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SILK THROWING
AND WASTE SILK SPINNING
SILK THROWING
AND
WASTE SILK SPINNING
HOLLINS EAYNEE
WITH ONE HUNDRED AND SEVENTEEN ILLUSTRATIONS
LONDON
SCOTT, GEEENWOOD & SON
8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL, E.G.
CANADA : THE COPP CLARK CO. LTD., TORONTO
UNITED STATES : D. VAN NOSTRAND CO., NEW YORK
1903
[A II rights remain ^v^th Scott, Greenwood & Son]
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PREFACE
A DESIRE having been expressed in many quarters for a book dealing
with silk yarns and the machinery and processes necessary to convert
the fine fibre of the silkworm into a weavable thread, the author
arranged with the proprietors of the well-known journal, the Textile
Manufacturer, to publish in that monthly a series of articles dealing
with these subjects.
These articles revised, and further illustrated, form the contents
of this book, and it is hoped that this work will be a handy reference
volume, and of great assistance to manufacturers of textile fibres who
may desire to use silk in their fabrics in some of its many forms ; and
to teachers and students who wish to have a knowledge of the Queen
of Textile Fibres.
The author has endeavoured to concisely describe the principles
of Silk Throwing and Waste Silk Spinning, as exemplified in the
machinery employed in these two industries, most of the illustrations
being made in section, or diagrammatically, to facilitate their com-
prehension by a student ignorant of the trades concerned; and
machinery calculations have been purposely kept out in order not to
divert attention from the main principle of each process.
The author, who has personally had many years' experience in
the silk trade, takes this opportunity of thanking his many friends,
machinists, managers of works, foremen, and workmen who have
given, in their respective capacities, invaluable assistance in the pre-
paration of this book.
H. R.
November 1903.
V
241370
CONTENTS
PAGK
PREFACE ........ v
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . ix
GLOSSARY ... . . . . . . . xiii
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . 1
CHAPTER I
RAW SILK THE SILKWORM EGG-HATCHING
Spinning Cocoon Sericin Fibroin Varieties of Moth Bombyx inori
Antherea mylitta Yama mai Pernyi Attacus Cynthia Wild
Worms . ... . . . . 8
CHAPTER II
RAW SILK COCOON REELING AND QUALITIES OF SILK
Cocoon Reeling Tsatlee Reel Re-reeling Filature Chop Marks of
China, Japan, (Bengal, and Chief European Silks Doppione Crops
Shipping of Silks Terms of Sale . . . . .12
CHAPTER III
SILK THROWING
Singles Tram Organzine No-Throw Operations of Splitting Sorting
Washing Drying Winding Cleaning Folding Spinning or
Throwing Reeling Sizing or Deniering Make-up Weights . 22
CHAPTER IV
SILK WASTE SPINNING SILK WASTES
Various Methods of producing Wastes Qualities of Wastes, namely,
Steam Waste, Frisons, Wadding, Tussah, Nankin Buttons, China
Wastes, Shanghai Waste, Seychuen, Indian Wastes, Canton Wastes,
Re-reel, Punjum, China Curlies, Long Wastes, Japan Wastes Terms
of Sale Inspection of Wastes Packing and Shipping Landing
European Wastes Terms of Sale . , . .','-< .36
CHAPTER V
THE PREPARATION OF SILK WASTE FOR DEGUMMING
Bale Opening Water Water Softening Soap . .-. . .45
vii
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER VI
SILK WASTE DEGUMMING
PAGE
Schapping and Discharging Recipes for Silk Boiling Drying Per-
centage of Gum lost in Boiling Bleaching Picking Foreign Matters
in Various Wastes Carbonisation Conditioning Suppleing . 53
CHAPTER VII
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES (COMBING)
Cocoon and Waste Beating Opening Lapping Filling Flat Dressing
Frame Circular Dressing Frame Continuous Dressing Frame
Automatic Screwing-up Machine Planing Machine Diagrammatic
Explanation of Principles of Silk Dressing Machinery . . 74
CHAPTEK VIII
SILK WASTE DRAWING OR PREPARING MACHINERY
Long Spinning Examination of Dressed Silk Weighing Spreading
Re-lapping Sett Frame Drawing Heads Gill Roving Dandy or
Fine Roving Intersecting Spreading Intersecting Drawing Rotary
Drawing Rotary Roving Dimensions of Drawing Machinery . 106
CHAPTER IX
SHORT SPINNING MACHINERY
Short Spinning Mixings Scutching Carding Drawing Slubbing and
Fine Roving Frames . . . . . . .128
CHAPTER X
SPINNING AND FINISHING PROCESSES
Fly Spinning Frames Cap Spinning Frames Winding Copping Twist-
ing Cleaning and Gassing Reeling Washing Yarns Counts of
English Yarns Tables of Count Tables of Twist per Inch for Various
Purposes Lustreing Schappe Counts . . . .133
CHAPTER XI
UTILISATION OF WASTE PRODUCTS
Noils Fly Laps Roving Waste Spinning Waste Doublers and
Winding Waste Gassing Waste Noil Spinning Scutching Card-
ing Derby Doubler Combing Exhaust Noil Spinning Garnetting
Mule Spinning . . . . . . .148
INDEX . . 155
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
1. Silkworm ........ 4
2. Hombyx mori, larvae, cocoon, moth . . . . .5
3. Antherea mytttta, cocoon, moth . . . . .7
4. Yama mat, larvae, cocoon, moth . . . . .8
5. Attacus Cynthia, larvae, cocoon, moth . . . . .10
6. Cocoon reeling machine . . . . . .12
7. Book of silk ; heads of silk . . . . 22
8. Splitting mosses . . . . . . .23
9. Silk winding ........ 26
10. Clearer or cleaning bars . . . . . .27
11. Silk doubling . . . . . . . .29
12. Throwing mill or spinning . . . . . .30
13. Flyer . . . . . . . . 31
14. Keeling . . . ... . .32
15. Denier scale . . . . . . . .33
16. Bale splitting . . . . \- . . .46
17. Waste opener . .' . . . . . .46
18. Bale opener (side elevation) . . ... . .47
19. Bale opener (plan) . . . . . . .47
20. Copper ladle . . . % . . ' . . .48
21. Soap vat . . . . . . . . . .50
22. Soap mixer . . . .^ -_. . . .52
23. Schapping vat ........ 53
24. Waste washer or stamper . . . . . .55
25. Boiling, tub . . . . . . . .56
26. Rake . ., . . . . . .57
27. Hydro extractor (side elevation) . . . . .58
28. Hydro extractor . . . . .58
29. Mangle . . . . . .- .59
30. Brins . . . . . . . ... 60
31. Drying machine . . . . . . .63
32. Carbonising chamber ....... 68
33A and 33s. Conditioning floor . . . . . .69
34. Conditioning shelves . . . . . .70
x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
35. Plan of bale room, washing house, and conditioning floor . .70
36. Soaping or conditioning machine . . . .. .71
37. Supple machine, worm driven . . . . . .71
38. Supple machine, wheel driven . .... .72
39. Cocoon beater . . . .-.. . . .74
40. Cocoon beater . . . . . ... . 75
41. Opening machine for cocoons . . . . . .76
42. Opening machine for waste . . .-*.. .77
43. Opening machine teeth . . . . . .77
44. Filling engine ... . , . . .78
45. Filling engine . . . . . . . .79
46. Dressing boards ' . . . . t , . .79
47. Stripping (section) .: . . . . .80
48. Heckle . . . .- v . / i " : . 82
49. Flat dressing frame (side section) . . : . ; " .82
50. Flat dressing frame with stripping drum . . . . 83
51. Flat dressing frame (end view) . . ". ''. " . . 84
52. Flat dressing frame lifting gear .' . < . . . 85
53. Combs, cards, and dressed silk . .* . ' . . . 85
54. Inframe . ..-' . . . .86
55. Bookboards and sliders . . . . . . . 86
56. Dressed and not dressed strips of silk .- . / . .87
57. Turning-inboard . '. .* . * . .87
58. Plan of set of flat frames . . . . . .90
59. Circular dressing frame . . . . . ' . . .92
60. Rod stripping . . .' -.- .- . . . 93
61. Lap filling machine . . . ..- . . .- .94
62. Continuous dressing frame (end view) . . . . .96
63A and 63s. Continuous dressing frame (plan and side elevation) . 96
64. Continuous dressing frame .... * ' 97
65. Continuous dressing frame (plan of set of frames) . .' . 99
66. Screwing-up machine . ., . . ' . . 100
67. Screwing-up machine . . . . . . .101
68. Planing machine for bookboards .* .: . . . 102
69. Planing machine for bookboards . . . . .102
70. Diagram of dressing frames action ..... 104
71. Silk picking table . . . . . . .108
72. Silk picking table (side section) . . . ... 108
73. Drafts . . . . .... .108
74. Faller . . . . . . . 110
75. Gill spreader ........ 110
76. Silk spreading . . . . . . . .110
77. Gill spreader . . . . . .- . .111
78. Sett frame . . . . . . . .112
79. Drawing heads . ....... 113
80. Section of drawing head . . . . . . 114
81. Plan of set of drawing heads . . . . . .115
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi
FIG. PAGE
82. Gill roving frame . . . . . . .116
83. Gill roving frame (side elevation) . . . . .117
84. Gill rover fallers .... .118
85. Dandy rover (side elevation) ...... 118
86. 80 spindle cone rover . . . . . . .119
87. Intersector ........ 120
88. Slivers ......... 121
89. Drafting ..... . 122
90. Rotary drawing frame (section) ..... 122
91. Rotary drawing frame . . . . . . .123
92. Rotary roving frame . . . . . . .124
93. Scutching ........ 128
94. Flat card (section) . . . . . . .129
95. Flat card . . . . . . . .129
96. Drawing head (section) . , . . . .130
97. Improved drawing frame . . . . . .131
98. Slabbing frame ....... 131
99. Flyer spinning frame ........ 133
100. Flyer spinning frame . . . . . . .134
101. 100 spindle-cap spinning frame ..... 136
102. Doubler winder ....... 138
103. Ring twisting frame . . . . . . .139
104. Cleaned and not cleaned yarns ..... 140
105. Gassing frame ........ 140
106. Gassing and cleaning machine . . . . . 141
107. Cleaning frame ....... 142
108. Bobbin reel . . . . . . . .143
109. Yarn washing . . . . . . . .144
110. Improved yarn preparing machine . . . . .145
111. Derby doubler (section) . . . . . .148
112. Derby doubler . . . . . . .149
113. Combing (section) . . . . . . .150
114. Improved combing machine (Heilmann system) . . . 151
115. Garnetting machine . . . . . . .151
116. Mule spinning . . . . . . . .152
117. Diagram of all processes ...... 153
GLOSSARY
/
Have. The united brins or strands spun by the silkworm.
Eookboard. Two thin boards of wood hinged together like a book to hold a
strip of silk whilst undergoing the dressing operation.
Books. A certain number of heads or hanks of raw silk bound together by
bands in the form of an oblong book. Twelve books make a bale of raw
silk.
Erin. The two strands emitted by the worm when spinning its cocoon.
Carrier. Small rollers acting as supports to rovings between back and front
rollers of drawing machinery, roving frames, and spinning frames.
Chops. The qualities or names under which raw and waste silk is sold.
Cleaner waste. The waste made during the cleansing of wound nett silk from
foul pieces and " gouty " places.
Cocoon. The silken covering of the pupre. A double cocoon indicates that two
worms have spun side by side, whilst a pierced cocoon means that the
moth has emerged or "pierced" the cocoon.
Degumming. The operations of freeing, wholly or in part, the silk thread from
its covering of sericin or gum.
Deniering. The dividing of reeled nett silk into counts or sizes.
Discharging. The operations necessary to boil silk waste and silk yarn free
from gum.
Draft. The drawing out of one or more ends of sliver or roving into a thinner
end.
Drafts. The name given to dressed silk, the term "first draft" denoting the
longest length of fibre possible to obtain out of any given quality of waste,
the second draft being the second longest length of fibre, and so on. The
lengths are usually denoted as follows :
Long drafts. Shorts.
I I I ,1 I -"- ,, | * ,
method } l8tdrafts ' 2nd drafts - 3rd drafts. 4th drafts. 5th drafts. 6th drafts. 7th drafts,
method} ABC 1st drafts. 2nd drafts. 3rd drafts. 4th drafts.
Drawing. The preparation of dressed silk previous to spinning that is, all
the processes after dressing, carding, combing, up to the spinning frame.
Dressing. The separation of the different lengths of fibre.
Fibroin. The pure silk thread spun by the worm.
xiv GLOSSARY
Gouty. A thread having on it thick, rough places.
Graine. The egg of the silk moth.
Gum. The hard gum-like covering of the silk thread (fibroin). It is also
called " sericin " and "bast."
Hank. A skein of thread of a fixed length.
Long spun. A term used to indicate that the yarn spun from silk waste is
spun from silk which has not been "cut" after dressing, and in contra-
distinction to short spun, which used to imply that the dressed silk was
cut into short lengths prior to carding, drawing, and spinning, but is
now often applied to waste silk yarn of short fibres which has been
carded.
Nett silk. Sometimes spelt " neat silk." A term used in contradistinction to
"spun silk," really being a name applied to all silks produced by the
. silk throwster.
No-throw. A thread composed of filaments of raw silk wound together with
a very small amount of twist.
Noil. The short silk which has been separated from the long fibres in the
dressing operations, and also the short silk combed out of the noil from
the dressing frame ; the noil from the last-named machine being called
"long noil," and the noil from the comb the " exhaust noil."
Organzine. Nett silk used as warp.
Ratch. The distance between back and front rollers in any drawing or
spinning machine.
Raw silk. The thread produced by cocoon reeler and sold in form of skeins,
each thread composed of a number of filaments.
Rawy thread. A thread showing thin places. In raw silk this is caused by
bad reeling, in spun silk by uneven drawing, or too much draft in the
spinning.
Schappe. Refers to a spun yarn which has been spun from waste which has
not been fully discharged or degummed.
Scha2Jping. The fermentation of silk waste necessary to remove a pre-
determined percentage of gum or bast (sericin) from the silk fibre.
Scroop. The rustling sound given out by silk yarns and fabrics, and which
is caused by such yarns or materials having been passed through an acid
bath.
Sericin. The " soluble by water " portion of the fibre spun by the silkworm.
See Gum.
Short spinning. The processes necessary to spin yarn made from fibres of silk
which have been cut into short lengths. The term is applied also to
yarn spun from short fibres of silk, which, preparatory to spinning, have
been carded and drawn on rotary or roller drawing frames.
Singles. Raw silk which has received a slight twist in the spinning frame, if
the yarn is required for weft purposes, and a hard twist if required for warp
purposes.
Sliver. The ribbon-like silk, delivered by any drawing frame, without any
twist in it.
Slubbing. An attenuated sliver, but delivered on to a bobbin and with twist
in, thus making a soft thick thread of silk. *
GLOSSARY xv
Spinning. The operation necessary to twist together fibres or threads of nett
silk, or the act of putting twist into a thread on a spinning mill in silk
throwing. In waste spinning and the spinning of all textile fibres, except
nett silk, this term means the operation of drawing or drafting out a pre-
determined length of yarn from a roving, and on the same machine
putting twist into the attenuated end or thread.
Spun silk. A yarn composed of fibres of silk, which fibres have been cut or
dressed into lengths to enable it to be spun.
Throwing. The operations necessary to convert raw silk into any desired
size or count suitable for manufacturing.
Thrown silk. A yarn composed of fibres of silk, each fibre or filament being
the longest length possible to obtain from a cocoon, and such fibres of
reeled silk having been " thrown," meaning wound together and twist
put on the thread in a silk-throwing establishment.
Tram. Xett silk used as weft.
Twist. The number of turns per inch in any thread.
Waste silk. Raw silk which will not reel and waste made in the various
operations of silk throwing. Really tangled messes of silk which have to
be cut or dressed into lengths before they can be spun. See Spun silk..
Winder waste. The waste made during process of winding raw silk on to a
bobbin. Known also as "fine waste," because it is usually a fine thin
place which will not bear the tension of winding, and has therefore to be
taken out by the winding frame attendant.
SILK THROWING
AND WASTE SILK SPINNING
INTRODUCTION
ALTHOUGH much information is obtainable in this country regarding
the weaving of silk goods, very little seems to be understood about the
earlier processes of silk working. The terms raw, waste, thrown,
spun, or schappe silk are very vague even to the ordinary manu-
facturer, though he may use silk in conjunction with his cotton or
worsted goods, and by others the terms are still less understood. The
English silk industry has long been in a declining condition, although
anyone looking in the principal drapers' windows cannot but be
impressed by the growing popularity of the fibre. It is lamentable to
have to admit that instead of progressing, as is the case with most of our
other textile fabrics, silk has become less and less an English industry,
and unless something is done, and done quickly, there appears the
chance of it being entirely overshadowed by continental competitors.
A few years ago silk manufacturing was a most profitable industry in
this country ; but unfortunately, when import tariffs were removed
and foreign competition began to be felt, there was a singular lack of
energy displayed, and little attempt was made to keep abreast of the
times. No trade has suffered more from conservatism; machines
have not been modernised, and many in use at the present time have
been in existence for a generation. Some manufacturers are still
clamouring for protection as the only means of saving the industry,
although the possibility of combating foreign competition is demon-
strated by the very few energetic firms who have proved themselves
capable of competing against all comers in the open market.
Of late years some cotton and worsted manufacturers have turned
their attention to silk, and instead of looking to Macclesfield arid
Spitalfields as the centres of the British silk industry, we now turn to
Bradford and district, or to Glasgow, whilst Manchester and the
2 SiLK THROWING AND WASTE SPINNING
neighbouring East Lancashire towns get through a fair amount of
spun silk for shirtings, zephyrs, striped goods, etc. ; and although
there probably never were fewer who could strictly call themselves
" silk manufacturers," it is likely there never were more users of silk,
even in the palmy days of 'the trade. This new life tends to bring the
trade into line with other textile industries, and as cotton and worsted
manufacturers find there are no great difficulties in the manipulation
of silk, the number is likely to increase rather than diminish.
Of the two branches, spinning and throwing, the former, as
applied to the treatment and preparation of so-called waste silk, is by
far the more important in this country, for while the latter has been a
declining trade for the last fifteen years or more, there is to-day in
England waste silk machinery capable of turning out more spun silk
yarn than ever before ; so in the gloomy picture of the decline of the
silk trade it is pleasant to be able to record one branch which has
managed to hold its own. Throwing, as one of the three distinct
sections into which the English silk industry is divided, namely,
throwing, spinning, and manufacturing, seems to be the branch in
which we, as a nation, have failed altogether to keep pace with con-
tinental throwsters. Improvements in machinery can be traced to
American and continental sources, but they have not been generally
adopted by English throwsters.
There is a large field open for our manufacturers, if they could and
would cater better for the home market. At one time silk was looked
upon as a luxury, but now, owing principally to the fact that a use
has been found for waste silk which formerly was of little commercial
value, its use as an article of adornment is practically universal.
When it is borne in mind that for every 1 Ib. of raw silk produced
there is about 1 J Ib. of unreelable silk remaining, and which, prior to
the invention of silk spinning, was almost valueless, it will be at once
recognised that there was a great possibility before an industry which
would be able to use up this vast accumulation of waste. Hitherto no
work has been written showing the whole history of the silk from
worm to thread, and only very brief and erroneous references can be
found on the spinning of silk waste. A great deal of the machinery
used is common to other spinning industries, and where that is the
case it has not been deemed necessary to go into any great detail.
On the other hand, some processes are peculiar to silk, and these have
been fully described. In no case has it been thought advisable to
enter into any machinery calculations, such as the method of finding
the draft wheels, change wheels, etc., all of which calculations can be
got from machinists, and have been published in many text-books.
CHAPTEK I
THE SILKWORM EGG-HATCHING
THE SILKWORM. Almost every country seems to have some kind of
silk-producing insect, but we generally turn to China, Japan, Italy,
and Southern France as the only countries where the silkworm
which is the chief producer of industrial silk can be successfully
reared. This is a mistake, for in our own country, without the aid of
artificial means, silkworms have been reared from the egg. Splendid
specimens of moths have been obtained, and experts who have studied
the subject, and who have for years cultivated the silkworm, are of
opinion that quite as good silk can be produced here as in any other
country. The reason why this is not an English industry is that
labour is too expensive as compared with native labour in China and
Japan and that of the peasants in France and Italy. It has, however,
been proved beyond a doubt that the silkworm can be reared here just
as prolifically as on the Continent, and there are worms in England
to-day which have been bred from stock, introduced very many years
ago, and still the moths show no signs of degenerating nor does the
silk appear to have become any worse. The eggs, or "graine," of the
silk moth vary in size, according to the family to which they belong,
but generally speaking they are about the size of a pin head, and so
hard that a person might stand on them without breaking them. If
stored in a cold place the eggs can be kept for almost any length of
time, but if put in a fairly warm room the eggs can be hatched pretty
quickly, although it is always well not to force them too much. Care
should be taken that the worms do not appear before the mulberry is
in leaf, or whatever food it may be intended to feed them on is quite
ready.
After hatching, the worm begins at once to feed, and is most
voracious, doing nothing but eat for from three to five weeks, when it
is full grown, having in the meantime cast its skin no less than three
or four times.
Spinning cocoon. Fig. 1 shows the worm commencing to spin its
cocoon, which it starts when full grown. The thread, which is
secreted in two glands near the head, comes from the worm's under-
lip in two strands, or brins, which unite, and are then termed
4 RAW SILK
"have." Some species attach themselves to the twig of a tree (as
will be seen from the illustration) before commencing to spin, whilst
other kinds secrete themselves between two or three leaves, and then
envelop themselves in a cocoon of silk.
When the cocoon stage is reached, the worm is in what is called
the pupa, or chrysalides state, and thus it remains through the winter.
At the approach of the warm weather it gives out a kind of moisture
to soften the silk at one end of the cocoon, then begins eating or
pushing its way out, and soon what appeared months before an ugly-
looking caterpillar bursts forth a winged creation a beautiful moth,
as great a transformation as man can imagine. It is only when the
FIG. 1. Silkworm.
moth is required for breeding purposes or preserving as a specimen
that it is allowed to pierce the cocoon, as immediately the silk is thus
broken it is unreelable, and the pierced cocoons are only fit for waste-
spinning purposes.
Sericin Fibroin. As the fluid thread is produced by the silk-
worm it is coated with a kind of varnish known as "gum" or
"sericin," which becomes hard in a few days after the worm has
completed its cocoon. This gum will dissolve in water, but the
thread or " fibroin " itself is insoluble in water, although the chemical
composition of each is very similar, as will be seen from the following
analysis. The percentages are only given approximately :
THE SILKWORM EGG HATCHING
Fibroin.
49 per cent.
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Sericin.
424 per cent.
6^
16*
35
f It is also interesting to compare the composition of the worm
itself with that of the mulberry leaf
Dried Worms. Leaves.
48 per cent. Carbon ... 44 per cent.
Hydrogen . . 6 ,,
Nitrogen . . . 3 ,,
Oxygen . . . 35
Mineral matter .. 12
7
10
26
m
\/ >
JP
o
m
Jap
D
FIG. 2. Bombyx mori, larvae, cocoon, moth.
Varieties of moth. There are hundreds of different varieties of
silk moths, family Bombycidce, but the best known and most prolific is
the genus Bombyx, which includes BomJjyx mori, the typical Chinese
silk moth, which produces the best silks of China, Italy, and France.
In Fig. 2 is shown the worm or larvae A, the cocoon B, the male moth
C, and the female moth D, of the Eomhyy mori. As will be seen
from these, the cocoon is very small about the size of a pigeon's egg
but it is very compact. All cocoons produced by the Bombyx are
reelable, and are termed closed cocoons i.e. the thread covers the
6 RAW SILK
ends of the cocoon without any apparent break, whereas some species
produce an open cocoon i.e. a cocoon with what appears an opening
in the outer covering of silk at the end, from which the moth would
emerge. Some, but not all, of the so-called opened cocoons are
reelable.
The composition of the Bombyx mori silk is as follows :
Water . . . . . . . 12 '50 per cent.
Fatty and resinous . . . . . 0'70 ,,
Mineral 1-12
Gum 22-58
Fibroin 63 '10 ,,
The food of this particular worm is the leaf of the white mulberry
tree (Morus alba), and the fear of frosts in the early spring on the
Continent is not so much on account of the damage it will do to the
worms as the fear lest it will nip the budding mulberry trees, and so
delay the foliage that the eggs may be hatched before there is food for
the young worms. The frost scare is often made use of in the early
part of spring by speculators endeavouring to run up prices of raw
silks. They give out, that owing to frost the mulberry will be
delayed, and the young worms, having no food, will die, and hence
there will be a scarcity of silk. The mulberry is a rare tree in this
country, and lettuce and dandelion have been found good substitutes
on which to feed the worm, but there is nothing to equal the natural
food of the silkworm.
The next best-known group of silkworms is the tussah (tasar,
tussar, tussore), of which the Antherea mylitta is the principal.
Fig. 3 shows the cocoon at A, the male moth at B, and the female at
C. (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5 are reduced to half the actual linear size of
the insect, etc.)
The Mylitta spins a much larger cocoon, and is in every respect a
larger worm than the Bombyx. It thrives in India and China, and
although there is a considerable difference in the texture of the China
tussah and the Indian variety, the latter having a coarser fibre, both
silks are the product of the same worm. For waste-spinning purposes
the China tussah is preferred on account of its finer thread, but
throwsters hold to the Indian as being cleaner and firmer. Although
the Mylitta is really the only variety of the Antherea family which
produces real tussah, there are a score which produce similar silk, all
belonging to the same genus of insect. Whilst the Bombyx mori
produces the finest silk, the fibres measuring from y^ 1 ^ to y^o^ in.
diameter, the Antherea mylitta produces the coarsest silk, which varies
in diameter from y^o^ to T ^ in. diameter.
The colour of the Bombyx mori silk varies from pure white to
creams, and yellows to rich orange ; but after boiling or discharging, the
darkest shade will come out cream ; whereas the tussah which varies
THE SILKWORM EGG HATCHING
from light cream to dark red-brown, will not give up its colour so
easily , and it is only by the help of peroxides, or otherwise chemically
treating it, that light shades can be obtained. Comparatively speak-
FIG. 3. AntJierea mylitta, cocoon, moth.
ing, very little of the so-called tussah waste which conies to this
market is really tussah ; at least, it is not the product of the Mylitta,
but of the many wild varieties which abound in China and India. A
8 RAW SILK
great producer of what is called the Indian tussah is the species
FIG. 4. -Yama-mai, larvae, cocoon, moth.
known as Assam of the Antherea family, known l>y the natives as
Muya. The Antherea royli, which is bred in the Himalayas at a
THE SILKWORM EGG HATCHING 9
great elevation, produces one of the best Indian tussahs. Doubtless
the difference in texture between the Indian and China tussah, the
product of the Mylitta, is due partly to climatic influences and partly
to the difference in food. The leaf of the oak is the best-known food
for this class of worm, but there are a score of different varieties of
leaves on which the worm thrives. Another genus belonging to the
Antfierea family, and one which is valued very much in Japan, is the
Yama mai. Fig. 4 shows the worm A, the cocoon B, the male moth
C, and the female moth D. It is an oak-feeding variety, and spins a
quality of silk which is much appreciated on account of its strength,
but the colour is not so good as that of the silk of the Bombyx mori,
the cocoon having a greenish appearance. The Yama mai can be
reared very well in England, and out of fifty eggs sent to an expert in
the first year of introduction to this country, forty-nine were hatched ;
the worms reared, spun their cocoons, forty-nine perfect specimens of
moths emerged, and their progeny still exist.
The Pernyi is another variety of the Antherea group which can
easily be reared in this country. It produces a good silk, very
similar to the Mori. It is an oak-feeding worm and is indigenous to
North China, where of late years much attention has been paid to the
rearing of this variety for commerce.
Of the Citernia family the Attacus Cynthia is shown in Fig. 5
the worm at A, the cocoon at B, the male moth at C, and the female
moth at D. It also is a valuable silk producer, and thrives in North
China and Japan, feeding on the Arlanthus glandulosa, which is
very similar to our ash. It produces a long greyish cocoon. The
Ricini is the Cynthia introduced into India, where it feeds on the
castor-oil plant and produces the silk known as Bengals.
Wild ivorms. As reference has occasionally been made to wild
silkworms, it is well to here state that the description applies to
those varieties which are hatched out in the open without any
attempt being made to cultivate them or keep them under cover,
except perhaps in a very primitive way. Many of the cocoons of the
wild worms are probably collected and the pupa killed to prevent
the moth developing, and such cocoons will be reeled ; but naturally
the silk is not so good as that of the worm which has been care-
fully tended and shielded from climatic changes of temperature. In
many of these wild species the moths are allowed to burst from the
cocoons, thus rendering them useless for reeling purposes. They are ex-
ported to Europe as " pierced cocoons," suitable only for waste-spinning
purposes. Pierced cocoons are far more preferable to the silk waste
spinner than perfect cocoons with the lifeless chrysalis inside, as in
the latter case it is a troublesome process to separate the wormy
matter from the silk, to say nothing of the extra weight of useless
matter purchased. There are many wild varieties of silkworms in
China and Japan.
IO
RAW SILK
On the other hand, the Bornbyx mori and other valuable pro-
FIG. 5. Attacus Cynthia, larvae, cocoon, moth.
ducers of silk are most carefully and elaborately tended, either by
the peasantry of the various countries in their own homes, or by-
THE SILKWORM EGG HATCHING u
large producers in establishments erected for the purpose, and
employing numbers of attendants. The silk industry of the East is
divided into two sections namely, (1) the rearing of the worms,
and (2) the reeling of the cocoons. To give some idea of the
amount of tending which must be necessary in rearing the domesticated
worms, it is calculated that the worms hatched from 1 oz. of " graine " v
eat during the thirty-one days which elapse from the day the eggs x
are hatched to the day when they commence spinning something
like 1590 Ib. of leaves. After the worms in the rearing establish-
ments have completed spinning, the cocoons are carefully examined
and sorted ; the most perfect are set aside for breeding purposes, and
the remainder are baked or steamed in order to destroy the life of
the pupae. The average production of 1 oz. of eggs is from 87
to 88 Ib. of cocoons that is, of course, unpierced cocoons
which includes the weight of the pupae or chrysalis. The cocoons
set aside for reeling are next sorted into grades good, bad, and
indifferent.
CHAPTER II
COCOON REELING AND QUALITIES OF SILK
COCOON KEELING. Reeling is a very simple but tedious process,
and, on account of the silk fibre being so very fine, it takes a long
time to reel 1 Ib. of silk. One authority has stated that it takes
from 2000 to 2500 silkworms to produce 1 Ib. of silk. There is
no very elaborate or expensive machinery required. Fig. 6 represents
a reeling machine, whose parts are as follows : A, the basin into
which the cocoons B are placed ; C, a small circular plate through
FIG. 6. Cocoon reeling machine.
\
which the cocoon ends are passed to gather them into one end, which
is conveyed over the small wheel D, then under the small wheel E,
to the point F, where the thread is twisted round itself to weld the
cocoon ends together before it passes on to the swift G.
The water in the basin is kept at a uniform temperature by means
of steam. Into this Avater a number of cocoons are placed, and the
operator whisks them about with a small stick or bunch of twigs
until the natural gum with which the fibre is covered softens, and so
12
COCOON REELING AND QUALITIES OF SILK 13
allows the thread to adhere to the stick, when the outer coating of
the cocoon, being coarse and uneven, is stripped off and put aside as
waste, for the spinner of waste silk yarns. After this coating has
been removed the reeler finds the end of the true or reelable thread,
when four, five, or more of such ends are taken up and passed
through the guide C to make one thread. The number of ends
amalgamated varies according to the quality of the silk and the size
or count required. Only the middle portion of a. cocoon is reeled ;
the outer coating first spun by the worm is too coarse and uneven,
the inner portion or last part spun by the worm is too fine, and
hardly strong enough to bear even the weight of the cocoon. This
unevenness in thread, varying from coarse to fine according as the
silk is near the outside or near the inside of the cocoon, makes it
necessary that great care be exercised by the reeler in running the
different threads together to maintain the resulting thread of uniform
size; and, as pn this uniformity the value of the raw silk greatly
depends, it will be seen that some skill and judgment is essential
to a good reeler, it being necessary at times to vary the number
of filaments.
Tsatlee reel. In China silks there are three different reelings
namely, tsatlee reel, re-reeled tsatlees, and filature reels. The tsatlee reel
is the commonest and oldest form in which the China silks come over
from the East, but is fast falling out of favour, re-reels and filatures
taking its place. The reeling machine is a very primitive affair, and,
generally speaking, not much care is taken by the reelers to see that
the number of filaments running together to make one thread is kept
the same. Sometimes there may be ten or eleven running together
to start with, but as the cocoons fall, off or the ends break they are
not replaced immediately. In fact, judging from the silk at times,
it would appear that they are sometimes let run down until there are
only about two running together. Then the correct number of
cocoons or threads are pieced up and the reeling restarted ; and so
the process goes on, the thread naturally varying in thickness
according to the number of filaments or cocoons kept up. In the
tsatlee reel there is no attempt to make the hanks or skeins one even
continuous thread, or uniform in length, and many times where the
piecings of broken ends have been made there are faulty places which
were better left undone. The tsatlee reels come over to Europe in
the form of "books," twelve of which make up a bale of from 100 to
104 Ib. These books are made up of twelve "mosses," which are
again divisible into " slips." The length and size of these slips vary
according to the quality of the silk. The books are bound
together by bands of raw silk, which are generally very coarse and
unsuitable for throwing. The ends of the books are covered by a
kind of flossy silk, called "caps," to keep them clean. These silk
caps are used for waste-spinning purposes.
RAW SILK
The different qualities of tsatlees are divided into grades from
No. 2% to 5f, but there is no general classification under these
grades, different shippers styling them according to their own
recognised standard. The different qualities are known under a
" chop " mark. Of the best-known qualities the following might be
taken as standards for the grades :
No. 1
No. 1.
2.
1.
34.
4.
2.
Bluck Lion.
Black Lion.
Black Lion.
Buffalo.
Black Lion.
Black Lion.
Buffalo.
5|
(best)
No.
fNo. 1. Almond Flower.
Gold Kilin.
-I Blue Phoenix Lanfung.
M. Mandarin Duck.
us.s.s.
Dollar.
(m a r -
k e li-
able)
Green Peacock Seeling.
No. 2. Almond Flowers.
Triple Pagodas.
Choey Kilins.
Bamboo No. 2.
Mandarin Duck M.M.
Kinfong Gold Pheasant.
No. ,2. Beautiful Woman.
(X. Running
| Red Stork.
Deer.
III. Train Chop.
, A ft* JJUllctlU
I Red Elephant.
/ No. 3. Red Pagoda.
'X 3. Buffalo.
/Blue Elephant.
\Bird Fongling.
/Yellow Elephant.
tNo. 3. Mountain.
(Green Elephant.
No. 4. Mountain.
Gold Lion Kintze.
,, 5| /No. 5. Mountain,
(good) \Double Silver Elephant.
Re-reels. As the name implies, these are the tsatlees re-reeled
by the natives into smaller hanks, each of which is made up
separately. In this process of re-reeling some of the foul threads and
bad piecings are taken out, and the thread is subjected to a cleaning
process. The hanks are sorted, and the fine sizes run together, as
also the coarse sizes, and this is the reason re-reels are so much more
uniform in size than ordinary tsatlees. Each skein being tied up
separately and the hanks being so much straighter, makes them less
expensive working for the throwster, and does not need the same
amount of soap that tsatlees do to make them wind easily. Like
tsatlees, re-reels are also divided into grades, and are shipped under
a chop mark. These are
EXTRA.
Buffalo Extra.
Pegasus Extra.
Black Horse Extra.
No. 1.
Buffalo A.
Pegasus No. 1.
Black Horse No. 1.
Fan Chop Extra.
Gold Pheasant No. 1.
No. 2 BEST.
Buffalo B.
Pegasus No. 2.
Black Horse No. 2.
Chrysantheimim No. 1.
Gold Flying Dragon No. 2.
Gold Pheasant No. 2.
Fan Chop No. 1 .
No. 3 BEST.
Pegasus No. 3.
Black Horse No. 3.
Chrysanthemum No. 2.
Fan Chop No. 2.
Gold Pheasant No. 3.
COCOON REELING AND QUALITIES OF SILK 15
No. 4 BEST.
Pegasus No. 4.
Black Horse No. 4.
Chrysanthemum No. 3.
MARKET No. 1.
Flag Chop No. 1 .
Cabbage No. 1.
Gold Peony Flower No. 1.
MARKET No. 2.
Flag Chop No. 2.
Gold Peony Flower No. 2.
Cabbage No. 2.
Small Buffalo No. 1.
MARKET No. 3.
Flag Chop No. 3.
Gold Peony No. 3.
Cabbage No. 3.
Small 'Buffalo No. 2.
MARKET No. 4.
Cabbage No. 4.
Small Buffalo No. 3.
Steam filatures. These are the finest and most expensive silks
produced. Only good silk is reeled thus, and filatures are more even
and reliable for size than either re-reels or tsatlees. Formerly all
silks used to be reeled in the cottages by the peasant and his
family, and the water in which the cocoons were steeped preparatory
to reeling was kept hot by a fire underneath the basin. By this
means of obtaining heat it is impossible to keep the water at a
uniform temperature, and the result consequently was uncertain, and
bad reeling and tangled hanks were rather the rule than the
exception. To overcome this difficulty, and with the general
improvement of the industry and greater demand for silks from
Europe, machines were adopted and the water heated by steam as
per Fig. 6, and so kept at one temperature. These machines are
gathered into factories called " steam filatures," and the cocoons,
which have either been spun by worms bred on the premises or
brought from up country by the peasantry, are reeled under skilled
supervision. In these " steam filatures " great care is taken to keep
the thread uniform in size or count and length of skein, the reeler
being attentive to replace cocoons which have broken down, and so to
keep the number of filaments comprising the thread always the same.
CHOP MAEKS. China filatures are also divided into grades
according to chop, the best known being
EXTRA.
Soyhm Gold Anchor Extra.
BEST No. 1.
Soylun Silver Anchor No. 1.
Keecheong No. 1.
No. 1.
Soylun Red Anchor No. 2.
Keecheong No. 2.
Gold Dragon No. 1.
Soy chin g Gold Eagle No. 1.
BEST No. 2.
Sans Pareil No. 2.
Double Gold Dragon No. 2.
Tsuncheong Gold Double Anchor
No. 1.
Excelsior No. 2.
Gold Globe No. 2.
No. 3 BEST.
Double Anchor No. 2.
Excelsior No. 2.
Sans Pareil No. 3.
Gold Globe No. 3.
Double Dragon and Flag No. 2.
No. 3.
Double Anchor No. 3.
Double Dragon and Flag No. 3.
i6
RAW SILK
Another class of China raw silk, much in request for silk sew-
ings and other purposes for which coarse threads can be used to
advantage, are Hangchows and Kahings, which are reeled very similar
to the tsatlee, being made up in books of 9/12 mosses. The dia-
meter of the reel is, however, generally larger than the ordinary
tsatlee, and in consequence needs larger swifts in winding. Of the
Kahings the best-known chops are
WHITE KAHINGS.
EXTRA.
Tsuky Yuen Kinling.
Ching Yung Kinling.
No. 1 BEST.
Tsuky Yuen Fongling.
Ching Yung Fongling.
Gold Lily Flower (Extra).
No. 1.
Gold Lily Flower No. 1.
Tsuky Yuen Sueling.
No. 2.
No. 2 Gold Lily Flower.
No. 3.
No. 3 Gold Lily Flower.
No. 4.
No. 4 Gold Lily Flower.
GREEN KAHINGS.
EXTKA.
Cicada No. 1.
No. 1 BEST.
Mandarin Duck Extra.
No. 1.
M. Mandarin Duck.
No. 2 BEST.
White Swan No. 2.
Green Stork Extra.
Gold Eagle Extra.
No. 2.
M. M. Mandarin Duck.
Green Stork No. 1.
No. 3 BEST.
M. M. M. Mandarin Duck.
No. 4.
Green Stork No. 4.
Of the Hangchows the best-known qualities are shipped under
the following chop marks :
EXTRA.
Best No. 1 Lily Flower.
Best No. 1 Pagoda.
No. 1.
No. 1 Lily Flower.
No. 1 Pagoda.
No. 1 Blue Lion.
No. 1 Blue Horse.
No. 2.
No. 2 Lily Flower.
No. 2 Pagoda.
No. 2 Blue Lion.
No. 2 Blue Horse.
HANGCHOW TAYSAAMS.
Double Horse No. 1.
Double Horse No. 2.
The different chops, named previously under the heads of Tsat-
lees, Re-reels, Filatures, Kahings, and Hangchows, are all silks shipped
from Shanghai, rnd are the silks universally known as " Chinas."
From Canton there are also different qualities of raw silk shipped,
and in contradistinction to those shipped from Shanghai they are
known as " Cantons." Chinas and Cantons are two distinct
qualities of raw silk. The most striking differences noticeable, even
to the uninitiated, are first, the colour; second, the texture or feel
COCOON REELING AND QUALITIES OF SILK 17
of the -silk. Chinas, generally speaking, are a good white colour
(although there are a few varieties yellow, but which are com-
paratively little known), even in the lower grades. Cantons, on the
other hand, are a greenish brown, and vary very considerably.
China silk is a firm, compact thread; Canton silk is not so firm,
and works "fluffy" in throwing. These two defects are more
noticeable when the silk has been discharged of its natural gum, for
no amount of boiling i.e. degumming will give the Canton the
same white bottom as the China. Like Chinas, Cantons are shipped
in the tsatlee, re-reel, and filature reels, but as tsatlees they are best
known as No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, and No. 4 Cantons, although they
have different chop marks ; but not so much importance is placed
upon these chops as is the case with Chinas. The same remarks
apply to the Canton filatures and Canton re-reels, which are likewise
divided into grades extra 1's, 2's, 3's, and 4's. The falling off in
the production and export of tsatlee Cantons is more pronounced
than with China tsatlees. The shipments go less every year, more
silk being filature-reeled and re-reeled for America and the Con-
tinent.
Japan raw silk. Practically all Japans are filatures or re-reels,
and the bulk of the silk shipped to this country is shipped as fila-
tures, America and the Continent taking a fair quantity of re-reels as
well. The re-reels from Japan are very fair for cleanliness, and
fairly even in thread. . The different filatures have their respective
chop marks, some of which are very well known, such as the
" Kamiesha stags " and the " Riojiokan," but, generally speaking,
they are bought and sold by grade. For all practical purposes, the
following represents the different qualities shipped : Extra : No. 1 ;
Nos. 1, 1J; No. 1; Nos. 1J, 2; and No. 2; but in buying "to
arrive," the throwster or manufacturer generally stipulates the
shipper, or shipper's mark, as one mark of Nos. 1, 1J may only be
equal to another shipper's No. 1J or 1J, 2. In the case of buying on
the spot from samples, the shipper's mark is not so important, as the
silk will show for itself, except that certain shippers are well known
to be careful in their selections and inspection. Japan silk is a good,
clean silk, strong and fine fibre. The colour is greyish white, but
not so white as Chinas. Japans are made up in books, but these
contain separate hanks. The number of books in a bale varies.
Each book weighs from 4 Ib. 4 oz. to 4 Ib. 12 oz., and a bale
scales from 140 to 150 Ib. The great shipping centre for Japan is
Yokohama.
Bengal raw silk. Coming west, there are the well-known Bengal
silks, which are all filatures or re-reels. They are quite a distinct variety
from the China, Canton, or Japan silks. The colour, is a bright yellow,
except some little which is a greenish white, and is not so appreciated
as the yellow. Bengals are not made up in books like the other Far-
i8 RAW SILK
Eastern raws, but are packed in bales with the different heads loose,
each bale weighing about 140 to 150 Ib. Of Bengals there are
three crops in the year, and these crops are known as bunds, and
the three bunds are named March bund, July bund, and November
bund. Of these the last-named is the best quality, and is usually
the most sought after. The November bund silk arrives in this
country about April or May, the March bund in September, the July
in January. The silks are reeled from 10/14 to 45/50 deniers
i.e. from 23, 100 yards to the ounce, to 6500 yards to the ounce, but
the bulk are 16/20, 20/25, and 26/30 deniers the latter, say
9180 yards per ounce, being a favourite size in this country. The
best-known qualities are the Soleil (a special re-reel quality and much
appreciated on the Continent), Surdahs, Rose Filatures, Cooldahs
(also better known on the Continent), Gonateas, Bangettys, Ranga-
mattys, Bhudderpores, and Chandpores. Calcutta is the great
shipping centre for " Bengals."
European silks. These are, with the best Japans, the finest and
most expensive silks used commercially, and can be had as fine as
8/10 deniers, which is equal to 31,000 yards to the ounce. The
district in which the worms are reared and the silk reeled gives
the name to the silk, and some of the best-known qualities are
the Cevennes, Piedmont, Frioul, Briance, and Messine. All these
silks are filature-reeled, but the diameter of the swift used varies.
The usual colour is yellow naturally, but there is some greyish white,
which is well liked. A bale of French or Italian raw contains 100
kilos. = 220 Ib. about. These raws are divided into grades : Extra
classical, classical, sublime, and common.
Comparatively speaking, very little European raw silk comes to
this country except for using in the singles. Very few throwsters
buy it, as they cannot throw it to compete in price with the warp and
weft made on the Continent, and which N can come to us free of duty.
The cost of labour is so much cheaper there than in England, and
their machinery is so much better adapted for throwing these fine silks
than ours, that the continental throwsters can deliver thrown silk
in England from 6d. to 9d. per pound cheaper than an English
throwster, granted that the latter can buy the raw silk as cheap as the
former. Some of the large filatures also have their own throwing
mills, so this again tends to diminish the cost of production. On the
other hand, America is a large buyer of French and Italian raw silks,
but not of their throwns. Fortunately for the American throwster,
the raw silk goes into the country duty free, but on warp and weft there
is a very heavy duty to pay namely, 30 per cent, ad valorem.
Doppione. Another class of raw silk of which mention may be
made is the Doppione, which is generally of a light yellowish colour.
This raw silk is coarse and uneven, and is reeled from double cocoons
i.e. in the case where the worms have spun their cocoons side by
COCOON REELING AND QUALITIES OF SILK 19
side and so joined them that it is necessary to reel them together, the
end of neither cocoon being free without the other. The production
is comparatively small, and its unevenness makes it unsuitable for
good class work ; hence its use is confined to the manufacturing of the
cheapest materials and heavy sewing threads.
Silk crops. Mention has been made under the heading of
" Bengal Silks " of three crops per annum. More than one crop in a
season is usual in several districts in the various silk-producing
countries, for the reason that in the early spring, with some species,
the ova is hatched out, worms fully developed, cocoons spun, moths
emerged, and they in their turn have deposited ova which is hatched
out quickly; and the whole development from ova to moth and
reproduction occupies such a short time that from two to five crops of
cocoons are reared in one season.
Shipping raw silks. To combat against the well-known cunning
practised in the Chinaman's reeling and packing, the European and
American shippers at Shanghai and Canton are compelled to have a
fully qualified inspector, with assistants, to examine very carefully
every book of raw silk before packing into bales and shipping. As
far as is possible, without damaging the silk, the books are opened to
see if there has been any inferior silk surreptitiously packed inside,
which is often the case. Sometimes the outside mosses are really
first-class silk, and look exceedingly well, being good colour, bright,
and fine in size ; but the inside layers have been most cleverly made
up of coarser, darker, and inferior silk. There have been cases on
record where other material beside silk has been found inside the
books to give weight to them, but it is only fair to say that there
are some reliable Chinese dealers whose silk can generally be taken to
be what it is represented to be, though of late years in China all chops
seem to have more or less deteriorated, and on this account the old
recognised differences between standard chops such as gold kilins,
yellow and blue elephants, can no longer be taken as a working basis
of relative values and prices.
After the receipt and passing of the silk, it is packed first in a
fine cotton cloth commonly termed a " shirt," which is roped round
with a kind of grass rope of native manufacture. The silk in the
shirt is afterwards packed in a series of layers of coarse matting and
paper, the outside wrapper marked with the shipper's mark and con-
secutive numbers. On arrival of the silk in London, where it is
generally warehoused by the London and India Docks Joint Com-
mittee, the bales are carefully examined to see if they have been
damaged by sea-water or other cause. This can generally be detected
at once without opening the bales, as the outside wrappers will show
any trace of dampness. If any of the bales are damaged, the mer-
chant generally gives instructions at once to have the run (i.e. the
whole of the bales which make up the parcel) " worked " (i.e.
20 RAW SILK
examined). This is undertaken by the Dock Company, who open
out the bales and examine each book separately to see if there is any
trace of damage. Any doubtful book is placed on one side and
replaced by a sound one taken from one of the other bales. This
process goes on through every bale, and in a run of, say, 20 bales of
Chinas, there are frequently as many as 20 damaged books, which are
put in the last two or three bales. These last-named bales are then
assessed for damaged books by a silk broker, who gives a certificate to
say that he has examined them, and considers so many are damaged,
for which the insurance company are liable. These bales are now
" starred " by the Dock Company, and entered as such in their books.
The bale marked thus " * " is always understood to be a damaged
bale, and on any bale so marked the buyer is entitled to claim the
allowance as originally claimed from the insurance company. The
damaged silk is not charged for at all ; thus, if in the ordinary way
a bale was chargeable 104 Ib. net, and on inquiry it was- found that
4 Ib. had been allowed for damage, the bale is only chargeable at
100 Ib. net. Generally speaking, all bales are worked by the Dock
Company on arrival, but this, of course, is at the discretion of the
owner.
After the silk has been worked the books are made up in hessians,
of which the uniform weight is 2 Ib. for China or Canton tsatlee, and
3 Ib. for Bengal or Japan raw silk. On the outside of this hessian
is marked the shipper's mark, the number of the bale, the stock
number, the name of the ship in which it arrived, and the date of
arrival. The bales are then ready for stocking in the Docks Com-
mittee's warehouses or for delivery to the owner. The Dock Company
not only undertake the working of the bales, but also the weighing,
taring, and sampling, which, being done by an independent party, are
accepted by the trade as final in case of a dispute respecting weight.
On bales of tsatlees weighing from 100 to 108 Ib. there is an
allowance made of 2 Ib. per bale, which is termed scorage. For
instance, if a bale scales 106 Ib. in the hessian with a tare of 2 Ib.,
the invoiceable weight is 102 Ib., although the net weight of silk is
104 Ib. This 2 Ib. is allowed for bands and unwindable silk. Odd
ounces are not charged for. A bale weighing 104 Ib. 12 oz. is only,
charged at the same weight as one scaling 104 Ib. In the case of
Japans and re-reels, in which there is no unworkable silk in the shape
of bands, the actual tare of ihe paper and strings round the bundles
is taken. The Dock Company strip three or four books, and having
obtained the weight of the paper and string, take a percentage as
compared with the weight of silk stripped, and this allowance is made
on the whole parcel. This varies from 1 to 2 per cent, on the net
weight.
Terms. Raw silks are bought and sold on what are called
" Company's terms," an abbreviation of " The East India Company'^
COCOON REELING AND QUALITIES OF SILK 21
terms." Briefly, these terms are understood to be three months'
prompt from date of purchase in the case of silk on the "spot," and
three months' prompt from date of arrival in the case of silk bought
" to arrive." During these three months the buyer is at liberty to allow
the bales to lie in the warehouses or to take delivery of all or part of
his purchase, but only on payment of the proper proportion of value
of the silk cleared i.e. delivered. "Company's terms" are also
known as "London terms," in contradistinction to "Lyons terms."
The latter means silk delivered free in Lyons and conditioned in the
Lyons conditioning-house. The weight invoiced to the purchaser is
the conditioned weight, no allowance being made for scorage, and cash
is due on delivery with a 90 days' rebate at the rate of 6 per cent, per
annum.
CHAPTEE III
SILK THROWING
SILK throwing is the name given to a series of operations through
which the raw silk is worked to convert it into a weavable state for
warp or weft, and the produce from a silk throwster's mill is known
FIG. 7. Heads of silk ; book of silk.
as thrown silk. The various kinds of thrown silks best known are :
Singles, used for warp or weft ; Tram, used for weft ; Organzine, used
for warp; No-throw, used in the Derby and Leicester trade; and
Silk Sewings, used by tailors and, in the boot trade. Fig. 7 shows a
book of silk at A, and gives a good idea as to how a tsatlee-reeled
SILK SPLITTING 23
China or Canton is made up. This book can be split up into mosses
and lesser slips. B shows a head or skein of Bengal silk opened out,
while C and D are each a head of Japan and Italian filature respec-
tively.
Splitting. Taking first the tsatlees, the throwsters divide the
books into the separate mosses (twelve mosses to a book). They are
generally found entirely apart from each other, so there is not much
difficulty in parting them unless the silk has been damaged in some
way. The mosses, however, are too large and unwieldy to be put
FIG. 8. Splitting mosses.
upon the swifts of the winding machine, for the strain on the single
thread in the process of winding would be so great that the thread
would be constantly breaking and so causing waste ; hence it is
necessary that the mosses be split up into smaller skeins, which are
generally termed slips. The sizes of the^e slips vary, but it is the
splitter's object to get them as nearly all one size as possible. One
moss is generally split into about three slips. In some classes of silk
where the reeling from the cocoon has been carelessly done this is a
very tedious process, on account of the tangled threads, and unless
24 SILK THROWING
\
the attendant is a very careful worker she can easily spoil a fair
amount of silk. The machine used is but a simple contrivance, as
will be seen from Fig. 8. The moss or skein S is opened out by the
operator generally a girl sitting on the seat C and placed over
the two barrels or swifts A, the bottom one being movable in a slot
B so as to accommodate mosses or skeins of different diameters. The
operator then places her hands in between the two sides of the skein,
and revolves it quickly round and round the swifts in the direction of
the arrows D, D, which operation causes the skein to open out on
the face of the swifts, tending to get the threads straight, and as
nearly as possible in the same position as when the moss or skein was
on the cocoon-reeling machine. In this way the moss is made ready
for being divided into the required number of slips of similar size at
the most suitable places, and. split or parted with a minimum of
broken threads between each division. The moss ready for division
into three slips or skeins is shown at the top of Fig. 8. In this
parting of the books into mosses, and the splitting of the mosses into
slips, there is a certain amount of waste made, known in the trade as
parters' and splitters' waste, which is always " bright " that is to say,
free from soap or other similar matters.
Sorting. Having thus divided the books into workable slips,
these are now carefully gone through and sorted the coarse from
the fine, the good colour from the bad and indifferent, the nibby
and doubtful removed, each being put in a separate heap and kept
entirely apart until the doubling process, when some throwsters
double or fold a fine and a coarse thread together to get a desired
size or thickness which, Jiowever, is very unsatisfactory, and is
a practice not resorted to now by the best throwsters. Generally
speaking, it may be taken that when once the slips have been sorted
they go through the mill entirely separate. It is part of the duty of
the sorter not only to divide the slips into the different grades, but
also to detach loose ends and straighten them. This process therefore
entails waste again, and is known as sorters' waste, which is also
"bright." Of the waste produced by throwsters the most valuable
are the three previously mentioned namely, "parter's," "splitter's,"
and '"sorter's.^
To none of the previous processes are the filatures or re-reels
subjected, because they are already in the slip state, and are made of
such a convenient size for winding that it is not at all necessary to
divide them further.
Bright silk. At this stage the throwster must decide whether he
will throw the silk " bright," or, as is generally the case in England
with tsatlee reels, whether he will work it with soap. The term
" worked bright " is understood in the trade to denote that the slips
have not, prior to winding, cleaning, and throwing, been washed or
soaked with soap, which is done to make the silk wind more easily.
SILK WASHING AND DRYING 25
Filatures and re-reels, and on the Continent tsatlees even, are gener-
ally "worked bright," but the continental throwsters have some
ingredients other than soap, by using which they help the silk to wind
better, and do not detract so much from the lustre of the silk as soap
does. Many of the compositions used abroad, whilst softening the
silk for winding purposes, add weight to it, a certain proportion of
which is retained in the fibre and will withstand boiling liquors to a
remarkable degree. Slips to be thrown " bright " are at once taken
to the winding frame.
Washing. Washing is not an elaborate process. The slips or
hanks are taken and soaked in a solution of hot water and soap.
The hot water, combined with the alkali of the soap, softens the
natural gum or bast of the silk and tends to make the thread pliable,
and to loosen the threads one from the other ; and the fatty matters
of the soap counteract the tendency the fibres would have, on drying,
of matting together. It is essential that a good white curd soap be
used on account of the absorbent power of silk, as an inferior soap
of bad colour will dry yellow on the silk and thus dimmish its
value by affecting its colour, and may possibly make it sticky in
working. The question of soap used in the washing process is also
a very important matter to the silk waste spinner who buys the
throwster's waste. Where dark-coloured soap is used, the waste from
the processes following the washing is of a bad colour, which no
subsequent boiling will dissipate. Some waste, which immediately
after the winding and cleaning appears a good white colour, turns a
yellowish brown when stored in a room which exposes the waste to
sunlight. This is not the fault of the silk, but of the soap used in
washing.
The compounds used in place of soap are often sprinkled on the
silk by means of a brush, and the silk allowed to lie twelve hours or
so until the bast is well softened. As mention has been made of the
silk absorbing a proportion of the soap, a question naturally arises as
to what extent this weighting is carried on. Some throwsters use
more soap than others, but a good average, and an average which
some throwsters guarantee, is that for every 1 Ib. of thrown silk the
net result of boiled-off silk that is, silk free from soap and its
natural gum should be 11 J oz. net a loss in degumming of 28
per cent. Silk thrown " bright," when boiled off, loses only from 20
to 22 per cent., which shows that soaped silk has picked up from 5
to 8 per cent, of soap; but some manufacturers complain of con-
tinental "throwns" being adulterated with some compound which
spoils the "bottom" i.e. colour of the silk, and makes it impos-
sible to thoroughly boil off the thread a small percentage of the
ingredients used.
Drying. After the washing comes the drying, which is generally
done in one of the two following ways : The slips are freed from as
26
SILK THROWING
much moisture as possible by wringing by hand, and are then put
into a hydro extractor, which dries them so well that it is only
necessary to hang them up for a few days in a room of ordinary
temperature. Other throwsters have a steam-heated stove, in which
they hang their washed slips for drying.
Windiny. The winding and following processes are the same for
soaped slips as for silk thrown "bright." Winding, as the word
implies, is the name given to the process by which the slips, washed
or "bright," as the case may be, are run in a continuous thread on to
bobbins. The winding machine consists of a series of swifts A,
Fig. 9, placed side by side, and revolving on their own axes quite
independent of each other. The slip or hank is placed upon these
swifts, one hank on each swift, as shown at B, and when in position
FIG. 9. Silk winding.
the attendant's first duty is to find the end of the silk on the outer
side of the skein. This end she passes through a guide or eyelet C,
on to a bobbin D. The bobbin is revolved by means of a drum or
pulley E, which is fixed firmly to a skewer or peg passed through the
bobbin, and rests lightly in the brackets F. The small pulleys E are
revolved by means of driving pulleys G, and the thread is traversed
from end to end of the bobbin by means of the guide or eyelet shown
atC.
By this means the thread is wound on the bobbin without any
friction, which would tend to flatten it. When once the end of the
silk is found in a hank it does not follow that the silk will wind in
one continuous thread until the whole skein is complete, for in one
hank there are frequently scores of lengths which the attendant is
SILK CLEANING
continually piecing up, necessitating her continual attention in finding
fresh ends. There are also places in the raw silk which will not bear
the strain of the tension between the bobbin and the swift, and so the
end breaks. In such a case the attendant removes this fine place and
continues to unwind by hand until she comes to the firm thread again.
This fine silk which is taken out is put on one side and is known as
" winders' " waste, and is what is called in the trade the fine, in contra-
distinction to the coarse or cleaners' waste made in the next process.
Cleaning. Sometimes during the winding, but preferably after
as a separate process, a clearing or "cleaning" of the thread from
gouty, slubby, and foul places is attempted. The method adopted is
as follows : The bobbin of silk is taken from the winding frame, the
thread re-wound on to a fresh bobbin, and the thread passed in its
r n
FIG. 10. Clearer or cleaning bars.
transit through a series of guides or cleaners, which may either be a
steel plate with a slot in, or two parallel plates placed so close to each
other that the presence of any bulky knot, husk, foul place, or coarse
thread is immediately detected, and by means of a simple automatic
contrivance the receiving bobbin, which is worked on the same
principle as in the winding frame, is stopped. The attendant then
takes out the faulty thread, pieces up, and the process continues.
These rejections from the cleaning mill are known as "cleaners'" waste.
Fig. 10 shows the cleaning bars, the one at A being open, and the
other one closed. The opening is regulated to any requisite distance
by means of the set of screws B, B. After the cleaning process,
which is repeated two or more times to obtain the quality and the
cleanliness of thread required, the subsequent operations vary accord-
28 SILK THROWING
ing to what it is desired the silk should be converted into whether
no-throw, singles, tram, or organzine.
No-throw. No-throw, as its name-implies, has no twist or spin
(turns per inch) put into it beyond just sufficient to bind the respec-
tive filaments composing the thread together. It is silk taken straight
off the cleaning bobbins two, three or more ends doubled together ;
and if it could be used in that state would only require reeling
into skeins, but, being a most unsatisfactory article to use thus,
most throwsters put in a little twist. Even then great care is
necessary in the reeling, or the threads separate and form " loopy "
places, which are very objectionable, causing a weak thread, and it is
to mitigate such faults that the thread is slightly twisted. Whilst so
guarding against " loopy faults " it is essential that care be taken not
to have too many turns per inch, or then it would be practically use-
less for any purpose, being too hard to cover well. The Derby and
Nottingham markets take a fair quantity of this class of silk for fancy
braids and the covering of cords for tasselling purposes.
Tram. In the making of tram used as weft or shoot, two, three,
or more bobbins of cleaned silk are used, the number varying accord-
ing to the special requirements of the customer, which may be for
what is termed two- or three- (or more) threads tram.
Two-threads tram and three-threads tram are current productions,
but for special purposes, where a coarse count is needed, sometimes a
four-thread tram is made. No twist whatever is put into the single
thread used for tram. For example, if a three-thread tram is needed,
three ends of cleaned silk are wound together on to one bobbin
without any twist being put in. The machine used for the purpose
is similar to the winding machine described in Fig. 9 ; but so as to
ensure that a two-thread or a three-thread tram has two or three
threads throughout its entire length, an automatic stop motion is used,
which throws the receiving bobbin out of gear whenever a thread
breaks between the receiving bobbin and the bobbin from which the
thread is being unwound. Fig. 11 shows a side section of the
machine and the winding or doubling process. Two, three, or more
bobbins, as required, are placed on the bobbin board A, in a line with
the receiving bobbin. The thread T is passed from the bobbin B
through the flyer F over the guide rod G to the detector D, and
thence through traverse guide on to the receiving bobbin H. When
the thread breaks, the detector drops on to the lever L, which is
balanced in such a way that the weight of the detector causes the
lever to tilt up and project its end J into contact with the star wheel
S, fixed on the spindle which goes through the receiving bobbin, thus
stopping the revolution of the bobbin until the broken end is tied up.
The receiving bobbin is revolved in exactly, the same manner as
shown in Fig. 9. The position of the flyer F is so arranged that the
thread does not run any chance of catching against the bobbin head.
SILK ORGANZINE
29
The bobbin containing the desired ends is then taken to the reel,
Fig. 14, or to the spinning mill described under the heading
" Organzine," and a very slight twist put in there. This twist, spin,
or throw, as it is differently termed really turns per inch given to
the thread is varied to suit the purpose for which the silk is
required, ordinary twists, suitable for Macclesfield, Bradford, and
Glasgow trade, being about 1\ turns per inch, whilst for the elastic
web trade and some classes of hosiery a much harder twist is needed
say about 5 to 6 turns per inch.
FIG. 11. Silk doubling.
Organzine. Like tram, this is made up of two or more threads
folded together; but, having to be used for warp in manufacturing
purposes, it is necessary for it to have enough twist in the single
thread and in its folded state to ensure its being able to withstand
the strain and friction of the harness, healds, and reeds in the loom.
Thus in two essential details does it differ from tram ; for whilst the
latter contains no twist in its single threads, organzine singles are
spun or twisted on the throwing or spinning mill, and are again spun,
or twist put in, after being doubled or wound together to make a
two-fold or three-fold yarn. Again, a great deal more twist is
SILK THROWING
necessary for organ zine than for tram, for the latter is kept as soft as
possible, so as to make as bulky a thread as can be, for the sake of
lustre and fulness in the finished article, whilst the former is fairly
hard-twisted to give it strength. A very good twist for organzine of
good quality is 19 to 21 turns per inch, but different throwsters hold
very varied opinions as to what is best.
Fiu. 12. Throwing mill or spinning.
SPINNING. The spinning or throwing mill is illustrated in Fig. 12.
The bobbin A containing the singles is placed on the spindle B. A
circular weight is placed on the top of the bobbin to keep it steady,
and above the weight is fixed a light wire flyer C, through which the
thread is passed, and from thence on to the receiving bobbin D.
This bobbin is often made of lead, and is driven by means of a roller
SILK SINGLES AND REELING
or wheels E, and whilst the thread is passing from the bobbin A in the
direction of the arrow to the receiving bobbin D, the spindle is being
revolved by means of a band or friction strap passed over the tin
cylinder G and spindle wharf H, by which means any requisite
amount of turns per inch can be put into the thread. For economy
of space and labour, the spinning frame is built in tiers, two or three
rows of spindles one above the other, as shown by the drawing.
Fig. 13 shows the usual flyer used in spinning and winding, which is
fixed so that the leg receives the thread midway between the heads of
the bobbin to ensure as little friction as possible on the thread. For
various counts of thread different flyers are used. When the folded
threads of organzine are twisted together, the twist is put in the
reverse way to the twist on the singles, and about 9 turns per inch is
an excellent twist on the doubled thread.
In Fig. 13 the parts marked A are made
of metal and the parts marked B of wood.
Singles. These consist of the single
filament of raw silk, either untwisted as
delivered by the cocoon reeler, or suffici-
ently twisted to enable it to withstand
the operations of boiling or dyeing
through which it may have to pass before
weaving. It is used for warp or for weft A IU || i
for different makes of cloths, and is hard
or soft spun in accordance with the re-
quirements of manufacturers, whether for
use as warp or weft.
Reeling. The bobbins of doubled
silk are taken to a reeling frame, Fig.
14, and placed on the spindles A, which
are fitted up and revolved in the same
manner as the spinning frame spindles.
The thread is passed through the flyer eye and on to the swift B, which
draws the thread off the bobbin. The spin or twist necessary is put
in during the progress of the thread from bobbin to swift by the
revolution of the spindle which is driven by the cylinder C. There
are two different terms for reeled skeins namely, " ordinary " reeled
and " grant " reeled. An ordinary reeled skein will measure in length
from 1000 to 2000 yds., but a grant reeled skein may go up to
10,000 yds. in length. The difference between the two reels is in
the traverse of the thread during the reeling operation. An ordinary
reel will traverse the thread from side to side about 1J in., but
the grant reel much more ; and the traverse of the latter is also very
quick, with the result that there is less liability of the thread becoming
entangled and matted during boiling off and dyeing. Then, again,
in winding from hank to bobbin for warping purposes, a grant reeled
FIG. 13. Flyer.
32 SILK THROWING
skein runs better, and that, combined with its great length, is an
economy in winding.
Ordinary cross reel skeins in England are reeled 1000, 1500, or
2000 yds. long, but on the Continent they vary very considerably,
although 500 and 1000 metres are the standard lengths of a skein of
ordinary reel. When the skeins are all the same length and the sizes
properly divided into bundles or hanks, continental throwns are
termed tours comptes generally written "t.c."; and when the lengths
of the skeins vary, and are consequently not carefully subdivided, they
are offered as non tours comptes written " n.t.c." English throwsters
do not mix up skeins of different lengths in the same parcel of thrown
silk like their continental competitors. Until late years throwsters
here used to always reel their thrown silk ordinary reel in the first
FIG. 14. Reeling.
instance, and weigh each skein for size and count, and then, after
sorting into the separate sizes, if the manufacturer wanted grant reel,
they would rewind the skeins on to bobbins, piecing each short skein
up for requisite lengths, and then re-reeling from the bobbins. By
this means the resulting skein was more accurate in size throughout
its entire length than is the case when grant reel skeins are reeled
straight from the throwing mill bobbins into 5000, 7500, or 10,000
yds., and then sized or deniered.
Sizing. This is an important part of the throwster's duties
namely, the dividing of the silk into sizes, i.e. count. All silks vary
in thickness in a given length, and when it is understood that the
SILK DENIERING 33
best chops of Chinas yield in two-threads tram or organ zine sizes from
30 to 60 deniers, that is to say, some sizes quite double the thickness
of others, the importance of sizing will readily be recognised.
Naturally the finer sizes will do better for finer and more delicate
work than the coarser silk. The general way adopted is to " dram "
or "denier" the skeins by means of a spring balance, Fig. 15. This
consists of a small instrument with a fairly delicate spiral spring, and
an index finger attached, the former enclosed in a wooden or metal
covering to protect it from the moisture of the atmosphere and from
dust. On the outer covering are the figures denoting the different
sizes from 1 to 200 or more deniers, or, in drams, 17 deniers to. the
dram. At the end of the spring is attached a hook on which the
skein of silk for sizing is hung. The deniers or drams denoted on the
indicator are marked so that the index finger attached to, the spring
will be brought down to such a size or weight, when a skein of exactly
the same weight is put upon the hook. Supposing the hank to be
sized measures 1000 yds., and when put on the hook the index
finger points to 3J drams, then the actual size is known as 3J
drams to the 1000 yds., or 55 deniers, which is equal to 5040
Fi. 15. Denier scale.
yds. per ounce. Had the skein been 1500 yds., and indicated 4J
drams on the dramming machine, the actual size would be 3 drams to
1000 yds., or 51 deniers, equal to 5600 yds. per ounce, about.
On the Continent the sizing of the silk is done at the conditioning-
houses : in the case of grant reel filature thrown silks always, and
sometimes with regard to ordinary China thrown silks. In the
conditioning-house, wrappings of, say, 100 metres are taken from
different skeins of silk, and their weight taken most carefully on well-
regulated machines. The sizes of each wrapping are taken (say about
twenty from each bale conditioned), an average struck, and the silk
offered and sold as such and such sizes, representing the result of the
conditioning-house test. Supposing, for instance, the conditioning-
house returns showed that out of twenty wrappings tested the result
was :
3 skeins 20 deniers
4 22
24
26
28
30
The average would be 24 '90 deniers, and the silk
\V<>
uld be offered as 24/26 deniers.
34 SILK THROWING
Generally, the differences are not so great as the above, as the silk is
sized to half-denier, but the example given shows the method.
Make-up. Trams, organzines, and no-throw are made up into
hanks, each hank containing a number of skeins, varying, as they are
1000, 1500, or 2000 yds. ordinary reel, or 5000, 7500, or 10,000
yds. grant reel. These hanks are made up into bundles, the bundles
of organzine generally being short and weighing from 6 to 8 Ib.
Tram bundles are long, the length of the reel, in fact, weighing from
12 to 17 Ib. Different throwsters have their own way of making up.
The bundles are tied up in the ordinary way with string, but as there
is always an allowance made to the buyer on account of this,
throwsters are not very sparing in this respect.
Weights. On English thrown silks there is what is termed
" scorage " allowed, which is 1 per cent, deducted from the actual net
weight of the silk in the bundles. Supposing there to be eight
bundles of China organzine, weighing 50 Ib. 8 oz. net as they stand
with the strings on, the weight chargeable is 50 Ib. only, the 8 oz.
being allowed to cover string and tie bands. In the case of continental
thrown silks, which are not generally made up in bundle form, but in
bunches, the silk is charged conditioned weight. A bale of thrown or
" net " silk for conditioning is sent to the conditioning-house, where
the tare is entirely stripped off and most carefully weighed. First
the actual gross weight of the bale is taken, and after taring the net
weight of the silk is obtained, and on this weight the subsequent
calculations are made. The process of conditioning is a very import-
ant work, and the most delicate scales and manipulations are necessary,
as only a few heads from each bale are actually tested, and from the
result of the weighings of these few heads the throwster has to abide
in charging up his bale.
The heads tested, which have previously been most carefully
weighed, are dried in a stove until absolutely free from moisture, and
then weighed again, and the percentage of loss in weight is taken as
compared with the original weight of the silk before drying. This
percentage of loss is calculated on the weight of the whole bale, and
so the absolute dry weight of the lot is obtained. This, however,
does not mean that the silk is to be charged absolute dry weight, as
it is a well-known fact that it contains 11 per cent, of natural
moisture, which is therefore added to the absolute dry weight, and
the result represents the weight chargeable to the buyer, who pur-
chases on the conditioning-house certificate.
To overcome the risk of a seller taking out silk and putting moisture
in the bale to make up weight after the issuing of the certificate
by the conditioning-house, the latter remake up the bale themselves
and seal it with the official seal, and this enables the buyer to
see at once if it has been tampered with. The advantage to the
buyer of conditioned silk is that he is certain to get the full weight
SILK THROWING 35
of silk without paying for moisture over and above the legal amount,
and there is absolutely no temptation to the throwster to turn out his
silk in too damp condition, as he might be a very heavy loser by so
doing should the conditioning-house authorities happen to test some
heads which were considerably more damp than the actual bale as a
whole.
The most prized qualities of silk are
1. Its extreme brilliance and lustre, it being the most lustrous of
textile fibres.
2. Its great strength, which is supposed to be nearly one-third of
best iron wire.
3. Its elasticity.
4. Its durability, which is very considerable when the fibre is
pure silk.
It takes coal-tar dyes with ease and exhibits a very great affinity
for weighting materials of various kinds. So much is this the case
that many so-called silk fabrics , are composed chiefly of metallic
weighting matters with a very small percentage of silk fibre.
Scroop. When silk is passed through an acid bath (acetic acid)
and afterwards dried, it gives out when handled a peculiar rustling,
grating noise known as " Scroop."
Like all other textile fibres, silk absorbs moisture from the
atmosphere without appearing very damp to the touch. As it is an
expensive article, it is most important when purchasing to know that
the legal limit (11 per cent.) of moisture in the fibre is not exceeded.
CHAPTEE IV
SILK WASTES
THE term " silk waste " covers all classes of the raw silk which are
unwindable and altogether unsuited for the throwing process. The
term " waste," understood in the general sense as conveying the idea
of something worthless or of no use, is quite a misnomer. But,
before the introduction of silk waste spinning, the refuse from the
reeling and winding mills was indeed waste, there being at that time
no use for it whatever, except for what could be combed and spun by
distaff and spinning wheel, as still practised by peasantry in India
and other Eastern countries. Considering that of all the silk spun
by the silkworm more than half is useless for the throwster, it will
readily be understood that there must have been a large accumulation
of this material, and therefore a great future before an industry
which could use up this so-called rubbish. Although there are a
great many different grades and different classes of waste silk, there
are really few distinct ways in which they are all produced, most, if
not all, varieties being the waste from one or more of the following
seven processes :
METHODS OF WASTE PRODUCTION. 1. The silkworm commences
to spin its cocoon by first fastening itself to the twig of a tree or
between two leaves. Where the worm is reared by the peasants in
their cottages, the peasants use straws, to which the worms attach
themselves. All this silk is unwindable, coarse, and uneven, and
consequently of no use to the throwster. Naturally this first waste
is very much mixed with straw and leaves, and is of a dull, lustreless
nature.
2. The cocoons are made up of layers of silk, and the outside
ones, or the first spun by the worm, are too coarse and uneven
for reeling, so the outer coating is stripped off and cast aside as
waste.
3. As the silkworm nears the completion of its cocoon, the thread
becomes finer and finer, insomuch that several of the last layers are
made up of silk too fine to be strong enough to unwind, so that after
the better or middle layers are reeled from the cocoon, the remaining
part is discarded as useless for further reeling.
SILK WASTES 37
4. Among the cocoons there are some which are altogether un-
suitable for reeling, included among which are the pierced cocoons.
Although of no use for reeling, they are very acceptable to the silk
waste spinner.
5. During the process of reeling from the cocoon into hanks or
skeins, the silk sometimes breaks, and in consequence there is waste
made by the attendant in finding the true and sound thread.
6. Waste is produced in reeling tsatlees into re-reels.
7. All the wastes produced in the throwster's mill, as described
fully under the heading " Throwing."
Practically speaking, the various wastes are divided into two
general classes : gum wastes and ordinary wastes. Gum wastes,
whether Home, European, or Eastern, are really all throwsters' wastes,
and are specially adapted for the making of yarns for lace, sewings,
and w T eft purposes.
QUALITIES OF WASTES. The best-known wastes are as follows :
/Steam waste. The best known and most widely used silk waste
in England is Canton filature waste, better known as steam waste.
It is not a gum waste. There are two varieties, and several grades
of each. The one which has generally found most favour with
spinners is the " opened " w r aste, but, owing to its lending itself so
easily to adulteration, spinners are now paying more attention to the
"unopened" quality. Opened steam waste is the unopened waste
pulled out by the natives, w T ho work among it with their fingers and
teeth, opening out the hard knubs which have been formed when the
wet waste has been thrown down by the reeler, and allowed to dry
and mat together, on account of the natural gum having hardened,
which had previously been softened by the hot water in the basin
attached to the reeling machine. Owing to the labour difficulty in
China it is becoming more and more important that spinners accustom
themselves to the use of unopened steam waste. There are really
three grades of steam waste, which some years ago were known as
"Selected," No. 1, and No. 2. But year by year the Chinaman
seems to have got the better of the European silk inspector, and has
let down the quality. In the " selected " he would leave a certain
amount of No. 1, and in No. 1 he would put the No. 2, until at
length the admixture of 1's and 2's was so much that No. 2 as a
separate grade disappeared, all being mixed up with the No. 1, and
passed as all No. 1. Naturally, the so-called " selected " got a greater
percentage of No. 1, so that in time the European shippers decided
to work up a better grade and call it "Extra selected." This latter
came forward very nicely for a time ; but gradually the Chinaman's
cunning got the better of the inspector, with the result that he again
lowered the quality of the so-called "extra selected," and therefore
the "selected." This process was again repeated, and there came a
grade known as " Extra extra selected " steam waste ; but this was
38 SILK WASTE SPINNING
likewise doomed to the fate of the former changes, and to-day there
is known what is called the " Extra extra extra selected " steam
waste, which in point of fact is to-day not so good as the old well-
known "selected," and the "extra extra selected " is a mixture of the
old 1's and 2's. The deterioration goes on year after year, each
succeeding year being worse than the preceding one, and each season
showing a gradual falling away from the standard established at the
commencement of the season. It is a lamentable state of affairs, but
so far the Chinaman seems to have always managed to get the better
of all the European inspectors ; and so long as the present system of
buying and passing of the waste is in vogue at Canton, so long will
the Chinaman be able to hoodwink the inspectors.
Prisons are cocoons with varying quantities of silk upon them
which has been slightly pulled loose. Some qualities are full of wormy
matter, but all are well liked by continental spinners for schapping.
Waddiny, or blaze, which is also used almost exclusively on the
Continent, is the first silk spun by the worm that is, the silk which is
wrapped around the twigs or straws and leaves, and is in consequence
full of such vegetable matters when sold to the spinner. It is very
heavily charged with gum, and consequently loses much when boiled
off, and even then it is very inferior stuff. Wadding is a term also
applied to silk which has been used as a packing inside the China-
man's coat as a lining, and it may be of long fibre or otherwise.
Frisons and cocoons are types which may come from all silk-producing
countries.
Tussah waste, exported from Shanghai, is of a dark brown colour,
and is usually known as Newchwang Tussah waste and filature
Tussah waste. They are marketed in two grades, viz. No. 1 and
No. 2, which are packed in separate bales. Parcels of Newchwang
are generally offered as 60 per cent, of No. 1 and 40 per cent, of
No. 2, and the filature as 50 per cent, of each, written respectively
60/40 and 50/50. There is also what is known as tussah throwster's
waste, which, as the name implies, is the waste made during the pro-
cess of throwing tussah raws. Besides the two qualities named
above, there are other qualities of tussah waste shipped from China,
but these two represent by far the bulk.
Nankin Buttons is a gum waste from the interior of China, of
exceptionally good white colour and lustre. The bulk of it is long in
staple, but it is always mixed with so-called buttons, which are really
small portions of silk slightly matted together, and, a worse fault
still, sometimes cut into half-an-inch to one-and-a-half-inch lengths.
This waste is exported from Shanghai.
China wastes are from various sources, chiefly from English,
French, and Italian throwsters. They are all long in staple. China
soaped waste is from English and Scotch throwing mills. It feels
soft, and its lustre has been hidden in the washing. French China
SILK WASTES 39
is always bright, and not being weighted with soap often fetches a
little more per pound than English silk. Italian and Swiss wastes
are of the same nature.
Shanghai ivaste is all gum waste, not quite so white as European
silk, and harsher in feel. It is classed as fine white, fine yellow,
coarse white, and coarse yellow. In the fine white are three well-
known grades : Chintzah, which is the whitest and longest in staple ;
Hangchow, which is really a second picking or sorting over of the
Chintzah grade, rather inferior in colour, not so long in staple, and
more subject to twist waste and foreign matter; and the ordinary
fine white, which is variable in colour, but good sound waste. The
yellow varieties are produced in much smaller quantities, of similar
qualities, but usually more mixed together, which really makes an
inferior sort of article. Every sort is sold on its own merits ; some
spinners use only coarse varieties, and others only fine.
Shanghai szechuen (or seychuen or sechuen) is a yellow waste,
and the prefix Shanghai is to distinguish it from Canton waste of
similar nature, sold as Canton szechuen. All Shanghai wastes were
formerly offered as 1's, 2's, and 3's. Some shippers now continue
this, but the No. 3 being very small in quantity and low in quality,
parcels are often offered now as 1's and 2's. As the No. 3 is, how-
ever, still produced in the East, spinners are suspicious that in many
cases it is judiciously mixed with the No. 2 portion by the expert
Chinese packers. However that may be, proportions are generally
75% 257. . 707. 30% . 607. 307. 107. .,, ,
No.T SO"' NoTl' NoT2 ' or NSTT No? N5T3'
grades are always packed separately.
Indian waste. Of all the wastes used by spinners, the Indian
wastes (all gum wastes) are the most mixed and unreliable. The
colour varies from grey to yellow, but there is by far the larger pro-
portion of yellow. The fibre of some is as fine and clean as the best
China and Japan silks, whilst others are coarser than the punjum
waste. It is always subject to an admixture of bits of cotton, twist,
black hairs, string, paper, etc.
Canton gum ivaste is very similar in appearance to the re-reel
waste, but is not so reliable, and is very often more mixed with black
hairs, cotton, hemp, etc. No. 2 gum is now a very scarce article in
this country, spinners finding it too much mixed with rubbish, and
hence too costly in picking, etc.
Re-reel waste is a Canton gum waste produced in the mills where
the Canton raws are re-reeled, just in the same manner as Shanghai
gum in the more northern districts; but the former is of a softer
nature, and has more lustre in fact, Cantons are the most lustrous
of all silks, but are of a creamy shade. The silk of Canton gum and
steam waste is spun by the same genus of worm.
Canton szechuen waste is a yellow gum waste with a good, bright
40 SILK WASTE SPINNING
colour, but apt to be greasy. The production is very limited, and it
comes forward in little lots of 5, 10, or 15 bales.
Steam punjums are allied to both ,punjum waste and to steam
waste. They are said to possess the virtues of both i.e. they yield
well and have the colour of steam, and they combine the lustre of
punjum.
Punjum has peculiar characteristics of its own, and is supposed
by many people to be the most lustrous of all silks. It is a stringy
waste in appearance, and loses very heavily in boiling off something
like 50 per cent. It is reeled from cocoons, a number of ends to-
gether, and put into book form very similar to the tsatlees, as
described under the heading " Tsatlee Keel " in " Raw Silk " ; but
owing to the admixture of rice water, in reeling process, or some such
substance, the threads mat together, and are consequently unwindable.
In this form the waste is known as punjum books, which are divided
into grades 1's, 2's, 3's, and 4's 3's and 4's being the general run for
English spinners, generally half-and-half. Punjum waste is produced
in exactly the same manner, except that no attempt is made to run it
into a moss; but, as an end breaks or runs off during reeling, the
waste is thrown aside in a rough, tangled state.
China curlies are a well-known waste shipped from Shanghai,
and the quality and appearance are more allied to steam waste than
to any other variety shipped from Canton. It is a greyish-white
waste, somewhat harsh to the feel. The name " curly " is given to
this waste on account of its being so full of little patches of material
matted together, which have a certain resemblance to a curl of hair.
The waste is much in favour both in this country and on the Conti-
nent, and, as the crop is somewhat limited, many times the whole of
the output is contracted for at the opening of the season. It is a
commodity many speculators like to gamble with, the result being
that many times, when the whole crop has been cornered, the price is
many pence per pound over and above its value as compared with
other classes of waste. Like most Shanghai wastes, curlies are to be
had in three grades, but the No. 3 is so very inferior that few English
spinners can afford to buy it, on acc6unt of the extra expense necessary
in picking out the sticks, string, and refuse, to say nothing of the
trouble caused in after processes by some of these objects having
escaped the pickers in the first instance. Generally speaking, English
spinners buy only the No. 1's, finding even the No. 2's too much
trouble in working ; but there are shippers who import the propor-
tions 60 per cent. No. 1, 30 per cent. No. 2, and 10 per cent. No. 3,
written 60/30/10. Curlies are generally shipped under a chop mark,
the favourite being the "Yellow Pony" (or Peony), whilst such
chops as the " Double Fighting Cock " and the ".Gold Lion " are
fairly well known. It must not be taken that all curlies are shipped
under a chop mark, nor even that the best curlies have a particular
SILK WASTES 41
name or trade mark. Some arrivals with no chop mark whatever
are quite equal to any of the " Yellow Pony " chop ; but, as a general
rule, spinners buying " to arrive " wish to have the chop stipulated at
the time of purchase, as a kind of semi-guarantee of quality, as the
various wastes from the different filatures have a certain reputation, j
Shanghai long ivastes are the most expensive wastes shipped from
that port. They are to be had from various inland districts, and
are known under the different names of such places, though there is
a great similarity in appearance and not much difference in their
qualities and yields. They have very much the appearance of knubs,
but are tapey and very long. They yield exceedingly well, and are
of a good light colour. The annual production is comparatively
small, and very few spinners can use them to advantage, on account
of their high price. For particular special yarns where strength and
evenness of thread are absolutely essential, Shanghai long waste is
used to advantage.
Japan wastes. The best-known waste shipped from Yokohama
is the Kikai Kibizzo, or Japan curlies. In appearance there is not
much difference between this waste and China curlies, except that the
former is generally of a better colour, and contains curls of larger
size, longer staple, and consequently yields better. Japan wastes are
more in request for continental spinners than for England, being
well suited for the schapping in vogue there. Just like the China
curlies, Kikai Kibizzo is shipped in three grades, but the principal
buying for this country is for No. 1's alone, although at times parcels
60/30/10 are freely offered.
Iwashiro Noshi is another waste which is fairly well known here by
the spinners who use the very best class of wastes. What the Shanghai
long waste is to Shanghai, so is Iwashiro Noshi to Japan. They are
very similar, except that the latter is a better colour, and just as
Kikai Kibizzo will fetch a better price than China curlies, so is
Iwashiro Noshi more valuable than Shanghai long waste. The pro-
duction is very limited.
Noshito Joshiu or Tamas is practically the lowest class of Japan
waste which is shipped for consumption in England for the ordinary
spinner, but there are many lower varieties from Japan which are
well suited for continental schappe spinners. Tamas are a stringy
waste, not very good colour, and are subject to a certain amount of
refuse. They are generally shipped in proportion 60/30/10.
Before passing on to European wastes, some details of the buying,
inspecting, shipping, and landing of wastes from the East will not be
without interest.
Buying. As in most textile trades, so in the silk spinning in-
dustry, spinners must anticipate their requirements to a certain
extent, and buy "to arrive," or "futures." This latter term is,
however, seldom made use of in the silk trade. Comparatively
42 SILK WASTE SPINNING
speaking, very little waste is sent over here on account of the shippers,
most of them preferring to buy against orders from brokers and
merchants. The buying " to arrive " is done by the spinners through
merchant brokers, who transmit the offers to Shanghai, Canton, or
Yokohama, according to the kind of waste required ; and the matter
of quality is either fixed on certain standards which the merchant
shows, or the spinner stipulates that it be equal to a certain shipment
already had. In the absence of standards, the merchant undertakes
to deliver the " season's average " or, in other words, he contracts
that his waste will be as good as the season affords, all due care being
taken at the embarkation port that inferior waste is not shipped.
Terms. The spinner buys on the " East India Company's Terms "
generally written "Company's Terms." It is understood, unless
otherwise stipulated at the time of purchase, that the waste will be
shipped from the port within four or six weeks after the placing of
the order.
Inspecting. The systems in vogue for inspecting at Canton,
Shanghai, and Yokohama are very different, and much could be done
in this respect to ensure better qualities and more uniformity in ship-
ment, particularly so from Canton. In this latter place the shipper
buys, say, a parcel of 50 bales of waste from a native dealer, who
comes forward and tenders 50 bales already made up. The European
inspector then picks out of the lot, wherever he may think fit, 3, 4,
or 5 bales, and has them opened, and after examining them passes
or rejects the parcel. If the lot is rejected, the Chinaman brings a
further 50, which are subject to the same process, and so on until he
has satisfied the inspector. It will be at once seen by one in the
trade that this is a very lax method, for John Chinaman has these
bales to sell, and sell them he will. If they are rejected by one
inspector, he will tender them to another, in the hope that he may be
lucky or unlucky enough to cause good bales out of the run to be
opened, and so pass the lot. Very often the bales are made up in
such a way that the outer coating of the layers of which the bales
are made up are composed of really good silk, whilst the inside is
cunningly made up of inferior waste. This is a common fault of
Canton wastes of all descriptions. The only remedy seems to be that
the waste be delivered in bulk to the shippers' go-downs, to be in-
spected by them in bulk, and packed by them just as is done in
Shanghai and Yokohama, from which ports the waste is far more
uniform and more reliable. The majority of the shippers at Canton
say that it is impossible to do this in the case of Canton wastes,
because they have not room in the European quarters to make go-
downs in which to inspect the wastes.
Packing and shipping. At Canton the wastes are all packed in
small bales of one picul each (a picul is 133lb.), without press-
packing, but they are well bound with cane, and the wrapping is
SILK WASTES 43
matting. Shanghai wastes, which are packed under European super-
vision and in the shippers' own go-downs, are made up in three-picul
bales, and are press-packed. The Japan bales are very cumbersome,
being packed similar to the Canton bales, except that instead of one-
picul bales they come over in three-picul bales. Some Japan bales
are, however, press-packed like the Shanghai bales. The shipping is,
of course, undertaken by the European shippers out in the East, and,
generally speaking, the documents covering the shipments are passed
through the Eastern banks with a bill at four, five, or six months'
sight, to be accepted here by the merchant and returned to the bank,
which holds the waste until the bill is retired, when the merchant
gets the necessary release order.
Landiny. On arrival in London, the waste is at once taken in
hand by the Dock Company or wharfingers, and, immediately it is
lauded, the gross weights of each bale are carefully taken, and a
certain number of each parcel tared, and the average tare of those
taken is reckoned on the w r hole parcel. No. \ or J Ib. are reckoned :
supposing the average tare is 8J, 8J, or 8| Ib., the tare allowed is
9 Ib. per bale, and any bale weighing, say, 129J Ib. gross, even though
the average tare were 8J Ib., would only be chargeable 120 Ib. net.
When the bales have been landed, lotted, and examined for damage,
dock samples are drawn from every fifth or tenth bale according to
request, and sent down to the buyer, and on receipt of these he must
decide whether the quality is up to the standard on w T hich he bought.
Once having passed these impartial dock samples, he is held to have
passed the waste, and has no claim for inferiority should he be dis-
appointed with the waste when the bulk is delivered at his mill,
unless he can prove some very flagrant case of false packing, and even
then he must trust to the merchant from w r hom he bought.
European wastes. Little need be said about the various qualities
of these wastes, as all have very similar characteristics, and are
practically, with the exception of the French and Italian knubs, the
products of the silk-throwing mills, as described under the heading
" Throwing." Knubs, however, are the long wastes produced in the
filatures where the raw silk is wound from the cocoon, and have the
same appearance and characteristics as the Shanghai long waste and
Iwashiro Noshi, except that they are finer and of a more " classical "
nature. These knubs are particularly in request by the continental
spinners.
Of the many varieties of European wastes, the following are the
best known : French China, Swiss China, Italian China, French
mixed, Piedmont, and Spanish waste. French China, as its name im-
plies, is the waste produced in the French throwing mills working China
raw silk. Swiss China is the same produced in Switzerland ; Italian
China the same produced in Italy. French mixed is grey and yellow
waste from the throwing mills, and is composed of Bengal, Canton,
44 SILK WASTE SPINNING
and Japan, as well as Italian and French wastes. It is somewhat
subject to cotton, but is quite a favourite gum waste. Piedmont
waste, as the name implies, is the fine Italian yellow waste made in
the throwing mills producing organzines and trams from Piedmont
raw silk. It is one of the most expensive yellow w^astes, yielding very
well, and producing a strong, lustrous yarn of a very elastic nature.
Terms. These European wastes are not bought on what are known
as " Company's Terms," but in the ordinary way of trade, the spinner
getting credit, or at least getting the silk delivered before he pays for
it, contrary to the custom with Eastern wastes. In this way he can
ascertain, on the arrival of the bulk, whether it is up to sample or
not. There are faults, however, which cannot easily be detected until
the waste has been boiled or otherwise treated, so if he has any
doubts about it at all, the spinner, immediately on arrival, takes steps
to ascertain if it is free from twist or crape i.e. hard twisted
threads.
Given these brief notes on a few of the many varieties of silk
waste, from which it will have been noted that the colour, the
diameter of thread, and the packing are so varied as delivered to the
spinner, and being also a much tangled mass of all lengths of fibre
some bales hard press-packed and other qualities loosely packed it
will be understood that preparatory to boiling or schapping i.e.
degumming a certain amount of opening, sorting, and mixing will
be absolutely necessary.
CHAPTER V
THE PREPARATION OF SILK WASTE FOR DEGUMMING
OPENING BALES. All French, Swiss, Italian, and English silks are
loosely packed, fine and coarse generally separate, so that in an
ordinary way one would empty all the bags of the same quality and
make a stack of waste of the same. Should it be necessary to mix
white and. yellow together, then a layer of white would be spread on
the floor, and then a layer of yellow spread over this, in whatever pro-
portion the spinner had decided the mixing should contain. The whiter
the yarn required, the more white waste would be necessary in
the mixing, and vice versd. This process would be repeated until the
whole of the waste required to complete the mixing had been added
to the stack. In taking from this stack for boiling, care would have
to be taken to see that the silk was most carefully drawn from the
face of the bulk in even proportions from top to bottom, to ensure
uniformity of colour in the subsequent processes. There is an alterna-
tive and better method to the above, which is adopted by some
spinners. Instead of mixing the white and yellow wastes whilst in
the gum state, each colour is boiled off separately, and then the boiled
silk waste is put into the layers as described.
Steam wastes and most filature-produced wastes are fairly loose,
and one-picul bales can either be taken singly and boiled entire, or
a certain weight boiled, taking each bale just as it comes; or the
waste can be sorted that is, each layer of silk can be separated, the
good waste taken off and put on one side, and the inside of the layer
or bad waste put in another place, so that each quality can be boiled
separately.
Press-packed bales of gum waste from Shanghai and wastes
from Japan are very troublesome, Shanghai wastes particularly so.
After taring these bales, they are laid on the floor edge up (Fig. 16),
wooden wedges are driven betwixt the layers of silk, and they are
thus split asunder. The most difficult task now is to break up the
layers, pickaxes being resorted to and when by this means the
operator has loosened some portion of silk, he pulls it asunder with
his hands, but even those portions taken off are very often so hard
and clotted together that they have to be heckled open. A number
45
4 6
SILK WASTE SPINNING
of strong coarse pins, each, say, 3 in. long and J in. thick at the
root, are fixed into a metal strip, say, 12 in. long and 4 in. broad, the
pins being set diagonally as in Fig. 17, in which A shows them in
plan. This strip is securely fastened to a pillar or projected from the
wall.
FIG. 16. Bale splitting.
The attendant picks up a portion of waste in his hands and hits
it forcibly on the pins, which hold it, and he then pulls from the pins
or heckles in a slightly downward direction, so loosening the matted
portions of silk. The whole process is a primitive and tedious one ;
FIG. 17. Waste opener.
but as only a few spinners use such wastes, it is not usual to employ
a machine for the purpose. Still, the one illustrated in Figs. 18 and
19 is worth, consideration. The machine consists of a raised grid,
shown in plan in Fig. 19, composed of cross bars C and D, with
strong plates G fixed to each at right angles. A whole bale B is put
SILK WASTE PREPARATION FOR DEGUMMING 47
upon this grid. Underneath and between each pair of plates or bars,
G, a series of strong teeth T (Fig. 18) are affixed, sliding on racks R,
which are propelled from side to side of the bale by means of worms
W. These teeth scrape a portion of silk from the bale and carry it
FIG. 18. Bale opener (side elevation).
to the side S, when, before the bar recedes, a fork F descends be-
tween each pair of bars G, behind the waste which is adhering to the
pins, and, when the bars recede, the fork prevents this waste returning
and clears the pins, which recede preparatory for another forward
motion.
FIG. 19. Bale opener (plan).
After the opening of the waste, the silk in English mills is
generally put into bags preparatory to degumming.
Gum. There are two ways in which the silk waste is freed, or
partially freed, of its natural gum or sericin. The English method,
by which all the gum is discharged, is known as "boiling" or
"discharging." The continental process, by which only a certain
48 SILK WASTE SPINNING
percentage of gum is got rid of, is termed "schapping." The former,
as the name implies, is the process adopted for removing all the gum
by boiling. In the second method the gum is loosened by a process
of fermentation, and only a portion removed according to requirements.
The process has been carried to such perfection that as much as 15
per cent, or as little as 2 per cent, of gum can be left on the fibre.
Water. No matter which process is adopted, the first and most
important question is the water available. This should be very soft,
and free from iron and carbonates and silicates of lime. The objections
to these compounds are on account of the tendency, in the case of the
iron, to discolour the silk, and the limes decompose the soap which
may be used, as the alkali in the soap unites with the carbonic and
sulphuric acids of the limes, thus leaving the fatty matter of the soap
free to combine with the lime, and form an insoluble pasty, greasy
substance which has no washing or cleansing properties. In fact, it
adheres to the fibre, and makes the gum and dirt more difficult to
remove ; and when the silk is taken from the water, and dried, the
precipitate is hardened in the thread, causing it to feel gritty and to
be dull in appearance. The gritty substance is even carried forward
FIG. 20. Copper ladle.
through several processes, damaging drawing rollers and leathers. The
harder the water the more soap is necessary ; so it is well worth the
attention of the silk spinner to take the trouble to have his water
carefully analysed, and if found hard to take steps to soften it.
Water softening. The most common method adopted is the use
of carbonate of soda, about 1 Ib. of which is taken to every 275
gallons of water, which water is boiled, and kept boiling as long as
the lime which is formed continues to rise to the surface. This lime
must be skimmed off, and for this purpose a shallow copper ladle is
found useful (Fig. 20).
Caustic soda is also another compound which can be used, but as
it has such a strong affinity for the gum on the silk, and will even
dissolve silk fibre itself, it cannot be too carefully used. A half-tea-
spoonful of caustic soda to one gallon of water is sufficient to soften
the hardest water ; but, on account of its severe action on the silk fibre,
it is expedient to test the water in the following manner. To a gallon
of the water to be tested add a small known quantity of caustic soda,
and boil to help precipitation ; continue adding small known quantities
of caustic soda, and boil until all the lime is precipitated. In this way
SILK WASTE PREPARATION FOR DEGUMMING 49
it can be ascertained what proportion of caustic soda is necessary to
precipitate all the lime in a gallon of the water to be used, and the bulk
can be treated accordingly. Water can be softened to a large extent by
boiling before using, but, as this would take time, a good method is to
erect a large wooden tank, the bottom about six feet from the ground.
Inside the tank must be a coil of steam piping, by means of which
the water is heated to boiling point. It is essential that the water
should have been boiled before running it off into the tubs or cisterns
in which the silk is to be discharged. Where feasible, some of the
waste steam can be returned to the tank.
Soap. The question of soft water having been determined, the
next matter which requires the spinner's attention is the soap to be
used. Alkalies eat into the silk fibre and render it tender and brittle ;
so, to minimise this effect, it is necessary to soften the effect of the
alkali somewhat, and this is best done by means of the fatty matters
contained in a white mild curd soap.
A soft soap will degum easily and without damage to the fibre,
but the potash in the soap appears to have a discolouring effect on
white silks. The oily nature of the soap causes it to adhere closely
to the silk, sometimes rendering it greasy and cloggy and difficult to
work in after processes. On coarse, harsh silk, like tussah, such a
soap can be used to advantage, as it improves the feel of the silk.
A good curd soap is expensive, and in these times of cutting prices it
is a great temptation to endeavour to save money by buying a cheap
and consequently inferior article. This is a game of "penny wise,
pound foolish." The soap may appear to degum all right, the silk
may go through its next process fairly well, and the drawing over-
looker only finds out something is wrong when his waste from slivers
and fly increases very materially. The silk when in that department
has increased in cost from its first (purchased) price by four or five
times, being worth from 4s. to 8s. per pound, and sometimes more ;
and as soap of first-class quality is 2Jd. to 3d. per pound, and poor
soap costs IJd. to 2d. per pound, the saving in first cost is soon lost,
with heavy interest, if silk is lost in waste after it has been through
one or two processes. A good white curd soap should show at least
64 per cent, of fatty matters, with about
25 ,, water, and
11 ,, alkalies, etc.
The greater the percentage of fatty matter, the less soap will be
required for any quality of silk ; and as it is the fatty matter which
is the costliest ingredient in soap, it is obvious that adulteration
would mean a less percentage of fat, which means more soap will be
needed for a specific quantity of silk. Then, again, the nature of
most adulterations is particularly injurious to silk, and very few more
so than silicate of soda, which, whilst assisting materially in bleaching
4
5
SILK WASTE SPINNING
silk, will at the same time dull it, make it feel harsh, and cause it to
work short in dressing frames. The sand or powdered quartz in
silicate of soda appears to stick to the silk fibre in spite of all attempts
to wash it off, and although the particles are most minute they can,
and do, cut the silk very much. The presence of this injurious mix-
ture can often be detected by taking a portion of boiled silk, drying
it thoroughly, and then shaking it well, when a white powder will
FIG. 21. Soap vat.
fall from it, which on examination shows hard particles and is quite
gritty to the touch. Much of it will not shake off, and is carried
forward through the various following processes, and acts exactly in
the same manner as lime soap. A cheap soap of course alwa} r s con-
tains a large percentage of water, which commodity the spinner is
quite well able to put in for himself, without paying so much for it
as when sold as soap.
For the sake of economy many experiments have been made, with
a view to degumming by means of caustic soda or caustic potash
SILK WASTE PREPARATION FOR DEGUMMING 51
alone, used in small quantities in cold or lukewarm water, which
mixture softens the gum, which is then washed off with clean water
or soap and water. These experiments have not, however, been found
satisfactory, because the caustics are so strong that when they have
loosened the gum, so that it w r ill easily wash off, they have also
attacked the fibre itself and burned it considerably. Various means
of counteracting the action of the caustic on the fibre have been
tested, and some perfected, in the chemist's laboratory, but none have
been put to a practical use in England.
Some spinners make their own soap, which is now greatly facili-
tated by their being able to purchase pure rendered tallow and pure
caustic soda, the latter in small tins. The process is known as the
" cold " process. A tub is erected (Fig. 21) and supported on brick
stands A. Inside the tub is placed a steampipe B, coiled round the
bottom. At the point C is fixed a tap D, of large diameter, to serve
as an outlet. To 120 Ib. of tallow (which must be free from salt)
placed in the tub, apply gentle heat by means of the steampipes until
the tallow is thoroughly melted. Allow it then to cool to a tem-
perature of 120 F., and add very gradually 85 Ib. of lye (the com-
position of which is given below), and stir well until a complete union
of the alkali and fatty matter is effected. This can be discerned by
the smooth appearance of the mixture. The composition of the lye
is 17 Ib. of caustic soda with 68 Ib. of cold water, which are mixed
well in an earthen vessel until the soda is all dissolved. The tem-
perature at which it is ready for use is 80 F. When the lye and the
tallow are thoroughly mixed, the tap D is opened and the liquid run
into the box E. This box may be made of wood or iron, and it is so
made that by loosening the bolts at F the sides fall away to allow
proper cutting of the soap.
Before running in the molten mass, the box should be lined with
wet calico. The top is then well covered over with woollen cloths or
sheepskins, and left alone for three days, during which time the
mixture slowly turns to soap. The quantities of material here given
make about 200 Ib. of good white curd soap. This class of soap is
apt to contain more alkali than those made by the hot boiling pro-
cess, but it is a real good article, and when carefully made is good
enough for any silk spinner-; and he knows, then, that it does not
contain such adulterations as silicate of soda, alum, acetate of lead,
lime, chalk, bone ash, pipeclay, sand, sugar, starch, glue, etc., which
are used to cheapen some so-called white curd soaps.
The stirring or mixing of the liquid in the tub can be done by
means of the apparatus shown in Fig. 22. A series of arms (not
shown in the drawing) project from the side of the tub inside; a
vertical shaft B, also furnished with projecting arms A, is fixed by
footstep to the bottom, and by a journal fixed to the crosspiece G
(see Fig. 21) which is placed over the tub. The bevel wheels affixed
SILK WASTE SPINNING
on vertical and horizontal shafts, respectively B and H, are set in
motion by driving pulleys K, and the stirring given to the mixture is
so complete that in a short time the fatty matter is brought into
contact with the alkaline lye, and so saponification takes place.
About three hours' stirring is necessary. The stirrer is put in and
out of position, as required, and is easily fixed by means of bolts at
M, M, through the tub and brackets P, P.
FIG. 22. Soap mixer.
At the expiration of three days the soap is ready for cutting.
This is done by means of a wire drawn across the block of soap which
is laid ready for cutting operation by dropping the box ends and
sides flat. The bars of soap must then be stored for about a month
before using.
CHAPTEE VI
SILK WASTE DEGUMMING
^CHAPPING. If gum silk, or so-called silk waste, is piled in a
heap in a clamp warm place, and kept constantly moist, the gum
will begin to ferment and loosen. By continually turning over the
pile all portions of the heap are properly softened, but the process
FIG. 23. Schapping vat.
takes several days, much depending on the quality of the silk being
treated. The method is too long and the stench from the fermenting
matter too great to allow of such being much practised in England ;
and on the Continent, where schapping is in vogue, a much quicker
method is adopted now. A cistern of wood (Fig. 23), measuring
about 6 ft. in depth and 5 ft. diameter, is fitted inside with a wooden
cage (shown by dotted lines A), allowing 4 in. space B between the
outside measurements of the one and inside of the other. The top of
the inner cage is about 15 in. below the height of the outer cistern
53
54 SILK WASTE SPINNING
The former is perforated bottom and sides with 1 in. holes, about 4
in. apart, to allow water to circulate freely from outer to inner cage.
A steampipe is fixed to enable the water to be kept at the required
temperature. The water for use must be well softened, and it is well
that it should have been boiled. When the cistern is empty, about
3Q lb. of silk is laid in the inside cage ; some water is then run in,
and the silk well beaten down until it is thoroughly saturated. Another
30 lb. of silk is then placed in, well trodden down, saturated with
water, and the process repeated until the inner cage is full. Some
boards are then placed on the silk, and heavy weights placed on them
to hold down the silk, which is disposed to swell and to rise out of
the water. When well weighted down the cistern is filled up with
water to 8 or 10 in. above the boards, and the temperature kept at
about 140 F. until the operation is complete. This will take from
two to six days, according to the quality of silk under treatment.
At the expiration of two days a string of silk is taken out and rubbed
well between finger and thumb nail and then broken, and if the silk
shows fine fibres at the broken ends it is soft enough, or degummed
sufficiently, for the next process. If, on the contrary, hard ends show,
the silk is kept in the cistern longer, and the test made every day
until it is softened enough. The silk is then taken out and washed
well with clean hot water or hot water and soap. Before washing, it
is sometimes advisable to put it into a hydro extractor for the purpose
of getting out as much dirty and gummy liquor as possible. After-
wards the silk is placed into shallow wooden tanks with water heated
to about 180 F., and kept at this temperature for some time; it is
knocked about well in the water so that the loose gum is washed off.
Or the silk is placed in shallow circular machines (Fig. 24) which are
revolved slowly, and at the same time a stream of water injected into
the machine, thus washing the loose gum thoroughly off the fibre,
whilst the beaters or stampers keep the waste soft and pliable and
help to loosen the gum. Some silks, such as cocoons, will swell
exceedingly in the first degumming liquor, and have to be continually
beaten and trodden by the attendants' bare feet to ensure their being
saturated thoroughly. When soft enough they are sometimes placed
on a perforated and movable table, which is moved slowly underneath
a jet of water, which is arranged above the table so that, by its great
force and fine spray, the cocoons, or silk, are exceedingly well washed,
to free them from dirt and loose gum. After the silk has been under
the spray for some time the table is withdrawn and the silk turned
over, so that what was underneath comes directly under the tap for
the washing, which is repeated. Much experience and skill are
necessary to be proficient in all these processes, and every operation
needs most careful supervision water testing for heat and softness,
repeated testing of the silk to ascertain if it is softening satisfactorily,
etc. Any slackness or inattention to any of these details may result
SILK WASTE DEGUMMING 55
in the whole process having to be repeated, which is not only a waste
of labour and expense, but does the silk harm ; or, if the silk is
allowed to pass, although not satisfactory, much trouble may be
caused in the after processes, and the yarn spoiled. After the wash-
ing, the silk must be dried, beaten, and conditioned.
The silks most in favour for schapping are Japan wastes, China
curlies, knubs of all sorts, and cocoons of all descriptions. Gum
wastes are avoided, because by the nature of their production they
are subject to hard ends i.e. twisted threads which do not lend
FIG. 24. Waste washer or stamper.
themselves to any softening process. Steam wastes are not used very
much, because, although they do not contain hard ends, they are so
matted in hard lumps that they soften in a very irregular manner,
and whilst some portions might be exceedingly well schapped, the
next portion would most probably be hard and gummy. If this is
softened properly, then the portion which was previously right is apt
to become too much treated, and to be soft and tender. Such faults
lead also to a variable percentage of gum being left in the finished
yarn, which must be avoided, as buyers calculate the worth of the
SILK WASTE SPINNING
yarn in some measure by the amount of gum left in. It is fairly
safe to assume that the cheaper the yarn the more gum the buyer is
purchasing. A first-class white schappe will contain 2J to 5 per
cent, of gum, and it is obvious that a great deal of skill and attention
has been necessary to enable the producer to loosen and wash away
some 20 to 25 per cent, of gum, leaving only the small percentage
above mentioned.
Boiling or discharging. These are the names given to the pro-
cesses by means of which all the gum is boiled off the silk fibre ; and
the methods of doing so, whilst varying very much in detail, follow two
main ideas or principles. One is to subject the silk to boiling liquors
/ / I 1 I J I 1 1 A // I I ! \ Iff I
=JT *
FIG. 25. Boiling tub.
of water and soap, and so get rid of the gum as quickly as possible ;
and the other is to soak the silk in hot liquors, and do as little boil-
ing as is possible consistent with a thorough discharge of the gumming
matter. The boiling cisterns used to be made of copper, but of late
years wooden ones have become very popular. Fig. 25 is a sectional
drawing showing the construction of these boiling tubs, as they are
called, and two of them are usually placed side by side for convenience
in working. A is the outer casing of wood; B is a perforated iron,
false bottom, perforated to allow steam to issue from pipe S, which is
coiled round the tub bottom ; W is a water pipe ; C is an outlet pipe,
which discharges into the drain D ; and F is the floor level. The
tubs are 6 ft. deep by 4J ft. diameter.
SILK WASTE DEGUMMING 57
Bagging. This refers to the placing of the silk waste into strong
open-meshed cotton bags, measuring about 16 by 10 in. From 12 to
16 oz. of silk are put into one bag, after the waste has been well
opened and loosened by the " bagger." It is put in the bag in as
bulky a condition as possible, and the mouth tied very securely with
cotton tape to prevent the contents dropping out during the boiling
process. It is very important that only small quantities be placed
into one bag, so that there be plenty of room for the silk to swell.
The mesh of the bags should be about \ in., so as to allow the water
to circulate freely. It is an important matter that there should be
periodical examination of these bags, because the constant wear and
tear result in their being torn, the silk thus dropping out of the larger
holes ; and, again, the bags shrink so much with continuous boiling
and immersions in hot liquors that in time the mesh becomes very
close, water percolates with difficulty, and the result is that the silk
is not properly discharged or degummed.
Boiling. For the boiling tub described above, 100 to 120 Ib. of
silk is placed into bags. Before putting these bags in the tub the
boiling liquor has been prepared. About 18 to 24 in. of water has
been run in, about 12 Ib. of white curd soap has been added in thin
FIG. 26. Rake.
shreds, the water then brought to boiling point, the soap melted, and
the whole allowed to cool down to 180 F. The bags of silk are then
thrown in, and at the same time carefully pushed under the liquor by
the help of a pole until they become so saturated that they remain
under of their own accord. When the whole 100 to 120 Ib. has been
put in, the bags will nearly have filled the tub, and the liquor will
just cover them ; then the steam is turned on, and as the water boils
the bags are turned over and over by the action of the steam, so
becoming boiled in all parts alike. The attendant must see that the
bags are kept on the move, and by means of his pole, or the wrought-
iron fork shown in Fig. 26, must push, lift, and knock about the bags
so that those which lie at the bottom are brought to the top, and vice
versd, all of which is to ensure every portion of silk being thoroughly
degummed. If constant turning is not done in every process of silk
boiling, the portion of silk forming the centre of the bag retains some
gummy matter which is very detrimental in after processes ; or it
may be discharged, but the centre retain a quantity of yellow colour-
ing matter which causes the mixing to be a darker shade than is liked
or necessary.
The first boiling should occupy from 1J to 2 hours, when steam
58 SILK WASTE SPINNING
is turned off and the liquor allowed to run away, the bags being
then removed and taken to the hydro extractor, Figs. 27 and 28.
n
1
B
f "A '""i
I;A ! V A ;;
'i '* \*
B
^
1
>N/C
FIG. 27. Hydro extractor (side elevation).
FIG. 28. Hydro extractor.
I
SILK WASTE DEGUMMING
59
These are strongly constructed, and the cage A is best made of
copper. The material is placed inside this cage and the machine
set in motion, when the centrifugal force and air current drives
the water out through the sides of the revolving wire cage, against
the stationary strong iron sides of the outer cage B, .whence it
escapes at the outlet C. This semi-drying process gets rid of the
gummy, dirty liquor from the silk out of its first boil. Another
way of achieving the same result is by means of a mangle machine,
Fig. 29, through which the silk is run, two or three bags side by
side. The top roller is held by strong springs operated by hand-
wheels. Some spinners are very fond of this squeezing of the silk,
and doubtless when the lot is full of cocoons containing the worm
and chrysalis, the mangle is the best means of crushing these dele-
terious matters out. It is also thought by some to put a lustre into
the silk not obtained by the hydro extractor. Again, some qualities
FIG. 29. Mangle.
of silk are lifted out of the boiling tub on to a wooden grid placed on
the top of the tub, and allowed to remain there some time, whilst the
liquor gradually drips back into the tub. Meanwhile a second tub
has been half filled with water, about 15 Ib. of soap dissolved in it,
and the whole boiled and allowed to cool as before. The bags of
waste previously treated are now put into the second tub, and re-
boiled from 1 to 1J hour, all the time being constantly stirred and
watched as in the first bath. They are then taken out, and in some
cases immediately placed in the hydro extractor and dried as much as
60 SILK WASTE SPINNING
possible ; in other cases the bags are opened and the silk placed in
clean hot water at about 180 F., well rinsed from soap, and then
dried.
Some spinners like the silk to be a little soapy when finished, and
others take just as much trouble to wash the soap out. One class say
the soap feeds the silk and helps it to work long, whilst the other
class say the soap makes the silk work greasy, cloggy, and dull.
Probably they are both right in their respective mills, the difference in
the treatment arising more from the difference in the water and soap
used than anything else. The liquor in the second boiling tub is
saved and used for another boil, but as a first boil only ; and in place
of using 12 Ib. of soap, only 8 Ib. need be used, as sufficient soapy
matter is left in the liquor of the second boil to make the addition of
8 Ib. of soap quite enough to ensure a proper degumming.
The first boil is for the purpose of thoroughly softening the gum,
and when properly done the silk feels soft and very slimy. The after
processes are to wash off the gum, and at the same time to bleach the
fibre. For many qualities of silk wastes some spinners do not boil the
FIG. 30. Brins.
silk in the first instance. Instead, they omit bagging the silk and put
100 to 120 Ib. into the tub, and press it well down, somewhat after the
manner described in schapping, and allow the silk to remain in the
soapy liquor 6 to 10 hours at 180 F. The gum is then found to be
well softened, and the silk ready for putting into a second bath and
therein boiled. Never under any circumstances should the silk be
placed in water which is boiling. This would, particularly in the
second boil, fasten the dirt and colour into the fibre. The boil should
not be of a violent nature, as it would blow or disintegrate the silk
fibre. Very violent boiling, coupled with an excess of alkali, will spoil
the fibre, and if then a brin of such silk be examined under a powerful
microscope it will be seen that it presents the appearance of having
little projections from the thread, as if the fibre had split. Fig. 30
shows this appearance better than words can describe it. A is a brin
SILK WASTE DEGUMMING
61
of silk properly boiled ; B, a brin too much boiled ; and at C the fibre
is shown broken. This fault makes the silk very tender ; it will not
spin to as fine a count as it ought, and in the various drawing
processes a great deal too much waste is caused.
After being once used, the soap baths are often sold to dyers, and
are known as boiled-off or gum liquor. They are valued on account of
the gum and fatty matters in the liquid, and are used for dyeing
purposes, the gum adding lustre to dyed silks. A great deal, however,
of the boiled-off liquor finds its way into the nearest brook or river,
thus polluting it to some extent. It is possible that legislation will in
time compel spinners to turn out their waste liquors in a state of
purity, and then it will be necessary for them to find some cheap
means of recovering the soap from the liquor.
RECIPES FOR BOILING. The following recipes for silk boiling will be
found of great service. The soap must -be of good quality and the
water very soft, or the proportions of soap used, and even the time
occupied in boiling, will have to be altered :
First Boil.
Second Boil.
Quality.
Weight
in Gum.
!
4
g
H
1
1
1
1
.2
1
o
O
|
Mins.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Mins.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Home China . . . 120
60
9
90
11
Italian, French, and Swiss
gum wastes . . . .
120
120
18
150
16
Canton gum and steam wastes
Curlies, knubs, and kikai
120
100
80
60
10
10
75
60
12
10
Shanghai, punjum books and
waste . . . 120 90 11
2
60
15
Indian wastes . . . j 100
60
12
60
12
Tussah knubs and throwsters'
waste . . . . 100 90
10
4
60 12
Tussah cocoons
100
120
13
6
80 7
4
The chemicals are salts of tartar. If a specially white yarn is
required, made from China wastes, half a thimbleful of No. 1 Blue is
put into the second boiling liquor. This takes away the slight cream
tone, which is really the natural colour of silk. It will be noticed
that home China waste takes much less soap than Italian, French, and
Swiss China. The reason for this is, that home China waste (English
thrown) is soapy, whereas the continental is not. The gum of foreign
thrown waste also takes a lot more softening than the English, very
62 SILK WASTE SPINNING
often caused by the addition of insoluble compounds to raw silk prior
to winding, etc., hence the longer time occupied in boiling ; the alkali
in the soap used by home throwsters has slightly softened the gum,
because the waste has usually been lying in a heap some months. In
boiling-off white gum wastes of English and continental origin it is
not absolutely necessary to have two boilings, one being quite
sufficient if done in the following manner : Run water in the boiling
tub to a depth of about 36 in., add 10 Ib. of soap, heat until the
soap is dissolved, and then put in 100 Ib. of silk in bags. Allow
them to remain in for 1 hour at about 160 F., then add 15 Ib. of
soap which has previously been dissolved. Boil the silk for '2^ hours
if continental, and for 1 hour if English. The silk is then taken out
and put through the hydro extractor in the usual way.
Steam, curlies, knubs, and kikai classes of wastes need putting
through rollers, or into the hydro extractor, between the first and
second boils. All wastes which contain chrysalis, as kikai and curlies,
want careful treating in the first boil in order to get them well
softened, and should then be well washed to get rid of the dirty-
coloured liquor caused by the chrysalis. If the wastes are put straight
from the first boil into the second boil, they hold a large quantity of
discoloured water which stains the waste and is practically boiled into
the waste by the second boiling, which is thus made to act practically
as a dyeing liquor. Very dusty wastes, like the Indian variety,
require a preliminary wash before the first boil, and a good way is to
prepare an ammonia bath a shallow wooden tank full of water into '
which a pint or two of ammonia has been added. The waste is then
rinsed through this bath, the ammonia killing the grease and dirt in a
wonderful way, and allowing the soap in the first boiling to play
immediately on the silk to degum it. The colour of waste treated in
this way is usually much clearer and whiter than it would be if boiled
off without the preliminary bath.
Each class of waste requires careful study and supervision to gain
a knowledge of what is the best process and the most suitable water
and soaps. These differ so much in various districts that a process
which will suit one spinner might have to be altered very materially
to suit the conditions in another district. Silk boiling and schapping
are most important processes, and ought to be conducted by intelligent
and skilled workmen. After they have done their part, the resulting
silk needs careful inspection day by day, and any waste not properly
boiled or schapped taken out and redone.
Drying. After boiling, washing off, and treatment in the hydro
extractor, the silk is taken, by means of skips on wheels or trucks, to a
stove or drying machine. The stove is very often a room partitioned
off from the boilers ; or, if that is not convenient, a room near the
washhouse is used, being converted into a stove by means of a coil of
steampipes along the floor. Posts are erected at distances of 2 to 3
SILK WASTE DEGUMMING 63
ft. apart, and cross beams affixed to them, on which are placed small
galvanised hooks. The silk is hung on these hooks and allowed to
remain in the room until thoroughly dry, or latticed stages are erected
round the room, and the silk placed on them until dry.
A better system is to use one of the numerous drying machines,
made specially to dry a large weight of material per day. Fig 31
illustrates the principal of these machines. A is the outer frame,
and G, H, J, K represent four sections into which the machine is
divided for convenience of looking into the apparatus if anything
goes wrong. B is a space provided to draw in fresh cold air, or it can
be utilised by putting in a tubular heater and fan, and so forcing air
to the top of the machine to the outlet E. This outlet in the machine
shown is provided with an exhaust fan, and draws hot air from the
bottom of the machine through the silk, so keeping the material light
and loose The wet silk M is fed into the machine at F, and carried
FIG.. '31. Drying machine.
forward by means of a latticed chain C to end, when the silk drops on
to the second latticed chain D, that portion of material which was
uppermost now being underneath, and is thus carried forward and
dropped again on the third chain, and thence to the outlet L. Some
machines are made with five or seven sets of latticed chains in place of
the three illustrated. S are steampipes for heating the chamber. One
of the advantages of a machine is, that it can be placed at one end of
the washhouse or near to that establishment, so that the silk is not
carried out of doors to the drying place. In cold weather silk should
not be allowed to be chilled in transit from the finishing liquor to the
hydro, or from thence to the stove. Frost and cold winds damage the
fibre very much, making it harsh and tender.
Drying appears to be a very simple process. The ordinary work-
man thinks it only necessary to take the silk and hang it on the hooks
in the stove, or put it on the travelling creeper of the drying machine,
for the heat to do the rest. This is a great mistake. Bad drying
6 4
SILK WASTE SPINNING
means irregular drying too much or too little, which are equally
deleterious. If a stove is used, the silk needs hanging on the hook
not in a big lump, the centre of which retains moisture after the
outside is dry ; but the portion hung should be pulled and opened, to
make it hang as lightly and loosely as possible, so that the hot air can
circulate freely through the silk, so drying all portions of it. When
fed on a travelling creeper, it should be spread lightly and evenly, and
then the result is a nice lofty silk, whether stove-dried or machine-
dried. It must be thoroughly dry, or it will not " condition " properly
afterwards. After drying it is usual to weigh the silk, in order to see
what percentage of gum is on the fibre or what percentage of gum
has been boiled off; and this is important to watch, because of its
effect in regulating the price or value of the silk in the gum, and a
proper record should be kept and examined from time to time, in
order to see that the qualities are not deteriorating or having additions
made to the natural gum by the natives in the East.
PERCENTAGE OF GUM LOST IN BOILING. Appended is a list
showing the approximate amount lost in discharging various
wastes :
Quality.
Weight to
Boil.
Weight from
Stove.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Home China
100
66 to 69
Foreign China .
70
75
Canton gum
70
72
Steam waste knub.s
59
62
Curlies and kikai
69
74
Fine Shanghai .
72
75
Coarse Shanghai
70
72
Indian wastes .
66
70
Punjum hooks .
52
55
Tussah
72
80
It will readily be understood how vital a point is the loss in
boiling when one considers that raw waste of super quality costs from
2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. per pound, so that the cost of the discharged waste
is augmented or decreased in accordance with the loss, and vice versd.
The value of the raw material is proportionate to the yield after
boiling. The loss on all classes of waste is important, for no matter
if the quality be low, an extra 2 or 3 per cent, loss in the boiling
increases the cost of the yarn made from it, and goes to reduce the
margin, which on lower quality yarns is, generally speaking, corre-
spondingly less. It is not a sufficient test to simply take the weight
of silk returned from the stove, as the degree of dryness may vary at
SILK WASTE DEGUMMING 65
different times, being better dried on some occasions than others. It
is essential that systematic tests be made from time to time, by taking
10 Ib. of gum silk made up from ten separate bales, 1 Ib. from each,
carefully weighed to fractions of an ounce, which is sent to the stove
to be dried, say, for twenty-four hours, when the waste is weighed
and the loss carefully noted. This treatment is repeated several
times until it will lose no more by drying. To the net result add 1 1
per cent., which is the natural moisture in silk, and is the recognised
legal proportion allowed. The weight now arrived at is the natural
weight of the silk. Have the silk boiled along with an ordinary boil,
specially marking the bags containing the dried silk, so that, when
discharged, these particular bags can be sorted out and the silk taken
from them and dried in the same manner as described above, until it
will lose no more by drying; then add 11 per cent., and from this
the exact loss in boiling off can be ascertained. Example :
Waste in the gum taken
from the bales, 10 Ib.
Dry weight . . . 9'0 Ib.
Plus 11 per cent. . . 0'99
Natural weight . 9 "99
Suppose resulting boiling off be 7 Ib., then tinder dry . 6 '87 Ib.
Plus 11 percent. . 075
7-62
Deduct from 9 '99 Ib.
7'62
2-37 Ib. loss on 9 '99 Ib. =2372 per cent.
If a record be kept of these trials, and also of the daily results
from the stove, any unusual loss will be quickly noticed, and steps
can be taken to find out the reason and prevent further loss. The
records also show if the boils are being properly dried in the stove.
If it be that the waste has deteriorated which is many times the
case the spinner must not lose sight of the fact that he must buy
at a proportionately lower price, or replace it by other qualities which
yield what he requires.
Home China wastes require watching very carefully, as the
different throwsters may put a greater percentage of soap in their
waste, to say nothing of the extra so-called "conditioning." It
naturally follows that damp waste will yield a less percentage after
the boiling and drying.
Gum wastes from the East, and particularly punjum wastes, are
sometimes "faked up" with rice water, made into a sort of size,
which adds weight to the silk in the raw, but boils out only too
easily. Again, the Indian wastes are very dusty and sandy at times,
which all means loss of yield.
Bleaching. Some silks are very yellow in colour, and it is
5
66 SILK WASTE SPINNING
occasionally necessary to bleach them. Tussah is the most difficult
silk to bleach, so that any method of bleaching this class of silk
which can be applied successfully will also be found to suit other
silks. But of course the strength of the liquor and the time occupied
will vary according to the class of silk to be treated. The silk
produced by the Bombyx mori is more easily bleached than tussah.
The safest and most powerful bleaching agents are the peroxides of
hydrogen and sodium, but being so costly they are only used for
very special purposes. Sulphur bleaching is not now often practised,
because the result is not permanent. The following is a good
bleaching bath for 100 Ib. of silk previously boiled off: 460 gallons
of water, 30 Ib. caustic soda, 20 Ib. white curd soap, 20 gallons of
hydrogen peroxide, and a little ammonia. The silk is steeped and
boiled for a few hours, until the desired result is obtained.
A much cheaper method is the following : 460 gallons water, 20
gallons peroxide, and a little borax. The 100 Ib. of silk is placed in
this bath for from ten to twelve hours, and then turned over and allowed
to remain for the same period, after which it is heated up from 120
to 160 F. for from two to four hours. The bath will last longer if
a little soap is used.
Picking silk. After boiling, bleaching, and drying, the silk
should be examined, and, as far as possible, all foreign matters, such
as straw, China grass, hemp, hairs (from animals and human beings),
hard- twisted ends, etc., picked out. This examination may be de-
ferred until the after processes ; but then the pickings are broken up
into thousands more pieces, thus making the operation more difficult.
The best plan appears to be to have the discharged waste, as it comes
from the stove, looked over by females, who should take out all the
large and easily seen deleterious objections. The waste may then
have a second picking, which will be described in due course.
FOREIGN MATTERS. The foreign matters to be looked for in the
various wastes are
Gum wastes i.e. thrown wastes. Hard-twisted ends, fine and
coarse, usually called "silk twist," and made by the attendants in
various reeling and winding processes, very often when making piec-
ings ; but the bulk of such faults are made by the cocoon reeler. .
Steam, kikai, and curlies wastes. Only a few straws and hairs
are found so few that they are not of much consequence.
Punjum waste. Subject to rotten portions of waste and hemp.
Shanghai and Canton gum wastes. Subject to silk twist, hairs,
straws, and China grass.
Indian and szechuen wastes. All sorts of rubbish from paper to
bits of cigarettes, from nails to pieces of hoop iron, straw and hemp
to bits of rope, and hairs in abundance.
Some of the grades are full of balls of silk, and inside the ball is
a piece of paper or some vegetable substance ; then comes a layer or
SILK WASTE DEGUMMING 67
two of bad silk, then some good silk. The lower grades of waste
contain from 5 to 15 per cent, of such objectionable matter, and
therefore these wastes are shunned by most spinners, as it is impos-
sible by any known system of picking to rid the waste of these faults,
and in consequence the yarn resulting is only a second-rate article,
and can only be used for very poor goods where imperfections are
either not seen or do not matter. The hairs in the waste are from
animals like goats and sheep, and also combings from the heads of
the peasants. It will be remembered that a large weight of silk is
reeled in cottages by peasantry, and they often keep domestic animals
in the same abode ; therefore the hairs from them get mixed with the
waste thrown on the floor during the reeling process, and all are
mixed and sold together as silk. The deleterious matters in silk
waste are chiefly vegetable and animal, and since competition has
become keener, many attempts have been made to destroy them by
chemical means.
Carbonisation. Jlairs and silk both being animal fibre, it naturally
appears that what will destroy the former must at least materially
injure the latter, and so, many experimenters have given the matter
up. As regards vegetable impurities, the case is quite different. In
the worsted spinning the purging of vegetable matters from the wool
by means of so-called carbonisation is an accomplished fact, and it is
a little surprising that this process has not come into general use in
the silk spinning industry. Probably the reason is, that silk is a very
costly article, and is very soon damaged by acids, and in such a way
that nothing can remedy the defect. Sometimes the damage done to
the silk waste in some of the processes has not been detected until the
yarn has actually been spun and woven into cloth and then kept on
the warehouseman's shelves for some time. When taken down, the
goods have been found eaten into little holes, or the colour of the
cloth has been affected, making it look "spotty," this being caused
by the action of some acid which has not been thoroughly washed off
the waste. Foreign schappe spinners have in some cases perfected a
carbonisation process, and as they leave a proportion of gum on the
silk fibre, which acts as a preservative, they are better able to success-
fully destroy vegetable matters by chemical action than English silk
spinners. Still it is quite possible to use this treatment for fully
discharged silks. It is well known to chemists that dilute sulphuric
acid, strength 2 per cent, of acid at a temperature of from 50 to
55 C., will thoroughly carbonise ligneous cellulose, and for raw
cotton the same percentage of acid and a heat of 76 C. will suffice.
The effect of the acid and the subsequent drying of the waste at a
high temperature are to convert the vegetable matter (cellulose) into
friable hydro-cellulose, whilst the silk (animal fibre) is left intact.
The grass, hemp, etc., first turns brown and then black, when a slight
crushing by rollers reduces the matter to powder.
68
SILK WASTE SPINNING
A method of carbonising by muriatic acid is as follows : The silk
is taken from the drying stove and placed lightly and evenly on
hurdles in an air-tight room, and exposed to the fumes of muriatic
acid for from three to four hours. After this the temperature is
raised to 300 F. for half an hour or so. The heating is stopped and
fresh air let into the chamber. When it is cool enough, the silk is
taken out and given a thorough washing to remove all trace of acid.
It must then be redried, and on examination the vegetable matters
will be found brown and black and very brittle. A bath of sulphurous
acid, a drying process, an alkaline bath, and a thorough washing
afterwards will effect the same result.
Fig. 32 illustrates a carbonising chamber in end view and side
elevation. The treated silk S is placed on trays T, which can be
easily handled and pushed into the chamber as they are filled. The
FIG. 32. Carbonising chamber.
chamber is heated by a tubular heater or steampipes P, and the hot
air is drawn out by a fan at F when the silk has been in sufficiently
long to effect a proper destruction of the vegetable matters.
It should be understood that this process is a very delicate one,
and the least miscalculation or carelessness on the part of the work-
people will absolutely spoil the silk, making it tender, rotten, and
badly discoloured.
Conditioning. After all these treatments by heat and hot liquors
the silk is in a dry condition, and if sent to the mill to be worked by
machinery, the result will be bad work and very short, irregular fibres,
so it must be allowed to absorb its natural moisture of 1 1 per cent.
Whilst silk will not work properly if dry and harsh, it will work if
properly moistened with water, but it must not be wet in patches ;
hence, spraying with a hose-pipe and fine rose, or using the watering-
SILK WASTE DEGUMMING
69
can, is not satisfactory. It is absolutely essential that the silk be
well and evenly dried in the stove or drying machine. If some
portions are damp and others dry, the latter absorb moisture quickly,
and the former get very wet, so that the silk is irregular in condition
and works very badly in the after processes. It is also very detri-
mental to force silk into condition : it must have time to pick up
moisture naturally, and the best-known means of allowing it to do so
is to construct a conditioning floor. A cellar, well ventilated, but
dark, is the best for the purpose. The floor is prepared (see Fig. 33A,
which is a sectional elevation) by first putting down 12 in. of
sand or ashes and broken stones to act as drainage A ; over this is
placed a layer of clay B, and then bricks C, with gutters D every 3 or
4 ft. apart. Fig. 33s shows the plan of this floor. When the floor is
If II
1
i i i i i
r
i i i i i
ii iii
1 1 1 1 1
i
i r i i i
i i i ii
i
i i i i i
i i i i i
i
ii iii
i i i i i
i
1 1 1 ! 1
1 II 1 1
i
1 1 1 1,1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1
I I I
1 1 1
! 1 1
1 I
1 I 1
i 1 1
1 1 I
1 . 1
III
1 1 ' 1
! 1 1
1 ' 1
1 1 1
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1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
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1 1 1
i i c: i
! II
I I
1 1 1
I I I
1 1 1
FIGS. 33A and 33s. Conditioning floor.
made, the bricks are thoroughly soaked with water, which gradually
works down to the clay, and is there retained, always keeping the
bricks moist. Excessive moisture finds its way through the clay and
drains away through the rubble layer below. The gutters are kept
half full of water, which is constantly evaporating, and keeps the
atmosphere moist. The bricks must not be soaking wet, only damp,
and then, when hot silk from the stove is spread thinly on them, the
heat of the silk causes the moisture to ascend, and it is greedily
absorbed from the bricks and the air by the dry silk, which soon
begins to feel damp, soft, and pliable. A proper condition cannot be
described in cold print; only experience and observation can tell
when the process is complete. After the silk has lain sufficient time
on the floor it is picked up and packed into large skips or placed into
70 SILK WASTE SPINNING
bins for some days or even weeks, to still further complete the con-
ditioning. These skips S are packed one above the other, as shown
FIG. 34. Conditioning shelves.
n
1:1
FIG. 35. Plan of bale room, washing house, and conditioning-floor.
SILK WASTE DEGUMMING
in Fig. 34, so that the contents can be turned over from time to time,
and also to allow free access of air.
In Fig. 35 is shown a plan of a bale-receiving room A, boiling-
FIG. 36. Soaping or conditioning machine.
house B, and conditioning-room C, with plant set out for convenient
and economical working. The description is as follows : A is the
bale-receiving and w T eighing-room, at the far end of which the waste-
opening machine D is placed. At this point the silk is bagged
FIG. 37. Supple machine, worm driven.
preparatory for boiling or steeping. B is the steeping and boiling
house ; K, L, M, N, O, P are boiling tubs. E are steeping cisterns ;
or the same room can be occupied by various schapping machines. F
is the drying machine, and if required the same machine can be used
72 SILK WASTE SPINNING
for carbonisation. H and J are hydro extractors. The dotted lines
show drains. It should be remembered that over the tubs, K to P,
can be placed the water-softening cistern, and, if it is arranged the
same length as the length of space occupied by the 'tubs, a tap is
connected directly from it and over each tub, to serve the same with
the softened water necessary for perfect silk schapping or boiling.
The drying machine is placed in the boil-house, because it can easily
be attended to by some one or other of the workmen engaged in the
silk boiling. C is the conditioning-room, into which the silk can be
taken direct from the drying machine. The floor space is occupied
FIG. 38. Supple machine, wheel driven.
by ^spreading on it the dry silk, and round the walls are placed the
bins and skips, as shown in Fig. 34.
Suppleing. The preceding description of conditioning may be
termed the natural conditioning process, but in addition to this
method there are ways of mechanical conditioning, and some silks
work better if a little soapy. Fig. 36 represents a machine which can
be used with advantage, the following being a description of it : The
silk is fed on the long travelling creeper A towards the rollers B, E,
and during progression a fine spray of soap and water is allowed to
fall on the silk at points C and D. The silk is put through the same
process two or three times to ensure all parts being treated uniformly,
SILK WASTE DEGUMMING 73
and each time the rollers, B, E, squeeze out all superfluous moisture.
This machine is made use of to greater advantage when the silks are
to be worked with a large proportion of gum left on the fibre.
For silks which incline to mat together during the schapping or
boiling processes, such as knubs, steam wastes, etc., the supple
machines shown in Figs. 37 and 38 are often employed. The shaft
S on which are fixed worms W revolves slowly, and drives the
bottom series of fluted rollers, marked A, through the gearing shown
by dotted lines at D. The silk is spread thinly on the latticed feeder
at the point indicated by C, and is gradually worked through the
machine between each set of fluted rollers A, E.
The chief purpose is to crush, bruise, and soften all hard, matted
portions of silk, and such is well effected by means of these rollers
and their springs B. The best results are obtained by having the
silk moistened before feeding into the machine, and, if necessary, it
may be put through several times. Should the silk have been in the
carbonising chamber prior to treatment through this machine, the
process will tend to pulverise all vegetable matter into powder, but
the waste must be passed through the machine whilst in a dry state,
i.e. straight from the carbonising chamber.
CHAPTEE VII
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES (COMBING)
COCOON BEATING. All silks, whether schapped, boiled, or worked with-
out either of these processes, are better for putting through what is
termed a cocoon beater, one of which is shown in Figs. 39 and 40.
This machine comprises a large disc A, revolved by means of pulleys
FIG. 39. Cocoon beater.
E and K geared into the wheel C. On the disc are rods radiating
from centre to circumference, and under these rods the silk is placed.
The whips D, which are fastened on the belt G, thrash or beat the
silk S, as shown in the illustration. The machine is under the con-
trol of the operator by means of the handle H, which is connected
to main driving pulleys J, the driving pulleys being shown by dotted
lines.
Some classes of cocoons are worked without boiling or schapping,
but the fibres need loosening, and the silk must be beaten to become
freed from the chrysalis and wormy matter. The cocoon beating or
thrashing machine opens, softens, and renders flexible any kind of
waste, and inflates the cocoons so that the work of the succeeding
74
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 75
machines is rendered easier, and better results are attained in yield
of silk and length of fibre.
The attendant is generally a female, who stands before the disc
A, with the bulk of the material to be treated within her reach. She
disengages the small rods which radiate from the centre j of the disc,
and then spreads the silk S on that disc, and replaces the rods, which
are held firmly on the material by means of balancing weights or
springs. The disc revolves, so that the silk presents itself continually
under the action of the whips D, and after a turn or two, without
stopping the machine (which runs very slowly), the worker raises the
rods and turns over the material, so that both sides have a proper
FIG. 40. Cocoon beater.
beating. When sufficiently done, the treated silk is replaced by a
new supply, and the operation proceeds as before.
The average speed of the machine is about 120 revolutions per
minute of the pulleys E, which gives one turn per minute to
the disc carrying the material. The length of time for properly
beating the silk is from two to four minutes, according to the
nature of the material and the degree of degummiug. The action
of the whip can be regulated by the height of a cushion placed at F,
and this cushion also relieves the strain caused by the passage of the
whip over the little pulley B. The production of such a machine
is estimated at 250 Ib. per day for cocoons, and 200 Ib. for wastes
(degummed or schapped).
7 6
SILK WASTE SPINNING
OPENING. After this beating, the silk presents a more loose
appearance, but is still in lumps of tangled fibre, to straighten which
it is necessary to pass it through another machine known as a
cocoon or waste opener, which places the individual fibres in a more
parallel position. Fig. 41 shows such an opening or lapping machine
for cocoons and waste. A is a latticed feeder on to which the silk S
is placed. This feeder carries the silk to the rollers or porcupines B,
which grip it firmly, and at the same time feed it very slowly to the
large drum C. This drum, being covered with fine steel teeth, and
revolving at a great speed, tends to draw the silk on to its teeth in
straight and parallel fibres. D and K are smaller rollers covered with
steel teeth, E is a brush, and G are stripping rollers.
Fig. 42 is a lapping machine for knubs and waste, and is essen-
FIG. 41. Opening machine for cocoons.
tially the same in most parts as the one just described. In place,
however, of the feed or porcupine rollers being like those in Fig. 41,
the silk is fed on to the large drum C by means of porcupine sheets A
and B, while the brush E is altered as to position. Both machines
are always well covered, as shown in Fig. 42, by a casing H, and if the
silk is very dusty these casings are connected to a dust trunk, and
the dust withdrawn by means of a fan. Both machines work in
the same manner. A given w r eight of silk, w T hich may or may not
have been thrashed, is entrusted to the workman, who spreads it on
a given space on the feeder, which then carries it slowly forward
towards the big drum. This drum is covered with steel teeth set in
vulcanised rubber (Fig. 43), so that they are slightly pliable, but still
sufficiently firm for the work they have to do. The drum revolves at
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 77
a high speed, and as the silk projects through the feeding rollers or
porcupine sheets, it is caught and pulled forward by the quickly
passing teeth of the large drum C, which so opens out the tangles
until a portion is pulled through the feeding rollers and spread
FIG. 42. Opening machine for waste.
evenly and thinly around the drum. The few portions of silk, which
are either lumpy or so short that they slip too quickly through the
retaining rollers (and so on to the teeth in matted pieces), are caught
by the small rollers D or K (also covered with teeth) and opened out
FIG. 43. Opening machine teeth.
by them. As silk is very fluffy, light, and liable to remain on the
points of the pins, brushes E are placed at different points, which
revolve against the big drum, and so press the silk down into the
teeth, leaving the points of the teeth free to do their work at each
78 SILK WASTE SPINNING
revolution of the large drum. The hard small bits of silk, dirt, and
chrysalis fall to the bottom of the machine, and can easily be removed
afterwards. When the necessary weight of silk has run on to the
large drum, the workman stops the machine, opens the cover from
behind, and cuts the silk (now called a lap) with a knife in the part
of the drum not covered with the pins J, and follows, with the knife,
the axle of the drum. He then disengages the upper part of the
lap in sufficient quantity for placing between the stripping rollers G,
to which he gives a rotary motion which withdraws the lap from
the big drum. The stripping rollers G, having the silk S between
them, are revolved in the direction shown by arrows in Fig. 43,
and the lap is so strong that it pulls round the big drum, thus
freeing itself from the teeth.
Filling. The lap produced by the opener is passed forward to
FIG. 44. Filling engine.
a filling engine, which at first sight seems to be like the opener, but
the feed rollers are stronger, or are replaced by strong porcupine sheets,
and exercise a strong grip on the silk. The difference between the
opener and filler is in the setting of the teeth or combs, which, instead
of being all around the drum, as in the opener, are placed only in
rows, each row from 4 to 9 in. apart, the teeth being about half an
inch from one another. They are set on the face of the drum, each
row of teeth following the same line as the axle. Silk which may
not have passed through the opener must be put through this process.
Figs. 44 and 45 show the machine, and the following is a description
of its action :
A lap of silk from the opener, or a weighed portion of unlapped
silk, is put on the feeder A in a given space, and travels slowly into
the porcupines C. The big drum B revolves quickly, and the rows of
combs D pull a small portion of the silk from the porcupine rollers C,
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 79
until by continual revolving the whole drum is covered uniformly
with silk. When the portion placed on the feeder is exhausted, the
machine is stopped and the silk cut with a knife or scissors at a point
P between each set of teeth, thus making a fringe of silk hooked on
FIG. 45. Filling engine.
to the pins. The porcupine roller R straightens any lumps which
adhere to the comb, and picks up short portions of silk. The brush
E transfers such silk from the porcupine roller back again to the
tooth of the large drum.
ID-
FIG. 46. Dressing boards.
When the attendant has so cut all the silk on the drum (which
drum is arranged to be easily thrown out of gear with the feeding
rollers or porcupines and then turned by hand), he picks up a hinged
board called a bookboard (Fig. 46), places the silk in between its
two sides, closes them tightly together, pulls gently towards himself
8o SILK WASTE SPINNING
whilst standing in front of the large drum, and so strips the silk off
the pins. Care is taken to keep the bookboards firmly pressed to-
gether so as to retain all the silk, shown at S Fig 46. Another
method of stripping the pins is by means of a small wood rod about
28 in. long and J in. diameter. The silk being cut into the fringe
form on the filling engine, the wood rod, first dipped in a soapy solu-
tion to make the silk adhere, is placed on the end of the silk fibres
and rolled towards the workman, thus wrapping round itself the silk
until all the length of fibre is on the stick or rod. Then a good pull
towards the attendant clears the pins. Fig. 47 shows (end view) at A
the board stripping, and at B the stick stripping.
It will be noticed that the bookboards are hollowed in the middle,
as shown at C in Fig. 46, which hollowing is to enable the workman
to handle them easily. They are usually about 28 in. long and
FIG. 47. Stripping.
5 to 7 in. deep at D and about J in. thick ; that is, when compressed
or closed into the form of a book, the two sides are each J in. thick.
Each inside edge is covered with a strip of roller cloth E, about J to
J in. wide, to cause the silk to be more firmly held between the two
sides.
It is perhaps well to point out that all the operations described up
to this point have been, in the first place, to rid the silk of gum or to
soften the fibres, so that they are pliable and fairly well separated
from each other. In the second place, the tangled lumps or masses of
crossed fibres have been beaten, suppled, and opened. The opening
machinery treats the silk very gently, and the setting of the porcu-
pines or feed rollers in relation to the working drum or cylinder is
regulated by the quality of the silk (by quality is meant the kind of
fibre or waste). For instance, a cocoon waste would take far more
opening than a European gum waste, so the teeth or combs on the
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 81
cylinder of the openers have to be fine or coarse, set pliable or other-
wise, in accordance with the length and strength of the fibre to be
worked. The shorter and more tender the silk, the more gentle must
be the treatment it has on these machines, as the object is to obtain
as great a proportion of long fibre as possible. The lap of silk from
the opener is weighed before being placed on the feeding sheet of the
filling engine, because it is necessary that each strip of silk from the
filling engine comb should be nearly the same weight.
The function of the filling engine is to still further open out the
silk, and to lay the fibres more parallel to each other. Then the
setting of the teeth or combs in rows, a certain distance apart, is for
the purpose of commencing to equalise the lengths of the fibre. The
way silk waste is produced means that some fibres are cut and broken
into lengths, varying from J in. to 30 or 40 in., and it is obvious
that these lengths must be separated to enable a yarn to be spun.
The longest fibres are useless, being too long, so they must be cut ;
the short fibres must also be got out, or they spoil a yarn.
The distance from point to point of the teeth P in the filling
engine (Fig. 44) gives the length of the longest fibres deemed best
to work, and that distance is regulated by the nature of the silk
waste. A waste which will work long like Swiss, China, and most
European gum wastes is put on an engine with teeth set in rows
from 9 to 12 in. apart, whilst a waste matted together like steam
waste, and at the same time soft and fine in fibre, needs the rows
only to be 6 to 7 in. apart.
The speed of the large cylinder of the openers and fillers can be
regulated in relation to the speed of delivery of the feed rollers or
porcupines, and it is very essential to watch this point to see, on
the one hand, that the silk does not go on in lumps ; or, on the other
hand, that it is not pulled to pieces. The weight of the silk fed to
the machine in a certain time, and the thickness in which it is placed
on the feeding sheet, all depend on the nature of the silk and its
previous treatment. It should, however, never be forgotten that the
feed must be uniform. Each revolution of the large cylinder should
draw on to each row of teeth an equally sized fine film of fibre, and
the brush E (Fig. 44) should be placed so that it will brush that film
down to the root of the tooth, keeping the point free to work, and at
the same time helping to keep straight the fibre, and to make a hard,
solid strip, each strip being of the same thickness and weight.
Dressing. Attention and care in opening and filling is amply
rewarded by the result of the next process silk dressing which is
the most important of any single process in silk spinning. It is
equivalent in silk to wool combing in the worsted trade ; but whilst
both industries began their dressing or combing in much the same
way, they are now widely different in all respects. Whilst W T OO!
combing is comparatively a cheap process, silk dressing is an
6
82
SILK WASTE SPINNING
expensive operation ; in fact, it is the most costly of any single pro-
cess throughout a silk waste spinning establishment. Of all textile
fibres silk is the most valuable, by reason of its length and strength,
coupled with its fine fibre and lustre. The shorter the fibres com-
FIG. 48. Heckle.
posing a silk yarn, the less lustre will that yarn show ; whilst the
longer the fibres, the more lustrous the yarns.
The object of silk dressing is, in the first place, to sort out the
different lengths of fibre ; and, secondly, to clear such fibres of nibs
FIG. 49. Flat dressing frame (side section).
and noils. The longer fibres are used for the best yarns and the
shorter for inferior kinds. The old-time system of dressing was, of
course, a hand process. Each worker had heckles or combs, like the
one shown in Fig. 48, supplied to him, through the teeth of which a
portion of silk was drawn. The short silk and noils and nibs
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 83
adhered to the teeth, until by a continued "repetition of the process,
the silk held by the worker was straight and the fibre parallel and
free from short silk and nibs. Then the portion dressed was held by
the workman, and the portion previously held in his hand put through
the combing process. When both ends were properly combed, that
portion of silk was placed on one side for spinning, and the short
fibres and noils were considered waste.
The reversing of the ends tested the skill of the operator, as the
teeth of the comb had to strike the silk at a point (the combed half
being held by the workman) so as to ensure the middle of the silk
being properly combed out ; otherwise the centre of the lengths of
FIG. 50. Flat dressing frame with stripping drum.
fibre would be rough and woolly and have a large amount of short
fibre left in them, making it impossible to have a level yarn.
This crude method is, of course, long since dead, and mechanical
means are now employed to give the same effect. There are three
machines in everyday use, and known respectively as the flat dressing
frame, the circular frame, and the continuous flat dressing frame.
Flat dressing, The flat dressing frame is illustrated in Fig. 49,
in side elevation, and Fig. 50, w 7 hile Fig. 51 gives the end elevation.
It comprises a single endless sheet or web A, carrying a series of
combs B and cards C, travelling horizontally in the direction marked
by the arrow around a pair of rollers D and Z. There is also a box
84 SILK WASTE SPINNING
E, called an " inframe," in which the bookboards of filled silk are
placed, each bookboard F being separated from the next by a single
board G, somewhat thicker, and called a slider. The inframe is
swivelled on the centre H, so that it can be easily turned right
round, and it is supported on a movable carriage J, to enable the
dresser to push it under the moving combs or to pull it from under
them for taking out the combed silk, etc. In addition to the support
at H, the cams K and Y support each end of the inframe, and are
also used to vertically lower or raise the frame of silk into contact
with the working combs and cards. This is effected very gradually
and automatically by means of the ratchet L and ratchet wheel M,
FIG. 51. Flat dressing frame (end view).
every revolution of the roller Z thus moving the ratchet wheel M one
tooth forward, and by means of the various wheels, shafts, etc., shown
in the plan and side elevation, Fig. 52, the inframe is raised to
any desired height. If the raising motion is not performed quickly
enough by these means, the dresser can throw the ratchet out of
gear, and by means of the wheels a, /;, r, d and N, O, Q turn the in-
frame up or down at any desired speed.
The combs B and the cards C are shown in section in Fig. 53,
and it may be here said that the combs are fixtures, being bolted
securely on to the webbing, whilst the cards are movable, being in
use only at intervals during the dressing operation. They are taken
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 85
on and off whilst the machine is in motion, and therefore the
V-shaped card back A (Fig. 53) is bolted to the webbing, so that the
d
FIG. 52. Flat dressing frame lifting gear.
card itself will easily slide on and off, but by reason of the V-shaped
holder cannot fall off when travelling point downwards and working
w
FIG. 53. Combs, cards, and dressed silk.
on the silk. Both cards and combs are slightly tilted from back to
front to prevent the silk choking the front teeth. The comb wire is
set in vulcanised rubber, and is made pliable or otherwise, set coarse
86
SILK WASTE SPINNING
or fine, long or short, at the whim of the silk dressing foreman or
mill manager. Coarse silks need a strong wire and fine silks a fine
wire, while the style of filling and boiling has a great deal to do with
the wire necessary to be used for the best dressing.
The webbing is made of hemp, and as this will shrink or other-
wise in accordance with the state of the weather, the rollers D and
Z are fixed in movable brackets, so enabling the webbing to be
-c8 v
~irz
FIG. 54. Infranie.
C A
slackened or tightened as required. To ensure good dressing, the
web should be kept fairly tight. It must also be perfectly level for
its entire length from centre to centre of the rollers ; and to prevent
any danger of " bagging " in the middle of the web, the working
combs project at each end on to shelving P (Figs. 49 and 51), which
is arranged from end to end on each side of the dressing frame. These
FIG. 55. Bookboards and sliders.
can be raised or lowered to accommodate different thicknesses of
comb backs, and to allow for wear and tear. The combs and cards
are kept flat and rigid and at a proper angle by means of the wedge
W and the shoe X (Fig. 53).
The inframe is shown in plan in Fig. 54. A is a cast-iron frame,
a partial end section of which is shown in Fig. 55. It is divided in
the middle by a strong metal partition B, called the middle bar,
which is capped with wood. At each end of the frame is a pair of
screws S, to enable the bookboards full of silk to be compressed,
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 87
for these latter have to be compressed sufficiently tight to prevent
the silk being drawn out by the action of the working combs. Fig.
55 shows the position of the sliders at S, and also the method of
fixing on the cast-iron frame A.
Th first operation in silk dressing is filling the inframe with
silk, and for this the strips of silk are taken from the filling engine
in bookboards, as shown at A in Fig. 56 (half a bookboard). These
are placed in the inframe, commencing against the middle bar, and
then a slider is pushed close to the bookboard; the second book-
board is placed against the first slider, and so the frame is gradually
filled. When full, the screws S are operated, each screw .for a short
space. Then the boards of silk are all tapped down, until their tops
are level with the surface of the sliders, as shown at B, Fig. 56, and
1
FIG. 56. Dressed and not dressed
strips of silk.
FIG. 57. Turning-in board.
the screws again operated until the silk is held fast between each
half of the bookboard.
The frame, full of silk, supported on its carriage J, is traversed
on the rails R (Figs. 49 and 54) by their wheels T under the combs,
which are then set in motion. The operator, by means of the hand-
wheel N, raises the frame until the silk touches the teeth of the
combs, and then he puts in gear the ratchet wheel and allows it to
raise the silk deeper and deeper into the moving combs. When the
teeth have combed about half-way through the depth of silk, as shown
at D in Fig. 53, the inframe is let down, pulled from under the
web, turned opposite end about, and the silk which lay in the
88 SILK WASTE SPINNING
direction of the points of the combs is reversed so that the rough
uncombed portion is uppermost (E, Fig. 53). The combing operation
is then repeated until the teeth have gone through the silk and both
sides of the tuft are combed through.
The inframe is then again let down, the carriage and frame are
pulled from under the working combs, the screws loosened, and the
boards of silk freed. The dresser takes out a bookboard of silk
and places it on a table like that shown in Fig. 57 in the position A,
thus allowing the dressed portion of silk to project over a cast-iron
gauge B (C is plan of same), which measures J to J in. square by
30 to 36 in. long. The dressed portion is then gripped by another
pair of bookboards D, so that the undressed ends project for
combing, as shown at F. All the silk is " turned " in this method,
then replaced in the inframe, and the preceding processes of combing
gone through. When completed, and whilst the inframe is almost at
its highest point in relation to the working combs, the fine cards C
are placed in their respective positions, and the silk subjected to their
action for several minutes for the purpose of removing nibs from the
fibre. The combs straighten and open the fibre, whilst the cards
smooth it and remove rough, hard places.
When the silk is sufficiently cleared the inframe is let down, the
silk again " turned " in the boards, replaced in the frame, and the
ends, which at first were combed only, are then subjected to the
finishing touch of cards and combs. If properly " turned," the silk
presents the appearance shown at C in Fig. 56, all the fibres being
straight and parallel from end to end, no short fibres being left in the
centre of the tufts of silk. If not turned properly, nor properly
dressed, short crossed silk is left as shown at Fig. 56, under line
D. Short silk may also be caused by running the combs and cards
too hard on the silk, and then the ends are broken and cut as shown
at C in Fig. 53. In turning in the boards, the dresser should never
be allowed to raise the bookboards above the gauge B higher than
shown by the dotted lines E in Fig. 57, or he will most probably
turn short, and bad dressing will result. When the dresser considers
the silk dressed, he empties it from the bookboards and places it
straight in a box or tin. The dressed fibres resulting from the strips
taken from the filling engine are called " first drafts," meaning the
" longest fibres."
It will be understood that the tufts of silk which gather on the
combs, as shown at Fig. 49, are usually stripped from the combs by
the silk dresser whilst the combs are at work and during their
passage from W to X, and they present practically the same appear-
ance as the " strips " from the filling engine. Bookboards are
used exactly as depicted at A in Fig. 47. These strips are combed
and dressed in the manner described for first drafts, and the resulting
dressed silk is called a "second draft" i.e. the second length of
f ',
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 89
fibre. The .silk accumulating on the combs in this operation forms
the third draft, and all the respective processes are gone through in
the same manner as for first drafts, except that as the silk gets shorter
in fibre for each operation, the gauge in turning will be less. Six or
seven drafts of silk are thus obtained from the strips of silk originally
brought from the filling engine, and when the fibres are too short
to make it worth while dressing any longer, the strips on the working
combs are taken off by bookboards and then put on one side and sold
as noils.
Whilst board stripping is the usual method of clearing the work-
ing combs, a large drum can be used as shown at T in the upper
portion of Figs". 49 and 51. By this means the combs are always
kept clean. The web is supported by the roller U, Fig. 49. The
large drum is covered with fine wire filleting, and is set so that the
points of the wire just lift the tufts of silk out of the working combs
as they pass over the top of the roller U. The silk is pressed into
the wires by a brush V, and when the drum has sufficient silk on its
wires, forming a solid lap, it is stripped off by means of the rollers e
and the leathers/. The stripping drum is driven by means of pulleys
fixed on the end of the shaft of cylinder, as shown in Fig. 50.
In the case where the large drum is used for stripping the working
combs the lap from the former has to be refilled for dressing on a
small filling engine, which will be described later. As each successive
draft of silk gets shorter in length and finer in fibre, it is usual to
adopt different combs for the shorter fibres than for the long drafts,
and consequently silk dressing machines are worked on the three-frame
system illustrated by the sketch Fig. 58. In this plan 1, 2, and 3
are dressing frames, known respectively as first, second, and third
frames. A is the inframe ; T is the tabling, always fixed at one end
of the dressing frame and used by the dresser as a storage place for
his empty and full boards, and also to turn the silk upon ; R are the
rails on which the inframe traverses to and fro, under and out, of the
dressing frame. The distance from 2 to 3 on the one hand and 1 to
3 on the other is sufficient to allow the inframe to be pulled from
under the combs and turned completely round on its centre pin, in
order that each side of the tufts of silk may be presented to the
action of the working combs, etc. i.e. the end marked E would be
under B in the dressing frame at the first running-up of the silk into
the combs, and the end F at the second rising of the silk.
The three frames are in charge of an operative called "first
framer," who has under him two others, " second and third framers,"
the last named being a youth. As the names imply, the operatives
attend to the respective machines 1, 2, and 3. The first framer fills
the boards from the filling engine, places them in his inframe, and
dresses the silk they hold. He strips the combs frequently, and hands
the strippings to the second framer, who dresses the second and third
9
SILK WASTE SPINNING
drafts, and who in turn hands over his strippings from the third draft
to the third or short framer, who dresses the fourth, fifth, and sixth
drafts. When dressing the last draft he strips the combs clean at
intervals, these strippings being known in the trade as noils. A "fill
of silk" i.e. the weight spread on the filling-engine feeder will
weigh about 3| Ib. for an engine which has twenty rows of teeth,
making twenty strips of silk. The first frame will have ten boards in
each division of its inframe, thus accommodating the twenty strips
from the filling engine. The second frame will have twelve boards in
FIG. 58. Plan of set of flat frames.
each division of its inframe, and the third frame fifteen boards, this
increase being necessary ; for although the later drafts are shorter in
length, they are more bulky, being very light and fluffy, and conse-
quently the strips of silk must be kept light in weight so as to enable
the working combs to dress, and not cut the silk to pieces. Each
inframe is of the same length, and to hold the number of boards the
sliders are narrower in the second than in the first frame, and in the
third than in the second in proportion to the number of boards in each
frame.
A week's work for these three frames and three attendants on a
usual English quality would be approximately as follows :
First frame receives from filling engine 148 Ib.; yields first drafts
40 Ib.
Second frame receives strippings from first frame 108 Ib. ; yields
second drafts 27 Ib., and third drafts 18 Ib.
Third frame receives from second frame 63 Ib., and yields fourth
drafts 9 Ib., fifth drafts 7 Ib., and sixth drafts 5 Ib., leaving 42 Ib.
noils.
The dressers are generally paid on the yield of drafts per week,
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 91
but the costliness of the operation is much increased on account of
there being but a comparatively small percentage of dressed silk from
the original weight of silk waste put into the machines. The quality
named above produces in percentage, approximately, as follows :
Fed into
Machine.
From filling, 148 Ib. yields 27 per cent, of 1st drafts and 73 per
cent, strippings.
1st strips of 108 Ib. yields 25 per cent, of 2nd drafts.
2nd ,, 811k ,, 22 ,, 3rd drafts.
3rd 63 Ib. 16 ,, 4th drafts.
4th ,, 54 Ib. ,, 12 5th and 6th drafts together.
Thus, by assuming that the first framer gets 30s. per week, the
second and third framers 22s. and 15s. per week respectively, the cost
per Ib. of dressing accepting the above yields and percentages will
be 9d. per Ib. on No. 1 machine, 6d. per Ib. on No. 2, and nearly 9d.
per Ib. on No. 3, or about 8d. per Ib. on all drafts received from the
machine. As silks vary very much in yield, the cost per Ib. varies
accordingly. A high-class European gum waste will yield from dis-
charged waste about 86 per cent, of all drafts and 14 per cent, of
noils, whilst a low Eastern waste will yield 60 per cent, of all drafts
and 40 per cent, noils.
The time occupied in completely dressing a frame full of first
drafts is about 1J hour, second and third drafts about 1 hour, and
fourth to sixth drafts about 50 minutes, including all turning of silk
boards. The speed of the working combs is about 60 per minute
passing any fixed point. This slow speed is necessary to ensure the
silk being combed gently so as to keep the fibre as long as possible.
If run too quickly the combs break the fibres, the friction of the steel
teeth heating the silk and causing it to break off short, and leading to
a larger yield of noils and less drafts. Then, again, if the combs
were running quickly the workman would not be able to strip them
without stopping the machine, and this would interfere with produc-
tion and consequently increase the cost of dressing.
Re-dressing. If a yarn is required extra strong and very level,
many spinners resort to re-dressing. The wastes used are European
gum wastes, which are filled and dressed in the gum state i.e. not
discharged. This gives a long fibre in the first draft. The dressed
silk is made into small " paps " or bunches by the dresser and then
taken to boil. When boiled it is conditioned in the usual way. Each
pap is straightened out, placed in the dressing frame, and dressed
exactly as an ordinary filled silk. In this way the silk is a better
average length, and seeing that it is turned over the gauge so much
oftener than ordinary dressed silk, it is more free from short fibres.
Naturally this extra work makes the dressed silk more costly, and so
re-dressing is only done for very special purposes.
9 2
SILK WASTE SPINNING
Circular dressing frame. It is natural that such a costly process
as flat-frame dressing has led to many attempts to find a cheaper
method. Our competitors abroad use the circular dressing frame
because of its capability of turning out a large weight of silk at a
cheap rate. The English dresser does not use this machine, for
whilst admitting its productiveness, it damages the silk and gives a
lower yield per cent, of drafts, so much so that the saving in wages is
more than counterbalanced by the loss of 3 or 4 per cent, of drafts.
Naturally the question arises, Why this difference of opinion at home
and abroad 1 The answer appears to be that the foreigner schappes
his silk in the preparing process, and by leaving a small percentage of
FIG. 59. Circular dressing frame.
natural gum on the fibre protects it somewhat from the severe action
of the working combs of the circular dressing frame, whereas when
the silk is fully discharged (as is the English custom) it is very tender,
and the great speed at which the circular frame combs work tears the
silk to pieces, producing more noils and giving a worse yield of dressed
silk or drafts.
Fig. 59 illustrates the circular frame in side elevation. A is a
large drum divided into five sections, each furnished with boards or
sliders B, of a thickness proportionate to the length of silk to be
dressed. These sliders are grooved on their face, and are placed with
the grooves in juxtaposition, as shown at C. Into the grooves fit
small rods of wood which are longer than the sliders, so that each
f }
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 93
end of the rod projects to allow of their manipulation. As the larger
drum revolves in the direction of the arrow, the sliders are compressed
and opened by means of springs S and levers L. Y and Z are the
cylinders or working combs ; Y is designed to open out the silk and
to comb almost through the film, while Z combs the other side, and
being of finer wire also clears off the nibs in the same manner as the
fine cards of the flat frame. The working combs are stripped by
means of the stripping rollers E. Each comb can be thrown out of
gear whilst the large drum is revolving, and so stopped and stripped
of its silk, which has been pressed down hard into the roots of the
teeth by the brushes F.
The machine needs two operatives, the dresser and his assistant.
The dresser standing on the platform P, places the rods, with the films
of silk taken from the filling engine, on the shelf G. The machine is
set in motion, the large drum is rotated very slowly, the section
opposite the workman is open, and he places the rods of silk one in
each groove C as the grooves pass before him ; but on the first turn
of the machine he only fills half the section. As the section passes
opposite the point H, the sliders are automatically locked together
FIG. 60. Rod stripping.
and the silk nipped firmly so that the action of the combing cylinder
Y, which revolves quickly, will not pull out the silk from the sliders.
As the drum moves round to the point I, the sliders are unlocked,
enabling the workman to turn the silk, the end dressed being wrapped
round a rod, the undressed end then projecting for dressing. The
workman also fills up the other half of the section with silk, so that
on the drum's second turn one half of each section holds silk which
is completely dressed that is, both ends have been subjected to the
combs, while the other half has silk with one end only dressed. The
dressed silk is removed by the workman, and the section refilled with
silk from the filling engine ; the other rods of silk are turned, and so
the process goes on, each revolution presenting a half -section of com-
pletely dressed silk to the workman and a half-section to turn.
A method of stripping the silk from the rods is shown in Fig. 60,
which represents the large drum travelling in the direction as shown
by the arrow. A is a cloth laid on the top of the dressed silk and
affixed to the roller D. This rod is placed under the extreme end of
the first film of silk E and revolved in the direction of arrow F,
which causes the silk to be wrapped round the rod and pulls the
94
SILK WASTE SPINNING
entire length of silk off the rod which is in the groove C. At the
same time the first film entangles the second film, the second the
third, and so on, and as the workman rolls the rod D round and
round he thus draws the silk off the rods in the grooves and wraps it
inside the cloth A, so forming what is called a " nappe " of silk.
The speed of the circular frame varies considerably in accordance
with the nature of the silk to be dressed. The large drum may make
from one revolution in 6J minutes to one revolution in 12 minutes.
The first working cylinder may be run from 70 to 80 revolutions per
minute, and the second cylinder from 120 revolutions, the speed of
the latter necessitating a shorter toothed comb than the former.
This extra speed and finer and shorter wire are most important, for
FIG. 61. Lap filling machine.
without them the dressed silk would be nibby and full of noils. The
relative speed of the working combs to the speed of the large drum
needs constant watching, as the secret of the successful use of these
machines would appear to be that of adapting the workers to give
only just enough dressing to open out the silk and clear the nibs.
Too much dressing can be given, either by setting the wire too close
to the wooden sliders in the large drum and so cutting the silk, or
by giving such a great speed to the combs that they tear much of the
silk out of the sliders and also punish the fibre too much, making it
extremely tender and short in length. On the other hand, too slow a
speed would mean perfectly useless silk, for the fibre would not be
combed through. It could, of course, be subjected to another comb-
ing by allowing it to go round again in the large drum, but the
p
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 95
production of the machine would in that manner be decreased and
the cost of the resulting dressed silk increased. The accumulation of
silk on the working cylinder Z (Fig. 59) is usually composed of such
short fibre that it is put on one side as noil; but the silk on the
working cylinder Y (Fig. 59) is long in fibre, and after being stripped
off the combs by means of stripping rollers which deliver it in the
form of a lap it is put through a small filling engine (Fig. 61).
This machine can be used for refilling the strips or laps off the large
stripping drum of the flat dressing frame, and its construction is quite
simple.
A is the feed sheet on which the lap of silk is placed, and by
which it is carried to the rollers B, C, D, E. The last pair of these
rollers revolve more quickly than the first pair, thus drafting the silk
and loosening the fibres. The drum F is furnished with four rows of
combs G, and revolved in the direction shown by the arrow at a speed
greater than the delivery of silk from the feeding rollers. The combs
thus draw on to themselves a film of silk at each revolution of the
drum, and when the attendant considers them full, the machine is
stopped and the strip taken oft 7 by means of the sticks described
previously with the silk-filling engine. The attendant of this small
filling engine also looks after the stripping of the working cylinders
of the circular dressing frame, and keeps the dresser fully supplied
with the sticks of filled silk.
The dressing frames are worked in pairs or fours, one called the
first frame receiving the silk from the filling engine and dressing
first and second lengths, and the other receiving the strips from the
second lengths and dressing out of them the third to the fifth lengths.
Some qualities of silk are only dressed into three lengths, and the
remaining strip is taken and combed. A week's work on four machines
is enormous compared with the English standards of flat-frame dress-
ing. A first frame (circular) will yield of dressed silk from 400 to
500 Ib. per week, a second frame from 200 to 300 lb., a third frame
from 150 to 200 lb., and a fourth frame about 100 lb. per week of
fourth and fifth drafts, the cost per pound being 2d. to 4d. It must
be remembered that the foreign rate of wages is low, whilst the hours
worked are long say twelve hours per day to the English ten hours.
A set of four frames appears to be the most economical manner of
arrangement, and the method of work would then be : The large filling
engine supplying the first dressing frame ; the first dressing yielding
first drafts, and the strips being refilled and supplied to the second
frame ; the second frame yielding second drafts, and the strips refilled
and supplied to the third frame ; the third frame yielding third drafts,
and the resulting strips supplied to the fourth frame, which yields
fourth and fifth drafts, the last strips being noils.
Continuous flat dressing frame. This is of recent invention,
and is designed to work on the same principles as the ordinary flat
9 6
SILK WASTE SPINNING
frame, with the large production of the circular frame. Fig. 62 gives
the end elevation, Fig. 63 A the side elevation, Fig. 63B the plan of
L
one of these machines, and Fig. 64 a photograph showing the machines
in work. A, B, C, D are four endless chains or sheets passed around
", .
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 97
98 SILK WASTE SPINNING
the rollers W, X, Y, Z. These rollers are mounted in adjustable bear-
ings E (only shown on section W) on the framework of the machine.
The sheets around the rollers W and X are supplied with combs F,
exactly like those used on the ordinary flat frame, but the sheets around
Y and Z are supplied with both cards G and combs F. Each pair of
rollers carrying the sheets of combs are adjustably arranged to different
heights, so that the sheets can be inclined at an angle to the silk S
passing under them, the second endless sheet B being closer to the silk
than the first sheet A, and the third C closer than the second, and so on.
The silk from the filling engine is placed in small boxes H, which
are fitted up with sliders and boards K like the inframes of the flat
dressing frame in short, the box is a small inframe. Underneath
the box is fixed a rack which gears into the worms L on the shaft M.
At each end of the frame is a turn-table N", and between each frame a
similar turn-table.
Opposite the turn-tables and between the frames is an automatic
screwiug-up machine to enable the attendant to screw up the boards
of filled silk in the boxes. It requires six or seven boxes to fill the
dressing frame (as shown by dotted lines). The action of the machine
is as follows : The boards of silk are inserted between the sliders in
the ordinary way whilst the box is on the turn-table between the
frames. The sliders and boards are nipped tightly together by the
screwing-up motions, and then the box is moved on to the turn-table
N (at the left), whence it is moved forwards so that the toothed rack
comes in contact with the worm L. The revolution of the worm
draws the box forward, so that it passes slowly underneath the combs
and cards on the endless sheet, and the series of worms propel the
box forward from end to end of the frame. A second box is placed
close behind the first, and a third behind the second, and so on until
the frame is full.
As the silk fibres come in contact with the combs at the point V
they are laid hold of by the combs and drawn through them, thereby
combing the fibres thoroughly in travelling the length of the endless
belt. As the combs are farther away from the silk at point V than
at point U, the silk is very gradually and gently combed and dressed.
Each projecting tuft of silk, in passing clear of combs at U, is naturally
drawn over by such combs as they travel around the bend of the roller
W, and therefore, when the tufts reach the endless sheet B which is
travelling in the opposite direction to the sheet A the combs on the
sheet B lay hold of the opposite sides of the tufts, which are thus
combed and dressed a second time, but on the reverse side. After
passing under the second sheet B the tufts are turned over by the
wiper brush T, and then the cards and combs on the third sheet C
operate on the silk to remove the nibs and noils. The roller Y
operates in the same manner as the roller W, so that the reverse side
of the silk is carded and combed in section D.
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 99
By thus travelling the silk horizontally under and in contact with
the combs and cards a complete dressing is given to the fibres in
passing once through the machine. The boards of silk are turned in
the usual way on the turn-table between the frames at the right-hand
end, and the box is then pushed into the frame alongside the first
frame, which repeats the process as described, so that when the box
reaches the turn-table at the end of the second frame, both ends of the
tufts of silk are dressed. The dressed silk is removed by the attend-
ant, the box is refilled with undressed silk, and is then sent forward
123
fcsl
fcsi
FIG. 65. Continuous dressing frame (plan of set of frames).
to complete another circuit of the machines. Whilst the first box
has been travelling, fourteen or fifteen other boxes have been filled
and propelled forward one behind the other, so that there is always a
constant supply of dressed silk being delivered by the frames. The
fibre removed by the working combs is pressed down to the roots by
brushes and stripped in the usual way, making first to seventh drafts in
the mode of the fiat dressing frame.
The most economical method of working continuous frames is
shown in Fig. 65. This gives the plan of six machines arranged in
IOO
SILK WASTE SPINNING
pairs A, B, C. At each end of each frame is a turn-table T, and
between each pair at each end another turn-table S. Opposite each
of the latter turn-tables is fixed the automatic screwing-up machine D
(shown also in Figs. 66 and 67). At the end of each frame or row of
frames, and between each pair, is fixed the tabling E, which forms a
place for the storage of dressing boards, empty and full, and for
" turning " the silk. The pair of frames A receive the strips from the
filling, and dress first drafts. The strips from frames A are filled
FIG. 66. Screwing-up machine.
into the boxes of the frames B, which dress out second and third
drafts. The strip from the third draft is delivered to the frames C,
which dress fourth, fifth, and sixth drafts.
Each pair requires two attendants to strip the combs and one
attendant at each end. One, called the putter-in, is stationed at F,
and places the boards of silk into the box or inframe, which he then
puts in contact with the worm, which carries it forward under the
combs. He then transfers his attention to the delivering end G of
the opposite frame, which delivers a box full of completely dressed
silk. This he empties out and refills with silk for dressing. The
other attendant at H receives the dressed silk from the finishing end
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 101
I, turns the silk in the board, and pushes the box under the frame at
K, whence it travels again to the putter-in. The time occupied by a
box in travelling the circuit of the pair of frames is about one hour and
ten minutes, so that the action of the combs on the silk is very gentle.
A box of dressed silk is delivered at the finishing end of each
pair every four or five minutes, and therefore the production of the
machines is very great. The quality mentioned previously in flat
dressing would yield about 800 Ib. of dressed silk from the three
pairs of frames per week of fifty working hours. With a good quality
of gum silk the production of finished silk would be 900 Ib. per fifty
hours. Tussah silk can be worked to show a production of 1200 Ib.
per fifty hours. Schappe silk of fair quality will yield the last-named
weight, and the quality of dressing both in length of staple and
yield of drafts from the weight filled to the machine is better than
that produced by either the circular or the flat frame. Foreign rate
FIG. 67. Screwing-up machine.
of wages and hours of work make the continuous-frame system the
cheapest method of dressing yet known.
Other systems of continuous frames have been attempted, but the
one described is the only one which gives a better yield of drafts
than flat-frame dressing. The "faller" principle of propelling the
silk under combs and cards is not good, for two main reasons : First,
the automatic locking arrangements fail to hold the silk tight in the
boards ; and, second, the difference in the wear and tear of each
respective faller or bookboard causes them to be unequal in height,
and therefore the working combs and cards dress the silk unequally.
Some is left nibby and noily, and some is cut short, the latter because
the board of silk is too high, and the former because it is too low, in
relation to the working combs and cards. An absolute essential for
a successful dressing frame is tight hold of the silk in the boards ;
and a more important one still is extreme levelness of the series of
IO2
SILK WASTE SPINNING
boards, for each board must be kept level with the sliders. In flat-
frame dressing the inframe is planed and levelled from end to end,
and as each inframe works under its own combs, the keeping of the
boards right is not a very difficult matter. For a continuous frame,
the boards in each box must be level, and every box must be exactly
FIG. 68. Planing machine for bookboards
the same height, so that each box gets exactly the same combing and
carding.
Planing. This is attained by use of the planing machine shown
in Figs. 68 and 69. The boxes are fastened down on the frame A
(shown by dotted lines), which frame, by means of the worms ^Wr'on
FIG. 69. Planing machine for bookboards.
the shaft S, is propelled to the rear end of the machine and passes
under the disc D. This disc revolves at a great speed, and with its
cutters planes the woodwork in the boxes absolutely level. The disc
can be raised or lowered to accommodate any depth of frame, but,
when once " set," all the fourteen boxes to fill a dressing frame are
,;
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 103
run through ; thus each box is level one with the other, and perfectly
dressed silk can be obtained in each box.
SCREWING-UP MACHINE. The working of the automatic sere wing-
up machine is as follows : Fig. 66 is the plan, and Fig. 67 the side
elevation. A is the frame-work of the machine, while B are spindle
shafts corresponding in number and distance apart to the compressing
screws S in the inframes C (the inframe is shown in part). Keyed
on the spindle shaft is a toothed wheel D engaging with the worms
E secured on the main driving shaft F. Each spindle B is provided
with a clutch G, kept in gear by springs H, the pressure of which can
be regulated by the nuts Q, so that when the pressure reaches a
desired maximum the clutch G will disengage itself or slip.
The main driving shaft F is driven in either direction by driving
pulleys U and V, which are controlled by the reversing clutch J,
which is worked by the lever K from the foot lever L.
The inframe is placed on the turn-table T, which is mounted on
runners M to enable the compressing screws S to effect an engagement
with the pins N on the part of the clutch W. When in position the
attendant presses one foot on the lever L at the point O, which causes
the clutch J to engage with the pulley V which traverses the shaft S,
thus rotating the clutch G and screws S, and compressing the book-
boards P. When the pressure is sufficiently great to overpower the
spring H, the clutch G will slip, and the free part X of the clutch G
will cease to rotate. Depression on the side R of the foot lever
operates the pulley U, which turns the clutches and screws the
opposite way, thus releasing the bookboards from the pressure, to
enable the attendant to take them out to remove or turn the silk.
It will be noticed that the production of all kinds of dressing
frames depends upon the number of boards which can be put through
them, and as silk in the commoner qualities is always inclined to
work thick and fluffy in the short drafts, the number of boards of
silk has to be greater in the "short frame" than the "long frame,"
consequently the production of the "short frame" really rules the
production of the set of frames. This is well illustrated by the
following figures.
In flat-frame dressing, 3 oz. of filled silk being placed in each
board of the first frame, a first frame attendant will handle 2376
boards per fifty hours, a second frame attendant about 4300 boards
per fifty hours, and a third frame attendant 4600 boards per fifty
hours, the latter equalling about 92 boards per hour.
The continental circular frame user, however, only fills about 1 oz.
per board, and therefore to obtain a large production of dressed silk
a larger number of boards or sticks of silk must be turned per hour.
For a first frame the number would be 125 per hour, a second frame
150 per hour, whilst a shorter draft frame would need from 200 to
250 turning per hour.
104 SILK WASTE SPINNING
The continuous flat frame, working the same silk as the flat
dressing frame, gives at least the same number of boards per hour as
the circular dresser, and it can be easily proved that the saving to an
English silk spinner using the continuous machine is 50 per cent, in
cost per pound of dressed silk. The continental dresser cannot fill a
large weight per board or stick to his machine, because the severe
action of the combs on a thick film of silk would damage the fibre,
cutting it short and spoiling the yield. A great compensation for
the thin filling 1 oz. per board comes by reason of the large per-
centage of first drafts which this thin filling gives. In all dressing,
a thin film will yield better and dress easier than a thick one, and a
schappe silk will dress better thin than a fully discharged silk,
because the latter has to be run hard into the combs to clear the nibs
off the fibre. A discharged silk, therefore, needs a certain amount of
" body " to cause it to spring to the combs and cards, which are
FIG. 70. Diagram of dressing frames action.
always pressing down the silk on to the sliders. If the silk lies too
flat it will not clear unless the combs are run through the silk and
into the wood beneath, which of course damages the points of the
combs and cards, rendering them useless, and also spoiling the wood-
work sliders and bookboards of the frame.
The diagrams in Fig. 70 show the principles of dressing in each
class of frame.
In flat-frame dressing, as shown at A, the films of silk are raised
up (see arrow) into contact with the combs, which therefore comb
through the silk, beginning at the point of the fibre and dressing
half-way through the film, after which the frame must be let down,
turned half round, and the under side of the silk film turned .upwards
for combing. The same operations must be repeated for carding out
the nibs. During the raising up and down and turning and filling of
the boards of silk, the combs and cards are not working, and during
that period the machine may be classed as a non-producer.
THE OPENING AND DRESSING OF WASTES 105
In the continuous flat- frame dressing, shown at B, the films of
silk travel forward into closer contact with the combs, and under
each section the silk is reversed automatically, every operation of the
flat frame being repeated ; but the continuous frame is always deliver-
ing dressed silk.
In the circular frame, of which the working portion is shown in part
sectionally at C, the tufts of silk pass the comb very quickly, the points
of contact varying with the length of fibre, 'as shown at E and F, and
all the combing is done between points of contact and the nip H of
the large drum and comb drum. As there are only two working
combs, each working in opposite directions, the film of silk is only
combed on each side once instead of twice by the other methods of
dressing, and therefore the circular frame has to be more severe in
its action on the silk fibre than in flat dressing, to ensure the silk
being properly dressed. The circular frame is also always delivering
dressed silk.
Combing machines on the Heilmann and Noble principles have
often been tried for silk dressing, but they are useless for long-fibred
silk. They have no mechanism giving sufficient grip of the end of
silk not being combed to enable the portion projecting for combing
to withstand the severe dragging action of a worker comb.
The dresser keeps each draft separate, packing them usually in
tins preparatory to the next operation. The first four drafts are the
most in quantity, and also the most valuable, these being used by the
"long spinner." The fifth, sixth, and seventh drafts are called shorts,
and are used by the "short spinner." The noils are either combed
in order to obtain another length of silk out of them, or they are
worked into yarn on the same system as wool. If combed, the
resulting sliver from the noils is used in short spinning, and the noil
itself called exhaust noil is also put through the woollen spinning
system. After the drafts leave the dresser they must be examined to
see if they are properly dressed, and also to remove any threads of
cotton, hard-twisted ends of silk, pieces of hemp, and other deleterious
matters not removed by the picking process previously described.
CHAPTEK VIII
SILK WASTE DRAWING OR PREPARING MACHINERY
LONG SPINNING. The largest percentage of weight of dressed silk being
in the first four drafts, " long spinning " is the most important branch
of the spun silk industry. It derives its name from the fact that it
deals with the longest fibres produced from silk waste, and also in
contradistinction to "short spinning." Originally all silk waste was
short spun i.e. combed or dressed in the gum state the drafts being
then taken to a cutting machine (built like a hay chopper) and cut
with knives into lengths of 1 to 2 in., thus making the fibres an equal
length as far as possible. The material was then boiled and afterwards
beaten, scutched, carded, drawn, spun, etc., in the same manner as
cotton. The cutting of the fibres and the action of the cards spoilt the
lustre of the silk, and in process of time spinners found that the most
efficient mode of dealing with the fibre and enhancing its value, by
reason of its increased lustre and strength, was to boil the silk before
dressing, and put the resulting long drafts through spreading and gill-
drawing machinery very similar to a worsted plant. Like all new
systems, it took time to become general, and meanwhile the old style
became known as short spinning really "cut-silk spinning" and
the new as " long spinning." Nowadays the cutting of silk is almost
done away with, and most spinners, having only the long spun
machinery, sell their shorts i.e. fifth, sixth, and seventh drafts
which are bought by the few remaining short spinners, and scutched,
carded, drawn, and spun as described later.
The lengths of fibres in the various drafts vary very much. For
instance, a first draft of good gum waste like China will have fibres
from 2 J to 7 or 8 in. in length, whilst the seventh draft would show
fibres 1 to 3 or 4 in. long.
What may be called a common quality (say steam waste) will
show fibres as follows :
First drafts from 2 to 6 in.
Second ,, 2 ,, 4 ,,
Third H 4
Fourth ,, 14 ,, 3 ,,
Shorts from ^ ,,3 ,,
103
LONG SPINNING PREPARING MACHINERY 107
These different lengths of fibre cause much trouble in the drawing
departments of a silk mill, and until recent years each draft was spun
into a separate yarn. Thus one quality of waste was spun into what
were known as first-draft yarns, second-draft yarns, third-draft yarns,
and so on, the longest draft being sold for the most money, on account
of its superior strength and lustre. As competition increased, spinners
found they could draw first and second draft yarns together for many
purposes without materially damaging either strength or lustre, and
from that they progressed until nearly every spinner makes a yarn for
some purpose or other which contains all four drafts drawn together.
They can be made into a good strong level yarn, quite good enough for
any ordinary weaving purpose, so long as care is taken in the drawing
not to allow the shortest fibres to run through in lumps. As strength
is needed, care must be exercised not to break too much the long
fibres. Now, as even first drafts contain such great differences in
length of fibre, it can easily be understood that machines which will
satisfactorily cope with first drafts can only be wrong in some minor
details for all four drafts, and these details are chiefly in diameters of
rollers and length of "reach" that is, distance between back and
front rollers. The principle of drawing is to reduce a thick portion of
silk down to an end so small that it can be spun into a thread without
an excessive draft, and at the same time to level it so that the thread
is all one thickness. This is done by a pair of rollers revolving
slowly, taking the silk in, and feeding a pair of front rollers revolving
quickly, thus drawing the silk out. To put it another way : If 200
fibres are lying side by side, each 6 in. long, drawing makes the
fibres into a thread, say 60 in. long, with 20 fibres deep. This
operation is repeated a sufficient number of times with a number of
ends behind the back rollers to make a sufficient number of doublings,
until the silk is brought down in thickness to a thread or roving
sufficiently fine to be spun, and at the same time so level that it is as
near as possible all one thickness from end to end. As there are
many different kinds of drawing frames, we shall describe only those
which have been found most suitable for a general trade, taking long
spinning drawing machinery first, and then short spinning drawing
machinery, each up to the point of spinning, whence all kinds of yarns
undergo much the same treatment.
Picking drafts. If the silk to be spun is free from extraneous
matters, such as small portions of cotton, China grass, straw, and
hairs, it would be passed to the "weigher"; but many silks are
not free, and therefore the first process is really " picking " or
examining the silk for bad dressing and foreign fibres. For this
purpose, in a dark room is erected a picking stand round which eight
persons can sit. Fig. 71 shows a plan of this stand, and Fig. 72 a
sectional elevation. The arrangement is as follows : A is the frame-
work of the stand ; B glass squares let into the framework, the top of
io8
SILK WASTE SPINNING
the frame and glass being exactly level and smooth ; C (shown only in
Fig. 73) are rods of smooth hard wood hinged at one end D, and held
down at the other end by the spring catch E. Under the frame is
either a gas light or an electric light F surrounded by reflectors to
throw up a strong light through the glass squares. Opposite each
FIG. 71. Silk picking table.
FIG. 72. Silk picking
table (side section).
square is seated a girl having a tin of dressed silk by her side, who
places a portion of it under the wood rod shown in position in Fig. 73,
which illustrates also the square of glass B. Any pieces of straw,
cotton, hair, or other coarse thick fibres show dark (like the dark lines
in the illustration) against the light, and are easily seen by the girl
FIG. 73. Drafts.
picker and taken from the silk. Any portion of very short silk is
shown up also, and is taken out, as are nibs and badly dressed silk.
After picking, the silk is replaced in a tin and conveyed to the
"weigher."
Weiyhiny. This is usually done by girls, who sit at a table on
which are placed, at regular intervals, small beam scales. They weigh
LONG SPINNING PREPARING MACHINERY 109
the dressed silk (keeping each draft separate) into 3 oz. parcels,
each 3 oz. being most carefully weighed and wrapped in soft paper,
tied up with string or fastened with an indiarubber band, and thence
handed, a certain number at a time, to the silk spreader.
Long spinning drawing machinery. Silk spreading is the first of
a series of silk "gill or faller" drawing machines. A gill drawing
machine consists usually of a pair of back rollers revolving slowly,
and a pair of front rollers revolving quickly, while between is a set of
gills or fallers carrying the silk from the back rollers to the front.
The principle of all the machines is the same. The back rollers
receive the silk, deliver it to the fallers, which rise one by one, pierce
the silk, and travel forward to the front roller. The fallers then drop,
and are carried back to the rising end, and again raised into the silk.
The fallers are bars of steel, Fig. 74, into which are fixed fine steel
pins. They are travelled forwards by means of two screws, between
the threads of which they are run. When the fallers come to the end
of the screws they drop down (being helped in their drop by cams at
the end of each screw) into the thread of another pair of screws
revolving the reverse way, and so carrying the fallers back underneath
their previous traverse. When arrived at the end they are lifted up
by means of cams into the top pair of screws, and so recommence their
journey. The front rollers draw the silk quickly through the fallers,
thus making it into a much thinner ribbon or film of silk than when
it was delivered by the back rollers to the fallers. This drawing
through the pins lustres the silk and straightens or lays the fibres
parallel to each other. If the fallers travel more slowly than the
circumference of the bottom back roller revolves, the silk will lie on
the top of the pins, and thus will not be drawn through them when
they reach the front roller. If the fallers travel faster than the back
roller, they have a tendency to drag the silk and break it. Therefore
a choice must be made of two evils, and practice has shown that the
latter method is the best. The back rollers are movable so as to
allow them to be drawn away from the fallers for long-fibred silk, or
set closer for short-fibred silk. The pins of the fallers are coarsely set
in the first machine, and the difference of speed between back roller
and faller must only be very slight. Long silk needs freedom between
roller and faller to ensure as little breakage as possible. Short silk
offers no resistance to the pins as they rise, and therefore the fibres lie
on the point of the pin. Satisfactory results can only be attained by
the pins piercing through the silk. The easiest test is to feel at the
silk between the back roller and the fallers, and if it is stretched very
tight to put back the rollers ; if it is slack and riding on the fallers, the
rollers should be brought forward. Those in charge should never be
satisfied until the silk is well in the pins, and they should in no case
resort to artificial means of forcing the silk down. Some drawing
overlookers fix a brush over the back portion of the drawing box, thus
no
SILK WASTE SPINNING
forcing the silk into the pins, but at the same time breaking the
fibres.
Fig. 75 shows side elevation of the gill spreader. A is a travelling
leather endless belt, on which the draft of silk is spread in the manner
shown in Fig. 76. The silk is travelled into touch with the porcupine
roller B, and held firmly down on the teeth of this roller by the small
rollers X, Y, Z. It is conducted from the porcupine into the fallers F,
FIG. 74. Faller.
FIG. 75. Gill spreader.
which, rising from D, strike into the silk, and carry it forward to the
receiving and drafting rollers M, N. As these travel eight or ten or
more times faster than the fallers, they draft or draw the silk through
the pins, thus making the silk into a film eight or ten or more times
thinner than when it entered. The endless leather sheet H conveys
the silk to the large wooden drum J, which carries it round on its face
until the 3 oz. parcel has all been spread on the sheet A, travelled
, FIG. 76. Silk spreading.
through the fallers on to the drum, and so made a thin film of silk
about 8 or 10 in. broad and the length of the circumference of the
drum. When complete, the silk, now called a "lap," is cut across the
drum in the direction of the axle, and wound up as it leaves into a
small ball in readiness for next operation. A good spreader will
spread the silk thinly and evenly on the sheet A, the fibres lying
straight and overlapping as shown in plan by the dark lines in
ft
LONG SPINNING PREPARING MACHINERY in
Fig. 76. If she is allowed to put the fibres sideways, they enter the
pins of the falters in that way, and when that portion of the silk
reaches the drawing rollers M, N, they either pull the fibres over the
tops of the pins or break them asunder. If the former happens, the
lap contains a lump of thick silk which needs more drawing in the
following drawing machinery, which most probably never gets
thoroughly drawn, and thus makes a foul yarn. If the fibre is
broken, then short sjlk is being formed, which weakens the thread and
deadens the lustre of the yarn. A careless spreading machine
FIG. 77. Gill spreader.
attendant can easily spoil the work of the dressing frames and render
it impossible to make a level and perfect thread.
Re-lapping. For the purpose of still further straightening the
fibres of silk, the lap is often put through the spreader, thus re-
spreading or re-lapping it ; but this process is only really necessary
for the shorter drafts. Fig. 77 is a photograph of this spreading
frame.
Sett frame. The silk, after going once or twice through the
spreader, is next made into a sliver by being passed through the sett
frame, which consists of a feeding endless leather belt, back rollers,
and falters similar to those previously described ; and front drawing
rollers, which deliver the silk into a pair of pressing rollers, from
112
SILK WASTE SPINNING
which it emerges in the form of a ribbon or sliver, and drops into a
long can placed beneath the delivery rollers. Fig. 78 is a photograph
of the sett frame. Very often these machines are fitted with a bell
or stop motion to warn the attendant when a predetermined number
of yards has been delivered into the can, and if the weighing and
spreading have been properly performed the respective lengths should
r
FIG. 78. Sett frame.
be nearly the same weight. Sometimes the sett frame is fixed on the
same gantry as the drawing heads, as shown by Fig. 79, which shows
the back of the sett frame and the -back of the first head of drawing.
Drawing frames. These are for the purpose of levelling the
slivers, and are similar in construction to the sett frame except for
the difference in feed, the one being made to receive the thick lap,
j
LONG SPINNING PREPARING MACHINERY 113
and the other to receive slivers varying in number from 6 to 20, accord-
ing to the number of doublings the silk requires to make it level.
Usually four drawing heads are employed, called respectively first
head, second head, third head, and finisher. An average number of
cans of sliver from the sett' frame to the first head of drawing will be
10 or 12, and these being put up behind the first drawing box, are
drawn out into one thin sliver, which is about the same weight per
yard as the one from the sett frame ; but it is well to keep rather on
the light side. Thus, if 12 ends are up, the draft of the box would
be about 14, so that every foot of sliver at the back is drawn to about
FIG. 79. Drawing heads.
14 feet at the front, and the sliver at the front is practically one-
fourteenth the thickness of the combined slivers behind. From the
front of the first box 12 cans are taken and put up behind the second
head of drawing, the same number from the second to the third, again
from the third to the fourth, or finisher box. The doublings of the
ends or slivers which the silk has obtained in these four heads are
then
1st head, 2nd head, 3rd head, 4th head _ OA 70^ .
Ends ~~12 x 12 x 12 x^W~
and these, with the straightening in the spreading, re- lapping, and
sett frame, combine to make a level sliver at the finisher head of
8
SILK WASTE SPINNING
drawing. If the work has been well done, the fibres of silk will be
parallel, and the sliver will show no lumps or thick places in any
portion of its length, so the weight per yard of its length will be
accurate.
In all drawing machinery, care must be taken to especially watch
the following points : The distance of the back rollers from the
fallers should be carefully regulated in accordance with the average
lengths of fibre, every box requiring separate setting. The saddles
or bars of iron on which the fallers travel to and fro need keeping
level and a proper length. If too short, the fallers are apt to lock
and get either strained or broken. They should be case-hardened to
prevent wear. The conductors which are at the end of the saddles
are pressed against the ends by springs. As the fallers rise into and
drop out of the silk, they press the conductors away from the saddles,
and thus glide smoothly up and down between the saddle end and
E
n
(J O
tttittttitttt
Mil
FIG. 80. Section of drawing head.
the conductor ; and therefore the care of the overlooker is necessary
to see that the conductors are tight enough to keep the fallers firm,
but not too tight to make them difficult to move up and down. The
fallers should always be kept in good repair. It is astonishing how
quickly pins get split, broken, and bent. Unless replaced by new
ones, the silk is apt to ride on the top of the points, and not be drawn
through the pins ; or if the pin is rough when the front roller tries to
draw the fibre through, the roughness holds the silk and breaks it,
making short silk.
The production of a set of drawing frames varies very much say,
from 150 to 300 Ib. per week. Some spinners prefer to work with a
light sliver, and others with a heavy one, thus decreasing or increasing
production. The heavier production is most suitable for common
warp yarns, and the lighter for yarns to be used for weft.
Fig. 80 shows the side elevation of a sett frame, and Fig. 81 the
setting out of a set of drawing frames with a sett frame. A is the can
LONG SPINNING PREPARING MACHINERY 115
of laps from spreader. B is the silk lap put on the feeding sheet C
and passed through the pressing rollers D, the retaining rollers E, the
fallers F, the drafting rollers G, the carrier rollers H, delivery rollers
J, into the receiving can K. The four heads of drawing are arranged
with the first head, receiving cans from the sett frame at L, the
second head receiving cans from the first head at M, the third head
taking from N, and the fourth head from O, the silk travelling in the
D E F G H J
O
FIG. 81. Plan of set of drawing heads.
direction of the arrows. In putting up the ends of silk behind the
drawing frames, it is necessary to see that they are not crossed under
each other, as shown at P and Q, for each end should go as straight
as possible into the receiving rollers R, S, and T.
Gill rovinc/ frame. The sliver from the finisher head is taken
behind a screw gill roving frame (Fig. 82). This is a drawing frame,
but instead of delivering its production into a can, the end is wound
n6
SILK WASTE SPINNING
on to a bobbin, thus making the first real twisted thread. Fig. 83
shows side elevation of this machine, where A is the can of silk from
the finisher head of the drawing, B is the feed plate, C the guides for
conducting the end of silk S under the roller D, from whence it
LONG SPINNING PREPARING MACHINERY 117
travels over and under the rollers E and F to the fallers G, which,
rising and piercing it, carry it forward to the drafting rollers H,
which deliver it to the flyer and spindle J, to be wound on to the
bobbin K in the form of a soft thick thread.
The thread produced by the gill roving frame is called the slub-
bing, and varies in thickness and weight according to the counts of
yarn the roving is being prepared to make. A common size is from
1 to 1 J hank i.e. 1 hank equals 840 yds., weighing 1 lb., and 1 J hank
equals 1260 yds. to the pound. The finer the yarn is to be spun,
the finer the slabbing should be. The twist i.e. turns per inch
put into the slubbing is very small, only sufficient to hold it together.
No rule relating to this twist can be given, because what would be
hard for one class of silk would be too soft for another, so each over-
looker has to work according to his own ideas, and to the nature of
the silk under his care. If the twist gets too hard, the next machine
FIG. 83. Gill roving frame (side elevation).
will be unable to draw properly, and nowadays there is no need to
make any mistake on the hard side, because the machines are all
made on the cone-drawing principle, enabling the thread to be wound
on the bobbin in the softest possible state. The finer the slubbing,
the more twist is required. Sometimes, for the purpose of averaging
and levelling the slivers more than has been possible in the drawing
frames, two ends are put up behind each gill rover spindle and drawn into
one. The frames are made twenty-four or more spindles in length, and
their fallers are made longer than the fallers in the drawing machinery.
If made too long, however, they spring in the middle, and experience
has shown that they work well if made long enough to supply three
rollers, equalling six spindles. In such a case, the frame is always
built in sections, each having its own screws and fallers, and each
section put in motion simultaneously by means of a shaft and bevel
gearing at the back of the frame. This machine can be so arranged
n8
SILK WASTE SPINNING
that if any of the fallers get locked, the frame will automatically
stop, thus preventing any serious breakdown. The gill rover fallers
are only set with pins opposite each drafting roller, as shown in
Fig. 84.
Dandy roving frame. Hitherto all the drawing has been done by
nr
FIG. 84. Gill rover fallers.
means of rollers and fallers, but the dandy roving frame has no screws
or fallers, the drafting being done by rollers only, and the draft being
direct from the front rollers to the back rollers. The frames are
made with forty or more spindles, and are arranged as shown in
Fig. 85, which is a side elevation, and Fig. 86, which illustrates an
FIG. 85. Dandy rover (side elevation).
80 spindle cone roving frame. Two or three bobbins the number
again depending on the thickness of the roving and the count it is
desired to spin from the slubbing frame are put up behind each
spindle in creels A. Each end is guided separately into the back
rollers B, and thence to the front rollers M, N. The three rows of
LONG SPINNING PREPARING MACHINERY 119
small rollers C are called carrier rollers, and are revolved at a pro-
portionate speed to the back rollers B, thus acting as carriers or
supports of the roving from the back to the front rollers. The back
rollers revolve slowly, and the front rollers quickly, thus drawing out
the rovings into a thinner size or count. The bottom front roller N
FIG. 86. 80 spindle cone rover.
is the one which affects the draft, the top one being only a wooden
boss covered with leather or rubber, and running on the bottom roller
by friction, every pair on their own axis and pressed down by screws
E. When the attenuated end is delivered in front of the rollers, it is
twisted round the ring of the flyer F, passed through the twizzle G, and
thence to the bobbin H on the spindle J. These machines are almost
120 SILK WASTE SPINNING
all made with cone driving, so that the roving can be wound on the
bobbin with a soft twist without fear of stretching the roving between
the nip of rollers aad the flyer. The rovings are known as 4-hank,
8-hank, 10-hank, etc., a 4-hank being 4 hanks of 840 yds. each to
the pound, and a 10-hank equalling 10 hanks of 840 yds. each to the
pound, and so on.
Having now described the principles of all the preparing machines
previous to passing on to the spinning frame for long fibres i.e. first
and second drafts it is necessary to go through the preparatory
machinery to show the changes necessary for shorter drafts or fibres
of silk.
DRAWING SHORT SILKS INTERSECTING SPREADING. In draw-
ing machinery such as spreaders, sett frames, and drawing boxes,
what are known as intersectors, or intersecting Wallers, are used
FIG. 87. Intersector.
for the third and fourth drafts. In order, also, to be able to place
the drawing rollers as near to the fallers as possible, so that the nip
of the rollers may have hold of the shorter fibres before they emerge
entirely from the fallers, the rollers are smaller in diameter for short
silk than for long, and the same remark applies to the back roller or
porcupine. Fig. 87 shows the principle of the intersecting fallers,
where A is the feed plate, B the feed rollers, C the porcupine, with
three small iron rollers D to keep the silk firm on the pins of the
porcupine ; E are the fallers which rise into the silk, F are the fallers
which drop into the silk, while G are the drafting rollers which feed
the rollers H and J described in Fig. 80.
These machines are designed to ensure the silk being properly
drawn, for as the fibre is short the silk is inclined to be loose and
fluffy, and it is difficult to make the faller pins rise and pierce through
it. If the slivers ride on the top of the pins to the front rollers, the
r '
LONG SPINNING PREPARING MACHINERY 121
rollers simply pull the silk off the top of the pin the same thickness
as fed to the back of the fallers, thus making a bad place; or, in
some cases a large portion of the silk is in the pins and a small
portion on the top, and therefore some is drawn and some not drawn,
with the result that if the finished sliver is held up to the light it
looks thick and thin, as shown at B in Fig. 88, the sliver at A one
properly drawn being given for comparison. By using the two sets
of fallers, one with pins pointing down and dropping into the silk,
and the other rising into it, it is almost impossible for any silk to
miss being drafted. These frames require even greater attention than
the ordinary gill drawing frames, because they contain the complicated
mechanism necessary to give motion to the upper fallers, which must
work extremely accurately to prevent locking and breaking. The silk
also must be put in thinner and worked more slowly in these machines.
The machinery for short drafts would be set out as follows : Inter-
secting spreader, intersecting re-lapper, sett frame, and 3 or 4 heads of
drawing with 8 or 10 ends of sliver up behind each head. From
FIG. 88. Slivers.
there the sliver would go to a gill rover, and thence to the dandy
frame.
The speed of the fallers for long silk is about 300 drops per
minute, for short silk about 150 to 200 drops per minute.
The draft of long silk is from 15 and upwards in spreading, from
6 and upwards in the other drawing, machinery ; while for short silk
it is, in spreading, from 10 and upwards, and in drawing frames from
6 and upwards.
The best yarns are produced by having the drafts nearly equal in
each machine. The draft should, of course, be less for short silk than
for long, but the twist in slubbing and drawing must be more for short
silk than long-fibred silk.
Care should be taken with all silks, and under all systems of
drawing, that the drafting is not done twice the same way. Care-
lessness in this has caused much trouble to spinning overlookers and
managers, and spoilt much yarn. Drafting twice the same way means
that a sliver has been put twice in succession through a drawing
122
SILK WASTE SPINNING
operation with the same end first, and this causes the end to be thick
and thin, and to work badly in the succeeding operation. The reason
for this trouble would appear to be best illustrated as follows : The
three lines in Fig. 89 represent three slivers, say of 10 yds. in length,
which are drawn out end A first, with 12 of a draft, into 120 yards
of sliver. If this is put up again end A first, and again with 12 of a
draft, 1440 yards of sliver, or 144 times the length of the original
p '*-
FIG. 89. Drafting.
10 yds., will be obtained. This is obviously too much of a pull in
one direction, and it would be practically impossible to get the silk to
run. But if in the second box or drawing the end B is put up first,
then the fibres which were drafted one way (arrow C) in the first box,
are pulled or drafted the other way (arrow D) in the second box,
having thus moved relatively to each other first forwards and then
backwards, 12 of a draft each way instead of 144 one way.
It is the moving back of the fibres in each drawing operation that
FIG. 90. Eotary drawing frame (section).
helps to keep the slivers and rovings free from thick and thin places,
and these remarks apply to all drafting operations, from sett frame to
dandy roving frame inclusive. Therefore overlookers should insist
that all drawing frame, gill roving frame, and dandy frame attendants
do not, while following their respective occupations, upset cans of
sliver or rewind part bobbins of rovings without, in the case of slivers,
seeing that the right end is found, and, in case of rovings, that they
are wound twice before being passed on to the next machine.
WASTE DRAWING OR PREPARING MACHINERY 123
Rotary drawing. For very short drafts i.e. fourth to sixth the
rotary-drawing principle is good. The drafts are spread very thinly
on intersector spreading boxes, respread twice, made into a sliver on
an intersector sett frame, and then drawn by means of a rotary draw-
ing frame like that illustrated in Fig. 90 in sectional side elevation,
and in Fig. 91. This latter is a photograph of two heads of drawing,
each with two deliveries. Six or more cans A of sliver B from the
sett frame are placed. behind the first drawing head and conveyed into
the back retaining rollers C, thence under the porcupine D, and over
FIG. 91. Rotary drawing frame.
the porcupines E and F, being held on the pins of the two latter by
means of a small metal roller G. The front drawing rollers F draw
the silk through the pins of the porcupines, delivering it on to the
leather drawing sheet J, which in its turn conveys it to the pressing
rollers K and delivery rollers M, when it drops into the can N. It is
well to have the funnel L made to revolve, in this way putting a false
twist into the sliver. This false twist helps to solidify the sliver,
preventing it from "flying " so much, thus obviating waste. It is neces-
sary to use from two to four heads of drawing, the number depending
entirely on the character of the spreading and respreading. Usually
I2 4
SILK WASTE SPINNING
four heads are needed to make a level sliver. The drafting of the
silk is between the front and back rollers, and the porcupines serve as
carriers for supporting the silk, and also act as endless fallers. The
pins pierce the sliver and hold it steady whilst the front rollers draw
it. The top of front porcupine F must be kept higher than the nip
of the front rollers, thus bringing the nip of the rollers and the point
where the silk leaves the pins near together to prevent short silk
missing drawing.
Rotary roving frame. After drawing, the silk is taken from the
finisher head to the rotary roving frame, shown in Fig. 92 in sectional
FIG. 92. Rotary roving frame.
side elevation. Two or more ends are drawn together, travelling from
the cans A, over the feed-plate B, to the back rollers C, under and
over porcupines D, E, F to the front drawing rollers G, and then
wound by the flyer H on to the bobbin J. The twist is kept fairly
soft, so that the next machine the roving frame can draw easily.
A roving frame for short silk works on the same principle as the one
illustrated in Fig. 85, but only two sets of carrier rollers are needed,
and the rollers are all small in diameter.
Dimensions of drawing machinery. The following tables of
dimensions of the machinery described for drawing silk will be found
useful :
WASTE DRAWING OR PREPARING MACHINERY 125
CO
cf
&0 oJ
"*
X
,0
' 2
^ OO S ^2''d(M S ^ -
-rH ^ TO ^ : ^ r : : : : : : -2 :
.d
a
^5 r ^
r-M r 1 rH 1 ~~* r>Q CO
O5
53
jg
|
1*8
S cu
;4-5si-ji; =^ S .J4= =*I
d
S
-3
j ^ ^
g
g
11
j^o^^.2^ ; SSiC^'s^,^ i : -3"
d
F*
H IT*!
t^ i ( ^ rH *~~* | ^ C^l CO -Q
CO
W
i/J
V X
SID
r _ -
S C Tt<
1
11
s a ^ G , -j .3 .^ 'S ,g .g . . i ~ H
'1
p
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1-1 e8
i^
-d
CO
1 1
E|
H* ^H^co^ ' '^^^ ^Jg 1 '^
9b
g
X o
M
g
58
p
to
... 5 s . '
.2 .2 .2 d -2 ' s -2 ^ 2 o ^ -^ .2 OT d
S ^ 03 co 2
.SPS 5> 53 2
126
SILK WASTE SPINNING
92
I
gO.S.S.S
S*-*.S.S-S
^M <M --,
-.3*222 :
II
00 Q
g w j$,g.s : s 5 -^.S^.s : :^- s 3 -r
s
ll ---
C tca3 'gro'Oaj^'S'S
WASTE DRAWING OR PREPARING MACHINERY 127
Rotary dr diving frame. Three porcupines per head. Pins set
20 to 22 per inch. Back rollers: bottom, 1J in. diameter; pressing
or top, 2 in. diameter. Front rollers : bottom, 1 in. diameter, 10
flutes; top, 1J in. diameter, 15 flutes. Delivery rollers: bottom,
2 1 in. diameter ; top, 3^ in. diameter. The drafts are from 4 to 9,
and the space occupied is 1 2 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft. 6 in. for four heads.
Rotary roving frame. Three porcupines per spindle. Back
roller, 1^ in. diameter ; front roller, \% in. diameter, 32 flutes ; top
front roller, 2f in. diameter. The top front roller is covered with
indiarubber or leather. The length of reach from the back to the
front rollers is 7J in., the drafts are from 4 to 10, and the twist from
J to 2 per inch. There is a double-cone regulating motion, single
row of spindles, 4^ in. pitch, for 6 by 3 in. bobbins, and the space
occupied is 17 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft.
The screw gill roving frames are made with double-cone regulating
motion, a single row of spindles, four spindles per head, for 6 by 3 in.
bobbins. The front pressing roller is covered with indiarubber or
hard leather. The sliver guides on the back apron are f in. wide,
behind the gills are \ in. wide, and twists vary from J to 2 turns per
inch. The frames illustrated are arranged with special gearing
changes to run the fallers at a uniform speed whatever the draft or
twist may be.
The dimensions of a dandy roving frame are : For medium lengths
or drafts : back rollers, 1| in. diameter ; two lines carrier rollers, 1 in.
diameter ; and one line carrier rollers nearest the front rollers, f in.
diameter. The front roller is 2 in. diameter, 36 flutes per inch, and
the front pressing roller is 2J in. diameter, covered with indiarubber
or leather and weighted by springs or lever and weight. The length
of the reach is from 7 to 12 in. The creel is made to carry 4 roving
bobbins per spindle, the drafts are from 4 to 12, twists vary from 1
to 4 turns per inch, the space occupied is 25 by 3 ft., the lift is 6 in.,
and the bobbins are 6 by 3 in.
For long drafts the back rollers are 2 in. diameter, the carrier
rollers nearest the back rollers are 1^ and 1 in. respectively, the carrier
rollers nearest the front rollers are |- and ^ in. respectively, the front
rollers are 3 in., the front pressing rollers 4 in., and the spindles about
in. diameter.
CHAPTER IX
SHOKT SPINNING MACHINERY
SPREADING short fibres of silk on gill spreading machinery is not
the best mode of dealing with shorts when levelness of thread
irrespective of lustre is required. The fibres, being so irregular in
length, are difficult to draw level, and therefore shorts are often
carded and put over machinery similar to that used in spinning fine
cotton. The cards, however, dull the lustre of silk, and in time it is
quite probable that the processes called short spinning will be dis-
\ G
FIG. 93. Scutching.
continued in favour of gill machinery. Many^ books (have been
written on the mechanism of fine-cotton spinning machinery; it is
only necessary here to briefly glance at the processes.
Mixing. The shorts, of various qualities and shades of colour,
are made into a mixing and stacked in a cool cellar for some days
before use, in order to condition. They are then scutched by means
of the machine illustrated in Fig. 93.
Scutching. The silk is placed evenly on lattice feeder A, which
carries it to the rollers B. These deliver it to the action of the
beaters C, which, revolving quickly, beat the silk against the grid
bars D, thus cleaning the silk from dust and other impurities, the
dust, etc., falling through the grid on to the floor of the machine.
The silk is carried forward in a loose fluffy state to the cages E,
passing then to the calender rollers F (in the direction shown by
the arrows), and is made into a lap G.
Carding. When complete the lap is taken to the card (Figs.
94 and 95) and placed at A, where it is unwound by the revolution
128
SHORT SPINNING MACHINERY
129
of the roller B, assisted by the feed roller C, which delivers the
fleece of silk to the taker-in T. This taker-in being covered with
FIG. 94. Flat card (section).
coarse wire, pierces the silk, and carries it forward to the cylinder
D, which is the main carding cylinder. The teeth of the carding
cylinder sweep the silk off the taker-in and carry it forward to the
FIG. 95. Flat card.
carding flats F. The teeth on these flats are set to face those of
the main cylinder D, and travel forward in the same direction as the
surface of the cylinder, but at a slower speed. The silk is thus
9
130 SILK WASTE SPINNING
carried against the teeth of the flats, and sustains a thorough open-
ing and carding. After the action of the flats, the silk is slightly
raised out of the teeth of the main cylinder by the action of the
fancy card G, thus assisting the action of doffer cylinder H, which
takes off the fleece of silk from the cylinder D. The doffer works
at a much slower speed than the main cylinder, and by this further
straightens and stretches the fibres as they leave the pin points at
J, whence they are carried on the underside of the doffer to the
vibrating comb K, which describes a short arc of 1J in. vertical
movement. This comb strips the fibres from the face of the doffer
on its down-stroke and clears itself on its up-stroke. The thin fleece,
almost the width of the doffer, is gathered to a width of 6 or 7 in.
and placed into a funnel, through the narrow end of which it is
drawn by the calender rollers L, carried upwards in the form of a
ribbon or sliver to the coiler M, and coiled into the can O. The
flats are stripped of their impurities by a brush and comb at P, and
the wires are always kept sharp by the grinding roller at R.
FIG. 96. Drawing head (section).
Drawing. From the cards the slivers are taken to the drawing
frame (Figs. 96 and 97). Six -or eight of the slivers are drawn from
the cans A, and pass over the tumblers B of the back stop motion
to the back rollers C, through the carrier rollers D and E, to the
front drawing rollers F, into the coiler G and the can H. Various
automatic contrivances, electrical and mechanical, are arranged to
stop the machine when a sliver breaks behind the machine or in
front, or when the can H is full of sliver. The silk is drawn through
three or four heads of drawing frames, with a draft varying from
3 to 8, usually drafting in accordance with the number of ends up
i.e. three ends up would have a draft of 3, and eight ends up a draft
of 8.
Stubbing and fine frames. These are used in accordance with the
fineness of the roving required, and are for the purpose of still further
elongating and stretching the fibres, while in these frames the silk
receives twist, but never in the drawing. For coarse counts of yarn
it is usual to put the drawing slivers over a slubbing frame only ; for
medium counts, over slubbing and intermediate frames ; and for very
SHORT SPINNING MACHINERY 131
fine counts, over slubbing, intermediate, and fine roving frames.
The slubbing frame receives the sliver in at the back rollers, passes
FIG. 97. Improved drawing frame.
it through; the carrier rollers to the front drawing rollers, and thence
on to the spindle and flyer, which wind it on to a large tube. The
FIG. 98. Slabbing frame.
intermediate and fine frames are built in the same style, but are
made to receive bobbins instead of slivers behind. These frames are
illustrated in Fig. 98, where A is the slubbing bobbin, two or three
i 3 2 SILK WASTE SPINNING
of which are placed behind each spindle. The ends are guided to
the back rollers B, through the carrier rollers C, to the front drawing
rollers D, which deliver to spindle and flyer E, eventually winding on
to a bobbin or tube.
Silk cannot be carded at the same speed and in the same weight as
cotton. It is more apt to nib and gather electricity, and if too great
a speed is attempted a large amount of waste is caused by the fibres
flying. A moderate speed will give the best results, and if the
cylinder runs at about 160 revolutions per minute, the dofler will
only need to run at about 16 revolutions per minute. The pro-
duction per card per week is from 80 to 1501b. with such speeds.
The drawing frame rollers are about 1-J in. diameter. Some
spinners card the short fibres on the breaker and finisher card system
and then continue drawing operations through the open drawing
frames described, or through the rotary gill drawing frames. The
latter system gives a clean, level, and lustrous thread.
CHAPTEK X
SPINNING AND FINISHING PROCESSES
FLY SPINNING. All classes of silk, long or short, can be spun on mules,
ring frames, cap frames, or flyer frames, if the drafting rollers are
made suitable, a long strong silk needing a large diameter, and a
FIG. 99. Flyer spinning frame.
short weak silk a small diameter of roller. A silk of irregular length
is best spun on a medium diameter of roller. At one period all long-
spun yarns were spun on flyer frames and short-spun silks on
mules, but ring and cap frames are now largely adopted. Fig. 99
illustrates the principle of flyer spinning, and Fig. 100 shows the
machine in work. The roving bobbin A is placed on the peg B, one
bobbin to each spindle. The end is passed between the back rollers
C (which revolve slowly), then between the three sets of carriers
D, E, F, and reaching the front rollers G, is drawn out to the length
required, the difference in the speed of the back and front rollers
133
134
SILK WASTE SPINNING
SPINNING AND FINISHING PROCESSES 135
regulating the draft. When the attenuated end comes through the
front roller it is conveyed through the top board H, wrapped round
the leg of the flyer J, passed through the twizzle at its lower end, and
then wound round the bobbin K on the spindle L. The bobbin
travels up and down the spindle on the lifter plate M, thus allowing
the silk thread to be wound evenly by means of the flyer.
Besides winding the thread on to the bobbin, the flyer puts twist
into the thread by its revolution round the bobbin, one turn of twist for
each revolution. If the bobbin and flyer travelled at the same speed
the thread would have twist put in, but would not be wound on the
bobbin ; but the bobbin being loose on its spindle, its tendency is to
remain stationary, and it is therefore " dragged " around by the thread.
The number of turns per inch is regulated by the number of revolu-
tions of the flyer and the speed of delivery of the front rollers. If
these are 4 in. diameter the circumference will be 12 '5, and whilst
revolving at 40 revolutions per minute will deliver 500 in. of yarn
per minute. The spindle revolves at 6000 revolutions per minute,
and therefore 6000 -f- 500 gives 12 turns per inch.
In a flyer frame the bobbin runs quicker the fuller it gets, and
therefore it is awkward to regulate the drag so that the end does
not break. Between the bobbin bottom and the lifter plate, paper,
leather, or cloth washers are placed to regulate the friction. If the
bobbin does not drag enough, the thread snarls before being wound
on the bobbin, and if it drags too hard the thread breaks. The spin
is always worst in a fine count when the bobbin is full, because the
thread is pulled in two by the drag ; and worse in a coarse count,
when the bobbin is empty, because the drag is so little that the
thread snarls.
CAP SPINNING. A cap frame (Fig. 101) can be run at a higher
speed than a flyer frame, and this higher speed makes a slightly
rougher yarn. The difference between cap and flyer is in the spindles
and caps, which are stationary. The cap is a steel cap-shaped shell
placed on the spindle, having its inside measurement of larger diameter
than the bobbin head, so that it admits the bobbin when it is full of
yarn. The rotatory portion is a tube fitting inside the bobbin, on
the spindle, and revolved by a whorl. To put twist into the thread,
instead of the flyer revolving round the bobbin, the cap bobbin
revolves round the spindle. The cap forms a smooth surface,
round which the thread revolves without much friction, and the
bottom rim guides the thread on to the bobbin. The extra speed of
a cap over a flyer frame makes it possible to produce a cheaper
yarn, and as silk is spun to fine and costly counts, cap frames are
superseding flyer frames very rapidly.
RING SPINNING. A ring-spinning frame is most useful for short-
fibred silks, because of the possibility of regulating the tension on the
thread by means of the different sizes of travellers. Cap-spinning
SPINNING AND FINISHING PROCESSES 137
frames are run up to 9000 revolutions per minute. For long-fibred
silks the drawing rollers are 4 in. diameter, medium fibres need 3 or
3J in. diameter, and short silks 1J to 2J in. diameter. Mule spinning
is not liked, because the rotatory action exerted on the thread when
"on the stretch" loosens the fibre, and so dulls the lustre, besides
causing more loss to take place in the later processes of gassing
and cleaning.
Winding. After spinning, the yarn is ready for folding into two-
fold or three-fold yarn. In many cases it is wound before folding.
Winding (Fig. 102) consists of running one or more spun threads
from the spinning bobbin on to a bobbin of large diameter. If
only one thread is wound on to one bobbin, the only object in
the winding is to ensure less doffing and creeling in the twisting
frame. When two or more ends are wound on to one bobbin, the
above-named object is one reason for the winding, and a further
reason is to ensure that the folded and finished yarn contains the
requisite two or three threads throughout the whole of its length.
Therefore a winding machine is fitted up with stop motions, so that
when any thread breaks, the receiving bobbin ceases to revolve until
the attendant ties up the thread again. Many spinners consider that
winding three threads for sewing cords, before twisting, makes a more
even thread, inasmuch as proper tension can be put on each single
thread, so preventing one strand riding on the others, which fault
causes a weak place, besides an unsightly thread.
Copping. Another class of winding is required when the single
thread is used for weft. The yarn is then only spun with a very
soft twist, and usually wound straight from the spinning bobbin
on to a long paper tube by any of the usual cop or pirn winding
machines. If a short-spun weft is required, and the spinner happens
to spin on mules, then the yarn can be sold on the paper tubes on
which the yarn was spun, and rewinding saved.
Twisting. A twisting frame is practically a spinning frame
without back rollers or carriers, and therefore without draft. It
consists of rollers to draw the yam from the spinning or wound
bobbins, and these same rollers deliver the yarn to the spindles for
the purpose of having twist put in the thread. The twist is reckoned
and put in the yarn exactly in the same manner as in spinning, only
twisted in the opposite direction to the spinning twist. The effect of
twisting is to untwist the single yarn whilst twisting a two- or three-
fold thread, and this fact should be borne in mind if a hard-twist
yarn is required. The yarn should be twisted hard in the spinning,
for the more twist put in the folded thread the less remains in the
single thread. Yarn loses a little length in twisting proportionate to
its thickness and the amount of twist, the loss or shrinkage thus
varying with every count and degree of twist.
If yarns are twisted %fter winding, the simplest form of machine
138 SILK WASTE SPINNING
can be used, as illustrated in Fig. 103, which' ns a ring doubling or
twisting'frame. A? is the bobbin on to which two strands (two single
threads) have been wound, B the thread travelling in the direction of
SPINNING AND FINISHING PROCESSES 139
the arrows to and around rollers C and D, thence to the ring and
spindle E, the latter of which is propelled by the whorl G driven by
the cylinder H. If the yarn is not wound before twisting, it is usual
to use a machine which has an automatic arrangement for stopping
the spindle whenever the single thread breaks behind the rollers or
the folded strand in front breaks or snarls.
Twisting frames are made with cap, fly, or ring spindles. A
flyer frame is best for very coarse, heavy, and hard-twisted yarns, but
silk being usually spun into fine counts, the ring doubling or twisting
frame is very largely used on account of the speed at which these
FIG. 103. Ring twisting frame.
machines can be run. When ring frames are used it is important to
have perfectly true and upright spindles, and to see that the ring is
true and smooth, and the spindle set exactly in the centre of the ring.
The travellers must be kept in good order, and the thread guides set
exactly over the top of the spindle so that, the yarn makes a perfect
cone when revolving.
Cleaning and gassing. Whilst going through all the previous
processes the thread has become wild, hairy, and rough, and in many
cases shows little nibs which have been caused by the curling and
breaking of fibres in the drawing processes, by bad or careless
140
SILK WASTE SPINNING
dressing, or by the spinning frame rollers having been allowed to
become covered with short fibres of silk " fluff," which in time has
wrapped itself round the thread. All these faults have now to be
removed by means of heat lighted gas and friction. If the thread
has been kept, free from fluff, and is the product of a properly
dressed and drawn silk, then its defects are chiefly projecting fibres
FIG. 104. Cleaned and not cleaned yarns.
and a general hairiness which can be removed by passing over a gas-
light several times. If it contains other faults, then it must be
frictioned. An uncleaned yarn is represented in Fig. 104 at A, and
a cleaned and perfect yarn at B.
The more free from projecting fibres and rough thick places a silk
can be produced, the more valuable it becomes, because of its smooth-
ness and consequent lustre. The lustre on silk is peculiar to itself,
FIG. 105. Gassing frame.
and can only show to perfection when every pearl of twist is free
from fibre. The chief methods of cleaning and gassing are shown in
Figs. 105, 106, and 107. In the former, which gives side elevation,
A is the bobbin of folded yarn, B the thread of silk which on its
passage from A to the receiving bobbin E is wrapped round the cones
C, thus passing through the gaslight D. The cones are made of steel,
and revolve on pins. If the thread is only hairy, the silk is wrapped
SPINNING AND FINISHING PROCESSES
141
I 4 2
SILK WASTE SPINNING
half round the cones so as to pass through the gas three to twelve
times in one transition of the thread from A to E. But if yarn is
nibby as well as hairy, then it is wrapped right round the cone, thus
acutely frictioning itself, and so throwing off the nibs at the point of
contact. The nibs and fluff travel up the cone, and so away from
the thread. The receiving bobbin E is propelled by a drum F.
When a thread breaks, the gaslight can be moved away from the
position shown, so that the attendant can rewrap the thread on the
cones without burning it ; and the same action which moves the light
lifts the bobbin E off the drum F, thus preventing any unnecessary
friction of the silk on the drum. A reverse action takes place when
the end is tied up and the bobbin placed on the drum, the light being
FIG. 107. Cleaning frame.
then put into position again. The lower the quality of silk the more
passages through this machine are necessary to cleanse it.
Fig. 107 shows a cleaning or frictioning machine, without any
gaslight. A represents the bobbin of folded yarn, and B the thread
travelling in the direction of the arrows to the receiving bobbin E.
The thread is wrapped around the revolving runners C, which are
fixed on the rising and falling bar D During the passage of the
thread from A to E the bar D is oscillated up and down by the
linked rods F and the crank disc G, which in turn is driven from the
cylinder H. Thus the rotary cleaning runners C have a rapid
up-and-down motion for the purpose of still further frictioning the
thread If necessary, the yarn can be run over a gassing frame to
SPINNING AND FINISHING PROCESSES 143
remove the fibre not taken off by the friction cleaning machine.
After cleaning, the silk is ready for reeling or for winding on to large
bobbins, from which it is warped.
i 4 4
SILK WASTE SPINNING
Reeling and ivarping. Schappe silk is reeled on a swift measur-
ing 49 in. diameter, and the usual length of a skein = 500 metres, or
1000 in. Spun silks are reeled into skeins, and then made up into 5
or 10 Ib. bundles in England, or 5 kilos, on the Continent, or they are
made into warps in accordance with the requirements of customers.
In England the reels are made with swifts of 54 in. diameter, and the
yarn is cross-reeled in skeins of 840 to 5040 yds. A skein, in the
strict sense of the word, is 840 yds. in length. Both reeling and
warping are such well-known processes that a detailed description
would be useless here, but Fig. 108 illustrates the reel.
Washing.- Many yarns are sold by the spinner in the "grey"-
i.e. gassed state. In other cases the yarn is washed. If washed in
the skein the following is a good method for the treatment of about
50 Ib. of silk. The skeins are placed on wood rods, taking care to
spread the threads out as open as possible, as at A in Fig. 109. These
1 ^"* ""* ^A(Pfl
D |J J ""^
M
E
i
C p
i
1 T
FIG. 109. Yarn washing.
rods of silk are then taken to the washhouse and placed in a wood
vat B containing 40 gallons of hot water, into which about 6 Ib. of
best white oil soap has been dissolved.
It is wise to see that the water is not boiling when the silk is just
placed in the vat, or the yellow stain caused by gassing the yarn will
be burnt or boiled into the silk. An attendant is required on each
side of the vat, and when the silk has become thoroughly saturated
with the soapy liquor, the rods are lifted up and down (positions U
and D) many times, first dropping the silk into and then lifting it
out of the water. - The end C having become partially cleansed, the
attendants turn this on the rod so that the hitherto unwashed portion
of the skein E is in the water, and then the lifting and lowering
motions are again gone through. The attendants take care all the
time that the threads keep straight, untangled, and free from break-
ages, and after about thirty minutes of these constant turnings the
f
SPINNING AND FINISHING PROCESSES 145
rods are placed close together at one end of the vat, and the silk laid
FIG. 110. Improved yarn preparing machine.
;V: ... ...
on the top of the rods to allow the liquor to drip out. When this
10
146
SILK WASTE SPINNING
lias been effected the silk is taken to a fresh vat with clean water and
soap, and the processes repeated ; but in this case the water can be
boiled if it is desired to swell the thread and make it bulky. After
this the water is wrung out of the skeins either by hand or hydro
extractor. The yarn is then taken to a stove and hung on rods to
dry, and when dry is ready for conditioning. Taken straight from
the stove it feels harsh and stiff, and is lustreless ; but after being
placed in a cool, damp room for a few hours, it regains its softness,
pliability, and lustre, and is ready for bundling up and delivering
to customers. Usually only lace yarns and hosiery yarns are
washed, most other yarns being delivered in hank or warp to the '
dyehouse for dyeing, the dyer generally washing the yarn off before
dyeing.
Lustreiny. Many yarns, especially after being washed or dyed,
are much improved in lustre by passing over the machine (illustrated
by Fig. 110). This machine is constructed to lustre yarns in the
hank, which it performs very effectually by stretching the hank from
centre roller to small roller whilst the top and bottom rollers revolve
tlie hank round and round so that all portions of the thread are pro-
perly frictioned.
English counts. The English counts or size of spun silks are-
calculated as follows : 840 yds. weighing 1 Ib. would be 1's, then counts
120's would equal 120 skeins per pound, each skein of 840 yds. length.
If the thread consists of two or three strands i.e. two-fold or three-fold
the count is still the number of 840 yds. per pound ; thus counts
60's of two-fold yarn, expressed 60/2, means 60 hanks of 840 yds. per
1 Ib., and represents in the single-thread, size 1/120's. The only
exception to this rule is in the case of three-fold hosiery ; for instance,
a three-fold 40's hosiery yarn is spun 60's single, equalling in ordinary
silk counts three-fold 20's.
The following examples in -tabular form "show the system more
clearly :
Single Yarns.
y 2-fold Yarns.
3-fold Yarns.
3-fold Hosiery Yarns.
3
40
|| : ,,
C
ll
ia
C
? |
"c .
1
fl
ii
6^ "1 j
^2
0^
O
O
|l
O ^
O CO
6
|K
gj
oo S -g |
c c
I
"2 2
bo
c
0) p,
be
c
co
^ X
O co ""^ X
|
co
73 S*
c
0,
c
l!
02
>3w
02
i
4
02
w
d
CO
4
1
i,
02
12
1/12's
6 6/2-fold
1/12's
4
4/3-fold
1/12's
4
8/3- fold
1/12's
30
1/30's
15 15/2
1/30's
10
10/3
1/30's
10
20/3 .,
1/30's
60
1/60's
30 30/2 ,,
1/60's
20
20/3
1/60's
20
40/3 ,,
1/60's
120
1/120's
60 60/2
1/120's
40
40/3 ,,
1/120's
40
80/3
1/120's
SPINNING AND FINISHING PROCESSES 147
TABLES OF TWISTS. The next series of tables show the approxi-
mate amount of turns per inch in singles and folded yarns for various
purposes, assuming that the yarn is of good quality i.e. long drafts.
If a poorer quality yarn is required, the turns per inch would need
hardening, especially in the single thread of the two-fold weft table.
Singles for
Weft.
2-folds for Weft.
2-folds for Warp.
2-folds for Plush.
Counts.
Turns
per
Inch.
Counts.
Turns per Inch.
Counts.
Turns per Inch.
Counts.
Turns per Inch.
Single.
Folding.
Single.
Folding.
Single.
Folding.
1/40's
1/50's
1/60's
1/70's
1/80's
1/100's
6
8
P
10
30/2-fold
40/2 ,
50/2 ,
60/2 ,
80/2 ,
100/2 ,
12
13
ui
16
19
21
10
11
12
14
17
19
30/2-fold
40/2
50/2 ,,
60/2
80/2
100/2
15
17
19
21
24
28
14
16
18
20
23
26
35/2-fold
40/2
45/2
50/2 ,,
19
20
i
17
18
19
20
2-folds for Flannel, Silks,
and Embroidery.
3-folds for Hosiery.
3-folds for Sewing Cords.
Turns per Inch.
Turns per Inch.
Turns per Inch.
^
Single.
Folding.
Single.
Folding.
Single.
Folding.
2^/2-fold
8}
6
6/3-fold
12
8
4/2 ,
9
9
8/3
14
10
6/2 ,
11
11
10/3
10*
101
8/2 ,
12
12
30/3-fold
ii
3
12/3
18
12*
10/2 ,
14
14 36/3
12
gl
14/3
19
13
12/2 ,
16
16
40/3
13
3
16/3
21
14
44/3
18*
3J
18/3 '
22
15
50/3
14
4
20/3
23
16
60/3
15
*
22/3
24
Mi
80/3
19
5
24/3
25
17
26/3
27
18
28/3
28
19
..
30/3
29
20
All the twists, excepting the three-fold sewing-thread yarns, are
made with what is commonly termed "right twist." That is, the
turns per inch are to the right in the folded yarn, and to the left in
the single thread. The sewing threads are opposite to this namely,
LEFT in the folded yarn and RIGHT in the single thread. These differ-
ences can easily be seen by holding a strand of yarn between the hands,
and noticing in which direction the perle of twist appears to point.
SCHAPPB COUNTS. The yarn count of schappe (continental spun)
silks expresses the number of 500 metre hanks to the half-kilogramme
(1-1 Ib. English).
CHAPTER XI
UTILISATION OF WASTE PRODUCTS
HAVING particularised all the processes through which dressed silk,
long drafts and short drafts, are passed to convert into yarn, we have
now only to follow the course of the waste products of a silk spinning
FIG. 111. Derby doubler (section).
establishment. These are : silk noils, the production of the dressing
frame fly, the very short fibres thrown out in the cards ; roller and
leather laps in the drawing machinery ; roving waste in the roving
frames ; soft waste in the spinning frames ; singles and double waste
in winding and twisting ; burnt fibre in the gassing process.
Burnt fibre is sold as waste, and used for artificial manure pur-
poses.
Roving waste and soft spinning waste can be washed to free it
from grease and dirt, and be then dressed, so converting it again into
drafts and noils.
Hard single and folded waste can be dressed on hand machines, or
put through a garnett machine.
The longest kind of roller and leather lap waste can be fed into
the spreading machine, converted into sliver, and mixed with the
lowest quality going through the machinery, putting one or two
ends up in the first head of the drawing. The short fibre can be
mixed with roving waste and dressed.
The longest-fibred fly waste is recarded, thus being made into a
sliver and mixed in the drawing frames. The shortest-fibred fly can
be put through the same machinery as exhaust noil.
148
UTILISATION OF WASTE PRODUCTS
149
Noil treatment. Noils are first opened by a scutching machine
and then carded. The carded slivers are afterwards taken to a Derby
doubler.
Derby doubling. This process is carried out for the purpose of
winding a certain number of carded slivers together on to a wooden
core or drum. From twelve to eighty cans of sliver can be placed
side by side on either side of a slanting table A, Figs. Ill and 112,
and the sliver is passed over the spoon levers B, thence through the
guide plates C to the w r ooden drum D. This latter is revolved by
means of fluted rollers E, F, and the slivers all wound into one mass
called a lap, and compressed by the pressure roller G, w r hich, being
FIG. 112. Derby doubler.
mounted in slot bearings, rises as the slivers on the drum D increase
in diameter. If a can becomes empty or an end breaks between the
can and the receiving rollers, the spoon lever is arranged to drop and
automatically stop the machine, so ensuring an equal number of ends
of sliver throughout the length of the lap. The laps are next mounted
behind a combing machine, which may be of the Noble, Lister, or
Heilmann type.
Combing. A comb is for the purpose of removing from the silk
all nops, dirt, straws, for eliminating fibres below a predetermined
length, and delivering the combed material in the form of a sliver.
The Heilmann principle is a very good one for silk fibres, and is
illustrated in Figs. 113 and 114. The lap is placed at A, and is
150 SILK WASTE SPINNING
revolved slowly by rollers under it, the sliver passing to the pressure
roller B and thence to the feed grid C. This latter consists of two
smooth brass grids into which fit the pins of the overhead comb D.
When the nip E is closed, the feed comb D being lifted, the grid
moves back for a portion of sliver; then the comb D descends,
penetrating the sliver. Then, the lower hinge of the nip being opened,
the silk is traversed through the mouth of the nip, which closes and
so holds fast a tuft of silk, projecting so that the teeth of the comb F
on the comb revolving can comb or dress the fibres. The short fibres
(exhaust noils) G which collect on the teeth of the comb are removed
by a quickly revolving brush H, which deposits the combings on to a
FIG. 113. Combing (section).
doffer roller J, from which they are stripped as a broad fleece by the
doffer comb K and drop into the box L. When the tuft of silk is
sufficiently combed the rollers M are operated in such a manner as to
lay hold of the combed portion, and so draw the other, or uncombed,
end of the tuft through the revolving teeth of the cylinder, which
clears the silk, as described, for the first end. The combed tuft is
delivered to the creeper N, formed into a sliver, and delivered to the
can P.
The proportion of combed sliver to combings (exhaust noil)
can be varied by adjusting the closeness of comb to nip, so that all
fibres below f, If, etc., of an inch, pass into noils. The more fibre
UTILISATION OF WASTE PRODUCTS 151
taken out, the cleaner the resulting combed sliver and the greater the
production of noil. The combed sliver is used by short spinners,
being either made into a combed yarn, or more often a certain number
of the slivers are put in the drawings and so amalgamated with some
other carded quality of shorts.
FIG. 114. Improved combing machine (Heilmann system).
Exhaust noil spinning Garnettiny. Exhaust noils are made
into coarse yarns on the woollen principle. The first process is
designed to open or loosen the silk, and is much the same as scutching.
Next, the silk is carded or garnetted on the machine shown in Fig.
115. It is fed by hand to the feed-box A, then carried up the pin-
FIG. 115. Garnetting machine.
studded creeper B in a certain regular quantity, and delivered by
means of the rollers C and D to the weigh-box E, which opens
automatically when it has received a predetermined weight of silk.
It drops the silk on to the feeder F, which delivers to the taker-in
rollers G, which in turn take it to the breaker card H. The doffer
SILK WASTE SPINNING
cylinder Z transfers the carded silk to the intermediate cylinder J and
dotfer K, which in turn delivers to the finisher card L and doffer M,
and thence to the condenser bobbin N. The object of condensing is to
convert the full- width fleece of silk on the cylinder L into a number
of thin, loose slivers. One or two doffer cylinders M (one only is
shown) are used to strip the swift L. These are covered with card
rings an inch wide, with an inch blank space between each card ring,
the blank of the top roller being above the card of the bottom roller,
thus ensuring an entire stripping of the surface of the swift. The
ends on the strips of card on the doffer M are then conveyed to the
rubbing leathers O, P. These are endless leather belts carrying
forward the thin ribbon of silk between them, but at the same time a
sidewise motion is imparted which rubs the silk into a loose, round,
pith-like roving without any twist in it. On leaving the leathers, the
ends are conveyed to the bobbin N, on to which they are wound
ready for spinning.
Mule spinning. The condenser bobbins are placed behind the
FIG. 116. Mule spinning.
machine shown in Fig. 116, and the ends of silk conveyed to the
rollers B. These rollers correspond to the back rollers of the
spinning machines previously described, for they do not draft the
roving. The roving being delivered by the rollers B, is wrapped
round the spindles C fixed in the carriage D. This carriage is close
up to the rollers at the commencement of the draw ; but as soon as
the rollers revolve, delivering roving, the carriage traverses away from
the rollers at such a speed as to keep the roving stretched, but without
drafting it. The spindles are meantime turning slowly, thus putting
a little twist in the roving. When the carriage has gone half its
journey, the rollers B cease to revolve, but the carriage travels on,
thus stretching out the roving from 1 yd. to 2 yds. in length ;
while, as the spindles are still revolving, more twist is still going into
the thread. When the carriage stops, the spindles revolve still more
quickly until sufficient twist is put into the yarn, and the carriage is
then traversed back to the rollers, while the spun thread is wound on
to the spindles during this backward journey.
SILK
FIG. 117. Diagram of all processes.
154 SILK WASTE SPINNING
The count of the yarn is regulated chiefly by the size of the
rovings delivered by the condenser, which in turn is regulated by the
amount fed into the cards at the commencement. After spinning, the
silk noil yarn is often sold in the singles, but if required two-fold it
can be doubled on any class of doubling or twisting machinery.
In conclusion, a summary of the various processes is given
diagrammatically in Fig. 117, by which it will be possible at a glance
to trace the fibre from the silk moth to the finished yarns of the
throwster and waste spinner, and the lines to the right in each
operation show to what purpose is placed the waste products of that
operation. Arrow heads indicate the proper directions to follow each
lin of waste products.
THE END
INDEX
ADULTERATIONS in soap, 49, 50.
in waste silk, 66, 67.
Ammonia, use of, in washing waste,
62.
Amount of moisture in silk, 35.
Analysis of curd soap, 49.
of dried silkworms, 5.
of fibroin, 5.
of mulberry leaves, 5.
of sericin, 5.
of silk fibre, 6.
Anther ca mylitta, 6.
Assam, 8.
Attacus Cynthia, 9, 10.
BAD drying of waste silk, 63, 64.
Bale opening, waste silk, 45-47.
Bave, 4.
Beating cocoons and waste, 74, 75.
Blaze, 38.
Bleaching, 65, 66.
Board turning in silk dressing, 88.
,, planing in silk dressing, 102.
Boiling silk waste, 47, 56, 57, 60.
,, too violent, 60.
,, recipes and chemicals for, 61.
Bornbyx mori, 5.
Bookboards (waste dressing), 80.
Books (silk throwing), 13.
Bright silk and bright waste, 24.
Brins, 3, 60, 61.
Buying raw silk, terms of, 20.
,, waste silk, terms of, 41, 42.
CANTON gum, 39.
,, seychuen, 39.
Caps (raw silk), 13.
Cap-spinning machinery, 135.
Carbonisation, 67, 68.
Card speeds, 132.
Carding, 128, 129.
Cards on dressing machinery, 84, 85.
Chemicals for boiling waste, 61.
China cnrlies, 40.
,, ,, home and European, 38,
39.
,, ,, Shanghai, 39.
,, waste, 38.
Circular dressing frame, 92.
Cleaner's waste (silk throwing), 27.
,, bars (silk throwing), 27.
Cleaning (silk throwing), 27.
,, yarn (silk waste), 142.
Cocoon, 3.
beating, 74, 75.
opening, 76, 77.
pierced, 9.
reeling, 12.
selection, 11.
Cold process of soap making, 51, 52.
Colour of silk, 6.
Comb for dressing silk waste, 84, 85.
,, stripping, 89.
Combing, 149.
Company's terms, 20, 21.
Condensing, 152.
Conditioning, 34, 35, 64.
., silk waste boiled, 68.
,, yarn, 146.
'floor, 69, 70.
,, machine, 71.
Continuous dressing frame, 95-97.
Copping, 137.
Cost of dressing silk waste, 90, 91.
Counts of yarn, English method, 146.
,, metric or schappe
method, 147.
Crops of silk, 19.
Curd soap, 49.
Curlies, 40.
155
DANDY roving frame, 118.
156
INDEX
Degumming loss in thrown silk, 25.
,, ,, waste silk, 64.
,, process of, waste silk, 47,
56, 64.
Deniering, 33.
Derby doubler, 149.
Diagrams, principles of dressing frames,
104.
,, of drafting, 122.
of stripping, 80.
,, illustrative of all processes,
153.
Diameters of silk fibre, 6.
Dimensions of machinery, drawing,
125-127, 132.
Dimensions of machinery, spinning,
137.
Discharging, 47, 56.
Discoloration, cause of, in silk waste,
25.
Doppione, 18.
Doubling (thrown silk), 28, 29.
(silk yarn), 137, 139.
Drafting, 121, 122.
Drafts (dressed silk), 89.
examination of same, 107,
108.
Drawing fillers, 109, 110.
intersectors, 120.
machinery, 111-116.
open roller, 130.
principle of, 107.
rotary, 123.
Dressing, cost of, 90, 91.
economical method of, 99.
waste silks, 81-105.
Drying, 25, 62, 63.
bad, 63, 64.
ECONOMICAL method of silk dressing,
99.
Eggs of silk moth, 3.
Ends up of sliver (silk waste drawing),
113.
European wastes, 39, 43.
Exhaust noil spinning machinery,
151.
" FAKED " silk waste, 65.
Fallers, 109, 118.
speed of, 121.
Fibres, diameter of silk, 6.
Fibres, lengths in dressed silk, 106.
Fibroin, 4, 5.
Filature reeling, 15.
Filling, waste silk, 78-81, 94, 95.
Fine roving frame, 130.
Flat frame dressing, waste silk,
83.
Flyer, silk throwing, 31.
,, spinning frame, 133.
Folding, 28, 29, 137.
Food of silkworm, 6.
Foreign matters in silk waste, 66,
67.
French China waste, 43.
,, mixed waste, 43.
Frisons, 38.
GARNETTING, 151.
Gassing fibre, 148.
,, silk yarns, 140.
Gill roving frame, 115.
Gills, 109, 118, 121.
Glossary, xiii.
Graine, 3.
Grant reeling, 31.
Gum, 4, 47.
,, loss of, 25, 64.
,, liquors, 61.
HANGCHOW, 39.
Hard waste, 148.
Hydro extractor, 58, 59.
INDIAN wastes, 39.
Inframe for silk dressing. 86.
Inspection of raw silk, 19.
,. of waste silk, 42.
Intersector drawing machinery, 120.
Italian China waste, 43.
Iwasbiro noshu, 41.
JAPAN silks, 17.
,, wastes, 41.
KIKAI Kibizzo, 41.
Knubs, 43.
LANDING silk wastes, 43.
Laps, filling machinery, 76, 95.
,, silk spreading, 110, 111.
Legal amount of moisture in silk,
35.
Lengths of fibre in silk drafts,
106.
London terms, 21.
Long spinning, 106.
Loopy threads (silk throwing), 28.
Loss in degumming (thrown silks),
25.
Loss in degumming (silk wastes),
64.
Lustreing silk waste, 59.
INDEX
157
Lustreing silk yarn, 146.
Lyons terms, 21.
MANGLE machine, 59.
Moisture in silk, 35, 64.
Mosses, 13, 23.
Mule spinning, 152.
NANKIN buttons, 38.
Nett silk. See Glossary.
Noils, long, 90.
,, exhaust, 151.
,, treatment, 149.
Noshito Joshiu, 41.
No-throw, 28.
OPEN drawing, 130.
Opening bales, 45-47.
,, cocoons and waste, 76, 77.
Organzine, 29.
PACKING and shipping raw and waste
silks, 19, 42, 43.
Farter's waste, 24.
Pernyi, 9.
Planing bookboards, 102.
Punjum, 40.
QUALITIES of raw silks, 14-18.
,, of waste silks, 37-41, 43,
44.
RAW silk. See Glossary.
,, inspecting, 19.
,, purchasing terms, 21.
,, shipping, 19.
Re -dressing silk w r aste, 91.
Reeling cocoons, 12.
,, grant, 31.
,, thrown silk, 31.
,, yarn, 143, 144.
Re- lapping dressed silk, 111.
Re-reels, 14.
Rotary drawing, 123.
SCHAPPE counts, 147.
Schapping, 48, 53, 54.
Screwing-up machine, 103.
Scroop, 35.
Scutching, 128.
Selection of cocoons, 11.
Sericin, 4, 5.
Sett frame, 111.
Seychuen waste, 39.
Shanghai waste, 39.
Shipping waste silk, 42, 43.
Short fibre, filling machine for, 94, 95.
Short spinning, 106. 120, 128.
Silk analysis, 6.
colour, 6.
crops, 19.
fibre diameter, 6.
suitable for schapping, 55.
throwing, 22.
Silkworm food, 6.
,, rearing, 3.
Singles (silk throwing), 31.
Sizing (silk throwing), 32.
Sliders, 84, 86, 87.
Slips, 13, 23.
Slivers, 120, 121.
Slubbing, 117, 130.
Soap, 49.
,, adulterations, 49-51.
,, making, 51, 52.
Soaped silk, 25.
Soft spinning waste, 148.
Softening water, 48.
Sorter's waste, 24.
Sorting, 24.
Speed of cards, 132.
,, of fallers, 121.
Spinning (silk throwing), 30.
(silk waste), 133, 135, 152.
Splitter's waste (silk throwing), 24.
Splitting (silk throwing), 23.
Steam waste, 37.
,, filatures, 15.
Stripping combs, 89.
Suppleing, 72, 73.
Swiss China, 43.
TABLES of dimensions of machinery,
125-127, 132, 137.
,, of loss in degumming, 64, 65.
,, of counts, 146.
,, of twists, 147.
Tamas, 41.
Terms of purchase, raw silk and waste,
20, 21, 41, 42, 44.
Tests for "condition" of gum silk,
64.
Throwing silk, 22.
mill, 30.
Tram, 28.
Treatment of noils, 149.
Tsatlee reel, 13.
Turning-in board, 88.
Tussore, 6, 38.
Twist, 31.
Twisting, 137, 139.
VIOLENT boiling or degumming of
silk waste, 60.
158 INDEX
WADDING, 38. I Webbing, 86.
Warping, 143. ; Weighing for spreading, 108.
Washing, schappe, 54, 55. i Wild worms, 9.
,, with ammonia, 62. Winder's waste, 27.
,, silk throwing, 25. ! Winding (silk throwing), 26.
,, yarn, 144. ., (silk yarn), 137.
Waste, silk, how produced, 36, 37.
Water softening, 48.
YAMA mai, S,
Printed by MORRISON & GIBB LIMITED, Edinburgh.
Catalogue
_ OF '
Special (Deefjnieal JDooks
FOR
MANUFACTURERS, TECHNICAL STUDENTS AND
WORKERS SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, ETC.
BY EXPERT WRITERS
INDEX TO SUBJECTS.
PAGE
PAGE
PAGE
Agricultural Chemistry ... 10
Extracts, Wood 29
Pigments, Chemistry of ... 2
Air, Industrial Use of ... 12
Evaporating Apparatus ... 26
Plumbers' Work 27
Alum and its Sulphates ... 9
External Plumbing ... 27
Porcelain Painting ... 17
Ammonia 9
Fats 5,6
Pottery Clays 16
Aniline Colours 3
Faults in Woollen Goods... 21
Pottery Decorating ... 15
Animal Fats 6
Flax Spinning 24
Pottery Manufacture ... 14
Anti corrosive Paints ... 4
Fruit Preserving 30
Pottery Marks 16
Architecture, Terms in ... 29
Gas Firing 26
Power-loom Weaving ... 20
Architectural Pottery ... 15
Artificial Perfumes 7
Glass-making Recipes ... 16
Glass Painting 17
Preserved Foods 30
Printers' Ready Reckoner 31
Balsams 10
Bibliography 32
Bleaching 23
Glue Making and Testing.. 8
Greases 5
Hat Manufacturing .. 20
Printing Inks 3
Recipes for Oilmen, etc. ... 3
Resins 10
Bleaching Agents 23
Bone Products 8
Hemp Spinning 24
History of Staffs Potteries 16
Risks of Occupations ... 12
Riveting China, etc. ... 16
Bookbinding 31
Hops 28
Sanitary Plumbing ... 27
Brick-making ... 14, 15
Hot-water Supply 28
Scheele's Essays 9
Burnishing Brass ... ... 27
How to make a Woollen Mill
Sealing Waxes 11
Carpet Yarn Printing ... 21
Pay 21
Silk Dyeing 22
Casein 4
India-rubber 13
Silk Throwing 18
Celluloid 31
Industrial Alcohol 10
Smoke Prevention 26
Ceramic Books ... 14, 15, 16
Inks 3,11
Soaps 7
Charcoal 9
Iron-corrosion 4
Spinning 21
Chemical Essays 9
Iron, Science of 26
Staining Marble, and Bone 30
Chemistry of Pottery ... 16
Japanning 28
Steam Drying 19
Chemistry of Dye-stuffs ... 22
Jute Spinning 24
Sugar Refining 32
Clay Analysis 16
Lace-Making 20
Steel Hardening 26
Coal-dust Firing 26
Lacquering 27
Sweetmeats 30
Colour Matching 22
Colliery Recovery Work ... 25
Lake Pigments 2
Lead and its Compounds ..11
Tanning Extracts 29
Technical Schools, Hand-
Colour-mixing for Dyers ... 22
Leather Industry ... .. 13
book to the 32
Colour Theory 22
Leather-working Materials 14
Terra-cotta 15
Combing Machines 24
Libraries .. 32
Testing Paint Materials ... 4
Compounding Oils 6
Lithography 31
Testing Yarns 20
Condensing Apparatus ... 26
Lubricants ..5,6
Textile Fabrics ... 19,20
Cosmetics 8
Manures 8, 10
Textile Fibres ... 20, 24
Cotton Dyeing 22
Meat Preserving 30
Textile Materials 20
Cotton Spinning 24
Mineral Pigments 3
Timber 29
Damask Weaving 21
Mineral Waxes 6
Varnishes 5
Dampness in Buildings ... 29
Mine Ventilation 25
Vegetable Fats 7
Decorators' Books 28
Mine Haulage 25
Vegetable Preserving ... 30
Decorative Textiles ... 20
Mining, Electricity ... 25
Waste Utilisation 11
Dental Metallurgy 25
Needlework 20
Water, Industrial Use ... 12
Dictionary of Paint Materials 2
Oil and Colour Recipes ... 3
Water-proofing Fabrics ... 21
Drying Oils ... 5
Oil Boiling 5
Waxes 6
Drying with Air 12
Dyeing Marble ... ... 30
Oil Merchants' Manual ... 6
Oils 5
Weaving Calculations ... 21
White Lead and Zinc ... 4
Dyeing Woollen Fabrics ... 22
Ozone, Industrial Use of... 12
Wood Distillation 29
Dyers' Materials 22
Paint Manufacture ... 2
Wood Waste Utilisation... 29
Dye stuffs 23
Paint Materials 3
Wood-Dyeing 30
Electric Wiring 27
Electricity in Collieries ... 25
Paint-material Testing ... 4
Paint Mixing 28
Wool-Dyeing ... 22,23
Writing Inks 11
Enamelling Metal 18
Paper-Mill Chemistry ... 17
X Ray Work 13
Enamels 18
Paper-pulp Dyeing 17
Yarn Testing 20
Engraving 31
Petroleum 6
Zinc White Paints ... 4
Essential Oils 7
PU B LISH ED BY
SCOTT, GREENWOOD & SON,
8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL,
LONDON, E.G.
Telephone, Bank 5403. Telegraphic Address, " Printeries, London "
Paints, Colours and Printing
Inks.
THE CHEMISTRY OF PIGMENTS. By ERNEST J. PARRY,
B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C., F.C.S., and J. H. COSTE, F.I.C., F.C.S. Demy
8vo. Five Illustrations. 285 pp. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free,
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Contents.
Introductory. Light White Light The Spectrum The Invisible Spectrum Normal
Spectrum Simple Nature of Pure Spectral Colour The Recomposition of White Light
Primary and Complementary Colours Coloured Bodies Absorption Spectra The Appli=
cation of Pigments. Uses of Pigments : Artistic, Decorative, Protective Methods of
Application of Pigments : Pastels and Crayons, Water Colour, Tempera Painting, Fresco,
Encaustic Painting, Oil-colour Painting, Keramic Art, Enamel, Stained and Painted Glass,
Mosaic Inorganic Pigments. White Lead Zinc White Enamel White Whitening-
Red Lead Litharge Vermilion Royal Scarlet The Chromium Greens Chromates of Lead,
Zinc, Silver and Mercury Brunswick Green The Ochres Indian Red Venetian Red-
Siennas and Umbers Light Red Cappagh Brown Red Oxides Mars Colours Terre Verte
Prussian Brown Cobalt Colours Coeruleum Smalt Copper Pigments Malachite
Bremen Green Scheele's Green Emerald Green Verdigris Brunswick Green Non-
arsenical Greens Copper Blues Ultramarine Carbon Pigments Ivory Black Lamp Black
Bistre Naples Yellow Arsenic Sulphides : Orpiment, Realgar Cadmium Yellow
Vandyck Brown Organic Pigments. Prussian Blue Natural Lakes Cochineal Carmine
Crimson Lac Dye Scarlet Madder Alizarin Campeachy Quercitron Rhamnus
Brazil Wood Alkanet Santal Wood Archil Coal-tar Lakes Red Lakes Alizarin Com-
pounds Orange and Yellow Lakes Green and Blue Lakes Indigo Dragon's Blood
'Gamboge Sepia Indian Yellow, Puree Bitumen, Asphaltum, Mummy Index.
THE MANUFACTURE OF PAINT. A Practical Handbook
for Paint Manufacturers, Merchants and Painters. By J. CRUICKSHANK
SMITH, B.Sc. Demy 8vo. 200 pp. Sixty Illustrations and One Large
Diagram. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
Contents.
Preparation of Raw Material Storing of Raw Material Testing and Valuation of Raw
Material Paint Plant and Machinery The Grinding of White Lead Grinding of White
Colours in Water Grinding Colours in Turpentine The Uses of Paint Testing and Matching
Paints Economic Considerations I ndex.
DICTIONARY OF CHEMICALS AND RAW PRO-
DUCTS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
PAINTS, COLOURS, VARNISHES AND ALLIED
PREPARATIONS. By GEORGE H. HURST, F.C.S. Demy
8vo. 380 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 8s. home ; 8s. 6d. abroad.)
THE MANUFACTURE OF LAKE PIGMENTS FROM
ARTIFICIAL COLOURS. By FRANCIS H. JENNISON,
F.I.C., F.C.S. Sixteen Coloured Plates, showing Specimens of
Eighty-nine Colours, specially prepared from the Recipes given
in the Book. 136 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free,
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The Groups of the Artificial Colouring Matters The Nature and Manipulation of Artificial
Colours Lake-forming Bodies for Acid Colours Lake-forming Bodies' Basic Colours Lake
Bases The Principles of Lake Formation Red Lakes Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet
and Black Lakes The Production of Insoluble Azo Colours in the Form of Pigments The
General Properties of Lakes Produced from Artificial Colours Washing, Filtering and Fin-
ishingMatching and Testing Lake Pigments Index.
PAINTS, COLOURS, ETC. continued.
THE MANUFACTURE OF MINERAL AND LAKE
PIGMENTS. Containing Directions for the Manufacture
of all Artificial, Artists and Painters' Colours, Enamel, Soot and Me-
tallic Pigments. A Text-book for Manufacturers, Merchants, Artists
and Painters. By Dr. JOSEF BERSCH. Translated by A. C. WRIGHT,
M.A. (Oxon.), B.Sc. (Lond.). Forty-three Illustrations. 476 pp., demy
8vo. Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. homes 13s. 6d. abroad.)
RECIPES FOR THE COLOUR, PAINT, VARNISH, OIL,
SOAP AND DRYSALTERY TRADES. Compiled by
AN ANALYTICAL CHEMIST. 350pp. Demy 8vo. Price7s.Gd.net. (Post
free, 8s. home ; 8s. 3d. abroad.)
OIL COLOURS AND PRINTERS' INKS. By Louis
EDGAR ANDES. Translated from the German. 215 pp. Crown 8vo.
56 Illustrations. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
Linseed Oil Poppy Oil Mechanical Purification of Linseed Oil Chemical Purification of
Linseed Oil Bleaching Linseed Oil Oxidizing Agents for Boiling Linseed Oil Theory of
Oil Boiling Manufacture of Boiled Oil Adulterations of Boiled Oil Chinese Drying Oil and
Other Specialities Pigments for House and Artistic Painting and Inks Pigment for
Printers' Black Inks Substitutes for Lampblack Machinery for Colour Grinding and
Rubbing Machines for mixing Pigments with the Vehicle Paint Mills Manufacture of
House Oil Paints Ship Paints Luminous Paint Artists' Colours Printers' Inks:
VEHICLES Printers' Inks : PIGMENTS and MANUFACTURE-Index.
MODERN PRINTING INKS. A Practical Handbook for
Printing Ink Manufacturers and Printers. By ALFRED SEYMOUR.
Demy 8vo. Six Illustrations. 90 pages. Price 5s. net. (Post free,
5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.) [Just published.
Contents.
Introduction. Division of Labour A Separate Industry Choice of Materials Sk.fj*
Manipulation Some Important Factors The Medium Ink and Colour Mixing A Justifica-
tion. Linseed Oil. Extraction of the Oil Classification Mechanical Purification
Adulteration Boiled Oil Preparation of Boiled Oil An Alternative Process. Varnish.
A Vehicle and Essential Component A Reference to Lithography Baltic Oil Preparation
of Varnish The Modern Method An Old Argument Letterpress Varnish A Cheaper
Medium A Suggestive Recipe Fire Risks Gradations of Varnish. Dry Colours. A
Recommendation An Endless Variety of Materials Earth Colours Mineral Colours
Substrates Toning Earth Colours Physical Characteristics Colouring Power Brilliance
Purity of Tone Permanence. Dry Colours Blacks, Whites, Yellows Lampblack-
Process of Manufacture Calcination Carbon Black Acetylene Black A Simple Test Lead
and Zinc Whites White Earth Colours Yellows Yellow Ochres Mineral Yellows. Dry
Colours Reds, Browns. Classification of Reds Genuine Vermilions Preparation
Imitation Vermilions Umber, Raw and Burnt Sienna, Raw and Burnt. Blues, Greens.
Ultramarine Blue A Useful Tint Other Similar Blues Cobalt Blues Prussian Chinese
and Bronze Blues A Test for Purity Greens Compound Greens Mine ral Greens. Lakes.
Characteristics Lake Derivatives A Point of Importance Red Lakes Madder
Cochineal and Carmine Brazil Wood Alizarine a Coaltar Derivative Yellow Lakes Blue
Lakes Green Lakes. The Grinding of Printing: Inks. Ink-grinding Machinery Ink-
grinding Mill A Novel Machine Hand Grinding Treatment of Gritty Colours A Question
of Proportion Approximate Calculation Soap Saturation Friction Heat Consistent
Grinding. Ink and Colour Mixing. A Necessary Acquisition Ink Mixing Defined Mixed
Green Inks Mixed Brown Inks Tints Ink Mixing Lithographic Inks C haracteristics of
Yellows Mixing Vermilion Ultramarine and Other Blues Bronze, Prussian and Chinese
Blues Working Consistency Reducing Medium Letterpress Inks Gloss Inks Three-
colour Inks Ink-mixing Machine. The Characteristics of Some Pr nting Processes.
A Supplementary Discussion Letterpress Inks Three-colour Printing Lithographic Printing
Inks An Important Feature Suggestive Points Tinplate Printing. Driers. A Valuable
Auxiliary Energetic Drying Inks The Theory of Drying Liquid Driers Terebene Paste
Driers Letterpress Driers Powder Driers Turpentine as a Drier. Bronze Powders and
Bronzing. A Brief Justification Bronze Printing Inks Bronze Powders The Process of
Manufacture Preparation of the Leaf Grinding and Grading Bronzing Mediums Requisite
Qualities Wax Varnish. "Things Worth Knowing." A Record of Notes and
Experiences Index.
(See also Writing Inks, p. n.)
THREE HUNDRED SHADES AND HOW TO MIX
THEM. For Architects, Decorators and Painters.
(See page 28.)
PAINTS, COLOURS, ETC. continued.
CASEIN. By ROBERT SCHERER. Translated from the German
by CHAS. SALTER. Demy 8vo. Illustrated. 160 pp. Price 7s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
Contents.
Casein : its Origin, Preparation and Properties. Various Methods of Preparing
Casein. Composition and Properties of Casein. Casein Paints. " Marble-Lime "
Colour for Outside Work Casein Enamel Paint Casein Fa9ade Paint Cold-Water Paint in
Powder Form History's Recipe for Casein Paint and Varnish Pure Casein Paints for Walls,
etc. Casein Paints for Woodwork and Iron Casein-Silicate Paints Milk Paints Casein-
Silicate Paint Recipes Trojel's Boiled Oil Substitute CaNomine Wash Quick-Drying
Casein Paint Boiled Oil Substitute Ring's Cold-Water Paint Formolactin^Waterproof
Paint for Playing Cards Casein Colour Lake Casein-Cement Paint. The Technics of
Casein Painting. Casein Adhesives and Putties. Casein Glue in Plates or Flakes
Jeromm's Casein Adhesive Hall's Casein Glue Waterproof Glue Liquid Casein Glue
Casein and Borax Glue Solid Casein Adhesive Casein Solution Glue Powder Casein
Putties Washable Cement for Deal Boards Wenk's Casein Cement Casein and Lime Cement
"Pitch Barm" Casein Stopping Casein Cement for Stone. The Preparation of
Plastic Masses from Casein. Imitation Ivory Anti-Radiation and Anti-Corrosive Com-
position Dickmann's Covering for Floors and Walls Imitation Linoleum Imitation
Leather Imitation Bone Plastic Mass of Keratin and Casein Insulating Mass Plastic
Casein Masses Horny Casein Mass Plastic Mass from Celluloid Casein Cellulose Compo-
sition Fireproof Cellulose Substitute Nitrocellulose and Casein Composition Franquet's
Celluloid Substitute Galalith. Uses of Casein in the Textile Industry, for Finishing
Colour Printing, etc. Caseogum " Glutin " Casein Dressing for Linen and Cotton
Fabrics Printing Colour with Metallic Lustre Process for Softening, Sizing and Loading
Fixing Casein and Other Albuminoids on the Fibre Fixing Insoluble Colouring. Matters-
Waterproofing and Softening Dressing Casein for Mercerising Crepe Fixing Zinc White on
Cotton with Formaldehyde Casein- Magnesia Casein Medium for Calico Printing Loading
Silk. Casein Foodstuffs. Casein Food Synthetic Milk Milk Food Emulsifiable Casein
Casein Phosphate for Baking Making Bread, Low in Carbohydrates, from Flour and Curd
Preparing Soluble Casein Compounds with Citrates Casein Food. Sundry Applications
of Casein.
SIMPLE METHODS FOR TESTING PAINTERS'
MATERIALS. By A. C. WRIGHT, M.A. (Oxon.), B.Sc.
(Lond.). Crown 8vo. 160 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d.
home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
IRON - CORROSION, ANTI - FOULING AND ANTI-
CORROSIVE PAINTS. Translated from the German of
Louis EDGAR ANDES. Sixty-two Illustrations. 275 pp. Demy 8vo.
Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. lOd. home; 11s. 3d. abroad.)
Contents.
Iron-rust and its Formation Protection from Rusting by Paint Grounding the Iron with
Linseed Oil, etc. Testing Paints Use of Tar for Painting on Iron Anti-corrosive Paints-
Linseed Varnish Chinese Wood Oil Lead Pigments Iron Pigments Artificial Iron Oxides
Carbon Preparation of Anti-corrosive Paints Results of Examination of Several Anti-
corrosive Paints Paints for Ship's Bottoms Anti-fouling Compositions Various Anti-cor-
rosive and Ship's Paints Official Standard Specifications for Ironwork Paints Index.
THE TESTING AND VALUATION OF RAW MATE-
RIALS USED IN PAINT AND COLOUR MANU-
FACTURE. By M. W. JONES, RC.S. A Book for the
Laboratories of Colour Works. 88 pp. Crown 8vo. Price 5s. net.
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THE MANUFACTURE AND COMPARATIVE MERITS
OF WHITE LEAD AND ZINC WHITE PAINTS. By
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100 pp. Price 4s. net. (Post free, 4s. 3d. home ; 4s. 4d. abroad.)
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Chapters I., The Fundamental Principles of Painting in Oil. II., The Different Varieties of
White Leads The Dutch Process Grinding White Lead in Oil. III., Other Processes of
Manufacturing White Lead. IV., White Lead Substitutes Sophistication of White Lead-
Analysis of White Lead. V., White Lead Paints Their Merits and Defects. VI., Toxi-
cology of White Lead Hygienic Measures in its Manufacture and Use. VII., Zinc White
Its Preparation. IX., Zinc White Paint and Zinc White Coatings Their Merits and Defects
STUDENTS' HANDBOOK OF PAINTS, COLOURS, OILS
AND VARNISHES. By JOHN FURNELL. Crown 8vo. 12
Illustrations. 96 pp. Price 2s. 6d. net. (Post free, 2s. 9d. home and abroad.)
Varnishes and Drying Oils.
OIL CRUSHING, REFINING AND BOILING, THE
MANUFACTURE OF LINOLEUM, PRINTING AND
LITHOGRAPHIC INKS, AND INDIA-RUBBER
SUBSTITUTES. By JOHN GEDDES MC!NTOSH. Being
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VARNISH MATERIALS AND OIL-VARNISH MAKING.
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and Kindred Industries". Demy 8vo. 70 Illustrations. 220 pp.
Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. lOd. home ; 11s. 3d. abroad.)
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Chapter I., Introduction. II., Amber and Amber Oil Varnishes. III., Copal, etc. IV.,
Resins Assorting, Cleaning and Fusing. V., Asphaltum, Coal-Tar, Pitch, Rubber, etc. VI.,
Oil- Varnish Making General Instructions. VII., Copal Oil Varnish. VIII., Rosin Oil Varnish
Brunswick Black Super Black Japan. IX., Testing Varnish Utilisation of Residues.
DRYING OILS, BOILED OIL AND SOLID AND
LIQUID DRIERS. By L. E. ANDES. Expressly Written
for this Series of Special Technical Books, and the Publishers hold
the Copyright for English and Foreign Editions. Forty-two Illustra-
tions. 342pp. Demy 8vo. Pricel2s.6d.net. (Post free, 13s. home ;
13s. 3d. abroad.)
Contents.
Properties of the Drying Oils ; Cause of the Drying Property ; Absorption of Oxygen ;
Behaviour towards Metallic Oxides, etc. The Properties of and Methods for obtaining the
Drying Oils Production of the Drying Oils by Expression and Extraction; Refining and
'Bleaching; Oil Cakes and Meal; The Refining and Bleaching of the Drying Oils; The
Bleaching of Linseed Oil The Manufacture of Boiled Oil; The Preparation of Drying Oils
for Use in the Grinding of Paints and Artists' Colours and in the Manufacture of Varnishes
by Heating over a Fire or by Steam, by the Cold Process, by the Action of Air, and by Means
of the Electric Current ; The Driers used in Boiling Linseed Oil ; The Manufacture of Boiled
Oil and the Apparatus therefor ; Livache's Process for Preparing a Good Drying Oil and its
Practical Application The Preparation of Varnishes for Letterpress. Lithographic and Copper-
plate Printing, for Oilcloth and Waterproof Fabrics ; The Manufacture of Thickened Linseed
Oil, Burnt Oil, Stand Oil by Fire Heat, Superheated Steam, and by a Current of Air Behaviour
of the Drying Oils and Boiled Oils towards Atmospheric Influences, Water, Acids and Alkalies
Boiled Oil Substitutes The Manufacture of Solid and Liquid Driers from Linseed Oil and
Rosin; Linolic Acid Compounds of the Driers The Adulteration and Examination of the
Drying Oils and Boiled Oil.
Oils, Fats, Waxes, Greases,
Petroleum.
LUBRICATING OILS, FATS AND GREASES: Their
Origin, Preparation, Properties, Uses and Analyses. A Handbook for
Oil Manufacturers, Refiners and Merchants, and the Oil and Fat
Industry in General. By GEORGE H. HURST, F.C.S. Second Revised
and Enlarged Edition. Sixty-five Illustrations. 317 pp. Demy 8va
Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post tree, 11s. home; 11s. 3d. abroad.)
Contents.
Introductory Hydrocarbon Oils Scotch Shale Oils Petroleum Vegetable and
Animal Oils Testing and Adulteration of Oils Lubricating Greases Lubrication -
Appendices Index.
TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM : Oil Fields of the
World Their History, Geography and Geology Annual Production
and Development Oil-well Drilling Transport. By HENRY NEU-
BERGER and HENRY NOALHAT. Translated from the French by J. G.
MclNTOSH. 550 pp. 153 Illustrations. 26 Plates. Super Royal 8vo.
Price 21s. net. (Post free, 21s. 9d. home ; 23s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
Study of the Petroliferous Strata,
Excavations Hand Excavation or Hand Digging of Oil Wells.
Methods of Boring:.
Accidents Boring Accidents Methods of preventing them Methods of remedying them
Explosives and the use of the "Torpedo" Levigation Storing and Transport of Petroleum
General Advice Prospecting, Management and carrying on of Petroleum Boring Operations.
General Data Customary Formulas Memento. Practical Part. General Data
bearing on Petroleum Glossary of Technical Terms used in the Petroleum Industry Copious
Index.
MINERAL WAXES : Their Preparation and Uses. By
RUDOLF GREGORIUS. Translated from the German. Crown 8vo. 250
pp. 32 Illustrations. Price 6s. net. (Post free, 6s. 4d. home ;
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Contents.
Ozokerite Ceresine Paraffin Refining Paraffin Mineral Wax Appliances for
Extracting:, Distilling and Refining- Ozokerite Uses of Ceresine, Paraffin and
Mineral Waxes Paint and Varnish Removers Leather and Piston=Rod Greases-
Recipes for Silk, Cotton and Linen Dressings Candles.
THE PRACTICAL COMPOUNDING OF OILS, TAL-
LOW AND GREASE FOR LUBRICATION, ETC.
By AN EXPERT OIL REFINER. Second Edition. 100 pp. Demy 8vo.
Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
Contents.
Introductory Remarks on the General Nomenclature of Oils, Tallow and Greases
suitable for Lubrication Hydrocarbon Oils Animal and Fish Oils Compound
Oils Vegetable Oils Lamp Oils Engine Tallow, Solidified Oils and Petroleum
Jelly Machinery Greases: Loco and Anti -friction Clarifying and Utilisation
of Waste Fats, Oils, Tank Bottoms, Orainings of Barrels and Drums, Pickings
Up, Dregs, etc. The Fixing and Cleaning of Oil Tanks, etc. Appendix and
General Information.
ANIMAL FATS AND OILS: Their Practical Production,
Purification and Uses for a great Variety of Purposes. Their Pro-
perties, Falsification and Examination. Translated from the German
of Louis EDGAR ANDES. Sixty-two Illustrations. 240 pp. Second
Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. net.
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THE MANUFACTURE OF LUBRICANTS, SHOE
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RICHARD BRUNNER. Translated from the Sixth German Edition by
CHAS. SALTER. 10 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 170 pp. Price 7s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
THE OIL MERCHANTS' MANUAL AND OIL TRADE
READY RECKONER. Compiled by FRANK F. SHERRIFF.
Second Edition Revised and Enlarged. Demy 8vo. 214 pp. 1904.
With Two Sheets of Tables. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd.
home ; 8s. 3d. abroad.)
Contents.
Trade Terms and Customs Tables to Ascertain Value of Oil sold per cwt. or ton Specific
iffine
Gravity Tables Percentage Tare Tables Petroleum Tables Paraffine and Benzoline Calcu-
lations Customary Drafts Tables "
of Circular Tanks, Tables, etc. etc.
lations Customary Drafts Tables for Calculating Allowance for Dirt, Water, etc. Capacity
" s, Ta "
VEGETABLE PATS AND OILS: Their Practical Prepara-
tion, Purification and Employment for Various Purposes, their Proper-
ties, Adulteration and Examination. Translated from the German of
Louis EDGAR ANDES. Ninety-four Illustrations. 340 pp. Second
Edition. Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 11s. home;
11s. 6d. abroad.)
EDIBLE FATS AND OILS : Their Composition, Manufacture
and Analysis. By W. H. SIMMONS, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S.
[In preparation.
The Contents will include the Constitution of Oils and Fats ; Raw Materials ; Bleaching,
Deodorising and Refining ; Butter ; Lard ; Margarine ; Salad Oils ; Chocolate Cream ;
Analysis of Raw Materials ; Statistics.
Essential Oils and Perfumes*
THE CHEMISTRY OF ESSENTIAL OILS AND ARTI-
FICIAL PERFUMES. By ERNEST J. PARRY, B.Sc.
(Lond.), F.I.C., F.C.S. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 552 pp.
20 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. home ;
13s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
Chapter I. The General Properties of Essential Oils. II. Compounds occurring in
Essential Oils : (I.) The Terpenes Sesquiterpenes Olefinic Terpenes and Sesquiterpenes
Pinene (II.) The Camphor Series (III.) The Geraniol and Citronellol Group The Geraniol
and Citronellol Series (IV.) Benzene Compounds : Cymene Phenols and their Derivatives
Phenols with Nine Carbon Atoms Phenols with Ten Carbon Atoms Alcohols Aldehydes
Ketones Acids (V.) Aliphatic Compounds : Alcohols Acids Aldehydes Sulphur Com-
pounds Other Bodies. III. The Preparation of Essential Oils : Expression Distillation
Extraction. IV. The Analysis of Essential Oils : Specific Gravity Optical Metnods :
(1) Refraction (2) Polarimetry, Melting and Solidifying Points Boiling Point and Distillation
Quantitative Estimations of Constituents Aldehydes, Ketones and Oils on which a Direct
Determination can be made. V. Systematic Study of the Essential Oils. VI
Chemistry of Artificial Perfumes. Appendix I. Table on Constants of the more
important Essential Oils. Appendix II. Table of Pharmacopoeial Standards. Index.
Soaps.
SOAPS. A Practical Manual of the Manufacture of Domestic,
Toilet and other Soaps. By GEORGE H. HURST, F.C.S. 2nd edition.
390 pp. 66 Illustrations. Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. home ;
13s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
Introductory Soap=maker's Alkalies Soap Fats and Oils Perfumes Water as
a Soap Material Soap Machinery Technology of Soap- making Glycerine in Soap
Lyes Laying out a Soap Factory Soap Analysis Appendices.
TEXTILE SOAPS AND OILS. Handbook on the Prepara-
tion, Properties and Analysis of the Soaps and Oils used in Textile
Manufacturing, Dyeing and Printing. By GEORGE H. HURST, F.C.S.
Crown 8vo. 195 pp. 1904. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ;
5s. 6d. abroad.)
THE HANDBOOK OF SOAP MANUFACTURE. By
WM. H. SIMMONS, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S. and H. A. APPLETON. Demy
8vo. 160 pp. 27 Illustrations. Price 8s. 6d. net. (Post free,
8s. lOd. home ; 9s. abroad.)
Contents.
Definition of Soap. Properties Hydrolysis Detergent Action. Constitution of Oils
and Fats, and their Saponification. Researches of Chevreul and Berthelot Mixed
Glycerides Modern Theories of Saponification Hydrolysis accelerated by (1) Heat or
Electricity. (2) Ferments, Castor-seed Ferment. Steapsin Emulsin and (3) Chemical
8
Contents of "Handbook of Soap Manufacture" continued.
Reagents, Sulphuric Acid, Twitchell's Reagent, Hydrochloric Acid, Lime, Magnesia, Zinc
Oxide, Soda and Potash. Raw Materials used in Soap-making. Fats and Oils Waste
Fats Fatty Acids Less-known Oils and Fats of Limited Use Various New Fats and Oils
Suggested for Soap-making Rosin Alkali (Caustic and Carbonated) Water Salt Soap-
stock. Bleaching and Treatment of Raw Materials Intended for Soap-making.
Palm Oil Cottonseed Oil Cottonseed " Foots" Vegetable Oils Animal Fats Bone Fat
Rosin. Soap- making. Classification of Soaps Direct combination of Fatty Acids with
Alkali Cold Process Soaps Saponification under Increased or Diminished Pressure Soft
Soap Marine Soap Hydrated Soaps, Smooth and Marbled Pasting or Saponification
Graining Out Boiling on Strength Fitting Curd Soaps Curd Mottled Blue and Grey
Mottled Soaps Milling Base Yellow Household Soaps Resting of Pans and Settling of
Soap Utilisation of Nigres Transparent Soaps Saponifying Mineral Oil Electrical Pro-
duction of Soap. Treatment of Settled Soap. Cleansing Crutching Liquoring of Soaps
Filling Neutralising, Colouring and Perfuming Disinfectant Soaps Framing Slabbing
Barring Open and Close Piling Drying Stamping Cooling. Toilet, Textile and
Miscellaneous Soaps. Toilet Soaps Cold Process Soaps Settled Boiled Soaps Remelted
Soaps Milled Soaps Drying, Milling and Incorporating Colour, Perfumes, or Medicaments
Perfumes Colouring Matter Neutralising and Super-fatting Material Compressing
Cutting Textile Soaps Soaps for Woollen, Cotton and Silk Industries Patent Textile
Soaps Stamping Medicated Soaps Ether Soap Floating Soaps Shaving Soaps
Miscellaneous Soaps. Soap Perfumes. Essential Oils- Source and Preparation Properties
Artificial and Synthetic Perfumes. Glycerine Manufacture and Purification. Treat-
ment of Lyes Evaporation Crude Glycerine Distillation Distilled and Dynamite
Glycerine Chemically Pure Glycerine Animal Charcoal for Decolorisation Glycerine
resultant from other methods of Saponification Yield of Glycerine from Fats and Oils.
Analysis of Raw Materials, Soap and Glycerine. Fats and Oils Alkalies and Alkali
Salts Essential Oils Soap Lyes Crude Glycerine. Statistics of the Soap Industry.
Appendix A. Comparison of Degrees Twaddell, Beaume and Actual Densities.
Appendix B. Comparison of Different Thermometric Scales. Appendix C. Table of
the Specific Gravities of Solutions of Caustic Soda. Appendix D. Table of Strength
of Caustic Potash Solutions at 60 F. Index.
Cosmetical Preparations.
COSMETICS : MANUFACTURE, EMPLOYMENT
AND TESTING OF ALL COSMETIC MATERIALS
AND COSMETIC SPECIALITIES. Translated
from the German of Dr. THEODOR KOLLER. Crown 8vo. 262 pp.
Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
Purposes and Uses of, and Ingredients used in the Preparation of Cosmetics Preparation of
Perfumes by Pressure, Distillation, Maceration, Absorption or Enfleurage, and Extraction
Methods Chemical and Animal Products used in the Preparation of Cosmetics Oils and Fats
used in the Preparation of Cosmetics General Cosmetic Preparations Mouth Washes and
Tooth Pastes Hair Dyes, Hair Restorers and Depilatories Cosmetic Adjuncts and
Specialities Colouring Cosmetic Preparations Antiseptic Washes and Soaps Toilet and
Hygienic Soaps Secret Preparations for Skin, Complexion, Teeth, Mouth, etc. Testing and
Examining the Materials Employed in the Manufacture of Cosmetics Index.
Glue, Bone Products and
Manures.
GLUE AND GLUE TESTING. By SAMUEL RIDEAL, D.Sc.
(Lond.), F.I.C. Fourteen Engravings. 144 pp. Demy 8vo. Price
10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. lOd. home ; 11s. abroad.)
Contents.
Constitution and Properties : Definitions and Sources, Gelatine, Chondrin and Allied
Bodies, Physical and Chemical Properties, Classification, Grades and Commercial Varieties
Raw Materials and Manufacture : Glue Stock, Lining, Extraction, Washing and Clari-
fying, Filter Presses, Water Supply, Use of Alkalies, Action of Bacteria and of Antiseptics,
Various Processes, Cleansing, Forming, Drying, Crushing, etc., Secondary Products Uses
of Glue : Selection and Preparation for Use, Carpentry, Veneering, Paper-Making, Book-
binding, Printing Rollers, Hectographs, Match Manufacture, Sandpaper, etc., Substitutes for
other Materials, Artificial Leather and Caoutchouc Gelatine : General Characters, Liquid
Gelatine, Photographic Uses, Size, Tanno-, Chrome and Formo-Gelatine, Artificial Silk,
Cements, Pneumatic Tyres, Culinary, Meat Extracts, Isinglass, Medicinal and other Uses,
Bacteriology Glue Testing : Review of Processes, Chemical Examination, Adulteration,.
Physical Tests, Valuation of Raw Materials Commercial Aspects.
9
BONE PRODUCTS AND MANURES : An Account of the
most recent Improvements in the Manufacture of Fat, Glue, Animal
Charcoal, Size, Gelatine and Manures. By THOMAS LAMBERT, Techni-
cal and Consulting Chemist. Illustrated by Twenty-one Plans and
Diagrams. 162 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd.
home ; 8s. abroad.)
Contents.
Chemical Composition of Bones Arrangement of Factory Properties of Glue Glutin
and Chondrin Skin Glue Liming of Skins Washing Boiling of Skins Clarification of Glue
Liquors Glue-Boiling and Clarifying-House Specification of a Glue Size Uses and Pre
paration and Composition of Size Concentrated Size Properties of Gelatine Preparation of
Skin Gelatine Drying Bone Gelatine Selecting Bones Crushing Dissolving Bleaching
Boiling Properties of Glutin and Chondrin Testing of Glues and Gelatines The Uses of
Glue, Gelatine and Size in Various Trades Soluble and Liquid Glues Steam and Waterproof
Glues Manures Importation of Food Stuffs Sjils Germination Plant Life Natural
Manures Water and Nitrogen in Farmyard Manure Full Analysis of Farmyard Manure
Action on Crops Water-Closet System Sewage Manure Green Manures Artificial
Manures Mineral Manures Ni rogenous Matters Shoddy Hoofs and Horns Leather
Waste Dried Meat Dried Blood Superphosphates Composition Manufacture Common
Raw Bones Degreased Bones Crude Fat Refined Fat Degelatimsed Bones Animal
Charcoal Bone Superphosphates Guanos Dried Animal Products Potash Compounds
Sulphate of Ammonia Extraction in Zacuo French and British Gelatines compared Index.
Chemicals, Waste Products and
Agricultural Chemistry.
REISSUE OF CHEMICAL ESSAYS OF C. W.
SCHEELE. First Published in English in 1786. Trans-
lated from the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, with Additions. 300
pp. Demy 8vo. Price 5s. net. (Post free 5s. 6d. home ; 5s. 9d. abroad.)
Contents.
Memoir : C. W. Scheele and his work (written for this edition by J. G. Mclntosh) On
Fluor Mineral and its Acid On Fluor Mineral Chemical Investigation of Fluor Acid,
with a View to the Earth which it Yields, by Mr. Wiegler Additional Information
Concerning Fluor Minerals On Manganese, Magnesium, or Magnesia Vitrariorum On
Arsenic and its Acid Remarks upon Salts of Benzoin On Silex, Clay and Alum Analysis
of the Calculus Vesical Method of Preparing Mercurius Dulcis Via Humida Cheaper and
more Convenient Method of Preparing Pulvis Algarothi Experiments upon Molybdaena
Experiments on Plumbago Method of Preparing a New Green Colour Of the De-
composition of Neutral Salts by Unslaked Lime and Iron On the Quantity of Pure Air which
is Daily Present in our Atmosphere On Milk and its Acid On the Acid of Saccharum Lactis
On the Constituent Parts of Lapis Ponderosus or Tungsten Experiments and Observations
on Ether Index.
THE MANUFACTURE OF ALUM AND THE SUL-
PHATES AND OTHER SALTS OF ALUMINA AND
IRON. Their Uses and Applications as Mordants in Dyeing
and Calico Printing, and their other Applications in the Arts Manufac-
tures, Sanitary Engineering, Agriculture and Horticulture. Translated
from the French of LUCIEN GESCHWIND. 195 Illustrations. 400 pp.
Royal 8vo. Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. home; 13s. 6d. abroad.)
AMMONIA AND ITS COMPOUNDS : Their Manufacture
and Uses. By CAMILLE VINCENT, Professor at the Central School of
Arts and Manufactures, Paris. Translated from the French by M. J.
SALTER. Royal 8vo. 114 pp. Thirty-two Illustrations. Price 5s. net.
(Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
General Considerations : Various Sources of Ammoniacal Products ; Human Urine
as a Source of Ammonia Extraction of Ammoniacal Products from Sewage-
Extraction of Ammonia from Gas Liquor Manufacture of Ammoniacal Com-
pounds from Bones, Nitrogenous Waste, Beetroot Wash and Peat Manufacture of
Caustic Ammonia, and Ammonium Chloride, Phosphate and Carbonate Recovery
of Ammonia from the Ammonia-Soda Mother Liquors Index.
10
INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL. A Practical Manual on the
Production and Use of Alcohol for Industrial Purposes and for Use as
a Heating Agent, as an Illuminant and as a Source of Motive Power.
By J. G. M'lNTOSH, Lecturer on Manufacture and Applications of
Industrial Alcohol at The Polytechnic, Regent Street, London.
Demy 8vo. 1907. 250 pp. With 75 Illustrations and 25 Tables.
Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. 9d. home ; 8s. abroad.)
Contents.
Alcohol and its Properties. Ethylic Alcohol Absolute Alcohol Adulterations-
Properties of Alcohol Fractional Distillation Destructive Distillation Products of Com-
bustion Alcoholometry Proof Spirit Analysis of Alcohol Table showing Correspondence
between the Specific Gravity and Per Cents, of Alcohol over and under Proof Other
Alcohol Tables. Continuous Aseptic and Antiseptic Fermentation and Sterilisation
in Industrial Alcohol Manufacture. The Manufacture of Industrial Alcohol from
Beets. Beet Slicing Machines Extraction of Beet Juice by Maceration, by Diffusion
Fermentation in Beet Distilleries Plans of Modern Beet Distillery. The Manufacture of
Industrial Alcohol from Grain. Plan of Modern Grain Distillery. The Manufacture of
Industrial Alcohol from Potatoes. The Manufacture of Industrial Alcohol from
Surplus Stocks of Wine, Spoilt Wine, Wine Marcs, and from Fruit in General. The Manu-
facture of Alcohol from the Sugar Cane and Sugar Cane Molasses Plans. Plant, etc.,
for the Distillation and Rectification of Industrial Alcohol. The Caffey and other
" Patent " Stills Intermittent versus Continuous Rectification Continuous Distillation
Rectification of Spent Wash. The Manufacture and Uses of Various Alcohol
Derivatives, Ether, Haloid Ethers, Compound Ethers, Chloroform Methyl and Amyl
Alcohols and their Ethereal Salts, Acetone Barbet's Ether, Methyl Alcohol and Acetone
Rectifying Stills. The Uses of Alcohol in Manufactures, etc. List of Industries in
which Alcohol is used, with Key to Function of Alcohol in each Industry. The Uses of
Alcohol for Lighting:, Heating, and Motive Power.
ANALYSIS OF RESINS AND BALSAMS. Translated
from the German of Dr. KARL DIETERICH. Demy 8vo. 340 pp.
Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. 3d. abroad.)
MANUAL OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. By
HERBERT INGLE, F.I.C., Late Lecturer on Agricultural Chemistry, the
Leeds University ; Lecturer in the Victoria University. Second
Edition, with additional matter relating to Tropical Agriculture, etc.
438pp. 11 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free,
8s. home ; 8s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
Properties and Characteristics of the Elements. Hydrogen Oxygen Heat of Com-
bustion Nitrogen Carbon Sulphur Phosphorous Potassium Sodium Fluorine
Magnesium Iron Chlorine Aluminium Silicon Borax. The Atmosphere. Nitrogen-
Oxygen Argon Carbon Dioxide Ammonia Nitric Acid Ozone Solid Matter. The Soil.
Classification of Rocks Quartz Felspar Mica Clay Sandstones Shales Limestones
Calcareous Rocks Transported Soils. Formation of Soils. By Water, Air, Earth
Worms, Vegetation and Bacteria Sand Clay Limestone Humus Classification of Soils.
Reactions in Soijs. Diffusion Gravitation Nitrification Soil Gases Water of the Soil-
Biology of the Soil Electrolytic Dissociation Theory Mass Action. Analysis of Soils.
Sampling Mechanical and Chemical Analyses Determination of Silica, Alumina, Ferric
Oxide, Total Potash and Phosphoric Acid, Lime, Magnesia, Calcium Carbonate, Sulphuric
Acid, Nitrates and Nitrites. Natural Manures. Improvement of Soils Farmyard Manure
Composition of Animal Excreta Use of Litter, Straw, Peat, Bracken, Leaves, Sawdust,
Tanners' Refuse Fermentation and Preservation of Farmyard Manure. Other Organic
Manures. Guano Poultry and Fish Manures Seaweed Dried Blood Bones Meat
Guano Hair Soot Oil-cakes. Nitrogenous Manures. Sodium Nitrate Ammonium
Sulphate Phosphatic Manures Tricalcum Phosphate Coprolites Phosphorites Mineral
Superphosphates Basic Slag Potash Manures Composition of Principal Potash Salts
Various Manures Common Salt Gypsum Limestone Ferrous Sulphate Gas Lime
Copper Sulphate. Analysis of Manures. Constituents Determination of Nitrogen
Phosphoric Acid Potassium Valuation of Manures from Analysis. Constituents of
Plants. Carbohydrates Sugars Starch Dextrin Glycogen Inulin Gums Cellulose
Glucose Fructose Cane Sugar Meletrose Arabinose Xylose Lignose Pectose Gly-
cerol Waxes Organic Acids and their Salts. Essential Oils and Resins. Terpenes
Oxygenated Essential Oils Essential Oils containing Sulphur Resins. Nitrogenous Sub-
stances. Albuminoids Amides Alkaloids Chlorophyll. The Plant. Germination
Roots Osmotic Pressure Leaves Assimilation Flowers. Crops. Cereals Root Crops
Fodder Crops Hay Ventilating Stacks Silage Composition of Crops. The Animal.
Blood Bones Fatty Tissue Muscle Digestion Bile Urine. Foods and Feeding.
Composition of Oil-cake Bye-Products as Foods Digestibility of Foods Calorific Value of
Foods Feeding Standards Manurial Value of Foods. Milk and Milk Products. Fat-
Albuminoids Milk Sugar Chemical Composition of Cow's Milk Influence of Food, Season
and Milking Time Milk Products Cream Skimmed Milk Butter Butter-milk Cheese-
Condensed Milk Koumiss- -Milk Preservation. Analysis of Milk and Milk Products.
11
Milk Amount of Fat Determination of Total Solids, Specific Gravity, Proteids, Milk Sugar
Adulteration of Milk Detection of Preservatives Butter Butter Colouring Cheese
Milk Standards. Various Products used in Agriculture. Arsenious Oxide Bleaching
Powder Copper Salts Disinfectants Fungicides Iron Sulphate Mercuric Chloride
Plant Poisons. Appendix. Atomic Weights Hydrometer Scales Metric System
Solubilities. Tropical Agriculture, etc. Composition of Rain Water Irrigation Water-
Earth Worms Motion of Water in Soil Analysis of Soils Green Manuring Kraal Manure
Bats' Guano Artificial Manures The Plant Rice Maize Millet Cotton Flax Castor
Seeds Sunflower Composition of Various South African Grown Crops Ash Constituents of
Foods Variations in the Composition of Milk Butter Fat Bordeaux Mixture Insecticides.
THE UTILISATION OF WASTE PRODUCTS. A Treatise
on the Rational Utilisation, Recovery and Treatment of Waste Pro-
ducts of all kinds. By Dr. THEODOR ROLLER. Translated from the
Second Revised German Edition. Twenty-two Illustrations. Demy
8vo. 280 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. 3d.
abroad.)
THE MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICAL MANURES.
From the French of J. FRITSCH. With 70 Illustrations and 4 Plates.
[In preparation.
The Contents will include Superphosphates, Guanos, Nitrate of Soda, Dried Blood Sulphate
of Ammonia, Potashes, etc.
Writing Inks and Sealing Waxes.
INK MANUFACTURE : Including Writing, Copying, Litho-
graphic, Marking, Stamping, and Laundry Inks. By SIGMUND LEHNER.
Three Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 162 pp. Translated from the German
of the Fifth Edition. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 6d.
abroad.)
SEALING-WAXES, WAFERS AND OTHER ADHES-
IVES FOR THE HOUSEHOLD, OFFICE, WORK-
SHOP AND FACTORY. By H. C. STANDAGE. Crown
8vo. 96 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 4d. abroad.)
Contents.
Materials Used for Making: Sealing-- Waxes The Manufacture of Sealing- Waxes-
Wafers Notes on the Nature of the Materials Used in Making Adhesive Compounds Cements
for Use in the Household Office Gums, Pastes and Mucilages Adhesive Compounds for
Factory and Workshop Use.
Lead Ores and Compounds.
LEAD AND ITS COMPOUNDS. By THOS. LAMBERT,
Technical and Consulting Chemist. Demy 8vo. 226 pp. Forty Illus-
trations. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. 3d. abroad.)
Contents.
History Ores of Lead Geographical Distribution of the Lead Industry Chemical and
Physical Properties of Lead Alloys of Lead Compounds of Lead Dressing of Lead Ores
Smelting of Lead Ores Smelting in the Scotch or American Ore-hearth Smelting in the
Shaft or Blast Furnace Condensation of Lead Fume Desilverisation, or the Separation
of Silver from Argentiferous Lead Cupellation The Manufacture of Lead Pipes and
Sheets Protoxide of Lead Litharge and Massicot Red Lead or Minium Lead Poisoning
Lead Substitutes Zinc and its Compounds Pumice Stone Drying Oils and Siccatives
Oil of Turpentine Resin Classification of Mineral Pigments Analysis of Raw and Finished
Products Tables Index.
NOTES ON LEAD ORES : Their Distribution and Properties.
By JAS. FAIRIE, F.G.S. Crown 8vo. 64 pages. Price Is. net.
(Post free, Is. 3d. home ; Is. 4d. abroad.)
(White Lead and Zinc White Paints, see p. 4.)
12
Industrial Hygiene.
THE RISKS AND DANGERS TO HEALTH OP VARI-
OUS OCCUPATIONS AND THEIR PREVENTION.
By LEONARD A. PARRY, M.D., B.Sc. (Lond.). 196 pp. Demy 8vo.
Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
Contents.
Occupations which are Accompanied by the Generation and Scattering of Abnormal
Quantities of Dust Trades in which there is Danger of Metallic Poisoning Certain Chemi-
cal Trades Some Miscellaneous Occupations Trades in which Various Poisonous Vapours
are Inhaled General Hygienic Considerations Index.
Industrial Uses of Air, Steam and
Water.
DRYING BY MEANS OF AIR AND STEAM. Explana-
tions, Formulae, and Tables for Use in Practice. Translated from the
German of E. HAUSBRAND. Two folding Diagrams and Thirteen Tables.
Crown 8vo. 72 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home; 5s. 6d.
abroad.) Contents.
British and Metric Systems Compared Centigrade and Fahr. Thermometers Estimation
of the Maximum Weight of Saturated Aqueous Vapour which can be contained in 1 kilo,
of Air at Different Pressure and Temperatures Calculation of the Necessary Weight and
Volume of Air, and of the Least Expenditure of Heat, per Drying Apparatus with Heated
Air, at the Atmospheric Pressure : A , With the Assumption that the Air is Completely Satur-
ated with Vapour both before Entry and after Exit from the Apparatus B, When the
Atmospheric Air is Completely Saturated before entry, but at its exit is only f , \ or J Saturated
C, When the Atmospheric Air is nof Saturated with Moisture before Entering the Drying
Apparatus Drying Apparatus, in which, in the Drying Chamber, a Pressure is Artificially
Created, Higher or Lower than that of the Atmosphere Drying by Means of Superheated
Steam, without Air Heating Surface, Velocity of the Air Current, Dimensions of the Drying
Room, Surface of the Drying Material, Losses of Heat Index.
(See also " Evaporating, Condensing and Cooling Apparatus," p. 26.)
PURE AIR, OZONE AND WATER. A Practical Treatise
of their Utilisation and Value in Oil, Grease, Soap, Paint, Glue and
other Industries. By W. B. COWELL. Twelve Illustrations. Crown
8vo. 85 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
Atmospheric Air; Lifting of Liquids ; Suction Process; Preparing Blown Oils; Preparing
Siccative Drying Oils Compressed Air ; Whitewash Liquid Air; Retrocession Purification
of Water; Water Hardness Fleshings and Bones Ozonised Air in the Bleaching and De-
odorising of Fats, Glues, etc. ; Bleaching Textile Fibres Appendix : Air and Gases ; Pressure
of Air at Various Temperatures ; Fuel; Table of Combustibles; Saving of Fuel by Heating
Feed Water, Table of Solubilities of Scale Making Minerals; British Thermal Units Tables ;
Volume of the Flow of Steam into the Atmosphere: Temperature of Steam Index.
THE INDUSTRIAL USES OF WATER. COMPOSI-
TION EFFECTS TROUBLES REMEDIES RE-
SIDUARY WATERS PURIFICATION ANALYSIS.
By H. DE LA Coux. Royal 8vo. Translated from the French and
Revised by ARTHUR MORRIS. 364 pp. 135 Illustrations. Price 10s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 11s. home; 11s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
Chemical Action of Water in Nature and in Industrial Use Composition of Waters-
Solubility of Certain Salts in Water Considered from the Industrial Point of View Effects on
the Boiling of Water Effects of Water in the Industries Difficulties with Water Feed
Water for Boilers Water in Dyeworks, Print Works, and Bleach Works Water in the
Textile Industries and in Conditioning Water in Soap Works Water in Laundries and
Washhouses Water in Tanning Water in Preparing Tannin and Dyewood Extracts Water
in Papermaking Water in Photography Water in Sugar Refining Water in Making Ices
and Beverages Water in Cider Making Water in Brewing Water in Distilling Preliminary
Treatment and Apparatus Substances Used for Preliminary Chemical Purification Com-
mercial Specialities and their Employment Precipitation of Matters in Suspension in Water
Apparatus for the Preliminary Chemical Purification of Water Industrial Filters Indus-
trial Sterilisation of Water Residuary Waters and their Purification Soil Filtration
Purification by Chemical Processes Analyses Index.
(See Books on Smoke Prevention, Engineering and Metallurgy, p. 26, etc.)
13
X Rays.
PRACTICAL X RAY WORK. By FRANK T. ADDYMAN,
B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C., Member of the Roentgen Society of London ;
Radiographer to St. George's Hospital; Demonstrator of Physics and
Chemistry, and Teacher of Radiography in St. George's Hospital
Medical School. Demy 8vo. Twelve Plates from Photographs of X Ray
Work. Fifty-two Illustrations. 200 pp. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free,
10s. lOd. home; 11s. 3d. abroad.)
Contents.
Historical Work leading up to the Discovery of the X Rays The Discovery Appara =
tus and its Management Electrical Terms Sources of Electricity Induction Coils
Electrostatic Machines Tubes Air Pumps Tube Holders and Stereoscopic Apparatus
Fluorescent Screens Practical X Ray Work Installations Radioscopy Radiography
X Rays in Dentistry X Rays in Chemistry X Rays in War Index.
List of Plates.
Frontispiece Congenital Dislocation of Hip-Joint. I., Needle in Finger. II., Needle in
Foot. III., Revolver Bullet in Calf and Leg. IV., A Method of Localisation. V , Stellate
Fracture of Patella showing shadow of "Strapping". VI., Sarcoma. VII., Six-weeks-old
Injury to Elbow showing new Growth of Bone. VIII., Old Fracture of Tibia and Fibula
badly set. IX., Heart Shadow. X., Fractured Femur showing Grain of Splint. XI., Bar-
rell's Method of Localisation.
India-Rubber and Gutta Percha.
INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA PERCHA. Second
English Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Based on the French work of
T. SEELIGMANN, G. LAMY TORRILHON and H. FALCONNET by JOHN
GEDDES MC!NTOSH. Royal 8vo. 100 Illustrations. 400 pages. Price
12s.6d.net. (Post free, 13s. home ; 13s. 6d. abroad.) [Just published.
Contents.
India- Rubber. Indiarubber, Latex Definitions Laticiferous Vessels Botanical Origin
Habitats Methods of obtaining the Latex Methods of Preparing Raw or Crude India-
rubber Rubber Cultivation in Various Countries Climatology Soil Rational Culture and
Acclimatisation of the Different Species of Indiarubber Plants Classification of the Com-
mercial Species of Raw Rubber Physical and Chemical Properties of the Latex and of
Indiarubber General Considerations Mechanical Transformation of Natural Rubber into
Washed or Normal Rubber (Purification) Softening, Cutting, Washing, Drying, Storage
Mechanical Transformation of Normal Rubber into Masticated Rubber Vulcanisation of
Normal Rubber Chemical and Physical Properties of Vulcanised Rubber Hardened Rubber
or Ebonite Considerations on Mineralisation and Other Mixtures Coloration and Dyeing
Analysis of Natural or Normal Rubber and Vulcanised Rubber Rubber Substitutes
Imitation Rubber Analysis of Indiarubber.
Gutta Percha. Definition of Gutta Percha Botanical Origin Habitat Climatology
Soil Rational Culture Methods of Collection Felling and Ringing versus Tapping Extrac-
tion of Gutta Percha from Leaves by Toluene, etc. Classification of the Different Species of
Commercial Gutta Percha Physical and Chemical Properties of Gutta Percha Mechanical
Treatment of Gutta Percha Methods of Analysing Gutta Percha Gutta Perchr Substitutes.
Leather Trades.
PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE LEATHER IN-
DUSTRY. By A. M. VILLON. Translated by FRANK T.
ADDYMAN, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C., F.C.S. ; and Corrected by an Emi-
nent Member of the Trade. 500 pp., royal 8vo. 123 Illustrations.
Price 21s. net. (Post free, 21s. 6d. home ; 22s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
Preface Translator's Preface List of Illustrations.
Part I., Materials used in Tanning Skins: Skin and its Structure; Skins used in
Tanning; Various Skins and their Uses Tannin and Tanning Substances: Tannin; Barks
(Oak); Barks other than Oak; Tanning Woods; Tannin-bearing Leaves; Excrescences;
Tan-bearing Fruits; Tan-bearing Roots and Bulbs; Tanning Juices; Tanning Substances
used in Various Countries; Tannin Extracts; Estimation of Tannin and Tannin Principles.
Part II., Tanning The Installation of a Tannery: Tan Furnaces; Chimneys, Boilers,
etc.; Steam Engines Grinding and Trituration of Tanning Substances: Cutting up Bark;
Grinding Bark; The Grinding of Tan Woods; Powdering Fruit, Galls and Grains; Notes on
the Grinding of Bark Manufacture of Sole Leather: Soaking; Sweating and Unhairing;
Plumping and Colouring; Handling; Tanning; Tanning Elephants' Hides; Drying;
Striking or Pinning Manufacture of Dressing Leather: Soaking; Depilation; New Pro-
cesses for the Depilation of Skins; Tanning; Cow Hides; Horse Hides; Goat Skins; Manu-
facture of Split Hides On Various Methods of Tanning: Mechanical Methods; Physical
Methods; Chemical Methods; Tanning with Extracts Quantity and Quality; Quantity;
Net Cost ; Quality of Leather Various Manipulations of Tanned Leather : Second Tanning ;
Grease Stains; Bleaching Leather; Waterproofing Leather; Weighting Tanned Leather;
Preservation of Leather Tanning Various Skins.
14
Part III., Currying Waxed Calf: Preparation; Shaving; Stretching or Slicking;
Oiling the Grain ; Oiling the Flesh Side; Whitening and Graining; Waxing; Finishing; Dry
Finishing; Finishing in Colour; Cost White Calf: Finishing in White Cow Hide for
Upper Leathers: Black Cow Hide; White Cow Hide; Coloured Cow Hide Smooth Cow
Hide Black Leather Miscellaneous Hides: Horse; Goat; Waxed Goat Skin; Matt Goat
Skin Russia Leather: Russia Leather; Artificial Russia Leather.
Part IV., Enamelled, Hungary and Chamoy Leather, Morocco, Parchment, Furs
and Artificial Leather Enamelled Leather: Varnish Manufacture; Application of the
Enamel; Enamelling in Colour Hungary Leather: Preliminary; Wet Work or Prepara-
tion; Aluming; Dressing or Loft Work; Tallowing; Hungary Leather from Various Hides
Tawing: Preparatory Operations; Dressing; Dyeing Tawed Skins; Rugs Chamoy Leather
Morocco: Preliminary Operations, Morocco Tanning; Mordants used in Morocco Manu-
facture; Natural Colours used in Morocco Dyeing; Artificial Colours; Different Methods
of Dyeing; Dyeing with Natural Colours; Dyeing with Aniline Colours; Dyeing with
Metallic Salts; Leather Printing ; Finishing Morocco ; Shagreen ; Bronzed Leather Gilding
and Silvering: Gilding; Silvering; Nickel and Cobalt Parchment Furs and Furriery:
Preliminary Remarks; Indigenous Furs; Foreign Furs from Hot Countries; Foreign Furs
from Cold Countries; Furs from Birds' Skins; Preparation of Furs; Dressing; Colouring;
Preparation of Birds' Skins; Preservation of Furs Artificial Leather: Leather made from
Scraps; Compressed Leather; American Cloth; Papier Mache; Linoleum; Artificial Leather.
Part V., Leather Testing and the Theory of Tanning Testing and Analysis of Leather ;
Physical Testing of Tanned Leather; Chemical Analysis The Theory of Tanning and the
other Operations of the Leather and Skin Industry: Theory of Soaking; Theory of Un-
hairing; Theory of Swelling; Theory of Handling; Theory of Tanning; Theory of the
Action of Tannin on the Skin; Theory of Hungary Leather Making; Theory of Tawing;
Theory of Chamoy Leather Making; Theory of Mineral Tanning.
Part VI., Uses of Leather Machine Belts: Manufacture of Belting; Leather Chain
Belts; Various Belts; Use of Belts Boot and Shoe-making: Boots and Shoes; Laces
Saddlery: Composition of a Saddle; Construction of a Saddle Harness : The Pack Saddle-
Harness Military Equipment Glove Making Carriage Building Mechanical Uses.
Appendix, The World's Commerce in Leather Europe; America; Asia; Africa;
Australasia Index.
THE LEATHER WORKER'S MANUAL. Being a Com-
pendium of Practical Recipes and Working Formulae for Curriers,
Bootmakers, Leather Dressers, Blacking Manufacturers, Saddlers,
Fancy Leather Workers. By H. C. STANDAGE. Demy 8vo. 165 pp.
Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
Contents.
Blackings, Polishes, Glosses, Dressings, Renovators, etc., for Boot and Shoe Leather
Harness Blackings, Dressings, Greases, Compositions, Soaps, and Boot-top Powders and
Liquids, etc., etc. Leather Grinders' Sundries Currier's Seasonings, Blacking Compounds,
Dressings, Finishes, Glosses, etc. Dyes and Stains for Leather Miscellaneous Information
Chrome Tannage Index.
(See " Wood Products, Distillates and Extracts," p. 29).
Books on Pottery, Bricks,
Tiles, Glass, etc.
MODERN BRICKMAKING. By ALFRED B. SEARLE. Royal
8vo. 440 pages. 260 Illustrations Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free,
13s. home; 13s. 6d. abroad) [Just published.
Contents.
Nature and Selection of Clays. Lake and River Deposited Clays Rock Clays Shale
Fire-clay. The Colour of Bricks. Marls White, Yellow, and Red Bricks Terra-cotta
Blue Bricks. General Characteristics of Bricks. Fletton, Bath, and Accrington Bricks
London Stocks Plastic Bricks Sand-faced Bricks Glazed Bricks Fire Bricks Qualities
of Bricks. Sand, Breeze, and other Materials. Chalk-water General Manufacture of
Bricks Clay-washing Haulage Hand-Brickmaking Preparation of the Paste Pugging
Slop-moulding Sand-moulding Drying Shrinking Pressing Clamp Kilns Firing a
Clamp. Plastic Moulding by Machinery. Wire-cut Bricks Brick Machines and Plant-
Crushing Rolls Grinding Mills Wet Pans. Mixers and Feeders. Pug-mills, Mouthpiece
Presses, and Auger Machines Expression Roller Machines Cutting Tables Repres-ing
Screw Presses Eccentric Represses Die- Boxes. Drying. Transport. Stiff-plastic
Process. Mill Feeding Machines Grinding Mills Elevating Screens Sieves Revolving
Screens Stiff-plastic Brickmaking Machines Repressing Carrying-off Drying Kilns.
Semi = Dry or Semi-Plastic Process. Lamination Drying Troubles Moulds and Arrises.
The Dry or Dust Process. Lamination. Kilns. Down-draught Kilns Horizontal-draught
Kilns Continuous Kilns Up-draught Kilns Newcastle Kiln Gas-fired Kilns Semi-con-
tinuous Kilns Hoffmann Kilns Hot-air Flues Temporary and Permanent Flues Chamber
Kilns Steam Draught Mechanical Draught Gas-fired Continuous Kilns Muffle Kilns
Kiln Construction. Choice of Bricks Foundations Construction of Arches and Crowns
Fire Boxes Feed-holes Chimneys Selecting a Kiln. Setting and Burning. Up-draught
and Down-draught Kilns Horizontal-draught or Continuous Kiln Glazed Bricks. Firing.
15
Drying or Steaming Volatilization Full Fire Smoking Seger Cones Draught Gauge
Cooling. Vitrified Bricks for Special Work. Clinkers and Paving Bricks Acid-proof
Bricks. Fire-Bricks and Blocks. Materials Grog Grinding Blocks Drying Dipped
Fire-bricks Firing Silica Bricks Canister Bricks Bauxite and Magnesia Bricks
Neutral Fire-bricks. Glazed Bricks. Pressing Dipping Glazes Coloured Glazes Ma-
jolica Glazes Firing Salt-glazed Bricks. Perforated, Radial, and Hollow Bricks.
Fireproof Flooring. Moulded and Ornamental Bricks Drying Raw Clay Sources of
Difficulty and Loss. Improper Materials or Site Unsuitable Methods of Working Lack
of Capital Defective Accounting. Index.
THE MANUAL OF PRACTICAL POTTING. Compiled
by Experts, and Edited by CHAS. F. BINNS. Third Edition, Revised
and Enlarged. 200 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 17s. 6d. net. (Post free
17s. lOd. home; 18s. 3d. abroad.)
POTTERY DECORATING, A Description of all the Pro-
cesses for Decorating Pottery and Porcelain. By R. HAINBACH.
Translated from the German. Crown 8vo. 250 pp. Twenty-two
Illustrations. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
Contents.
Glazes and Engobes. Glazes and Their Composition Glaze Materials The Prepara-
tion of Glazes Coloured Glazes Engobes and Glazes for same Porcelain Glazes. Ceramic
Colours. Preparation of Pure Colours Underglaze Colours Applying the Colours on
Earthenware Glost Fire Colours Muffle Colours Decorating Porcelain with Metals
Decorating Porcelain by Electroplating Lustre Decorating on Porcelain Firing Muffle
Colours Imitation of Paintings on Porcelain Index.
ARCHITECTURAL POTTERY. Bricks, Tiles, Pipes, Ena-
melled Terra-cottas, Ordinary and Incrusted Quarries, Stoneware
Mosaics, Faiences and Architectural Stoneware. By LEON LEFBVRE.
Translated from the French by K. H. BIRD, M.A., and W. MOORE
BINNS. With Five Plates. 950 Illustrations in the Text, and numerous
estimates. 500 pp., royal 8vo. Price 15s. net. (Post free, 15s. 6d.
home; 16s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
Parti., Plain Undecorated Pottery. Chapter I., Clays : Sec. 1, Classification, General
Geological Remarks Classification, origin, locality; Sec. 2, General Properties and Composi-
tion : physical properties, contraction, analysis, influence of various substances on the
properties of clays; Sec. 3, Working of Clay Pits I. Open pits II. Underground pits
Mining Laws. Chapter II., Preparation of the Clay: Crushing cylinders and mills, pounding
machines Damping: damping machines Soaking, Shortening, Pugging: horse and steam
pug-mills, rolling cylinders Particulars of the above machines. Chapter III., Bricks : Sec. 1,
Manufacture (1) Hand and machine moulding. I. Machines working by compression : on soft
clay, on semi-firm clay, on firm clay, on dry clay. II. Expression machines Dies Cutting-
tables Particulars of the above machines Types of installations Estimates Planishing,
hand and steam presses, particulars (2) Drying Drying-roams in tiers, closed drying-rooms,
in tunnels, in galleries Detailed estimates of the various drying-rooms, comparison of prices
Transport from the machines to the drying-rooms (3) Firing I. In clamps II. In intermittent
kilns. A. Open : a. using wood ; b. coal ; b'. in clamps ; b". flame B. Closed : c. direct flame ;
c'. rectangular; c". round ; d. reverberatory III. Continuous kilns. C. With solid fuel : round
kiln, rectangular kiln, chimneys (plans and estimates) D. With gas fuel, Fillard kiln (plans and
estimates), Schneider kiln (plans and estimates), water-gas kiln Heat production of the kilns;
Sec. 2, Dimensions, Shapes, Colours, Decoration and Qualitv of Bricks Hollow bricks
Dimensions and prices of bricks, various shapes, qualities Various hollow bricks, dimensions,
resistance qualities; Sec. 3, Applications History Asia, Africa, America, Europe : Greek,
Roman, Byzantine, Turkish, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance. Chapter IV., Tiles: Sec. 1,
History; etc.
Part 11., Made=up or Decorated Pottery. Chapter I., General Remarks on the
Decoration of Pottery : Dips Glazes : composition, colouring, preparation, harmony with
pastes Special processes of decoration Enamels, opaque, transparent, colours, under-glaze,
over-glaze Other processes. Chapter II., Glazed and Enamelled Bricks History: Glazing
Enamelling Applications Enamelled tiles. Chapter III., Decorated Quarries: I. Paving
Quarries 1. Decorated with dips 2. Stoneware: A. Fired to stoneware; a. of slag base
Applications ; b, of melting clay Applications B. Plain or incrusted stoneware ; a. of special
clay (Stoke-on-Trent) Manufacture Application b. Of felspar base Colouring, manu-
facture, moulding, drying, firing Applications. II. Facing Quarries 1. In faience A. Of
limestone paste B. Of silicious paste C Of felspar paste Manufacture, firing 2. Of glazed
stoneware 3. Of porcelain Applications of facing quarries. III. Stove Quarries Prepara-
tion of the pastes, moulding, firing, enamelling, decoration Applications. Chapter IV.,
Architectural Decorated Pottery: Sec. 1, Faiences; Sec. 2, Stoneware; Sec. 3, Porcelain.
Chapter V., Sanitary Pottery : Stoneware Pipes Manufacture, firing Applications Sinks
Applications Urinals, seats and pans Applications Drinking fountains, wash-stands. Index.
16
CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY : Being some Aspects of Tech-
nical Science as Applied to Pottery Manufacture. Edited by CHARLES
F. BINNS. 100 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free,
12s. lOd. home; 13s. abroad.)
Contents.
Preface The Chemistry of Pottery Analysis and Synthesis Clays and their Com-
ponentsThe Biscuit Oven Pyrometry Glazes and their Composition Colours and
Colour-making Index.
THE ART OF RIVETING GLASS, CHINA AND
EARTHENWARE. By J. HOWARTH. Second Edition.
Paper Cover. Price ls.net. (By post, home or abroad, Is. Id.)
NOTES ON POTTERY CLAYS. The Distribution, Pro-
perties, Uses and Analyses of Ball Clays, China Clays and China
Stone. By JAS. FAIRIE, F.G.S. 132 pp. Crown 8vo. Price 3s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 3s. 9d. home ; 3s. lOd. abroad.)
A Reissue of
THE HISTORY OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE POTTER-
IES ; AND THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE
MANUFACTURE OF POTTERY AND PORCELAIN.
With References to Genuine Specimens, and Notices of Eminent Pot-
ters. By SIMEON SHAW. (Originally published in 1829.) 265 pp.
Demy 8vo. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 9d. abroad.)
A Reissue of
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SEVERAL NATURAL
AND ARTIFICIAL HETEROGENEOUS COM-
POUNDS USED IN MANUFACTURING POR-
CELAIN, GLASS AND POTTERY. By SIMEON SHAW.
(Originally published in 1837.) 750 pp. Royal 8vo. Price 10s. net.
(Post free, 10s. 6d. home ; 12s. abroad.)
BRITISH POTTERY MARKS. By G. WOOLLISCROFT RHEAD.
Demy 8vo. 310 pp. With Fourteen Illustrations in Half-tone and
upwards of Twelve-hundred Marks in the Text. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post
free, 8s. home ; 8s. 3d. abroad.) [Just published.
Glassware, Glass Staining and
Painting.
RECIPES FOR FLINT GLASS MAKING. By a British
Glass Master and Mixer. Sixty Recipes. Being Leaves from the
Mixing Book of several experts in the Flint Glass Trade, containing
up-to date recipes and valuable information as to Crystal, Demi-crystal
and Coloured Glass in its many varieties. It contains the recipes for
cheap metal suited to pressing, blowing, etc., as well as the most costly
crystal and ruby. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 10s. 9d. home ; 10s. lOd. abroad.)
Contents.
Ruby Ruby from Copper Flint for using with the Ruby for Coating A German Metal-
Cornelian, or Alabaster Sapphire Blue Crysophis Opal Turquoise Blue Gold Colour
Dark Green Green (common) Green for Malac. ite Blue for Malachite Black for Mala-
chiteBlackCommon Canary Batch Canary White Opaque Glass Sealing-wax Red
Flint Flint Glass (Crystal and Demi) Achromatic Glass Paste Glass White rnamel
Firestone Dead White (for moons) White Agate Canary Canary Enamel Index.
17
A TREATISE ON THE ART OP GLASS PAINTING.
Prefaced with a Review of Ancient Glass. By ERNEST R. SUPPLING.
With One Coloured Plate and Thirty-seven Illustrations. Demy 8vo.
140 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home; 8s. abroad.)
Contents.
A Short History of Stained Glass Designing Scale Drawings Cartoons and the Cut Line
Various Kinds of Glass Cutting for Windows The Colours and Brushes used in Glass
Painting Painting on Glass, Dispersed Patterns Diapered Patterns Aciding Firing
Fret Lead Glazing Index.
PAINTING ON GLASS AND PORCELAIN AND
ENAMEL PAINTING. A Complete Introduction to the
Preparation of all the Colours and Fluxes used for Painting on Porce-
lain. Enamel Faience and Stoneware, the Coloured Pastes and Col-
oured Glasses, together with a Minute Description of the Firing of
Colours and Enamels. By FELIX HERMANN, Technical Chemist. With
Eighteen Illustrations. 300 pp. Translated from the German second
and enlarged Edition. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. lOd. home ;
11s. abroad.)
Paper Making, Paper Dyeing,
and Testing.
THE DYEING OP PAPER PULP. A Practical Treatise for
the use of Papermakers, Paperstainers. Students and others. By
JULIUS ERFURT. Manager of a Paper Mill. Translated into English
and Edited with Additions by JULIUS HOBNER, F.C.S., Lecturer on
Papermaking at the Manchester Municipal Technical School. With
Illustrations and 157 patterns of paper dyed in the pulp. Royal
8vo, 180 pp. Price 15s. net. (Post free. 15s. 6d. home; 16s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
Behaviour of the Paper Fibres during the Process of Dyeing, Theory of the
Mordant Colour Fixing Mediums (Mordants) Influence of the Quality of the Water
Used -Inorganic Colours Organic Colours Practical Application of the Coal Tar
Colours according to their Properties and their Behaviour towards the Different
Paper Fibres uyed Patterns on Various Pulp Mixtures Dyeing to Shade Index.
THE PAPER MILL CHEMIST. By HENRY P. STEVENS,
M.A., Ph.D., F.I.C. Royal 12mo. 60 Illustrations. 300 pp. Price
7s. 6d. net. (Post free 7s. 9d. home ;' 7s. lOd. abroad.)
Contents.
Introduction. Dealing with the Apparatus required in Chemical Work and General
Chemical Manipulation, introducing the subject of Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis.
Fuels. Analysis of Coal, Coke and other Fuels Sampling and Testing for Moisture, Ash,
Calorific Value, etc. Comparative Heating Value of different Fuels and Relative Efficiency.
Water. Analysis for Steam Raising and for Paper Making Purposes generally Water
Softening and Purification A List of the more important Water Softening Plant, giving
Power required, Weight, Space Occupied, Out-put and Approximate Cost. Raw Materials
and Detection of Adulterants. Analysis and Valuation of the more important Chemicals
used in Paper Making, including Lime, Caustic Soda, Sodium Carbonate, Mineral Acids,
Bleach Antichlor, Alum, Rosin and Rosin Size, Glue Gela in and Casein, Starch, China Clay,
Blanc Fixe, Satin White and other Loading Materials, Mineral Colours and Aniline Dyes.
Manufacturing Operations. Rags and the Chemical Control of Rag Boiling Esparto
Boiling Wood Boiling Testing Spent Liquors and Recovered Ash Experimental Tests
with Raw Fibrous Materials Boiling in Autoclaves Bleaching and making up Hand Sheets
Examination of Sulphite Liquors Estimation of Moisture in Pulp and Half-stuff Recom-
mendations of the British Wood Pulp Association. Finished Products. Paper Testing
including Physical, Chemical and Microscopical Tests, Area, Weight, Thickness, Apparent
Specific Gravity, Bulk or Air Space. Determination of Machine Direction, Thickness,
Strength, Stretch, Resistance to Crumpling and Friction, Transparency, Absorbency and
other qualities of Blotting Papers Determination of the Permeability of Filtering Papers-
Detection and Estimation of Animal and Vegetable Size in Paper Sizing Qualities of
Paper Fibrous Constituents Microscopical Examination of Fibres The Effect of Beating
on Fibres Staining Fibres M'neral Matter Ash Qualitative and Quantitative Examina-
tion of Mineral Matter Examination of Coated Papers and Colouring Matters in Paper.
18
Contents of "The Paper Mill Chemist" continued.
Tables. English and Metrical Weights and Measures with Equivalents Conversion of
Grams to Grains and vice versa Equivalent Costs per lb., cwt.,and ton Decimal Equivalents
of Ibs., qrs., and cwts. Thermometric and Barometric Scales Atomic Weights and Molecular
Weights Factors for Calculating the Percentage of Substance Sought from the Weight of
Substance Found Table of Solubilities of Substances Treated of in Paper Making Specific
Gravity Tables of such substances as are used in Paper Making, including Sulphuric Acid,
Hydrochloric Acid, Bleach, Milk of Lime, Caustic Soda, Carbonate of Soda, etc., giving
Percentage Strength with Specific Gravity and Degrees Tw. Hardness Table for Soap
Tests Dew Point Wet and Dry Bulb Tables Properties of Saturated Steam, giving
Temperature, Pressure and Volume List of Different Machines used in the Paper Making
Industry, giving Size, Weight, Space Occupied, Power to Drive, Out-put and Approximate
Cost Calculation of Aloisture in Pulp Rag-Boiling Tables, giving Percentages of Lime,
Soda and Time required Loss in Weight in Rags and other Raw Materials during Boiling
and Bleaching Conditions of Buying and Selling as laid down by the Paper Makers' Associa-
tion Table of Names and Sizes of Papers Table for ascertaining the Weight per Ream from
the Weight per Sheet Calculations of Areas and Volumes Logarithms Blank pages for
Notes.
THE TREATMENT OF PAPER FOR SPECIAL
PURPOSES. By L. E. ANDES. Translated from the
German. Crown 8vo. 48 Illustrations. 250 pp. Price 6s. net. (Post
free, 6s. 4d. home ; 6s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
I., Parchment Paper, Vegetable Parchment. The Parchment Paper Machine-
Opaque Supple Parchment Paper Thick Parchment Krugler's Parchment Paper and Parch-
ment Slates Double and Triple Osmotic Parchment Utilising Waste Parchment Paper
Parchmented Linen and Cotton Parchment Millboard Imitation Horn and Ivory from
Parchment Paper Imitation Parchment Paper Artificial Parchment Testing the Sulphuric
Acid. II., Papers for Transfer Pictures. III., Papers for Preservative and Packing
Purposes. Butter Paper Wax Paper Paraffin Paper Wrapping Paper for Silverware
Waterproof Paper Anticorrosive Paper. IV., Grained Transfer Papers. V., Fireproof and
Antifalsification Papers. VI., Paper Articles. Vulcanised Paper Mache Paper Bottles-
Plastic Articles of Paper Waterproof Coverings for Walls and Ceilings Paper Wheels,
Roofing and Boats Pai er Barrels Paper Boxes Paper Horseshoes. VII., Gummed Paper.
VIII., Hectograph Papers. IX., Insecticide Papers. Fly Papers Moth Papers. X.,
Chalk and Leather Papers. Glace Chalk Paper Leather Paper Imitation Leather.
XL, Luminous Papers Blue-Print Papers Blotting Papers. XII., Metal Papers Medi-
cated Papers. XIII., Marbled Papers. XIV., Tracing and Copying Papers Iridiscent or
Mother of Pearl Papers. XV., Photographic Papers Shellac Paper Fumigating Papers-
Test Papers. XVI., Papers for Cleaning and Polishing Purposes Glass Paper
Pumic Paper Emery Paper. XVII., Lithographic Transfer Papers. XIX., Sundry
Special Papers Satin Paper Enamel Paper Cork Paper Split Paper Electric Paper
Paper Matches Magic Pictures Laundry Blue Papers Blue Paper for Bleachers. XX.,
Waterproof Papers Washable Drawing Papers Washable Card Washable Coloured Paper
Waterproof Millboard Sugar Paper. XXL, The Characteristics of Paper Paper Testing.
Enamelling on Metal.
ENAMELS AND ENAMELLING. For Enamel Makers,
Workers in Gold and Silver, and Manufacturers of Objects of Art.
By PAUL RANDAU. Translated from the German. With Sixteen Illus-
trations. Demy 8vo. 180 pp. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. lOd.
home ; 11s. abroad.)
THE ART OF ENAMELLING ON METAL. By W.
NORMAN BROWN. Twenty-eight Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 60 pp.
Price 2s. 6d. net. (Post free, 2s. 9d. home and abroad.)
Silk Manufacture.
SILK THROWING AND WASTE SILK SPINNING.
By HOLLINS RAYNER. Demy 8vo. 170 pp. 117 Illus. Price 5s. net.
(Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
The Silkworm Cocoon Reeling and Qualities of Silk Silk Throwing Silk Wastes The
Preparation of Silk Waste for Degumming Silk Waste Degumming, Schapping and Dis-
charging The Opening and Dressing of Wastes Silk Waste " Drawing " or " Preparing "
achinery Long Spinning Short Spinning Spinning and Finishing Processes Utilisation
Waste Products Noil Spinning Exhaust Noil Spinning.
19
Books on Textile and Dyeing
Subjects.
THE FINISHING OF TEXTILE FABRICS (Woollen,
Worsted, Union and other Cloths). By ROBERTS BEAUMONT, M.Sc.,
M.I.Mech.E., Professor of Textile Industries, the University of Leeds;
Author of " Colour in Woven Design"; ''Woollen and Worsted Cloth
Manufacture" ; " Woven Fabrics at the World's Fair " ; Vice-President
of the Jury of Award at the Paris Exhibition, 1900 ; Inspector of Tex-
tile Institutes ; Society of Arts Silver Medallist ; Honorary Medallist
of the City and Guilds of London Institute. With 150 Illustrations of
Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics, also Sectional and other Drawings of
Finishing Machinery. Demy 8vo, 260 pp. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post
free, 10s. lOd. home; 11s. 3d. abroad.) [Just Published.
Contents.
I., Woollen, Worsted and Union Fabrics. Sections (1) Woollen Cloths: Saxonies and
Cheviots (2) Worsted Fabrics : Botany and Crossbred (3) Fancy and Piece-dye Woollens
(4) Fancy and Piece-dye Worsteds- (5) Union Fabrics : Piece-dyes and Fancies (6) Whip-
cords, Buckskins, Venetians, C >rds and Twist warp Fancies (7) Heavy Woollens: Box
Cloths, Meltons, Pilots (8) Friezes, Shetlands and Naps (9) Special Types of Overcoatings
(10) Golf Cloakings (11) Vestings. JI., Processes of Finishing and their Effects.
Sections (12) Qualities of Unfinished Woollens (13) Worsted Fabrics and Finishing (14)
Preliminary Work (15) Finishing Processes (16) Scouring and the Detergents Used (17)
Hydro-extracting (18) Tentering and Drying (19) Felting and its Effects (20) Condition of
the Piece in Milling (21) Potash and Soda Soaps (22) Effects of Raising (23) Influence of
Textural Conditions on Raising (24) Theory of Raising and the Twine in the Yarn (25) Fabric
Structure and Raising Surface (26) Several Kinds of Raising (27) Lustring Proceses (28)
Pressing. III., The Process of Scouring : Scouring Machines. Sections (29) Impurities in
Greasy Pieces (30) Scouring Machines (31) The Rope Machine: Scouring Operation (32)
Washing-off (33) Points in the Use of the Hope Scourer- (34) The Open Scourer: Construc-
tion (35) Advantages of the Open Scourer (36) Scouring Machine with Flanged Rollers (37)
Combined Scouring and Milling Machine. IV., Theory of Felting. Sections (38) Qualities
of Wool in Relation to Felting (39) Shrinkage Properties of Merino and Cheviot Wools (40)
Felting Contrasts, Merino and Southdown Wools (41) Utility in Woven Manufactures of
Wools of Different Shrinking Qualities (42) Yarn Structure (43) Felting Affected by Yarn
Composition (44) Methods of Yarn Construction and Felting (45) Shrinkage of Fabrics made
of Re-manufactured Fibres (46) Degree of Twine in the Yarn (47) Folded Yarns and Shrink-
age. V., Theory of Felting : Fabric Structure. Sections (48) Build of the Fabric (49)
Felting Quality of Standard Weaves (50) Influence of Intersections (51) Variation in Wefting
(52) Irregular Weaves and Felting (53) Felting of Two-ply Warp and Weft Fabrics (54)
Relative Shrinkage of Single and Backed Weaves. VI., Theory of Felting : Compound
Fabrics. Sections (55) Structure of Backed Fabrics and the Felting Quality of the Cloth
(56) Three-ply Weft Fabrics (57) Yarn Characteristics in Compound Weft Fabrics (58)
Fabrics Compound in the Warp (59) Felting of Compound Weaves (60) Double Cloths and
Varied Felting (61) Stitching or Tying of Double and Compound Weaves and the Effects on
Milling. VII., Fulling and Milling Machinery. Sections (62) "Fulling" and "Milling"
(63) Routine in the Fulling Stocks and Milling Machine (64) Construction and Working of
the Fuller Stocks (65) Milling Machines (66) Routine of Milling (67) Corrugated Guide
Rollers (68) Machines with Two or More Upper Rollers (69) Dupl x Machines (70) Machines
without Flanged Roller (71) Mechanical Devices applied to the Spout (72) Roller Milling
Machine with Stampers in the Spout (73) Principle of Combined Milling Machine and Stocks
(74) Combined Scouring and Milling (75) Milling without Artificial Compression. VIII.,
The Theory of Raising. Sections (76) Treatment of the Cloth (77) Condition of the Cloth
(78) Dry Raising (79) Damp and Wet Raising (80) Raising Determined by the Degree of
Felting (81) Quality of the Material and the Raised Result <82) Raising and Weave Structure
(83) Quality of the Fibre and Yarn Structure (84) Raising of Fabrics in which Special or
Fancy Yarns are used. IX., Raising Machinery and the Raising Process. Sections (85)
Hand Raising (86) Raising Gig (87) Operation of the Raising Gig (88) Two-cylinder
Raising Gig (89) Teazle Raising (90) Teazles and Card-wire Compared (91) Card-wire
Raising Machines (92) Modern Card Raising Machines (93) The Horizontal Machine
(94) Rotary Machines. X., Cutting, Cropping or Shearing. Sections (97) Cropping
(98) The Effects of Cutting (99) Cutting Machines (100) The Cross-Cutting Machine
(101) The Continuous Cutting Machine (102) Setting of the Cutting Parts (103) Form
of the Bar or "Bed" under the Cutters (104) Machines with Two or More Cylinders (105)
Grinding. XL, Lustring Processes and Machinery. Sections (106) The Production of
Lustre on Woollen and Worsted Fabrics (107) Steaming and Cooling Machines (108)
Pressing <109) The Vertical Press (110) The Rotary Press (111) Intermittent Pressing
Machine. XII., Methods of Finishing. Sections (112) Routines of Finishing (113) Woollen
Routines of Finishing (114) Worsted Routines of Finishing (115) Routines of Finishing for
Union Fabrics Index.
20
THE CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY OF TEXTILE
FIBRES: Their Origin, Structure, Preparation, Washing,
Bleaching, Dyeing, Printing and Dressing. By Dr. GEORG VON
GEORGIEVICS. Translated from the German by CHARLES SALTER.
320 pp. Forty-seven Illustrations. Royal 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 11s. home ; 11s. 3d. abroad.)
POWER-LOOM WEAVING AND YARN NUMBERING,
According to Various Systems, with Conversion Tables. Translated
from the German of ANTHON GRUNER. With Twenty-Six Diagrams
in Colours. 150 pp. Crown 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free,
7s. 9d. home ; 8s. abroad.)
TEXTILE RAW MATERIALS AND THEIR CON-
VERSION INTO YARNS. (The Study of the Raw
Materials and the Technology of the Spinning Process.) By JULIUS
ZIPSER. Translated from German by CHARLES SALTER. 302 Illus-
trations. 500 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 11s.
home; 11s. 6d. abroad.)
GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN. By H. NISBET,
Weaving and Designing Master, Bolton Municipal Technical School.
Demy 8vo. 280 pp. 490 Illustrations and Diagrams. Price 6s. net.
(Post free, 6s. 4d. home ; 6s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
THE PLAIN WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES. Classifi-
cation of Twill Weaves. DIAMOND AND KINDRED WEAVES. BEDFORD CORDS. BACKED
FABRICS. FUSTIANS. TERRY PILE FABRICS. GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS. TISSUE, LAPPET,
AND SWIVEL FIGURING ; ALSO ONDULK EFFECTS. AND LOOPED FABRICS.
ART NEEDLEWORK AND DESIGN, POIN1 LACE. A
Manual of Applied Art for Secondary Schools and Continuation Classes.
By M. E. WILKINSON. Oblong quarto. With 22 Plates. Bound in
Art Linen. Price 3s. 6d. net. (Post free, 3s. lOd. ho yc ; 4s. abroad.)
Contents.
Sampler of Lace Stitches Directions for working Point Lace, tracing Patterns, etc.
List of Materials and Implements required for working. Plates I., Simple Lines, Straight and
Slanting, and Designs formed from them. II., Patterns formed from Lines in previous
Lesson. III., Patterns formed from Lines in previous Lesson. IV., Simple Curves, and
Designs formed from them. V., Simple Leaf form, and Designs formed from it. VI., Ele-
mentary Geometrical forms, with Definitions. VII., Exercises on previous Lessons. VIII.,
Filling of a Square, Oblong and Circle with Lace Stitches. IX., Design for Tie End, based
on simple Leaf form. X., Lace Butterflies (Freehand). XL. Twenty simple Designs evolved
from Honiton Braid Leaf. XII., Design for Lace Handkerchief, based on previous Lesson.
XIII., Design for Tea-cosy. XIV., Freehand Lace Collar. XV., Freehand Lace Cuff (to
match). XVI., Application of Spray from Lesson XI. XVII., Adaptation of Curves within
a Square, for Lace Cushion Centre. XVIII., Conventional Spray for corner of Tea-cloth.
XIX., Geometrical form for Rosebowl D'Oyley, to be originally filled in. XX., Geometrical
form for Flower-vase D'Oyley, to be originally filled in. Each Lesson contains Instructions
for Working, and application of new Stitches from Sampler.
HOME LACE-MAKING. A Handbook for Teachers and
Pupils. By M. E. W. MILROY. Crown 8vo. 64 pp. With 3 Plates
and 9 Diagrams. Price Is. net. (Post free, Is. 3d. home ; Is. 4d.
abroad.)
THE CHEMISTRY OF HAT MANUFACTURING. Lec-
tures delivered before the Hat Manufacturers' Association. By WAT-
SON SMITH, F.C.S., F.I.C. Revised and Edited by ALBERT SHONK.
Crown 8vo. 132 pp. 16 Illustrations. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free,
7s. 9d. home ; 7s. lOd. abroad.)
THE TECHNICAL TESTING OF YARNS AND TEX-
TILE FABRICS. With Reference to Official Specifica-
tions. Translated from the German of Dr. J. HERZFELD. Second
Edition. Sixty-nine Illustrations. 200 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 10s. lOd. home ; 11s. abroad.)
DECORATIVE AND FANCY TEXTILE FABRICS.
By R. T. LORD. For Manufacturers and Designers of Carpets, Damask,
Dress and all Textile Fabrics. 200 pp. Demy 8vo. 132 Designs and
Illustrations. Price7s.6d.net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
21
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DAMASK WEAVING.
By H. KINZER and K. WALTER. Royal 8vo. Eighteen Folding Plates.
Six Illustrations. Translated from the German. 110pp. Price 8s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 9s. home ; 9s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
The Various Sorts of Damask Fabrics Drill (Ticking, Handloom-made) Whole
Damask for Tablecloths Damask with Ground- and Connecting-warp Threads furniture
Damask Lampas or Hangings Church Damasks The Manufacture of Whole Damask
Damask Arrangement wkh and without Cross-Shedding The Altered Cone-arrangement
The Principle of the Corner Lifting Cord The Roller Principle The Combination of the
Jacquard with the so-called Damask Machine The Special Damask Machine The Combina-
tion of Two Tyings.
FAULTS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF WOOLLEN
GOODS AND THEIR PREVENTION. By NICOLAS
REISER. Translated from the Second German Edition. Crown 8vo.
Sixty-three Illustrations. 170 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d.
home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
* Contents.
Improperly Chosen Raw Material or Improper Mixtures Wrong Treatment of the
Material in Washing, Carbonisation, Drying, Dyeing and Spinning-rlmproper Spacing of the
Goods in the Loom Wrong Placing of Colours Wrong Weight or Width of the Goods
Breaking of Warp and Weft Threads Presence of Doubles, Singles, Thick, Loose,
and too Hard Twisted Threads as well as Tangles, Thick Knots and the Like Errors in
Cross-weavinginequalities, i.e., Bands and Stripes Dirty Borders Defective Selvedges-
Holes and Buttons Rubbed Places Creases Spots Loose and Bad Colours Badly Dyed
Selvedges Hard Goods Brittle Goods Uneven Goods Removal of Bands, Stripes,
Creases and Spots.
SPINNING AND WEAVING CALCULATIONS, especially
relating to Woollens. From the German of N. REISER. Thirty-four
Illustrations. Tables. 160 pp. Demy 8vo. 1904. Price 10s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 10s. lOd. home ; 11s. abroad.)
Contents.
Calculating the Raw Material Proportion of Different Grades of Wool to Furnish a
Mixture at a Given Price Quantity to Produce a Given Length Yarn Calculations Yarn
Number Working Calculations Calculating the Reed Count Cost of Weaving, etc.
WATERPROOFING OF FABRICS. By Dr. S. MIERZINSKI.
Crown 8vo. 104 pp. 29 Illus. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ;
5s. 4d. abroad.)
Contents.
Introduction Preliminary Treatment of the Fabric Waterproofing with Acetate of
Alumina Impregnation of the Fabric Drying Waterproofing with Paraffin Waterproofing
with Ammonium Cuprate Waterproofing with Metallic Oxides Coloured Waterproof
Fabrics Waterproofing with Gelatine, Tannin, Caseinate of Lime and other Bodies Manu-
facture of Tarpaulin British Waterproofing Patents Index.
HOW TO MAKE A WOOLLEN MILL PAY. By JOHN
MACKIE. Crown 8vo. 76 pp. Price 3s. 6d. net. (Post free, 3s. 9d.
home ; 3s. lOd. abroad.)
Contents.
Blends, Piles, or Mixtures of Clean Scoured Wools Dyed Wool Book The Order Book
Pattern Duplicate Books Management and Oversight Constant Inspection of Mill De-
partments Importance of Delivering Goods to Time, Shade, Strength, etc. Plums.
(For " Textile Soaps and Oils " see p. 7.)
Dyeing, Colour Printing,
Matching and Dye-stuffs.
THE COLOUR PRINTING OF CARPET YARNS. Manual
for Colour Chemists and Textile Printers. By DAVID PATERSON,
F.C.S. Seventeen Illustrations. 136 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
Contents.
Structure and Constitution of Wool Fibre Yarn Scouring Scouring Materials Water for
Scouring Bleaching Carpet Yarns Colour Making for Yarn Printing Colour Printing
Pastes Colour Recipes for Yarn Printing Science of Colour Mixing Matching of Colours
"Hank" Printing Printing Tapestry Carpet Yarns Yarn Printing Steaming Printed
Yarns Washing of Steamed Yarns Aniline Colours Suitable for Yarn Printing Glossary of
Dyes and Dye-wares used in Wood Yarn Printing Appendix.
22
THE SCIENCE OP COLOUR MIXING. A Manual in-
tended for the use of Dyers, Calico Printers and Colour Chemists. By
DAVID PATERSON, F.C.S. Forty-one Illustrations, Five Coloured Plates,
and Four Plates showing: Eleven Dyed Specimens of Fabrics. 132
pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s.
abroad.)
Contents.
Colour a Sensation ; Colours of Illuminated Bodies ; Colours of Opaque and Transparent
Bodies; Surface Colour Analysis of Light; Spectrum; Homogeneous Colours; Ready
Method of Obtaining a Spectrum Examination of Solar Spectrum ; The Spectroscope and
Its Construction ; Colourists' Use of the Spectroscope Colour by Absorption ; Solutions and
Dyed Fabrics; Dichroic Coloured Fabrics in Gaslight Colour Primaries of the Scientist
versus the Dyer and Artist; Colour Mixing by Rotation and Lye Dyeing; Hue, Purity,
Brightness ; Tints ; Shades, Scales, Tones, Sad and Sombre Colours Colour Mixing ; Pure
and Impure Greens, Orange and Violets; Large Variety of Shades from few Colours; Con-
sideration of the Practical Primaries : Red, Yellow and Blue Secondary Colours ; Nomen-
clature of Violet and Purple Group ; Tints and Shades of Violet ; Changes in Artificial Light
Tertiary Shades ; Broken Hues; Absorption Spectra of Tertiary Shades Appendix: Four
Plates with Dyed Specimens Illustrating Text Index.
DYERS' MATERIALS : An Introduction to the Examination,
Evaluation and Application of the most important Substances used in
Dyeing, Printing, Bleaching and Finishing. By PAUL HEERMAN, Ph.D.
Translated from the German by A. C. WRIGHT, M.A. (Oxon.), B.Sc.
(Lond.). Twenty-four Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 150 pp. Price 5s.
net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
COLOUR MATCHING ON TEXTILES. A Manual in-
tended for the use of Students of Colour Chemistry, Dyeing and
Textile Printing. By DAVID PATERSON, F.C.S. Coloured Frontis-
piece. Twenty-nine Illustrations and Fourteen Specimens Of Dyed
Fabrics. Demy 8vo. 132 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd.
home ; 8s. abroad.)
COLOUR: A HANDBOOK OP THE THEORY OF
COLOUR. By GEORGE H. HURST, F.C.S. With Ten
Coloured Plates and Seventy-two Illustrations. 160 pp. Demy 8vo.
Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
Contents.
Colour and Its Production Cause of Colour in Coloured Bodies Colour Pheno=
cnena and Theories The Physiology of Light Contrast Colour in Decoration and
Design Measurement of Colour.
Reissue of
THE ART OF DYEING WOOL, SILK AND COTTON.
Translated from the French of M. HELLOT, M. MACQUER and M. LE
PILEUR D'APLIGNY. First Published in English in 1789. Six Plates.
Demy 8vo. 446 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 6d. home; 6s.
abroad '> Contents.
Part I., The Art of Dyeing Wool and Woollen Cloth, Stuffs, Yarn, Worsted, etc.
Part II., The Art of Dyeing Silk. Part III., The Art of Dyeing Cotton and Linen
Thread, together with the Method of Stamping Silks, Cottons, etc.
THE CHEMISTRY OF DYE-STUFFS. By Dr. GEORG VON
GEORGIEVICS. Translated from the Second German Edition. 412 pp.
Demy 8vo. PricelOs.6d.net. (Post free, 11s. home ; 11s. 6d. abroad.)
THE DYEING OF COTTON FABRICS: A Practical
Handbook for the Dyer and Student. By FRANKLIN BEECH, Practical
Colourist and Chemist. 272 pp. Forty-four Illustrations of Bleaching
and Dyeing Machinery. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free,
7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
THE DYEING OF WOOLLEN FABRICS. By FRANKLIN
BEECH, Practical Colourist and Chemist. Thirty-three Illustrations.
Demy 8vo. 228 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ;
8s. abroad.)
23
Bleaching and Bleaching
Agents.
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE BLEACHING OP
LINEN AND COTTON YARN AND FABRICS. By
L. TAILFER, Chemical and Mechanical Engineer. Translated from the
French by JOHN GEDDES MC!NTOSH. Demy 8vo. 303 pp. Twenty
Illus. Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. home; 13s. 6d. abroad.)
MODERN BLEACHING AGENTS AND DETERGENTS.
By Professor MAX BOTTLER. Translated from the German. Crown
8vo. 16 Illustrations. 160 pages. Price 5s. net. (Post tree, 5s. 3d.
home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.) [Just published.
Contents.
Part I., Bleaching Agents. Old and New Bleaching Methods and Bleaching
Agents. Bleaching Agents for Wool Bleaching with Permanganate Perborates Acid
Sodium Percarbonate Bleaching Agents for Silk Bleaching Powder and Alkali Hypoch-
lorites Bleaching Processes Bleaching Linen Bleaching with Ozone Bleaching Straw
and Leather Discharging Colours Bleaching Jute and other Vegetable Fibres Bleaching
Various Substances Electrical Bleaching Processes. Sodium Peroxide. Properties-
Dissolving Sodium Peroxide Preparing the Bleaching Liquor Compressed Sodium Peroxide
Sodium Peroxide in Bleaching Cleaning Materials to be Bleached Testing the Bleaching
Liquor Bleaching Kier Charging the Kier with Bleaching Liquor Bleaching Woollen and
Half-Wool Goods Preparing the Bleaching Liquor Drying the Goods Magnesium Sulphate
in Bleaching Liquor Bleaching Silk Bleaching Linen, Cotton, Jute and Ramie Goods
Production of Peroxides Bleaching Feathers Sodium Peroxide in Washing Powder
Barium Peroxide Bleaching Silk with Barium Peroxide. Perborates. Salts of Perboric
Acid Properties of Perborates Ammonium Perborates Sodium Perborates Perborax
Merck's Sodium Perborate Sapozon Testing Sodium Perborate. Ozone. Formation of
Ozone Ozone Generators Chemical Production of Ozone Properties of Ozone Employ-
ment of Ozone in Bleaching. Sodium Bisulphite and Hydrosulphurous Acid. Bleaching
with Sulphur Dioxide Bleaching Wool with Hydrosulphurous Acid Sodium Hydrosulphite
Properties of Sodium Bisulphite Bleaching Processes Bleaching Manila Hemp After-
treatment with Bisulphite Bleaching Straw Bleaching Leather. Discharging Colour from
Textile Fabrics with Hydrosulphurous Acid. Preparing the Discharge Discharging
Colour from Shoddy and Dyed Fabrics Stable Hydrosulphite Method of Using Hydrosul-
phite Eradite Cassella's Hyraldite Discharging with Hyraldite Increasing the Dis-
charging Effect Stable Hydrosulphites. Permanganate. Bleaching with Permanganate
Action of Permanganate Bleaching Wool or Silk Addition of Magnesium Sulphate to
the Bleaching Liquor Strength of Permanganate Solution New Process for Bleaching Jute
Bleaching Skins Bleaching Straw Bleaching Ivory. Hydrogen Peroxide. Constitution
and Properties Preparation Crystalline Hydrogen Peroxide Properties of Hydrogen
Peroxide Solutions Stability Commercial Hydrogen Peroxide Solutions Decomposition
of Hydrogen Peroxide Purity of Hydrogen Peroxide Storage Vessels Care in Handling
Instability of Solutions Reagent for Hydrogen Peroxide Valuing Hydrogen Peroxide
Solutions Testing Hydrogen Peroxide Bleaching Wool with Hydrogen Peroxide Pre-
liminary Treatment Bleaching Bath After Treatment Bleaching Silk with Hydrogen
Peroxide Bluing before Bleaching Bleaching Cotton with Hydrogen Peroxide Bleaching
Linens with Hydrogen Peroxide Bleaching Jute with Hydrogen Peroxide Bleaching Various
Vegetable Fibres with Hydrogen Peroxide Bleaching Straw, Wood, etc., with Hydrogen
Peroxide Bleaching Leather with Hydrogen Peroxides-Bleaching Ivory, Horn, Bones and
Similar Articles Bleaching Hair Bleaching Sponges with Hydrogen Peroxide. Bleaching
Fats, Oils, Wax and Paraffin. New Process for Bleaching Fats and Oils Bleaching Wax
Bleaching Soap Decrolin and Blankite for Bleaching Soap Bleaching Glue. Solid, Stable
Calcium Hypochlorite and Bleaching Soda. Stable Calcium Hypochlorite Bleaching
Soda. Electric Bleaching. Electrolytic Bleaching Lye Judging the Utility of Electric
Bleaching Plant Bleaching Experiment with Electrolysed Sodium Chloride Solution
Electrolytic Decomposition of Sodium Chloride Observations of Forster and Miiller Types
of Electrolyser Electrolytic Bleach Schuckert Plant Schoop's Electrolytic Bleaching
Apparatus Kellner Bleaching Apparatus, Construction Method of Working Mounting the
Apparatus Determining the Bleaching Power of Electrolytic Liquors, Volumetric Method
Bleaching with Electrolytic Bleaching Liquor.
Part II., Detergents. Behaviour of Various Fabrics in the Presence of Chemical Re-
agentsMethods of Removing Stains Chemical Cleaning and Detergents. Benzine Soaps.
Removing Stains with Benzine Soap and its Solutions Antibenzine Pyrine, or Richterol.
Extractive Detergents and Detergent Mixtures. Carbon Tetrachloride. Properties.
Aceto-Oxalic Acid as a Detergent ; Special Methods of Removing Stains. Bleaching
Processes Used in Chemical Cleaning. Bleaching with Potassium Permanganate-
Reducing Effect of Sulphur Dioxide Reduction with Hydrogen Peroxide Reduction with
Hydrosulphurous Acid Seyda's Reduction Process Combined Method of Removing Stains
Hyraldite as a Detergent and Bleaching Agent. Hydrogen Peroxide as a Detergent.
Behaviour of Hydrogen Peroxide toward Coloured Fabrics. Oxygen as a Detergent-
24
Contents of " Modern Bleaching: Agents and Detergents "
continued.
Behaviour of Oxygenol toward Dyed Fabrics. Sodium Peroxide as a Detergent. Sodium
Peroxide Soap. Sundry New Detergents and Cleansing Agents. Tetrapol Lavado
Novol Weiss's Benzine Washing Preparation Hexol Steinberg's Detergent Oil Ozonite
Ozonal Quillola Gruner's Washing Powder Eureka Washing Powder Detergent Soaps
that Liberate Oxygen Klein's Detergent Soap Detergent for Sensitive Colours Poltzow's
Detergent Soap Wolzendorff's Cyanide and Photographer's Ink Detergent Liquids
Hummel's Detergent Liquid Detergent Paste Blanchissine Henkel's Persil Reinol, Triol,
Tetra-Isol, Benzin-Isol, Terpin-Isol, Isobenzine Soap and Iso Soap.
Cotton Spinning and Combing.
COTTON SPINNING (First Year). By THOMAS THORNLEY,
Spinning Master, Bolton Technical School. 160pp. Eighty-four Illus-
trations. Crown 8vo. Second Impression. Price 3s. net. (Post free,
3s. 4d. home ; 3s. 6d. abroad.)
COTTON SPINNING (Intermediate, or Second Year). By
THOMAS THORNLEY. Second Impression. 180 pp. Seventy Illustra-
tions. Crown 8vo. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d.
abroad.)
COTTON SPINNING (Honours, or Third Year). By THOMAS
THORNLEY. 216 pp. Seventy-four Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Second
Edition. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
COTTON COMBING MACHINES. By THOS. THORNLEY,
Spinning Master, Technical School, Bolton. Demy 8vo. 117 Illustra-
tions. 300 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 8s. home ; 8s. 6d. abroad.)
Flax, Hemp and Jute Spinning.
MODERN FLAX, HEMP AND JUTE SPINNING AND
TWISTING. A Practical Handbook for the use of Flax,
Hemp and Jute Spinners, Thread, Twine and Rope Makers. By
HEKBERT R. CARTER, Mill Manager, Textile Expert and Engineer,
Examiner in Flax Spinning to the City and Guilds of London
Institute. Demy 8vo. 1907. With 92 Illustrations. 200 pp. Price
7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. 9d. home ; 8s. abroad.)
FIBRES USED IN TEXTILE AND ALLIED INDUS-
TRIES. By C. AINSWORTH MITCHELL, B.A. (Oxon.), F.I.C.,
and R. M. PRIDEAUX F.I.C. With 66 Illustrations specially drawn
direct from the Fibres. Demy 8vo. 200 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 7s. 9d. home ; 8s. abroad.) [Jst published.
Contents.
Classification, General Characteristics, and Microscopical Examination of Fibres Stegmata
Chemical Examination Ultimate Fibres Methyl Value Moisture in Fibres. Wool.
Nature of Wool Commercial Varieties Characteristics of Good Wool Merino Micro-
scopical Appearance Mould in Wool Felting Property Curl of Wool Chemical Composi-
tion Action of Reagents on Wool Chlorinised Wool Detection of Dyed Fibres in Wool-
Conditioning of Wool. Vicuna Camel Hair Alpaca Llama Hair Mohair Cashmere
Goats' Hair Cow Hair Horse Hair Deer Hair Reindeer Hair Rabbits' Hair-
Cats' Hair Dogs' Hair Kangaroos' Hair Human Hair. Silk. Origin of Silk-
Reeling Waste Silk History Commercial Varieties of Thread Size of Yarns Wild Silks
Microscopical Characteristics Colour of Silk Size of Fibres Strength and Elasticity
Specific Gravity Chemical Composition Fibroin Sericin Hydrolysis of Silk Proteins
Action of Chemical Agents Absorption of Tannin Weighting Differentiation and Separation
from other Fibres. Cotton. Origin History Commercial Varieties Structure of the
Fibre Cell Walls Dimensions of Fibre Chemical Composition Cellulose Action of
Reagents Nitrated Cotton Examination of Bleached Fabrics Absorption of Tannin
Absorption of Gases Absorption of Dyestuffs " Animalizing " of Cotton Sized Cotton
Polished Cotton Mould in Cotton Waterproofed Cotton. Mercerised Cotton. History
Structural Alteration of Fibres Affinity for Dyestuffs Chemical Changes in Mercerisation
Effect upon Strength of Fibre Measurement of Shrinkage Reactions and Tests for Mercer-
ised Cotton Dyestuff Tests, Artificial Silks. Historical Outline of Processes Strength
25
aad Elasticity Covering Power Specific Gravity Water Microscopical Appearance Re-
actions and Chemical Tests. Linen and Ramie. Linen Source Varieties of Commercial
Flax Retting of Flax Lustrous Linen Use of Linen as a Textile Characteristics of the
Fibre Structure Action of Reagents Physical Properties Composition Flax Wax.
Ramie Source Preparation History Properties Composition. Jute and other
Fibres. Jute Source Commercial Varieties Properties Microscopical Appearance
Chemical Composition The Cellulose of Jute Lignocelluloses Chemical Reactions. Hemp.
Source History Varieties Properties Microscopical Appearance Chemical Composi-
tion. Sisal Hemp. Properties Microscopical Characteristics Chemical Composition.
Pita Fibre. Manila Hemp. Characteristics Musa Paradisiaca Fibre. Banana Fibre.
Andansonia Fibre. Differentiation of Jute : Manila and Andansonia. Sanseviera Fibre
(Bowstring Hemp). Source. Sunn Hemp Qambo Hemp New Zealand Flax
Mauritius Hemp Yercum Fibre Pine Apple Fibre. Brush Fibres Cocoanut Fibre
(Coir) Characteristics Ixtle Fibre Piassava Brazilian Piassava African Piassava.
Vegetable Downs and Upholstery Fibres. Bombax Cottons Kapok Ochroma Down
Kumbi or Galgal Vegetable Silk Asclepias Cotton Calotropis Down Beaumantia Down
Other Vegetable Silks Vegetable Wool Tillaridsia Fibre Vegetable Horsehair. Index.
Collieries and Mines.
RECOVERY WORK AFTER PIT FIRES. By ROBERT
LAMPRECHT, Mining Engineer and Manager. Translated from the
German. Illustrated by Six large Plates, containing Seventy-six
Illustrations. 175 pp., demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free,
10s. lOd. home; 11s. abroad.)
VENTILATION IN MINES. By ROBERT WABNER, Mining
Engineer. Translated from the German. Royal 8vo. Thirty Plates
and Twenty-two Illustrations. 240 pp. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free,
11s. home ; 11s. 3d. abroad.)
HAULAGE AND WINDING APPLIANCES USED IN
MINES. By CARL VOLK. Translated from the German.
Royal 8vo. With Six Plates and 148 Illustrations. 150 pp. Price
8s. 6d. net. (Post free, 9s. home ; 9o. 3d. abroad.)
Contents.
Haulage Appliances Ropes Haulage Tubs and Tracks Cages and Winding Appliances
Winding Engines for Vertical Shafts Winding without Hopes Haulage in Levels and
Inclines The Working of Underground Engines Machinery for Downhill Haulage.
THE ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT OF COLLIERIES. By
W. GALLOWAY DUNCAN, Electrical and Mechanical Engineer, Member
of the Institution of Mining Engineers, Head of the Government School
of Engineering, Dacca, India ; and DAVID PENMAN, Certificated Colliery
Manager, Lecturer in Mining to Fife County Committee. Demy 8vo.
310 pp. 155 Illustrations and Diagrams. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post
free, 11s. home ; 11s. 3d. abroad.)
Contents.
General Principles, Magnetism, Units, Cells, etc. Dynamos and Motors Trans=
mission and Distribution of Power Prime Movers Lighting- by Electricity Initial
Outlay and Working Cost of Electrical Installations Electricity Applied to Coal-
cutting Electric Haulage, Winding, and Locomotives Electric Pumps and Pump=
ing Electric= Power Drills and Underground Coal Conveyers Typical Colliery
Electrical Installations Miscellaneous Applications of the Electric Current Com-
parison of the Different Modes of Transmitting Power Dangers Occurring from the
Use of Electricity in Colleries APPENDIX : Questions suitable for students preparing for
colliery managers' examinations INDEX.
Dental Metallurgy.
DENTAL METALLURGY : MANUAL FOR STUDENTS
AND DENTISTS. By A. B. GRIFFITHS, Ph.D. Demy
8vo. Thirty-six Illustrations. 200 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free,
7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
Contents .
Introduction Physical Properties of the Metals Action of Certain Agents on Metals
Alloys Action of Oral Bacteria on Allots Theory and Varieties of Blowpipes Fluxes-
Furnaces and Appliances Heat and Temperature Gold Mercury Silver Iron Copper
Zinc Magnesium Cadmium Tin Lead Aluminium Antimony Bismuth Palladium
Platinum Iridium Nickel Practical Work Weights and Measures.
26
Engineering, Smoke Prevention
and Metallurgy.
THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. Combined with the
Economical Combustion of Fuel. By W. C. POPPLEWELL, M.Sc.,
A.M.Inst.,C.E., Consulting Engineer. Forty-six Illustrations. 190pp.
Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. 3d. abroad.)
Contents.
Fuel and Combustion Hand Firing in Boiler Furnaces Stoking by Mechanical Means
Powdered Fuel Gaseous Fuel Efficiency and Smoke Tests of Boilers Some Standard
Smoke Trials The Legal Aspect of the Smoke Question The Best Means to be adopted for
the Prevention of Smoke Index.
GAS AND COAL DUST FIRING. A Critical Review of
the Various Appliances Patented in Germany for this purpose since
1885. By ALBERT PUTSCH. 130 pp. Demy 8vo. Translated from the
German. With 103 Illustrations. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d.
home ; 5s. 6d. abroad. )
Contents.
Generators Generators Employing Steam Stirring and Feed Regulating Appliances
Direct Generators Burners Regenerators and Recuperators Glass Smelting Furnaces
Metallurgical Furnaces Pottery Furnace Coal Dust Firing Index.
THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OP STEEL
IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. By FRIDOLIN REISER.
Translated from the German of the Third Edition. Crown 8vo.
120 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home; 5s. 4d. abroad.)
Contents.
Steel Chemical and Physical Properties of Steel, and their Casual Connection-
Classification of Steel according to Use Testing the Quality of Steel Steel-
Hardening Investigation of the Causes of Failure in Hardening Regeneration of
Steel Spoilt in the Furnace Welding Steel Index.
SIDEROLOGY: THE SCIENCE OF IRON (The Con-
stitution of Iron Alloys and Slags). Translated from German of
HANNS FREIHERR v. JUPTNER. 350 pp. Demy 8vo. Eleven Plates
and Ten Illustrations. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 11s. home;
11s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
The Theory of Solution. Solutions Molten Alloys Varieties of Solutions Osmotic
Pressure Relation between Osmotic Pressure and other Properties of Solutions Osmotic
Pressure and Molecular Weight of the Dissolved Substance Solutions of Gases Solid Solu-
tions Solubility Diffusion Electrical Conductivity Constitution of Electrolytes and Metals
Thermal Expansion. Micrography. Microstructure The Micrographic Constituents of
Iron Relation between Micrographical Composition, Carbon-Content, and Thermal Treat-
ment of Iron Alloys The Microstructure of Slags. Chemical Composition of the Alloys
of Iron. Constituents of Iron Alloys Carbon Constituents of the Iron Alloys, Carbon
Opinions and Researches on Combined Carbon Opinions and Researches on Combined
Carbon Applying the Curves of Solution deduced from the Curves of Recalescence to the De-
termination of the Chemical Composition of the Carbon present in Iron Alloys The Constitu-
ents of Iron Iron The Constituents of Iron Alloys Manganese Remaining Constituents of
l Composition of Slag. Silicate Slags-
Calculating the Composition of Silicate Slags Phosphate Slags Oxide Slags Appendix
Iron Alloys A Silicon Gases. The Chemical Composition of Slag. Silicate Sla
Calcul
Index.
EVAPORATING, CONDENSING AND COOLING AP-
PARATUS. Explanations, Formulas and Tables for Use
in Practice. By E. HAUSBRAND, Engineer. Translated by A. C.
WRIGHT, M.A. (Oxon.), B.Sc. (Lond.). With Twenty-one Illustra-
tions and Seventy-six Tables. 400 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 11s. home; 11s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
^Coefficient of Transmission of Heat, k/, and the Mean Temperature Difference, 0/in
Parallel and Opposite Currents Apparatus for Heating with Direct Fire The Injection of
Saturated Steam Superheated Steam Evaporation by Means of Hot Liquids The Trans-
ference of Heat in General, and Transference by means of Saturated Steam in Particular
The Transference of Heat from Saturated Steam in Pipes (Coils) and Double Bottoms
Evaporation in a Vacuum The Multiple-effect Evaporator Multiple-effect Evaporators
27
from which Extra Steam is Taken The Weight of Water which must be Evaporated from
100 Kilos, of Liquor in order its Original Percentage of Dry Materials from 1-25 per cent
up to 20-70 per cent. The Relative Proportion of the Heating Surfaces in the Elements
of the Multiple Evaporator and their Actual Dimensions The Pressure Exerted by Currents
of Steam and Gas upon Floating Drops of Water The Motion of Floating Drops of Water
upon which Press Currents of Steam The Splashing of Evaporating Liquids The Diameter
of Pipes for Steam, Alcohol, Vapour and Air The Diameter of Water Pipes The Loss
of Heat from Apparatus and Pipes to the Surrounding Air, and Means for Preventing
the Loss Condensers Heating Liquids by Means of Steam The Cooling of Liquids
The Volumes to be Exhausted from Condensers by the Air-pumps A Few Remarks on Air-
pumps and the Vacua they Produce The Volumetric Efficiency of Air-pumps The Volumes
of Air which must be Exhausted from a Vessel in order to Reduce its Original Pressure to a
Certain Lower Pressure Index.
Sanitary Plumbing, Electric
Wiring, Metal Work, etc.
EXTERNAL PLUMBING WORK. A Treatise on Lead
Work for Roofs. By JOHN W. HART, R.P.C. 180 Illustrations. 272
pp. Demy 8vo. Second Edition Revised. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post
free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
HINTS TO PLUMBERS ON JOINT WIPING, PIPE
BENDING AND LEAD BURNING. Third Edition,
Revised and Corrected. By JOHN W. HART, R.P.C. 184 Illustrations.
313 pp. DemySvo. Price 7s. 6d.net. (Post free, 8s. home; 8s. 6d.
abroad.)
Contents.
Pipe Bending Pipe Bending (continued) Pipe Bending (continued) Square Pipe
Bendings Half-circular Elbows Curved Bends on Square Pipe Bossed Bends Curved
Plinth Bends Rain-water Shoes on Square Pipe Curved and Angle Bends Square Pipe
Fixings Joint-wiping Substitutes for Wiped Joints Preparing Wiped Joints Joint Fixings
Plumbing Irons Joint Fixings Use of "Touch" in Soldering Underhand Joints Blown
and Copper Bit Joints Branch Joints Branch Joints (continued) Block Joints Block
Joints (continued) Block Fixings Astragal Joints Pipe Fixings Large Branch Joints
Large Underhand Joints Solders Autogenous Soldering or Lead Burning Index.
SANITARY PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE. By JOHN
W. HART. Demy 8vo. With 208 Illustrations. 250 pp. 1904. Price
7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
ELECTRIC WIRING AND FITTING FOR PLUMBERS
AND GASFITTERS. By SYDNEY F.WALKER, R.N., M.I.E.E.,
M.I.Min.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., etc., etc. Crown 8vo. 150 pp. With Illus-
trations and Tables. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 6d.
abroad.)
Contents.
Chapter I., Electrical Terms Used. Pressure and Current The Volt Ampere-
Electrical Resistance Earth Continuous and Alternating Currents The Electric Circuit
Leakage Heating of Conductors Size and Forms of Conductors The Kilowatt Loss of
Pressure Arrangement of Conductors Looping In The Three Wire System Switches
Fuses Circuit Breakers. II., The Insulation of Wires, Their Protection, Fixing:, etc.
Conductors Insulated with Paper and Similar Materials Sparking between Conductors
Diahte Insulation Flexible Cords Concentric Conductors Twin Conductors Three-Core
Cables Fireproof Insulation for Conductors Jointing T Joints Covering T Joints in Vul-
canized Rubber Cables. III., Fixing- the Wiring and Cables. Laying Out the Route The
Protection of the Wires and Cables Wood Casing Metallic Conduits Non-Metallic Con
ductors Fixing the Conduits and Running Wires in Them Drawing Wires into Tubes To
Avoid Shock. IV., Lamps. The Incandescent Lamp Lamp Holders Lamp Fittings T
Nernst Lamp. V., Switches, Fuses, Distribution Boards, etc. The Electricity Meter
Avoid Shock. IV., Lamps. The Incandescent Lamp Lamp Holders Lamp Fittings The
Nernst Lamp. V.,
Prepayment Meters.
THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF DIPPING,
BURNISHING, LACQUERING AND BRONZING
BRASS WARE. By W. NORMAN BROWN. 35 pp. Crown
8vo. Price 2s. net. (Post free, 2s. 3d. home and abroad.)
THE HISTORY OF INCANDESCENT LAMPS. By G.
BASIL BARHAM, A.M. I.E. E. Illustrated. r ln preparation.
28
A HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING AND ENAMELLING
FOR CYCLES, BEDSTEADS, TINWARE, ETC. By
WILLIAM NORMAN BROWN. 52 pp. and Illustrations. Crown 8vo.
Price 2s. net. (Post free, 2s. 3d. home and abroad.)
THE PRINCIPLES OF HOT WATER SUPPLY. By
JOHN W. HART, R.P.C. With 129 Illustrations. 177 pp., demy 8vo.
Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)
House Decorating and Painting.
THREE HUNDRED SHADES AND HOW TO MIX
THEM. For Architects, Painters and Decorators. By A.
DESAINT, Artistic Interior Decorator of Paris. The book contains 100
folio Plates, measuring 12 in. by 7 in., each Plate containing specimens
of three artistic shades. These shades are all numbered, and their
composition and particulars for mixing are fully given at the beginning
of the book. Each Plate is interleaved with grease-proof paper, and
the volume is very artistically bound in art and linen, with the Shield
of the Painters' Guild impressed on the cover in gold and silver. Price
21s. net. (Post free, 21s. 6d. home ; 22s. 6d. abroad.)
HOUSE DECORATING AND PAINTING. By W.
NORMAN BROWN. Eighty-eight Illustrations. 150 pp. Crown 8vo.
Price 3s. 6d. net. (Post free, 3s. 9d. home and abroad.)
A HISTORY OF DECORATIVE ART. By W. NORMAN
BROWN. Thirty-nine Illustrations. 96 pp. Crown 8vo. Price Is. net.
(Post free, Is. 3d. home and abroad.)
WORKSHOP WRINKLES for Decorators, Painters, Paper-
hangers and Others. By W. N. BROWN. Crown 8vo. 128 pp. Second
Edition. Price 2s. 6d. net. (Post free, 2s. 9d. home ; 2s. lOd. abroad.)
Brewing and Botanical.
HOPS IN THEIR BOTANICAL, AGRICULTURAL
AND TECHNICAL ASPECT, AND AS AN ARTICLE
OF COMMERCE. By EMMANUEL GROSS, Professor at
the Higher Agricultural College, Tetschen-Liebwerd. Translated
from the German. Seventy-eight Illustrations. 340 pp. Demy 8vo.
Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 11s. home; 11s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
HISTORY OF THE HOP THE HOP PLANT Introductory The Roots The Stem
and Leaves Inflorescence and Flower : Inflorescence and Flower of the Male Hop ; In-
florescence and Flower of the Female Hop The Fruit and its Glandular Structure : The
Fruit and Seed Propagation and Selection of the Hop Varieties of the Hop: (a) Red Hops;
(b) Green Hops ; (c) Pale Green Hops Classification according to the Period of Ripening :
Early August Hops ; Medium Early Hops ; Late Hops Injuries to Growth Leaves Turning
Yellow, Summer or Sunbrand, Cones Dropping Off, Honey Dew, Damage from Wind, Hail
and Rain ; Vegetable Enemies of the Hop: Animal Enemies of the Hop Beneficial Insects on
Hops CULTIVATION The Requirements of the Hop in Respect of Climate, Soil and
Situation : Climate ; Soil : Situation Selection of Variety and Cuttings Planting a Hop
Garden : Drainage ; Preparing the Ground ; Marking-out for Planting ; Planting ; Cultivation
and Cropping of the Hop Garden in the First Year Work to be Performed Annually in the
Hop Garden: Working the Ground; Cutting; The Non-cutting System; The Proper Per-
formance of the Operation of Cutting : Method of Cutting : Close Cutting, Ordinary Cutting,
The Long Cut, The Topping Cut; Proper Season for Cutting: Autumn Cutting, Spring
Cutting; Manuring; Training the Hop Plant: Poled Gardens, Frame Training; Principal
Types of Frames Pruning, Cropping, Topping, and Leaf Stripping the Hop Plant ; Picking,
Drying and Bagging Principal and Subsidiary Utilisation of Hops and Hop Gardens Life
of a Hop Garden ; Subsequent Cropping Cost of Production, Yield and Selling Prices.
Preservation and Storage Physical and Chemical Structure of the Hop Cone Judging
the Value of Hops.
Statistics of Production The Hop Trade Index.
29
Wood Products, Timber and
Wood Waste.
WOOD PRODUCTS : DISTILLATES AND EXTRACTS.
By P. DUMESNY, Chemical Engineer, Expert before the Lyons Com-
mercial Tribunal, Member of the International Association of Leather
Chemists; and J. NOYER. Translated from the French by DONALD
GRANT. Royal 8vo. 320 pp. 103 Illustrations and Numerous Tables.
Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 11s. home ; 11s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
Part I., Wood Distillation Principal Products from the Carbonisation of Wood-
Acetates Secondary Products of the Distillation of Wood Acetone Analysis of
Raw Materials and Finished Products Appendix The Destructive Distillation of Olive
Oil Residuals. Part II., Manufacture and Testing of Tan Wood Extracts and their
Utilisation in Modern Tanneries Plant and Equipment for Treating Chestnut Wood
Analysis of Tanning Substances The Official Method of the International Association
of Leather Chemists, with Supplementary Notes.
TIMBER : A Comprehensive Study of Wood in all its Aspects
(Commercial and Botanical), showing the Different Applications and
Uses of Timber in Various Trades, etc. Translated from the French
of PAUL CHARPENTIER. Royal 8vo. 437 pp. 178 Illustrations. Price
12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. home ; 14s. abroad.)
Contents.
Physical and Chemical Properties of Timber Composition of the Vegetable Bodies
Chief Elements M. Fremy's Researches Elementary Organs of Plants and especially of
Forests Different Parts of Wood Anatomically and Chemically Considered General Pro-
perties of Wood Description of the Different Kinds of Wood Principal Essences with
Caducous Leaves Coniferous Resinous Trees Division of the Useful Varieties of Timber
in the Different Countries of the Globe European Timber African Timber Asiatic
Timber American Timber Timber of Oceania Forests General Notes as to Forests ; their
Influence Opinions as to Sylviculture Improvement of Forests Unwooding and Rewooding
Preservation of Forests Exploitation of Forests Damage caused to Forests Different
Alterations The Preservation of Timber Generalities Causes and Progress of De-
terioration History of Different Proposed Processes Dessication Superficial Carbonisation
of Timber Processes by Immersion Generalities as to Antiseptics Employed Injection
Processes in Closed Vessels The Boucherie System, Based upon the Displacement of the
Sap Processes for Making Timber Uninflammable Applications of Timber Generalities
Working Timber Paving Timber for Mines Railway Traverses Accessory Products
Gums Works of M. Fremy Resins Barks Tan Application of Cork The Application of
Wood to Art and Dyeing Different Applications of Wood Hard Wood Distillation of
Wood Pyroligneous Acid Oil of Wood Distillation of Resins Index.
THE UTILISATION OF WOOD WASTE. Translated from
the German of ERNST HUBBARD. Crown 8vo. 192 pp. Fifty Illustra-
tions. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
Building and Architecture.
THE PREVENTION OF DAMPNESS IN BUILDINGS;
with Remarks on the Causes, Nature and Effects of Saline, Efflores-
cences and Dry-rot, for Architects, Builders, Overseers, Plasterers,
Painters and House Owners. By ADOLF WILHELM KEIM. Translated
from the German of the second revised Edition by M. J. SALTER, F.I.C.,
F.C.S. Eight Coloured Plates and Thirteen Illustrations. Crown 8vo.
115 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home; 5s. 4d. abroad.)
HANDBOOK OF TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN ARCHI-
TECTURE AND BUILDING, AND THEIR ALLIED
TRADES AND SUBJECTS. By AUGUSTINE C. PASSMORE,
Demy 8vo. 380 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 8s. home ; 8s, 6d.
abroad.)
30
The Preserving of Foods and
Sweetmeats.
THE MANUFACTURE OF PRESERVED FOODS AND
SWEETMEATS. By A. HAUSNER. With Twenty-eight
Illustrations. Translated from the German of the third enlarged
Edition. Crown 8vo. 225 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. 9d.
home; 7s. lOd. abroad.)
Contents.
The Manufacture of Conserves Introduction The Causes of the Putrefaction of Food
The Chemical Composition of Foods The Products of Decomposition The Causes of Fer-
mentation and Putrefaction Preservative Bodies The Various Methods of Preserving Food
The Preservation of Animal Food Preserving Meat by Means of Ice The Preservation
of Meat by Charcoal Preservation of Meat by Drying The Preservation of Meat by the
Exclusion of Air The Appert Method Preserving Flesh by Smoking Quick Smoking Pre-
serving Meat with Salt Quick Salting by Air Pressure Quick Salting by Liquid Pressure
Gamgee's Method of Preserving Meat The Preservation of Eggs Preservation of White
and Yolk of Egg Milk Preservation Condensed Milk The Preservation of Fat Manu-
facture of Soup Tablets Meat Biscuits Extract of Beef The Preservation of Vegetable
Foods in General Compressing Vegetables Preservation of Vegetables by Appert's Method
The Preservation of Fruit Preservation of Fruit by Storage The Preservation of Fruit
by Drying Drying Fruit by Artificial Heat Roasting Fruit The Preservation of Fruit with
Sugar Boiled Preserved Fruit The Preservation of Fruit in Spirit, Acetic Acid or Glycerine
Preservation of Fruit without Boiling Jam Manufacture The Manufacture of Fruit
Jellies The Making of Gelatine Jellies The Manufacture of " Sulzen " The Preservation of
Fermented Beverages The Manufacture of Candies Introduction The Manufacture of
Candied Fruit The Manufacture of Boiled Sugar and Caramel The Candying of Fruit
Caramelised Fruit The Manufacture of Sugar Sticks, or Barley Sugar Bonbon Making
Fruit Drops The Manufacture of Dragees The Machinery and Appliances used in Candy
Manufacture Dyeing Candies and Bonbons Essential Oils used in Candy Making Fruit
Essences The Manufacture of Filled Bonbons, Liqueur Bonbons and Stamped Lozenges
Recipes for Jams and Jellies Recipes for Bonbon Making Dragees Appendix Index.
RECIPES FOR THE PRESERVING OF FRUIT, VEGE-
TABLES AND MEAT. By E. WAGNER. Translated
from the German. Crown 8vo. 125pp. With 14 Illustrations. Price
5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home; 5s. 4d. abroad.)
Contents,
Part I. Preserved Fruits. Green Almonds Gooseberries Strawberries Currants
Cherries Black Nuts White Nuts Apricots Greengages Pears Peaches Plums Figs
Melons Apples Chestnuts Angelica Pineapple. Canned Fruit. Gooseberries Cherries
Apricots Plums Rhubarb. Glazed and Candied Fruits. Glazing Fruit -Candied
Fruit Blue Plums Glazed Chestnuts Glazed Pineapple Slices Crystallised Strawberries.
Marmalades, Jams and Fruit Juices. Strawberry Marmalade Cherry Marmalade
Jams Fruit Jellies Raspberry Juice Cherry Juice Lemon Syrup Pineapple Juice. Fruit
Pulp for Ices. Citron Peel and Orange Peel. Part II. Preserved Vegetables.
Asparagus Peas Beans Carrots Spinach Artichokes Tomatoes Mixed Vegetables
Tinned Julienne Celery Mushrooms Truffles Pickled Gherkins Gherkins in Mustard
Mixed Pickles. Part III. Preserved Meats. Veal Cutlets Fricondeau of Veal Calves
Head Bouillon Meat Ox Tongue Beef a la Mode Roast Hare Roast Venison Mutton
and Cabbage Savoury Paste Beef Paste Foie Gras Paste.
FOODS AND DRUGS. Volume I., Chemistry and Analysis
of Foods and Drugs. Volume II., Law Relating to Foods and Drugs.
By E. J. PARRY, B.Sc. (Lond.). [In preparation.
Dyeing Fancy Goods.
THE ART OF DYEING AND STAINING MARBLE,
ARTIFICIAL STONE, BONE, HORN, IVORY AND
WOOD, AND OF IMITATING ALL SORTS OF
WOOD. A Practical Handbook for the Use of Joiners,
Turners, Manufacturers of Fancy Goods, Stick and Umbrella Makers,
Comb Makers, etc. Translated from the German of D. H. SOXHLET,
Technical Chemist. Crown 8vo. 168 pp. Price 5s net. Post free,
5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 4d. abroad.)
31
Celluloid.
CELLULOID : Its Raw Material, Manufacture, Properties and
Uses. A Handbook for Manufacturers of Celluloid and Celluloid
Articles, and all Industries using Celluloid ; also for Dentists and
Teeth Specialists. By Dr. Fr. BOCKMANN, Technical Chemist. Trans-
lated from the Third Revised German Edition. Crown 8vo. 120 pp.
With 49 Illustrations. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 4d.
abroad.)
Contents.
Chapters I., Raw Materials for the Manufacture of Celluloid : Cellulose and Pyroxylin
Gun-cotton Properties of Gun-cotton Special Gun-cottons for Celluloid Manufacture
Nitrating Centrifugalisers Collodion Wool Methods of Preparing Collodion Wool Cam-
phor Japanese (Formosa) Camphor, O-dinary Camphor Borneo Camphor (Borneol),
Sumatra Camphor, Camphol, Baros Camphor) Properties of Camphor Artificial Camphor
Camphor Substitutes. II,, The Manufacture of Celluloid; Manufacturing Camphor by
the Aid of Heat and Pressure Manufacture of Celluloid by Dissolving Gun-cotton in an
Alcoholic Solution of Camphor Preparing Celluloid by the Cold Process Preparation with
an Ethereal Solution of Camphor Preparation with a Solution of Camphor and Wood
Spirit. III., The Employment of Pyroxylin for Artificial Silk : Denitrating
and Colouring Pyroxylin Uninflammable Celluloid Celluloid and Cork Composition
Incombustible Celluloid Substitute Xylonite or Fibrolithoid. IV., Properties of
Celluloid. V., Testing Celluloid. VI., Application and Treatment of Celluloid:
Caoutchouc Industry Making Celluloid Ornaments Working by the Cold Process
Working by the Warm Process Celluloid Combs Celluloid as a Basis for Artificial
Teeth Stained Celluloid Sheets as a Substitute for Glass Celluloid Printing Blocks
and Stamps Collapsible Seamless Vessels of Celluloid Making Celluloid Balls Celluloid
Posters Pressing Hollow Celluloid Articles Casting Celluloid Articles Method for Pro-
ducing Designs on Plates or Sheets of Celluloid, Xylonite, etc. Imitation Tortoiseshell
Metallic Incrustations Imitation Florentine Mosaic Celluloid Collars and Cuffs Phono-
graph Cylinder Composition Making Umbrella and Stick Handles of Celluloid Celluloid
Dolls Celluloid for Ships' Bottoms Celluloid Pens Colouring Finished Celluloid Articles-
Printing on Celluloid Employment of Celluloid (and Pyroxylin) in Lacquer Varnishes Index
Lithography, Printing and
Engraving.
PRACTICAL LITHOGRAPHY. By ALFRED SEYMOUR.
Demy 8vo. With Frontispiece and 33 Illus. 120 pp. Price 5s.
net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
Contents.
Stones Transfer Inks Transfer Papers Transfer Printing Litho Press Press Work-
Machine Printing Colour Printing Substitutes for Lithographic Stones Tin Plate Printing
and Decoration Photo-Lithography.
PRINTERS' AND STATIONERS' READY RECKONER
AND COMPENDIUM. Compiled by VICTOR GRAHAM.
Crown 8vo. 112 pp. 1904. Price 3s. 6d. net. (Post free, 3s. 9d. home ;
3s. lOd. abroad.)
Contents.
Price of Paper per Sheet, Quire, Ream and Lb. Cost of 100 to 1000 Sheets at various
Sizes and Prices per Ream Cost of Cards Quantity Table Sizes and Weights of Paper,
Cards, etc. Notes on Account Books Discount Tables Sizes of spaces Leads to a Ib.
Dictionary Measure for Bookwork Correcting Proofs, etc.
ENGRAVING FOR ILLUSTRATION. HISTORICAL
AND PRACTICAL NOTES. By J. KIRKBRIDE. 72 pp.
Two Plates and 6 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Price 2s. 6d. net. (Post
free, 2s. 9d. home; 2s. lOd. abroad.)
TINPLATE PRINTING. By ALFRED SEYMOUR. Crown 8vo.
[In preparation.
Bookbinding.
PRACTICAL BOOKBINDING. By PAUL ADAM. Translated
from the German. Crown 8vo. 180 pp. 127 Illustrations. Price 5s.
net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
32
Sugar Refining.
THE TECHNOLOGY OF SUGAR : Practical Treatise on
the Modern Methods of Manufacture of Sugar from the Sugar Cane and
Sugar Beet. By JOHN GEDDES MC!NTOSH. Second Revised and
Enlarged Edition. DemySvo. Fully Illustrated. 436pp. Seventy-six
Tables. 1906. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 11s. home; 11s. 6d.
abroad.)
(See " Evaporating, Condensing, etc., Apparatus," p. 26.)
Libraries and Bibliography.
CLASSIFIED GUIDE TO TECHNICAL AND COM-
MERCIAL BOOKS. Compiled by EDGAR GREENWOOD.
Demy 8vo. 224 pp. 1904. Being a Subject-list of the Principal
British and American Books in print ; giving Title, Author, Size, Date,
Publisher and Price. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d.
abroad.)
HANDBOOK TO THE TECHNICAL AND ART
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES OF THE UNITED
KINGDOM. Containing particulars of nearly 1,000 Techni-
cal, Commercial and Art Schools throughout the United Kingdom.
With full particulars of the courses of instruction, names of principals,
secretaries, etc. Demy 8vo. 150 pp. Price 3s. 6d. net. (Post free,
3s. lOd. home ; 4s. abroad.)
THE LIBRARIES, MUSEUMS AND ART GALLERIES
YEAR BOOK, 1910-11. Being the Third Edition of Green-
wood's "British Library Year Book". Edited by ALEX. J. PHILIP.
DemySvo. 286pp. Price5s.net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home; 5s. 6d.
abroad.) [Just published.
Contents.
Preface Introduction Chronological List of Adoptions of the Libraries Acts Public
Libraries Assessed for the Payment of Rates Special Collections of Books in Libraries,
Museums and Art Galleries Alphabetical Index to Librarians, Curators and Assistants
Architects who have Designed Public Libraries Libraries, Museums and Art Galleries in the
United Kingdom Women Librarians Occupying Chief Positions Women Assistants-
Methods of Charging or of Issuing Books Classifications in Use Public Libraries Opening
on Sundays Public Libraries Opening on Bank Holidays Public Libraries in which Betting
News is Obliterated Public Libraries Publishing Magazines, Bulletins, etc.
THE PLUMBING^ HEATING AND LIGHTING
ANNUAL FOR 1911. The Trade Reference Book for
Plumbers Sanitary, Heating and Lighting Engineers, Builders' Mer-
chants, Contractors and Architects. Quarto. Bound in cloth and gilt
lettered. (Published in December, 1910.) Price 3s. net. (Post free,
3s. 4d. home ; 3s. 8d. abroad.)
SCOTT GREENWOOD &, SON,
Gecbnical JBoofc anD Grafce journal publtsbers,
8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL,
LONDON, E.G.
Telegraphic Address, " Printeries, London ". Telephone, Bank 5403.
January, 1911.
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW
AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS
WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.
RETD FEB 4 1S 84
LD 21-95m-7,'37
