BOi
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SECTION 11, BOOK NO.
2-%L
NOT TO BE TAKEN FROM THE LIBRARY
6^t
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SIXTY-THREE YEARS OF ENGINEERING
All Rights Reserved
Maull & Fox.
SIR FRANCIS FOX.
[Frontispiece
SIXTY-THREE YEARS
OF ENGINEERING
SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIAL WORK
BY SIR FRANCIS FOX
MEMBER INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
HON. ASSOCIATE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS
LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W,
1924
IHO
A3
^'^•^
0 ^
Printed in Great Britain by
tJaxell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury,
TO
SIR CHARLES FOX
MY FATHER,
AND ALSO TO
SIR DOUGLAS FOX
MY BROTHER
WITH WHOM I WORKED FOR SIXTY YEARS
AND WHO WAS CALLED TO HIS REST ON
NOVEMBER I3, I92I
ik^m
PREFACE
A WORD or two seem necessary to explain the
arrangement of this book.
It has been difficult to follow any strict chrono-
logical sequence. The author's reminiscences
group themselves for the most part, and naturally,
round the separate enterprises in which he has
taken part. Many of these took several years to
carry through. He has, therefore, had to choose
between a continuous narrative or treating each
enterprise or group of enterprises in a separate
chapter. Since the interest of the book depends
rather on what he has to say about these enter-
prises than upon the exact sequence of events,
he has chosen the latter method.
The book has, for the sake of clearness, been
divided into three parts. An Introductory
Chapter deals chiefly with the writer's father.
Sir Charles Fox, and a few early reminiscences.
Part One contains what the author has to say
about railways and tunnels. Part Two describes
his work in the restoration of ancient buildings.
And Part Three is devoted to a number of mis-
cellaneous memories and topics, which could not
be grouped under either of the above-named
headings.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PA6B
PREFACE vii
I. INTRODUCTORY (SIR CHARLES FOX. THE
CRYSTAL PALACE. EARLY RECOLLECTIONS
OF LONDON) ..... I
PART ONE
RAILWAYS AND TUNNELS
II. THE VICTORIA BRIDGE, PIMLICO (1864-1867) 25
III. THE MERSEY TUNNEL AT LIVERPOOL (1880-1886) 30
IV. THE MANCHESTER, SHEFFIELD AND LINCOLNSHIRE
RAILWAY ; AFTERWARDS, THE GREAT
CENTRAL RAILWAY (1882-1899) ... 39
V. TUBE RAILWAYS OF LONDON (1893-I907) . . 49
VI. OVERHEAD, RACK, AND ROPE RAILWAYS : 58
(1) THE LIVERPOOL OVERHEAD RAILWAY
(1887-1893) 58
(2) THE SNOWDON RACK RAILWAY (1894-1896) 60
(3) THE DORADA ROPE RAILWAY . . 63
VII. THE SIMPLON TUNNEL (1894-I905) . . 66
VIII. SOUTH AFRICA: THE BULUWAYO RAILWAY;
BRIDGING THE VICTORIA FALLS (1895-I905) 90
IX. CANADIAN RAILWAYS 99
X. SOME NOTES ON HEAVY EARTHWORK, AND THE
PANAMA CANAL 102
XI. THE CHANNEL TUNNEL . . . , IIO
ix
CONTENTS
PART TWO
ANCIENT BUILDINGS
CHAPTER PAGE
XII. THE RESTORATION OF WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL I25
XIII. OTHER CATHEDRALS (PETERBOROUGH, CANTER-
BURY, LINCOLN, EXETER) . . . I46
XIV. CHURCHES AND BRIDGES (CORHAMPTON, BLET-
SOE, LYME REGIS, ASHBOURNE, FORD
END, OXENHULME) .... 162
XV. THE nurses' HOME IN GREAT ORMOND STREET . I76
XVI. SAINT SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE
CAMPANILE OF SAN MARCO AT VENICE . 181
XVII. THE STATE OF ST. PAUL's CATHEDRAL . . 188
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
PART THREE
VARIOUS
MINING ....... 209
DIVING AND COMPRESSED-AIR WORK . . 220
TWO DANGEROUS EXPERIENCES '.
(1) VISIT TO A CANAL TUNNEL . . . 227
(2) EXPLOSION IN BERMONDSEY . . . 23O
ON WORKMEN I
(1) ACCIDENT AVERTED AT " THE SHIPPERIES " 235
(2) SUBSIDENCE OF A TUNNEL PREVENTED . 237
(3) TREATMENT OF WORKMEN ON THE GREAT
CENTRAL RAILWAY .... 24O
(4) MR. AND MRS. GLEN .... 243
SOCIAL WORK IN LONDON .... 249
WAR WORK ....... 254
A BURGLARY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES . . 266
SOME RECOLLECTIONS OF TRAVEL . . . 279
JONAH AND THE WHALE .... 295
BREAD AND FLOUR ..... 3O3
A WIMBLEDON GARDEN .... 313
SCIENCE 324
CONCLUSION 329
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES
SIR FRANCIS FOX Frontispiece
FACING PAGE
SIR CHARLES FOX 10
SIR DOUGLAS FOX 32
GREAT NORTHERN AND CITY TUBE RAILWAY. EX-
CAVATING A TUNNEL ..... 52
QUEBEC CENTRAL RAILWAY. A LONG BRIDGE IN COURSE
OF CONSTRUCTION . . . . . .101
THE VICTORIA FALLS BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER ZAMBESI IN
COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION . . . . .101
CHESTER. ANCIENT WALL AND WATER TOWER . . I28
WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL. SOUTH TRANSEPT, SHOWING
FRACTURES ....... I30
WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL, SHOWING THE DISINTEGRATED
CONDITION OF THE MASONRY ARCHES . . . I32
WILLIAM A. WALKER, THE EXPERT DIVER WHO UNDER-
PINNED WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL . . . I34
LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. ...... 149
LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT, SHOWING THE GREAT
SCAFFOLD 153
LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. NORTH-WEST TOWER — CIRCULAR
NORMAN STAIRCASE ...... 154
LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. DRILLING I4-FEET HOLES IN THE
MASONRY ....... 154
LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. CRACK DISCOVERED BY REMOVAL
OF PLASTER, FILLED IN WITH WEDGES. . . I56
LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. ONE OF THE GREAT CRACKS IN THE
NORMAN WORK CAUSED BY THE EARTHQUAKE A.D.
II85 156
EXETER CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT . . . • I58
EXETER CATHEDRAL. PORTION OF TIMBER ROOF CON-
STRUCTED ABOUT A.D. 1300, SERIOUSLY OUT OF
UPRIGHT 158
xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FACING PAGE
THE nurses' home FOR THE HOSPITAL FOR SICK CHILDREN
IN GREAT ORMOND STREET, PRESERVED BY THE
GROUTING MACHINE I76
" ALYN BANK " GARDEN 313
DIAGRAMS IN TEXT
Pie. PAGE
1. SKETCH OF DRAINAGE FROM LIVERPOOL TO BIRKEN-
HEAD 32
2. TUBE RAILWAY SHAFT 49
3. SECTION OF SHIELD AND TUNNEL OF TUBE RAILWAY . 50
4. SECTIONS OF TUNNEL AND GALLERY, SIMPLON . 68
5. CROSS SECTION. STAGES IN CONSTRUCTION IN BAD
GROUND AT 4,400 KM 69
6. COMPLETED TUNNEL WITH PARALLEL AND TRANS-
VERSE GALLERY ...... 7I
7. SECTION OF ALPS ALONG LINE OF SIMPLON . . 80
8. SIMPLON TUNNEL. PROGRESS OF ADVANCE GALLERY 8I
9. SIMPLON TUNNEL. DISCHARGE OF HOT AND COLD
WATER . 83
10. CHANGES OF GRADIENT ADOPTED IN DRIVING HEADING
FROM BRIGUE BEYOND SUMMIT-LEVEL . . 85
11. SECTION OF CUTTING IN HEAVY EARTHWORK . IO4
12. SECTION OF CUTTING IN HEAVY EARTHWORK . I05
13. SECTION OF EMBANKMENT ..... I06
14. WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL. SECTION THROUGH WALL
OF PRESBYTERY ...... I27
15. WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF NORTH WALL
A.D. 1079 135
16. LYME REGIS CHURCH ...... 166
17. LYME REGIS. SECTION OF CLIFF AND WALL . 167
18. ST. Paul's cathedral, section through dome . 191
19. ST. Paul's cathedral, longitudinal section . 193
20. ST. Paul's cathedral, horizontal section of
WALLS AND BUTTRESSES .... I94
21. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. PLAN OF EIGHT PIERS CARRY-
ING DOME ....... 195
22. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. HORIZONTAL SECTION OF
ONE OF THE EIGHT PIERS .... I95
23. MINING. SECTION OF SEAM. .... 212
24. ADVANCED GALLERIES AND COMPLETED TUNNEL WITH
AIRLOCK ON TUBE RAILWAY .... 225
25. SECTION OF TUNNEL. " WIDE HOLE " AND QUAY . 228
26. SITE OF THE EXPLOSION IN BERMONDSEY . . 23I
27. SUBSIDENCE OF A TUNNEL IN LONDON . . 238
28. TREVITHICK'S origin of IRON RAILS IN 1803 . 24O
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
Sixty-three years ago I began work with my
father, the late Sir Charles Fox, and my brother,
the late Sir Douglas Fox.
Of my father I have written in River, Road, and
Rail, but there are some further facts about
him which may be recorded here.
Soon after the opening of the Great Exhibition
of 1 85 1, a public dinner was given to him by the
Mayor and Corporation of Derby on June 27,
1851. My uncle, Mr. Douglas Fox, who, for three
years in succession, held the office of Chief Magis-
trate of Derby, occupied the Chair, and gave some
details about his brother's youth :
" And now allow me to observe that the great
and crowning delight of my life was the oppor-
tunity afforded of witnessing the well-merited
honour done to my beloved brother for his exer-
tions and skill. From his infancy he possessed
intuitive mechanical powers, but it has been by
his own ability and energy that he has arrived
at his greatest measure of success. When he
was a child eight years old, if he went into any of
the manufactories in Derby, he would return and
not only give a faithful description of a machine,
but describe with accuracy its mechanical action.
2 INTRODUCTORY
" It was the wish of his father that his mind
should be devoted to the medical profession,
and he was a student under me until he arrived
at the age of twenty ; but so inveterately was his
mind bent on mechanics that frequently at break-
fast his appearance was more like that of a chimney
sweep than any decent person " (cheers and
laughter) " from his having been plying his
favourite studies from early dawn. It was by
his assistance that I was able to lay before friends
the experiments by which my lectures at the
Mechanics' Institution in Derby were illustrated ;
and I saw that all my hope of my brother becoming
a surgeon was gone, and I at once gave him his
indentures, and he became a student and eventu-
ally an assistant under Mr. Robert Stephenson,
under whose fostering care he received a great
deal of valuable information."
It was about this date, June 1833, that Dr.
Chalmers visited my grandfather's home in Derby.
In his diary, published by Dr. Hanna, his son-in-
law, he says : "I visited the talented and culti-
vated family of the Foxes, at the Wardwick in
Derby, one of the best and most interesting
families I ever knew." This refers to Dr. Francis
Fox and Charlotte Fox, my grandfather and
grandmother, and their children, Frank, Douglas,
Archibald, and Charles, Julia, Harriet, and
Charlotte.
In talking about his early life in Derby, my
father used to describe the introduction of gas made
from coal, the credit of which was due, among
others, to Mr. George Low, who fixed the first
light over the front door of my grandfather's
LEAVING DERBY 3
house in the Wardwick. It was regarded as so
extraordinary that crowds of people, passing
along the street, stopped to gaze at it with wonder
and admiration.
When my father gave up the idea of becoming
a surgeon, he left Derby for Liverpool, his entire
fortune consisting of eight sovereigns. He ob-
tained work under Ericsson {River, Road, and
Rail, page 2) ; afterwards with Messrs. Preston &
Fawcett, the celebrated makers of machinery,
and for a time as engine-driver on the Manchester
and Liverpool Railway, at £1 a week. He was
present when Mr. Huskisson, a Director of that
Company, was killed.
He was eventually articled to Mr. Robert
Stephenson and became one of his assistants in
the construction of the London and Birmingham
Railway (now part of the main line of the
L.M. & S.). Whilst thus employed on the London
and Birmingham Railway, he received an offer
from Captain W. S. Moorsom to act as his assistant
on the Birmingham and Gloster Railway with a
salary of £750, and was also invited by Mr. Robert
Stephenson to go out to Italy to construct the
Florence and Leghorn Railway, at a salary of
£1,250 a year. Both of these offers he declined,
from the conviction that to remain with Mr.
Robert Stephenson at the London end of this, the
most important line of railway, would not only
give him a standing in his profession which he
could not hope to attain in any other situation,
but would bring him into contact with the many
foreign engineers who visited this great work.
4 INTRODUCTORY
He remained with Mr. Stephenson until the rail-
way was completed and opened for traffic, and
then, in order to gain a thorough knowledge not
only of the construction and repair but also of
the working of railways, he applied for and ob-
tained the appointment of Resident Engineer
to the London half of the line, at a salary of £300
a year. He had not been long in this position
when he received a tempting offer of £1,500 a year
to take over the management of a large establish-
ment in London. But this offer, too, he refused
for reasons similar to those I have already de-
scribed. He continued to fill the arduous post
of Resident Engineer until the end of 1838, when
he tendered his resignation and received an
acknowledgment for his services in the form of
a cheque for £500.
Before the opening of the Exhibition of 1851
I was taken to Paris by my father and mother.
We were accompanied by Mr. Thomas Brassey,
Mr. Joseph Paxton, and Mr. John Cochrane, who,
with my father, had various important matters
of business to which to attend. We went to
Versailles to select a number of orange trees,
growing in large boxes, for the decoration of the
Exhibition, and afterwards of the Crystal Palace.
Some of them I believe are still at Sydenham.
Mr. Brassey, the contractor for the Paris and
Rouen Railway, asked my father to accompany
him to Rouen to inspect the scene of the accident
which had just occurred to the great Viaduct on
that railway. This was the latest of several
unfortunate contretemps which gave rise to the
THOMAS BRASSEY 5
remark that the name of the railway ought to be
changed to " Perish and Ruin." On their arrival
on the scene they were received by the members of
the staff, all of whom were in a state of con-
sternation, as the Viaduct was lying flat on the
ground, and they were expecting their dismissal.
Both my father and Mr. Brassey held the opinion
that it was a mistake to blame any employe
for an accident unless it had occurred through
gross carelessness or neglect. If the accident
were due to misfortune or to an error of judgment,
they considered that the man had been educated
at the expense of his employer, and was not likely
to repeat the blunder ; in fact he would be the
safest man to employ at that particular point.
Mr. Brassey looked at the ruins and then re-
marked, " It's a bad job." My father said,
" Well, Brassey, you take it quietly enough !
What are you going to do ? " " Do ! " was the
reply, " put it up again of course ; it will only
alter the figure at the foot of the column in the
ledger."
While we were in Paris we visited the studio
of the famous photographer M. Daguerre, one
of the earliest workers in what was then a new
art, who gave his name to the once popular
** Daguerreotype." He was the maker of perhaps
the earhest form of stereoscope, that ingenious
contrivance which enables the object photographed
to stand out so wonderfully in relief.
I have a considerable collection of these photo-
graphs prepared for the stereoscope, all printed on
silver plates.
6 INTRODUCTORY
We stayed at the Hotel Bristol in the Place
Vendome (looking on to the Rue de la Paix).
My father had a suite of apartments in the hotel,
as it was very central, and he had to be in close
touch with the Emperor Napoleon III and the
members of the French Government. Amongst
the many important works which he assisted in
carrying out, not only in France but elsewhere
on the Continent, may be mentioned a portion of
the Paris and Marseilles Railway, between Dijon
and Tonnerre, with its great number of tunnels ;
the large bridge over the River Saone at Lyons ;
the railway from Geneva to Amberieu ; the
Berlin waterworks ; the harbours at Kiel
and Korsoer ; the railway from Copenhagen to
Korsoer ; the drainage of Harlemmer-meer in
Holland ; and the great bridges over the River
Danube at Budapest and over the River Dnieper
at Kieff.
It was in 1850 that my father was first asked
to interest himself in the building of the Great
Exhibition in Hyde Park. The Commissioners
had received 240 different designs, but to Mr.
(afterwards Sir) Joseph Paxton belongs the credit
of the scheme ultimately adopted — a palace of
iron and glass with many novel details of design.
In like manner it was due to the energy and skill
of my father, afterwards Sir Charles Fox, that
Paxton's bold project, based upon the Chatsworth
conservatory, was translated into accomplished
fact.
It should be borne in mind that although the
building was intended to last only for two or
COMMENCEMENT OF GREAT EXHIBITION 7
three years, it has stood on its present very elevated
site at Sydenham exposed to all the vicissitudes
of our climate for seventy years, and is still in
such good condition that, with a continuance of
the care bestowed upon it by Mr. Wright, the
present engineer, it may confidently be relied
upon to stand for another long term of years.
In my book, River, Road, and Rail (John Murray,
1904), were narrated some of the difficulties which
arose in the erection of this unique structure.
Some further interesting and amusing facts have
come to light, which are worth recording.
The troubles and opposition that were encoun-
tered from the first were almost insuperable. One
of the first difficulties was to obtain possession
of the site in Hyde Park between the Serpentine
and the Knightsbridge Barracks. This was
effected only on July 30, 1850, ten months prior
to the intended opening on May i, 1851.
The Solicitor to the Treasury gave it as his
opinion, that until a Royal Charter was obtained
the Commissioners could not legally proceed, and
were, therefore, not in a position to give an order
to anyone. My father's firm, however, faced the
risk of preparing the drawings and making arrange-
ments for the erection of the building without
waiting for the grant of the Charter. At the
same time they requested the Commissioners to
appoint Mr. (afterwards Sir) Joseph Cubitt, the
President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, as
their representative with whom to consult. It
was not until October 31, 1850, that the Charter
was obtained, and by this time my father's firm
8 INTRODUCTORY
had expended £50,000 without any security from
the Commissioners. Lord Granville stated
publicly that " but for the courage thus evinced
by them, the Exhibition of Industry of all nations
would never have taken place."
One of the greatest difficulties was to find a
sufficient number of firms of ironfounders to supply
the girders and columns, and to ensure that these
would fit together exactly when deposited on the
site. Standardisation was, therefore, adopted, so
that everything should be a multiple of eight, and
the bolts and bolt holes should all correspond.
Perhaps one of the most hazardous and certainly
the most interesting part of the work was the
raising of the sixteen ribs of the transept to their
places. A month was the shortest time allowed
for this operation, but they were all fixed in eight
working days, the last one being put in place in
the presence of H.R.H. the Prince Consort.
The question of preserving the large elm trees
on the site had to be dealt with, and this was
solved in most cases by the introduction of the
fine centre transept, referred to later on, instead
of the flat roof proposed in Mr. Paxton's original
sketch. An immense improvement was thus
effected in the appearance of the building. One
or two of the trees, however, were in the exact
line of the fagade of the structure, and their
removal was essential. Application was accord-
ingly made to the Office of Woods and Forests
for permission to remove them, and the following
peremptory reply was received from Lord Seymour
(afterwards Duke of Somerset) : "I thought that
REMOVAL OF THE TREES 9
my former letter had been distinct enough to
satisfy you by an explicit answer : I object to
any tree being cut."
But an equally high official, Lord Grey, wrote
to Lord Granville :
" The Prince is very anxious that the trees
which are to come down for the building should be
cut at once, before any ill-natured person can move
anything about them in the House of Commons.
Once down, they will puzzle even Lord Brougham
to put them up again. If they could be cut
down in the morning and the carcases at once
removed, I am sure from experience in such
matters they could never be missed. Would it
be impossible to get them down to-morrow ? "
A meeting was therefore arranged on the spot,
when all who were interested attended, but the
leading official ordered that " the trees must not
be touched." My father turned to his foreman
and said, " John, you hear what this gentleman
says : on no account must this tree be removed."
" All right, sir." That night the Gordian knot
was cut ; the tree was felled, and, as Lord Grey
hadsaid, when once down it could not be reinstated.
Two thousand three hundred men were em-
ployed on the work, besides many thousands of
others in the blast furnaces, foundries, and work'
shops of every kind throughout the kingdom.
The entire building, covering an area of 18
acres, was erected in twenty weeks. The glazing,
which ran into many more acres, was executed
with great rapidity by means of a large number of
tents travelling on wheels which ran in the gutters
10 INTRODUCTORY
of the roof. The workmen were thus enabled to
fix the glass and putty in the stormiest weather.
It is an interesting fact that many of the original
sash bars, made of ordinary timber, lasted over
sixty years, and were only removed from the
building quite recently (1918-20).
The extraordinary speed with which the building
was erected went some way to justify the state-
ment of a well-known and competent authority
of the day that " England possesses mechanical
appliances and physical energies far exceeding
those which gave form and being to the most
celebrated monuments of antiquity."
At the dinner mentioned on page i the guest
of the evening gave an amusing list of objections
raised by scientific bodies, and men of high posi-
tion, intending to prove the impossibility of
erecting and maintaining such a fabric.
" As the building progressed," said Sir Charles
Fox, " I was assailed on all sides, not only by
unprofessional persons, but by men of high
scientific attainments who doubted the possi-
bility that it could possess, as a whole, that
strength which was necessary to make it safe
against the many trying influences to which it
must be subjected. This opinion was held, not-
withstanding the careful calculations which had
been made, and the satisfactory proofs to which
all the important parts were individually subjected,
as soon as these parts were put together, thus
producing a structure of unparalleled lightness.
One gentleman, after complimenting me on the
beautiful appearance of the building, stated his
belief that it would never come down unless it
SIR CHAkLl•.^ t-uX.
Born at Derby, March lo, 1810; passed away at Blackheath June 14, 1874.
10]
OBJECTIONS TO THE BUILDING ii
tumbled down, hinting that the first gust of wind
would blow it down like a pack of cards. Another,
holding a high scientific appointment under
Government, after a long investigation of the
various parts of the building, expressed at the
Institution of Civil Engineers a belief in the entire
absence of safety in its construction ; and after
explaining the mode of connecting the girders
with the columns by means of projections technic-
ally called ' snugs,' went on to indulge in an airy ^
prophecy that * a wind exerting a force equal to
10 lb. per superficial foot would bring such a
strain upon these snugs as to break them all off,
and cause them to fall down in showers.' I may
just remark that since the expression of this
opinion the wind gauges around London have
registered in the late storms upwards of 20 lb.
per foot : and I have pleasure in informing you
that the encouraging predictions of this gentleman
as well as those of many others have not yet been
fulfilled."
" It may be amusing and not uninteresting to
enumerate briefly some of the difficulties and
dangers which were foretold :
" I. We should never get through our work in
time.
"2. The foundations were defective, and would
surely give way,
"3. The building was more like scaffolding
than anything else, and was so light that it must
tumble down.
"4. The weight of the goods and people in the
galleries would be sure to bring down the build-
ing ; and if the mere weight did not produce the
effect, the vibration caused by people walking,
or more especially running, would be sure to do so.
^ This refers to Punch's amusing remark that the Astronomer
Royal, Professor Airy, should have been Professor Windy.
12 INTRODUCTORY
"5. The girders, expanding by the heat of
the sun, would push the columns out of their
places, and in so doing would break them, and let
down the building.
"6. That if it should happen that the weight
and vibration did not produce the effects expected,
the equinoctial gales would at all events finish
the business.
" 7. That if the building was not blown down,
the sashes or windows were so feeble that they
would assuredly be blown in or out, but it was
difficult to say which.
"8. That the glass was so weak that it could
not resist a gale of wind, but would inevitably
be blown to pieces.
" g. That if the wind did not act as was ex-
pected, firing cannon in Hyde Park on the oppo-
site side of the Serpentine could not fail to demolish
the windows.
"10. That the first hailstorm would leave the
whole roof without glass.
"11. That by the vibration of the moving
machinery the building would be gradually shaken
loose in all its connections, and must consequently
fall down.
"12. Such were the fears entertained for the
safety of the galleries containing the large organ
and choirs, that a request was made to Dr. Henry
Wylde by some members of the Jury for musical
instruments that he would, previous to the in-
auguration, urge upon my mind the necessity
for an investigation into the results likely to
ensue from the effect of the vibration which
would be brought into action during the perform-
ance of the National Anthem.
"13. That the vibration caused by the dia-
pason pipes of the large organ would shake out
the glass, which would fall in showers upon the
THE IRON DUKE 13
spectators ; and our Chairman was accordingly
instructed by the Commissioners to make experi-
ments with the view of ascertaining what the
result would be — and these experiments were
officially made on the day previous to the opening.
" Many of these misgivings appeared in the
newspapers and one foretold that we were on the
eve of a frightful catastrophe, but wisely abstained
from pointing out the nature of the danger we
were running. In fact, statements of this kind
were so frequent and pointed, that we were often
seriously advised to reply to them, but feeling
confident we were right, and that we should
succeed in all that we have undertaken, and con-
sequently that the more people spoke against us,
the more complete would be the reaction in our
favour, we abstained from taking any notice of
what was said, leaving the public to amuse them-
selves in the matter in any way they thought
proper."
I was only seven years old when the Exhibition
was opened, but I used to visit the building with
my brother Douglas during its erection nearly
every day, and on several occasions with the old
Duke of Wellington. He was almost the only
man who thought the work would be completed
in time, and he used to pat my father on the
shoulder, saying, " You'll do it yet." On one
of these occasions my father was called away,
and he requested the Duke " to look after my
boys that they do not get into danger from the
machinery." His Grace took my brother Henry
and myself both by the hand, and we found it
impossible to release ourselves from his iron grip.
We felt, in later years, that we understood how
14 INTRODUCTORY
he won the battle of Waterloo, and earned the
title of " The Iron Duke."
A pleasing incident occurred on the opening
day. The Duke was an early arrival, and he
walked up to my father and, grasping his hand in
both of his, said, " Didn't I say you would have it
ready in time ? " As a marvel of rapid work it
has never been equalled either before or since.
The following letter was written by Queen
Victoria to her uncle the King of the Belgians
two days after the opening of the Exhibition :
Buckingham Palace,
^rd May 1851.
My dearest Uncle,
I wish you could have witnessed the
ist May 1851, the greatest day in our history,
the most beautiful, and imposing and touching
spectacle ever seen, and the triumph of my beloved
Albert. Truly it was astonishing, a fairy scene.
Many cried, and all felt touched and impressed
with devotional feelings. It was the happiest,
proudest day in my life and I can think of nothing
else. . . . The triumph is immense, for up to the
last hour, the difficulties, the opposition, and the
ill-natured attempts to annoy and frighten, of
a certain set of fashionables and Protectionists,
were immense : but Albert's patience, firmness,
and energy surmounted all, and the feeling is
universal. You will be astounded at this great
work, when you see it ! — the beauty of the build-
ing, and the vastness of it all. I can never thank
God enough. I feel so happy, so proud. Our
dear guests were much pleased and impressed. . . .
Now good-bye, dearest Uncle,
Ever your devoted Niece,
Victoria R.
LETTER OF QUEEN VICTORIA 15
Before describing the circumstances which led
to my own entry upon engineering work in 1861,
I may perhaps be allowed a few varied recollections
mainly concerned with London, of a time now long
past.
One of the greatest attractions in London
in those days was the entertainment by Albert
Smith depicting the ascent of Mont Blanc, with
his inimitable description of Switzerland and of
the Swiss, who, at that date, were but little known
to the public.
The Diorama or Panorama in Regent's Park,
on the site of which the Baptist Church of the
Rev. W. Landels was built at a later date, was
also very interesting. We were ushered into a
dimly lighted passage, draped with heavy dark-
red velvet curtains, leading into what was appar-
ently a small chamber equally sombre, and called
" the ascending room " — the first attempt, it is
believed, at achieving the modern lift, or elevator.
The doors were closed ; we were conscious of
the working of some machinery, and also of some
kind of mysterious movement ; and when this
ceased and the doors opened, we found ourselves
on a circular gallery at a considerable altitude.
In front of us was a life-like representation of the
" great earthquake of Lisbon " with the accom-
panying noise and crash of falling buildings.
On other occasions was shown " London by
day," followed by " London by night " — spectacles
which lived long in the memories of those who saw
them.
" The Polytechnic " in Regent Street, since
i6 INTRODUCTORY
remodelled by Mr. Hogg, was a most excellent
and instructive institution, under the control of
the well-known scientist Professor Pepper, of
" Pepper's Ghost " fame, assisted by Mr. King,
who lived at Merton.
One of the great features of the Polytechnic
was a daily lecture by Mr. King, illustrated by
lantern slides, on any event that had just occurred,
sometimes only the day before, in distant coun-
tries. In after years Mr. King told me of the
immense amount of research (undertaken in the
shortest space of time) that these demonstrations
demanded, adding that " although there was on
the Throne our beloved Queen Victoria, there
was only one King," The old diving-bell and
diver, announced by the loud gong of unusual
power ; the glass blowing ; and many other
highly instructive demonstrations filled every
moment of one's time on these visits.
Professor Faraday's Christmas lectures at the
Royal Institution were great events in our lives
as children. His simple experiments and explana-
tions were a never-failing source of pleasure ; and
if an experiment did not always succeed, we were
intensely delighted with his investigation into the
cause of the failure, and appreciated his kind and
sympathetic treatment of the assistant, who was
never blamed for carelessness in the arrangement
of the apparatus.
Professor Faraday after his lectures sometimes
came to our house in Portland Place. When the
meal was over he would play " hide and seek "
behind the furniture of the three drawing-rooms,
CRIMEAN WAR 17
and often pursue us children on his hands and
feet in the role of a bear.
During the Crimean War, about 1855, Lord
Dundonald proposed a method for capturing,
at a cost of a million sterling, the great fortress of
Kronstadt, protecting St. Petersburg — or Petro-
grad as it is now known. By an arrangement
with the Admiralty, he had to divulge his scheme
to my father, under an oath of secrecy. I have
a copy of my father's report, in which he stated
his opinion, without giving any details, that the
project would be successful.
But although the declaration of peace rendered
its application unnecessary, my father would
never give us the slightest idea of what had been
proposed. All we did know, and that was a
matter of common knowledge, was that a mysteri-
ous vessel had been built by Scott Russell in his
shipyard at Millwall for travelling under water.
I remember seeing this, the first of submarines,
lying on the banks of the Thames, resembling
a Thames barge turned upside down. Alongside
of her the Great Eastern steamship was then being
slowly launched sideways from the same yard.
This submarine had been sent into the English
Channel and was there cruising about, when one
day, coming up to " breathe," she bumped against
the keel of a sailing collier, and dented some of
her own plates. She was compelled to return to
Millwall for repairs, and there we frequently saw
her, lying on the muddy banks.
About the year 1861, as a young man of seven-
teen, I accompanied Lord Clyde to Shoeburyness
i8 INTRODUCTORY
to witness the testing, for the first time, of the
Warrior target. This vessel, H.M. iron-plated
steam frigate of 6,170 tons, was at that date the
largest vessel afloat, with the exception of the
Great Eastern, and was coated with armour
4J inches thick. The experiments were not only
to test the resisting power of this armour, but
also the penetrating effect of a flat-ended shell
having neither percussion cap nor fuse, and
depending entirely on the heat generated by the
impact against the iron plate to explode the charge,
which was contained in a flannel bag in the shell.
The great object was to have a missile which would
deliver the blow as a solid shot, and would not
explode until after the perforation of the plate.
This would then blow to pieces the heavy oak
backing, which was several feet in thickness.
When all was ready the visitors were ordered
into shelter, but with the enterprise and curiosity
of youth I looked round the corner to observe the
result, and was rewarded by seeing the enormously
high flame generated by the impact . Investigation
showed that a clean hole had been punched through
the plate, and the strong oak backing blown into
matchwood. The effect of such a missile striking
a ship of that period can be better imagined than
described.
On our return to London, Lord Clyde was very
silent and depressed. He told me he was wonder-
ing whether the wars of the future would not
bring developments against which man would be
unable to stand.
Further recollections bring to my mind the
VICTORIA EMBANKMENT 19
construction of the Victoria Embankment between
Westminster and Blackfriars which replaced the
mud banks of the Thames. In the old days a
large number of penny, and even halfpenny
steamers plied up and down the river, and these
had to be reached by floating gangways across the
mud at low water. Mud banks also extended
all along the river in front of the Houses of Parlia-
ment. The available waterway was much im-
proved by the removal of the old masonry bridge
now replaced by the modern (and none too strong)
Westminster Bridge.
Early in the " sixties," when, of course, all
vehicles on the public roads were drawn by horses,
one's sympathy was often aroused on behalf of
these poor animals. They suffered grievously
when descending the declivities so often en-
countered in London thoroughfares ; such, for
instance, as the incline from the Strand to White-
hall, which exists to-day, and the steep gradients
of Holborn and Newgate Street before Holborn
Viaduct was built.
Brakes were seldom provided, and the wretched
animals in their efforts to retard the heavily
laden vehicles, would slide down the hill on their
haunches. On the up journey their sufferings
were painful to witness. In 1870 I wrote to the
Omnibus Company suggesting the provision of
brakes, but getting no satisfactory reply, I pur-
chased the necessary shares to enable me to
attend the Company's annual meeting, and speak
publicly on the subject. It was not only the
treatment of the horses, but also the hard lot of
20 INTRODUCTORY
the drivers and conductors to which I wished to
draw attention, in those days now happily past.
Year in, and year out, these men were kept at
work for sixteen hours a day and more — Sundays
included, for they never had a Sunday's rest
unless they paid for a substitute. If a man
applied too frequently for a Sunday off, he was
dismissed. Men with families scarcely ever saw
their children, except when they were abed and
asleep.
I attended a meeting and spoke on both subjects,
but met with much opposition. The manager
objected that the cost of brakes would be pro-
hibitive. As for the men, if they were dis-
satisfied they could leave. For every vacancy,
he said, there would be at least 800 applications.
I declined to accept these statements. I pointed
out that if brakes were adopted, the harness
could be greatly simplified and reduced in weight,
the breeching, the saddle, and the crupper could
be dispensed with, and only the bridle, collar, and
traces need be retained. I had taken the pre-
caution of getting a design for the brakes, together
with a definite offer from a well-known omnibus
builder, to supply and attach a suitable brake for
£5 a vehicle. I showed that the saving in horse-
flesh and harness would soon defray the entire
expense. As regarded the men, I appealed to the
chairman and directors to deal humanely with
them, with kindness and consideration.
The chairman replied that my proposals were
absurd, and as the manager was determined not
to adopt my suggestion, I, being a young man and
ACCIDENT TO SIR CHARLES 21
not anxious for notoriety, left the room in disgust,
sold my shares, and severed my connection with
the Company.
My protest, however, had not been in vain, for,
within a few months, brakes began to be fitted,
the harness was simplified, and in a comparatively
short time there was not a brakeless bus in London.
The men too had their hours of work materially
reduced, and in other ways they were better
treated.
It had been my father's intention to send
Douglas and myself to Cambridge, and my name
was actually entered at Trinity College, when an
unfortunate and very serious accident befell my
father, upsetting all his plans for our future, and
changing the whole course of our careers. It
happened at one of our seaside watering-places,
where the tide, one night, washed away part of
the esplanade, leaving a yawning crevasse in the
footway which was invisible in the darkness.
Approaching the spot during the evening, my
father stepped unconsciously into the gap and
fell a considerable depth on to the fractured
masses of masonry and concrete. Being a power-
ful swimmer, he would probably have escaped
unhurt, had it been high tide ; but the water was
low and he was very badly injured and rendered
unconscious by the fall. He recovered con-
sciousness to find himself lying on a table at the
police-station, a passing constable having heard
his groans and procured assistance to convey him
there. My father survived the accident some
thirteen years, but never completely recovered
3
22 INTRODUCTORY
from its effects. Its immediate result was the
cancellation of the Cambridge arrangements, and
my brother and myself were compelled to plunge
into work forthwith.
I was conscious of the fact that my education
was arrested, and determined, as far as possible,
to make up the deficiency by private study, and
by attending the lectures of Professor Tyndall,
Dr. Miller, and other leading men of that day.
With these studies were combined work in
mechanical shops where could be learnt the use
of tools, in turning, pattern making, smithing
and forging, besides civil and mechanical engineer-
ing ; and lastly chemistry under my old and
valued friend, the late Dr. Stead, F.R.S., of
Middlesbrough. Both my brother and I were,
about the years 1867-70, officers in the London
Rifle Brigade, which, years later in the Great War,
did such magnificent work for the Empire.
Our firm, under the title of " Sir Charles Fox &
Sons," consisted of my father, my brother Douglas,
and myself ; but eventually after many years it
was changed to its present firm, " Sir Douglas
Fox and Partners," to enable the younger genera-
tion to be admitted as partners.
PART I
RAILWAYS AND TUNNELS
23
CHAPTER II
THE VICTORIA BRIDGE, PIMLICO (1864-1867)
Passengers travelling to or from Victoria Station
may or may not be conscious of the fact that
within a mile of that terminus the railway crosses
the River Thames by an iron bridge. This was
originally designed by and built under the super-
intendence of Sir John Fowler in 1859-60 and is
one of the handsomest of London Bridges. But
as its entire width was only 32 ft., providing for
only two pairs of rails, it soon became evident
that the great and rapidly increasing traffic
would have to be accommodated by a considerable
increase in width and in the number of lines.
The system of railways designed by my father,
Sir Charles Fox, in 1862 not only provided for
such a development, but also, by avoiding sharp
curves and steep gradients, greatly improved the
approach by railway to Victoria Station. From
their commencement in May 1864 to the day of
the opening, the operations occupied three years.
This was the first large project on which I was
engaged as assistant to Mr. Edmund Wragge, the
Resident Engineer on Sir Charles Fox's staff.
The contractors were Messrs. De Bergue, the large
firm of bridge builders.
25
26 THE VICTORIA BRIDGE, PIMLICO
There are great differences between the original
and the additional bridges. Both had to conform
to the same conditions of span and height above
the Thames. Both rest upon four fine segmental
arches of 175 ft. clear span with a height of
17 ft. 6 in. or one-tenth of the span. But in
designing the new bridge, Sir Charles decided
that as the expansion joints were evidently not
necessary, he would make no provision for expan-
sion. He had by numerous experiments ascer-
tainedthat the variations in the length of a wrought
iron girder, due to alternations of temperature in
this climate, could be accommodated within the
limit of elasticity of the girder itself, by variations
in the other dimensions. He decided that the
total length of 900 ft. should be one continuous
girder held rigidly in place by solid abutments
at the extreme ends. The girder therefore could
not expand horizontally, but could adapt itself
to variations in temperature by a slight increase
in width or depth.
Few people, who are not engineers, realise how
considerable the expansion of metal can be. On
the main hues of the railways in Great Britain,
the rails have now a length of 60 ft., and this
necessitates an increased gap between rail and
rail. On the London and North- Western Railway
the platelayers are provided with a thermometer
fixed in a small portion of rail, on which is indicated
not only the temperature of the steel, but also
the width of the gap required ; on a hot day,
when the length of rail is increased, the space
may be as little as ^ in., whereas on a cold day.
EXPANSION OF RAILS 27
when the thermometer indicates say Zero°, and
the rails are contracted in length, the gap has
to be f in.
To illustrate this in a somewhat forcible manner
let us try to imagine that all the rails between
London and Carlisle were laid touching one
another, without any gap, and also that the whole
length of rails was anchored immovably at Euston,
but was capable of moving freely in the direction
of Carlisle, we should then see the end of the rails
travelling beyond Carlisle under the action of a
hot sun for no less a distance than 461 yards or
over a quarter of a mile, and again receding
towards London under the influence of a very
cold winter's night a similar distance.
To return to the bridge, one of the most difficult
but also one of the most interesting things we
had to do was to set out the exact length of
the spans or openings across the river. We had
to do this, high above low-water level, with
accurately marked rods 20 ft. in length, on a
single baulk ^ of timber 12 in. in width, on which
was fixed one of the iron rails for moving forward
travelling cranes. There was therefore no hand-
rail, and only just 5 inches width on each side for
foothold at a height of 50 ft. above the water.
With passing steamers and barges it was difficult
enough to keep one's head and maintain one's
balance ; but the danger was increased because
each of us at the end of the 20-ft. rod had to
kneel down on the baulk, make the necessary
^ The baulk is the beam, which lies right across the river, on
which the travelling cranes run.
28 THE VICTORIA BRIDGE, PIMLICO
mark, then get up and repeat the operation at
each length of the rod, all the way across.
At a certain distance, farther along the railway
towards Clapham Junction, a bridge with 120-ton
girders had to be provided for carrying the new
viaduct across the London and South- Western
Railway, and three other main lines. To avoid
the inconvenience as well as the danger of erecting
this bridge in situ, it was decided to build each
girder on the adjacent viaduct. When it was
ready to be placed in position, all the necessary
arrangements having been made, we were to begin
the operation of rolling it forward at midnight,
and to complete it by 4 a.m. during a four -hour
interval between trains. In order to do this,
traffic was stopped on two out of the four pairs
of rails above which the girder had to be placed
in position. As the interlocking of points and
signals had not at that date been invented, my
brother Douglas and I went to the points of
junction some 500 yards distant from the viaduct
and drove in solid wedges, to prevent the rails
being moved and to ensure the trains running
on the right line. At 12.10 a.m. we heard the
whistle of the last train leaving Victoria, and
signals by hand lamps were made to the driver
that he might pass, when to our great alarm we
found that the train was on the wrong line and
was going direct into the heavy timber lorry on
which the projecting end of the girder was being
carried. Someone had gone to the wood blocks,
had taken them out, and had wedged the points
exactly the wrong way. Fortunately the driver
DRIVER AVOIDS ACCIDENT 29
was on the alert, and he was able to see even in
the midnight darkness that he was going direct
into the lorry. He at once applied his brakes,
reversed the engine, and brought the train to rest
within 10 ft. of the obstruction. Had he failed in
doing this he would have knocked the lorry from
under the 120-ton girder and have brought the
latter on the top of the engine and train. Needless
to say the driver was thanked and suitably re-
warded on the spot, for his vigilance and prompti-
tude. It was another proof of the care of those
splendid men into whose hands passengers place
their lives without hesitation and even without
thought, every time they take a journey.
CHAPTER III
THE MERSEY TUNNEL AT LIVERPOOL (1880-1886)
This great work has been described so often and
in such detail that I shall confine myself to re-
lating certain interesting details and incidents
which have not hitherto been made public. It
may be recalled that the construction of the
tunnel was undertaken by Major Isaacs in 1880,
and the railway was opened for traffic in 1886
by the late King Edward when Prince of Wales.
The engineers were my brother Sir Douglas Fox,
Sir James Brunlees, and myself. Mr. Archibald
H. Irvine was the Resident Engineer, and Mr.
John Waddell the contractor. The length of
tunnel actually under the Mersey is 1,320 yards,
between the pumping shafts in Liverpool on the
east bank and Birkenhead on the west 1,770 yards.
We began by sinking the two shafts, and equipping
them with ample pumping power to deal with the
maximum quantity of water. The shafts were
15 ft. in diameter and 170 ft. deep, and where
they passed through the beds and fissures of the
New Red Sandstone they were very wet.
I should like at this point to refer to my old
friend Mr. Mellard Reade, the well-known geologist
of the date mentioned above.
Soon after the commencement of the work he
30
BED OF RIVER MERSEY 31
called upon me in Liverpool and wished to speak
to me in confidence. He, as a consequence of
his researches, had located the position of the old
bed of the River Mersey in geological ages ; and he
predicted that the excavation for the tunnel
would pass through the old bed or ravine, and that
we must be prepared for difficulty at that point
(see section). He was desirous not to raise
any doubts as to our ability of getting safely
through.
In the course of the work we did encounter
the old bed, and made such preparations as en-
abled the tunnel to be carried through safely — but
it was a remarkable verification of his opinion — -
and a loyal act on his part to warn me beforehand.
The rough section shows how the strata dip from
west to east ; the dip is exaggerated, represented
by the sloping irregular lines in the diagram. As
the shaft descended we cut these beds in succession,
and they yielded large volumes of fresh water,
not salt, these fissures cropping out inland.
The actual tunnel was not to be excavated
until a drainage heading had been driven some
considerable distance to test the strata under the
river. This drainage heading was made on a rising
gradient of i in 500 to enable the water to flow
down it to the sump at the bottom of the shaft.
As the drift went forward, the volume of water
increased so rapidly that it became a serious
question whether we should ever get through.
When the heading penetrated the fissure at a
the water which was coming into the shaft at
a' in mining language " took off," and flowed into
32 THE MERSEY TUNNEL AT LIVERPOOL
the shaft at a : in Uke manner the water which
flowed in at b' ran into the heading at b.
Some friends of ours paying a visit to the works
found Irvine and myself sitting under a large
umbrella hung from the roof of the driftway and
calculating whether, if the same ratio of increase
in volume continued in proportion to the distance
driven, we should be able to get through. We
were at that time under the land, and were en-
countering only fresh water. What would it
be when we were under the river and had the
Fig. I
salt water to deal with in addition ? We came
to the conclusion that if the water increased
every lOO feet as it had done in the last loo feet,
no pumping power could grapple with it. But
fortunately, on reaching the point marked A
where we cut the first bed which cropped out into
the river, and where we feared we might get salt
water direct from the Mersey, we encountered
very little. We found that in course of ages the
river had practically filled all the fissures with
clay, which had become indurated and water-
tight. This was fortunate, indeed, for the roof
of the heading was so badly fissured that it had
Swaine & Son.
SIR DOUGLAS FOX.
Born, May 14, 1840; called Home, November 13, 1921.
32]
DRAINAGE HEADING 33
very much the appearance of a jig-saw puzzle.
One of the fissures was 10 in. wide for the whole
width of tunnel.
From this point forward the ratio of increase
rapidly diminished although the rock roof of the
tunnel was fissured in all directions, and some of
the cracks or veins were as much as 11 in. in width.
At one period we had to pump from 8,000 to 9,000
gallons per minute, and at the date of opening
it was still 7,000 gallons.
But there was another uncertainty hanging
over us : would the feeders of water, entering the
tunnel through the red sandstone rock, gradually
erode it away, and so increase the flow ? Or
would the fissures gradually silt up, and thus
reduce the volume to be pumped ?
It was very satisfactory to find that the inflow
of water, which in 1886 was 7,000 gallons per
minute, had by 1919 diminished to 6,000 gallons.
As the Drainage Heading continued on a rising
gradient of i in 500 towards the centre of the
river, to meet a corresponding Drainage Heading
from Liverpool, I arranged for a " rapper wire "
or electric bell to be fixed, by means of which the
engine-man at the pumping engines could give
warning to the miners at a should anything go
wrong. Unfortunately this was allowed to go
out of action, with the result that the water in
the shaft rose within a foot or so of the roof of the
Water Level at its entrance, before the miners at
a became aware of their danger by finding water
at their feet. They made a hasty retreat, and
before they reached the shaft they were up to their
34 THE MERSEY TUNNEL AT LIVERPOOL
necks in water ; had they been ten minutes later
they would have been cut off. I gave orders at
once for a small " staple " shaft to be made at
h into the main tunnel, as soon as it had reached
this point, so as to prevent the possibility of such
an accident in the future.
The drainage arrangements have proved very
efficient and have resulted in the tunnel itself
being remarkably dry. On the occasion of the
opening by the Prince of Wales the tunnel was
lighted by gas, and thousands of visitors walked
through from end to end, without seeing a drop
of water. Their only complaint was that it was
slightly dusty !
I adopted the practice of visiting the works
frequently at 3 o'clock in the morning, in order
to encourage the men in their wet, dark, and
hazardous operations, as I knew that about that
time they would be getting tired, and perhaps
disheartened. The following incident will show
what absolute confidence the miners placed in the
engineers and inspectors. It was necessary to be
certain as to the thickness of the rock which inter-
vened over our heads, between us and the water
in the river. I therefore applied to the authorities
for permission to bore a vertical hole 2 in. in
diameter, upwards from the heading to the bed
of the river. If by ill-luck we found that the tool
entered the river, we were provided with a long
plug of durable timber, about 15 ft. in length,
which could be driven into the hole to plug off
the water.
The request was refused and I was politely told
DANGER OF BLASTING 35
it would be " the act of a madman and must not
be done." The men, however, were in a state of
nervous fear lest in blasting they should blow
a large hole in the river bed, when we should have
had " Mersey upon us." I therefore undertook
the responsibility of having several holes bored
upwards. In no case did they extend to a greater
height than 15 ft,, as I knew that if we had as
much solid rock as that above us the work, and
consequently the men (and as a matter of fact
ourselves also) were safe, and that so soon as the
thick brick arch of the tunnel was completed, the
work would be sufficient for all time. But the
operation was kept secret for fear it might be
stopped, and in no instance did the tool enter
the river.
Some years later I was talking to one of the two
men who were working in the far end, and he
said to me :
" We were working at the far end of the drainage
heading and you coomed along one morning about
3 o'clock and we was gettin' tired and lonesome-
like, and I says to you, ' Mr. Fox, how much rock
have we over our heads ? ' You said, * Fifteen
feet.' And I says to you, ' That's all right,' and
you said ' Good-bye.' My mate says to me,
* How the dickens does he know that ? ' and I
says to him, ' Oh, he knows everything.' "
On another occasion, in the early morning, a
huge piece of rock dislodged by the excavators
who were at work at the roof of the tunnel fell
into a large pool of water, crushing some timbers
and sending the water in all directions. It scared
36 THE MERSEY TUNNEL AT LIVERPOOL
the men close at hand, and they foolishly shouted
" The river's in." Immediately the other men
became panic-stricken and rushed towards the
shaft shouting out the same words. Many were
knocked over, lights were extinguished and men
fell over tubs and wagons, bricks and timber in
their mad career. Fortunately they met an
inspector, one of the most valuable members of
our staff, named — inappropriately enough — ]\'Ir.
Fright. Fright, cool and collected, asked from
what they were running. " Oh ! " they replied,
" the river's in." " We'll go back and see whether
it is," he said, and this stopped the panic.
Another accident ended more seriously. At
Liverpool, at 4 o'clock one morning, when the
" shifts " were changing, some young miners
in the shaft cage, eight in number, who were
descending the shaft began " sky-larking." When
the cage was about half-way down, one of them
let his petroleum lamp project beyond the end
of the cage. The lamp was caught by the shaft
timbers and upset, with the result that the
petroleum flowed all over the bottom of the cage,
and there was immediately a bonfire with the
eight men in it. Hearing the noise and cries of
the men, the engine-man at " bank " stopped
the cage, which was consequently suspended
half-way down the shaft. Two of the men
jumped out and, falling to the bottom, were
instantly killed, two others cUmbed up the wire
rope to get out of the flames, and the other four
were badly burnt.
The excavation of the heading through Sand-
VENTILATION OF TUNNEL 37
stone Rock was effected from the Liverpool
shaft by hand labour with drills and explosives,
advancing only 9 yards per week of six days,
whereas from the Birkenhead side a powerful
boring machine invented by Colonel Beaumont,
R.E., was employed. This made rapid progress,
as much as 34 to 65 yards in a week. But in
the end, owing to breakdowns, and delays from
various causes, it was found that when the head-
ings met, the average weekly advance from both
sides was precisely the same — viz. 9 yards per
week.
The accuracy with which the heading was
driven reflected the greatest credit upon the
Resident Engineer Mr. Irvine, and upon the
Contracting Engineer Mr. Davidson. The total
error was only one inch.
The arrangements for ventilation in the finished
tunnel had to be very complete, owing to the fact
that in its early days the railway was worked
by steam locomotives. Over a million cubic feet
of air per minute was ejected from the tunnel
by means of powerful fans 30 ft. and 40 ft. in
diameter ; consequently an equivalent volume of
fresh air flowed in. Electrical working was after-
wards introduced, and all products of combustion
avoided. This enabled most of the fans to be
removed, and the air of the tunnel greatly
improved, whilst the annual cost of ventilation
was reduced from £5,430 under steam to £332
under electricity.
The increase in traffic since electrical working
was introduced has been remarkable. In 1902,
4
38 THE MERSEY TUNNEL AT LIVERPOOL
which was the last year in which steam trains ran,
the number of passengers was under 7 milUons,
whereas in 1913, the last year for which figures
are available, it was iGJ millions.
During the construction of the tunnel, the British
Fleet arrived off Liverpool and unwittingly
anchored almost immediately over the tunnel,
near the landing stage, in 100 ft. of water. It
was dusk and very soon became quite dark.
About 2 o'clock in the morning the ships were
shaken by some explosion which the Admiral
thought was a torpedo, or mine, and which, he
said, produced a sensation as if his ship had been
lifted three feet out of the water. The crews were
called to quarters, all the flood and watertight
doors were closed, and a minute examination
was made of every part of each ship. No damage
was discovered, and the cause remained a mystery,
until the morning. The Admiral then learned
that it was due to shots fired in the blasting opera-
tions beneath the bed of the Mersey, operations
which we had carried on in all innocence.
CHAPTER IV
manchester, sheffield and lincolnshire
railway; afterwards, the great central
RAILWAY (l 882-1 899)
On August 15, 1882, I received a letter requesting
me to call upon the Chairman of the Manchester,
Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway Company the
following morning. I had not previously met him
personally and had no idea for what purpose I was
to see him. I called punctually to the minute,
and was shown into his large room. At first I
could see no one, but heard the rustle of papers
on a desk, and then found myself in his presence.
He at once began : "I want you to build a
railway ; there are the plans " (pointing to a
large roll). " Take them away, and don't let me
see them again until the railway is ready for
opening."
I was somewhat surprised at his abruptness and
quietly said : "I am much obliged to you, sir,
but I should like to ask you two questions. Have
you not already an engineer in London ? I should
not wish to take work out of the hands of a brother
engineer."
" To whom do you refer ? "
" Mr. A.," I replied.
" Oh, he is not going to do it."
39
40 THE GREAT CENTRAL RAILWAY
Then I asked if there wasn't another engineer
in the north who would naturally expect the
work.
" You refer to Mr. C. Well, we don't intend
to entrust the work to him. If you don't wish to
have the work, leave it alone : but if you are
willing to act, there are the plans. Take them
away, and as I said just now, don't let me see
them again until the work is complete."
I thanked him, and again explained that our rule
in business life was never to take work from
our brother engineers unless there was full justi-
fication.
Thus began my career in the Company's service,
which lasted some twenty years and brought me
into close and pleasant intercourse with many of
the leading men of the Empire.
One of the first works which came under my
care was the proposed swing-bridge over the
River Dee a few miles below Chester. A pro-
longed and costly investigation before Committees
of the House of Lords and House of Commons
resulted in the Bill being passed, and within a
few days I was asked by the Company as their
engineer to prepare the necessary designs and
contracts for the work.
Knowing that Mr. James Abernethy had acted
for them, I called upon that gentleman to acquaint
him with the situation. He said that naturally
he would have been glad to execute such an
important work, as it would be the largest opening
span — 140 ft. clear in width — in the United
Kingdom, but that, as he had already been paid
QUICKSAND 41
for his services up to the grant of the necessary
power, I was quite at hberty to act. He thanked
me for calhng upon him, and on parting wished
me " good luck."
In the construction of the bridge I collaborated
with our late partner, Mr. G. A. Hobson, and with
Mr. Ralph Freeman. There were several points
of great difficulty. Economy in design and con-
struction was essential, and at the outset we were
met with the fact that the river presented no
solid foundation. A boring had been put down
over 100 ft., and nothing more solid than quick-
sand was found on which to base the bridge.
The well-known song beginning " Mary, call
the cattle home," refers to these treacherous
sands of Dee. To this day if a vessel gets stranded
on the sandbanks by the falling tide, the first thing
the skipper does is to send his crew to their
berths so that nothing should move or vibrate
on board and thus tend to sink the vessel into
the silt, until the rising tide floats her off.
However, we found a means to provide the
bridge with a firm support, namely, a cylinder,
consisting of a circular wall of brickwork-in-
cement, 43 ft. in diameter, 5 ft. thick, with a steel
cutting edge at the bottom. This was lowered
on to the bed of the river, but we were immedi-
ately faced by a prospect of disaster.
A serious flood occurred in the river, and
the whole thing tilted over some 5 ft. The
chairman of the Company unfortunately visited
the work the next morning. He was much dis-
concerted, and expressed the opinion that we
42 THE GREAT CENTRAL RAILWAY
could never recover it, and that it was, in
fact, lost. I asked him to come again in two
or three weeks and meanwhile not to be uneasy,
as I knew a method by which it could easily be
rectified.
An iron pipe 2 in. in diameter, with a nozzle
at the end, was lowered into the bed of the river
close to the obstruction, the pipe being attached
by a hose to a powerful steam pump. The water
issuing from the jet rendered the silt or sand
" quick " beneath the obstruction, which rapidly
sank away and the cylinder righted itself. By
means of this water -jet the cylinder of brick-work,
weighing 2,500 tons, which had canted over to
such an extent as to cause dismay to many
besides the chairman, was brought back into
position within three-quarters of an inch of
its desired place in a few hours. In fact, it
was possible to play with this great mass, and
move it one way or the other exactly as one
wished.
The water -jet is also of the greatest value in
sinking timber or iron piles for bridges or pier
foundations. To drive piles into sand requires
very heavy blows, and the sand soon becomes, by
impact, as hard as rock, and the piles receive
injury ; but by the water -jet they can be sunk to
25 to 30 ft. in two or three minutes, and they
can be moved in any direction required, so long
as pumping is continued ; when this ceases the
sand in a few minutes settles round the pile and
grips it tightly. By adopting this process it is
unnecessary to point or shoe the piles ; they can
MR. GLADSTONE 43
be cut off square to begin with, and it need not
be said that, for stabihty and security, a square
ended pile is far better than one that is pointed.
On a section of the railway near Birkenhead,
Mr. Gladstone had kindly consented to cut the
first sod, for which purpose a dais was erected
some 7 ft. in height, with a wooden screen at the
back to keep off the wind, and the whole structure
was covered with bunting. A considerable gather-
ing was anticipated, possibly some 4,000 people,
and the necessary area for cutting the sod was
roped off to enable the crowd to hear Mr. Glad-
stone speak. A body of police to keep the ground
were present, and as Fenianism was then rife,
a number of private detectives were also in
attendance. But before the ceremony began
some 40,000 people had collected. Very soon the
ropes were trodden down and the vast crowd
surged right up to the dais, even to the small flight
of steps down which Mr. Gladstone and the other
speakers were to descend on to the turf. We were
afraid that the ceremony would have to be
abandoned, but Mr. Gladstone refused to alter
the arrangements and boldly plunged into the
crowd. It reminded one of an observatory bee-
hive, for wherever we on the platform saw the
crowd forming a concentric circle we knew Mr.
Gladstone must be in its centre.
A silver shovel with which to cut the sod had
been handed to Mr. Gladstone, but this promptly
buckled up when forced into the turf, and I heard
him say " Give me a proper spade." A spade
was found, and the sod duly cut by the great man.
44 THE GREAT CENTRAL RAILWAY
But now a fresh difficulty presented itself.
How were we to get Mr. and Mrs. Gladstone away
without passing through the crowd ? I hit on the
idea of placing a chair and a table against the
screen ; at the back, on the table, another chair,
from which we were able to lift Mrs. Gladstone
over the screen and lower her direct into their
landau carriage. Mr. Gladstone followed, and the
carriage drove safely away. I am bound to say
I did not myself attach much importance to the
episode until, after their departure, I was warmly
thanked by the leading detective ! Twenty years
later I met Mrs. Gladstone at Downing Street,
and without reminding her of this incident I said
that she had no doubt forgotten me. " Forgotten
you ! " she replied, "Mr. Fox, never ! you saved
our lives at Birkenhead."
Great Central Railway
In 1894 (the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincoln-
shire Railway having by that date become known
as the Great Central Railway) I was summoned to
Manchester by the late Lord Wharncliffe, who had
just been elected chairman of the Company. He
instructed me to take in hand that portion of their
extension to London which lay between Rugby
and London.
So soon as the necessary land, generally old
pasture land, was acquired, it was fenced in to
prevent trespass. The turf and top mould were
stripped off to provide soil for the slopes of the
embankments and cuttings. In this operation
SCARLET POPPIES 45
the subsoil, which had not seen dayHght possibly
for centuries, was exposed, with a very remarkable
result. During the ensuing summer practically
the whole length of the railway became a magnifi-
cent belt of bright scarlet, owing to a thick growth
of millions of common red poppies [Papaver
Rhceas vulgaris), which are not naturally common
in the district. From any high hill it looked as
if a brilliant scarlet ribbon were stretched to
indicate the site of the new but temporary exten-
sion of the Diocese of Peterborough.^
The same phenomenon has been observed else-
where when pasture land is stripped. The only
explanation I can offer is that the seed must have
been lying dormant in the subsoil.
The Rev. W. Wilks, of Shirley Poppy fame, for-
mer secretary of the Royal Horticultural Society,
wrote me as follows :
" My own view is that the seeds rest in the soil
in a state of suspended animation. No active rays
can reach them — so they rest. I have experience
of two or three cases.
" (i) Having a large bed of seed daffodils, I
wanted to eliminate the weeds, as previous experi-
ence had told me how extraordinarily difficult it
is to weed a bed of seedling bulbs badly infected
with grass weeds. So I obtained some soil (heavy
loam, almost clay) from the bottom of a 12 ft. deep
grave in our churchyard and I broke that up all
over the surface of the bed. Result — not one
grass weed, but hundreds of gorse of which there
was not a single plant anywhere near.
" (2) A railway cutting was being made through
the edge of the chalk down. Three or four years
* See Chapter XXI, p. 241.
46 THE GREAT CENTRAL RAILWAY
after noticeable numbers of the Lizard Orchis
appeared where the chalky refuse had been piled.
" (3) A neighbour of mine cut down a wood
with one wild pear tree in it at least 100 years
old. At one corner only of the field then made,
there came up thousands upon thousands of
common Papaver somniferum, and though I
inquired in the neighbourhood I could not find
anyone, not even the oldest farm hand, who had
ever seen the plant before."
I have another letter on the same subject from
Mr. Fred F. Chittenden, Director of the R.H.S.
Gardens at Wisley, as follows :
" You ask a very difficult question, but many
recorded instances in our Journal almost compel
us to believe that certain seeds are able to survive
long burial uninjured. Many alleged instances of
this survival can doubtless be explained by assum-
ing rapid infection of newly broken ground by
the various means which plants have (or use) of
distribution. I do not think, e.g. that we need
invoke anything else to explain those millions of
scarlet poppies that made the river fields of the
Somme such a blaze of glory to the natural eye
as they will ever be in our country's eyes, nor to
account for the colonies of rose bay willow herb
that so quickly populate a clearing in the woods
of the Surrey Highlands. I cannot but think
suspension of respiratory changes through high
concentration of CO2 may be the cause of pre-
servation, but on that I have a great deal to learn.''
The harvesting and sterilising of soil is carried
on by florists, and I have seen in the Virginian
tobacco fields the soil being burnt in mounds
FIXING THE SLOPES 47
before the seed is sown, in order to protect the
minute tobacco seed from growth of weeds. It is
an old saying that " earth is the mother of weeds
and the foster-mother of flowers."
One of our greatest problems was to fix the
slopes from banks and cuttings.
In 1832, many years before I was born, my
father, when an assistant engineer to Mr. Robt.
Stephenson on the London and Birmingham
Railway (now the London, Midland and Scottish
Railway), described to me the difficulties encoun-
tered in its construction, through the same Lias
formation, a few miles to the east of our line.
They had no precedent then to tell them what
inclination ought to be given to the slopes, which
they made i| to i — that is, ij ft. horizontal for
each one foot rise.
I therefore called on my good old friend the
late Mr. Francis Stevenson, then the Company's
engineer at Euston, and he gave me some most
valuable advice. He said that there was neither
a bank nor cutting between Euston and Rugby
that had not slipped at some time or other. I
told him I intended to make ours 3 to i and hoped
it would suffice. He said this was right, and added,
" Do not make the slopes steeper than this any-
where in the Lias." The results have confirmed
this view, and the Great Central Railway is remark-
able for the stability of its slopes. Mr. J. T.
Middleton, the contractor, knowing only too well
the sinister history of the North- Western banks,
had devised a most excellent method for carrying
out the great cutting at Rugby which contained
48 THE GREAT CENTRAL RAILWAY
over 1,250,000 cub. yds. I have dealt more fully
with this subject in Chapter X.
On some parts of the line there was a great
scarcity of water, and a young lady, the daughter
of a local vicar, who was said to be able to " divine "
its presence, kindly offered Mr. Middleton to try
her powers. She was successful in finding water
close to some houses occupied by the workmen,
and (what was perhaps more curious) she indicated
the presence of water at a point at which a water
main existed below the surface of the ground.
But her attempt to find water for one of the
stations failed, owing perhaps to the fact that
water was not present in that area at all.
At Marylebone, for the purpose of the terminus,
1,000 houses had to be demolished. These repre-
sented some 5,000 to 6,000 chimneys, with the
result that the chimney-sweepers of these houses
finding their occupation gone, appealed to the
Company, who kindly compensated them. A
charwoman, however, who also had lost her clients,
without waiting or appealing to the Company or
coming to any of us, went and hanged herself :
we did not even know of her existence until her
death was reported.
The date of the cutting of the first sod was
November 13, 1894, and the railway was opened
for public traffic March 9, 1899.
CHAPTER V
TUBE RAILWAYS OF LONDON (1893-I907)
It was the late Mr. James H. Greathead who
first conceived the idea of deep-level, cast-iron
tubes through which trains might run beneath
London. He had carefully studied the London
geological strata, and had come to the conclusion
that in the future the cost of constructing shallow
railways such as the Metropolitan and Metro-
politan District Railways would be prohibitive,
and that his tube railways must be placed at a
lower level than the gravel bed, and constructed
in the Blue London Clay. The accompanying
rough section
shows why this is
so. If a well or
boring be sunk in
London in many
places it will pass
through dry and
then wet gravel
and sand before it
reaches the Lon-
don Clay.
Wet founda-
tions for any structure greatly increase the
difficulty, danger, and cost of construction.
Vertical shafts can indeed be sunk through the
water-bearing strata without undue difficulty,
49
V///V/////
Fig. 2.
50
TUBE RAILWAYS OF LONDON
but a horizontal tunnel in such a position is
very costly to build. These engineering problems
were immensely simplified by placing the tube rail-
ways deep down in the Blue London Clay, which is
drop-dry, and has the consistency and appearance
of chocolate. My brother Sir Douglas and I were
interested in sinking forty-six lift shafts ; all of
them had to pass through lo to 12 ft. of wet gravel
and quicksand before reaching the London Clay.
The tunnelling was done with the aid of the
Greathead shield. This can be very simply
described. Let the reader imagine a table napkin
rolled up and put in a napkin ring to keep it in
place and form, with the ring pushed to one end of
the napkin. The napkin represents the finished
tunnel hned with cast-iron plates, and the ring
indicates the shield
A'///,Ur ''^°'y°°^ 'J?"-' Y/////' '^ ''. ^ ■ in direct contact
////y/ / Y / ^ ( [''.'. '.\ . . — C^ Cutting
with the London
Clay. The men
work under the
protection of the
shield, which sup-
ports and prevents the superincumbent clay from
falling in upon them. As the shield is slowly
pushed forward by hydraulic power, additional iron
plates can be fixed under cover of the shield.
Amongst the many great advantages gained by
the use of the shield, for the most part too technical
to be described here, not the least important is
speed of advance, not only on the score of economy,
but because the swelling of the London Clay,
so soon as it is exposed to the air, produces irre-
CDMPLETED
V////////////////^////////////'^
Edge
Fio. 3
THE GREATHEAD SHIELD 51
sistible pressure. It is found that if the working
face in such a tunnel is left standing in a vertical
position, at the end of twenty-four hours the surface
will have bulged about an inch. In fact this clay
is, within certain limits, elastic like india-rubber.
Hence the more rapidly a tunnel can be driven
forward, the less is the subsidence of the surface.
The shield is necessarily rather larger in diameter
than the finished tunnel, and as it advances it
leaves behind a concentric cavity round the
tunnel about 2 or 2| in. deep. Some means had
to be devised for filling up this hollow surrounding
the iron plates with Portland cement, otherwise
the houses and streets above would have settled
down all along the line of railway. The difficulty
was solved by the invention of the Greathead grout-
ing machine. A circular hole is provided in each
plate through which liquid cement can be forced
as the shield advances ; the cement solidifies in
between the tunnel plates and the clay, and thus
not only prevents subsidence, but also protects
the tunnel from external corrosion as long as it
continues to exist.
Sir Douglas and I were joint engineers for two
of the tube railways, with Mr. Greathead, until
the latter's premature death. We used the
grouting machine many thousands of times with
complete success.
It has also proved of inestimable value in repair-
ing ancient buildings of all kinds ; though it was
many years before I could induce my architectural
friends to realise its great advantage.^
^ Some account of the grouting machine will be found in the
chapter on Winchester Cathedral (Chapter XII, p. 129).
52 TUBE RAILWAYS OF LONDON
The earliest tube was the City and South
London Railway (begun in 1886), the internal
diameter of which is 10 ft. 6 in. but is now being
enlarged. Twelve years later began the building
of the Great Northern and City Railway. It
differs from all other electrical tubes in that the
tunnels were made large enough to accommodate
the ordinary rolling stock of the Great Northern
Railway. The diameter of the tunnels is 16 ft. ;
they are, therefore, much more roomy and airy
than the other tubes, and are well ventilated.
The Great Northern Railway Company gave
very strong evidence in favour of the project
before the Parliamentary Committee. It was
to be, in effect, the City terminus for the suburban
trains of the Great Northern. That company
undertook to run a minimum number of 50
trains each way per day, and to increase them if
desired to 100. Had this been carried out, it
would have been a highly prosperous concern.
Unfortunately the policy of the Great Northern
Company underwent some changes, and the Une,
although built for their use and convenience,
has never had a Great Northern vehicle through
it. Now, however (1924), it is again proposed to
construct a physical junction with the Great
Northern Railway.
The other tube railway for which my brother
and I were engineers, in conjunction with the
late Mr. W. R. Galbraith, is the Charing Cross,
Golders Green, and Highgate, which on the map
of London forms approximately the shape of the
letter Y ; the left hand of this letter going to
^ s
c: 5
BALLET DANCERS' SCHOOL 53
Euston, Hampstead, and Golders Green, the right
hand to Kentish Town and Highgate. The rail-
way was opened for traffic on June 22, 1907.
In choosing a site for one of the intermediate
stations I, and two other officials, had a rather
curious experience. Aided by a large-scale map
of that part of London we were trying to find
suitable property for the station. A somewhat
poor-looking house presented itself, entered by a
passage from the street and closed by swing-doors.
We walked along the passage, but no one was to
be seen. We then entered a kind of hall or large
room, the sides and ends of which were wholly of
looking-glass, reflecting us in interminable vistas
wherever we looked. The door swung to and
closed ; it also was of looking-glass. There was
a handrail fixed round the room, a single strong
round bar of brass, 4 ft. from the floor and 4 in.
from the glass. We were unable even to guess
the purpose of such a hall. But our perplexity
was of short duration, for another small door in
the looking-glass suddenly opened, and although
it was about 12 noon, and broad daylight from the
skylight above, there entered a young woman
clad in nothing but silk tights ! She paid no
attention to us, nor seemed in any way discon-
certed on finding three men in the room, but,
rushing to the side of the hall and seizing the brass
rail, began her antics and contortions — the chief
aim evidently being to ascertain to what extreme
height she could kick ! We had fallen, unawares,
on a training school for ballet girls. The incident
made a very disagreeable impression on my mind
5
54 TUBE RAILWAYS OF LONDON
and I was glad when this particular house was
demolished.
When the necessary Bill for constructing the
railway came before Parliament, the Company
were opposed by a local committee formed in
Hampstead under a chairman who has recently
died, for whom I had much respect. They held
the opinion that the tunnel passing under Hamp-
stead Heath would drain away all the water,
and even all the moisture, in the ground, would
dry up the ponds, and consequently that all the
trees, the gorse, and even the grass would be
killed, and the famous " Heath turned into a
Sahara." It was also pointed out that the tube
might possibly collapse and let down the surface
of the Heath, and that, in short, the days of the
latter were numbered. These predictions were
so far from being fulfilled that the whole of the
tunnel was perfectly dry, and water had to be
laid on from the Water Company's main to enable
workmen to carry on the construction.
The tunnel was, for nearly its whole length, in
London Clay and therefore dry, but between
Tottenham Court Road and Euston it ran out
of the clay and entered the Woolwich and Reading
beds. At this point alone water was met with, and
compressed air had to be used. The pressure
of the air was raised and air-locks became neces-
sary. Work in such " air-locks " is, it can be
imagined, not very pleasant. The principle is
that of the " diving-bell."
The accuracy with which the work was executed
by the engineers and contractors was remarkable.
MEETING OF SHIELDS 55
For instance a shield was started at the Hampstead
Heath station, and travelled south under Haver-
stock Hill Road ; another was driven from
Belsize Park station, and went north. These
shafts, 1,300 to 1,400 yards apart, were off the
centre line and Haverstock Hill Road itself has
sinuosities, but when the shields met they were
edge to edge, and were left in to form a portion
of the iron lining of the tunnel. The actual
variation from absolute accuracy was as follows :
Error in direction .... One-quarter of an inch.
Error in level .... One-eighth of an inch.
Error in length (4,000 ft.) . . Seven-eighths of an inch.
The station at Hampstead Heath is 291 ft.
below the surface and is the deepest in the world.
Under the heading " C3 Nation's Climb " The
Times of March 29, 1921, published the following
from its Medical Correspondent :
" To a medical man one of the most thrilling
sights which Easter Monday afforded, was the
pilgrimage of this C3 nation up the steps of the
Hampstead Tube Station. It was really an
astonishing spectacle, and, having found it, one
stayed to investigate. For this is the deepest
tube station in London, perhaps in the world,
and the spiral stairway has over 300 steps.
" And yet a large number of people preferred
the stairway to the lift — and came up smiling.
They were of all ages — middle-aged, and even-
more-than-middle-aged men, middle-aged women,
boys and girls, children. One might have ex-
pected to see some of them at least in states of
severe exhaustion. Not a bit of it : they reached
the top, the great majority of them, sound in
56 TUBE RAILWAYS OF LONDON
wind as in limb, and merry as the holiday makers
in the roadway outside.
" And they came up quickly too, a few of them
two steps at a time, for part of the way at least.
The curiosity which made the observer descend
was rewarded by the discovery of very few pauses,
not three on the whole stairway, on which there
must at that moment have been loo people." ^
The passenger lifts at the stations are all tested
by the Board of Trade. One or two of them are
loaded with a weight of pig-iron greater than the
weight of a packed load of passengers. The lifts
are then allowed to fall, with the objects of
ascertaining, not only that the ropes are fully
capable of bearing the strain, but also that the
automatic safety catches will come into operation
in case of need. In all the tests this fall has never
exceeded a few inches : and as the ropes are made
to carry a weight twenty times their maximum
load, no anxiety need be felt. The other lifts
are tested with a living load of eighty persons,
including workmen, the Government Inspector,
and the engineers and contractors, who show in
this way their confidence in the safety of the
apparatus. Seventy-eight lifts have been thus
examined in one day. The mere walking in and
out and ascending and descending for several
hours was in itself tiring. Moreover, as none of
these lifts had previously been tested, the strain
upon the nervous system was considerable. By the
end of the day we were all fairly well " played
out."
^ The Times, March 29, 1921.
TUBE STATIONS 57
The introduction of the escalator, or travelHng
staircase, has now done away with the necessity
for Hfts in many places.
When the tube railways were proposed, an effort
was made to obtain the consent of the London
County Council, Borough Councils, and other
authorities to a scheme which would have much
simplified the stations and passages. Under this
proposal each station would have been placed
directly beneath the street, with steps leading
up to the pavement. The lifts would have
delivered passengers straightway on to an
" island " platform, on a level with the floors of
the trains. Such a station exists at the Bank
terminus of the Waterloo and City Railway, and
the interference on the footway is reduced to a
minimum. Had it been necessary, however, to
purchase a block of property in order to effect
this arrangement, the cost would have been
prohibitory.
If this system had been allowed on other stations
throughout London, the saving both in con-
venience and in capital cost would have been very
great. Co-operation between the various Com-
panies, and also between them and the public
authorities, would have rendered unnecessary
many of the long cross passages, which are such
a vexation to the Underground traveller to-day.
The reason for the existence of these passages is,
to a large extent, the high value of property with
frontage on to a main street. By going a little
way up a side street, suitable sites for stations
could be purchased at comparatively low cost.
CHAPTER VI
overhead, rack, and rope railways
(i)The Liverpool Overhead Railway (1887-93)
The great need of some kind of rapid transit
along the entire length of the great Liverpool
Docks had long been felt, when the proposal for
an elevated or overhead railway was urged by
Sir William Forwood and other leading men of
Liverpool.
An Act of Parliament passed in 1887 provided
for a line connecting the most northerly dock, the
Alexandra, with Herculaneum at the extreme
south, a distance of 6J miles.
A short extension at the northern end to Sea-
forth Sands on the Lancashire and Yorkshire
Railway, and an extension through a tunnel at
the southern end to Dingle, were added later.
The trains, electrically driven, run at intervals
of 5 minutes in each direction. There are sixteen
stations in all and the time occupied in the com-
plete journey is 28 minutes.
In 1919 the number of passengers carried was
22,440,000 and in 1920, 21,020,000.
The engineers were Sir Douglas Fox and Mr.
J. H. Greathead ; Mr. S. B. Cottrell and myself
were in charge of the works.
The problem of applying electrical power to
the haulage of traffic was solved by the late Mr.
58
THOMAS PARKER 59
Thomas Parker, one of the most capable and far-
seeing electrical engineers of the time. The
signals are set by the trains themselves.
The railway was built on steel columns or
stanchions with girders of greatly varying size
and span, which had to be placed so as not to
interfere with the Mersey Docks and Harbour
Board. The dock Hnes were on the street level,
and the new railway had to be carried above them.
The many different types of steel girder bridges
required, presented a series of troublesome prob-
lems to our partner Mr. G. A. Hobson (who
patented the arch flooring now so generally
adopted throughout the world), and to Mr. J. W.
Willans, who had won the contract in competition
with others ; and the successful execution of this
difficult and important work was very largely due
to his untiring energy and skill.
The preliminary operations took a great deal
of time.
Much delay was caused by the necessary altera-
tions to the dock lines, and the removal of several
police stations, customs depots, and other build-
ings. Mr. Willans designed a steel erector which
enabled each complete span of 50 ft., and its
flooring, to be transported over the completed
portion of the railway and lowered into place
intact. The design and testing of this erector
meant a long business. One of Mr. Willans' s
partners facetiously estimated that, at the speed
attained in the first few months, it would require
100 years to complete the railway ; but if the
Company would dismiss Mr. Willans, and place
6o OVERHEAD, RACK, AND ROPE RAILWAYS
the contract in his (the partner's) hands, he
would undertake to do it in half the time.
However, when the Erector was completed
and in working order, as many as twelve spans of
50 to 70 ft. each were often fixed in their per-
manent positions in five and a half working days.
This would represent about 650 ft. of finished
viaduct. From first to last this was effected
without a single mishap. The total number of
spans is nearly six hundred.
(2) The Snowdon Rack Railway (1894-1896)
In the year 1894 a proposal was made for the
construction of a rack railway from Llanberis
to the summit of Snowdon, to which my brother
and I gave our most careful thought.
There are several kinds of rack. There is the
Riggenbach, or ladder rack, in which steel girders
constitute the sides of the ladder, with cross pieces
representing the rungs. Another is the Abt, con-
sisting of one, two, or three fiat bars bolted to-
gether, in which deep notches are cut at regular
intervals, and into which the pinions on the loco-
motive are geared. Another kind is that which
was designed for Mont Pilatus by that brilliant
Swiss engineer the late Colonel Locher, of Zurich,
in which the gradient is no less than i in 2, some
of the wheels being placed horizontally so as to
grip a central rail.
We had been strongly advised to adopt one
of these three methods ; and as I was in Switzer-
land at that time I asked Colonel Frei, President
MOUNTAIN RAILWAY BRAKES 6i
of the Swiss Confederation, if he could furnish
me with particulars of some of the rack and rope
railways existing there. He not only presented
me with the drawings and particulars of every
such railway in Switzerland, but invited me with
my two colleagues, who were in Berne, reporting
on the Simplon Tunnel, Signor Colombo of
Rome, member of the Roman Senate, and Herr
Wagner of Vienna, Inspector of Government
Railways, and engineer of the great Arlberg
Tunnel, to accompany him and the ministers of
his Government for a two or three days' excursion
into the Bernese Oberland to see some of the rack
railways in operation.
The President took us to the Kleine Scheideck,
where a banquet, at which he presided, was given
in our honour. The next morning we started on
our descending journey, in a spacious compart-
ment together with the President, the Ministers
for War, Education, and Finance, Colonel Locher,
Dr. Edouard Sulzer, of Winterthur, and some other
engineers. One of the latter sat opposite to me
near the door and explained how absolutely safe
the system was. On each carriage there were two
powerful hand brakes and on the engine no fewer
than five. These were the automatic speed
brake, which immediately stopped the train if the
speed exceeded 5 miles per hour ; the steam
brake ; the compressed air brake, and two hand
brakes.
" You see," he explained, " that if one brake
failed, there are still four left, and if by combina-
tion of ill luck two failed, there would still be three
62 OVERHEAD, RACK, AND ROPE RAILWAYS
available, so that the train is really the safest
place in the world. Nothing could possibly
happen."
Just at that moment there was a great jolt, and
a crash, and we began to travel rapidly down the
I in 5 gradient. My friend attempted to jump
out of the window, but I hung on to his coat
tails and held him.
But the brakes did act, and the train came to
a stop, and he and nearly all the others alighted
more or less precipitately from the carriage. I
was left in my seat, and Colonel Frei kept his in
the opposite corner of the carriage. " Well,
Colonel," I remarked, " you take this incident
very coolly." " You see," he replied, " I am an
artillery officer, and have learnt by experience
that on such occasions it is always best to sit
still."
However, we all had to leave the train. The
driving cog wheel on the engine had mounted the
rack, had smashed the rack itself, and had bent
the driving-axle of the locomotive so that it was
unsafe to use it. The whole party, including two
ladies of seventy years of age, had to walk down
to Grindelwald from an altitude of some 5,000 ft.
I thereupon reported to London that this
description of rack had had an accident, and that
we were advised by the Swiss to adopt another of
the three designs. This we did, taking care to
adhere strictly to the Swiss design except that
where they used cast iron we went one better and
used steel. We also adopted Winterthur loco-
motives, and decided to employ experienced
SNOWDON RAILWAY 63
Swiss drivers. These locomotives were employed
in the construction of the railway, running over
unpacked sleepers and irregular permanent rails.
Mr. Frank Oswell was our Resident Engineer and
Messrs. Holme & King the Contractors. The
work was completed without hitch of any kind.
Before the line was opened to the public, we
invited the leading officials of the chief English
railways to inspect this mountain railway, which
to most of them was a novelty. Some forty or
fifty of the leading men experienced in railway
construction accepted our invitation. We asked
them to examine the line critically and took them
up at noon to see the mountain under varying
conditions of sunshine and fog, and at the summit
in snow. At 11 p.m. they again ascended the
mountain to see the railway by moonlight and also
in fog and snow. They were all delighted and
described it as " a first-class bit of work."
The railway had been examined and severely
tested by the railway inspectors of the Board of
Trade. On the following Whit-Monday the first
passenger train carrying 72 passengers went
up at 7.30 a.m. Every seat was filled. They
found the summit in deep snow and were all
delighted with their experience.
(3) The Dorada Rope Railway
Some account of a remarkable " rope railway "
engineered by my late firm in South America
may be of interest, at this point, to my readers.
Communication was greatly needed for goods
64 OVERHEAD, RACK, AND ROPE RAILWAYS
traffic between the Dorada Railway in the valley
of the Magdalena River in the Republic of
Colombia, and the Esperanza Valley, in which the
important city of Manizales stands isolated by
the Cordillera of the Andes. Access by rail is
impossible at anything approaching a reasonable
cost, and therefore recourse has been had to an
overhead ropeway. But even this presented con-
siderable difficulties, for the distance is 45I miles,
and the altitude of the Andes over which it passes
is 12,000 ft.
Till quite recently the transport of goods, up
to 6,000 ft., was effected by bullocks, as they can
best resist the heat ; for the remaining 6,000 ft.
mules were employed, as they are better able to
stand the cold and the snow. The same method
was used for the descent on the other side.
The rope line is divided into 15 sections, some
of which are as much as four miles in length.
Each section has an endless rope passing over
sheaves on suitable steel trestles, which have
to be high enough to prevent the carriers and loads
from touching the ground. Some of these trestles
are 216 ft. in height, and the greatest stretch of
rope between trestles is 2,916 ft., or considerably
more than half a mile. The weight in each carrier
is 462 lb., or one-fifth of a ton.
Several pianos and other heavy articles have
been successfully carried over at this great alti-
tude, but the chief traffic consists of coffee, none
of which reaches England, but is consumed
in New York. I was showing some friends
the photographs, when a young lady asked me
ROPE LINE 65
what was the object of the Hne. I repUed that it
was to deUver coffee. Said she, quite innocently,
" It must be very cold before it reaches its
destination ! "
The line is now complete. It is intended
eventually to utilise the water-power of the
mountains to drive all the machinery and to
conduct the traffic.
The rope line was constructed with much skill
and success by Mr. Lindsey, the General Manager
of the line — and formerly the manager for the
Contractors, Ropeways Limited — under the advice
of my former partner Mr. Ralph Freeman.
CHAPTER VII
THE SIMPLON TUNNEL (1894-I905)
The route over the Alps, by way of the Simplon
Pass, has existed in one form or other since time
immemorial ; and although originally it was but
a footpath, yet there are remains of Roman cul-
verts and bridges. In March 1801, soon after
the battle of Marengo, the present roadway was
begun by order of Napoleon, and it was finished
in September 1805. The length of the highway
is 37 J miles ; 611 bridges and culverts had to
be built, and seven galleries driven for protection
from avalanches, or through rock.
Between the years 1852 and 1893 no fewer than
thirty different proposals for traversing the
Simplon by railway were put forward. Of these,
two were for scaling the mountains without sub-
terranean work : the remaining twenty-eight were
for tunnels of various altitudes and lengths. In
1891 the Jura-Simplon Railway Company brought
forward their first project, and subsequently, in
1893, the one actually adopted — namely, a low-
level tunnel with easy gradients. This was indeed
the only rational method ; in no other way could
the Company hope to compete with other Alpine
railways, and secure a return upon the heavy
capital outlay.
By adopting the existing level of the railway
66
SIMPLON RANGE
67
at Brigue, all expense of heavy approach lines
and helical tunnels on the Swiss side was avoided.
The railway enters the mountain a few feet above
the level of the Rhone. The greatest depth
reached below the surface is 7,005 ft., beneath
the slopes and crags of Monte Leone, the highest
mountain of the Simplon range (11,684 ft. above
sea level). This is by far the greatest depth to
which man has ever been below the surface of
the earth. After passing under the Lake d' A vino,
the tunnel proceeds to its southern portal at
Iselle. The total distance is 12 miles 537 yards.
This length includes two short curves, one at each
end ; but the " gallery of direction," which for
triangulation purposes is driven in a straight line
from end to end, is 21,576 yards long.
The following Table gives the comparative
lengths and altitudes of the Alpine tunnels :
Length of tunnel
Altitude of the
highest point
above the sea
Maximum gradient
in the tunnel
14,052 yds.
4,245 ft.
I in 45
St. Gothard.
16,387 yds.
3,786 ft.
I in 172
Arlberg.
11,199 yds.
4,299 ft.
I in 66
Simplon.
21,657 yds.
2,313 ft.
I in 143
Not only is the Simplon the longest tunnel in
the world, but it is also the lowest in altitude of
these four.
The position of the entrance on the south side
was determined by two factors — namely, the
climate, and the extreme narrowness of the
Diver ia valley. It was well known that sleighs
68
THE SIMPLON TUNNEL
could reach Iselle every winter, since the depth
of snow up to that point was never formidable,
and that a short distance higher up the valley-
becomes impassable in winter, but it was possible
to arrange there the various buildings and in-
stallations necessary at the end of the tunnel.
The position of the portals having been thus
fixed, the gradients also were practically settled.
It was obvious, from the experience of engineers
in previous tunnels, that the gallery must be
-h-
REATSIDE PRESSURE,
TUNNEL N0.1 GALLERY No.2
SINCE ENLARGED TO TUNNEL NO.S
Fig. 4.— sections OF TUNNEL No. i AND GALLERY No. 2.
driven on an ascending incline from both ends,
so that the water might flow away by gravitation.
In the Mersey tunnel a minimum gradient of
I in 500 was found to give the water a sufficient
flow. In 1893 the same gradient of i in 500 was
adopted for the northern half of the Simplon
tunnel ; a gradient of i in 143 for the southern
half of necessity followed.
Instead of one tunnel for a double line of way,
as in the St. Gotthard and Mont Cenis, provision
was made for two single-line tunnels (Figs. 4 and 5)
CROSS SECTIONS OF TUNNEL 69
55-8 ft. apart (between centre lines), connected by
oblique cross passages at every 21 8' 7 yards. It
was arranged that one tunnel only should be built
at first, with a parallel gallery ; this gallery has
since been enlarged into the second tunnel.
Fig. 5.— cross SECTION SHOWING STAGES IN CONSTRUCTION OF TUNNEL
AT 4,400 KM., OR 2 MILES 1,292 YARDS.
a. Advance gallery with Steel Beams and concrete.
b. Timbering for excavation for Invert.
c. Permanent Invert.
d. Permanent Side Wall.
e. Temporary Wall for supporting Temporary Arch.
/. Temporary Arch.
g. Timbering for permanent Arch.
h. Permanent Granite Arch 5 ft. 6 in. in thickness.
The importance of providing two single-line
tunnels cannot be over-estimated. Thus when-
ever repairs have to be executed in the arching of
the work without stopping the traffic, they can
be far more easily effected if there are two, than
6
70 THE SIMPLON TUNNEL
in one tunnel carrying the two lines. Trains can
be diverted for the time being, and the timbering
for the repairs does not have to be so arranged
as to allow traffic to pass. Again, if a train is
derailed, passing vehicles are not exposed to the
danger of collision. Or again, if the lining of the
tunnel is subjected to great pressure, this is far
less in a single-line than in a double-line tunnel.
How important a consideration this is, has been
proved by actual and very anxious experience.
Ventilation is moreover greatly simplified by the
existence of two tunnels.
And these are also lined throughout with
masonry, to avoid the risk of a fall of rock on to
the line during traffic. Great thicknesses of
lining were found to be necessary in places.
At 2 miles 1,292 yards from Iselle the granite
blocks, of which the lining consists, are as much as
four and a half feet thick.
Doubts having been cast by certain engineers
upon the possibility of constructing the tunnel,
the Swiss Confederation requested the Govern-
ments of Italy, Austria, and England each to
nominate an engineer having experience of tun-
nelling, to form a " commission of experts " to
examine the programme and proposals, and the
plans and estimates, and to report to the President
of the Swiss Confederation. The Government of
Italy nominated the Hon. Giuseppe Colombo,
Member of the Senate, and afterwards Minister
of the Treasury ; Austria appointed Herr C. J.
Wagner, Chief Government Inspector of Railways
in Vienna, and the celebrated engineer of the
PLAN OF TUNNEL
71
ADVANOED GALLERIES N?« I & 2, WITH TRANSVERSE GALLERY
Fin: 6.
TUNNEL N9 I
tumh«l' oraiw
^^io/l'-JVft>^fr-« 2/iajLny To lynjla
OAl-LERY W • 2
Fig. 6.— completed TUNNEL No. 1 WITH PARALLEL GALLERY No. 2 AND
TRANSVERSE GALLERY.
Arlberg tunnel ; the British representation was
myself. The commission sat at Berne for some
72 THE SIMPLON TUNNEL
time considering the plans and estimates,
examining the proposed systems of driUing and
ventilation, and generally going into every detail ;
after visiting the site of the tunnel and the pro-
posed entrances, we presented our report to the
President and the Swiss Federal Council in July
1894.
Herr Brandt, who unhappily died soon after
the works had been begun, had had a wide experi-
ence on the St. Gotthard tunnel, which enabled
him to devise and introduce many improvements
in the machinery and installations. His place
was taken by Colonel Locher, of Zurich, the cele-
brated engineer who constructed the Pilatus
railway, the most daring piece of work of its day.
Colonel Locher planned and constructed all the
installations at Brigue and Iselle. This was a
work of great importance and magnitude, and was
carried out with a rapidity which has never been
equalled. Indeed the financial and mechanical
skill possessed by that remarkable combination
of men — K. Brandau, Edouard Sulzer, and Col.
Locher — ^was only equalled by their dogged deter-
mination, which absolutely refused to admit defeat
where so many pronounced the difficulties in-
superable. Dr. Sulzer -Zeigler stated in public
that, had the geologists been quite accurate in
their preliminary investigations and reports, and
had they correctly anticipated the dangers and
obstacles which were eventually met with in soft
rock, the " Great Spring," or river of cold water,
the high temperatures and hot springs, and the
" creep " or lifting of the floor, no one would
CARE OF WORKMEN 73
have dared to undertake the contract, and the
tunnel would never have been constructed.
Switzerland is rightly proud of the men who
overcame such difficulties as these. ^
The specification stipulated for excellent ven-
tilation in all working places in the tunnel. A
temperature not exceeding 25° C. (77° F.) was to
be maintained by means of jets of sprayed water.
Further, a good supply of drinking water was to
be available in all working places ; free baths
were to be provided for the workmen ; healthy
lodgings and good food at low prices were to be
placed within their reach. This specification
was in large measure drawn up by the contractors.
Is it an exaggeration to say that the solicitude
and care which they showed for their workmen
have been an object-lesson to the world ?
The rock consists chiefly of gneiss, mica-schist,
and (on the Italian side) antigorio gneiss ; but
in some places, particularly at a point about
273 miles from IseUe, limestone was encountered.
This rock, commonly known as " sugar marble," is
lustrous in appearance, and highly charged with
springs of cold water, at a temperature of 52° to
62-6° F. So long as the Brandt perforators had
good hard rock in front of them, they made
splendid progress ; but when the soft rock was
reached, and timbering had to be used, the rate
^ I should wish my readers to associate with the other names
mentioned in this chapter those of Dr. Pressel, Dr. von Kager,
Dr. Haeussler, Herr Beissner, Herr Colomb, director of the Federal
Railways, and Herr Zollinger, chief engineer of the Company.
It is sad to think that nearly all the leading men concerned in
the tunnel have passed away.
74 THE SIMPLON TUNNEL
of advance naturally fell off, and in some places
excavation by hand had to be adopted. Where
the geological beds were horizontal, great pressure
was encountered and much heavy timbering was
required.
The triangulation was entrusted to Herr Max
Rosenmund, Engineer of the Federal Topo-
graphical Department, and subsequently Professor
of Geodesy at the Federal Polytechnic School of
Zurich. His calculations proved extraordinarily
accurate. The actual difference in the direction
of the tunnels at their meeting was 4| in. The
total length was found to be 31 in. less than Rosen-
mund calculated — almost precisely the expected
error.
Full particulars of the water-supply and chan-
nels, as also of the Brandt drill and method of
working, have been given in a paper published by
the Institution of Civil Engineers by my son, the
late Mr. Charles Beresford Fox, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E.
I shall only describe these very briefly.
The Brandt drill consists of a stretcher-bar
(itself an hydraulic ram) mounted on a portable
carriage, and provided with three hydraulic
engines each actuating a drill. This is 2| in. in
diameter, and can be worked in any direction :
it can be advanced or withdrawn at any desired
speed, and the changing of the tool can be effected
in 10 seconds. The drill is rotatory in its action
and non-percussive, being kept up to its work
with a pressure of 10 tons ; and as the discharge-
water is delivered through the centre of the tool
to the cutting edges, the dust produced is at once
HYGIENIC CONDITIONS 75
turned into mud, and at the same time the steel
is kept cool.
The sad experience of the St. Gotthard tunnel
emphasised the great necessity for ameliorating the
conditions of work. In building the St. Gotthard
tunnel, between 1872 and 1880, no fewer than 800
of the workmen died, including both the con-
tractor and the engineer. This enormous death-
roll was essentially due to defective hygienic
conditions, to the high temperature and small
supply of air in the interior of the galleries, to the
severity of the climate, and to the sudden transi-
tions from heat to cold. Other contributory
causes were the want of proper provision for
changing the men's wet clothes, and the dust
produced by the drilling machines. A special
disease called miner's anaemia, now better known
as " anchylostomiasis," due to the presence of a
small worm, Dochmius duodenalis, in the intes-
tines, was terribly active in the St. Gothard
tunnel works.
In the Simplon tunnel, where the conditions
were naturally favourable to the disease, it was
absolutely unknown. Excellent arrangements
were made for the complete ventilation of the
innermost workings and the most advanced
galleries ; for every cubic foot of air which was
blown into the St. Gotthard tunnel, twenty- five
were supplied to the workmen in the Simplon.
Not only did the ventilating fans keep up a steady
current of air along one gallery and back by the
other, but, by an ingenious system of aspirators,
a large volume of fresh air was blown into the dead
76 THE SIMPLON TUNNEL
ends of the galleries, which were thus kept per-
fectly fresh. The current was strong enough to
blow a man's hat off. In fact, such a thing as
vitiated air was unknown throughout the works,
and would have been regarded as a slur on the
management.
I take this opportunity of urging very strongly
the immense importance, from every point of view,
of supplying every working place in a tunnel with
an ample volume of fresh air. Much more work
is done, the health of all is preserved, and the many
indirect economies result in reduced cost. Not-
withstanding all my efforts, I have never known
the working face of a tube railway, and very
seldom that of an ordinary tunnel, to be properly
ventilated. I must, however, put on record the
excellent ventilation provided in the Greenwich
Footway tunnel and the Blackwall, Rotherhithe,
and other tunnels driven under compressed air,
in which a very large volume was forced in between
the air-locks and the working face.
Next in importance to good ventilation were the
excellent arrangements for enabling men to change
their clothing. At each end of the tunnel, and
connected with it by a covered line of railway,
was a large building fitted with dressing-rooms and
hot and cold douche baths. From the roof of
the building, which was heated by steam pipes,
hung 1,500 ropes passing over pulleys, each with
its padlock. On the other end of each rope was
a hook upon which the owner could hang all his
things, and then, hauling them up to the roof, he
left them there during his absence in the galleries.
THE ITALIAN MINER 77
On his return from work, wet through and fatigued,
a man was not allowed to go direct from the warm
tunnel into the cold Alpine air outside, but he
entered a cubicle where he had his bath, and,
having lowered his day clothes, he attached his
wet mining garments to the hook and hoisted them
to the roof adjacent to the hot pipes, to find them
dry and warm on his return to work next day. If
his clothes were torn or soiled, they were sent to
the laundry on the premises. After changing
from his mining into his day clothes, he passed
into a restaurant, where he could obtain a sub-
stantial hot meal for 4^. and, if he so desired,
board and lodging for is. 2d. per day. Excellent
hospitals were provided at each end of the tunnel,
but these establishments were generally empty.
Good arrangements for " first aid " were also
organised.
In the length of the tunnel, four large rooms
were built for the use of the workmen and their
tools, trollies, etc. These rooms are 13 ft. wide,
10 ft. high, and 20 ft. long. I am strongly of
opinion that every tunnel exceeding a quarter of
a mile in length ought to be constructed with a
room for the men, furnished with a cooking stove
and seats, to enable them to cook their food and
have their meals, protected from the draught and
smoke of the tunnel.
The Italian miner, even when called upon to
work under less favourable conditions than pre-
vailed in the Simplon tunnel, is extraordinarily
resistant, to disease owing to his sobriety, his
simple life, and, above all, the good qualities of
78 THE SIMPLON TUNNEL
his race. The doctors reported how these men
recovered with exceptional rapidity from injuries
and wounds. Moreover every man was medically
examined as to his fitness for the special condi-
tions of his work. The result of this and the other
precautions taken was very satisfactory. The total
number of lives lost in the Simplon tunnel from
all causes was 60. A monument was erected
to the memory of these men in May 1905 at
Iselle.
The discipline among the workmen was of the
highest order. Nearly all of them were Italians,
who had done their military training ; and so
long as they were not interfered with by paid
agitators, there were no strikes, and no malinger-
ing nor shirking. There was, indeed, one strike.
When the men were asked what they were striking
for they said they did not know, and went back
to their work. They worked in three shifts of
eight hours each, and as no man ceased his labour
until his successor actually stepped into his place,
the boring-machines never ceased operations.
Excellent order and neatness characterised the
whole undertaking. Within the boundaries of the
installations at both ends of the tunnel no rubbish
of any sort was allowed to accumulate. Every-
thing was in its place, and men were constantly
employed in sweeping the ground and keeping it
clean and tidy. In this respect the undertaking
compares favourably with many engineering works
elsewhere ; and, indeed, it constitutes, from every
point of view, a fine illustration of an engineering
project efficiently carried out.
ROCK TEMPERATURES 79
Judging from the experience of former Alpine
tunnels, the engineers expected to encounter con-
siderable heat. In the St. Gotthard, the maximum
temperature of the rock was 87° F. ; the tempera-
ture of the air varied between 91° to 94° F. and,
owing to the stagnation of the air, was insup-
portable. In the Simplon, although the tempera-
ture of the rock was 129° to 133° F. that of the
air did not exceed 89° F. This was in no way
unbearable, owing to the large volume of fresh
air travelling along the galleries, and the use of
the spraying devices already mentioned.
In order to obtain the best results in refrigera-
tion, it was necessary that the water should be as
cold as possible, and consequently the pipes had
to be lagged, or covered in, to exclude the heat
of the gallery. The insulation of lo-in. pipes
for a distance of 5 to 6 miles was a difficult problem.
The husk of rice was for a time used as a non-
conducting material, but, owing to stray grains
of rice germinating, it had to be roasted. Then
the customs authorities, finding this worthless
material was being used, charged a high rate upon
it coming from Italy, and it had to be abandoned.
Finally, charcoal was employed with such excel-
lent results, that the pipes delivered the water
to its destination with a rise in temperature of
only 7*2° F.
At the southern or Iselle end, the temperature
of the rock followed approximately the section of
the mountains until a distance of about 2,406 yards
was reached. Then, as the tunnel advanced
(Fig. 7), the rock-temperature began to diminish.
PROGRESS DIAGRAM
8i
At 4,374 yards it began to fall rapidly. At 4,812
yards it attained the lowest reading recorded.
At this point the " Great Spring " was struck,
with a flow of 10,564 gallons per minute ; the fall of
temperature was evidently due to this volume of
25th. January,
30th. May, Tu
1906
Completion of Permanent Way.
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1st. August 1898. Commencement of Works.
22nd. November, 1898. Commencement of Mechanical Boring. 21st. December, 1898.
Progress of Advance Gallery. Completion of Masonry.
Total length of Tunnel 19.803 1 Km. = 12 M. 537 Yds.
Fig. 8.— diagram SHOWING PROGRESS OF ADVANCE GALLERY AND COM-
PLETION OF MASONRY FOR TUNNEL No. i.
By kind permission from the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
cold water. The first outburst of water was at a
very high pressure, estimated at 600 lb. per square
inch. Now, however, it issues at atmospheric
pressure, and has a temperature of about 64° F.
What relation exists between temperature and
depth ? Is there indeed any constant relation ?
Obviously, in any attempt to plot the depth-
82 THE SIMPLON TUNNEL
temperature curve of the earth's surface, the rapid
fall 4,374 yards from the Italian entrance must
be eliminated, on account of the exceptional
agencies at work. Whatever deductions we draw
are influenced by many other disturbing factors,
such as the inclination of the strata, and the
nature of the rock. Let us assume, however, that
at a depth of 33 ft. below the snow-clad summits
of the high Alps a uniform temperature of 32° F.
may be expected throughout the year ; then, in a
total depth of 7,005 ft., we may calculate a tem-
perature-gradient of 1° F. for each 71-5 ft. Prob-
ably the observations between 8 kilometres and 13
kilometres furnish the most trustworthy average ;
and this selection gives a relation between depth
and temperature of 67-5 ft. per degree Fahrenheit.
Fig. 8 shows the rate of progress, both in driving
the galleries and in completing the masonry. It
was anticipated that this latter would be approxi-
mately one kilometre in rear of the advanced head-
ings, and that the piercing of the Alps would be
accomplished about November 1903. Actually
it did not take place till February 24, 1905. It
was hoped that the arching would be finished
about March 1904 ; the actual date was Sep-
tember 1905. The diagram shows that excellent
progress was made in the gallery on the Brigue
side, and that the middle of the tunnel was
reached nearly six months ahead of the pro-
gramme ; but from that point onwards, difficulties
and delays occurred, chiefly due to hot springs,
and to the downward direction of the drive.
On the Iselle side, work progressed well until a
HOT AND COLD SPRINGS
83
point 2734 miles from the mouth of the tunnel
was reached. At that spot suddenly, and without
warning, the " Great Spring " was encountered.
This stopped the advance for about six months.
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Fig. 9,— discharge OF HOT AND COLD SPRINGS.
By kind permission from the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
up to September 1901, by which date the soft
rock had been traversed, and hard granite again
reached. After this good progress was made
until September 1904, when hot springs were
encountered at a point 5-659 miles from the
entrance, with a temperature of 113 7° F. In
84 THE SIMPLON TUNNEL
order to reduce the heat, a pumping installation
was established in the tunnel at 2 734 miles ; and
pipes were laid along the gallery, by which cold
water was forced up the gradient for a distance of
four miles to the hot region. Jets of cold water
were then thrown into the fissures from which hot
water was escaping, and the temperature was thus
lowered to the point that the miners were able to
stand.
Fig. 9 shows by a full line the flow of cold springs
into the workings from September 1901 to Decem-
ber 1905, and, by a dotted line, the inflow of hot
springs. The maximum discharge of cold water
was 17,081 gallons per minute, and the maximum
discharge of hot water 4,330 gallons per minute.
The maximum flows of cold water occur at the
times of melting of the Alpine snows. The volume
of 15,158 gallons per minute in November 1901,
was doubtless due to the first tapping of the
underground reservoirs.
Another difficulty was the rising of the floor
which occurred in several places, even in solid
rock, showing the tremendous pressures at
work. It became necessary to construct masonry
inverts for a very considerable distance, which
caused much delay.
The time occupied in the construction of the
tunnel was 2,392 days. Without allowance for
Sundays, saints' days, and holidays, nor for those
occasions on which work was suspended for veri-
fication of the axis, or by accidents or strikes,
the average daily advance at each face was
13-69 ft., including several months of hard drilling.
IRON DOORS IN HEADING
85
If we allow only for the actual days on which the
boring machines worked, the progress was 17-45
ft. per day at each face, a result never attained on
any other tunnelling work in the world.
In consequence of the delay caused by the diffi-
culties described above, the Swiss headings had
reached their culminating point, 5 miles 1,670
yards from the northern end of the tunnel, before
the Italian headings were ready to meet them.
This point had always been intended to be the
^^S^=^-l?£" or .
from.-.BriQue ^ ^^ ggg
Fig. 10.— changes OF GRADIENT ADOPTED IN DRIVING HEADING FROM
BRIGUE BEYOND SUMMIT-LEVEL.
extreme boundary of the workings from that side.
In order, however, to save time, it was decided to
drive forward as far as possible on a slightly rising
gradient, until the top of the future tunnel was
reached. This was an advance of 445 yards, to
a point 6 miles 350'4 yards from the northern
entrance, and was completed on October 10, 1903
(Fig. 10).
Strong iron doors were fixed in both headings,
6 miles 517 yards, which could be closed in case of
necessity, so as to hold back the water from the
hot springs. A very hot spring of 528 gallons per
7
86 THE SIMPLON TUNNEL
minute, encountered on May i8, 1904, combined
with an accident to the water-conduits outside the
tunnel at Morel, compelled the miners to retire,
and all progress in the advancement of the gallery
was arrested. Once more it was prophesied, by
those who had failed to realise the determination
of the men who had the work in hand, that the
tunnel was now impossible, and could not be com-
pleted. But Herr Sulzer said the word " im-
possible " was not in his dictionary, and that the
tunnel must be put through.
Just before this cessation of work occurred, the
engineers on the Brigue side, who were verifying
the axis on a Sunday morning when perfect silence
reigned in the solitude of the tunnel, heard the
drilling machines at work on the Italian side when
there still remained 1,094 yards to be perforated.
All hopes were now centred on the Italian advance;
but although the miners had the great advantage
of an ascending gradient of 7 per 1,000 (i in 143)
to free them from water by gravitation, the tem-
perature and the hot springs became well-nigh
unbearable.
On February 12, 1905, the diaphragm remaining
to be pierced was 5975 yards in thickness ; and
on the evening of February 23 this had been
reduced to 5 yards, an advance of nearly 55 yards
in II days. A spring of water of 330 gallons per
minute and a temperature of 112 ° F. were then
encountered on the floor of Gallery No. i from
Iselle. At the same time a signal came from
Brigue to the effect that the gauge on the iron
door indicated a reduced pressure on the part of
THANKSGIVING SERVICE IN TUNNEL 87
the imprisoned water ; and arrangements were
at once made to allow the escape of the coming
flood by Gallery No. 2.
On February 24, at 6 o'clock in the morning,
the incoming shift of men, with the officials who
intended to assist at the final " holing through,"
were unfortunately delayed by their train being
derailed. This was announced by telephone to
the men at work at the face, who at once expressed
their willingness to continue their labours. At
7.20 a.m. the final charges were exploded in the roof
of the gallery, 9,385 metres from the southern
portal, producing an aperture of 8-53 ft. in length
and 2-62 ft. in width, Mr. Bacilieri being the only
official and engineer actually present. Immedi-
ately a large volume of hot water ran out, which
took half an hour to escape. The engine pumping
in cold water broke down, and all the men had to
leave the tunnel, but two of the officials were
killed. This meeting of the headings proved the
extreme accuracy with which the works had been
executed, but it lacked the fervour and delight
usual on such occasions : it was a meeting of
miners on one side and hot water on the other.
The last 245 metres of the gallery had taken
nearly six months in execution, owing to the
unprecedented difficulties encountered.
Up to the date of the meeting of the galleries,
the amount of material excavated was 1,229,500
cubic yards. The total quantity of dynamite used
was 1,496 tons, all of which had to be carried from
the dynamite-trains up to the working faces on
men's backs, with innumerable precautions.
88 THE SIMPLON TUNNEL
In the year 1905 a most impressive thanks-
giving service was held in the middle of the tunnel
six miles from each entrance.
Tremendous though the difficulties had been,
the great barrier between Italy and Switzerland
was successfully pierced : and a new highway
between the nations had been created. All this
had been accomplished with a comparatively
slight loss of life.
It was right and fitting that the men who carried
out this colossal work, and representatives of the
nations concerned, should acknowledge in this way
their indebtedness to Almighty God, without
whose blessing all the skill and labour would have
been in vain.
On Sunday, April 2, the partners of the con-
tractors' firm, the engineers and officials, and
their friends assembled at Brigue Station were
conveyed to the middle of the tunnel to the iron
door which had done such important service. At
the same time those from Iselle arrived at the
other side of the door. At the right moment this
door was opened by Col. Locher of Zurich, and he
was met and embraced amidst the greatest en-
thusiasm by Dr. Edouard Sulzer and Herr
Brandau, the other partners. After these came
the Bishop of Sion from Switzerland and the
Bishop of Novara from Italy, who also affection-
ately embraced. Their example was followed
by the two bodies of officials and visitors. In the
widened portion of the tunnel a dais had been
erected, and this ever-to-be-remembered service
of thanksgiving was held.
OPENING OF TUNNEL 89
The first train passed through on January 25,
1906, and on May 19 the King of Italy traversed
the tunnel in a special train, meeting the Presi-
dent of the Swiss Republic at Brigue. The Presi-
dent returned the compliment by travelling with
the King to Domo d'Ossola. The King of England
sent a telegram of hearty congratulation.
On May 30 three long passenger trains, con-
taining 850 guests, including the Swiss President,
M. Forrer, and his Ministers, made the passage of
the tunnel, having been received at all the stations
along the route with great rejoicings. On the
platform at Brigue there was an old Simplon Pass
diligence and two snow-sleighs for luggage, with
a large placard over them bearing the inscription
" Morituri te salutant I "
The final measurements of the tunnel, showing
the extraordinary accuracy attained by Professor
Rosenmund at the completion of this great work,
must not be omitted.
The divergence of the centre lines from Brigue
to Iselle, 12 J miles, was 3f inches ; the difference
in levels was 3J inches ; and the total length was
found to be 31 inches, less than anticipated.
CHAPTER VIII
SOUTH AFRICA : THE BULUWAYO RAILWAY ;
BRIDGING THE VICTORIA FALLS (1895-1905)
It was my father, Sir Charles Fox, who, as Con-
sulting Engineer to the Government of Cape
Colony from 1864 to 1867, designed and carried
out the first railway in that part of the Empire,
from Cape Town to Wellington, with a branch
(opened in 1890) to Wynberg on the other side
of Table Mountain. And it was in connection
with this railway that the father of the late Mr.
George Pauling went out originally to South
Africa. This name is well known and respected
by the natives throughout Rhodesia for the
kindly way in which they are treated by that
firm and its representatives, amongst whom I
may mention Mr. Buchan, Mr. Lawley, and the
Resident Engineer, Mr. Roy. One great attrac-
tion for the natives is that cold-storage wagons
loaded with fresh meat are run up to the rail-
head for feeding the workmen. The excellence
of these arrangements, and the great energy with
which the work is carried out, were the import-
ant factors in the successful construction of the
railway to Buluwayo and be3^ond.
Another name which must stand at the head
of the history of the South African railways is that
of Sir Charles Metcalfe, Bart. — an intimate friend
90
CAPE TO CAIRO RAILWAY 91
of Cecil Rhodes in their undergraduate days at
Oxford. My brother Douglas and I were associ-
ated with Sir Charles for many happy and success-
ful years in the development of railways both in
England and in Africa. Sir Charles Metcalfe
possesses, to a remarkable degree, an intuitive
knowledge of the course which any projected
railway should take.
He walks over the route, even when it extends
to hundreds of miles, and lays down on a map the
direction the railway should take. This is then
carefully adjusted by level and theodolite, and
the result is found to agree most remarkably with
the route which he selected.
In the year 1897 orders were given for the con-
struction of a railway from Vryburg to Kimberley,
and from Bechuanaland to Buluwayo, the
Directors of the Company being Mr. Rhodes, Mr.
Beit, Mr. Maguire, and Mr. Shiels. The gauge
was fixed at 3 ft. 6 in. so as eventually to join
with the Egyptian railways of the same width,
and thus be prepared for through traffic from
Cape to Cairo.i
The types of Englishmen, Scotsmen, and Irish-
men we met with in Rhodesia could hardly be
excelled in any part of the world : fine, manly,
kind-hearted, well-educated men, evidently deter-
mined not only to uphold the Imperial flag, but
to be an honour and a credit to the old country.
^ It is a subject for real regret that the gauge for the Uganda
railway was fixed by the Indian Government, under whose control
it was constructed, at one metre, or 3 ft. 3f in. This mistake
will eventually have to be rectified at very great cost.
92 THE BULUWAYO RAILWAY
The difficulty of getting supplies into the
country was great, owing to the ravages of rinder-
pest amongst the cattle and horses, which were
threatening the existence both of British settlers
and natives. Hundreds of wagons on their way
up country had to be abandoned, with their
contents, in consequence of the oxen having died.
Then came war and famine, bringing in their
train terrible trials and hardships. It was a
matter of surprise to all of us how the British
community in Rhodesia ever lived to tell the tale.
But Rhodes, with his wonderful foresight and
indefatigable energy, determined to get the rail-
way through at the earliest moment to save
the situation. His resolve, manfully aided by
engineers and contractors, resulted in the con-
struction and opening to traffic of 500 miles of
railway in 400 working days. This was a feat of
which all could be proud. On one day alone, eight
miles of rails were laid. Pluck, patience, and
perseverance had conquered.
On November 4, 1897, four heavy special trains
of the Rhodesia Railway Company, consisting of
sleeping- and dining-cars, carrying 800 guests
from all parts of the empire, arrived in Buluwayo
from Cape Town, a distance of 1,360 miles, and
the railway was formally opened by His Excel-
lency the High Commissioner, Sir Alfred Milner,
G.C.B., now Lord Milner.
A thing not to be forgotten on this occasion
was the voluntary self-effacement of Rhodes, un-
willing as he was to introduce any possible element
of discord owing to events which had occurred
CECIL RHODES 93
not long before. It was characteristic of the man
so to sink himself in his work. He built for the
future, rather than for present glory or comfort.
A fine saying of his comes to my mind. He had
been planting an avenue of oak saplings on his
estate at Buluwayo, and a friend remarked to him
that no one living would see the trees full grown.
Rhodes quietly replied, " I can see the people
now, walking up and down under their shade."
In the course of time the railway was extended
not only to Salisbury and Beira on the east coast,
but to the Wankie Coal-mines, and to the Victoria
Falls to the north-west. Thence it was continued
to Barotseland and the Great Katanga copper
deposits on the north-west, forming a junction
with the Belgian railway in the Congo.
From the fine harbour of Lobito on the west
coast the railway, under the guidance of the inde-
fatigable and long-visioned Mr, Robert Williams,
has since been built for some 400 miles in the
Province of Angola, and is about to be pushed
forward a further 450 miles to the Congo border,
where a junction will be made with the Belgian
line. There will then be a through route from
Lobito and Benguella, to the Cape and Cairo
railway, connecting with Johannesburg and
Durban, as well as Cape Town.
An extraordinary disaster befell the surveys of
one of the South African railways. As each
length of the plan and section for a distance of
40 miles was completed by the engineers on the
spot, it was sent by registered post to London.
All the drawings duly arrived with the exception
94 BRIDGING THE VICTORIA FALLS
of those of the final 40 miles. To save time the
plans of this last section were brought to London
by one of the chief engineers in charge of the
survey. Arriving in London one evening, after
months of tinned food, he not unnaturally turned
his thoughts to a good dinner, and went to the
Holborn Restaurant, telling his cabman to wait
outside. After his dinner he fell asleep, and on
awaking went out to find his cab. To his dismay he
found that the man had driven off ! The police were
informed, and every effort was made to find him
and the plans, but not a trace was ever discovered
of either. The result was that another expedition
had to be sent out to resurvey and make fresh
plans and sections. The work occupied several
months, and involved a further outlay of £4,000, a
fairly heavy penalty to pay for an after-dinner nap.
On April 25, 1904, the railway reached the
Zambesi River and its wonderful Victoria Falls.
Some months earlier Sir Charles Metcalfe had
fixed the point of crossing, where the bridge now
stands. This was erected by the Cleveland Bridge
Company of Darlington, whose representation
was Mr. Imbault. The bridge consists of a hand-
some steel arch in one clear span of 500 ft., with an
adjacent span on each side. The height is 400 ft.
above the river, and as it would have been impossi-
ble to erect scaffolding, the work was carried out
by means of two great cantilevers. A photograph
(p. loi) is given showing operations in progress.
The first thing to be done, about October 1903,
was to connect the two cliffs by some means of
transport. A rocket, to which a fine string was
COMMUNICATION ACROSS GORGE 95
attached, was fired across the gorge and after
three attempts the string reached the other side.
This string enabled a cord to be pulled across,
then a wire, and finally a f-in. steel cable, carried
on supports and strained tight. Then by means
of a " bo's'n's chair " one person at a time was
able to travel from side to side.
The small cable enabled a much stouter steel
rope to be fixed in position to carry the electrical
" Blondin." This was capable of conveying a
load of 10 tons, and as the bridge had been so
designed as to have no member of greater weight,
the construction of the arch could proceed from
both sides of the gorge simultaneously, until the
two ends of the cantilevers were within 10 ft. of
each other. The gap was to be filled in with special
girders, but when it was attempted to drop these
into place, they were found to be six inches too
long, and would not fit. Needless to say the
members of the staff were much disappointed, and
they retired to bed that Friday night in consider-
able anxiety. The day had been one of un-
broken tropical sunshine, and this had elongated,
by expansion of the steelwork, the two halves of the
cantilevers. But providentially, during the night,
the wind changed and blew the spray of the Falls
on to the work ; and by cooling down, and thus
shortening the two halves of the arch, the closing
length in the centre was able to be dropped and
bolted into its place at 7 a.m. on Saturday morning
April I, 1905, and the bridge was completed :
thanks are due to the Cleveland Bridge Company,
Mr. G. A. Hobson, Mr. Im Thurn, and others.
96 BRIDGING THE VICTORIA FALLS
A telegram was at once dispatched from Rho-
desia to Sir Douglas, in Westminster, saying
" Bridge complete," which he duly received on
the same Saturday morning at lo a.m. He re-
telegraphed it to me in Switzerland, and I received
it at 12 noon on the same day, just as I was starting
from Vevey in a long special train filled with
guests on their way to the Simplon Tunnel, to be
present at the connection of the two advance
galleries between Switzerland and Italy. These
two events, the joining of the great bridge girders
in Rhodesia, and the connecting of the tunnel
galleries between Italy and Switzerland, had
occurred almost simultaneously.
My son, Charles Beresford Fox, was on the
engineering staff employed in the erection of the
bridge over the River Zambesi, and he it was who
crossed for the first time in the bo's'n's chair.
During the erection of the bridge he met with a
very serious and unusual accident which all but
cost him his life. He had found it necessary to
climb down to a point on the water's edge which
hitherto had never been reached, in order to take
certain measurements and photographs. He had
descended without serious difficulty, but owing to
the overhanging of the cliff he found it impossible
to get back without a rope ; therefore one was
accordingly thrown down to him, and twenty
Cape " boys " hung on to it, as he climbed upward
hand over hand to within 6 ft. of the top. But
the rope had been wetted by the spray, and the
men holding it had allowed it to slip imperceptibly
little by little through their hands, and it had
ACCIDENT TO BERESFORD FOX 97
passed through a large greasy fungus, and my son,
after long climbing, grasped this slippery rope in
all ignorance. Immediately his grip was gone :
he fell head over heels down the face of the preci-
pice a distance of over a hundred feet, and gave
himself up for lost, as the sun had set and it was
dark. But providentially he was caught in the
boughs of a small fig tree, the only tree on the face
of the cliff. The Cape boys, so soon as they felt
that his weight was not on the rope, bolted to
their camp two miles distant, alleging that the
presiding spirit of the Falls had taken him for
venturing to cross. The only Englishman pre-
sent, a Mr. Whitten, went after them, and brought
them back, made them lower him down the face
of the cliff three times before he could find my son ;
and it was six hours before they landed him at the
top. Beresford was seriously injured in arms,
legs, and back, but his life was saved, and in a
letter to me he said he attributed his escape to
the direct intervention of God, as nothing else
could have saved him.
I tried for sixteen years to find Whitten, the
man who had rescued him, and only heard of him,
at last, by a curious chance. Next door to my
house, Alyn Bank, lived the late Mr. Lockwood,
the well-known publisher. His son Captain
Lockwood was in Rhodesia in 1919 on Govern-
ment business, and had to cycle across the
veld to Victoria Falls, a distance of 300 miles.
Hospitality had to be offered to travellers by the
British colonists in this very sparsely populated
district, and one night an English blacksmith
98 BRIDGING THE VICTORIA FALLS
gave Captain Lockwood shelter and a welcome.
In a letter to his father Captain Lockwood said
that he observed on his host's table a very hand-
some presentation clock, and asking for its history,
Whitten said that it was given him for pulling a
man out of the Victoria Falls gorge during the con-
struction of the bridge. Captain Lockwood adds :
" I immediately remembered Sir Francis Fox's
story of how his son had fallen down and been
pulled out, and of course this was the same man."
At last I was enabled to write to Mr. Whitten,
and thank him for saving my son's life ; to which
he replied, April 4, 1920 :
" As to what I did at the Falls for your son, it
is, or was, only what any Englishman would have
done under the circumstances, and I thank you
for your kind reminder."
The accident occurred January 11, 1904.
A high steel viaduct at Vanstaden near Port
Elizabeth in Cape Colony, the design and con-
struction of which we engineered, illustrates the
most rapid and the easiest method for crossing
deep ravines. It is 270 ft. in height, the gauge of
the railway being 3 ft. 6 in., and it was completed
in 1905.
Our firm, in conjunction with Sir Charles Met-
calfe, also engineered the railway from Blantyre
in Nyassaland, to Chinde and Port Herald. This
has now been extended 165 miles south to the Zam-
besi, connecting up with the Port of Beira, and the
Rhodesian Railway system. It forms a very im-
portant line of communication not only with South
Africa, but also between the east and west coasts.
CHAPTER IX
CANADIAN RAILWAYS
Canada is a delightful country and embraces
every description of scenery. Vast plains, high
and snow-capped mountains, lakes and rivers,
intense cold in winter, great heat in summer :
all these features have to be considered, and dealt
with by the thoughtful engineer.
Locomotives must be capable of resisting the
lowest, as well as the highest temperature ; and
suitable and comfortable protection must be
given to the driver and fireman against extreme
heat and extreme cold. I have seen the pilot
engine, one of the heaviest engines built, fitted
with a " cow-catcher " or snow-plough in front,
running a few miles in advance of the mail and
sleeping-car train, in order to clear the rails, on
a pitch-dark night in an intense blizzard. When
this engine runs into Sherbrooke Station, between
Montreal and New York, the snow is frequently
piled up on the top of the boiler, and a mass of heavy
icicles hangs all the way along it from the footplate
and engine frame, and even the ashpan under the
furnace is blocked with solid ice to such an extent
as to stop the draught. The fireman has to crawl
under the locomotive, to cut out with hammer
and chisel the blocks of ice which have formed,
before the engine can proceed on its journey.
In Canadian engines the steam and oil pipes
99
100 CANADIAN RAILWAYS
have to be placed inside other pipes of larger dia-
meter, the annular space between them being kept
warm by a continual flow of steam from the boiler.
During the winter the road bed is frozen so
completely, that the necessary packing and lifting
of the rails by the platelayers cannot be done in
the ordinary manner. Thin hardwood wedges
known as " shims " are therefore driven in,
between the rail and sleepers, in order to keep a
smooth surface on the rails. The Toronto Grey and
Bruce, and the Toronto and Nipissing Railways,
some 400 miles in length, both of which now form
part of the Main Trunk lines in Ontario, and for
which Sir Douglas Fox gave important evidence
in the Parliament House at Ottawa, were con-
structed under the supervision of our firm, with
Mr. Edmund Wragge, of Toronto, our able repre-
sentative in Canada, in charge of the Works.
At that time these lines ran through virgin forest,
and had to be protected against both prairie and
forest fires. This was done by clearing the ground
of all timber and undergrowth for a width of 100 ft.
on each side, so that trees falling or blown down
would not obstruct the railway. Even so on
one of my visits, when the forest on both sides of
the line was on fire and in full blaze, we had to run
the locomotive with our heads enveloped in our
coats, through the sparks, hot air, and even flames.
In spite of all our precautions the railway for
a considerable distance was destroyed. On this
particular section the line crossed a morass which
in winter was a swamp, but in summer a dried up
and inflammable deposit of peat. The great fire
QUEBEC CENTRAL RAILWAY TO THE PORT OF GASPE.
A long bridge being erected across a wide river. The piers were constructed during the
summer; and during the winter the scaflfolding was built on the surface of the ice for
the erection of the steelwork.
'["Ill- \|i loKIX ! \! — ':lvl|)(,|- ()\'I.R THE RIVER ZAMBESI IX COI'K:-!. I'l-
CONSTRUCTION.
The span of the great arch 500 ft., height above the river 400 ft. . the bridge was constructed
by the cantilever system, from the two sides. A large net was suspended to give confidence
to the workmen.
[lOI
FOREST FIRES loi
being fanned by a gale of wind, the flames crept
along the surface of the clearing and reached the
embankment, which was 12 ft. in height and of
peat, of which material the embankments were
necessarily made. It was soon alight, the sleepers
burnt, and the rails almost calcined. Under the
action of the intense heat, the latter had become
quite white, and were twisted and contorted into
all manner of shapes, looking like tangled cotton
in the debris.
This particular fire had swept on for 70 miles,
engulfing settlers with their families and live
stock in the flames.
We were at one time instructed to make a rapid
survey of a projected railway in Labrador, 500
miles in length, to reach an open port on
Baffin's Bay. This would have been an interesting
enterprise, but we had to report that it was at
that date premature.
A photograph is given of another railway
we engineered in the province of Quebec.
This will serve to show how works are carried
out in a severe Canadian winter. Everything
had to be done with the greatest possible speed.
The temporary trestle work for the con-
struction of the steel bridge was erected on
the frozen surface of a wide river. The actual
foundations had already been put in during the
previous summer.
CHAPTER X
SOME NOTES ON HEAVY EARTHWORK, AND THE
PANAMA CANAL
During a career of over sixty- three years as
railway engineer, it has been my lot to have to
deal with cuttings of great depth and embank-
ments of great height, and it may be desirable
to place on record the experience gained by such
work.
The highest railway embankment which I have
had to construct was exactly lOO ft. from the level
of the stream passing beneath the embankment,
up to the level of the rails.
The deepest cutting which I have had to deal
with was one of 80 ft. in very slippery clay of the
Blue Lias. The length of this cutting was just
over one mile, and the precautionary methods
which were adopted, prevented the occurrence of
even the smallest slip.
The angle of repose of clay or sand is often the
cause of trouble, for the simple reason that this
angle varies almost from day to day according
to the different conditions of weather, or drainage,
or vibration. In addition to the " friction "
between the particles of the material there is
also the element of what has been well and popu-
larly called " stiction." In more scientific lan-
guage, these two elements of static and dynamic
EARTHWORK SLOPES 103
friction, or " friction of rest," and " friction of
motion," should be utilised to the full, and every
possible effort should be made to prevent any
initial movement taking place. Should such
movement occur, then the value of " stiction " is
at once lost, and trouble is sure to follow immedi-
ately in the flattening out of the angle of repose.
There is a certain cutting in the neighbourhood
of London in which the slopes were at the outset
left at too steep an angle, with the result that
movement began and continued for over fifty
years, until at last all semblance to a cutting had
gone. Instead of being what is known as 2 to i
(that is, for each two feet horizontal the slope
rises one foot) the two sides of the cutting have
attained a slope of 12 to i, and to-day have the
appearance of almost level pasture fields.
It is an axiom accepted by engineers of experi-
ence in earthwork, that the first thing to be done
is to secure good drainage ; when the work is
half done, again to drain ; and at the finish the
last operation is to drain. In other words, every
possible precaution should be taken to prevent
water getting into the slopes.
After the question of drainage, the two most
important points requiring attention are :
(i) The avoidance and prevention of even the
smallest inclination to slip, and
(2) The prevention of " creep " — i.e. the rising
of the bottom of a cutting due to pressure from
below.
In the case of the eighty-foot cutting referred
to, we were aware that in the years 1832 to 1837
104 SOME NOTES ON HEAVY EARTHWORK
the cuttings on an adjacent main-line railway
running through exactly the same geological
formation had been made with original slopes of
I J to I. There had been no such work in the
neighbourhood before, so that the engineers of
that date had no previous experience to guide
them. The slope they allowed proved to be too
steep, with the result that every cutting and every
embankment on that railway has, since that
date, slipped to a very serious extent. Thanks,
Fig. II.
AB = The centre line of cutting.
AD = The original surface of the ground.
CD = The surface of the slope to be attained.
EF = Bottom of First Cut of " Shovel " showing radius of digger. The curved lines
represent the sweep of the digger.
however, to the experience thus obtained, we
decided that nothing steeper than 3 to i was to be
permitted on the new cutting and the necessary
width of land was consequently acquired.
This very important point having been decided,
the next question was the method to be adopted
for carrying out the excavation (see Fig. ii).
The work would be done with steam shovels
or diggers with a depth of cut of about 14 to 15 ft.,
the whole width of the cutting to be removed
before starting on the second lift.
SECTION OF CUTTING 105
The triangle GFD was removed by hand and
then taken away by the " digger " or " steam
navvy," care being taken not to encroach upon the
future slope CD.
Meanwhile a deep intercepting drain H was
made for the purpose of catching any water
which might by possibility get down the slope,
and at the same time the slope FD was carefully
trimmed to prevent the lodgment of any little
pool or puddle. It was then soiled and sown with
grass.
When the first lift was finished the second one
KL was taken in hand and treated in a similar
manner, and the same method was continued to
the bottom of the cutting, where drains of ample
capacity were provided to keep the earth below
the railway always dry.
In consequence of all these precautions, no slip
of any kind occurred. Moreover the removal of
the great mass of material enclosed in the triangle
ABD had so lightened the pressure on the subsoil
below, CD, that there was no tendency to pro-
duce " creep " or the lifting of the bottom. It
was, however, necessary to provide heavy and
substantial brick bridges to carry public roads
io6
THE PANAMA CANAL
across the cutting. These bridges (Fig. 12) were
70 to 80 ft. in height and between 30 and 40 ft.
in width between the parapets, and as the load on
the foundations was considerable it was deemed
desirable to build inverted arches of masonry or
concrete under the three highest spans so as to
render " creep " impossible. As a result, both
creep and " slip " were entirely avoided.
Fig. 13 explains the method of constructing the
hundred-foot embankment.
STONE CULVERT
10 FEET DIAMETER IN SOLID UROUNO
Fig. 13.
AB is the original surface on which the embank-
ment had to stand : this was well drained by means
of deep open rubble channels, practically forming
watercourses, in addition to a culvert 10 ft. in
diameter under the greatest depth of bank, and
built in the solid ground. The bank was divided
into three heights ; the bottom third was tipped
to a slope on both sides of 3 to i, the centre being
kept high at D, in order to give a rounded surface
for drainage to the sides and prevent the lodgment
of water in the middle of the embankment. The
next one-third up to FGH was made with slopes
of 2 to I, the surface FGH being again well
rounded. The highest one-third up to the top
TREACHEROUS SLIPS 107
was tipped to slopes of i to i ; it was made with
excellent dry material of furnace ashes, or burnt
shale, which was available near at hand. The
surface JK was again so formed as to throw off
any water to the sides. The slopes were then
soiled and sown with grass.
At another place a most unexpected difficulty
was encountered. A fine viaduct built of sub-
stantial brick in cement, some 80 ft. in height,
32 ft. in width at rail level, and nearly a quarter
of a mile in length, had just been completed. Its
foundations had been carried down to a consider-
able depth in hard Blue Lias Clay, and as a pre-
caution, a boring was put down to a further
30 to 40 ft. which proved the similarity and con-
tinuance of the same good solid clay, good enough,
as the inspector reported, "to carry a cathedral."
Within a month of its completion the whole hill-
side above the railway began to move and slip
down, carrying with it the viaduct. Immediate
steps had to be taken to stop the movement,
although the cause was entirely unknown.
Large excavations 30 ft. square were quickly
sunk, on the lower side of the viaduct. These
revealed a thin smooth bed in the clay some
20 ft. below the surface, and of no greater thickness
than a sheet of writing paper. This slippery bed
was of a bright metallic lustre, like a metal dish-
cover, and had no doubt become polished by the
great weight and heat produced by the friction
of the moving mass.
The excavations were quickly taken down some
distance below the unstable bed and were filled
io8 THE PANAMA CANAL
in with quick-setting cement concrete. They
acted like large " dowels " pinning the moving
mass to the strata below, and the motion was
satisfactorily arrested.
The cuttings in the Panama Canal have
been on a far larger scale than the operation
I have just described. But the same principles
hold good of the larger as of the smaller earth-
works. I have not had the good fortune to visit
the Canal, but from information and photographs
so kindly supplied to me,^ and from descriptions
I have received from several friends who have
been there, I am able to realise, almost too vividly,
the well-nigh insuperable difficulties with which
the engineer-in-chief had to contend. These diffi-
culties were, I should believe, a legacy he has
taken over from the original Company, who, in
their anxiety to get a communication through at
the earliest possible moment, drove a narrow and
deep pilot heading through the hill and started
these slips, failing at the same time to provide
efficient drainage.
The slopes throughout the Culebra cutting are
far too steep, and have resulted both in disastrous
movements of the material in the form of slips,
and also in " creep," which has lifted the bed of
the Canal. This threatens to continue until the
superincumbent mass for a width of some thou-
sands of yards on the sides of the channel shall
have been removed and equilibrium restored.
1 I desire to take this opportunity of tendering my thanks to
Major -General Goethals, U.S. Army, the Governor and engineer
of the Panama Canal, for his kindness and courtesy in furnishing
me with his reports upon, and photographs of, this great work.
PANAMA CULEBRA CUTTING 109
It has been asserted that if the Canal had been
constructed at the low level, without locks, these
difficulties would never have arisen. This is
quite untrue. The cutting would have been 80 ft.
deeper, the width would have been correspond-
ingly greater and the load upon the strata larger.
Nor did the hope, which was expressed by many,
that so soon as water was admitted to the Canal,
its weight would keep the bottom down, rest on
a better foundation. Forty feet of water would
not restore equilibrium where 350 ft. of earthwork
had been removed.
Efficient drainage of the side slopes, now that
they are so thoroughly broken up, is impossible
unless a fresh start were made far away from the
canal. In such a wet climate as Panama, drainage
is rendered most difficult, but I venture to think
that excavation by " hydraulicing " is most
undesirable as it cannot fail to saturate and loosen
the ground for considerable depths below the
surface.
Had the excavations from the beginning been
carried out on the principles I have described ;
had proper slopes been provided, and efficient
drainage installed, the difficulties, and probably
the cost, and certainly the disappointment would
have been far less.
CHAPTER XI
THE CHANNEL TUNNEL
In this chapter I propose to deal chiefly with
the geographical aspects of the Channel Tunnel,
but I must first say something about the geo-
logical and engineering problems.
Geological considerations come first. Upon
these primarily depend the success or failure of
the undertaking.^ The problem is very different
from that of tunnelling between Great Britain
and Ireland, where the difficulties are, I think,
insurmountable owing to the fact that such a
tunnel would have to be about 600 ft. below the
level of the Irish Sea. For the construction of
the Channel Tunnel the conditions would be much
more favourable. It is an established fact that
England and the Continent at one time formed
continuous land, and that the geological strata
on both sides of the Channel are identical. The
beds, their thickness, the dip, the formation, are
similar in all respects ; and the outcrops of the
various strata have been carefully and correctly
surveyed by several thousand soundings and
borings, made over the entire distance between
England and France.
In bygone geological ages a great river flowed
^ Based on the paper read by the author before the Royal
Geographical Society, April 23, 191 7, and published in their
proceedings The Geographical Journal for August 191 7.
LA GRANDE FOSSE m
along the line of what is now the Channel. On the
Admiralty chart there will be found a very remark-
able ravine north of Guernsey, called the " Hurd
Deep " or " La Grande Fosse." This ravine in
the sea-bed extends for a distance, from east to
west, of about 75 miles with an approximate
width of 3 miles. The depth of the Channel
north and south of " La Grande Fosse " averages
from 34 to 35 fathoms, but the soundings in the
ravine itself rapidly increase until they reach
no fathoms. This ravine is nothing less than the
remains of the channel of the great river which
millions of years ago flowed between the two
countries, and eventually helped to bring about
their separation.
The white chalk cliffs of England, and of France
in the neighbourhood of Cape Grisnez, rest upon
a lower bed of Grey Chalk, " the Cenomanian,"
some 200 ft. in thickness ; and this in its turn lies
upon a solid bed of Gault. Both beds are very
suitable for tunnel construction ; for they are
composed of a mixed material very similar and in
close analogy to that employed in the manu-
facture of Portland cement, almost if not wholly
impervious to water. The electrical tube rail-
ways of London owe their existence to the
fine deposit of another impervious material,
the Blue London Clay, an ideal formation in which
to construct tunnels. In the districts where tube
railways are conspicuous by their absence, such
as the south-eastern portions of the Metropolis,
their non-existence is chiefly due to the absence
of London Clay.
112 THE CHANNEL TUNNEL
The grey chalk was doubtless at one time white
chalk, and was then water-bearing. But from
some undefined cause the bed became saturated
with liquefied clay, which percolated into it and
" choked the filter," rendering it watertight.
In deciding upon the actual route of the Channel
Tunnel the one great precaution to be taken is
to keep the work well within the thickness of the
Grey Chalk. But as the line may, near the two
coasts, have for a short distance to run out of
this bed, it is so arranged as there to enter the
Gault, which is an equally good and watertight
material. Owing to the observance of these pre-
cautions the tunnel will not make a " bee line "
from England to France, but the slight sinuosity
or curve introduced is otherwise of no importance.
In the Channel above the sea-bed the maximum
depth of water would be from i6o to i8o ft. We
shall be asked to leave undisturbed a cover of chalk
over the roof of the structure sufficient to guard
against any possible hostile contingency. This solid
protection has been fixed at a minimum of loo ft.
The tunnel would consist of two tubes as
described in Chapter VII in the case of the great
Simplon Tunnel (12 J miles in length) in the Alps.
The reasons for adopting twin tunnels are
numerous. Ventilation, drainage, repairs to the
structure and permanent way during traffic, risk
of collision, a possible derailment — all these con-
siderations are in favour of two tunnels rather than
one. But one special reason for making the Alpine
tunnel two-fold was the reduction of pressure on
the arch and side walls.
EXCAVATION IN TUNNEL 113
There, 7,000 ft. vertical of material exists
above the tunnels. This great load will not, how-
ever, have to be provided for, beneath the Channel.
It is proposed to perform the work of excavation
by revolving cutters, fixed in Greathead shields.
Under this system a rapid rate of advance will be
attained, and the debris will be moved from the
" face " by high-speed endless belts.
These will be so arranged as to deliver their load
direct into the wagons without shovelling or
manual labour.
A proposal has been made, that in order to
shorten the period of construction, the chalk
excavated should be crushed by the excavating
machinery, and " slurry fied " into a creamy
condition, as is already done in cement works ;
this " cream " would be pumped into pipes of
suitable diameter and delivered on to certain
land at the top of the shafts. It is estimated that
by adopting this and other improvements, the
tunnel could be driven from England to France
in three to four years.
As the work will be carried on by electrically
driven machinery, the volume of air required for
ventilation will be greatly reduced, and arrange-
ments will be made so that excavation and other
operations can be carried on simultaneously at
many points, thus abbreviating the period re-
quired for construction. This will be done by
the method of " breaking up into full section."
A small heading, 12 ft. wide and 7 ft. high, is
first driven along the line of the future tunnel.
At various points on this heading the work of
114 THE CHANNEL TUNNEL
" breaking up," or excavating to the full diameter
of the tunnel, can then proceed simultaneously.
The diameter of each tube would be i8 ft.,
in order to accommodate main-line rolling stock.
At intervals of 200 yards along the entire length,
oblique cross tunnels will be made. These cross
tunnels will not only enable empty wagons to
be brought in by one line, while full wagons
are dispatched on the other during construction,
but will also make it possible to install an excellent
system of ventilation. Foul air should be con-
sidered as a slur on the management, unfair to
the workmen, and injurious to the progress of
the work, as well as an unnecessary expense to
the company. In the Simplon Tunnel a very
large volume of fresh air was always provided,
even at the most distant places at which opera-
tions were proceeding.
The workmen will be conveyed to their various
duties, and brought out again at the end of their
shift, by electrical trains. It is anticipated that,
in spite of the fact that no work will be permitted
on Sundays, except for ventilation, pumping, and
urgent repair, the daily rate of progress will be
greater than has ever been attained before in any
tunnel, and this could be worked, ventilated, and
pumped by electricity supplied from a power-
station in Kent, possibly 10 miles inland. The
problem of ventilation when regular traffic is
running will consequently be comparatively
simple, since no coal will be burnt on the railway.
The great argument against the building of a
Channel Tunnel has always been a military objec-
WATER-LOCK IN TUNNEL 115
tion. It is feared that it might be used by an
invading enemy. But the tunnel would be
maintained under the authority -of the War
Ofhce ; and furthermore a dip would be provided
in the level of the rails, forming a " water-
lock " —so that in an emergency the tunnel
could be filled with water from floor to roof
for a length of one mile. This would also
be under the control of the commandants of Dover
Castle and the neighbouring forts. While this
water would not injure the tunnel works, it could
only be pumped out by the energy developed at
the power station inland. At the English end,
entrance and exit of both tunnels would be under
the gunfire of all the forts and of vessels in the
naval harbour of Dover.
The gauges of the English and French railways
are very similar. During the Great War hundreds
of the largest English and Scottish locomotives
and thousands of trucks ran in regular traffic on
French railways. Trains would therefore be run
direct from London to Paris in less than six hours,
and could, if necessary, travel at a " headway "
or interval of not more than five to ten minutes.
Doubtless in course of time more than two pairs
of rails will be required to deal with the enormous
volume of traffic which must inevitably develop
in each direction. It should be remembered that,
owing to their dislike of the Channel crossing, our
Continental neighbours never go on shipboard
if they can avoid it. The pre-war traffic from
all Continental ports to England and vice versa
did not exceed 1,600,000 passengers a year ;
ii6 THE CHANNEL TUNNEL
whereas 4,000,000 travelled between France and
Belgium and another 4,000,000 between France
and Germany. Baron Emile d'Erlanger, Chair-
man of the Channel Tunnel Company, confidently
estimates that the Anglo-Continental traffic, not
only of passengers, but also of perishable goods
requiring prompt delivery, will, as the result of the
opening of a submarine railway, double or treble
itself. He believes the financial return upon the
capital expended will be highly satisfactory.
It must not be forgotten that the tunnel will
require no terminal stations with expensive staffs,
nor will the Company have to provide locomo-
tives and rolling stock, as all these will be supplied
by the main-line British and French systems. The
Tunnel Company would simply be required to
construct the works, operate the pumping and
ventilation machinery, maintain the permanent
way, and keep the signalling and telegraphic
equipment in order.
Every one can now realise how enormous the
value of such a tunnel would have been to us
during the Great War. Many lives would have
been saved, and the sufferings of sick and wounded
would have been vastly reduced. But that is
only the beginning of what it would have meant
to us. Delay in the transport of troops and war
material, the waste of ships and energy in guarding
the passage of reinforcements, the loss of many
ships from submarine attacks — all this would
have been minimised. Nor must we fail to take
into account the immense reduction that would
have been possible in the army of dock labourers
VARYING RAILWAY GAUGES 117
at the Channel ports of England and France.
Indeed the advantage we should have gained by
its existence is beyond computation. Certainly
the entire cost of this great and desirable work
would have been defrayed several times over.
Possibly the war itself might have been shortened.
Against this we may set the fact that a tunnel
constructed at the present time, with our increased
knowledge of the problems involved, will be
superior in several important respects to what
it would have been twenty-five years ago.
Much more could be said both upon the geolo-
gical and the engineering aspects of the tunnel.
But I wish particularly to draw attention to
what may be loosely called the geographical
consequences : these will to some extent be pre-
vented by the extraordinary difference of gauges
on the various railways of the world — varying
from 5 ft. 6 in. to 2 ft.^ Probably many of these
^ The following are the chief gauges which may at some future
date be connected :
Railway Gauges
In Great Britain = 4 ft. 8^ in.
In Ireland = 5 ft. 3 in.
In U.S.A. = 4 ft. 8J in.
The 4 ft. 8 J in. gauge is also used in Canada, France, Germany,
Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, Austria, Hungary, Italy,
Switzerland, Sweden, and European Turkey.
In India = 2 ft. 6 in. ; 3 ft. 3I in. and 5 ft. 6 in.
In South Africa = 3 ft. 6 in.
In Egypt = 4 ft. 8^ and 3 ft. 6 in.
In Ceylon = 5 ft. 6 in.
In Russia = 5 ft. o in.
In Spain and Portugal = 5 ft. 6 in.
In Asia Minor = 4 ft. 8J in. and 3 ft. 5^ in.
A single track of 4 ft. 8J in. gauge requires 12 ft. of roadway
a double track requires 23 ft. of roadway.
9
ii8 THE CHANNEL TUNNEL
will be altered to what may become practically
the standard gauge. Where alteration is not
made, a transhipment of passengers and goods,
say once in a thousand miles, will be unavoidable.
One, however, cannot forget the delay and dis-
comfort caused by the difference in gauge already
existing at the Russian Frontier stations on
arriving from France, Germany, or Turkey.
So soon as trains can pass under the Channel
they will be able to traverse France, Belgium,
Holland, Spain, Italy, Germany, Austria- Hungary,
and Turkey as far as Constantinople without any
difficulty as to gauge or minimum structures.
The Orient Express connection formerly left
London at 9 a.m., an inconvenient hour for many :
when the Channel tunnel is an accomplished fact
it will be able to leave at noon and still depart
from Paris at the usual hour. It will pass through
Germany and Austria-Hungary to Bucharest, or
through Bulgaria to Constantinople. A quarter
of an hour later a train will leave Charing Cross
as the Nord Express for Brussels, Berlin, and
Konigsberg to Petrograd, and for Warsaw, Minsk,
and Moscow. At Moscow it will at some future
date we hope connect with the Siberian Railway
Express to the Far East and provide communica-
tion also with the many charming and healthy
watering-places in the Southern Crimea, where
great developments are taking place. At further
intervals of a quarter of an hour the Rome express
will leave for Paris, the Riviera, Rome via Turin
and Milan, and Brindisi : followed by the Sud
Express to Paris, Bordeaux, Madrid, Algeria
POSSIBLE RAILWAY COMMUNICATIONS 119
on the one hand, or to Lisbon on the other. There
will be direct communication not only with
Belgium, Holland, and Denmark, but also with
Finland, Sweden, and Norway via Tornea.
This wonderful network of railways feeds
Europe, but far greater developments are possible.
From Petrograd and Moscow trains already run
through the Ural Mountains, traversing Siberia
and eventually reaching Pekin and the Chinese
system of railways. Vladivostok need be no
more than thirteen days from London. Some
fifteen years ago a great extension of the Siberian
Railway was advocated. It was to be called
** The Trans- Alaska Siberian Railway." Starting
from the Trans-Siberian Railway at Irkutsk, and
skirting the north shore of Lake Baikal, it was to
run to East Cape, the most easterly point in Asia,
at Behring Strait. At the same time an extension
of the Canadian and American system of railways
was to be built from Vancouver to Dawson City,
going due west to Cape Prince of Wales, the most
westerly point of the North American Continent.
There would still remain a gap in railway com-
munication at Behring Strait. Plans and esti-
mates of a tunnel beneath this strait were talked
of. Two islands exist on the centre line of the
projected tunnel which would enable construc-
tion to proceed from six different points simul-
taneously. The total length of the tunnel was
said to be 38 miles ; and indeed well-known
gazetteers like Lippincott and Chisholm give
36 miles as the width of the strait. But the
Admiralty chart and Findlay's Northern Pacific
120 THE CHANNEL TUNNEL
make it about 56 miles instead of 36. A tunnel
under Behring Strait is therefore impracticable,
at least to present ideas of engineering.
The western terminus of the Baghdad Railway
(4 ft. 8| in. gauge) is at Haidar Pasha, near Scutari
on the Bosphorus, where some means of communi-
cation will be required to connect what is now
Turkey in Europe with Turkey in Asia. The
details of this necessary work will demand much
consideration : for although a tunnel, a bridge,
or a ferry has each its own advocates, there are
many points requiring to be carefully weighed.
The last-named proposal, a ferry, is free from the
all-important objections to a Channel ferry. The
Bosphorus, unlike the Channel, knows no tide
and no stormy weather. The Baghdad Railway
thence traverses Asia Minor and the Taurus
Mountains. It then passes to the north of the
Gulf of Alexandretta, with its fine harbour,
through Killis (the junction for the Syrian Rail-
way and Mecca), towards Mosul and Baghdad.
The development of Mesopotamia as one of the
great granaries of the world, when all the necessary
barrages and dams, the drainage and irrigation
works are in operation, will inevitably be acceler-
ated by the railways ; and access will be given to
the British oil pipe-line in Persia. The railway
will have to be extended to Basra and Koweit ;
passing round the northern end of the Persian
Gulf it will reach Karachi, and thus get into
touch with the whole of the Indian system of rail-
ways. At Killis, already mentioned, is the junc-
tion of the Baghdad Railway with the existing
CONNECTING LONDON AND CAPE 121
Aleppo-Hamah- Horns of the same gauge: also
with the Hedjaz RaUway (gauge 3 ft. 5-34 in.
or 1-05 metre), which connects Damascus and
Medina. Other junctions will be (or are aheady)
made with the railway from Jaffa to Jerusalem
(i-oo metre gauge) — which would have to be
widened— also with the Beirut and Damascus
Railway (I'OS metre gauge). From the Aleppo
line at Rapak a direct line to Cairo exists as far
as Beersheba, and from the Suez Canal to Gaza is
available. This will be 4 ft. 8| in. gauge, and from
Aleppo to El Kantara on the east bank of the
Canal the distance will be 420 miles. The Canal
would have to be tunnelled or provided with a
lifting bridge or a ferry for connection to be
effected with the entire system of Egyptian State
railways.
The projected and partly constructed Cape to
Cairo Railway would eventually carry on the
system to the Victoria Falls, Buluwayo, Johannes-
burg, and the Cape ; and it would follow as a
natural corollary that the Uganda Railway, and
also the East African and West African lines,
would eventually be joined up with it.
I am informed that surveys have been made for
a railway from Irkutsk through China to Hong-
Kong. Were this to be built the time from London
to Hong-Kong would probably not be more than
fifteen days, as compared with thirteen to Vladi-
vostok. Singapore could be reached in about
the same time if the Indian and Burmese lines
were to be connected with those of the Malay
States. Either of these routes would very
122 THE CHANNEL TUNNEL
materially reduce the sea passage between Eng-
land and Australia ; and when the transcon-
tinental railway is built the London mails could
probably be delivered in Sydney well within
thirty days from London.
The war has brought home to the minds of us
all the extraordinary development of submarines,
with their enormous potentialities for mischief.
We may hope that such a war and such an abomin-
able use of submarine warfare will never occur
again ; but in the interests of the world at large
we ought to see to it that communication exists
wherever possible by railway, as well as by
shipping.
It may seem to us to-day a very remarkable
prospect, but it is by no means unlikely that
within a comparatively few years travellers from
London will be able to reach the most distant
places in Europe, the most eastern parts of Asia,
North and South Africa, India and China, without
leaving the railway systems of the world. In the
linking up of the world's railways the Channel
tunnel will play an important part. It will
stimulate trade as well as travel, and contribute
to that growth of international understanding
which can alone prevent the repetition of war.
PART II
ANCIENT BUILDINGS
123
WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL
BUILT
TO THE GLORY OF GOD
1087 — 1093
PRESERVED BY THE GOODNESS OF GOD
1905— 1912
CONSECRATION
ST. SWITHUN'S DAY IO93
THANKSGIVING SERVICE
ST. swithun's day 1912
LAUS DEO
124
CHAPTER XII
THE RESTORATION OF WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL
(1905— JULY I9I2)
I DO not propose to describe this magnificent
Cathedral, except in so far as this is necessary to
explain how the actual collapse of the fabric, at
one time regarded as imminent, was prevented.
Winchester Cathedral stands on the site of a
Saxon Church. After the Conquest in a.d. 1066,
William I made Winchester his capital and placed
his treasure house there. In a.d. 1079 '^^^ founda-
tion of the great Norman Cathedral was laid
by Bishop Walkelin, cousin of the king. The
founders in selecting a site had chosen a spot that
left nothing to be desired for a good supply of
water and of fish, and also for good drainage, but
they little dreamt of the difficulties which their
choice would entail in future years.
In A.D. 1202 Bishop de Lucy extended the
building eastward, pulling down the Norman
Lady Chapel, and in its place erecting the charm-
ing Early English retro-choir and Lady Chapel as
we have them to-day.
Bishop William of Wykeham (a.d. i 367-1404)
altered the great Nave from Norman, by encasing
the Norman pillars with masonry and adding the
fine fan roof in Perpendicular Gothic. One of the
most beautiful Chantries was erected to the
125
126 RESTORATION OF WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL
memory of Bishop Fox ; and I ascertained, during
the work of restoration, that Bishop Fox had
belonged to a collateral branch of my own family.
Every order of architecture from Saxon up to
the present time is represented in the Cathedral.
I had been so much impressed with the great
utility of the Greathead grouting machine,^
that for some years I had urged its employment
on architects, but with no practical result until I
was requested by Dr. Furneaux, the Dean, to
accompany Mr., now Sir Thomas Jackson, Bart.,
R.A., on June 27, 1905, to Winchester. The
architects had found very serious subsidences in
various parts of the Cathedral, that in the presby-
tery amounting to nearly 2 ft. 6 in. The outer
walls and buttresses had gone seriously out of the
perpendicular, while the beautiful groined arches
were distorted in form, and disintegrated in char-
acter, and alarm had been caused by the fall of
some stone from the roof. Sir Thomas Jackson
had sunk a trial pit some few yards distant, and
had discovered a bed of peat 8 ft. deep below the
clay and resting upon a fine solid bed of flints and
gravel, into which he had bored to some depth to
prove its solidity. An excavation 5 ft. in width
was then made adjacent to the south wall, in
which, at a depth of about 8 ft. below the turf,
the bottom of the masonry foundation was reached.
It was discovered that the wall had been built
on logs of beechwood, in fact, whole trees placed
side by side horizontally (Fig. 14), and these
again, in their turn, rested in some places on a
1 See page 128.
QUICKSAND FOUNDATION 127
second layer of trees, forming a kind of raft.
Some of these timbers were rotten, but others
were as sound and good at heart as ever. This
was under the Presbytery (a.d. 1202). Under the
Norman walls the builders had simply driven in
QUICKSAND.
SIL
r=^- PEA T
T'^M^Sm^^^^^^^^^
■ZIBs'^'-
"•V ^"-' GRAVEL- AND FLINTS-
CHALK BELOW
Fig. 14.— WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL: SECTION THROUGH WALL OF PRESBY-
TERY SHOWING BEECHWOOD UNDER THE FOUNDATIONS AND RELATIVE
POSITIONS OF MARLY CLAY, PEAT BED, SILT, AND GRAVEL.
By kind permission from tlae Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects.
short vertical oak piles, none exceeding 5 or 6 ft.
in length.
The problem of strengthening the foundations
was, therefore, a very formidable one. For
reasons which will appear below, pumping was
impossible ; compressed air could not be used ;
screw piles and caissons were considered and
128 RESTORATION OF WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL
rejected ; nor could the Cathedral be floated
(as was at one time proposed) upon a vast slab of
concrete, such a slab would almost certainly have
cracked.
How the problem was solved I shall describe
shortly ; but the first point which we had to con-
sider was the strengthening of the main fabric.
I was fortunately able to call the attention of the
authorities to a method of repairing old walls at
a minimum of cost, and with a maximum of
strength. Although many engineers were familiar
with the process at that date, it had very seldom
been applied, and was not known to circles out-
side their profession. When a wall cracks, the
ordinary remedy is to send for a builder or a
mason, and employ him to point up the injury,
which he does with mortar and trowel, and he
succeeds in producing a result satisfactory to his
own pocket, and, for a time, pleasing to his
employer's eye. But it should be borne in mind
that this pointing goes in for only an inch in depth,
and that the injury to the wall is in no degree
remedied : the crack, for its entire length, re-
mains a crack, and its tendency to widen is by
no means lessened.
In all cases the question of faulty foundations
should be examined, but in many instances the
upper portions of the work are so weakened and
disintegrated that to attempt at the outset to
rectify the defects below would bring the whole
structure into ruin. To underpin a badly cracked
cathedral or church, before securing the fabric
itself, is often to court disaster. The Romans were
^ ■>
o =s
OS 5
il
hJ o
< Tl
w 3
H «
en bo
U .S
'-' 2
GROUTING MACHINE 129
probably aware of the value of " grouting up "
their work, but they had not the necessary appli-
ance for doing it effectually ; nor had we until
within the last forty years, when the late Mr.
James Greathead invented the grouting machine
for use in the construction of deep tunnels or
electric tube railways of London. And here
it will be desirable to explain what is meant by
the term. If a mixture of cement, sand, and water
be made in proper proportion, it is called " grout,"
and when this is poured, like cream, into the
cavities of a wall, the wall is " grouted up." This
is, apparently, a very simple process, but it is
nevertheless one which requires judgment and
care.
The grouting machine consists of an iron
receiver or reservoir into which, by means
of pumps, air can be forced under any pressure
up to 100 lb. to the inch. This receiver is con-
nected by a flexible tube to another portion of
the apparatus called the " grouting pan," which
is, in fact, a churn furnished with a handle and
spindle to which are attached arms or beaters.
The proper proportions of cement and water,
and in certain cases sand, are then placed inside,
the lid screwed down, and the contents churned
up into the consistency of cream. This is now
ready to be blown into the crack, the mouth of
which on either side of the wall has meanwhile
been clayed up to prevent the grout from escaping.
The compressed air is then admitted to the grout-
ing pan, and as soon as the necessary valve is
opened the contents are discharged into the wall,
130 RESTORATION OF WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL
the operation being commenced at the level of
the ground.
Having thus at our command an apparatus by
which cement can be blown right into the heart
of any structure, whereby all the loose particles
of stone and the opposite sides of the crack can
be agglutinated or, more properly, cemented to-
gether, we have the power of repairing injured
buildings without being compelled to pull them
down. The expense of grouting is very small,
and does not generally amount to the one-fifteenth
or even one-twentieth part of the cost of pulling
down and rebuilding.
As the condition of the fabric was a matter of
great urgency, I reported my visit to the Dean on
July 5, 1905, and the conclusions at which we had
arrived.
We had decided that the proper sequence of
remedial measures would be :
(i) Shoring the outside of the building.
(2) Centring the arched vaulting of the interior
to prevent collapse.
(3) Putting in steel tie-rods where these were
absolutely necessary.
(4) Grouting with liquid cement under com-
pressed air every portion of the walls into which
grout could be forced commencing at the base.
(5) Lastly, underpinning the walls down to the
bed of gravel.
We realised that the difficulty of this last
operation would be much aggravated by two
limitations imposed by the nature of the structure.
In consequence of the more or less general disin-
WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL. SOUTH TRANSEPT.
A perpendicular window constructed in the Nomian work by William of Wykeham, this
in its turn was most seriously cracked, and although the fractures as shown above were
about 4 inches in width, they were found to be 12 inches wide beyond the facing —
having probably been repaired on two or more occasions.
130]
DIVING ADOPTED 131
tegration throughout of the fabric, no vibration
must be produced, such as would result from
ordinary pile driving, or heavy hammering :
and pumping could not be permitted since it
would draw away the silt from beneath the whole
Cathedral. Fortunately I was accustomed to
diving in the dress, otherwise I do not think I
should have had the temerity to suggest this
expedient. It was only after trying on my draw-
ing board every possible device one after another
which I had to abandon as useless and impractic-
able that I was induced to call in the aid of a diver.
The mere idea of diving under the green grass
sward of the Close seemed at first absurd, but as
it was the only possible means of getting at the
foundations, I obtained permission from the Dean
and Chapter to try the experiment.
A telegram to Messrs. Siebe & Gorman, the
well-known diving firm, brought down two of
their most experienced men, and by their aid
the excavation, a length of 5 ft., was finished,
after which I descended in the dress to examine
the bottom. This proved to be a hard flinty
gravel, quite excellent, and, as this overlies the
chalk, no better foundation could be either
secured or desired.
Here I must mention that excellent diver the
late W. A. Walker, who in five years and a half
did the whole work single-handed. But for his
aid it would have been impossible to place this
splendid fane on a reliable foundation.
The bed of peat above the gravel had been
compressed under the heavy load of the great
132 RESTORATION OF WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL
Cathedral, probably by 3 to 4 ft., and it was
essential that both the peat and the silt should be
removed and replaced by cement so that when
the work was at an end the fabric should stand on
the flint foundation. Each time I visited the
work in diving dress I brought up some of the
stones as undeniable evidence that in every pit
the diver had laid bare the flint.
Only one person could be down under water
at a time, and it was with a feeling of distinct
loneliness that one crawled along the bottom in
pitch-black darkness. But one was conscious
of staring with one's eyes wide open, even if
nothing could be seen ; and somehow this fact,
and the sensation of feeling with the hands for
the sides of the excavation, made it possible not
only to form a mental picture of the excavation,
but to draw an accurate sketch on returning to
the surface. The powerful electric light was
useless owing to the thickness of the water.
Perhaps a few words may be of interest with
reference to the diving. The boots weighed 20 lb.
apiece, each having a thick lead sole ; the dress
weighed 30 lb. ; the leads on chest and back were
40 lb. each, and the helmet 20 lb., making, with
the remainder of the equipment, a total load to
be carried of nearly 200 lb. But, notwithstanding
all this, the flotation power of the water was so
great that a lightly built person going down the
ladder, instead of treading on the rungs, had to
place his feet beneath them, and pull himself
down step by step. The pits were absolutely
dark owing to the water being thick with peat
WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL.
Showing the disintegrated condition of the masonry arches over the Presbytery.
132]
THE NEW FOUNDATION 133
and also septic from the graves, and no artificial
light was possible ; consequently the whole of
the work was done, not by sight, but by feeling
and with gloves. So soon as the peat was exca-
vated the bottom was covered over with bags filled
with concrete, carefully and tightly trodden in,
all round ; these were then slit open and another
layer of bags placed on the top. These again
were ripped up, and so on for four courses in all.
The whole mass thus became practically a solid
rock, and sealed down the flood of water from
the gravel, enabling the excavation to be pumped
dry. Concreting was then continued, either in
bulk or in block, until a considerable height was
attained, and upon this, blocks of concrete or
brick in cement were carried up and tightly
pinned to the underside of the old masonry
constituting the original foundations of the
Cathedral. When all these excavations or pits
were completed, the Cathedral was practically
standing on a bed of rock, instead of on com-
pressible peat.
The walls of the Presbytery, Lady Chapel, and
particularly the South Transept (which was, still
is, and always will be 4 ft. 7 in. out of the per-
pendicular in a height of 90 ft.), were securely
timbered up and strutted before further operations
were commenced. The inclination of the South
Gable is about one-half that of the Leaning Tower
of Pisa.
But before we began to underpin the walls, the
grouting machine had to be brought into com-
mission, to deal with the cracks and fissures,
10
134 RESTORATION OF WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL
some of which were ii in. wide, in the masonry
above. The first step was to force in air under
considerable pressure to blow out the accumulated
dust of ages, also to dislodge the owls and martins,
the rats and mice, and their nests, and in effecting
this we dislodged swarms of bees, proving that
the masonry was " honeycombed " in more senses
than one. Two owls refused to come out, and had
consequently to be grouted in.
After blowing in air, water was forced in to
wash out the cracks, the effluent coming out
black ; but as soon as it was clean and colourless
we knew that the masonry was in a receptive
condition for the cement, which would adhere
firmly to the stones. The process of grouting was
commenced at the base of the walls in order to
obtain the advantage of the hydrostatic pressure
of the grout, which ran horizontally in all direc-
tions filling every interstice and cavity, and in this
way the work proceeded upwards from the ground
to the top level of the walls and of the Tower.
Some photographs illustrative of the cracks are
given.
The extraordinary condition of affairs discovered
during the repairs is depicted in the accompanying
rough sketch.
It appeared that the weight of the stone groining
of the Transept had pushed the main walls of the
Nave aisles out of the perpendicular, and con-
sequently William of Wykeham (a.d. 1394) had
added buttresses to give support to the original
Norman wall. These buttresses were built of
fine massive masonry, but unfortunately, so far
WILLIAM A^ WAI.KI'K.
The expert diver who underpinned Winchester Cathedral single-handed and in pitch darkness.
I34l
WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM'S BUTTRESSES 135
from giving strength to the wall they did the
reverse, owing to their not having been taken
down even to the level of the original Norman
Leuel of grass
of Masonry
\V B'',v>.V.v i'.*- Grau'e'l • &'• 'n'mi 6 erf ."';".•/."•! J'i-''V;°-:°%:.>'
Fig. 15.
By kind permission from the Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects.
foundation. They therefore hung on to the wall,
and increased the danger of collapse.
During the repairs it was found necessary to
carry these buttresses down to the hard and firm
bed of gravel in the manner shown by the thick
dotted line ABCD. This work was executed
136 RESTORATION OF WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL
under water level by the diver Mr. William
Walker in 1909, each buttress requiring four
pits, all executed in the dark and by feeling.
As the diagram shows, all the buttresses and the
adjacent Norman wall were carried down through
the loose stones put in by the Norman builders,
also through the treacherous peat and silt, and
they now rest upon the hard and secure gravel and
flint bed overlying the solid chalk.
During the operation for preserving the building
a few interesting objects were discovered. In a
rat's nest were found fragments of parchment,
torn into small pieces ; with great care and
patience they were pieced together and proved
to be an ecclesiastical order for some great religious
service held some 700 years ago. We also found
a carpenter's measuring rule 36 in. in length —
which the owner had dropped behind some
wainscoting or carving, probably some 300 to
400 years previously. It had shrunk about half
an inch.
A massive piece of polished Purbeck marble
weighing 12 cwt. was found buried in rubbish
on the south side of the Nave. It had been
noticed that one of the monumental slabs in the
North Aisle had lost its top member, and that
another had been carved in different stone and
inferior workmanship to replace the loss. It was
therefore a matter of great interest to find that
this piece of Purbeck marble was the lost top of
the fine monumental slab of Bishop Andemar,
half-brother of King Henry III, who died at
St. Genevieve's Abbey, Paris, on December 4, a.d.
FESTIVAL OF THANKSGIVING 137
1260, and whose heart was brought to Winchester
on March 20, a.d. 1260-1, and buried in the
Cathedral. The recovered fragment bears not
only the missing top of the mitre, but also two
admirably carved heraldic shields, one represent-
ing the royal arms of England, as borne and used
by Henry II, and the other the arms of Hugh,
Earl of March, the Bishop's father.
In November 1923 an old oak panel in the
Cathedral had to be removed (on account of the
worm in the wood) and behind it were found an
ancient stone seat, a " holy water " stoup, and a
parchment document which bears a seal of the
date of Edward I. It is the grant of an indulgence
for a period of ten days.
The great Festival of Thanksgiving for the
saving of the Cathedral began on Sunday, July 14,
1912. The Dean of Winchester, Dr. Furneaux,
who, as the moving spirit in the work of preserva-
tion, had borne a heavy burden of responsibility,
preached the sermon. It was an admirable sum-
ming up of seven years' effort and anxiety crowned
with success. The evident emotion of the preacher
intensified the impressive solemnity pervading the
whole service.
The entire cost of the work — £114,000 — had
been defrayed when the King and Queen visited
Winchester on St. Swithun's Day, Monday,
July 15, 1912. After being received by the Mayor
and civic authorities they reached the Cathedral
at 2.30 p.m. In the meantime the Bishop and
Dean of Winchester met His Grace the Archbishop
of Canterbury, who was conducted to his seat on
138 RESTORATION OF WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL
the upper dais. The Bishops of Southwark,
Birmingham, Bath and Wells, Wakefield, Lich-
field, Worcester, Bristol, St. Asaph, Salisbury,
Rochester, Chichester, Southampton, Guildford,
Willesden, and the Dean of Westminster, formerly
Bishop of Winchester, the Chaplain-General,
Bishop Taylor- Smith, and many others, had
already taken their places.
Once again a procession was formed, and
H.R.H. Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein
and H.R.H. Princess Henry of Battenburg were es-
corted to their places by the Dean and Vice-Dean.
Their Majesties the King and Queen having
arrived at the Great West Door, were received by
the Bishop of the Diocese, the Dean and Canons
Residentiary, and conducted to the seats prepared
for them on a special dais.
The Archbishop preached from the text in
Ps. xc. ver. 17 : " Prosper Thou the work of our
hands upon us, O prosper Thou our handiwork."
On Wednesday, July 17, the great Thanks-
giving Service for the Diocese was attended by
the Mayor and Corporation of the City, the
Mayors of Southampton, Portsmouth, Bourne-
mouth, and other towns, and the clergy from all
parts of the diocese.
On Friday a further service was held for the
public schools at which the preacher was a former
head-master of Winchester School, Dr. Burge,
then Bishop of Southwark, now Bishop of Oxford.
On Sunday, July 21, the Festival came to a
close, with a very impressive sermon by the
Canon-in-Residence, Canon Vaughan.
WINCHESTER A.D. 611-1924 139
Thus ended a great event in the history of
Winchester and of its Cathedral. Where all had
worked so well and cordially together, it would
be an invidious task to name those who specially
deserved the thanks of the community. But two
names stand out pre-eminently — those of Dr.
Furneaux, the Dean, and Canon Braithwaite,
who did so much for the care of the workmen and
staff engaged in the repairs, and organised the
services on Friday mornings in which the workmen
of all denominations took part.
It is worthy of record, and is a special cause for
gratitude, that the whole work was carried through
without fatal or serious accident to any of those
engaged in it, whether working high up on the
scaffolds or under the dark and muddy water in
the foundations.
SOME OF THE KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND
ASSOCIATED WITH THE HISTORY OF WIN-
CHESTER CATHEDRAL
A.D.
611. King Kinegils made preparations for the found-
ing of the Saxon Cathedral, but it was built
by his son Kenwalc in 639 ; rebuilt in 980 by
St. Ethelwold ; again rebuilt in 1079 by Bishop
Walkelin, a relative of King William I.
That Kenwale's Church was built on the site
of the early Roman Church, hallowed by
Bishop Birinus [a.d. 634], is confirmed by the
ancient Baptistery Well in the central crypt.
714. King Kenwalc (son of Kinegils). His remains
are placed with those of King Egbert in the
mortuary chests on the side of the Presbytery.
140 RESTORATION OF WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL
The relics of Kings, Queens, and Bishops
were " chested " by Bishop de Blois about the
year 1134, and two of the six exquisite chests
placed on the side screens of the Presbytery by
Bishop Fox, in 1554, contain the original leaden
caskets made by Bishop de Blois.
827. King Egbert was crowned in the Cathedral as
" King of all Britain."
857. King Ethelwulf's (father of King Alfred) re-
mains are in the mortuary chests.
901. King Alfred, who lived at Wolvesey Castle,
restored the Cathedral, and was buried with his
Queen Alswitha at Hyde Abbey.
The Saxon Chronicle, partly written by King
Alfred, was completed by the Monks of St.
Swithun's Priory.
924. King Edward (eldest son of King Alfred),
" father and lord of all England," is buried
under the south parclose.
940. King Athelstan, who increased the power of the
Saxon monarchy, made Winchester his Capital
and worshipped here, bestowing much treasure.
940. King Edmund, the son of King Athelstan, who
swayed the sceptre while his father was living
and maintained the supremacy over Scotland,
lies in the mortuary chests.
946. King Edred, who fought victoriously in a time
of great national strife, reigned nine years and
a half, died at Froome on St. Clement's Day
955, and was buried in the Cathedral by Arch-
bishop Dunstan.
975. King Edgar the Peaceful resided in this city,
and reigned seventeen years. He instituted
Bishop Ethelwold in the See of Winchester,
and was buried at Glastonbury.
KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND 141
980. King Ethelred was present at Dedication of
St. Ethelwold's Cathedral on October 20, 980,
by St. Dunstan, Bishop Ethelwold, seven other
bishops, and nearly every duke, abbot, and
noble of England.
1002. King Ethelred was here married to Emma
Elgiva, " the Fair Maid of Normandy." The
King gave her the city of Winchester for her
dowry.
1035. King Canute gave many gifts to this Church,
and Emma, his Queen, gave to the Cathedral
" God-he- got " house with its right of sanctuary.
Their bones lie in the chests on the Presbytery.
1041. King Harthacnut is buried under the north
parclose.
1043. King Edward the Confessor was crowned in
the Cathedral by the two Archbishops as King
of England.
Winchester City was a dowry of Queen
Edith, wife of Edward the Confessor.
1070. King William I was recrowned in Winchester
Cathedral by three Papal Legates. He was
wont to keep the Festival of Easter in the
Cathedral.
1079. The Foundation Stone of the Norman Cathedral
was laid by Bishop Walkelin in 1079, and four-
teen years later, on St. Swithun's Day 1093,
the monks, with " the greatest exultation and
glory," brought St. Swithun's shrine westward
into the new Church.
1094. King William II granted to the Prior of St.
Swithun's a charter for holding St. Giles' Fair.
He was buried under the Tower, but some of
his bones are " chested." His brother Richard
is buried under the S. screen of Presbytery.
142 RESTORATION OF WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL
iioi. King Henry I was again crowned, and married
to Queen Matilda in the Cathedral. He made
his nephew, Henry de Blois, Bishop of
Winchester.
1135. King Stephen attended the Cathedral.
1141. The Empress Matilda was brought in a splendid
procession to the Cathedral by Bishop Henry
de Blois and other Bishops and Abbots, the
Nuns of St. Mary's Abbey walking unveiled
before her.
Bishop de Blois founded St. Cross Hospital
and built Wolvesey Castle in this reign.
1172. King Henry II, with Queen Margaret of
France, was crowned here, and in 1175 here
received the Patriarch of Jerusalem, who came
to present him with the keys of the Holy
Sepulchre.
1194. King Richard I was recrowned in Winchester
Cathedral with unusual magnificence on Low
Sunday.
In this reign the Eastern Aisles were re-
constructed by Bishop Godfrey de Lucy.
1213. King John met the Archbishop and Bishops
at the West Door of the Cathedral on the day
that the Papal Interdict was removed from the
kingdom. Isabella, his Queen, gave birth
to a son (Henry of Winchester) in the Castle.
1259. King Henry III held a Council in the Chapter
Room. He lived much in Winchester.
1276. King Edward I and Queen Eleanor attended
the Cathedral in state, and the King held a Par-
liament at the Castle which lasted three weeks.
1349. King Edward III by a new charter granted to
the Prior of St. Swithun's the right to keep
open the Fair on St. Giles' Hill for three weeks.
KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND 143
The casing of the Norman Nave in Perpen-
dicular Gothic was commenced in this reign,
1382. King Richard II and his Queen attended
Service here during repairs to the Great Hall
at Winchester Castle, The Foundation Charter
to Winchester College was granted in this year.
1403. King Henry IV was married in the Cathedral to
Joan of Navarre, Dowager Duchess of
Brittany.
1404. King Henry V worshipped in the Cathedral
when a student at the College.
1448. King Henry VI was often at Winchester, and
attended the Enthronement of Bishop
Wayneflete.
The Cathedral Screen, the City Cross, and
Cardinal Beaufort's Quadrangle at St. Cross
were built during this reign.
1469. King Edward IV came frequently to the
Cathedral and to the College,
i486. King Henry VII was a Benefactor to this
Church. His Queen built the east end of the
Lady Chapel; and his son. Prince Arthur,
who was born in St. Swithun's Priory, was
christened here, his mother, Elizabeth of
York, carrying him to the Altar.
1522. King Henry VIII and the Emperor Charles V
came to this Cathedral and viewed St. Swithun's
costly shrine. The King, who stayed a week
in Winchester, rededicated this Cathedral
to the Holy Trinity.
1553. King Edward VI, when at the Cathedral, ordered
a Library to be founded.
1554. King Philip of Spain was married in this Church
to Queen Mary on July 25. The King was
lodged at the Deanery and the Queen at
144 RESTORATION OF WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL
Wolvesey Castle, Bishop Gardiner providing
the wedding dinner in the Great Hall.
1570. Queen Elizabeth came in state from the Castle
to the Cathedral, and also visited the College.
1603. King James I attended the Cathedral Services
while staying at the Castle.
1635. King Charles I, while staying in Winchester,
signed the Book containing the Cathedral
Statutes.
The Vaulting under the Tower was inserted
by King Charles I.
1682. King Charles II stayed at the Deanery, and laid
the Foundation Stone of the King's House on
October 23, 1682.
The Service Books now on the Cathedral
Altar were presented by King Charles II, and
a Gallery at the Deanery was built as a Recep-
tion Room for the King.
1685. King James II attended Service at the Cathedral
on September 14, and afterwards interviewed
Bishop Mews on the question of the baptism
of slaves.
1705. Queen Anne and Prince George of Denmark
attended the Cathedral Service.
1778. King George III and Queen Charlotte several
times attended Service at the Cathedral.
1832. Queen Victoria, accompanied by her mother,
the Duchess of Kent, stayed at the George
Hotel, and visited the Cathedral and the
Hospital of St. Cross.
1849. Prince Albert, after presenting new colours to
the 23rd Regiment, came to the Cathedral and
paid a visit to the College.
1884. King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra,
when Prince and Princess of Wales, visited the
KING GEORGE V AND QUEEN MARY 145
Cathedral. King Edward also came to Win-
chester in 1893 and 1899.
1908. Queen Mary, when Princess of Wales, visited
the Cathedral.
1910. King George V, when Prince of Wales, unveiled
the K.R.R. Memorial Window in the Cathedral.
1912. King George V and Queen Mary attended on
July 15 the Thanksgiving Service for the com-
pletion of the work for the preservation of the
Cathedral.
CHAPTER XIII
OTHER CATHEDRALS : PETERBOROUGH,
CANTERBURY, LINCOLN, EXETER
In this and the following chapter I propose to
describe the means which were adopted in saving
several of these ancient monuments.
The British Islands are so rich in cathedrals,
abbeys, churches, castles, and other ancient
buildings, and so many of these are suffering from
the ravages of time, that it is our bounden duty
to do our best to preserve them for the use and
delight of many generations to come, even as
they have been handed down to us by our ancestors.
When we look at these noble buildings and
consider the enormous expenditure of money and
of thought, of skill and of taste, bestowed upon
them, and remember that they are heirlooms,
forming a priceless history of art and architecture,
the capital cost of which we have not to pay, the
least we can do is to keep them in repair. In
effecting this, we should aim at adopting some
system that will not attract attention. The
characteristics and features, the old stones with
their cracks and deformations, with their weather-
worn arrises and surfaces, with the very moss,
should, if possible, be preserved. Where the
actual stone has perished it must, of course, be
replaced by new ; but walls that are simply
cracked, or are within certain limits out of up-
146
WESTMINSTER ABBEY CLOSE 147
right, should be secured without removing or
renovating the constituent parts.
The first work that I ever carried out in connec-
tion with cathedrals was, however, not quite in
this category. In 1881, between Westminster
Abbey and the public road on the north side, the
disused burial-ground attached to St. Margaret's
Church was a dreary-looking place with its pave-
ment of old gravestones or slabs of various sizes
and shapes, some broken, the rest in any position
except standing upright. A friend of mine, who
did legal work for the Houses of Parliament,
proposed laying down a sward of grass and giving
the Abbey the bright green Close appropriate
to such buildings. I, as a friend, prepared a plan
for him which was exhibited in the Tea Room of
the House of Commons. The broad pathways
which now give access both to the Abbey and St.
Margaret's Church, were shown on the plan.
The proposal having received the approval of
the authorities, the necessary funds were raised
by subscription, and as complete a list as possible
was made of the graves. The whole area was then
covered with mould six inches in thickness and
grass seed was sown. In twelve months time the
fine green sward which is now to be seen, had
replaced the old dreary waste. It is not too much
to say that this setting of well-kept grass has
greatly beautified the Abbey precincts.
Peterborough Cathedral
Peterborough was the first cathedral upon which
I reported officially, and I visited the fabric on
148 PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL
January 26, 1897. I had been staying with my
dear friend Dean Argles at his very interesting
Rectory of Barnack, and was requested by the
Bishop of Leicester, the late Bishop Thicknesse,
to examine the fabric. A suggestion had been
made for altering the method of preservation
which was then being carried out by the late Mr.
Pearson, the able architect to the Dean and
Chapter.
There were dangerous fissures in the West
Front, some of them as much as 9 in. in width.
Prepared as I was to see the disintegrated mortar
running out like sand from an hour-glass, I had
not expected the gaping cracks which I actually
found. My only surprise was that some accident
had not occurred to the structure.
The preservation of the old stones, and above
all of the old colour, which it had taken more than
600 years to produce, was one of the first objects.
Very rightly this had received the earnest and
careful attention of the architect and his experi-
enced clerk of works Mr. Irvine, as well as of
Messrs. Thompson & Son, the contractors. They
had adopted the only safe method, namely, to
remove the gable of the west front, the stones of
which were most carefully handled, numbered and
kept close at hand for replacement. I strongly
advised that no change should be made, and the
work was completed as it had been begun.
Canterbury Cathedral
In 1909 I was asked by the architect of the
Ecclesiastical Commissioners to explain to him
^mi
y
t'
CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL 149
the working of the grouting machine. I did so
with much pleasure, and lent him the machine
itself for use on Glastonbury Abbey. The results
were so satisfactory that I again lent the machine,
which was sent on to Canterbury Cathedral in
order to strengthen the piers of the Bell Harry
Tower. The only condition for which I stipulated
was that I should be allowed to see the work in
progress, to make sure that on such an important
fabric the machine was being correctly applied.
Unfortunately this condition was overlooked, but
from what I saw after the work had been finished,
and from what the workmen said, I gathered that
the cementing was not done from the base of the
piers but from the top. If this were the case,
the tower did not receive the benefit of being
treated with cement under pressure, according to
the process described in Chapter XII.
Lincoln Cathedral
Lincoln Cathedral is, perhaps, the most magni-
ficent of all the cathedrals in the British Islands.
Ruskin thought that " it was equivalent to any
two others rolled into one."
Lincoln,^ or Lindum signifying " the fort by the
pool," was originally a Roman colony — like
Gloucester, Colchester, and York. The Romans
were the first to undertake the draining and em-
banking of the fens and marshes. Their engineer-
ing skill turned the latter into rich productive
farm land. Towards the end of the third century
^ The first part of this section is based on notes very kindly
suppUed to me by Dr. Fry, the present Dean of Lincoln.
II
150 LINCOLN CATHEDRAL
came the Saxon sea-rovers, followed by the
Pictish tribes from the north, who broke through
the Wall of Hadrian and in concert with the sea-
rovers reached the very gates of London.
When the Roman legions were finally with-
drawn in A.D. 410 their relentless foe burnt the
villas in Lincoln and elsewhere, destroyed industry,
broke down the banks of the drains, and sent back
the cultivated land into prairie. The drained
fens again became flooded ; and the civilisation
of Lincoln, as of Roman England generally,
suffered extinction.
After the Saxons came the Danes, first to ravage
then to settle, and twelve Danish Lawmen ruled
in Lincoln. Christianity had been first planted by
Paulinus, and the first Christian Bishop of Lindsey
had his bishop's stool at Sidnacester (generally
held to be Stow).
Last of the invaders came the Normans.
William I, after his march to York to put down
the first northern rebellion, passed along Ermine
Street, through Lincoln ; but he left the Lawmen
undisturbed and began the construction of the
Keep of a new castle on the Hill.
Amongst the ships offered to William I for his
invasion of Britain was one with twenty knights
supplied and paid for by Remigius, Monk Almoner
of Fecamp in Normandy. He had his reward
at Christmas, a.d. 1067. He was appointed to
the See of Dorchester, vacant by the death of
the English Wilfrid. He w^as transferred from
Dorchester to Lincoln, secured by its new castle,
and received from the King a charter for the site
ST. HUGH OF AVALON 151
of the cathedral, a copy of which is preserved in
the Cathedral Library. A Saxon church had
already stood on this site, and traces of it still
remain underground.
Remigius built a cruciform church 300 ft. in
length with a choir of three bays and a semi-
circular apex with timber roof, but he died
before its consecration in a.d. 1092. His second
successor Alexander the Magnificent added to the
work, and it is said that in a.d. 1141, when the
timber roof was burnt, he replaced it with a ceiling
of stone. The interesting arcade upon the towers
and the lower portions of the towers themselves
are his.
In A.D. 1173 Henry II sent abroad for a suc-
cessor to the Bishopric and appointed the famous
Hugh of Avalon of the Grande Chartreuse. Hugh
was a saint ; humbly unselfish, devoted to the
cause of the poor, to his church, to God and to
Righteousness ; yet, for all his humility, this was
the man who dared to excommunicate the King's
chief forester, to refuse a benefice to a great
courtier, to oppose a grant for foreign war to
Richard I, and to bring John himself to sub-
mission.
He found his church practically a ruin — the
nave, transepts, and choir had all fallen, and
only the two western towers remained. When we
began in 1922 to investigate the cause of the grave
injury which had accrued to the towers, we had
no knowledge of what had caused this great de-
struction, and it was not until the account written
by the historian Roger de Hoveden in a.d. 1185
152 LINCOLN CATHEDRAL
came to light, that we were told how " a great
earthquake, the greatest ever known in England,
had split Remigius' church from top to bottom."
Hugh decided to build again, preserving
the two western towers. The parts of the
Cathedral erected by St. Hugh now remaining
are the choir, the choir aisles, the smaller east
transepts, and two bays on each side of the
greater western transepts. What Diocletian did
for the round arch at Spalato, Hugh did at
Lincoln for the pointed arch. It had already
been used in Saracen mosques, and even in Pisa,
but at Lincoln for the first time it now became the
dominant feature.
St. Hugh died in a.d. 1200, but in a.d. 1205 his
work was continued. The nave was completed,
and it was decided to retain the western towers.
The central roof in the east north bay was raised
to meet the newer and loftier Early English roof.
In A.D. 1255, the Dean and Chapter resolved
to build a shrine fitter for their saint. They
pulled down Hugh's east end, and from the East
Transept built the famous Angel Choir in the
Geometrical or Decorated style. They transferred
Hugh's body to the back of the High Altar, and
all England came to assist at the ceremony. It
was attended by Edward I, the greatest of our
Kings, and his noble wife Eleanor of Castile,
Archbishops, Bishops, Barons, and the people
whom Hugh had loved and served.
The Angel Choir was finished about 1282 ; but
before this date Grosseteste, the second greatest
man amongst the Lincoln bishops, had seen the
LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT.
The great scaffold for repairing the North- West Tower, 215 ft. in height. When completed
the scaffold will be moved to South-West Tower.
[153
BISHOP GROSSETESTE 153
church almost complete. Edward I held two
Parliaments in the Chapter House. The Cloisters
followed soon after. But disaster occurred in
the fall of the Central Tower erected by St. Hugh.
It was re-erected on strengthened piers in a.d
1307 by Grosseteste, who carried it to its present
height. The two western towers were similarly
raised somewhat later (a.d. 1400).
Such is, in outline, the history of the fabric
of Lincoln Cathedral, founded more than eight
centuries ago.
We now come to the repairs carried out during
the last two or three years. It is a remarkable
coincidence that just as Grosseteste (a.d. 1307)
contributed so much to the dignity and nobility
of the Cathedral, so has the grouting machine,
invented by Greathead (also Grosseteste), con-
tributed to its safety and solidity.
The measurements of the Cathedral are as
follows :
Its external length is 514 ft. 7 in.
Its internal length is 480 ft.,
of which the Nave occupies 211 ft. 6 in. The
great Transepts are 223 ft. long internal, 248 ft.
8 in. long external. The height of the western
towers is 212 ft., whilst that of the central tower
is 271 ft. The diameter of the beautiful Chapter
House is 60 ft.
About the end of 192 1 I was requested by the
Dean to report on the condition of the fabric,
and to collaborate with Sir Charles Nicholson,
Bart., with a view to advising what steps should
be taken to preserve it from accident.
154 LINCOLN CATHEDRAL
In this work we received most valuable assist-
ance from the able Clerk of the Works, Mr. Robt.
S. Godfrey, whose mechanical ability is of the
highest order. We could not recommend the
examination of the foundations, until the very
serious cracks and disintegration in the western
towers were to a considerable extent corrected ;
otherwise there might have been a disaster.
With the experience of the grouting machine
behind us, I strongly advised the authorities to
employ it. My advice was followed. The walls
of the North- West Tower were soundly grouted
up. Large cavities and cracks of 12 to 14 in. in
width, which could not have been dealt with in
any other way, were filled solid. In addition, fine
ties of Delta metal (an alloy of copper and other
metal which is incorrodible and has the strength
of steel) were inserted into all the holes drilled
in the ancient masonry, after which they were
grouted up.
High-speed jack-hammer drills were used, giving
500 blows per minute, and boring to a length of
16 ft. in five to eight minutes. With the aid of a
high-pressure water spray (to moisten the masonry
and to lay all dust) very rapid progress was made
at a fraction of the cost of all previous methods.
It is no exaggeration to say that such speed,
efficiency, and economy have never been ap-
proached in any other cathedral work. By the
methods described, vibration was reduced to a
minimum ; and we avoided the nuisance of
covering the whole cathedral with dust.
We decided not to attempt to investigate the
THE DUNGEON 155
foundations until the North- West Tower should
have been secured to a considerable height. When
this had been done, any movement of the upper
portion would be arrested. Personally I was
convinced that the foundations were not in fault,
as the plinths were level, and in fact it has now been
ascertained that the cathedral is founded on rock.
The first matter of interest which we encoun-
tered was the " Dungeon " which in early and
mediaeval days was used for the confinement of
prisoners who were shortly to be executed. This
chamber, which is on a level with the floor of
the Cathedral, is 20 ft. in length, 6 ft. in width,
and has a height of 20 ft. It had no door nor
window, not even a ventilator. The unhappy
prisoner was lowered by a rope through a trapdoor
in the stone arch above, and .taken out in the same
manner to his death.
It reminds one of the cell at the Mamertine
Prison in Rome, in which St. Paul is said to have
been confined and from which he wrote his last
chapter of peace and joy in the Epistle to Timothy.
As the work of repair travelled upwards, the
condition of the Norman masonry steadily grew
worse, until it reached such a state of disintegra-
tion that we almost abandoned hope. But with
patience, and the greatest care on the part of
all, aided by the invaluable grouting machine, we
succeeded in consolidating even the worst of the
masonry. How bad that " worst " was, will be
evident when I say that much consisted of rough
rubble in movement, together with great quantities
of rubbish and dust.
156 LINCOLN CATHEDRAL
About 70 ft. from the floor we found what
evidently was a doorway built up with masonry.
Of course this could not be passed by without
investigation. The walling of masonry, on being
removed, disclosed a circular stone staircase
communicating with the floor of the nave, with
the original stone newel. No record of the
existence of this staircase existed. It was filled
with debris from the earthquake, for its entire
height.
As the work proceeded, the great fractures,
12 inches or more in width, were followed and cor-
rected ; but an even more dangerous weakness
was discovered. The fine West Front (which is
200 ft. in length and 100 ft. in height, and was
built by St. Hugh in a.d. 1187 as a buttress to
support the towers) was found to have become
detached from the Norman masonry, and was
threatening to fall like the cover of a book, on to
the turf of the Close.
All this, however, so far as the North-West
Tower is concerned, has now been made secure ;
and so soon as the scaffold can be removed from
the North- West to the South- West Tower, the
remaining half of the West Front will be con-
solidated.
The scaffolding itself is a remarkable piece of
work. It is 212 ft. in height, 35 ft. wide, and
36 ft. long. It is constructed of three 9-in. planks
for each upright, and is " standardised " so that
any planks or bolts taken up promiscuously are
sure to fit. It is the finest example of such a
scaffolding in existence, and is a monument to
^ o
O _
HOLLOW AND DEFECTIVE MASONRY 157
the skill of those who designed and constructed
it. In no place is it more than -^2' of an inch out
of truth.
By the help of this scaffold the external masonry
of the tower has been examined. It was found
to be so weathered and broken that almost the
whole 9 ft. of the top of it must be refaced. The
stone is now being dressed for this purpose.
Another unpleasant discovery made during
the work on the North- West Tower was, that in
the very rotten timber floors of that structure
much damage had been done by the " death-
tick " beetle or Xestobium tesselatum — the same
insect which all but destroyed the fine timber roof
of Westminster Hall. At Lincoln the floors have
been reconstructed in ferro-concrete, which no
beetle yet discovered can touch.
The repair of the great central tower has been
begun, thanks to the kindness of our Canadian
and American friends. The first step was to
examine the masonry of the abutting transept
walls which act as buttresses to the tower. A
scaffold has been erected inside the Cathedral
up to the vaulting of the transept, some 70 ft.
in height. We have found the masonry hollow
and defective ; it is, in fact, the commonest rough
rubble, destitute of any mortar. This, however,
has been quickly put right by blowing in cement,
but scarcely a week passes without further defects
being discovered. Nevertheless, it is confidently
hoped that by June 1926 the whole of the repairs
will be completed, and the total expense de-
frayed. In a structure so ancient and so big,
158 LINCOLN CATHEDRAL
we cannot hope that no further repairs will be
required. These are inevitable, but, once the
fabric has been rendered monolithic, the
Cathedral staff and funds will doubtless be
sufficient to meet all the requirements of the
future.
Since the above was written, very serious
cracks have been discovered in the South Transept.
The length of this is 90 ft., but the aggregate
length of the cracks in the vaulting is 314 ft. —
the width varying from 2 to 6 in. : these have been
discovered by the removal of the accumulation
of plaster, dust, and disintegrated masonry of
centuries which could not be reached until we had
erected the necessary scaffold.
Exeter Cathedral
The Cathedral of Exeter is one of the smaller
but most beautiful minsters of England, and
stands on high ground above the valley of the
River Exe.
It is in very good condition excepting for the
usual and apparently inevitable flaking off in
places of the external face of the masonry. This
work of repair is now completed.
The Cathedral stands upon the site of a Saxon,
and afterwards of a Norman church ; but the
present fabric dates from about a.d. iioo when the
two Norman towers were constructed, one on the
north, the other on the south side of the nave,
and the building was gradually transformed into
the cathedral as we have it to-day.
The nave is 350 ft. in length with a space from
EXETER CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT.
Portion of the timber root tor the protection of tlie fine groined Masonry
Arching. This timber-work was constructed about a.d. 1300, but from some
unknown cause is seriously out of upright, as indicated by the " plumb-bob "
and "scale."
15S]
EXETER CATHEDRAL ROOF 159
wall to wall of 34 ft. It is roofed in by beautiful
groining which extends for the whole length of
the building. But about a.d. 1300 it was sur-
mounted by a timber roof, to protect the fine
masonry from rain and snow. This timber roof
was constructed of solid English oak, but some
accident or slip must have occurred, probably
during its erection ; for every principal (of which
there are forty) is out of upright, and so, too, are
all the intermediate timbers.
Many additional struts have been added to the
structure by succeeding generations. The photo-
graphs will illustrate the very abnormal condition
of the roof better than any description. A scale
and " plumb-bob " are shown, by which the reader
can check off for himself the divergence from the
perpendicular.
At the worst, this divergence is as great as
6 ft. 4 in., and the principals are tilted to such an
extent that on one side they are standing on their
edges, and on the other side one can easily insert
the front part of one's foot.
In addition, however, to this very serious
movement, which is still going on, great ravages
have been made by the " death-tick " beetle—
Xestobium tesselatum — as at Lincoln Cathedral,
Westminster Hall, St. George's Chapel, Windsor,
and many other buildings.
So serious is the damage that there are actual
gaps, two or three feet in length, in some of the
main timbers. The latter are all being removed
and sound oak substituted in their place.
Some sixty years ago Sir Gilbert Scott was
i6o EXETER CATHEDRAL
consulted, but declined to undertake the re-
sponsibility of restoring the roof to a vertical
position. He introduced some iron tie rods and
additional timber struts which have done useful
work. Now, however, something more is required.
But, to rebuild the roof, it would have to be
entirely removed. This would expose the beauti-
ful groined masonry beneath to the rain and snow,
and inevitably lead to its being stained. However
carefully it might be covered with tarpaulins,
these would be liable to be ripped, and torn by
the gales.
In addition to this objection, the cost would
be very great. Moreover, there is the possibility
of some of the timber falling on to and injuring
the groined work.
After carefully weighing all the advantages and
disadvantages, the Diocesan Architect, Mr. Har-
bottle, and I decided not to incur the risk of at-
tempting to place the timbers upright, but to make
the work as safe as possible in its present position.
Great care had to be taken not to increase the
weight in any appreciable degree. Accordingly
we removed all debris of masonry and plaster,
and all unnecessary timbers. A light steel bracing
is now being fixed.
When this is complete, it will always be easily
accessible for painting and examination, and it
will impart to the roof an appearance of tidiness
and simplicity w^hich has long been absent from it.
Half the total length of roof has been repaired,
and it is expected that the whole work will be
completed by the autumn of the present year
MONUMENTS OF PIETY i6i
(1924). To Mr. E. H. Harbottle many thanks are
due for his great care of the Cathedral.
In that interesting book, The Story of the Re-
naissance, by Sidney Dark, a very appropriate
paragraph is given, which may, with satisfaction,
be here quoted to close this chapter :
" It may indeed be safely said that nothing
that the Renaissance left behind it, not even the
frescoes of Michael Angelo, the Virgins of Raphael,
or the plays of Shakespeare, are to be compared
with the great Cathedrals that remain for us,
the monuments of the piety and the comradeship
of the Middle Ages."
In conclusion, we cannot but realise what a
privilege it is for men of our time to be engaged in
saving these mighty fanes which stand as monu-
ments of a living faith in Almighty God.
I cannot allow this chapter to close without
reference to the splendid work which our good
friend the Dean of Lincoln, Dr. Fry, carried out
for saving his great Cathedral. Morning, noon,
and night has he worked beyond his strength,
raising the necessary funds, and twice has he
visited Canada and America at great personal
inconvenience. Those of us under his direction
and the whole staff have endeavoured to share
his burden, and reduce the cost by the adoption
of machinery for drilling, grouting, and stone-
dressing by compressed air.
The result is attained in a remarkable degree
by work being done in one hour which twenty years
ago occupied a week, and the cost in some items
has been reduced from one pound to one shilling.
CHAPTER XIV
CHURCHES AND BRIDGES : CORHAMPTON, BLETSOE,
LYME REGIS, ST. MARY, BISHOPHILL JUNIOR,
YORK, ASHBOURNE, BOW CHURCH, FORD END,
PORTINSCALE, OXENHULME
CORHAMPTON
The ancient Church of Corhamptom, near Bishop's
Waltham, in Hampshire, is another satisfactory
instance of the appHcation of the grouting machine.
This Saxon Church, 1,300 years old, was in a
sadly dilapidated condition. In the west gable
there were three large cracks, one from the ridge
to the ground wide enough for a man's arm to
enter ; another, nearer the side wall, wide enough
for the insertion of his head, whilst at the north-
west angle the Saxon work threatened to fall
bodily off. The mortar of the walls had perished
through age, and the ivy had penetrated into the
interior of the church in every direction, and was
attending divine service. It would have been
unsafe to attempt any examination of the founda-
tions for fear of bringing down the whole fabric ;
consequently the grouting machine was applied
all over the building. The " grout " escaped at
every point, and the masons both inside and out-
side had to stop it promptly by dabbing red clay
on to the openings from which it was running.
By the time the walls had taken all the grout that
162
A SAXON CHURCH 163
could be forced in, the church was practically a
red building both inside and outside, from the
extensive use of this red clay, but this was all
removed on completion.
The cracks were in places so wide that they
had to be specially treated before commencing
to grout them, and the clay was so arranged as to
extend into the crack about an inch on both faces.
After the operation had been completed and the
cement had set hard, the clay was removed and
the interior was found to be filled with adamant ;
but as it did not come within an inch of the face
of the wall, sufficient depth was left for fixing the
flint work outside, and tiling inside. The result
is that no trace of the crack is visible, and after
this treatment of the walls they are stronger and
better than they have ever been. Steps were
then taken to examine and, where necessary, to
underpin the walls, and we have the satisfaction
of knowing that these efforts have saved the
church. The Vicar, the Rev. H. Churton, writing
on the subject on October 18, 1906, said :
" The grouting was most effective, and I think
the walls are now quite safe, and all without moving
one of the Saxon ' long and short ' stones."
BLETSOE CHURCH NEAR BEDFORD
In December 1907 I was asked by the Rev.
R. H. Moss, vicar of Bletsoe Church near Bedford,
a former college friend at Cambridge of my son
the late Charles Beresford Fox, to come and
examine this old church, which I gladly did
simply as an acquaintance.
i64 CHURCHES AND BRIDGES
I met there the late Lord St. John of Bletsoe,
the Lord of the Manor, and churchwarden, and
with him made a careful examination. The
tower was cracked from top to bottom in several
places ; the Chancel wall had three ominous cracks
in it ; the south Porch had moved bodily five
inches away from the main building, leaving a
wide crack all the way round ; and the Vestry on
the north side had followed the example of the
Porch.
Lord St. John informed me that the cost of
repairing the church had been estimated at £1,420 ;
but that the parish was a poor one, and they
had only succeeded in raising £70. This sum
had been banked, he said, and they awaited
eventualities.
A local builder had been consulted, and sug-
gested that the Chancel wall should be under-
pinned, a proceeding which in all cases should
follow, and not precede, the repairs to the cracks.
I found three large excavations had already
been made under the Chancel wall, and without
any timbering : and as it was a very wet day, the
men had gone home. Meanwhile the water was
running into the holes and washing down the
sides ; and if this had been allowed to continue
all night, the wall would probably have fallen in.
It was essential to fill up the excavations at once,
without an hovr's delay ; and this was done by
calling in the assistance of two or three agricul-
tural labourers.
I told Lord St. John that if he would place the
£70 in my hand, I could save the church, and I
A SHILLING FOR A POUND 165
sent him a very capable Scottish mason, William
Glen, with a grouting machine, to do what was
needed. In the course of a few weeks he had
completed all the work, and with such care and
skill that it was impossible to see where the repairs
had been effected.
Underpinning was avoided altogether, and al-
though sixteen years have since elapsed, there has
been no sign of any further trouble.
This instance shows very clearly the advisability
of making a wall monolithic. Treated by the
grouting machine the wall becomes a strong
girder, and underpinning is often rendered un-
necessary.
Lyme Regis Church
During the holiday season in 1910 we selected
Lyme Regis for a much-needed rest, and saw for
ourselves the danger threatening its ancient and
historic Parish Church of St. Michael's — a fine
example of fifteenth-century Perpendicular Gothic
— from the continual encroachment of the sea,
and the wearing away of the cliffs.
Within the memory of many of the townsfolk
at that date, there had been two fields between the
churchyard and the edge of the cliff, but they had
in 1910 disappeared, and a portion of the church-
yard itself had wasted away.
I called on the then Vicar, the Rev. William
Jacob, and pointed out to him the risk to which
the church was exposed of being undermined
and washed away — the top of the slips being
already within 20 or 30 ft. of the Chancel wall —
12
i66
CHURCHES AND BRIDGES
and not only the church, but the main street
was threatened with its houses and with the
picturesque and ribbed arches, dating back prob-
ably to the twelfth century, carrying the road from
Lyme to Bridport and Weymouth, over the
" Lym " or River Buddie. Only one arch is
visible, which dates from the fourteenth century,
the others being under adjacent houses.
A local committee was quickly formed including
the Vicar, the Mayor and Alderman of this ancient
borough, and many residents — and funds were
raised for the essential safeguards from all parts
of the Diocese.
Various forces were at work tending to the ruin
of the Church. First, the disintegration of the
shale, by the spray and fret of the sea, had exposed
and undermined the beds of limestone in the cliff,
which were continually falling off and carrying the
cliff farther and farther inland ; secondly, the
breakers were lifting these limestone beds, where
SAVED FROM THE SEA 167
they cropped out over the beach ; and, thirdly,
the rain sinking into the subsoil under the church-
yard had caused very serious slips.
A ferro-concrete wall was built on the beach,
on a firm layer of limestone, thus protecting the
lower part of the cliff from the action of the sea
(see Fig. 17). The layer of limestone (a) pro-
jected beyond the shale {b) which was cut away
by the spray — leaving the limestone beds pro-
imestone
(a) ( — 7^^ ^ I imeotnnp
Limestone
Fig. 17.
jecting, until they broke off. Now the shale has
been protected by concrete — and this holds up
the limestone beds.
The same treatment was accorded to the layers
of stone on the beach, the work being super-
intended by my late son Charles Beresford Fox,
Associate Member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers : an experienced engineer, whose prema-
ture death was a great loss to the profession.
In October 1923 Dr. Cooper, the well-known
i68 CHURCHES AND BRIDGES
medical man of Lyme Regis, who keeps a careful
eye on the sea-wall and slopes, wrote to me
saying " the sea-wall is standing splendidly."
He added that there was no movement in the
grass clay slope above the cliff. The work will
add many years to the age of the church and that
part of the town.
This denudation of the underlying shale is
practically identical with that going on under the
falls of Niagara — which explains the continual
receding of the falls towards Lake Michigan. A
thick layer of limestone rock is resting on a cliff
of shale which under the action of the spray is
being eaten away until a projecting shelf some
40 ft. in thickness is left unsupported. This in
course of time breaks off — and the form of the
falls undergoes a change.
Until within the last forty or fifty years there
was an observation tower — " Terrapin Tower " —
which had been erected on some jutting rock, a
good many yards behind the " lip " of the Fall.
But it has now gone over the edge owing to the
undermining of the limestone — and the falls have
receded to this extent within a few years.
Church of St. Mary, Bishophill Junior,
York
This ancient church, dating back to the Saxon
period, has a fine Saxon tower and many archi-
tectural features of the same date.
The tower had some very serious cracks jeo-
pardising its safety, and I placed the repairs in
the hands of the Scottish mason, Mr. Glen ; the
STEEPLE TOWER 252 FEET 169
total cost of the work amounted to £80, and the
tower will last for many centuries to come.
St. Oswald's Church, Ashbourne, Derbyshire
On November 18, 1912, I was requested to visit
the old church of Ashbourne, which had been
described by " George Eliot " as " the finest mere
Parish Church in the kingdom, dating back to the
fourteenth century — or over 500 years old."
With my old friend Colonel Jelf, one of the
churchwardens, I made a careful examination of
the fabric, and in a few minutes arrived at the con-
clusion that the south-east pier of the tower was
sinking. The corner was so seriously cracked that it
was threatening to fall bodily off. If this had hap-
pened, the turret carrying the bell-ringers' stairway
would also have gone, and the lofty spire with it.
The tower is 75 ft. in height, and there springs
from it a fine steeple 177 ft. high, making a total
height of 252 ft. Serious cracks ran in all direc-
tions, both in tower and steeple, and the masonry
was being crushed under the weight. In fact we
found a load of masonry lying on the roof of the
South Transept, which had fallen only a few
days before.
The position was urgently critical, and I gave
orders that the ringing of the fine bells should be
stopped at once.
Colonel Jelf told me that they intended to take
in hand the repairs in the following April or May ;
but I pointed out to him that not a day should
elapse before some remedial steps were taken, or
the probability was that no church would be left
170 CHURCHES AND BRIDGES
to repair ! I advised him to telegraph at once to
Messrs. Thompson of Peterborough to send on the
following day their foreman and two or three
men with a grouting machine, to blow cement
into the worst cracks.
At the same time, I advised him to allow me to
send for Sir Thomas Jackson, Bart., R.A., my colla-
borator at Winchester Cathedral ; whose expert
architectural knowledge was of great assistance.
One of the chief features of the work was the re-
pair of the steeple, the masonry of which is 7 in.
in thickness, or 5^00 of the height, the same ratio
which exists in the fine spire of Salisbury Cathedral.
We found that the old walls of the Nave and
Aisles, and particularly of the Transepts, were
very hollow and badly built — the stone had
disintegrated, and it was necessary to grout up
the walls throughout. These latter were bonded
into the tower walls, which were strengthened by
a masonry chain-bond to take the outward thrust
of the steeple. Strong ties of a suitable alloy of
copper were also bolted through the tower, and
when this was completed, all the cracks in the
steeple were filled up with cement, and new bond
stones replaced the crushed masonry.
The repairs were executed with great care and
skill by Messrs. Thompson.
To the delight of all the residents for miles
around on July 19, 1919, Victory Day, the fine
peal of bells sent their welcome message up and
down the Ashbourne Valley, after an enforced
silence of six whole years. Colonel Jelf unhappily
did not live to see the completion of the work.
THE ROMAN FOUNDATION 171
Bow Church
About the time of the opening of the Central
London Railway, an alarming paragraph appeared
in a certain London daily paper, renowned for
its accuracy, to the effect that owing to the
tunnelling operations, the spire of Bow Church
in Cheapside was 13 ft. 6 in. out of upright.
The Rector and his Wardens were consequently
perturbed by this statement, and requested us
to examine and report on the subject. In the
course of our investigation, several matters came
to light which are of considerable interest, and
deserve to be placed on record.
It was deemed advisable, pending the investiga-
tion as to the cause and extent of the injury,
to stop the pealing of the bells — which was
accordingly done, and a facetious friend com-
menting upon this remarked that, as we all know
those children born within the sound of Bow Bells
are "cockneys," the curious result was that, for
the time during which the bells were silent, no
" cockneys " were born.
It appears that the foundations of the tower
and spire stand upon the ancient pavement, of
Roman times, of Cheapside, which to-day is some
18 ft. below the present level of the street.
This continual raising of the level of London is
doubtless due to the fact that the rubbish, resulting
from the various fires from which the City has
suffered in years gone by, and from the demolition
of buildings, was not carted away, as is done to-
day ; but the surface was simply levelled down,
and the new buildings erected upon it.
172 CHURCHES AND BRIDGES
That there were cracks in the portion of the
fabric connecting the church with the tower, is
undoubtedly true, but that they were of ancient
origin, is no doubt also correct. Our task was to
ascertain whether the tower and spire were out
of perpendicular, and if so to what extent.
At first sight, nothing seemed easier than to
drop a plumb-bob and line from the top of the
spire to the ground, but we soon found that there
was no access to the upper part of the steeple,
and that if it had to be reached, it would be
necessary to erect a scaffolding — a matter of
considerable expense.
We therefore decided to take the necessary
measurements and angles by means of theodolite
observations from both ends of Cheapside : but
now a fresh difficulty presented itself.
Owing to it then being winter, the mornings
and evenings were so dark, that the traffic had
commenced and continued to run, before and
after any such steps could be taken.
We therefore had to wait until the summer,
when in the early mornings we could have the
free use of Cheapside before carts had commenced
to pass. But we found that, although no traffic
was passing, the vibration in the instrument was
so great that no accurate result could at first be
ascertained. The goods traffic on the London,
Chatham and Dover Railway passing over Lud-
gate Hill, the early trains on the Central London
and District Railways, and even on the Metro-
politan Railway at Farringdon Street, all recorded
themselves on this delicate instrument, and we
THE THROB OF LONDON 173
began to think we should fail to obtain any reliable
result, and that London was never free from tremor.
At last, however, it was found on a bright
summer's Sunday morning about 4 a.m. that the
throb and vibration of London had ceased for a
short period, and just at that moment we were
able to obtain accurate measurements.
Instead of 13 ft. 6 in. (which of course had been
misprinted instead of 13 J in.), we found that the
total divergence from a vertical line was 8 in.,
which was exactly accounted for by the small
cracks visible in the walls of the structure.
Ford End Church
This is a modern church, only twenty years old :
badly cracked, and the Chancel roof just about to
collapse and to fall into the church.
I do not desire to weary my readers by an
account of the same method of saving the fabric
by grouting, but an amusing episode occurred
which is too good to be lost.
It was noticed that, in this purely agricultural
district, the raising of the necessary funds was
difficult. I suggested that this was due to bad
harvests, but I was assured this was not the cause,
and a farmer went to the Vicar to explain the
reason. He said :
" We farmers don't believe in this grouting,
so we have looked out the meaning in a dictionary :
the definition given is that ' to grout ' is to blow
liquid cement into a wall, and turn it into a mono-
lith. On turning to see what a monolith is, it is
described as a solid block of rock or stone.
174 CHURCHES AND BRIDGES
" We don't want our church to be made into
a solid block of rock or stone — it would not be
possible to walk along the Nave or the Chancel.
The pews and pulpit would be buried in cement,
and although this would make the church much
firmer, we don't see the use of making it stronger
if we could not use it afterwards. We should have
to hold the services in the churchyard, which
would be very cold and disagreeable."
PORTINSCALE BRIDGE, DeRWENTWATER
In 191 1 the late Rev. Canon Rawnsley wrote
to ask if this picturesque old bridge could be
satisfactorily repaired, so as to obviate the neces-
sity of its removal by the Cumberland County
Council, who proposed to construct an entirely
new bridge with costly approaches amounting
probably to £8,000.
A strong local committee was formed for the
defence of the old bridge — and after a prolonged
contest, extending over a period of seven years,
permission was given for the extension and repair
of the structure. It was originally a pack-horse
bridge dating back to a.d. 1300, and many years
ago it was doubled in width.
It was completely repaired, without any altera-
tion in its appearance, for £612, and is to-day
carrying the heaviest motor-lorries and wagons.
The Royal Automobile Club rendered most
valuable aid in getting the old bridge retained
as being a very picturesque object in the landscape
and attracting many of their members into the
district.
PORTINSCALE BRIDGE 175
The Old Mill Bridge near Oxenhulme
The saving of Old Mill Bridge near Oxenhulme
by the grouting machine may be briefly referred
to here, in order to illustrate once more the extra-
ordinary cheapness and efficacy of this method
of saving old structures. The bridge is an arch of
22 ft. span — and was originally a pack-horse
bridge, about 6 ft. in width. At some period
in its history it had been widened — and then the
operation was repeated later on, until its width
between the parapets was 22 ft.
When I saw the bridge it was very seriously
cracked and some of the arch stones had fallen
out badly. I sent Glen to repair it — and the
total expense worked out at only £50.
The county of Westmorland are much indebted
to Col. J. W. Weston, M.P., for his prompt action
in the matter. Since that date, several other
bridges have been saved by the application of the
grouting machine, amongst which may be men-
tioned Bideford Bridge in Devon, the Bridges of
Grange and Portinscale (so closely associated with
the memory of the late Rev. H. D. Rawnsley, Vicar
of Crossthwaite and Canon of Carlisle Cathedral),
and the ancient bridge across the River Dee at
Chester. Many structures on the main railways of
the kingdom have been repaired instead of being
demolished ; and I venture to think that other
important bridges of Great Britain could also
be preserved if judiciously treated by the grouting
method.
CHAPTER XV
THE nurses' home IN GREAT ORMOND STREET
It was by a happy accident that I learned of the
danger threatening the Nurses' Home in Great
Ormond Street, and was able to avert it. On
Saturday, April 13, 1912, Mr. John Murray and
his son called to see Lady Fox and myself. In
the course of the conversation, he happened to
mention that this Home attached to the Hospital
for Sick Children in Great Ormond Street had been
declared by the District Surveyor to be a dangerous
structure, and was to be demolished. In con-
sequence of this the staff had vacated the premises,
the furniture had been removed, and on Monday
or Tuesday the " housebreakers " were to begin
their operations. This, said Mr. Murray, was a
very serious blow to the hospital. Not only
would there be the difficulty of housing the staff
for two years, but an entirely unexpected expense
of £4,000 to £5,000 would have to be met.
I offered to go, in my capacity as a friend, and
inspect the house on Monday morning, and as a
committee of the hospital was to meet that after-
noon I undertook to report at once, in time for
the meeting, whether in my opinion the structure
could be saved or not.
I found that this picturesque house was built
some 250 years ago, between the Jacobean and
176
SAVING FIVE THOUSAND POUNDS 177
Queen Anne periods ; it was enclosed by hand-
some iron railings, and had a fine oak staircase,
panelled walls, moulded ceilings, and marble
mantelpieces, and had probably been the residence
of a French Ambassador. It has been stated that
it was from this house, then occupied by Lord
Chancellor Thurlow, that the Great Seal of office
was stolen on the night of March 24, 1784.
The house was built of brick in lime, and in
the basement and ground floor had framings of
timber, many of which were rotten. There were
no footings, and the lime in the mortar in the
course of two hundred and fifty, or more, years
had perished. The result was that the courses
of bricks were lying on dry sand, and it was possible
by using a 7-lb. hammer to get a " swing " on the
main walls in the nature of a pendulum.
I came away feeling that the District Surveyor,
Mr. Perkins, was fully justified in calling for the
destruction of the house. But the great utility
of the building and its perfect equipment, no less
than its aesthetic and antiquarian interest, made
it very desirable to do the utmost that could be
done to save it. I was convinced that it could not
only be saved by the application of the grouting
machine without the removal of a brick, but that
when the work was completed the structure would
be transformed into a monolith, and rendered
immensely stronger than it had ever been,
without the smallest alteration in its appearance.
I reported to this effect and asked permission
to make an experiment on a small portion of one
of the walls. But to do this it was necessary to
178 NURSES' HOME IN GREAT ORMOND STREET
get from the Surveyor a postponement of the
order for demolition. I therefore called upon him
immediately. He had no experience of the
grouting machine, and had never seen one, but
on my assurance that I would ask for nothing
that might increase the danger, or imperil his
position and reputation as District Surveyor, and
that I wished him to watch the operation, he very
kindly deferred the notice for a fortnight.
My next step was to send to Messrs. Thompson
& Sons of Peterborough, who had both men and
machines at liberty, and after ten days' work we
all agreed that the experiment was a great success.
Beginning at the lowest course of bricks (after
furnishing proper footings), we grouted up all the
walls course by course. The timber framing we
removed piecemeal as the work proceeded. Thus
the walls were gradually strengthened from floor
to floor. When we got to the roof, a difficulty
presented itself. The parapet was only 9 in.
in thickness, and I had previously never dealt
with such thin work ; but a very useful sugges-
tion was made by the foreman, which overcame
the difficulty. By the time the process was
finished no one would have known that anything
had been done to the house, so little had its
appearance of age been altered.
Within five or six weeks Mr. Perkins withdrew
his order to pull down ; in five months the saving
of the house was completed ; within six months
the nursing staff, much to their delight, were
again installed in their beloved home.
Mr. Thompson with his representative Mr.
GROUTING OLD BRICK HOUSE 179
Ferrar carried out the repairs in a most able
manner, whilst the men worked with great
enthusiasm to save the building and to keep down
the expenses. The approximate cost of the
grouting was £420. The removal of the timber
cost £35. To this must be added the cost of
removing and replacing the old oak panelling,
to avoid staining the wood — namely, £108. The
total cost was therefore £563 instead of the £5,000
or more which would have had to be spent if the
building had been demolished and rebuilt.
On the completion of the work, the committee
of the hospital very considerately wrote to Messrs.
Thompson, expressing the cordial thanks
" of our committee for the skill and energy dis-
played in saving this old house for us. It seems to
us to have been a great triumph for the grouting
process, and both on the score of economy to the
hospital, and of interest in the preservation of
old houses, we congratulate you on the success
which you have achieved.
" Again thanking you,
" We remain. Dear Sirs,
" Yours faithfully,
(Signed) " Arthur Lucas, Chairman.
" John Murray, V ice-Chairman."
This is thefirst instance of an old dwelling-house,
condemned by the local authority, having been
saved by the grouting machine, and it certainly
ought not to be the last.
H.M. Office of Works, to whom I explained
the system, have adopted it for the repair and
saving of many old buildings, the property of the
i8o NURSES' HOME IN GREAT ORMOND STREET
nation, and have several grouting machines con-
stantly at work. My firm have used the method
of grouting, or, as it is now termed in connection
with large works, " the cementation process,"
on engineering work with as high a pressure as
4,000 lb. to the square inch. But in our work
upon cathedral churches, towers, and such-like
we never exceed a pressure of 60 to 100 lb. per
square inch.
CHAPTER XVI
SAINT SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE CAM-
PANILE OF SAN MARCO AT VENICE
(i) Church of Saint Sophia, Constantinople
In January 191 1, during one of my numerous
visits to Constantinople, I was asked by the late
Sir Edwin Pears, who had resided there for fifty
years, if I were disposed to report on the condition
of the fine Church of Saint Sophia, as to the safety
of which he entertained some doubts. I at once
agreed to do so and was then invited to make the
necessary inspection by the office of the Efkaf,
which corresponds to our Ecclesiastical Commis-
sioners. I was accompanied by the architect,
and the Minister of the Efkaf — Kemaledden Bey —
on my first visit, and a week later I made a minute
examination of the fabric with one of his assistants.
I had not the pleasure of meeting Signer
Mongeri, who was not at that date in the city,
but I had the good fortune of discussing the
subject with Sir Thomas Jackson, Bart., R.A.,
whose able report on the building I had the pri-
vilege of perusing.
I found that serious movement had taken place
in the piers, columns and arches. The church
consists of four great arches which carry the large
dome, together with side aisles and a fine narthex
13 181
i82 SAINT SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE
at the entrance. The arches are distorted, and
the pendentives instead of curving outwards are
actually leaning inwards. Some of them indeed
no longer perform the functions of an arch.
Portions of the frescoed dome or roof have been
nipped and flaked off, and have fallen ; fillets or
" tell-tales " which had been fixed were cracked ;
some of the latter which were strips of glass, had
broken through and had fallen. All this indicated
serious movement, and I reported that no time
should be lost in applying remedial measures for
the safety of the building. However the Great
War came and no steps were taken to repair the
damage. For this purpose the grouting machine
should be applied throughout the church to render
it monolithic ; and the greatest care should be
taken to avoid the removal of the mosaics ; in
fact nothing should be done to deprive the
structure of its venerable character and appear-
ance. The movement of the dome should be
arrested and it should be rendered self-contained.
Unless the more urgent repairs are carried out,
the fabric may fall at any time, exposed as it is to
earthquake shocks. But one of the first opera-
tions should be the timbering up of the four great
arches and pendentives, and the centring of the
dome.
This Cathedral was built and consecrated as a
Christian church, but afterwards, falling into
the hands of the Turk, was transformed into
a mosque. Is it too much to suggest that it
might be maintained for the use of its original
worshippers ?
FALL OF CAMPANILE 183
(2) The Campanile of San Marco, Venice
I have visited Venice many times during past
years, and have always taken a special interest
in the Campanile of San Marco. It was erected in
A.D. 888, and had stood for one thousand and four-
teen years, when it fell at 9.52 a.m. on July 14, 1902,
providentially without causing loss of life or limb.
The structure was square on plan with an
inclined passage on the inside of the external
wall, and a horizontal landing at each corner.
The height was 322 ft., and it was built on a forest
of piles driven into the mud, so closely packed
together that it was impossible to insert an addi-
tional timber. This foundation consisted chiefly
of fir, but in places oak was also employed by the
original builders.
It is stated that Venice gradually subsides to the
extent of four inches in a century, but the sinking
of the tower seems to have been about half this.
The conditions which caused the disaster were
numerous and the result was not altogether
unanticipated. It was seriously cracked from top
to bottom, and tied together with iron rods. Yet
in Venice, as elsewhere, the public mind is not
given to nervousness about the stability of build-
ings. If a structure has stood for centuries it is
seldom believed that there can be any particular
reason why it should fall. Often, in our own
country, the much needed repairs have been post-
poned until actual danger was imminent. At
the present time many of our cathedrals and
churches are in urgent need of repair. St. Paul's
i84 CAMPANILE OF SAN MARCO AT VENICE
fairly heads the list of these. Others, such as
Winchester, have been saved in time. There are,
therefore, lessons to be learned from the fall of the
Campanile.
It appears that this tower had been struck by
lightning on more than one occasion. This was
doubtless due to ignorance of the fact, which
electrical science has since made clear, that proper
*' earths " should always be made by the copper
lightning conductors. Other causes, however, had
been at work to bring about the sad destruction of
this fine edifice. The custodian who lived on
the ground floor of the Campanile had surreptiti-
ously enlarged his rooms by cutting out a consider-
able portion of the main wall, and thus seriously
reducing the size of the supports. But an even
more important factor was the existence at regular
intervals of certain urinals in the passage. These
had been neglected for centuries, and the sewage
had permeated the walls, which were built in
brick with lime mortar, to such an extent that the
lime had been destroyed and the whole tower
consisted simply of bricks lying on sand, without
any proper cohesion.
In 1894, on the occasion of one of my visits, I
was much alarmed by what I saw, and was on
the point of writing to the Italian Government to
call their attention to the danger of collapse.
But I was informed that all the ecclesiastical
buildings were under the care of the well-known
and able engineer and architect Signor Saccaxdo.
I therefore refrained from writing as I feared that
I might be thought guilty of interference with
OUR GONDOLIER 185
those in charge, but I shall never cease to regret
that I did not carry out my original intentions.
I wrote, however, to a friend in the City of London
explaining to him, in an ordinary and casual letter,
what my fears were, and told him that in my judg-
ment the Campanile would fall within ten years.
Eight years later, in 1902, just as a testimonial
was about to be presented to Signor Saccardo
on account of his constant and careful control of
the buildings under his supervision, the tower fell,
and the unfortunate architect was so affected
that he died, it was said, from a broken heart.
On the morning of the catastrophe the cracks
in the tower showed signs of opening, and the
custodian and all others in the building had suffi-
cient time to leave the structure. In the meantime
a large crowd assembled in the Piazza and saw it
fall, and photographs were actually taken at the
very moment of its collapse. The extraordinary
thing was, that it did not fall on to the adjacent
buildings, but on to its own foundation, leaving
a great pyramid, or perhaps I should say a great
cone of debris, consisting of dry bricks and dry
sand with no cohesion between them.
Our old gondolier, Giovanni Padovane, who
died at the age of eighty during the bombardment
of Venice by the Germans, described to me in
touching language " the merciful protection by
God of our dear Cathedral of San Marco by not
allowing a fragment of the tower, when it fell,
to injure the church, although the angel from the
summit, in falling, blocked the entrance nearest
to the Campanile."
i86 CAMPANILE OF SAN MARCO AT VENICE
In one of his last letters this old friend of our
family concluded in these touching words :
" Pray accept my salutations and receive again
the good wishes, and the kisses on your charitable
hand : when I do death, your name will be on my
lips, from your old and humble gondolier
" Giovanni Padovane."
Under the care of Count Grimani, the Sindaco
or Mayor of Venice, the names of whose ancestors
occur in the city annals for six centuries or more,
immediate steps were taken to rebuild the tower.
The original piles were examined, and were found
to be in excellent condition and undisturbed.
Count Grimani very kindly presented me with
specimens of the old oak and fir, embossed with
the official stamp of the Municipality, both of
which are as hard and firm as when first driven
down a thousand years ago, thus showing that
no defect existed in the foundations.
The architects therefore decided to leave the
original five lowest masonry courses of the tower
intact and to surround the existing pile foundation
with a much increased area or barricade of piles
on all four sides, in the form of a square. These
timbers, 3,000 in all, are chiefly of oak about
8 in. in diameter and 15 ft. in length — more
than double the length of the old piles. They are
driven close together from the outside towards the
centre, so as to compress the underlying clay and
give not only additional support to the old founda-
tion, but increased bearing area for carrying the
load of the replaced tower. The weight of the
THREE STEPS OR FIVE? 187
latter has, in redesigning, been reduced by 3,000
tons, while the area of the timber foundation has
been more than doubled.
All the important fragments of the tower, its
bells and the golden angel from the summit, and
also the remains of the adjacent loggetta with its
statuary and bronze gates, have been carefully
preserved. The statue of the Madonna, which
was broken into 1,603 fragments, has been so
cleverly restored that it is difficult to realise that
it had been so seriously damaged. This feat
recalls the piecing together of the celebrated
Portland Tazza vase in the British Museum, which
was smashed to fragments by a lunatic in 1845.
Before the rebuilding of the masonry courses
upon which the brickwork stands, there arose
what was known as the " battle of the five
steps " which gave rise to a great discussion
throughout Italy. That five steps had existed
is certain, but it is also certain that only three were
visible above the pavement of the Piazza, the
other two having vanished out of sight owing to
the general sinking of Venice, and the movement of
the tower itself. The pavement of the square had,
in course of ages, been levelled up. To ordinary
readers it might appear somewhat immaterial
whether three steps or five should be reproduced,
but to the Itahan mind, in which sentiment and
love of the antique are pre-eminent, the question
was all-important. After an immense discussion it
was decided that five steps should be constructed,
and five steps have accordingly been constructed,
and are visible to all who visit the Piazza.
CHAPTER XVII
THE STATE OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
Visitors to the City of London naturally make
one of their first pilgrimages to its great Cathedral.
On few of those who do so does it fail to make a
lasting impression. Its dimensions, the height
and magnitude of the Dome, the Ball, and the
surmounting Cross, are singularly imposing. And
the stern, sombre gloom of the masonry, mainly
attributable to London smoke, deepens its effective-
ness. Moreover, it is — as no English visitor can
forget — not only a grand church, but an Empire's
mausoleum, in which many of our noblest have
been laid to rest. And, beyond its architectural
and sepulchral greatness, the Cathedral of St.
Paul's is profoundly impressive, because it stands
at the centre of the greatest Empire the world has
ever seen, as a witness to the faith of a leading
Christian nation.
Yet this magnificent monument is to-day in
danger, and a few words of explanation will enable
my readers to understand the situation. To
the man in the street, St. Paul's has such an appear-
ance of solidity and weight, and good honest
work, that he passes on with a feeling that it is
imperishable, and that it is not only " good
enough for his time," but ought to stand for ages
to come. Yet a public statement was recently
i88
DEAN SANCROFT 189
made that it might be necessary to close the
Cathedral, and even as these pages are being
corrected for the press a fresh controversy has
arisen as to the effect which the construction of
a new bridge over the Thames might have upon
the stability of St. Paul's.
What is the matter with the fabric ? Why did
Sir Christopher Wren give it a probable life of
only 200 years ? When I was consulted in
November 191 2 by the Dean and Chapter on the
state of the edifice, I felt that it was a matter of
national importance not only to answer these
questions thoroughly, but to secure the future
safety of the Cathedral, if that could by any means
be done. There have been three churches on this
site, including the present one. The second
Cathedral was a fine Gothic church with a very
high spire, some 600 ft. It suffered many times
from conflagration and lightning, and was finally
destroyed in the Great Fire of London. In the
year 1668 Wren was instructed, by Dean Sancroft,
to prepare designs for an entirely new building.
Among the many difficulties which he had to
face was the disposal of the ruins and rubbish of
the burnt Cathedral. In the great fires the
practice was not to attempt the removal of the
debris, but to level it down and build upon it.
For instance the present surface of Cheapside
is 18 ft. higher than it was in Roman times, and
the tower of Bow Church rests upon the Roman
pavement. It will be seen later how the exist-
ence of all this debris affected the building of the
present Cathedral.
190 THE STATE OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
My first report was called for in consequence
of a proposal to construct an underground tram-
way and station near the end walls of the Choir of
St. Paul's, and far below the foundations. The pro-
ject was withdrawn owing to great opposition ; but
the grave state of affairs revealed by the inves-
tigation called for a second report. I will attempt
to summarise my conclusions as clearly as I can.
The building is cruciform in plan. The Nave is
flanked by north and south aisles ; so also is the
Choir. Over the centre, where Nave and Choir
meet, and where the Transepts branch out to the
north and south, stands the great Dome. A
reference to Fig. i8 will show that there is an
internal dome visible from the floor of the building,
resting at about the level of the Whispering
Gallery on a circular wall, which transmits the
weight of this internal dome to the arches and
piers below. There is also an external dome
constructed of timber and lead ; and this it is
which is visible from all over London. The
external dome is similarly carried by another
circular wall on the same level ; and the inter-
vening space between these two great concentric
walls is divided by thirty-two buttresses into a
smaller number of chambers, each lo ft. by 7 ft.
On Fig. 20 these buttresses are shown projecting
beyond the outer circle of stone much like the teeth
of a large cog wheel in plan. Between these two
domes comes the great cone of brickwork which
carries the masonry of the Lantern, which in its
turn bears the weight of the Ball and the Cross.
Each of the thirty-two chambers can be entered
CHAMBERS IN DOME
191
jffiH^m
5ec//oo f-hr
=£-
Fig 18.— ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL : VERTICAL SECTION SHOWING THE INNER
AND OUTER DOMES, THE GREAT BRICKWORK CONE CARRYING THE
MASONRY LANTERN, THE BUTTRESSES AND CHAMBERS AT LEVEL OF
WHISPERING GALLERY.
only through a small aperture in the main wall
(which is 4 ft. in thickness) 13^ in. in width and
16 in. in height. The mode of entrance is
192 THE STATE OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
peculiar : one cannot go through on hands and
knees, since the height is so hmited, nor can one
wriggle through. The method is that by which
a baker places his loaves in an oven. A plank
12 in. in width is held level with the bottom of
the aperture, the visitor lies down on the plank,
and drawing in his arms and knees is pushed
through into the chamber. Inside there is no
light nor ventilation, and nobody can remain for
more than a few minutes. Once, indeed, a man
stayed in too long and became so heated that he
was too large to go back. Buckets of water had
to be thrown over him to cool him down and thus
reduce his size before he could be extricated. He
strongly objected to going in a second time.
In order to ascertain the condition of the fabric,
it was necessary to enter all these thirty-two
chambers and to take photographs of the walls.
The depth to which the foundations had been
carried was very shallow — only 4 ft. 6 in. below
the floor of the Crypt and 12 ft. below the surface
of St. Paul's Churchyard. The warehouses on
the opposite side of the street are carried down
25 ft. ; and the sewer in Godliman Street runs
35 ft. below the street level ; in each case wet
gravel and quicksand were encountered. To make
the Cathedral secure against future buildings
and excavations it should undoubtedly be under-
pinned, or carried down throughout into the Blue
London Clay, otherwise the quicksand on which
it stands may be drawn away. But much else
calls for attention before this serious and difficult
work can be undertaken.
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194 THE STATE OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
The Dome of St. Paul's is carried (see Fig. 21)
on eight piers. In addition to these, four large
bastions were provided to take some of the weight.
It has, however, been ascertained that, owing to
movements and cracks, these latter have broken
„ „ away and
Holes la'/i'l^ ^^ J
for access to QO nOt aS-
s IS t the
piers. The weight
of the Dome at
the bottom of the
footings has been
estimated at
60,000 tons or
about 7,400 tons
on each pier.
Now the masonry
Buttr.esses (32) Space between buttresses of thCSC plerS
m'o"x7'o" ^ Z . '
Fig. 20.— HORIZONTAL SECTION AT X-Y OF whlch aUy VlsltOr
WALLS CARRYING DOME (see Fig. i8) SHOWING ■ , i /^ 4.
BUTTRESSES AND CHAMBERS AT LEVEL OF tO tnC Lrypt CaU
WHISPERING GALLERY. ,
see, seems at
first sight to be of excellent Portland Stone,
apparently capable of carrying almost any load ;
but the inquiry brought out the startling fact
that this fine masonry is only a thin veneer, in
some places not more than 4 to 6 in. thick, and
that the interior is filled in with badly executed
rough rubble.
The piers at Crypt level (see Fig. 22) are
approximately 43 ft. in length by 20 ft. in width,
with an average thickness of Portland stone veneer
of 12 in. We are led to the conclusion that a kind
of large rectangular bath was formed into which
THE EIGHT PIERS
195
eC=>'
anyhow
attempt
material.
'CzK.
'■€30
\
\
I
D-'l]
B
Fig. 21.— plan SHOWING PIERS
OF DOME FROM REPORT OF
AUGUST 1907.
The Pier A has descended bodily 6i in.
B
3i ,,
Sl-
at,.
2ft..
2A..
2A..
lime was thrown, and
into this lime the stone
debris from the former
building was dumped
without any
to bed the
Just as a
child throws his bricks
into the box without
arrangement, so did the
builders throw the
various materials into
the framework of the
piers. Lumps of Pur-
beck marble, Caen stone,
Bath and sandstone
bricks lie there mixed up promiscuously together.
Some of them could even be moved between
finger and thumb.
All the eight piers have at some time or other
moved, the degree of subsidence varying from
2 to 6J in. Some have subsided on the " toe,"
others on the " heel " of the pier, and enormous
strains have thus been put on the superincumbent
arches. Frequent re-
pairs have been effected
at various dates.
In 1 831 the Corpora-
tion of London proposed
to construct a deep sewer
on the south side of the
Fig. 22.-HORIZONTAL SECTION Cathedral from Watling
ol cr??t:° '^- ^'""^^ ''°°'' Street to Godliman
'■,, Rough Rubble
196 THE STATE OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
Street, and they had a shaft sunk at the foot of
the steps of the South Transept. This pit was
excavated to a depth of 31 ft. below the street
level, no less than 20 ft. below the foundations
of the Cathedral, and was described in the reports
of the date as being, for the first few feet, in gravel,
water, and dangerous quicksand, which could
not be retained in one's hand. This pit was a
very great danger to the Cathedral, for out of it
" hundreds of tons " of this quicksand or silt were
removed by steam pumps. A strong protest was
made by many eminent engineers and architects,
amongst them Telford, Brunei, Acton, Rennie, and
Cockerell, pointing out that a grave risk was being
incurred. " Already," they declared, " damage
may have been occasioned."
The sewer was therefore abandoned and the
shaft filled up, but great damage and dislocation
had been caused to the building. The eight piers
carrying the Dome have been badly cracked, the
four large bastions have been sheared off and are
not now carrying their load, and of the thirty-two
buttresses which were intended to distribute the
weight on to the piers and walls, twenty-three are
badly fissured, and, in some cases, practically
sheared. The drum of the Dome is also cracked,
and when the Dome was plumbed in August 1901
by Mr. Somers Clarke it was found to be 4! in.
out of the perpendicular in a south-westerly
direction. We measured this again in March
1913, and found that the divergence had increased
to 5| in.
In view of the gravity of all these indications
SIR JOHN WOLFE BARRY 197
I suggested at a meeting of the Dean and Chapter
that they should call in some leading engineer
or architect to whom all the facts and measure-
ments should be submitted, together with the
various reports and my own personal evidence.
In reply to a question by the Dean, I recom-
mended either the President of the Institution
of Civil Engineers, or the President of the Royal
Institute of British Architects, with the result
that I was instructed to see the then President
of the Institution of Civil Engineers, the late
Sir John Wolfe Barry, F.R.S.
I accordingly interviewed Sir John Wolfe Barry,
and he asked me what the business would entail.
I informed him that besides the perusal of all the
various reports, a careful examination of the
whole fabric would be necessary. After much
consideration he said, " Fox, I cannot undertake
what you do, climbing vertical ladders 80 ft. in
height, getting round the cornice and examining
the thirty-two chambers round the Dome, the
entrance to each of which is so small that a man
of my size and age could not enter. But I will
tell you what I will do : I will send an engineer
of wide experience who has done much work for
me and he will do all that is necessary and inform
me, and I will issue a report on the results of his
visit." This engineer was Mr. R. C. H. Davison,
M.Inst.C.E., whom I had never seen previously.
He spent eleven days upon the investigation,
which was made with the utmost care, but he very
properly never gave me the smallest indication of
the result of his visit. He duly reported to Sir
14
1 98 THE STATE OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
John Wolfe Barry, and that gentleman, I believe,
in his turn reported to the Chapter.
I have not seen either of the reports; but when the
work was done Mr. Davison wrote more than once
to me, and extracts from his letters are sufficient
to indicate the conclusions to which he had come.
The following paragraph from our Committee
to the Dean and Chapter shows the conclusion at
which we had arrived.
Extract from Report of September 3, 1913
" In the judgment of your Committee, the
present condition of the building is such as to
require the immediate strengthening of the sup-
ports of the Dome, the grouting up of piers and
masonry generally, and the insertion of bonding
stones, also the removal of iron cramps without
waiting for more careful observations. Before
this can be safely carried out, the arches must
be supported on centres and the piers strutted.
[Signed'] " Mervyn Macartney, Chairman.
R. C. H. Davison.
Francis Fox."
The proper sequence of operations in repairs
of this character is, as I have often said, as follows :
No. I. To shore and timber up the walls, and
to centre the arches, in order to relieve them of as
much weight as possible, and also to prevent any
broken pieces of stone from falling.
No. 2. To wash out with water and grout up
with cement the masonry or brickwork, rendering
the whole mass monolithic, so that any opera-
tions on the foundations may be as free from risk
as possible.
FLAKING-OFF OF MASONRY 199
No. 3. To replace broken masonry and to
insert the necessary bond stones.
No. 4. When all this has been done steps may
be taken to strengthen the foundations.
It is evident that to alter this sequence in any
way is to court disaster. Not a stone should be
moved nor cut open, even to remove the old rusty
iron ties, until all grouting is done.
If reference be made to The Illustrated Nevus,
January 11, 1913, it will be seen that for years
past cracked stones have been removed and re-
placed by new stones, and these again in some
cases have been crushed. The fact is that the
masonry is severely overloaded, and the only way
in which the material can call attention to the
danger, is to flush or flake off pieces which either
fall into the church or are removed before they
fall. On one of my visits I found on No. i Pier,
some 30 ft. above the floor of the church, a large
piece of Portland stone which had been flaked off,
and which was fortunately caught by one of the
ornaments. I lifted it on to the scaffold and
measured it. It was 20 in. in width, 24 in. in
height, and had an average thickness of 2 in.
The fracture was quite new, not a speck of dust
nor soot was present — and it proved recent
movement. To replace such a broken stone does
nothing to take the load, which can only be carried
by the remaining portion of the fractured block.
Consequently the bearing area of the masonry of
the piers is being constantly and automatically
reduced. The result, if this process continues, is
inevitable.
200 THE STATE OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
Nor is this the only cause of the increasing
weakness. During the redecoration of St. Paul's,
a few years ago, large panels, some inches in depth,
were cut in the great arches carrying the Dome
in order to give shadow. These arches were
already overloaded and the removal of the stone
for the panels increased the load on the remainder
of the masonry. It was noticed that there was a
metallic ring each time a blow from the mason's
hammer was struck, and the fragments flew off
in all directions as from a gun. This proved that
the stones were under heavy pressure. In my
opinion it was most undesirable and dangerous,
thus to reduce the strength of these arches. Every-
thing possible should be done to increase their
strength, and at the same time to reduce the load.
All other work should be left until it can be car-
ried out without risking the safety of the building.
To indicate movement in cracks, cement fillets
or tell-tales should, in all cases, be fixed. The
method of using stamp paper for this purpose is
inaccurate and unreliable.
The proper method of carrying out the repairs
" above ground," difficult as it is, is compara-
tively clear. But the problem of strengthening
the foundations is more difficult. The first thing
to be done was to ascertain whether in fact
quicksand exists underneath St. Paul's Cathedral.
The opinion has been confidently advanced —
that there is no quicksand under the Cathedral.
I was, myself, equally confident, from my exten-
sive experience in sinking shafts for the tube
railways, that it did exist ; and this belief of
WATER UNDER CATHEDRAL 201
mine was subsequently confirmed by the excava-
tions on the Post Office site, particulars of which
follow. But proof of the conditions actually
beneath St. Paul's was obtainable. Excavation
close to the Cathedral, as at Winchester, was
impossible, owing to the graves ; but I received
permission to sink an artesian well in the Crypt,
and by means of an electric light lowered down the
well, we not only proved the existence of water,
but could actually see it flowing in the direction
of the Thames.
The next thing to do was to find out whether
by means of grouting, the beds of gravel, clay,
and quicksand could be made solid without actual
underpinning. Permission was obtained from
the authorities to try the experiment of grouting
the subsoil on the vacant area near the Cathedral,
formerly occupied by the Post Office, at the
west end of Cheapside. Some tubes known as
Abyssinian wells were driven down to the clay,
and a powerful machine was employed for forcing
in cement. A pressure of 400 lb. to the square
inch was used, and inch by inch the tube was
drawn up, thus exposing the layers of sand and
the gravel to the injection of the cement.^
We obtained very satisfactory results on the
Post Office site. The gravel was formed into
solid conglomerate, the beds of clay were per-
meated by bands of cement, and even the quick-
^ We have recently been using a much higher pressure in
South Africa in the cementation of fissured rock with complete
success, the pumps being capable of exerting a pressure of 4,000 lb,
to the square inch.
202 THE STATE OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
sand in the vicinity of the tube was transformed
into a fairly hard sandstone. If further experi-
ments and tests yield similar results, it would
seem that St. Paul's Cathedral can be safely
founded on the London Blue Clay without the
expense and risk of actual excavation.
Besides carrying out this experiment, we made
an actual excavation from the surface down to
the solid Blue Clay, a total depth below street
level of 42 ft., in order to ascertain the state of
the strata. By ordinary excavation the water
level was reached at a depth of 32 ft. At that
point progress was arrested by the presence of
this water, which exactly confirmed the experience
of Sir Douglas and myself when we constructed the
forty-six shafts for the tube railways of London.
The aid of a diver was secured from Messrs. Siebe &
Gorman in the person of our tried and trusted
friend the late Mr. William Walker, who did such
magnificent work under Winchester Cathedral.
He continued the excavation under water down to
the Blue Clay, proving the existence not only of
water, but also of gravel and quicksand for a depth
of II ft. I, myself, went down in the dress to cor-
roborate all that he had reported. Both he and
I noticed particularly that the vibration caused
by motor omnibuses and heavy motor vans was
more perceptible at the bottom of the excavation
in the quicksand than at the surface, where the
gravel is dry and is above water level.
The effects of vibration upon the Cathedral in
its present condition are, indeed, considerable.
An independent scientific committee was ap-
QUICKSAND UNDER CATHEDRAL 203
pointed to report on this particular question.
I called their attention to the chattering of
the large mahogany doors of the Library whenever
a motor 'bus went by. A leading authority stated
that this was the result of the current of air passing
through the doorway. This was incorrect, as
I demonstrated by means of a lighted match.
There was no current of air sufficient to produce
such an effect, nor indeed to deflect the flame from
the vertical. It is disquieting to realise that the
vibration is even greater underneath the founda-
tions than it is upon the surface.
Almost all the preceding facts have been pub-
lished, at one time or other, by the Cathedral
authorities in The Times and other public news-
papers, and now a Committee is sitting— under
the Presidency of Sir Aston Webb, P.R.A.—
including three civil engineers of high standing
and wide experience, their task being to report
upon the Cathedral and its condition, with pro-
posals for making the fabric secure. We can only
wish them complete success in their arduous work.
They have, in their interim report (see The Times,
January 1922), stopped all repairs — and have
ordered the removal of all loose masonry inside
the Cathedral. Meanwhile the steelwork, which
has proved useless, has been scrapped.
We are now awaiting the Committee's final
report. But, as I am the only survivor who
has been actually in the quicksand so close to
St. Paul's as the Post Office site, and who is
thus acquainted beyond all possibility of mistake
with the real nature of the foundations of the
204 THE STATE OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
Cathedral, I have thought it right to publish the
main facts as I know them.
Our work on the Post Office site had a somewhat
amusing consequence. It is well known that on
the ground in question numerous Roman objects
have been, and no doubt still remain to be, dis-
covered. It was reported that a Roman Column
had been found, and it was surmised by the
learned that it probably had carried a bust of
Juno, or Minerva, or some other goddess. How-
ever, it was found to be of much more prosaic
origin, and was, in fact, one of the columns pro-
duced by our grouting experiment. It was a
modern parallel to the discovery by Mr. Pickwick
of the stone whereon was carved —
BILST
UM
PSHI
SM
ARK
It may interest the reader to know how the
Dome is plumbed. This is a delicate task, even
if the necessary apparatus is provided ; but our
first attempt ended in an amusing, or rather an
annoying, though instructive fiasco.
Whenever I have found it necessary to plumb
the shafts of tunnels or mines I have done it
in the following way. The requisite length is
obtained of hard-drawn german-silver wire -^ in,
in diameter. Such a wire has no tendency to
stretch, or to develop torsion. A heavy weight
or plumb-bob of 28 lb. is attached to the lower
PLUMBING THE DOME 205
extremity of the wire, and the upper end is fixed
by means of a very dehcate arrangement which
is capable of allowing lateral movement. The
tendency of the bob is to move as a long pendulum,
with a period of oscillation of 9*79 seconds. In
order to bring it to absolute rest, it is allowed to
hang suspended in a bucket of tar, the viscosity
of which very quickly stops the oscillation.
At St. Paul's, the necessary orders were given,
and we assembled under the Dome one evening
after the public had all left. An assistant was up
in the Golden Gallery, 315 ft. above the floor of
the church, and his instructions were to lower
the wire for attachment to the " bob." As the
height was too great for communication by word
of mouth, a code of flash signals by hand-lamp was
arranged. We waited for some time, and then
noticed a kind of wriggling snake slowly and
noiselessly coming down through the darkness
from above. At once I realised we were in for
a failure. Instead of a wire it was a fine rope,
which would be both elastic and subject to torsion
and unravelling. But no sooner had it reached
the ground than the assistant at the top let the
end slip through his fingers, and the whole length
of cord fell on to our heads in a tangled m.ass. We
had to disentangle it, coil it, and send it up by a
second messenger. After some little delay the
assistant at the top, wrongly imagining that the
operation was finished, released the cord a second
time and again it fell on our devoted heads in
another tangle. Once more we sent it up, by the
same unfortunate messenger, and at length we
2o6 THE STATE OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
had the satisfaction of knowing that at least we
had a cord from top to bottom, ahhough it was
not of the right material
A fresh series of troubles now confronted us.
The " bob " was only 7 lb. in weight instead of
28 lb. To avoid the possibility of tar being
splashed on the marble floor, the bucket had been
filled with water. The " bob " began to spin with
great rapidity and the cord to lengthen. The
centrifugal force threw the water all over the floor
and the oscillation was not retarded. It was
suggested that a handful of sawdust in the water
would offer some resistance to the spinning, but
the plumb-bob showed no intention of stopping
and threw both water and sawdust on to the floor .
The cord elongated, the bob reached the bottom
of the bucket and finally fell like a tipsy man on
to its side, and all our efforts were defeated.
We wisely decided to defer the task for two or
three weeks until I could obtain the proper tackle: to
wit, a fine piano wire which would neither stretch
nor rotate, a 28-lb. plumb-bob and a bucket of oil,
in which it would come to rest, and a proper and
accurate windlass on which the wire could be coiled.
We met again, and this time our efforts were
crowned with success. . The pendulum movement
was overcome, there was no tendency to rotation,
and we had now obtained a vertical and quiescent
wire, the exact position of which we were able to
record. The divergence from the centre of the
Dome was found, as I have already stated, to be
5f in. as compared with the results recorded a few
years earlier by Mr. Somers Clarke of 4f in.
PART III
VARIOUS
207
CHAPTER XVIII
MINING
It has been my good fortune, during a long
business life, to visit nearly all kinds of mines,
with the exception of those that produce platinum,
quicksilver, ruby, and nickel. The others with
which I am familiar include mines of gold, silver,
diamond, coal, tin, radium, copper, iron, salt.
But I shall only allude briefly to those of coal,
iron, and tin, with which I have been closely
connected.
Coal.— These deposits are chiefly reached by
vertical shafts, some of which exceed i,ioo yards
in depth, while others are less than 150 ft. Some-
times the mineral is reached by adits or levels
driven from the daylight into the sides of hills or
mountains. The deepest shafts in England are at
Wigan, where those of the Rosebridge Collieries
are 1,100 yards deep, and the cages travel at the
high speed of 50 miles per hour. The thickest
seams are in Staffordshire, in what is known as the
" ten-yard "—or 30-ft. beds. The thinnest seams
in which I have been are in Ireland and were only
14 in. in thickness, and in these the travehing
roads or gaheries through which the coal is con-
veyed to the pit bottom were only 2 ft. 6 in. in
height.
A curious result has followed from the deep
209
210 MINING
mining in the neighbourhood of Wigan. The
extraction of coal from several seams underneath
one another has caused a great subsidence of the
surface of the land, below the level of natural
drainage, and has produced what is locally known
as the " Lake District." The important Leeds
and Liverpool Canal was originally on the surface
of the land, but in course of years the towpath
has had to be continually raised and runs now on
embankments 20 and 25 ft. high or more.
The magnificent wealth of the coal deposits in
Great Britain is likely to last for some centuries
yet. It is frequently being increased in area by
new discoveries, one of the latest being the coal-
field near Newark and Doncaster which is believed
to extend even farther than was at first supposed.
Iron Mines. — I was unexpectedly appointed as
manager in 1872 to some important iron mines.
I protested against undertaking work of this
description, on the score of want of experience,
but the chairman of the company said that this
was not of moment, all he wanted was to have a
man on the spot, not so much a mining engineer
as someone he could trust to report everything
truthfully to the Directors. This, of course, I
could do by living in the neighbourhood, and I
was able not only to keep the Board fully informed,
but to acquire for myself the fullest famiHarity
with every mining question. This was of the
greatest assistance to me later on in my pro-
fession as a civil engineer, especially in the ventila-
tion of buildings and tunnels, and in the solution
of great pumping problems, and in " winding "
SIR STAFFORD NORTHCOTE 211
or raising from great depths large tonnages
of mineral and rock.
When Sir Stafford Northcote was Chancellor
of the Exchequer, he and a deputation of Members
of Parliament decided to visit some good repre-
sentative mine. Our mine was selected for this
purpose as one of the deepest and most important
in that particular district. The depth was 170
yards to the pit bottom. The seam was 9 ft. in
thickness and on a fairly easy gradient to the
" dip."
I was requested on Tuesday's " Change " to
receive the Chancellor next day at 12 o'clock,
and I at once wired to the officials at the mine to
make the necessary arrangements. I telegraphed
to the hotel to send a first-rate lunch for twenty-
seven persons with the necessary waiters. They
worked late and early, and when I arrived at the
mines I found everything ready. The party
consisted of the Chancellor of the Exchequer,
several Members of Parliament, and leading iron-
masters, numbering twenty in all. It was ar-
ranged for the lunch to be given, not in the engine-
room at " Bank," but in one of the working
places of the mine. The waiters refused to go
underground, but were promptly " run in " to
the cage, and then found it not so terrible as they
expected. The ventilating fan was stopped and
half a mile of the workings had been lighted with
candles. The whole process of getting ironstone
— drilling, blasting, breaking up — was explained,
and then out of the deep gloom of the mine the
party were ushered into a little bit of fairyland —
212 MINING
a working place draped all over with white calico
and brilliantly illuminated by wax candles and
candelabra. The tables, sumptuously furnished
with flowers and glass, looked really charming.
Sir Stafford told me it was the most impressive
scene he had ever witnessed, and all went away
delighted.
The officials, foremen, miners, and the boys
then came in, in rotation, to finish the lunch.
There was enough for i6o !
:^j'-f^LOWER^^OGGER'^
Fig. 23.
Our output of ore was at that time about 7,000
tons per week, nearly all of which was calcined
in large kilns, in order to drive off the moisture
and carbonic acid gas — a process which saved
some 25 per cent, in railway freights. But un-
fortunately a few years later a change in the
character of the seam developed which can best
be explained by a rough sketch ; and in November
1882, after a long struggle for seventeen years, the
work was brought to a standstill with a total
loss of £150,000.
PECTEN SEAM 213
The seam consisted of " Upper Dogger " and
" Lower Dogger," giving a total thickness of
9 ft., but as we worked to the " dip " these two
beds gradually separated. The conditions shown
in "A," where the two beds are separated by
a " parting " no thicker than a sheet of writing
paper, was replaced as shown in " B," by a shale
bed of no value. Although the two Doggers con-
tinued to have the same thickness and same
percentage of iron as before, the cost of mining was
increased, and the average value of the ore was
reduced. It was impossible to separate the shale
(which was " less than worthless ") from the good
ore, since there was no free parting. Consequently
the furnace owners found it more expensive to
produce pig iron from the ore, and as the selling
price of ironstone at the pit's mouth often did not
exceed 3s. per ton, any reduction in price meant
a heavy loss.
The only thing I now possess as the result of
all our expenditure is a good but small specimen,
I J in. in diameter, of a fossil of the Pecten Shell
which is the distinguishing feature of the Pecten
seam.
During my career at the mine an incident
occurred which, had it not been for its serious
results, would have been amusing. About 1876
a merchant in London came to ask us to design,
order, and ship out to the Andes in Chili a complete
mining plant for a silver mine. He brought us
the order and the specification in Spanish, but
we pointed out to him that we should not like to
undertake the responsibility of translation. He
15
214 MINING
saw the reasonableness of this, and took the docu-
ments away to be translated, and in the course
of a few days returned with them in English.
We set to work — designed and ordered a very
complete plant. The mine was high up in the
Andes, so that every part had to be taken up by
mules. Consequently the engines, boilers, and
every subsidiary part had to be so designed that
no piece should exceed 3 cwt. The shaft was
ten degrees from the vertical, and the cage was to
run on inclined rails. There were winding engines
for the shaft, hauling engines for the underground
planes, pumping engines, boilers, guides, pulleys,
ropes, wagons, and also the necessary buildings —
all had to be perfectly complete to the last screw.
We had it all put together at Messrs. Appleby's
works at Leicester ; tried in steam and tested,
then carefully packed, shipped, paid for, and our
work was done.
From the time the order left the mines, to the
time when the long cavalcade of mules were
toiling up the mountains, about two years had
elapsed.
We heard nothing more about it until, some
three years afterwards, I met the merchant by
chance in Cannon Street, and I asked him how
the machinery had answered.
He said : " What ! haven't you heard ? "
" No — not a word."
" Didn't you hear of the mistake ? "
" No ! what mistake ? "
" Don't you recollect you declined to be
responsible for the translation ? Well, the man
PITCHBLENDE 215
who translated it made a mistake in the transition
from Spanish to EngUsh measurements, and
forgot to divide by 2. The result was the cage
was twice as long and twice as wide as it ought to
have been — and it wouldn't go into the shaft !
And everything was in like proportion. We
couldn't use it — and sold the whole thing, lock,
stock, and barrel, to an adjacent mine — and began
again ! "
Tin and Radium. — In 1908 I was informed that
boxes containing rich radium ore were being
forwarded to Paris from Cornwall, at a price of
£200 for 150 lb. weight. It was to the laboratory
of Madame Curie in Paris that these boxes of
pitchblende were being regularly sent. After
making the necessary inquiries I went to Cornwall,
with my son the late C. Beresford Fox, and spent
several days in digging amongst the derelict
waste heaps from Trenwith Mine near St. Ives.
We soon found lumps of very heavy ore which
I sent to the late Sir William Ramsay, F.R.S.,
for report and analysis. He replied that it was
pitchblende of very high quality, worth £3,840
per ton ; since it contained 192 milligrammes of
radium, each worth £20, to the ton. He offered
to extract the radium from the samples. This he
successfully accomplished, and I exhibited 6
milligrammes of radium worth £120, at the
Conversazione of the Royal Society, May 12, 1909
— the first time that British radium extracted
from English pitchblende had ever been seen at
Burlington House.
As the hospitals were unable to buy radium, and
2i6 MINING
as war with Germany was not then thought of,
we accepted an offer from leading people in
Frankfort to purchase all the radium we had in
stock, some £12,000 worth, and entered into a
contract with them, by which they undertook to
purchase the whole of our annual output for the
next two years — about £40,000 worth a year.
Then the war broke out. In an instant the
contract was annulled, and the Radium Company
found themselves entirely without purchasers
of the product — a very grave position. An appeal
was made to the Government for assistance ; we
undertook to supply them with all the radium
required for compasses, clocks, and watches with
luminous dials. But the Government would not
take it, although they purchased £250,000 worth
of inferior radium from America. Nothing re-
mained but to place the Company in the hands
of a receiver. But we had the satisfaction of
knowing that several British hospitals were sup-
plied with our product, particularly the Middlesex
Hospital, whose Professor of Radium informed me
that it was the finest and purest radium they had
ever used.
Mining Frauds. — Twice at least I have been
instrumental in exposing an attempt to foist a
worthless property on the investing public. In
October 1885 I was instructed by a powerful
syndicate in Lombard Street to go to the Continent
to investigate what was considered to be a very
rich deposit of red hematite iron ore. I asked my
great friend, the analytical chemist. Dr. Stead,
F.R.S., of Middlesbrough, to accompany me.
MINING FRAUDS 217
Our object was to ascertain the position of the
property, its accessibiUty, and the character of
the ore, and to obtain samples for analysis. At
a meeting of the syndicate the day before our
departure, the agent for the property was present,
and laid on the table some very rich specimens
of ore — one of which I asked and was given per-
mission to take away in my pocket.
After a thirty-hours' railway journey across
Europe Dr. Stead and I had to drive into the
mountains by a carriage and horses, as far as a
road existed. We then took horses and rode some
few miles farther, until the mountain slope
became too stiff even for riding. When we had
walked another mile in drenching rain, we reached
a place which the custodian of the property
declared to be the site of the iron deposit, and
we set to work at once to take samples of the ore,
labelling and placing them in separate canvas
bags. But neither Dr. Stead nor I were at all
satisfied, and pressed the agent of the estate to
take us to the place from which came the specimen
I had brought with me. He seemed surprised,
and said that it was a long way off, over the
mountains. I told him it was absolutely neces-
sary for us to see the place itself, and that we would
return in two days if he would make arrangements
to take us there. To our astonishment he replied
that this was impossible, that the ore of which
I had a specimen was not to be found anywhere
in the neighbourhood.
Just then, a large bounding rock came rushing
down the mountain-side and I had only time to
2i8 MINING
shout " look out." It passed over us, but struck
our excellent interpreter on the head and fractured
his skull. We had the greatest possible difficulty
in getting him down the mountain to the railway,
and delivering him to his father and mother in
Rome, where the former occupied the important
post of Correspondent to The Times. I saw the
announcement of his death three or four years
later, no doubt accelerated by this accident.
On our return to London, a meeting of the
syndicate was called to hear our report : and I
need not say that the whole project collapsed and
an extensive fraud was exposed, for which we
received the cordial thanks of the members of
the syndicate.
On another occasion I was asked to report on
a silver mine in one of our largest colonies. The
vein of ore was 30 ft. in thickness, and, having
provided myself with 360 washleather bags, I
proceeded to take a sample at every inch of the
width. This called forth a strong protest from
the owner, but I pointed out that it was proposed
to work the whole width of the vein, and that it
would be necessary to ascertain by analysis the
average value of the entire deposit ; and I added
that unless I was allowed to arrive at a correct
result, I would not report.
This brought about a collapse of the whole
enterprise. If it had been carried out, it would
have caused the loss of the entire capital of the
Company.
Mark Twain told an amusing story, which had
no doubt improved by repetition. A mining
MARK TWAIN 219
venture had been started to drive a tunnel in the
Sierra Nevada of the Rocky Mountains, into
which scheme he had put some money. Year
after year passed without the discovery of the
mineral, and the shareholders were continually
urged to find further capital for the undertaking.
Finally he decided to go and see for himself what
was being done. After three days in the train
and two more on the top of a coach, they arrived
at last in sight of the mine, and Mark Twain asked
the coachman what was that extraordinary erec-
tion of timber on the side of the hill. The driver
replied, " Wa'al, you see, the Company let a
contract for so many hundred yards of tunnel
to cut the lode. But before they had made the
contract distance, the tunnel came out on the other
side of the hill, so they built what was left of^it
on trestle work ! "
CHAPTER XIX
DIVING AND COMPRESSED-AIR WORK
Any young man beginning the career of a civil
engineer ought certainly to learn the work of a
diver. Many years ago I took lessons in a tank
at the works of Messrs. Siebe & Gorman, in the
Westminster Bridge Road, where they would
allow anyone with proper introductions to train,
and not only did I benefit by their kindness, but
both my sons went through the course, and held
certificates of competence.
My first experience of diving in the sea was at
Douglas, Isle of Man, when the late Mr. James
Walker, the Manx Government Engineer, kindly
asked me to accompany him on one of his visits
under water, to examine the breakwater. There
was a heavy gale of wind blowing and a big sea
coming into the harbour, and it proved to be a
most unsuitable day for our purpose. Notwith-
standing the assistance of a diver, technically
known as the " lady's maid," it was almost
impossible to get into the diving dress on account
of the heavy rolling of the barge. To make
matters more difficult it was necessary before
leaving the boat to put the leads, each weighing
40 lb., over one's shoulders ; to put on the boots,
each with a sole of lead 20 lb. in weight, and
finally the collar and helmet weighing another
SIR NICHOLAS O'CONOR 221
30 lb. Thus laden it was a dangerous operation
to get over the gunwale of the barge.
When thus fully equipped, the diver, going below
the surface of the water, loses all this load, and
by means of a valve in his helmet adjusts his
weight to the same specific gravity as that of
the water. He is able to go down and up with
the greatest ease, and, in addition to this, finds
the bottom of the sea a comfortable place for a
midday rest. With the helmet resting on a rock,
surrounded by seaweed, one may be lulled to
sleep by the measured strokes of the pump.
When I reached the bottom, the sea was so
loaded with sand and mud that it was impossible to
see anything. We therefore returned to the barge,
exhausted and nearly seasick with the motion, and
gave up the attempt. Mr. Walker was afterwards
appointed engineer-in-chief to the River Tyne
Commissioners, and I accompanied him on his in-
spection of the north breakwater, which had been
breached and overturned by a heavy north-
easterly gale.
Very different was my experience in Constanti-
nople, whither I had gone on behalf of the British
Government to inspect the Quay Walls in Stamboul
and Galata on the Bosphorus. I was then staying
at the British Embassy as the guest of their Excel-
lencies Sir Nicholas andLady O'Conor, bothof whom
were somewhat nervous at the idea of my going
under water without an English diver. As I could
not postpone the work, I made the necessary arrange-
ments without their knowledge, with an Italian
diver, who could only speak a few words of English.
222 DIVING AND COMPRESSED-AIR WORK
It was a lovely May morning, the water as
clear as crystal and everything bright and sunny.
I had fixed the time at 8 a.m., expecting that no
one would be about at such an early hour ; but to
my surprise I found a crowd of 500 Turks on the
Quay wall at Galata waiting to see " the English-
man dive." I had to get into my dress in the boat,
and so great was the excitement that the crowd
almost pushed the front row of spectators into
the Bosphorus. However, I had to see the thing
through, and very soon found myself at the bottom
of 43 ft. of water, in another world altogether.
A shoal of large fish 2 and 3 ft. in length, with
beautiful iridescent fins, sailed majestically toward
me and circled round the intruder on their domain.
The shell fish were taking their morning con-
stitutional ; the oysters were open ; the anemones
were blooming in all the fullness of their beauty ;
the lovely jelly-fish with their exquisite pink and
green fringes came floating gracefully about us ;
and the seaweed, not lying flat as we see it on the
shore, but erect and gently waving to and fro
in the current of the Bosphorus, looked for all the
world like trees in a slight breeze of wind. A
brilliant sun was shining and made the whole
submarine landscape as light as day.
Two or three effects struck a mind trained to
observe the world from a scientific point of view.
Looking upwards I became conscious of the fact
that nothing was visible above the level of the
sea. Owing to the " skin " of the water, the
underside of the surface was impenetrable to
the eye. Anything floating on the sea, such as a
LECTURE AT ETON COLLEGE 223
steamer or our diving boat, was plainly visible
from the keel upwards as far as the surface ; but
there it stopped and nothing above that level
could be seeen. A boatman in a rowing-boat
passed over the place where I was standing. I
could see the keel and the planks of the boat quite
clearly, also the blades of his oars as he dipped
them into the sea, but the portions of the oars from
the blades to the rowlocks were apparently cut off.
Another curious effect I remarked. I had with
me the Italian diver to carry my crowbar, hammer,
and chisel. But owing to the three angles of
refraction, viz. of the air in my helmet, the glass
of the eye-pieces, and the water of the sea, I could
not localise him. It was only by sweeping my arm
round, and catching hold of his dress to attract his
attention, that I was able to get what I wanted.
In modern dresses a telephone is fixed in the
helmet which communicates through a switchboard
in the diving-boat with any other diver. But on
the occasion of my Bosphorus dive the only method
of communication was to let our helmets touch and
shout out what we wanted to say. Even this did
not avail us much, as he spoke Italian and I English.
Once when lecturing at Eton College on diving,
I had on the platform a fully equipped diver. He
had the latest improvements in his helmet, which
was fitted with a telephone. I had previously
fixed on the ceiling of the hall a megaphone
connected by wire with the telephone, and as he
had a fine bass voice I had arranged with him to
sing some nautical song with a roaring chorus, on
my tapping three times on his helmet. This I
did ; but no sound could be heard until I switched
224 DIVING AND COMPRESSED-AIR WORK
on the telephone to the megaphone, when, to the
delight and surprise of the head-master and the
boys, the deep bass notes of the chorus came
roaring from the ceiling. Dr. Lyttelton, in
thanking me afterwards for the lecture, said he
had heard singing under many conditions, but
that this was the most novel of all.
Compressed-air Work. — I have more than once
referred in the course of my book to the use of
the compressed air in tunnelling. Perhaps a
brief non-technical description of the method will
interest my readers.
When a tunnel is being driven through strata
which are charged with water, an " air-lock " is
provided which serves much the same purpose as a
" water-lock " on a canal or river. When the
lower gate of a water-lock is open to admit a
boat which has to be raised to a higher level the
pressure on the upper gate is such that it cannot
be opened. The lower gate is then closed, and
water is admitted to the lock from the higher
level. This effectually fastens the lower gate,
and the water level in the lock continues to in-
crease, until it is the same height as the upper
portion of the river. The pressure is then the
same on the two sides of the upper gate, which
can be opened without difficulty, to let the boat
out on its journey up country.
In a very similar manner the action of the
" air-lock " in a tunnel enables officials and work-
men to pass from ordinary atmospheric pressure
into a portion of the tunnel which is under greatly
increased air pressure. A large steel tube 6 or 7
ft. in diameter with a length of 20 to 30 ft..
AIR-LOCK 225
resembling an ordinary Lancashire boiler, is
firmly fixed in the tunnel and is provided with an
iron door at each end, the door at the left end
opening inwards, towards the tunnel beyond,
that at the right end also opening inwards.
J / L > i. C i-, — ^, ,.,.^,., ,,,/,„, ,iti>>iiii, ill, ^/j, Iff ij/,7//'//j/u/!!i> 11/, II LfmunuixniL
«- F i N I S H
Eko^A TUNNEL
xVXkXM Normal Air Pressure 15 lbs
ADVANCE HEADING open\
Compressed Air 30 lbs aboue normal
Wet Sand dried by Air Pressure
Fig. 24.
On going to work, the men enter this tube or
air-lock through the near door. The pressure of
the air inside is then the ordinary barometric
weight of the day, say 15 lb. to the square inch on
both sides, and the door can be easily opened.
The door is then closed, and compressed air is
admitted to the " air-lock " or tube, the pressure
of the air firmly closing the near door, just as in
the " water-lock " the pressure of the water
closes the lower gate. The supply of compressed
air is continued until the pressure is the same on
both sides of the far door, which we will
assume to be 30 lb. to the inch in addition to the
normal 15 lb. The men can then open the door
and enter the tunnel in which the pressure is
maintained by the air pumps to 30 lb.
The object of maintaining such a high pressure
is that it forces away any water or dampness from
the soil, and the excavation is able to proceed
as in normally dry ground, but the effect is much
the same as would be that of living in a soda-
226 DIVING AND COMPRESSED-AIR WORK
water bottle, and, as may be imagined, it is not
altogether agreeable.
Working in compressed air cannot be described
as pleasant, especially in fairly high pressures,
such as 27 to 30 lb. to the inch. At St Louis
Bridge they used pressures up to 56 lb., and many
deaths occurred.
One of my later experiences of similar work was
in 1914 when I had to visit a tunnel under con-
struction in one of the large cities in the north of
England. When I arrived at the place, I found
that neither the Corporation engineer, nor the con-
tractor, nor even his representative, ever entered
compressed air. Although I was far past such
work, which ought to be limited to men under
forty years of age, I had undertaken to inspect
and report, and I therefore went in with the fore-
man. I saw all that was necessary, but I ex-
perienced much discomfort, and on coming out
I realised that I had a very painful ear-ache.
I returned to London, after attaining the object
of my visit, thinking that it would pass off after
a night's rest, but as the pain continued for some
days, I consulted a leading aurist. He examined
my left ear by electric light and reported that the
drum of the ear was burst. I asked him to
examine the right ear as well, and he found that
this ear had also been similarly injured on some
previous occasion, but had lightly healed over.
He administered some remedies, and in course
of time both drums healed up, so that I am only
very slightly deaf. I had always understood that
burst drums meant stone deafness. I am thankful
to say that has not been my experience.
CHAPTER XX
TWO DANGEROUS EXPERIENCES
(i) A Visit to a Canal Tunnel
Many are the different kinds of tunnel which
have been constructed at various dates in the
world's history, from Hezekiah's conduit in Jeru-
salem to the Pool of Siloam, driven by hand labour
underground, the tunnel under the Euphrates at
Babylon in the days of Nebuchadnezzar, the
water tunnel of Roman date in the Island of
Samos, up to the great modern tunnels beneath
rivers and mountains. The tunnel which I am
about to describe does not belong to this last
category ; but it is, I think, unique of its kind,
and the visit of inspection which I made to it
was not devoid of personal risk.
The Act of Parliament authorising its construc-
tion is dated 1789-90. The tunnel was made at
the end of the eighteenth century in order to
carry a canal under rising ground, and also to
enable water-borne coal, iron ore, and limestone
to be delivered to some blast furnace. The
works were connected by a vertical shaft to an
underground quay known as the " Wide Hole "
some 900 yards from the western portal ot the
tunnel. The total length is if miles or 3,080
yards, and its width is 9 ft., except at the " Wide
227
228 TWO DANGEROUS EXPERIENCES
Hole," where the width is increased to allow
barges to get past others lying at the quay.
The canal is the property of one of the main
trunk lines of the kingdom. During the 130 odd
years which have elapsed since it was constructed,
thick seams of coal lying at a considerable depth
below it have been and are still being worked,
and it was desirable to know to what extent the
canal was impassable. Therefore the tunnel has
been let down to such an extent that the arch
is submerged in places. Not only can traffic no
longer pass through, but the brick walls and side
arches have been crushed and destroyed.
Feeder from^^=-'=^
MINES 300 gall
per min.
'^^'yPmf^:?;^
RESERVOIR
-'wide hole" 76 feet
or Quau 9 feet
Boats {width) 7 feet
or Beam
Fig. 25.— section OF TUNNEL. "WIDE HOLE" AND QUAY.
Our visit took place on March 12, 1907. The
last barge had passed through the tunnel about
the year 1901. The barges are normally 7 ft.
beam, but owing to the distortion of the tunnel
it was found necessary to provide a chain and
screw-coupling from gunwale to gunwale across
the boat to make it still narrower than 7 ft.
COLLAPSING TUNNEL 229
Otherwise it would not have passed the contorted
walls.
The railway company warned us that it was
dangerous to enter the tunnel and that they would
not be responsible if any accident happened to
us. We afterwards heard that they had con-
siderately placed a man at the top of each of the
shafts, which had not fallen in, to see if we had
passed, so that in case of an accident they could
raise the alarm.
From the west entrance we went in 1,200 yards,
the arch getting worse and worse, until eventually
we found that the tunnel and the shafts had
collapsed. From the east portal we were able
to proceed for 800 yards, propelled by two men
lying on their sides in the bow of the boat, back
to back, and walking or " legging " on the side
walls of the arch. At last we reached a point
where the men asked us not to let the boat bump
against the side walls for fear that they would fall
in. Touching the roof of the tunnel gently with
my stick I dislodged a small portion of the arch
which fell into the boat. From this point for
the remaining length of 1,080 yards both tunnel
and shafts had caved in and we could go no
farther.
It was with small reluctance, having fulfilled
the object of our visit, that we returned to the open
air, and exchanged a blue sunny sky for the roof
of a collapsing tunnel. I confess that I shared
the feelings of my host, when on returning he
greeted me with the words, " I am relieved to
see you again 1 "
16
230 TWO DANGEROUS EXPERIENCES
(2) Explosion in Bermondsey (Christmas
1907-1908)
As I have touched upon the dangers of under-
ground work, I will go on to describe an explosion
in Bermondsey, which illustrates some of the
many dangers to which our admirable borough
engineers and surveyors are exposed in the course
of their duties.
The explosion occurred some nine months after
my visit to the wrecked Canal tunnel. I was
rung up by the " Sister " at the Bermondsey
Medical Mission about 9 p.m. to inquire if my
daughter, Dr. Selina F. Fox, the head of that
institution, were at home. " There has been a
great explosion," she said, " and flames are rising
from the street as high as the houses. What are
we to do ? The firemen have been in, and told us
to put out our kitchen and other fires, and all
gaslights and candles, and we are in pitch dark-
ness, the electric light having failed." I decided
not to disturb my daughter, who had returned
from her work with a severe headache and had
gone to bed, but asked Sister to ring us up in ten
minutes. We sat over my study fire anxiously
waiting for a message, but none came. At length,
feeling sure that the telephones were destroyed,
we telegraphed to Bermondsey. At 11 p.m. we
were rung up again by Sister, who said : " I am
speaking from another telephone, a quarter of
a mile away, our own having been destroyed.
The danger is over and we are going to bed but in
the dark." I congratulated them on their escape.
EXPLOSION UNDER STREET
231
and as I could be of no service that night I arranged
to go over the first thing in the morning.
When I arrived there next day I met Mr. R. J.
Angel, the Borough Engineer, and with him made
a personal examination underground. I found
that there had been a heavy explosion. The
surface of the street had lifted and had been
broken for a third of a mile ; doors and windows
were smashed, iron covers from the manholes
blown over the tops of the houses, two children
were killed, a woman was injured, and many were
suffering from shock.
What was the cause of the explosion ? To
explain this I must direct my readers' attention
to the accompanying rough freehand sketch.
The accident had happened in a street known as
Grange Road, of which the sketch shows a section.
.. ■■/.•"■•■
Original Sewer 6ft. in diameter
New Sewer 8 ft. in diameter
Fig. 26.
Many years ago a sewer, consisting of a circular
tunnel 6 ft. in diameter, had been constructed
beneath the surface of the street, and access was
provided by a flight of stone steps leading down
232 TWO DANGEROUS EXPERIENCES
from the pavement. About the year 1888, the
London County Council had, in connection with
their general system of London drainage, con-
structed a new sewer 8 ft. in diameter at a lower
level, the former one being abandoned. In order
to save expense this old sewer and the steps
leading to it had never been filled in, and this
desire to economise was ultimately the cause of
the serious accident.
The single line of tramways which traverses
the street is carried on a concrete foundation, the
entire width of the street ; and beneath this
concrete floor ran gas main, water main, telegraph
and telephone wires, electric light main, besides
many small drains and drain-pipes.
At some time — probably months — previously,
a leak had occurred in the water main, but no
ill-effects of any magnitude would have resulted,
had it not been for the close proximity of the stone
staircase. The water gained access to this, and
washed the subsoil away from under the street
into the old sewer. A large cavity 30 ft. wide,
20 to 30 ft. long, and 6 ft. deep was thus produced,
and the soil which gave support to the gas main
was thus taken away. This main " sagged " or
sank several feet, the joints were broken, and an
explosive mixture of gas and air filled not only this
cavity, but also the staircase, and the old sewer
for its entire length of about 600 yards. A strong
smell of gas was noticed in the street, but no one
knew whence it came. Meanwhile the electric
light cable and the telephone and telegraph
wires were also deprived of their support, and
EFFECTS OF EXPLOSION 233
this resulted in a regular, or rather an irregular,
" mix-up " of everything. How the explosive
mixture was ignited was never finally explained.
But it is thought that there was an escape of gas
into the parlour of a public-house where a number
of men were quietly sitting round a fire talking ;
there it was ignited either by a light or by the fire ;
the resulting explosion blew the fireplace into the
room amongst the men ; and the flame travelled
down the staircase to the old sewer which exploded
and wrecked the street.
Another suggested explanation is, that at the
east end of the street some men were repairing
the electric cables with the aid of a powerful
naked flame, and that this ignited the gas.
Grange Road was completely blocked to traffic
and the Borough Council requested me to report
on the accident and its cause. It certainly was
one of the many very dangerous things I have had
to do. In company with Mr. R. J. Angel, the able
Borough Engineer, I descended the stairs, which
were cracked and bulged. Blocks of concrete,
each a ton in weight, had been detached and blown
along the old sewer like heavy shot in a huge gun-
barrel ; the arch itself was wrecked, and liable
at any moment to collapse. We walked and
crawled along the brickwork, which was shattered,
and when I gently touched the arch with my stick
some of it fell on my hat. We were thankful
when we reached the surface uninjured.
At first sight the Gas Company seemed re-
sponsible ; but they claimed very fairly that
if their main had not been deprived of its support
234 TWO DANGEROUS EXPERIENCES
no gas would have escaped. The County Council
said that the accident was due to the escape of
gas and that the Water Company were liable in
the first instance because their main leaked. The
Borough Council claimed that the disaster was
due to the L.C.C. having left the old sewer empty
instead of filling it up ; for if it had been
filled, the earth could not have been excavated
and carried away by the water.
After six months' delay during which no traffic
passed along the street, and after threatened
legal proceedings, the London County Council
admitted their liability for not having filled up
the old sewer.
The street had to be opened up from the top,
the old sewer filled in and the roadway repaved.
Now all that remains to remind the public of the
accident, are the graves in the cemetery of the
two poor children who were killed.
CHAPTER XXI
ON WORKMEN
(i) Accident Averted at " The Shipperies,"
Liverpool
I WAS fortunately an eye-witness of a very brave
act on the part of some of the well-known "riggers"
of Liverpool during an unusually heavy gale in
March 1886.
The building of the Antwerp Exhibition had
been purchased by the Liverpool Corporation
for the purposes of a sea-faring and nautical
Exhibition. The structure, which came to be
known as " The Shipperies/' was being erected
on fairly high ground at Edge Hill, and I had been
consulted by the Corporation, Sir David Radcliffe
being Lord Mayor, upon certain details of the
construction which were unsatisfactory in the
Belgian building. I visited the site in company
with our assistant engineer in Liverpool — Mr.
Archibald H. Irvine — and we decided that exten-
sive cross bracing was necessary, or part of the
structure would possibly collapse. I had arranged
to return to London next morning, but during
the night a heavy gale sprang up, and I decided
to remain until the afternoon to see how the
ironwork withstood it.
Irvine and I entered at a side door and saw two
large gangs of men hauling at some ropes, which
235
236 ON WORKMEN
were fastened to portions of the ironwork at a
great height above our heads. The roof was out
of the upright, and there was therefore more or
less danger. Suddenly there came a tremendous
gust of wind ; and large sheets of glass and zinc
came crashing down all around us, the glass
" dagging " corner wise into the timber flooring.
We ascertained later from Mr. Hartness, the
astronomer at the Bidston Observatory, that the
gale had reached a velocity of 60 miles an hour,
with a pressure per square foot of between 30
and 40 lb. I suggested to my companion that
we should be safer outside. Just as we were
leaving, we saw a portion of the building which
covered about an acre of space bend sideways,
fall, and lie almost level with the ground. Fifty
men were working in this portion, but the previous
gust of wind had induced forty-eight of them to
run outside : of the remaining men, one was killed
and the other injured.
Immediately a panic seized the workmen in the
main building, and shouting loudly to their mates,
they came downfrom the roof, sliding down ladders,
poles, and ropes until there was not a man left
in the place. They collected, some 1,500 in number,
on a rising mound far enough from the structure
to be out of harm's way, expecting the remaining
acres of building to collapse. Fortunately this
did not happen ; but three or four columns,
each 80 or 90 ft. high, from which the fallen iron-
work had been torn, were swaying about in the
gale, ready to fall.
Some of the riggers saw the danger, and without
PLATELAYERS' WATCHFULNESS 237
a moment's hesitation ran into the building,
seized some coils of rope, and with these round
their necks swarmed up the columns. When
they reached the very top, they sat down, attached
the ropes, and threw the coils to the men below.
Stakes were hurriedly driven into the ground, and
the ropes weref astened as guys, and by these means
the swaying was stopped and the threatened fall
of the columns prevented. The men then returned
to their comrades on the mound as if they had done
nothing unusual, and awaited results. Their
courage and indifference to danger undoubtedly
saved the rest of the building.
(2) Subsidence of a Tunnel Prevented
To the remarkable courage on the part of
working-men which I have just related, I will add
an instance of watchfulness and care by the plate-
layers in a certain tunnel, which prevented its
subsidence and the expenditure of a great deal of
money.
As the men were making their regular examina-
tion of the permanent-way in the gloom and
smoke of the tunnel, the foreman noticed a small
round piece of some white material, about the size
of a shilling, lying on the ballast. He thought
it was a fragment of a torn-up letter, but examining
it with his lamp he found that it was pure white
on one side, jet black on the other, and about the
thickness of a postcard.
He climbed up to the arch over the spot where
it was lying, and found a corresponding white
mark in the sooty deposit on the tunnel roof.
238
ON WORKMEN
It had been broken off by some movement, and,
although blackened with soot from the engines
on the exposed side, it brought away some of the
original whitewash of the arch. He at once sent
for the local engineer ; with the aid of ladders
they examined the tunnel, and measured its width
and its height, and were alarmed to find that the
former was 12 in. narrower than it was originally,
and the roof nearly the same measurement lower.
On closer examination a large crack was dis-
covered from A
to A and from B
to B. This re-
duced the bearing
area of the tunnel
walls at A and B
to one half, with
the result that the
arch of the tunnel
was being forced
by the superin-
cumbent weight into the clay. Unless immediate
steps were taken to stop this process of subsidence,
it was evident that the carriages would not be
able to pass through.
The traffic amounted to about a thousand
trains a day, so that no repairs could be under-
taken whilst they were running. We therefore
adopted the following method. Strong baulks
of timber were fixed under the permanent-way
from the side wall at A, to the side wall at B,
so as to prevent further movement. Shafts were
then sunk from the surface at C down to D ;
Fig. 27.
TREVITHICK 239
and under the walls and railway from D to E
were driven galleries or driftways, which were
filled and packed tight with concrete and brick-
work. By these means the bearing area of the
foundations was greatly increased. The arch
itself was cracked and open in many places, but
this was easily rectified. The length of tunnel
which had failed was about a quarter of a mile.
It was a great relief when the work was finished,
especially as the tunnel was rendered better and
stronger than ever before.
The origin of the word " platelayer " is not
without interest. Amongst the wounded whom
we used to entertain in the recent war, several
were platelayers, but not one could give the
reason for the name. The invariable answer was
" because we lay rails," until I pointed out that
" rails " were not " plates."
The sketch on p. 240 shows the earliest
form of rail employed by Trevithick in 1803.
At that date coal was sent from the South Wales
coalpits to the port for shipment in the old
" chaldron " wagons. The same mode of transport
was used in Northumberland and Durham. These
chaldron wagons ran on the ordinary roads
without rails, which at that date had not been
invented, and the result was that deep ruts were
formed in the roads. To prevent the ruts it was
suggested that cast-iron plates should be laid on
the surface of the road between A and B. The
men who laid these plates were naturally enough
called " platelayers."
It was soon discovered that the horses which
240 ON WORKMEN
hauled the trucks could not get foothold on iron
plates, and Trevithick, about the year 1803, con-
ceived the idea of turning up the edges of the plates
so that the wheels were prevented from meander-
ing all over the road, and were practically kept
in gauge. The amount of the plating was thus
largely reduced. In course of time the flange
was transferred from the plate to the wheel
itself, and by degrees the head of the rail was
increased until it assumed the form which is now
in use on every railway in the world. But the
term " platelayer " still remains, to remind us
of ancient history.
V///^/'//'/'''/'''/''^^^^^^^
Fig. 28.
Chaldron Wagon loaded with The edges of the plates turned
coal for shipment ; the road cut up, thus rendering all other
into ruts and was covered with plates unnecessary, except im-
cast-iroQ plates ADB. mediately under the wheels.
(3) Treatment of Workmen on the Great
Central Railway
When I was instructed in 1894 to take in hand
the extension of the Great Central Railway
between Rugby and London, the fii'st thing that
I attempted to do was to win the goodwill and co-
operation of the landowners and residents on the
route. Starting at Rugby, I engaged a carriage
and a pair of horses (motors hadn't yet come
A DIOCESE ENLARGED 241
into general use) and drove through the entire
district of the projected Hne. My first visit was
to Rugby school, where I called upon the head-
master, Dr. Percival, afterwards Bishop of Here-
ford. I explained that work on the railway was
about to begin, and would bring some 10,000
men into the district. I said that the Company
and the contractors would do their best for the
comfort and welfare of the men, their wives and
children, that they wished to prohibit the sale
of strong drink, and that they fully appreciated
the need for protecting the landowners and resi-
dents from the inevitable but very small percentage
of evil-disposed persons. For all these reasons
comfortable houses or suitable huts must be
found, schools and recreation rooms erected,
and co-operative stores established. Above all,
the goodwill and kindness of the residents must
be secured. Dr. Percival thanked me for coming
to see him before work was started, and promised
that he would at once lay the matter before his
friends.
Continuing my journey, I called on the various
clergy, Free Church ministers, landowners, and
tradespeople — with very useful results. The
Archbishop of Canterbury requested the Bishop
of Peterborough to take the strip of line into his
Diocese during the period of construction. The
Diocese therefore temporarily included the strip
occupied by the railway from Rugby to a point
forty miles south ; when coloured on a map, it
looked like the trunk of an elephant extending
far beyond the boundaries of the actual Diocese.
242 ON WORKMEN
A local committee formed in the district undertook
to provide Scripture readers and visitors, and
spent a good deal of money on social work amongst
the men.
The contractors, Messrs. Scott & Middleton and
Messrs. Oliver & Sons, took great interest in the
men and their families. Our excellent inspector
and his wife Mr. and Mrs. Glen gave us their
invaluable assistance. In return for all this effort
the employees, all along the line, responded most
loyally. There was very little crime and pilfering,
and remarkably little poaching. In fact, when the
men finally left the district there was a general
feeling of regret.
In all contracts for engineering works. Sir
Douglas Fox and I always inserted a clause pro-
hibiting Sunday work if it could in any way be
avoided. We held that everyone required a rest
on one day in seven ; and we believed this to be
the reason for a Divine institution. In obedience
to that most beneficent command for the welfare
of mankind, we have done our utmost to secure
for all their day of rest, and we have always found
it conducive to health and kindly feeling.
On the Great Central Railway a tunnel, two
miles in length, through slippery clay, had to be
built in the shortest time possible. There were
ten shafts, and at each shaft two " faces " or
ends, besides the two portals. Thus there were
altogether twenty-two places at which work was
proceeding. Hoping to accelerate progress, the
contractor came to me, and urged me to strike
out the clause prohibiting Sunday work. I replied
SUNDAY REST 243
that it was useless to ask me to do that since we
were convinced from long experience that it would
delay completion rather than hasten it. He went
away disappointed. The work went on as before,
the tunnel was opened for traffic, and nothing
more was said on the subject.
Three years later he called upon me and re-
minded me of his request and my refusal. And
then in a frank and open manner he went on to
say : " We have just completed another tunnel
in the north of England in which Sunday work
was not only allowed, but was compulsory, being
ordered by the Company, and we found that both
loss of time and unnecessary expense were in-
curred. The men came back to work worn out
on Monday instead of being refreshed by a
Sunday's rest : the men, the boys, the horses, the
very engines and boilers need this cessation from
work. The avoidance of Sunday work on your
tunnel saved considerable time, and the work
was completed in a record short period."
" A Sabbath well spent, brings a week of content
And strength for the toils of to-morrow ;
But a Sabbath profaned, whate'er may be gained,
Is a certain forerunner of sorrow."
Sir Matthew Hale.
(4) Mr. and Mrs. William Glen
In June 1866 I had to visit Edinburgh on
business — the first time I had ever been in that
fine city. I arrived by night mail from London
at 6 o'clock on Sunday morning. At 11 I went
to the first church I saw, and found it to be a
Scottish service, the congregation sitting down to
244 ON WORKMEN
sing, standing up to pray, followed by a theo-
logical sermon. It was my first experience of a
Scottish service and I enjoyed it enough to repeat
it in the evening. After the evening service I
was wending my way towards my hotel, past John
Knox's house in the old High Street, where the
streets were very dimly lighted, when I came
across a crowd of several hundred people listening
attentively to an open-air preacher. I stopped
and heard one of the most impressive Gospel
addresses I had ever attended, and this was my
first introduction to dear old Glen.
When the service was over a hymn was splen-
didly sung by the massed people, and then in the
gloom of night the crowd quietly dispersed.
The preacher turned down a dark street and
walked away by himself. I followed and en-
deavoured to enter into conversation with him,
but he was very reserved and would say little.
However, when he found I was in earnest, he asked
me to come into his lodging in Bristow Street, in
one of those tall tenement houses of old Edinburgh.
After taking me up several flights of a winding
stone staircase, he unlocked a door opening into
a pitch-dark room, and lighted a candle. It
was a single room, barely furnished, and he was
living alone, as at that time he was unmarried.
I found that he was a stonemason earning £i a
week, who, with two or three other masons, was
conducting a night school in order to keep the
young men and women out of the streets. I said
that I should like to assist him. He refused my
offer at first, but at last he said that sometimes
WILLIAM GLEN 245
the rent of the room, £6 a year, was difficult for
them to pay : and if he might write occasionally
for a little assistance towards this he would be
glad. I agreed, and for a couple of years or more
sent him a cheque now and again.
Then I wondered if I was doing right in con-
tinuing this, and I wrote to the English Episcopal
Clergyman in Edinburgh (whom I did not know)
to ask if he could find out anything about Glen for
me. An answer came back promptly to the
following effect : " William Glen ? Yes, indeed,
we all know him ; a splendid fellow, doing Christ's
work. Anything you can do to assist him and
his co-workers will be all right."
So I continued to send my contributions.
Then for a time he was silent, I had no reply to
my letters and feared I had lost touch with him.
At last a letter, evidently written with difficulty,
came in which he told me that he had had an
accident. He had fallen from the roof of a house
and had been picked up for dead. He lay for a
long time in the hospital, and when at last he was
able to get about he set himself to visit the
patients ; and he added, " If only I could ensure
the same results I am willing to have the accident
over again."
In 1872 I was manager of an important mine in
Yorkshire in the Cleveland district ^ and I needed
a man to visit our miners and their families. I
offered Glen the post of mason ; he was to look
after the houses and buildings and to devote his
afternoons to visiting. The need was great,
1 See Chapter XVIII, p. 210.
17
246 ON WORKMEN
owing to the extraordinary development of the
mining district. The parish was a very large one,
of some 2,000 to 3,000 acres, with a sparsely
scattered population of only 160 people and no
railway. The Vicar was a dear old man, nearly
seventy years of age, and quite unaccustomed to
the rush and turmoil of a mining centre. Suddenly
the railway came, mines were opened, and before
we knew where we were, the population had
increased to 4,000 or 5,000 ; our own village
alone contained over 1,000.
We built a fine schoolroom, which was licensed
for church services ; but as the miners were,
almost without exception, Cornishmen, and Wes-
leyans, a Wesleyan chapel or church was built
for their accommodation. The Episcopal Church
congregation was very small.
The Vicar endeavoured to the best of his ability
to visit the families, but it was an impossible
task. I therefore instructed Glen to do his best
to get them to some place of worship — if not to
church, then to the Wesleyan chapel. The Vicar
— I am sorry to say — did not approve of the
arrangement. Indeed relations between us were
strained. He charged me with having " intro-
duced a poacher into his parish who endeavoured
to undermine his authority," and it was useless
for me to try to convince him he was mistaken.
Glen soon won the friendship of all the men and
their wives and children, and his efforts were
well assisted by Mrs. Glen, a dear motherly woman.
They were regarded as the " father and mother of
the mine." If an accident happened the first cry
THE KIND VICAR 247
was " send for Glen " ; and very soon he and his
wife were on the spot doing all that lay in their
power. They were welcomed into every house
— except one, and that was the Vicarage.
In course of time the old Vicar fell ill, and to
everybody's surprise Glen received an invitation
to go to the Vicarage, into which he had never
previously been admitted. He went, and found
the Vicar lying on what was soon to be his death-
bed. The Vicar received him very kindly, shook
hands with him and said : " Mr. Glen, I have only
a short time to live, but I want to tell you how
sorry I am that all these years I have misunder-
stood you. I thought you were working against
me, using influence with the men adverse to my
position, but I find I am mistaken. It is too late
for me to make reparation, but as I wish the parish
to be aware of the facts I shall be grateful if you
will be one of my bearers to the grave." Truly
the act of a Christian gentleman.
Soon after this there was a great falling off in the
iron trade. About one third of the Middles-
brough district migrated, and a large number of
ironworks, blast furnaces, and mines had to be
closed. Pig iron, which in those days was con-
sidered abnormally high at 120s. per ton, fell to
27s., and many people were ruined.
I appointed Glen to other work, and he acted
for us as inspector during the construction of
many large works. He was engaged on the
Mersey Tunnel, the Liverpool Overhead Railway,
the Scarborough and Whitby Railway, the Ha-
Wcirden Bridge over the River Dee (the largest
248 ON WORKMEN
opening span in England), where one of his sons
was accidentally killed, the Great Central Railway,
the Great Northern and City Railway, the saving
of Winchester Cathedral, of Corhampton Church,
of the walls and towers of Chester, and many
other undertakings. Wherever he went, not only
did he carry out his duties as an inspector per-
fectly, but he gave all his spare time to the work
which lay nearest to his heart ; and being an
excellent preacher and a profound Bible student,
he was frequently asked by various Free Church
bodies to occupy their pulpits.
Both Glen and I recollected our first meeting
in Edinburgh, June 1866, for years afterwards,
and the text and the sermon have never faded
from my memory : " He was wounded for our
transgressions. He was bruised for our iniquities
. . . and with His stripes we are healed " (Isa. liii.
5). " The mere belief that Christ came into the
world or that He died won't save us : but what
will is. His substitution for us."
William Glen died on November 4, 1912, at
the age of seventy-four, having been in our
service continuously since 1872. His widow,
Mrs. Isabella Glen, followed him on January 22,
1 92 1, at the age of eighty-eight. Like her hus-
band, she had written to me a delightful and
grateful letter only a few days before her death.
They were both buried at Brackley, Northampton-
shire, and I counted it a privilege to be present on
these two occasions. For Glen and his wife were
of the salt of the earth ; and they were among
my most valued friends for over fifty-five years.
CHAPTER XXII
SOCIAL WORK IN LONDON
My brother and I used to occupy our spare time
in visiting the poor districts of London and getting
to know the residents. We came in this way to
witness many sad and pathetic, and sometimes
amusing, incidents. There is still great poverty
in London ; but it is not so bad as it used to be.
I am happy to think that at the present time much
more attention is being directed to the grave
necessity of better houses for the people.
In 1861 in the purlieus off Drury Lane I was
visiting a terrace of well-built early Jacobean
houses — once no doubt an aristocratic quarter.
The houses had handsome front doors and sub-
stantial iron railings with torch extinguishers.
They have long since been demolished. I had
been directed to a particular house by a child in
the street leading a blind and lame man who sold
matches. A few days later, wishing to meet the
old man and his guide, I mounted to the " second
floor back " and knocked at the door. It was
opened by a woman who told me that in every
room lived one or two families and that the man
and child of whom I was in quest could only be
reached by going through her room to a smaller
one at the back. This proved to be an old
" powder closet," just large enough to take in
249
250 SOCIAL WORK IN LONDON
the old man's bed ; the girl slept on a mattress
on the floor. Soon after my visit the old man
died of consumption.
Rumour, probably exaggerated, stated that in
one of the large rooms in that street a separate
family lived in each corner, divided off from each
other by ropes and curtains. Matters went on
fairly smoothly until one of the families began to
take in lodgers. This was too much for the others !
In 1865 we lived at Blackheath, and occasion-
ally attended the ministrations of the Rev. Dr.
Miller, the Vicar of Greenwich, and also of the
Rev. Adolph Saphir, D.D., of the Scottish Presby-
terian Church in the same parish. The latter was
a very able preacher with a marvellous knowledge
of both the Old and New Testaments. He was a
converted Jew, and had studied the Bible closely
in the original Hebrew and Greek.
A lady visitor working under Dr. Miller, amidst
the severe poverty which then existed, had an
extraordinary experience. She was requested to
go to a certain house where a woman was in
distress, and on arriving there at a time she had
fixed, she heard that the woman's daughter, a
child eight years old, had died. The mother
appeared to be destitute. She took the lady
upstairs and showed her the body of the little
girl lying covered by a white sheet. The visitor
was much distressed. She emptied her purse
into the mother's hand, and promised to go home
at once and send her some supplies. On reaching
the street, the lady found she had left a glove in
the bedroom and went back to get it. The
THE CITY MISSIONARY 251
mother was in the child's room and the visitor
hesitated to intrude upon her grief. However,
she gently opened the door — to discover the child
sitting up in bed and asking her mother, " Shall
I play dead any longer ? "
About 1880 I was asked by a friend who had
just left Cambridge if I could enable him to see
something of the deep poverty of London, which
was only known to him from written descriptions.
The best way to do this was to ask the London
City Missionary, Mr. Baxter, with whom I had
worked for some years, to take us round. This
excellent body of men knew more of London than
even the police. In the eighties there were
streets through which it was not prudent for a
constable to pass. Mr. Baxter suggested that
we should first visit a thieves' kitchen in Deptford,
which was known by the fraternity as one of the
" underground stations " in the criminal life of
London. A thief could lie hidden there during
the day ; at night he would be passed on to the
next " station " in order to baffle the police.
The lodgers paid 4^. a night, which entitled them
to a rough bed, and the use of the large coke fire
in the basement. They cooked their own food,
and had numerous herrings, rashers of bacon,
sausages hanging by hooks on to the bars. Mr.
Baxter held a simple service for these men every
Sunday afternoon, and it was interesting to notiee
the code of etiquette which existed among them.
Once a year we had a special service, and an
excellent tea for the lodgers, an event to which
they looked forward for months in advance.
252 SOCIAL WORK IN LONDON
The next house we visited was in a street which
had been once a fashionable part of London in
the days of Evelyn and Pepys, but now consisted
of single-room tenements each accommodating one
family. On the third floor the missionary knocked
at the door, which could only be opened six inches
—children were lying on the floor, covered with
dirty blankets. This conversation followed:
*' Mrs. Jones— you are late this morning."
" Yes, sir, I am— but as I was without food for
the children, I found the best way to keep them
quiet was to make them stay in bed."
At a third house we entered a room almost bare
of furniture, which was occupied by a young man
and his sister. Their only cooking utensils were
an old kettle and a jampot, in which thev were
making some cocoa. For fuel they were pulling
up the boards of the floor.
When we had returned to the street, my friend
emptied his purse into the missionary's hand and
said : " I've had enough of this ! Can I do any-
thing to help you in your work ? " Mr. Baxter re-
plied that the chief need was for clothing and work.
No sooner did my friend reach his house near Hyde
Park than he packed part of the contents of his
wardrobe into a trunk and sent it off. But a
difliculty, which he had not foreseen, presented
itself. They were such excellent clothes that they
would have been at once pawned by the person
for whom they were intended. So I asked my
friend if the missionary might retain them for his
own use and distribute his own worn and shabby
garments. The request was, of course, granted.
THE BERMONDSEY MEDICAL MISSION 253
But the solution was not an ideal one for all
parties. Mr. Baxter was 6 ft. ij in. in height,
whereas my friend was only 5 ft. 9 in. For the
next two or three years the missionary's sleeves
and trousers were several inches too short !
Some years ago we were visiting the slums which
then existed in Westminster. A law had recently
been passed providing that children in arms might
not be taken into public-houses. One day when
I was passing through this neighbourhood, I
noticed two ragged women with unkempt hair
sitting on their heels outside a public-house. A
tidily dressed woman came up carrying an equally
tidy baby. She evidently knew these women and
asked them to hold the child whilst she went in for
a drink. They were only too pleased at this request,
and as I passed by I heard one say to the other
*' Oh ! ain't we highly flavoured." I learned after-
wards that this was quite a common expression.
Another important branch of social work is that
of my eldest daughter, Selina Fitzherbert Fox,
M.D., B.S., M'hich she instituted twenty years ago
in Bermondsey, one of the poorest parishes in
London, entirely on her own initiative. It is
known as the " Bermondsey Hospital and Medical
Mission," and during this period over 500,000
poor women and children have passed through
her hands. She has a fine staff of lady doctors,
surgeons, and oculists who are able to deal with
the most severe operations : the result is they are
beloved by all, and the industrial classes volun-
tarily raise some of the necessary funds.
CHAPTER XXIII
WAR WORK (1914-18)
In a book of recollections, such as these, extending
over the last sixty-three years, it is impossible
to avoid some account of the years of war from
1914 to 1918.
At the outbreak of war I had to attend as a
magistrate at the recruiting office in Wimbledon
to assist in the swearing in of the endless queue
of men who responded to their country's call,
my only remaining son and partner, F. Harry W.
Fox, being one of these. He having been trained
as a mechanical engineer had been offered a
commission in the Royal Engineers, but preferred
to go through the ranks as a private. It happened
to be his birthday, September 24, 1914, when he
came up to be attested, and, being a fully qualified
motor-car and lorry driver, he entered the Royal
Army Service Corps. After training at various
camps he was promoted corporal, then sergeant.
From Avonmouth he went to Egypt and was
encamped near the sea at Ramleh. Thence he
transferred to the Royal Engineers 13th Field
Company, 29th Division, and served at Gallipoli,
Suvla Bay, Cape Helles, and had his fill of the
horrors of the engagements there. Towards the
end of the Gallipoli campaign he was sent to
hospital in the Island of Mudros, where he re-
254
THE CRIMEA AND CAUCASUS 255
mained for five weeks, before being sent home
in the hospital ship Aquitania to recuperate.
When he was again fit for duty he went to France
as an officer in the Royal Engineers, and in due
course attained his captaincy. He was in the
Ypres sector for 2J years, like millions of others
was exposed to all the incidents of war, often under
heavy fire and aeroplane attacks, especially at
Vimy Ridge in which he lost many of his best men.
Soon after the Armistice he was sent out to
South Russia with the rank of major, to assist
General Denikin. He landed at Novorossisk,
which became his headquarters, and in the course
of his duties visited the Crimea, seeing Kislovosk,
Yalta, Balaklava, Odessa, Taganrog, Rostock,
and the coal mines of the Don Valley, where he
reported on the condition of the underground and
mechanical work ; he also went to Ekaterinodar.
On returning to Novorossisk, where he was erecting
a large number of heavy locomotives from
America, he had the gruesome task of unloading
five miles of carriages and horse boxes filled with
soldiers and refugees flying from the Bolsheviks.
It was no uncommon event to find all the occu-
pants of a horse box or carriage suffering from
typhus fever or frozen to death.
My own part in the War was less exacting and
exciting than this, but I seem to myself to have
learned from it something worth setting down on
paper.
When Lord Kitchener called for a hospital
accommodation of 50,000 beds, the country was
appalled at the demand. But before Peace was
256 WAR WORK
declared 500,000 had to be provided. When the
terrible cases of wounded and maimed began to
arrive in 1915, the new Stationery Office near
Waterloo Station was transformed into a great
hospital known as King George Hospital. The
building contained 2,000 beds, every one of which
was soon occupied, and everything possible was
devised for the comfort and well-being of the
sufferers. Ambulances met the hospital trains
at the station, and almost before the mud of
Flanders trenches could be removed, the men
found themselves in comfortable cots with gentle
and loving hands ready to do anything and every-
thing that was required. There was a large and
excellent staff under a very humane and sym-
pathetic commandant. Any time I could seize
from my office was spent in visiting this hospital ;
the wards I knew best were those devoted to facial
injuries. These sad cases required even more
sympathy and care than the others. Gifts of
grapes, peaches, nectarines, plums, tomatoes,
and the like, were most thankfully received, for
to many of the patients mastication was im-
possible. At times some wounded man would set
such a fine Christian example to his ward that
the moral change brought about in his fellow-
sufferers became quite noticeable. From such
men the visitor, as well as the patients, drew the
encouragement so sorely needed.
Lectures, entertainments, and gatherings were
arranged and a lecture hall, in addition to a chapel,
was fitted up. Most of these entertainments were
of great interest to the sick and wounded, but
TALKS WITH OUR WOUNDED HEROES 257
some were hardly suitable for men who had passed
through such terrible and searing experiences.
As an experiment I started a series of lectures
and demonstrations on Science. These proved
a great attraction to the men, and became an
estabhshed institution. I was sitting one day
at the bedside of a badly wounded man and re-
marked to him that there was plenty of amuse-
ment provided. " Yes," he said, " I get the
orderlies to wheel my cot to the Lecture Hall,
but, after one or two comic songs, I have had
enough, and ask them to wheel me back to the
ward, but when you lecture I ' stick ' it ! "
I printed a small pamphlet, called Talks with
our Wounded Heroes, describing the right method
— as it seemed to me — of occupying and distract-
ing the minds of the men. Some thousands of
copies were given to the wounded as a slight
record of what was explained to them during
their time in hospital, or in our house. Besides
the King George Hospital, we visited the Wim-
bledon Hospitals, the large Kingston Hospital
at Maiden, and the No. 3 London General Hospital
for 2,000 officers at Wandsworth. From these
institutions we entertained at " Alyn Bank " be-
tween 2,000 and 3,000 wounded, besides officers and
troops from Wimbledon Camp— a privilege which
could not but leave a lasting impression upon the
minds of all who came in touch with men of such
courage, patience, and cheeriness. It was at " Alyn
Bank " that I mainly carried out the programme
of scientific talks and experiments described in
my pamphlet, extracts from which follow :
258 WAR WORK
^ The question of light is one of the most attrac-
tive. If the electric light is available (or, failing
that, a gaslight, or oil lamp, or even a candle will
suffice) it is asked, " Where does this light come
from ? " In the case of the electric light, from
the generating station, where it is produced by
dynamos ; these in their turn get their power
from boilers, under which coal is burnt. But
where does the coal obtain light ? From the
forests, which were growing during the Geological
period of the carboniferous series, which forests
absorbed the heat and light of the sun (the same
sun which blazes in the sky to-day) millions of
years ago. But where does the sun obtain these ?
And now science which tells us all these facts is at
the end of its tether ; it is brought up with a
round turn and cannot go farther back. It is
baffled and puzzled, and although it may tell us
of vibrations and undulations, with the theories
of Helmholtz and other philosophers, it has to
admit that it is beaten.
What has to be done ? Only one source of
further information is available, and that is
God's Book — the Bible — and every true scientist
will readily accept its assistance.
In Gen. i. 3 we are told " God said, Let there
be light, and there was light." No further
information is vouchsafed until Gen. i. 16, when
the sun and moon are created probably aeons of
geological time later. So that we see light pre-
ceded all these orbs, which are secondary agents
for the distribution, not the creation, of light.
We read that Moses at Sinai having seen God
face to face had to cover his face with a veil because
the ineffable light which he had received was too
bright for other men to see (Exod. xxxiv. 29-34).
Then we go on to the Psalms, and we find in
Psalm Ixxiv. 16, that David evidently knew more
WONDERS OF LIGHT 259
about light than we do, for he says, " Thou hast
prepared the Ught and the sun," not " the hght
of the sun," thus showing that Hght and sun are
two distinct entities.
In the account of the Transfiguration of Christ,
Matt. xvii. 2, we read, " His face did shine as
the sun, and His raiment was white as the Hght ; "
and when Paul was on his way to Damascus,
Acts xxvi. 13, he says " at midday," that is just
when the sun would be at its brightest, " O Kmg,
I saw in the way a Hght from Heaven, above the
' brightness of the sun.' "
In I John i. 5 there is the distinct statement,
" God is Hght." Thus we find that throughout
both New and Old Testaments, from the very
commencement, light is constantly referred to ;
but we must now go to the last chapter of
Revelation, xxn. 5, and there the whole mystery
is disclosed, for in the description of the heavenly
Jerusalem we read " they need no candle, neither
Hght of the sun." Why ? " for the Lord God
giveth them light." From aU this it would appear
that light is an emanation from the Deity Himseh,
and this accounts for its exquisite beauty. Every
colour in the spectrum comes from light, every
flower, every petal, every cloud, every wave or
mountain or landscape owes its loveliness to light.
Another very interesting subject for considera-
tion is, that a ray of light from the sun is divided
by a prism into three primary colours— violet,
yellow (or green), and red, and these can be agam
reunited to form white light, so that this natural
phenomenon shows not only the possibility but
the existence of One in Three and Three in One,
the most perfect illustration in nature of the
doctrine of the Trinity. This can be followed stiU
further, for violet is the chemical and actinic ray,
yellow is the lighting ray ; red is the heating ray ;
26o WAR WORK
and these correspond more or less closely to the
functions of the three Persons of the Trinity.
A remarkable fact in connection with the sun is,
that even on the coldest day of winter, if it be
shining, sufficient heat falls on every square yard
of the surface of the ground to melt iron.
The formation of rain drops is easily described
by suspending two balls of pith (the size of veget-
able peas) by two silk threads about an inch apart.
With the aid of a vulcanite ruler or celluloid
knitting needle and a silk handkerchief these balls
can be electrified by static or frictional electricity,
with the result that as each ball is charged with
the same sign of electricity, they repel each other,
and hang three or four inches apart and one will
not have anything to do with the other.
Upon this apparently simple law great results
depend, for without it rain drops would come down
in huge masses, probably as large as houses,
destroying everything in their path.
Rain results from fine globules of water sus-
pended in the sky, but so minute that the action
of gravity is overcome by any upward current of
air ; these globules coalesce and gradually attain
the size of a drop of rain which then begins to
fall. In falling, static electricity is produced
by the friction between the air and the drop,
so that each drop repels its neighbour ; travelling
side by side for probably a mile they will, like the
pith balls, have nothing to do with one another,
each carrying with it its quota of electricity which
it discharges into the ground. This explains the
phenomenon that after rain, however heavy, the
soil is beautifully light and friable instead of being
worked into mud as is the case when we use a
hose or a water-can.
BUBBLES AND BUBBLE-BLOWING 261
Sir William Crookes' exhausted tubes are more
difficult to exhibit, requiring as they do an electric
coil and accumulator, but they are some of the
most lovely and interesting objects for a gathering
of wounded men.
In one tube there are five very unattractive-
looking minerals very much like pieces of chalk
or limestone, until the electric current is passed
through them in a darkened room ; they then
become radiant with the most lovely and diverse
colours, intense greens, reds and lilacs.
In another tube is fixed an ordinary whelk-shell
such as is found on the beach or on the fish-
monger's slab. Nothing pretty or attractive in
its dull drab colour, except its form ; but the
current being switched on, it becomes an exqui-
sitely beautiful object. Part of it has an intense
blue which is best compared with the tint of the
rising sun on some mountain, with occasional
patches of brilliant gold ; the mouth of the shell
can only be likened to a fairy cave lighted up with
perfect loveliness.
These objects can be used for illustrating the
effect produced on the character of a vicious and
repulsive human being ; when the Spirit of God
takes possession of his heart he becomes at once
transformed into an entirely different personality,
and instead of being repellent is attractive and
lovable.
Professor C. V. Boys, F.R.S., wrote a small
book, published by the S.P.C.K., on Bubbles and
Bubble-blowing, which gives complete instructions
as to how they can be produced.
It is unnecessary to describe their loveliness,
but the great size which can be attained, some
being 12, 15, or even 18 inches in diameter, and
the possibility of blowing one bubble inside
another, and also to pass a bubble round the
18
262 WAR WORK
room from person to person, render their exhibi-
tion a source of great interest.
Chladni's sand figures on a brass plate, produced
by vibration, are very entertaining to the men,
especially if they all are invited to try their skill
in working them.
All soldiers know only too well what the word
Explosion means, but few know Implosion. This
can be shown by putting a small quantity of
water into a tin can and boiling the water until
the can is filled with steam. It is then corked up
and cold water quickly thrown over it. The steam
is immediately condensed, a vacuum being formed,
with the result that the can is crushed in by the
pressure of the external air. This explains what
happens when a steamer founders at sea and it
is reported that the boilers exploded, the fact
being they imploded.
Another branch of work was the Canteen under
the arch connecting the platforms at Waterloo
Station. This was started by that devoted and
capable lady Mrs. S. B. Wilson, C.B.E., and her
able staff of i6o voluntary lady workers, of whom
my daughter Mrs. Walter Weston was a very
active member. They used to meet the incoming
ambulance trains and supply food to the wounded
in their cots on arrival. They also entertained
the troops leaving for the Front, and those
returning on leave. In addition they provided
for shipwrecked and torpedoed sailors and
soldiers, for repatriated and starved prisoners,
and for released Russian and German prisoners.
The Canteen was in a most cramped and unsuit-
able place under an arch between the platforms
FEEDING EIGHT MILLIONS OF MEN 263
and was entirely devoid of daylight. A bronze
tablet has been fixed in the wall of the passage
stating that " at this spot eight millions of men
were received, fed, and cared for."
During the War one of the lady superintendents
of the Wimbledon Branch of the Red Cross
Society appealed to me to obtain for her linen and
calico, of which there was great need, and scarcity.
I explained to her that I was not a linen-draper,
but promised to think the matter over and see
what could be done. It occurred to me that, as
civil engineers, we had many drawings and maps
mounted on fabrics of various kinds, such as
nainsook, butter muslin, brown holland, linen,
and the like, and that when these drawings had
served their purpose there was no further use for
them. I had, for instance, some long sections
of the Cape to Cairo Railway varying in length
from 30 to 70 ft., which were not wanted owing
to the Railway, during construction, having been
slightly diverted. I had these sent down to my
house and soaked in the pond. The drawing
paper could then be stripped from the material
on which it was mounted, and the latter was sent
to the laundry to be washed and sterilised. The
paper, of excellent quality, could be used for
other purposes. The result was most satisfac-
tory, more especially as the calico or linen was
made long before the War, and was of a much
finer quality than anything the shops could supply.
The hnen was, indeed, often of the finest quality,
and as good as new ; such was that from the
drawings of the London and Birmingham Railway
— seventy years old.
264 WAR WORK
My wife and a lady friend took the work regu-
larly in hand. We soon had drawings floating
in two tanks which we established for the purpose,
some bearing the signatures of such eminent men
as Robert Stephenson, Sir John Fowler, W. H.
Barlow, of the Midland Railway Company, Sir
Charles Fox, and many others. The material
proved of the greatest value for hospital purposes
and saved the institutions to which it was sup-
plied from a large expenditure. We had many
most grateful acknowledgments. The purposes
to which it was applied were bandages, splints,
slings, substitute for cotton-wool, sheets for
operating-tables, gowns for the surgeons, pocket-
handkerchiefs, vests, pillow-cases for the wounded
in Palestine and Mesopotamia.
An appeal, inserted in the daily papers under
the heading " New Linen from Old Plans," drew
very large consignments of old drawings from a
number of engineering firms, railways. Govern-
ment Offices, and various other establishments.
Designs delineated on the drawings were im-
mediately effaced so that all requisite secrecy was
secured.
One railway company thought it necessary to
cut their drawings into pieces no larger than
postage stamps, filling several large sacks. At
first we feared this material was wasted, but the
Bermondsey Medical Mission discovered that even
these fragments formed an excellent substitute
for cotton-wool, the price of which was then
prohibitory.
During the first six months ending July 31,
191 8, the number of pieces, of most excellent
NEW LINEN FROM OLD PLANS 265
quality for surgical use, actually sent to the
hospitals was 24,215, in addition to 4,390 still
in hand. The lengths varied from 2 to 30 ft.,
of widths varying from 8 to 48 in. The total
aggregate length of this material was between
18 and 19 miles.
Supplies of drawings soon began to arrive from
the Scottish railway companies ; but the cost of
carriage was so great that I suggested to the Red
Cross Society in Edinburgh that they should
open a local branch in Glasgow to which all the
railway companies and commercial companies
north of the Tweed should consign their plans.
This suggestion was successfully adopted.
When the War came to an end, and our opera-
tions at " Alyn Bank " were closed down, the total
result was as follows :
Aggregate length of material distributed, vary-
ing in width from 48 in. to a minimum width of
8 in., 60 miles ; aggregate length of smaller
pieces not exceeding 24 in. in length, and of
varying widths, 61 miles ; making a total of
121 miles. All this represented a value of many
thousands of pounds, and it is estimated that
every drawing, from the start to the finish, had
to be handled seven times.
Another item of war work was the growing of
vegetables and tomatoes for allotments. This
could not be done without heat, and fuel was, of
course, strictly rationed. However, the authori-
ties permitted me to buy the necessary coke : in
consequence of this we were able to give free of
cost to the allotments many thousands of plants
of all kinds.
CHAPTER XXIV
A BURGLARY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
When I was a child my father was robbed under
peculiarly painful circumstances. The wife of
his coachman was taken suddenly ill, and, in
order to save her life, she and her husband were
accommodated with rooms in our house, and the
wife was placed under the care of our family
doctor. Whilst they were in the house, our
silver gradually disappeared — apparently much
to the distress of the coachman, who feared he
might be suspected as the thief. At last the
police were called in, and, as a result of their
investigations, they arrested the man, and found
upon him pawntickets representing the greater
portion of the property. He was prosecuted,
found guilty, and sent to prison. This incident
so shocked my father that he arranged with one
of the leading silversraiths in London to take over
his silver, and supply in its stead a service of
electro-plate, which would offer no temptation
to others in the future.
His example was followed in after years by
each of his children. When we came to have
homes of our own, we purposely refrained from
having silver on our tables, hoping in this way
to protect ourselves from the depredations of
thieves or burglars. Nevertheless, my house at
Wimbledon was threatened no fewer than three
266
A QUAKERESS BURGLAR 267
times. In the end I found it advisable to have
suitable burglar alarms installed.
About the year 1913, as our excellent parlour-
maid was leaving our service to get married, it
became necessary to engage someone to take her
place. Among the applicants was a young
woman of education, and gentle demeanour, who
seemed in every respect eligible. I met her by
chance one day on my return from the magistrates'
bench. She was having an interview with my
wife in our drawing-room, and I had an oppor-
tunity of conversing with her for a few minutes.
She told us that her parents were Quakers, and
that she was accustomed to attend their meetings :
that she desired to get a situation in a house with
" a religious atmosphere and influence," where
she could have quiet Sundays, without evening
dinners or late suppers. She had come up from
Worthing, she said, with her mistress Lady V. ;
that the latter would be glad to give her a good
character, and would be at her hotel (one of the
best in London) and could see my wife if she
cared to call there at 2 o'clock the next day.
Lady Fox thereupon wrote to Lady V., and
said she would be at the hotel punctually at 2 p.m.
She went accordingly the next day, and was shown
into a room where she was presently joined by
both the English and Continental managers.
The former produced my wife's letter, and asked
if it referred to a servant. My wife replying in
the affirmative, he declared that the whole thing
was a fraud ; that there was no such person as
Lady V., and that they strongly objected to their
268 A BURGLARY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
hotel being made the meeting-place for servants.
My wife of course pointed out at once that she
had not fixed the interview. Whilst they were
speaking, the hall porter came in, and said that
Lady V. had just telephoned that she was sorry
she would be twenty minutes late, and would
Lady Fox kindly wait for her ? The manager
seemed puzzled, but said he thought it would be
best for her to do as Lady V. asked.
My wife waited for a long time ; but no one
arrived, and she returned home to find a most
extraordinary state of affairs. During her absence
the woman had driven down from London in a
taxi, had told the temporary parlour-maid that
she had seen Lady Fox in London ; that the
latter had engaged her, and had told her to come
down to Wimbledon and ask to be shown how to
lay the table for dinner.
Suspecting nothing wrong, the temporary par-
lour-maid showed her what to do, and where to
find the things. The impostor was of course
able to take stock of the contents of the safe,
where things in the parlour-maid's charge were
kept, and doubtless she had opportunities for
studying the fastenings of windows and doors.
She then returned to London, after inducing the
housekeeper to give her money for the taxi.
A warrant was issued for her arrest for obtaining
money under false pretences. The detective
on being handed the warrant remarked that he
had no clue, and hadn't the least idea where to
begin his investigation. A few days later, how-
ever, a telephone message came from a London
AYLESBURY PRISON 269
police station to say that a young woman had been
given into custody by a lady in Park Lane, for
having defrauded her. Our detective at once
went to the Vine Street Police Station, on the
bare chance of the woman in custody being the
culprit he was charged to arrest. Fortunately
this turned out to be the case. The bogus parlour-
maid was brought up before the Court in due
course, and received six months' imprisonment,
which she served at the Holloway Prison for
Women. Having completed this sentence, the
woman was again arrested on the much more
serious charge of adopting the garb of a hospital
nurse, and robbing an invalid committed to her
care. This time she was sentenced to three
years' imprisonment and was sent to the Aylesbury
Prison for Women.
It so happened that my eldest daughter was
both the Governor and Medical Officer of Ayles-
bury Prison — the only appointment in the world
of the kind — but evidently the woman did not
realise that the Governor of the prison was con-
nected with us. While she was serving her
sentence, my wife and I spent the week-end with
our daughter at the prison, and on Sunday
morning attended Divine Service in the Chapel.
During the service one of the prisoners fainted,
and had to be removed by the wardresses, and my
daughter, in her capacity as doctor, went to
examine her. On seeing her, the prisoner ex-
claimed : " Oh ! doctor, I had such a shock, I
noticed Sir Francis and Lady Fox in the Chapel !
Are you related to them ? "
270 A BURGLARY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
We surmised from the methods of the pseudo
parlour-maid that she was probably connected
with a gang of thieves and might have had time
before her arrest to communicate to her con-
federates the knowledge she had gained of the
interior of " Alyn Bank," and of our belongings
there. We were therefore prepared for a possible
sequel, and took the precaution to have all the
anti-burglar bells and contrivances thoroughly
overhauled and put in good order. We then
awaited the coming of our " fish " with some
interest.
Not long afterwards, on October 7, 1913, at
3.30 a.m. we were aroused by the powerful gong
sounding. We hastened downstairs, switched on
the electric light, and found the dining-room door
leading into the hall open and swinging in a strong
breeze, caused by the plate glass in the outer
door having been broken and removed. We saw
at once that the whole place had been ransacked
and that the burglars had bolted.
At 3.31 a.m. — exactly one minute after the
alarm gong sounded — we rang up the police on
the telephone, and received a reply from the
operator in three seconds. His alertness and
promptness were due to a curious incident which
he afterwards explained to me. At i a.m. he
said he had been rung up from a " public call-
box " in London, and asked " if Sir Francis Fox
was at home." This seemed an extraordinary
inquiry, and his suspicions were aroused. He
resolved to stand by the switchboard, expecting
to be called up, so that when he received my call
THE BURGLARS CAUGHT 271
at 3.31 a.m., he put me through to the police
station immediately. In four minutes, five con-
stables on bicycles were tearing up to " Alyn
Bank," by the two converging roads, and at
3.45 a.m. the men were captured in the Worple
Road. They were electrical engineers, they said,
going to their work by the 4 a.m. train to London.
Our dining-room presented a curious scene at
that unusual hour. We had called our maids,
and they had come down in their dressing gowns.
The two dogs were rushing about ; the room was
brilliantly lighted ; and the police were searching
the rooms, and garden. The plate glass had been
very ingeniously broken through, and the outer
door opened. The burglars had ransacked the
room, forcing open drawers and cupboards. They
had then proceeded to cut their way through the
door into the hall. The keyhole and striking
plate had been centre-bitted, the strong hook had
been bent straight, and the door opened. This
had set the loud gong going and had given the
alarm.
At 5.45 a.m. we attended at the police station
to enter the charge. It was a wretched morning,
pitch dark, with drenching rain, and the tram
service had not begun. Some eight or more
policemen were ranged round the room with the
two burglars in the middle. All their tools, and
our stolen property, were being carefully arranged
on the table and a list of them was made. I
thanked the Inspector, Sergeants, and Officers
for their splendid promptitude, telling them that
I should report their vigilance to the Chief of the
272 A BURGLARY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
Police. Our " two friends," I added, now prob-
ably appreciated the value of electric gongs. I
also referred to the excellent telephone operator,
commending his intelligence and discernment. I
afterwards made a point of calling the attention
of the Telephone Department to the service the
latter had rendered.
The burglars were committed for trial at the
Old Bailey, and on November ii the leader X,
who was well connected and evidently an educated
man, received a sentence of three years' penal
servitude. It turned out that he had already
been convicted four times for housebreaking.
The other man, Y, had only acted as assistant,
and was sentenced to twelve months' hard labour.
In giving m3r evidence I drew the judge's
attention to the fact that, although it was a most
determined burglary, the prisoners were not
armed with any deadly weapons, nor had they
maliciously damaged things they could not carry
away. This point in their favour evidently
weighed in the consideration of their sentences.
They both went to Wandsworth Gaol, and a
month later, having obtained permission from the
Home Office, I visited them for ten minutes in
their cells, accompanied by the Governor.
I told X that my object in seeing him was to
assure him that I had no feeling of ill-will towards
him. Unfortunately for himself, he had chosen
for attack a house which contained no silver, nor
any articles of great value, and one which was
protected electrically. I told him that, if he
behaved well during his time in prison, and earned
DETAILS OF THE BURGLARY 273
his full number of good marks, his sentence would
be reduced from three years to two years three
months. He need be under no apprehension,
when the time came for his release, that he would
be obliged to revert to crime. I promised that I
would do all I could to help him and to find him
work. " It is kind — very kind," he uttered in a low
tone. I entreated him to give up crime. " I've
done with it," he said firmly, " and will not touch
it again."
As he would have much time on his hands, I
exhorted him to employ some of it in studying,
not merely reading, his Bible, and to ask God for
His help and guidance.
Before leaving him I spoke about the burglary.
" How long," I asked, " did it take to get
through the plate glass ? "
" An hour and a quarter," he said.
" How long to ransack the dining-room ? "
" Half an hour."
" How long to cut through the door of that
room ? "
" Half an hour."
" How did you like the hook on the door ? "
" I never had had to deal with a hook before.
So soon as we got the door open, the gong went
off and that gave us away."
On leaving I shook hands with him and reiter-
ated my desire to assist him. Turning to the
Governor, he said in a low voice, " Sir Francis
Fox's visit will have done me more good than
twenty years' penal servitude."
As a magistrate of forty-nine years' standing I
274 A BURGLARY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
have ventured to give these particulars, in order
that my brethren on the Bench may appreciate
the splendid opportunities they have of reclaiming
the fallen, if they will but follow up the cases
which come before them. Needless to say, one
must set about such work in a genuinely kind and
Christian way. The least touch of the patronising
manner is fatal.
We next visited Y, who had acted as assistant
to X, and I gave him the same message. Inno-
cently he said, " Will you kindly give me your
name and address ? " The Governor laughed —
so did I, and then the prisoner.
I said, " You not only know my house, but have
been inside it."
" Yes, I know that," he replied, "but I know
neither the house, nor the road. I was only
taken on for the job."
I was deeply grieved to hear some time after-
wards that Y had again got into trouble. He was
arrested on a criminal charge in Glasgow and
sentenced to three years' imprisonment.
About six months after my first visit I called
again at Wandsworth, and found that X had been
removed to Dartmoor to complete his sentence.
In reply to my inquiry, the Governor said that
the man had behaved admirably during his time.
He had given no trouble and had earned his full
remission. In June 1915 I went to Dartmoor
and was allowed to see X before his release.
He had had a further remission of three months,
or twelve months in all, for his good conduct.
He had an absolutely clean sheet. I was left
SCOTLAND YARD 275
alone with him for half an hour, in the Deputy-
Governor's room, with a warder placed on duty
outside the window. He gave me his full name
and address. His father, who had recently
died, had held a good position in a Government
Oface, and his mother, for whom he had a deep
affection, was engaged on important war work.
He himself had originally intended to matriculate
at London University with a view to obtaining a
medical degree. He said he had no " boss "
nor gang. I had a straight talk with him, and
told him that I had arranged out-of-door employ-
ment for him in a concern in which I was in-
terested. I secured for him good lodgings,
good work, excellent wages, and introduced him
to the Vicar of the parish.
On his release he had to go for his discharge to
Scotland Yard. I went there to meet him, but
hardly recognised him. His hair and moustache
had grown, he was well dressed in civilian garb,
and had quite the appearance of a gentleman.
I represented to the Home Office that the rule
which required a prisoner to present himself once
a month at the police station, or to be visited by a
constable at his work, was fatal to his attempts
to reform, and ought to be abrogated. I sug-
gested the adoption of the following plan in the
case of X. On the first of each month he was to
write to me, giving particulars of his work, his
lodgings, his pay, etc. ; similar letters were also to
be written to me by the manager and the Vicar
(the only two persons who knew of his antecedents).
As soon as I received these three letters I under-
276 A BURGLARY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
took to send them to the poHce with a covering
letter from myself. This was agreed to by the
authorities, and as the plan worked admirably the
man was never visited by any official.
He worked most assiduously in his new position
and was a model of punctuality. No matter how
cold or wet the weather, he was always the first
to turn up, and he invariably volunteered for any
rough or dangerous work that was required.
After being in my employ for some five or six
months, he came to my ofhce in London, and said
he was afraid he would have to leave. The men
were getting somewhat suspicious, since he knew
little or nothing of the Great War. He had put
them off for a time by teUing them he had been
in the Canadian woods — which was true, but it
was twenty years before I In the end he had to
leave and I suggested that he should enlist.
This he was unwilling to do, saying that he hated
the Army and all military life. Eventually, how-
ever, he had to be enrolled and joined one of the
most famous territorial regiments. He earned
an excellent character from his colonel, major,
padre, and sergeants, and before long I received
a letter from him, of which the following is an
extract :
" I am pleased to tell you I came through my
musketry course successfully, and so far I have
not one black mark against me. The life which
I thought I should dislike I have come to love.
But the Army has done more for me than that : it
has made me feel a man and given me back my
self-respect in a way I never felt before. I think
OUR FRIEND THE BURGLAR 277
it is partly because I was lucky enough to get
into this fine regiment, and I fully appreciate
my success in being amongst the decent men of
the regiment."
He volunteered for the Front several times,
and about May 1916 I had a letter from him which
I feel is worth giving in extenso as an encourage-
ment to others :
" Southampton,
en route.
" Sir :
" I received your very kind letter on
Tuesday evening, and received orders at 7.30
next morning for the Front and left camp at
9.50 a.m.
" We have been here the night, and this may
be the last opportunity of writing you before I
go out to the Great Adventure. I should like to
take this opportunity of thanking yourself and
Lady Fox for all your many great kindnesses and
to tell you that I go out there with a heart full
of happiness and what is more, bang full of
absolute confidence that I shall make good there ;
and what is more come back to build something
on the solid foundation which you and Lady Fox
are very largely instrumental in giving me of
these great hopes and confidence.
" I am taking the liberty of sending you a
photograph of myself, as I thought perhaps you
might like to have one. Will you tell Lady Fox
I am sorry to say I have not her Bible with me —
not because I don't value it, but because I value
it too much. I kept it with me to the last and
then sent it off home. I have with me a little
paper-backed New Testament (of Lord Roberts').
I want to keep hers until I come back.
19
278 A BURGLARY AND ItS CONSEQUENCES
" Now, sir, I think I have worried you quite
enough so will finish.
" With my respectful and sincere hopes that
you are well,
" I remain,
" Yours very sincerely,
On October 13, 1916, I had a letter from his
mother announcing that she had received news
on October 12 that he had " been killed some-
where in France."
It appeared that whenever any dangerous work
or reconnaissance had to be carried out he im-
mediately volunteered for it : and one very dark
and stormy night he set out alone with his captain.
Both officer and man were afterwards found dead,
shot through the head by snipers.
We were at breakfast when the letter arrived,
and having read it I passed it on to my wife. We
were both silent for a few moments, overcome with
emotion, before I said to her, " Neither you nor I
ever thought we should be so near shedding tears
over the fate of a burglar."
On communicating the news to the Home
Ofhce, I received sympathetic letters from several
of the officials there, and from the Governors of
the two prisons, the burden of them all being
" The man has made good ! "
CHAPTER XXV
SOME RECOLLECTIONS OF TRAVEL
(i) South America
I HAVE had the good fortune to visit South
America more than once, and am therefore able
to reahse to some extent its size, its magnificence,
and its boundless resources. From the sighting
of land by the mail steamers at Pernambuco, to
the time when the frontier between Brazil and
Uruguay is passed, a whole week elapses during
which the coast of Brazil is always in sight.
Between the dates of my first and second visits
— an interval of some twenty-one years — great
developments had taken place. On the first
occasion yellow fever was claiming a thousand
victims a day in Rio de Janeiro, whereas on my
later visits this terrible scourge had been completely
stamped out.
In the neighbourhood of Rio de Janeiro a magni-
ficent drive, or Avenida Beira-Mar, had been
constructed round the many indented bays lying
between the city and the Sugar Loaf Mountain,
which guards, as a sentinel, on the south shore
the narrow entrance from the sea. This
esplanade has a fine footwalk, with parapet on
the sea side and trees on the other ; then a wide
motor -road bounded by further trees and a walk ;
and again, and parallel with these, another
motor -road, footwalk and trees. It constitutes
279
28o SOME RECOLLECTIONS OF TRAVEL
the finest drive of the kind in the world and runs
for many miles, with a roadway tunnel under the
mountain to the open Atlantic.
A rack railway up the Corcovado Mountain
enables one to get a splendid view of the panorama
of Rio and its superb inland sea. In fact this is
without doubt the loveliest place in the world,
covered as it is with tropical scenery and vegeta-
tion. The comfortable International Hotel, and
the hotel at Tijuca, are delightful places at which
to stay, and are within easy reach of the beautiful
Botanical Gardens.
In the Province of Minas Geraes in Brazil there
are great deposits of valuable ores of iron and
manganese, and also of diamonds. A range of
mountains called Itacolumi gives its name to the
sandstone Itacolumite, which has the remarkable
quality, for a stone, of flexibility. It is found in
a bed or layer in the sandstone quarries, and is
generally 6 or 8 in. in thickness ; when a slab
is cut out it can be bent, within certain limits,
in any direction. No geologist nor scientist
has ever satisfactorily explained (although many
theories have been advanced) how the particles
of sand are arranged to allow of this movement.
Similar flexible sandstone is found in India and
the Punjab. Some large and good specimens
are to be seen in the Mineral Department of the
Natural History Museum at South Kensington.
On the coast of Uruguay at Maldonado, Pro-
fessor Darwin during his voyage on H.M.S. Beagle
noticed on the sand dunes adjacent to the sea
what were apparently a large number of upright
DARWIN AND FULGURITES 281
sticks protruding from the sand 6 in. or more.
Upon examining them he discovered that they
were not sticks at all, but tubes of vitrified sand
from the dunes, which had been fused by the
flashes of lightning during the heavy electrical
storms for which this district is noted. They are
known as Fulgurites. The explanation of their
upright position is, that storms of wind have
blown away the loose sand surrounding them,
lowering the surface of the sand and leaving
the tops of the fulgurites exposed. At Drigg,
in Cumberland, similar fulgurites have been dis-
covered, and excavations were made to ascertain
to what depth they extended ; but at 30 ft. the
difficulty of going lower increased so rapidly that
the quest was abandoned. The late Mr. C. E.
Roche Rowland, British Vice-Consul in Monte-
video, kindly gave me some interesting specimens
which vary in diameter from a quarter of an inch
to an inch. Why these particular sand dunes
should be affected by lightning more than other
places is a mystery.
Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay, stands in a
commanding position at the entrance of the
estuary of La Plata, which is formed by the two
great rivers, the Uruguay and the Parana. These
rivers bring down enormous quantities of sand
and alluvial soil, and are responsible for the
accretion of the Estuary which is continually
pushing the " tail " of the bank nearer and nearer
to the sea. Within the period of my first and last
visits, the Lightship has had to be moved 15
miles farther down towards the Atlantic, and the
282 SOME RECOLLECTIONS OF TRAVEL
approach to Buenos Ayres for ocean-going ships
is annually becoming more and more difficult.
It is only kept open by the costly method of
dredging a deep-water channel through the
deposited silt ; and even to negotiate this the
Royal Mail Company's steamers have to be built
flat-bottomed, without a mid-keel, and their
plates scrape on the floor of the Canal.
The vessels of the Pacific Steam Navigation
Company, which are exposed to the gales of Cape
Horn and Magellan Straits, have to be built on
different lines, with deep keels and greater
draught, and are consequently unable to go up to
Buenos Ayres, but discharge their cargoes and
passengers for the Ajgentine at Montevideo.
In the opinion of experienced captains the day
is not far distant when the traffic for Buenos
Ayres will have to be dealt with by an entirely
new port to be built on the coast of the open sea,
at or near Samborombon. To abandon good sea-
going qualities in their ships in order to negotiate
a dredged channel hardly seems to be economic-
ally correct.
Considerations of natural safety point in the
same direction as those of sound business. The
Argentine war vessels, which may be required in
any emergency to protect their capital, can only
be accommodated at Port Militar, near Bahia
Blanca, a distance of 700 miles farther south.
It would be a parallel case if our British fleet
for the defence of the Channel had to be held in
reserve at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands,
north of Scotland, or even farther away.
MONTEVIDEO 283
Montevideo itself is sorely in need of improve-
ment. Instead of facing the sea with its view,
and healthful sea breezes, it turns its back to it,
and relegates its fine frontage to the cemeteries,
slaughter-houses, rubbish tips, gas works, and
such-like. Rather should it emulate Rio de
Janeiro in the matter of its fine Avenida Beira-
Mar, with its magnificent Boulevard. The pro-
posed construction of " The Rambla " would have
provided Montevideo with a fine Esplanade ; and
the reclamation of a large area of land which
could be utiHsed for the extension of the city
would have given it a handsome sea front.
The Port of Montevideo has been laid out on
good lines and is partially constructed, but
unfortunately the Government were persuaded
on economical grounds by the Germans to allow
them to construct the breakwater. We have it
on good authority that the man who builds his
house on sand is a fool, yet the German engineer
proceeded to make this mistake. The winds
blew, the floods came, and a strong south-easterly
gale known as the " Pampero " had a voice in
the matter. It only took a few hours to transform
what appeared to be a massive breakwater over
half a mile in length, into a heap of ruins, to
which a detailed photograph hardly does justice.
Had an English firm like Messrs. Pearson or
Messrs. C. H. Walker been entrusted with the
work, it would be standing to this day.
Some distance up the River Parana, in Salto,
one of the provinces of Uruguay, are found those
very interesting water stones, " geodes " or
284 SOME RECOLLECTIONS OF TRAVEL
enhydros, which are hollow and contain water.
They are agates in course of formation, the process
of their growth having been arrested by the
stopping up of the inlets and outlets ; these ducts
have been crystallised over, and the water im-
prisoned for untold ages. The formation of
these "geodes," which are chalcedony, has been
explained as follows. When the lava from a
volcano producing black basalt is suddenly cooled,
innumerable cracks and cavities are left by the
shrinkage. These cavities are filled with water
to the extent of a wineglassful or so, containing
silica which is deposited in layers of fine crystals.
In this way are produced those beautiful parallel
lines found in cornelian, onyx, and similar stones,
which are generally chalcedony coloured by some
foreign substance.
On the River Iguassu between Brazil and
Uruguay are the great Falls which are claimed to
be the finest in the world, but the height is broken
into two cascades. On plan they are in the form
of a horseshoe. In some maps they are styled
the Victoria Falls — the name given by the
ubiquitous Englishman— but for the future they
will be known as the Falls of the Iguassu. They
will, at some not very remote date, provide
electrical power, or as it has been termed " white
coal," for lighting and driving great factories.
In June 1922 a steamer, conveying tourists up
the Rivers Uruguay and Iguassu, was sunk by an
explosion and eighty of these visitors were lost.
The great Docks at Buenos Ayres, built by
Messrs. Walker, now furnish one of the main
THE ASTRONOMER-ROYAL OF THE CAPE 285
inlets and outlets for the trade of Argentina. A
very different state of things existed on my first
visit. Owing to the very shallow water the
steamer had to anchor some miles away in the
estuary, and the passengers were taken off by a
steam tug ; the tug in its turn had to transfer
its load into rowing-boats ; and even with their
aid, one could only get ashore by being carried
on men's backs. The boatman who carried me
became chief owner of the various steamship
companies running on the great Argentine river,
the well-known Nicolas Mihanovich. He recently
died a multi-millionaire.
(2) South Africa
When I was in Cape Town I asked Sir David
Gill, F.R.S., the Astronomer-Royal of the Cape,
if he would allow me to come to the Observatory
and look through his telescope. He regarded me
rather dubiously, and after a little hesitation said :
** Yes, yes, I think I should be justified in doing
so — but a lady ! never again. A lady visited my
observatory the other day. Before she looked
through, to prevent her from being disappointed,
I explained to her that she would see only one
small area of the moon, and that she would notice
a cobweb across the field of the telescope. She
looked through and exclaimed, ' Wonderful !
beautiful ! but. Sir David, I had no conception
that any telescope was powerful enough to show
the cobwebs in the moon.' "
Before I left. Sir David Gill very kindly gave
me four lantern slides of " the invisible stars,"
286 SOME RECOLLECTIONS OF TRAVEL
so called because the human eye cannot see them.
The first had been exposed for five minutes to a
dark portion of the midnight sky in "v Argus,"
and the plate revealed many stars which neither
the human eye nor the most powerful telescope
could ever see. This is due to the fact that the
photographic plate is far more sensitive than the
human eye. No. 2 plate had been exposed three
hours, and one can see all the stars on No. i, with
the addition of many more. Again, No. 3 had
had an exposure of twelve hours, that is six hours
each night for two consecutive nights. No. 4
had been exposed twenty-five hours, requiring
exposure on three or four consecutive nights,
with the result that the plate is a mass of blazing
suns, each one of them probably attended by its
own satellites and worlds. In fact, it is a most
merciful provision that the retina of the eye is
capable of seeing only what we do see. Were it
as sensitive as the photographic negative, the
whole dome of heaven would be a mass of blazing,
blinding light.
I stayed the week-end with a leading Govern-
ment official at Wynberg. On driving up to
his house, the door was opened by a tall, nice-
looking black maid, who spoke English perfectly,
and with a cultured voice and pronunciation to
boot. She waited at table, and came to morning
prayers. In the early morning she brought me a
cup of tea, and spoke in a gentle manner like a
lady of refinement. On the Sunday morning she
accompanied us to Divine Service. I remarked
to my host what an excellent servant she was ;
A NATIVE PRINCESS 287
he said : " Yes, and more than that, she is a
Princess." Her father was King of and had
great wealth in cattle, ostriches, etc. He had con-
sulted the British Government over her education,
with the result that at an early age she was- sent
to Cape Town and placed under first-rate English
governesses and teachers, until she was eighteen
or nineteen years of age. When her father died,
the people sent for her to return to her home,
and become the Queen. But when she found she
would have to revert to heathen rites and cere-
monies, she said this was impossible. She had
learnt English, but she had also embraced the
Christian faith, and she could not give it up.
In the end they decided not to place her on the
throne, and disinherited her. So she became a
parlour-maid in my friend's house.
A somewhat unusual incident occurred on our
mail steamer as she was leaving Cape Town for
Southampton. We were well out to sea, when the
third-class steward came to the captain and said
they had found a " stowaway " on board. He had
gone to one of the third-class berths, thrown the
baggage of the rightful owner on to the floor,
and taken possession. The captain summoned
him to his cabin on the bridge, and asked him to
show him his ticket, but he had not one. The
" stowaway " was a tall, powerful fellow, and it
was discovered that he was abandoning his wife
and six children, and leaving them to their fate
in South Africa. Naturally the captain was
furious. He told the man that unless he paid his
fare (£12) before night he would be placed in a
288 SOME RECOLLECTIONS OF TRAVEL
cell for the voyage. The man slunk away,
but instead of returning to the third-class quarters,
he passed along the first-class gangway, and
entered the smoking-room where a number of
officers were talking. He saluted them and said :
" Gentlemen ! they have discovered a poor boy
on the steamer, a stowaway for England, and I
have been asked to raise a subscription to defray
his fare — £12." The passengers were touched with
sympathy ; one colonel threw him four sovereigns,
another two, and in less time than it takes to
record the incident, the man obtained the full
£12. Returning to the bridge, he said to the
captain with an insolent air : " Half an hour ago
you threatened to put me in irons if I did not pay
my fare. Well, there is £1, there are £2," and so
on to the full £12. " Now, give me my berth."
The captain had no choice but to comply.
He was a most objectionable man, boycotted by
all the passengers, insolent to the officers. When
the smoke-room occupants heard they had been
cheated, they were naturally greatly angered,
and decided to prosecute him on arrival at
Southampton for obtaining money under false
pretences. But they found that to take proceed-
ings against the man would detain them for a
day in Southampton, so they had to drop his
prosecution, and he landed a free man to prey
upon the community in England.
Another strange incident occurred on one of
my long voyages in 1897. I was returning from
the Cape in one of the fine mail steamers, and a
fellow-passenger, whom we will call Mr. W.,
A VICTIM FROM SCURVY 289
was going to England to spend Christmas and the
New Year with his wife and children at his home
near London. He intended to return to South
Africa at the end of the following January.
Mr. W. was a well-known engineer in Westminster,
formerly of the London and North-Western Rail-
way, and had been on many occasions in the service
of my firm. He had been in a remote part of
Africa engaged on survey work for a South
African Company and had lived on tinned food
almost exclusively, in consequence of the crops
and herds having been destroyed by long-continued
drought, by locusts, and by rinderpest. The want
of fresh food and vegetables had affected his
health, but he was hoping that the voyage to
England, combined with a restful holiday, would
set him up again. On the voyage he sat at the
doctor's table and each day seemed to improve
in colour and appearance. He and I often
promenaded the deck for exercise : or we sat in
deck chairs talking over past experiences.
After calling at Madeira on December 15 we
ran into heavy weather. However, it seemed to
suit him, and on the evening of Thursday,
December 16, he rose from the table about 8 p.m.
in good spirits, saying, "Well, doctor, I have made
the best meal since I left England a year ago."
The doctor replied that he was rapidly improving
and would arrive home quite restored. About
8.30 p.m. the captain came to me and said :
*' I believe you are a friend of Mr. W's. I fear
he is very ill. Could you go down to his cabin ? "
I went down to his cabin and was shocked to
290 SOME RECOLLECTIONS OF TRAVEL
see him lying on the floor in a state of insensi-
bility. A steward was at his feet with hot-water
bottles, and another steward at his head with ice
bags. I was told that he had suddenly fallen on
the floor in an apoplectic fit, and had never
regained consciousness. What struck me most
of all was that his hair had turned white. I at
once decided not to mention this fact to anyone,
not even to my wife or children, as it might prove
distressing to his wife, if it should ever come to her
ears.
The poor man passed away quietly about
midnight on December i6, and as we were so far
from England the captain decided to perform the
burial at sea at 8 o'clock the next morning, Friday,
December 17, before any of the passengers were
about. He asked me to be the chief mourner and
the official witness. As a last mark of respect
to my friend I consented, and in the morning we
consigned his body to the deep, the sailors, steward,
and officers attending in full-dress uniform. The
service was conducted by the captain during a
heavy gale of wind, in a most reverential manner.
At that date wireless telegraphy was not in use,
and it was impossible to transmit any message
home. The passengers, therefore, asked me to
break the news to Mrs. W. on our arrival in
England on Sunday, December 19. Unfortu-
nately I missed her, and she received the news from
another passenger, a stranger, on the arrival of
the train at Waterloo Station on Sunday.
The news had, however, been anticipated in a
remarkable way. Mr. W's aged father, who lived
A BURIAL AT SEA 291
near Southampton with an unmarried daughter,
coming down to breakfast on the morning of
Thursday, December 16, said to his daughter,
" I have had a curious dream. I have seen my
dear son floating on the waves."
She, in order to reassure him, repHed, " Oh, no !
he will be home on Sunday next."
" No, he won't ; he has died and been buried
at sea."
The daughter of my departed friend had also
dreamt three times in succession on the Wednes-
day night that she saw her father lying on the
floor of a room which she did not recognise.
She called him each time, but he gave no answer.
There was a man at his head and another at his
feet, and his hair was white ! A gentleman friend
also dreamt that Mr. W. had died on the voyage
home.
After receiving the news of her husband's
death, as Mrs. W. was very anxious to cause as
little shock as possible to the old man his father,
she consulted the Vicar of her parish, and he
suggested that she should send two telegrams to
Southampton. The first was to say that her
husband was dangerously ill, and the second to
follow in an hour stating that he had died. When
the first telegram reached the old man, he merely
smiled and said, " It's very kind ; it has been
sent to break the news gently, but I know he
has died."
Surely a merciful provision, this — the sad
intelligence conveyed in a dream, and mitigating
the shock which the sudden announcement of
292 SOME RECOLLECTIONS OF TRAVEL
the death would have caused. I was pressed by
the psychical research people to allow them to
publish this incident in their j ournal, but declined.
In November 1897 when I was returning from
the opening of the Cape and Cairo Railway as
far as Buluwayo, I was a guest of Sir Henry de
Villiers (afterwards Lord de Villiers), the Lord
Chief Justice of the Cape, near Cape Town. In
course of conversation he said he would be per-
sonally obliged if I would go to the Parliament
Buildings, and inspect a remarkable map which
had been found in the Library and deserved, as
he thought, to be widely known. It proved that
the geography of the interior of Africa had been
to a large extent discovered and published 250
years ago. Naturally I complied with his request,
and on November 20 the map was produced for
my inspection by Mr. Home, the Surveyor-
General, and Mr. Liebhardt. It bears the date
1662 and a statement that it was printed in
Amsterdam by Johannis Blauer. It shows two
large lakes or Nyanzas (though much out of their
true position), and states that they give rise to the
tributaries of the Nile and also of the Lualaba
and Congo, thus answering the questions which
had long been asked as to the sources of these
great rivers. The upper waters of the Congo are
shown as flowing north, then turning with a great
bend to the west, and eventually falling into the
South Atlantic Ocean.
Meeting Sir Henry Stanley, one of the British
South Africa Company's guests at the opening
of the railway, I suggested to him the importance
SIR HENRY STANLEY 293
of this information, and induced him to visit
the Library and inspect the map. When I next
saw him he expressed astonishment that such a
map had ever been produced, and added that
had he known of its existence prior to his journey
down the Congo it would have saved him much
suffering, and also the lives of many of his men.
It is evident from Sir Henry Stanley's Through
the Dark Continent that when he was descending
the Lualaba he was entirely ignorant whether the
river would prove to be a tributary of the Congo,
the Niger or the Nile. Had he known that he
was likely to descend the Congo he would have
made other plans, in order to avert the starvation
and fighting which nearly brought his expedition
to an untimely end ; he could, for example, have
arranged for a relief vessel to meet him lower
down the Congo.
Other copies of the same map exist in the
British Museum.
Sir Henry Stanley had chambers in New Bond
Street, and I frequently visited him there. On
each occasion the door was opened by a little
African boy, with ebony skin, ivory teeth, and a
bright smile — a charming little fellow. Some
time after, on our voyage out to the Cape, I asked
Sir Henry about this little boy, and he told me
the following remarkable story :
" On one of my expeditions I rescued him from
slavery. Being an orphan, he became my servant.
He was a sharp intelligent lad, and I brought him
to Europe with me more than once. His name
was Biruti (meaning gunpowder). On my last
20
^94 SOME RECOLLECTIONS OF TRAVEL
voyage up the Congo I anchored off his native
town, where the river is over a mile in width. The
King came out in his war canoe, but would not
come within a hundred yards of my vessel, so
I told Biruti to hail them and assure them we
were friends. The boy accordingly shouted out
to the King : ' Come here ! the great white
man wishes to be your friend and to see you.
I am Biruti your brother.' The reply came :
' I once had a brother of that name, but how
can I be certain that you are Biruti ? ' After
a time they mustered up courage and came. As
soon as the boats touched, the King and Biruti
rushed and embraced each other, dancing and
crying for joy. When it was time to leave I gave
Biruti his choice between remaining with his
brother or coming on with me. He hesitated,
and seemed very loath to leave me. But finally
he said that though he would be sorry to leave the
great white chief he should like to remain in his
own home. So the attractions of home overcame
him and he was left behind. Within a month, the
people of that part finding that Biruti had learnt
so much from his visits to England, and that he
had seen the Great White Queen, held a great
palaver, and decided that for the benefit of his
tribe he must die and be eaten, so that his blood
would be distributed throughout the whole tribe!"
So it came about that this nice little fellow
who had opened the door to me in Bond Street was
sacrificed for the benefit of his people !
CHAPTER XXVI
JONAH AND THE WHALE
The story of " Jonah and the whale " is one
which has proved a stumbling block to many
persons. The following incident, which occurred
in the autumn of 1914, may be of interest to such
sceptical people.
A certain friend of mine, the late Rev. D.
MacCalman, was travelling on a passenger steamer
to the far north of Great Britain, and opposite
to him at meals sat an old man between seventy-
five and eighty years of age, with beautiful locks
of silvery-white hair. He began a conversation
by saying :
" I suppose you are a minister ? "
" Yes, I am."
" You therefore believe the Bible and its
miracles ? "
" Certainly."
" Even that about Jonah and the whale ? "
" Certainly, although the actual words used
were * a great fish.' "
"It is a mere fairy tale, for a whale feeds on
animalcules, and has such a narrow throat that
to swallow a man is an impossibility."
" About that I can make no reply, but, as our
Lord quoted the incident Himself, it is quite
sufficient for me."
At breakfast next day, and at lunch again,
295
296 JONAH AND THE WHALE
" Jonah and the whale " cropped up, and our
friend said he was getting a little tiredof thesubject.
After forty-eight hours' journey the vessel
arrived at its destination, a small town with a
single hotel of modest pretensions, and here it
was to remain for thirty-six hours.
Next morning Mr. MacCalman informed his
fellow-passenger that he had just discovered that
there was a whaling station within a mile, and
they agreed to walk over and see it . The manager ,
a fine, tall man, kindly showed them over the
works, and they saw the boats and harpoons, the
guns and bombs, the slipway up which the fish
were hauled in, the boilers for melting the blubber,
and all the apparatus for barrelling and packing.
The gentleman asked how many kinds of whales
were caught, adding on his own account that they
fed on animalcules. The manager replied that
there were four kinds— the fin, the bottle-nose,
the blue, and the sperm whales. " But as to
feeding on animalcules," said he, " they are
animalcules of some size, as we can tell by cutting
open the stomach." Asked what was the largest
thing they found, he said, " the skeleton of a
shark i6 ft. in length." The old gentleman
objected that as the throat was so narrow it was
impossible for such a large object to pass ; but
the manager smiled and said, " Narrow ! the
throat of the sperm whale can take lumps of food
8 ft. in diameter."
The minister then asked the manager if he
believed in the story of " Jonah and the whale,"
and he replied :
AN AGNOSTIC 297
" Certainly. It was of course a miracle how
Jonah was kept alive inside the fish, but, as to the
possibility of his being swallowed, there can be
no question."
On their return to the hotel, the old man was
very taciturn, and continued so during the dinner.
He seemed depressed. After dinner they parted,
and went to their rooms having bid each other
farewell, as the steamer was to leave at 6 a.m.
the next morning, and our friend would go with
her.
Just as Mr. MacCalman was about to begin to
undress there was a gentle knock at the door,
and the old man entered. He sat down quietly
at a table, and said : "Mr. MacCalman, before you
leave I am desirous of saying something to you.
What we have seen to-day has been a complete
eye-opener to me. I was brought up as a boy and
a young man in an agnostic family, and taught
to deride the Bible and its miracles. * Jonah and
the whale' was often the subject of merriment
and of our disbelief. I then went to Germany as
a medical student, and attended certain lectures
not connected with my profession which unsettled
my belief in God, and I have been sad and dis-
satisfied ever since ; I am now an old man and it's
almost too late to change." So saying he buried
his head in his hands, with his arms on the table,
his beautiful silvery locks falling over his face and
hands, and sobbed like a child. What followed
cannot be related.
I add another story of a rather different char-
acter. I have been fortunate enough to get
298 JONAH AND THE WHALE
particulars of a well-accredited instance in recent
times, of a man being swallowed by a whale and
being rescued alive after remaining many hours
in its stomach.
Two separate accounts have been given of
the event — one evidently by the captain of the
whaler ; the other probably by one of the officers.
The incident was carefully investigated by two
scientists — one of whom was the late M. de Par-
ville, the scientific editor of the Journal des
Debuts of Paris, well known as a man of sound
judgment and a careful writer. He unfortunately
died during the late war. I therefore applied for
information to the subsequent editor of the paper,
a gentleman noted for his kindness and ability.
He answered that as he was engaged in the War
he could not lay his hands on the papers, but
when he returned to Paris, he would search for
them as he well remembered them being discussed
during M. de Parville's life. Rather more than
twelve months later, November 2, 1919, he wrote
to me as follows :
' Eureka ! . . . Having gone over a very large
number of documents, I have now the good fortune
to find the one you want — something even better
than what I expected ... an English translation
which M. de Parville had himself used."
The account briefly is as follows :
In February 1891 the whaling ship Star of the
East was in the vicinity of the Falkland Islands,
and the look-out sighted a large sperm whale
three miles away. Two boats were launched
and in a short time one of the harpooners was
A SAILOR SWALLOWED BY A WHALE 299
enabled to spear the fish. The second boat
attacked the whale, but was upset by a lash of its
tail and the men thrown into the sea, one man
being drowned, and another, James Bartley,
having disappeared could not be found. The
whale was killed and in a few hours the great body
was lying by the ship's side, and the crew were
busy with axes and spades removing the blubber.
They worked all day and part of the night. Next
morning they attached some tackle to the stomach,
which was hoisted on to the deck. The sailors
were startled by something in it which gave
spasmodic signs of life, and inside was found the
missing sailor doubled up and unconscious. He
was laid on the deck and treated to a bath of
sea-water which soon revived him, but his mind
was not clear, and he was placed in the captain's
quarters, where he remained two weeks a raving
lunatic. He was kindly and carefully treated
by the captain, and by the ofhcers of the ship, and
gradually regained possession of his senses. At
the end of the third week he had entirely recovered
from the shock and resumed his duties.
During his sojourn in the whale's stomach,
Bartley's skin where it was exposed to the action
of the gastric juice underwent a striking change ;
his face, neck, and hands were bleached to a deadly
whiteness, and took on the appearance of parch-
ment. Bartley affirms that he would probably
have lived inside his house of flesh until he starved,
for he lost his senses through fright and not from
lack of air. He says that he remembered the
sensation of being thrown out of the boat into the
300 JONAH AND THE WHALE
sea, and of dropping into the water. Then there
was a fearful rushing sound which he beheved to be
the beating of the water by the whale's tail —
he was then encompassed by a great darkness,
and he felt he was slipping along a smooth passage
of some sort that seemed to move and carry him
forward. This sensation lasted but a short time
and then he realised he had more room. He
felt about him and his hands came in contact
with a yielding slimy substance, that seemed to
shrink from his touch. It finally dawned upon
him that he had been swallowed by the whale,
and he was overcome by horror at the situation.
He could easily breathe, but the heat was terrible.
It was not of a scorching, stifling nature, but it
seemed to open the pores of his skin and to draw
out his vitality. He became very weak and grew
sick at the stomach. He knew there was no hope
of escape from his strange prison. Death stared
him in the face. He tried to look at it bravely,
but the terrible quiet, darkness and heat, com-
bined with the horrible knowledge of his environ-
ment, overcame him. The next he remembered
was being in the captain's cabin.
According to the record, the skin on his face
and hands never recovered its natural appearance,
but the health of the man did not seem affected
by his terrible experience. He was in splendid
spirits and apparently fully enjoyed the blessings
of life that came his way. The whaling captains
say that it frequently happens that men are
swallowed by whales who become infuriated by
the pain of the harpoon, and attack the boats,
M. DE PARVILLE 301
but they have never previously known a man to
go through the ordeal that Bartley experienced
and come out alive.
It is stated that on the return of the vessel to
England, Bartley went to a London hospital to
be treated for the injury to his skin — but what
occurred is not in the record. He was known
to be one of the most hardy of whalemen.
M. de Parville, one of the most careful and
painstaking scientists in Europe, concluded his
investigations by stating his belief : " that the
account given by the captain and the crew of the
English whaler is worthy of belief. There are
many cases reported where whales, in the fury of
their dying agony, have swallowed human beings,
but this is the first modern case where the victim
has come forth safe and sound. After this
modern illustration I end by believing that
Jonah really did come out from the whale alive
as the Bible records."
The Curator of a large Museum, in reply to a
question I put to him as to the temperature of
the blood of a whale, said it was about 2*5 Centi-
grade above the temperature of the human body —
which, in the Fahrenheit scale, would be 104-6°,
or high fever heat. This provision was doubtless
made to enable these mammals to resist the cold
of the Arctic and Antarctic Seas.
As the story of Jonah is often a source of merri -
ment with some persons — and a matter of diffi-
culty to many more — it seems only right to show
that the story is not necessarily absurd. It should
302 JONAH AND THE WHALE
not be forgotten, that it has the seal and imprimatur
of no less an authority than our Lord Himself.
" For as Jonah was three days and three nights
in the whale's belly : so shall the Son of Man be
three days and three nights in the heart of the
earth " (St. Matt. xii. 40). If, as some allege, this
reference to Jonah is only allegorical, it follows
as a natural sequence that the reference to our
Lord is also allegorical, and that is not a con-
clusion which Christians can accept.
Should any reader desire to test the accuracy
of the statement as to the swallowing capacities
of a whale, he has only to visit the Natural History
Museum and ask for information from the leading
officials of the Whale Department.
In conclusion I would ask the question
whether it is not time that some steps of an
international character were taken to prevent
over fishing, and the eventual extinction of these
splendid creatures ? At present, instead of small
sailing-ship whalers, steamers of 7,000 tons are
fitted out as floating work-shops equipped with
every conceivable appliance for sweeping the seas
of whales. The industry ought to be placed under
proper control ; already it is believed that certain
kinds have been exterminated, and the same fate
will overtake the remainder if measures are not
taken to preserve them.
CHAPTER XXVII
BREAD AND FLOUR
Bread and flour ? What place can domestic
articles like these have in the reminiscences of a
civil engineer ? Well, my readers have been
warned in the Preface that towards the end of my
book I should allow myself considerable freedom
in my choice of subjects. This happens to be a
matter in which I have taken a peculiar interest ;
and if the reader dislikes the whiff of an old con-
troversy, let him skip this chapter and pass on.
According to the returns of the Board of Trade,
bread and flour constitute nearly half of the
labouring man's solid food, and almost the sole
diet of many poor children, and it is therefore most
important, from a national point of view, that each
of these commodities should be produced, and that
the public should know and ensure that they are
produced, in as pure and nutritious a form as
possible. It was with this aim that the Assize
of Bread was instituted at an early age in our
history, and in the year 1202 a proclamation was
made regulating the quality and price of bread.
Four " discreet " men were appointed to carry out
the provisions of this law, and the pillory and
tumbril were the punishments awarded to those
who broke or evaded it. It is to be feared that,
were the Assize of Bread still in force, the modern
system of flour milling would, to some extent,
303
304 BREAD AND FLOUR
offend against it, and render some of our millers
liable to its penalties.
But before either bread or flour, comes the
wheat from which they are made. Few amongst
the general public (others than farmers) think how
strange a plant it is.
Wheat is a tender annual requiring constant
attention, and if left uncared for, and uncultivated,
it dies out. For instance, let a field be sown with
wheat and then let it be neglected ; the wheat
plant will grow up and shed its grain, and this may
possibly survive a mild winter, but in the course
of two or three years there will be no trace left
of the crop or of the plant. Very different is this
from the herbage for cattle, which grows every-
where unasked, and which covers very quickly
any waste ground. Again, though wheat is a tender
annual, it is remarkable for the very wide range
of latitude in which it will grow. It is cultivated
in the hot plains of India ; it grows in the cold of
Siberia, and even within two hundred and fifty
miles of Klondike. It is believed there is no
other plant which is adapted to such great changes.
Wheat requires the ground to be prepared for
it, at an enormous expenditure of labour. To till
even one acre with furrows 12 in. apart the plough-
man with his plough and team has to travel eight
miles and a half ; if the field be fifty acres in area,
he must make a journey of 425 miles. The grain
has then to be drilled into the soil, and the field
has to be rolled and harrowed. When the time
of harvest arrives it has to be reaped, gathered and
stored, thrashed, and ground into flour. Finally
THE STRAW-HAT TRADE 305
it has to be baked and made into bread to gladden
the heart of man. We are told " In the sweat of
thy face shalt thou eat bread ; " and this is
strictly and literally true.
It is noticeable that the value of a crop of wheat
depends not only upon the quality and quantity
of the grain, but also to some extent upon the crisp,
bright, glassy character of the straw. The straw-
hat trade of Luton and Dunstable, and other
places in the neighbourhood, depends upon the
fact that the straw used for plaiting is grown on
the adjacent chalk land. The plant has great
affinity for the silica in the chalk and flints, and
uses it for coating the outside of the stalk with
that beautiful glass-pipe covering. And it is due
to this fact that America, although she grows
such enormous quantities of wheat upon her
alluvial lands (having no chalk land), has to send
to England so far as I know for straw, through
which her people consume their iced drinks, the
straw being stiff and airtight, and therefore more
suitable for the purpose than their own.
If a grain of wheat be cut in half and examined
under a microscope, it will be found that beneath
the outer covering which constitutes the bran and
" sharps " there are two divisions. The larger
one of these contains the white substance or flour,
and the smaller, the germ or embryo of the future
plant. It is the germ that provides in great
measure the colour, the flavour, and the nourish-
ment of the wheat. It is rich in proteid and fat,
and its presence or absence in the flour makes a
great difference between bread which is palatable
3o6 BREAD AND FLOUR
and nutritious and that which is comparatively
tasteless and valueless as a food.
From the earliest ages until modern times, our
ancestors had the wisdom so to grind the grain
that the resulting flour contained the white
substance as well as the nutritious elements of the
germ. To this end they employed horizontal
running stones — the upper and nether mill-
stones of the Bible. From these issued a flour,
wholesome and full of nutriment, but in colour,
owing to the golden tinge of the seed-germ con-
tained in it, not a dead white. This was the flour
which for centuries was used to make the good
old-fashioned home-made bread, which went to
make our ancestors what they were.
Many of us can remember the introduction
about forty to fifty years ago of " pure white
Hungarian flour," and how it originated the
demand, first of our housekeepers and cooks,
and afterwards of our working-classes, for white
bread. To enable the baker to supply this very
white bread to the public, it became necessary
for the miller to provide white flour. This could
not be achieved by the use of the old-fashioned
horizontal grindstones, which by disintegrating
the germ tinted the flour. It was obvious to
the miller that to produce the white flour demanded
the colouring germ must be eliminated from it at
the earliest stage of grinding, and this he has
succeeded in doing most effectually. The old
upper and nether stones are replaced by steel
roller-mills. The first pair of steel rollers do not
grind the berry ; their business is to crack the
THE MAKING OF WHITE FLOUR 307
wheat and then to roll the germ into little discs,
which do not go to make the flour at all, but are
sifted out by sieves of silk. The little discs of
nutriment are used for various purposes ; some
of it is bought by certain patent bread companies,
but the bulk goes to feed pigs and cattle, while
our children are regaled upon the less nutritious
white loaf.
The material so separated from the flour is
termed by millers offal, which is a wrongly applied
word, and one much to be regretted, as it conveys
to the minds of people exactly the converse of the
fact. According to the dictionaries, offal means
" the rejected or waste parts of a slaughtered
animal, a dead body, carrion, that which is thrown
away as worthless or unfit for use, refuse, rubbish."
This is far from being true of the miller's " offal,"
as such constitutes the richest, the most valuable
and most nutritious portion of the grain. After
the elimination of the " germ " by additional
grindings and siftings, the superfine white flour
is produced. Compared with stone-ground flour
it contains less percentage of the original wheat
(probably 68 to 72), requires more costly machinery
and more elaborate processes, and when finished
is a more expensive and less desirable product.
In 1904 I wrote a letter on this subject to The
Times, from which I take the following passages :
" I was informed a few weeks ago by a gentle-
man who owns large flour-mills, which produce
50,000 tons of flour annually, that the craze for
white bread is being carried to such extremes that
at the present moment many of the millers are
3o8 BREAD AND FLOUR
putting up expensive machinery for the purpose
of actually bleaching the flour. This is being
done by ozone and nitrous acid ; the object being
to make an artificially white bread, and to enable
grain to be used which would otherwise give a
darker colour to the flour.^ . . .
" It is the opinion of many who can speak with
authority on the subject that bread, instead of
being as formerly the ' staff of life,' has become,
to a great degree, an indigestible, less-nutritive
food, and that it is responsible, amongst other
causes, for the want of bone and for the dental
troubles in the children of the present generation.
" It is doubtless true that the variety of food
now obtainable in a measure compensates, in the
case of those who can afford it, for this abstraction
of phosphates ; but I think I am justified in
stating that every medical man, if asked, will
give it as his opinion that very white bread should
be avoided and that ' seconds ' flour, now almost
unprocurable, should alone be used either for bread
or pastry."
The Lancet remarked :
" We should be sorry for the person who tried
to subsist entirely upon the modern uninviting
loaf, made from blanched roller-milled flour."
In Food and Dietetics Dr. Robert Hutchinson
says :
" In rejecting the germ and bran the miller
undoubtedly discards some of the most useful
^ An extract from a trade circular sufficient to prove the un-
desirability of the method is appended :
" The commercial advantages of bleaching flour may be ob-
tained, firstly, by using a cheaper wheat mixture ; secondly,
by increasing the higher grades of flour . . . and we are able to
greatly improve the colour and value of even low-grade flours."
— Trade Circular, 1904.
A VISIT TO TWO FLOUR MILLS 309
chemical constituents of the wheat. A very
white loaf means a loaf in which starch is at a
maximum and proteid at a minimum, and that is
certainly not desirable."
Not long ago I visited some flour mills in which
one part was still using the old-fashioned stones,
the other portion of the establishment being
devoted to roller-grinding. The official in charge
of the former expressed his opinion that roller-
grinding and abstraction of the germ ought to be
prohibited by Act of Parliament. The foreman
of the roller-grinding department, on the other
hand, on being asked what advantages accrued
from roller-grinding, replied, " It makes such
superior flour." To the question what he meant
by superior flour, he answered, "It is much
whiter." He was next asked which was the more
nutritious. " That," said he, " is quite another
matter." The discussion was finally clinched by
my asking him upon which flour he fed his own
family. His reply was an eloquent testimony
to the truth, for he said, " I feed them upon
stone-ground flour."
After working on the problem of better bread
for a considerable time, I found that Miss May
Yates and Mr. Stephen H. Terry, formerly
Engineering Inspector to the Local Government
Board, were already engaged in a similar crusade.
Attention was called to the evils of roller-
grinding by Mr. Stephen H. Terry in a letter
written to The Lancet so long ago as June 10, 1882.
To Miss May Yates, as Hon. Sec. of the Bread
and Food Reform League, the nation owes a deep
21
310 BREAD AND FLOUR
debt of gratitude for her ungrudging and ceaseless
labour to secure proper flour, and to stop the un-
warrantable polishing of rice and pearl-barley.
In recent years a new and powerful argument
has been given to the bread-reformers. It has
been discovered that the vitamines of wheat exist
chiefly in the germ and the outer part of the grain,
the very parts which, by roller-milling, are re-
moved in producing white flour. The word
" vitamine " has only come in of late years, and
as yet the subject is not fully understood. The
existence of vitamines was first discovered at the
Lister Institute. They appear to be the vitalising
elements in all food-stuffs. They can be extracted
by means of alcohol and are not destroyed by
cooking. It is evident, at any rate, that the
importance of any ingredient in food is not to be
measured or judged solely by its percentage.
Some ingredient of microscopic size, and almost
imponderable, makes all the difference between
wholesome and unwholesome food.
Whenever I travel in foreign countries, instead
of using the fancy white breads usually supplied
to hotel guests, I invariably endeavour to purchase
the bread made by the peasantry and for the
working-classes. It is more nutritious and much
more pleasant to the taste.
A working-man, who recently adopted the farm-
house bread, said that no one in his senses having
once tasted it would return to the very white loaf ;
the former was far sweeter, more nourishing and
satisfying, and a loaf of it would feed more children.
There is no branch of the trade in which greater
THE CLEANING OF WHEAT 311
ingenuity and skill have been employed than in
milling. No one who has not seen the operation
can have any idea of the state in which the grain
too often is delivered to the miller. The grain is
gathered, maybe in some distant part of the
world, by reaping machines and self-binders.
These latter tie the sheaves round with iron wire,
and this, in thrashing, frequently gets mixed up
with the grain. It is then shipped, often in a dirty
condition, with a proportion of soil, sand, and
stones, and on reaching Great Britain is stored in
granaries. These consist generally of vertical bins,
and as they are used for all kinds of cereals, it is
inevitable that a small quantity of other kinds of
grain becomes mixed with the wheat. But now
the miller appears on the scene, with a number of
most ingenious machines, which seem almost to
be endowed with human intelligence. In the
first place, all such rubbish as bits of rope and
string, stick and straw, are taken out ; in the next,
the grain passes over magnets which attract to
themselves all the pieces of iron, wire, nails, screws :
how, one wonders, did such materials ever get
in ? The next series of machines carefully pick
out and deposit in separate sacks such foreign
substances as maize, oats, barley, cockle, beans,
peas, etc., by which time the grain consists merely
of the desired wheat. But it has still to be freed
from the soil and sand of the prairie, and for this
object it is washed in cold or warm water, and
afterwards dried by means of hot air, by which time
it is clean and bright and ready to be ground.
Up to this point there can be nothing but
312 BREAD AND FLOUR
admiration for the miller of to-day. It is the mis-
taken ingenuity bestowed on the subsequent pro-
cesses of refinement which we bread-reformers
deplore. We do not desire to abolish roller-
grinding, as this machinery has since been devised
to make excellent flour, provided the desirable
ingredients are not extracted.
When Tennyson wrote " Maud " he described
what was then a prevalent practice :
" Chalk and alum and plaster are sold to the poor for bread.
And the spirit of murder works in the very means of life."
This was done to secure the whiteness of the loaf,
any duskiness being then attributed to dirt in the
flour. But this evil has, it is believed, now passed
away. Whiteness is not now attained by the
addition of adulterants, but by the abstraction
of the most valuable constituents of the wheat.
Let there be no misapprehension on this point.
The desirable bread — that is, a loaf which contains
the phosphates and the germ — is still a white bread;
but it is not the snow-white anaemic material
which has been emasculated and impoverished
by the abstraction of all ingredients not abso-
lutely white. The object to be aimed at should
be, simply, to reject the bran, and to retain in the
flour some of the inner coating of the grain, the
fine " middlings," and the germ. Only out of
such flour can real bread be made. It is not
snow-white, it is true. If people insist on having
the snow-white loaf, let them have it by all means
— but it should be sold under some other name. Let
the name of ** bread " once more come to denote
the genuine, and not the counterfeit. Staff of Life.
ALYX BANK GARDEN.
The cli=tdiit view of Surrey Downs — Leith Hill (ji miles away), Baustead, Epsom, and
Leatherhead.
fe^
ALYN BANK GARDEN.
Narcissus on rockery near pond.
[313
CHAPTER XXVIII
A WIMBLEDON GARDEN
Between the years 1887-92 I lived at that
delightful home Mount Alyn, Rossett, in Denbigh-
shire in order to be within easy access of Liverpool
where we were carrying out various important
works, many of which I have described in Part I
of this book.
I have told in Chapter IV how one day I received
a telegram from my friend the late Lord Wharn-
cliffe asking me to meet him at Manchester, and
how I was entrusted by him with the laying out
and construction of the proposed London exten-
sion of the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire
Railway, now known as the Great Central Railway
between Rugby and Marylebone.
This meant a great uprooting for my wife and
family. It would have been impossible for me
to superintend the work from a point so far
distant. We had therefore to move immediately
to London, and to leave " Mount Alyn " with all its
beauties, conveniences, and associations. I bought
a house at Wimbledon called ''Allan Bank,"' — a
name which I promptly changed to *' Alyn Bank,"
by way of carrying on the old traditions.
The garden at our new house was most un-
attractive. There was nothing of interest in it,
but it had a south aspect, a most important
313
314 A WIMBLEDON GARDEN
recommendation. It was a rectangular plot of
ground of about i|- acre — with nothing growing
in it but some scarlet geraniums, yellow calceo-
larias, and lobelias — a type of gardening I could
never tolerate. There were a few shrubs around
the sides and some young forest trees, which
thickened in a few years' time to shut out the sun
and dominate everything.
But now, after a residence of over thirty years,
it has earned the well-deserved title given to it by
the late Curator of Kew, who called it '' a miniature
Kew Botanical Garden."
The soil is hard, dry, uncompromising gravel,
and has demanded constant attention. One of
the first steps I had to take was to appoint a
capable and energetic and at the same time an
educated gardener with whom I could work with
pleasure.
I found what I wanted in Mr. John Richards,
F.R.H.S. When after the first few years I decided
to make an Alpine Garden, our success was in no
small measure due to him. But for him the
garden would never have become the pleasant and
attractive place it is now. I decided that so far
as it was possible it should be a rock garden —
with a natural and informal water-lily pond ;
that all strong-growing forest trees must be
removed so as to admit the sun to every part —
and at the same time to remove all their roots
which would, no matter at what distance, rob
the borders of their richness and moisture.
I felt that before he could cultivate Alpines
successfully my gardener ought to see them
ALYN BANK, WIMBLEDON 315
growing on the mountains in Switzerland, and my
wife and I invited him to accompany us there for
some ten days. This was again followed by a
second visit by him and his wife to another part
of Switzerland. We have also studied many of
the best Alpine Gardens in England, and gathered
much information from them.
The question of suitable rock soon cropped up.
It was important that it should be weatherworn
and more or less decomposed and disintegrated.
If recently excavated rock from quarries is used,
many more years of oxidation are necessary before
the plants can assimilate the stone.
I obtained new red sandstone from some of our
cuttings in Lancashire ; tufa from Derbyshire ;
limestone from the Lias formation ; and drift
boulders from the Glacial Drift deposits at Robin
Hood's Bay in Yorkshire.
It is curious to trace the origins of these drift
boulders.
During the epoch when Great Britain was under
snow and ice, a great glacier trailed its moraines
over the face of the country. These moraines
contained representatives of all kinds of deposits,
from the black basalt of North Ireland, to the shap
granite of West Lancashire and Cumberland.
When this glacier melted, it dropped its burden of
soil and rock over the east of Yorkshire.
The supply of good soil was a great difficulty.
I soon came to the conclusion that the very best
which can be obtained is the " top-spit " of a rich
old pasture field. Care has to be taken, however, to
sterilise it from wireworm, multipedes, and the like.
3i6 A WIMBLEDON GARDEN
The next point was the construction of the
lily-pond. As our ground was gravel and very
porous it was self-evident that no amount of
puddling with clay would retain the water. Hence
we were compelled to make the pond entirely
of cement concrete.
It is of a pleasing irregularity in shape and is
so constructed that the concrete itself cannot be
seen. The rain-water from the roofs of the house
and stabling is all collected into a large under-
ground tank, the overflow from which runs into
the pond, thus providing a first-rate supply of
soft water for the plants.
In our garden we laid down a law upon which
we have always worked — that all attempt at
formality, all straight lines, must be " taboo."
We abolished altogether the system of bedding
out, the borders we filled with herbaceous plants
disposed without any regularity, but contrived
to produce a complete succession of blooms
through all the seasons. First comes the early
yellow aconite, then crocuses and snowdrops,
followed by all the narcissi and daffodils. After
these come all the varieties of sweet alyssum, the
many Aubretias, the Alpine and other varieties
of Dianthus, till the midsummer sun brings a
fresh range of plants into flower — amongst them
the Gladiolus primulinus with all its glorious
hybrids ; of which a detailed account is given at
the end of this chapter. Certain plants do not
thrive so near to London, such as violets, Gentiana
verna, Gentiana acaulis. Some years ago I went
to Kew to ascertain wherein our treatment of the
MR. MARSHALL BULLEY OF HOYLAKE 317
Gentiana was wanting : and I was pleased to find
there large patches in full bloom — perfectly lovely.
I called on the Curator to congratulate him on
his success, and to ask for suggestions. He replied :
** Yes, they are lovely, but we do not succeed in
flowering them ; we purchase them in boxes
which we bu^^ in the country in full bloom. You
are not the first to compliment us on our great
success."
I remember, many years ago, visiting Smith's
well-known Nursery at Xewry with the object of
obtaining a variety of heaths. Two ladies,
strangers to me, accompanied us round the
nurseries with the owner, and after seeing the very
fine and large collection of heathers and ericas,
one said to Mr. Smith, " But how do you make
them grow so well ? " His reply is worth remember-
ing : " Madame, if you wish to succeed in growing
plants — you must love them."
One of the features of our small garden is an
equally small rose house, the idea of which I
adopted from the garden of the late Mr. Marshall
Bulley, who lived at that time near Hoylake on
the Cheshire coast, one of the windiest parts of
England. The gales there are of such severity
that nearly all rose trees are blown out by the roots.
He introduced a span roof-house fitted with glass
lights, aU of which can easily be removed, and re-
placed when required. I remember Mr. Bulley
coming into Liverpool to business with a magnifi-
cent rose every morning in his buttonhole. It
was this which induced me to speak to him, and
thus lay the foundations of a life-long acquaintance.
3i8 A WIMBLEDON GARDEN
The movable lights are entirely taken off
about July i, and are not replaced until the
following February. The object of this is to
expose the rose trees which cover the area of the
house to all the winter frosts and gales, which
alone can compel the plants to go to rest. Were
this not done, the roses would be continually
throwing out leaves and shoots instead of reserving
their strength for next year's galaxy of blooms.
It takes about a month gradually to close the
ventilators : after this no ventilation is given
except such as finds its way in through chinks and
crannies.
No artificial heat is used ; the roses depend
entirely on the heat of the sun. During March
the young shoots push forward, and by the middle
of April the finest exhibition blooms are gathered
in great abundance, entirely free from pests of
any description, and the foliage is clean and in
splendidly perfect shape and condition.
On July I the glass is again entirely removed,
and the plants furnish masses — I may almost say
barrow loads — of bloom up to November.
I was anxious to get the Lapageria alba, as well
as L. rosea, to perfection. We succeeded in doing
this by observing that this plant needed the early
actinic rays of the morning sun. We built a
suitable conservatory facing due east, and so
placed that all the sun is excluded after i p.m.
by the dwelling house, and the plants are in the
cool shade for the rest of the day. We counted
on some occasions as many as 750 of these beauti-
ful long red and white bells 4 in. in length, and we
THE SANDWICH ISLANDS, HONOLULU 319
have cut at times bunches carrying as many as
twenty-five to twenty-eight blooms on one stalk.
In one particular year on two plants, we recorded
7,000 blooms. These plants are two of the finest
grown in England.
The question of water supply to glass-houses is
of great importance ; the water should be soft,
and its temperature should be the same as that of
the house it is feeding. Therefore, a separate
tank open to the air of the house is provided, the
overflow from which is stored in four underground
tanks. From these, in times of drought, an
excellent supply of rain water can be pumped up
whenever required.
It would be tedious if I were to enumerate the
large number of plants in our garden, or in its
houses, but there is (or rather was, for we have now
lost it) one plant called Hillehrandia sandwicensis
or Hawaiian begonia which roused much interest.
We sent roots of it to Kew Botanical Gardens, to
the Chelsea Physic Garden, and the Royal
Botanical Gardens in Edinburgh, and also to
Cambridge, It was brought to England by my
son-in-law, Mr. Clive Davies, of Honolulu and
Hampshire.
In consequence of the geographical position of
the Sandwich Islands, in the middle of the Pacific,
the distance to the nearest land is too far for the
pollen of plants to traverse, consequently much of
the vegetation is mono-specific. In this particular
plant the ovaries are reversed, and it is for this
reason of great interest to botanists and biologists.
Our house and garden are situated at an altitude
320 A WIMBLEDON GARDEN
of i6o ft. above sea-level, and command fine views
of the Surrey Hills extending from the Hog's
Back on the west, by the Leatherhead Valley,
Leith Hill (twenty-one miles distant), Epsom,
Banstead on the south, to Croydon, Addington,
and Sydenham on the east.
When these houses were originally built, the
Downs were real downs, with nothing on them but
grass, heather, and gorse. The gardens of each
were well planted with beautiful flowering trees
and shrubs, but unfortunately mingled with forest
trees.
The intention was that these latter should give
protection to the former, until they were well
established, and in five or six years to remove
those of hardy and rapid growth. But this was
never done, with the result that Wimbledon in
places is now overgrown with forest trees, which
have not only killed the ornamental plants, but
have also blocked the entire view, to the great
detriment of all the gardens and their owners.
My warm thanks are due to our immediate
neighbours, who very considerately allow their
trees to be kept down, and thinned out. Speaking
to one of these friends, I said that, were it not for
their kindness, we should lose our view, and that
this would drive us from Wimbledon. Without
a moment's hesitation he replied, " Then we will
cut down all our trees ! "
If all residents were as neighbourly and con-
siderate as this, what a happy place a suburb
would be !
There are various objects of interest in
SIR W. T. THISELTON-DYER, F.R.S. 321
the garden commemorative of by-gone years.
Amongst them are •: a masonry key-stone from
an arch of Old London Bridge, built in a.d. 1176 ;
timber from the Norman foundations of Win-
chester Cathedral (a.d. 1079) and from the early
English raft under the Presbytery (a.d. 1202) ;
portions of timber from the Norman North-
West Tower of Lincoln Cathedral, built in a.d.
1071 ; and timber from Holy Trinity Church,
Hull (a.d. 1300). There are also two piles from
the Bank of England in Lothbury, which was
built about the year 1784, and which we had to
underpin when the tube railway to Finsbury
Park was made.
" Gladiolus Primulinus "
About the year 1902 I received four corms,
about the size of crocus bulbs, from Mr. S. F.
Townsend, of Buluwayo, the Resident Engineer
of the Cape and Cairo Railway, which had reached
the River Zambesi — at the Victoria Falls.
The only information we had concerning this
plant was that it grew and flourished in the per-
petual rain which fell from a great height thrown
up by the mighty falls of the Zambesi, and also
that it came from the heat of the Tropics. I
therefore requested my gardener to give these
corms both a wet and hot treatment and await
the result.
On December i, 1903, I sent the first bloom to
Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., the
Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew,
to be examined. It consisted of a single bloom
322 A WIMBLEDON GARDEN
with a few leaves, similar to those of an iris, stand-
ing about 12 to 1 6 in, from the ground ; the flower
was a " self " of rich butter-yellow colour, and had
five petals, the centre one of which was bent
down over the pistil and stamens like an umbrella
which protects the pollen from the incessant
rain.
Sir William Thiselton-Dyer wrote to me on
December i, 1903, from the Royal Gardens, Kew :
" Your beautiful specimens arrived in perfect
condition, and gave us all much pleasure. . . .
We cannot say whether it is absolutely new to
Science. It is a Gladiolus of a type which is
rather widely spread in Tropical Africa — and
comes, apparently, very close to one named
Gladiolus primulinus.
" But from a horticultural point of view it seems
to me quite unique, and a brilliant discovery. It
ought to be the starting-point of a new race of
garden Gladiolus.
" I must congratulate you on the brilliant
success of your cultural treatment, which could
not have been surpassed here."
These flowers, which we had named " Maid of
the Mist," were exhibited at the Royal Horti-
cultural Society's Show on August 23, 1904, and
attracted much attention.
The uncertainty as to whether the plant would
stand the English climate has been answered in
the affirmative, and for the last twenty years we
have grown and propagated it, both from corms
and from seed which it produces in large quantities.
Another uncertainty was, whether it would retain
"MAID OF THE MIST" 323
the " depressed " central petal, which is a very
pleasing feature of the flower. We crossed it
with the various Gladioli already common in
English gardens, with most satisfactory results.
The yellow colour and the " depressed " petal are
preserved, and the vigour and growth of the
English parent enable it to attain a height in
some cases of even 7 to 8 ft.
We sent seeds and corms to our friends not only
in England, but in Canada, United States, France,
Belgium, and Holland, who also hybridised it.
The result is that the blooms are to be seen in
most gardens, and even on the street barrows.
They have been produced in almost every colour
of the rainbow, and are most attractive for table
decorations, especially under an electric lamp.
This certainly fulfils the anticipation of Sir W.
Thiselton-Dyer, quoted above in his letter.
Mr. Townsend wrote to me recently, November
1923 : *' I never dreamt of such results, though I
remember thinking that ' lilies ' that grew in
everlasting rain must be something quite out of
the common, and so dug them up whilst other
members of the party collected maidenhair and
slips from shrubs."
Mr. Townsend was wet through in securing
these roots.
CHAPTER XXIX
SCIENCE
The seed of scientific curiosity was, I think,
originally sown in my mind by the Great Exhibi-
tion, 185 1. I was fascinated by the wonderful
exhibits, and my dawning interest in the nature
of things was powerfully stimulated by the teach-
ing of our dear and valued friend Professor
Faraday. His lectures on the " Chemistry of the
Candle," and similar subjects, still remain fresh
and vivid in my memory. Following the lead
thus given to me as a child, I placed myself under
Professor Tyndall and other eminent scientists
during the earty part of my career.
Very naturally I learned to take a keen interest
in all the discoveries and inventions of the day.
But I shall only refer in passing to one great land-
mark in the history of intercommunication — the
connection of the Old and the New Worlds by
cable. The first submarine cable had recently
been laid between England and France. My
brother Douglas was on board H.M.S. Agamemnon
when this vessel and the Great Eastern assisted
at a later date in the laying of the first Atlantic
cable. What a bold undertaking that was !
Had it not been for Cyrus Field and his indomitable
courage when things were at their blackest, it
could scarcely have succeeded. The City of
324
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTE OF AMERICA 325
Boston had flags flying emblazoned with the words
'' Cyrus Field is ours, but immortality claims him."
Many years later, in May igoo, I was invited
by the President and Council of the Royal Institu-
tion to give one of the Friday-evening lectures
in Albemarle Street, the late Duke of Northum-
berland being in the chair. The subject of my
lecture was " The Simplon and other great
Alpine Tunnels." I could not but deeply feel
the responsibility, no less than the honour of
lecturing from the spot occupied in former years
by Faraday, Tyndall, Huxley, Kelvin, Rayleigh,
Dewar, and many other men of great attainments.
I was somewhat interested when my lecture was
selected by the Smithsonian Institute of America
for publication in their annual volume which is
printed at the Government Office in Washington.
This Society makes a practice of cuhing from all
the publications and lectures of the entire world
during each year such literary matter as " can be
understanded of the people." I was glad to have
an opportunity of presenting to my Washington
friends copies of my various lectures and books ;
in return they kindly placed my name amongst
the regular recipients of their interesting annual
volume.
In May 1904 I was asked by the Royal Society
to deliver a lecture at Burlington House on
*' Engineering Difficulties and the Manner in
which they were Overcome." Amongst these,
I selected for explanation the problem created
by unforeseen pressures of grain in silo granaries.
Several granaries having burst and collapsed in
22
326 SCIENCE
consequence of the pressure, I illustrated my
remarks by means of a fine model. At the same
lecture I showed transparent stereoscopic views
of the interior of the Simplon Tunnel, then under
construction, which Lord Kelvin was kind enough
to describe as one of the most attractive exhibits
in the Lecture-room.
On May 7, 1908, the late Lord Rayleigh, Presi-
dent of the Royal Society, asked me to call upon
him at Burlington House, and afterwards invited
me to remain and hear one or two papers read.
1 sat down at the back of the room and heard
Sir William Crookes giving a demonstration of
some rare metals. He handed up to Lord Rayleigh
a small spoon about the size of a sixpence, made
of that very rare metal rhodium, worth seven
times the value of gold, which had been made for
him by Messrs. Johnson & Matthey. Its par-
ticular use lay in its resistance to heat and the
strongest of acids. Much interest was displayed
by the meeting, and after some remarks of his
own, the President invited anyone who wished to
do so, to speak. There was, however, no response,
for very few probably had ever seen rhodium
before. I had had no intention at all of speaking,
and indeed I had no locus standi at the meeting.
But, as no one else spoke, I stood up and said :
" My Lord, I have listened with great interest to
Sir William Crookes in his description of this
very rare, but useful metal, for, as a matter of
historical interest, I have in my possession an
ounce of that metal extracted by Dr. Wollaston,
its discoverer, and given by him to Dr. Ure.
DR. URE'S CHEMICAL BALANCE 327
This celebrated scientist's chemical balance was
presented to me, some forty years ago, by his
daughter Mrs. Mackinlay, and I found a little
parcel hidden away in the drawer of the balance,
on which was written in faded pencil, ' Rhodium
from Dr. Wollaston.' "
My remarks were received with attention, and
at the conclusion of the meeting. Sir William
Ramsay spoke to me, and said that they were all
much interested in what I had told them. But
the incident did not end there, for Dr. S.
Monckton Copeman, F.R.S., came up to me and
said : " What an extraordinary coincidence !
First that you should, by mere chance, have
attended the lecture when rhodium was described,
and secondly that I, a relative of Dr. Ure, should
be present. It has always been a matter of
wonder to me what had become of Dr. Ure's
chemical balance." After hearing that, I could
not do less than make a present of the balance
to Dr. Copeman ; whereupon- — yet another co-
incidence— his wife kindly gave me a miniature
which she possessed of my grandmother, Mrs.
Francis Fox, of Derby.
In May 1911, at the request of Sir William
Crookes, I exhibited at the soiree of the Royal
Society some pitchblende which we had mined in
Cornwall, and from which Sir William Ramsay
had extracted the radium. The value of this
quantity of 300 mgms., worth £20 per mgm., was
£6,000, the largest quantity of radium ever seen
in London up to that date.
A number of scientific friends kindly proposed
328 SCIENCE
me for election to the Royal Society, but I shared
the common fate of so many candidates — I was
not elected. I was, however, proposed a second
time — and a second time I failed. A few days
later I heard that when fourteen Fellows (fifteen
being the full number for the whole world) had
been selected, another candidate and myself
were in the balance. To use the language of
metaphor, they " tossed up " for the fifteenth.
The honour fell to my companion, and I was
again out of it. Though he was a stranger to
me, he sent me the kindest of letters in which
he expressed his regret that he had unfortu-
nately been the cause of my failure. I replied
that if anything were needed to justify his
election, his letter was evident proof that the
Council had chosen the right man. Sir William
Crookes, who was at that time President, urged
me to allow myself to be nominated once more,
but this I felt obliged to decline.
May I, by the way, on this subject of election
to the Royal Society, express an opinion which
I know to be shared by many ? Is it desirable,
that in a single election one English University
should be allowed the large number of nine
vacancies ? Science is faithfully served in other
parts of the world.
CHAPTER XXX
CONCLUSION
I HAVE now given an abbreviated description of
some of the varied phases of work which during
our long and united professional life my brother
and I have carried out both above and under
ground : as also above and under water. I have
left out most of the technical details in order that
the book may be readable by everyone.
I have also naturally omitted many of the
social details of my life as being too personal,
but as for the last sixty years I felt very strongly
the duty of living in close touch with one's neigh-
bours, particularly those in the poorer districts,
I have endeavoured to interest my readers who
perhaps have never seen real poverty either in
their lives or in their surroundings.
I have frequently been asked the question by
many most kindly disposed people, " But what can
I do in so-called social work to assist the poor ? "
and this I have endeavoured to answer to some
extent.
In looking back upon my long life and my
years of strenuous and hard work, I often wonder
as to what it is that I can attribute any measure
of success to which I may have attained.
I was brought up by my parents to regard work
as one of God's most precious, and therefore
329
330 CONCLUSION
one of His noblest, gifts. I determined to work
my hardest, and not to be led astray in regarding
work as something to be deprecated and avoided.
" Duty first, pleasure afterwards " is a golden rule
with which all should endeavour to comply :
but to-day games and theatres, cards, dancing,
motoring, are regarded by vast numbers of people
as the chief objects to pursue, and have degener-
ated into complete obsession : work is only to be
regarded as a dire necessity for earning one's
livelihood, and this has resulted in grievous idle-
ness, thus destroying one of the greatest and best
impulses of life. One of my most valued friends,
a well-known schoolmaster, asked one of his
pupils, whose father was the President of a leading
bank in London, for what branch of work he
desired to be trained, and the innocent answer
was made " a retired Banker."
'' If a man will not work neither shall he eat,"
and Christ Himself worked at the Carpenter's
bench, thus ennobling that trade for ever.
The Prince of Wales' motto " Ich Dien," " I
serve," should be engraved on everyone's mind.
The question is, amidst the very dangerous
enterprises in which I have been engaged, and in
which I have never met with any accident of
moment, how can I account for my immunity
when so many others have been maimed and even
killed ? I will endeavour to answer this as briefly
as I can, and will add a few words to the young
men and young women of to-day.
Seventy years ago I was at a school near
Nottingham, kept by a kind and excellent clergy-
REV. D. WHALLEY 331
man, and we went on Sunday to a small church
at Carrington, near Mappleby, and attended the
ministration of the Rev. D. Whalley of the
Established Church. He preached plain simple
sermons which appealed strongly to us as boys.
One particular Sunday morning he gave us in
boyish language a very vivid picture of Christ
during His ministry of three years, and one could
almost see the figure of the Saviour.
The point that the preacher emphasised was
that everyone should endeavour " to realise the
continual presence of Christ," and I resolved that
I would set my face to do this, beginning each day
with a prayer to God for His guidance, and control,
in every detail, whether domestic, business, or
official.
It has been a complete protection to me all
these long years and the words of the Proverbs,
" In all thy ways acknowledge Him, and He shall
direct thy paths," have proved correct.
I was in great danger at sea, in the heaviest of
Atlantic gales, with the temperature at zero,
the ship covered in ice 3 ft. in thickness with all
the boats frozen in blocks of ice to the deck.
On another occasion in the midst of the Simplon
Tunnel with 7,005 ft. of rock and soil above our
heads, the earth pressure was so great, that the
advance heading was crushed in, the timbering
destroyed, and the rock moving. Colonel Locher
and I had to climb or crawl for a distance of
80 yards to ascertain the cause, and I know that
he for one, and myself for another, hardly expected
to get out alive.
332 CONCLUSION
In the Island of Capri we encountered rocks
falling from a height above us of 2,000 ft., the
fragments falling all around us ; and in the
Apennines when exploring for minerals a large
boulder bounded down the mountain, striking
our interpreter, fracturing his skull, but we were
mercifully preserved.
In diving under water I again had dangerous
experience, as was the case on the mud-banks of
the Solent (as published elsewhere) ; our surveying
party of eight were all bogged a mile from shore
in the mud, up to their waists, and one up to his
neck : we should all have been lost had I not
providentially been able to extricate my mud
pattens, and then by rolling over and over on
the surface of the mud I reached some green weed,
from which I was able to get to the boats and
summon assistance.
Besides all these — in times of sorrow, in occa-
sions of sickness, of fiery temptation of all kinds,
by the grace of God I have been preserved : " His
Grace was sufficient for me."
The late Sir David Gill, F.R.S., Astronomer of
the Royal Cape Observatory, whom I had the
pleasure of knowing intimately, was evidently
of the same opinion, as he once wrote to me as
follows : " The simplest rule in all life is to ask
oneself what Christ would have done in the cir-
cumstances, and then try to do what you honestly
believe He would have done."
This coming as it did from one of our leading
scientists should carry great weight.
I desire to refer to a subject of the greatest
"IF ANY MAN LACK WISDOM" 333
importance, which is very conducive to the
happiness and good feeling amongst the members
of a household.
The regular observance of Family Prayers,
accompanied by a morning hymn, constitutes a
bond of kindly feeling and brotherhood through-
out one's home ; and for those who desire printed
prayers, arranged for almost every possible event,
I find a small book entitled A Chain of Prayer
Across the Ages : Forty Centuries of Prayer most
helpful.
In the New Testament we are enjoined, " If
any man lack wisdom let him ask of God, Who
giveth to all men liberally and upbraideth not."
We all frequently lack wisdom, and were such
an offer made to us, and we declined to accept it,
we should only and rightly be written down as
fools.
Now my book has reached its end.
During the sixty-three years, I have engineered
the construction of railways, tunnels, buildings
of all kinds : sea works : development of mines.
But I look forward to construction of very different
character, " An house not made with hands.
Eternal in the heavens."
" Thanks be unto God for His unspeakable
Gift."
And when we ask what is the nature of that
Gift, we find the answer : " The Gift of God is
Eternal Life through Jesus Christ our Lord."
I end with the quotation which was my dear
Brother Douglas' favourite text : " Jesus Christ,
the same yesterday, to-day, and for ever."
INDEX
Abernethy, James, 40
Accident to Sir Charles Fox, 21
On Swiss Railway, 61
Accuracy of headings in tunnels,
.37. 55. 74
Africa, map of 1662, 292
Agamemnon, H.M.S., 324
Air, diving and compressed, 220
Airlock, 54, 225
Alps, piercing of, 86
Argus, v in, 286
Ashbourne Church, 169
Avalon, St. Hugh of, 151
Aylesbury Prison, 269
Ballet dancing school, 53
Barry, Sir John Wolfe, F.R.S.,
197
Battle of Five Steps, 187
Baxter, Joseph, 251
Bermondsey, explosion in, 230
Medical Mission, 253
Birmingham Railway, London
and, 47
Bletsoe, Lord St. John of, 163
Bosphorus, visiting bed of, 222
Brakes on omnibuses, 19
Brandau, K., 72
Brandt Drill, 74
Brassey, Thomas, 4
Brave acts of workmen, 235
Bread and flour, 303
Bridge, Dee, 40
Old mill, 175
Oxenhulme, 175
Zambesi, 94
Bridges on ice in Canada, 10 1
British fleet in Liverpool, 38
Brunei protests, 196
Buenos Aires, 284
Buffet, Waterloo Station, 262
Buluwayo, 92
Burglary, 266
Buttresses, a.d. 1394, I35
Canadian Railway, 99
Canal slip, Culebra, Panama,
108
Canal tunnel collapse, 227
Cape and Cairo Railway, 91, 121
Care of workmen, 76
Cathedrals and Abbey, 146
Canterbury Cathedral, 148
Exeter Cathedral, 158
Lincoln Cathedral, 149
Peterborough Cathedral, 147
St. Paul's Cathedral, 188
Westminster Abbey, 147
Winchester Cathedral, 125
Caucasus, 254
Central, Great, Railway, 39
Central doorway in Simplon, 88
Chain of Prayer across the Ages,
333
Chalmers, Dr., 2
Channel Tunnel, no
Charing Cross, Euston and Hamp-
stead Railway, 52
Churches, 146
Ashbourne, 169
Bletsoe, 163
Bow Church, Cheapside, 171
Corhampton, 162
Ford End, 173
Hull, Holy Trinity, 321
Lyme Regis, 165
Cleveland, mining in, 209
Clyde, Lord, 17
Collapse in tunnel, averted, 237
Compressed-air work and diving,
220
Cooper, Dr., 167
" Creep," 72
Crimea, 255
Crookes, Sir William, F.R.S.,
326-328
Crystal Palace, Sydenham, 7
Cubitt, Joseph, 7
Daguerre, 5
Dancing, ballet school, 53
Dartmoor Prison, 274
Darwin, Professor, 280
Davison, R. C. H., 197
Dee Bridge, 40
Delta metal, use of, 154
Deptford slums, 251
334
INDEX
335
Derby, Douglas Fox, of, i
Dinner to Sir Charles Fox, i
Diorama, Regent's Park, 15
Diving and compressed air, 220
Diving, Isle of Man and Tyne-
mouth, 221
In Bosphorus, 222
Divining, water, 48
Dome, St. Paul's, The Great, 191
Doorway in Simplon Tunnel, 88
Dorada Rope Line, 63
Dormant seed, 45
Drainage headings, 31
Drill, Brandt, 73, 74
Drury Lane slums, 249
Dundonald, Lord, 17
Dungeon, Lincoln Cathedral, 155
Ear-drums burst, 226
Early recollections of London, 1 5
Earthwork, heavy, 102
Efkaf, the, 181
Electrical working, early date, 59
Erecting bridges on ice, 10 1
d'Erlanger, The Baron Emile, 116
Eton College, lecturing at, 223
Exeter Cathedral, repairs to old
roof, 158
Exhibition, The Great, of 1851. 6
Expansion of iron, 26
Explosion in Bermondsey, 230
Falls, Victoria, bridged, 95, 96
Famine, 92
Faraday, Professor, 16
Field, Cyrus, 324
First submarine, 17
Five Steps, Battle of, 187
Fleet, British, in Mersey, 38
Flour and bread, 303
Ford End Church, 173
Forest fire, 10 1
Fosse, La Grande, 1 1 1
Foundations shallow (St. Paul's),
192
Fowler, Sir John, 25
Fox, Charles Beresford, 96
Fox, dinner to Sir Charles, Derby,
i-io
Fox, Douglas (of Derby), i
Fox, Dr. Selina Fitzherbert, 253
Fox, Major Harry, late R.E., 255
Fox, Sir Douglas, i.
Friction and stiction, 102
Fry, Dr., Dean of Lincoln, 105
Fulgurites, 281
Gallipoli, 254
Gaps between rails, 26
Garden, Wimbledon, 313
Gas, introduction of, 2
Gauges of railways, 117
Gill, Sir David, F.R.S., 285-332
" Gladiolus primulinus," 322
Gladstone, Rt. Hon. W. E., 43
Glen, "William, 243
Godfrey, Robert S., 154
Granville, Lord, 9
Great Central Railway, arrange-
ments for men on, 240
Great Eastern Steamship, 17
Great Exhibition of 1851, 6
Greathead, James W., 51
Greathead shield, 50
Grouting machine, 51
Great Northern and City Railway,
52
Great Spring Simplon Tunnel, 81
Grey, Lord, 9
Grimani, Count (Venice), 186
Grosseteste, 153
Grouting, objections to, 173
Hampstead Heath Station, 55
Har bottle, E. H., 160
Haverstock Hill Tunnel, 54-55
Headings, drainage, 32
Accuracy of, 37, 55, 74, 89
History of Lincoln Cathedral, 149
Hobson, G. A., 41, 95
Home for Nurses, Great Ormond
Street, 176
Hospital, Mudros, 254
King George, 256
Wandsworth, 257
H.R.H. The Prince Consort, 8
Ice, erecting bridge on, 10 1
Irish Channel Tunnel, no
Irving, Archibald H., 30, 32
Itacolumite, 280
Italian property, report, F. Fox
and Dr. Stead, 217
Italy, King of, 89
Jackson, Sir Thomas G., Bart.,
126, 181
Jacob, the Rev. W., 165
Jelf, Col., 169
Jonah and whale, 175
Kemaledden, Bey, 181
King George Hospital, 256
336
INDEX
King of Italy, 89
Kings and Queens from a.d. 611-
1912, 139
Lecture at Eton College, 223
Lectures to wounded, 257
Letter of H.M. Queen Victoria,
14
Lifts, testing by men, 56
Lincoln Cathedral, history, 149
Linen from old plans, 264
Liverpool Overhead Railway, 58
Locher, Col., 72
Lock, water, 115
London and Birmingham Rail-
way, 3
London, early recollections, 15
Lunch, underground, 211
Lyme Regis Church, 165
Lyttelton, Dr., 224
Manchester and Liverpool Rail-
way, 3
Manchester, Sheffield and Lincoln-
shire Railway, 39
Marshall Bulley, 317
Mersey, old bed of river, 31
Mersey Tunnel, 30
Metal, use of Delta, 154
Metcalfe, Sir Charles, Bart., 90
Middleton, J. T., 47
Milling by rollers, 306
Mining, radium and tin, 210
Montevideo, 281
Mortality in St. Gothard Tunnel,
75
Moss, Rev. R. H., 163
Mudros Hospital, 254
Murray, John, 179
New linen from old plans, 264
Nicholson, Sir Charles, Bart., 153
Norman towers, repairs, 153
Norman walls, a.d. 1079, 135
Northcote, Sir Stafford, Chan-
cellor of Exchequer, 211
Nurses' Home, Great Ormond
Street, 176
O'Conor, Sir Nicholas, Constanti-
nople, 221
Omnibus brakes, 19
Opening Central Doorway, Sim-
plon, 88
Oswell, Frank, 63
Overhead Railway, Liverpool, 58
Padovane, Giovanni, 185
Panama Canal slip, 108
Paris and Rouen Railway, 4
Park, Regent's, diorama, 15
Passenger-lift testing, 56
Pauling, George, 90
Paxton, Sir Joseph, 4, 6
Pears, Sir Edwin, 181
Penny steamers on Thames, ig
Perforation of Simplon, speed of,
85
Peterborough Cathedral, 147
Piercing of Alps, 66
Piers, the eight, St. Paul's, 195
Plans, new linen from old, 264
Polytechnic and Professor Pepper,
16
President Frei of Switzerland, 62
Pressel, Dr., 73
Prince of Wales (afterwards
Edward VII), 34
Prison at Aylesbury, 269
Pumping shaft of 183 1, St. Paul's,
195
Rack Railway, Snowdon, 60
Radium mining, 215
Railway, accident on Swiss Rack,
61
Railway, Canadian, 99
Railway to Buluwayo, 90
Railway, Great Central, 39
Railway, London to Birmingham,
3
Railways, Tube, 49
Rayleigh, Lord, 326
Reade, Mellard, of Liverpool, 30
Recollection of London, early, 15
Removal of trees, 8
Rennie's protest, 196
Repairs to Lincoln and Exeter
Cathedrals, 153, 158
Rinderpest, 92
Rio de Janeiro, 279
Rock temperature, Simplon, 79
Roller milling, 396
Rope Line, Dorada, 63
Rosenmund, Prof., of Zurich, 74
Royal Society, Radium, 215
Saccardo, Signor, 70
St. Gotthard Tunnel, mortality,
75
St. Hugh of Avalon, 151
St. John of Bletsoe, Lord, 164
St. Margaret's Church and West-
minster Abbey, 147
INDEX
337
St. Paul's Cathedral. i88
Diving, 202
Eight Piers and their move-
ment, 195
Flaking of Portland Stone, 199
Great Dome, 191
Interim Report of Technical
Committee, 203
Plumbing the Dome, 205
Proposed sequence of operations,
198
Protests of Telford, 196
Pumping shaft of 1831, 195
Quicksand, 202
Redecorating, 200
Report of 1913, 198
Shaft sunk to London Clay,
202
Shallow foundations, 192
Thirty-two chambers, 190
Vibration from traffic, 202
Water under cathedral, 201
Saint Sophia, 181
San Marco, Venice, 183
Scaffolding to Lincoln Cathedral,
156
Scott, Sir Gilbert, 159
Service of Thanksgiving, Win-
chester, 137
In middle of Simplon Tunnel,
88
Simplon Tunnel, 66
Care of workmen, 76
Rock temperature, 79
Speed of perforation, 85
Temperature of, 79
Ventilation of, 75
Slips on Panama Canal, 108
Slums, 249
Slurrifying Chalk, 113
Smith, Albert, 15
Snowdon Railway, 60
Social work, 249
Somerset, Duke of, 88
South Africa, 90
South America, 279
Standardisation, 8
Stanley, Sir Henry, 293
Station Buffet, Waterloo, 262
Stead, Dr., and reporting on
Italian property, 216
Stephenson, Robert, 3, 47
Stevenson, Francis, 47
Stiction and friction, 102
Sulzer, Edward, 72
Sunday work forbidden, 242
Suvla Bay, 254
Target, " Warrior," 18
Telford's protests, 196
Temperatures of Simplon Tunnel,
79
Terry, Stephen H., 309
Thames, penny steamers, 19
Thicknesse, Bishop, 148
Thieves' kitchen, 251
Thiselton-Dyer, Sir Wm., F.R.S.,
321
Tin mining, 210
Traffic, probable, Channel Tunnel,
116
Travel abroad, 279
Trees, removal for Exhibition,
1851. 9
Tube Railways, 49
Tunnel, Channel, no
Collapse averted, 237
Haverstock Hill, 54, 55
Irish Channel, no
Mortality in St. Gothard, 75
Speed of perforation, Simplon,
85
Ventilation of Simplon, 75
Visit to canal, 227
Tyndall, Prof., 22
Tynemouth, diving in Tyne, 221
Venice, 183
Ventilation of Simplon Tunnel, 75
Victoria Bridge, Pimlico, 25
Victoria Falls, bridged, 95, 96
Victoria, Her Majesty Queen,
letter, 14
Villiers, Lord, 292
Vimy Ridge, 255
Visiting bed of Bosphorus, 222
Walker, W. A., the diver, 131
War, Crimean, 17
" Warrior," target, 18
War work, 255
Water divining, 48
Water-jet, 42
Water lock (Channel Tunnel), 115
Wellington, Duke of, 13, 14
Wellington, the great Duke of,
13, 14
Weston, Col. T. W., M.P.. 175
Whale and Jonah, 295
Whalley, Rev. D., 331
Wharncliffe, Lord, 44
Winchester Cathedral, 125
Application of grouting, 129
Buttresses, 135
Diving adopted, 131
338
INDEX
Winchester Cathedral, continued
Jackson, Sir Thomas G., Bart.,
R.A., 126
List of Kings and Queens,
A.D. 611 to 1912, 139
Norman walls, 135
Raft of beechwood, 127
Section of wall, 127
Sequence of remedial measures,
130
Standing on peat, 126
Thanksgiving Service, 137
WoUaston, Dr., and Rhodium,
326
Working electrically, 59
Workmen, brave acts of, 29
Wounded, lectures to, 257
Wragge, Edmund, 25, 100
Ypres, 255
Zambesi, bridge at Victoria Falls,
94
BIOGRAPHIES AND REMINISCENCES.
MEMORIES OF THE XX™ CENTURY
By the Earl of Meath, K.P., G.C.V.O., G.B.E. The cordial welcome
accorded to Lord Meath's "Memories of the 19th Century" has en-
couraged him to offer the reading public this further volume covering the
period down to 1922. Frontispiece Portrait. los. 6d. net.
JOHN VISCOUNT MORLEY
An Appreciation and Some Reminiscences. By Brig. -Gen. J. H.
Morgan. This volume is in no sense a biography — but is a collection
of personal reminiscences by one who knew him intimately. With a
Photogravure Frontispiece. los. 6d. net.
SIXTY-THREE YEARS OF ENGINEERING
By Sir Francis Fox, M.I.C.E., Hon. A.R.I. B.A. Sir Francis Fox
has been intimately connected with most of the great engineering feats of
of the last half-century. Plans and Photographs.
THE ROYAL NAVY AS I SAW IT
By Captain G. H. R. Willis, C.B,, R.N. Captain Willis writes of the
days when masts and yards and smooth-bore ordnance were relied on.
His book is full of good stories. Illustrated.
REMINISCENCES, 1848-1890
By Major-Gen. Sir Francis Howard, K.C.B., K.C.M.G. "Sir
Francis has the knack of writing on all kinds of subjects and writing well.
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DAYS GONE BY
Some Account of Past Years, Chiefly in Central Africa. By Rt. Rev.
J. E. HiNE, M.A. Oxon., M.D. Lond., Hon. D.D. Oxon., Hon. D.C.L.
Durham, M.R.C.S., sometime Bishop (in the Universities Mission to
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WELLINGTON COLLEGE, LINCOLN AND TRURO. By
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MEMORIES AND FRIENDS.
By A. C. Benson, C.V.O., LL.D. This volume includes personal
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J. D. Bourchier, Lady Ponsonby, and Mrs. Oliphant. With Portraits.
lONICUS.
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the P'irst European Coalition. With Portraits.
LETTERS OF ANNE THACKERAY RITCHIE.
With forty-one additional Letters from her father, William Makepeace
Thackeray. Selected and Edited by Hester Ritchie. This record
of the life of Lady Ritchie is founded on and chiefly composed of her own
letters to her friends and of letters from her father, William Makepeace
Thackeray. With Portraits and other Illustrations.
CONTEMPORARY CRITICISMS OF
DR. SAMUEL JOHNSON : His Works and His
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forms a biography that we shall place side by side with Boswell. For
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" EGO " : RANDOM RECORDS OF SPORT, SERVICE AND
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THE ENGLISH, 1909-1922.
A gossip by Frank Fox. " Here is English life seen from every angle,
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