TRUBNER'S
* ACTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS
D
m
ru
.a
=o
THE DANISH LANGUAGE
E.C.OTTE.
TRUBNER'S COLLECTION
OP
SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS
OF THE PRINCIPAL
ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.
EDITED BY
REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., PH.D.
VIII.
DANISH.
BY E. c. OTT.
TRUBNER'S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE
PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES,
EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., PH.D.
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SIMPLIFIED
GEAMMAE
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DANISH LANGUAGE
J^m
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E/C. OTTE.
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CONTENTS.
PART I.
MODES OF WBITING AND SPELLING DANISH AND NORWEGIAN
(DANSK-NOBSK).
PAGE
The Alphabet, &c 1
Articles (Kendeord) 11
Nouns (Navneord) ....... 16
Adjectives (Tillagsord) . . . . . . 19
Adverbs (Biord) 21
Pronouns (Stedord) HJ
Personal Pronouns ...... 22
Possessive Pronouns 23
Demonstrative Pronouns . . . . . iM
Relative Pronouns . . . . . . - 1
Indefinite Pronouns . . . . . . -"
Verbs (UdsagnsorcT) 25
Irregular Verbs (Uregelrettc L'dwjnsord)
Prepositions (Forhohtsord) . . . . '-
Conjunctions (Bindeord) .....
Interjections (Udr^bsord} .....
VI CONTENTS.
PART II.
ON THE CHARACTER, POSITION, AND MORE PRECISE USE OF
THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH.
PAGE
The Indefinite Article (Ubestemte Kendeord) . . 34
The Definite Article (De lestemte Kendeord} . . . 35
Adjectives (Tillcegsord) . . . . . . 41
The Numerals .... . . 42
Pronouns (Stedord) . . . . . 41
Verbs (TTdsagnsord) 48
Adverbs (Biord) .59
Prepositions (Forholdsord) ...... (30
Conjunctions (Bindeord) . . . . . . 61
Composition of Words ....... 62
AUTHOR'S PEEFACE.
THE present work, in conformity with the plan of the series of
which it forms a part, addresses itself principally to those,
whose grammatical knowledge of other tongues, whether dead
or living, enables them readily to master a new language,
provided only that its essential and specific characteristics are
clearly presented to them. In attempting to fulfil these
requirements, we have endeavoured, as far as the limited
dimensions of the volume permitted, to indicate the more
important of the numerous points of affinity existing between
modern Danish (Dano-Norwegian) and its old northern
mother-tongue ; and, among these, the origin and process of
development of the Affix-Article have been more specially
noticed, as bearing upon the most marked characteristic of the
Scandinavian tongues.
The simple grammatical rules which are common to all
cultivated languages have on the other hand been only very
briefly touched upon.
It will be apparent, therefore, that the present little
Grammar in no way aims at superseding more minutely and
Vlll PREFACE.
diffusely elaborated grammatical manuals ; as little does it
claim to be a sole and sufficient guide for young beginners, or
for those, who have leisure and inclination to gauge their hold
of each advancing step on their progress towards knowledge by
the test of written exercises, and reiterated self-examination.
For this our manual supplies at once too much and too little
information.
In conclusion, we may further observe, however, that the
object of the work will be doubly attained, if it succeed not
merely in giving the English student a comprehensive view of
the language spoken by Danes and Norwegians, but still more
if it should be able to draw his attention to the numerous
salient points of resemblance between his own mother-tongue
and this kindred form of Gothic speech, which is known to us
in modern times as Dansk-Norsk, or "Dano-Norwegian."
E. C. OTTE.
DANISH GEAMMAE.
PART I.
MODES OF WRITING AND SPELLING DANISH
AND NORWEGIAN (DANSK-NORSK).
THE ALPHABET, ETC.
UNTIL recently the Danes and Norwegians used no other
characters in printing and writing but those known as the
Gothic, or German. In the present day, however, the Latin
Alphabet is being extensively employed by the best writers
of Denmark and Norway, and a new and more rational
system of spelling is gaining ground among the ablest
cultivators of that special form of Northern speech known
as Danish, or Dano-Norwegian (Dansk-Norsk). This com-
pound term indicates the common use of this branch of
Scandinavian by Danes and Norwegians, and in point of
fact it has for centuries served both peoples as their com-
mon literary language, and mother-tongue, although each
has spoken it with differences of accent, and each has
preserved in its current speech modes of expression and
construction peculiar to itself.
" Dansk-Norsk " and " tirens&" (Swedish) arc twin
B
2 DANISH GRAMMAR.
tongues, derived from the Old Northern branch of Gothic,
used by the early Northmen, and still preserved almost
unchanged by the natives of Iceland, who alone among
Scandinavian peoples have adhered to the language of their
ancestors as it was spoken a thousand years ago.
This indentity of language between cultivated Norwegians
and Danes is due to political, rather than to racial causes ;
for although all the Scandinavian peoples retained as late as
the eleventh century a sufficiently accurate acquaintance with
their common mother- tongue, the Old Northern, to be able
to communicate freely together wherever they met in the
course of their wanderings, they soon began to adopt special
peculiarities of speech, although in unequal degrees. Thus
the Swedes, who took less part than the other Northmen in
foreign expeditions, and who by their geographical position
were the least influenced by contact with other nations of
Western Europe, have retained far more of the Old Northern
character in their modes of speech than the Norsemen, or
the Danes. In Norway the current speech of the nation at
large would possibly have preserved as many traces of its
origin, if the Norwegian kingdom had maintained, or re-
covered, its independence, as Sweden had done. But while
the extinction of its native dynasty in the fourteenth century,
led to its incorporation with the Danish kingdom, the almost
complete extermination of the nobles, and leading free-men,
during the sanguinary civil wars of the previous century,
caused Norway to be early brought into a condition of
dependence on Denmark, not warranted by the terms of its
union with that kingdom. The result was that the people
MODES OF WRITIXO AND SI'M.I.INC.
lost much of their old national character, while the cun
.Danish form of speech supplanted more or less thoroughly
the genuine Xorse dialects, that had sprung up in the various
provinces of Norway. For four hundred years the country re-
mained under the rule of the kings of Denmark, and when, in
1814,this long protracted union was severed, and Nonvav
incorporated with Sweden into one joint realm, it possessed no
cultivated native tongue, or literature, apart from Denmark.
The Dano-Norwegian language which was thus common
to both Norwegians and Danes had, however, in the course
of time become so deeply affected by Germanizing influences,
that it had lost much of the special Scandinavian charu.-trr.
which could still be traced in Swedish, and in the vai
forms of the *Bo*de*prog" or peasant language of provin-
cial Xorwav. Of this Danish and Norwegian scholars have
long been sensible,and more than fifty years ago a scheme
propounded by the eminent philologist, Rasmus Husk, for
the thorough reform of "Dansk-Norsk" (Dano-Norwegian).
Rask's system included the adoption of the Latin charac-
I, with the audition of the various marks and
which the Swedes had long used to indicate special vermicu-
lar vowel-sounds, and other Northern modes of ;K -, -, -nt nation.
Its most important feature was, however, its |.n>|.,-.-d rejec-
tion, U far as circumstances admitted, of all -ments,
and its reversion to the Old Northern as the basis of
grammatical construction and orthography. Hi- sugges-
tions found little favour at the time, but when the Lin^i.
Con.uTess, which had been called toother at the d(sire of
the leading Scandinavian writers and printers, iiiet at
4 DANISH GRAMMAR.
Stockholm, in 1869, to deliberate on the best methods for
bringing the written languages of the three Northern king-
doms into closer harmony with each other, and with their
common mother-tongue, the Old Northern, Rask's system
was adopted as the main basis of the Orthographic Resolu-
tions, unanimously accepted by the delegates.
In accordance with the scheme of the Congress, which
closely agreed with the system of spelling and writing
already in use among the Swedes, it was proposed that the
Gothic characters should be discarded in Dano-Norwegian ;
that all superfluous letters should be rejected ; that the
marks employed in Swedish to indicate special vowel-sounds,
as a (for aa), a and o, should be adopted, and that the spelling
of the Dano-Norwegian and the Swedish should be governed
by the same rules, wherever the nature and root of the
words admitted of their being brought into accord.
The moving spring of this radical reform of the Scan-
dinavian languages was the national desire of giving to
the three Northern lands one joint literature equally acces-
sible to all. And for a time it seemed as if this object
would be speedily attained; but it must be admitted that
the progress of the much needed reform in the mode of
writing, and spelling Dano-Norvvegian, has not been as
rapid and complete as its advocates had hoped. At the
present moment the old and the new systems are still
running their parallel courses in Denmark and in Norway,
for while scientific works almost without exception, and
some of the best literary productions of either country, are
printed and spelt in accordance with the new system, the
MODES OK WRITING AND Sl'Kl.I.I \<i. ')
popular daily press, and all public notices, and advertise-
ments, generally adhere to the German characters, and to
the eld forms of spelling.
In Norway this uncertainty in regard to the method of
writing and spelling the language is intensified by strong
national feeling, for while all parties are agreed in desiring
to bring back their spoken language to the more genuine
Northern forms, of which survivals are to be found in the
" Jlondesprog" or peasant-language, there is no agreement
as to the special peasant-dialect that should be accepted as
authoritative, and no harmony in the manner of carrying out
the proposed changes. Thus, while one section of the
patriotic party follows H.Ibsen and B. Bjornson in writing
tlu-ir native language in accordance with the strictest rules
of the modern system, others, equally zealous, refuse to
depart from a single one of the practices which it was the
special object of that system to do away with. Both par-
have, however, one common object in view, which is
to make modern Norwegian diverge as much as possible
from the older Danish ; and the result of the present ten-
dency t<> take up into the spoken language of the cultivated
classes expressions and modes of pronunciation, which
till recently were exclusively used by the peasants, is to
make Norwegian approximate more closely to Swedish.
At present the language is passing through a stage of
transit ion, almost bewildering to foreigners, who must be
prepared, for some time to come, to meet in Norway with
the nmst extreme diversity in the mode in which the lan-
guage is spoken, and written, by the older and younger
DANISH GRAMMAR.
generations of cultivated Norwegians. In the present
work we have followed the new system of orthography and
printing, as the more rational and simple ; but to the
modern alphabet we have subjoined the German characters,
owing to their frequent use by the Danish and Norwegian
Press. We have also endeavoured to show the leading dif-
ferences of pronunciation between Danes and Norwegians,
and, where the occasion required it, we have pointed out
some of the comparatively rare cases in which each nation
employs some special word, peculiar to itself, to designate
one common object.
The Dano-Norwegian Alphabet is composed of the
following letters, representing the Latin and the German
characters :
A 2C, called ak, pronounced like a in father.
, bey as in English.
, sey like ~k before a, a, o, n.
B S3
C g
D )
dey
E
ghey
as in English at the be-
ginning of words, and by
the Danes like soft th in
the middle, or at the end
of words.
like a in lady, and like
e in btfll. It is sounded
at the end of words.
as in English.
like hard g in English by
the Danes, and like Eng-
lish y before the soft
vowels by Norwegians.
MODES OF WRITING AND SPELL IXC.
H , called haw, aspirated except before,;' and v.
I 3
e, pronounced as
ee in tr^ ; and i in b/t.
J 3
yotlth
as y in yell.
K5\
JV
kaw\
L
el 1
M ^
jy
>, em f
as in English.
N 91
en }
s
ID
when long, as o in bore ;
when short, as o in dog.
P $
PW
as in English.
Q l
coo
q is always followed by v
instead of u. Qv is pro-
nounced the same as Eng-
lish qu.
R ft
crr
like English r.
S <3
ess
like English s, hard.
Tcv
**/
*<-'!/ ,>
as in English.
u u
>> oo
as oo in spoon, or as u in fwll.
V #
My
as v in rale, and when pre-
ceded by s as w in scowl.
Y ?)
u (French)
as French u in d/a-e, and
in n/?l.
A or
A a ?C, called aw
like aw in saw, or like o in
sorrow.
.1: \M
$ eh ,,
like a in pale.
8
o cu (French)
like eu in so3wr, and in pew.
The letters ?, or and z only
occur in the rendering of
foreign words.
DANISH GRAMMAR.
Native purists condemn the use of c and q as alien
letters. The former they maintain should be rejected
before k as unnecessary, and should always be replaced by &,
where, as is the case in genuine Northern words, c has the
sound of that letter ; while, where it has the sound of
English, or French c before a soft vowel, they prefer to
represent it by the letter s. Qu (or qv) is, on analogous
grounds, to be rendered by Jcv, which supply the equivalent
sound in genuine Northern letters.
In regard to pronunciation, great variations, as already
observed, are growing up between Danes and Norwegians;
and in the following remarks we will endeavour briefly to
notice some of the most prominent national, and recently
acquired, differences of sound given to the same letters by
the two peoples.
By Danes and Norwegians the final d is not pronounced
after Z, n, r, t, as Hand (hawn) y ' hand/ or before t and s.
Among Norwegians, however, d never takes the soft th
sound common in Danish when it follows a vowel at the
end of a word, as med (medtK), 'with/ Norwegian final d
has the sound of t in most nouns and adjectives, but in
some pronouns, as hvad, ( what,' it is not heard.
In Danish, g loses its distinctive sound in monosyllables
when following a vowel, as mig (mei), ' me/
In Norwegian the g before the soft vowels a, e, i, 6, y y
acquires the sound of English y y asgcerne, (yerne), 'willingly.'
In certain parts of Norway Jiv has the sound of kv, as
hvad (kva), ' what/ This peculiarity, which was till lately
regarded as a mere provincialism, is now beginning to find
MODES OF WRITING AND SPELLING. 9
favour among the general body of cultivated Norsemen.
This peculiar sound of the Northern hv brings more clearly
into view the affinity between the Old Northern and Latin ;
the kvcm (/teem, 'who/ 'whom') of the rising Norsk gene-
ration being identical with quem, while their kvad (hv<ut,
' what/ ' which ') represents with nearly equal exactness
the Latin neuters quid, quod.
J is rejected after k and g before soft vowels in the new-
system of spelling, but its rejection has by no means met
with unqualified approval, and hence one modern dictionary
will give gjerne, kjobe, etc., while another gives gar /if,
' willingly/ "kobe, l to sell,' etc. One person will write Ttjar
(or Iyer), and another kar y ' dear ;' or one book published at
Copenhagen may bear on its title page the name Kjoben-
huvn, while another gives the same word as Kobenhacn.
The combined letters sk, sf, which have among Danes the
same sounds as in English, are differently pronounced by
Norwegians and Swedes. The sk among the latter has the
sound of English sh, as Ski/ds, (shiitz), ' relay of carriages/
The st when preceding j has a less well established sound
among Norwegians, some of whom follow the Swedes in
giving it the sound of sh, or soft, as Scheme for Sfjame^stur/
while others, like the Danes, keep to the sound of sticrne.
In the older forms of spelling much confusion prevailed
in the use of vowels, and in the present transition stage of
Duno-Norwegian orthography this indefiniteness still exists,
notwithstanding the strenuous efforts of the Stockholm
Linguistic Congress to establish some fixed rules for vowel-
sounds, that might be accepted both in Dano-Norwegian,
10 DANISH GRAMMAR.
and iii Swedish. Among- such rules we may instance the
following, which were adopted by the Danish and Nor-
wegian delegates to promote this end :
1. To avoid the doubling of the vowel wherever it was
not required on etymological grounds, and to indicate the
necessary lengthening, or accentuation, by the substitution
of some other vowel, or by an accent or mark, such as has
been in use in Sweden for more than three centuries. Thus
double aa was to be replaced by a, as Bad, for Baad, ' boat/
2. Double e and i were to be represented by the single
unaccented vowel in such words as at se, ' to see/ (instead
of at see) ; spiste, ' ate/ (instead of spiiste}. E when it fol-
lowed/ was to be replaced by ce, as Ujcelpe, 'help/ (instead
of Hjelpe}. JE was also to replace e before g where the
latter had the hard sound, as ^Eg t ' edge of knife/ (instead
of Eg) ; but where the g has the j sound before n, the e
should be retained, as Regn, ' rain/
3. When the e is mute it is to be rejected, as in doe,
( to die/ boe, ' to dwell ; ' and here it may be observed that
excepting in these, and a few analogous cases, final e is
always pronounced, although with a grave accent only,
as Hose (Rose), ' rose/
4. It was recommended on the part of the Danish
delegates at the Congress to retain the distinctive vowels
and 0, the former being used for the opener sound of the
letter. Their Norwegian colleagues preferred, however,
like the Swedes, not to distinguish the letter by two marks ;
and it was agreed that if Danish writers would consent to
MODES OF WRITING AND SPELLING. 11
repivsent the letter by one character only, the o, as used
in Swedish, should be accepted.
From all that has been said of the transition state of
Dano-Xorwegian writing 1 , the reader will understand that
he must be prepared to meet with a perplexing variety of
spelling among Danish and Norwegian writers. These
orthographic variations extend even to the order in which
certain letters are given in dictionaries. Thus the autho-
rized iJiinsk-Retskrivnings-Ordboff (Danish Spelling-Manual)
of Svend Gruntvig, 1870, gave d for aa after the letter y t
followed by ce, o and 0. The Dansk Hand-Ordbog, which
\\a> issued by the same author in 1872, at the express orders
of the Ministry for Education, which recommended its use
to all colleges and schools in Denmark, differs however
wholly from its predecessor, both as to the writing and
j.lare in the alphabet of this letter, for here aa is placed
first among the letters, and is no longer represented by d.
Another retrograde movement in this dictionary is thaty is
red to its old place after g or k, when followed by a
soft vowel, as Kjobenhacn, t Copenhagen.' In most other
essential points, however, the two dietionaries are in har-
mony; and it was announced when the Hand-Ordbog aj-
:vd, that the object proposed by its publication was not to
rsede the Retxkrivnings-Ordliig of 1^70, but to facili-
its acceptance by the general public. This aim has
not as yet been fully attained, for although, as we have
already stated, many of the best writers have accepted, in
, the reformed system [' spelling on which the dic-
of L870 was based, a very lar^e number of Danes
12 DANISH GRAMMAR.
and Norwegians seem content with the intermediate stage
of reform represented in the authorized Handbag of 1872,
which leaves them the use of aa, and of various other
supernumerary letters to which long usage seems to have
given a fictitious importance. The one great obstacle to
the acceptance by Danish and Norwegian writers of the
entire system of reform, agreed upon at the Stockhohn Con-
gress, is the adoption of the Swedish character a for aa.
All other points will probably be in time conceded ; but this
innovation in modern Dano-Norwegian has of late been so
persistently opposed, that it is difficult to say whether or
not the character d will make good its claim to be accepted
in the alphabet.
The following examples will sufficiently indicate the
variations of spelling and writing which prevail at the
present moment :
o
Et Ar Jior to Halvdr,
Et Aar har to Halvaar, (* A year has two half-years.
l;ar to
liver Vismand har iMe Vismandsdnden , ] Ever 7 wise ~
; acre has not
liver Vismand har ime Vismandsaanden, >
[ the spirit of
wr 23tifmant> fyar if fe $tifmant)aant>cn, 1
Kvcegetfdr straks dets Kvceldsmad, ~\ The cattle will
Kvo&getfaar strdks dets Kvceldsmad, > have their evening
faaer flray bet d\)celb6mat), ) meal immediately.
MODES OF WRITING AND SPELLING. 1 '>
er i K<'>kken?t,~\
'tnden er i Kji>kkenet, V The merchant is in the kitchen.
er i ^jbffenet, )
A'pf''jnf, or Captejnen, [-The captain.
^aptcjnen, or (Saptejnen,
Vinen er ikke Sur,
Viinen er Me snur, or sur, f r The wine is not sour.
$iincn er iffe fuur,
It may be observed that cumbrous as is the older system
of doubling e, i and u t it helps to mark the long sound of
the vowel, as Green (Gren), 'twig-/ Sviin (Sv'tn), 'swine;'
IIuus (Hus), ' housa' And this is specially important to
foreigners, as these vowels, together with y, o and 0, have
two distinct sounds, one short and open ; as, /<"/, ( easy ; '
Hilt, 'little -,'godt, 'good;' Grund, 'foundation ;' Tryk, 'pres-
sure / gor y ' does ;' and the other long and close ; as, led,
'tiresome;' lute, 'to suffer;' god, 'good/ Gud, 'God/
tyk, ' thick ;' yeer, * barks.'
Accentuation, or stress, plays an important part in Dano-
Norwr^ian, but is dependent on so many arbitrary rules
that it requires a prolonged acquaintance with the tone in
which the hm^u:ije is spoken by Danes and Norwegians to
enable a stranger to acquire the various modifications of
stress, characteristic of their mother-tongue.
As a <;enrral rule, it may be stated that where the word
'nuine Northern origin, the stress rests on the radical
syllable, as, rcnlig (ren, 'clean') ; urenliy, ' uncleanly.' In
14 DANISH GEAMMAR.
words of foreign origin the accent is very commonly on
the last syllable, as General, Collegium.
The first syllable very usually takes the accent in North-
ern words, unless they are compounded with the German
prefixes, be, er, for (Ger. ver), which are unaccentuated ; as,
begrive, ' to comprehend ;' erindre, 'to remember ' forrddne,
' to putrefy.' In words compounded of Northern particles,
these take the accent ; as, forekaste, ' to upbraid ;' vedblivA,
' to continue.'
In compound words the stress is usually thrown on the
syllable which marks the leading characteristic of the
whole ; as, en Pr&stegdrdj ' a parsonage ;' Nordsoens^o/grif ,
' the waves of the German Ocean ;' Frederiksfor^, ' the
castle of Frederick.'
ARTICLES. (Kendeord.)
Two genders are recognized in modern Danish, viz. the
Common Gender {Falleskon\ and the Neuter Gender
(Intetkon).
Articles and adjectives must agree in gender and number
with the noun to which they refer.
There are three distinct articles, viz. the Indefinite
Article (ubestemte Kendeord], and two forms of the Definite
Article (beslemte Kendeord), known as the "Noun Article"
and the " Adjective Article."
AUTICLKS 1 ."i
The Indefinite Article, which precedes the noun, u
COMMON GEN I I NEUTER.
, ;i, an. . :in.
This article agrees in gender with the noun; as, cii Maud,
e.g., 'a man/ et Barn, n., 'a child/
The form of the Definite Art '(,', known as the "Noun-
Article" (Na vm-nfi I, nes Kendeord), consists of the following
ailixes, which are added to, and incorporated with, the noun,
in conformity with the gender and number of the latter :
COMMON GENDER. NEUTEB. PLUBAL, BOTH GENDBB8.
Affix, en, or n, the et, or /, the ene, or ne, the.
As, MiuuJ, c. g., ' man/ 3 fan den f ' the man;' Kone,c.g. t
' woman/ Konen, 'the woman;' Barn,r\., t child/ Barnvt, ' the
child;' I'imlne, n., 'window/ Finduet, 'the window;' Miaul,
pi. 'men/ J/rrWene, 'the men;' Kuner, pi., * women/
,'the women;' rintlm-r, pi., 'windows/ Finduerne,
' tlie windiA
The terminal letter of the word, and certain considerations
of euphony, determine whether en, et, and ene, or simply
and ne are to be employed in the formation of the
article allix.
The independent form of the definite article, known as
the "Adjective Article" (Tillcegs A i, agrees in
kder and number with the noun to which it refers, and
always precedes the adjective qualifying the latter, never
iini: iii diivct proximity to the noun itself.
MMON GENDER. NEUTER. illHAL. BOTH GENDER.
. the . the de the.
Den ffode Mand, c. g., ' the good man ; ' Jet gode Barn, n.,
' the good child/ de gode Lrcngc, pi., ' the good b<
16 DANISH GRAMMAR.
Norwegians use Gut, c. g., in the place of Dreng, for
' boy/
For an explanation of the manner in which the various
articles have acquired their present form and significance,
the reader is referred to Part II.
NOUNS. (Navneord.)
Nouns are. of two genders, the Common (Fcelleskon), and
the Neuter, (Intetkon) ; as, en Seng, c. g., ' a bed; ' et Bord
n., 'a table/
Some nouns are used in the singular only; as, Forstand,
c. g., ( understanding ;' Guld, n., ' gold/ Others are used
only in the plural ; as, ForcBldfe, f parents ; ' SosJcende,
1 brothers and sisters/
The plural of nouns are formed in various ways :
1. By retaining the same form as the singular ; as,
et Dyr, ' an animal ; ' flere Dyr, ' various animals/
2. By the addition of e to the singular ; as, Dreng, c. g.,
' boy/ pi. Drenge, ' boys/ Words ending in unac-
centuated er, or dom, and those of one syllable, whose
radical vowel does not change in the plural, generally
also take this termination; as, Rytter, c. g., ( rider/
pi. Ryttere-, Sygdom, c. g., 'sickness/ pi. Sygdomms;
Hus, n., ' house/ pi. HUSQ.
3. By the addition of er. Under this head fall many
nouns ending in a vowel; as, Tree, n., 'tree/ pi. Trceer.
Words of foreign origin, as General, ' General/ pi.
Generaler, and words ending in ing, hed and s&ad ; as,
NOUNS. 17
tng, ' reckoning 1 / pi. Rtfnhjet ; Smukhed, c. g.,
'beauty/ pi. .$'///// /-/We r; J'enskafj, n., ' friendship/
pi. renxkaber. Words ending in e simply take r;
as, Kone, c. g., * woman/ pl. A'owt'r; Menneske,n.. t
'creature/ pi. Mcnnesker.
4. By a change of the radical vowel ; as, Mand, c. g.,
' man/ pi. M&nd ; Gds, c. g., ' goose/ pi. GKS ;
^arw, n., ' child/ pi. Burn.
In some cases this change is associated with a
transposition of the terminal letters ; as, Fader, c. g.,
Mather/ pi. JWre; Moder, e.g., 'mother/ pi. J/uc/iv.
Nouns ending in e, en, or cr often drop the penul-
timate e ; as, En gel, c. g., f angel/ pi. Eng\e ;
Lagen y c. g., ' sheet/ pi. Layncr ; Ager, { Held/
pi. -7yre.
i'. Words having a double consonant reject one of
these ; as, 77/w/W, c. g., ' heaven/ pi. ///m/< ; .I//7-
//tf/, c. g., ' method/ pi. MiiMler ; Datfer, 'daughter/
pl. D5ta
Words of one or more unaccentuated syllables, ending in
a consonant, duble the latter in the plural; as.
1 ball/ pl. Jia\\rr ; Son, e.g., 'son/ pl. Suimer ; Rig-
:., ( riclu-s/ pl. Ju'</tlomme.
The genitive is the only case which is marked by any
1 termination, this bfing made, as in English, by the
addition of,?, without an api>>tr->p'ie, ?r '-..
Nouns ending in any consonant except s or >fo (.r), and
c
18 DANISH GRAMMAR.
those ending- in e, take s in the genitive ; as Hand, c. g.,
'man/ gen. Mands ; Barn, n., 'child/ gen. Barns; Ko-
nerne, pi. 'the women,' gen. Konernes.
Nouns ending- in s, ks (x), and in vowels, excepting e,
take es in the genitive ; as, Hus, n., ' house/ gen. Huses ;
By, c. g., ( town/ gen. .Ztyes ; Bro, c. g., ' bridge/ gen.
Broes.
Although the common gender includes generally all
words designating living beings, as en Person, 'a person ;'
en Sanger, 'a singer;' en Hest, 'a horse/ certain words
which indicate a special class of beings without reference
to sex are exceptions to this rule ; as, ET Barn, ' a child ;'
ET Fcesen, 'a creature;' Kvceg, n., 'cattle.'
The words Mandfolk, ( a male/ Fruentimmer, ' a female,'
are neuter.
To the common gender belong, generally, the names of
trees and flowers, and of special products of the vegetable
world ; as, en Bog, ' a beech ; ' en Rose, ' a rose ; ' en Blomme,
'a plum;' Te, e.g., 'tea;' Fin, c. g., ' wine;' Terpentin,
c. g., ' turpentine.'
Definitions of distinct kinds, or parts, of plants are
neuter ; as, Trae, ' tree ; ' Blad, f leaf ; ' Grces, ' grass ; '
Korn, 'corn.'
Words ending in e, de, bed, skab, dom, when they imply
conditions and properties, are generally of the common
gender; as, Farme, 'heat;' Hojde, 'height;' Dumhed,
'stupidity/ Onrfskab, 'wickedness;' Mauddom, 'manhood.'
To the same gender belong, generally, words ending in ning t
else, sel t st, en when they indicate some action, or active
AI'JKOTIVBS. 19
principle; as, />*ninr, 'reading;' S/yrelse, 'direction;'
el, 'trallic;' . 'rupture;' Loben, ' runnini:.'
lie m-utrr gender belong, generally, names of places
ami metals; as, del store London;' def
tfarke Jura, ( strong iron.' To the neuter gender belong
also words ending in eri, at, ri, ' trumj
'thicket ;' A'ulleg'mm, 'college/ And words d
from the infinitive of words by discarding the final e ; as,
et Skrig, 'a cry/ from at Skriye, 'to cry out.'
Some words are of uncertain gender ; as, en, or et
4 a tent;' en, or et Trold, ' a goblin/
As a rule, it may be observed that in such cases of
tainty the neuter gender is usually to be prefenvd.
\ \v >nls have a different meaning, in accordance with
the special gender assigned to them ; as, en Brnd, ' a bride ; '
et Brt'.'l, 'a rupture/ 'a quarry/ The number of such
words, of which we give examples in Part II., is very lanjr.
A PJECTIVES.
Adjectives, which must agree in gender and nu
with thr noun which they qualify, generally form the
by adding t, and thrir plural by adding e to the
abstract singular form ; as, en god Mand, 'a good man ;'
et godi Barn, ' a good child ; ' yotlc Drenge, ' good b.
Whon the adje.-tive is preceded by the independent
demor article, </fn, <l> (, </>', it generally takes an <,
as den gode Man<i . ////, dc <j h
20 DANISH GRAMMAR.
When the adjective ends in e or s, these letters remain
unchanged; as, den stakkels Hand, 'the poor man;' den
lille Mand, ' the little man;' det lille Barn, 'the little
child;' det siakkels Barn, 'the poor child/
Adjectives ending in el, en, er, discard the e, when used
with the independent article ; as, cedel, ( noble/ den oedle
Mand, ' the noble man;' moden, ' ripe / den modne Blomme,
( the ripe plum / mager, c lean ;' den magre Hest, f the lean
horse.' A similar change is effected when the adjective is
used in the plural as a predicate, or absolutely ; as, Blom-
merne ere Modne, ' the plums are ripe ;' cedle Mcend,
( noble men/
Adjectives ending in an unaccentuated syllable double
the final consonant ; as, slem, or slet, ' bad ' den slemme
(sletio) Mand, ' the bad man/
Some adjectives are at once defective and irregular ; as,
megen, sing., 'much;' flere, pi., 'many;' fa, pi., 'few;'
smd, pi., ' small.'
Adjectives may be used independently in the sense of
qualified nouns ; as, den Gode, ' the good ' (man under-
stood) ; De Store, 'the great' (people understood).
The comparative degrees are formed as follows : (1) by
the addition to the positive of ere (comp)., est (superl.) ;
(2) by the addition to the positive of re (comp.), st (su-
perl ), when the word ends in e, and in some other cases, more
especially when the radical vowel undergoes a change ;
(3) by the use of mere, ' more/ and mest, ' most/ chiefly in
words ending in unaccentuated et, and derived from the
past participle of verbs ; as
ADVERBS.
21
POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
1 . rig, rich, rigere, rigest.
2. ringe, slight, ring ere, r ingest.
2. ftor, large, sforre, storst.
3. broget, variegated. mere broget, mest broget.
Some adjectives are wholly irregular ; as
god, good, bedre, best,
ond, bad, vcerre. varst.
title, little, mindre, mindst.
gammel, old, aldre, celdst.
ADVERBS. (Biord.)
Adverbs are often identical with the neuter singular of
corresponding adjectives; as, Kurtigt, ' hastily/ homkiirtig,
adj., ' hasty.'
Adverbs of place and time, negation and affirmation, &c.
are both simple and compound; as, her, 'here;' herfra,
1 hence ;' t/de, f out ;' nflenfra, ' from outside ;' Hike, ' not ;'
j<i,jo, 'yes;' td t 'so;' tdledes, 'thus;' slide, Mate ;' drle,
'early ;' tilforn, ' formerly ;' i~dag, ' to-day ;' i-gdr, ' yes-
terday.'
Some are formed by the addition to other adverbs, ad-
jectives, or other parts of speech, of the affixes lede* and
r/x ; as, /iV/fledes, 'likewise;' u/u'Migvis, 'unfortunately;'
*/yA-^vis, ' piece by piece.'
Adverbs form their degrees of comparison in the same
manner as adject i
22 DANISH GRAMMAR.
POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPEELATIVE.
ofte, often, ofievQ, of test,
tit, often, tiere, tiest.
smulit, handsomely, smukkere, smu&kest.
Some adverbs are irregular ; as,
gcerne, rather, readily, hellere, heist,
vel, well, ledre, bedst.
Some are defective ; as
ude, out, yderst.
for, before, first,
mindre , less, mindst.
The latter are used to express diminutive degrees of com-
parison both for adjectives and other adverbs ; as
smuk, handsome, ad?., mindre smiik, mindst smnk.
smukt, handsomely, adv. } mindre ismuTd, mindst smukt.
The superlative of adjectives and adverbs acquires addi-
tional force when preceded by alter (all, most, very); as,
den alter storste Glcede y ' the very greatest joy ;' pa det
alter smukkeste, ' most handsomely/
PRONOUNS. (Stedord.)
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
Singular.
Nom. jeff, I; du, thou; han, he; hun, she;
den, det, it.
Gen. hans, his ; hendes, hers ;
dens. dets. its.
Other ) . 7 . Al
Cases \ m ^9 me t^f thee; ham, him; nende, her;
den, det, it.
PRONOUNS. 23
Plural.
Nominative, r/, we; /, ye; de, th>y.
(lenitive, vores, our; Eders, your; deres, their.
Other Cases, 0$, us; E<l>>r, y- ; dfe;, them.
The reflective pronoun *i//, 'self/ is used in both gen-
ders for the third person singular.
In common parlance the third person plural de> written
with a capital D, (De), is employed in the sense of 'you/
when addressing another individual, excepting in cases of
near relationship, or close intimacy, when J)n } 'then/ is
used, as among Germans.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
tyular.
Mi'i, <ii it, my ; /////, ///, thy ; fin, sit, his, hers, its ;
vor, vort, our ; jer, jert y your.
Plural.
.17 '/, my; <////<?, thy; sine, his, hers, its; tore, our;
jere, your.
*if, sine are used ex< -lusivt -ly as subjective r.
possessive pronouns, whilst //dux, /icndes are used in an
objective B6H86 j as, Ilini A'/ six //<if, 'she took h-r
(own) hat;' han t>j HANS //^/, 'he took his "another
man's) hat.'
DANISH GRAMMAR.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
Singular,
COM. GEN. NEUT.
den,
denne,
hin,
sadan,
dig,
samme,
selv,
det \
dette /-this, or that.
hint )
sddant )
,. r such
sligt J
samme, same
self
^^e, both.
Plural.
f de, these, or those,
-j disse, these.
^ hine, those.
( sddanne.
\ slige.
selv.
EELATIVE PRONOUNS.
1. Som, ' who/ f whom/ is used for both genders and
numbers, and indifferently in the nominative and accu-
sative ; as, Koneu son sd mig, ' the woman who saw me ; '
Konen SOM jeg sa, ' the woman whom I saw/
2. DeTj ( who/ t that/ is used for both genders and num-
bers, but only in the nominative ; as, Manden DER gik ud,
1 the man who went out/
3. Ilvem, ( whom,' is used incorrectly in the nominative
instead of hvo, ' who/ and should be employed only in the
objective ; hvis, ' whose/ is used only in the genitive.
4. Hvady ' what/ is used only in the neuter singular.
5. Hvilken, /tvilket, pi. hmlke, ' which.' In the place of
this pronoun, where an interrogative is required, the ex-
pression hvad for en (what for a) is often used ; as, Hvad
for en Gut (Norweg.) mener de? "What boy do you
mean ? "
VERBS.
25
ingen,
mangen,
nogen,
enhrer,
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Plural.
alle, all.
andre, other.
ingen,
mange,
nogle,
none.
many.
some, some one.
each.
Singular,
al, alt,
anden, andct,
in tet,
mangt,
nogetj
en h vert,
en, et, one.
man, one; people.
hin anden, each other.
hverandre, one another.
Nogcn and ingen correspond with { some one/ and ' no
one;' as, Er d>>r Ingen i Huset ? "Is there no one in the
house ?" Jo, der er Nogen hjemme, " Yes, there is some one
at home."
irjen en, mangt et, ' many a one/ are used as in
English, but are perhaps of more frequent occurrence in
ordinary conversation. Nogle fa, pi., 'some few/ admits of
being used as in English.
VERBS. (UdsagnsortL]
Dano- Norwegian Verbs have three forms, the active, the
. v, and the deponent.
The principal auxiliaries are at hare, ( to have/ and at
V<rre, ( to be/ which are conjugated by the help of other
auxiliaries, a>, at sltulle, ' shall ;' at vllle, ' will ;' at tnatte,
'may;' at kunne, 'can;' all of which are more or less
defective. At Ijlivf, ' to be/ ' to remain/ and al fa, ' to
26 DANISH GRAMMAR.
get/ (to be under a necessity,) may be used as auxiliaries ;
the former with the verb at rcere, ' to be/ in. the con-
jugation of passive verbs, and the latter in the sense of
* may,' 'must/ in the conjugation of active verbs.
INFINITIVE.
Present, at have, to have.
at vatre, to be.
Past, at have haft, to have had.
at have vwret, to have been.
Future, at simile have, to be obliged to have ; (shall
have).
at skulle vcere, to be obliged to be ; (will, or
shall be).
PARTICIPLES.
Present, havcnde, having.
vcerende, being.
Pa?t, haft, had.
vceret, been.
INDICATIVE.
Present Tense.
icg, du, han, hun, Jiar, I, thou, etc., have, hast, has.
er, am, art, is.
vi, I, de, have, we, etc., have.
)> ere ) 93 are -
Imperfect Past.
jeg, du, han, hun, havde, I, etc., had (in all persons).
var, I, etc., was.
vi, I, de, vare, we, ye, they, were
: US. 2 7
Compound Tenses.
jeg } dn, ban, hun, har huff, I, etc., have had.
,, vceret, I, etc., have been.
ri, I, de, hare, haft, we, etc., have had.
., vccret, we, etc., have been.
jtff, etc., skat, or vil have, I, etc., shall, or will, have.
skal, or vil rcere, shall, or will be.
ri, etc., skitlle, or rifle have, we, etc., shall, or will have.
skulle, or ville rcere, shall, or will be.
POTENTIAL.
have, may have. vcere, may be.
(for all persons).
IMPERATIVE.
hav du, have thou. nrr (7, be thou.
haver I, have ye. vwrer I, be ye.
The other auxiliaries some of which, as at Hire, ( to
be/ ' to remain ;' at fa, l to be constrained,' ' to get/ may
be used in an independent form are conjugated as follows :
lujiaitice. Present Indicative.
Sing. Plur.
at fa, to get, jea, etc., far n, etc.,
at Hive, to be, L liver Uive.
at .s/-// /A-, shall, *A'aZ skulle.
at rillf, will, r// r/7/c.
/ w<//fc, may, //^7.
<// kunne, can, |-a kunnc.
28 DANISH GRAMMAR.
Imperf. Past Indie. Past Participle.
Sing, and Plur.
fk, faet.
blev, bleren, blevet.
skulde, skullet.
vilde, villet.
matte, mdttet.
kunde, kunnet.
REGULAR VERBS (Eegelrette Udsagnsord).
Regular Dano-Norwegian Verbs admit of being grouped
under two heads, which are classified' as weak modes of
conjugation. These are: (1) Those which take ede in the
imperfect past of the indicative, and et in the participle
past ; as, at elske, * to love/ i. p. elskede, p. p. elsket.
(2) Those which add te in the imperf. past of the indicative,
And t in the p. past, directly to the root of the word ; as,
at strcebe, f to strive,' i. p. strcebte, p. p. strcebt.
In both these forms, the three persons of the present
tense of the indicative always end in r in the singular ; as,
jeff, du, han (or huii), and De 3 troster, ' I, etc., console/
from at troste, ' to console;' jeg, etc., sporger, ' I, etc., ask/
from at sporge, ' to ask/
The following examples show the manner in which verbs
belonging to these two forms are declined :
Infinitive. Indicative.
Present. Imp. Past.
at elske, to love
at soge, to seek
jeg, etc., elsker, I, etc., love, elskede.
vi, etc., elske, we, etc., love, for all persons).
jeg, etc., soger, I, etc., seek, sogte.
vi, etc., soge, we, etc., seek, ( f r a11 persons).
VERBS. 29
Participles.
Present.
ehkemle.
Past.
clsket.
sogt.
The passive of active verbs is formed by adding x to the
infinitive, and to all persons in the simple tenses, or by the
use of the auxiliary at vcere, or at blive, * to be;' as
Infinitive.
at els&es, to be loved ; and at blive, or at v&re y elskef, to be
loved.
at soges, to be sought ; and at blive, or at vcere, sogt, to be
sought.
Indicative.
Present.
jeg, etc., elskes, or bliver elsket.
jeg, etc., soges, or I/liver sogt.
Imperfect Past.
jeff, etc., elskedes, or blev elsket.
jeg, etc., soytes, or blev sogt.
Compound Tenses.
. etc., cr, or rar, elsket ; jeg y etc., er, or var, sogt.
jrg, etc., er, or var, blci'cn chkct; jeg,ete.,er,QYvar> bleven sogt.
jeg, etc., dial, or ri7, elskes ; jcg y etc., sJcal, or ri/,
IRREGULAR VERBS (Uregelrette Udsagnsord}
The ditlerent irregularities of the Danish Verbs which
belong to the strong or irregular modes of conjugation, admit
of bi'iiiLT reduced to certain leading forms, and m;iv
comprehended under the following heads :
30 DANISH GRAMMAR.
1. Those in which the sole difference from weak, or so-
called regular verbs, is that the imperfect past of the indi-
cative consists of only one syllable, and is not distinguished
by the addition of ede, or te, this being in point of fact
the one character which all strong verbs have in com-
mon; as,
INFINITIVE. INDICATIVE.
Present. Imp. Past. Past-Part.
at gr cede, to weep, jeg, &c., grceder. greed. grcedt.
pi. vi, &c., grcede. ( for a11 persons)
2. Those which change the radical vowel both in the
imperfect past of the indicative, and in the past parti-
ciple ; as,
at drive) to drive, jeg driver, drev, drevet.
pi. vi drive, fo * a11 persons)
3. Those which change the radical vowel only in the
imperfect past" of the indicative ; as,
at bide, to bite, jeg bider, bed, bidt.
pi. vi bide, (for all persons).
4. Those which take a different vowel in the imperfect
past of the indicative, and in the past participle, both
of which differ from the radical vowel ; as,
at drikke, to drink, jeg drikker, dr&k, dru&ket.
pi. vi drikke, (for all persons.)
It will be observed, (1) that in all verbs, whether belong-
ing to the weak (or regular), or to the strong (or irregular)
groups, the present of the indicative is formed directly from
VERBS. 31
the infinitive, to which r is added in the singular; as, at
give, ' to give,' jeff t du, han, or hun, De, giver, vi, I, de give.
(2) That whatever may be the form of the past imperfect
of the indicative, it remains the same for all persons, both
in the singular and plural. The strong, or irregular form
of conjugation, whose imperfect past of the indicative is
always monosyllabic, includes upwards of 100 verbs, and
was apparently the more ancient mode of conjugation in
the Old Northern. The tendency of modern Danish is to
depart from this more characteristic type, and to bring cer-
tain verbs, which in older times accorded with the strong
form, under the rules of the regular weak forms of conjuga-
tion. Thus we now find indifferently vejede and vog for the
imperfect past of at veje, ' to weigh ;' gravede and grov for
at grave,' ' to dig/ &c.
Deponent verbs have an active significance, while in
most particulars they follow the mode of conjugation
required for passive verbs ; as,
Infinitive. Indica five.
Present. Imp. Past. Participle.
at bines, to blush. \jfff, &<-., blues, bluedes, bluets,
at lykkes, to succeed. I jeg, &c., lykkes, lykkedes, lykkets.
Many deponents can only be used as impersonals ; as,
det dages, ' the day is breaking/ (day is coming) ; det murk-
nes y ' it is growing dark.'
Passives in.l deponents may be used in an impersonal
sense with der, ' there / as, der slas, * there is fighting going
on / der kappes om Prisen, t the prize is being contended
fur.'
DANISH GRAMMAR.
Some verbs must always be used in a reflective sense; as,
at betaJcke sig, ' to beg- to be excused.'
at beflitte sig, ' to apply oneself.'
Some verbs admit of being used either reflectively, or
transitively ; &s,jeg bader mig, c I bathe myself '/Jeff bader
Barnet, ' I bathe the child.'
Some verbs compounded of words of different parts of
speech admit of the separation of these components, as,
at ihjelsld, or at sld ihjel ; as, soldaten ikjelsld sin Ven, or
soldaten sld sin Ven ihjel, f the soldier killed (struck dead)
his friend.'
Some verbs acquire a different meaning when the com-
ponent parts are separated ; as, at overdrive, ' to exagge-
rate ;' at drive over, ' to drive over (across)/
PREPOSITIONS. (Forholdsord.)
The principal prepositions
ad, to, at.
af, of, from.
bag, behind.
efter, after.
for, for, before.
fra, from.
for, before.
hos, at, with, at the house of.
iblandt, blandt, among.
igennem, gennem, through.
imellem, mellem, between.
y mod, against.
are :
med, with.
mod, against.
ncest, next to.
om, about, of.
pa, on.
samt, together with.
siden, since.
til, to, of.
trods, in spite of.
uden, without.
under, under.
ved t with.
CONJUNCT10
Various prepositions are compound ; as,
l, behind. h>'nr>.'ii, towards.
ij before. i mi-til, into.
CONJUNCTIONS. (Bindeord.)
The principal conj auctions are :
off, and, eller, or, Avis, if, in case.
samt, together with. enten, either, fordi, because.
Ld'le, both, //, because.
/, but, siden, da, since, when.
fnilny, even, at y that, at ifcke, lest.
, than, (used in the comparison of adjectives).
INTERJECTIONS. (Udrdbsord.)
are, (1) imitative sounds, expressive of
impressions they are intended to convey; as, Put '
' (/,! (-1) Natural expletives; as, .'//// A/c! 0!
Fy ! ('}) The imperatives of verbs; as, velkommen .' ' i>-
v l -o away.' (I) Vitiated forms of invoca-
tion ; as, ////A-,,,,,.,,,// (0, lidl f!) "Oh! !!
Saint- ' !'.'( hcll'i*; lim;i ,
'/;/- .!/./ //r/ .') " As true as holy G
so help me the Blessed Saints !''
34 DANISH GRAMMAR.
PART II.
ON THE CHARACTER, POSITION, AND MORE
PRECISE USE OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF
SPEECH.
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. (Ubestemte Kendeord.)
The earlier writings of the Old Northern afford no evi-
dence of the use of an Indefinite Article, which was first
represented by the pronouns einn, ' one ;' einnkver, ' each
one ;' and nokkurr, ' some one.' From the first of these has
been derived the present Dano-Norwegian article, en, et,
' a/ f an/ which is in point of fact an unaccentuated modifi-
cation of the existing pronoun en, f one/ and the numeral
en, et, ' one/
The indefinite article precedes the noun, or the adjective
qualifying the letter, as en Mand, en god Mand, excepting
in cases where it is used with the adjectives dig, sddan, man-
gen or when the adjective to which it refers is preceded
by sd, hvor, alffor, for, and the sentence has an interjec-
tional sense, under which conditions it stands between the
adjective and noun ; as, slig en Mand, ' such a man P mangt
et Barn ! ' many a child ;' sd vranten en Pige ! "such a
cross girl /' hvor dejligt et Trap. ! 'what a lovely tree !' for
liort en Sang ! ' too short a song ! 3
THK DKFIXITK ARTICLE. ''>)
The indefinite article must be repeated after og y even
where the m-uns, which it enumerates, are of the same
gender; M, >n Mu/td og en Konc, 'a man and a woman.'
This article is not used to designate a rank, or calling,
or a di>tinrtive qualification; as, Er han Grev eller Baron?
Is he (a) Count or (a) Baron ?" ILni er Lcege, "He is (a)
doctor;" Hun er Enke^ " She is (a) widow;" Han er Prot< *-
fant, "He is (a) Protestant."
The indefinite article may be used with a plural t
express an indefinite quantity in the sense of "about,"
"nearly;" as,jeg Mirer her EN ire, fire Tiger, "I shall stay
:J>out three or lour weeks."
TIN: DKFIMTE ARTICLES. (T)e bestemte Kentleord.)
The agglutination with the noun of the affix-article en
or n (m.f.), et or t (n ), ene or ne (pl.)> which constitutes
the most striking characteristic of the Scandinavian tongues,
lias been derived from the Old Northern, although it does
not occur in Old Gothic. It is met with, however, under a
modified form in Roumanian and Bulgarian, as well as in
Albanian, which must be regarded as more original in
structure than either of the former.
In the most ancient Icelandic writings the definite noun-
artich- is not to be found, but it would appear that the
demonstrative pronoun hum (in.), /tin (f.), ///// (n.), 'that,'
early u>ed ///'/// the noun to define the latter, as is still
Mently done by Norwegians in the ease of the pronouns
win, din, sin\ as, /'.<//'/ win, Mather mine;' ////,
1 brother thii The 1 )anes and Norwegians, following
36 DANISH GRAMMAR.
the rule of the ancient mother-tongue, originally wrote
Hand kin, ' man that ;' Hus hit, ' house that ;' Born /tine,
1 children those/ And as in Icelandic these demonstrative
pronouns, when appended to a noun to give it its definite
inflected form, lost the h, and appeared as the affixes inn
(m.), in (f.), itt (n.), &c., so in Danish the pronoun has
become converted into en or n (m. f.), et or t (n.), &e.,
and now constitutes the simple noun-article. The inter-
mediate stage between the older Mand kin, and the modern
Handen, f the man/ was Hand/ten.
In their present form these affixes have the precise mean-
ing of the definite article " the," but can only be thus used
when the noun is not qualified by an adjective ; as, Gut-
ten er min Broder. " The boy is my brother ;" Iftiset er
bans Kones, " The house is his wife's;" JBornene lege i Haven
med Hnndeu, " The children are playing in the garden
with the dog."
The independent adjective-article is :
den, c. g. det, n. de, pi. of both genders.
This article is the unaccentuated representative of the
demonstrative pronoun den, det, de, derived, like the affix
noun-form of the article, from the Old Northern demon-
strative pronoun kinn (m.), kin (f.), kitt (u.),/ii.nir (pi. m.),
Linar ([>\. f.), kin (pi. n.), ' that/
It must directly precede the adjective which qualifies the
noun ; as, den lange Gut, 'the tall boy/ det hoje Tree, ' the
high tree; ' de smd Born, ' the little children/
The independent adjective-article may be used in the
NOl -'J7
place of the noun-aftixes when special emphasis, or a
distinct meaning is to be given to the word : 'rig
Horn i />>/// "The man never leaves
his children in peace!" Siger den Soldat at jeg er due?
" Does the soldier really say that I am deaf?" In such^cases,
however, den may he considered to be used more in the
sense of a demonstrative pronoun than a mere article,
although still retaining its unaccented tone.
The position of the noun in a simple sentence is the same as
in English. The subject precedes, and the object follows, the
verb ; as, Maiden sla Drengen, " The man beat the boy."
In a secondary part of a sentence subject to, or condi-
tional on, the preceding part, and in interrogations, the
noun, with its article or pronoun, and its qualifying adjective,
is invariably placed nffer the verb; as, hvis Lareren rar her,
vovede dixse unartige Drenge sig ikke a* gore sddanf et
spektakel, " If the master were here those naughty boys
would not dare to make so much noise." Gar De ikke i
i l)ug ? "Are you not going into the garden to-day?"
The genitive precedes the subject or the object to which it
refers; as, l)en gode Mauds smd Born, "The good man's
little children." Fur C,nd* sh/ld, " For God's sake."
Wh- il words are used to indicate the noun stand-
ing in the genitive, the last only takes AT, or < | / as, I'icforia,
Dronnmg af England* Jiige, " The dominions of Victoria,
Uucen ot Knirland."
The genitive may be used where a comparison between
the qualities of two persons or things is made, without
repeating the word designating the quality; as,
3S DANISH GRAMMAR.
Pris er hojere en Solvets, " The price of gold is higher than
(that of) silver;" Kaptemens Helfemod var storre end
Generate**, "The Captain's valour was greater than the
General's. "
The prepositions ad, of, til, etc., may be used to indi-
cate the genitive; as, en Son ad (af y or til) Dronningen,
" A son of the Queen."
Words expressing weight and quality are placed in direct
apposition to the noun which they govern, without taking
the genitive case, or using a preposition ; as, et Fund Smor,
* a pound (of) butter; ' et Glas Vin, ( a glass (of) wine/
The objective noun which is used directly in the dative
precedes the simple objective ; as, Manden, gav DRENGEN
Blommen, " The man gave the boy the plum ; " but where
the dative is governed by a preposition, it follows the objec-
tive; as, Manden gav Blommen TIL DRENGEN, "The man
gave the plum to the boy."
Traces of the inflexions of nouns in the Old Northern
yet linger in Danish in certain forms of expression, in
which the ancient terminations of cases (generally the
genitive and dative) have survived; as, ad Njcerfens Lysf,
1 to one's heart's content ;' at have i Sinde, ' to intend ' (have
in one's mind); i I/ive, ' alive;' til Do fie, * till (or to) death/-
In the oldest forms of Dano-Norwegian, nouns were
classed under three genders, survivals of which are still to be
found in the provinces, where the peasants retain the use of
the feminine gender for various inanimate objects.
Nouns of the common gender acquire a distinct feminine
significance, (1) by the addition of inde, or sJce\ as, en
NOUNS. 39
Dandser (m.), 'a male dancer;' en Dandseriude (f.), 'a
woman dancer / en Hollander, 'a Dutchman/ en Hollander-
iiulo, f a Dutchwoman;' en Syerske, 'a workwoman/
(2) By the use of a characteristic noun or pronoun ; as,
en Bondekone, t a peasant woman / en Kuufcanin, ' a doe-
rabbit.'
Some nouns have changed their gender in the course of
time; and in regard to others, it may be said that their
gender is undecided, as in the case of Slags, ( kind/
, ' health/ Punkt, point/ which may be used with
an article and adjective of the common, or the neuter
gender.
The older and original form of gender may often be
determined by the survival of some idiomatic expression ;
as, at y.>. , ' to be in (a cloud), a muddle / efter Bog.
stavQn, 'literally/ 'according to the letter/ although Tdge,
' a mist/ is now of the common gender, and Bogstav, ' letter/
is neuter.
The following list gives some examples of the numerous
nouns which vary in meaning in accordance with differences
of gender :
en Ark, an ark ; et Ark, a sheet of paper.
rk, a birch ; et Birl:, Danish provincial jurisdiction.
en Bo y a dwelling ; et Bo, an estate.
-/-, ;i bloom; et Flor, gauze.
en Fro, a frog ; et Fro, a seed.
en GY./;/, spruce-fir; et dran, an atom, grain.
\ultl, a cold; et Kuld, descendant of same parents.
40 DANISH GRAMMAR.
en Led, a side ; et Led, a link ; wicket-gate.
en Lod, a portion ; et Lod, a plummet, ounce-weight.
en Jf0r,amoor (Dan.} et Mor, moire (silk fabric).
en Nogle, a key ; et Nogle, a ball of thread (Dan.}
en Rim, a hoar-frost ; et Rim, a rhyme.
en Segl, a sickle ; et Segl, a seal ; sail (Norw.}
en Spand, a bucket ; et Spand, a span ; team of horses ;
(Dan.} bucket, (Norw.)
enSdm,&seam-, sew- et Som; a nail (Dan.)
ing ; nail (Norw.)
en Vdr, spring (of et Vdr, a pillow-case.
the year) ;
en Ore, a piece of et Ore, an ear.
money ;
In former times there was a larger number of such words
than at present, for the tendency here, as elsewhere in
Dano-Norwegian, is to simplify and minimize rules and
exceptions. Thus many words having different meanings,
which were formerly distinguished by differences of gender,
are now reduced to one gender, while their special signifi-
cance is often indicated by some slight but definite accen-
tuation. Danes and Norwegians in some cases use different
genders, as Smdlcl, ' crack/ ' smack,' which the former
refer to the neuter, and the latter to the common gender.
Danish adapts itself with the most facile readiness to the
formation of compounds, the gender of which is regulated
by that of the last word in the combined group; as, et
Moder\a,r\d (n.), 'a mother-land;' en Klcedebodj ' draper's
shop/ Handklcedei} (n.), f towelling/
ADJ I -1 1
ADJECTIVES. (TM*ff*>r4.)
Adjectives must agree'in number and gender, both with the
noun which they qualify, and with that to which they stand
in the relation of predicates ; as, et lidet Hus, 'a little
house / Vejen vctr hende for lang, ( the way was too long
for her ;' de sode smd Born, ' the dear (sweet) little children!'
Gencralens Vcerelser vare ikke sd store som mine, ' the Gene-
ral's rooms were not so large as mine/
The plural adjectives/^, 'few/ mange, 'many/ alle, 'all/
admit of being used with a singular verb, and without the
adjective-article ; as, der kommer fa Mand, ' a few men
(man) are coming / Klokken er mange, ' it is late, (the clock
is many) / alle gang^ ' every (all) time.*
Al, alt (n.), 'all/ begge, 'both/ precede the noun direct!}",
without the adjective-article, while they require the affix-
article to be appended to the noun ; as, al Ferden, ' all the
world ;' alt Grcesset, ' all the grass / Begge Pigerne, ' both
the girls/
, ' all/ ( whole/ may be used with either article ; as,
hele Iluset, or det hele Hus, ' the whole house/
Adjectives may be used as, and in the place of, nouns, the
latter being understood; as, hun celskede den Code, 'she
loved the good (man, person) / Le Stolte, 'the proud !
(people)/
Some adjectives, expressive of worth, or obligation, fol-
low tin- objective noun, instead of standing near the subject-
noun ; as, VrcBstcn cr den sEre vwrdig, ' the clergyman is
worthy of the honour / Soldaten cr (icneralen intct skyldiy,
'the soldier owes the General nothing-/
DANISH GRAMMAR.
Adjectives follow the noun when used as titular distinc-
tions ; as, Knud den store, ' Canute the Great ;' Karl den
femte, ' Charles the Fifth/
When adjectives are used to represent nouns they fol-
low the same rules as the latter in regard to the genitive,
which they form by adding s ; as, de Godes Handlinger og de
Slettes, 'the actions of the good and the bad/ An apos-
trophe is inadmissible here, as in the case of nouns, although
in some names, more especially when they are of foreign
origin, it is occasionally used, as Darius's.
In the following list of the numerals will be found the
several forms of numeration, common among Danes and
Norwe gians respectively.
The Cardinal Numbers.
These are the same among both peoples up to 30 ; as,
Danish and Norwegian.
1. en, et.
2. to, (tvende).
3. tre, (trende).
4. fire.
5. fern.
6. seks.
7. syv.
8. dtte (otte).
9. ni.
10. ti.
11. elleve.
12. tolv.
13. tretten.
14. fjorten.
15. femten.
16. seksten.
17. sytten.
18. atten.
19. nitten.
20. tyve.
21. en off tyve.
&c.
Nl". ME HALS.
43
Danish.
30. iretlice.
31. en <></ f re< live, &c.
40.
50.
60.
70.
80.
90. kalvfenttiudtfyite.
Norwegian.
tretti.
en og tretti.
ft/rti, Qifirti.
fern/I.
seltsti.
sylti.
old.
nit (i.
The higher numbers are the same among- Danes and
Norwegians; as,
100 hundwle.
1,000 tminde.
100,000. hnndrctlc tusinde.
1,000,000. million.
The cumbrous and verbose manner in which the num-
bers between 20 and 100 are characterized by Danes is of
comparatively late introduction into Dano-Norwegian, and
may possibly owe its origin to an old habit still prevailing
in certain rural districts in Denmark of computing by
scores, instead of tens, or dozens. The word sind is an old,
otherwise obsolete term, meaning 'fold,' or ( turn,' whence
/w/.v///.s-/y/r, ' sixty/ resolves itself into three times (or
turns) twenty. Until recently the Norwegians, excepting
in some parts of the north and west fjelds of the country,
followed this method of reckoning, but of late years they
have more and more generally reverted to the older, and
simpler decimal system followed by the Swedes and Ice-
44 DANISH GRAMMAR.
landers, and in Old Northern, where fimtin y sekstin, &c.,
' fifty/ ( sixty/ &c., indicated the number with all possible
conciseness. Up to one hundred the lesser numbers pre-
cede the greater ; as, en ogfyrrefyi'e, ' 41 / after one hun-
dred they follow it, as hundrede ogfemten, ( 115/
The ordinal numbers are formed by adding 1 ende, nde, or
de to the numeral, according to the final letter of the word ;
as, syc, ' seven/ s^rende, l seventh / tyre, ' twenty /
tyveude, ( twentieth / tretten, ( thirteen ;' irettenfay ' thir-
teenth/ The exceptions to this rule are forste, ' first/
anden, ' second / fredje, ' third / fjcerde, ' fourth / sjcette,
' sixth/ tolvte, 'twelfth;' tredivte, ' thirtieth/
The only numbers affected by gender are, den, det, ene,
'the one/ and den anden, det anclef, ' the other (second).'
The date of the year is thus indicated : aUen hundrede
tre og firsindstyve (otti Norw.), ' 1883.' The day of the
month is written as follows: den femte (5fe) April, 'April
5th/ The time of day is thus expressed : Klolthen er ti,
f it is ten o'clock / while the parts 'of the hour are always
reckoned, as in German, in relation to the following, and
never to the preceding hour ; as, det er halv io y ' it is half-
past one / tre Kvarter til ni, ' a quarter to nine/
PRONOUNS. (Sfedord.)
Danish Pronouns, which retain more traces of the Old
Northern modes of inflexion than nouns, or adjectives,
must agree in gender as well as in number and case with
the noun to which they refer, excepting where the gram-
matical and the natural gender of the word are at variance,
PRONOUNS. 45
in which CMS.' they follow the latter; as, Ffncntinnneret (n.)
hi dii iirx yik forfj't, 'The woman laughed as she went
by.'
Aii exception to the agreement in regard to number
occurs in the case of the third plural personal pronoun De
when used as 'you/ De always demanding a singular
verb; as, Komnux DE ikke ? 'Are (is) you not coming?'
Er DE gal ? ' Are (is) you mad ?' The reflective used with
De must, however, be Dem, plural third person, and not the
singular, slg ; as, Hcorledes befinder DE DEM ? ' How are
you?' i"" how do you find yourself'?')
I t 'y*- 1 / han, 'he/ were formerly used in addressing
inferiors in rank, but the use of De is now regarded as
imperative for all classes of persons. It should be observed
that while De is always written with a capital D, jeg, ' I/
is written with a small j.
In speaking of persons, han and hun, ' he ' and 'she/
//</* and hendes, ' his ' and ' hers/ must always be used;
but in referring to animals, den and det, dens and dets, 'it/
' its/ usually take the place of ' his ' and ' her/
When the demonstrative pronouns den and hin occur
together, the former is understood.to refer to what is near,
(this), and the latter to what is distant, (that) ; as, ga DEX
. //-/v n ix, 'go f/tix way, not that'
ne, ' the same/ may be used in the place of another
objective pronoun ; as, Prceslcn gav mig nogle Boger og Lad
m\ij he*.' SA.M.MK, 'The clergyman gave me some books, and
^ed me to read them.'
, 'self/ may be used in the sense of 'even/ as.
46 DANISH GRAMMAR.
Kvinder og Born arbejdede pa Mure ne, ' Even women and
children worked on the walls/
Man, (one, they,) can only be used in the nominative,
while En, (one,) can only be used in the objective; as,
MAN soger hvad behager EN, ' One seeks for that which
pleases one/
The use of the possessive pronoun sin, sit, sine (his,
her, its), in contradistinction to hans, hendes, dels (his, her,
its), demands careful notice, but as a general rule it may be
accepted that sin should refer to the nearest preceding
subject-noun, and hans, hendes, to the objective personal
noun; as, hun gik med SINE Born til hendes Hare, ' She
went with her (own) children to her (another woman's)
garden/ In such simple sentences the correct use of sin will
always be indicated when, as in the above case, it conveys
the sense of ' own ' in connection with the noun. This is
also the case in regard to objective nouns ; as, Hendes Fader
bad hende at tage SIN Togn, og kore til Bys, ' Her father
told her to take her (own) carriage, and drive into town/
When the subject-noun is in the plural, the Danes re-
placed hyderes, f their;' as, Mine Tenner tog DERES Born
til hendes Have, f My friends took their children to her
garden/
The relative pronouns som and cler may be used in-
differently ; as, Giv mig den Bog, SOM (or DER) ligger der,
' Give me the book, which is there/
The relative pronoun may be omitted when the noun is
governed by a verb, or a preposition ; as, Jeg sd Hesten De
kobtei Gar, ( I saw the horse which you bought yesterday /
PRONOUNS. 1 7
//r tin M,rml,',i jeg stod Jios ? 'Do you know the man
with whom (at whose house) I was ? ' It is also frequently
omitted where the predicate verb is preceded by the
adverbs //cr, ' he re, 1 dfr, 'there/ as, Manden her -v/^/, er en
fjiinniirl I'm, ( The man, who stands here, is an old friend ;'
Koen dcr Uggcr, cr *yg, ' The cow, which is there, is sick/
In common parlance, h-vem, ' whom/ is used in the place
of hvo, ' who / as, Huem er det f ' Who is that ?' But in
secondary interrogative clauses, hvo is more commonly
used. In such cases, however, excepting where the adverbs
her and dcr precede the verb, it must be followed by the
relative som, or dcr ; as, Jeg ved ikkc, HVO DER gjordt det, ' I
do not know who (that) has done it / Jfun ser, HVO ER her,
' She sees who is here/
The impersonal pronoun del, ' it/ is used as 'it' and
' that ' in English ; as, det bhvser, 'it blows/ det glceder
wig, r it charms me/
The final t of det is dropped in ordinary speech. Der y
1 there/ with the vowel short, is used in the sense of ' there
are/ (// // //,) ' they/ 'one/ etc. ; as, Der er mange Traer i
// , ' There are many trees in the garden/ AVhen dcr
is used with a passive, or deponent verb, it acquires the
special sense of ' people/ ' they/ and i^ives to the verb the
fnrcc of a gerund ; as, M / ln>xe& i Skolen, * They are reading
in the H-ln.nl/ h' r danses her i Aften> 'There will be
daneiiiLT here to-ni^ht/
The expressions Folk sige, dc siyf, ' peo]>lc say/ 'they
say/ although often heard, are best rendered by man siger,
' one says/
48 DANISH GRAMMAR.
Selv, selv samme, ' self-same/ may be added to personal
and demonstrative pronouns : selv may also be used ad-
verbially ; as, Selv min Mand sd hende falde y f My husband
even saw her fall/
Begge, ' both/ is used before the numeral to, e two / as,
begge to, ' both of them/
Sig, reflective pronoun, ' himself/ etc., and sin, reflective
possessive pronoun, l his/ etc., were originally used to refer
to plural as well as to singular nouns ; but during the
present and past century they have, especially among
Danes, been more strictly limited to the singular ; dem and
deres being substituted for them when the subject is in the
plural ; as, De tog deres Hatfe, og gik, ' They took their
(own) hats and went away/ This practice is regarded by
modern grammarians as an objectionable deviation from the
genuine Northern rule, due to German influences. The
Norwegians more generally follow the older and more
correct usage, as do the Swedes.
VERBS. ( Udsagnsord.)
In a primary, simple sentence, the verb follows the noun
or pronoun which governs it; as, Jeg sd Mand en som Jcom
ind ad Ddren, ' I saw the man who came in at the door/
In a secondary or subjunctive sentence, the verb precedes
the noun or pronoun by which it is governed ; as, Hvis
Manden kommer ind, GAR JEG ud, ' If the man comes in, I
shall go out / Gar Barnet op ad Treppen, FALDER HAN ned,
' If the child should go up the stairs, he will fall down/
In interrogative sentences the verb, as in English, pre-
VERBS. 49
cedes the noun or pronoun which governs it; as, Er hun
syg? ' Is she ill ? ' Kommer Manden ikke i Dag ? ' Is the
man not coming to-day ? '
The tendency of modern Dano-Norwegian is to reject in
common parlance the distinctive terminations of the plural in
the present indicative; as, De har Ret, 'They are (is) right;'
Vi ER ikhf i Stand til at kommc, 'We are (is) not in a po-
sition to come ;' Gutterne lober op ad Gaden, ' The boys are
running (runs) up the street.'
A similar process of simplification is apparent in regard
to the tenses of verbs, which in the spoken language are,
with the exception of a few imperative and optative expres-
sions, reduced to the indicative mood, of which the plural
form is seldom used. This merging of the two num 1
under the singular has been carried especially far by the
grammarian Grundtvig, who writes m kan, skal, vil, etc.,
although the plural forms of these auxiliaries are still very
generally used, as vi kunne, simile, ville, etc.
Distinctions of persons which have been lost in modern
Danish verbs are occasionally employed in poetry, as du rilt,
which represents the Old Northern form of the second person
singular. A similar reversion to the old mother tongue is
to be traced in such plurals as driMt' for drak (drikke, 'to
drink'), srande for xrundt (xvirnle, 'to vanish').
The infinitive of verbs may be used as a gerund ; as, De
far iugcn Xt/tte ved at rare altfor strenge, 'They will ^ain
nothing by beinij too strict.' It is also used elliptically,
with a transposition of the preposition; as, Han >'r slet at
arlcjde fur, ' He is bad to work for;' Del er n/Wc lifjf. at
I
50 DANISH GRAMMAR.
skrive om, "This matter is difficult to write about/ In
Danish and the kindred Swedish there is no inelegance in
sentences of this kind ; but, on the other hand, it is inad-
missible to use the present participle in the sense of a
gerund, and hence such English forms of expression as t On
seeing me, she ran away/ ' On hearing the man call, the
child hid himself/ must be rendered by the use of a tense
of the verb ; as, Da Jiun sd mig, lobte Jiun bort ; Sd snart som
Barnet Jiorte Man den rdbe, sJcjulte han sig.
The present participle remains unchanged, whether used
as an adjective or as a verbal-predicate ; as, En rodmende
Pige, 'A blushing girl ;' Et rejsende Selskab, ' A travelling
company / Generalinden og Kapteinen kom korende, ' The
General's wife and the Captain came driving/
It may also be employed in the following elliptical
manner : Mit iboende Hus, ' The house I live in ;' Den
afholdende Auktion, ' The auction which is to be held/ In
such expressions it has the force of the Latin future participle.
The past participle can be used as an adjective, and must
in that case agree in gender and number with the noun ;
as, en reven Kdbe, f a torn cloak ;' et revent Band, ' a rent
tie ;' revne Klceder, ' torn clothes/
In accordance with strict grammatical rules the past
participles should all agree in gender and number with the
subject, where the passive is rendered by the help of blive,
1 to be / as, Brevet er blevet skrevet, ' The letter has
been written / Bogerne ere dlevne shrevne, ( The books have
been written.' In common parlance, however, this form
is rejected as pedantic, and wanting in euphony ; and it is
VERBS. 51
customary to say, Brevet er bleveu skrevet ; Bbgerne er
blcren ski''
The present tense of the indicative is used indifferently in
the present, future, conditional, and subjunctive moods; as,
Han kommer i Dag, han kommer ikkc i Morgen, ' He is
coming to-day, he will not come to-morrow ;' Hvls han ikke
kommer, gar jeg ikke med, ' If he should not come, I will
not go / Jeg hdber del er sandl, ' I hope it may be true/
The subjunctive or optative is only used in a few expres-
sions, such as Gud velsigne Dem ! ' God bless you ! ' Lece
Kongen ! ' Long live the king ! ' Sd hjcelpe mig Gud ! t May
God help me!' The interjections gid (corruption of Gud
give) and bare, 'only/ are used to express a wish ; as, Gid han
kunne komme, f I wish he could come;' Bare jeg kunne
fd Bonden at se ! ' If only I could see the countryman ! '
The Danes have of late followed a German mode of con-
struction, regarded as erroneous by Scandinavian gram-
marians, which admits of the use of the auxiliary rare, 'to
instead of have, ' to have/ in reflective or passive verbs,
and in expressing action; as, jeg ER tr tiffin sammen -tntd
ham for, instead of jeg HAR tnijfen, ' I have met him
before.' Norwegians do not commit this error, which
is now being so far modified by some Danish authorities,
that an attempt is being made to limit the use of fare, ami
to employ it only where a change in the condition of the
subject-noun, or a temporary action, is expressed ; as, llan
er kurt bort, ' He has driven out ;' Han er <jaet ud i Haven,
< lie is gone out into the garden/ AVlu-n a definite action
or permanent act is expiv <!, the verb hit re should be em-
ployed, in accordance with this distinctive use of the auxili-
52 DANISH GRAMMAR.
aries ; as, Han har Icenge gdet omkring i Haven, f He has
walked about the garden for a long time ;' Han har kbrt
tyce Mil, ' He has driven twenty miles.'
The use of vcere, l to be/ is indicated where a changed
or temporary condition has to be expressed ; as, Barnet er
falden ned af Mnren, 'The child has fallen off the wall/
Blive, ( to be/ ' remain/ c become,' serves to give a passive
sense to an active verb ; as, Hun 6 lev elsket, * She was
beloved/ And when used in an active sense it loses its
character of an auxiliary; as, Han blev gal, ' He became
mad ; ' Kong en bliver i Byen, ' The king remains in town ; '
Bliv ikke vranten, ' Bo not be cross ! '
Some verbs, as at std, can only be conjugated with at
have, f to have / others, as at komme, require vcere', as, Han
har stdet pa skibet Siden i Morgen, 'he has been on the ship
since this morning ;' Fruen er kommen til Bys, ' The lady
has come to town/
The use of s~kal, ( shall/ ml, f will/ is often the same as
in English ; but it may be still more exactly defined by
saying that the former implies the will of the subject, and
the latter the agency of some person, or thing, apart from
the subject : as, Jeff SKAL nok komme hjem i A/ten, ' I shall
be sure to come home to-night/ and Min-Mand VIL nceppe
komme hjem i Aften, * My husband will scarcely come. . . /
The auxiliary at fa implies a necessity or obligation where
it^is not used in the sense of ' to get / as, Han far gd, { He
will have to go / Matrosen fk intet at spise hos Admiralen }
' The sailor got nothing to eat at the Admiral's/
When the auxiliaries vcere and blive are used impersonally,
vi:iiBS. 53
they are followed by an objective ; as, Let er mig, ' It is
I (me) ;' Dei bUver dig! ' It must be you (thee) !'
The defective auxiliaries slculle, ville, burde, turde, /</-/',
are followed immediately by an infinitive present, without
the intervention of at, ' to ;' as, Jeg. . ., skal.. ., ril, or burde
komme, ' I shall, will, or ought to come ;' Hun turde ikke
tale, ' She did not dare to speak ;' Lad ham gd i Fred,
' Let him go in peace.' The at is similarly dispensed with
after verbs which express a function of the senses ; as, Jeg
horte Barnet skrige, jeg sa ham f aide, jeg folte ham slippe
fra mine H&nder, ' I heard the child cry/ ' I saw him fall/
I 1 felt him slip out of my hands/
All active verbs may be put in a passive form by the
transposition of the subject and the object, the former
being in that case governed by a preposition ; as, J&geren
skyder Haren, ' The huntsman shoots the hare ;' Haren
skydes af Jcegeren, ' The hare is shot by the huntsman/
A passive sense may be imparted to an active verb by
the use of the auxiliary at Hive, ' to be ;' as, jeg elsker, ' I
love;' jeg bliver elsket, ' I am loved, '( instead of jeg clskes).
The s, which now forms the distinctive characteristic
of the passive form of Dano-Norwegian verbs, is a survival
of the Old Northern st, which represented the still older
affix sk, contracted from sik, modern nig, which is the reflec-
tive pronoun ' self.'
Deponents, which are often defective, and must always be
conjugated with at have, 'to have,' ditior from passives,
with which they otherwise agree, by requiring that the
participle past shall end in ts ; as, Del HAB /ykkeis Majoren
54 DANISH GRAMMAR.
at komme usdret tilbage fra Krigen, ' The Major has been
so fortunate as to return unwounded from the war/ Many
writers deviate from this rule for the sake of euphony, and
prefer the less correct form lykkeds.
Nice distinctions of meaning are conveyed by the re-
spective use of a reflective pronoun, or of the passive form ;
as, de sd hinanden i Gar, and de sds i Gdr, ' they saw
each other yesterday;' the former implying simply that
they saw one another, while the latter conveys the
meaning that they were brought into close contact with
one another, and that they actually met.
Certain affixes, as be, er, for, mis, impart a more compre-
hensive, or ideal meaning to some primary verbs ; as, at
gribe, ' to grasp/ at begribe, ' to comprehend / at kende,
' to know / at erkende, ' to recognize / at tjcene, to serve /
atfortjcene, 'to deserve/ at danne, f to create/ at misdanne,
' to deform/
The three first named of these affixes, be, er and for, are
German, and usually occur in verbs derived from that lan-
guage ; as, at begribe, f to understand / at erstatte, * to in-
demnify / at forscette, ' to misplace/ The for represents the
German ver t and these three alien affixes are unaccentuated;
while in the following particles, fore, und, mis, and over, the
vowels are accentuated ; as, forebilde, ' to prefigure / undgd,
' to evade / misforstd, ' to misunderstand / overbore, ' to
drive over/
The same rule of accentuation holds good in regard to nouns
and adjectives ; as, Forstand, ' understanding ' (German
Ferstand) ; undselig, ( bashful / Overhoved, ' supreme head/
VERBS. 55
Some verbs compounded of a preposition affixed to
another verb admit of being decomposed, although in that
case they generally lose their special meaning ; as, at
pdtage, ( to assume,' ' to take upon oneself ;' at iage pa, ' to
put on (clothes) / at overdrage, f to entrust / at drage
over, ' to cross over/
Some verbs, on the other hand, retain the same meaning
when compounded, and when decomposed ; as, at sammen-
Icpge, or at lage sammen, ' to put together / at overgive, or
at give over, ' to surrender.'
In some verbs composed of an affix, more especially be,
er, for, fore, und, the latter are inseparable from the pri-
mary verb ; as, at betale, ' to pay / at erholde, ' to obtain /
at forsone, t to reconcile / at foresld, 'to propose/ at mis-
forsta, ' to misunderstand / at undskylde, ( to exculpate.'
In regard to the two distinct classes of verbs which are
characterized as svage, or ' weak/ and starke, or ' strong/ it
may be observed that the former includes the larger number
of foreign verbs, and is gradually being augmented by the
addition of verbs originally belonging to the strong group.
The weak mode of inflection, which embraces the two con-
jugations, taking respectively ede, et, and te, t, in the im-
perfect indicative tense and in the past participle, shows
less affinity with the Old Northern than the strong mode of
inflection, which still includes about a hundred verbs.
Many weak verbs of the first conjugation closely follow
the more euphonious forms of the corresponding Old
Northern; as, at elxke, clskede, from the older at elska,clsJcaiU
(imp. ind.). AVhere the terminations are of less soft sound
56 DANISH GRAMMAR.
in the mother-tongue, as in the past part, elskader, and
in the various modifications which marked the several
persons in the singular and plural, they have either been
changed, as elsket (past part.), or they have been set
aside, and thus in modern Danish one termination, er
or r, is being more and more exclusively applied to all
persons of the present indicative.
A similar process of simplification is breaking down the
distinctive differences of the imperfect indicative in the
first and second conjugations of the weak verbs ; and
many verbs may be conjugated in accordance with either
mode of conjugation, as at brole, l to bellow,' which may take
either brolede or brolte in the imperfect of the indicative.
The strong mode of conjugation, also known as the irre-
gular, includes generally only verbs derived from the Old
Northern, with which its inflections have more affinity
than those of the weak form. Its chief distinctive feature
is that the imperf. indicative retains the monosyllabic root
of the words, without taking any terminal additions such
as mark this tense in weak verbs, although the radical
vowel generally undergoes a change either in the imper-
fect alone, or both in the latter, and in the participle.
This strong form may therefore be classified under the
following heads :
1. Verbs in' which there is no change in the radical
vowel; as, at grade, ( to weep/ grced t imperf. ind.; gr&dt y
past part.
8. Verbs in which the radical vowel changes both in the
VERBS. 57
imperf. ind., and in the past participle ; as, at skrive, ' to
write,' i. i. sA-reu, p. p. skrcr, t.
3. Verbs in which the radical vowel changes only in
the imperfect tense ; as, at lide, f to suffer/ i. i. led,
p. p. Udt.
4. Verbs in which different vowels replace the radical
vowel in the imperf., and the past participle; as, at
dr\kke y ' to drink/ i. i. draJc, p. p. drukkei.
The changes in the radical vowels of irregular verbs an;
similarly amenable to certain rules ; thus :
1. CE and e frequently change to a or d in the im-
perfect indie. ; as, at trade, ' to tread/ i. i., trddte,
p. p. trddt ; at bede, ' to pray/ i. i. dad, p. p. bedt.
2. i changes to a and to e ; as, at sige, ( to say/
i. i. sagde, p. p. sagt at blive, 'to remain,' i. i. bleu,
p. p. bleven, blevnc.
3. o changes to u ; as, at dolge, f to endure,' i. i. duljte,
p. p. dulgt.
The largest number of irregular verbs form their past
tense in a or e ; as, at vcelge, 'to choose/ i. i. valgte ; at
synge, 'to sing/ i. i. sang ; at binde, 'to bind/ i. i. biindt ;
at rive, ' to tour/ i. i. rev ; at skrige, ' to cry out/ i. i. sA-rey.
AM lore a verb can be used both transitively and intran-
sitively, it usually follows in the first case the *weak '
(regular), and in the second the ' strong* > r) mode
of conjugation; as, at hcengr,'in hanj/ trans. JuviKjte,
intrans. hang. Han hcengte Kjohn pa Trint, 'He hung
58
DANISH GKAMMAR.
his coat on the tree;' Rjolen hang pd Trceet, "The coat
was hanging on the tree.'
Many intransitive verbs acquire a transitive character
by a mere " umlaut/' or change of the vowel ; as,
at falde, to fall ; at fcelle, to fell.
. . . fare, . . . drive ; ... fore,
... linage, ... creak; ... knikke,
... ligge, ... lie; ... Icegge,
... ryge, ... smoke; ... roge,
. . . sidde, ... sit ; ... scette,
. . . springe, . . . spring ; ... sprcenge,
... vdge, ... watch; ... vcekke,
lead.
crack.
lay.
to cure by smoking
set.
burst.
awaken, be awake.
Deponent verbs are declined in all their simple tenses like
passives, viz., by adding s or es to the corresponding tenses
of the active form. In their compound tenses they employ
the active auxiliary at liave. Their supine is formed by
the addition of t or ts ; but, for the sake of euphony, this
rule is frequently disregarded, and des or edes is employed
for the older and more correct form ; as, instead of writing
Dei liar lykkets mig, 1 1 have succeeded/ we find Dei er
lykket mig, or Dei lykkedes mig.
Verbs having a reciprocative sense assume the passive
form when used simply with the subject-noun, or pronoun ;
as, de sesj f they see each other ;' Hans og Jens slds, ' Hans
(John) and Jens are fighting/ De sld hinanden, and de
slds, convey different meanings ; the former signifying
' they are beating each other/ while the latter implies the
more forcible act of furhtinsr.
ADVERBS. 59
ADVERBS. (Biord.)
There is a tendency among modern Danish and Nor-
wegian writers, in conformity with the Swedish usage,
to break up the compound adverbs into their integral parts,
more especially when these consist of a preposition and a
noun, and thus, for example, to write i Dag, instead of
idng, ' to-day ;' i Ar y instead of idr, ' this year ;' til Stede,
instead of tilstede, * on the spot/ etc. Similarly, engang
is written en Gang, { once ;' iligemdde, ilige Made, idet-
mindste, i det mindste, ' at least/ etc.
Certain adverbs, when required to be used in the super-
lative, may be expressed by a neuter adjective with a pre-
position ; as, pa det ledste, 'best;' pd det oiler venligste,
'most friendly ' (in the most friendly way).
Certain adverbs imply motion, or rest, by the absence or
presence of a terminal e ; as, Barnet gar ikke ud, ' The
child is not going out;' Barnet star allerede ude pd
';>, 'The child is already standing out in the field ;'
At gd hjem, 'to go home;' at vcere hjemme, 'to be at
home/ In these cases the final e may be regarded as a
survival of an otherwise obsolete ablative form.
Certain adverbs of place and time may be put after the
noun to which they refer, and used elliptic-ally without a
verb; as, Bornene her, 'the children (who are) here;'
0}>run-t i 1'jor, ' the disturbance (which happened) last year/
The adverbs jn and jo, ' yes/ cannot be used indifferently ;
the use of the former being required in answer to aquesti<>n
involving no negation, while the latter must be employed
60 DANISH GRAMMAR.
in answer to a question expressive of doubt, or denial ; as,
Er du der? ' Are you (art thou) there?' Ja ! ' Yes;' Er
du %kke der ? f Are you not there ?' Jo f ' Yes/
Ja is, moreover, used as a frequent and simple expletive,
and jo as an ironical interjection ; as, Jeg bad mm Fader,
ja ! bonfaldt ham med Tdrer f ' I prayed my Father, nay,
implored him, with tears/ Jo f det var noget smukt ! ' Oh !
indeed ! that was splendid ! '
PREPOSITIONS. (Forholdsord.)
The Danish prepositions usually govern the objective,
but some, as fra, ' from / i, f in/ ' on / til, ' to,' are asso-
ciated with a genitive, in which we may trace a survival of
the original inflexion of the Old Northern nouns. Thus,
in the expressions at gd fra Bords, ' to leave the table/ i
Mandags, ' on (last) Monday / at vcere til Ars, ' to be up
in years / at gd til Sengs, ' to go to bed/ we have evidence
of the early government of cases by prepositions.
When fra and til are thus used they convey a sense of
motion. I, pa, and om respectively indicate a past, a defi-
nite future, and a recurring period ; as, min Broder rejste
i Sondags, ' my brother left last Sunday / han Jcommer hjem
pa Fredag, ' he is coming home next Friday / vi tage pa
Landet om Lordag, ' we go into the country on the Satur-
days/
The prepositions ad and of, which through an inexact
mode of pronunciation have lost their distinctive sounds,
have in point of fact a totally different meaning the former
implying motion towards, or association, and the latter
CONJUNCTIONS. 61
generally motion from, and disassociation ; as, han vinker
ad Barnet, l he beckons to the child / det er en Ven ad
mi<j, ' it is a friend of mine / Jiun gar af Vejen, ' she goes off
the road V at tage sine Klceder af, ' to take off one's clothes/
The last example affords an instance of the post position
of a preposition, which is of common occurrence in Danish ;
as, Kommer De med? 'Are you coming (with) V Luk
Vinilurt til, ' Shut the window (to)/ Dei var Drengen,
linn tjnv Blommen til, 'It was the boy to whom she gave
the plum / Lcegen gik ham forbi, ( The doctor passed
him (by)/
Some prepositions, as bag, f behind,' foran, ( before/
jurat, ' next to/ samt, 'together with,' do not admit of this
postposition, but must always precede the word which they
govern.
Some prepositions, and most frequently for, over, om,
med, til, crd, govern the present infinitive of verbs, pre-
ceded by at, ' to/ as, Hun Jcommer FOR at se wig, 'She
comes (for) to see me ;' Jeg glcedermig OVER at fa den Bog,
'I am glad (over) to get that book/ Drengen har ikke
Lyst TIL at rejse, ' The boy does not care to travel/
CONJUNCTIONS. (Bindeord.)
The conjunctions at, 'that/ dersom, hu!x, 'if/ ndr y
' when/ sd, ' so/ may be omitted before the final clauses
of a sentence; as, Generalen sd han sld soldaten, 'The
General saw (that) he struck the soldier / A Jnin
lie.r (.sw undfrst)i)d), gar jc<j bort t 'If she comes here, 1
shall go away/
62 DANISH GRAMMAR.
Certain proportional conjunctions, as Jo, vary in accord-
ance with the character of the sentence ; thus, in a simple
statement of comparative proportion, Jo must be followed
by Jo, while in a compound sentence, Jo must be followed
by desto or des -, as, jo oftere, jo bedre, ' the oftener the
better/ Jo oftere han sd hende, og lagde Mcerke til hendes
store Elskvcerdighed, DESTO MERE agtede han hende, ' The
oftener he saw her, and observed her great amiability, the
more he esteemed her/
In statements of comparison, for which the word end,
' than/ is used, the predicate verb need not be repeated ; as,
Min Broder er storre end jeg, ' My brother is taller than I
(am).' The same rule applies to som, 'as/ and to lige-
som, { as/ ' like / as, Min Broder er sd stor som jeg, ' My
brother is as big as I (am) / Min Broder er Jurist ligesom
ieg, f My brother is a lawyer, as I am/
COMPOSITION OF WORDS.
Composition and decomposition exercise a great influence
on the character of words, and admit of being very largely
employed in Dano-Norwegian. Thus verbs may be com-
pounded with several different parts of speech ; as, at kors-
fceste, ' to crucify ' (fasten on a cross) ; at fuldstcendiggore,
' to (make) complete / at istandscette, ' to repair ' (put into
order) ; at pdtage, ' to assume/
In many such cases the verb admits of being decomposed
without losing its meaning, as at scette i Stand, or at istand-
scette. Often, however, the verb changes its meaning ; as,
at overscette, 'to translate/ at scette over, 'to put over/
' to put across' (a stream ; &c.)
COMPOSITION OF WORDS. C3
The composition of nouns may be made in various ways,
and more especially as follows :
1. Without any change in the words; as, Stuedor, Stue,
' room ;' Dor, ' door.'
2. By the rejection of the final vowel of the first word ;
as, Kvindfolk, Kvinde, ( woman ; ' Folk, ' folk,'
'kind.'
3. By the addition of e to the first word; as, Fareuld,
Far, ' sheep ;' Uld, ' wool/
4. By the addition ofs to the first word; as, Mindes-
mcerke, 'monument;' Minde, 'memory/ Mcerke,
' mark.'
5. By the addition of n to the first word ; as, Rosenbusk,
Rose, * rose / Busk, ' bush.'
6. By the addition of er to the first word ; as, Nattergal,
' nightingale ;' Nat, ' night/ at gale, ' to crow,' &c.
In regard to some of these, and other forms of termina-
tion, it may be observed that we have here survivals of
older Northern modes of declension ; thus, Ndttar is the Old
Northern genitive singular of Ndtt, ' night,' whence the
word Nattergal has derived its now obsolete genitive ter-
mination of er.
Similarly we have often to look to the Old Northern for
an explanation of compound words, either or both of whose
component parts may be lost in the modern speech;
as, l><ir,;, 'first meal/ 'breakfast;' Nath'cre t 'supper/
(especially in the sense of the Lord's Supper); Sol/u-crc,
'solstice/ In the first of these we have a survival of dag-
64- DANISH GRAMMAR.
verftr, dag, 'day/ verftr, f meal/ and in the second, we
have the Old Northern Nattverftn, ' night-meal ;' while the
hve^v in Solhverv is derived from the Old Northern hverfa,
( to turn round/
Many compounds have been borrowed directly from Ger-
man ; as, Slobrok (SMafrock), ' dressing-gown ' Mistbcenk
(Misibeet), 'dung-heap, hot-bed.'
The principal terminal affixes which enter into the com-
position of nouns have been already treated of, and we will,
therefore, only indicate the special meaning attached to
some of these terminations.
1. . . .Heit, '. . .hood/ . . .skap, ( . . .ship/ the former of which
is of German, and the latter of Northern origin, are
not of precisely the same significance the first conveying
the idea of a property or a quality, and the latter a condition,
as, Vildhed, ' wildness ' (ferocity), Vildskab, ' state of un-
culture, misrule/
2. Dom (Old Northern domr,a, thing, or position of im-
portance) indicates a power, as Kongedom or Kongedomme,
1 kingdom/ Fyrstendomme (Fyrst, ' a prince'), { principality/
3. Else sometimes indicates a property, as Tykkelse,
' thickness / but more frequently an action, as Anvendelse,
' application/ A similar idea is conveyed by the termina-
tion ning, as Skrivning, ( writing/ These two terminations
serve to form nouns from the corresponding verbs, and thus
constitute an important characteristic of Dano-Norwegian,
distinguishing it from Swedish, in which the participles,
and not the root of the verb, serve as the basis of words.
The German mode of construction, which admits of using
COMPOSITION OF WORMS.
the infinitives of verbs as nouns, MS <li* VA/W/;r, lias found
its way into Danish; as, Han* ^krinu er vel god, /
linns Lcesen er madelig, ' His writing- is well enough, but
his reading is indifferent.'
4. Er (m-r) generally betokens an active agent ; as, en
/:>,-, 'a thinker;' en Konstner, 'an artist/ It also
marks nationality ; as, en Dansker, ' a Dane ;' en Porn-
holmer, ' a native of Bornholm/
5. Inde, or ske, are used to indicate female persons; as,
Fyrstinde, ' princess ;' Svogerske, ' sister-in-law/
6. Eri t in many cases, conveys a disparaging meaning- ;
as, Koleri, ' loitering about ;' Tyveri, 'thieving/ It also,
IK \vever, indicates a working or trading place ; as, Bnjij-
, * a brewery/ Among the various terminations of
adjectives, the following 1 may be noted as indicating some
special degree or kind of resemblance, or some distinctive
character: (1) agtiy, as in gronagtig, ' greenish, 1 com
a sense of moderate greenness. (2) bar answers to the
jlish 'fill' and 'able;* as, frmjtbar, 'fruitful;' fujflxn;
' respectable/ '(3) en expresses a quality ; as, <?<> vn, ' idle ;'
, ' cross/ (4) I'KJ, which is often identical with
' ly/ is frrijiu-ntly associated with words having- a
ave si^nilicancc, while adjectives ending in sow convey
the idea ot'.-oinc mental condition; as, r////'i/, Moiu-ly;' cnnom t
'solitary/ (In many of these words, &B folsom, fSlelig,
lin^ly/ the distinctions of meaning do not admit of
bein^ given in Knu'lish without circuinloeution). (5) The
termination j^ 4 which indicates nationality, as n< . (xX-j
dunak, &c., belongs al-o t<> many adj. -nveyin^' an
I
DO DANISH GRAMMAR,
evil or disparaging meaning; as, spodsk, 'mocking;' fjendsk,
'inimical/ lumsk, ( cunning.'
Many of the terminations of adverbs and prepositions in
use in Dano-Norwegian point to an earlier phase of the
language, when the Old Northern inflections were not yet
eradicated. Thus, where adverbs have not been derived
immediately from adjectives, they would often seem to be
simply an adaptation of an inflected noun ; as, hjeni, and
hjemme, ' at home ;' bort, borte, l away.' Here, as in such
words as ud, ude; ned, nede, etc., the terminal e implies
rest, (Jieimi, Old Northern dative sing., ' home ') : Fruen
er hjemme, ' the lady is at home/ The word without this
terminal e, and derived from the accusative form of the Old
Northern heim (modern Dano-Norwegian hjern), is used
where motion is implied : Fruen gar hjem, ' the lady is
going home ;' lian Idler ud, ' he runs out ;' han kommer ned,
' she is coming down/ Such survivals are numerous in
the modern Scandinavian tongues, and in many instances
show the grammatical affinity between Old Northern and
Latin.
FINIS.
A CATALOGUE
OF
EDUCATIONAL WORKS
! i:i ) BY
REGAN PAUL, TREKCH, TROBNER, & CO. L
FATERNOSTERIHOUSE, CHARINGICROSS ROAD.
CONTENTS.
PAGE *"* PAGE
PAGE
I;I:I:I:K . . xa
PORTn,
2O
1
HUNGARIAN! .
*4
ROUMANIAN
. 21
| 2
N ALLAN
\\ .
. 21
2 GUAGKS .
T 4
SKUIUAN .
. 22
3 ITALIAN .
SPANISH .
22
LATIN
15
SWKIUSH .
2 3
N see
LOGICAL
DIG.
DAN
TION A
. 27
ii
\TAL^.
I^H . . 24
. II 1' >I.I<H . . 19
ALBANIAN .
-' .
.
ITTVH
a ANI>
: I:AI.
FRKHCH
' N
A LBANIAN.
CKAMMAIIIK ALI'.ANAISK a 1'Usage de ceux <iui .1
-ondre cette Lancrno sans 1'Aide d|un Maitre Par JP. W.
78, 6d.
ANGLO-SAXON.
HABH \ s K RRVILL. HAM ) V DICTIONARY OF
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