-spit, jutting out into
the Pichihii Gulf, with a few corrugated iron
sheds, some rough stone bungalows, a pile pier and
an open log-built railway platform, complete the
equipment of Chen-wang-tao, the ice-free winter
port of Peking and Tientsin, and the place of ship-
ment of the fifty thousand Chinese coolies whose
presence on the Rand has produced such heart-
searchings in political England. One reaches the
place in four or five hours from Tientsin by one oi
the many north-bound trains carrying cattle and
farm supplies to restock devastated areas in Man-
churia. Chen-wang-taos hotel accommodation is
designed for the coolies only. I went commended,
however, to the Protector of Emigrants for the
Transvaal, who very kindly put me up and showed
me all there was to see of the recruit|pent at this
point.
The coolie depdt stands back under the lee of
the ridge, where there is some slight shelter. We
ploughed through soft, heavy sand to the courtyard
where the ground was gravelled. The coolies are
117
ii8 THE COOLIE TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI
housed in spacious quarters with walls of stone and
roofs of red iron. The accessories, from the police
guard supplied by the Chinese Government, to the
tank of hot water in which the coolies attain much-
needed cleanliness, are upon a business-like and
liberal scale. I was in time to inspect one of the
last of the gangs of coolies to be despatched to
South Africa. It was soon after dawn when I
reached the depdt and the morning was chilly.
From the dormitories, as I approached, came
cheerful sounds of loud talk and lusty laughter,
which suggested anything but the low spirits of a
downtrodden people, or dissatisfaction with the
contract that was being completed. I went inside
in company with my host. We were at once sur-
rounded by a crowd of coolies, all immensely
interested in examining myself and my garments,
for a new foreigner is a whole variety entertain-
ment to persons waiting for a ship at Chen-wang-
tao. The coolies had decided that they wanted a
fire to beguile their leisure, and they did not hesi-
tate to assail my companion with voluble demands
to give it to them.
They insisted like spoilt children.
" Look at this foreigner's clothes," said one of
them, in illustration of his argument, as he took
hold familiarly of my coat, and felt the texture of
the cloth. ''It is thicker than ours."
Their own clothes were of substantial blue cotton
cloth, in some cases single, in others padded with
cotton- wool, and at least as warm as anything they
THE COOLIE TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI 119
would have worn under similar circumstances at
home, where fuel would have been far too expensive
to play with. The noisiest of the crew was a youth
of some eighteen or twenty years of age, with
the copper-coloured skin, angular cheekbones, and
argumentative voice of the Tientsin street arab.
He pushed his companions in the ribs to prevent
their interrupting his own strident vociferation.
Close to him in the group was a coolie of a very
different type, with wheat-coloured oval countenance
moulded to the round outlines of a contemplative
Mongolian Buddha. The rest varied between these
widely separated extremes.
The coolie-lines are within a walled enclosure,
which also contains kitchen, offices, and a long series
of rooms through which the coolies pass on their
way to the railway-siding, whence a train carries
them to their ship. Within these rooms the
coolies are stripped, washed, medically examined,
arrayed in new clothes, supplied with necessaries,
and subjected to magisterial interrogation by
Chinese officials appointed to look after their
interests, and to secure that they shall understand
the nature of the contracts that they sign. Each
man receives an advance of thirty Chinese dollars
(;^3) before he leaves the yard. He then inter-
views through a grille any relations who may be
there to see him off, and goes on board not only
clean and comfortably attired, but also triumphant,
for the service is so sought after that only a portion
of those who apply for it can be selected.
120 THE COOLIE TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI
The resident staff includes a European doctor, a
mandarin protector of emigrants appointed by the
Peking Government, my friend the representative
of the Transvaal Government, and a manager
appointed by the Johannesburg Chamber of Mines,
who happened to be a Canadian. The coolies are
thus under official protection of both the country
from which they start and that to which they go.
They make the fullest use of all the facilities that
are afforded to them.
In Tientsin resides a European recruiting-agent
appointed by the Johannesburg Chamber of Mines,
who supervises a number of Chinese sub-agents in
the various districts of North China from which the
coolies are drawn. I visited the main office in
Tientsin city, where a small Chinese staff is main-
tained under European direction for the special
purpose of paying to families in China the allow-
ances sent by coolies upon the Rand. Some eight
thousand out of the fifty thousand shipped to South
Africa send such remittances to their homes. The
total paid out monthly in Tientsin amounts to about
forty thousand Chinese dollars (;^4,ooo). The
average individual remittance is five dollars — a sum
sufficient for the maintenance for that time of a
workman's family on the scale of comfort usual in
the country. A coolie on the Rand receives a
minimum of fifteen dollars monthly. He may
double his earnings by doing piece-work, and can
count in any case upon receiving the minimum, so
long as he lives and behaves himself. His contract
THE COOLIE TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI 121
is for three years. At the end of that period he
receives a free passage back to China, and must
either avail himself of it or sign on for a further
period of indentured service. A good many bad
characters managed to get shipped at first and have
since had to be sent back to China. In a few cases
the words "Once repatriated" appear upon the
history sheet of a coolie. They mean that the man
has got out again, after having been sent back as
undesirable. This occurred in the early days of the
undertaking, before the present system of super-
vision had been perfected. It is now but very
seldom that a man who has once been rejected
succeeds in getting diccepted in a fresh outgoing
batch ; but some Tientsin bad characters boast that
they have done so, and thereby twice secured the
thirty-dollar advance, besides four passages forwards
and backwards between Chen-wang-tao and Johan-
nesburg, at the expense of the mines. When the
system of finger-print identification, which is under
introduction, is in full working, such incidents will
become impossible. That they should have occurred
in the past shows how popular is emigration amongst
the people concerned. The " two-times- 1 -go " men
have had their day.
I watched a gang of countrymen passing through
the office to receive remittances sent to them by
relatives on the Rand; for, as I have explained,
neither the Chinese post-office nor the native
bankers are trusted with any large portion of the
remitting. Of the coolies I talked to through an
122 THE COOLIE TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI
interpreter, one was a weather-worn fanner, who
had come in seventy miles by boat to collect money
from his son at the mines. His eye softened as five
solid silver dollars were counted into his hand. He
said no word ; but now he knew for certain that the
son who had stolen away from home in hasty quarrel
was alive, for had not the clerks searched throug^h
the register and not found against his name any of
those red-ink entries of " deceased," " deserted," or
'•repatriated," which would have meant sorrow or
disgrace or both ? The old man was in no great
want of the money. His blue cotton coat and leg-
clothes and parti-coloured felt boots were warm and
in good repair. He carried a substantial umbrella
of yellow bamboo and black-painted paper, that had
cost forty cents quite recently. His crops this year
were heavy. The remittance would be added to
previous hoardings for buying land, and two seasons
hence, when " Hu of the Great Happiness " (Hu
Tu Fu) should come home after his three years'
venture, there would be no more running away to
Africa.
A small, crooked-eyed man in grey had walked in
twenty miles by road to cash an allowance which had
been sent by his cousin. This cousin, he explained,
had lived in his house when times had been hard,
and was now faithfully discharging his debt for the
kindness he had received. A poor, blear-eyed
creature, with contracted putty-coloured face, and
tiny brass opium pipe dangling by a chain from a
shaky wrist, was there to cash a remittance sent
THE COOLIE TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI 123
him by a brother. He would spend the money no
doubt on the drug he could no longer do without
A middle-aged peasant had brought a straw-paper
envelope covered with black hieroglyphics upon a
red address-slip, which contained a letter of home
news and shrewd advice to be posted to an absent
son. In a rack above the door were a dozen similar
missives^ frayed and soiled from the handling they
had received on their journey from the Rand, but
safe and ready for delivery to whoever should
identify his own name in the addresses they
displayed.
Inside the office were leather-bound books with
long columns of entries which told how dutiful '' Li
of the Everlasting Harmony '* (Li Yung Ho) had
paid to his old father " Li the Forest Ranger " (Li
Tso Liu), every month regularly for more than a
year, what woidd keep the whole family in comfort
at home. I learnt that the *' Prince of the Old
Hostel " (Wang Lao Tin) had not been to collect
the remittance sent by his nephew, the ** Prince of
the Sea Gate " (Wang Hai Men) for three months,
though the money was lying there waiting for him.
I ascertained that '* Fang's" wife, whose family
name as a maiden had been " Li *' (Fang Li Shih),
for women in China have no first names, had col-
lected two months' remittance from her loving son,
" Fang the Pillar " (Fang Chu).
A drawer full of small black bank-books in neat
leather cases represented the accounts of coolies
who had remitted for a time and then decided to
124 THE COOLIE TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI
send no more. Long columns on thin, yellow note-
paper told to him who could decipher them of
complicated disputes about the ownership of money.
'' I came away to Africa and trusted to Kao San
to draw my wages for my family ; and I think that,
owing to the fact that I do not know where this
man lives in China, or whether Kao San is his
rightful name, I am afraid I shall lose the money
I am working for here," wrote confiding Pao Wu
Yuan, who had handed over his signed remittance
sheets to a casual acquaintance upon the road, and
now besought the European general manager to
recover the documents.
" I ran away from home. My mother's name is
Chao Chung, and she is not a widow," began a
complicated letter in which Chu Ho explained that
the lady he had nominated to receive his remittances
was not what he had represented her to be, and
asked that the money should now be applied
elsewhere.
I learnt from a neat Chinese clerk, whom I found
painting his language into a book, that a picture of a
windmill stands for the name of the province Chihli,
and that two black hooks hanging precariously to
two upright strokes signify the hinged gate which
they roughly portray. I was reminded besides that
writing in Chinese still requires artistic talent, and
that the accomplished work is of a kind to make the
author justly proud. I know no country but China
where even the hasty scribbling of a pencil note
attracts respectful curiosity, nor shall I forget the
THE COOLIE TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI 125
comfortable assurance of a highly educated English-
speaking secretary, in a Governor's yamen, who,
when bidden by the Governor to translate what I
had taken down, disregarded my well-intentioned
promptings and said with superiority, after ex-
amining my notebook, that my writing was in
'* the running hand," and therefore undecipherable.
Tientsin is one of the many dusty cities of China.
One is tempted to wonder how long would elapse
before one's own eyes would screw themselves into
the crookedness of those of its Mongolian inhabitants
if one were compelled to stay there. Notwithstand-
ing the dust, Tientsin is a healthy place of residence
even for Europeans. In the matter of material
prosperity the city promises eventually to rival such
busy centres as Hong Kong and Shanghai. Its
foreign settlement already possesses broad streets
and substantial houses, and is becoming an example
of the immensity of the possibilities of commercial
development in China wherever trade is encouraged.
This is the more significant as nothing bigger than
a coasting steamer can get up the narrow river to
the wharves, and the port is closed by ice for
several months each year. The trade during the
winter finds an outlet at Chen-wang-tao, where
vessels lie in an open roadstead of the Pichili
Gulf.
The Chen-wang-tao harbour is the property of
the Chinese Engineering and Mining Company,
which of recent years has had as managers two
136 THE COOLIE TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI
Anglo-Indians, Mr. Wynne, now a member of the
Indian Railway Board, and Major Nathan, who, I
understand, began his Eastern career in the Indian
Public Works Department. This is a flourishing
concern, in spite of a serious dispute in which it
is engaged with the Chinese Government as to the
ownership of the extensive properties it controls.
Its mines are situated between Chen-wang-tao and
Tientsin, and are turning out anything from two
hundred thousand to a million tons of coal per
annum, of very fair quality, which is in use through-
out the whole of Northern China. The demand
for this coal so far exceeds the supply that I found
Tientsin merchants groaning almost as loudly as
those of Calcutta upon the subject of their difficul-
ties; but this state of things appears to have been
only temporary. Recendy the company has won
one lawsuit brought by the Chinese Government to
secure a determining voice in its direction ; but an
appeal has yet to be heard. Meanwhile one may
recognise the competence of the present manage-
ment in the excellent thirty-ton coal-wagons of
uniform bogie pattern fitted with automatic coup-
lings, which are in use for carrying the coal to
Chen-wang-tao for shipment to ports along the coast.
These wagons compare favourably not only with
such trucks as I have seen elsewhere in China, but
also with the heterogeneous collection of miscel-
laneous-pattern rolling-stock to be seen in India
plying to the docks of Calcutta. Both Tientsin
and Chen-wang-tao make an enormous demand upon
THE COOLIE TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI 12;
the countfy for labour ; but the supply appears to be
inexhaustible.
From Chen-wang-tao I went by rail along the
coast to Shan-hai-kwan {** Between the Mountain
and the Sea "), the queer old fortified city where the
three thousand miles of grey brick towers and earth-
backed battlements, which are the Great Wall of
China, end upon the shore of the Pichihli Gulf. A
springless mule cart, with gowned Manchu driver,
rendered possible but penible the crossing of the
stony gravel-heaped plain upon which the city is
built Thence I scrambled on foot some hundreds
of feet up steep, grassy rocks amidst clumps of
scendess violets and dwarf oak-trees. Personal
comments from unsympathetic local riffraff, who are
the foreigfner's bane in China, punctuated my exer-
tions. The summit had its village and a cheap,
gaudy joss-house. Upon one side the loneliness
of a dark, wooded gorge was broken by a white
mountain stream in a setting of yellow sand ; and
on the other stretched the cheerful humanity of a
wide rolling plain, where the ochre earth glistened
through seedling crops to end sharply in the blue
expanse of the Pichihli Gulf.
The city of Shan-hai-kwan, with its grey castel-
lated walls and gateways, is an irregular patch
where the plain is cut in two by a long, sharp
line of earthwork which connects the square
keeps upon the mountain with the shore of the
gulf. A shallow, winding river breaks through
a narrow gap in the ruined fortifications at the
128 THE COOLIE TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI
foot of the mountaiiL Behind the slopes rise
steeply ; and height beyond height is crowned
with grey stone towers that stand out against
the sunset On the green earth-banked side
of the wall lies multitudinous China. On its
steep, crenulated side stretches spacious Manchuria.
The broken parapets have no modem use. The
virile northern barbarian they so long held at bay
rules the softer and more industrious southerner
who built them. The mail train draws up for the
night under the ruined masonry ; but that is only
because hurry is unknown in leisurely Northern
China. Shan-hai-kwan is a frontier post no
longer.
Another twelve hours* journey along the sea-
coastt through a country which cold rain had sud-
denly converted into a slough of slippery mud,
brought me to the terminus on the western bank
of the Liao-ho. Here I was deposited upon a
bare spit of mud, with leaden-coloured water
lashing itself into anger upon either side. A leaky
dinghy with Manchu boatmen ferried me pre-
cariously across to the wharves of Neuchwang.
The province of Chihli through which I had
thus passed was selected by the Johannesburg
Chamber of Mines as the recruiting ground for
coolies for the Rand with excellent reason. It
teems with hardy labour. Upon the platforms
of wayside stations where the train drew up were
crowds of immensely powerful countrymen standing
about in the rain in rough yellow oilskins, presum-
««>♦
THE COOLIE TRAFFIC IN CHIHLI 129
ably to guard the line. The train was full of their
friends and brothers going backwards and forwards
between their work and their villages. The streets
of Tientsin were black with stalwart workmen
busily following their respective trades, who gave
an impression of numbers and of hardihood that
I formed in no other city. Yuan-Shih-Kai has
raised the bulk of his seventy thousand soldiers
in the province without materially reducing the
supply of men available. The fifty thousand
coolies shipped to South Africa have been but
a fraction of the balance. There remains a source
of rough and ill-mannered, but also industrious and
capable labour, which is available for transportation
to any field, no matter how distant, that can ofifer
good wages. Unlike the Indian coolie, the Chinese
has no fear of the sea, no caste to break by crossing
it, and no levitical penalties to face when he returns.
He is also content to leave his women at home,
and thus the problem of dealing with him in ex-
patriation is simplified. He is the true industrial
adventurer. Political danger may lurk in too
greedy an appreciation of him ; but there is no
doubt that he stores in his stout body much of the
energy which is needed to furnish the industries of
the modem world.
CHAPTER XI
PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS
IN traversing China from Shanghai to the Great
Wall my passport was not once asked for. I
was free with all the world to go or come as I would.
On reaching the confines of Manchuria this was
no longer the case. Manchuria was closed to all
foreigners except Japanese, who were pouring in and
out freely. A prompt exception was made in favour
of accredited British officers, who were admitted as
honoured guests, guided over the battlefields, and
passed on from one hospitable military headquarters
to another. A civilian had first, upon one or two
points, to establish his character. I was closely ex-
amined by the Japanese Administration at Neuch-
wang as to the objects of my journey. I was
suspected of trade samples and observed for invoices.
I might have had piece-goods in my pocket, a com-
prador in my kit-bag, a street railway up my sleeve.
Never was the fourth estate more diligently sworn
to or more difficult to establish. Official telegrams
flew between the Administrator of Neuchwang and
the Governor of Port Arthur. I was beginning to
131
132 PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS
feel what it is to be an undesirable alien, when the
reply from Port Arthur arrived, and I found myself
suddenly transformed into a friend. I was called
upon and entertained, and not allowed to pay my
own way upon the railway. I found myself shep-
herded wherever I went. A launch, courteously
furnished by the Japanese Administrator, conveyed
me to the terminus of the railway which is a couple
of miles outside Neuchwang. A Japanese officer
who spoke excellent English saw me off.
The railway station of Neuchwang exemplifies
what I found afterwards throughout both Manchuria
and Korea. It is located away from the existing
city, to enable the land around it to be taken up for a
Japanese settlement, the Administration recognising,
with careful foresight, that such land is certain to
become valuable. The city, in fact, is to move to
the railway, not the railway to the city. Regular
traffic — for Japanese only — ^had been resumed upon
the line. The train was full of Japanese, including
military men, coolies, and traders. We changed to
the main line from Harbin in the night. After that
the train ran through to the junction for Dalny,
whence a branch carried us to our destination, the
entire journey taking only about sixteen hours.
The line traverses the Liaotung peninsula from
one end to the other. The fields are stony, the crops
on the ground poor. Bare, round-topped kopjes,
from which every tree has disappeared, give narrow
horizon to the landscape. The country grows
wilder and more rugged as the train moves south.
PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS 133
The ruins of grey brick houses, with big Russian
windows, and broken, pagoda-tiled roofs, shiver
naked, in the cold rain, about the railway stations.
This grey brick is one of the most characteristic
urban features of China, and it does not add to the
cheerfulness of a damaged town. Holes, torn in
the walls by shell-fire, expose the debris of enormous
Russian stoves, of iron or glazed earthenware. The
names of the stations are still in the Russian
character. Smart Japanese, in uniforms borrowed
from Germany and France, inquire pleasantly for
one's passport, usually with at least an English
" Thank you," to go with the bow. The document
is so often asked for that one feels inclined to put it
where the American traveller puts his railway ticket,
in one's hat.
The Chinese inhabitant of the country is curiously
scarce. Occasionally he hawks a big basket of
excellent boiled eggs upon the platform, but even
hawking is done more often by a Japanese coolie.
Now and again the train passes the wretched mud
hovels of a Chinese village. The fields are culti-
vated along the railway, but the long, blue coat
which proclaims the Chinese villager, is seen but
little upon the line. The Chinese women have
crept back out of their hiding-places ; the men
never entirely deserted their fields. The slaughter
and license of the long campaign have left the
survivors numb. If the British were in the place of
the Japanese they would have large gangs of the
inhabitants at work at every station, restoring the
134 PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS
houses, building feeder-roads into the interior, and
incidentally earning money that would bring back
prosperity. Unlike the Japanese, we might forget
that we were under contract to quit ; but the country
would present a less depressing spectacle than at
present.
The kopjes link themselves together as the
train approaches the narrow neck of the Port
Arthur peninsula. The steep, pale-green slopes
are scarred with red where the drainage has cut
vertically into the soil, making channels which are
natural shelter-trenches. Grey rocks, behind each
of which a defender might crouch in comparative
safety from rifle fire, jostle each other in crowded
masses. One traverses the isthmus in the middle
of the day, and may obtain an excellent view of
the positions held by both the Russians and the
Japanese in the big fight which preceded the Port
Arthur siege. The isthmus is so completely com-
manded by the kopjes which General Stoessel
fortified, that the feat of the Japanese in capturing
it seems as incredible as any other performance of
the war. I passed twice over the spot, once on
my way to Port Arthur, and once, afterwards,
going north into Manchuria. The route is a
good one to take on the way to Port Arthur ; for
a view of this preliminary battlefield prepares one
for the further proofs of disparity in fighting
efficiency, between attackers and defenders, which
stare from the shell-torn defences of what in other
hands might have proved an impregnable citadel.
PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS 135
Before entering Port Arthur the train picks its
way round the exposed, stony slopes of 203 Metre
Hill The traveller has but to put his head out
of the train window to obtain an idea of the over-
whelming difficulty of the task performed by
General Nogi's devoted army. The height which
cost ten thousand men to capture has nothing to
shelter its occupants from the pitiless fire of well-
built Russian forts. The ridge is torn to pieces
on the top, and burrowed into at the sides, until it
has become a mere stony rubbish-heap. Later on,
when I had quitted the train and obtained the
necessary permission of the authorities to go over
the defences, I had opportunity of seeing that the
position of the Japanese, after they had captured
the height, must have been very similar to that
of the British upon Spion Kop. The trenches of
the Russian defenders are obscured by the super-
imposed Japanese works, facing in the opposite
direction. The whole has since been demolished
to remove the bodies, for the parapets were con-
structed of more than stones and earth, wounded,
as well as dead, getting built into them in the
frantic haste of men endeavouring to shelter
themselves from overwhelming shell-fire. Even
now the entire surface is strewn with distorted
shrapnel-bullets, and rusty shell-fragments; and
every shower washes additional mementos out of
the ground.
From the summit of the hill one sees the whole
of the harbour of Port Arthur spread out below.
136 PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS
in wide green expanse. No glasses are requisite
to make out the two Russian war-vessels, still
awash upon a mud-flat» where they sank under
Japanese howitzer-fire directed from the captured
height The grey city and its numerous suburbs
stretch out into the distance, beside and beyond
the broad, white quays. It is easy to recognise
the decisive nature of the position for which the
Japanese deliberately paid so terrible a price.
Purple violets, white-flowered Siberian edelweiss,
green thyme and grey-leafed wormwood are aiding
sparse grass, dark dwarf pines and brown-leafed
Chinese oaks to cover up what has been. The
curious must also be careful, for at his feet, amid
the stones, are green, corroded buttons still attached
to the matted fur of a grey Russian overcoat, and
from the collar protrudes a column of dry, yellow
cartilage and bone. That brown, mouldy, Japanese
jack-boot, too, cast out so carelessly amongst
weather-worn rags of what once were Calcutta-
made jute sand-bags, lies more heavily upon its
side than an empty boot should lie. A piece of
a human jawbone, showing white where the young
sound molars are smashed, rolls down the bare,
steep incline with a loosened stone.
Throughout the long line of eastern forts, where
the fierce attack of August, 1904, failed to break
the defence, the ground is equally eloquent of the
struggle. The green turf of the steep hillsides
is splashed with brown holes where gun-shots
have struck. The wrecks of guns of position
PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS 137
are strewn along the crest. The stony slopes
below are burrowed in all directions by mines,
counter-mines, and trenches. A stick of yellow
dynamite, still ready to explode, lies between two
pebbles in a whitey-brown paper wrapper on which
the name of its German maker stands out in bold,
black type. Rusty hand-grenade tins, dented, but
in many cases unexploded^ lie where they were
hurled at approaching Japanese. Live shells, also
too liable to go off unexpectedly for the casual
visitor to annex, may still be picked up in quantity,
including baby pompom projectiles and the missiles
of the heavier guns ; for many percussion fuses
did not strike fair on impact, shells often alight-
ing with the wrong end foremost and failing, in
consequence, to explode at first Enormous
masses of pebbly concrete, with the debris of
six-inch guns, smashed and hurled hundreds of
feet from the forts which the Russians blew up,
are still scattered amidst the ruins. One may
look down a dark, underground passage, dug
by the Japanese into the heart of one of the
Russian works, and terminating there in the
gaping hole of an exploded mine, and wander
along miles of tangled barbed-wire, and bristling
stake-pits. Sunken spots and patches of green
weeds and grass, in otherwise sterile ground, tell
a continual tale of what lies in shallow graves
beneath the surface. The authorities have endea-
voured to burn with kerosine oil whatever was
incapable of interment ; but the Japanese officers
138 PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS
and men who are pouring into Port Arthur, on
their way home from Manchuria, will long find
only too graphic evidence for all their senses, of
the fighting. Coolies are sifting out of exposed
banks along the Russian works, incredible quantities
of pencil -shaped bullets marked with the spiral that
tells of their having been fired from Japanese rifles.
Port Arthur is holy ground for all Japan, but the
old Samurai families have left there so many of their
best and bravest that they can claim it especially
their own. Officers on duty, in far Manchurian
stations, still speak with simple philosophy of the
friends they have lost I have seen flowers, picked
from the battlefields, treasured in litde pocket-books
by sunburnt veterans who would have seemed the
last to indulge in sentiment. The long, white name-
flags of the slain no longer hang beneath the red
and white Japanese national banner in the villages
of gallant Kiusiu ; but every straw-roofed maisonette
will treasure some memento of the fields where
husbands and sons gave their lives freely and gladly
for their country.
Within the defences, the city of Port Arthur is
depressingly desolate. Whole terraces of fine Russian
houses stand empty and dilapidated. Japanese coolies
have been imported in large numbers, in connection
with such works as the raising of the sunken battle-
ships and the building of the new Japanese forts
upon Golden Hill ; and they now ply with jinrick-
shaws for hire in the streets. Japanese shopkeepers
have opened stores of all kinds for the use of the
PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS 139
garrison ; but there is no demand for good accom*
modation. The buildings struck by shells during
the siege are generally in ruins. No attempt has
been made to alter the fire-scorched heap which is
all that remains of the theatre which roystering
Russians made famous throughout the East The
beer-gardens are empty, and their once well-kept
shrubs are growing into jungle. The wreck of a
Russian cruiser, blown up inside the substantial
stone graving basin, blocks the dockyard. Com-
fortable droshkies, with good Russian horses
between the shafts, rattle briskly over well-mac-
adamised roads. The names of makers in Odessa
are engraved upon neat gun-metal plates upon the
coach-boxes ; but the drivers are blue-coated Man-
churians and the occupants Japanese in uniform.
The principal hotel is run by a manager from
Tokyo. Russian tea, knives and forks stamped
in Moscow, a big stove and roomy windows,
recall a different past; but a shell-rent in the
door and a comfortable kimono beside one's bed,
to wear on the way to a copious hot Japanese bath,
bring back the present reality. Once I saw one
of the red-faced, bearded Russians who are asso-
ciated with the place. I rubbed my eyes, but he
was real, a solitary specimen admitted under some
special circumstances, to close up his affairs. His
presence emphasised the desolation of the change
which has occurred. The chateaux, with double
windows and spacious halls, built by extravagant
Muscovites with ideas of Empire in their minds, are
I40 PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS
too big for the small Japanese administration staffs.
From the pavement along the esplanade, which is
formed of granite slabs so long that each reaches
from one side to the other, down to electric lighting
plant, of which use is still being made, everything is
in excess of present requirements. The Port Arthur
of the Russians is totally different from the Port
Arthur of the Japanese.
No European, however he may admire the
achievements of the present owners and sympathise
with the objects they have had in view, can see this
place as it now is, without some sore thought for the
men who staked and lost so much there. The claim
of race, made oftener than one cares to count in any
progress through Manchuria, obscures, with a pulse
that is almost physical, the dictates of reason.
The traveller admires, but cannot entirely admire,
and applauds, but not wholly. He learns many
things upon these battlefields, but the thing of which
he is surest is that Russians are not aliens.
Not only as a city, but also as a naval base, Port
Arthur has seen its day. The Japanese have wisely
decided to content themselves with making the
harbour secure from any sudden dash of a hostile
fleet, and to trust to command of the sea to do the
rest The haven and its dockyard will become a
useful coaling and repair station for the Japanese
fleet upon the North China coast ; and money will
not be wasted upon keeping up the enormously
extensive defences which weakened the resources of
the Russian garrison. Japan has no need for more.
RTHL'K TO-DA
PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS 141
Her own fine harbours in the Inland Sea are her
proper strategic base. She will dispose to the best
advantage of effects collected at the cost of millions
by others and now surplus to her requirements.
The precise part which military Port Arthur and
its commercial brother, Dalny (re-christened Tairen
by the Japanese) are to play, in relation with the
other Manchurian ports of Neuchwang and Antung,
will now gradually be determined. Manchuria is a
treasure-house which has Neuchwang and Antung
as wide-open windows on either side, communi-
cating direct with the central chamber, and Port
Arthur and Dalny as narrow doors, set at the end
of a long and contracted passage. The windows
are far more convenient than the doors for purposes
of both entrance and exit, but are barred in the
winter, while the doors are not.
Strategically, Port Arthur and Dalny gave Russia
the warm-water harbours in the Far East which she
needed for her fleet ; but commercially neither of
them prospered very notably in her hands. Their
future is now further contracted. The natural
wealth of Manchuria is great, but it is situated far
from the Liaotung peninsula in which Port Arthur
and Dalny stand. The stupendously rich coal-fields
and grain lands in the north have distant Mukden
as their centre, and the Liao river, with Neuchwang
at its mouth, as their natural oudet. The timber
forests in the East are capable of competing success-
fully with the American lumber upon which China
now depends for much of its supply ; but they also
142 PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS
have an outlet of their own. They are located
about the upper reaches of the Yalu river, and can
float their produce by water to Antung far more
cheaply than a railway could carry it to any other
port Dalny is suitable as a distributing centre for
the [Hece-goods and other manufactured articles,
which are imported into Manchuria to pay for
beans, coal, and timber exported. It may be
capable, as well, of attracting a portion of the
exports.
The annual freezing of the Neuchwang harbour
locks up the greater part of the bean produce of
the Mukden plain. Capital is not turned over,
nor is the crop got to market as quickly as would
be the case were a constantly open port employed.
On the other hand, money is saved on freight
Flat-bottomed junks may often stick upon mud-
banks, and wait weeks for water in the shallow
Liao-ho; but eventually they reach Neuchwang,
where they put their produce direct upon the small
but efficient coasting steamers that do the whole
of the trade of the North China coasts. The
sand*blocked Yalu river is also far from an ideal
highway. Its port is a miserable place, but pos-
sesses distinct advantages. It is the terminus of
the standard-gauge railway to Seoul, which taps
the produce of North Korea. It is also the
terminus of the narrow field-railway to Mukden,
which is to be converted eventually to the standard
gauge. Pine and cedar logs, from the interior, are
floated in rafts alongside its wharves. Its waters
PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS 143
are frozen for only a few weeks each year, so no
very serious locking up of traders' capital occurs.
It has a commercial future which is bound to affect
that of Dalny and Port Arthur adversely.
Port Arthur may become a rendezvous for the
profitable globe-trotting traffic which the Japanese,
with his infinite capacity for detail, knows well how
to exploit Dalny is already a port of call for
Japanese steamers. Japanese traders have estab-
lished themselves there in some numbers, thus
getting the start of other foreigners, whom I found
in Chinese and Korean ports complaining loudly of
being excluded Japanese piece-goods and nick-
nacks may select this entrance to Manchuria, but
only a portion of the exports can be expected to
leave it by the same door.
A striking contrast to the empty warehouses and
lonely wharves of splendid Port Arthur and Dalny is
afforded by the busy traffic of squalid Neuchwang.
Here no millions have been expended by would-
be empire builders, but the muddy banks of the
winding river are lined with junks. Steam- winches
ratde merrily upon vessels loading Mukden bean-
cake and discharging American piece-goods. A
sand-bar shuts out all boats drawing more than
nineteen feet of water. The river winds so much
that the cutting through of a neck of mud, only
1,650 feet across, would divert the stream altogether
from the main esplanade of the port. From the
windows of the principal hotel upon the quay one
sees, across the anchorage, beyond the mean
144 PORT ARTHUR AS IT IS
corrugated iron roofs of the terminus of the rail-
way to Tientsin, junks which have already travelled
by water sixteen miles on their tortuous journey
from the port, only to sight it again. The wharves
are built of little that is more substantial than
dried yellow millet-stalks and rickety wooden
stakes ; but a foreign trade of ten million sterling
annually is being done in the port, and a boom in
land values was going on, at the time of my visit,
which afforded tangible proof of the confidence felt
by the residents in the future of the place.
Port Arthur and Dalny are in a very different
position. They have been famous, but are now
only the monument of a gigantic failure. Japan
is obviously doing what enterprise can suggest and
careful industry effect to exploit their possibilities ;
but the task is difficult and the oudook far from
bright
CHAPTER XII
NORTHWARDS IN MANCHURIA
A CROWD of Japanese officers, in black
uniforms, voluminous service cloaks, Bliicher
boots, and smart German staff caps, was assembled
on the Port Arthur railway platform, in front of a
corrugated-iron ticket office, at seven o'clock one
morning, when the train by which I was to travel
was starting. The reason of so early a gathering
was to give a send-off to a Japanese general officer
who was leaving for up-country to rejoin his brigade.
The ceremony of the leave-taking was one that I
was subsequently to see repeated many times over
in Manchuria, Korea, and Japan. The general
stood in a regulation attitude upon the footboard of
the carriage, and had something friendly to say to
every individual present, not excluding the landlord
of the little Port Arthur inn where he had put up,
or the coolie in blue tights who had carried his
luggage, and now waited, hat in hand, his patient
Japanese countenance illuminated with the smile of
adoration that only the condescension of a popular
general officer of his own nationality can evoke.
146 NORTHWARDS IN MANCHURIA
The occasion was official, so there was much
German saluting. It was also social, as was testi-
fied by the cheerful peals of laughter from every-
body present, which followed as boisterously upon
the sallies of the youngest subaltern as upon those
of bemedalled colonels and majors. The last salute
was made and the last joke registered as the train
moved off. I had made the general's acquaintance
previously, and he asked me into his special carriage,
luckily for me, as he was the only person upon the
train whose speech I could understand. With the
courtesy of his class he made me welcome all day
upon his leopard skin. The adjutant and half-dozen
subalterns who composed his staff travelled in a
partially separated compartment, whence pleasant
sounds of restrained laughter and talk floated to us
continuously. German is the European language
most often known by Japanese officers; and my
companion spoke it with fluency. It was of course
the experience most desired by every traveller — ^the
realisation for himself, by actual contact, of the long-
accepted theory of the Japanese military character.
It was delightful to obtain this and to find, over the
wide field of subjects we discussed, that sound sense,
modesty, keenness, kindliness, and sureness of self,
with which one had clothed the type so freely in
imagination.
When we parted in the evening I had obtained
a glimmering, which subsequent experiences con-
firmed, of the spirit that pervades the entire
Japanese army in the field. It has been my good
NORTHWARDS IN MANCHURIA 14;
fortune since to meet and to discuss the current
political situation in the Far East with many
Japanese leading men, from Marquis I to down-
wards. No one can do this and fail to comprehend,
at least in part, the enthusiasm which made the
victories of Metre Hill and Liaoyang possible.
Sir Ernest Satow referred, in a-recent speech at
Tokyo, to the self - sacrificing loyalty of the
Samurai towards his feudal chief as a base of
Japan's great successes. One cannot travel long
in Manchuria without recognising that there is a
converse to this statement. It is that the Japanese
leader is a man to inspire the devotion he
commands.
The superior mixes with the subordinate upon
a footing of something oddly like equality. I have
seen a sergeant interpose a remark in a conver-
sation between two captains in the train, and be
responded to, as a matter of course, with geniality
equal to his own. The food and warmth of his
men is of more importance to the officer than
his personal comfort. Good fellowship is universal.
It permeates the Japanese army, from the top to
the bottom. The general can count upon every
man in his command. Selfishness seems to be
almost an unknown factor, at all events in its
obvious and familiar forms. Every soldier has
confidence in his fellows. The cost to himself of
what he may be called upon to do is the last
thing to which he directs his thoughts.
The country opens as the Port Arthur train
148 NORTHWARDS IN MANCHURIA
proceeds northwards into Manchuria. The kopjes
separate from one another ; the stony fields become
brown and loamy. Dingy mud homesteads, stunted
oaks» dark pines, and vivid green pear-trees come
into the picture at intervals. Streams appear,
though very occasionally, flowing briskly through
wide stretches of yellow sand, at the bottoms of
valleys they have scooped for themselves below
the general level of the country. The skeleton
of a wrecked train lies at the bottom of one of
the railway embankments. The whole of the
iron-work, including wheels, springs, and frames,
rusts in tangled confusion where it fell off the
track ; but not a particle of the woodwork
remains. White paint hangs to the stanchions in
places, and is quite unsinged. The absence of
wood is not due to accidental fire, but is because
the Manchurian villagers are so badly off for
fuel that they have picked the iron bones clean of
everything capable of being converted into warmth
in the long winter months.
This scarcity of fuel is reducing Central Man-
churia to a treeless land. The gigantic coal
deposits in the Mukden plain will no doubt supply
the deficiency some day: meanwhile reeds and
millet-stalks are used to an astonishing extent for
both fuel and building. I have it from a Japanese
mining engineer of experience, who has inspected
the Mukden coal-field, that one of the seams is
one hundred and twenty feet thick, and that the
quality of the mineral compares with that of the
NORTHWARDS IN MANCHURIA 149
Welsh product There were no means of checking
this statement, but every one upon the spot with
whom I have discussed the matter, is agreed that
the value of the deposits is enormous. The mines
are amongst the concessions transferred to Japanese
ownership by the Portsmouth Treaty ; but I am
told that only about five hundred tons per diem
are being raised at present, and that the whole of
this amount is absorbed by the local railways
and steamers. The Manchurians, meanwhile, are
cutting down every tree that is unguarded The
Japanese in consequence have found the praise-
worthy endeavour they have been making to re-
afforest the Port Arthur peninsula almost as difficult
as has been the corresponding task of the Germans
at Tsing-tao. In each case young trees have been
torn down ruthlessly, and much of the work has
had to be done twice over.
It was the middle of the night when the train
pulled up at the bleak Liaoyang station, a place
which seems, to the belated visitor, a thousand
miles from anywhere. A Japanese subaltern
stepped out of chaos with a paper lantern to
meet me ; and I was glad to see him. We were
soon tramping together through mud and rain,
in what, but for the paper lantern, would have
been utter darkness, to find the military rest-house.
My luggage followed upon the shoulders of two
sturdy litde soldiers in uniform. My hospitable
conductor told me in broken German that he
had been warned by telegram, by my fellow-
ISO NORTHWARDS IN MANCHURIA
passenger of the morning, to efxpect me, which
accounted for my reception. We were soon in
the rest-house, which has been constructed out
of a one-storied Russian building. I was regaled
upon refreshing green tea and lighted to a
comfortable bed with the bedclothes of Europe,
no doubt a Russian legacy.
A familiar bugle woke me in the morning. A
polite litde soldier conducted me to a tub and
gave me Japanese breakfast with many bows, and a
smiling solicitude for my comfort that added another
flavour of the country to every dish. My subaltern
friend turned up with an orderly afterwards; and
the three of us were quickly mounted upon tough
little Central Asian ponies, and scrambling cheer-
fully in and out of dykes and Russian trenches in
the open country beyond the town.
Sharp rain, with cold wind behind it, beat in our
faces, numbing our hands, and finding chilly way
into boots and garments till we were wet to the
skin. The ground was a slippery quagmire of
sodden clay. The watercourses were swollen and
the trenches treacherous, but the clever little ponies
struggled gamely across them. The millet of the
country, which grows to be ten feet high, was only
showing above the ground, so every fold and crease
in the expanse could be seen clearly. The main
defences of the Russian position consisted of
elaborate star-shaped forts, with heavily timbered
shelter-trenches, surrounded by wire entangle-
ments and stake-pits. These forts aire set in a
NORTHWARDS IN MANCHURIA 151
wide circle around Liaoyang. They are about
a mile apart from each other and a mile in advance
of the old city wall Most of the fighting took
place, however, much further afield, General
Kuroki pressing in upon the Russian left, while
Nodzu hammered at the centre, and Oku on the
right ; the Japanese advancing from the east and
south in a semicircle of fifty miles radius.
Some four miles out we rode round a high
bare kopje of grey rock showing through the gfrass,
which overlooks the rich brown plain on which
Liaoyang stands. On the summit is now a rough
stone memorial tower.
At the foot, where the cultivation ends and the
steep grassy slope begins, is a straggling Manchu
village of brown mud huts, which was captured
and recaptured again and again in the long-drawn-
out fight. Beyond the village, a red scar, amidst
grey rocks on the green expanse, indicates a line
of hastily built Russian trenches, extending for
miles through the hills, with frequent g^n-emplace-
ments at lower elevations in the rear behind the
crests. Many of the advanced bastions, whence
the Russians directed the fire of their men, are
still intact The main line is broken in numerous
places. From the Russian positions one looks
towards the lines from which the Japanese ad-
vanced. The view is of bare hills, which are
high on the east and sink into rich cultivated
plain to the south and west. The entrenchments
were noticeably mainly Russian. Japanese officers
152 NORTHWARDS IN MANCHURIA
I have talked with recognise that their men had
to learn in this respect from the enemy. They
are characteristically mo4est about the obviously
superior morale which enabled them to attack, in
the open, lines long prepared and strongly held.
They make the reasonable claim, however, that
in individual initiative they had a superiority
which was often of decisive value. They found
the Russians entirely dependent upon their officers
and completely disorganised without them. When
it became necessary to retreat, the Russian soldier
flung away rifle, clothes, and transport and gave
no thought to the future. The Japanese could
act upon his own initiative ; he had resources and
confidence in himself and stuck always tenaciously
to his rifle.
My pony slipped heavily, once in the course of
the day, on a wet skull, half-buried in one of the
trenches. The effect of shell-fire was evident
upon some of the earthworks, but the soft loam
of the country had absorbed most of the more
obvious marks of the fighting. Graves are plen-
tiful, but they are not conspicuous. Yellow cow-
slips and blue irises are poking gende faces through
the long, wet grass above them. Village huts have
been rebuilt with the materials of ruined neigh-
bours, whose owners have disappeared. The rain
has washed ashes and roofless mud walls into the
spongy soil. Every stick of unclaimed timber has
been carried away. The village dogs are no longer
sated. They attacked us so hungrily, as our ponies
NORTHWARDS IN MANCHURIA 153
waded through the filthy quagmire, which is the
road between the huts, that the orderly was tempted
into drawing his sword upon them. Big-boned
Manchurians and their listless women and ragged
children peered out of doorways as we passed.
There was litde else to indicate that we were
in what, two years ago, was a hotly contested
comer of one of the biggest batdefields in the
world.
Our route, on the return journey, took us by
the Antung trunk-road, which figures upon the
maps as having been the main channel of supplies
for Kuroki's army. It is a mere track through
a vast plain of cultivation, without metalling of
any kind. We found mules ridden by well-dressed,
dripping Chinese, and heavy two-wheeled carts with
rough, and equally wet Manchu drivers, struggling
through freshly ploughed land to avoid the even
deeper quagmires of the road. Big stone slabs,
which once formed part of bridges, encumbered
spots where the mud track plunged through water-
courses. No vehicle except a Manchurian mule-
cart would attempt to go forward at all, and even
the mule-cart is often bogged. There is no other
road in the country.
CHAPTER XIII
AT MUKDEN
BETWEEN Liaoyang and Mukden the plain
of rich cultivation grows wider and more
open. The rugged hills recede to a horizon which
becomes continually more distant upon either side,
as one journeys northward. The houses about the
railway stations are a little more systematically
shattered than further south. Earthen mounds are
piled high round the buildings which remain, to keep
out stray Hunchus bullets. The fields are more
thickly furrowed with shelter-trenches and more
honeycombed with stake-pits. Drawing near to
Mukden, one sees Russian forts with covered
timbered-ways and barbed-wire entanglements,
similar to those about Liaoyang. White, sail-
covered stacks of military provisions make giant
encampments about the railway stations of both
Liaoyang and Mukden, but are being gradually
depleted as the Japanese evacuation proceeds.
Heaps of empty meat-tins mark the sites of
deserted encampments. From time to time one
sees recruits at drill ; for the Japanese Government
155
IS6 AT MUKDEN
is infusing the spirit of its veterans into the rising
generation by withdrawing the men who went
through the campaign and replacing them, for
garrison purposes, with youngsters who enthusias-
tically study the sites of the battles.
The military staff officers at Mukden are in
occupation of Russian-built bungalows near the
railway station ; but the administrative offices are in
the heart of the city, A two-foot tramway with
wooden packing-cases upon wheels for passenger
cars, and big blue-coated Manchu coolies for motive
power, connect the two. Each car takes one
passenger, and the coolie, applying a sturdy
shoulder, pushes behind — a leisurely and inex-
pensive form of transit which I saw nowhere else.
Mukden is a typical, walled Tartar city, with high
stone-batdemented bastions, wide-arched gateways
and steep-roofed watch-towers. Broad -hipped
Manchu women, with dyed cheeks, and scores of
small looking-glasses flashing in carefully braided
hair, walk freely about the crowded streets upon
natural-sized feet, which are a relief to the eye after
the deformed misery of the Chinese women who
tottered about the cities I had come from. Coarse-
featured men, in wadded coats, crack cane whips
over six-in-hand teams of fine mules which have
to strain to pull rough country-carts out of the
quagmires of the principal thoroughfare of the
city. Loungers of various Mongolian types are
to be seen in the crowd. Booths along the pave-
ment are doing a thriving trade in every imaginable
S OK MUKriKN
AT MUKDEN I57
article of necessity and adornment, from stout
leather harness and iron cooking-pots to red
umbrellas and long, black hair-queues.
I was indebted to the Japanese Administrator for
a comfortable droshky with a fine Russian horse.
My cab arrived with a broken spring from its
s^i^gglc through the ruts. A second was found and
conveyed me half-way across the city, only to be left
bogged in the Piccadilly of the place. Eventually
the inevitable, springless, blue-hooded Pekin mule-
cart turned up, which proved able to negotiate
even the Mukden roads. The appropriate official
visits were duly paid, and a start effected towards
the ancient tombs of the Ming dynasty of China.
We toiled through a mile of moist, black dough,
where the shopkeepers were busy filling up new-
made ruts. We bumped with spine-dislocating
crash from one big paving-stone to another, under
the dark city gateway, and emerged outside on a
Golgotha beset with odorous refuse and mangy
country dogs. The road then climbed to a grassy
down, where a bracing wind chased swaying
masses of golden buttercups under a sky of blue
broken by white masses of cloud. One filled
one's lungs and stretched cramped muscles in
the delicious warmth of direct sunbeams. Soon
the downs gave place to sheltered coppice, where
soft green newly-emerged hawthorn foliage was
tinted with the swelling promise of white May-buds.
Mistletoe hung nestlike in dark clusters from gnarled
branches of frequent trees. Oak-leaves which had
15« AT MUKDEN
not put off the brown tint of recent birth threw
mottled shadows upon the way. Wild apricot and
pear-trees nodded in the background. Bees busied
themselves noisily over dandelions which had un-
accustomed white, as well as familiar yellow flowers.
Carved pillars and grotesque stone dragons,
memorials of a dynasty departed, waited at
regular intervals in the shade. Suddenly the
way was paved with big square blocks. A stone
balustrade stood on either side. In front, two
Chinese lions grinned in sandstone, at the top of
wide, paved steps which led through an elaborately
carved stone gateway into the courtyard of the
tombs themselves. A white cloud of wild carrot-
flower obscured the lower steps, and clematis
climbed over the side.' Dry dandelion-heads
scattered gossamer seedlets over fresh dock-leaves.
Irises made purple spots between the stones and
violets bloomed upon mossy banks, beneath Indian-
red walls. The sun shone warm through in-
vigorating air. The hum of bees, close at hand,
mingled with the soft distant drone of cooing
pigeons in the pine-trees and the deep grunt of
frogs in fish-ponds not far off. The stiff litde
Japanese interpreter, who had guided me, re-
marked, sentimentally, that the place reminded
him of his native land.
We entered through an elaborate archway, roofed
with the glazed, yellow tiles I had seen before in the
Forbidden City of Peking, and decorated in bas-reUef
with imperial, five-clawed dragons of rough brown
ITTON IN MUKDKN
AT MUKDEN IS9
and green porcelain, which shaded into .more
precious blue. Within, a broad, straight, paved
way was flecked with sunlight which fell through
the matted branches of stunted pines. Beyond
were the yellow pagoda-roofs of the tombs. The
pines ended abrupdy in an open space. On
either side was a well-drilled company of giant
lions, camels, and elephants in stone. An enormous
"Stone cart-horse, with thick, hairy fetlocks, helped
to keep guard. A gaily decorated, tiled pagoda
held the first of the graves. Within its walls an
immense stone tablet stood to attention upon a
stone tortoise, the size of a hay-stack, and bore,
in deep-cut Chinese hieroglyphics, the history of
majesty buried below.
Chinese carpenters were sawing up timber a
little further on. An old Chinese custodian
tottered up from amongst them and demanded
our passes. I surprised him, shortly afterwards,
surreptitiously holding a measuring-rod against my
back. To him I was a Russian, returned from the
north. I felt a throb of perfecdy unjustifiable
gratification.
A few hours later I was back in the cramped,
dirty bazars of the city, where the courtyards of
the imperial palace draw the stranger within their
walls. The Mings must have sheltered themselves,
when they were alive, much worse than when they
were dead. After the large-minded spaciousness of
the tombs, the palace seemed insignificant and poor.
Its interest centred in the relics of past dignity it
i6o AT MUKDEN
housed. Richly jewelled weapons, quaint carved
red lacquer-ware and polished brass which had
miraculously escaped the covetousness of contend-
ing armies, were brought out by brusque Chinese
custodians, in prompt if ungracious obedience to the
order I presented. I was shown weird coloured
portraits of fierce, high-featured, Tsin emperors and
mild, round*countenanced student Mings. I was
taken over an inner library, where were long walls
covered with shelves filled with enormous flexible
books in yellow and red cloth binding, which con-
tain the official history of the imperial dynasty.
The volumes were in course of being removed to
another part of the building, to make way for
repairs. I met a procession of packets, each con-
taining two books wrapped up carefully in Japanese
piece-goods, staggering down the passage by which
I entered. Each packet had four stalwart Chinese
coolies toiling at it with thick bamboo carrying-
pole. Each book would have covered a moderate
sized dining-table when opened. Each, I was told,
set forth the achievements of the reign of some one
Ming or Tsin.
CHAPTER XIV
ACROSS SOUTH-EAST MANCHURIA
THE traveller in Manchuria expects conditions
which, in Europe, would seem anomalous.
The railways and the Japanese cantonments, for
example, all make use of Tokyo time. The inhabi-
tants of Mukden, in consequence, who go by the
clocks, begin the day an hour earlier than the sun
does. This luminary may not have set when they
prepare to turn in for the night ; the dawn may be
still sleepy-eyed when they get up ; but the arrange-
ment has its advantages in a country where the
needs of a man's life are summed up in obtaining
food and warmth, and arriving at the end of the
day's journey by daylight
The first train in the day, on the field railway
which the Japanese have hurried into existence
across the mountain ranges separating Mukden
from the western boundary of Korea, nominally
starts soon after six o'clock. In consequence of the
peculiarities of the time system, and the dispropor-
tion between the number of the passengers and the
space available in the toy goods- trucks which do
If I6l
i62 ACROSS SOUTH-EAST MANCHURIA
duty for carriages, he must arise betimes who would
travel to Antung otherwise than upon a goods
wagon already filled with coal. I reached the point
upon the muddy plain, which is the Mukden railway
station, in what seemed to me the middle of the
night ; but a crowd was already besieging the train.
I found four Japanese officers, a baby, five women,
two soldiers, and twelve private gentlemen, all
endeavouring to pack themselves and their not
inconsiderable baggage into one luggage-van, which
represented the first-class accommodation of the
mail train that was about to start. When I added
myself to the total we were twenty-six. The third-
class passengers spread their wraps upon the top of
the loose Mukden coal in the three open trucks
behind us. A little engine was harnessed at one
end and a guard's brake at the other, and we
started gaily for Korea.
It is cold between night and morning in the May
of Manchuria, and a tight squeeze was not an
unpleasantly warm one, at least at first Later on
it was different, when the sun got up and the limita-
tions of the two-foot six-inch gauge had had time
to impress themselves. Rice sausages, loaded with
sticky flavouring, bottles of Kerin beer, and steaming
kettles of aromatic Japanese tea were handed in,
over good-humoured heads, at the first wayside
station ; and I found myself in cheerful and hospitable
comradeship. The officers immediately produced
their visiting cards — ^have the Japanese borrowed
this custom from the Americans, or did Commodore
ACROSS SOUTH-EAST MANCHURIA 163
Perry bring it back from Japan ? — ^and we exchanged
these tributes with due ceremony. The twelve
private gentlemen were more shy of introducing
themselves in the presence of the ever-impressive
military caste ; but our company was permeated by
a thoroughly good understanding. How impossible
would have been such sociability in a railway
carriage of India, where half of a parallel gathering
would have resented sausages as unclean and the
other half would have made the air unbearable with
hubble-bubble smoke !
The line we were traversing is of the portable
type which claims, as its main attraction, that it can
be laid down quickly. It makes no pretence to be
permanent. The bridges are of rough pine logs
spiked together crazily. The embankments are of
hastily thrown up and not yet consolidated sand and
mud. The springs of the trucks are of a kind that
the passenger remembers tenderly. The line was
intended to feed General Kuroki's army in the long
campaign that preceded the battle of Mukden ;
and well it fulfilled its purpose. It now serves as
an alternative route between Japan and Northern
Manchuria. The Tokyo authorities propose to
convert it to the standard four-foot eight-inch
gauge. In this case it will complete the main line
connection between Korea and China, and fill up
an important gap in the railway route that will
eventually connect Fusan, in the south of Korea,
with the Trans-Siberian line, and thus with Europe.
A few miles outside Mukden we crossed a narrow-
i64 ACROSS SOUTH-EAST MANCHURIA
gauge feeder railway, which connects the Port
Arthur track with the coal-mines of Middle
Manchuria. Thence the route took us across the
level plain towards the distant hills of the south-
east. On the way we passed more entrenchments
and wire-entanglements, part of the Russian
lines around the city. The first thirty miles
were through flat, open cultivation. Steep, grassy
hills, with grey rocks in patches, then closed
gradually in upon either side. For twenty miles
thereafter the train travelled up a level valley of
rich, ploughed land, averaging perhaps a dozen
miles in breadth. This valley separates positions
occupied by the Russians and the Japanese respec-
tively throughout the whole of a long winter,
when the contending armies lay opposite to one
another in snow that was sometimes three feet
deep. One of my fellow-travellers had served
through the campaign with Kuroki's forces, and
could point out ruined mud hovels in the plain,
which he had seen taken and retaken, and tell how
dear some of the Russian hilltops, which lined our
horizon upon the left, had cost to obtain.
"The Russians were great diggers, but our men
learnt, gradually, how to dig as well," he remarked,
as mile after mile of red patches upon the bare,
green slopes indicated to us where the Russians
had thrown the ferruginous subsoil out of their
timbered, shell-proof trenches. There was one low,
rounded hill in particular, with a monument upon
its summit, which my companion considered to have
ACROSS SOUTH-EAST MANCHURIA 165
been the centre of the fight that decided the fate of
Mukden. Glasses and maps were brought out by
all the officers, and eyes sparkled in the telling of
how, after long days of costly failure, the guards
stormed it in the night and made good their cap-
ture. Apropos of this fight, the story was told me
of certain newspaper correspondents with Kuroki's
army whose coolness in the fighting had made an
impression upon the Japanese. They were de-
scribed to me as " tapfere Herren," who were upon
captured heights with their note-books and pencils
almost as soon as the Japanese got there with their
rifles. My companion was unable to tell me their
names, but described them as American. One felt
an anonymous glow of satisfaction in these news-
paper men for making themselves respected ;
for the attitude of contempt for our race, which is
unpleasantly universal amongst the Chinese, is also,
I have found, not unknown in Japanese circles,
though here it peeps forth but seldom from behind
a smiling mask of careful politeness.
As the morning broadened into day the hills on
either side of us closed in and grew steeper and
more rugged. A few oaks, wild-pear and ragged
pine-trees appeared. The train climbed, jolting up-
wards along sandy shelves, on steep, slippery slopes,
and over top-heavy log bridges from which we looked
down into boulder-strewn river-beds far below,
** He should say his prayers who would travel
by this line," said one of my cheery fellow-passen-
gers ; and this was a great joke, good-humouredly
i66 ACROSS SOUTH-EAST MANCHURIA
translated into German for my benefit Another
effort, much applauded, reminded my companions
of the swords with which they were to tackle
Hunchus highwaymen who might infest the line«
They were still unpleasantly active, it seemed,
wherever the strong hand of the Japanese was not
upon them.
The train stuck in a heavy cutting at the head of
the valley, but eventually struggled, panting, over
the watershed, and bumped with dangerous speed
down the slope on the other side. The country
now grew wilder. We found ourselves, presently,
in a magnificent gorge with crags several hun-
dred feet high. A trout-stream rippled amongst
cream-coloured, marbled rocks and splashed over
picturesque weirs to turn queer, horizontally-set
wooden mill-wheels, with daylight showing between
the spoke-like blades. A pagoda-roofed temple
sat, complaisant, upon a peninsula of buff-coloured
quartz. We saw weather-worn Manchu coffins,
with sides of three-inch planks, set out upon the
bare ground in cramped, sloped fields, in some
cases entirely exposed, in others supporting a dome
of earth, which covered only the lid and left sides
and ends in view. Here the trees had multiplied
into forest Felled pine-trunks were piled in con-
fusion upon each other in the stream-bed, at the
bottom of steep slides, down which they had been
precipitated to await a flood to carry them to a
market Green hawthorn-trees were bursting into
snowy bloom. The call of a cuckoo gave the
ACROSS SOUTH-EAST MANCHURIA 167
silence a sentiment when we pulled up at a wayside
station to water the engine. Everything was rest-
ful except the jarring train.
The coal-trucks were here transferred to a siding.
We took on, in their place, heaped-up loads of loose
beams and scanding, which threatened to pour
devastatingly into our truck whenever the grade
was down-hill. The little engine smothered us
with coal-smoke; and the sun became a furnace
under which we roasted in tightly packed layers.
The baby definitely declined our united blandish-
ments, and yelled continuously, for even a Japanese
baby is human. A stout gentleman in a kimono
snored upon my shoulder, and the narrow board
that did duty for a seat developed aggressive
angles. The five Japanese ladies piled themselves
into a heap of shapeless misery at the far end of the
truck ; the five husbands held the baby by turns.
Seven o'clock in the evening arrived at last, how-
ever; and the tired little train bustled punctually
into the station of Gibatto, where we were to spend
the night, after a good thirteen hours' run.
An iron-roofed shed with mat walls served as a
Japanese inn. The charm of a capacious wooden
boiler, with a hot stove-pipe running through it,
was slightly impaired by the doubtless fully justified
criticism of the twenty men, women, and children
who turned up to watch my endeavours to tub in it
without parboiling. The crowd got itself, after-
wards, one by one, into the scalding interior, with
apparent satisfaction and no false modesty what-
i68 ACROSS SOUTH-EAST MANCHURIA
ever. I felt it was merely the eccentricity of the
foreigner to object to publicity.
I was allowed to hire the best accommodation
of the house. It consisted of a cupboard sepa-
rated off by a partition of matting from the
general apartment where the cooking of the
establishment was done, and my fellow-passengers
fed, smoked, and slept The excellent boiled
rice which was brought to my cupboard was
heaped high in steaming plenitude in a house-
maid's bucket. I experimented, also, upon a
whole trayful of delicacies in little lacquer-ware
bowls, including Japanese soup, dried fish, and
novelties in mouth-wrinkling pickles. A warm,
black cotton quilt and a yellow sheet which had
seen service since the wash, but was not aggressive
on that account, made a snug sleeping-place upon
the floor.
Daylight saw us again in the train proceeding
through broken country. Stools of Chinese oak,
with young, yellow foliage, began to be prominent
in the forest. In places there were sheer cliffs
of rock a couple of hundred feet high. Twice
the line crossed the watershed. " Bunsingling "
was the name given by the Japanese officers to
the principal pass. Trenches crept out upon the
slopes ; and I was told of heavy fighting that had
taken place to secure possession of the ranges.
The line rose, further on, by a series of long curves
and zigzags, over a spur. From the summit one
looked back upon what seemed like five sets of
ACROSS SOUTH-EAST MANCHURIA 169
separate railways, so much does the line double
upon itself to obtain the necessary gradients in
climbing up from below. A tunnel is to be con-
structed in this place when the expected conversion
of the system to standard gauge takes place. In
the afternoon we were in an open valley bounded
on the east by jagged blue peaks, where Manchu
villagers found asylum for many of their women
during the campaign. The line of the Russian
retreat, after the battle of the Yalu, was up in
this valley ; and we were able to trace the location
of one of the lesser cavalry fights.
The sun was low, in a cold, grey sky as the train
made its way into an open plain swept by the chill
sea air of the port of Antung. Shadows settled
over the rugged peaks we had been amongst. On
one side of the line a big Manchu was hoeing
in his field. On the other a fine team of six
mules, harnessed in three pairs to a country cart,
was standing in startled disorder, the attention of
the animals fixed upon the train, regardless of the
whip wherewith their lusty driver endeavoured to
get them back into the track. A large-limbed
peasant woman, with unbound feet, had turned
unabashed to stare. Close by was an open shed,
in which one could see two little women in butterfly
obis, retailing green tea to Japanese soldiers — a gay
stage scene in diminutive.
The train itself also repaid attention. Though
on its way out of Manchuria, a land of oil-
seeds and other produce that pay well to export,
i;o ACROSS SOUTH-EAST MANCHURIA
its trucks were empty of goods. On the other
hand, it contained a queerly assorted set of pas-
sengers. I stood upon the platform of a bogie truck.
My refined litde captain, with a language of Europe
upon his lips, was on one side of me. On the other
was a typical sergeant of infantry with round, bucolic
features, who addressed his official superior fami-
liarly across me, in Japanese, in the intervals of our
talk. On the open truck immediately in front of us
were Japanese veterans, on their way home at last
from the long campaign, clasping their rifles, as if
they loved them, against their long, black overcoats.
In the next truck but one sat stout and comfortable
Japanese traders, travelling to Japan to buy a
second or a third instalment of manidactured goods
for sale in the still nominally unopened markets of
Mukden. Further up squatted Manchu Chinese,
one of them with pendulous lips wrapped around
the ragged edges of a tin of sugared chestnuts,
shared with him by his neighbour, a hospitable
Japanese recruit
The Japanese affects to despise the Manchurian
because he thinks him a coward ; but in ordinary life
the two races get on pleasantly together. The
Manchurian holds his own. I have seen in his case
none of the personal contempt with which low-class
Japanese too often treat the Korean.
The military rest-house at Antung, where I spent
the night, was typical of its kind in Manchuria. It
was a one-storied house, built originally to accom-
modate a Chinese official. Its paper windows faced
ACROSS SOUTH-EAST MANCHURIA 171
into the paved courtyard, which was guarded by
a stout wooden gate. Fireplaces in the outside
walls suggested possibility of warmth within. A
yellow-capped Japanese soldier looked after me*
He had been selected for this duty on the ground
of knowing some English, which enabled him hos-
pitably, but quite without reason, to lament his
inability ''to welcome properly/*
I learnt before the morning something of the
etiquette of a Japanese officers' mess, and was
initiated into the ceremonial of its rice and pickle
dinner, served on lacquer-ware, eaten with chop-
sticks, and washed down with tiny cups of green
tea. We were travelling under field-service con-
ditions, so I was able to study the neatness and
efficiency of the officer's kit, which weighs, includ-
ing bedding, only forty pounds. I was shown
besides the capacious overcoat, and the platinum
rice-boiler which make each individual Japanese
soldier almost independent of transport, for at
least three days at a time, wherever water and
firewood can be procured. This equipment is not
brought out upon stated occasions only, but is in
everyday use by both officers and men. It is thus
under continual test. Deficiencies and defects are
not left to be discovered upon service, when they
cannot be easily rectified. Economy and simple
efficiency are kept up, which contrast sharply with
the luxury in cantonments and elaboration upon the
march which obtain amongst most white troops.
Officers in uniform who had risen at dawn to
172 ACROSS SOUTH-EAST MANCHURIA
speed their parting comrades and g^uest, made
formal salutes and shouted carefully framed sen-
tences of kindly good wishes, in broken English,
as we clattered out of the courtyard of the
rest-house next morning. The route lay
through sleeping shanties, to the low river-bank
which bounds the harbour. The neighbourhood
was not attractive. Shallow water a mile wide
gleamed cold in the grey twilight. A small
Japanese steamer was waking up in midstream.
Along the bank slept a collection of native river
craft, the broad sails lowered upon deck, the masts
a forest of rough brown timber. Acres of ware-
houses with grey corrugated iron roofs, sail-covered
mounds of army stores, black heaps of coal from
Chen-wang-tao, and disordered stacks of squared
timber were dotted along the marshy shore ; for
Antung has not forgotten that it was the principal
base of the Japanese armies throughout the war.
A ferry-boat, propelled with the broken-backed
oars of the Inland Sea, carried us to Korean terri-
tory across the river, where a grown-up train was
busily shunting. Only five miles up-stream was the
battlefield of the Yalu, where the Japanese fought
their first serious engagement ; but I had not time
to visit it. A sharp scramble over timber which
had floated from the now confiscated Russian
concession up-country, a race for the platform,
and I had barely caught the train which plies
along the brand-new Japanese railway to Seoul.
Manchuria was behind and Korea before me.
CHAPTER XV
DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA
I BEGAN my first day's journey through Korea
by falling soundly asleep in what, after two
days in a truck on a half-built military railway in
Manchuria, appeared to me exquisite luxury. This
was the white-wood, American-built, third-class
corridor car that I found waiting for passengers
on the Korean side of the Yalu river.
The Japanese built the Korean line hurriedly,
during the war. They imported half of the labour
from Japan, and forced the Koreans to supply the
other half upon pay which seems to have been
sometimes far from adequate. The track traverses
the entire length of Korea, from Antung, on the
Manchurian border, in the north, to Fusan. on the
straits of Tsushima, in the south. Midway it
passes through Seoul, where a short American-built
line connects it with the port of Chemulpo. The
southern section, between Fusan and Seoul, is in
full working order. It has substantial girder-
bridges and well-laid permanent-way. The
northern half, between Seoul and Antung, is
173
174 DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA
being rapidly improved, but has reached at
present only to the stage where trains must run
slowly by day and not at all at night. Shaky
log bridges are still in use, but are being replaced
everywhere by steel and stone of modern pattern.
The Japanese have good reason to be proud of the
undertaking. They have had the courage to adopt
the standard four-foot eight-inch gauge, thereby
assimilating it with the Chinese lines which it will
ultimately join, but rendering it altogether different
from their own system in Japan, which is still upon
the now inadequate metre gauge. Their action in
this matter is the more enterprising since shortage
of broad-gauge rolling stock at the time of the war
compelled them to incur the enormous labour and
expense of reducing to narrow gauge the Russian-
built line between Port Arthur and Mukden. This
they must now undo, for they have no intention of
allowing any narrow-gauge section in Manchuria to
interpose between the standard-gauge lines of China
upon one side and those of Korea upon the other.
Two formidable rivers, the Yalu and the Liao-ho,
will have to be bridged before the long-dreamt-of
through line from Peking to Fusan will become a
reality. Japan's object is plain, and there can be
no question either of her ability or her determina-
tion to carry it into effect without much delay. It
is to bring the South China market for Osaka piece-
goods, and the Mid-China ore supply, which is
required for the Kiusiu steel works, into connection
with Fusan without break of bulk. Fusan is but
DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA 17S
half a short day's sail from large harbours upon the
Japanese coast Japan looks forward to sending
her own manufactured goods by rail to Peking, and
thence throughout the length and breadth of China
as far south as Canton, for Canton is certain to be
connected by rail with Hankow, and thus with
Peking, some day. In this case she will succeed
to a position in the markets of China even more
commanding than that occupied there by Russia
prior to the war. And railways which carry goods
can be used, in case of need, for troops.
Japan sees no reason why her commercial de-
velopment in China should not be peaceful. She
sees, also, that the stronger her strategical position
there, the less likely are other nations to interfere
with her plans. For the time being Japan is in
league with Great Britain and the United States
to maintain the integrity of Chinese territory, since
the longer China can be kept intact the more firmly
will Japan be able to establish herself in a position
superior to that occupied by any other nation in
the Far East She can afford to wait It is easy
to understand, under these circumstances, the efforts
which Russian diplomacy is making to further the
pushing forward, from the Trans-Siberian Railway,
of an independent branch line to connect with Peking
by way of Kalgan. The weight of Germany's
influence is with Russia in this matter, for Germany
sees that at present her own schemes of develop-
ment from her base at Tsingtao are in check, and
that Russia can be used as a counterpoise to Japan,
176 DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA
The Korean railway is a monument to the
organising and constructive ability of the Japanese
people. Unlike most of the trunk lines in Japan,
it was both financed and built without the inter-
vention of either a foreign board of directors or of
foreign engineers. The engines and the cars which
I saw upon it were of American make. The signals
and the notices regarding them are English, but
the engineering and traffic management are entirely
Japanese. The trains run punctually and smoothly,
and are attracting large Korean, as well as Japanese,
traffic. The undertaking presents a concrete ex-
ample of Japanese success in a class of enterprise
in which, up to the present, the Chinese have failed
signally.
I enquired somewhat particularly into various
branches of the organisation. My observations
lead me to believe that the staffs of officials at
the stations are distinctly larger and somewhat
more cpstly, upon the whole, in spite of the low
pay of individual employees, than would be the
case on a line worked by Europeans or Americans.
Mistakes have been made in taking Koreans from
their fields, to compulsory labour upon the line at
seasons of maximum agricultural activity, when the
exercise of forethought, in giving out the railway
contracts earlier, would have enabled the work to
be accomplished more quickly and with less friction.
The Japanese complain of the Korean labourer as
lazy and inefficient The retort is made, on behalf
of the Korean, that the Japanese have neither the
DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA 177
temper nor the capacity to handle alien labour
economically. It must be added that the organisa-
tion of the railway services is efficient I was
especially struck by the completeness of the police
arrangements and the excellence of the working
of such conveniences as telephone communication
between the stations. A small constable pounced
inevitably upon me and inquired concernedly after
my permits if I allowed myself the relaxation of
a stroll upon any wayside platform where the train
drew up ; and my companions were able to arrange
by telephone, from Anju, for the forwarding of
luggage left behind upon the Yalu river.
The indigenous passengers to be met with upon
the Manchurian lines were few, and the trains were
packed with Japanese ; but the car which I entered
at Wiju, on the frontier, was crowded with Koreans ;
the Japanese constituted only a small minority.
The Korean is a fine, upstanding individual, who
enhances the distinction of his appearance by some
of the most wonderful conceivable clothes. From
his feet to his neck his garments are white. His
feet are covered by short, thick, snowy cotton socks
with pointed, open-worked, straw slippers. The
remainder of his ample person is enveloped in a
long, loose flowing coat. His yellow hands and
face and his black hats — for he wears two head-
covers at the same time, one on the top of the
other — ^make the only colour marks upon him.
Korean hats are a study in themselves. The couple
worn by the ordinary father of a family, when not
N
178 DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA
in mourning, are both constructed of open-worked
horse-hair. The one that is put on first is dome-
shaped, with a depression in the front of the top.
It is not unlike what a Bombay Parsee's cap would
be if it were made of gauze-netting and worn with
the front behind, and is obviously the ancestor of
the black head-dress of the Daimyo which is to be
seen in many an old Japanese print The outer
hat is a combination of a bird-cage and a Welsh-
woman's national head-gear. It may, for aught
I know, also have claims to be the original of
the British top-hat It fits over the first, like a
thimble on a finger, but both are so transparent
that the top-knot of black hair, which indicates tliat
a man is married, can be seen lying within them,
like a chop in a meat-safe. The bachelor's locks
are not done into a top-knot, but are allowed to
flow. Until he is married, therefore, a man wears,
instead of the dome-shaped underhat, only a broad
band of black, plaited horse hair, intended to re-
strain his tresses from getting into his eyes and to
prevent the outside structure from galling his
forehead. My fellow-passengers included Korean
officials, whose national hats were adorned with
black gauze flaps and peaks, which turned them
into miniature pagodas. In one corner of the car
sat an individual whose father had died less than
a year previously. He wore a white cottage-thatch,
a yard across, his eyes looking out of a gable in
front The Korean, it seems, believes that Heaven
must be displeased with the man who suffers be-
DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA 179
reavement, else why, he asks, should it deprive
him of a relative ? He hides himself, therefore, for
twelve months, from the sky, beneath an enormous
hat, which is white, to indicate his sorrow. A
second mourner was of older standing. He wore
a white topee which approached in shape to that of
ordinary Korean life. The wearer, in this case, was
supposed to be approaching readmission to celestial
favour.
On the seat in front of me, was a Korean
woman, in homely voluminous white petticoat, the
first of its kind I had seen worn by any Eastern
female. Her head was bound not unbecomingly in a
large white handkerchief. A short, white jacket, with
long, close-fitting sleeves, covered up precisely that
portion of her person which a European lady thinks
fit to expose in a ballroom, but left bare some inches
of smooth, yellow anatomy immediately below.
Slung in cramped sitting posture upon her back,
in a clean sheet knotted over her sturdy shoulders,
was a fine, black-haired, tawny-skinned baby, which
purred good-temperedly so long as the mother
thumped it rhythmically behind; for the blows,
though seemingly severe, meant that it was not
forgotten. The father, like every other Korean in
the car, including the woman but excluding the
baby, smoked a long tobacco-pipe. An assortment
of white packages hung from his waistbelt
The Korean differs from the Japanese in washing
his clothes rather than his person. He is a
pleasant-tempered, easy-going fellow. His courtesy.
i8o DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA
the petticoats of his women, and his own top-hats
all seemed to me originals, beside which the
corresponding articles of the European were but
pretentious derivations. A smart little English-
speaking Japanese gentleman, who had discovered
and befriended me upon the train insisted, for my
edification, upon exchanging his own black frock-
coat and bowler-hat for the flowing white robes of a
Korean lad alongside. The temporary barter
having been effected and the garments donned, he
demanded of me whether I found him a Japanese
or a Korean. There was but one answer possible.
The big Korean and the little Japanese had
changed themselves effectually into one another.
Had I not seen the transformation I should never
have suspected its possibility, for nothing could
have been more unlike than the two individuals in
their respective national costumes. The resemblance
in features and expression is real enough to justify
the well-worn statement that one must hit a Korean
before one can be sure he is not a Japanese. The
Korean apologises; the Japanese hits back. My
Japanese friend, in this instance, was an enlightened
member of his race. His friendly playfulness
towards his Korean fellow-traveller made pleasant
contrast to what I saw later on; for it is un-
fortunately true that patience and self-restraint, in
dealing with a subject people, is not characteristic
of the Japanese who are now in Korea.
The wide plains and rugged gorges of Manchuria
change, almost as soon as the border is passed, into
WHITK PF.TTICO
DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA i8i
scenery which might be that of a Japan under
misfortune. Green velvet patches of seedling rice
are dotted over a brown, watery swamp, on either
side of the raised railway embankment. Strong,
straight-backed cattle take the place of Chinese
mules. Green kopjes hem in the view, and differ
from those of the northern shore of the Inland
Sea, chiefly in being neglected and bare instead of
covered, as in Japan, with carefully planted trees.
Frequent villages of squalid shanties flit past the
windows. One is constantly tempted to consider
how easily, given national security and public con-
fidence, these structures would grow into the
pleasant homesteads with their Noah's-ark gardens,
that are one of the happiest features of Hondo.
Chinese influence upon the architecture presented
itself in the shape of chimneys connecting with the
flues beneath the floors, which had somewhat in-
effectually warmed my slumbers at Antung. These
chimneys are sufficiently remarkable. They look
as if they were constructed of packing-case boards,
bound round with hay-bands. I was told that this
seemingly dangerous arrangement is less liable to
produce conflagrations than it appears, since the
chimney is the direct outlet, not of the fireplace
itself, but only of a series of horizontal brick
passages which conduct the smoke beneath the
dwelling-rooms, from a fireplace at the other side of
the building. The system makes the Korean shanty
one of the warmest places imaginable upon a cold
winter's night The rooms are ovens, capable of
i82 DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA
being heated to any temperature that the fuel-
supply will allow. The reason my oven at Antung
was disappointing was because the fire was out !
The Russians took advantage of the inflammable
nature of the roofs to destroy the villages upon the
line of their retreat. I have heard this measure
criticised by Japanese officers on the ground that
it inflicted unnecessary hardship upon the people,
since the houses held little or nothing that was of
assistance to the pursuing Japanese troops.
Now and again we passed crowds of the inhabi-
tants, assembled apparently with no other object
than to see the train go by. A large proportion
were women, the balance equally idle men. All
looked clean and well-fed. All were attired in
white, sharply punctuated by the black hats of the
men. Along the rivers that we crossed clothes-
washing could be seen in active operation. The
industry takes up so much of the energies of the
people that the Japanese are bringing pressure to
bear to restrict the wearing of white, for they
imagine that the Korean might do more work if
he were not engaged so perpetually in washing his
garments.
The Peking road, the one track in the country
which can claim to be a highway, was visible
occasionally. It runs, more or less parallel to the
railway, from one end of Korea to the other. The
Japanese improved it at the time of the war, to
enable artillery to proceed along it ; but its present
condition is poor. I was told by men who have
DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA 183
used it recently that many of its bridges are still
of the Korean type, which means that they are
dismantled every rainy season and piled upon the
banks to remain unutilised until the floods subside.
Loaded carts are left stuck in it for months waiting
for the surface of the soil to dry sufficiently to
enable them to be extricated. In the summer the
road is sometimes a foot deep in dust.
Half-way to Seoul, beneath the battlemented
walls of an old Korean city, I saw the location of
the first fight of the war. The engagement was
between Japanese infantry and raiding Russian
cavalry. It was these Russians who burnt the
Korean villages so ruthlessly as they retreated.
To-day, however, the Korean hates the Japanese
far more bitterly than ever he hated the other
invaden
The train pulled up for the night outside the city
of Pingyang. The land on which the railway station
is situated is of considerable value, and the taking of
it up has been quoted to me by members of the anti-
Japanese party in Korea as a typical example of the
high-handedness of their new masters. A number
of Koreans were evicted 'from their houses with
little ceremony and less compensation. Much hard-
ship was caused and friction was increased by the
action of individual Japanese immigrants, who were
allowed to add to the confusion by confiscating
property upon their own account. In the disorder
that arose, the Koreans complain that neither
justice nor protection was extended to them. It
i84 DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA
was only reasonable that the Japanese should take
up the land The railway is the single reliable
means of locomotion in the country, and the sur-
roundings of its stations are certain to become
valuable^ It is not unfair that the increment
should be appropriated by those who had the
enterprise to build the line. As to the methods
adopted, much may be forgiven of a people
engaged, as the Japanese were, in a life-and-
death struggle with a great Power ; but it cannot
be denied that mismanagement occurred, and that
steps which might have been taken later on to
restore confidence were unduly postponed.
Pingryang is a typical Korean city. Its streets,
though narrow, are far wider and cleaner than
those of native Canton and Shanghai. It has fine
old stone gateways and bastions which recall the
architecture of China; but its one-storied houses
and its inhabitants remind one at every step, of
Japan. It is located upon high ground, on the
bank of one of the numerous rivers of clear, rip-
pling water, which are as noticeable a feature of
Korea as of Japan. I found the barley crop which,
three days earlier at Mukden, had been but just
above the ground, already in Korea ripe for the
harvest. The cold wind of the north had given
place to warm, balmy breezes. The people lack
the stimulating atmosphere which has fostered the
hardy Manchu.
The train reaches Seoul on the evening of the
second day after leaving the Yalu. It halts at the
DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA 185
capital for the night The following daylight hours
carry it right through to Fusan. On the way it
traverses some difficult country. The Diamond
Mountains, which shut off the people of the south
of the peninsula from those of the north, are passed
in the afternoon of the final day. Here are a
number of troublesome tunnels which afford a
good example of Japanese engineering skill. The
mountain range, until the railway came, was so
hard of passage that it created an ethnological
parting which is apparent to-day in the fact that
the inhabitants, on one side, approximate to those
of Japan, and on the other have closer relations
with Central Asia and China. The range is a
dividing line no longer.
At the moment, Korea is in a critical position. In
everylocality that I halted at, traversing the country
from the north to the south, I heard similar testi-
mony. All of it tended to show that the Japanese
have made a most unfortunate start with their
administration of the country. In Seoul I looked
into carved wooden chambers in the deserted North
Palace, where the queen of the present Emperor
of Korea was murdered, one night fourteen years
^go, by members of the Japanese party, including
police. Purple irises have blossomed, season after
season, since then, in the shadow of the royal seven-
clawed dragons of the pagoda-roofed structure.
Seedling pines in the shrubbery behind, have
pushed up into trees, as the Emperor's sons have
grown into manhood ; but the pillared dancing-hall
i86 DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA
has stood deserted, the royal fish-ponds are choked
with weeds, and the cane-bucket of the old stone
well in the garden has hung unused. The Emperor
has refused to return to his violated house. The
hundred yellow cardboard rooms of the dead Queen's
quarters are still in the disorder in which they were
left on the night of the murder. The brown stain
of royal blood upon the floor has not been washed
out
It might have been supposed that, in fourteen
years, the Japanese would have lived down or
worked out the memory of this unfortunate incident :
but they have not. The Korean considers that
what has since happened is entirely in keeping with
the beginning. The European in Korea is only
one degree less despondent, though, unlike the
Korean, he is prepared to make allowance. The
Japanese soldier in the field has proved himself
considerate and merciful as well as brave and
efficient; but the same cannot be said of the
Japanese proletariat in Korea. Assaults by
Japanese upon both Koreans and Europeans have
been unfortunately frequent In such cases as the
one which occurred the day before I reached Seoul,
where the Catholic bishop was mishandled in his
own cathedral by Japanese soldiers in uniform, the
offenders were identified and redress has been
obtained ; but this seems to have been the exception
rather than the rule. I do not attach importance to
isolated instances of the cuffing of Koreans by
Japanese which I myself witnessed, though the
DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA 187
spirit thus accidentally betrayed made a very un-
favourable impression upon me at the time. What
I saw was confined to the lower orders of each
people; and I had no means of ascertaining the
nature of the provocation given. It would be
foolish, however, to overlook the opinion which I
found general amongst merchants, missionaries, and
other Europeans resident in the country, and which
was expressed to me with varying degree of reser-
vation, according as the sympathies of the individual
were for or against the Japanese. The few
Koreans I talked with were unable to restrain the
violence of their antipathy to the ruling racei
A story was told me by a European resident of
Tokyo, who happened to be visiting Korea at the
same time as myself, which illustrates the natvetd of
the Korean's attitude of disapproval. At an official
dinner party in Seoul the European found himself
seated next to a highly educated Korean official,
who spoke English fluently. The Korean conversed
freely and pleasantly upon every topic that came up
until the fact emerged that his neighbour spent
most of his time in Japan. His tone then changed
abruptly. He said stifily that he could not under-
stand how any one could live in the country belong-
ing to such a people, and then, to further show his
displeasure, turned his back upon the European and
did not say another word to him throughout the
remainder of the evening.
Japan is accused of breaking faith in this
country and in Manchuria with the European
I88 DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA
Powers. By treaty, she is bound to respect local
autonomy, and to give foreigners the same oppor-
tunity in conducting trade and in exploiting the
mineral resources as her own subjects enjoy. I
have been told by men whose honesty cannot be
doubted that this is not being done. European
and American merchants and mining engineers find
their operations hampered in many ways. The
popular party in Japan, who hold that the con-
quered territory, having been won by Japanese
blood, should be administrated to Japanese advan-
tage alone, have enthusiastic supporters in the
military element upon the spot Systematic at-
tempts, of an official nature, have been made to
push on Japanese enterprise of every kind to the
detriment of the foreigner. The Japanese control
practically the whole of the railways throughout
Korea and Manchuria. They threw these open to
their own people months before they allowed
foreigners to make use of them. Godowns in
Shanghai are overflowing with British and American
manufactured articles awaiting access to the region
under Japanese influence. European prospectors
have been denied access to the interior, while a
shipload of mining engineers, in the employ of the
Japanese authorities, has been allowed to proceed
inland. New mining rules unfavourable to outsiders
are being drafted. The provisions of the customs,
which guarantee equality of treatment to all alike,
are being respected; but their spirit is alleged to
have suffered violence since the Japanese relieved
DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA 189
Mr. McLeavy Brown, the member of Sir Robert
Hart's capable staff, who was previously in charge.
There is something to be said in palliation of the
view taken by the Japanese popular party. It is
impossible to deny that a nation, which has made
the great sacrifices of Japan, has acquired moral, if
not treaty, rights of a very far-reaching kind in the
territories concerned. The existence of a campaign
of calumny against Japan, organised by corrupt
Korean officialdom which sees itself superseded,
must also be taken into account When all allow-
ances have been made, however, there remains a
situation which is certainly open to criticism.
It is necessary to add that since the arrival of
Marquis I to, as administrator at Seoul, the Japanese
attitude in Korea has been modified. Marquis I to,
veteran as he is, is still the ablest man that Japan
possesses, and he recognises that his countrymen
have gone too far. He professes the absolute and, I
believe, entirely sincere determination to hold Japan
to the spirit as well as to the letter of the treaties
by which she is bound ; but he is committed to no
simple task. His view is in opposition to popular
sentiment, alike in the army of occupation in
Korea and amongst the general public in Japan.
Already there has been some friction with the
military authorities in Seoul, who are being
superseded by civilians. The Japanese Govern-
ment have decided, however, to support Marquis
I to, whose policy is to govern Korea by and through
the existing Korean Government, and to retain in
190 DIFFICULTIES IN KOREA
Manchuria only that control of the railways, coal-
mines, and lumber concessions which belongs to
Japan by treaty. Marquis Ito insists upon two
things : first, that the Korean Government shall act
honestly and obey him in all things ; and second,
that the Chinese administration in Manchuria shall
afford adequate protection to life and property. This
leaves Japan a wide margin for action. It may
be anticipated that the attitude of the official on
the spot will be scrupulously correct; but one is
forced to the cynical conclusion that foreign traders
would be unwise to suppose, on this account, that
their own prospects will change, without external
pressure, very materially for the better.
CHAPTER XVI
THE FUTURE OF KOREA
ALMOST any experienced Anglo-Indian ad-
ministrator, who had not been a conspicuous
failure in his own province, could make Korea into
a fairly prosperous and contented country in ten
years, if he were placed in charge and given a free
hand. Japanese statesmen may take thirty years
and some fighting to do the same thing ; but they
will succeed in the end.
The land, though not so rich as in many parts of
China, is able to support a very much larger popu-
lation than is now upon it. Wide areas are capable
of profitable irrigation. Gold and other valuable
minerals exist in paying quantity. The bare hills,
so often described as worthless, are no more sterile
than are the almost exactly identical formations in
Japan, where the energy of the administration has
covered them with profitable forests. The Korean
is improvident and lazy only because he has been
systematically robbed, for many generations, of all
margin over bare sustenance that he may scrape
together. His manly qualities have disappeared
191
192 THE FUTURE OF KOREA
under continued oppression. The white engineers
who direct the large and profitable gold-mining
industry, established by an American company to
the north of Pingyang, have discovered that the
Korean labourer makes one of the best miners in the
world. Experts upon the spot have told me that,
upon the average, taking a six-months' spell as a
test, two ordinary Korean miners, upon a shilling
a day apiece, are slighdy superior, in working
efficiency, to one Cornish or Califomian pitman on
eight times this pay. Korean labour mining thus
costs, when tactfully handled, only a quarter of
European. The Korean workman, however, re-
quires to be humoured, and this the Japanese have
not yet perceived to their profit
A Japanese coal-mine owner in Kiusiu gave me
particulars of an experiment tried two years ago in
that island, of importing two hundred Koreans as
miners. He declared that the trial had proved the
Korean a failure. Only half a dozen of the batch re-
main upon the mine ; and no more are being im-
ported. The pay appears to have been reasonable,
and the treatment not unkindly ; but the men would
not stand the restrictions which were imposed upon
their liberty. They deserted because the manage-
ment insisted upon requiring them to work regularly
for the full daily spell of eight hours which had been
adopted in the mine to suit the Japanese pitman.
Rather than change this arrangement, the Japanese
directors gave up the experiment, and went back to
an exclusively Japanese labour force. This rigidity
THE FUTURE OF KOREA 193
is characteristic of their experiment in more than
one direction, and it will take time to induce them
to abandon it Sympathy with other races is the
slowest growth in the world, and the Japanese is
peculiariy without it.
- The experience of most European employers of
labour in Korea and that of certain white planters
in Hawaii, who have imported Korean labour to
work upon their estates, is totally different It is
significant, also, that in constructing the main
railway through Korea, the Japanese themselves
have employed a continually increasing proportion
of Koreans, more Koreans and fewer Japanese
being taken on as the work progressed. Europeans
in Korea, who have utilised Koreans as watch-
men, and inspired them with confidence that they
would be supported in the discharge of their
duties, have been able to tell me of Japanese
and other marauders tackled and disarmed, though
outnumbering the Korean custodians.
Japanese officers, on the other hand, say that, in
their experience, whenever Korean police are sent
against Hunchuses they show the white feather, the
Korean officers often setting the example to their
men in running away from the enemy. The
Japanese coolie thinks nothing of hitting a Korean
to make him get out of the way in the street, being
confident that there will be no retaliation. This
state of things arises far more from past oppression
than from present physical fear. The Korean is a
coward, not because he is incapable of courage, but
194 THE FUTURE OF KOREA
because he has learnt, by bitter and long-extended
experience, that no justice will be given him by his
rulers. He accepts insult and injury lest a worse
thing befall him. The laziness for which he is
famous also admits of some explanation. Until the
Japanese arrived in Korea no private rights in
immovable property were recognised by the local
officials. The possession of wealth had become
undesirable, since all it could do for the owner
was to subject him to the rapacity of the tax-
gatherer. The system of forced labour taught the
labourer to dawdle. The ordinary incentives to
industry and thrift, obtaining elsewhere throughout
the world, were absent The Korean became
thriftless, idle, and cowardly because there was no
reward for providence, industry, or courage. The
present is but the natural sequel to the past ; but this
does not show that nothing better is possible in the
future. The easy-going Korean is as able to
become manly as the once cowardly Egyptian culti-
vator has proved capable of conversion into the
soldier who stood firm before his former conqueror
at Omdurman.
There is no lack of material. Nothing struck me
so much, in going through Korea, as the crowds
of fine men and women I saw standing about in this
inherited idleness. The Korean is strong-bodied,
pleasant-mannered, and good-tempered. He wants
but right handling to prosper. Missionaries who
have lived long in the interior tell me they have
found no sneak- thieving. Crimes of violence
THE FUTURE OF KOREA 195
are rare. European women and children can travel
across country, attended only by their chair-coolies,
without fear of violence or insult The Korean
official is hopelessly corrupt and inefficient, but
his rule has seldom been questioned seriously.
Moreover, this mild-mannered people are loyally
attached to their pathetic Emperor, and do not
lay their misfortunes to the blame of his ridiculous
Court.
A new era has now commenced, though cautiously.
Marquis Ito's official position is that merely of ad-
viser to the Korean Government, and nominally the
Korean Emperor and his Korean ministers continue
to rule. Practically, the Japanese control everything
and exercise all real authority. To get permission
in Seoul even to collect turf for one's garden, one
must obtain Japanese, not Korean, consent Not
one penny of the revenue that filters into the public
treasury can be spent without Japanese sanction.
A Japanese financial officer has been appointed to
see to this matter. He is getting together as-
sistants, nominally to help the Korean officials to
collect the taxes, really to control them absolutely.
Japanese police officers have been lent to the
Korean Government and are exercising influ-
ence over the district administration. The Korean
system that is being displaced is rotten from the
top to the bottom, and now that opportunity to
squeeze the people is taken away from the officials,
the fact has become apparent that these latter have
no sufficient means of support The ebbing of the
196 THE FUTURE OF KOREA
fiscal tide has left them high and dry, a new and
embarrassing class of State paupers.
Intrigue is afoot in Seoul with every foreign
power that will condescend to lend its sympathies
to the helpless Korean Court Local insurrections
have become common throughout the country, and
the Japanese accuse the Korean officials of foment-
ing them. The evicted bureaucrat hates with a
bitter hatred the people who are taking from him his
cherished power and means of livelihood, and is no
doubt rousing whatever is capable of being roused
in the minds of his humbler fellow-countrymen, who
have ^ also their own grievances against their new
masters. Under Korean rule, the ordinary in-
surrection was a very mild affair. It occurred on
the frequent occasions when exactions exceeded
what local opinion would tolerate, beginning with
the assemblage of a noisy mob outside the yamen
concerned, and ending, as a rule, with the hasty
flight of the official whose squeezes had become
unbearable. Ordinary people continued their avo-
cations. I have heard of European ladies being
carried in their chairs, without mishap, through the
ranks of an insurgent gathering that blocked their
way. These risings are now more formidable, and
there has been some loss of life in putting them
down ; but the Japanese power is overwhelming, and
nothing in the country can challenge it seriously.
The Japanese programme is definite. The
Korean courts of justice are notoriously unsatis-
factory. Bribery and corruption are rampant ; and
THE FUTURE OF KOREA I97
this is necessarily the first matter to be attended to.
As an initial step Marquis I to proposes to set up
a new High Court in Seoul for the trial of
appeals from the Japanese consular courts. These
consular courts are located in the principal com-
mercial centres, having been established, when
Korea was still independent, for the trial of cases
in which Japanese subjects were concerned. An
appeal from these lay to the Japanese court at
Nagasaki. The new court at Seoul therefore
replaces the Nagasaki tribunal, and will entertain,
at first, only cases in which Japanese are concerned.
Eventually, Marquis Ito hopes to extend its jurisdic-
tion to all appeals, from the decisions of the local
Korean courts, as well as from the consular courts,
irrespective of whether the parties are Japanese or
Koreans. The local Korean courts are to continue
to exist beside the Japanese consular courts in the
hope that this may teach them to emulate the im-
ported probity. But Japanese expectation of improv-
ing Korean justice by means of precept and example
is not likely to be fulfilled until sufficient pay is
given to the Korean judges to raise them above
temptation to be corrupt This is a matter which
the Japanese are considering, but on which they
had taken no action up to the time I left Seoul.
Subjects of the European powers, resident in
Korea, will continue to be tried by their own
consuls.
In regard to education and police reform Japan
is resorting to the expedient of lending Japanese
198 THE FUTURE OF KOREA
officers to the Korean Government In other
words, Japanese are being put in to exercise control
and to introduce Japanese methods. Long ago,
the Korean Emperor ordered all his subjects to
send their children to school under pain of his
royal displeasure ; but little else was done. There
were hardly any schools in existence, so compliance
was impossible. The Japanese are endeavouring
to remedy this by starting schools in the principal
centres. Japanese schoolmasters, of a kind, are
fairly cheap. They will teach the Japanese
language, if nothing else. Their distribution over
the country is desirable, even if their object be
rather to Japanise the people than to instruct them
in general knowledge. Everywhere they will stand
for order. Everywhere they will represent Japanese
interests, report sedition to headquarters and be
points from which the influence of Tokyo will
radiate. This is to the interest of the Koreans,
for their fate is now bound up with that of Japan.
Promises of autonomy are only misleading, and the
sooner the people recognise that the old order has
disappeared the more likely are they to settle down
into good citizens under the new.
The Japanese police officers will be similarly
useful. They are certain to be more honest than
the Korean officials. They may not be altogether
mild or always considerate in their methods ; but
the Koreans will find that the protection they will
afford is real, and that rogues have more reason to
dread them than have respectable citizens. A
THE FUTURE OF KOREA 199
useful proclamation has been issued declaring that
private ownership in immovable property is to be
recognised. This no doubt will be taken to heart
by predatory Japanese immigrants, as well as by
Korean officials whose ideas of the rights of
private property are also confused.
Progress is being made, meanwhile, with the
development of the material resources of the
country. The Japanese have lent to Korea a
considerable sum of money for public works,
upon terms which I heard criticised in Seoul as
more onerous than the state of the unofficial
money market justifies, the security being the
excellent one of the practically unmortgaged
Korean customs. This money is being laid out
by Japanese engineers upon improving the har-
bours and other works. The primary object is to
help the Japanese trader, but obviously and no less
surely, it will benefit Korea. The money spent
upon the fine Japanese military railway, from Fusan
to Antung, which I have had occasion to refer to so
often, is to be refunded to Japan out of the amount.
Undoubtedly the line is one of the greatest boons
that has ever been conferred upon the country. It
would be cheap to the inhabitants at almost any
cost ; and, as far as I could ascertain, after making
allowances for Korean complaints against Japanese
methods in connection with the taking up of land
for its construction, the cost is by no means un-
reasonable. The roads and irrigation works, that
are so badly wanted to increase the prosperity of
200 THE FUTURE OF KOREA
the country, are certain to be supplied eventually
under Japanese rule. The planting up of the
barren hill-sides is another matter upon which the
new administrators have an eye.
This brief account of the situation which exists
in Korea would not be c(Mn{dete without some
further reference to Marquis I to, who stands for
justice to the Korean. The Marquis had gone to
Japan, to discuss the situation with the central
Government, just before I reached Seoul. It was
not until I arrived at Tokyo, therefore, that I had
an opportunity of meeting him. I found him
eventually in an unpretentious, two-storied villa
on a small hill overlooking the capital of his country.
I was shown into a cheerful room which was car-
peted and furnished in ordinary European style, but
relieved from banality by a single giant spray of
pink and white peony arranged with dainty light-
ness in the full cross-light of two big windows.
A solidly built Japanese gentleman, in European
frock-coat, with a small red and white-rayed
button in the lappet, walked in briskly. At the
moment I was chiefly aware of a pair of some-
what dimmed brown eyes, with typical Japanese
lids, beneath a wide, domed forehead surmounted
with closely brushed grey hair. As we talked
the external marks of personality faded and two
very un-Oriental characteristics took their place —
simplicity and straightness. I saw an I to grown
old, but as full of energy and confidence as the
boy he was when he smuggled himself aboard
THE FUTURE OF KOREA aoi
an outward-bound ship on the quest of what
Europe could teach Japan. I saw a man, whose
quiet voice and gentle manner inspired confidence
in the rectitude of the resolve of the Japanese
leaders to comply with the self-denying conditions
to which they have agreed The discussion ranged
over the whole field of Japanese policy in Man-
churia and Korea. He outlined schemes for handing
over Manchuria to the Chinese Government as soon
as guarantees should be forthcoming for the pro-
tection of life and property from brigands, and
arrangements concluded for the disposal of public
works executed by Japanese officers in Neuchwang
and other ports. He went into the matters of the
railways and coal-mining rights which Japan retains,
and of the Yalu lumber concessions, taken over
from the Russians, which are to be worked by joint
Japanese and Chinese enterprise. We talked of
Japanese reforms in Korea, the autonomy to be
allowed to the Korean Government, the facilities to
be given to Europeans in exploiting the commercial,
industrial, and mining riches of the country, of
Japanese adherence to treaties made with Korea
by every European nation, except Russia, and the
Japanese repudiation of Russian arrangements.
Marquis Ito reminded me that Korea was the ally
of Japan in the war with Russia, and that it was
the intention of Japan to treat her as such. He
dwelt upon the determination of the Government
he represents to give equality of opportunity to all
legitimate foreign enterprise in the peninsula. His
202 THE FUTURE OF KOREA
enthusiasm was contagious when he expressed his
belief that honest and efficient administration and
even-handed justice are capable of restoring pros-
perity to the country, and of raising its unfortunate
inhabitants from the abject condition into which
they have fallen. In one respect he saw that the
task which Japan has before her in Korea is easier
than that which has confronted Great Britain in
Egypt, since Korea is practically free from debt,
whereas Egypt was not It is pleasant to remember
that Marquis I to is still the most influential states-
man in Japan. The humane and hopeful policy
which he stands for in Korea has at least the
impetus lent by a commanding and beloved
personality.
♦^
CHAPTER XVII
THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT
IT is easily forgotten that the proportions of the
share which Japan will take in the future of
the Far East depend upon the peaceful as well
as upon the warlike capabilities of her people and
civilisation.
Japanese have established themselves in all
parts of the Far East. Every open port in China
has a well-kept Japanese settlement inhabited by
a prosperous community. Two thousand cheerful
little traders, including men, women, and children,
have crowded to Harbin on business since last
September, when railway communication was first
restored between that hitherto exclusively Russian
centre and the Port Arthur that is now a Japanese
city. Kimono-clad merchants have started shops
and banking houses, and are hawking the wares of
Kobe and Osaka in every considerable Chinese city
from Canton to Mukden. Well-found Japanese
steamers are to be seen wherever there is water
to float in and cargo to carry at a profit The
Japanese ironworks which are to be established
203
204 THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT
upon the Yangtse will be one of the biggest
concerns of the kind in Asia. Japanese competi-
tion is felt by every European who does business
in the Far East Indifferent reputation for com-
mercial honesty may hamper some of his trans-
actions, but the Japanese succeeds because he
attends industriously to business, and for the com-
mon oriental reason that he can live well upon
profits on which a white man would starve.
I have found Japanese in the heart of China
employed by the Chinese as experts in making
cartridges and rifles. I have seen Japanese at
their duties as professors in the Peking University
and as teachers in military academies which the
Chinese Government is setting up. I have talked
with Japanese who are mining engineers, dock
superintendents, and mill managers. I have visited
factories and places of education in Japan and have
discussed the industrial and intellectual capacity
of the race, with Europeans engaged in commerce,
politics, and religion, in many parts of the Far East
The estimates given me are various. Japanese
professors in Chihese military academies have been
described to me by expert authority as mere
schoolboys in knowledge. On the other hand, I
have become familiar with the view obtaining in
one section of the British commercial community
in China, which sees something almost superhuman
in the efficiency of Japanese arrangements, and
exalts Japanese foresight and attention to detail
into gifts of organisation and initiative superior to
THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT 305
those possessed by any European people. Nor is
there any lack of intermediate opinions. The
Japanese himself is never tired of flattering his
European visitors by assuring them that his
countrymen have learnt everything from Europe,
that they have no originality, and that their
civilisation, industries, and military organisation
are mere slavish copies of Western models. The
tourist soon learns that self-abasement of this kind
is mere formal compliment, no more intended to be
taken seriously than are such terms as *' miserable
hovel" and ''honourable mansion" which polite
people in the Far East apply to identically con-
structed houses which differ from each other only
in being inhabited, in the one case by the speaker,
in the other by the person addressed.
Japanese-built railways took me from one end
of Korea to the other, and from the west to the
extreme east of Manchuria. The smoking factory-
chimneys of cotton-spinning Osaka inked the
sky of a whole day of travel. I was shown by
hard-headed Japanese managers over dockyards at
Kobe where, at the time of my visit, half a dozen
nickel-steel plated gunboats of modem pattern
were being manufactured for the Chinese Govern-
ment Alert, thick-set navvies swarmed over the
works, at one time building a fifteen hundred ton
steamer, at another busy in the midst of acres of
whirling lathes and clanging hydraulic hammers,
at a third sitting about in laughing groups dis-
cussing, with chopsticks and tin pots of tea, the
306 THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT
universal midday meal of cold boiled rice and dried
fish pickle.
The Japanese copper mines near Nikko employ
eight thousand horse-power electric plant, and turn
out twenty-five tons of copper daily, besides enough
sulphuric acid to make that industry-begetting pro-
duct cheap and plentiful throughout the entire
country. Mines in Kiusiu, Yesso, and Hondo
yield amongst them annually ten million tons of
coal, which finds its way along the coasts of the Far
East to Singapore. This coal is inferior in quality
to the Cardiff article, but superior to that of Bengal
in the proportion that Bengal coal must sell at
Hongkong at eight Chinese dollars per ton in order
to underbid Japanese coal, in the same port, at
ten dollars. The Kure naval yards are building
sixteen-thousand ton cruisers. Extensive electric
installations driven by water power are in operation
in almost every city of any size in Japan.
Even villages are beginning to employ electric
plant Messrs. Siemens and Company are com-
pleting a Japanese order for a sixteen thousand
horse-power installation for electric tram-driving
and manufacturing purposes in Tokyo, and have
been applied to in connection with the setting up
of a sixty thousand horse-power installation, to be
driven by water from the Biwa lake, to supersede
coal in Osaka cotton-mills. Electric tram lines are
wandering in all directions along country roads
where they serve as invaluable feeders to the main
lines of railway. Blast-furnaces and rolling mills at
MANL'tAClL'KKE) FOK THK CHINKSK (lOVRR!
THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT 207
Yawata Mahi are turning out enormous quantities
of useful steel, including inch-thick nickel plates for
warship construction.
Japan supplies practically the whole of the Far
East demand for calcium carbide, which is manu-
factured at electrically driven works at Kurjana and
elsewhere. Cement works at Onoda, Moji, and
Tokyo fill the needs of the country for this im-
portant article. There is a gold-mine at Kagosuma,
Kiusiu, where one thousand horse-power electric
plant is used. Splendidly equipped, electrically
driven factories at Osaka and Tokyo turn out
rifles and heavy guns for the entire Japanese army.
Modem, bogie-pattern railway rolling-stock is manu-
factured at Nagoya and Tokyo. Railway locomo-
tives have been constructed in Japan, though reasons
of economy dictate the importation from Europe and
America of most of this class of machinery.
Ocean-going steamers, owned and manned by
Japanese, maintain regular passenger services
across the Pacific and trade along the Chinese
coast and to India and Europe. Joint-stock con-
cerns in Osaka boast paid-up Japanese capital
amounting to over six million sterling.
Traversing Southern Japan by rail, from Moji to
Yokohama, one looks out upon a continual series of
flat irrigated fields, cultivated like gardens, and
shadowed by rocky hills, which are themselves
covered with carefully tended forest The upper
slopes are black with the foliage of stunted pines,
only an occasional yellow scar telling of ever-
208 THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT
narrowing stretches where wastes of sand and
stones protest against the industry of the Japanese
forester. What was once desert is being surely
conquered. Already all but a fraction of the total
area has been turned to account The crooked
pines give way, as one journeys eastwards, to the
softer g^reen of carefully planted deciduous trees,
and these shade into the straw-yellows of bamboo
forest which covers the outskirts of the minutely
cultivated plain. Every yard of level ground is
irrigated. Out of shallow water emerge closely set
earth-ridges upon which grow a rich yellow harvest
of mustard plants with pods parturient for the oil-
press. White masses of heavily laden barley and
wheat, with brown, thick-set ears, are being reaped.
Between the ridges deep green bean foliage pro-
mises a second crop. At intervals are spread
verdant carpets of recently sown rice which will
supply hand-planted materials for yet later yield.
Narrow macadamised roads meander amidst the
cultivation. Piously guarded tombstones, mossy
and grey, and the brighter tints of thriving villages
flit by at intervals. Bandbox houses, with brown
thatched roofs and grey-tiled verandahs, dodge the
railway track upon both sides of the way. Beside
the doorways are poised delicate sprays of big pink
roses, each blossom so skilfully isolated against a
background of carefully arranged foliage that its
beauty invites individual attention. Plump cattle
wade, belly deep, in the luscious tilth. The retain-
ing walls of the railway embankments are mosaic
THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT M9
puzzles of irregular grey stones, so exactly fitted
into each other that there is no room for mortar, the
granite blocks clinging firmly together by dint of
sheer accuracy of shaping.
The whole of the wonderful richness of the region
is induced artificially. Naturally the soil is poor.
The fields would be sand-deserts for hundreds of
miles but for irrigation channels which utilise every
drop of water available from the mountain streams.
These irrigation channels are upon a very large
scale. One of them near Kyoto collects the drain-
age of a whole countryside and carries it, by a
tunnel some miles long, right through the rocky
range which forms the watershed, to irrigate
hundreds of thousands of acres on the other side,
which would otherwise be barren. I am informed
that this channel was both designed and constructed
by Japanese engineers. It is an example of
indigenous ingenuity and industry of very high
order. I saw long embankments in course of
erection along the northern shores of the Inland
Sea, where immense areas of what has hitherto
been useless beach and waste sea-bottom are being
surely reclaimed. The soil where the embankments
are new is mere yellow sand, but every stage of
development can be seen ; for irrigation and
fertilisers are being so applied that the entire
process of the creation of fields of rich cultivation
is visible. An unmistakable odour tells of town
sewage that is utilised in quantity to assist; for
nothing is wasted.
210 THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT
The process of converting thousands of square
miles of bare ridges of rock and sand into profitable
forest can also be seen in operation. Few sights
are more striking than the bamboo copses between
Kobe and Kyoto, which are so thick that the big
feathery fronds have had to be tied back with fence-
wire, bound like a girl's tresses, to prevent their
straying unduly. More than half of the total area
of Japan is forest ; and sixty-five per cent, of the
forests belong to the State. The forest-land is
generally so situated as to be out of reach of irriga-
tion, and too poor to be cultivated dry. It affords,
in the hands of the Government, however, an
important source of national wealth which is
increasing steadily, and is a good example of that
self-denying foresight which is so characteristic
of Japan. I had not time to proceed into the
north of the central island, so was unable to gather
any personal impression of the drought and con-
sequent famine in progress there, nor of the
measures taken by the authorities to relieve dis-
tress; but in the south, where small holdings are
the rule, the prosperity of the peasants is evident.
The land-tax, I understand, averages only about
fifteen per cent, of annual value, and is paid easily.
A poor soil has been made capable of supporting a
teeming population, and wealth is growing fast.
The hand of the Japanese administration is
visible everywhere, helping development to pro-
ceed. The railways are in course of nationalisation ;
and the rates for freight and passenger fares are
THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT 211
kept low to encourage traffic. When big iron-
works failed under private management the
Japanese Government refused to allow them to
be closed, but took them over itself and spent
millions of yen in making them a partial success.
Up to a comparatively recent period the man-
hood of South Japan was cooped up upon the
land. The holding of each individual family was
split into patches, generally separated by other
folk's fields and too small to admit of anything but
spade cultivation. This has now changed. A law
requiring every village community to readjust
the distribution of the land so as to give to each
family a compact plot, equivalent in value and area
to the total of the separate patches it possessed
previously, has been adopted with the cheerful
obedience which is so characteristic of this remark-
able people. Plough cultivation has become prac-
ticable in consequence, and labour has been set free
in very large quantity. The construction by the
local authorities of roads, to replace the footpaths
previously in use, has operated in a similar
direction, since it has rendered practicable the
introduction of draught animals to take the place
of the weary carrying of agricultural produce upon
the backs of the peasants. This explains the ease
with which Japan has spared millions of its man-
hood, first to fight Russia in Manchuria, and
afterwards to pour, as traders and coolies, into the
newly-acquired territory of Korea, without trenching
seriously upon the supply available to meet the
21^ THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT
heavy demand for factory labour in Japan itself.
Simultaneously with the creation of fresh sources
of industrial wealth has come such notable economy
in labour as to avoid any serious blow to the older
and less profitable forms of enterprise.
It is important to remember this in estimating
the extent to which further industrial development
is practicable, since there is room for yet additional
economy in labour. Jinrickshaw-men, for example,
still teem in every Japanese city, doing work which
in almost all other countries is performed by draught
animals or machinery. In Japan, cheap electric
power promises to become before long so abundant
and widely distributed as to set free a very large
number of jinrickshaw-men. Already electric trams
have done much in this direction. Great as have
been the developments in Japan in the forty years
which have elapsed since feudalism went out and
European methods came in, there is yet prospect
of further advance. A continuously increasing
birth-rate contributes to the total manhood avail-
able, and that manhood profits by better training
than the race has ever had before.
Meanwhile some other points must be considered.
The annual value of the foreign trade of Japan has
risen in the past decade from twenty-three million
sterling to sixty-four million, and growth is still
proceeding; but the imports considerably exceed
the exports. The large amounts of rice, bean-cake,
flour, sugar, and raw cotton brought in, show that
the people have become dependent upon the
THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT 213
foreigner for a serious fraction of their food, and
that the greater portion of the principal raw pro-
duct required for their mills is grown abroad.
The imports of machinery, rails, and other iron
goods are also significant The exports principally
comprise such Japanese manufactured articles as
cotton yarn and silk piece-goods, of which eight
million sterling's worth are shipped annually. Tea,
matches, matting, umbrellas, cigarettes, camphor,
and porcelain are also important items, and raw
products, like copper ore and coal, figure to the
annual value of three million sterling. It follows
that Japan is using machinery, but not yet making
it herself to any very large extent; also that she
still sends part of her raw products to be worked
up by the foreigner.
The custom duties are heavy, but they serve
what every Japanese considers a useful purpose in
encouraging home industries as opposed to foreign.
They bring in at present from three to four million
sterling annually, and are being raised to produce
about five million. The new rates average some-
thing like fifty per cent, ctd valorem on the goods,
and are higher upon commodities needed by the
European in Japan than on those which the
Japanese themselves require. The principal sources
of Japanese revenue, other than customs, are the
land tax, the sak6 tax, and the salt, tobacco, and
camphor monopolies. The national debt is by no
means overwhelming, in spite of the great expense
of the war with Russia. It amounts, at present, to
214 THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT
less than two hundred million sterling, of which,
roughly, a hundred million has been borrowed
outside the country. The annual national income
before the war was less than thirty million sterling.
It has been increased since, by special taxation, to
forty million, and will soon touch fifty million. The
national debt is not entirely unproductive, for it
includes the capital cost of a number of public
works bringing in nearly four million sterling
annually. With such relation between debt and
income the financial position is not disheartening,
though ten years of peace and careful economy
are essential to enable expenditure upon the
administration to keep pace with the material
development of the country.
The present standard of efficiency in the public
services cannot be maintained without increased
outlay. The pay of the officials is so low at present
as to threaten the stability of the entire organisation
of the Government Already the bench is fallen
into such disfavour that many of the judges
look upon it as a mere stepping - stone to
the more adequately remunerated bar. High
servants of the State are unable to mix upon
equal terms with Europeans and other well-to-do
strangers, and often hold themselves aloof in
consequence, for fear of being put to shame by
the poorness of the circumstances in which they
are compelled to live. In any other nation grave
deterioration would have resulted already ; and in
Japan it threatens seriously. In every branch of
THE JAPANESE COEFFICIENT 215
Japanese development marvellous progress has
been made ; but everywhere there is a sharply
defined need of money. The country has entered
upon vast schemes of national improvement ;
scarcity of resources alone hampers their growth.
The skill that has been shown in internal organisa-
tion promises well for Japanese ability to deal with
allied problems in Korea and China. Basic limita-
tions, however, exist, and cannot fail to affect the
issue.
CHAPTER XVIII
CONTRADICTIONS IN THE JAPANESE CHARACTER
THE Japanese soldier, from the most senior
general down to the last-joined private, is
high-spirited, hospitable, and chivalrous, ready to
sacrifice himself for his beloved country, obedient
to authority, brave, resourceful, and democratic.
The familiarity which I have noted as existing
between the officer and the private is remark-
able to those who are accustomed to the greater
distance maintained between members of the
corresponding ranks in European armies; but
it does not interfere with discipline. The pride
which animates every branch of the service is
splendid. I have seen a thirsty Japanese soldier,
after a hot day's tramp in the sun over a
Manchurian battlefield, refuse a drink because,
as he explained to the interpreter, he was on
duty. I remember another, who had been given
a smoke by a visitor for whom he had performed
some trifling service, decline to consume it until
satisfied that one of his own cigarettes was to be
accepted in return. To tip a Japanese soldier-
tl7
2i8 THE JAPANESE CHARACTER
servant would be an insult against which I re-
ceived friendly warning at an early stage in my
wanderings.
The European finds intercourse with Japanese
gentlemen more difficult than he is sometimes
prepared to admit. This is because the Japanese,
while hanging together themselves in the closest
possible manner, regard the members of every other
nationality with distrust It is distrust for which
the past may afford ample justification ; but this
does not prevent its inconvenience as a present
condition. The Japanese tries hard to make an
exception in favour of the Englishman. He reminds
himself that he is dealing with an ally. He loads
the English visitor with hospitality. He tolerates,
with continual patience and admirable temper, what
he considers the shockingly bad manners of the
Occidental. He is for ever endeavouring to see
this friendly barbarian from a favourable point of
view, and to ignore his drawbacks. The English-
man tries in return not to be irritated by the
Oriental's attitude of secretiveness, self-conscious-
ness, and suspicion, which flowery language, en-
gaging manners, and exaggerated humility do but
emphasise ; and he recognises to the full his good-
fellowship, kindliness, and painstaking conscientious-
ness. But neither feels wholly at ease in the
presence of the other. The differences of race,
tradition, and custom are so great as to constitute
almost a physical diversity of species, and a physical
discomfort in the best-intentioned attempt at inter-
THE JAPANESE CHARACTER 219
course. Both are conscious of a barrier^ swept
away sometimes by community of interest and
alliance, but inevitably restored, with results that
affect the entire political situation in the Far East
Japanese methods do not always commend them-
selves to Europeans. One hears of officers who
condescended to disguise themselves as coolies and
pull the jinrickshaws of visitors belonging to a
country with which Japan was at peace, in order
to overhear talk that might possibly prove useful
politically. Japanese combatants have taken service
in different parts of the world as photographers,
and even as porters and domestics, in order to
surprise the naval and military secrets of their
employers. The soldier is thorough in everything,
not excluding the obtaining of information by what-
ever means he can. The world has abundantly
recognised Japanese self-denial, Japanese courage,
and Japanese honour. It has yet to recognise
the military side of Japanese taste.
I have referred to the fact that the whole of the
public services in Japan are underpaid. The Lord
Chancellor, who presides over the highest court of
appeal, gets a salary of ;^500 a year. A general
officer in the field receives ^^35 monthly, a subaltern
two shillings a day, and a private three-halfpence
in addition to his keep. The poverty of the whole
of the members of the civil services is pathetic, yet
I have never heard a whisper of justice being sold,
or of corruption, for selfish purposes, upon any really
extensive scale amongst the officials. The traders,
220 THE JAPANESE CHARACTER
artisans, and labourers have notoriously a less
favourable record. They are industrious and in-
genious, but have won the very reverse of that
reputation for honesty and fair-dealing which the
Chinese have long possessed.
The foreign traveller of independent means sees
little of the national failing ; not so the foreign
business man with a stake in the country. Japan
is a tourist's paradise because the tourist is a
source of profit to its people ; but it is no
place for the European who has to make his
living. I refer not so much to European experts
in Japanese employ, who are rapidly disappearing,
but to the European merchants who do business
upon their own account These men see the
Japanese at his worst. I have heard a level-
headed Englishman amongst them compare the
position which he and his fellows occupy to that
of the outlander in Johannesburg before the Trans-
vaal war. Ostensibly, they are protected by treaty
and given absolute equality of opportunity with
their Japanese competitors. Practically, they are
hampered upon all sides. They find the Japanese
official in league with the Japanese merchant to
undersell them. Reg^ulations are rigidly enforced
where they operate to the foreigner's disadvantage,
but are read in an altogether different spirit where
Japanese merchants are concerned. For one
European merchant who has been able to say that
he considers, upon the whole, that the particular
operations he is concerned with are given a fair
THE JAPANESE CHARACTER 221
field, two have assured me that they find the con-
trary to be the case.
I do not quote the bitter things that are said
by Belgians, Germans, and other Continentals who
are struggling on in business in Japan under
adverse circumstances, because these persons, as
a class, are so hostile to the Japanese that it
is only natural that they should meet with hostility
in return. I refer rather to Englishmen and
Americans, who are in sympathy upon other
points with the Japanese, and are unlikely there-
fore to exaggerate the differences which exist.
It is perhaps natural that specific examples of
obstruction should be hard to find. The cases
quoted to me refer, for the most part, to what
appear to the non* expert somewhat petty matters
connected with facilities and rebates of freight upon
Government-owned or officially subsidised railways,
steamers and other services, also with the levying of
local taxation and the framing and working of the
Japanese customs tariff. Individually, they may
be susceptible of easy explanation ; but collectively
they indicate the existence in Japan of a state of
feeling which has grown, when transplanted to
Korea, into active friction between the foreign
trader and the paramount authorities.
The Japanese think the white man amongst them
disproportionately well-to-do. They combine, in
consequence, to relieve him of some of his super-
fluous prosperity. At a Japanese show in Tokyo I
was asked, as entrance fee, precisely double the
222 THE JAPANESE CHARACTER
sum which Japanese, in European attire, were
paying for similar accommodation at the same
time. A polite explanation was vouchsafed that
the sum was double in my case because I was big^
and would take up space. The European mer-
chant doing business in Japan may console himself
for the moment with a somewhat similar reflection.
He, too, no doubt is big, and takes up space ; but
he will not be able to do so for long, since one class
of business after another is being taken out of his
hands. This is the more galling since the sufferers
believe that if the field were open they could more
than hold their own.
The Chinese merchant is content to work with
and through the foreigner. The Japanese will do
nothing of the kind, but is determined to get
business sooner or later into his own hands. The
ambition of Japan is to drive all manufactures but
her own out of Japanese markets, and out of those
of China, Manchuria, and Korea, to absorb the
carrying trade, and to employ none but Japanese
in the handling and distributing of the goods.
Looked at by itself, this ambition is honourable
and legitimate. The foreigner who is being dis-
placed, however, has cause for indignation, since
not only does he find the State leagued with private
enterprise against him, but Japanese Government
contracts interpreted with a looseness which gives
him cause for continual anxiety.
The scheme for the nationalisation oi the
principal railways in Japan may be quoted as a
THE JAPANESE CHARACTER 223
typical example of Japanese methods. No one who
has lived in India, where the nationalisation of
the railways has proved an unmixed boon to the
taxpayer, can doubt the wisdom of the general
intention underlying the measures taken by the
Japanese Government towards a similar end. The
same cannot be said of the method employed.
The dangerous principle has been accepted that
what government can give, government can take
away. Concessions, with many years still to run,
are being suddenly abrogated. A sense of in-
security has been created which cannot fail to
react unfavourably upon the credit of the country.
It is true that the existing companies are to be
bought out upon liberal terms. The shareholders are
to receive five per cent, bonds to an amount which
approximates to twenty per cent, above the market
value of their property at the time of the transac-
tion. They may profit in the end by this
arrangement, though this was by no means certain
at the beginning; but they have a legitimate
grievance in being arbitrarily deprived of securities
in which they felt confidence, by exchange for others
of a different nature. Financiers at Tokyo ask
themselves what guarantee exists that other
national liabilities will not be juggled with
similarly.
I have referred to what the European in the
Far East considers to be questionable methods
upon the part of Japanese military and naval
officers in the matter of obtaining intelligence. It
224 THE JAPANESE CHARACTER
is fair to add that these methods cannot be de-
scribed as at all directly countenanced by the
Japanese Government. The breach of neutrality
committed by a Japanese naval conmiander in
Korean waters at Chemulpo, at the beginning of
the war with Russia, which resulted in the destruc-
tion of two of the Russian war-vessels, received no
open official recognition. Neither did the unsuccess-
ful attempt, made shortly afterwards by Japanese
officers in disguise, to blow up one of the big
bridges in Central Asia in the rear of the Russians,
whether justifiable or otherwise under the special
circumstances of the case. On the contrary, the
authorities held responsible for each occurrence
were formally reprimanded. The story of a breach-
of-neutrality incident in the Spanish-American war,
where an over-zealous United States officer is said
to have been solemnly court-martialled, condemned,
and promoted^ may be recalled in this connection ;
but I am assured there was no corresponding
humour in the Japanese proceedings. Japanese
recruits, sent to the front during the war, were
carefully instructed before starting in what was
supposed to be the European code of honour. I
am told that both the railway in the Russian rear,
and also the Neuchwang-Sinmintung line, which
long continued to carry from China supplies for
General Kuropatkin's forces, might have been cut
had the Japanese resorted to really extensive
alliance with brigand Hunchuses. The small scale
upon which such alliance took place must be attri-
THE JAPANESE CHARACTER 225
buted quite as much to Japanese chivalry as to
self-interested resolve to command the respect of
the civilised world.
It is possible to say that the Japanese fighting
man of to-day is the lineal descendant of the gallant
Samurai whose devotion to his feudal chief has
inspired a national poetry and created a national
cvlt, while the commercial Japanese belongs to
another class of life and has been despised by his
own fellow-countrymen until he has sunk accord-
ingly. This, however, is but a rough discrimina-
tion, and will not cover the acts of the people as a
whole. To attribute to the spirit of the Samurai
the self-denying promises of the Japanese Govern-
ment to treat foreigners upon an industrial and
commercial equality with Japanese in Manchuria
and Korea, and to blame the commercialism of
Japanese public opinion with the failure which
has occurred to keep the spirit of these promises,
is neither logical nor sufficient It is better to
say that commercial dealing, even by the Govern-
ment, is not yet quite recognised as an expression
of national honour. We must take the Japanese
nation as a whole, and remind ourselves that dis-
tinguished qualities do not create perfect people.
Polished manners, kindliness, courage, intense
national as well as personal pride and sensitiveness
to public opinion, are widely characteristic. The
Japanese have been tactless and sometimes brutal
masters of subject races in Formosa and Korea, only
because they lack facility in recognising points of
226 THE JAPANESE CHARACTER
view other than their own. They have drunk the
strong wine of victory over a European power with-
out the intoxication that most other peoples would
have shown. Their brave moderation in action,
their generosity in victory, their dignity in reverse,
their subordination of all lesser considerations to a
common aim, and their proud refusal to boast or
exaggerate, may well be held to outbalance the
spirit of dishonest commercialism which is also
abroad in their land.
CHAPTER XIX
LIMITATIONS TO JAPANESE EFFICIENCY
TEN years ago English engineers were in
charge of almost every cotton-mill in Osaka ;
Belgians controlled the steel-works of Kiusiu;
Germans and Americans were entrusted with the
technical direction of the electric tram lines and
lighting installations which have been set up in
most of the bigger towns and even in some
villages. British sea-captains commanded Japanese
merchant ships. English was heard upon the
quarter-deck and in the engine-room of every
Japanese war-vessel. German military instructors
were to be found in camp and barrack-square.
Graduates of Oxford and London delivered the
principal lectures in the Tokyo University.
Japanese railways, dockyards, and irrigation works
all leaned heavily on Europe. This is now wholly
— I hesitate to say irrevocably — changed.
The well-found steamer which conveyed me from
Fusan to Moji, over the scene of Admiral Togo's
final victory, was built, commanded, and manned
by Japanese exclusively. The national naval
937
228 JAPANESE EFFICIENCY
base upon that emerald and sapphire training-
ground for Japanese bluejackets, tlie Inland Sea,
employs no British officers beyond one highly paid
naval constructor and a few draughtsmen and other
assistants. Sixteen-thousand ton men-of-war are
built at Kure, of materials partly of European
origin, with but very little assistance from
Westerners upon the spot. Japanese, not Germans,
drill the troops at Hiroshima. The coal-mines,
blast-furnaces, and steel-works are under Japanese
engineers and Japanese masters. I did not see
a single European in the dockyards of Kobe or
Osaka. Hardly any of the Japanese cotton-mills
now employ Europeans. At the Tokyo University
I was shown round by a highly cultivated Japanese
professor, who could introduce me to none but
Japanese colleagues. The comfortable electric
tram-lines, which carried me to see the lacquer
and gilt temples in Kyoto and Tokyo, were run
by indigenous experts.
The European in Japanese employ has practically
disappeared. Where he still exists he is a mere
survival of a state of things which has gone. He
resents his supersession, but has no just cause of
grievance, for he was treated liberally as long as
his contract lasted. Little visible change has
followed his dismissal. The works go on very
much as before and many of them continue to
do well financially; but this does not prove that
the European is not missed or that some loss of
efficiency has not followed his elimination. There
JAPANESE EFFICIENCY 229
is a tale, pretty well ear-marked by now, but very
illustrative, of Japanese engineers failing so com-
pletely to learn the essentials of an exotic industry
that European experts had to be recalled, after a
costly attempt had been made to do without their
services. This was in some big ironworks where
the molten metal refused to flow from the principal
blast-furnaces, soon after white supervision had been
bowed out of the gate. The furnaces were ruined
by the coagulation of the pig-iron within them, and
dynamite had to be employed to clear away the
debris.
It is not always safe to turn to Peking for a
parallel to anything Japanese, but the fate of the
European methods introduced into China after the
Taiping rebellion, nearly half a century ago, is not
without a moral of very general application in the
Far East. Gordon had stamped out a rebellion
which had threatened to overwhelm the Manchu
dynasty. He had employed for this purpose
Chinese troops, which he had drilled and armed
in the then modern fashion. The Peking mandarins
were so badly frightened that they decided upon
reform, and imported a number of British military
and naval experts to improve the Chinese State
forces. The experiment was not persisted in long
enough to be of more than very temporary assist-
ance to the army; but the naval officers bought
some modern ironclads and trained their Chinese
crews so efficiendy that the navy became by no
means despicable, and remained so for a consider-
230 JAPANESE EFFICIENCY
able time. Had the China-Japanese war occurred
in 1880, instead of fourteen years later, there
would have been much more doubt of the issue.
The event turned out as it did because the
reactionary party in China was able to reassert
itself when the Taiping danger had passed away.
The British officers were replaced by Chinese,
and naval efficiency at once declined so steadily
that no stand could be made against the Japanese
in 1904.
The Japanese have persisted far more doggedly
than did the Chinese in adopting European methods.
Their organisation in the war against Russia proved
that they could not only profit by, but in some cases
improve upon the teaching of their German drill-
instructors and British naval experts. The same
holds, but to a more limited extent, in regard to
their industrial methods. Japanese inventiveness
and attention to the minutiae of organisation have
enabled mills and factories in Japan to maintain a
considerable degree of efficiency long after the
withdrawal of the Europeans who initiated the
various industries ; but deterioration is by no means
unknown. Competent authorities are to be found
in Japan who hold that the falling off from
European standards is far more serious and wide-
spread than is generally supposed, though partly
compensated by Japanese resourcefulness and in-
dustry. The supply of trained Japanese mechanics
and engineers is so limited that machinery is often
injured by unskilled handling. When the original
JAPANESE EFFICIENCY 231
managers make money they occasionally lose interest
in their undertakings, which pass to irresponsible
underlings. The plant, which is often of the best,
is not kept in as good order as would be the case in
European workshops and factories. Nor are defects
in one concern compensated, as in Europe, by
increased excellence in another.
Ship-building is one of the most highly developed
industries in Japan. In the principal dockyards of
Osaka and Kobe I saw a number of steel vessels
under construction, including half a dozen torpedo-
boats and two gunboats intended for the Chinese
navy. The work struck me as of very fair quality
and as proceeding at good speed, though the day's
task performed by the individual workman was con-
siderably less than a European would have got
through. Deficiency in the unit of work, however,
was fully compensated by numerical superiority in
the workmen. N ickel-steel plates of excellent quality
were in use ; but I observed that both these plates
and also much of the shafting and other working
parts of the engines were of European or American
manufacture. The drawing of the plans, the bolting
together of the framework and plates, the installing
of the engines, and the manufacture and fitting of
the woodwork must be credited to the Japanese.
Those portions of the materials which are difficult
to prepare, also the more complicated factors in the
mechanism, which, in Europe, would be made at
home, were imported.
Similarly, in the case of the electric tram-lines
232 JAPANESE EFFICIENCY
at Tokyo and Kyoto, I found that the wood-
work of the cars and the steel rails were
Japanese, but the working parts, as a rule,
were of foreign origin. The Japanese has learnt
to use the white man's inventions and to operate
his machinery, but has stopped short of inventing
and making the machinery for himself. I am aware
that this allegation is disputed. The Japanese claim
to be large inventors, and quote their rifle, their
high explosives, and their wireless telegraph as
examples of their achievements in this field. The
more closely, however, that intelligent foreigners in
Japan have been associated with these inventions,
the more sceptical one finds them upon the subject
of the originality involved. The laws of Japan
afford little protection to foreign patents. The
Japanese is clever in borrowing the discoveries of
others and in adding unimportant modifications
which give an appearance of novelty. His critics
regard the secrecy in which he wraps many of his
manufacturing processes as confirmative of the
common allegation that he is making illegitimate
use of other men's discoveries. Evidence of clever
imitation and adaptation is everywhere available
in Japan, but examples of originality in practical
matters are more difficult to obtain.
The ordinary Japanese believes with some reason
that, individually or collectively, he has learnt pretty
well all that the average imported employee can
teach him; but he recognises that processes and
inventions are in use in Europe and America which
JAPANESE EFFICIENCY 233
are still worth his while to master. He travels
assiduously to study them, and is remarkably suc-
cessful in searching out what is of value. He then
returns to Japan with the results, and organises the
cheap labour which is there available in turning
them to account The copy is astonishingly good,
but the original still surpasses it. The Japanese
has started, with the light-hearted self-confidence
of a clever boy, to undertake anything and every-
thing the European can accomplish ; and he has had
such a large measure of success that a tendency has
arisen to magnify his achievements unduly. He
has passed beyond the inferior and the mediocre,
but must pursue the road of progress a very great
deal further before he can overtake the white man
at his best.
Japan has made her grand national effort, and
must now rest to refit and recuperate. Education,
high and low, technical and physical, as well as
theoretical, is extending gradually amongst her
people ; but progress is slow. Elementary teaching
reaches a larger proportion of the children of
school-going age than in any other country in the
world. No one can see the large crowds of well-
developed men and boys at physical drill in the
free, open-air gymnasia of Tokyo, without compar-
ing them, to their advantage, with the average
manhood of Great Britain. The laboratories and
workshops of the Tokyo University, where educa-
tion is free, can challenge the costly corresponding
institutions at Eton and Oxford without fear of
234 JAPANESE EFFICIENCY
being put to shame ; but there is one deficiency.
The number of Japanese possessed of first-class
training is still very small. The demand for trained
men in every branch of enterprise has outstripped
the supply so completely that individuals with only
rudimentary acquirements have to be accepted and
paid for as if they were the genuine article.
Japanese engineers are especially scarce. Railway
companies in China are beginning to find that it is
cheaper to import Europeans than to employ the
Japanese who are available ; and Chinese officials
constantly complain of inefficiency upon the part of
the so-called Japanese experts in their service.
The Japanese no doubt needs every advantage
he has in China, and the greatest is his natural
power of assimilation with the Chinese. His
elaborate manners commend themselves to Chinese
notions of propriety, whereas the abruptness of
European behaviour gives sore offence. In a
set of papers published in Shanghai in 1901,
Ku Hung-Ming, a Chinese gentleman with Euro-
pean education, who was at the time secretary-
interpreter to Viceroy Chang-Chih-Tung, quotes
with approval the statement of Count Cassini that
" The Chinese are a polite people, and the English
and Germans are — well — as a rule, not very polite,"
and adds, **The fact is, the average foreigner in
China is often very unreasonable and hasty; and
the average Chinaman is polite and reserved.
When you make an unreasonable request to a
really educated Chinaman, it is impossible for him
JAPANESE EFFICIENCY 23$
to say 'No.' His innate politeness will prompt him
to use polite evasiveness by giving you a condi-
tional 'Yes/ The late Marquis Tseng Kuo-Fan,
in a letter to a friend in i860, says, 'When you
meet with foreigners who make insolent and insult-
ing remarks to your face, the best course to take
is to smile blandly and look stupid, as if you did
not understand them.' . . . Thus against foreign
unreasonableness the educated Chinese are often
prompted to use polite evasiveness, and against
foreign unreasonable violence the Chinese some-
times use a weapon which in Chinese is called 'Chi
mi,' translated by Dr. Giles as ' to halter.' In fact
when you meet a violent mad bull, it is of no use to
reason with him ; the only thing you can do is to
halter him."
The ordinary European often comes to grief in
China because he cannot communicate with those
around him. The Japanese suffers from no such
disability since he has only to write to be under-
stood, the picture signs being practically identical
in the two languages. Physically the races have
so many points of resemblance that Chinese
students in Japan who cut off their queues and
dress in kimonos can often pass undiscovered
as Japanese, and Japanese in China can make
themselves similarly at home. The Japanese
looks upon China as his natural field of enter-
prise, and flocks there in large numbers. As an
interpreter of Western science to the Chinese he
has the important qualification, which the Euro-
236 JAPANESE EFFICIENCY
pean lacks, of having personally experienced the
difficulties which present themselves to the
Oriental. Nevertheless, his Chinese pupils are
beginning to realise that it is more advantageous
to learn first-hand from the Europeans than
second-hand from the Japanese. The Japanisation
of China is proceeding, in consequence, very much
more slowly than is generally supposed. So long
as Japanese professors, engineers, soldiers, and
chemists were notably cheaper than Europeans and
claimed equivalent qualifications, there was a
definite incentive to the Chinese to turn to Japan
for their requirements. Now that this is no longer
the case, as the excess of demand over supply has
sent up the price of the Japanese commodity, a
reaction has commenced.
Japan may yet arrive at the port where many of
her admirers imagine her to be at anchor already.
She has put out the Western pilot and weathered a
storm since his departure; but some eccentricities
in the course she is steering are already apparent,
and a wide ocean has still to be crossed.
CHAPTER XX
THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO
THE High Court at Tokyo is a typical insti-
tution of the Japanese present It comprises
three sets of tribunals, a Local Court of first
instance, an Appeal Court to which reference
can be made in almost all cases on both law and
fact, and a Supreme Court which gives a second
reference on points of law only, and corresponds
to the appellate tribunal of our House of Lords.
As Japan has borrowed its naval training from
England and its military system from Germany,
so it has introduced its judicial arrangements from
France. No juries are employed, and long cross-
questioning of prisoners and defendants by the
bench are familiar features of the proceedings in
court. The bar is exclusively Japanese, and its
members enjoy much consideration and make large
incomes. They represent clients, address the court,
and suggest to the judges questions to put to the
witnesses, but they do no examining. On the
other hand, admissions which they make are held
to have been made by their clients. The court
consists always of several judges sitting as a
238 THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO
bench. There is also in each court a public
prosecutor who represents the Crown in criminal
cases, and watches the public interest in civil
ones. The accused is always expected to confess,
and so much weight is attached to his doing so
that, up to thirty years ago, torture was employed
as a regular means to this end. Professor Basil
Chamberlain tells in ** Things Japanese " how
its abolition was brought about by the indignant
protests of a distinguished French jurist, em-
ployed by the Japanese Government to introduce
the present system, who found his labours in the
court interrupted by groans, and forced his way
to their source to discover the existence of a
torture chamber. He offered his employers the
alternative of abolishing torture or of losing his
services; and the threat prevailed. The change
was a very necessary preliminary to the abandon-
ment, so necessary to Japan's status among
civilised powers, of extra-territoriality.
Judges have been known to go out on strike
in Japan for better pay; but their probity is un-
questioned. I have heard some of their decisions
in commercial cases, in which Europeans have
been concerned, criticised as lacking in technical
knowledge, but never as intentionally unjust. The
judicial system has been transplanted to Japanese
soil with little loss of vitality; but the French
lawyers who introduced the exotic have now re-
tired and its culture is in the hands of the
indigenes*
THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO 239
I visited the High Courts in Tokyo under the
favourable auspices of a letter of introduction to the
Minister of Justice. The Chief Justice of the Local
Court, a solid gentleman in European morning dress,
was good enough to conduct me over all the courts
that happened to be sitting [ and the secretary to the
Minister of Justice kindly accompanied us as inter-
preter. We passed through a simply furnished
ante-room to which the judges retire to discuss
their decisions. The Chief Justice climbed up half
a dozen steps at the far end and opened a small door
in the wall at the top. He then turned and beckoned
us to follow him. Upon the other side we found
ourselves upon the rostrum of the bench in one of
the smaller courts, and were accommodated with
chairs, a little in the rear of those of three judges
who were engaged in trying a case.
The judges wore black gauze caps and plain
black robes ; and the impression they gave me was
the pleasant one of substantial capacity and quiet
common sense. The man they were trying was a
Japanese coolie, accused of selling sak^ without a
licence. The senior judge was examining a defer-
ential but self-possessed youth appearing as a witness
on behalf of the accused, who sat stolidly alongside.
The boy was questioned as to his connection with
the principal in the case, and was told eventually
that his evidence would be taken as that of a relative
and not as of an ordinary witness, the latter being
liable to penalties in case of perjury which the
former escapes. In Japanese law you may lie for
240 THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO
your relatives without committing perjury, but your
tendency to do so is discounted in advance. Two
women in black kimonos sat behind with troubled
faces. A ferret-faced lawyer in cap and gown was
with them.
Our visit to this court was brief, for there was
much to see. We passed into another, which was
also subordinated to my kindly cicerone, and saw a
case postponed in which the prisoner refused to
confirm die statement taken down by the judge
in the preliminary secret examination where the
primd facie case is made out.
Then we went on to a third and sat upon the
bench, as strangers in the wake of a Chief Justice
may, in a very much more important case. The
lai^e hall below us was crowded. Seventeen
Japanese in robes, with the look of keenness and
assurance upon their faces which stands for
practising barristers in all parts of the world,
lounged upon seats in the middle, since deference
to the bench is not exacted from the bar in Japan
as strictly as in England. In front of the barristers
were huddled some fifty accused who were under the
charge of a number of court officials. On one side
half a dozen newspaper reporters painted in pictorial
shorthand. A crowd filled the body of the building.
We were assisting at the trial of some of the rioters
who had made a demonstration against the accept-
ance by their country of the self-denying conditions
of the peace treaty with Russia. The best counsel
in Japan were engaged in the defence, and the
THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO 241
sympathy of the spectators was all upon one side.
The state of feeling was not so much apparent in
the attitude of the silent and respectful crowd as
implied in the faces of the accused, who were grave
but by no means disquieted, though several people
had lost their lives in the disturbance. They
believed still in the righteousness of their action,
and relied confidently upon the patriotism which had
prompted their offence to extract them from serious
consequence. They were dressed, like the crowd
at the back, in the blue kimonos of the working
classes, whereas all the officials of the court wore
European dress beneath their robes of office. The
judicial desks were piled high with paper books
containing the records of the evidence.
As we arrived, the senior judge, who occupied the
central seat upon the bench, was reading out state-
ments made by the prisoners in their preliminary
secret examination. The men concerned stood up
as their names were called ; and I saw no endeavour
made, either by themselves or their counsel, to
dispute the accuracy of the record. The public
prosecutor, who sat to the right of the bench,
had an assistant beside him, but neither
of the pair spoke. Their responsibilities were
heavy, since the side they represented was un-
popular and at a disadvantage as regards legal
talent, but their faces wore the look of men unlikely
to be turned from their duty by either eloquence
or sentiment.
The case proceeded slowly, and the senior judge
242 THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO
was still reading out the notes when my companions
took me away. Our destination was now the
Appeal Court, outside the jurisdiction of the Local
Court Chief Justice, so a seat upon the bench was
no longer available ; and we made our way to an
enclosure open to the public. This faced the
judicial rostrum, on which five judges sat in a
row, flanked by the public prosecutor upon the
right and the clerk of the court upon the left
Five barristers occupied positions at a row of
small tables immediately in front of us. We
were the only spectators present, and neither of
the parties to the case that was under appeal
appeared. Two of the barristers were upon their
feet, one of them silent, the other rasping out
the defence. The Chief Judge, who sat in the
centre of the rostrum, afterwards said a few grave
words, and the case was over. The two counsel
for the defence, also a barrister who had been
for the plaintiff, walked out, after bowing slightly
to the bench. They left the door open behind
them, and their tramp and voices echoed loudly
through the empty stone corridor outside. A
marshal, who sat below the bench, in white duck
uniform with brass buttons, opened his eyes sud-
denly and climbed carefully down from his chair,
his legs not being long enough to reach the ground
as he sat He walked stiffly across the court and
shut the door with precision, thereafter returning to
his seat and reclosing his eyes. The court clerk
shut up his note-book and put away a paint-brush.
THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO 243
One of the remaining barristers rose, turned over
a packet of tissue paper covered with neat black
writing, and cleared his throat loudly. He then
muttered a few words and hunted about for the
place. Judge number two on the right sighed
softly. Judge number one on the left changed a
cramped position. Stout counsel for the defendant
sat squarely to attention. Counsel for the petitioner
found the place at last and got into his subject. He
was appealing against the decision of a Local Court
which had thrown out a petition to have a son disquali-
fied on grounds of misbehaviour from succeeding to
family property. The case must have been a forlorn
one, for counsel kept his nose in his notes and sawed
away at the points with an " I don't care what you
may say " intonation that arrayed all my sympathies
in favour of the peccant son. I was waiting to see
the Chief Justice glance round his colleagues and
dismiss the appeal when my conductors arose and
led the way out of the court We had seen the
appellate machine at work, and there was something
else to be done. We went out as quietly as we
could, and closed the door carefully behind, byt the
corridor echoed badly. The court seemed impervious
to interruption. The judges on the bench were all
watching their barrister, and I feel confident that
they dealt with him firmly.
Outside we met an under-trial prisoner in an
enormous basket mask, since such is the kind-
heartedness of the Japanese that they will not hurt
even a criminal's feelings by exposing him as such to
244 THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO
the public gaze until they are quite sure no mistake
has been made about his guilt. He was on his
way to his cell in the basement, from the secret
examination before the recording judge, A closely
barred door to this secret tribunal was shown to me.
It led out of a dusky passage and seemed more
appropriate to the past than to the present Below
were the cells where cheerful Japanese policemen
kept watch over disconsolate under-trial prisoners,
who turned their faces away as we approached
The Supreme Court was not in session, but my
conductors carried me to its rostrum, where stood
the seven empty chairs of the ordinary bench, with
space around them for twenty-three more, since the
whole of the thirty judges sit together whenever
an appeal which involves any previous decision of
any of their number is brought before them. They
also took me to call upon the President of the
Supreme Court, a courteous elderly gentleman in
European dress, who gave us tea in his simply
furnished office and inquired politely, in Japanese,
about my travels, suggesting that I should visit the
Singamo prison to obtain a further impression of
the system of Japanese justice.
To the Singamo prison I accordingly went the next
day. It is at the other end of Tokyo, and confines
eighteen hundred long-term prisoners. The wards
are well-built structures, radiating from a centre and
elaborately fitted up. The prisoners were engaged,
under the supervision of a surprisingly large number
of paid warders, in such industries as weaving, boot-
THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO 245
making, tailoring, grain-grinding, and smithy work.
The system largely utilised in India, of employing
the better-behaved convicts to look after their
more troublesome fellows, was not adopted. I saw
attractive kitchens where savoury rice and vege-
tables were being cooked for the convicts, and was
shown the varying measures of food g^ven to each
individual to accord with his behaviour; for the
Japanese hold quite wisely that violence and mis-
behaviour are best met by reducing the rice supply.
This means of discipline, I gathered, was held
rather in terrorem than practised habitually, since
most of the prisoners looked well fed and cheerful.
The arrangements were so complicated that I was
not surprised to learn that the cost of each prisoner
is a hundred per cent, more than in Indian jails,
though this did not seem to imply any noticeably
higher standard of health or reformation.
The whole organisation, from the secret chambers
of preliminary judicial investigation, where the
accused is tried by every test but that of the opinion
of his peers, to the glazed hospital wards of the
prison, where the consumptive criminal is given every
luxury except fresh air, struck me as over-elaborated
in faithful imitation of not always perfect European
models. It represents, however, a surprisingly
high standard, considering the shortness of the
time which has elapsed since its introduction from
the West ; and its limitations are typical of the stage
which Japan has now reached as a state civilised
upon Western pattern.
246 THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO
I
To step back into the Japan of the past it is
necessary to go no further than the immense pandal
in the heart of the city in which the national wrest-
ling competition is still held The road passes the
palace garden, where a space as big as Trafalgar
Square is hedged with closely set rows of guns of
every calibre, captured from the Russians and
hauled to this central location, without regard to
cost or labour, to be a perpetual reminder to the
Japanese people of danger they must ever stand
ready to face.
A jinrickshaw whirled me to the Ekoin temple
and on through an arch thirty feet high, which in
itself constitutes one of the prizes given to the
master wrestler. The arch was built of nothing
but straw-bound pots, the size of coal-scuttles, each
filled to its earthen brim with the strongest sak^.
Beyond was the wresding booth, an immense struc-
ture, into the dark interior of which sunbeams slanted
distractingly through holes in the torn mat roof.
Only slowly could a way be made through the
crowd to a tottering grand-stand, where seats
were obtainable. A dado of yellow faces, white
straw hats, and dingy kimonos lined the walls of
the thronged amphitheatre. In the middle was a
raised mud platform containing a small ring marked
off by a hayrope sunk in the floor. The platform
was shaded by an erection like that which covers a
four-poster bed.
An umpire squatted gravely upon his heels at the
foot of each of the bed-posts. On benches around
THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO 247
were half a dozen of the biggest and fattest Japanese
I have ever seen. They were innocent of clothes
except for a blue belt with stiff tassels, which stuck
out round them like the frill on a ham-bone. The
flesh hung from their sides in pendulous masses.
It was the most lamentable spectacle of strong
men made gross and what we should think out
of condition, I had ever seen.
Presently there appeared in the ring a grey
kimono with white socks below, a large fan at one
side, and a round head of closely cropped black
hair on top. It was the master of the ceremonies
with his back towards us, in the act of making an
announcement to the assembly. With no desire to
be flippant, I can only say that the words, which
were of course incomprehensible, sounded like the
prolonged lamentations of a deserted cat. The
interpreter explained that they signified the post-
ponement of the finals by a day for the reason that
one of the champions had cut his lip.
The situation thus cleared, two of the fat men
lumbered up, one from either side, to plant them-
selves opposite to one another in the ring, where
they stood with feet wide apart and looked at each
other. Then one of them lifted up a huge leg
sideways, until the knee was almost as high as the
shoulder, and brought it down again with a stamp.
He repeated the performance first with one foot
and then with the other a number of times over.
His vts-d-vis copied him exactly.
The two great men were stretching themselves
348 THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO
before their admirers, and we all waited respect-
fully ; but nothing happened. Suddenly both
squatted down on their heels. The grey kimono
did the same, and extended a yellow hand to set
great man number one back an inch exactly, after
which he flapped his fan violently and caterwauled
more briefly. A homeric battle was surely about
to begin, but not so. Number one champion
suddenly stood up and went off the platform for a
drink, which he took with much ceremony. Number
two champion followed his example, and rubbed
himself all over with a small piece of thin paper.
The first round was over, and neither had touched
the other ; but both took a good rest before they
reappeared in the ring. Then the process was
repeated. The second round was exactly like the
first, except that hero number one danced on his
heels, and hero number two took exercise by
standing up straight and then suddenly getting
down upon his hands and knees — manoeuvres which
required hero number one to do the same. Neither
touched the other, but this did not interfere with the
necessity of another adjournment for drinks and
massage. The third, fourth, fifth, and sixth rounds
were equally preliminary.
The audience grew impatient, and an individual
in the dress circle barked out some comment at
which there was a roar. ** He say first-class
wrestlers not so slow," interpreted the hotel guide.
There was another shout, and ** He say so long
time must pay forfeit," was the translation.
THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO 249
Then something happened. Number two made
a spring and clutched at number one, but number
one did not approve. He folded his arms and
backed out of the ring without being collared.
That finished round the seventh, and there was
another interval for rest and refreshments. The
eighth round was no more exciting; but in the
ninth number one took the offensive. Number
two refused, but was too late in doing so, and
received as he retired a heavy push and an open-
handed smack in the eye which sent him flying off
the stage. He sat down and nursed his eye with a
paper pocket-handkerchief, getting up now and then
to rinse his mouth with water. Number one stood
proudly to attention in the ring while various
officials in old willow-pattern petticoats crowded
round number two to suggest he should return to
the contest ; but number two had had enough and
would not The grey kimono went to the umpires
and had a lengthy confabulation with each apart
Then all four umpires rose stiffly to their feet and
discussed the matter together in the middle of the
ring. One of them was deputed to examine the
eye, which showed no signs of injury visible from
the grand stand. He returned, and a further
council was held. '
At length the senior willow-pattern made an
announcement, which we all received with relief.
The interpreter explained that the match was
drawn, but not with honour. Number one re-
tired with head erect. Niunber two shuffled off
dejectedly, and two fresh champions appeared.
250 THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO
This time there was to be no fiasco. The
stamping and leg-stretching lasted not more than a
minute. Then both got down upon their hands and
knees. The umpire tapped them apart, and both
went off for a drink. Then they faced each other
again, and in a flash were boxing like two cats on a
housetop. The struggle lasted ten seconds, and
the one who was bald-headed received a punch on
the throat which sent him out of the ring. That
finished the event, and the man who was still in the
ring was clapped as victorious.
Other pairs succeeded. Two men like bladders
gripped each other suddenly, with hardly any pre-
liminaries, and fell heavily together. The wrestler
who was uppermost was declared the victor. It
was almost impossible to believe that the man
underneath had not burst with the shock, so
extraordinarily inflated was his person and so
violent the concussion, but he picked himself up
cheerfully, none the worse for the encounter, which
had at least been honourable.
Presently a well-matched couple set to work and
struggled violently about the ring for half a minute
in tight embrace. Then they leant up against each
other heavily to recover breath. The real thing
had surely come at last But no; the master of
the ceremonies interfered. He touched each man
on the shoulder, whereupon the embrace was ended
and die meek combatants retired for the indis-
pensable refreshments.
The proceedings had become wearisome, and
THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO 251
the prospect of another long set of preliminaries
was not exhilarating. It was an agreeable surprise,
therefore, to see that the match was to be con-
tinued where it had left off. The champions
reappeared, and the umpires took hold of their
long arms and arranged them round each other,
exactly as they had been before. Another well-
matched tussle ensued. Neither went down, and
in a few seconds the umpire again interfered.
This time it was to announce that a draw with
honour had occurred. The champions unlocked,
and retired with equal pride to the cheerful accom-
paniment of clapping.
The last round of the day followed. A lithe
man in hard condition but small of stature tackled
a fat giant vigorously and well. The giant threw
his assailant at last and fell heavily beside him;
but the smaller man's pluck was excellent, and the
assembly cheered him lustily. The guide explained
that the winner in this case was the second favourite.
The proceedings terminated and the crowd
trooped out in orderly fashion. The fat men
strutted up and down the road with self-satisfied
smiles, their long black hair done up in chignons on
the tops of their heads. One of them sailed past
at dangerous pace through the crowd, in a jinrick-
shaw with two gaily dressed coolies harnessed
tandem-fashion in front Everybody made way
respectfully. Heads looked out from all the
windows. The dignity of the profession of the
wrestler was unmistakable.
252 THE NEW AND THE OLD IN TOKYO
Between the High Court and the wrestling booth
is a gulf of a thousand years, which the breaking
down of the barrier against the European has
enabled the Japanese to bridge in one generation.
Nominally that barrier is still down; but the
European who has taught Japan the sciences and
arts by which she has profited so magnificently no
longer finds the opening as practicable as it was. A
new phase has begun in which the Japanese people
have commenced once more to rely upon themselves
alone. They are turning more and more to their
ancient wrestling booths. Their borrowed Euro-
pean lawyers have retired, and the amendment of
the code of their High Court is left to indigenous
hands. If the movement be general, as I believe
to be the case, it cannot fail of effect upon the
future, for the wrestling is typical of what the race
has thought well to evolve when left to its unaided
resources. The enormous momentum, which has
been borrowed from Europe, will no doubt long
continue; but momentum tends to decrease when
not continually reinforced. Upon the extent and
the frequency with which Japan will consider it
necessary to import this reinforcement probably
depends her future among the powers that stand
for modern civilisation.
«»*
CHAPTER XXI
INDIA AS A LEVER IN THE FAR EAST
IN the year 1900, when urgent necessity arose to
send troops to the relief of Peking, the South
African War was still in progress, and Great Britain
was not in a position to undertake an additional
campaign in a field so remote as China. The task
of relieving the endangered Legation was therefore
handed over to the Government of India. Simla
responded with a promptitude and efficiency which
argued well for her ability to meet Imperial demands
of greater scope. Not once, while the lights burned
late in the departmental offices under the deodars,
did she turn to Pall Mall for help in her prepara-
tions. Not once was it even hinted, at all events
publicly, that any but an Indian officer should take
command of the contingent Delicate situations
arising out of the international character of the
undertaking were handled with a tact that had little
to learn from the British Foreign Office. Cawn-
pore and Calcutta factories furnished tents, clothes,
boots, saddlery, and ammunition. To-day they
could furnish rifles and field guns as well. In the
thronged harbours of Calcutta and Bombay the
254 INDIA AS A LEVER IN THE FAR EAST
Indian Marine Department took its pick of Indian
merchant steamers for transport. Thirty thousand
troops were told off and despatched with all field
equipment, and reached the scene of the operations
in China at least a month sooner than would have
been the case if they had embarked in the English
Channel.
The bulk of the force was native, and the regi-
ments were drawn chiefly from the Bombay and
Madras commands, in order to give those corps a
chance of distinguishing themselves which seldomest
see fighting on the Indian frontiers. The regiments
of the Punjab command, which are inured to
extremes of climate and hardened by border war-
fare, were scarcely represented. The contingent
went from enervating stations in the hot plains of
Southern and Western India to the snow and frost
of a Chihli winter, yet the white troops of Germany,
France and Italy failed to outstay our force upon
the march or to surpass it in action. The Indian
troops took more than their full share of hardship,
and were first inside Peking in the attack in which
the operations culminated — an honour attributable
to campaigning quality as well as to luck. The
health of the Indians was vastly better than that
of the Germans. Their discipline was superior
to that of any of the Allies, the Japanese alone
excepted. Their strength was that which the
British Government considered necessary. Had
a force three times as large been wanted the
demand could have been met. Far from exhaust-
INDIA AS A LEVER IN THE FAR EAST 2$$
ing the resources of India the expedition laid only
small and light toll upon them.
Great Britain paid the cost of the contingent
because the Legation which had to be rescued
was her own. India would have been fully able
to find the money. The gross revenues of its
Government exceed eighty million sterling annually.
There is litde burden of debt for other than such
reproductive public works as railways and canals ;
and surpluses have been so much the rule of late
years, in spite of two recent reductions in the
rate of taxation, that large military enterprises can
be conducted vrithout upsetting the financial
equilibrium. It must also be remembered that
fighting is the hereditary employment of large
sections of the races of the northern provinces.
The trade of arms is understood and followed as
a profitable calling by men whose ancestors were
seldom at peace.
The ability of India to assist Great Britain in
the Far East rests upon the sound basis of
military preparedness buttressed by financial
strength ; but the question naturally arises as to
how far the British Government is justified in
employing that ability. If India were here a
mere tool of empire, with no considerable interests
of her own to serve, she might be considered to
be hardly used by a policy which made her an
active participant in Far East affairs; but the
contrary is the case. India is affected by Far
Eastern conditions almost as closely as Great
256 INDIA AS A LEVER IN THE FAR EAST
BritaiiL Calcutta and Bombay do a larger trade
with China than with any other country except
the United Kingdom. The Indian taxpayer is
relieved of an annual burden of some three
million sterling by the taste of the Chinese for
the opium of Patna and Benares. China and
Japan are the principal foreign buyers of Deccan
cotton goods and Bengal jute. They also take the
major portion of Indian fish exports, and afford the
principal market for the indigo of Behar. Fleets of
steamers owned in Calcutta and Bombay trade
between India and the Far East Indians are
employed as police in all the treaty ports of China.
An Indian regiment guards British interests at
Shan-hai-kwan. Anglo-Indians are engaged in
the development of mining, trade, and railway
enterprises from Canton to Peking. Members
of the Indian Staff Corps and the Indian Medical,
Public Works and Survey Departments have been
pioneers in exploration throughout the Chinese
Empire.
The western border of China marches, for
several hundred miles, with the eastern boundary
of the Indian Empire ; and the establishment of
direct railway communication between Rangoon and
Shanghai is only a question of time. A well-found
British railway, with many feeders, has been built
from one end of Burma to the other to connect the
principal port on the eastern side of the Bay of
Bengal with Mandalay and Myitkyina. At Man-
dalay a branch has been constructed a hundred
INDIA AS A LEVER IN THE FAR EAST 257
miles in a north-easterly direction to Lashio, near
the Chinese border. Another branch is creeping
forward further north from Bhamo to Tangyueh ;
and both are designed to admit of ultimate extension
into Chinese territory. The original plans for the
Mandalay-Lashio section included an extension to
the Kunlan ferry upon the Salween river ; but
construction was stopped, three years ago, when
Lashio had been reached, as the prospects of local
trade by this route did not then justify the heavy
demand upon the revenues of India involved in
further eastern progress. The country between the
Burmese frontier and the Yangtse basin is cut up
by an almost continuous series of deep gorges which
run at right angles to the general direction of the
route. This makes railway construction costly but
not impossible. The undertaking has been aban-
doned as a local venture, but could be put through
with certainty if it became an Imperial concern.
Military affairs and commercial, shipping, and
railway interests do not exhaust the potentialities
of India were opportunity available in the Far East.
The system pursued in India of giving large powers
and much freedom of action to officials has created
a body of men prompt of action, skilled in Eastern
affairs, and ready to accept responsibility, such as
no other country in the world possesses. Admini-
strators, engineers, and judicial, medical, educational,
police and scientific officers are available in very
large numbers. Enough highly trained servants of
the Government of India are upon leave and in
s
258 INDIA AS A LEVER IN THE FAR EAST
retirement at the present moment to man, if need
arose, a Chinese province.
The problems of the Far East of to-day are but
new versions of those which India has already
solved for herself since she left the stage of not
altogether dissimilar political chaos. The men
who have been active agents in the one case might
be of equal value in the other. Great Britain pos-
sesses in India a skilful interpreter, a large partner,
and a strong coadjutor in Far Eastern affairs. Her
own ability to shape these affairs to advantage
depends to a great extent upon her Indian re-
sources, and not only upon those resources, but
upon the extent to which she is willing to make
use of them. The East is best dealt with by the
East, and Great Britain is alone amongst the
nations of Europe in owning the means to turn this
fact to account.
Intricate political questions involving those
Eastern prejudices, bred of diversity of race and
conflict of faith, which are so baffling to the Western
mind, are handled at Simla with knowledge and
experience. The Indian Foreign Office affords
efficient help in the conduct of the political relations
of Great Britain with Afghanistan, Muscat, and
Southern Persia. An arrangement which has
proved successful when applied to the Western
neighbours of India is not to be neglected so far as
it is applicable to the Eastern. It facilitates, within
the scope at present prescribed to it, the employ-
ment by a democracy of patriarchal methods with
INDIA AS A LEVER IN THE FAR EAST 259
races that most appreciate them. 4t utilises tried
Eastern experience for the solution of Eastern
problems and identifies the men upon whom Great
Britain must largely rely in trouble with her
councillors in peace. The Indian army, a quarter
of a million strong, keeps watch upon the road to
China. A signal flashed from Simla will change
the solitary tramp of sentries into the hum of march-
ing hosts. We have already proved the effective-
ness of this striking force. The men who have
organised it, who have inspired it with loyalty to
Great Britain and made it independent of the
British taxpayer, can also be trusted to be respon-
sible and enlightened advisers of the home Govern-
ment in affairs in which that army must always be
the first support.
The trend of political thought in England is
gradually but surely unfitting the mother country
for direct relations with races unresponsive to the
ideals of modern Anglo-Saxondom. The British
workman may prove himself in the future a shrewd
administrator of his own municipal affairs ; but by
the time his imperial education is completed he may
have lost his valuable Far East markets, if he fails
to make use of the expert agency, backed by armed
force of its own and removed from party politics,
which is available to assist him. Peking is no
longer a bear garden of European Legations where
the scramble of Continental Powers for Far East
concessions had to be frustrated if Great Britain was
to hold her own. It has become a mart where the
26o INDIA AS A LEVER IN THE FAR EAST
yellow man in confirmed possession meets the white
with every Eastern wile. If Great Britain is to
avoid finding herself displaced under these new
conditions, she must not neglect the Eastern
resources in her control
No friction has resulted in Southern Persia from
co-operation between political officers appointed by
the British Foreign Office and others selected by
the Government of India and supported by suitable
escorts from the Indian army. Similar co-ordination
of British and Indian resources, with modification to
suit each case, is possible in other parts of the world
as well as Persia, and there is no doubt that, if
applied in the Far East as opportunity offered, it
would tend to augment Anglo-Saxon influence.
No dramatic change in the existing system is
suggested, but occasion for such co-ordination should
be taken as it might arise. At the moment, Great
Britain needs additional agents to represent her
interests in Manchurian and other centres that
are in course of being thrown open to international
commerce. She could well ask the Government
of India to supply them. Indian trade upon the
Yang^e river, again, is sufficiently extensive to
justify the appointment of Anglo-Indians to foster
it in stations where consular officers are not already
located.
The Oriental pays little attention to what he does
not see. At present the only representatives of
Great Britain, known in hundreds of stations in
China, are missionaries, who are neither intended
INDIA AS A LEVER IN THE FAR EAST 261
nor equipped to support the political interests of
their fellow-countrymen. The more numerous and
widely distributed the accredited agents of a nation
the greater will be its prestige. British prestige
may stand higher than that of any other European
Power in the Far East and yet be the better for
even small additional support ; and that which India
is able to lend is very far from inconsiderable.
The lending of consular officers is not the only
service which India is capable of performing. Com-
paratively recently a former head of the Indian
Foreign Office was given diplomatic charge in
Teheran, and later on in Washington. It would
be more to the purpose if such promotion were to
lead to Shanghai and Peking.
It is no new thing for the Far East to lean upon
India. A religion which Chinese and Japanese
alike profess was imported from Western Bengal,
where Buddha lived and preached two thousand
years ago. In the ages since Sanskrit was the
learned language of Asia, the Mongolian has
borrowed from the Indian in literature, in philo-
sophy, and in art The worship of ancestors, the
race diet of rice and fish, the fire drill used in
Shinto temples, and fables current in both China
and Japan, are said to be traceable to the teaching
of Indian sutras. If influence exercised from India
should hereafter become prominent in Far Eastern
affairs, it will be but the restoration of a connection
suggested by history, approved by existing tradi-
tion, and supported by the sentiment of the past.
CHAPTER XXII
THE OUTLOOK
THE new tact from which all inference must
proceed, is that the situation in the Far East
has resolved itself, since the Russo-Japanese War,
into a question of difficulties and dangers arising
from the peoples of the Far East and from no one
else. These difficulties and dangers can be asso-
ciated only with Japan and China, which are now
masters of the fate of the Mongolian race. So
much stands clear.
Japan has become one of the Great Powers,
though still poor, and not possessed of that vast
population which renders the potentialities of China
so overwhelming. The unaided martial energy of
the forty-five million subjects of the Mikado, how-
ever well directed, need never upset the equilibrium
of the world. Japan must exercise rigid economy
for another ten years to wipe off the burden of
financial indebtedness imposed upon her by war
with Russia. She has undertaken a heavy and
protracted task in the government of Korea. Her
administration of Formosa, though successful after
264 THE OUTLOOK
a long period of costly friction and rebuff, puts a
serious drain upon her manhood The Japanese
entertain an entirely legpltimate ambition to become
the England of the Far East, and to beat European
nations in their own arts of industry and commerce.
They are pressing forward in this direction per-
sistently. Their achievements are great and their
possibilities are greater, though limited in many
ways. Their aims are not altruistic, and their
commercial methods are open to objection; but
they remain capable of combining efficiently with
Great Britain and America in the one thing essen-
tial, which is the maintenance of open markets
in China.
Japan has attained uneasy eminence. Her suc-
cess in curbing the aggression of Russia in Man-
churia is resented by the whole of Continental
Europe with a bitterness of race feeling which is
shared by the Germans, Frenchmen, Belgians, and
Russians, who collectively outnumber the. British in
most of the treaty ports of China. Twelve years
ago Germany and France combined with Russia to
rob Japan of the fruits of her victories over China.
They would do the same now if opportunity offered.
They watch Japan with a jealousy which allows
no slip, however trifling, to escape attention, and
the attitude of Great Britain alone prevents active
manifestation of hostility. The Japanese fully
realise the nature of the situation. They have
shattered, after prolonged efforts which have strained
the capabilities of their country to the utmost, that
THE OUTLOOK 265
portion of the might of Russia which the rolling-
stock of a single line of rails was able to carry to
the Far East across the wilds of Siberia ; but their
leaders recognise, with characteristic directness,
both the small extent of Japanese resources and the
special nature of the circumstances which enabled
them to prevail
The single mistake fairly chargeable to the
Japanese is, as we have seen, a serious one.
They have allowed themselves to be carried
away by popular exaltation, in the hour of vic-
tory, into disregarding the spirit of their treaty
engagements in Manchuria and Korea. It has
been shown in an earlier chapter that European
merchants, including those of Great Britain and
America, find their transactions hampered and
those of their Japanese competitors unduly favoured
in Seoul and Mukden. Complaints are loud-voiced.
Japanese tra[ders have been allowed to import their
goods into Manchuria vid Dalny, where they have
paid no duty, for a full year, during which Europeans
could enter only vid Neuchwang, where import
duties had to be paid. This appears to be now
under rectification ; but the rates upon the railways
in the new territory, which are all in Japanese
hands, are still complained of as designed to favour
the Japanese at the expense of the foreigner.
The silk-cocoon trade between China and Antung,
which was once done by Europeans, has passed to
the Japanese ; and other traffic is threatened The
grievance is real, and is not the less deserving of
266 THE OUTLOOK
notice because natural of occurrence and easy to
make allowance for atter the events of the war.
Grave complications are liable to result if the
attitude adopted by Japan in act, though not in
profession, be persisted in ; but it is not too late for
the trouble to be dealt with adequately by friendly
diplomatic action. The Japanese profess that they
have no intention of breaking their engagements,
and they realise clearly that their need to avoid
national isolation outweighs altogether such mate-
rial advantage as is to be derived from displacing
Anglo-Saxon and other European trade.
The Japanese are not exclusively to blame in
the matter. Great Britain has helped to bring the
difficulty upon herself, by failure to appoint sufficient
consuls to look after the interests of her subjects in
the outlying cities of the vast mainland territories
which are now under Japanese influence. This is
especially the case in the rich plains of Northern
Manchuria, which have possibilities of agricultural
and mining development second only to those of
the new provinces of North- Western Canada. The
United States have been somewhat more alive to
their interests in this respect; but both countries
may direct attention to the matter with advantage.
Both are well represented in Neuchwang and
Seoul ; but both should possess additional agents of
ability inland, and should support them vigorously.
Difficulty is not confined to Manchuria and
Korea. The European resents the position to
which he finds himself relegated in Japan, where he
THE OUTLOOK 267
is welcome only if he be a tourist with money to
spend in the country, and is hampered at every
point if he tries to make a living for himself; but he
has no sustainable grievance here. Japan has won
the right to dispose absolutely of her own pos-
sessions ; and European influence is amply sufficient
to insure reasonable definition of what those
possessions include.
It is easy to threaten Great Britain with ghosts
of Hengist and Horsa because her ally, Japan,
has won, in her own interests, a series of splendid
victories which are of great utility to the Empire.
Such ghosts will take to themselves bones and
flesh with absolute certainty the day that British
naval efficiency is neglected or the army of India
is allowed to fall into decay ; but they are com-
paratively harmless vapours so long as no such
national suicide be committed. Hengist and
Horsa would never have turned upon their allies
had those allies been of fighting stock and equiva-
lently armed. Whatever our Oriental friendships,
the fate of the ancient Briton is not yet written on
the forehead of the Anglo-Saxon.
The Government of Japan is still upon an aristo-
cratic basis, and the representatives of the fighting
Samurai remain in practical, though no longer pro-
fessed authority. Should the democracy prevail,
hereafter, and an influential labour party become a
permanent feature of the Tokyo Parliament, the
situation would tend to become less and not more
acute, since the proportion of the national income
268 THE OUTLOOK
voted for the furtherance of an aggressive foreign
policy would be reduced. In any case, however,
minor sources of friction between the Anglo-Saxon
and the Japanese will continue to exist There is
no smoothing away the racial antipathies of indepen-
dent and intensely self-reliant peoples belonging to
totally different branches of the human family long
isolated from each other. Even those white men
who have spent the greater part of their lives in
Japan, who have studied the language and the
customs of the country, and allied themselves with
it, in the closest personal manner, by contracting
permanent and fully recognised marriages with
Japanese ladies belonging to cultivated and influ-
ential families, find themselves often aloof from the
point of view of the Japanese amongst whom they
live. The difficulties which they encounter upon a
small scale are not unlike those which confront the
British and American Governments upon a large
scale, in relations with Tokyo.
Unfortunate incidents, such as have arisen
during the past autumn, between Americans and
Japanese in the PribylofTs and in California, are
certain to recur and to increase the strain ; but
«ach side is capable of making sufficient allowance
for the idiosyncrasies of the other to enable
effectual co-operation to continue in the main lines
of policy that govern the affairs of the Far East
Community of interest makes ever a reliable bond.
The much-advertised theory that Japan is supplying
nerves and brain to the inert corpus of China, with
THE OUTLOOK 269
a view to arraying it against the white man« can
easily be pushed further than the situation justifies.
The Chinese are borrowing European sciences
and arts second-hand from Japan* but they are
also borrowing them first-hand from Europe. The
source adopted is largely determined by considera-
tions of price. A Japanese vogue was created in
China by the success of Japan over Russia, but
this is already decreasing, the Japanese article
proving deficient in both quantity and quality, yet
asking scarcity rates. The Japanese has an advan-
tage over the European in understanding the
Chinese, because of his racial relationship; but I
have found no indication that he is anywhere ac-
quiring any special ascendency on this account On
the contrary, his failure to hand back Korea to
China is confirming his old unpopularity. Neither
individually nor nationally is he in a position to
play the injurious part that has been suggested for
him. He will do in China the best he can for
himself ; but this need not cause alarm at present
to anybody else. There is every reason to suppose
that Japan will remain the valued ally of Great
Britain, and her splendid achievements in the life-
and-death struggle, from which she has emerged so
magnificendy, will probably not be obscured by
sustainable charges of subsequent broken faith.
The Chinese factor is more complex. If racial
characteristics, hitherto potent in keeping the
yellow man in subordination to the white, were
no longer operative, the future would cause well-
270 THE OUTLOOK
founded anxiety for the world in general as well
as for the Far East; but the changes which are
in progress do not go so deep. Western virility
cannot be assumed with clothes and learning.
Moral qualities have to be inherited to stand the
test of trial. The imitation does not wear like the
original. Modern Chinese civilisation and progress
have all the inherent weaknesses of exotics.
Growth may be vigorous, but the yield will not be
in proportion to the standing size of the crop.
The gravest feature of the situation is that China
is arming ; and that she means to become a world-
power equivalently equipped and vastly larger than
Japan. The menace of the outlook centres upon
the seventy thousand mauser-armed troops, which
Yuan-Shih-Kai has brought into being in Northern
China. This large force is far more efficient than
anything Chinese of its kind that has ever existed
before ; and it is liable to increase in size indefinitely,
if nothing be done to check its growth ; but it has
certain features which limit its capabilities. It may
be drilled, organised, and armed as well as European
troops, though some of the incidents of the recent
manoeuvres in the Honan province, in which twenty-
four thousand men, including some of the best corps
from Paotingfu, Tientsin, Shantung, and Peking took
part, do not indicate that this is yet the case.
The following are extracts from a telegram, dated
October 23, 1906, published by the London Times,
from its correspondent in Peking, who is one of
the closest students of military affairs in China : —
THE OUTLOOK 271
'•The general opinion formed at the manoeuvres
by the military attaches was not unfavourable,
though many years' work towards uniformity
without official jobbery will be needed before the
troops can claim equality with those of more
advanced nations. The inefficiency of the officers
is still conspicuous, and the field training of men is
still inadequate, but the material is good. There
was little confusion, discipline was satisfactory^ and
the men showed improved military bearing. Inci-
dents occurred which, if repeated in war, would be
disastrous. The spectacle of two contending forces
blazing at each other while standing in close forma-
tion at sixty yards' distance suggested methods of
warfare more suitable to the bow-and-arrow period
than to that of the modern rifle, though the noise of
the fusillade was highly gratifying to the Chinese
spectators.
'' Practically all the forces engaged had been
instructed by Japanese officers, of whom twelve
on each side, dressed in Chinese uniform with
queues, took a prominent part. Colonel Ugata
acting as chief of the staff to Chang-piao» com-
manding the Southern Army, and Colonel Banzai
being chief military adviser to Tuan Chi-jui, com-
manding the Northern Army. What would have
happened had the Japanese been absent is a
question easily answered. What will happen to
this newly-formed army, whose early stages we are
272 THE OUTLOOK
witnessing, when the strong arm of Yuan-Shih*Kai
ceases to control them is not so easy to conjecture."
The Chinese soldier may be prepared to meet
death at his post, provided it comes to him in the
precise guise in which he has been trained to await
it, and not in some unexpected form ; but he remains
Chinese in enterprise, in resourcefulness, and in
spirit Travellers in the interior of China are
familiar with a condition of abject terror of the
unknown, upon the part of their Chinese servants,
which no amount of military training can eradicate.
The European is able to understand the low esteem
in which the Japanese hold the Chinese when he
sees for himself grown Chinese men refusing to
leave the inside of a mule-cart for days together
because the route taken happens to lie through a
region where highway robbery is liable to occur.
The Manchurians were despised by both the
Russians and the Japanese during the late war
for their lack of fighting quality, yet I have heard
of two hundred and fifty Manchurian Hunchuses
repulsing, with seventy casualties, a thousand
modem-armed Chinese troops in the province
where the bulk of Yuan-Shih-Kai's much vaunted
army is recruited. The Manchurians, on their
way to attack the Chinese on this occasion, pai^sed
through a village in which some British and Ger-
man travellers were resting. They announced, on
their arrival, that they had no particular quarrel
with the white man, and they advised the British
THE OUTLOOK 273
to stop with them, on the ground that this would
be the safest course, but said they would not make
themselves responsible for the Germans. The
British accordingly stopped and were well treated.
The Germans moved on. Little doubt seems to
have been felt beforehand, by those who were
present, that the Chinese would get the worst of
the fight that was to follow, and the expected
happened. Yet the Chinese troops were fair samples
of the force for which such extensive achievement
has been prophesied.
An incident, described to me by an eye-witness,
at a large military station in North China is also
dpropos. A force of modern Chinese troops de-
trained on the railway platform for the night,
intending to resume their journey on the following
day. Orders had been issued that the men should
not go into the bazars. The Chinese officer in
charge had barely reminded his men of this pro-
hibition when he saw one of them sneaking away
round the comer, in direct defiance of his authority.
He ran after the delinquent, seized him by the
hair, dragged him back and kicked him soundly
from one end of the platform to the other, in
the sight of all his comrades. The soldier re-
ceived his chastisement with howls of pain, and
nothing further was heard of the incident. It
struck no Chinese present that there was anything
improper in the occurrence. Yet this soldier re-
mains in the ranks, and is expected hereafter to
possess the respect for his officers and himself which
274 THE OUTLOOK
shall enable him to bear himself courageously in the
face of the enemies of his country.
The now disbanded Chinese regiment, which was
raised by British officers at Wei-hai- Wei, has shown
another weak point in the Chinese soldier. The
men who could be induced to remain in the corps
proved reliable enough in the operations in 1 900 for
the relief of Peking, in which they were employed ;
but the difficulty of preventing their deserting was
always very considerable. A soldier would learn
his drill conscientiously, but would be found some
morning to have disappeared, leaving in many cases
his uniform, rifle, and arrears of pay behind. It
was supposed at first that the deserters had been
attracted by promises of better remuneration in the
national Chinese army, but this proves not to have
been at all generally the case. Indeed, those who
slipped away from the British corps in order to join
the Chinese forces rarely remained long in their new
employment As a rule the reason of their deser-
tion was nothing more than the caprice, superstition
or prejudice of relatives in the interior, who would
send a sudden summons, appealing to filial or family
piety, which no sense of military obligation could
withstand. Deserters could not be arrested in their
homes in distant provinces ; and the evil grew to
such magnitude as to necessitate the training of a
disproportionate number of men in order, to keep
the corps up to the strength prescribed. This
source of weakness has not been confined to the
British service or to times of disturbance. It is
THE OUTLOOK i;S
equally if not more prevalent in the armies of the
Chinese Government which are recruited from
similar classes to those employed in the Wei-hai-
Wei corps, but with smaller pay, slacker discipline,
and less tactful handling.
The Chinese is a man of peace. As a trader
and a manufacturer he is certain to become an
increasingly serious competitor of the European.
As a soldier he possesses many merits, including
that of passive fatalism, which makes him a difficult
adversary to dislodge from a position ; but he lacks
altogether the ^lan which makes his fellow-Mon-
golians, the Gurkha and the Japanese, formidable
on the offensive.
No opinion on the subject of the efficiency of the
twentieth-century army of China carries greater
weight than that of Colonel A. W. S. Wingate,
who was intelligence officer with General Gaselee's
force at the relief of Peking in 1900, and has since
been engaged in survey and exploration in Northern
China. In the course of a lecture delivered before
the Royal Geographical Society in London, last
December, Colonel Wingate said of the Chinese
soldiers of to-day : "At learning drill, manoeuvres,
military exercises, and all about modern warfare
they are adepts. Under favourable conditions, they
quickly acquire the proficiency and accuracy of the
German Imperial Guard on the parade ground;
while at examinations for fitness for command, or
at military sketching, reconnaissance, &c., they
soon learn to excel. What they lack individually
276 THE OUTLOOK
b the will to fight for what, hitherto, has been to
them an incomprehensible object As an army
their fighting value is still inconsiderable, because
of divided interests and the corrupt and inefiScient
way in which an excellent system is worked/'
The present Chinese army is useless for the pro-
tection of the country from outside aggression.
The real strength, which has put an end to the
predatory enterprises of Continental Europe upon
Chinese territory, is to be found solely in the forces
of the British Empire and Japan. The Chinese
troops have been organised to bolster up the ambi-
tions of particular Chinese viceroys. They are not
even suitable for police work. On the other hand,
they constitute a real and ever-present menace to
the Europeans resident in China. They are liable
to be used at any time, at the bidding of petty spite
or imagined grievance, to indulge the strong and-
foreign feeling which is always close below the
surface in an excitable populace.
The mandarin armed, even to the not very ad-
vanced point of efficiency requisite to convince his
easily satisfied vanity that he is invincible, is highly
dangerous. The severe lesson which the Allies
taught the Peking Administration in 1900, as to the
ability of the white man to avenge unprovoked and
murderous attack upon himself and his Legations, is
becoming effaced by the blustering self-confidence
of the modern-drilled Chinese soldiery. The boy-
cott of American goods in Canton, the Shanghai
riot, the attempt made by the Chinese Foreign
THE OUTLOOK 277
Office during the past autumn to obtain the control
of the Chinese customs, the more astute and more
recent campaign against British- Indian trade, under
the guise of a crusade to abolish the undoubted
evils of the Chinese opium habit, and the determi-
nation that is growing in the minds of the officials
of every yamen in China to supplant European
enterprise in local railway, mining, commercial, and
industrial undertakings, all possess a background in
which the patriotic Chinese is taught to imagine
conquering hosts of his own fellow-countrymen
stamping upon the white man with hob-nailed
boots. The European does profitable business in
China only because the Chinese do not possess
rifles and men to turn him out. The armies which
are growing up threaten, sooner or later, to remove
this inability.
Again and again in the past the armaments of
China have been turned against the European.
Nothing has occurred to render the future immune
from repetition of the events of the years 1899-
1 900 when white men were murdered by Chinese
soldiers in the streets of Peking, and Chinese artil-
lery was turned upon white women and children in
Mukden. The larger and more efficient the arma-
ments the sooner may trouble be expected to recur,
and the more serious will it be. China cannot
absorb too much of European sciences, learning,
and art; but quick-firing guns are not necessary
for this purpose, and are as undesirable pla3rthings
for the mandarin, in the present imperfect stage
278 THE OUTLOOK
of his national development, as loaded revolvers
would be in a kindergarten. Only he who would
abstain from taking the revolver from the baby
need hesitate as to the proper course to be followed
in regard to guns in China.
There is nothing new in this statement. The
agreement between the Allies and the Peking
Government, signed September 7, 1901, after the
Boxer rising, contains the following formal stipu-
lation : —
"China has agreed to prohibit the importation
into its territory of arms and ammunition, as
well as of materials exclusively used for the manu-
facture of arms and ammunition. An Imperial
Edict has been issued on August 25, 1901 (Annex
No. II.), forbidding the said importation for a
term of two years. New edicts may be issued
subsequently extending this by other successive
terms of two years in case of necessity recognised
by the Powers."
It seems to me impossible to deny that the
contingency contemplated in this stipulation has
arisen, though it may not be technically accurate,
as yet, to claim " necessity recognised by the
Powers " as one of its attributes. I am aware that
to press for the carrying out of any arrangement
agreed to by the Chinese Government, at present,
is to rouse opposition, and that to press in this
particular matter is to provoke the retort that it is
the accepted policy of Great Britain to support and
not to weaken the forces available for resisting the
THE OUTLOOK 279
aggression of Continental Europe upon Chinese
territory. The difficulties found in enforcing the
prohibition of gun-running after the Boxer rising
will be quoted as a further objection. The con-
troversy is an old one ; but the fact that a decision
was arrived at in 1902 to allow Chinese armament
to go on unchecked, does not prove that it is either
safe or desirable to persist in this attitude, under the
entirely changed conditions which have since arisen.
Great Britain and her ally Japan succeeded in
putting a stop to the process of dismemberment at
a time when the armed strength of the Chinese
Government was still a negligible quantity, and
they need no help from China to keep up this
desirable state of things. The difficulty of enforcing
the prohibition against the arms trade may be even
greater at this stage than in 1 902 ; but something
appreciable can still be done.
Fortunately, the control of the Chinese customs,
though threatened, has not yet been completely
wrested from the capable hands of Sir Robert Hart
and his European assistants. The Chinese customs
officials can do a great deal in the desired direction
if they receive the necessary authority to act. Even
if they fail, there need be no insurmountable obstacle
in the way of making gun-running as penal in
Chinese waters as it is already on the Arabian
side of the Persian Gulf, where patrol by European
war-vessels is no more complete than off the
Chinese coast. The arms trade in China is con-
ducted, almost entirely, by European firms in
28o THE OUTLOOK
Tientsin, Shanghai, and Hongkong. I believe that
the traffic has only to be declared contraband in
Treaty and British ports to effect an a{^reciable
lessening of its present large dimensions. Importa-
tions would continue clandestinely, as they continued
during the short period, subsequent to the Boxer
disturbances, when prohibition was in operation;
but the supply would become cosdy to an extent
that would appreciably reduce the demand. The
existing gun factories in China would continue
to turn out enormous quantities of poorly made
and increasingly obsolete mausers and Krupp guns.
The requirements of all the troops which the
Chinese maintain would be amply met, so far as
quantity was concerned; but the standard of
capability for evil would be kept down, since
up-to-date factories in Europe and America would
find it no longer profitable to vie with each odier in
pouring into China, at dumping rates, not only rifles
and quick-firing guns of far greater efiiciency than
the Chinese arsenals can produce, but also steel
castings to be worked up, in China, into yet more
rifles and g^ns, and machinery to enable still further
Chinese factories to be started. The intention,
which I found openly professed in the Chinese
rifle factories at Shanghai and Hanyang, to intro-
duce electric plant to manufacture the 1899 niodel
mauser, in place of the less efficient mauser of 1 888,
and shells with time instead of percussion fuses,
is an example in point. No doubt complications
and friction would arise in carrying out any scheme
THE OUTLOOK 281
of prohibition, but these could be kept within
bounds; and even a low degree of efficiency in
prevention, combined with some political friction,
would be better than avoidance of friction combined
with no prevention at all.
Every European Power which trades, or hopes to
trade, in the Far East, is interested in discouraging
Chinese armament. If Great Britain leads the way
in pressing for reduction, there will be no lack of
a following. The United States have interests
similar to those of this country, and should
co-operate cordially. It is reasonable to feel con-
fidence that Japan will support her ally. Once the
accord of the three Powers which have guaranteed
the integrity of China were secured, action would
be possible. Chinese objection to such action
need not be regarded too seriously The Oriental
ever respects strength ; and a temperate but firm
policy has only to be pursued steadfastly to be
tolerated, if not approved. Procrastination is inter-
preted as weakness, and does only harm.
Apart from dangers connected with armament,
the Chinese outlook is not discouraging. Germans,
Japanese, and Belgians are capturing an ever-
growing share in the trade ; but Great Britain still
does a larger proportion than any other power.
Japan has succeeded, by means of a high tariff
against the foreigner, in closing her own markets,
and those of her dependency, Formosa, against
most of the manufactures of £ urope ; but the vast
markets of China absorb more goods than ever
282 THE OUTLOOK
before. It has become customary for the English-
man in the Far East to lament over the lagging
enterprise of his fellow-countrymen as compared
with that of their competitors in energy and
adaptability ; but this need not cause anxiety while
British steamers equipped like those of Messrs.
Jardine, Matheson and Company and Messrs.
Butterfield and Swire» continue to do the bulk of
the coasting trade of the treaty ports, and so long
as the Peninsula and Oriental Steam Navigation
Company still takes first place in the ocean-carrying
trade between China and Europe, while a British
house — the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank — nego-
tiates the Chinese Government loans, and British
cable companies transmit the intelligence of every-
thing of importance in the Far East to the world
at large. The Chinese trader continues to learn
pigeon-English, and not pigeon-German or pigeon-
Japanese, to be his means of communication with
non - Chinese - speaking British, Germans, and
Japanese alike. German and Japanese traders
may be apter than their British competitors at
acquiring a smattering of the difficult Chinese
tongue ; but it is possible to lay too much stress
upon this qualification, since the test of success is
not the language spoken but the amount of business
done ; and in this both Germans and Japanese are
behind. Competition is increasing in every branch
of Chinese trade, but substantial profits can still be
made. British prestige still stands higher than that
of any other nation.
THE OUTLOOK 283
China is undoubtedly following in the footsteps
of Japan, and her development may be the world-
achievement of the present century. For the time
being, her administration is corrupt and inefficient,
though there are already some notable exceptions ;
and real patriotism is behind the movement of
reform. The Chinese trader is honest, and the
Chinese official is capable of becoming so. Pro-
gress will be slow or fast according to the accident
of the views which prevail in the Forbidden City ;
but it is certain.
In the discernible future the white man is likely
to find that a high tariff hedge, with many prickles,
has sprung up between his trade and the Chinese
market, as has already occurred in the case of
Japan ; but such catastrophe can be postponed
long, and perhaps indefinitely, by energetic action.
The pan-Mongolian dragon, which now snorts
threateningly, can be harnessed to the chariot of
peaceful progress, but will do grave damage if
left at large.
The possession of India confers upon Great
Britain a position of unique advantage in regard
to the Far East. I have shown how closely the
interests of the Indian subjects of His Majesty
King Edward are concerned with those of China
and Japan, and how useful to the Empire the
services which Simla and Calcutta are both able
and willing to render in this sphere. Great Britain
has but to encourage these services, while herself
acting with ordinary tact and resolution in the
284 THE OUTLOOK
support of her own vast trade, and she may regard
the outlook with serenity. The dangers which
threaten are no worse than those which English-
men have met and overcome before.
Friendliness and respect for one another are not
impossible between European and Mongrolian
peoples. Canton has the worst reputation of any
city of the Far East for antipathy to the occidental,
yet in the temple of the five hundred Genii, in the
heart of Canton, within easy reach of mob violence
at any time, may be seen to-day the life-sized
statue of an elderly European in gilt clothes and
black hat, which the Chinese have cared for and
preserved from generation to generation because
the original, Marco Polo, was a friend to their
kind. This thirteenth- century wanderer had no
monopoly of ability to make himself loved and
reverenced. A position similar to that which he
won as an individual is open to-day to the Anglo-
Saxon as a race. But the Mongolian was not
afraid of Marco Polo, and he is afraid of us to the
point of hostility and defiance. It can be attained,
therefore, only by fair dealing and sympathy,
protected by an overwhelming preponderance of
fighting strength.
APPENDIX
THE ANGLO-JAPANESE TREATY
The following is the text of the Agreement between the
United Kingdom and Japan, signed at London, August I3
1905:—
Preamble. — The Governments of Great Britain and
Japan, being desirous of replacing the Agreement con-
cluded between them on January 30, 1902, by fresh
stipulations, have agreed upon the following Articles
which have for their object —
(^i) The consolidation and maintenance of the general
peace in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India ;
(d) The preservation of the common interests of all
Powers in China by insuring the independence and
int^rity of the Chinese Empire and the principle of
equal opportunities for the commerce and industry of all
nations in China ;
(^) The maintenance of the territorial rights of the
High Contracting Parties in the r^ons of Eastern Asia
and of India, and the defence of their special interests in
the said regions : —
Article I. — It is agreed that whenever, in the opinion
of either Great Britain or Japan, any of the rights and
interests referred to in the preamble of this Agreement
are in jeopardy, the two Governments will communicate
with one another fully and frankly, and will consider in
286 THE ANGLO-JAPANESE TREATY
common the measures which should be taken to saf<^^uard
those menaced rights or interests.
Article II. — If by reason of unprovoked attack or
aggressive action, wherever arising, on the part of any
other Power or Powers either Contracting Party should be
involved in war in defence of its territorial rights or special
interests mentioned in the preamble of this Agreement,
the other Contracting Party will at once come to the
assistance of its ally, and will conduct the war in common,
and make peace in mutual agreement with it
Article III. — ^Japan possessing paramount political,
military, and economic interests in Corea, Great Britain
rec(^nises the right of Japan to take such measures of
guidance, control, and protection in Corea as she may
deem proper and necessary to saf<^uard and advance
those interests, provided always that such measures are
not contrary to the principle of equal opportunities for
the commerce and industry of all nations.
Article IV. — Great Britain having a special interest
in all that concerns the security of the Indian frontier,
Japan recognises her right to take such measures in the
proximity of that frontier as she may find necessary for
safeguarding her Indian possessions.
Article V. — The High Contracting Parties agree that
neither of them will, without consulting the other, enter
into separate arrangements with another Power to the
prejudice of the objects described in the preamble of this
Agreement.
Article VI. — As regards the present war between
Japan and Russia, Great Britain will continue to maintain
strict neutrality unless some other Power or Powers should
join in hostilities against Japan, in which case Great
Britain will come to the assistance of Japan, and will
conduct the war in common, and make peace in mutual
agreement with Japan.
THE ANGLO-JAPANESE TREATY 287
Article VII. — The conditions under which armed
assistance shall be afforded by either Power to the other
in the circumstances mentioned in the present Agreement,
and the means by which such assistance is to be made
available, will be arranged by the Naval and Military
authorities of the Contracting Parties, who will from time
to time consult one another fully and freely upon all
questions of mutual interest
Article VIII. — The present Agreement shall, subject
to the provisions of Article VI., come into effect immedi-
ately after the date of its signature, and remain in force for
ten years from that date.
In case neither of the High Contracting Parties should
have notified twelve months before the expiration of the
said ten years the intention of terminating it, it shall
remain binding until the expiration of one year from the
day on which either of the High Contracting Parties shall
have denounced it But if, when the date fixed for its
expiration arrives, either ally is actually engaged in war,
the alliance shall, ipso factOy continue until peace is con-
cluded.
In faith whereof the Undersigned, duly authorised by
their respective Governments, have signed this Agreement
and have affixed thereto their Seals.
Done in duplicate at London, the 12th day of August,
1905. (L.S) Lansdowne, His Britannic Majest^s
Prinqipal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. (L.S.)
Tadasu Hayashi, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan at the
Court of St. James.
THE PORTSMOUTH TREATY
The following is the text of the treaty between Japan
and Russia which terminated the war of 1904-5 ' —
The Emperor of Japan on one part and the Emperor
of All the Russias on the other part, animated by a desire
to restore the blessings of peace to their countries, have
resolved to conclude a treaty of peace and have for this
purpose named their plenipotentiaries, that is to say, for
his Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Baron Komura Jutaro
Jusami, Grand Cordon of the Imperial Order of the Rising
Sun, his minister of foreign affairs, and his Excellency
Takahira, Kogoro, Imperial Order of the Sacred Treasure^
his minister to the United States, and, for his Majesty the
Emperor of All the Russias, his Excellency Serge Witte,
his secretary of state and president of the Committee of
Ministers of the Empire of Russia, and his Excellency
Baron Roman Rosen, Master of the Imperial Court of
Russia, his Majesty's ambassador to the United States,
who, after having exchanged their full powers, which were
found to be in good and due form, have concluded the
following articles :
Article I. — There shall henceforth be peace and amity
between their Majesties the Emperor of Japan and the
Emperor of All the Russias and between their respective
States and subjects.
Article 1 1. — The Imperial Russian Government
acknowledging that Japan possesses in Korea paramount
THE PORTSMOUTH TREATY 289
political, military, and economical interests, engages
neither to obstruct nor interfere with measures for
guidance, protection, and control which the Imperial
Government of Japan may find necessary to take in
Korea. It is understood that Russian subjects in Korea
shall be treated in exactly the same manner as the subjects
and citizens of other foreign Powers, that is to say they
shall be placed on the same footing as the subjects and
citizens of the most favoured nation. It is also agreed, in
order to avoid causes of misunderstanding, that the two
high contracting parties will abstain on the Russian-
Korean frontier from taking any military measure which
may menace the security of Russian or Korean territory.
Article III. — ^Japan and Russia mutually engage.
First. — To evacuate completely and simultaneously
Manchuria, except the territory affected by the lease of
the Liaotung Peninsula, in conformity with the provisions
of the additional Article I. annexed to this treaty ; and
Second. — To restore entirely and completely to the
exclusive administration of China all the portions of
Manchuria now in occupation or under the control of the
Japanese or Russian Troops, with the exception of the
territory above mentioned.
The Imperial Government of Russia declare that they
have not in Manchuria any territorial advantages or
preferential or exclusive concessions in the impairment
of Chinese sovereignty, or inconsistent with the principle
of equal opportunity. .
Article IV. — ^Japan and Russia reciprocally engage
not to obstruct any general measures common to all
countries which China may take for the development of
the commerce or industry of Manchuria.
Article V. — ^The Imperial Russian Grovemment trans-
fers and assigns to the Imperial Government of Japan,
with the consent of the Government of China, the lease
u
290 THE PORTSMOUTH TREATY
of Port Arthur, Talien, and the adjacent territory and
territorial waters, and all rights, privil^[es, and con-
cessions connected with or forming part of such lease,
and they also transfer and assign to the Imperial Govern-
ment of Japan all public works and properties in the
territory affected by the above-mentioned lease. The
two contracting parties mutually engage to obtain the
consent of the Chinese Grovemment mentioned in the
foregoing stipulation. The Imperial Government of
Japan on their part undertake that the proprietary
rights of Russian subjects in the territory above referred
to shall be perfectly respected.
Article VI. — ^The Imperial Russian Government
engage to transfer and assign to the Imperial Government
of Japan without compensation and with the consent of
the Chinese Government the railway between Chang-
chun-fu and Kuan-chang-tsu and Port Arthur and all
the branches, together with all the rights, privileges, and
properties appertaining thereto in that region, as well
as all the coal-mines in the said region belonging to or
worked for the benefit of the railway. The two high
contracting parties mutually engage to obtain the consent
of the Government of China mentioned in the foregoing
stipulation.
Article VII. — ^Japan and Russia engage to exploit
their respective railways in Manchuria exclusively for
commercial and industrial purposes, and in no wise for
strat^c purposes. It is understood that this restriction
does not apply to the railway in the territory affected by
the lease of the Liaotung Peninsula.
Article VIII. — The Imperial Governments of Japan
and Russia, with the view to promote and facilitate
intercourse and traffic, will, as soon as possible, conclude
separate convention for the r^;ulation of their connecting
railway services in Manchuria.
THE PORTSMOUTH TREATY 291
Article IX. — The Imperial Russian Government cedes
to the Imperial Government of Japan in perpetuity and
full sovereignty the southern portion of the Island of
Saghalien, and all the islands adjacent thereto, and the
public works and properties thereon. The fiftieth d^pree
of north latitude is adopted as the northern boundary of
the ceded territory. The exact alignment of such territory
shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of
the additional Article XI. annexed to this treaty. Japan
and Russia mutually agree not to construct in their respec-
tive possessions on the Island of Saghalien, or the adjacent
islands, any fortifications or other similar military works.
They also respectively engage not to take any military
measures which may impede the free navigation of the
Strait of La Perouse and the Strait of Tartary.
Article X. — It is reserved to Russian subjects, inhabi-
tants of the territory ceded to Japan, to sell their real
property and retire to their country, but if they prefer to
remain in the ceded territory they will be maintained and
protected in the full exercise of their industries and rights
of property, on condition of submitting to the Japanese
laws and jurisdiction. Japan shall have full liberty to
withdraw the right of residence in, or to deport from such
territory any inhabitants who labour under political or
administrative disability. She engages, however, that the
proprietary rights of such inhabitants shall be fully
respected.
Article XI.-^Russia engages to arrange with Japan
for granting to Japanese subjects rights of fishery along
the coasts of the Russian possessions in the Japan, Okhotsk,
and Behring Seas. It is agreed that the for^[oing engage-
ment shall not affect rights already belonging to Russian
or foreign subjects in those r^ons.
Article XII. — The treaty of commerce and navigation
between Japan and Russia having been annulled by the
292 THE PORTSMOUTH TREATY
war, the Imperial Governments of Japan and Russia
engage to adopt as a basis for their commercial relations,
pending the conclusion of a new treaty of commerce and
navigation, the basis of the treaty which was in force pre-
vious to the present war, the system of reciprocal treat-
ment on the footing of the most favoured nation, in whidi
are included import and export duties, customs, formali-
ties, transit, and tonnage dues, and the admission and
treatment of agents, subjects, and vessels of one country
in the territories of the other.
Article XHI. — So soon as possible after the present
treaty comes in force all prisoners of war shall be reci-
procally restored. The Imperial Governments of Japan
and Russia shall each appoint a special commissioner to
take charge of the prisoners. All prisoners in the hands
of one Government shall be delivered to and received by
the commissioner of the other Government or by his duly
authorised representative in such convenient numbers and
such convenient ports of the delivering State as such
delivering State shall notify in advance to the commis*
sioner of the receiving State. The Governments of Japan
and Russia shall present each other so soon as possible
after the delivery of the prisoners is completed with a
statement of the direct expenditures respectively incurred
by them for the care and maintenance of the prisoners
from the date of capture or surrender and up to the time
of death or delivery. Russia engages to repay to Japan
so soon as possible after the exchange of statements as
above provided the difference between the actual amount
so expended by Japan and the actual amount similarly
disbursed by Russia.
Article XI V.— The present treaty shall be ratified by
their Majesties the Emperor of Japan and the Emperor of
All the Russias. Such ratification shall be with as little
delay as possible and in any case no later than fifty
THE PORTSMOUTH TREATY 293
dasrs from the date of the signature of the treaty, to be
announced to the Imperial Governments of Japan and
Russia respectively through the French Minister at Tokyo
and the Ambassador of the United States at St Peters-
burg, and from the date of the later of such announice-
ments this treaty shall in all its parts come into full force.
The formal exchange of ratifications shall take place at
Washington so soon as possible.
Article XV. — The present treaty shall be signed in
duplicate in both the English and French languages. The
texts are in absolute conformity, but in case of a discre-
pancy in the interpretation the French text shall prevail.
In conformity with the provisions of Articles III. and
IX. of the treaty of peace between Japan and Russia of
this date, the undersigned plenipotentiaries have concluded
the following additional articles :
Sub- Article to Article III. — The Imperial Grovernments
of Japan and Russia mutually engage to commence the
withdrawal of their military forces from the territory of
Manchuria simultaneously and immediately after the
treaty of peace comes into operation, and within a period
of eighteen months after that date the armies of the two
countries shall be completely withdrawn from Manchuria,
except from the leased territory of the Liaotung Peninsula.
The forces of the two countries occup)ring the front posi-
tions shall first be withdrawn.
The high contracting parties reserve to themselves the
right to maintain guards to protect their respective railway
lines in Manchuria. The number of such guards shall not
exceed fifteen per kilometre, and within that maximum
number the commanders of the Japanese and Russian
armies shall by common accord fix the number of such
gruards to be employed as small as possible while having
in view the actual requirements.
The commanders of the Japanese and Russian forces in
394 THE PORTSMOUTH TREATY
Manchuria shall agree upon the details of the evacuation
in conformity with the above principles, and shall take by
common accord the measures necessary to carry out the
evacuation so soon as possible, and in any case no later
than the period of eighteen months.
Sub- Article to Article IX. — So soon as possible after
the present treaty comes into force, a commission of
delimitation composed of an equal number of members is
to be appointed respectively by the two high contracting
parties, which shall on the spot mark in a permanent
manner the exact boundary between the Japanese and
Russian possessions on the island of Saghalien. The
commission shall be bound so far as topogp'aphical con-
siderations permit to follow the fiftieth parallel of North
latitude as the boundary line, and, in case any deflections
from that line at any points are found to be necessary,
compensation will be made by correlative deflections at
other points. It shall also be the duty of said commission
to prepare a list and a description of the adjacent islands
included in the cession, and finally the commission shall
prepare and sign maps showing the boundaries of the
ceded territory. The work of the commission shall be
subject to the approval of the high contracting parties.
The foregoing additional articles are to be considered
ratified with the ratification of the treaty of peace to which
they are annexed.
Portsmouth, the Fifth Day of the Ninth Month of the
Thirty-eighth year of Mejei, corresponding to the Twenty-
third of August, 1905. (September 5, 1905.)
In witness whereof the respective plenipotentiaries have
signed and affixed seals to the present treaty of peace.
Done at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, this Fifth Day
of the Ninth Month of the Thirty-eighth Year of the
Mejei, corresponding to the twenty-third day of August,
One Thousand Nine Hundred and Five.
THE JAPANESE-KOREAN SUZERAINTY
PROTOCOL
The following is the text of the Agreement signed
November 17, 1905, by plenipotentiaries of Japan and
Korea, whereby Japan becomes the medium for conducting
the foreign relations of Korea : —
The Governments of Japan and Korea, desiring to
strengthen the principle of solidarity which unites the
two Empires, have with that object in view agreed upon
and concluded the following stipulations to serve until
the moment arrives when it is recognised that Korea has
attained national strength*
Article I. — The Government of Japan, through the
Department of Foreign Affairs in Tokyo, will hereafter
have control and direction of the external relations and
affairs of Korea, and the Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives of Japan will have the charge of the
subjects and interests of Korea in foreign countries.
Article 1 1. — The Government of Japan undertake to
see to the execution of the treaties actually existing
between Korea and other Powers, and the Government
of Korea engage not to conclude hereafter any act or
engagement having an international character, except
through the medium of the Government of Japan.
Article III. — The Government of Japan shall be
represented at the Court of His Majesty the Emperor
of Korea by a Resident General who shall reside at Seoul,
primarily for the purpose of taking charge of and directing
a95
296 JAPANESE-KOREAN SUZERAINTY
the matters relating to diplomatic affairs. He shall have
the right of private and personal audiences of His Majesty
the Emperor of Korea. The Japanese Government shall
have the right to station residents at the several open
ports and such other places in Korea as they may deem
necessary.
Such residents shall, under the direction of the Resident
General, exercise the powers and functions hitherto
appertaining to Japanese Consuls in Korea, and shall
perform such duties as may be necessary in order to carry
into full effect the provisions of this Agreement
Article IV. — The stipulations of all treaties and
agreements existing between Japan and Korea, not in-
consistent with the provisions of this Agreement, shall
continue in force.
Article V. — The Government of Japan undertake to
maintain the welfare and dignity of the Imperal House
of Korea.
In faith whereof the undersigned, duly authorised by
their Governments, have signed this Agreement and
affixed their Seals.
THE PEKING TREATY
The following is the text of the final Protocal between
the Powers and China, for the resumption of friendly
relations after the Boxer outbreak, signed at Peking on
the 7th of September, 1901 : —
The Plenipotentiaries of Germany, M. A. Mumm von
Schwarzenstein ; of Austria*Hungary, Baron M. Czikann ;
of Belgium, M. Joostens; of Spain, M. B. J. de Cologan;
of the United States, Mr. W. W. Rockhill ; of France,
M. Beau ; of Great Britain^ Sir Ernest Satow ; of Italy,
Marquis Salvago Raggi ; of Japan, M. Jutaro Komura ;
of the Netherlands, M. F. M. Knobel ; of Russia, M.
Michael de Giers; and the Plenipotentiaries of China,
His Highness Yi-K'uang, Prince of the First Rank ;
Ching, President of the Board of Foreign Affairs ; and
his Excellency Li Hung-chang, Count of the First Rank ;
Su-Yi, Tutor of the Heir Apparent ; Grand Secretary
of the W6n-Hua Throne Hall, Minister of Commerce,
Superintendent of Trade for the North, Governor-General
of Chihli, have met for the purpose of declaring that China
has complied with the conditions laid down in the Note
of the 22nd of December, 1900, and which were accepted
in their entirety by His Majesty the Emperor of China in
a Decree dated the 27th of December, 1900 (Annex No. i).
Article I. — (a) By an Imperial Edict of the 9th of June
last (Annex No. 2), Tsai-Feng, Prince of the First Rank,
Chlin, was appointed Ambassador of His Majesty the
298 THE PEKING TREATY
Emperor of China, and directed in that capacity to convey
to His Majesty the German Emperor the expression of
the r^^ets of His Majesty the Emperor of China and
of the Chinese Government at the assassination of his
Excellency the late Baron von Ketteler, German Minister.
Prince Chiin left Peking on the 1 2th of July last to carry
out the orders which had been given him.
(d) The Chinese Government has stated that it will
erect on the spot of the assassination of his Excellency
the late Baron von Ketteler a commemorative monument
worthy of the rank of the deceased, and bearing an in-
scription in the Latin, German, and Chinese languages
which shall express the regrets of His Majesty the
Emperor of China for the murder committed.
The Chinese Plenipotentiaries have informed his Ex-
cellency the German Plenipotentiary, in a letter dated
the 22nd of July last (Annex No. 3), that an arch of the
whole width of the street would be erected on the said
spot, and that work on it was begun on the 25th of June last
Article H. — (a) Imperial Edicts of the 13th and 21st
of February, 1901 (Annexes Nos. 4, 5, and 6), inflicted the
following punishments on the principal authors of the
attempts and of the crimes committed against the foreign
Governments and their nationals : —
Tsa-Ii, Prince Tuan, and Tsai-Lan, Duke Fu-kuo, were
sentenced to be brought before the Autumnal Court of
Assize for execution, and it was agreed that if the
Emperor saw fit to grant them their lives, they should be
exiled to Turkestan, and there imprisoned for life, without
the possibility of commutation of these punishments.
Tsai Hsiin, Prince Chuang, Ying-Nien, President of
the Court of Censors, and Chao Shu-chiao, President
of the Board of Punishments^ were condemned to commit
suicide.
Yii Hsien, Governor of Shansi, Chi Hsiu, President of
THE PEKING TREATY 299
the Board of Rites, and Hsii Cheng-3ai, formerly Senior
Vice-President of the Board of Punishments, were con-
demned to death.
Posthumous degradation was inflicted on Kang Yi,
Assistant Grand Secretary, President of the Board of
Works, HsU Tung, Grand Secretary, and Li Ping-heng,
former Governor-General of Szu-chuan.
Imperial Edict of the 13th of February last (Annex
No. 7) rehabilitated the memories of Hsii Yung-yi, Presi-
dent of the Board of War ; Li Shan, President of the
Board of Works; Hsii Ching Cheng, Senior Vice-
President of the Board of Civil Office ; Lien Yuan, Vice-
Chancellor of the Grand Council ; and Yuan Chang,
Vice-President of the Court of Sacrifices, who had been
put to death for having protested against ^the outrageous
breaches of international law of last year.
Prince Chuang committed suicide on the 21st of
February last; Ying Nien and Chao Shu-chiao on the
24th of February ; Yu Hsien was executed on the 22nd of
February; Chi Hsiu and Hsii Cheng-yu on the 26th of
February ; Tung Fu-hsiang, General in Kan-su, has been
deprived of his office by Imperial Edict of the 13th of
February last, pending the determination of the final
punishment to be inflicted on him.
Imperial Edicts, dated the 29th of April and 19th of
August, 1901, have inflicted various punishments on the
provincial officials convicted of the crimes and outrages of
last summer.
(Jb) An Imperial Edict, promulgated the 19th of
August, 1901 (An. ex No. 8), ordered the suspension of
official examinations for five years in all cities where
foreigpiers were massacred or submitted to cruel treatment.
Article III. — So as to make honourable reparation for
the assassination of Mr. Sugiyama, Chancellor of the Japanese
Legation, His Majesty the Emperor of China, by an Im-
300 THE PEKING TREATY
penal Edict of the 1 8th of June, 1901 (Annex No. 9), appointed
Na T'ung, Vice-President of the Board of Finances, to be
his Envoy Extraordinary, and specially directed him to
convey to His Majesty the Emperor of Japan the expression
of the regrets of His Majesty the Emperor of China and
of his Government at the assassination of Mr. Sugiyama.
Article IV. — The Chinese Government has agreed to
erect an expiatory monument in each of the foreign or
international cemeteries which were desecrated, and in
which the tombs were destroyed.
It has been agreed with the Representatives of the
Powers that the Legations interested shall settle the
details for the erection of these monuments, China bearing
all the expenses thereof, estimated at 10,000 taels, for the
cemeteries at Peking and in its neighbourhood, and at
5,000 taels for the cemeteries in the provinces. The
amounts have been paid, and the list of these cemeteries
is inclosed herewith (Annex No. 10).
Article V. — China has agreed to prohibit the importa-
tion into its territory of arms and ammunition, as well as
of materials exclusively used for the manufacture of arms
and ammunition.
An Imperial Edict has been issued on the 25th of August
(Annex No. 11), forbidding said importation for a term of
two years. New Edicts may be issued subsequently ex-
tending this by other successive terms of two years in case
of necessity recognised by the Powers.
Article VI. — By an Imperial Edict dated the 29th of
May, 1901 (Annex No. 12), His Majesty the Emperor of
China agreed to pay the Powers an indemnity of 450,000,000
of Haikwan taels.
This sum represents the total amount of the indemnities
for States, Companies, or Societies, private individuals
and Chinese, referred to in Article 6 of the note of the
22nd of December, 1900.
THE PEKING TREATY 301
(a) These 450,000,000 constitute a gold debt calculated
at the rate of the Haikwan tael to the gold currency of
each country, as indicated below : —
/Marks .., 3X>5S
Austro-Hungary crown ... 3'S9S
Gold dollar 0743
TT •! ^1 , Francs ... ... ... ... 3740
Haikwan tael = </.,,. ^ '^^
^ A sterling 3s.
Yen 1*407
Netherlands florin 1796
Gold rouble (17*434 dolias fine) 1*412
This sum in gold shall bear interest at 4 per cent per
annum, and the capital shall be reimbursed by China in
thirty-nine years in the manner indicated in the annexed
plan of amortisation (Annex No. 13). Capital and interest
shall be payable in gold or at the rates of exchange corre-
sponding to the dates at which the different payments fall
due.
The amortization shall commence the ist of January, 1902,
and shall finish at the end of the year 1940. The amorti-
zations are payable annually, the first payment being fixed
on the 1st of January, 1903.
Interest shall run from the ist of July, 1901, but the
Chinese Government shall have the right to pay off
within a term of three years, beginning Januaiy, 1902,
the arrears of the first six months ending the 31st of
December, 1901, on condition, however, that it pays
compound interest at the rate of 4 per cent a year on
the sums the payment of which shall have been thus
deferred.
Interest shall be payable semi-annually, the first pay-
ment being fixed on the ist of July, 1902.
302 THE PEKING TREATY
(6) The service of the debt shall take place in Shanghai
in the following manner : —
Each Power shall be represented by a Del^ate on a
Commission of bankers authorised to receive the amount
of interest and amortization which shall be paid to it by
the Chinese authorities designated for that purpose, to
divide it among the interested parties, and to give a
receipt for the same.
(c) The Chinese Government shall deliver to the Doyen
of the Diplomatic Corps at Peking a bond for the lump
sum, which shall subsequently be converted into fractional
bonds bearing the signature of the Delegates of the Chinese
Government designated for that purpose. This operation
and all those relating to issuing of the bonds shall be
performed by the above-mentioned Commission, in ac-
cordance with the instructions which the Powers shall
send their Delegates.
(d) The proceeds of the revenues assigned to the
payment of the bonds shall be paid monthly to the
Commission.
(e) The revenues assigned as security for the bonds are
the following : —
1. The balance of the revenues of the Imperial Maritime
Customs, after payment of the interest and amortization of
preceding loans secured on these revenues, plus the pro-
ceeds of the raising to 5 per cent effective of the present
tariff of maritime imports, including articles until now on
the free list, but exempting rice, foreign cereals, and flour,
gold and silver bullion and coin.
2. The revenues of the native Customs, administered in
the open ports by the Imperial Maritime Customs.
3. The total revenues of the salt gabelle, exclusive of
the fraction previously set aside for other foreign loans.
The raising of the present tariff on imports to 5 per
cent effective is agreed to on the conditions mentioned
THE PEKING TREATY 303
below. It shall be put in force two months after the
signing of the present Protocol, and no exceptions shall
be made except for merchandise in transit not more than
ten days after the said signing.
1. All duties levied on imports ad valorem shall be con-
verted as far as possible and as soon as may be into specific
duties.
This conversion shall be made in the following
manner : —
The average value of merchandise at the time of their
landing during the three years 1897, 1898, and 1899, that
is to say, the market price less the amount of import
duties and incidental expenses, shall be taken as the basis
for the valuation of merchandise.
Pending the result of the work of conversion, duties
shall be levied ad valorem.
2. The beds of the Rivers Whangpoo and Peiho shall
be improved with the financial participation of China.
Article VII. — ^The Chinese Government has agreed
that the quarter occupied by the Legations shall be con-
sidered as one specially reserved for their use and placed
under their exclusive control, in which Chinese shall not
have the right to reside, and which may be made
defensible. The limits of this quarter have been fixed as
follows on the annexed plan (Annex No. 14).
On the east, Ketteler Street (10, 11, 12).
On the north, the line, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, la
On the west, the line, i, 2, 3, 4, 5.
On the south, the line 12 — i, drawn along the exterior
base of the Tartar wall, and following the line of the
bastions.
In the Protocol annexed to the letter of the i6th of
January, 1901, China recognised the right of each Power
to maintain a permanent guard in the said quarter for the
defence of its Legation.
304 THE PEKING TREATY
Article VIII.— The Chinese Government has con-
sented to raze the forts of Taku, and those which might
impede free communication between Peking and the sea.
Steps have been taken for carrying this out
Article IX.— The Chinese Government conceded
the right to the Powers in the Protocol annexed to the
letter of the i6th of January, 1901, to occupy certain
points, to be determined by an Agreement between
them for the maintenance of open communication be-
tween the capital and the sea. The points occupied by
the Powers are: —
Huang-tsun, Lang-fang, Yang-tsun, Tien-tsin, Chun-
liang-Cheng, Tong-ku, Lu-tai, Tong-shan, Lan-chou,
Chang-li, Chin-wang Tao, Shan-hai Kuan.
Article X. — The Chinese Government has agreed to
post and to have published during two years in all district
cities the following Imperial Edicts : —
(a) Edict of the ist of February, 1901 (Annex No. 15)
prohibiting for ever, under pain of death, membership in
any anti-fore^ society.
(6) Edicts of the 13th and 21st February, 29th April
and 19th August, 1901, enumerating the punishments
inflicted on the guilty.
(c) Edict of the 19th August, 1901, prohibiting examina-
tions in all cities where foreigners were massacred or
subjected to cruel treatment
(d) Edicts of the ist February, 1901 (Annex No. 16),
declaring all Governors-General, Governors, and provincial
or local officials responsible for order in their respective
districts, and that in case of new anti-foreign troubles or
other infractions of the Treaties which shall not be imme-
diately repressed and the authors of which shall not have
been punished, these officials shall be immediately dismissed
without posaibility of being given new functions or new
honours.
THE PEKING TREATY 30S
The posting of these Edicts is being carried on throughout
the Empire.
Article XL — The Chinese Government has agreed to
negotiate the amendments deemed necessary by the
foreign Governments to the Treaties of Commerce and
Navigation and the other subjects concerning commercial
relations with the object of facilitating them.
At present, and as a result of the stipulation contained
in Article 6 concerning the indemnity, the Chinese Govern-
ment agrees to assist in the improvement of the courses of
the Rivers Peiho and Whangpoo, as stated below : —
(a) The works for the improvement of the navigability
of the Peiho, begun in 1898 with the co-operation of the
Chinese Government, have been resumed under the direc-
tion of an International Commission. As soon as the
Administration of Tien-tsin shall have been handed back
to the Chinese Government it will be in a position to be
represented on this Commission, and will pay each year a
sum of 60,000 Haikwan taels for maintaining the works.
(6) A Conservancy Board, charged with the management
and control of the works for straightening the Whangpoo
and the improvement of the course of that river, is hereby
created.
The Board shall consist of members representing the
interests of the Chinese Government and those of foreigners
in the shipping trade of Shanghae.
The expenses incurred for the works and the general
management of the undertaking are estimated at the
annual sum of 460,000 Haikwan taels for the first twenty
years. This sum shall be supplied in equal portions by
the Chinese Government and the foreign interests con-
cerned. Detailed stipulations concerning the composi-
tion, duties, and revenues of the Conservancy Board are
embodied in Annex No. 17.
Article XII. — An Imperial Edict of the 24th July, 1901
3o6 THE PEKING TREATY
(Annex No. i8), reformed the Office of Fordgn Affiurs,
Tsung-li Yamtn, on the lines indicated by the Powers,
that is to say, transformed it into a Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, Wai Wu Pu, which takes precedence over the six
other Ministries of State ; the same Edict appointed the
principal Members of this Minbtry.
An agreement has also been reached concerning the
modification of Court ceremonial as regards the reception
of foreign Representatives, and has been the subject of
several notes from the Chinese Plenipotentiaries, the
substance of which is embodied in a Memorandum
herewith annexed (Annex No. 19).
Finally, it is expressly understood that as regards the
declarations specified above and the annexed documents
originating with the foreign Plenipotentiaries, the French
text only is authoritative.
The Chinese Government having thus complied to the
satisfaction of the Powers with the conditions laid down
in the above-mentioned note of the 22nd December, 1900,
the Powers have agreed to accede to the wish of China to
terminate the situation created by the disorders of the
summer of 1900. In consequence thereof, the foreign
Plenipotentiaries are authorised to declare in the names of
their Governments that, with the exception of the L^^ation
guards mentioned in Article 7, the international troops
will completely evacuate the city of Peking on the 17th
September, 1901, and, with the exception of the localities
mentioned in Article 9, will withdraw from the Province of
Chihli on the 22nd September, 1901.
The present final Protocol has been drawn up in twelve
identic copies, and signed by all the Plenipotentiaries of
the contracting countries. One copy shall be given to
each of the foreign Plenipotentiaries, and one copy shall
be given to the Chinese Plenipotentiaries.
INDEX
Agitation in South China, 29
American boycott, 9, 36
Anglo-Japanese Treaty, 285
Anti-Foreign movement, 9, 23, 31, 36,
77, 106, 277
Antung, 141
Armaments in China, 23, 38, 85, 106,
270, 276
Boxer rising, 7, 104
Brick tea industry, 81
Brown, Mr. McLeavy, 189
Canton, 16, 21
Chan-Chi-Tung, 4, 14, 79
Chen-wang-tao, 117
Chinese arms trade, 278
Chinese character, 12, 16, 29, 38, 75,
107, "5, 272, 275
Chinese customs, 279
Chinese graves, 100
Chinese in British Territory, 11
Chinese outlook, 281
Chinese possibilities, 269
Chinese troops, 8, 114, 270
Coal mining in the Par East, 85, 126,
164,192
Coolie traffic, 16, 117, 192
Cordite factories in China, 41, 82
Cotton industry 42, 81, 205
Customs duties, 213
Dalny, 141
Education in China and Japan, 22,
108, 228
Efficiency of Chinese troops, 270
Electric installations, 82, 140, 231
Engineering and Mining Co., 125
Famine in China and Japan, 99 210
Finance in China, 107, 114
Finance in Japan, 213
Great Wall, the, 127
Gun foundries in China, 39, 89
Hankow factories, 79
Hankow-Peking Railway, 91
Hanyang arsenal, 83
Hart, Sir Robert, 109, 279
Hongkong development, 29
Hunchus highwaymen, 166
India as a factor, 253, 283
Industrial competition, 4, 81, 112, 126
Industries in Japan, 206
Iron and steel works in China and
Japan, 39, 83, 203, 206
ITO, Marquis, in Korea, 189, 195, 200
Japanese character, 145, 203, 217,
236, 268
Johore, palace of, 61
Justice in China, no
Justice in Japan, 227
307
3o8
INDEX
Kiamo-Nan gun factory, 3
Korea, future of, 191
Korean character, 192
Labour in the Far East, 117, 128,
192, 211
Le^ittons in Peking, 105
Ijaotung peninsula, 132
Liaoyang battle&dd, 150
Library in the Ming Palace, 160
Manchurian battlefields, 124, 137,
150, 155
Manchurian character, 170^ 272
Manchurian people, 133, 151, 156
Manchurian products, 141
Manchurian trade, 143, 265
Marco Polo, 284
Medical science in China, 109
Military academy near Canton, 22
Ming tombs, 158
Mining in China, 85, 100
Missionary hopefulness, 36
Missionary troubles, 47, 56
Mukden, city of, 155
Nanchanq massacre, 34, 57
Nanking, 37
Nationalisation of Japanese railways,
222
Neuchwang port, 128, 141
Osaka factories, 4, 207
Peking dty, 104
Peking Syndicate, 100
Peking Treaty, 297
Pingyang dty, 184
Policy of forgetting, 106
Port Arthur to-day, 131, 140
Portsmouth Treaty, 288
Post Office in China, 108
Railway gauges in the Far East, 36,
142, 162
Railways in China, 25, 42, 91, 117, 126
Railways in Ja^umese hands, 132, 205
Railways in Korea, 173
Rest houses, 139, 150, 167, 170
Rifle factories, 38, 83, 207
Riot in Nanchang, 57
Riot in Shanghai, 34
River transport in Manchuria, 142
Satow, Sir Ernest, 147
Shan-hai-kwan, 127
Shipbuilding in the Far East, 4, 41
231
Singapore, 13, 17
Tba industry, 81
Timber trade, 86, 142, 166, 190, 201
Time in Manchuria, 161
Tientsin progress, 125
Torture in China and Japan, iio^ 238
Univbrsity of Peking, 108
WucHANO mills, 4, 24, 81
Wusung forts, 42
Yanotsb travelling, 42
Yellow River bridge, 96
Yellow River floods, 98
Yuan-Shih-Kai, 6, 24, 115, 270
OMWUI BROTHBB^ UMITIO^ TBB GRBSHAM PKBOB, WOKIMO AMD LOMDOK
J
1
i
I • •
A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS
■ »
PUBLISHED BY METHUEN
AND COMPANY: LONDON
36 ESSEX STREET
W.C
CONTENTS
General Literature, .
Ancient Cities,
Antiquary's Books,
Beginner's Books, . .
Business Books, .
Bsrsantiiie Texts, •' . .
Churchman's Blhle,
Churchman's Library, .
Classical Translations,
Commercial Series,
Connoisseur's Library,
Library of Devotion, .
Standard Library,
Half-Crowa Library, •
Illustrated Pocket Library of
Plain and Coloured Books,
Junior Examination Series,
Junior School-Books, .
. Leaders of Religioo, .
rAGB
a-ig
19
so
90
90
•t
az
9k
9Z
99
99
93
93
>4
H
96
96
97
PAGB
Little Blue Books, 97
Little Books on Art, . 97
Little Galleries, . . . a8
Little Guides, .... 98
Little Library, 98
Miniature Library, • fo
Oxford Biographies, . 30
School Bxamination Series, 30
Social Questions of To-day, 3s
Textbooks of Science, ; 31
Textbooks of Technology . 31
Handbooks of Theology, 31
Westminster Commentaries, 31
Fiction^ . • . . , 89^
The Shilling Novels, • 37
Books for Boys and Girls 38
Novels of Alexandre Dumas, 38
Methuen's Sixpenny Books, 39
NOVEMBER 1906
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Adeney.
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