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T 
i  — 


SKETCHES 


OF  THE 


HISTORY  OF  MAN. 

BY  THE  HONOURABLE 

HENRY  HOME  OF  KAMES, 

ONE  OF  THE  SENATORS  OF  THE  COLLEGE  OF  JUSTICE,  AND  ONE  OF  THE 
LORDS  COMMISSIONERS  OF  JUSTICIARY  IN  SCOTLAND. 


V 

CONSIDERABLY    ENLARGED 

m 


BY  THE  LAST  ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS 

OF  THE  AUTHOR. 


"A   NEW  EDITION,  IN  THREE  VOLUMES. 


WHICH  IS  NOW  ADDED 

A  GENERAL   INDEX. 


VOL.  I. 

* 

EDINBURGH: 

PRINTED  FOR  WILLIAM  CREECH,  EDINBURGH J 
AND  T.  CADELL  &  W.  DAVIES,  LONDON. 

1807. 


Ki 


NEILL&CO  Printers,} 
Edinburgh.          t 


CONTENTS. 


VOL.  I, 


"preliminary  Lifcourfe  concerning  the  Origin  of  Men 
and  Languages,  „ 

BOOK  I. 
PROGRESS  OF  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY,        6j 

£>K.  i.  Progrefs  ref  peeling  Food  and  Population,  ib. 

3.  Progrefs  of  Property,               -                -  91 

3.  Origin  and  Progefs  of  Commerce,             -  100 

4.  Origin  and  Progrefs  of  Arts,           .           .  127 

SECT.  i.  Ufeful  Arts,  -  -  ib. 

2.  Progrefs  of  Tajle  and  of  tie  Fine  Arts,  153 

5.  Manners,  .  .  . 

6.  Progrefs  of  tie  Female  Sex,  .  . 

APP,  Concerning  Propagation  of  Animals,  and 
Care  of  Progeny,         - 

7.  Progrefs  and  Effetls  of  Luxury,         ,         . 


. 


CCI 


<  '- 


{''V  J  '    V? 


,  •  1  * 

.  L,;i,-'.y3Tv. 


xt 


^^y\-\  -^i 


PREFACE. 


THE  following  Work  is  the  fubftance  of  various 
fpeculations,  which  occafionally  occupied  the 
author,  and  enlivened  his  leifure  hours.  It  is  not 
intended  for  the  learned  ;  they  are  above  it :  nor 
for  the  vulgar  ;  they  are  below  it.  It  is  intended 
for  thofe  who,  free  from  the  corruption  of  opulence 
and  depreffion  of  bodily  labour,  are  fond  of  ufeful 
knowledge ;  who,  even  in  the  delirium  of  youth, 
feel  the  dawn  of  patriotifm,  arid  who,  in  riper 
years,  enjoy  its  meridian  warmth.  To  fuch  men 
this  Work  is  dedicated  ;  and  that  they  may  profit 
by  it,  is  the  author's  ardent  wifh;  and  probably  will 
be  while  he  retains  life  fufficient  to  form  a  wifh. 

May  not  he  hope,  that  this  Work,  child  of  his 
gray  hairs,  will  furvive,  and  bear  teftimony  for, him 
to  good  men,  that  even  a  laborious  calling,  which 
left  him  not  many  leifure  hours,  never  banifhed  from 
his  mind,  that  he  would  little  deferve  to  be  of  the 
human  fpecies,  were  he  indifferent  about  his  fel- 
low-creatures : 

Homofum  :  humani  nihll  a  me  alienum  puto. 

Moft  of  the  fubjects  handled  in  the  following 
fheets,  admit  but  of  probable  reafoning ;  and,  with 
refpecl:  to  fuch  reafonings,  it  is  often  difficult  to 

VOL.  I.  a         .  -         fay, 


IV  PREFACE. 

/ 

fay,  what  degree  of  convi&ion  they  ought  to  pro- 
duce. It  is  eafy  to  form  plaufible  arguments ; 
but  to  form  fuch  as  can  Hand  the  tefl  of  time,  is 
not  always  eafy.  I  could  amufe  the  reader  with 
numerous  examples  of  conjectural  arguments, 
'which,  fair  at  a  diftant  view,  vanifh  like  a  cloud 
on  a  near  approach.  Several  examples,  not  to  go 
farther,  are  mentioned  in  the  preliminary  difcourfe. 
The  hazard  of  being  milled  by  fuch  arguments^ 
gave  the  author  much  anxiety  ;  and,  after  his  ut- 
moft  attention,  he  can  but  faintly  hope,  that  he3 
has  not  often  wandered  fat  from  truth. 


To  the  READER. 

As  one  great  objea  of  the  Editor  is  to  make  this  & 
popular  Work,  he  has.  chiefly  with  a  view  to  the  female 
fex,  fubjoined  an  Engliih  translation  of  the  quotations 
from  other  languages. 


SKETCHES 


OF   THE 


HISTORY  OF  MAN, 


THE  Human  Species  is  in  every  view  an  inte- 
refting  fubjedt,  and  has  been  in  every  age  the 
chief  inquiry  of  philofophers.  The  faculties  of  the 
mind  have  been  explored,  and  the  affections  of  the 
heart;  but  there  is  ftill  wanting  a  hiftory  of  the 
fpecies,  in  its  progrefs  from  the  favage  ftate  to  its 
higheft  civilization  and  improvement.  Above  thir- 
ty years  ago,  the  author  began  to  collect  materials 
for  that  hiftory  ;  and,  in  the  vigour  of  youth,  did 
not  think  the  undertaking  too  bold  even  for  a  (ingle 
hand  :  but,  in  the  progrefs  of  the  work,  he  found 
his  abilities  no  more  than  fufficient  for  profecuting 
a  few  imperfect  Sketches.  Thefe  are  brought  un- 
der the  following  heads,  i.  Progrefs  of  Men  in- 
dependent of  Society.  2.  Progrefs  of  Men  in  So- 

A  ciety, 


2  HISTORY   OF    MAN. 

ciety.  3.  Progrefs  of  the  Sciences.  To  explain 
thefe  heads,  a  preliminary  difcourfe  is  necelfary  ; 
which  is,  to  examine,  Whether  all  men  be  of  one 
lineage,  defcended  from  a  fingle  pair,  or  whether 
there  be  different  races  originally  liftincl:. 


PRE- 


PRELIMINART  DISCOURSE,  concerning  the  Origin  of 

MEN  and  of  LANGUAGES. 

WHETHER  there  are  different  races  of  men, 
or  whether  all  men  are  of  onq  race  with- 
out any  difference  but  what  proceeds  from  climate 
or  other  external  caufe,  is  a  queftion  which  philo- 
fophers  differ  widely  about.  As  the  queftion  is  of 
moment  in  tracing  the  hiftory  of  man,  I  purpofe  to 
contribute  my  mite.  And,  in  orde#  to  admit  all 
the  light  poflible,  a  view  of  brute  animals  as  di- 
vided into  different  races  or  kinds,  will  make  a 
proper  introduction. 

As  many  animals  contribute  to  our  well-being, 
and  as  marry  are  noxious,  man  would  be  a  being 
not  a  little  imperfect,  were  he  provided  with  no 
means  but  experience  for  diftinguiming  the  one 
fort  from  the  other.  Did  every  animal  make  a 
fpecies  by  itfelf  (indulging  the  expreffion)  dif- 
fering from  all  others,  a  man  w?ould  finifh  his 
courfe  without  acquiring  as  much  knowledge  of 
animals  as  is  neceffary  even  for  felf-prefervation : 
be  would  be  abfolutely  at  a  lofs  with  refpect  to 
unknown  individuals.  The  Deity  has  left -none 
of  his  works  imperfect.  Animals  are  formed  of 
different  kinds  ;  refemblance  prevailing  among 
animals  of  the  fame  kind,  diffimilitude  among  ani- 
mals of  different  kinds.  And,  to  prevent  confu- 

A  i  '  fion, 


4  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

fi.gn,  kinds  are  distinguished  externally  by,  figure, 
air,  manner,  fo  clearly  as  not  to  efcape  even  a 

child  *.     Nor  does  Divine  Wifdom  flop  here  :  to 

'  .<v">  '  . 

complete  the  fyftem,  we  are  endued  with  an  in- 
nate conviction,  that  each  kind  has  properties  pe- 
culiar to  itfelf ;  and  that  thefe  properties  belong 
to  every  individual  of  the  kind  f .  Our  road  to 
the  knowledge  of  animals  is  thus  wonderfully 
fhortened  :  the  experience  we  have  of  the  difpofi- 
tion  and  properties  of  any  animal,  is  applied  without 
hefitation  to  every  one  of  the  kind.  By  that  con- 
viction, a  child,  familiar  with  one  dog,  is  fond  of 
others  that  refemble  it :  An  European,  upon  the 
firft  fight  of  a  cow  in  Africa,  ftrokes  it  as  gentle 
and  innocent :  and  an  African  avoids  a  tiger  in 
Hindoftan  as  at  home. 

If  the  foregoing  theory  be  well  founded,  neither 
experience  nor  argument  is  required  to  prove,  that 
a  horfe  is  not  an  afs,  or  that  a  monkey  is  not 
a  man  J.  Irj  fome  individuals  indeed,  there  is 
fuch  a  mixture  of  refemblance  and  diffimilitude, 
as  to  render  it  uncertain  to  what  fpecies  they  be- 
long. But  fuch  inftances  are  rare,  and  impinge 
not  on  the  general  law.  Such  queftions  may  be 

curious,  but  they  arq  of  little  ufe. 

Whether 

*  "  And  out  of  the  ground  the  Lord  God  formed  every 
^  beaft  of  the  field,  and  every  fowl  of  the  air,  and  brought 
*f  them  unto  Adam  to  fee  what  he  would  call  them.  An4 
**  Adam  gave  names  to  all  cattle,  and  to  the  fowl  of  the  air, 
**  and  to  every  beaft  of  the  fjeld."  Gen.  ii.  19. 

'.     -  f     •    :         >  j  Jit  r± 

•j-  flee  Elements  of  Criticifm,  y,ol.  2.  p.  490.  edit.  5. 

fc      -  •    ***  i9 

See  M.  Buffon's  Natural  Hiftory. 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES,  5 

Whether  man  be  provided  by  nature  with  a 
faculty  to  diftinguifh  innocent  animals  from  what 
are  noxious,  feems  not  a  clear  point :  fueh  a  fa- 
culty .may  be  thought  unneceffary  to  man,  being 
fupplied  by  reafon  and  experience.  But  as  reafon 
and  experience  have  little  influence  on  brute  ani* 
mals,  they  undoubtedly  poffefs  that  faculty  *.  A 
beaft  of  prey  would  be  ill  fitted  for  its  ftation,  if 
nature  did  not  teach  it  what  creatures  to  attack, 
what  to  avoid,  A  rabbit  is  the  prey  of  the  ferret. 
Prefent  a  rabbit,  even  dead,  to  a  young  ferret  that 
never  had  feeh  a  rabbit :  it  throws  itfelf  upon  the 
body,  and  bites  it  with  fury.  A  hound  has  the 
fame  faculty  with  refpect  to  a  hare  ;  and  rnoft 
dogs  have  it.  Unlefs  directed  by  nature,  innocent 
animals  Would  not  know  their  enemy  till  they 
were  in  its  clutches.  A  hare  flies  with  precipita- 
tion from  the  firft  dog  it  ever  faw  ;  and  a  chicken, 
upon  the  fight  of  a  kite,  cowers  under  its  dam. 
Social  animals,  without  fcruple,  connect  with  their 
own  kind,  and  as  readily  avoid  others  f.  Birds 

A  3  are 

*  Brute  animals  have  many  inftin&s  that  are  denied  to 
man,  becaufe  the  want  of  them  can  be  fupplied  by  education 
An  infant  muft  be  taught  to  walk ;  and  it  is  long  before  it  ac- 
quires the  art  in  perfection.  Brutes  have  no  teacher  but  na- 
ture. A  foal,  the  moment  it  fees  the  light,  walks  no  lefs  per- 
feclly  than  its  parents.  And  fo  does  a  partridge,  lapwing,  &c. 

Dente  lupus,  cornu  taurus  petit  j  unde  nifi  intus 

Monftratum. —  HORACE. 

f  The  populace  about  Smyrna  have  a  cruel  amufement. 
They  lay  the  eggs  of  a  hen  in  a  ftork's  neft.    Upon  feeing  the 

chickens, 


6  PRELIMINARY   DISCOURSE. 

v^       ,  ' 

are  not  afraid  of  quadrupeds ;  not  even  of  a  cat, 
till  they  are  taught  by  experience  that  a  cat  is 
their  enemy.  They  appear  to  be  as  little  afraid 
of  a  man  naturally  ;  -and  upon  that  account  are  far 
from  being  fhy  when  left  unmolefted.  In  the  un- 
inhabited ifland  of  Vifia  Grande,  one  of  the  Phi~ 
lippines,  Kempfer  fays,  that  birds  may  be  taken 
with  the  hand.  Hawks,  in  fome  of  the  South  Sea 
iflands,  are  equally  tame.  At  Port  Egmont  in  the 
Falkland  Iflands,  geefe,  far  from  being  fliy,  may 
be  knocked  down  with  a  flick.  The  birds  that 
inhabit  certain  rocks  hanging  over  the  fea,  -in  the 
ifland  of  Annabon,  take  food  readily  out  of  a  man's 
hand.  In  Arabia  Felix,  foxes  and  apes  fhow  no 
fear  of  man  ;  the  inhabitants  of  hot  countries  ha- 
ving no  notion  of  hunting.  In  the  uninhabited 
ifland  Bering,  adjacent  to  Kamfkatka,  foxes  are  fo 
little  fhy  that  they  fcarce  go  out  of  a  man's  way. 
Doth  not  this  obfervation  fugged  a  final  caufe  ? 
A  partridge,  a  plover,  a  pheafant,  would  be  loft  to 
man  for  food,  were  they  naturally  as  much  afraid 
of  him  as  of  a  hawk  or  a  kite. 

The  divifion  of  animals  into  different  kinds, 
ferves  another  purpofe,  no  lefs  important  than  thofe 
mentioned ;  which  is,  to  fit  them  for  different  cli- 
mates. We  learn,  from  experience,  that  no  ani- 
mal nor  vegetable  is  equally  fitted  for  every  cli- 

•  ?.c,».t      -*L<; , r».-  •  i  i,  <  -j-  jjol  L  ..-, J'r°;*r.sfi  «?.t?  n;ii    ^H  >-~'"r  , 

mate  : 

>L$\  • 

chickens,  the  male  in  amazement  calls  his  neighbouring  ftorks 
together  ;  who,  to  revenge  the  affront  put  upon  them,  deftroy 

the  poor  innocent  female  :  while  he  bewails  his  misfortune  in 

, 
heavy  lamentation. 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  7 

mate  ;  and  from  experience  we  alfo  learn,  that 
there  is  no  animal  nor  vegetable  but  what  is  fitted 
for  fome  climate,  where  it  grows  to  perfection. 
Even  in  the  torrid  zone,  plants  of  a  cold  climate 
are  found  upon  mountains  where  plants  of  a  hot 
climate  will  not  grow  ;  and  the  height  of  a  moun- 
tain may  be  determined  with  tolerable  preciiion 
from  the  plants  it  produces.  Wheat  is  not  an  in- 
digenous plant  in  Britain  :  no  farmer  is  ignorant 
that  foreign  feed  is  requifite  to  preferve  the  plant 
in  vigour.  To  prevent  flax  from  degenerating  in 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  great  quantities  of  foreign 
feed  are  annually  imported.  A  camel  is  peculiarly 
fitted  for  the  burning  fands  of  Arabia  ;  and  Lap- 
land would  be  uninhabitable  but  for  rein-deer,  an 
animal  fo  entirely  fitted  for  piercing  cold,  that  it 
cannot  fubfift  even  in  a  temperate  climate.  Ara- 
bian and  Barbary  horfes  degenerate  in  Britain ;  and, 
to  preferve  the  breed  in  fome  degree  of  perfection, 
frequent  fupplies  from  their  original  climate  are 
requifite.  Spanifh  horfes  degenerate  in  Mexico; 
but  improve  in  Chili,  having  more  vigour  and 
fwiftnefs  there,  than  even  the  Andalulian  race, 
whofe  offspring  they  are.  Our  dunghil-fowls,  im- 
ported originally  from  a  warm  country  in  Afia,  are 
not  hardened,  even  after  many  centuries,  to  bear 
the  cold  of  this  country,  like  birds  originally  na- 
tive :  the  hen  lays  few  or  rio  eggs  in  winter,  unlefs 
in  a  houfe  warmed  with  fire.  The  deferts  of  Zaa- 
ra  and  Biledulgerid  in  Africa,  may  be  properly 

A  4  termed 


8  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

termed  the  native  country  of  lions :  there  they  are 
nine  feet  long  and  five  feet  high.  Lions  in  the  fouth 
of  Africa  toward  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  are  but 
five  feet  and  a  half  long,  and  three  and  a  half  high. 
A  breed  of  lions  tranfplanted  from  the  latter  to  the 
former,  would  rife  to  the  full  fize ;  and  fink  to  the 
fmaller  fize,  if  tranfplanted  from  the  former  to  the 
latter  *. 

To  preferve  the  different  kinds  or  fpecies  of  ani- 
mals entire^  as  far  as  necefTary,  Providence  is  care- 
ful to  prevent  a  mixed  breed.  Few  animals  of 
different  fpecies  copulate  together*  Some  may  be 
brought  to  copulate,  but  without  effect ;  and  fome 
produce  a  mongrel^  a  mule  for  example,  which  fel- 

dom 

*  That  every  fpecies  of  plants  has  a  proper  climate  where 
it  grows  to  perfection,  is  a  fact  uncontroverted.  The  fame 
holds  in  brute  animals.  Biledulgerid,  the  kindly  climate  for' 
lions,  would  be  mortal  to  the  bear,  the  wolf,  the  deer,  and 
other  inhabitants  of  a  cold  region.  Providence  has  tnot  only 
fitted  the  productions  of  nature  for  different  climates,  but  has 
guarded  thefe  productions  againft  the  extremities  of  the  wea- 
ther in  the  fame  climate.  Many  plants  clofe  their  leaves 
during  night ;  and  fome  clofe  them  at  mid-day  againft  the 
burning  rays  of  the  fun.  In  cold  climates,  plants  during  win- 
ter are  protected  againft  cold  by  fnow.  tn  thefe  climates,  the 
hair  of  fome  animals  grows  long  in  winter :  feveral  animals 
are  covered  with  much  fat,  which  protects  them  againft  cold ; 
and  many  birds  are  fatter  in  winter  than  in  fummer,  though 
probably  their  nourifliment  is  lefs  plentiful.  Several  animals 
fleep  during  winter  in  flickered  places  ;  and  birds  of  paflage 
are  taught  by  nature  to  change  the  climate,  when  too  hot  or 
too  cold. 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  9 

dom  procreates,  if  at  all.  In  fome  few  inftances, 
where  a  mixture  of  fpecies  is  harmlefs,  procreation 
goes  on  without  limitation.  All  the  different  fpe- 
cies of  the  dog- kind  copulate  together ;  and  the 
mongrels  produced  generate  others  without  end. 

M.  Buffon,  in  his  Natural  Hiftory,  borrows  from 
Ray  *  a  very  artificial  rule  for  afcertaining  the 
different  fpecies  of  animals :  "  Any  two  animals 
"  that  can  procreate  together,  and  whofe  iflue  can 
"  alfo  procreate,  are  of  the  fame  fpecies -(-."  A 
horfe  and  an  afs  can  procreate  together  ;  but  they 
are  not,  fays  he,  of  the  fame  fpecies,  becaufe  their 
iflue,  a  mule,  cannot  procreate.  He  applies  that 
rule  to  man  ;  holding  all  men  to  be  of  the  fame 
fpecies,  becaufe  a  man  and  a  woman,  however  dif- 
ferent in  lize,  in  fhape,  in  complexion,  can  procreate 
together  without  end.  And  by  the  fame  rule  he 
holds  all  dogs  to  be  of  the  fame  fpecies*  With  re- 
fpedl  to  other  animals^  the  author  fliould  peaceably 
be  indulged  in  his  fancy  ;  but  as  it  comprehends  al- 
fo man,  I  cannot  pafs  it  without  examination.  Provi* 
dence,  to  prevent  confufionj  hath  in  many  inftances 
withheld  from  animals  of  different  fpecies  a  power 
of  procreating  together :  but  as  our  author  has  not 
attempted  to  prove  that  fuch  reftraint  is  univerfai 
without  a  lingle  exception,  his  rule  is  evidently  a 
petltio  prindpii.  Why  may  not  two  animals  dif- 
ferent 

*  Wifdom  of  God  in  the  Works  of  Creation. 

i 
f  O&avo  edit.  vol.  viii.  p.  104.  and  in  many  other  parts. 


IO  'PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

ferent  in  fpecies  produce. a  mixed  breed  ?  M.  Buf- 
fon  muft  fay,  that  it  is  contrary  to  a  law  of  nature^ 
But  has  he  given  any  evidence  of  this  fuppofed  law 
of  nature  ?  On  the  contrary,  he  proves  it  by  various 
inflances,  not  to  be  a  law  of  nature.  He  admits  the 
fheep  and  the  goat  to  be  of  different  fpecies  ;  and  yet 
we  have  his  authority  for  affirming,  that  a  he-goat 
and  a  ewe  produce  a  mixed  breed  which  generate  for 
ever  *.  The  camel  and  the  dromedary,  though  near- 
ly related,  are  however  no  lefs  diftinft  than  the  horfe 

,  *\ 

and  the  afs.  The  dromedary  is  lefs  than  the  ca- 
mel, more  flender,  and  remarkably  more  fwift  of 
foot :  it  has  but  one  bunch  on  its  back,  the  camel 
has  two  :  the  race  is  more  numerous  than  that  of 
the  camel,  and  more  widely  fpread.  One  would 
not  defire  diflinguifhing  marks  more  fatisfying  ; 
and  yet  thefe  two  fpecies  propagate  together,  no 
lefs  freely  than  the  different  races  of  men  and  of 
dogs.  M.  Buffon  indeed,  with  refped  to  the  ca- 
mel and  dromedary,  endeavours  to  fave  his  credit 
by  a  diflindtion  without  a  difference.  "  They 
"  are,"  fays  he,  "  one  fpecies ;  but  their  races  are 
"  different,  and  have  been  fo  pafl  all  memory  f." 
Is  not  this  the  fame  with  faying,  that  the  camel 
and  the  dromedary  are  different  fpecies  of  the 
fame  genus?  which  alfo  holds  true  of  the  different 
fpecies  of  men  and  of  dogs.  If  our  author  will 
permit  me  to  carry  back  to  the  creation  the  camel  , 
and  the  dromedary  as  two  diftinft  races,  I  defire 

no 

*  Vol.  x.  p.  138.  f  Vol.  x.  p.  i. 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  II 

no  other  conceflion.  He  admits  no  fewer  than  ten 
kinds  of  goats,  vifibly  diftinguifhable,  which  alfo 
propagate  together ;  but  fays,  that  thefe  are  varie- 
ties only,  though  permanent  and  unchangeable. 
No  difficulty  is  unfurmountable,  if  words  be  al- 
lowed to  pafs  without  meaning.  Nor  does  he  even 
adhere  to  the  fame  opinion  :  though,  in  diftinguifh- 
ing  a  horfe  from  an  afs,  he  affirms  the  mule  they 
generate  to  be  barren  ;  yet  afterward,  entirely  for- 
getting his  rule,  he  admits  the  direct  contrary*. 
At  that  rate,  a  horfe  and  an  afs  are  of  the  fame 
fpecies.  Did  it  never  once  enter  into  the  mind  of 
this  author,  that  the  human  race  would  be  ftrange- 
ly  imperfect,  if  they  were  unable  to  diftinguifli  a 
man  from  a  monkey,  or  a  hare  from  a  hedge-hog, 
till  it  were  known  whether  they  can  procreate  to- 
gether ? 

But  it  feems  unneceflary,  after  all,  to  urge  any 
argument  againft  the  foregoing  rule,  which  M. 
Buffon  himfelf  inadvertently  abandons  as  to  all 
animals,  men  and  dogs  excepted.  We  are  indebt- 
ed to  him  for  a  remark,  That  not  a  lingle  animal 
of  the  torrid  zone  is  common  to  the  old  world  and 
to  the  new.  But  how  does  he  verify  his  remark  ? 
Does  he  ever  think  of  trying  whether  fuch  ani- 
mals can  procreate  together  ?  "  They  are,"  fays 
he,  "  of  different  kinds,  having  no  fuch  refem- 
"  blance  as  to  make  us  pronounce  them  to  be 
"  of  the  fame  kind.  Linnaeus  and  Briffon,"  he 

adds, 

*  Vol.  xii-  p.  223. 


12  PRELIMINARY    DISCOURSE, 


"  have  very  improperly  given  the  name 
"  of  the  camel  to  the  lama  and  the  pacos  of  Pe- 
"  ru.  So  apparent  is  the  difference,  that  other 
"  writers  clafs  thefe  animals  with  iheep.  Wool, 
*'  however,  is  the  only  circumftance  in  which  a 
"  pacos  refembles  a  fheep  :  nor  doth  the  lama  re- 
"  femble  a  camel,  except  in  length  of  neck."  He 
diftinguifheth,  in  the  fame  manner,  the  true  Afia- 
tic  tiger  from  feveral  American  animals,  that  bear 
the  fame  name.  He  mentions  its  lize,  its  force,  its 
ferocity,  the  colour  of  its  hair,  the  ftripes  black 
and  white  that  like  rings  furround  alternately  its 
trunk,  and  are  continued  to  the  tip  of  its  tail  : 
"  Chara&ers,"  fays  he,  "  that  clearly  diftinguifh 
"  the  true  tiger  from  all  animals  of  prey  in  the  new 
"  world  ;  the  largeft  of  which  fcarce  equals  one 
"  of  our  maftives."  And  he  reafons  in  the  fame 
manner  upon  the  other  animals  of  the  torrid  zone  *. 
Here  truth  obliges  our  author  to  acknowledge,  that 
we  are  taught  by  nature  to  diftinguifh  animals  in- 
to different  kinds  by  vifible  marks,  without  regard 
to  his  artificial  rule.  And  if  fo,  there  muft  be  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  men  ;  for  certain  tribes  differ  vifi- 
bly  from  each  other,  no  lefs  than  the  lama  and  pacos 
from  the  camel  or  from  the  fheep,  nor  lefs  than 
the  true  tiger  from  the  American  animals  of  that 
namef.  For  proving  that  dogs  were  created  of 

different 

*  See  vol.  8.  feet.  Of  animals  common  to  the  two  conti- 
nents. 

f  No  perfon  thinks  that  all  trees  can  be  traced  back  to  one 
kind.     Yet  the  figure  leaves,  fruit,  &c.  of  different  kinds,  are 

not 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  13 

different  kinds,  what  better  evidence  can  be  ex- 
peded  than  that  the  kinds  continue  diftinct  to  this 
day  ?  Our  author  pretends  to  derive  the  maftiff, 
the  bull-dog,  the  hound,  the  greyhound,  the  ter- 
rier, the  water-dog,  &c.  all  of  them  from  the  prick- 
eared  fhepherd's  cur.  Now,  admitting  the  proge- 
ny of  the  original  male  and  female  cur  to  have  fuf- 
fered  every  poffible  alteration  from  climate,  food, 
domeftication  ;  the  refult  would  be  endlefs  varie- 
ties, fo  that  no  one  individual  mould  referable  ano- 
ther. Whence  then  are  derived  the  different  fpe- 
cies  of  dogs  above  mentioned,  or  the  different  ra- 
ces or  varieties,  as  M.  Buffon  is  pleafed  to  name 
them  ?  Uniformity  invariable  mufl  be  a  law  in 
their  nature,  for  it  never  can  be  afcribed  to  chance. 
There  are  mongrels,  it  is  true,  among  dogs,  from 
want  of  choice,  or  from  a  depraved  appetite :  but 
as  all  animals  prefer  their  own  kind,  mongrels  are 
few  compared  with  animals  of  a  true  breed.  There 
are  mongrels  alfo  among  men  :  tl^e  feveral  kinds 
however  continue  diftincl: ;  and  probably  will  fo 
continue  for  ever. 

There  remains  an  argument  againft  the  fyftem 
of  M.  Buffon  with  refped  to  dogs,  ftill  more  con- 
clufive.  Allowing  to  climate  its  ulmoft  influence, 
it  may  poflibly  have  an  effect  upon  the  fize  and 
figure  ;  but  furely  M.  Buffon  cannot  ferioufly  think 
that  the  different  inftincls  of  dogs  are  owing  to 
climate.  A  terrier,  whofe  prey  burrows  under 

ground, 

not  more  diftinft,  than  the  difference  of  figure,  colour,  &c.  in 
the  different  races  of  men. 


14  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

ground,   is  continually   fcraping   the   earth,    and 

thrufting  its  nofe  into  it.     A  hound  has  always  its 

nofe  on  the  furface,  in  order  to  trace  a  hare  by 

fmell.     The  fame  inftincl:  is  remarkable  in  fpaniels. 

It  is  by  nature  that  thefe  creatures  are  directed  to 

be  continually  going  about,  to  catch  the  fmell,  and 

trace  their  prey.     A  greyhound  which  has  not  the 

fmelling- faculty,  is  conftantly  looking  about  for  its 

prey.      A  fhepherd's  dog  may  be  improved  by 

education,   but  nature  prompts  it  to   guard  the 

flock.     A  houfe-dog  makes  its  round  every  night 

to  protect  its  mafter  againft  ftrangers,  without  ever 

being  trained  to  it.     Such  dogs  have  a  notion  of 

property,  and  are  trufty  guardians  of  their  matter's 

goods  :  in  his  abfence,  no  perfon  dares  lay  hold  of 

his  hat  or  his  great-coat.    Waggoners  employ  dogs 

of  that  kind  to  watch  during  night  the  goods  they 

carry.     Is  it  conceivable,  that  fuch  different  in- 

llincls,  conftantly  the  fame  in  the  fame  fpecies, 

can  proceed  from  climate,  from  mixture  of  breed, 

or  from  other  accidental  caufe  ? 

The  celebrated  Linnaeus,  inftead  of  defcribing 
every  animal  according  to  its  kind,  as  Adam  our 
firft  parent  did,  has  wandered  far  from  nature  in 
claffing  animals.  He  diftributes  them  into  fix 
claffes,  viz.  Mammalia,  Aves,  Amphibia,  Pifces, 
Infefta,  Vermes.  The  Mammalia  are  diftributed 
into  feven  orders,  chiefly  from  their  teeth,  viz. 
Primates,  Bruta,  Fera,  Glires,  Pecora,  Bellute, 
Ceta.  And  the  Primates  are,  Homo,  Simia,  Le- 
mur* . 


'•-  • 

'-  c 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  15 

fnur,  Vefpertilio.  What  may  have  been  his  purpofe 
in  claffing  animals  fo  contrary  to  nature,  I  cannot 
guefs,  if  it  be  not  to  enable  us,  from  the  nipples 
and  teeth  of  any  particular  animal,  to  know  where 
it  is  to  be  found  in  his  book.  It  refembles  the 
claffing  books  in  a  library  by  fixe,  or  by  binding, 
without  regard  to  the  contents  :  it  may  ferve  as  a 
fort  of  dictionary  ;  but  to  no  other  purpofe.  How 
whimfical  is  it  to  clafs  together  animals  that  na- 
ture hath  widely  feparated,  a  man  for  example 
and  a  bat?  What  will  a  plain  man  think  of  a 
manner  of  claffing,  that  denies  a  whale  to  be  a 
fifh?  Inf  claffing  animals,  why  does  he  confine  him- 
felf  t&the  nipples  and  the  teeth,  when  there  are 
many  other  diftinguifhing  marks  ?  Animals  are  no 
lefs  diflinguiihable  with  refpect  to  tails;  long  tails, 
ihort  tails,  no  tails :  nor  lefs  diilinguifhable  with 
refpecl  to  hands ;  fome  having  four,  forne  two, 
fome  none,  &c.  &c.  Yet,  after  all,  if  any  folid 
inftruclion  can  be  acquired  from  fuch  claffing,  I 
fhall  liften,  not  only  with  attention,  but  with  fa- 
tisfaction. 

Now,  more  particularly  of  man,  after  difcuf- 
ling  other  animals. — If  the  only  rule  afforded  by 
'nature  for  claffing  animals  can  be  depended  upon, 
there  are  different  fpecies  of  men  as  well  as  of 
dogs :  a  mailiff  differs  not  more  from  a  fpaniel, 
than  a  white  man  from  a  negro,  or  a  Laplander 
from  a  Dane.  And  if  we  have  any  belief  in  Pro- 
vidence, it  ought  to  be  fo.  Plants  were  created 

of 


l6  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

of  different  kinds  to  fit  them  for  different  cli- 
mates, and  fo  were  brute  arlimals.  Certain  it  is, 
that  all  men  are  not  fitted  equally  for  every  cli- 
mate* Is  there  not  then  reafon  to  conclude,  that 
as  there  are  different  climates,  fo  there  are  differ- 
ent fpecies  of  men  fitted  for  thefe  different  cli- 
mates ?  The  inhabitants  of  the  frozen  regions  of 
the  north,  men,  birds,  beafls,  fifh,  are  all  provided 
with  a  quantity  of  fat  which  guards  them  againfl 
cold.  Even  the  trees  are  full  of  rofin.  The 
ifland  St  Thomas,  under  the  line,  is  extremely 
foggy ;  and  the  natives  are  fitted  for  that  fort  of 
weather,  by  the  rigidity  of  their  fibres.  The  fog 
is  difpelled  in  July  and  Auguft  by  dry  winds ; 
which  give  vigour  to  Europeans,  whofe  fibres  are 
relaxed  by  a  moift  atmofphere  as  by  a  warm  bath. 
The  natives,  on  the  contrary,  who  are  not  fitted 
for  a  dry  air,  have  more  difeafes  in  July  and  Au- 
guft than  during  the  other  ten  months.  On  the 
other  hand,  inftances  are  without  number  of  men 
degenerating  in  a  climate  to  which  they  are  not 
fitted  by  nature ;  and  I  know  not  of  a  fingle  in- 
ftance  where  in  fuch  a  climate  people  have  retain- 
ed their  original  vigour.  Several  European  colo- 
nies have  fubfifted  in  the  torrid  zone  of  America 
more  than  two  centuries ;  and  yet  even  that  length 
of  time  has  not  familiarized  them  to  the  climate  : 
they  cannot  bear  heat  like  the  original  inhabitants, 
nor  like  negroes  tranfplanted  from  a  country  equal- 
ly hot :  they  are  far  from  equalling  in  vigour  of 

mind 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES. 

mind  or  body  the  nations  from  which  they  fprung. 
The  Spanifh  inhabitants  of  Carthagena  in  South 
America  lofe  their  vigour  and  colour  in  a  few 
months.  Their  motions  are  languid  ;  and  their 
words  are  pronounced  in  a  low  voice,  and  with 
long  and  frequent  intervals.  The  offspring  of  Eu- 
ropeans born  in  Batavia,  foon  degenerate.  Scarce 
one  of  them  has  talents  fufficient  to  bear  a  part  in 
the  adminiflration.  There  is  not  an  office  of  truft 
but  muft  be  filled  with  native  Europeans.  Some 
Portuguefe,  who  have  been  for  ages  fettled  on  the 
fea-coaft  of  Congo,  retain  fcarce  the  appearance  of 
men.  South  Carolina,  efpecially  about  Charlef- 
ton,  is  extremely  hot,  having  no  fea-breeze  to  cool 
the  air  :  Europeans  there  die  fo  fail,  that  they 
have  not  time  to  degenerate.  Even  in  Jamaica, 
though  more  temperate  by  a  regular  fucceffion  of 
land  and  fea-breezes,  recruits  from  Britain  are  ne- 
cefTary  to  keep  up  the  numbers  *.  The  climate 
of  the  northern  provinces  refembles  our  own,  and 
population  goes  on  rapidly. 

What  means  are  employed  by  Providence  to 
qualify  different  races  of  men  for  different  cli- 
mates, is  a  fubjecl  to  which  little  attention  has 
been  given.  It  lies  too  far  out  of  fight  to  expect 

VOL.  I.  B  a 

*  As  the  Europeans  lofe  vigour  by  the  heat  of  the  climate, 
the  free  negroes,  efpecially  thofe  in  the  mountains,  are  the 
fafeguard  of  the  ifland ;  and  it  was  by  their  means  chiefly, 
that  a  number  of  rebellious  negro  flaves  were  fubdued  in  the 
year  1760. 


l8  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

'   '     f 

a  complete  difcovery ;  but  facts  carefully  collect- 
ed might  afford  fome  glimmering  of  light.  In  that 
yiew,  I  mention  the  following  fact.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  the  kingdom  of  Senaar  in  Africa  are  true 
Negroes,  a  jet  black  complexion,  thick  lips,  fiat 
nofe,  curled  woolly  hair.  The  country  itfelf  is  the 
hotteft  in  the  world.  From  the  report  of  a  late 
traveller,  they  are  admirably  protected  by  nature 
againft  the  violence  of  the  heat.  Their  Ikin  is  to 
the  touch  remarkably  cooler  than  that  of  an  Eu- 
ropean ;  and  is  fo  in  reality,  no  lefs  than  two  de- 
grees on  Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  The  young 
women  there  are  highly  prized  by  the  Turks  for 
that  quality. 

Thus  it  appears,  that  there  are  different  races  of 
men  fitted  by  nature  for  different  climates.  Upon 
examination,  another  fact  will  perhaps  alfo  appear, 
that  the  natural  productions  of  qach  climate  make 
the  moll  wholefome  food  for  the  people  who  are 
fitted  to  live  in  it.  Between  the  tropics,  the  na- 
tives live  chiefly  on  fruits,  feeds,  and  roots  ;  and  it 
is  the  opinion  of  the  moft  knowing  naturalifts,  that 
fuch  food  is  of  all  the  moft  wholefome  for  the  tor- 
rid zone  ;  comprehending  the  hot  plants,  which 
grow  there  to  perfection,  and  tend  greatly  to  for- 
tify the  ftomach.  In  a  temperate  climate,  a  mix- 
ture of  animal  and  vegetable  food  is  held  to  be  the 
moil  wholefome  ;  and  there  both  animals  and  ve- 
getables abound.  In  a  cold  climate,  animals  are 
in  plenty,  but  few  vegetables  that  can  ferve  for 
|bod  to  man.  What  phylicians  pronounce  upon 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES. 

that  head,  I  know  not ;  but,  if  we  dare  venture  a 
conjecture  from  analogy,  animal  food  will  be  found 
the  moft  wholefome  for  fuch  as  are  fitted  by  na- 
ture to  live  in  a  cold  climate. 

M.  Buffon,  from  the  rule,  That  animals  which 
can  procreate  together,  and  whofe  progeny  can 
alfo  procreate,  are  of  one  fpecies,  concludes,  that 
all  men  are  of  one  race  or  fpecies ;  and  endeavours 
to  fupport  that  favourite  opinion,  by  afcribing  to 
the  climate,  to  food,  or  to  other  accidental  caufes, 
all  the  varieties  that  are  found  among  men.  But 
is  he  ferioufly  of  opinion,  that  any  operation  of  cli- 
mate, or  of  other  accidental  caufe,  can  account  for 
the  copper  colour  and  fmooth  chin  univerfal  among 
the  Americans,  the  prominence  of  the  pydenda  uni- 
verfal among  Hottentot  women,  or  the  black  nipple 
no  lefs  univerfal  among  female  Samoides  ?  The 
thick  fogs  of  the  iiland  St  Thomas  may  relax  the 
fibres  of  the  natives,  but  cannot  make  them  more 
rigid  than  they  are  naturally.  Whence,  then,  the 
difference  with  refpecl:  to  rigidity  of  fibres  between 
them  and  Europeans,  but  from  original  nature  ? 
Can  one  hope  for  belief  in  afcribing  to  climate  the 
low  flature  of  the  Efquimaux,  the  fmallnefs  of 
their  feet,  or  the  overgrown  fize  of  their  head  ;  or 
in  afcribing  to  climate  the  low  flature  of  the  Lap- 
landers *,  and  their  ugly  vifage.  Lapland  is  in- 

B  2  deed 

*  By  late  accounts,  it  appears  that  the  Laplanders  are  ori- 
ginally Huns.  Pere  Hel,  an  Hungarian,  made  lately  this 
difcovery,  when  fent  to  Lapland  for  making  aftronomical  ob« 
Nervations 


PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

deed  piercingly  cold ;  but  fo  is  Finland,  and  the 
northern  parts  of  Norway,  the  inhabitants  of  which 
are  tall,  comely,  and  well  proportioned.  The 
black  colour  of  negroes,  thick  lips,  flat  nofe,  crifp- 
ed  woolly  hair,  and  rank  fmell,  diftinguifh  them 
from  every  other  race  of  men.  The  Abyflinians, 
on  the  contrary,  are  tall  and  well  made,  their  com- 
plexion a  brown  olive,  features  well  proportioned, 
eyes  large,  and  of  a  fparkling  black,  lips  thin,  a 
nofe  rather  high  than  flat.  There  is  no  fuch  dif- 
ference of  climate  between  Abyflinia  and  Negro- 
land,  as  to  produce  thefe  ftriking  differences.  At 
any  rate,  there  muft  be  a  confiderable  mixture 
both  of  foil  and  climate  in  thefe  extenlive  regions  ; 
and  yet  not  the  leaft  mixture  is  perceived  in  the 
people. 

If  the  climate  have  any  commanding  influence, 
it  muft  be  difplayed  upon  the  complexion  chiefly  ; 
and  in  that  article,  accordingly,  our  author  exults, 
"  Man,"  fays  he,  "  white  in  Europe,  black  in 
"  Africa,  yellow  in  Afia,  and  red  in  America,  is 
"  ftill  the  fame  animal,  tinged  only  with  the  co- 
"  lour  of  the  climate.  Where  the  heat  is  excef- 
five, as  in  Guinea  and  Senegal,  the  people  are 
perfectly  black ;  where  lefs  exceffive,  as  in  Abyf- 
finia,  the  people  are  lefs  black ;  where  it  is  more 
temperate,  as  in  Barbary  and  in  Arabia,  they 
are  brown ;  and  where  mild,  as  in  Europe  and 
"  LefTer  Afia,  they  are  fair  *."  But  here  he 
triumphs  without  a  vidtory ;  he  is  forced  to  ac- 
knowledge, 
*  Bookv. 


a 

ei 

(6 

it 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  21 

knowledge,  that  the  Samoides,  Laplanders,  and 
Greenlanders,  are  of  a  fallow  complexion  ;  for 
which  he  has  the  following  falvo,  that  the  extre* 
mities  of  heat  and  of  cold  produce  nearly  the  fame 
effects  on  the  ikin.  But  he  is  totally  iilent  upon  a 
fact  that  alone  overturns  his  whole  fyftem  of  co- 
lour, viz.  that  all  Americans,  without  exception, 
are  of  a  copper  colour,  though  in  that  valt  conti- 
nent there  is  every  variety  of  climate.  The  fouth- 
ern  Chinefe  are  white,  though  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  torrid  zone  ;  and  women  of  fafhion  in 
the  ifland  Otaheite,  who  cover  themfelves  from  the 
fun,  have  the  European  complexion.  Neither  doth 
the  black  colour  of  fome  Africans,  nor  the  brown 
colour  of  others,  correfpond  to  the  climate.  The 
people  of  the  defart  of  Zaara,  commonly  termed 
Lower  Ethiopia,  though  expofed  to  the  vertical 
rays  of  the  fun  in  a  burning  fand  yielding  not  in 
heat  even  to  Guinea,  are  of  a  tawny  colour,  far 
from  being  jet-black  like  negroes.  The  natives  of 
Monomotapa  are  perfectly  black,  with  crifped 
woolly  hair,  though  the  fouthern  parts  of  that  ex- 
tenfive  kingdom  are  in  a  temperate  climate.  And 
the  Caffres,  even  thofe  who  live  near  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  are  the  fame  fort  of  people.  The 
heat  of  Abyffinia  approacheth  nearer  to  that  of 
Guinea  ;  and  yet,  as  mentioned  above,  the  inha- 

i 

bitants  are  not  black.  Nor  will  our  author's  in- 
genious obfervation  concerning  the  extremities  of 
heat  .and  cold,  account  for  the  fallow  complexion 

B3  of 


PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE; 

of  the  Samoides,  Laplanders,  and  GreenlanderS, 
The  Finlariders  and  northern  Norwegians  live  in 
a  climate  no  lefs  cold  than  that  of  the  people  men- 
tioned, and  yet  are  fair  beyond  other  Europeans. 
I  fay  more,  there  are  many  inftances  of  races  of 
people  preferving  then:  original  colour  in  climates 
very  different  from  their  own  ;  and  not  a  fingle 
inftance  of  the  contrary,  as  far  as  I  can  learn. 
There  have  been  four  complete  generations  of  ne- 
groes in  Pennfylvania,  without  any  vifible  change 
of  colour  :  they  continue  jet-black  as  originally. 
The  Moors  in  Hindoftan  retain  their  natural  Co- 
lour, though  tranfplanted  there  more  than  three 
centuries  ago.  And  the  Mogul  family  continue 
white,  like  their  anceftors  the  Tartars,  though  they 
have  reigned  in  Hindoftan  above  four  centuries. 
Shaw,  in  his  travels  through  Barbary,  mentions  a 
people  inhabiting  the  mountains  of  Aurefs,  bor- 
dering upon  Algiers  on  the  fouth,  who  appeared 
to  be  of  a  different  race  from  the  Moors.  Their 
complexion,  far  from  fwarthy,  is  fair  and  ruddy  ; 
and  their  hair  a  deep  yellow,  inftead  of  being  dark, 
as  among  the  neighbouring  Moors.  He  conjec- 
tures them  to  be  a  remnant  of  the  Vandals,  per- 
haps the  tribe  mentioned  by  Procopius  in  his  firft 
book  of  the  Vandalic  war.  If  the  European  com- 
plexion be  proof  againft  a  hot  climate  for  a  thou- 
fand  years,  I  pronounce  that  it  will  never  yield  to 
climate.  In  the  fuburbs  of  Cochin,  a  town  in 
Malabar,  there  is  a  colony  of  induftrious  Jews  of 

the 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  23 

the  fame  complexion  they  have  in  Europe.  They 
pretend  that  they  were  eftabliihed  there  during  the 
captivity  of  Babylon :  it  is  certain  that  they  have 
been  many  ages  in  that  country.  Thofe  who  afcribe 
all  to  the  fun,  ought  to  conlider  how  little  probable 
it  is,  that  the  colour  it  impreifes  on  the  parents 
Ihould  be  communicated  to  their  infant  children, 
who  never  faw  the  fun :  I  Ihould  be  as  foon  indu- 
ced to  believe,  with  a  German  naturalift  whofe 
name  has  efcaped  me,  that  the  Negro  colour  is 
owing  to  an  ancient  cuftom  in  Africa  of  dying  the 
{kin  black.  Let  a  European  for  years  expofe  him- 
felf  to  the  fun  in  a  hot  climate,  till  he  be  quite 
brown,  his  children  will  neverthelefs  have  the 
fame  complexion  with  thofe  in  Europe.  The 
Hottentots  are  continually  at  work,  and  have  been 
for  ages,  to  darken  their  complexion ;  but  that 
operation  has  no  effect  on  their  children.  From 
the  action  of  the  fun,  is  it  poilible  to  explain  why 
a  Negro,  like  a  European,  is  born  with  a  ruddy  {kin, 
which  turns  jet-black  the  eighth  or  ninth  day  *  ? 

Different  tribes  are  diftinguifhable  no  lefs  by 
internal  difpofition  than  by  external  figure.  Na- 
tions are  for  the  molt  part  fo  blended  by  war,  by 
commerce,  or  by  other  means,  that  vain  would  be 
the  attempt  to  trace  out  an  original  character  in 
any  cultivated  nation.  But  there  are  favage  tribes, 

B  4  which, 

*  Different  flowers  derive  their  colour  from  nature,  and 
prefer ve  the  fame  colour  in  every  climate.  What  reafon  is 
there  to  believe,  that  climate  fhould  have  greater  influence 
upon  the  colour  of  men  than  of  flowers  ? 


24  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

,    .( 

which,  as  far  as  can  be  difcovered,  continue  to  this 
day  pure  without  mixture,  which  act  by  inftinct 
not  art,  which  have  not  learned  to  difguife  their 
paffions  :  to  fuch  I  confine   the  inquiry.     There 
is  no  propenfity  in  human   nature  more  general 
than  averfion  from  ftrangers,  as  will  be  made  evi- 
dent afterward  *.     And  yet  fome  nations  muft  be 
excepted,  not  indeed  many  in  number,  who  are 
remarkably  kind  to  ftrangers  ;  by  which  circum- 
ftance  they  appear  to  be  of  a  lingular  race.     In 
order  to  fet  the  exceptions  in  a  clear  light,  a  few 
inftances  mall  be  premifed  of  the  general  propen- 
fity.    The  nations  that  may  be  the  moft  relied  on 
for  an  original  character,  are  iflanders  at  a  diftance 
from  the  continent  and  from  each  other.     Among 
fuch,  great  variety  of  character  is  found.     Some 
iflands  adjacent  to  New  Guinea  are  inhabited  by 
Negroes,  a  bold,    mifchievous,  untractable  race  ; 
always  ready  to  attack  ftrangers  when  they  ap- 
proach the  more.     The  people  of  ^New  Zealand 
are  of  a  large  fize  and  of  a  hoarfe  voice.    They  ap- 
peared my  according  to  Tafman's  account.    Some 
of  them,  however,  ventured  on  board  in  order  to 
trade ;    but   finding   opportunity,   they  furprifed 
feven  of  his  men  in  a  ihallop,  and  without  the 
flighteft  provocation  killed  three  of  them,  the  reft 
having  efcaped  by  fwimming.     The  ifland  called 
Recreation,  i6th  degree  fouthern  latitude,  and  148 th 
of  longitude  weft  from  London,  was  difcovered 

in 

*  Book  ii.  Sketch  i. 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES. 

in  Roggewein's  voyage.  Upon  light  of  the  mips, 
the  natives  flocked  to  the  fhore  with  long  pikes. 
The  crew  made  good  their  landing,  having  by  fire- 
arms beat  back  the  natives  \  who,  returning  after 
a  fhort  interval,  accepted  prefents  of  beads,  fmall 
looking- glafles,  and  other  trinkets,  without  me  wing 
the  leaft  fear  :  they  even  affifted ,  the  crew  in  ga- 
thering herbs  for  thofe  who  were  afflicted  with  the 
fcurvy.  Some  of  the  crew  traveriing  the  iiland  in 
great  fecurity,  and  trufting  to  fome  natives  who 
led  the  way,  were  carried  into  a  deep  valley  fur- 
rounded  with  rocks ;  where  they  were  inftantly 
attacked  on  every  fide  with  large  ftones :  with  dif- 
ficulty they  made  their  efcape,  but  not  without 
leaving  feveral  dead  upon  the  field.  In  Commo- 
dore Byron's  voyage  to  the  South  Sea,  an  ifland 
was  difcovered,  which  he  named  Dif appointment. 
The  fhore  was  covered  with  natives  in  arms  to  pre- 
vent landing.  They  were  black,  and  without 
clothing,  except  what  covered  the  parts  that  na- 
ture teaches  to  hide.  But  a  fpecimen  is  fufficient 
here,  as  the  fubjecl:  will  be  fully  illuftrated  in  the, 
iketch  referred  to  above. 

The  kindnefs  of  fome  tribes  to  ftrangers  deferves 
more  attention,  being  not  a  little  fingular.  Gon- 
neville,  commander  of  a  French  fhip,  in  a  voyage 
to  the  Eaft  Indies,  in  the  year  1503,  was  driven  by 
a  tempeft  into  an  unknown  country,  and  continued 
there  fix  months,  while  his  vefTel  was  refitting. 
The  manners  he  defcribes  were  in  all  appearance 

original. 


26  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

original.  The  natives  had  not  made  a  greater  prcM 
grefs  in  the  arts  of  life,  than  the  favage  Canadians 
have  done ;  ill  clothed,  and  worfe  lodged,  having 
no  light  in  their  cabins  but  what  came  in  through 
a  hole  in  the  roof.  They  were  divided  into  fmall 
tribes,  governed  each  by  a  king,  who,  though  nei- 
ther better  clothed  nor  lodged  than  others,  had 
power  of  life  and  death  over  his  fubje&s.  They 
were  a  limple  and  peaceable  people,  and  in  a  man- 
ner worfhipped  the  French,  providing  them  with 
necefTaries,  and  in  return  thankfully  receiving 
knives,  hatchets,  fmall  looking- glaffes,  and  other 
fuch  baubles.  In  a  part  of  California,  the  men  go 
naked,  and  are  fond  of  feathers  and  fhells.  They 
are  governed  by  a  king  with  great  mildnefs,  and  of 
all  favages  are  the  moft  humane,  even  to  ftrangers. 
An  ifland  difcovered  in  the  South  Sea  by  Tafman, 
2ift  degree  of  fouthern  latitude,  and  ijjth  of  lon- 
gitude weft  from  London,  was  called  by  him  Am- 
Jlerdam.  The  natives,  who  had  no  arms,  offenlive 
or  defenfive,  treated  the  Dutch  with  great  civility^ 
except  in  being  given  to  pilfering.  At  no  great 
diftance,  another  ifland  was  difcovered,  named 
Annamocha  by  the  natives,  and  Rotterdam  by  Taf- 
man, pofiefled  by  a  people  refembling  thofe  lad 
mentioned,  particularly  in  having  no  arms.  The 
Dutch,  failing  round  the  ifland,  faw  abundance  of 
cocoa-trees  planted  in  rows,  with  many  other  fruit- 
bearing  trees,  kept  in  excellent  order.  Commodore 
Roggewein,  commander  of  a  Dutch  fleet,  difco- 
vered, 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES. 

vered,  anno  1721,  a  new  ifland  in  the  South  Sea, 
Inhabited  by  a  people  lively,  adlive,  and  fwift  of 
foot,  of  a  fweet  and  modeft  deportment,  but  ti- 
morous and  faint-hearted  ;  for,  having  on  their 
knees,  prefented  fome  refreshments  to  the  Dutch^ 
they  retired  with  precipitation.  Numbers  of  idols 
cut  in  (tone,  were  placed  along  the  coaft,  in  the  figure 
of  men  with  large  ears,  and  the  head  covered  with  a 
crown ;  the  whole  nicely  proportioned  and  highly 
finifhed.  They  fled  for  refuge  to  thefe  idols :  and 
they  could  do  no  better ;  for  they  had  no  wea- 
pons either  offenfive  or  defenfive.  Neither  was 
there  any  appearance  of  government  or  fubordi- 
nation  ;  for  they  all  fpoke  and  acled  with  equal 
freedom.  This  ifland,  lituated  28  degrees  30  mi- 
nutes fouthern  latitude,  and  about  115  degrees  of 
longitude  weft  from  London,  is  by  the  Dutch  call- 
ed Eafter  or  Pafch  I/land  *.  The  Commodore  di- 
recting his  courfe  north-weft,  difcovered  in  the 
fouthern  latitude  of  1 2  degrees,  and  in  the  longi- 
tude of  190,  a  clufter  of  iflands,  planted  with  va- 
riety of  fruit-trees,  and  bearing  herbs,  corn,  and 
roots,  in  plenty.  When  the  Ihips  approached  the 
fhore,  the  inhabitants  came  in  their  canoes  with 
fifh,  cocoa-nuts,  Indian  figs,  and  other  refreih- 
ments ;  for  which  they  received  fmall  looking- 
glafles,  firings  of  beads,  and  other  toys.  Thefe 
iflands  were  well  peopled :  ,many  thoufands  throng- 
ed 

*  The  women  were  very  loving,  enticing  the  Dutchmen  by 
every  female  art  to  the  moft  intimate  familiarity. 


PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

ed  to  the  fhore  to  fee  the  fhips,  the  men  being  arm- 
ed with  bows  and  arrows,  and  appearing  to  be 
governed  by  a  chieftain :  they  had  the  complexion 
of  Europeans,  only  a  little  more  fun-burnt.  They 
were  brifk  and  lively,  treating  one  another  with 
civility ;  and  in  their  behaviour  expreffing  no- 
thing wild  nor  favage.  Their  bodies  were  not 
painted ;  but  handfomely  clothed,  from  the  middle 
downwards,  with  iilk  fringes  in  neat  folds.  Large 
hats  fcreened  the  face  from  the  fun,  and  collars  of 
odoriferous  flowers  furrounded  the  neck.  The 
view  of  the  country  is  charming,  finely  diverlified 
with  hills  and  vallies.  Some  of  the  iflands  are  ten 
miles  in  circumference,  fome  fifteen,  fome  twenty. 
The  hiftorian  adds,  that  thefe  iilanders  are  in  all 
refpecls  the  moil  civilized  and  the  beft  tempered 
people  he  difcovered  in  the  South  Sea.  Far  from 
being  'afraid,  they  treated  the  Dutch  with  great 
kindnefs ;  and  expreffed  much  regret  at  their  de- 
parture. Thefe  iflands  got  the  name  of  Bowman's 
Iflands,  from  the  captain  of  the  Tienhoven,  who 

•x 

difcovered  them.  In  Commodore  Byron's  voyage 
to  the  South  Sea,  while  he  was  paffing  through  . 
the  Straits  of  Magellan,  fome  natives  approach- 
ed in  their  canoes ;  and  upon  invitation  came  on 
board,  without  fear,  or  even  fliynefs.  They  at  the 
fame  time  appeared  grofsly  ftupid ;  and  particu- 
larly, could  not  comprehend  the  ufe  of  knives,  of- 
fered to  them  in  a  prefent.  In  another  part  of 
the  Straits,  the  natives  were  highly  delighted 

with 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  29 

with  prefents  of  the  fame  kind.  M.  Bougainville, 
in  his  voyage  round  the  world,  defcribes  a  people 
in  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  probably  thofe  laft 
mentioned,  as  of  fmall  ftature,  tame  and  peaceable, 
having  fcarce  any  clothing  in  a  climate  bitterly 
cold.  Commodore  Byron  difcovered  another  ifland 
in  the  South  Sea  covered  with  trees,  which  was 
named  Byron  Ifland.  The  inhabitants  were  nei- 
ther favage  nor  fhy,  trafficking  freely  with  the 
crew,  though  they  feemed  addicted  to  thieving. 
One  of  them  ventured  into  the  fhip.  After  lea- 
ving Otaheite,  Mr  Banks  and  Dr  Solander,  failing 
weftward,  difcovered  a  clufter  of  iflands,  termed 
by  them  Society  I/lands:  the  natives  were  ex- 
tremely civil,  and  appeared  to  have  no  averfion  to 
ftrangers.  The  ifland  of  Oahena,  north- weft  from 
that  of  Otaheite,  is  a  delightful  fpot ;  the  foil  fer- 
tile, and  the  mores  adorned  with  fruit-trees  of  va- 
rious kinds.  The  inhabitants  are  well  proportion- 
ed, with  regular  engaging  features ;  the  women 
uncommonly  beautiful  and  delicate.  The  inha- 
bitants behaved  with  great  hofpitality  and  probity 
to  the  crew  of  the  fhip  in  which  thefe  gentlemen 
lately  made  a  voyage  round  the  world. 

To  find  the  inhabitants  of  thefe  remote  iflands 
differing  fo  widely  from  the  reft  of  the  world,  as  to 
have  no  averfion  to  ftrangers,  but  on  the  contrary 
fhowing  great  kindnefs  to  the  firft  they  probably 
ever  faw,  is  a  fingular  phenomenon.  It  is  vain 
here  to  talk  of  climate  ^  becaufe  in  all  climates 

we 


30  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

we  find  an  averfion  to  ftrangers.  From  the  in- 
fiances  given  above,  let  us  felect  two  iflands,  or 
two  clufters  of  iflands,  fuppofe  for  example  Bow- 
man's iflands  inhabited  by  Whites,  and  thofe  ad- 
jacent to  New  Guinea  inhabited  by  Blacks.  Kind- 
nefs  to  ftrangers  is  the  national  character  of  the 
former,  and  hatred  to  ftrangers  is  the  national  cha- 
racter of  the  latter.  Virtues  and  vices  of  indivi- 
duals depend  on  caufes  fo  various,  and  fo  variable, 
as  to  give  an  imprefiion  of  chance  more  than  of  de- 
lign.  We  are  not  always  certain  of  uniformity  in 
the  conduct  even  of  the  fame  perfon  ;  far  lefs  of 
different  perfons,  however  intimately  related:  how 
fmall  is  the  chance,  that  fons  will  inherit  their  fa- 
ther's virtues  or  vices  ?  In  moft  countries,  a  fa- 
vage  who  has  no  averfion  to  ftrangers,  nor  to 
neighbouring  clans,  would  be  noted  as  fingular  : 
to  find  the  fame  quality  in  every  one  of  his  chil- 
dren, would  be  furprifing  :  and  would  be  ftill  more 
fo,  were  it  difFufed  widely  through  a  multitude 
of  his  defcendents.  Yet  a  family  is  as  nothing 
compared  with  a  whole  nation  ;  and  when  we  find 
kindnefs  to  ftrangers  a  national  character  in  cer- 
tain tribes,  we  reject  with  difdain  the  notion  of 
chance,  and  perceive  intuitively  that  effects  fo  re- 
gular and  permanent  muft  be  owing  to  a  conftant 
and  invariable  caufe.  Such  effects  cannot  be  ac. 
cidental,  more  than  the  uniformity  of  male  and  fe- 
male births  in  all  countries  and  at  all  times.  They 
cannot  be  accounted  for  from  education  nor  from 

example  * 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  3! 

example  ;  which  indeed  may  contribute  to  fpread 
a  certain  fafhion  or  certain  manners,  but  cannot  be 
their  fundamental  caufe.  Where  the  greater  part 
of  a  nation  is  of  one  character,  education  and  ex- 
ample may  extend  it  over  the  whole  ;  but  the  cha- 
racter of  that  greater  part  can  have  no  foundation 
but  nature.  What  refource  then  have  we  for  ex- 
plaining the  oppofite  manners  of  the  iflanders  above 
mentioned,  but  that  they  are  of  different  races  ? 

The  fame  doctrine  is  ftrongly  confirmed  upon 
finding  courage  or  cowardice  to  be  a  national  cha- 
racter. Individuals  differ  widely  as  to  thefe  ;  but 
a  national  character  of  courage  or  cowardice  muft 
depend  on  a  permanent  and  invariable  caufe.  I 
therefore  proceed  to  inftances  of  national  courage 
and  cowardice,  that  the  reader  may  judge  for  him* 
felf, '  whether  he  can  difcover  any  other  caufe  for 
fuch  fteady  uniformity  but  diverfity  of  race. 

The  northern  nations  of  Europe  and  Alia  have 
at  all  times  been  remarkable  for  courage.  Lucan 
endeavours  to  account  for  the  courage  of  the  Scan- 
dinavians from  a  firm  belief,  univerfal  among  them, 
that  they  will  be  happy  in  another  world. 

Vobis  au&oribus ,  umlr<e, 

Non  tacitas  Erebi  fides,  Ditisque  profundi 

Pallida  regna  petunt ;  regit  ider.i  fpiritus  art  us 

Orbe  alio  :  longa  (camtisfi  cognlta)  i)it<e 

Mors  media  eft.     Certe  populi,  quos  defpiclt  drttuSi 

Felices  errore  fuo  ;  quos  illet  timorum 

haud  urget  kti  melu^     Inde  ruendi 

In 


\ 


32  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

In  ferrum  metis  prona  viris9  animaque  capaces 

Mortis  *.  Luc.  lib.  i. 

4 

Pretty  well  reafoned  for  a  poet !  but  among  all  na- 
tions the  foul  is  believed  to  be  immortal,  though  all 
nations  have  not  the  courage  of  the  Scandinavians. 
The  Caledonians  were  eminent  for  that  virtue;  and 
yet  had  no  fuch  opinion  of  happinefs  after  death,  as 
to  make  them  fond  of  dying.  Souls  after  death  were 
believed  to  have  but  a  gloomy  fort  of  exiftence,  like 
what  is  defcribed  by  Homerf .  Their  courage  there- 
fore was  a  gift  of  nature,  not  of  faith.  The  people  of 
Malacca  and  of  the  neighbouring  iflands,  who  are 
all  of  the  fame  race,  and  fpeak  the  fame  language, 
are  fierce,  turbulent,  and  bold  above  any  other  of 

v        the 

*  "  If  dying  mortals  dooms  they  (ing  aright, 
*'  No  ghofts  defcend  to  dwell  in  endlefs  night ; 
"  No  parting  fouls  to  grifly  Pluto  go, 
"  Nor  feek  the  dreary  filent  fhades  below  ; 
^  But  forth  they  fly,  immortal  in  their  kind, 
"  And  other  bodies  in  new  worlds  they  find. 
f(  Thus  life  for  ever  runs  its  endlefs  race, 
<c  And,  like  a  line,  Death  but  divides  the  fpace  j 
*'  A  flop  which  can  but  for  a  moment  laft, 
c<  A  point  between  the  future  and  the  paft. 
*'  Thrice  happy  they  beneath  the  northern  flues, 
"  Who  that  worft  fear,  the  fear  of  death  difpife ; 
"  Hence  they  no  cares  for  this  frail  being  feel, 
"  But  rufh  undaunted  on  the  pointed  fteel ; 
*'  Provoke  approaching  fate,  and  bravely  fcorn 
"  To  fpare  that  life  which  muft  fo  foon  return." 

Rows. 

Odyffey,  b.  xi. 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  33 

the  human  fpecies,  though  they  inhabit  the  torrid 
zone,  held  commonly  to  be  the  land  of  cowardice. 
They  never  obferve  a  treaty  of  peace  when  they 
have  any  temptation  to  break  it  ;  and  are  perpe- 
tually at  war  with  their  neighbours,  or  with  one 
another.   Inftanccs  there  are  of  twenty-five  or  thir- 
ty of  them  in  a  boat,  with  no  other  weapons  but  po- 
niards, venturing  to  attack  a  European  fhip  of  war? 
Thefe  men  inhabit  a  fertile  country,  which  mould 
naturally  render  them  indolent  and  effeminate  ;  a 
country  abounding  with  variety  of  exquifite  fruits 
and  odoriferous  flowers  in  endlefs  fucceflion,  fuffi- 
cient  to  fink  any  other  people  into  voluptuoufnefs. 
They  are  a  remarkable  exception  from  the  obfer- 
vation  of  Herodotus,  "  That  it  is  not  given  by  the 
"  gods  to  any  country,  to  produce  rich  crops  and 
"  warlike  men."    This  inftance,  with  what  are  to 
follow,  mow  pad  contradiction,  that  a  hot  climate 
is  no  enemy  to  courage.     The  inhabitants  of  New 
Zealand  are  the  moft  intrepid,  and  the  leaft  apt  to 
be  alarmed  at  danger.     The  Giagas  are  a  fierce 
and  bold  people  in  the  midfl  of  the  torrid  zone  of 
Africa :  and  fo  are  the  Anfieki,  bordering  on  Lo- 
ango.     The  wild  Arabs,  who  live  moftly  within 
the  torrid  zone,  are  bold  and  refolute,  holding  war 
to  be  intended  for  them  by  Providence.     The  Af- 
rican negroes,  though  living  in  the  hotteft  known 
country,  are  yet  flout  and  vigorous,  and  the  mofl 
healthy  people  in  the  univerfe.     I  need  fcarcely 
mention  again  the  Negroes  adjacent  to  New  Gui- 
VOL.  I,  C  nea, 


I 

34  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

/ 

nea,  who  have  an  uncommon  degree  of  boldnef 
and  ferocity.  But  I  mention  with  pleafure  the 
ifland  Otaheite,  difcovered  in  the  South  Sea  by 
Wallis,  becaufe  the  inhabitants  are  not  exceeded 
by  any  other  people  in  firmnefs  of  mind.  Though 
the  Dolphin  was  probably  the  firft  fhip  they  had 
ever  feen,  yet  they  refolutely  marched  to  the  fhore, 
and  attacked  her  with  a  fhower  of  (tones.  Some 
volleys  of  fmall  fhot  made  them  give  way  :  but 
returning  with  redoubled  ardour,  they  did  not  to- 
tally lofe  heart  till  the  great  guns  thundered  in 
their  ears.  Nor  even  then  did  they  run  away  in 
terror  ;  but  advifing  together,  they  afuimed  looks 
of  peace,  and  fignified  a  willingnefs  to  forbear 
hoftilities.  Peace  being  fettled,  they  were  lingu- 
larly  kind  to  our  people,  fupplying  their  wants, 
and  mixing  with  them  in  friendly  intercourfe  *. 
When  Mr  Banks  and  Dr  Solander  were  on  the 
coaft  of  New  Holland,  the  natives,  feeing  fome  of 
our  men  timing  near  the  fhore,  fingled  out  a  num- 
ber of  their  own  equal  to  thofe  in  the  boat,  who 
marching  down  to  the  water-edge,  challenged  the 
flrangers  to  fight  them  ;  an  inflance  of  true  heroic 
courage.  The  people  in  that  part  of  New  Hol- 
land mu  ft  be  of  a  race  very  different  from  thofe 
whom  Darnpier  faw. 

-    ;       •.       -      ,          .    •..-.;:  ;•   A 


*  It  is  remarkable,  that  thefe  people  roaft  their  meat  with 
ftones,  as  the  Caledonians  did  in  the  days  of  Offian. 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  35 

A  noted  author  *  holds  all  favages  to  be  bold, 
impetuous,  and  proud  ;  affigning  for  a  caufe,  their 
equality  and  independence.     As  in  that  obferva- 
tion  he  feems  to  lay  no  weight  on  climate,  and  as 
little  on  original  difpofition,  it  is  with  regret,  that 
my  fubjedl  leads  me  in  this  public  manner  to  differ 
from  him  with  refpect  to  the  latter.      The  charac- 
ter he  gives  in  general  to  all  favages,  is  indeed  ap- 
plicable to  many  favage  tribes,  our  European  fore- 
fathers in  particular  ;  but  not  to  all.    It  but  faint- 
ly fu  its  even  the  North- American  favages,  whom 
our  author  feems  to  have  had  in  his  eye ;  for  in 
war  they  carefully  avoid  open  force,  relying  chiefly 
on  ftratagem  and  furprife.  They  value  themfelves, 
it  is  faid,  upon  faving  men ;  but  as  that  motive 
was  no  lefs  weighty  in  Europe,  and  indeed  every 
where,  the  pronenefs  of  our  forefathers  to  open  vio- 
lence, demonftrates  their  fuperiority  in  a&ive  cou- 
rage.     The  following  incidents  reported  by  Char- 
levoix  give  no  favourable  idea  of  North-American 
boldnefs.     The  fort  de  Vercheres  in  Canada,  be- 
longing to  the  French,  was  in  the  year  1690  at- 
tacked by  fome  Iroquois.   They  approached  filent- 
ly,  preparing  to  fcale  the  palifade,  when  a  mufket- 
fhot  or  two  made  them  retire.     Advancing  a  fe- 
cond  time,  they  were  again  repulfed,  wondering 
that  they  could  difcover  none  but  a  woman,  who 
was  feen  every  where.  This  was  Madame  de  Ver- 
cheres, who  appeared  as  refolute  as  if  fupported 

C2  by 

*  Mr  Fergufon. 


36  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

by  a  numerous  garrifon.  The  hopes  of  florming 
a  place  without  men  to  defend  it,  occafioned  reiter 
rated  attacks.  After  two  days  liege,  they  retired, 
fearing  to  be  intercepted  in  their  retreat.  Two 
years  after,  a  party  of  the  fame  nation  appeared 
before  the  fort  fo  unexpectedly,  that  a  girl  of  four- 
teen, daughter  of  the  proprietor,  had  but  time  to 
ftiut  the  gate.  With  the  young  woman  there  was 
not  a  foul  but  one  raw  foldier.  She  fhewed  her- 
felf  with  her  affiftant,  fometimes  in  one  place,  fome- 
times  in  another  ;  changing  her  drefs  frequent- 
ly, in  order  to  give  fome  appearance  of  a  garri- 
fon, and  always  firing  opportunely.  The  faint- 
hearted Iroquois  decamped  without  fuccefs. 

But  if  the  Americans  abound  not  with  adlive 
courage,  their  paffive  courage  is  beyond  concep- 
tion. Every  writer  expatiates  on  the  torments 
they  endure,  not  only  patiently,  but  with  fingular 
fortitude  ;  deriding  their  tormentors,  and  braving 
their  utmofl  cruelty.  North-American  favages 
differ  indeed  fo  widely  from  thofe  formerly  in  Eu- 
rope, as  to  render  it  highly  improbable  that  they 
are  of  the  fame  race.  Paffive  courage  they  have 
even  to  a  wonder  ;  but  abound  not  in  active  cou- 
rage :  pur  European  forefathers,  on  the  contrary, 
were  much  more  remarkable  for  the  latter  than  for 
the  former.  The  Kamfkatkans  in  every  article  re-> 
femble  the  North-Americans.  In  war  they  are 
full  of  ft ratagcm,  but  never  attack  openly  if  they 
qan  avoid  it.  When  victorious,  they  murder  with- 


OF  faEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES. 

out  mercy,  burn  their  prifoners  alive,  or  tear  out 
their  bowels.  If  they  be  furrounded  and  cannot 
efcape,  they  turn  defperate,  cut  the  throats  of  their 
wives  and  children,  and  throw  themfelves  into  the 
midft  of  their  enemies.  And  yet  thefe  people  are 
abundantly  free.  Their  want  of  active  courage  is 
the  more  furpriiing,  becaufe  they  make  no  difficul- 
ty of  fuicide  when  they  fall  into  any  diftrefs.  But 
their  paffive  courage  is  equal  to  that  of  the  Ameri- 
cans :  when  tortured  in  order  to  extort  a  confeffion, 
they  (how  the  utmoft  firmnefs ;  and  feldom  difco- 
ver  more  than  what  they  freely  confefs  at  their 
firil  examination. 

The  favages  of  Guiana  are  indolent,  good-natu- 
red, fubmifiive,  and  a  little  cowardly  $  though 
they  are  on  a  footing  with  the  North- Americans 
in  equality  and  independence.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  Marian  or  Ladrone  iilands  live  in  a  ftate  of  per- 
fect equality  :  every  man  avenges  the  injury  done 
to  himfelf ;  and  even  children  are  regardlefs  of 
their  parents.  Yet  thefe  people  are  great  cowards : 
in  battle  indeed  they  utter  loud  fhouts ;  but  it  is 
more  to  animate  themfelves  than  to  terrify  the 
enemy*  The  Negroes  on  the  flave-coaft  of  Guinea 
are  good-natured  and  obliging  ;  but  not  remark- 
able for  courage  *.  The  Laplanders  are  of  all  men 

C  3  the 

*  The  Cormantees,  a  tribe  of  Negroes  on  the  Gold  Coaft, 
are  indeed  brave  and  intrepid.  When  kindly  treated  in  the 
Weft  Indies,  they  make  excellent  fervants.  The  Negroes  of 
Senegal  are  remarkable  in  the  Weft  Indies  for  fidelity  and 
good  underitanding. 


38  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

the  moil  timid:  upon  the  flighteft  furprife  they 
fall  down  in  a  fwoon,  like  the  feebleft  female  in 
England  :  thunder  deprives  them  of  their  five 
fenfes.  The  face  of  their  country  is  nothing  but 
rocks  covered  with  mofs ;  it  would  be  fcarce  ha- 
bitable but  for  rein -deer,  on  which  the  Laplanders 
chiefly  depend  for  food.-** 

The  Macafiars,  inhabitants  of  the  ifland  Ce-. 
lebes  in  the  torrid  2,one,  differ  from  all  other 
people.  They  have  active  courage  above  even  the 
fierceft  European  favages  ;  and  they  equal  the 
North- American  favages  in  paflive  courage.  Du- 
ring the  reign  of  Cha  Naraya  King  of  Siam,  a 
fmall  party  of  Macaffars  who  were  in  the  King's 
pay  having  revolted,  it  required  a  whole  army  of 
Siamites  to  fubdue  them.  Four  Macaflars,  taken 
alive,  were  cruelly  tortured.  They  were  beaten 
to  mummy  with  cudgels,  iron  pins  were  thrufl  un- 
der their  nails,  all  their  fingers  broken,  the  flefh 
burnt  off  their  arms,  and  their  temples  fqueezed 
between  boards  ;  yet  they  bore  all  with  unparal- 
leled firmnefs.  They  even  refufed  to  be  convert- 
ed to  Chriftianity,  though  the  Jefuits  offered  to  in- 
tercede for  them.  A  tiger,  let  loofe,  having  fa- 
ttened on  the  foot  of  one  of  them,  the  man  never 
once  offered  to  draw  it  away.  Another,  without 
uttering  a  word,  bore  the  tiger  breaking  the  bones 
of  his  back.  A  third  fuffered  the  animal  to  lick 
the  blood  from  his  face,  without  fhrinking,  or 
turning  away  his  eyes.  During  the  whole  of  that 

horrid 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  39 

v 

horrid  fpeclacle,  they  never  once  bewailed  them^ 
felves,  nor  were  heard  to  utter  a  groan. 

The  frigidity  of  the  North  Americans,  men  and 
women,  differing  in  that  particular  from  all  other 
favages,  is  to  me  evidence  of  a  feparate  race.  And 
I  am  the  more  confirmed  in  that  opinion,  when  I 
find  a  celebrated  writer,  whofe  abilities  no  perfon 
calls  in  queilion,  endeavouring  in  vain  to  afcribe 
that  circumftance  to  moral  and  phyfical  caufes.  Si 
Pergama  d extra  defendi  pqffet. 

In  concluding  from  the  foregoing  fadts  that 
there  are  different  races  of  men,  I  reckon  upon 
ftrenuous  oppofition  \  not  only  from  men  biaffed 
againft  what  is  new  or  uncommon,  but  from  num- 
berlefs  fedate  writers,  who  hold  every  diftinguifh- 
ing  mark,  internal  as  well  as  external,  to  be  the 
effect  of  foil  and  climate.  Againft  the  former,  pa- 
tience is  my  cnly  fhield ;  but  I  cannot  hope  for 
any  converts  to  a  new  opinion,  without  removing 
the  arguments  urged  by  the  latter. 

Among  the  endlefs  number  of  writers  who  a- 
fcribe  fupreme  efficacy  to  the  climate,  Vitruvius 
fhall  take  the  lead.  The  firft  chapter  of  his  lixth 
book  is  entirely  employed  in  defcribing  the  in- 
fluence of  climate  on  the  conftitution  and  temper. 
The  following  is  the  fubftance.  "  For  the  fun, 
"  where  he  draws  out  a  moderate  degree  of  moi- 
"  fture,  preferves  the  body  in  a  temperate  ftate  ; 
"  but  where  his  rays  are  more  fierce,  he  drains  the 
"  body  of  moifture.  In  very  cold  regions,  where 
"  the  moifture  is  not  fucked  up  by  the  heat,  the 

€4  "  body 


40  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

"  body  fucking  in  the  dewy  air,  rifes  to  a  great  fize, 
"  and  has  a  deep  tone  of  voice.  Northern  nations 
"  accordingly,  from  cold  and  moifture,  have  large 
"  bodies,  a  white  fkin,  red  hair,  gray  eyes,  and 
"  much  blood.  Nations,  on  the  contrary,  near 
"  the  equator,  are  of  fmall  ftature,  tawny  com- 
"  plexion,  curled  hair,  black  eyes,  flender  legs, 
"  and  little  blood.  From  want  of  blood  they  are 
"  cowardly :  but  they  bear  fevers  well,  their  con- 
"  ftitution  being  formed  by  heat.  Northern  na* 
"  tions,  on  the  contrary,  fink  under  a  fever  ;  but, 
"  from  the  abundance  of  blood,  they  are  bold  in 
"  war."  In  another  part  of  the  chapter  he  adds, 
"  From  the  thinnefs  of  the  air  and  enlivening 
"  heat,  fouthern  nations  are  quick  in  thought, 
"  and  acute  in  reafoning.  Thofe  in  the  north,  on 
"  the  contrary,  who  breathe  a  thick  and  cold  air, 
"  are  dull  and  ftupid."  And  this  he  illuftrates 
from  ferpents,  which  in  fummer-heat  are  active 
and  vigorous ;  but  in  winter,  become  torpid  and 
immoveable.  He  then  proceeds  as  follows  :  "  It 
"  is  then  not  at  all  furprifing,  that  heat  Ihould 
"  fharpen  the  underftanding,  and  cold  blunt  it. 
"  Thus  the  fouthern  nations  are  ready  in  counfel, 
"  and  acute  in  thought ;  but  make  no  figure  in 
"  war,  their  courage  being  exhaufted  by  the  heat 
"  of  the  fun*  The  inhabitants  of  cold  climates, 
"  prone  to  war,  rufti  on  with  vehemence  without 
"  the  leaft  fear  ;  but  are  flow  of  underftanding.'1 
Then  he  proceeds  to  account,  upon  the  fame  prin- 
ciple, for  the  fuperiority  of  the  Romans  in  arms, 

and 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  4! 

and  for  the  extent  of  their  empire.  "  For  as  the 
"  planet  Jupiter  lies  between  the  fervid  heat  of 
"  Mars  and  the  bitter  cold  of  Saturn ;  fo  Italy,  in 
"  the  middle  of  the  temperate  zone,  poflefles  all 
"  that  is  favourable  in  either  climate*  Thus  by 
"  conduct  in  war,  the  Romans  overcome  the  im- 
"  petuous  force  of  northern  barbarians ;  and  by 
"  vigour  of  arms  confound  the  politic  fchemes  of 
"  her  fouthern  neighbours.  Divine  Providence 
"  appears  to  have  placed  the  Romans  in  that  hap- 
"  py  fituation,  in  order  that  they  might  become 

"  maflers  of  the   world." Vegetius   accounts 

for  the  different  characters  of  men  from  the  fame 
principle  :  "  Omnes  nationes  quae  vicinae  funt  fo- 
"  li,  nimio  calore  ficcatas,  amplius  quidem  fapere, 
"  fed  minus  habere  fanguinis  dicunt :  ac  prop- 
"  terea  conftantiam  ac  fiduciam  cominus  non  ha- 
"  bere  pugnandi,  quia  metuunt  vulnera,  qui  fe 
"  exiguum  fanguinem  habere  noverunt.  Contra, 
"  feptentrionales  populi,  remoti  a  folis  ardoribus, 
"  inconfultiores  quidem,  fed  tamen  largo  fanguine 

"  redundantes,  funt  ad  bella  promptiflimi  *." 

Servius, 

*  "  Nations  near  the  fun,  being  exficcated  by  exceffive 
"  heat,  are  faid'to  have  a  greater  acutenefs  of  underftanding, 
"  but  lefs  blood :  on  which  account,  in  fighting  they  are  de- 
'*  ficient  in  firmnefs  and  refolution  ;  and  dread  the  being 
**  wounded,  as  confcious  of  their  want  of  blood.  The  north- 
"  ern  people,  on  the  contrary,  removed  from  the  ardor  of  the 
"  fun,  are  lefs  remarkable  for  the  powers  of  the  mind ;  but 

abounding  in  blood,  they  are  prone  to  war." — Lib.  i.  cap.  2. 
De  re  militari. 


PRELIMINARY   DISCOURSE. 

Servius,    in   his    commentary  on   the   ^neid  of 

Virgil*,  fays,  "  Afri  verfipelles,  Graeci  leves,  Gal- 

li   pigrioris  ingenii,  quod  natura  climatum  fa- 

46  cit.  f " —Mallet,  in   the   introduction  to    his 

Hiftory  of  Denmark,  copying  Vitruvius  and  Ve- 
getius,  drains  hard  to  derive  ferocity  and  cou- 
rage in  the  Scandinavians  from  the  climates  "  A 
"  great  abundance  of  blood,  fibres  ftrong  and 
"  rigid,  vigour  inexhauftible,  formed  the  tempe- 
"  rament  of  the  Germans,  the  Scandinavians,  and 
"  of  all  other  people  who  live  under  the  fame  cli- 
"  mate.  Robuft  by  the  climate,  and  hardened 
"  with  exercife  ;  confidence  in  bodily  ftrength 
"  formed  their  character.  A  man  who  relies  on 
"  his  own  force,  cannot  bear  reftraint,  nor  fubmif- 
"  fion  to  the  arbitrary  will  of  another.  As  he  has 
"  no  occafion  for  artifice,  he  is  altogether  a  ftran- 
"  ger  to  fraud  or  diflimulation.  As  he  is  always 
"  ready  to  repel  force  by  force,  he  is  not  fufpi- 
"  cious  nor  diftruftful.  His  courage  prompts  him 
"  to  be  faithful  in  friendfhip,  generous,  and  even 
"  magnanimous.  He  is  averfe  to  occupations  that 
"  require  more  affiduity  than  action  ;  becaufe  mo~ 
"  derate  exercife  affords  not  to  his  blood  and 
"  fibres  that  degree  of  agitation  which  fuits  them. 
"  Hence  his  difguft  at  arts  and  manufactures ;  and, 

"  as 

*  ./En.  lib.  vi.  ver.  724. 

•)•  '«  The  Africans  are  fubtle  and  full  of  ftratagem,  the 
«'  Greeks  are  fickle,  the  Gauls  flow  of  parts,  all  which  diver* 
«'  fities  are  occafioned  by  the  climate." 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  43 

"  as  paflion  labours  to  juftify  itfelf,  hence  his  opi- 
"  nion,  that  war  only  and  hunting  are  honourable 
*'  profefiions."  Before  fubfcribing  to  this  doc- 
trine, I  wifli  to  be  fatisfied  of  a  few  particulars. 
Is  our  author  certain,  that  inhabitants  of  cold 
countries  have  the  greateft  quantity  of  blood  ? 
And  is  he  certain,  that  courage  is  in  every  man 
proportioned  to  the  quantity  of  his  blood  *  ?  Is 
he  alfo  certain,  that  ferocity  and  love  of  war  did 
univerfally  obtain  among  the  northern  Europeans  ? 
Tacitus  gives  a  very  different  character  of  the 
Chauci,  who  inhabited  the  north  of  Germany  : 
"  Tain  immenfum  terrarum  fpatium  non  tenent 
"  tantiim  Chauci,  fed  et  implent :  populus  inter 
"  Germanos  nobiliffimus,  quique  magnitudinem 
"  fuam  malit  juftitia  tueri.  Sine  cupiditate,  fine 

"  impotentia, 

*  At  that  rate,  the  lofs  of  an  ounce  of  blood  may  turn  the 
balance.  Courage  makes  an  efTential  ingredient  in  magnani- 
mity and  heroifm  :  are  fuch  elevated  virtues  corporeal  mere- 
ly  ?  is  the  mind  admitted  for  no  fhare  ?  This  indeed  would 
be  a  mortifying  circumftance  in  the  human  race.  But  even 
fuppofmg  courage  to  be  corporeal  merely,  it  is  however  far 
from  being  proportioned  to  the  quantity  of  blood  :  a  great- 
er quantity  than  can  be  circulated  freely  and  eafily  by  the 
force  of  the  heart  and  arteries,  becomes  a  difeafe,  termed  a 
plethora.  Bodily  courage  is  chiefly  founded  on  the  folids. 
When,  by  the  vigour  and  elafticity  of  the  heart  and  arteries,  a 
brifk  circulation  of  blood  is  produced,  a  man  is  in  good  fpirits, 
lively  and  bold  ;  a  greater  quantity  of  blood,  inftead  of  raif- 
ing  courage  to  a  higher  pitch,  never  fails  to  produce  fluggifh- 
nefs  and  depreffion  of  mind. 


44 


PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 


"  impotentia,  quieti,  fecretique,  nulla  provocant 
"  bella,  nullis  raptibus  aut  latrociniis  populantur. 
"  Idque  praecipuum  virtutis  ac  virium  argumen- 
"  turn  eft,  quod  ut  fuperiores  agunt,  non  per  inju- 
"  rias  aflequuntur.  Prompta  tamen  omnibus  ar- 
"  ma,  ac,  fi  res  pofcat,  exercitus*."  Again,  with 
refpecl:  to  the  Arii,  he  bears  witnefs,  that  belide 
ferocity,  and  ftrength  of  body,  they  were  full  of 
fraud  and  artifice.  Neither  do  the  Laplanders 
nor  Samoides  correfpond  to  his  defcription,  being 
remarkable  for  pufillanimity,  though  inhabitants 
of  a  bitter  cold  country  f.  Laftly,  a  cold  climate 
doth  not  always  make  the  inhabitants  averfe  to 
Occupations  that  require  more  affiduity  than  ac- 
tion :  the  people  of  Iceland  formerly  were  much 
addicted  to  ftudy  and  literature ;  and  for  many 

centuries 

*  "  So  immenfe  an  extent  of  country  is  not  poflefTed  only, 
"  but  filled  by  the  Chauci ;  a  race  of  people  the  noblefl 
"  among  the  Germans,  and  who  choofe  to  maintain  their 
"  grandeur  by  juftice  rather  than  by  violence.  Confident  of 
"  their  ftrength,  without  the  third  of  increafmg  their  poffef- 
"  fions,  they  live  in  quietnefs  and  fecurity :  they  kindle  no 
"  wars  ;  they  are  ftrar^ers  to  plunder  and  to  rapine ;  and 
"  what  is  the  chief  evidence  both  of  their  power  ana  of  their 
"  virtue,  without  opprefling  any,  they  have  attained  a  fupe- 
"  riority  over  all.  Yet,  when  occafion  requires,  they  are 
«  prompt  to  take  the  field  ;  and  their  troops  are  fpeedily  rai- 
tt  fed." — De  moribus  Germanorum,  cap.  35. 

f  Scheffer,  in  hrs  Hiftory  of  Lapland,  differs  widely  front 
the  authors  mentioned ;  for  he  afcribes  the  pufillanimity  of 
the  Laplanders,  to  the  eoldnefs  of  their  climate. 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  45 

centuries  were  the  chief  hiftorians  of  the  north. 
They  are  to  this  day  fond  of  chefs,  and  fpend 
much  of  their  time  in  that  amufement  :  there  is 
fcarce  a  peafant  but  who  has  a  chefs-board  and 
men.  Mr  Banks  and  Dr  Solander  report,  that  the 
peafants  of  Iceland  are  addidled  to  hiftory,  not  only 
of  their  own  country,  but  of  that  of  Europe*. 

The 

*  A  French  author  a  upon  this  fubject  obferves,  that,  like 
plants,  we  are  formed  by  the  climate  ;  and  that  as  fruits  de- 
rive their  tafte  from  the  foil,  men  derive  their  character  and 
difpofition  from  the  air  they  breathe.  "  The  Englifti,"  fays 
he,  "  owe  to  the  fogginefs  pf  their  air,  not  only  their  rich 
"  pafture,  but  the  gloominefs  of  their  difpofition  ;  which 
"  makes  tliem  violent  in  their  paffions,  becaufe  they  purfue 
"  with  ardour  every  object  that  relieves  them  from  melan- 
"  choly.  By  that  gloominefs  they  are  exhaufted,  and  render- 
"  ed  infenfible  to  the  pleafures  of  life.  Deprefled  in  mind 
"  they  are  unable  to  endure  pain  ;  as  it  requires  ftrength  of 
mind  to  fuffer  without  extreme  impatience.  They  are  ne- 
ver  content  with  their  lot,  hating  tranquillity  as  much  as 
they  love  liberty."  Where  a  fact  is  known  to  be  true,  any 
jhing  will  pafs  for  a  caufe  ;  and  fliallow  writers  deal  in  fuch 
caufes.  I  need  no  better  inftance  than  the  prefent  :  for,  if  I 
miftake  not,  effects  directly  oppofite  may  be  drawn  from  the 
caufe  afligned  by  this  writer  ;  as  plaufible  at  leaft,  I  do  not 
fay  better  founded  on  truth.  I  will  make  an  attempt  :  it 
may  amufp  the  reader.  And  to  avoid  difputing  about  facts, 
I  (hall  fuppofe  the  fogginefs  of  the  fens  of  Lincoln  and  Effer 
to  be  general,  which  he  erroneoufly  feems  to  believe.  From 
that  fuppofition  I  reafon  thus  :  «  The  fogginefs  of  the  En- 
«  glifti  air,  makes  the  people  dull  and  languid.  They  fuffer 

"  under 
f  Lettres  d'un  Francois. 


" 


" 


PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

The  moft  formidable  antagonift  remains  flill  on 
hand,  the  celebrated  Montefquieu,  who  is  a  great 
champion  for  the  climate  ;  obferving,  that  in  hot 
climates  people  are  timid  like  old  men,  and  in  cold 
climates  bold  like  young  men.  This  in  effect  is 
to  maintain,  that  the  torrid  zone  is  an  unfit  habi- 
tation for  men  ;  that  they  degenerate  in  it,  lofe 
their  natural  vigour,  and  even  in  youth  become 
like  old  men.  That  author  certainly  intended  not 
any  imputation  on  Providence ;  and  yet,  doth  it 
not  look  like  an  imputation,  to  maintain,  that  fo 
large  a  portion  of  the  globe  is  fit  for  beafts  only, 
not  for  men  ?  Some  men  are  naturally  fitted  for  a 
temperate  or  for  a  cold  climate :  he  ought  to  have 
explained,  why  other  men  may  not  be  fitted  for  a 
hot  climate.  There  does  not  appear  any  oppofi- 
tion  between  heat  and  courage,  more  than  between 
cold  and  courage  :  on  the  contrary,  courage  feems 

more 

'*  under  a  conftant  depreffion  of  fpirits ;  and  fcarce  know 
"  what  it  is  to  joke,  or  even  to  laugh  at  a  joke.  They. loiter 
"»away  their  time,  without  feeling  either  pleafure  or  pain;  and 
"  yet  have  not  refolution  to  put  an  end  to  an  infipid  exiftence. 
"  It  cannot  be  faid  that  they  are  content  with  their  lot,  be- 
"  caufe  there  is  pleafure  in  content ;  but  they  never  think  of 
"  a  change.  Being  reduced  to  a  paflive  nature  from  the  in- 
"  fluence  of  climate,  they  are  fitted  for  being  flaves  :  nor 
"  would  they  have  courage  to  rebel,  were  they  even  inclin- 
«'  ed."  Were  the  character  here  delineated  that  of  the  En- 
glifh  nation,  inftead  of  the  oppofite,  the  argument  would  at 
lead  be  plaufible.  But  fuperficial  reafoners  will  plunge  into 
the  depth  of  philofophy,  without  ever  thinking  it  neceflary  to 
ferve  an  apprenticeihip. 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  47 

more  connected  with  the  former  than  with  the 
latter.  The  fiercer!  and  boldeft  animals,  the  lion, 
for  example,  the  tiger,  the  panther,  thrive  beft  in 
the  hotteft  climates.  The  great  condor  of  Peru, 
in  the  torrid  zone,  is  a  bird  not  a  little  fierce 
and  rapacious.  A  lion  vilibly  degenerates  in  a 
temperate  climate.  The  lions  of  Mount  Atlas, 
which  is  fometimes  crowned  with  fnow,  have  not 
the  boldnefs,  nor  the  force,  nor  the  ferocity  of  fuch 
as  tread  the  burning  fands  of  Zaara  and  Biledul- 
gerid.  This  refpeclable  author,  it  is  true,  endea- 
vours to  fupport  his  opinion  from  natural  caufes. 
Thefe  are  ingenious  and  plaufible  ;  but  unluckily 
they  are  contradicted  by  ftubborn  facts  ;  which 
will  appear  upon  a  very  flight  furvey  of  this  globe. 
The  Samoides  and  Laplanders  are  living  inftances 
of  uncommon  pufillanimity  in  the  inhabitants  of  a 
cold  climate  ;  and  inftances,  not  few  in  number, 
have  been  mentioned  of  warlike  people  in  a  hot 
climate.  To  thefe  I  add  the  Hindoos,  whom  our 
author  will  not  admit  to  have  any  degree  of  cou- 
rage ;  though  he  acknowledges,  that,  prompted  by 
religion,  the  men  voluntarily  fubmit  to  dreadful 
tortures,  and  that  even  women  are  ambitious  to 
burn  themfelves  alive  with  their  deceafed  huf- 
bands.  In  vain  does  he  endeavour  to  account  for 
fuch  extraordinary  exertions  of  fortitude,  active  as 
well  as  paflive,  from  the  power  of  imagination ;  as 
if  imagination  could  operate  more  forcibly  in  a 
woman  to  burn  herfelf  alive,  than  on  a  man  to 

meet 


48  PRELIMINARY   DISCOURSE. 

meet  his  enemy  in  battle.  The  Malayans  and 
Scandinavians  live  in  oppolite  climates,  and  yet  are 
equally  courageous.  Providence  has  placed  thefe 
nations,  each  of  them,  in  its  proper  climate  :  cold 
would  benumb  a  Malayan  in  Sweden,  heat  would 
enervate  a  Swede  in  Malacca ;  and  both  would  be 
rendered  cowards.  I  Hop  here  ;  for  to  enter  the 
lifts  again  ft  an  antagonift  of  fo  great  fame,  gives 
me  a  feeling  as  if  I  were  treading  on  forbidden 
ground. 

It  is  my  firm  opinion,  that  neither  temper  nor 
talents  have  much  dependence  on  climate.  I  can- 
not difcover  any  probable  exception,  if  it  be  not  a 
tafte  for  the  fine  arts.  Where  the  influence  of  the 
fun  is  great,  people  are  enervated  with  heat :  where 
little,  they  are  benumbed  with  cold.  A  clear  iky, 
with  moderate  heat,  exhibit  a  very  different  fcene : 
the  chearfulnefs  they  produce  difpofes  men  to  en- 
joyment of  every  kind.  Greece,  Italy,  and  the 
Lefler  Afia,  are  delicious  countries,  affording  va- 
riety of  natural  beauties  to  feaft  every  fenfe  :  and 
men  accuftomed  to  enjoyment,  fearch  for  it  in  art 
as  well  as  in  nature  ;  the  pafTage  from  the  one  to 
the  other  being  eafy  and  inviting.  Hence  the  ori- 
gin and  progrefs  of  ftatuary  and  of  painting,  in  the 
countries  mentioned.  It  has  not  efcaped  obferva- 
tion,  that  the  rude  manners  of  favages  are  partly 
owing  to  the  roughnefs  and  barrennefs  of  unculti- 
vated land.  England  has  few  natural  beauties  to 
boaft  of;  even  high  mountains,  deep  vallies,  im- 
petuous 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  49 

petuous  torrents,  and  fuch  other  wild  and  awful 
beauties,  are  rare.  But  of  late  years,  that  coun- 
try has  received  manifold  embellifhments  from  its 
induftrious  inhabitants  ;  and  in  many  of  its  fcenes 
may  now  compare  with  countries  that  are  more 
favoured  by  the  fun  or  by  nature.  Its  foil  has  be- 
come fertile,  its  verdure  enlivening,  and  its  gar- 
dens the  fineft  in  the  world.  The  confequence  is 
what  might  have  been  forefeen  :  the  fine  arts  are 
gaining  ground  daily.  May  it  not  be  expe&ed, 
that  the  genius  and  fenfibility  of  the  inhabitants, 
will  in  time  produce  other  works  of  art,  to  rival 
their  gardens  ?  How  delightful  to  a  true-hearted 
Briton  is  the  profpedl,  that  London,  inftead  of 
Rome,  may  become  the  centre  of  the  fine  arts. 

Sir  William  Temple  is  of  opinion,  that  courage 
depends  much  on  animal  food.  He  remarks,  that 
the  horfe  and  the  cock  are  the  only  animals  of  cou- 
rage that  live  on  vegetables.  Provided  the  body 
be  kept  in  good  plight,  I  am  apt  to  think,  that  the 
difference  of  food  can  have  little  influence  on  the 
mind.  Nor  is  Sir  William's  remark  fupported  by 
experience.  Several  fmall  birds,  whofe  only  food 
is  grain,  have  no  lefs  courage  than  the  cock.  The 
wolf,  the  fox,  the  vulture,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
not  remarkable  for  courage,  though  their  only  food 
is  the  fleih  of  animals. 

The  colour  of  the  Negroes,  as  above  obferved, 
affords  a  ftrong  prefumption  of  their  being  a  dif- 
ferent fpecies  from  the  Whites ;  and  I  once  thought, 

VOL.  I.  D  that 


50  PRELIMINARY 

that  the  prefumption  was  fuppbrted  by  inferiority 
of  underflanding  in  the  former.  But  it  appears  to 
me  doubtful,  upon  fecond  thoughts,  whether  that 
inferiority  may  not  be  occafioned  by  their  condi- 
tion. A  man  never  ripens  in  judgment  nor  in 
prudence  but  by  exerciling  thefe  powers.  At 
home,  the  negroes  have  little  occafion  to  exercife 
either  :  they  live  upon  fruits  and  roots,  which 
grow  without  culture  :  they  need  little  clothing  : 
and  they  erect  houfes  without  trouble  or  art  #. 

'*  ;  '  is 

Abroad,  they  are  miferable  Haves,  having  no  en- 
couragement either  to  think  or  to  adh  Who  can 
fay  how  far  they  might  improve  in  a  ftate  of  free- 
dom, were  they  obliged,  like  Europeans,  to  pro- 
cure bread  with  the  fweat  of  their  brows  ?  Some 
nations  in  Negroland,  particularly  that  of  Whi- 
dah,  have  made  great  improvements  in  govern- 
ment, in  police,  and  in  manners.  The  Negroes  on 
the  Gold  coaft  are  naturally  gay :  they  apprehend 
readily  what  is  faid  to  them,  have  a  good  judg- 
ment, are  equitable  in  their  dealings^  and  accom- 
modate themfelves  readily  to  the  manners  of  ftran- 
gers.  And  yet,  after  all,  there  feems  to  be  fpme 
original  difference  between  the  Negroes  and  Hin- 
doos. In  no  country  are  food  and  raiment  procu- 
red with  lefs  labour  than  in  the  fouthern  parts  df 

Hindoftan, 

*  The  Negro  flaves  in  Jamaica,  who  have  Sunday  only  at 
command  for  raifmg  food  to  themfelves,  live  as  well,  if  not 
better,  than  the  free  Negroes  who  command  every  day  of  the 
week.  Such,  in  the  latter,  is  the  effect  of  indolence  from, 
want  of  occupation. 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES. 

Hindoftan,  where  the  heat  is  great :  and  yet  no 
people  are  more  induftrious  than  the  Hindoos. 

I  fhall  clofe  the  furvey  with  fome  inilances  that 
feem  to  differ  widely  from  the  common  nature  of 
man.  The  Giagas,  a  fierce  and  wandering  nation 
in  the  heart  of  Africa,  are  in  effecl:  land-pirates,  at 
war  with  all  trie  world.  They  indulge  in  poly- 
gamy ;  but  bury  all  their  children  the  moment  of 
birth,  and  chooie  in  their  ftead  the  molt  promifing 
children  taken  in  war.  There  is  no  principle  a- 
mong  animals  more  prevalent  than  affection  to  off- 
fpring  :  fuppofing  the  Giagas  to  be  born  without 
hands  or  without  feet,  would  they  be  more  diftin- 
guifhable  from  the  reft  of  mankind  *  ?  To  move 
the  Giagas,  at  firft,  to  murder  their  own  children, 
and  to  adopt  thofe  of  flrangers,  is  a  proof  of  fome 
original  principle  peculiar  to  that  people  :  and  the 

D  2  continuance 

*  I  have  oftener  than  once  doubted  whether  the  authors  de- 
ferve  credit  from  whom  this  account  is  taken  j  and,  after  all, 
1  do  not  prefs  it  upon  my  readers.  There  is  only  one  con- 
fideration  that  can  bring  it  within  the  verge  o£  probability, 
viz.  the  little  affection  that  male  favages  have  for  their  new- 
born children,  which  appears  from  the  ancient  practice  of  ex- 
pofmg  them.  The  affection  of  the  mother  commences  with 
the  birth  of  the  child  ;  and,  had  flie  a  vote,  no  infant  would 
ever  be  deftroyed.  But  as  the  affection  of  the  father  begins 
much  later,  the  practice  of  deftroying  new-born  infants  may 
be  thought  not  altogether  incredible  in  a  wandering  nation, 
who  live  by  rapine,  and  who  can  provide  themfelves  with, 
children  more  eafily  than  by  the  tedious  and  precarious  me- 
thod of  rearing  them. 


PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

continuance  of  the  fame  practice  among  the  per* 
fons  adopted,  is  a  ftrong  inftance  of  the  force  of 
cuftom  prevailing  over  one  of  the  moft  vigorous 
laws  of  nature.  The  author  of  an  account  of 
Guiana,  mentioning;  a  deadly  poifon  compofed 
by  the  natives,  fays,  "  I  do  not  find,  that  even 
"  in  their  wars  they  ever  ufe  poifoned  arrows. 
"  And  yet  it  may  be  wondered,  that  a  people 
"  living  under  no  laws,  actuated  with  no  religi- 
"  ous  principle,  and  unreltrained  by  the  fear  of  pre- 
"  fent  or  future  punifhment,  mould  not  fometimes 
"  employ  that  fatal  poifon  for  gratifying  hatred, 
"  jealoufy,  or  revenge.  But  in  a  ftate  of  nature, 
4t  though  there  are  few  restraints,  there  are  alfo 
"  fewer  temptations  to  vice ;  and  the  different 
"  tribes  are  doubtlefs  fenfible,  that  poifoned  ar- 
"  rows  in  war  would  upon  the  whole  do  more 
"  mifchief  than  good."  This  writer,  it  would 
feem,  has  forgot  that  profpedts  of  future  good  or 
evil  never  have  influence  upon  favages.  Is  it  his 
opinion,  that  fear  of  future  mifchief  to  themfelves, 
would  make  the  Negroes  of  New  Guinea  abflain 
from  employing  poifoned  arrows  againft  their  ene- 
mies ?  To  account  for  manners  fo  fingular  in  the 
favages  of  Guiana,  there  is  nothing  left  but  origi- 
nal difpoiition.  The  Japanefe  refent  injuries  in  a 
manner  that  has  not  a  parallel  in  any  other  part  of 
the  world :  it  would  be  thought  inconfiftent  with 
human  nature,  were  it  not  well  vouched.  Others 
wreak  their  refentment  on  the  perfon  who  affronts 

them  ; 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  53 

them ;  but  an  inhabitant  of  Japan  wreaks  it  on 
himfelf:  he  rips  up  his  own  belly.  Kempfer  re- 
ports the  following  inftance.  A  gentleman  going 
down  the  great  flair  of  the  Emperor's  palace,  patted 
another  going  up,  and  their  fwords  happened  to 
clafh.  The  perfon  defcending  took  offence:  the 
other  excufed  himfelf,  faying  that  it  was  acciden- 
tal ;  adding,  that  the  fwords  only  were  concerned, 
and  that  the  one  was  as  good  as  the  other.  I'll 
fhow  you  the  difference,  fays  the  perfon  who  began 
the  quarrel :  he  drew  his  fword,  and  ripped  up  his 
own  belly.  The  other,  piqued  at  being  thus  pre- 
vented in  revenge,  haftened  up  with  a  plate  he  had 
in  his  hand  for  the  Emperor's  table  ;  and  return- 
ing with  equal  fpeed,  he  in  like  manner  ripped  up 
his  belly  in  fight  of  his  antagonift,  faying,  "If  I 
"  had  not  been  ferving  my  prince,  you  mould  not 
"  have  got  the  ftart  of  me  :  but  I  mail  die  fatis- 
"  fied,  having  mowed  you  that  my  fword  is  as 
"  good  as  yours.'  The  fame  author  gives  an 
inftance  of  uncommon  ferocity  in  the  Japanefe, 
blended  with  manners  highly  polifhed.  In  the 
midft  of  a  large  company  at  dinner,  a  young  wo- 
man, ftraining  to  reach  a  plate,  unwarily  fuffered 
wind  to  efcape.  Afhamed  and  confounded,  fhe 
raifed  her  breafts  to  her  mouth,  tore  them  with  her 
teeth,  and  expired  on  the  fpot.  The  Japanefe  are 
equally  fingular  in  fome  of  their  religious  opinions. 
They  never  fupplicate  the  gods  in  diftrefs ;  hold- 
ing, that  as  the  gods  enjoy  uninterrupted  blifs, 

D  3  fuch 


54  FRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

fuch  fupplications  would  be  offenfive  to  them. 
Their  holidays  accordingly  are  dedicated  to  feafts, 
weddings,  and  all  public  and  private  rejoicings. 
It  is  delightful  to  the  gods,  fay  they,  to  fee  men 
happy.  They  are  far  from  being  fingulav  in  think- 
ing that  a  beneyolent  Deity  is  pleafed  to  fee  men 
happy  ;  but  nothing  can  be  more  inconiiftent  with 
the  common  feelings  of  men,  than  to  hold,  that  in 
diftrefs  it  is  wrong  to  fupplicate  the  Author  of  our 
Being  for  relief,  and  that  he  will  be  difpleafed 
with  fuch  fupplication.  In  deep  affliction  there  is 
certainly  no  balm  equal  to  that  of  pouring  out  the 
heart  to  a  benevolent  Deity,  and  exprefling  entire 
refignation  to.  his  will. 

In  fupport  of  the  foregoing  doflrine,  many  par- 
ticulars ftill  more  extraordinary  might  have  been 
quoted  from  Greek  and  Roman  writers  :  but  truth 
has  no  occafion  for  artifice  ;  and  I  would  not  take 
advantage  of  celebrated  names  to  vouch  facts  that 
appear  incredible  or  doubtful.  The  Qreeks  and 
Romans  made  an  illuftrious  figure  in  poetry,  rhe- 
toric, and  all  the  fine  arts ;  but  they  were  little 
better  than  novices  in  natural  hiftory.  More  than, 
half  of  the  globe  was  to  them  the  Terra  Auftralij 
incognita  ;  and  imagination  operates  without  con- 
trol, when  it  is  not  checked  by  knowledge  :  the 
ignorant  at  the  fame  time  are  delighted  with  won- 
ders ;  and  the  moft  wonderful  ftory  is  always  the 
mod  welcome.  This  may  ferve  as  an  apology  for 

ancient  writers,  even  when  they  relate  and  believe 

i  •..•"•"*  •• ' 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  55 

fads  to  us  incredible.  Men  at  that  period  were 
ignorant  in  a  great  meafure  of  nature,  and  of  the 
limits  of  her  operations.  One  conceffion  will 
chearfully  be  made  to  me,  that  the  writers  men- 
tioned, who  report  things  at  fecond-hand,  are 
much  more  excufable  than  the  earljeil  of  our  mo- 
dern travellers,  who  pretend  to  vouch  endleis  won- 
ders from  their  own  knowledge.  Natural  hiftory, 
that  of  man  efpecially,  is  of  late  years  much  ri- 
pened :  no  improbable  tale  is  fuflfered  to  pafs  with- 
out a  ftricl:  examination  \  and  J  have  been  careful 
to  adopt  no  fads,  but  what  are  vouched  by  late 
travellers  and  writers  of  credit.  Were  it  true 
what  Diodorus  Siculus  reports,  on  the  authority  of 
Agfitharchides  of  Cnidus,  concerning  the  Ichthyo- 
phages  on  the  eaft  coaft  of  Afric,  it  would  be  a 
more  pregnant  proof  of  a  diftindt  race  of  men,  than 
any  I  have  difcovered.  They  are  defcribed  to  be 
fo  ftupid,  that  even  when  their  wives  and  children 
are  killed  in  their  fight,  they  ftand  infenlible,  and 
give  no  figns  either  of  anger  or  of  compaflion. 
This  I  cannot  believe  upon  fo  flight  teftimony  ; 
efpecially  as  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  at  that 
time  extremely  credulous,  being  lefs  acquainted 
with  neighbouring  nations,  than  we  are  with  the 
Antipodes.  Varro,  in  his  treatife  De  re  ruftica,  re- 
ports it  as  an  undoubted  truth,  that  in  Lufitania 
mares  were  impregnated  by  the  weft  wind ;  and 
both  Pliny  and  Columella  are  equally  pofitive. 
The  Balearic  iflantfs,  Majorca,  Minorca,  Yvica,  are 

D  4  at 


PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

at  no  great  diftance  from  Sicily  ;  and  yet  Diodo- 
rus  the  Sicilian  reports  of  the  inhabitants,  that  at 
the  folemnization  of  marriage  all  the  male  friends 
and  even  the  houfehold  fervants,  enjoyed  the  bride 
before  the  bridegroom  was  admitted.  Credat  Ju- 
dceus  apella,  It  would  not  be  much  more  diffi- 
cult to  make  me  believe  what  is  faid  by  Pliny  of 
the  Blemmyans,  that  they  had  no  head,  and  that 
the  mouth  and  eyes  were  in  the  bread  ;  or  of  the 
Arimafpi,  who  had  but  one  eye,  placed  in  the 
middle  of  the  forehead  ;  or  of  the  Aftomi,  who, 
having  no  mouth,  could  neither  eat  nor  drink,  but 
lived  upon  fmelling  ;  or  of  a  thoufand  other  ab- 
furdities  which  Pliny  relates,  with  a  grave  face,  in 
the  6th  book  of  his  Natural  JJiftory,  cap.  30,  and 
in  the  yth  book,  cap.  2. 

Thus,  upon  an  extenlive  furvey  of  the  inhabited 
parts  of  our  globe,  many  nations  are  found  differ- 
ing fo  widely  from  each  other,  not  only  in  com- 
plexion, features,  fhape,  and  other  external  cir- 
cumftances,  but  in  temper  and  difpofition,  parti- 
cularly in  two  capital  articles,  courage,  and  beha- 
viour to  ftrangers,  that  even  the  certainty  of  diffe- 
rent races  could  not  make  one  expect  more  flriking 
varieties.  Doth  M.  Buffon  think  it  fufficient  to 
fay  dryly,  that  fuch  varieties  may  poffibly  be  the 
effect  of  climate,  or  of  other  accidental  caufes  ? 
The  prefumption  is,  that  the  varieties  fubfifting  at 
prefent  have  always  fubfifted  ;  which  ought  to  be 
Ijeld  as  true,  till  pofitive  evidence  be  brought  of 

tbe 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  57 

the  contrary  :  inftead  of  which  we  are  put  off  with 
mere  fuppofitions  and  poflibilities. 

But  not  to  reft  entirely  upon  prefumptive  evi- 
dence, to  me  it  appears  clear  from  the  very  frame 
of  the  human  body,  that  there  mud  be  different 
races  of  men  fitted  for  different  climates.  Few 
animals  are  more  affected  than  men  generally  are, 
not  only  with  change  of  feafons  in  the  fame  cli- 
mate, but  with  change  of  weather  in  the  fame  fea- 
fon.  Can  fuch  a  being  be  fitted  for  all  climates 
equally?  Impofiible.  A  man  muft  at  lead  be  har- 
dened by  nature  againft  the  flighter  changes  of 
feafons  or  weather :  he  ought  to  be  altogether  in- 
fenfible  of  fuch  changes.  Yet  from  Sir  John 
Pringle's  obfervations  on  the  difeafes  of  the  army, 
to  go  no  further,  it  appears,  that  even  military 
men,  who  ought  of  all  to  be  the  hardieft,  are  great- 
ly affeded  by  them.  Horfes  and  horned  cattle 
fleep  on  the  bare  ground,  wet  or  dry,  without 
harm,  and  yet  are  not  made  for  every  climate  : 
can  a  man  be  made  for  every  climate,  who  is  fo 
much  more  delicate,  that  he  cannot  fleep  on  wet 
ground  without  hazard  of  fome  mortal  difeafe  ? 

But  the  argument  I  chiefly  rely  on  is,  That 
were  all  men  of  one  fpecies,  there  never  could 
have  exifted,  without  a  miracle,  different  kinds, 
fuch  as  exift  at  prefent.  Giving  allowance  for 
every  fuppofable  variation  of  climate  or  of  other 
natural  caufes,  what  can  follow,  as  obferved  about 
dog-kind,  but  endlefs  varieties  among  indivi- 
duals, 


58  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

duals,  as  among  tulips  in  a  garden,  fo  as  that  no 
individual  {hall  refemble  another?  Inftead  of 
which,  we  find  men  of  different  kinds,  the  indi- 
viduals of  each  kind  remarkably  uniform,  and  dif- 
fering no  lefs  remarkably  from  the  individuals  of 
every  other  kind.  Uniformity  without  variation 
is  the  offspring  of  nature,  never  of  chance. 

There  is  another  argument  that  appears  alfo  to 

t 

have  weight.  Horfes,  with  refpect  to  fize,  fhape, 
and  fpirit,  differ  widely  in  different  climates.  But 
let  a  male  and  a  female  of  whatever  climate  be 
carried  to  a  country  where  horfes  are  in  perfection, 
their  progeny  will  improve  gradually,  and  will  ac- 
quire in  time  the  perfection  of  their  kind.  Is  not 
this  a  proof,  that  all  horfes  are  of  one  kin£d  ?  If 
fo,  men  are  not  all  of  one  kind ;  for  if  a  White 
mix  with  a  Black  in  whatever  climate,  or  a  Hot- 
tentot with  a  Samoide,  the  refult  will  not  be  either 
an  improvement  of  the  kind,  or  the  contrary,  but 
a  mongrel  breed  differing  from  both  parents. 

It  is  thus  afcertained  beyond  any  rational  doubt, 
that  there  are  different  races  or  kinds  of  men,  and 
that  tjiefe  races  or  kinds  are  naturally  fitted  for 
different  climates :  whence  we  have  reafon  to  con- 
clude, that  originally  each  kind  was  placed  in  its 
proper  climate,  whatever  change  may  have  hap- 
pened in  later  times  by  war  or  commerce. 

There  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  confirms  the 
foregoing  conjectures.  As  far  back  as  hiftory  goes, 
or  tradition  kept  alive  by  hiftory,  the  earth  was  in* 

habited 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  59 

Iiabited  by  favages  divided  into  many  fmall  tribes, 
e^ach  tribe  having  a  language  peculiar  to  itfelf.  Is 
i.t  not  natural  to  fuppofe,  that  thefe  original  tribes 
were  different  races  of  men,  placed  in  proper  cli- 
mates, and  left  to  form  their  own  language  ? 

Upon  fu  ram  ing  up  the  whole  particulars  men- 
tioned above,  would  one  hefitate  a  moment  to 
adopt  the  following  opinion,  were  there  no  coun- 
terbalancing evidence,  namely,  "  That  God  crea- 
"  ted  many  pairs  of  the  human  race,  differing 
"  from  each  other  both  externally  and  internally  ; 
"  that  he  fitted  thefe  pairs  for  different  climates, 
"  and  placed  each  pair  in  its  proper  climate  ;  that 
"  the  peculiarities  of  the  original  pairs  were  pre- 
"  ferved  entire  in  their  defcendents  ;  who,  having 
"  no  affiftance  but  their  naturaj  talents,  were  left 
"  to  gather  knowledge  from  experience,  and,  in 
"  particular,  were  left  (each  tribe)  to  form  a  lan- 
"  guage  for  itfelf;  that  figns  were  fufficient  for 
the  original  pairs,  without  any  language  but 
what  nature  fuggefls  ;  and  that  a  language  was 
formed  gradually,  as  a  tribe  increafed  in  num- 
"  bers,  and  in  different  occupations,  to  make 
"  fpeech  neceffary  ?'  But  this  opinion,  however 
plaufible,  we  are  not  permitted  to  adopt ;  being 
taught  a  different  leffon  by  revelation,  namely, 
That  God  created  but  a  fingle  pair  of  the  human 
fpecies.  Though  we  cannot  doubt  of  the  authori- 
ty of  Mofes,  yet  his  account  of  the  creation  of  man 
j§  not  a  little  puzzling,  as  it  feems  to  contradict 

every 


" 


" 


60  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

every  one  of  the  facts  mentioned  above.  Accord- 
ing to  that  account,  different  races  of  men  were 
not  created,  nor  were  men  framed  originally  for 
different  climates.  All  men  muft  have  fpoken  the 
fame  language,  that  of  our  firft  parents.  And 
what  of  all  feems  the  moft  contradictory  to  that 
account,  is  the  favage  ftate :  Adam,  as  Mofes  in- 
forms us,  was  endued  by  his  Maker  with  an  emi- 
nent degree  of  knowledge  ;  and  he  certainly  muft 
have  been  an  excellent  preceptor  to  his  children 
and  their  progeny,  among  whom  he  lived  many 
generations.  Whence  then  the  degeneracy  of  all 
men  into  the  favage  ftate  ?  To  account  for  that 
difmal  cataftrophe,  mankind  muft  have  fuffered 
fome  terrible  convulfion. 

That  terrible  convulfion  is  revealed  to  us  in  the 
hiftory  of  the  Tower  of  Babel,  contained  in  the 
nth  chapter  of  Genefis,  which  is,  "  That  for  ma- 
*'  ny  centuries  after  the  deluge,  the  whole  earth 
"  was  of  one  language,  and  of  one  fpeech  ;  that 
**  they  united  to  build  a  city  on  a  plain  in  the 
"  land  of  Shinar,  with  a  tower  whofe  top  might 
"  reach  into  heaven  ;  that  the  Lord  beholding  the 
"  people  to  be  one,  and  to  have  all  one  language, 
"  and  that  nothing  would  be  reftrained  from  them 
"  which  they  imagined  to  do,  confounded  their 
"  language,  that  they  might  not  underftand  one 
<f  another  ;  and  fcattered  them  abroad  upon  the 
"  face  of  all  the  earth."  Here  light  breaks  forth 
in  the  midft  of  darknefs.  By  confounding  the 

language 


I 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  6l 

language  of  men,  and  fcattering  them  abroad  upon 
the  face  of  all  the  earth,  they  were  rendered  fava- 
ges.  And  to  harden  them  for  their  new  habita- 
tions, it  was  neceffary  that  they  mould  be  divided 
into  different  kinds,  fitted  for  different  climates. 
Without  an  immediate  change  of  bodily  conftitu- 
tion,  the  builders  of  Babel  could  not  poilibly  have 
fubfifted  in  the  burning  region  of  Guinea,  nor  in 
the  frozen  region  of  Lapland  ;  efpecially  without 
houfes,  or  any  other  convenience  to  protect  them 
againft  a  deftru&ive  climate.  Againft  this  hiftory 
it  has  indeed  been  urged,  "  That  the  circum- 
"  ftances  mentioned  evince  it  to  be  purely  an  al- 
"  legory ;  that  men  never  were  fo  frantic  as  to 
"  think  of  building  a  tower  whofe  top  might 
"  reach  to  heaven  ;  and  that  it  is  grofsly  abfurd, 
"  taking  the  matter  literally,  that  the  Almighty 
"  was  afraid  of  men,  and  reduced  to  the  neceffity 
"  of  faving  himfelf  by  a  miracle."  But  that  this 
is  a  real  hiftory,  muft  neceffarily  be  admitted,  as 
the  confulion  of  Babel  is  the  only  known  fact  that 
can  reconcile  facred  and  profane  hiftory. 

And  this  leads  us  to  conlider  the  diverfity  of 
languages  *.  If  the  common  language  of  men  had 

not 

\ 

*  As  the  focial  fta.te  is  eflential  to  man,  and  fpeech  to  the 
focial  ftate,  the  wifdom  of  Providence  in  fitting  men  for  ac- 
quiring that  neceflary  art,  deferves  more  attention  than  is 
commonly  beftowed  on  it.  The  Oran  Outang  has  the  ex- 
ternal organs  of  fpeech  in  perfection ;  and  many  are  puzzled 
to  account  why  it  never  fpeaks.  But  the  external  organs  of 

fpeech 


\/ 


f 
6i  PRELIMINARY 

not  been  confounded  upon  their  undertaking  the* 
tower  of  Babel,  I  affirm,  that  there  never  could 
have  been  but  one  language.  Antiquaries  con- 
ilantly  fuppofe  a  migrating  fpirit  in  the  original 
inhabitants  of  this  earth ;  not  only  without  evi- 
dence, but  contrary  to  all  probability.  Men  ne- 
ver defert  their  connexions  nor  their  country  with- 
out neceffity  :  fear  of  enemies  and  of  wild  beads,' 
as  well  as  the  attraction  of  fociety,  are  mare  than 
fufficient  to  reftrain  them  from  wandering  ;  not  to 
mention,  that  favages  are  peculiarly  fond  of  tfysir 
natal  foil*.  The  firil  migrations  were  probably 

oecafioned 

fpeech  make  but  a  fmall  part  of  the  necefiary  apparatus.  The 
faculty  of  imitating  founds  is  an  eflential  part ;  and  wonder- 
ful would  that  faculty  appear,  were  it  not  rendered  familiar 
by  daily  practice  :  a  child  of  two  or  three  years  is  able,  by 
nature  alone,  without  the  leaft  inftruction,  to  adapt  its  organs 
of  fpeech  to  every  articulate  found  ;  and  a  child  of  four  or 
five  years  can  pitch  its  windpipe  fe  as  to  emit  a  found  of  any 
elevation,  which  enables  it,  with  an  ear,  to  imitate  the  fongi 
it  hears.  But,  above  all  the  other  parts,  fenfe  and  underftand* 
ing  are  eflential  to  fpeech.  A  parrot  can  pronounce  articu- 
late founds,  and  it  has  frequently  an  inclination  to  fpeak ; 
but,  for  want  of  underftanding,  none  of  the  kind  can  form  a 
fingle  fentence.  Has  an  Oran  Outang  underftanding  to  form 
a  mental  proportion  ?  has  he  a  faculty  to  exprefs  that  propo- 
fition  in  founds  ?  and  fuppofing  him  able  to  exprefs  what  he 
fees  and  hears ,  what  would  he  make  of  the  connective  and 
disjunctive  particles  ? 

*  With  refpect  to  the  fuppofed  migrating  fpirit,   even  Bo- 
chart  mud  yield  to  Kempfer  in  boldnefs  of  conjecture.     After 

proving, 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES.  63 

occalioned  by  factions  and  civil  wars ;  the  next  by 
commerce.  Greece  affords  inflances  of  the  former, 
Phoenicia  of  the  latter.  Unlefs  upon  fuch  occa- 
lions,  members  of  a  family  or  of  a  tribe  will  nevet 
retire  farther  from  their  fellows  than  is  neceflary 
for  food  ;  and  by  retiring  gradually,  they  lofe  nei- 
ther their  connections  nor  their  manners,  far  lefs 
their  language,  which  is  in  conftant  exercife.  As 
far  back  as  hiilory  carries  us,  tribes  without  num- 
ber are  difcovered,  each  having  a  language  pecu- 
liar 

proving,  from  difference  of  language  and  from  other  circum 
ftances,  that  Japan  wad  not  peopled  by  the  Chinefe,  Kempfer, 
without  the  leaft  hefitation,  fettles  a  colony  there  of  thofe  who 
thought  of  building  the  tower  of  Babel.  Nay,  he  traces  moft 
minutely  their  route  to  Japan  ;  and  concludes,  that  they  rhuft 
have  travelled  with  great  expedition,  becaufe  their  language 
has  no  tincture  of  any  other.  He  did  not  think  it  neceflary  to 
explain  what  temptation  they  had  to  wander  fo  far  from 
home  ;  nor  why  they  fettled  in  an  ifland,  not  preferable  either 
in  foil  or  climate  to  many  countries  they  muft  have  traverfed. 

An  ingenious  French  writer  obferves,  that  plaufible  reaibns 
would  lead  one  to  conjecture,  that  men  were  more  early  po- 
lifhed  in  iflands  than  in  continents  J  as  people  crowded  toge- 
ther foon  find  the  neceflity  of  laws  to  reftrain  them  from  mif- 
chief.  And  yet,  fays  he,  the  manners  of  iflanders  and  their 
laws  are  commonly  the  lateft  formed.  A  very  fimple  reflec- 
tion would  have  unfolded  the  myftery.  Many  many  cen- 
turies did  men  exift  without  thinking  of  navigation.  That  art 
was  not  invented  till  men,  ftraitened  in  their  quarters 
the  continent,  thought  of  occupying  adjacent  iflands. 


64  PRELIMINARY  DISCOURSE. 

x  / 

liar  to  itfelf.  Strabo  *  reports,  that  the  Albanians 
were  divided  into  fever  al  tribes,  differing  in  ex- 
ternal appearance  and  in  language.  Caefar  found 
in  Gaul  feveral  fuch  tribes  ;  and  Tacitus  records 
the  names  of  many  tribes  in  Germany.  There  are 
a  multitude  of  American  tribes  which  to  this  day 
continue  diftincl:  from  each  other,  and  have  each  a 
different  language.  The  mother-tongues  at  pre- 
fent,  though  numerous,  bear  no  proportion  to  what 
formerly  exifted.  We  find  original  tribes  gradu- 
ally enlarging  ;  by  conquefl  frequently,  and  more 
frequently  by  the  union  of  weak  tribes  for  mutual 
defence.  Such  events  leiTen  the  number  of  lan- 
guages. The  Coptic  is  not  a  living  language  any 
where.  The  Celtic  tongue,  once  extenfive,  is  at 
prefent  confined  to  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  to 
Wales,  to  Britany,  and  to  a  part  of  Ireland.  In  a 
few  centuries,  it  will  mare  the  fate  of  many  other 
original  tongues :  it  will  totally  be  forgotten. 

If  men  had  not  been  fcattered  every  where  by 
the  confufion  of  Babel,  another  particular  mult 
have  occurred,  differing  no  lefs  from  what  has 
really  happened  than  that  now  mentioned.  As 
paradife  is  eonje&ured  to  have  been  fittiated  in 
the  heart  of  Afia,  the  furrounding  regions,  for  the 
reafon  above  given,  mull  have  been  firft  peopled  ; 
and  the  civilization  and  improvements  of  the  mo- 
ther-country were  undoubtedly  carried  along  to 
every  new  fettlement.  In  particular,  the  colonies 

planted 

*  Book  2. 


i 


OF  MEN,  AND  OF  LANGUAGES. 

planted  in  America  and  the  South  Sea  iilands 
muft  have  been  highly  polifhed ;  becaufe,  being 
at  the  greatefl  diftance,  they  probably  were  the 
lateft.  And  yet  thefe  and  other  remote  people, 
the  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  excepted,  remain  to 
this  day  in  the  original  favage  ftate  of  hunting  and 
fifhing. 

Thus,  had  not  men  wildly  attempted  to  build  a 
tower  whofe  top  might  reach  to  heaven,  all  men 
would  not  only  have  had  the  fame  language,  but 
would  have  made  the  fame  progrefs  towards  ma- 
turity of  knowledge  and  civilization.  That  deplo- 
rable event  reverfed  all  nature  :  by  fcattering  men 
over  the  face  of  all  the  earth,  it  deprived  them  o 
fociety,  and  rendered  them  favages.  From  that 
ftate  of  degeneracy,  they  have  been  emerging  gra- 
dually. Some  nations,  Simulated  by  their  own  na- 
ture, or  by  their  climate,  have  made  a  rapid  pro- 
grefs y  fome  have  proceeded  more  flowly ;  and 
fome  continue  favages.  To  trace  out  that  progrefs 
towards  maturity  in  different  nation?,  is  the  fulp- 
ject  of  the  prefent  undertaking. 


VOL,  I.  E  SKETCHES 


SKETCHES 


OF  THE 


HISTORY    OF    MAN. 


BOOK  I. 

PROGRESS    OF    MEN    INDEPENDENT   OF 

SOCIETY. 


SKETCH  I. 

\ 

PROGRESS  RESPECTING  FOOD  AND  POPULATION. 

IN  temperate  climes,  men  fed  originally  on  fruits 
that  grow  without  culture,  and  on  the  flefh  of 
land- animals.  As  fuch  animals  become  my  when 
often  hunted,  there  is  a  contrivance  of  nature,  no 
lefs  fimple  than  effectual,  which  engages  men  to 
bear  with  chearfulnefs  the  fatigues  of  hunting,  and 
the  uncertainty  of  capture ;  and  that  is,  an  appe- 
tite for  hunting.  Hunger  alone  is  not  fufficient : 
favages  who  act  by  fenfe,  not  by  forefight,  move 

£2  not 


66  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

not  when  the  ftomach  is  full ;  and  it  would  be  too 
late  when  the  ftomach  is  empty,  to  form  a  hunt- 
ing-party. As  that  appetite  is  common  to  all  fa- 
vages  whofe  food  depends  on  hunting  ;  it  is  an  il- 
luftrious  inftance  of  providential  care,  the  adapting 
the  internal  conftitution  of  man  to  his  external 
circumftances  f .  The  appetite  for  hunting,  though 

among 

*  It  would  be  an  agreeable  undertaking,  to  collect  all  the 
inftances  where  the  internal  conftitution  of  man  is  adapted  to 
his  external  ftruclure,  and  to  other  circumfteinces ;  but  i]t 
would  be  a  laborious  work,  as  the  inftances  are  extremely  nu- 
merous ;  and,  in  the  courfe  of  the  prefent  undertaking,  there 
will  be  occafion  to  mark  feveral  of  them.  "  How  finely  are 
"  the  external  parts  of  animals  adjufted  to  their  internal  dif- 
"  pofitions  ?  That  ftrong  and  nervous  leg  armed  with  tear- 
*'  ing  fangs,  how  peifectly  does  it  correfpond  to  the  fierce- 
"  nefs  of  the  lion !  Had  it  been  adorned  like  the  human 
*'  arm  with  fingers  inftead  of  fangs,  the  natural  energies  of 
"  a  lion  had  been  all  of  them  defeated.  That  more  delicate 
"  ftruclure  of  an  arm  terminating  in  fingers  fo  nicely  diver- 
"  fified,  how  perfedly  does  it  correfpond  to  the  pregnant  in- 
"  vention  of  the  human  foul !  Had  thefe  fingers  been  fangs, 
"  what  had  become  of  poor  Art  that  procures  us  fo  many 
'*  elegancies  and  utilities !  JTic  here  we  behold  the  harmony 
'f  between  the  vifiblc  world  and  the  invifible  f."  The  fol- 
Jowing  is  another  inftance  of  the  fame  kind,  which  I  mention 
here  becaufe  it  falls  not  under  common  obfervation.  How 
finely,  in  the  human  fpecies,  are  the  throat  and  the  ear  adjuft- 
ed to  each  other,  the  one  to  emit  mufical  founds,  the  other  to 
enjoy  them  !  the  one  withou*  the  other  would  be  an  ufelefs 
talent.  May  it  not  be,  jufUy  thought,  that  to  the  power  wp 

havg 

Harris. 


SK.  I;]  FOOD  AND  POPULATION.  69 

among  us  little  neceflary  for  food,  is  to  this  day 
remarkable  in  young  men,  high  and  low,  rich  and 
poor.  Natural  propenfities  may  be  rendered  faint 
or  obfcure,  but  never  are  totally  eradicated. 

Fiih  was  not  early  the  food  of  man.  Water  is 
not  our  element ;  and  favages  probably  did  not  at- 
tempt to  draw  food  from  the  fea  or  from  rivers, 
till  land- animals  became  fcarce.  Plutarch  in  his 
Sympoiiacs  obferves,  that  the  Syrians  and  Greeks 

£3  of 

have  of  emitting  miifical  founds  by  the  throat,  we  owe  the 

^^ 

invention  of  mufical  inftruments  ?  A  man  would  never  think 
of  inventing  a  mufical  inftrument,  but  in  order  to  imitate 
founds  that  his  ear  had  been  delighted  with.  But  there  is  a 
faculty  in  man  ftill  more  remarkable,  which  ferves  to  correct 
the  organs  of  external  fenfe,  where  they  tend  to  miflead  him. 
I  give  two  carious  inftances.  The  image  of  every  vilible  ob- 
ject is  painted  on  the  retina  tunica,  and  by  that  means  the  ob- 
ject makes  an  impreflion  on  the  mind.  In  what  manner  this 
is  done,  cannot  be  explained  ;  becaufe  we  have  no  conception 
how  mind  acts  on  body,  or  body  on  mind.  But,  as  far  as  we 
can  conceive  or  conjecture,  a  vifible  object  ought  to  appear  to. 
us  inverted,  becaufe  the  image  painted  on  the  retina  tunica  is 
inverted.  But  this  is  corrected  by  the  faculty  mentioned, 
which  makes  us  perceive  objects  as  they  really  exift.  The 
other  inftance  follows.  As  a  man  has  two  eyes,  and  fees  with 
each  of  them,  every  object  naturally  ought  to  appear  double  ; 
and  yet  with  two  eyes  we  fee  every  object  fmgle,  precifely  as 
if  we  had  but  one.  Many  philofophers,  Sir  Ifaac  Newton  in 
particular,  have  endeavoured  to  account  for  this  phenomenon 
by- mechanical  principles,  but  evidently  without  giving  Satis- 
faction. To  explain  this  phenomenon,  it  appears  to  me  that 
we  muft  have  recourfe  to  the  faculty  mentioned  acting  againfl; 
mechanical  principles. 


7<5  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

of  old  abftaincd  from  fifh.  Menelaus  *  complains, 
that  his  companions  had  been  reduced  by  hunger 
to  that  food ;  and  though  the  Grecian  camp  at  the 
fiege  of  Troy  was  on  the  fea-fhore,  there  is  not  in 
Homer  a  fingle  hint  of  their  feeding  on  fifh.  We 
learn  from  Dion  Caflius,  that  the  Caledonians  did 
not  eat  fifb,  though  they  had  them  in  plenty ; 
which  is  confirmed  by  Adamannus,  a  Scotch  hifto- 
rian,  in  his  life  of  St  Columba.  The  ancient  Ca- 
ledonians depended  almoft  entirely  on  deer  for 
food;  becaufe  in  a  cold  country  the  fruits  that 
grow  fpontaneoufly  afford  little  nourifhment ;  and 
domeftic  animals,  which  at  prefent  fo  much  abound, 
were  not  early  known  in  the  north  of  Britain. 

Antiquaries  talk  of  acorns,  nuts,  and  other  fhell- 
fruits,  as  the  only  vegetable  food  that  men  had 
originally,  overlooking  wheat,  rice,  barley,  &c. 
which  muft  from  the  creation  have  grown  fponta- 
neoufly :  for  furely,  when  agriculture  firft  com- 
menced, it  did  not  require  a  miracle  to  procure 
the  feeds  of  thefe  plants  f .  The  Laplanders,  pof- 

feffing 

* 

*  Book  4.  of  the  OdyfTey. 

f  Writers  upon  natural  hiftory  have  been  felicitous  to  dif- 
cover  the  original  climate  of  thefe  plants,  but  without  much 
fuccefs.  The  original  climate  of  plants  left  to  nature,  cannot 
be  a  fecret:  but  in  countries  well  peopled,  the  plants  men- 
tioned are  not  left  to  nature  :  the  feeds  are  carefully  gathered, 
and  ftored  up  for  food.  As  this  practice  could  not  fail  to 
make  thefe  feeds  fcarce,  agriculture  was  early  thought  of 

which 


SK.  I.]  FOOD  AND  POPULATION. 

fefling  a  country  where  corn  will  not  grow,  make 
bread  of  the  inner  bark  octrees ;  and  Linnaeus  re- 
ports, that  fwine  there  fatten  on  that  food,  as  well 
as  in  Sweden  upon  corn. 

Plenty  of  food  procured  by  hunting  and  fifhing, 
promotes  population  :  but  as  confumption  of  food 
increafes  with  population,  wild  animals,  forely  per- 
fecuted,  become  not  only  more  rare,  but  more  fhy. 
Men,  thus  pinched  for  food,  are  excited  to  try 
other  means  for  fupplying  their  wants.  A  fawn* 
a  kid,  or  a  lamb,  taken  alive  and  tamed  for  amufe- 
ment,  fuggefted  probably  flocks  and  herds,  and  in- 
troduced the  fhepherd-itate.  Changes  are  not  per- 

E  4  fected 

which,  by  introducing  plants  into  new  foils  and  new  climates, 
has  rendered  the  original  climate  obfcure.     If  we  can  trace 
that  climate,  it  muft  be  in  regions  deftitute  of  inhabitants,  or 
but  thinly  peopled.     Anfon  found  in  the  ifland  Juan  Fernan- 
dez many  fpots  of  ground  covered  with  oats.     The  Sioux,  a 
very  fmall  tribe  in  North  America,  poflefs  a  vaft  country, 
where  oats  grow  fpontaneoufly  in  meadows  and  on  the  fides 
of  rivers,  which  make  part  of  their  food,  without  neceffity  of 
agriculture.     While  the  French  poflefied  Port  Dauphin,  in  the 
ifland  of  Madagafcar,  they  raifed  excellent  wheat.     That  fta- 
tion  was  deferted  many  years  ago ;  and  wheat  to  this  day 
grows  naturally  among  the  grafs  in  great  vigour.     In  the 
country  about  Mount  Tabor  in   Paleftine,   barley  and  oats 
grow  fpontaneoufly.    In  the  kingdom  of  Siam,  there  are  many 
fpots  where  rice  grows  year  after  year,  without  any  culture^ 
Diodorus   Siculus  is  our  authority  for  faying,  that  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  Leontinum,  and  in  other  places  of  Sicily,  wheat 
grew  wild  without  any  culture.     And  it.  does  fo  at  prefent 
about  Mount  Etna. 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY; 

fecled  but  by  flow  degrees :  hunting  and  fifliing 
continue  for  a  long  time  favourite  occupations  ; 
and  the  few  animals  that  are  domeflicated,  ferve 
as  a  common  ftock  to  be  diftributed  among  indi- 
viduals, according  to  their  wants.  But  as  the  idle 
and  indolent,  though  the  leail  deferving,  are  thus 
the  greatefl  confumers  of  the  common  ftock,  an 
improvement  crept  in,  that  every  family  mould 
rear  a  ftock  for  themfelves.  Men  by  that  means 
being  taught  to  rely  on  their  own  induftry,  dif- 
played  the  hoarding  principle,  which  multiplied 
flocks  and  herds  exceedingly.  And  thus  the  {hep- 
herd- ftate  was  perfected,  plenty  of  food  being  fup- 
plied  at  home,  without  ranging  the  woods  or  the 
"waters.  Hunting  and  fifliing,  being  no  longer  ne- 
ceflary  for  food,  became  an  amufement  merelyx 
and  a  gratification  of  the  original  appetite  for 
hunting. 

The  finger  of  God  may  be  clearly  traced  in  the 
provifion  made  of  animal  food  for  man.  Gramini- 
vorous animals,  perhaps  all,  make  palatable  and 
wholefome  food.  I  except  not  the  horfe :  fome 
nations  feed  on  it ;  others  do  not,  becaufe  it  is 
more  profitable  by  its  labour.  Carnivorous  ani- 
mals, generally  fpeaking,  make  not  wholefome 
food  nor  palatable.  The  firft-mentioned  animals 
are  gentle,  and  eafily  tamed :  the  latter  are  fierce, 
not  eafily  tamed,  and  uncertain  in  temper  when 
tamed,  Grafs  grows  every  where  in  temperate 
regions ;  and  men  befide  can  multiply  animal  food 

without 


SK.  I.]  FOOD  AND  POPULATION.  73 

without  end,  by  training  domeftic  animals  to  live 
on  turnip,  carrot,  potato,  and  other  roots.  He- 
rodotus adds  the  following  admirable  refle&ion : 
"  We  may  rationally  conjecture,  that  Divine  Pro- 
"  vidence  has  rendered  extremely  prolific  fuch 
"  creatures  as  are  naturally  fearful,  and  ferve  for 
"  food,  left  they  fhould  be  deftroyed  by  conftant' 
"  confumption  :  whereas  the  rapacious  and  cruel 
"  are  almoft  barren.  The  hare,  which  is  the  prey 
"  of  beafts,  birds,  and  men,  is  a  great  breeder :  a 
"  lionefs,  on  the  contrary,  the  ftrongeft  and  fierceft 
"  of  beafts,  brings  forth  but  once.'1 

The  fhepherd-ftate  is  friendly  to  population. 
Men  by  plenty  of  food  multiply  apace;  and,  in 
procefs  of  time,  neighbouring  tribes,  ftraitened  in 
their  pafture,  go  to  war  for  extenfion  of  territory, 
or  migrate  to  land  not  yet  occupied.  Neceffity, 
the  mother  of  invention,  fuggefted  agriculture. 
When  corn  growing  fpontaneoufly  was  rendered 
fcarce  by  confumption,  it  was  an  obvious  thought 

-. 

to  propagate  it  by  art :  nature  was  the  guide, 
which  carries  on  its  work  of  propagation  with 
feeds  that  drop  from  a  plant  in  their  maturity, 
and  fpring  up  new  plants.  As  the  land  was  pof- 
fefled  in  common,  the  feed  of  courfe  was  fown  in 
common  ;  and  the  product  was  ftored  in  a  common 
repofitory,  to  be  parcelled  out  among  individuals 
in  want,  as  the  common  ftock  of  animals  had  been 
formerly.  We  have  for  our  authority  Diodorus 
Siculus,  that  the  Celtiberians  divided  their  land 

* 

annually 


74  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

annually  among  individuals,  to  be  laboured  foi* 
the  ufe  of  the  public ;  and  that  the  product  was 
ftored  up,  and  diftributed  from  time  to  time  among 
the  neceffitous.  A  lafting  divifion  of  the  land 
among  the  members  of  the  ftate,  fecuring  to  each 
man  the  product  of  his  own  ikill  and  labour,  was 
a  great  fpur  to  induftry,  and  multiplied  food  ex- 
ceedingly. Population  made  a  rapid  progrefs,  and 
government  became  an  art ;  for  agriculture  and 
commerce  cannot  flourifh  without  falutary  laws. 

Natural  fruits  ripen  to  greater  perfection  in  a 
temperate  than  in  a  cold  climate,  and  cultivation 
is  more  eafy  ;  which  circumftances  make  k  highly 
probable,  that  agriculture  became  firft  an  art  in 
temperate  climes.  The  culture  of  corn  was  fo 
early  in  Greece,  as  to  make  a  branch  of  its  fabulous 
hiftory  :  in  Egypt  it  mull  have  been  coeval  with 
the  inhabitants ;  for  while  the  Nile  overflows,  they 
cannot  fubfift  without  corn  *.  Nor  without  corn 
could  the  ancient  monarchies  of  Aflyria  and  Ba- 
bylon have  been  fo  populous  and  powerful  as  they 
are  faid  to  have  been.  In  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe,  wheat,  barley,  peafe,  and  perhaps  oats,  are 
foreign  plants :  as  the  climate  is  not  friendly  to 
corn,  agriculture  muft  have  crept  northward  by 
flow  degrees :  and,  even  at  prefent,  it  requires  no 
fmall  portion  both  of  {kill  and  induftry  to  bring 
corn  to  maturity  in  fuch  a  climate.  Hence  it  may 
be  inferred  with  certainty,  that  the  fhepherd- ftate 

continued 
• 

*  Hiftorical  Law-Tratfs,  traft  i. 


SK.  I.]  FOOD  AND  POPULATION.  75 

\ 

continued  longer  in  northern  climates  than  in  thofe 
nearer  the  fun.  Cold  countries,  however,  are 
friendly  to  population  ;  and  the  northern  people, 
multiplying  beyond  the  food  that  can  be  fupplied 
by  flocks  and  herds,  were  compelled  to  throw 
off  many  fwarms  in  fearch  of  new  habitations. 
Their  frequent  migrations  were  for  many  years  a 
dreadful  fcourge  to  neighbouring  nations.  People, 
amazed  at  the  multitude  of  the  invaders,  judged, 
that  the  countries  from  whence  they  iflued  mufthave 
been  exceedingly  populous ;  and  hence  the  North 
was  termed  officina  gentium.  But  fcarcity  of  food 
in  the  fhepherd-ftate  was  the  true  caufe  ;  the  north 
of  Europe,  in  all  probability,  is  as  well  peopled 
at  prefent  as  ever  it  was,  though  its  migrations 
have  ceafed,  corn  and  commerce  having  put  an 
end  to  that  terrible  fcourge  *.  Denmark  at  pre- 
fent 
\ 

*  Aliquando  bonus  dormitat  Homerus.  Montefquieu  accounts 
as  follows  for  the  great  fwarms  of  Barbarians  that  overwhelm- 
ed  the  Roman  empire.  "  Ces  eflaims  de  Barbaras  qui  for- 
"  tirent  autrefois  du  nord,  ne  paroifTent  plus  aujourd'hui.  Les 
"  violences  des  Remains  avoient  fait  retirer  les  peuple  du 
"  midi  au  nord  :  tandis  que  la  force  qui  les  contenoit  fub- 
"  fifta,  ils  y  refterent ;  quand  elle  fut  affbiblie,  ils  fe  repan- 
"  dirent  de  toutes  parts."  Grandeur  des  Romains,  c.  16. — \_In 
Englifi  thus  :  "  The  fwarms  of  Barbarians  who  poured  former- 
"  ly  from  the  north,  appear  no  more.  The  violence  of  the 
4<  Roman  arms  had  driven  thofe  nations  from  the  fouth  to- 
"  wards  the  north :  there  they  remained  during  the  fub- 
"  fiftence  of  that  force  which  retained  them  j  but  that  being 

*'  once 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY:  [fi.  iV 

fent  feeds  2,000,000  inhabitants ;  Sweden,  accord-* 
ing  to  a  lift  made  up  anno  1760,  2,383,113  ;  and 
thefe  countries  muft  be  much  more  populous  than 
of  old,  when  over- run  with  immenfe  woods,  and 
when  agriculture  was  unknown.  Had  the  Danes 
and  Norwegians  been  acquainted  with  agriculture 
in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  when  they  pour- 
ed out  multitudes  upon  their  neighbours,  they 
would  not  have  ventured  their  lives  in  frail  vef- 
fels  upon  a  tempeftuous  ocean,  in  order  to  diftrefs 
nations  who  were  not  their  enemies.  But  hunger 
is  a  cogent  motive  ;  and  hunger  gave  to  thefe  pi- 
rates fuperiority  in  arms  above  every  nation  that 
enjoyed  plenty  at  home.  Luckily  fuch  depreda- 
tions muft  have  intervals ;  for  as  they  neceffarily 
occaiion  great  havock  even  among  the  victors,  the 
remainder  rinding  fufficiency  of  food  at  home,  reft 
there  till  an  increaling  population  forces  them  again 
to  aclion  *.  Agriculture,  which  fixes  people  to  a 
fpot,  is  an  invincible  obftacle  to  migration  ;  and 
happy  it  is  for  Europe,  that  this  art,  now  univer- 
fally  diffufed,  has  put  an  end  for  ever  to  that- 
fcourge,  more  deftrudive  than  a  peftilence  :  people 

find 

"  once  weakened,  they  fpread  abroad  to  every  quarter."] — » 
It  has  quite  efcaped  him,   that  men  cannot,  like  water,  be 
damm'd  up  without  being  fed. 

*  Joannes  Magnus,  in  the  8th  book  of  his  Hiftory  of  the 
Goths,  mentions,  that  a  third  part  of  the  Swedes,  being  com- 
pelled by  famine  to  leave  their  native  country,  founded  the 
kingdom  of  the  Longobards  in  Italy. 


SK.  I.]  FOOD  AND  POPULATION.  77 

find  now  occupation  and  fubfiilence  at  home,  with- 
out infefting  others.  Agriculture  is  a  great  blef- 
fing  :  it  not  only  affords  us  food  in  plenty,  but  fe- 
cures  the  fruits  of  our  induftry  from  hungry  and 
rapacious  invaders  *. 

That  the  progrefs  above  traced  muft  have  pro- 
ceeded from  fome  vigorous  impulfe,  will  be  ad- 
mitted, considering  the  prevailing  influence  of  cuf- 
tom  :  once  hunters,  men  will  always  be  hunters, 
till  they  be  forced  out  of  that  ftate  by  fome  over- 
powering caufe.  Hunger,  the  caufe  here  affigned, 
is  of  all  the  moft  overpowering ;  and  the  fame 
caufe,  overcoming  indolence  and  idlenefs,  has  in- 
troduced manufactures,  commerce,  and  variety  of 
arts  f . 

The 

*  Mahomet  Bey,  King  of  Tunis,  was  dethroned  by  his  fub- 
jetfs  ;  but  having  the  reputation  of  the  philofopher's  ftone,  he 
was  reftored  by  the  Dey  of  Algiers,  upon  promifing  to  com- 
municate the  fecret  to  him.  Mahomet,  with  pomp  and  fo. 
lemnity,  fent  a  plough  ;  intimating,  that  agriculture  is  the 
ftrength  of  a  kingdom,  and  that  the  only  philofopher's  ftone 
is  a  good  crop,  which  may  be  eafily  converted  into  gold. 

f  M.  Buffon,  difcourfmg  of  America,  "  Is  it  not  fingular," 
fays  he,  "  that,  in  a  world  compofed  almoft  wholly  of  fava- 
"  ges,  there  never  fhould  have  been  any  fociety  or  commerce 
"  between  them  and  the  animals  about  them  ?  There  was 
"  not  a  domeftic  animal  in  America  when  difcovered  by  Co- 
*'  lumbus,  except  among  the  polifhed  people  of  Mexico  and 
(t  Peru.  Is  not  this  a  proof,  that  man,  in  his  favage  ftate,  is 
'f  but  a  fort  of  brute  animal ;  having  no  faculties  but  to  pro- 
ff  vide  for  his  fubfiftence,  by  attacking  the  weak,  and  avoid- 


" 


78  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

The  progrefs  here  delineated  has,  in  all  tempe- 
rate climates  of  the  Old  World,  been  precifely 
uniform  ;  but  it  has  been  different  in  the  extremes 
of  cold  and  hot  climates.  In  very  cold  regions, 
which  produce  little  vegetable  food  for  man,  the 
hunter-Hate  was  originally  effential.  In  temperate 
regions,  as  obferved  above,  men  fublifted  partly  on 
vegetable  food,  which  is  more  or  lefs  plentiful  in 
proportion  to  the  heat  of  the  climate.  In  the  tor- 
rid zone,  natural  fruits  are  produced  in  fuch  plenty 
and  perfection,  as  to  be  more  than  fufficient  for  a 
moderate  population  :  and,  in  cafe  of  extraordinary 
population,  the  traniition  to  hufbandry  is  eafy. 
There  are  found,  accordingly,  in  every  populous 
country  of  the  torrid  zone,  crops  of  rice,  maize, 
roots,  and  other  vegetable  food,  raifed  by  the  hand 
of  man.  As  hunting  becomes  thus  lefs  and  lefs- 

neceflary 

*'  ing  the  ftrong  ;  and  having  no  idea  of  his  fuperiority  over 
"  other  animals,  which  he  never  once  thinks  of  bringing  un- 
**  der  fubjection  ?  This  is  the  more  furprifing,  as  moft  of 
"  the  American  animals  are  by  nature  docile  and  timid." 
Our  author,  without  being  fenfible  of  it,  lays  a  foundation  for 
a  fatisfa&ory  anfwer  to  thefe  queftions,  by  what  he  adds, 
That,  in  the  whole  compafs  of  America,  when  difcovered  by 
the  Spaniards,  there  were  not  half  the  number  of  people  that 
are  in  Europe  ;  and  that  fuch  fcarcity  of  men  favoured  great- 
ly the  propagation  of  wild  animals,  which  had  few  enemies, 
and  much  food.  Was  it  not  obvious  to  conclude,  from  thefe 
premifes,  that  while  men,  who  by  nature  are  fond  of  hunt- 
ing,  have  game  in  plenty,  they  never  think  of  turning  ihep* 
lierds  ? 


SK.  I.]  FOOD  AND  POPULATION.  79 

necefiary  in  the  progrefs  from  cold  to  hot  countries, 
the  appetite  for  hunting  keeps  pace  with  that  pro- 
grefs :  it  is  vigorous  in  very  cold  countries,  where 
men  depend  on  hunting  for  food  :  it  is  lefs  vigor- 
ous in  temperate  countries,  where  they  are  partly 
fed  with  natural  fruits  ;    and  there  is  fcarce  any 
veftige  of  it  in  hot  countries,  where  vegetables  are 
the  food  of  men,  ,and  where  meat  is  an  article  of 
luxury.     The  original  occupation  of  favages,  both 
in  cold  and  temperate  climates,  is  hunting,  alto- 
gether efiential  in  the  former,  as  the  only  means  of 
procuring  food.     The  next  ftep  of  the  progrefs  in 
both,  is  the  occupation  of  a  fhepherd  ;  and  there 
the  progrefs  flops  fhort  in  very  cold  regions,  unfit 
for  corn-     Lapland,  in  particular,  produces  no  ve- 
getable but  mofs,  which  is  the  food  of  no  animal 
but  the  rein-deer.  This  circumftance  folely  is  what 
renders  Lapland  habitable  by  men.     Without  rain- 
deer,  the  fea-coafts  within  the  reach  of  fifh  would 
admit  fome   inhabitants  ;    but   the  inland   parts 
would  be  a  defert.     As  the  fwiftnefs  of  that  animal 
makes  it  not  an  eafy  prey,  the  taming  it  for  food 
muft  have  been  early  attempted  ;  and  its  natural 
docility  made  the  attempt  fucceed.     It  yields  to  no 
other  animal  in  ufefulnefs :  it  is  equal  to  a  horfe 
for  draught :  its  flefh  is  excellent  food  ;  and  the 
female  gives  milk  more  nourifhing  than  that  of  a 
cow  :  its  fur  is  fine ;  and  the  leather  made  of  its 
Ikin  is  both  foft  and  durable.  ,  In  Tartary,  though 
a  great  part  of  it  lies  in  a  temperate  jtone,  there  is 

little 


8O  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

little  corn.     As  far  back  as  tradition  reaches,  the 
Tartars  have  had  flocks  and  herds ;   and  yet,  in  a 
great  meafure,  they  not  only  continue  hunters, 
but  retain  the  ferocity  of  that  ftate :  they  are  not 
fend  of  being  fhepherds,  and  have  no  knowledge 
of  hufbandry.     This,  in  appearance,  is  fingular  ; 
but  nothing  happens  without  a  caufe.     Tartary  is 
one  continued  mountain  from  weft  to  eaft,  riling 
high  above  the  countries  to  the  fouth,  and  declin- 
ing gradually  to  the  northern  ocean,  without  a 
lingle  hill  to  intercept  the  bitter  blafts  of  the  north. 
A  few  fpots  excepted,  a  tree  above  the  fize  of  a 
fhrub  cannot  live  in  it  *.     In  Europe,  the  moun- 
tains of  Norway  and  Lapland  are  a  comfortable 
fcreen  againfl  the  north  wind  :  whence  it  is,  that 
the  land  about  Stockholm  f  produces  both  trees 
and  corn  ;  and  even  about  Abo  J  the  climate  is 
tolerable.     Great  Tartary  abounds  with  pafture ; 
but  extreme  cold  renders  it  very  little  capable  of 
corn.     Through  all  Chinefe  Tartary,  even  as  low 
as  the  43d  degree  of  latitude,  the  frofl  continues 
feven  or  eight  months  yearly  ;  and  that  country, 
though  in  the  latitude  of  France,  is  as  cold  as  Ice- 
land.    The   caufes   are   its   nitrous   foil,   and   its 

height, 

*  May  not  a  fimilar  fituation,  in  fome  parts  of  North  Ame- 
rica, be  partly  the  occafion  of  the  cold  that  is  felt  there,  be- 
yond what  Europe  feels  in  the  fame  latitude  ? 

f  Latitude  59°. 
Latitude  61°. 


SK.  I.]  FOOD  AND  POPULATION.  8l 

height,  without  any  fhelter  from  the  weft  wind, 
that  has  pafTed  through  an  immenfe  continent  ex- 
tremely cold.  A  certain  place  near  the  fource 
of  the  river  Kavamhuran,  and  within  80  leagues 
of  the  great  wall,  was  found  by  Father  Verbeift  to 
be  3000  geometrical  paces  above  the  level  of  the 
fea.  Thus  the  Tartars,  like  the  Laplanders,  are 
chained  to  the  fhepherd-ftate,  and  can  never  ad- 
vance to  be  hufbandmen.  If  population  among 
them  ever  become  fo  confiderable  as  to  require 
more  food  than  the  fhepherd-ftate  can  fupply>  mi- 
gration will  be  their  only  refource. 

In  every  ftep  of  the  progrefs,  the  torrid  zone  dif- 
fers. We  have  no  evidence  that  either  the  hunter 
or  fhepherd-ftate  ever  exifted  there :  the  inhabi- 
tants, at  prefent,  fubfift  on  vegetable  food  ;  and 
probably  did  fo  from  the  beginning.  In  Manila, 
one  of  the  Philippine  iflands,  the  trees  bud,  blof- 
fom,  and  bear  fruit,  all  the  year  round.  The  na- 
tives, driven  by  Spanifh  invaders  from  the  fea- 
coaft  to  the  inland  parts,  have  no  particular  place 
of  abode,  but  live  under  the  fhelter  of  trees,  which 
afford  them  food  as  well  as  habitation  :  and,  when 
the  fruit  is  confumed  in  one  fpot,  they  remove  to 
another.  The  orange,  lemon,  and  other  European 
trees,  bear  fruit  twice  a-year  :  a  fprig  planted 
bears  fruit  within  the  year.  And  this  picture  of 
Manila  anfwers  to  numberlefs  places  in  the  torrid 
zone.  The  Marian  or  Ladrone  iflands  are  ex- 
tremely populous,  and  yet  the  inhabitants  live  en- 

VOL.  I.  F  tirety 


82  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.I. 

tirely  on  fifh,  fruits,  and  roots.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  new  Philippine  iilands  live  on  cocoa-nuts, 
'alads,  roots,  and  fifh.  The  inland  negroes  make 
but  one  meal  a-day,  which  is  in  the  evening. 
Their  diet  is  plain,  confiding  moflly  of  rice,  fruits, 
and  roots.  The  ifland  of  Otaheite  is  healthy,  the 
people  tall  and  well  made ;  and  by  temperance, 
vegetables  and  fifh  being  their  chief  nourimment, 
they  live  to  a  good  old  age,  almoft  without  any  ail- 
ment. There  is  no  fuch  thing  known  among  them 
as  rotten  teeth  :  the  very  fmell  of  wine  or  fpirits  is 
difagreeable  ;  and  they  never  deal  in  tobacco  nor 
fpiceries.  In  many  places  Indian  corn  is  the  chief 
nourimmeut,  which  every  man  plants  for  himfelf. 
The  inhabitants  of  Biledulgerid  and  the  defert  of 
Zaara,  have  but  two  meals  a-day,  one  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  one  in  the  evening.  Being  temperate, 
and  ftrangers  to  difeafes  arifing  from  luxury,  they 
generally  live  to  a  great  age.  Sixty  with  them  is 
the  prime  of  life,  as  thirty  is  in  Europe.  An  in- 
habitant of  Madagafcar  will  travel  two  or  three 
days  without  any  food  but  a  fugar-cane.  There  is 
indeed  little  appetite  for  animal  food  in  hot  cli- 
mates ;  though  beef  and  fowl  have  in  fmall  quan- 
tities been  introduced  to  the  tables  of  the  great,  as 
articles  of  luxury.  In  America  are  obfervable 
fome  variations  from  the  progrefs  •  but  thefe  are 
referved  for  a  feparate  fketch  *. 


*  Book  2.  Sko  13, 


SK.  I.]  FOOD  AND  POPULATION.  83 

With  refpect  to  population,  that  plenty  of  food 
is  its  chief  caufe,  may  be  illuftrated  by  the  follow- 
ing computation.  The  foutheni  provinces  of  Chi- 
na produce  two  crops  of  rice  in  a  year,  fometimes 
three  ;  and  an  acre,  well  cultivated,  gives  food  to 
ten  perfons.  The  peafants  go  almoft  naked ;  and 
the  better  fort  wear  but  a  lirigle  garment  made  of 
cotton,  of  which  as  much  is  produced  upon  an  acre 
as  may  clothe  four  or  five  hundred.  Hence  the  ex- 
treme populoufnefs  of  China  and  other  rice  coun- 
tries. The  Caflave  root,  which  ferves  the  Ameri- 
cans for  bread,  is  produced  in  fuch  plenty,  that  an 
acre  of  it  will  feed  more  perfons  than  fix  acres  of 
wheat.  It  is  not,  then,  for  want  of  food  that  Ame- 
rica is  ill  peopled.  That  Negroland  is  well  peo- 
pled is  pad  doubt,  confidering  the  great  annual 
draughts  from  that  country  to  America,  without 
any  apparent  diminution  of  numbers.  Inftances  are 
not  extremely  rare,  of  two  hundred  children  born 
to  one  man  by  his  different  wives.  Food  mud  be 
in  great  plenty,  to  enable  a  man  to  maintain  fo 
many  children.  It  would  require  wonderful  fkill 
and  labour  to  make  Europe  ib  populous :  an  acre 
and  a  half  of  wheat  is  barely  fufficient  to  maintain 
a  fingle  family  of  peafants  \  and  their  clothing  re- 
quires many  acres  more.  A  country  where  the 
inhabitants  live  chiefly  by  hunting,  mud  be  very 
thin  of  inhabitants,  as  10,000  acres,  or  double  that 
number,  are  no  more  than  fufficient  for  maintain- 
ing a  fingle  family.  If  the  multiplication  of  ani- 

F  %  mals 


$4  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  !• 

mals  depended  chiefly  on  fecundity,  wolves  would 
be  more  numerous  than  (heep  :  a- great  proportion 
of  the  latter  are  deprived  of  the  procreating  power, 

and  many  more  of  them  are  killed  than  of  the  for- 

% 

mer  ;  yet  we  fee  every  where  large  flocks  of  {heep, 
feldom  a  wolf ;' for  what  reafon,  other  than  that 
the  former  have  plenty  of  food,  the  latter  very 
little  ?  A  wolf  refembles  a  favage  who  lives  by 
hunting,  and  confumes  the  game  of  five  or  fix 
thoufand  acres. 

Waving  the  queftion,  Whether  the  human  race 
be  the  offspring  of  one  pair  or  of  many,  it  appears 
the  intention  of  Providence,  that  the  earth  fhould 
be  peopled,  and  population  be  kept  up  by  the  ordi- 
nary means  of  procreation.  By  thefe  means  a  tribe 
foon  becomes  too  populous  for  the  primitive  ilate 
of  hunting  and  fiming :  it  may  even  become  too 
populous  for  the  Ihepherd-ftate  ;  but  it  cannot  ea- 
fily  become  too  populous  for  hufbandry.  In  the  two 
former  ftates,  food  muft  decreafe  in  quantity  as 
confumers  increafe  in  number :  but  agriculture  has 
the  fignal  property  of  producing,  by  induftry,  food 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  confumers.  In  fact, 
the  greateft  quantities  of  corn  and  of  cattle  are 
commonly  produced  in  the  mod  populous  diftricts, 
where  each  family  has  its  proportion  of  land.  An 
ancient  Roman,  fober  and  induftf ious,  made  a  fhift  to 
maintain  his  family  on  the  produce  of  a  few  acres  *. 

'  '"   ••••:•'•   '  ";  '     :     ";';     ;       -     "  \''";          The 

*  Scotland  muft  have  been  very  ill  peopled  in  the  days  of  its 


SK.  I.]  FOOD  AND  POPULATION. 

The  bounty  given  in  Britain  for  exporting  com 
is  friendly  to  population  in  two  refpects  ;  firft,  be- 
caufe  hufbandry  requires  many  hands  ;  and,  next, 
becaufe  the  bounty  lowers  the  price  of  corn  at 
home.  To  give  a  bounty  for  exporting  cattle 
would  obftrucl  population ;  becaufe  pafture  re- 
quires few  hands,  and  exportation  raifes  the  price 
of  cattle  at  home.  From  the  fingle  port  of  Cork, 
an.  1735,  were  exported  107,161  barrels  of  beef, 
7379  barrels  of  pork,  13,461  cafks  of  butter,  and 
85,727  firkins  of  the  fame  commodity.  Thus  a 
large  portion  of  Ireland  is  fet  apart  for  feeding 
other  nations.  What  addition  of  ftrength  would 
it  not  be  to  Britain,  if  that  large  quantity  of  food 
were  confumed  at  home  by  ufeful  manufacturers  ! 

No  manufacture  contributes  more  to  population 
than  that  of  filk.  It  employs  as  many  hands  as 
wool ;  and  it  withdraws  no  land  from  tillage  or 
pafture. 

Lapland  is  but  thinly  inhabited  even  for  the 
fhepherd-ftate,  the  country  being  capable  of  main- 
taining a  greater  number  of  rein-deer,  and,  con- 
fequently,  a  greater  number  of  the  human  fpe- 
cies  than  are  found  in  it.  Yet  the  Laplanders  are 
well  acquainted  with  private  property  :  every  fa- 
mily has  tame  rein-deer  of  their  own,  to  the  ex- 

F  3  •."-.:  .  tent 

fifth  James,  when  at  one  hunting  in  the  high  country  of  Rox- 
burghfhire,  that  prince  killed  three  hundred  and  fixty  red-deer ; 
and  in  Athol,  at  another  time,  iix  hundred,  befide  roes,  wolves, 
foxes,  and  wild  cats. 


86  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  X. 

tent  fometimes  of  four  or  five  hundred  :  they  in- 
deed appear  to  have  more  rein-deer  than  there  is 
a  demand  for.  Why  then  is  Lapland  fo  thinly 
peopled  ?  Either  it  muft  have  been  but  lately 
planted,  or  the  inhabitants  are  not  prolific.  I  in- 
cline to  the  latter,  upon  the  authority  of  Scheffer. 
Tartary  is  alfo  but  thinly  peopled  ;  and  as  I  find 
not  that  the  Tartars  are  lefs  prolific  than  their 
neighbours,  it  is  probable  that  Tartary,  being  the 
moft  barren  country  Afia,  has  not  been  early  plant- 
ed. At  the  fame  time,  population  has  been  much 
retarded  by  the  reftlefs  and  roaming  fpirit  of  that 
people :  it  is  true,  they  have  been  forced  into  the 
ihepherd-ftate  by  want  of  food  ;  but  fo  averfe  are 
they  to  the  fedentary  life  of  a  ihepherd,  that  they 
truft  their  cattle  to  flaves,  and  perfevere  in  their 
favourite  occupation  of  hunting.  This  difpofition 
has  been  a  dreadful  pefl  to  the  human  fpecies,  the 
Tartars  having  made  more  extenfive  conquefts,  and 
deilroyed  more  men,  than  any  other  nation  known 
in  hiftory  :  more  cruel  than  tigers,  they  feemed  to 
have  no  delight  but  in  blood  and  mafiacre,  without 
any  regard  either  to  fex  or  age  *.  Luckily  for  the 
human  fpecies,  rich  fpoils  dazzled  their  eyes,  and 
roufed  an  appetite  for  wealth.  Avarice  is  fome- 
times productive  of  good :  it  moved  thefe  mon- 

ilers 

*  When  the  Tartars  under  Genhizkan  conquered  China,  it 
was  ferioufly  deliberated,  whether  they  fhould  not  kill  all  the 
inhabitants,  and  convert  that  vaft,  country  into  pafture-fields 
for  their  cattle. 


SK.  I.]  FOOD  AND  POPULATION*  87 

fters  to  fell  the  conquered  people  for  Haves,  which 
preferved  the  lives  of  millions.  Conqueils,  how- 
ever fuccefsful,  cannot  go  on  for  ever  ;  they  are  not 
accomplifhed  without  great  lofs  of  men  ;  and  the 
conquefts  of  the  Tartars  depopulated  their  coun- 
try. 

But  as  fome  centuries  have  elapfed  without  any 
conliderable  eruption  of  that  fiery  people,  their 
numbers  muft  at  prefent  be  conliderable  by  the 
ordinary  progrefs  of  population.  Have  we  not 
reafon  to  dread  new  eruptions,  like  what  formerly 
happened  ?  Our  foreknowledge  of  future  events 
extends  not  far;  but  in  all  appearance  we  have 
nothing  to  fear  from  that  quarter.  The  Tartars 
fubdued  a  great  part  of  the  world  by  ferocity  and 
undaunted  courage,  fupported  by  liberty  and  in- 
dependence. They  acknowledged  Genhizkan  as 
their  leader  in  war,  but  were  as  far  from  being 
flaves,  as  the  Franks  were  when  they  conquered 
Gaul.  Tamerlane  again  enjoyed  but  a  fubftituted 
power,  and  never  had  the  boldnefs  to  afTume  the 
title  of  Chan  or  Emperor.  But  the  Tartars  have 
fubmitted  to  the  fame  yoke  of  defpotifm  that  their 
ferocity  impofed  upon  others ;  and  being  now  go- 
verned by  a  number  of  petty  tyrants,  their  cou- 
rage is  broken  by  ilavery,  and  they  are  no  longer 
formidable  to  the  reft  of  mankind  *. 

F  4  Depopulation 

*  "  Gallos  in  bellis  floruifle  accepimus,"  fays  Tacitus  in  his 
life  of  Agricola  ;  "  mox  fegnities  cum  otio  intravit,  amiffd  vir- 

«  tutn 


88  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.          ffi.  !• 

Depopulation  enters  into  the  prefent  fketch  as 
well  as  population.  The  latter  follows  not  with 
greater  certainty  from  equality  of  property,  than 
the  former  from  inequality.  In  every  great  ftate, 
where  the  people  by  profperity  and  opulence  are 
funk  into  voluptuoufnefs,  we  hear  daily  complaints 
of  depopulation.  Cookery  depopulates  likes  a  pef- 
tilence  ;  becaufe,  when  it  becomes  an  art,  it  brings 
within  the  compafs  of  one  ilomach  what  is  fuffi- 
cient  for  ten  days  of  temperance  ;  and  is  fo  far 
worfe  than  a  peftilence,  that  the  people  never  re- 
cruit again.  The  inhabitants  of  France  devour  at 
prefent  more  food  than  the  fame  number  did  for- 
merly. The  like  is  obfervable  in  Britain,  and  in 
every  country  where  luxury  abounds.  Remedies 
are  propofed  arid  put  in  practice,  celibacy  difgra- 
cedj  marriage  encouraged,  and  rewards  given  for  a 
numerous  offspring.  All  in  vain  !  The  only  ef- 
feclual  remedies  are  to  encourage  hufbandry,  and 
to  reprefs  luxury.  Olivares  hoped  to  repeople 
Spain,  by  encouraging  matrimony.  Abderam,  a 
Mahometan  king  of  Cordova,  was  a  better  poli- 
tician 

"  tute  pariter  ac  libertate."  [/»  Englt/h  thus;  "We  have 
te  heard  that  the  Gauls  formerly  made  a  figure  in  war ;  but 
*'  becoming  a  prey  to  indolence,  the  confequence  of  peace, 
"  they  loft  at  once  their  valour  and  their  liberty."] — Spain, 
which  defended  itfelf  with  great  bravery  againft  the  Romans, 
became  an  eafy  prey  to  the  Vandals  in  the  fifth  century.  When 
attacked  by  the  Romans,  it  was  divided  into  many  free  ftates  : 
when  attacked  by  the  Vandals,  it  was  enervated  by  flavery 
under  Roman  defpotifm. 


SK*  I.]  FOOD  AND  POPULATION. 

tician.  JBy  encouraging  induftry,  and  procuring 
plenty  of  food,  he  repeopled  his  kingdom  in  lefs 
than  thirty  years*. 

Luxury  is  a  deadly  enemy  to  population,  not  on- 
ly by  intercepting  food  from  the  induftrious,  but 
by  weakening  the  power  of  procreation.  Indo- 
lence accompanies  voluptuoufnefs,  or  rather  is  a 
branch  of  it ;  women  of  rank  employ  others  to 
move  them,  being  too  delicate  to  move  them- 
felves  ;  and  a  woman,  enervated  by  indolence  and 
intemperance,  is  ill  qualified  for  the  fevere  labour 
of  child-bearing.  Hence  it  is,  that  people  of  rank, 
where  luxury  prevails,  are  not  prolific.  This  in- 
firmity  not  only  prevents  population,  but  increafes 
luxury,  by  accumulating  wealth  among  a  few  blood 
relations.  A  barren  woman  among  the  labouring 
poor,  is  a  wonder.  Could  women  of  rank  be  per- 
fuaded  to  make  a  trial,  they  would  find  more  felf- 
enjoyment  in  temperance  and  exercife,  than  in  the 
moft  refined  luxury ;  nor  would  they  have  caufe 
to  envy  others  the  bleffing  of  a  numerous  and 
healthy  offspring. 

Luxury 

*  A  foundling-hofpital  is  a  greater  enemy  to  population, 
than  liberty  to  expofe  infants,  which  is  permitted  to  parents  in 
China  and  in  fome  other  countries.  Both  of  them,  indeed,  en* 
courage  matrimony  :  but  in  fuch  hofpitals,  thoufands  perifh 
yearly  beyond  the  ordinary  proportion  ;  whereas  few  infants 
perifh  by  the  liberty  of  expofmg  them,  parental  affection  pre- 
vailing commonly  over  the  diftrefs  of  proverty.  And,  upon 
the  whole,  population  gains  more  by  that  liberty  than  it  lofes. 


9O  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.          [&.  t. 

Luxury  is  not  a  greater  enemy  to  population,}by 
enervating  men  and  women,  than  defpotifm  is  by 
reducing  them  to  flavery,  and  destroying  induftry. 
Defpotifm  is  a  greater  enemy  to  the  human  fpe- 
cies  than  an  Egyptian  plague  ;  for,  by  rendering 
men  miferable,  it  weakens  both  the  appetite  for 
procreation  and  the  power.  Free  ftates,  on  the 
contrary,  are  always  populous :  a  man  who  is  hap- 
py, longs  for  children  to  make  them  alfo  happy ; 
and  induftry  enables  him  to  accomplim  his  long- 
ing. This  obfervation  is  verified  from  the  hiftory 
of  Greece,  and  of  the  Lefler  Alia  :  the  inhabit- 
ants anciently  were  free  and  numerous :  the  pre- 
fent  inhabitants  are  reduced  by  flavery  to  a  fmali 
number.  A  peftilence  deftroys  thofe  only  who  ex- 
ift,  and  the  lofs  is  foon  repaired ;  but  defpotifm,  as 
above  obferved,  flrikes  at  the  very  root  of  popula- 
tion. 

An  overflowing  quantity  of  money  in  circula- 
tion, is  another  caufe  of  depopulation.  In  a  na- 
tion that  grows  rich  by  commerce,  the  price  of  la- 
bour increafes  with  the  quantity  of  circulating 
coin,  which  of  courfe  raifes  the  price  of  manufac- 
tures ;  and  manufacturers,  who  cannot  find  a  vent 
for  their  high-rated  goods  in  Jforeign  markets,  muft 
kgive  over  bufinefs,  and  commence  beggars,  or  re- 
tire to  another  country,  where  they  may  have  a 
profpedt  of  fuccefs.  But  luckily,  there  is  a  reme- 
dy, in  that  cafe,  to  prevent  depopulation  :  land  is 
cultivated  to  greater  perfection  by  the  fpade  than 

- 


SK.  I.]  FOOD  AND  POPULATION.  9! 

by  the  plough  ;  and  the  more  plentiful  crops  pro- 
duced by  the  former,  are  fully  fufficient  to  defray 
the  additional  expence.  This  is  a  refource  for 
employing  thofe  who  cannot  make  bread  as  manu- 
facturers, and  deferves  well  the  attention  of  the  le- 
giflature.  The  advantage  of  the  fpade  is  confpi- 
cuous  with  refped:  to  war  ;  it  provides  a  multi- 
tude of  robuft  men  for  recruiting  the  army,  the 
want  of  whom  may  be  fupplied  by  the  plough,  till 
they  return  in  peace  to  their  former  occupation. 


SKETCH  II. 

i         f 

PROGRESS  OF  PROPERTY. 

AMONG  the  fenfes  inherent  in  man,  the  fenfe 
of  property  is  eminent.  That  fenfe  is  the 
foundation  of  yours  and  mine,  a  diftindion  which 
no  human  being  is  ignorant  of.  By  that  fenfe, 
wild  animals,  caught  with  labour  or  art,  are  per- 
ceived to  belong  to  the  hunter  or  fifher:  they  be- 
come his  property.  There  is  the  fame  perception 
of  property  with  refpecl  to  wild  animals  tamed  for 
ufe,  with  their  progeny.  A  field  feparated  from 
the  common,  and  cultivated  by  a  man  for  bread  to 

himielf 


92  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

\ 

himfelf  and  family,  is  equally  perceived  to  be  his 
property  #Jfjsi6fRul  '  :'' 

The  fenfe  of  property  is  flower  in  its  growth  to* 
ward  maturity  than  the  external  fenfes,  which  are 
perfect  even  in  childhood  ;  but  it  ripens  more 
early  than  the  fenfe  of  congruity,  of  fymmetry,  of 
dignity,  of  grace,  and  the  other  refined  fenfes, 
which  fcarce  malte  any  figure  before  the  age  of 
manhood.  Children  difcover  a  fenfe  of  property 
in  diftingaifhing  their  own  chair,  and  their  own 
fpoon.  In  them,  however,  it  is  faint  and  obfcure, 
requiring  time  to  ripen.  The  gradual  progrefs  of 
that  fenfe,  from  its  infancy  among  favages  to  its 
maturity  among  polifhed  nations,  is  one  of  the  moll 
inftrudtve  articles  that  belong  to  the  prefent  un- 
dertaking. But  as  that  article  makes  a  part  of 
Hiftorical  Law-trads  f  ,  nothing  remains  here  but 
a  few  gleanings. 

Man  is  by  nature  a  hoarding  animal,  having  an 
appetite  for  ftoring  up  things  of  ufe  ;  and  the  fenfe 
of  property  is  beftowed  on  men,  for  fecuring  to 
them  what  they  thus  ftore  up.  Herrce  it  appears, 
that  things  defiined  by  Providence  for  our  fuf- 
tenance  and  accommodation,  were  not  intended  to 
be  pofTefled  in  common.  It  is  even  probable,  that 
in  the  earlieft  ages  every  man  feparately  hunted 
for  himfelf  and  his  family.  But  chance  prevails 

in 


*  See  Principles  of  Morality  and  Natural  Religion,  p. 

•  ,  - 

it.  2. 

\  Traft  3. 


SK.  2.]  PROPERTY.  93 

in  that  occupation  ;  and  it  may  frequently  happen, 
that  while  fome  get  more  than  enough,  others 
mud  go  fupperlefs  to  bed.  Senfible  of  that  incon- 
venience, it  crept  into  practice,  for  hunting  and 
fifhing  to  be  carried  on  in  common  *.  We  find, 
accordingly,  the  practice  of  hunting  and  fifhing  in 
common,  even  among  grofs  favages.  Thofe  of 
New  Holland,  above  mentioned,  live  upon  fmall 
fifti  dug  out  of  the  fand  when  the  fea  retires. 
Sometimes  they  get  plenty,  fometimes  very  little  ; 
and  all  is  broiled  and  eat  in  common.  After  eat- 
ing they  go  to  reft  :  they  return  to  their  fifliing 

next 

1 

*  Inequalities  of  chance,  which  are  great  in  a  few  trials,  va- 
nifh  almoft  entirely  when  an  operation  is  frequently  reiterated 
during  a  courfe  of  time.  Did  every  man's  fubfiftence  depend 
on  the  fruits  of  his  own  field,  many  would  die  of  hunger, 
while  others  wallowed  in  plenty.  Barter  and  commerce 
among  the  inhabitants  of  a  diftricl:,  leflen  the  hazard  of  fa- 
mine :  the  commerce  of  corn  through  a  large  kingdom,  fuch 
as  France  or  Britain,  lefTens  it  dill  more.  Extend  that  com- 
merce through  Europe,  through  the  world,  and  there  will  re- 
main fcarce  a  veftige  of  the  inequalities  of  chance  :  the  crop  of 
corn  may  fail  in  one  province,  or  in  one  kingdom  ;  but  that  it 
fhould  fail  univerfally,  is  beyond  the  varieties  of  chance.  The 
fame  obfervation  holds  in  every  other  matter  of  chance  ;  one'f 
gain  or  lois  at  game  for  a  night,  for  a  week,  may  be  confider- 
able ;  but  carry  on  the  game  for  a  year,  and  fo  little  of  chance 
remains,  that  it  is  almoft  the  fame  whether  one  play  for  a  gui- 
nea or  for  twenty.  Hence  a  fkilful  infurer  never  ventures 
much  upon  one  bottom,  but  multiplies  his  bargains  as  much  as 
poffible :  the  more  bargains  he  is  engaged  in,  the  greater  is  the 
probability  of  gain. 


94  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

next  ebb  of  the  tide,  whether  it  be  day  or  night, 
foul  or  fair  ;  for  go  they  muft,  or  ftarve.  In  fmall 
tribes,  where  patriotifm  is  vigorous,  or  in  a  coun- 
try thinly  peopled  in  proportion  to  its  fertility,  the 
living  in  common  is  agreeable :  but  in  a  large 
Hate  where  felfifhnefs  prevails,  or  in  any  ftate 
where  great  population  requires  extraordinary  cul- 
ture, the  beft  method  is  to  permit  every  man  to  fhift 
for  himfelf  and  his  family :  men  wifh  to  labour 
for  themfelves ;  and  they  labour  more  ardently 
for  themfelves,  than  for  the  public.  Private  pro- 
perty became  more  and  more  facred  in  the  pro- 
grefs  of  arts  and  manufactures  :  to  allow  an  artift 
of  fuperior  fkill  no  profit  above  others,  would  be  a 
fad  difcouragement  to  induftry,  and  be  fcarce  con- 
fident with  juftice. 

The  fenfe  of  property  is  not  confined  to  the  hu- 
man fpecies.  The  beavers  perceive  the  timber 
they  ftore  up  for  food,  to  be  their  property ;  and 
the  bees  feem  to  have  the  fame  perception  with 
refpecl  to  their  winter's  provifion  of  honey.  Sheep 
know  when  they  are  in  a  trefpafs,  and  run  to  their 
own  pafture  on  the  firft  glimpfe  of  a  man,  IVIonkies 
do  the  fame  when  detected  in  robbing  an  orchard. 
Sheep  and  horned  cattle  have  a  fenfe  of  property 
with  refpecl:  to  their  refling-place  in  a  fold  or  in- 
clofure,  which  every  one  guards  againft  the  in- 
croachments  of  others.  He  muft  be  a  fceptic  in- 
deed, who  denies  that  perception  to  rooks :  thieves 
there  are  among  them  as  among  men ;  but  if  a 

rook 


SK.  2.]  PROPERTY.  95 

rook  purloin  a  flick  from  another's  neft,  a  council 
is  held,  much  chattering  enfues,  and  the  lex  talio- 
nis  is  applied  by  demolifhing  the  neft  of  the  cri- 
minal. To  man  are  furnifhed  rude  materials  on- 
ly :  to  convert  thefe  into  food  and  clothing  re- 
quires induftry  ;  and  if  he  had  not  a  fenfe  that  the 
produdt  of  his  labour  belongs  to  himfelf,  his  in- 
duftry would  be  faint.  In  general,  it  is  pleafant 
to  obferve,  that  the  fenfe  of  property  is  always  gi- 
ven where  it  is  ufeful,  and  never  but  where  it  is 
ufeful. 

An  ingenious  writer,  defcribing  the  inhabitants 
of  Guiana,  who  continue  hunters  and  fiihers,  makes 
an  eloquent  harangue  upon  the  happinefs  they  en- 
joy, in  having  few  wants  and  delires,  and  little  no- 
tion of  private  property.  "  The  manners  of  thefe 
"  Indians  exhibit  an  amiable  picture  of  primeval 
"  innocence  and  happinefs.  The  eafe  with  which 
"  their  few  wants  are  fupplied,  renders  divifion  of 
"  land  unneceiTary  ;  nor  does  it  afford  any  temp- 
"  tation  to  fraud  or  violence.  That  pronenefs  to 
"  vice,  which  among  civilized  nations  is  efteemed 
"  a  propenlity  of  nature,  has  no  exiftence^  in  a 
u  country  where  every  man  enjoys  in  perfection 
**  his  native  freedom  and  independence,  without 
"  hurting  or  being  hurt  by  others.  A  perfect 
"  equality  of  rank,  baniming  all  diftinctions  but  of 
"  age  and  perfonal  merit,  promotes  freedom  in 
"  converfation,  and  firmnefs  in  action,  and  fuggefts 
ff  no  defires  but  what  may  be  gratified  with  in- 

"  nocence. 


06  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

^  i  »<  *~ 

"  nocence.  Envy  and  difcontent  cannot  fubfift 
"  where  there  is  perfect  equality  ;  we  fcarce  even 
"  hear  of  a  difcontented  lover,  as  there  is  no  diffe- 
"  rence  of  rank  and  fortune,  the  common  obftacles 
"  that  prevent  fruition.  Thofe  who  have  been 
"  unhappily  accuftomed  to  the  refinements  of  luxu- 
"  ry,  will  fcarce  be  able  to  conceive,  that  an  In- 
"  dian,  with  no  covering  but  what  modefty  re- 
"  quires,  with  no  fhelter  that  deferves  the  name 
"  of  a  houfe,  and  with  no  food  but  of  the  coarfeft 
"  kind,  painfully  procured  by  hunting,  can  feel 
"  any  happinefs  ;  and  yet,  to  judge  from  external 
"  appearance,  the  happinefs  of  thefe  people  may 
"  be  envied  by  the  wealthy  of  the  moft  refined  na- 
"  tions ;  and  juftly,  becaufe  their  ignorance  of  ex- 
"  travagant  defires,  and  endlefs  purfuits,  that  tor- 
"  ment  the  great  world,  excludes  every  wifh  be- 
"  yond  the  prefent.  In  a  word,  the  inhabitants 
"  of  Guiana  are  an  example  of  what  Socrates  juftly 
*'  obferves,  That  they  who  want  the  leaft,  approach 
"  the  neareft  to  the  gods,  who  want  nothing." 
It  is  admitted,  that  the  innocence  of  favages,  here 
painted  in  fine  colours,  is  in  every  refpect  more 
amiable  than  the  luxury  of  the  opulent.  But  is 
our  author  unacquainted  with  a  middle  ftate,  more 
fuitable  than  either  extreme  to  the  dignity  of  hu- 
man nature  ?  The  appetite  for  property  is  not  be- 
ftowed  upon  us  in  vain :  it  has  given  birth  to 
many  arts  :  it  is  highly  beneficial  by  furnifhing 
opportunity  for  gratifying  the  moft  dignified  na- 
tural 


SK.  2.]  PROPERTY-  97 

tural  afie&ions ;  for  without  private  property, 
what  place  would  there  be  for  benevolence  or 
charity  *  ?  Without  private  property  there  would 
be  no  induftry ;  and  without  induftry,  men  would 
remain  favages  for  ever. 

The  appetite  for  property,  in  its  nature  a  great 
bleffing,  degenerates,  I  acknowledge,  into  a  great 
curfe  when  it  tranfgrefles  the  bounds  of  modera- 
tion. Before  money  was  introduced,  the  appetite 
feldom  was  immoderate,  becaufe  plain  neceflaries 
were  its  only  objects.  But  money  is  a  fpecies  of 
property,  of  fuch  extenlive  ufe  as  greatly  to  in- 
flame the  appetite.  Money  prompts  men  to  be  in- 
duftrious  •  and  the  beautiful  productions  of  induf- 
try and  art,  muling  the  imagination,  excite  a  vio- 
lent delire  for  grand  houfes,  fine  gardens,  and  for 
every  thing  gay  and  fplendid.  Habitual  wants 
multiply  :  luxury  and  fenfuality  gain  ground  :  the 
appetite  for  property  becomes  headftrong,  and  muft 
be  gratified,  even  at  the  expence  of  juftice  and  ho- 
nour. Examples  of  this  progrefs  are  without  num- 

f     «^  A 

ber  ;  and  yet  the  following  hiilory,deferves  to  be 
kept  in  memory,  as  a  Unking  and  lamentable  illuf- 
tration.  Hifpaniola  was  that  part  of  America 
which  Columbus  firft  difcovered  anno  1497.  He 
landed  upon  the  territory  of  Guacanaric,  one  of 
the  principal  Cacics  of  the  ifland.  That  prince, 
who  had  nothing  barbarous  in  his  manners,  recei- 
VOL.  I.  G  ved 

*  Hiftorical  Law  Trails,  Tra<2  3, 


08  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIEfV.  [B.  I. 

f  'x«  i  •  j*j        •  t 

ved  his  gueits  with  cordiality,  and  encouraged  his 
people  to  vie  with  one  another  in  obliging  them. 
To  gratify  the  Spanilh  appetite  for  gold,  they 
parted  freely  with  their  richeft  ornaments;  and, 
in  return,  were  fatisfied  with  glafs  beads,  and  fuch 
baubles.  The  Admiral's  fhip  having  been  darned 
againft  the  rocks  in  a  hurricane,  Guacanaric '  was 
not  wanting  to  his  friend  on  that  occafion :  he 
convened  a  number  of  men  to  aifift  in  unloading 
the  fhip  ;  and  attended  himfelf  till  the  cargo  was 
fafely  lodged.  The  Admiral  having  occafion  to 
return  to  Spain,  left  a  part  of  his  crew  behind  ; 
who,  forgetting  the  leilbns  of  moderation  he  had 
taught  them,  turned  licentious.  The  remonftrances 
of  Guacanaric  were  fruitlefs :  they  feized  upon  the 
gold  and  wives  of  the  Indians,  and  in  general  treat- 
ed them  with  great  cruelty.  Such  enormities  did 
not  long  pafsunrefented  :  the  rapacious  Spaniards, 
after  much  bloodlhed,  were  fhut  up  in  their  fort, 
and  reduced  to  extremity.  Unhappily  a  reinforce- 
ment arrived  from  Spain  :  a  long  and  bloody  war 
enfued,  which  did  not  end  till  the  iilanders  were 
entirely  fubdued.  Of  this  ifland,  about  200  leagues 
in  length,  and  between  fixty  and  eighty  in  breadth, 
a  Spaniih  hiftorian  bears  witnefs,  that  the  inhabi- 
tants amounted  to  a  million  when  Columbus  land- 
ed*. The  Spaniards,  relentlefs  in  their  cruelty, 
forced  thefe  poor  people  to  abandon  the  culture  of 

their 

*  The  numbers  poffibly  are  exaggerated.     But  whether  a 
million,  or  a  half  of  that  number,  the  moral  is  the  fame. 


SK.  2.]  PROPERTY.  99 

their  fields,  and  to  retire  to  the  woods  and  moun- 
tains. Hunted  like  wild  beafts  even  in  thefe  re- 
treats, they  fled  from  mountain  to  mountain,  till 
hunger  and  fatigue,  which  deftroyed  more  than 
the  fword,  made  them  deliver  themfelves  up  to 
their  implacable  enemies.  There  remained  at  that 

X 

time  but  60,000,   who  were    divided  among  the 
Spaniards  as  flaves.     Exceffive  fatigue  in  the  mines, 
and  want  even  of  neceflaries,  reduced  them  in  five 
years  to   14,000.      Confidering  them  to  be  only 
beafts  of  burden,  they  would  have  yielded  more 
profit  had  they  been  treated  with  lefs  inhumanity. 
Avarice  frequently  counteracts  its  own  end :    by 
grafping  too  much,   it  lofes  all.      The  Emperor 
Charles  refolded  to  apply  fome  remedy  ;  but  being 
retarded  by  various  avocations,  he  got  intelligence 
that   the    poor   Indians   were   totally   extirpated. 
And  they  were  fb  in  reality,  a  handful  excepted, 
who  lay  hid  in  the  mountains,  and  fubiifted  as  by 
a  miracle  in  the  midft  of  their  enemies.      That 
handful  were  difcovered  many  years  after  by  fome 
hunters,  who  treated  them  with  humanity,  regret- 
ting perhaps  the  barbarity  of  their  forefathers. 
The  poor  Indians,  docile  and  fubmiffive,  embraced 
the  Chriftian  religion,  and  arTumed  by  degrees  the 
manners  and  cuftoms  of  their  mailers.     They  ftill 
exift,  and  live  by  hunting  and  fiihing. 

Affection  for  property  !  Janus  double-faced,  pro- 
ductive of  many  blefiings,  but  degenerating  often 
to  be  a  curfe.  In  thy  right  hand,  Induitry,  a  cor- 

G  2  nucopia 


100  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  ffi.  1+ 

L 

nucopia  of  plenty  :  in  thy  left,  Avarice,  a  Pando- 
ra's box  of  deadly  poif on. 


-Li  I  j      f  !  i  ,'..-.',*'/  1 II  .01 



fl:r   CM/         /"Y'rtsrf. 


SKETCH  m. 


*      »\ 


•-.(•»  !    'if  f  V}  in- 

ORIGIN  AND  PROGRESS  OF  COMMERCE. 


, 

THE  few  wants  of  men  in  the  firft  ftage  of  fo- 
ciety,  are  fupplied  by  barter  in  its  rudeft 
form.  In  barter,  the  rational  coniideration  is,  what 
is  wanted  by  the  one,  and  what  can  be  fpared  by 
the  other.  But  favages  are  not  always  fo  clear- 
lighted  :  a  favage  who  wants  a  knife,  will  give  for 
it  any  thing  that  is  lefs  ufeful  to  him  at  the  time, 
without  coniidering  either  the  prefent  wants  of  the 
perfon  he  is  dealing  with,  or  his  own  future  wants. 
An  inhabitant  of  Guiana  will  for  a  fifh-hook  give 
more  at  one  time,  than  at  another  he  will  give  for 
a  hatchet,  or  for  a  gun»  Kempfer  reports,  that 
an  inhabitant  of  Puli  Timor,  an  ifland  adjacent  to 
Malacca,  will,  for  a  bit  of  coarfe  linen  not  worth 
three-halfpence,  give  provifions  worth  three  or  four 
millings.  But  people  improve  by  degrees,  attend- 
ing to  what  is  wanted  on  the  one  fide,  and  to  what 
can  be  fpated  on  the  other  ;  and  in  that  leflbn,  the 
American  favages  in  our  neighbourhood  are  not  a 
little  expert. 

Barter 


SK.  3.]  COMMERCE.  IOI 

Barter  or  permutation,  in  its  original  form,  pro- 
ved miferably  deficient  when  men  and  their  wants 
multiplied.  That  fort  of  commerce  cannot  be 
carried  on  at  a  diftance  ;  and,  even  among  neigh- 
bours, it  does  not  always  happen  that  the  one  can 
fpare  what  the  other  wants.  Barter  is  fomewhat 
enlarged  by  covenants :  a  bufhel  of  wheat  is  de- 
livered to  me,  upon  my  promiling  an  equivalent 
at  a  future  time.  But  what  if  I  have  nothing 
that  my  neighbour  may  have  occaiion  for  ?  or 
what  if  my  promife  be  not  relied  on  ?  Thus  bar- 
ter, even  with  the  aid  of  covenants,  proves  ftill  de- 
fe&ive.  The  numberlefs  wants  of  men  cannot 
readily  be  fup plied,  without  fome  commodity  in 
general  eftimation,  which  will  be  gladly  accepted 
in  exchange  for  every  other.  That  commodity 
ought  not  to  be  bulky,  nor  be  expenfive  in  keep- 
ing, nor  be  confumable  by  time.  Gold  and  lil- 

*-'  *        ' 

ver  are  metals  that  poffefs  thefe  properties  in  an 
eminent  degree.  They  are  at  the  fame  time  per- 
fectly homogeneous  in  whatever  country  produ- 
ced :  two  mafles  of  pure  gold  or  of  pure  iilver 
are  always  equal  in  value,  provided  they  be  of  the 
fame  weight.  Thefe  metals  are  alfo  diviiible  into 
fmall  parts,  convenient  to  be  given  for  goods  of 
fmall  value  *. 

^  r<    1  i 

G  3  Gold 


. 

• 


^ 

*  "  Origo  emendi  vendendique  a  permutationibus  ccepit. 
Olim  enim  non  ita  erat  nummus  :  neque  aliud  merx,  aliud  pre* 
tlum  vocabatur ;  fed  unufquifque,  fecunditin  neceffitatem  tern 

porum, 


102  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

L'L 

Gold  and  iilver,  when  introduced  into  commerce, 
were  probably  bartered,  like  other  commodities, 
by  bulk  merely.  Rock-falt  in  Ethiopia,  white  as 
fnow,  and  hard  as  ftone,  is  to  this  day  bartered  in 

—  rr  •i-'"i    ,  »i;>  <  •-    fij  * 

that  manner  with  other  goods.  It  is  dug  out  of 
the  mountain  Lafta,  formed  into  plates  a  foot  long, 
and  three  inches  broad  and  thick:  and  a  portion 

••7JJ     •-"  i     J  13^/1^1  i  jirit-f'  .  ~  ?  r 

is  broken  off  equivalent  in  value  to  the  thing  want- 
.ed,,:  But  more  accuracy  came  to  be  introduced 
into  tjie  commerce  of  gold  and  filver  :  inflead  of 
being  given  loofely  by  bulk,  every  portion  was 
weighed  in  fcales  :  and  this  method  of  barter  is 
practifed  in  China,  in  Ethiopia,  and  in  many  other 
Countries.  Even  weight  was  at  length  difcovered 
to  .be  an  imperfect  ftandard.  Ethiopian  fait  may 

'  '        T  •*  "O  ' 

be  proof  againil  adulteration  ;  but  weight  is  no 
fecurity  againft  mixing  gold  and  iilver  with  bafe 
metals.  To  prevent  that  fraud,  pieces  of  gold  and 
filver  are  imprefled  with  a  public  ftamp,  vouching 
both  the  purity  and  quantity  ;  and  fuch  pieces  are 
termed  coin.  This  was  a  notable  improvement  in 

:    ti  *• 

iv/Iil       '.-    -:o  -10  };•  j  lo  ^I^ 


porum,  ac  rerum,  utilibus  inutilia  permutabat,  quando  plerum- 
que  evenit,  ut  quod  alteri  fupereft,  alteri  defit-  Sed  quia  non 
iemper,  nee  facile  cqncurrebat,  ut,  cum  tu  haberes  quod  ego 
deflderarem,  invicem  haberem  quod  tu  accipere  velles,  eledta 
roateria  eft,  cujus  publica  ac  perpetua  asftimatio  difficultatibus 
permutationum,  nsqualitate  quantitatis  fubveniret:  ea  [quae] 
materia  forma  publica  percufla,  ufum  dominiumque  non  tarn 
ex  fubftantia  prabet,  quam  ex  quantitate  ;  nee  ultra  merx 
utrumque,  fed  alterum/r^'«OT  vocatur  j"  /.  I.  Digeft.  De  con- 
trahenda  emptlone. 


SK.  3.}  COMMERCE.  IO3 

• 

commerce ;  and  was  probably  at  firft  thought  com- 
plete. It  was  not  forefeen,  that  thefe  metals  wear 
by  much  handling  in  the  courfe  of  circulation ; 
and  confequently,  that  in  time  the  public  {lamp  is 
reduced  to  be  a  voucher  of  the  purity  only,  not  of 
the  quantity.  Hence  proceed  manifold  inconve- 
niences ;  for  which  no  other  remedy  occurs,  but 
to  reftore  the  former  method  of  weighing,  trufting 
to  the  (lamp  for  the  purity  only.  This  proves  an 
embarraflment  in  commerce,  which  is  remedied  by 
the  ufe  of  paper-money.  And  paper-money  is  at- 
tended with  another  advantage,  that  of  preventing 
the  lofs  of  much  gold  and  lilver  by  wearing.  For- 
merly in  China,  gold  and  iilver  were  coined  as 
among  us  ;  but  the  wearing  of  coin  by  handling 
obliged  them  to  recur  to  fcajes  ;  and  now  weight 
alone  is  relied  on  for  determining  the  quantity. 
Copper  is  the  only  metal  that  is  circulated  among 
them  without  weighing  ;  and  it  is  with  it  that 
fmall  debts  are  paid,  and  fmall  purchafes  made. 

When  gold  or  filver  in  bullion  is  exchanged 
with  other  commodities,  fuch  commerce  parTes  un- 
der the  common  name  of  barter®?  permutation: 
when  current  coin  is  exchanged,  fuch  commerce 
is  termed  buying  and  felling  ;  and  the  money  ex- 
changed is  termed  tbe  price  of  tbe  goods. 

As  commerce  cannot  be  carried  on  to  any  ex- 
tent without  a  ftandard  /or  comparing  goods  of 
different  kinds,  and  as  every  commercial  country 
is  poflefled  of  fuch  a  ftandard,  it  feems  difficult  to 

G  4  fay 


JO4  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  !. 

fay  by  what  means  the  ftandard  has  been  eftablim- 
cd.  It  is  plainly  not  founded  on  nature  ;  for  the 
different  kinds  of  goods  have  naturally  no  com- 
mon meafure  by  which  they  can  be  valued :  two 
quarters  of  wheat  can  be  compared  with  twenty ; 
but  what  rule  have  we  for  comparing  wheat  with 
broad-cloth,  or  either  of  them  with  gold,  or  gold 
with  filver  or  copper  ?  Several  ingenious  writers 
have  endeavoured  to  account  for  the  comparative 
value  of  commodities,  by  reducing  them  all  to  the 
labour  employed  in  railing  food ;  which  labour  is 
"faid  to  be  a  ftandard  for  meafuring  the  value  of  all 
other  labour,  and  confequently  of  all  things  pro- 
duced by  labour.  V  If,  for  example,  a  bufhel  of 
"  wheat  and  an  ounce  of  filver  be  produced  by 
"  the  fame  quantity  of  labour,  will  they  not  be 
"  equal  in  value  ?''  This  ftandard  is  imperfect  in 
many  refpedts.  I  obferve,  firft,  that  to  give  it  a 
plauiible  appearance,  there  is  a  neceflity  to  main- 
tain, contrary  to  fact,  that  all  materials  on  which 
labour  is  employed  are  of  equal  value.  It  requires 
as  much  labour  to  make  a  brafs  candleftick  as  one 
of  Iilver,  though  far  from  being  of  the  fame  value. 
A  bufhel  of  wheat  may  fometdmes  equal  in  value 
an  ounce  of  iilver  ;  but  an  ounce  of  gold  does  not 
always  require  more  labour  than  a  bufhel  of 
wheat ;  and  yet  they  differ  widely  in  value.  The 
value  of  labour,  it  is  true,  enters  into  the  value  of 
every  thing  produced  by  it ;  but  is  far  from  ma- 
king the  whole  value.  If  an  ounce  of  filver  were 

'  •         • 


.  3.]  COMMERCE.  105 

of  no  greater  value  than  the  labour  of  procuring 
it,  that  ounce  would  go  for  payment  of  the  labour, 
and  nothing  be  left  to  the  proprietor  of  the  mine : 
fuch  a  dodrine  will  not  relim  with  the  King  of 
Spain  ;  and  as  little  with  the  Kings  of  Gplconda 
and  Portugal,  proprietors  of  the  diamond- mines. 
Secondly,  The  ftandard  under  review  fuppofes 
every  fort  of  labour  to  be  of  equal  value,  which 
however  will  not  be  maintained.  An  ufeful  art  in 
great  requeft  may  not  be  generally  known  :  the 
few  who  are  fkilful  will  juilly  demand  more  for 
their  labour  than  the  common  rate.  An  expert 
hulbandman  beftows  no  more  labour  in  railing  a 
hundred  bufhels  of  wheat,  than  his  ignorant  neigh- 
bour in  railing  fifty  :  if  labour  be  the  only  ftand- 
ard, the  two  crops  ought  to  afford  the  fame  price. 
Was  not  Raphael  entitled  to  a  higher  price  for  one 
of  his  fine  pictures,  than  a  dunce  is  for  a  tavern- 
fign,  fuppofing  the  labour  to  have  been  equal  ? 
Laftly,  As  this  ftandard  is  applicable  to  things  only 
that  require  labour,  what  rule  is  to  be  followed 
with  refpecl  to  natural  fruits,  and  other  things  that 
require  no  labour  ? 

Where  a  pound  of  one  commodity  gives  the 
fame  price  with  a  pound  of  another,  thefe  commo- 
dities are  faid  to  be  of  equal  value  ;  and  therefore* 
whatever  rule  can  be  given  for  the  price  of  com- 
modities, that  rule  determines  alfo  their  compara- 
tive values.  Montefquieu  *  attempts  to  account 

for 

f  Liv.  22,  ch. 


IO6  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

for  the  price  as  follows.  He  begins  with  fuppo- 
fing,  that  there  is  but  one  commodity  in  com- 
merce, divilible  like  gold  and  iilver  into  parts,  the 
parts  like  thofe  of  gold  and  filver  uniform  and 
equally  perfect.  Upon  that  fuppolition,  the  price, 
fays  he,  of  the  whole  commodity  collected  into  a 
mafs,  will  be  the  whole  current  gold  and  filver  ; 
and  the  price  of  any  particular  quantity  of  the  for- 
mer, will  be  the  correfponding  quantity  of  the  lat- 
ter, the  tenth  or  twentieth  part  of  the  one  corre- 
fponding to  the  tenth  or  twentieth  part  of  the 
other.  He  goes  on  to  apply  the  fame  computation 
to  all  the  variety  of  goods  in  commerce ;  and  con- 
cludes in  general,  that  as  the  whole  mafs  of  goods 
in  commerce  correfponds  to  the  whole  mafs  of 
gold  and  filver  in  commerce  as  its  price,  fo  the 
price  of  the  tenth  or  twentieth  part  of  the  former 
will  be  the  tenth  or  twentieth  part  of  the  latter. 
According  to  this  computation,  all  different  goods 
muft  give  the  fame  price,  or,  which  is  the  fame, 
be  of  equal  value,  provided  their  weight  or  mea- 
fure  be  the  fame.  Our  author  certainly  did  not 
intend  fuch  an  abfurdity  ;  and  yet  I  can  draw  no 
other  inference  from  his  reafoning.  In  the  very 
next  chapter  he*  admits  the  Negroes  on  the  coaft 
of  Afric  to  be  an  exception  from  the  general  rule, 
who,  fays  he,  value  commodities  according  to  the 
ufe  they  have  for  them.  But,  do  not  all  nations 
value  commodities  in  the  fame  manner  ? 

Rejecting, 


SK.  3.]  COMMERCE.  IOJ 

Rejecting,  then,  the  foregoing  attempts  to  ac- 
count for  the  comparative  value  of  commodities,  I 
take  a  hint  from  what  was  lail  faid  to  maintain, 
that  it  is  the  demand  chiefly  which  fixes  the  value 
of  every  commodity.  Quantity  beyond  the  de- 
mand renders  even  neceffaries  of  no  value  ;  of 
which  water  is  an  inflance.  It  may  be  held  ac- 
cordingly as  a  general  rule,  That  the  value  of 
goods  in  commerce  depends  on  a  demand  beyond 
what  their  quantity  can  fatisfy  ;  and  rifes  in  pro- 
portion to  the  excefs  of  the  demand  above  the 
quantity.  Even  water  becomes  valuable  in  coun- 
tries where  the  demand  exceeds  the  quantity  :  in 
arid  regions,  fprings  of  water  are  highly  valued ; 
and,  in  old  times,  were  frequently  the  occafioq  of 
broils  and  bloodfhed.  Comparing  next  different 
commodities  with  refpecl  to  value,  that  commodi- 
ty of  which  the  excefs  of  the  demand  above  the 
quantity  is  the  greater,  will  be  of  the  greater  va- 
lue. Were  utility  or  intrinfic  value  only  to  be 
confidered,  a  pound  of  iron  would  be  worth  ten 
pounds  of  gold  ;  but  as  the  excefs  of  the  demand 
for  gold  above  its  quantity  is  much  greater  than 
that  of  iron,  the  latter  is  of  lefs  value  in  the  mar- 
ket. A  pound  of  opium,  or  of  Jefuits  bark,  is,  for 
its  falutary  effects,  more  valuable  than  gold;  and 
yet,  for  the  reafon  given,  a  pound  of  gold  will 
purchafe  many  pounds  of  thefe  drugs.  Thus,  in 
general,  the  excefs  of  the  demand  above  the  quan- 
tity is  the  flandard  that  chiefly  fixes  the  mercan- 
tile 


I®8  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

tile  value  of  commodities  *.  Intereil  is  the  price 
or  premium  given  for  the  loan  of  money  ;  and  the 
rate  of  intereft,  like  the  price  of  other  commodi- 
ties, is  regulated  by  the  demand.  Many  borrow- 
ers and  few  lenders  produce  high  interell :  many 
lenders  and  few  borrowers  produce  low  interell  f . 

The  caufes  that  make  a  demand  feem  not  fo  ea- 
fily  afcertained.  One  thing  is  evident,  that  the 
demand  for  neceflaries  in  any  country,  muft  de- 
pend on  the  number  of  its  inhabitants.  This  rule 
holds  not  fo  ftri&ly  in  articles  of  convenience  ;  be- 
caufe  fome  people  are  more  greedy  of  convenien- 
ces than  others.  As  to  articles  of  tafte  and  luxu- 
ry, the  demand  appears  fo  arbitrary  as  not  to  be 
reducible  to  any  rule.  A  tafte  for  beauty  is  gene- 
ral, but  fo  different  in  different  perfons,  as  to  make 
the  demand  extremely  variable  :  the  faint  repre- 
fentation  of  any  plant  in  an  agate,  is  valued  by 
fome  for  its  rarity  ;  but  the  demand  is  far  from  be- 
ipg  univerfal.  Savages  are  defpifed  for  being  fond 

of 

*  In  a  voyage  to  Arabia  Faslix,  arm.  1708,  the  King  of  the 
territory  where  the  crew  landed,  gave  them  an  ox  weighing  a 
thoufand  or  twelve  hundred  pounds  for  a  fufee,  and  three-fcore 
pound- weight . 'of  rice  for  twenty-eight  ounces  of  gun-powder. 
The  goods  bartered  were  eftimated  according  to  the  wants  of 
each  party,  or,  in  other  wprds,  according  to  the  demand  above 
the  quantity. 

f  From  what  is  faid  in  the  treatife  DCS  corps  poMquest  (liv.  6. 
ch.  8.)  it  appears  doubtful  whether  high  or  low  intereft  be  the 
nioft  friendly  to  commerce. 


$K.  3.]  eoMMERCE^  109 

of  glafs-beads ;  but  were  fuch  toys  equally  rare 
among  us,  they  would  be  coveted  by  many :  a  cop- 
per coin  of  the  Emperor  Otho  is  of  no  intrinfic  va- 
lue, and  yet,  for  its  rarity,  would  draw  a  great 
price. 

The  value  of  gold  and  iilver  in  commerce,  like 
that  of  other  commodities,  was  at  firft,  we  may  be- 
lieve, both  arbitrary  and  fluctuating ;  and,  like 
other  commodities,  they  found  in  time  their  va- 
lue in  the  market.  With  refpecl  to  value,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  great  difference  between  money 
and  other  commodities.  Goods  that  are  expeniive 
in  keeping,  fuch  as  cattle,  or  that  are  impaired  by 
time,  fuch  as  corn,  will  always  be  firft  offered  in 
exchange  for  what  is  wanted  ;  and  when  fuch 
goods  are  offered  to  fale,  the  vender  mud  be  con- 
tented with  the  current  price  :  in  making  the  bar- 
gain, the  purchafer  has  the  advantage  ;  for  he  fuf* 
fers  riot  by  referving  his  money  to  a  better  mar- 
ket. And  thus  commodities  are  brought  down  by 
money,  to  the  loweft  value  that  can  afford  any  pro- 
fit. At  the  fame  time,  gold  and  filver  fooner  find 
their  value  than  other  commodities.  The  value 
of  the  latter  depends  both  on  the  quantity  and  on 
the  demand  ;  the  value  of  the  former  depends  on 
the  quantity  only,  the  demand  being  unbounded  : 
and  even  with  refpedl  to  quantity,  thefe  precious 
metals  are  lefs  variable  than  other  commodities. 

Gold  and  filver,  being  thus  fooner  fixed  in  their 
value  than  other  commodities,  become  a  ftandard 

for 


no 


MEN  IMDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY. 


[B.  i. 


for  valuing  every  other  commodity,  and,  confe- 
quently,  for  comparative  values.  A  bufhel  of 
wheat,  for  example,  being  valued  at  five  (hillings, 
a  yard  of  broad-cloth  at  fifteen,  their  comparative 
values  are  as  one  to  three. 

A  ftandard  of  values  is  efTential  to  commerce  ; 
.  and  therefore,  where  gold  and  filver  are  unknown, 
other  ftandards  are  eftabliftied  in  practice.  The 
only  ftandard  among  the  favages  of  North  Ameri- 
ca is  the  fkin  of  a  beaver*  Ten  of  thefe  are  given 
for  a  gun,  two  for  a  pound  of  gunpowder,  one  for 
four  pounds  of  lead,  one  for  fix  knives,  one  for  a 
hatchet,  fix  for  a  coat  of  woollen  cloth,  five  for  a 
petticoat,  and  one  for  a  pound  of  tobacco.  Some 
nations  in  Africa  employ  fhells,  termed  couries,  for 
a  ftandard. 

As  my  chief  view  in  this  fketch  is,  to  examine 
how  far  induftry  and  commerce  are  affedled  by 
the  quantity  of  circulating  coin,  I  prernife  the  fol- 
lowing plain  propofitions.  Suppofing,  firft,  the 
quantity  of  money  in  circulation,  and  the  quanti- 
ty of  goods  in  the  market,  to  continue  the  fame, 
the  price  will  rife  and  fall  with  the  demand.  For 
when  more  goods  are  demanded  than  the  market 
affords,  thofe  who  offer  the  higheft  price  will  be 
preferred  :  as,  on  the  other  hand,  when  the  goods 
brought  to  market  exceed  the  demand,  the  vend- 
ers have  no  refource  but  to  entice  purchafers  by  a 
low  price.  The  price  of  fifh,  flefh,  butter,  and 
cheefe,  is  much  higher  than  formerly ;  for  thefe 

being 


SK.  3.]  COMMERCE.  Ill 

being  now  the  daily  food  even  of  the  loweft  people, 
the  demand  for  them  is  greatly  increafed. 

Suppofing  a  fluctuation  in  the  quantity  of  goods 
only,  the  price  falls  as  the  quantity  increafes,  and 
rifes  as  the  quanity  decreafes.  The  farmer  whofe 
quantity  of  corn  is  doubled  by  a  favourable  fea- 
fon,  muft  fell  at  half  the  ufual  price  ;  becaufe  the 
purchafer,  who  fees  a  fuperfluity,  will  pay  no  more 
for  it.  The  contrary  happens  upon  a  fcanty  crop ; 
thofe  who  want  corn,  muft  ftarve,  or  give  the 
market-price,  however  high.  The  manufactures 
of  wool,  flax,  and  metals,  are  much  cheaper  than 
formerly ;  for  though  the  demand  has  increafed, 
yet  by  (kill  and  induftry  the  quantities  produced 
have  increafed  in  a  greater  proportion.  More  pot- 
herbs are  confumed  than  formerly  :  and  yet  by 
fkilful  culture  the  quantity  is  fo  much  greater  in 
proportion,  as  to  have  lowered  the  price  to  lefs 
than  one-half  of  what  is  was  eighty  years  ago. 

It  is  eafy  to  combine  the  quantity  and  demand, 
fuppoiing  a  fluctuation  of  both.  Where  the  quan- 
tity exceeds  the  ufual  demand,  more  people  will 
be  tempted  to  purchafe  by  the  low  price ;  and 
where  the  demand  rifes  conliderably  above  the 
quantity,  the  price  will  rife  in  proportion.  In  ma- 
thematical language,  thefe  propofitions  may  be  thus 
exprefled,  That  the  price  is  direfflyas  the  demand, 
and  inverfely  as  the  quantity. 

A  variation  in  the  quantity  of  circulating  coin  is 
the  mod  intricate  circumftance  ;  becaufe  it  never 

happens 


112  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [3.  I, 

happens  without  making  a  variation  in  the  demand 
for  goods,  and  frequently  in  the  quantity.     I  take 
the  liberty,  however,  to  fuppofe  that  there  is  no 
variation  but  in  the  quantity  of  circulating  coin .;. 
for  though  that  cannot  happen  in  reality,  yet  the 
refult  of  the  fuppolition  will  throw  light  upon 
what  really  happens :  the  fubjecl  is  involved,  and 
I  wifh  to  make  it  plain.     I  put  a  fimple  cafe,  that 
the  half  of  our  current  coin  is  at  once  fwept  away 
by  fome  extraordinary  accident.    This  at  firft  will 
embarrafs  our  internal  commerce,  as  the  vender 
will  infift  for  the  ufual  price,  which  now  cannot  be 
afforded.     But  the  error  of  fuch  demand  will  foon 
be  difcovered  ;  and  the  price  of  commodities,  after 
fome  fluctuation,  will  fettle  at  the  one-half  of  what 
it  was  formerly.     At  the  fame  time,  there  is  here 
no  downfal  in  the  value  of  commodities,  which 
cannot  happen  white  the  quantity  and  demand 
continue  unvaried.    The  purchafing  for  a  fixpence 
what  formerly  coil  a  milling,  makes  no  alteration 
in  the  value  of  the  thing  purchafed  ;  becaufe  a  fix- 
pence  is  equal  in  value  to  what  a  milling  was  for- 
merly.    In  a  word,  when  money  is  fcarce,  it  mufl 
bear  a  high  value  :  it  muft  in  particular  go  far  in 
the  purchafe  of  goods ;  which  we  exprefs  by  fay- 
ing, that  goods  are  cheap.     Put  next  the  cafe,  that 
by  fome  accident  our  coin  is  inftantly  doubled : 
the  refult  muft  be,  not  inftantaneous  indeed,  to 
double  the  price  of  commodities.  Upon  the  former 
fuppofition,  a  fixpence  is  in  effect  advanced  to  be 


SK.  3.]  COMMERCE. 

a  (hilling :  upon  the  prefent  fuppofition,  a  (hilling 
has  in  effect  funk  down  to  a  iixpence.  And  here 
again  it  ought  to  be  obferved,  that  though  the 
price  is  augmented,  there  is  no  real  alteration  in 
the  value  of  commodities.  A  bullock  that,  fome 
years  ago, could  have  been  purchafed  for  ten  pounds, 
will  at  prefent  yield  fifteen.  The  vulgar  ignorant- 
ly  think,  that  the  value  of  horned  cattle  has  arifen 
in  that  proportion.  The  advanced  price  may,  in 
fome  degree,  be  ocgafioned  by  a  greater  confump- 
tion  ;  but  it  is  chiefly  occafioned  by  a  greater 
quantity  of  money  in  circulation. 

Combining  all  the  circumflances,  the  refult  is, 
that  if  the  quantity  of  goods  and  of  money  conti- 
nue the  fame,  the  price  will  be  in  proportion  to  the 
demand.  If  the  demand  and  quantity  of  goods 
continue  the  fame,  the  price  will  be  in  proportion 
to  the  quantity  of  money.  And  if  the  demand  and 
quantity  of  money  continue  the  fame,  the  price 
will  fall  as  the  quantity  increafes,  and  rife  as  the 
quantity  dimmilhes. 

Thefe  fpeculative  notions  will  enable  us  with 
accuracy  to  examine,  how  induftry  and  commerce 
are  affected  by  variations  in  the  quantity  of  circu*- 
lating  coin,  It  is  evident,  that  arts  and  manufac- 
tures cannot  be  carried  on  to  any  extent  without 
coin.  Perfons  totally  employed  in  any  art  or  ma- 
nufacture require  wages  daily  or  weekly,  becaufe 
they  mud  go  to  market  for  every  neceffary  of  life. 
The  clothier,  the  tailor,  the  ihoemaker,  the  gar- 

Voi,.  I.  H  dener, 


JJ4  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

dejier,  the  farmer,  muft  employ  fervants  to  pre- 
pare their  goods  for  the  market ;  to  whom,  for 
that  reafon,  wages  ought  to  be  regularly  paid.  In 
a  word,  commerce  among  an  endlefs  number  of  in- 
dividuals, who  depend  on  each  other  even  for  ne- 
ceflaries,  would  be  inextricable  without  a  quanti- 
ty of  circulating  coin.  Money  may  be  juftly 
Conceived  to  be  the  oil,  that  lubricates  all  the 
fprings  and  wheels  of  a  great  machine,  and  pre- 
ferves  it  in  motion  *.  Suppofing  us  now  to  be  pro- 
vided with  no  more  of  that  precious  oil  than  is 
barely  fufficient  for  the  eafy  motion  of  our  induk 
try  and  manufactures,  a  diminution  of  the  neceffa- 
ry  quantity  muft  retard  them  :  our  induftry  and 
manufactures  muft  decay  ;  and  if  we  do  not  confine 
the  expence  of  living  to  our  prefent  circumftances, 
which  feldom  happens,  the  balance  of  trade  with 
foreign  nations  will  turn  againft  us,  and  leave  us 
no  refource  for  making  the  balance  equal  but  to  ex» 
port  our  gold  and  filver.  And  when  we  are  drain- 
ed of  thefe  metals,  farewell  to  arts  and  manufacr 
tures :  we  fliali  be  reduced  to  the  condition  of  fa- 

vages, 

*  Money  cannot  be  juftly  faid  to  be  deficient  where  there  is 
fufficiency  to  purchafe  every  commodity,  and  to  pay  for  every 
kind  of  labour  that  is  wanted.  Any  greater  quantity  is  hurt- 
ful to  commerce,  as  will  be  feen  afterward.  But  to  be  forced 
to  contract  debt  even  when  one  deals  prudently  and  profitably, 
and  confequently  to  be  fubjecled  to  legal  execution,  is  a  proof, 
by  no  means  ambiguous,  of  fcarcity  of  money,  which  till  of 
was  remarkably  the  cafe  in  Scotland. 


X 


SK.  3.]  COMMERCE.  JJJjj 

vages,  which  is,  that  each  individual  muft  depend 
entirely  on  his  own  labour  for  procuring  every  ne- 
ceflary  of  life.     The  confequences  of  the  balance 
turning  for  us,  are  at  firft  directly  oppofite  :  but  at 
the  long-run  come  to  be  the  fame  :   they  are  fweet 
in  the  mouth,  but  bitter  in  the  ftomach.     An  in- 
flux of  riches  by  this  balance,  roufes  our  activity. 
Plenty  of  money  elevates  our  fpirits,  and  infpires 
an  appetite  for  pleafure  :  we  indulge  a  tafte  for 
fhow  and  embellilhment,  become  hofpitable,  and 
refine  upon  the  arts  of  luxury.     Plenty  of  mo- 
ney is  a  prevailing  motive  even  with  the  mod  fe- 
date,  to  exert  themfelves  in  building,  in  hufband- 
ry,  in  manufactures,  and  in  other  folid  improve- 
ments.    Such  articles  require  both  hands  and  ma- 
terials, the  prices  of  which  are  raifed  by  the  addi- 
tional demand.     The  labourer  now  whofe  wages 
are  thus  raifed,  is  not  fatisfied  with  mere  necefla- 
ries,  but  infifts  for  conveniences,  the  price  of  which 
alfo  is  raifed   by  the  new  demand.     Iji  fhort,  in- 
creafe  of  money  raifes  the  price  of  every  commo- 
dity; partly  from  the  greater  quantity  of  money, 
and  partly  from  the  additional  demand  for  fupply- 
ing  artificial  wants.     Hitherto  a  delightful  view 
of  profperous  commerce :  but  behold  the  remote 
confequences.     High  wages  at  firft  promote  induf- 
try,  and  double  the  quantity  of  labour  :  but  the 
utmoft  exertion  of  labour  is  limited  within  certain 
bounds  \  and  a  perpetual  influx  of  gold  and  filver; 
will  not  for  ever  be  attended  with  a  proportional 

H  2  quantity 


Il6  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.1  [B.  I. 

quantity  of  work !  The  price  of  labour  will  rife  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  money  ,  but  the  pro- 
duce will  not  rife  in  the  fame  proportion  ;  and  for 
that  reafon  our  manufactures  will  be  dearer  than 
formerly.  Hence  a  difmal  fcene.  The  high  price 
at  home  of  our  manufactures  will  exclude  us  from 
foreign  markets  ;  for  if  the  merchant  cannot  draw 
there  for  his  goods  what  he  paid  at  home,  with 
fome  profit,  he  muft  abandon  foreign  commerce  al- 
together. And,  what  is  dill  more  difmal,  we  fhall 
be  deprived  even  of  our  own  markets  ;  for  in  fpite 
of  the  utmoft  vigilance,  foreign  commodities, 
cheaper  than  our  own,  will  be  poured  in  upon  us. 
The  laft  fcene  is  to  be  deprived  of  our  gold  and  lil- 
yer,  and  reduced  to  the  fame  miferable  ft^te  as  if 
the  balance  had  been  againft  us  from  the  begin.- 
ning. 

However  certain  it  may  be,  that  an  addition  tq 
the  quantity  of  money  muft  raife  the  price  of  la- 
bour and  of  manufactures,  yet  there  is  a  fact  that 
feems  to  contradict  the  proportion,  which  is,  that 
in  no  other  country  are  labour  and  manufactures 
fo  cheap  as  in  the  two  peninfulas  on  the  right  and 
left  of  the  Ganges,  though  in  no  other  country  is 
there  fuch  plenty  of  money.  To  account  for  this 
fingular  fact,  political  writers  fay,  that  money  is 
there  amaffed  by  the  Nabobs,  and  withdrawn  from 
circulation.  This  is  not  fatisfactory  :  the  chief  ex- 
portation from  thefe  peninfulas  is  their  manufac- 
tures, the  price  of  which  comes  firft  to  the  mer- 
chant 


SK.  3.]  COMMERCE. 

chant  and  manufacturer ;  and  how  can  that  happen 
without  raifing  the  price  of  labour  ?  Rice,  it  is 
true,  is  the  food  of  their  labouring  poor  ;  and  an 
acre  of  rice  yields  more  food  than  five  acres  of 
wheat :  but  the  cheapnefs  of  necefTaries,  though  it 
hath  a  confiderable  influence  in  keeping  down  the 
price  of  labour,  cannot  keep  it  conftantly  down,  in 
oppofition  to  an  overflowing  current  of  money. 
The  populoufnefs  of  thefe  two  countries  is  a  cir- 
cumftance  totally  overlooked.  Every  traveller  is 
amaled  how  fuch  fwarms  of  people  can  find  bread, 
however  fertile  the  foil  may  be.  Let  us  examine 
that  circumftance.  One  thing  is  evident,  that, 
were  the  people  fully  employed,  there  would  not 
be  a  demand  for  the  tenth  part  of  their  manufac- 
tures. Here,  then,  is  a  country  where  hand-la- 
bour is  a  drug  for  want  of  employment.  The  peo- 
ple, at  the  fame  time,  fober  and  inclining  to  in- 
duftry,  are  glad  to  be  employed  at  any  rate  ;  and 
whatever  pittance  is  gained  by  labour,  makes  al- 
ways fome  addition.  Hence  it  is,  that  in  thefe,  pe- 
ninfulas,  fuperfluity  of  hands  overbalancing  both 
the  quantity  of  money  and  the  demand  for  their 
manufactures,  ferves  to  keep  the  price  extremely 
low. 

What  is  now  faid  difcovers  an  exception  to  the 
propofition  above  laid  down.  It  holds  undoubted- 
ly in  Europe,  and  in  every  country  where  there  is 
work  for  all  the  people,  that  an  addition  to  the 
circulating  coin  raiies  the  price  of  labour  and  o£ 

H  3  manufactures ; 


*l8  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.        [B.  Is 

manufa&ures ;  but  fuch  addition  has  no  fenfible 
effect  in  a  country  where  there  is  a  fuperfluity  of 
hands,  who  are  always  difpofed  to  work  when  they 
find  employment. 

From,  thefe  premifes  it  is  evident,  that,  unlefs 
there  is  a  fuperfluity  of  hands,  manufactures  can 
never  flourifti  in  a  country  abounding  with  mines 
of  gold  and  filver.  This  in  effect  is  the  cafe  of 
Spain  :  a  conftant  influx  of  thefe  metals,  railing 
the  price  of  labour  and  manufactures,  has  depri- 
ved the  Spaniards  of  foreign  markets,  and  alfo  of 
their  own  ;  they  are  reduced  to  purchafe  from 
ftrangers  even  the  neceflaries  of  life*  What  a  dif- 
mal  condition  will  they  be  reduced  to,  when  their 
mines  come  to  be  exhaufted  !  The  Gold  coaft  in 
Guinea  has  its  name  from  the  plenty  of  gold  that 
is  found  there.  As  it  is  wafhed  from  the  hills  with 
the  foil  in  fmall  quantities,  every  one  is  on  the 
watch  for  it  ;  and  the  people,  like  gamefters,  def- 
pife  every  other  occupation.  They  are  according- 
ly lazy  and  poor.  The  kingdom  of  Fidah,  in  the 
neighbourhood,  where  there  is  np  gold,  is  popu- 
lous :  the  people  are  induftriou's,  deal  in  many 
branches  of  manufacture,  and  are  all  in  eafy  cir- 
cumftances. 

To  illuftrate  this  obfervation,  which  is  of  great 
importance,  I  enter  more  minutely  into  the  condi- 
tion of  Spain.  The  rough  materials  of  filk,  wpojjj 
and  iron,  are  produced  there  more  perfect  than  in 
any  other  country  \  and  yet  flourishing  manufac- 
tures 


.  3.]  COMMERCE.  JI9 

tures  of  thefe,  would  be  ruinous  to  it  in  its  prefent 
ftate.     Let  us  only  fuppofe,  that  Spain  itfelf  could 
furnifh  all  the  commodities  that  are  demanded  in 
its  American  territories,  what  would  be  the  confe- 
quence  ?     The  gold  and   filver  produced  by  that 
trade  would  circulate  in  Spain  :  money  would  be- 
come a  drug  :  labour  and  manufactures  would  rife 
to  a  high  price  ;  and  every  necefTary  of  life,  not 
excepting  manufactures  of  lilk,   wool,  and  iron, 
would  be  fmuggled  into  Spain,  the  high  price  there 
being  fufficient  to  overbalance  every  rifk  :  Spain 
would  be  left  without  induftry,  and  without  peo- 
ple.    Spain   was  actually  in  the  flouriming  ftate 
here  fuppofed  when  America  was  difcovered  :  the 
American  gold  and  filver  mines  enflamed  the  dif- 
eafe,  and  confequently  was  the  greateft  misfortune 
that  ever  befel  that  once  potent  kingdom.     The 
exportation  of  our  lilver  coin  to  the  Eaft  Indies,  fo 
loudly  exclaimed  againft  by  mallow  politicians,  is 
to  us,  on  the  contrary,  a  moft  fubftantial  bleffing : 
it  keeps  up  the  value  of  filver,  and  confequently 
leflens  the  value  of  labour  and  of  goods,  which 
enable  us  to  maintain  our  place  in  foreign  mar- 
kets.    Were  there  no  drain  for  our  filver,  its  quan- 
tity in  our  continent  would  fink  its  value  fo  much 
as  to   render   the   American   mines   unprofitable. 
Notwithstanding  the  great  flow  of  money  to  the 
Eaft  Indies,   many  mines  in  the  Weft  Indies  are 
given  up,  becaufe  they  afford  not  the  expence  of 
working  ;  and  were  the  value  of  filver  in  Europe 

H  4  brought 


120  [MSN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

brought  much  lower,  the  whole  filver  mines  in  the 
Weft  Indies  would  be  jibandoned.  Thus  our  Eaft- 

* 

India  commerce,  which  is  thought  ruinous  by 
many,  becaufe  it  is  a  drain  to  much  of  our  filver, 
is  for  that  very  reafon  profitable  to  all.  The 
Spaniards  profit  by  importing  it  into  Europe  ^ 
and  other  nations  profit,  by  receiving  it  for  their 
manufactures. 

How  ignorantly  do  people  ftruggle  againfl  the 
necelfary  chain  of  caufes  and  effeds  I  If  money 
do  not  overflow,  a  commerce  in  which  the  im- 
ports exceed  in  value  the  exports,  will  foon  drain 
a  nation  of  money,  and  put  an  end  to  its  induftry. 
Commercial  nations  for  that  reafon  ftruggle  hard 
for  the  balance  of  trade  ;  and  they  fondly  imagine, 
that  it  cannot  be  too  advantageous.  If  greatly 
advantageous  to  them,  it  muft  in  the  fame  pro- 
portion be  difadvantageousto  thofe  they  deal  with  ; 
which  proves  equally  ruinous  to  both.  They  fore- 
iee  indeed,  but  without  concern,  immediate  ruin 
to  thofe  they  deal  with  ;  but  they  have  no  inclina- 
tion to  forefee,  that  ultimately  it  muft  prove  equal- 
ly ruinous  to  themfelves.  It  appears  the  intention 
of  Providence  that  all  nations  fhould  benefit  by 
commerce  as  by  fun-fhine  ;  and  it  is  fo  ordered, 
that  an  unequal  balance  is  prejudicial  to  the  gam- 
ers as  well  as  to  the  lofers :  the  latter  are  imme- 
diate fufferers ;  but  no  lefs  fo,  ultimately,  are  the 
former.  This  is  one  remarkable  inftance,  among 
many,  of  providential  wifdom  in  inducting  hu- 
man 


SK.  3.]  COMMERCE.  121 

man  affairs,  independent  of  the  will  of  man,  and 
frequently  againft  his  will.  An  ambitious  nation, 
placed  advantageoufly  for  trade,  would  willingly 
engrofs  all  to  themfelves,  and  reduce  their  neigh- 
bours to  be  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water. 
But  an  invincible  bar  is  oppofed  to  fuch  ambition, 
making  an  overgrown  commerce  the  means  of  its 
own  deftrucliori.  The  commercial  balance  held 
by  the  hand  of  Providence,  is  never  permitted  to 
preponderate  much  to  one  fide  ;  and  every  nation 
partakes,  or  may  partake,  of  all  the  comforts  of 
life.  Engroffing  is  bad  policy  :  men  are  prompt- 
ed, both  by  intereft  and  duty,  to  fecond  the  plan  of 
Providence  ;  and  to  preferve,  as  near  as  poflible, 
equality  in  the  balance  of  trade. 

Upon  thefe  principles,  a  wife  people,  having  ac- 
quired a  ftock  of  money  fufficient  for  an  extenfive 
commerce,  will  tremble  at  a  balance  too  advan- 
tageous :  they  will  reft  fatisfied  with  an  equal  ba- 
lance, which  is  the  golden  mean.  A  hurtful  ba- 
lance may  be  guarded  againft  by  induftry  and  fru- 
gality :  but  by  what  means  is  a  balance  too  fa- 
vourable to  be  guarded  againft  ?  With  refpedl  to 
that  queftion,  it  is  not  the  quantity  of  gold  and 
filver  in  a  country  that  raifes  the  price  of  labour 
and  manufactures,  but  the  quantity  in  circulation  ; 
and  may  not  that  quantity  be  regulated  by  the 
ftate,  permitting  coinage  as  far  only  as  is  bene- 
ficial to  its  manufactures  ?  Let  the  regifters  of  fo- 
reign mints  be  carefully  watched,  in  order  that 

our 


112  MEN  INDEPENDENT  Otf  SOCIETY*  B.  I. 


our  current  coin  may  not  exceed  that  of  our  in- 
duftrious  neighbours.  There  will  always  be  a  de*- 
mand  for  the  furplus  of  our  bullion,  either  to  be 
exported  as  a  commodity,  or  to  be  purchafed  at 
home  for  plate  ;  which  cannot  be  too  much  en- 
couraged, being  ready  at  every  crifis  to  be  coined 
for  public  fervice.  The  fenate  of  Genoa  has  wife- 
ly burdened  porcelain  with  a  heavy  tax,  being  a 
foreign  luxury  ;  but  it  has  no  lefs  wifely  left  gold 
and  iilver  plate  free  ;  which  we  moft  un  wifely 
have  loaded  with  a  duty  *. 

The  accumulating  money  in  the  public  trea- 
fury,  anciently  the  practice  of  every  prudent  mo- 
narch, prevents  fuperfluity.  Lies  there  any  good 
objection  againil  that  practice  in  a  trading  nation, 
where  gold  and  filver  flow  in  with  impetuofity  ? 
A  great  fum  locked  up  by  a  frugal  King,  Henry 
VII.  of  England  for  example,  leflens  the  quantity 
of  money  in  circulation  :  profulion  in  a  fucceffbr, 
which  was  the  cafe  with  Henry  VIII.,  is  a  fpur  to 
induftry,  limilar  to  the  influx  of  gold  and  Iilver 
from  the  new  world.  The  canton  of  Berne,  by 
locking  up  money  in  its  treafury,  poflefTes  the  mi- 
raculous art  of  reconciling  immenfe  wealth  with 
frugality  and  cheap  labour.  A  climate  not  kindly, 
and  a  foil  not  naturally  fertile,  enured  the  inha- 
bitants to  temperance  and  to  virtue.  Patriotifm 
is  their  ruling  paffion  ;  they  confider  themfelves  as 

children 

f  •» 

*  That  duty  is  wifely  taken  away  by  a  late 


SK.  3.]  COMMERCE.  123 

^ 

children  of  the  republic  ;  are  fond  of  ferving  their 
mother :  and  hold  themfelves  fufficiently  recom- 
penfed  by  the  privilege  of  ferving  her.  The  pu- 
blic revenue  greatly  exceeds  the  expence  of  govern- 
ment :  they  carefully  lock  up  the  furplus  for  pur- 
chafing  land  when  a  proper  opportunity  offers  ; 
which  is  a  mining  proof  of  their  difintereftednefs  as 
well  as  of  their  wifdom.  By  that  politic  meafure, 
much  more  than  by  war,  the  canton  of  Berne,  from 
a  very  flender  origin,  is  now  far  fuperior  to  any  of 
the  other  cantons  in  extent  of  territory.  But  in 
what  other  part  of  the  globe  are  there  to  be  found 
minifters  of  ftate,  moderate  and  difinterefted  like 
the  citizens  of  Berne  !  In  the  hands  of  a  Britifh 
miniftry,  the  greateft  treafure  would  vanifh  in  the 
twinkling  of  an  eye;  and  do  more  mifchief,  by 
augmenting  money  in  circulation  above  what  is 
falutary,  than  formerly  it  did  good  by  confining  it 
within  moderate  bounds.  But  againft  fuch  a  mea- 
fure there  lies  an  objection  flill  more  weighty  than 
its  being  an  ineffectual  remedy  :  in  the  hands  of 
an  ambitious  prince,  it  would  prove  dangerous  to 
liberty. 

If  the  foregoing  meafures  be  not  relifhed,  I  can 
difcover  no  other  means  for  preferving  our  ftation 
in  foreign  markets,  but  a  bounty  on  exportation. 
The  fum  would  be  great :  but  the  preferving  our 
induflry  and  manufactures,  and  the  preventing  an 
influx  of  foreign  manufactures,  cannot  be  purchafed 
too  dear.  At  the  fame  time,  a  bounty  on  expor- 
tation 


124  MEN  INDEPENDENT  6F  SOCIETY.  [fi'.  J. 

*t 

tation  would  not  be  an  unfupportable  load  :  on  the 
contrary,  fuperfluity  of  wealth,  procured  by  a  ba- 
lance conftantly  favourable,  would  make  the  load 
abundantly  eafy.  A  proper  bounty  would  balance 
the  growing  price  of  labour  and  materials  at  home, 
and  keep  open  the  foreign  market.  By  neglecting 
that  falutary  meafure,  the  Dutch  have  loft  all  their 
manufactures  ;  a  negledl  that  has  greatly  benefited 
both  England  and  France.  The  Dutch  indeed  adt 
prudently  in  withholding  that  benefit  as  much  as 
poffible  from  their  powerful  neighbours :  to  pre- 
vent purchafing  from  them,  they  confume  the 
manufactures  of  India, 

The  manufactures  of  Spain,  once  extenfive,  have 
been  extirpated  by  their  gold  and  iilver  mines. 
Authors  afcribe  te  the  fame  caufe  the  decline  of 
their  agriculture  ;  but  erroneoufly  :  on  the  con- 
trary, fuperfluity  of  gold  and  filver  is  favourable 
to  agriculture,  by  raifmg  the  price  of  its  produc- 
tions. It  raifes  alfo,  it  is  true,  the  price  of  labour  -y 
but  Jhat  additional  expence  is  far  from  balancing 
the  profit  made  by  high  prices  of  whatever  the 
ground  produces.  Too  much  wealth  indeed  is  apt 
to  make  the  tenant  prefs  into  a  higher  rank  :  but 
that  is  eafily  prevented  by  a  proper  heightening 
of  the  rent,  fo  as  always  to  confine  the  tenant  with- 
in his  own  fphere. 

As  gold  and  filver  are  eflential  to  commerce,  fo- 
reign  and   domeftic,   feveral   commercial   nations 
have  endeavoured  moil  abfurdly  to  bar  the  expor- 
tation 


SK.  3.]  COMMERCE.  125 

tation  by  penal  laws  -?  forgetting  that  gold  and  fil- 
ver  will  never  be  exported  while  the  balance  of 
trade  is  on  their  fide,  and  that  they  muft  necefiarily 
be  exported  when  the   balance  is  againft  them. 
Neither  do  they  coniider,  that  if  a  people  continue 
induftrious,  they  cannot  be  long  afflicted  with  an 
unfavourable  .balance  ;    for  the  value   of  money, 
riling  in  proportion  to  its  fcarcity,  will  lower  the 
price  of  their  manufactures,  and  promote  exporta- 
tion :  the  balance  will  turn  in  their  favour ;  and 
money  will  flow  in,  till  by  plenty  its  value  be  re- 
duced to  a  par  with  that  of  neighbouring  nations. 
It  is  an  important  queftion,  Whether  a  bank, 
upon   the  whole,  be  friendly  to  commerce.      It 
is  undoubtedly  a   fpur   to  induftry,   like   a   new 
influx  of  money ;   but  then,   like  fuch  influx,  it 
raifes  the  price  of  labour  and  of  manufactures. 
Weighing  thefe  two  fads  in  a  juft  balance,  the  rer 
fult  feems  to  be,  that  in  a  country  where  money  is 
fcarce,  a  bank  properly  conftituted  is  a  great  blef- 
iing,  as  it  in  effect  increafes  the  quantity  of  money, 
and  promotes  induftry  and  manufactures  ;  but  that 
in  a  country  which  pofferTes  money  fufficient  for 
extenfive  commerce,  the  only  bank  that  will  not 
injure  foreign  commerce,   is  \yhat  is  erected  for; 
fupplying  the  merchant  with  ready  money  by  dif- 
counting  bills.      At  the  fame  time,  much  caution 
and   circumfpection   is   neceflary  with  refpect  to 
banks  of  both  kinds.    A  bank  credited  for  difcount- 
jng  bills,  ought  to  be  cojifined  $o  bills  $ eally  grant- 
ed 


126  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi,  I. 

ed  in  the  courfe  of  commerce  ;  rejecting  fictitious 
bills  drawn  merely  for  procuring  a  loan  of  money. 
And  with  refpect  to  a  bank  purpofely  creeled  for 
lending  money,  there  is  great  danger  of  extending 
credit  too  far ;  not  only  with  refpect  to  the  bank 
itfelf,  but  with  refpecl  to  the  nation  in  general,  by 
railing  the  price  of  labour  and  of  manufactures, 
which  is  the  never- failing  refult  of  top  great  plenty 
of  money,  whether  coin  or  paper. 

The  different  effects  of  plenty  and  fcarcity  of 
money,  have  not  efcaped  that  penetrating  genius, 
the  Sovereign  of  Pruffia.  Money  is  not  fo  plenti- 
ful in  his  dominions  as  to  make  it  necefTary  to 
withdraw  a  quantity  by  heaping  up  treafure.  He 
indeed  always  retains  in  his  treafury  fix  or  feven 
millions  Sterling  for  anfwering  unforefeen  demands : 
but  being  fenfible  that  the  withdrawing  from  cir- 
culation any  larger  fum  would  be  prejudicial  to 
commerce,  every  farthing  faved  from  the  necefTary 
expence  of  government,  is  laid  out  upon  buildings, 
upon  operas,  upon  any  thing  rather  than  cramp 
circulation.  In  tha,t  kingdom,  a  bank  eftablifhed 
for  lending  money  would  promote  induflry  and} 
manufactures. 


SKETCH 


SK.4»      !•  ARTS.  127 


SKETCH  IV. 

ORIGIN  AND  PROGRESS  OF  ARTS. 


SECTION  I. 

Ufeful  Arts. 

t 

SOME  ufeful  arts  mud  be  nearly  coeval  with 
the  human  race  ;  for  food,  clothing,  and  ha- 
bitation, even  in  their  original  fimplicity,  require 
fome  art!  Many  other  arts  are  of  fuch  antiquity 
as  to  place  the  inventors  beyond  the  reach  of  tra- 
dition. Several  have  gradually  crept  into  exiftence, 
without  an  inventor.  The  bufy  mind,  however, 
accuftomed  to  a  beginning  in  things,  cannot  reft 
till  it  find  or  imagine  a  beginning  to  every  art. 
Bacchus  is  faid  to  have  invented  wine ;  and  Sta- 
phylus  the  mixing  water  with  wine.  The  bow 
and  arrow  are  afcribed  by  tradition  to  Scythos,  fon 
of  Jupiter,  though  a  weapon  all  the  world  over. 
Spinning  is  fo  ufeful,  that  it  muft  be  honoured  with 
fome  illuilrious  inventor :  it  was  afcribed  by  the 
jpgyptians  to  their  goddefs  Ifis ;  by  the  Greeks  to 

Minerva ; 


128  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

Minerva  ;  by  the  Peruvians  to  Mamma  Ella,  wife 
to  their  firft  fovereign  Mango  Capac  ;  and  by  the 
Chinefe  to  the  wife  of  their  Emperor  Yao.  Mark 
here  by  the  way  a  connexion  of  ideas :  fpinning 
is  a  female  occupation,  and  it  muft  have  had  a  fe- 
male inventor  *, 

In  the  hunter-date,  men  are  wholly  employed 
upon  the  procuring  food,  clothing,  habitation,  and 
other  neceflkries ;  and  have  no  time  nor  zeal  for 
ftudying  conveniences.  The  eafe  of  the  fhepherd- 
ilate  affords  both  time  and  inclination  for  ufeful 
arts  ;  which  are  greatly  promoted  by  numbers 
who  are  relieved  by  agriculture  from  bodily  la- 
bour: the  foil,  by  gradual  improvements  in  huf- 
bandry,  affords  plenty  with  lefs  labour  than  at 
firft  ;  and  the  furplus  hands  are  employed,  firft,  in 
•ufeful  arts,  and,  next,  in  thofe  of  ^mufement.  Arts 
accordingly  make  the  quickeft  progrefs  in  a  fertile 
foil,  which  produces  plenty  with  little  labour. 
Arts  flourifhed  early  in  Egypt  and  Chalde^,  coun- 
tries extremely  fertile. 

When  men,  who  originally  lived  in  caves  like 
fome  wild  animals,  began  tg  think  of  a  more  com-r 

modious 

> 

*  The  Ilinois  are  induftrious  above  all  their  American 
neighbours,  Their  women  are  neat-handed  :  they  fpin  the 
wool  of  their  horned  cattle,  which  is  as  fine  as  that  of  Englifti 
fheep.  The  fluffs  made  of  it  are  dyed  black,  yellow,  or  red, 
and  cut  into  garments  fewed  with  roe-buck  finews.  After 
drying  thefe  finews  in  the  fun,  and  beating  them,  they  draw 
out  threads  as  white  an4  fine  as  any  that  are  made  of  fla.x> 
but  much  tougher. 


SK.  4*  §  I.]  ARTS.  JC29 

modious  habitation,  their  firft  houfes  were  ex- 
tremely limple  ;  witnefs  thofe  of  the  Canadian  fa- 
vages,  than  which  none  can  be  more  limple,  even 
at  prefent.  Their  houfes,  fays  Charlevoix,  are 
built  with  lefs  art,  neatnefs,  and  folidity,  than 
thofe  of  the  beavers ;  having  neither  chimneys  nor 
windows :  a  hole  only  is  left  in  the  roof,  for  ad- 
mitting light  and  emitting  fmoke.  That  hole  mull 
be  flopped  when  it  rains  or  fnows  ;  and,  of  courfe', 
the  fire  is  put  out,  that  the  inhabitants  may  not 
be  ilifled  with  fmoke.  To  have  palfed  fo  many 
ages  in  that  manner  without  thinking  of  any  im- 
provement, mows  how  greatly  men  are  influenced 
by  cuflom.  The  blacks  of  Jamaica  are  ilill  more 
rude  in  their  buildings :  their  huts  are  erected 
without  even  a  hole  in  the  roof;  and,  according- 
ly, at  home  they  breathe  nothing  but  fmoke. 

Revenge  produced  early  hoftile  weapons.  The 
club  and  the  dart  are  obvious  inventions :  not  fo 
the  bow  and  arrow  ;  and  for  that  reafon  it  is 
not  eafy  to  fay  how  that  weapon  came  to  be  uni* 
verfal.  As  iron  differs  from  other  metals,  being 
feldom  found  pure,  it  was  a  late  difcovery  :  at  the 
liege  of  Troy,  fpears,  darts,  and  arrows,  were 
headed  with  brafs.  Meneflheus,  who  fucceeded 
Thefeus  in  the  kingdom  of  Athens,  and  led  fifty 
Ihips  to  the- liege  of  Troy,  was  reputed  the  firft 
who  marlhalled  an  army  in  battle-array.  Inftru- 
ments  of  defence  are  made  neceflary  by  thofe  of 
offence.  Trunks  of  trees,  interlaced  with  branches, 

VOL.  I.  I  and 


,^^ 

I3O  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

and  fupported  with  earth,  made  the  firft  fortifica- 
tions ;  to  which  fucceeded  a  wall  finifhed  with  a 
parapet  for  (hooting  arrows  at  befiegers.  As  a  pa- 
rapet covers  but  half  of  the  body,  holes  were  left 
in  the  wall  from  fpace  to  fpace,  no  larger  than  to 
give  paflage  to  an  arrow.  Befiegers  had  no  reme- 
dy but  to  beat  down  the  wall :  a  battering  ram 
was  firft  ufed  by  Pericles  the  Athenian,  and  per- 
fected by  the  Carthaginians  at  the  liege  of  Gadesu 
To  oppofe  that  formidable  machine,  the  wall  was 
built  with  advanced  parapets  for  throwing  flones 
and  fire  upon  the  enemy,  which  kept  him  at  a  di- 
flance.  A  wooden  booth  upon  wheels,  and  pufhed 
clofe  to  the  wall,  iecured  the  men  who  wrought 
the  battering  ram.  This  invention  was  rendered 
ineffectual,  by  furrounding  the  wall  with  a  deep 
and  broad  ditch.  Befiegers  were  reduced  to  the 
neceffity  of  inventing  engines  for  throwing  itones 
and  javelins  upon  thofe  who  occupied  the  advan- 
ced parapets,  in  order  to  give  opportunity  for  fill- 
ing up  the  ditch  ;  and  ancient  hiftories  expatiate 
upon  the  powerful  operation  of  the  catapulta  and 
balifta.  Thefe  engines  fuggefted  a  new  invention 
for  defence :  inflead  of  a  circular  wall,  it  was  built 
with  f alien t  angles,  like  the  teeth  of  a  faw,  in  or- 
der that  one  part  might  flank  another.  That  form 
of  a  wall  was  afterwards  improved,  by  railing 
round  towers  upon  the  falient  angles  ;  and  the 

towers  were  improved  by  making  them  fquare. 

*'±  \  jiv/  T  j' 

The  ancients  had  no  occafion  for  any  form  more 

complete, 


SK.  4.  $  I.]  ARTS.  13* 

complete,  being  fufficient  for  defending  againft  all 
the  miffile  weapons  at  that  time  known*  The  in- 
vention of  cannon  required  a  variation  in  military 
architecture.  The  firfl  cannons  were  made  of  iron 
bars,  forming  a  concave  cylinder,  united  by  rings 
of  copper.  The  firft  cannon  balls  were  of  ftone, 
which  required  a  very  large  aperture.  A  cannon 
was  reduced  to  a  fmaller  fize,  by  ufing  iron  for  balls 
inftead  of  ftone  ;  and  that  deftruclive  engine  was 
perfected  by  making  it  of  caft  metal.  To  relift  its 
force,  baftions  were  invented,  horn- works,  crown- 
works,  half- moons,  &c.  &c. ;  and  military  archi- 
tecture became  a  fyftem,  governed  by  principles 
and  general  rules.  But  all  in  vain  :  it  has  indeed 
produced  fortifications  that  have  made  lieges  hor- 
ridly bloody ;  but  artillery,  at  the  fame  time,  has 
been  carried  to  fuch  perfection,  and  the  art  of  at- 
tack fo  improved,  that  no  fortification,  it  is  thought, 
can  be  rendered  impregnable.  The  only  impreg- 
nable defence,  is  good  neighbourhood  among  weak, 
princes,  ready  to  unite,  whenever  one  of  them  is 
attacked  by  a  fuperior  force.  And  nothing  tends 
more  effectually  to  promote  fuch  union,  than  con- 
ftant  experience  that  fortifications  cannot  be  re- 
lied on. 

With  refpect  to  naval  architecture,  the  firfl  vef- 
fels  were  beams  joined  together,  and  covered  with 
planks,  pufhed  along  with  poles  in  fhallow  water, 
and  in  deep  water  drawn  by  animals  on  the  more. 
To  thefe  fucceeded  trunks  of  trees  cut  hollow, 

I  2  termed 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY;     «      [fi.  I. 

termed  by  the  Greeks  fnonoxyles.  The  next  were 
planks  joined  together  in  form  of  a  monoxyle. 
The  thought  of  imitating  a  fifh  advanced  naval 
architecture.  A  prow,  was  conftru&ed  in  imita- 
tion  of  the  head,  a  ftern  with  a  moveable  helm  in 
imitation  of  the  tail,  and  oars  in  imitation  of  the 
fins*  Sails  were  at  laft  added  ;  which  invention 
was  fo  early  that  the  contriver  is  unknown.  Be- 
fore the  year  1545,  mips  of  war  in  England  had 
no  port-holes  for  guns,  as  at  prefent  :  they  had 
Only  a  few  cannon  placed  on  the  upper-  deck. 

When  Homer  compofed  his  poems,  at  leaft  du- 
ring the  Trojan  war,  the  Greeks  had  not  acquired 
the  art  of  gelding  cattle  :  they  ate  the  flefh  of 
bulls  and  of  rams.  Kings  and  princes  killed  and 
cooked  their  visuals  :  fpoons,  forks,  table-cloths, 
napkins,  were  unknown.  They  fed  fitting,  the 
cuftom  of  reclining  upon  beds  being  afterward  co- 
pied from  Afia  \  and,  like  other  favages,  they  were 
great  eaters.  At  the  tiftie  mentioned,  they  had  no 
chimneys,  nor  candles,  nor  lamps.  Torches  are 
frequently  mentioned  by  Homer,  but  lamps  never  : 
a  vafe  was  placed  upon  a  tripod,  in  which  was 
burnt  dry  wood  for  giving  light.  Locks  and  keys 
were  not  common  at  that  time.  Bundles  were  fe- 
cured  with  ropes  intricately  combined  #  ;  and 
hence  the  famous  Gordian  knot.  Shoes  and  Hoc- 
kings  were  not  early  known  among  them,  nor  but- 
tons, nor  faddles,  nor  ftirrups.  Plutarch  reports, 


Odyfley,  b.  8.  1.483.  Pope's  tranflation. 


SK.  4.  §  I.]  ARTS.  133 

that  Gracchus  caufed  ftones  to  be  eredted  along 
the  highways  leading  from  Rome,  for  the  conve- 
nience of  mounting  a  horfe  ;  for  at  that  time  ftir- 
rups  were  unknown  in  Rome,  though  an  obvious 
invention.  Linen  for  fhirts  was  not  ufed  in  Rome 
for  many  years  after  the  government  became  def- 
potic.  Even  fo  late  as  the  eighth  century,  it  was 
not  common  in  Europe.  We  are  informed  by  He- 
rodotus, that  the  Lydians  were  reputed  to  be  the 
firft  who  coined  gold  and  filver  mon.ey.  This  was 
probably  after  the  Trojan  war ;  for  during  that 
war  the  Greeks  and  Trojans  trafficked  by  barter,  as 
Homer  relates  :  Priam  weighs  out  the  ten  talents 
of  gold  which  were  the  ranfom  of  his  fon's  body* 
Thales,  one  of  the  feven  wife  men  of  Greece 
about  fix  hundred  years  before  Chrjft,  invented 
the  following  method  for  meafuring  the  height  of 
an  Egyptian  pyramid.  He  watched  the  progrefs 
of  the  fun,  till  his  body  and  its  fhadow  were  of  the 
fame  length ;  and  at  that  inftant  meafured  the  fha- 
dow of  the  pyramid,  which  consequently  gave  its 
height.  Amaiis  King  of  Egypt,  prefent  at  the 
operation,  thought  it  a  wonderful  effort  of  genius ; 
and  the  Greeks  admired  it  highly.  Geometry 
muft  have  been  in  its  cradle  at  that  time.  Anaxi- 
rnander,  fome  ages  before  Chrift,  made  the  firft 
map  of  the  earth,  as  far  as  then  known.  About 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  fpe&acles  for 
afiifting  the  fight  were  invented  by  "Alexander 
Sp.ina,  a  monk  of  Pifa.  So  ufeful  an  inventjpn 

1 3  canno£ 


134  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

cannot  be  too  much  extolled.  At  a  period  of  life 
when  the  judgment  is  in  maturity,  and  reading  is 
of  great  benefit,  the  eyes  begin  to  grow  dim.  One 
cannot  help  pitying  the  condition  of  bookifh  men 
before  that  invention,  many  of  whom  muft  have 
had  their  fight  greatly  impaired,  while  their  ap- 
petite for  reading  was  in  vigour. 

The  origin  and  progrefs  of  writing  make  a  ca- 
pital article  in  the  hiftory  of  arts.  To  write,  or, 
in  other  words,  to  exhibit  thoughts  to  the  eye, 
was  early  attempted  in  Egypt  by  hieroglyphics. 
But  thefe  were  not  confined  to  Egypt :  figures 
compofed  of  painted  feathers  were  ufed  in  Mexico 
to  exprefs  ideas  ;  and  by  fuch  figures  Montezuma 
received  intelligence  of  the  Spanilh  invafion  :  in 
Peru,  the  only  arithmetical  figures  known  were 
knots  of  various  colours,  which  ferved  to  caft  up 
accounts.  The  fecond  ftep  naturally  in  the  pro- 
grefs of  the  art  of  writing,  is,  to  reprefent  each 
word  by  a  mark,  termed  a  letter,  which  is  the  Chi- 
nefe  way  of  writing  :  they  have  about  11,000  of 
thefe  marks  or  letters  in  common  ufe  ;  and,  in 
matters  of  fcience,  they  employ  to  the  number  of 
60,000.  Our  way  is  far  more  eafy  and  commo- 
dious :  inftead  of  marks  or  letters  for  words,  which 
are  infinite,  we  reprefent  by  marks  or  letters,  the 
articulate  founds  that  compofe  words  :  thefe  founds 
exceed  not  thirty  in  number ;  and  confequently 
the  fame  number  of  marks  or  letters  are  fufficient 
for  writing.  It  was  a  lucky  movement  to  pafs  at 

"  T  * 

'-  '  ft  f  '•""•.  •  r 

pne 


SK.  4.  §  I.]  ARTS.  "135 

one  ftep  from  hieroglyphics,  the  moft  imperfecl: 
mode  of  writing,  to  letters  reprefenting  founds, 
the  moft  perfect ;  for  there  is  no  appearance  that 
the  Chinefe  mode  was  ever  pra&ifed  in  this  part 
of  the  world.  With  us,  the  learning  to  read  is  fo 
eafy  as  to  he  acquired  in  childhood ;  and  we  are 
ready  for  the  fciences  as  foon  as  the  mind  is  ripe 
for  them :  the  Chinefe  mode,  on  the  contrary,  is 
an  unfurmountable  obftru&ion  to  knowledge  ;  he- 
caufe,  it  being  the  work  of  a  lifetime  to  read  with 
eafe,  no  time  remains  for  ftudying  the  fciences. 
Our  cafe  was  in  fome  meafure  the  fame  at  the  re- 
ftoration  of  learning  :  it  required  an  age  to  be  fa- 
miliarized with  Greek  and  Latin  ;  and  too  little 
time  remained  for  gathering  knowledge  from  books 
compofed  in  thefe  languages.  The  Chinefe  (land 
upon  a  more  equal  footing  with  refpecl  to  arts  ; 
for  thefe  may  be  acquired  by  imitation  or  oral 
inftru&ion,  without  books. 

The  art  of  writing  with  letters  reprefenting 
founds,  is  of  all  inventions  the  moft  important,  and 
the  leaft  obvious.  The  way  of  writing  in  China 
makes  fo  naturally  the  fecond  ftep  in  the  progrefs 
of  the  art,  that  our  good  fortune  in  Humbling  up- 
on a  way  fo  much  more  perfect  cannot  be  fuffi- 
ciently  admired,  when  to  it  we  are  indebted  for 
our  fuperiority  in  literature  above  the  Chinefe. 
Their  way  of  writing  will  for  ever  continue  an 
unfurmountable  obftruction  to  fcience  ;  for  it  is  fo 
rivetted  by  inveterate  practice,  that  the  difficulty 

1 4  would 


136  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

i!)ji*i*J  rnjii  , 

would  not  be  greater  to  make  them  change  their 
language  than  their  letters.  Hieroglyphics  were 
a  fort  of  writing,  fo  miferably  imperfect,  as  to 
make  every  improvement  welcome  ;  but  as  the 
Chinefe  make  a  tolerable  fhift  with  their  own  let- 

\*'i ; ' 

ters,  they  never  dream  of  any  improvement. 
Hence  it  may  be  pronounced  with  great  certainty, 
that  in  China,  the  fciences,  though  Hill  in  infancy, 
will  never  arrive  at  maturity. 

There  is  no  appearance  that  writing  was  known 
in  Greece  fo  early  as  the  time  of  Homer ;  for  in 
none  of  his  works  is  there  any  mention  of  it.  This, 
it  is  true,  is  but  negative  evidence  ;  but  negative 
evidence  mud  always  command  our  affent,  where 
no  pofitive  evidence  Hands  in  oppoiition.  If  it 
was  known,  it  mull  have  been  newly  introduced, 
and  ufed  probably  to  record  laws,  religious  pre- 
cepts, or  other  fhort  compolitions.  Cyphers,  in- 
vente$  in  Hindoftan,  were  brought  into  France 
from  Arabia  about  the  end  of  the  tenth  century. 
The  art  of  printing  made  a  great  revolution  in 
learning.  In  the  days  of  William  the  Conqueror, 
books  were  extremely  fcarce.  Grace  Countefs  of 
Anjou  paid  for  a  collection  of  homilies  two  hun- 
dred fheep,  a  quarter  of  wheat,  another  of  rye, 
and  a  third  of  millet,  befides  a  number  of  martern 
Ikins. 

JIulbandry  made  a  progrefs  from  Egypt  to 
Greece,  and  from  Africa  to  Italy.  Mago,  a  Car- 
thaginian general,  compofed  twenty- eight  books 


SK.4'  §  !•]  ARTS.  137 

upon  hufbandry,  which  were  tranilated  into  Latin 
by  order  of  the  Roman  fenate.  From  thefe  fine 
and  fertile  countries,  it  made  its  way  to  colder  and 
lefs  kindly  climates.  According  to  that  progrefs, 
agriculture  muft  have  been  pra&ifed  more  early  in 
France  than  in  Britain ;  and  yet  the  Englifh,  at 
prefent,  make  a  greater  figure  in  that  art  than  the 
French,  inferiority  in  foil  and  climate  notwith- 
ftanding.  Before  hufbandry  became  an  art  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe,  the  French  noblefie  had 
deferted  the  country,  fond  of  fociety  in  a  town- 
life.  Landed  gentlemen  in  England,  more  rough, 
and  delighting  more  in  hunting  and  other  country 
amufements,  found  leifure  to  pradife  agriculture. 
Skill  in  that  art  proceeded  from  them  to  their  te- 
nants, who  now  profecute  hufbandry  with  fuccefs, 
though  their  landlords  have  generally  betaken 
themfeves  to  a  town- life. 

When  Caefar  invaded  Britain,  agriculture  was 
unknown  in  the  inner  parts:  the  inhabitants  fed 
upon  milk  and  flefh,  and  were  clothed  with  (kins, 
Hollinfhed,  whc^vwrote  in  the  period  of  Queen  Eli- 
fabeth,  defer  ib2$  the  rudenefs  of  the  preceding  ge- 
neration in  the  arts  of  life  :  "  There  were  very 
"  few  chimneys  even  in  capital  towns :  the  fire 
"  was  laid  to  the  wall,  and  the  fmoke  ifiued  out 
"  at  the  roof,  or  door,  or  window.  The  houfes 
"  were  wattled  and  plaftered  over  with  clay  ;  and 
"  all  the  furniture  and  uteniils  were  of  wood. 
1*  The  people  flept  on  ftraw-pallets,  with  a  log  of 

*'  wood 


138  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  f».  I. 

•»/  ju<  •>  > 

^  wood  for  a  pillow."  Henry  II.  of  France,  at  the 
marriage  of  the  Duchefs  of  Savoy,  wore  the  firfl 
filk  ftockings  that  were  made  in  France.  Queen 
Elifabeth,  the  third  year  of  her  reign,  received  in 
a  prefent  a  pair  of  black  filk  knit  ftockings  ;  and 
Dr  Howel  reports,  that  me  never  wore  cloth  hofe 
any  more.  Before  the  conqueft,  there  was  a  tim- 
ber bridge  upon  the  Thames  between  London  and 
Southwark,  which  was  repaired  by  King  William 
Rufus,  and  was  burnt  by  accident  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  II.  anno  1176.  At  that  time  a  ftone  bridge 
in  place  of  it  was  projected,  but  not  finifhed  till 
the  year  1212.  The  bridge  of  Notre-Dame  over 
the  Seine  in  Paris,  was  firft  of  wood.  It  fell  down 
anno  1499  ;  and,  as  there  was  not  in  France  a  man 
who  would  undertake  to  rebuild  it  of  ftone,  an  Ita- 
lian cordelier  was  employed,  whofe  name  was  Jo- 
conde,  the  fame  upon  whom  Sanazarius  made  the 
following  pun  : 


dus  gemlmtm  impofuit  tibi,  Seqvana,  pontem  } 
Hunc  injure  potes  dicere  pontificem. 


Two  Genoefe,  Stephen  Turquet  ^nd  Bartholomew 
JJarres,  laid  in  the  1536  the  foundation  of  the  filk 
manufacture  at  Lyons.  The  art  of  making  glafs 
was  imported  from  France  into  England  anno  674, 
for  the  ufe  of  monafteries.  Glafs  windows  in  pri- 
vate houfes  were  rare  even  in  the  twelfth  century, 
and  held  to  be  great  luxury.  King  Edward  III. 
Jnvited  three  clockmakers  of  Delft,  in  JHolland  to 

fettle 


SK.  4.  §  I.]  ARTS.  139 

fettle  in  England.    In  the  former  part  of  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  there  did  not  grow  in  England 
cabbage,  carrot,  turnip,  or  other  edible  root ;  and 
it  has  been  noted,  that  even  Queen  Catharine  her- 
felf  could  not  command  a  falad  for  dinner,  till  the 
King  brought  over  a  gardener  from  the  Nether- 
lands.    About  the  fame  time,  the  artichoke,  the 
apricot,  the  damafk  rofe,  made  their  firft  appear- 
ance in  England.     Turkeys,  carps,  and  hops,  were 
firft  known  there  in  the  year  1524.     The  currant- 
Ihrub  was  brought  from  the  iiland  of  Zant  anno 
J533  >   and  in  the  year  1540,  cherry-trees  from 
Flanders  were  firft  planted  in  Kent.      It  was  in 
the  year  1563  that  knives  were  firft  made  in  Eng- 
land.    Pocket- watches  were  brought  there  from 
Germany  anno  1577.    About  the  year  1580,  coaches 
were  introduced  ;  before  which  time  Queen  Elifa- 
beth,  on  public  occafions,  rode  behind  her  cham- 
berlain.     A  faw-mill  was   erected  near  London 
anno  1633,  but  afterward  demoliihed,  that  it  might 
not  deprive  the  labouring  poor  of  employment, 
How  crude  was  the  fcience  of  politics  even  in  that 
late  age?    CorTee-houfes  were  opened  in  London 
no  fooner  than  the  year  1652. 

People  who  are  ignorant  of  weights  and  mea- 
fures  fall  upon  odd  Ihifts  to  fupply  the  defect. 
Howel  Dha  Prince  of  Wales,  who  died  in  the 
year  948,  was  a  capital  lawgiver.  One  of  his  laws 
is,  "  If  any  one  kill  or  fteal  the  cat  that  guards  the 
*'  Prince's  granary,  he  forfeits  a  milch  ewe  with 

"her 


I4O  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I, 

"  her  lamb ;  or  as  much  wheat  as  will  cover  the 
"  cat  when  fufpended  by  the  tail,  the  head  touch- 
"  ing  the  ground."  By  the  fame  lawgiver  a  fine 
of  twelve  cows  is  enacted  for  a  rape  committed 
upon  a  maid,  eighteen  for  a  rape  upon  a  matron. 
If  the  fact  be  proved  after  being  denied,  the  cri- 
minal for  his  falfity  pays  as  many  millings  as  will 
cover  the  woman's  polteriors.  The  meafure  of 
the  mid  ftream  for  falmon  among  our  forefathers 
is  not  lefs  rifible.  It  is,  that  the  mid  ftream  mail 
be  fo  wide  as  that  a  fwine  may  turn  itfelf  in  it, 
without  touching  either  fide  with  its  fnout  or  tail. 

The  Negroes  of  the  kingdom  of  Ardrah,  in 
Guinea,  have  made  great  advances  in  arts.  Their 
towns,  for  the  moft  part,  are  fortified,  and  con- 
nected by  great  roads,  kept  in  good  repair.  Deep 
canals  from  river  to  river  are  commonly  filled  with 
canoes,  for  pleafure  fome,  and  many  for  bufinefs. 
The  vallies  are  pleafant,  producing  wheat,  millet, 
yams,  potatoes,  lemons,  oranges,  cocoa-nuts,  and 
dates.  The  marfhy  grounds  near  the  fea  are  drain- 
ed ;  and  fait  is  made  by  evaporating  the  ftagnating 
water.  Salt  is  carried  to  the  inland  countries  by 
the  great  canal  of  Ba,  where  numberlefs  canoes 
are  daily  feen  going  with  fait,  and  returning  with 
gold-duft  or  other  commodities. 

In  all  countries  where  the  people  are  barbarous 
and  illiterate,  the  progrefs  of  arts  is  wofully  flow. 
It  is  vouched  by  an  old  French  poem,  that  the 
virtues  of  the  loadftone  were  known  in  France  be- 

forq 


SK.  4.    §1.}  ARTS. 

fore  the  1180.  The  mariner's  compafs  was  ex- 
hibited at  Venice  anno  1260  by  Paulus  Venetus,  as 
his  own  invention.  John  Goya  of  Amalphi  was 
the  firft  who,  many  years  afterward,  ufed  it  in  na- 
vigation ;  and  alfo  pafled  for  being  the  inventor. 
Though  it  was  ufed  in  China  for  navigation  long 
before  it  was  known  in  Europe,  yet  to  this  day  it  is 
not  fo  perfect  as  in  Europe.  Inflead  of  fufpend- 
ing  it  in  order  to  make  it  adl  freely,  it  is  placed 
upon  a  bed  of  fand,  by  which  every  motion  of  the 
fhip  difturbs  its  operation.  Hand-mills,  termed 
querns,  were  early  ufed  for  grinding  corn  ;  and 
when  corn  came  to  be  raifed  in  greater  quantity, 
horfe-miUs  fucceeded.  Water-mills  for  grinding 
corn  are  defcribed  by  Vitruvius*.  Wind- mills 
were  known  in  Greece  and  in  Arabia  as  early  as 
the  feventh  century  ;  and  yet  no  mention  is  made 
of  them  in  Italy  till  the  fourteenth  century.  That 
they  were  not  known  in  England  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  appears  from  a  houfehold-book  of  an 
Earl  of  Northumberland,  cotemporary  with  that 
King,  ftating  an  allowance  for  three  mill-horfes, 
"  two  to  draw  in  the  mill,  and  one  to  carry  fturF 
"  to  the  mill  and  fro."  Water-mills  for  corn  muft 
in  England  have  been  of  a  later  date.  The  an- 
cients had  mirror-glafTes,  and  employed  glafs  to 
imitate  cryftal  vafes  and  goblets :  yet  they  never 
thought  of  ufing  it  in  windows.  In  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  Venetians  were  the  only  people  who 

had 
*  L.  10.  cap.  ID, 


142  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  B.  I.] 

had  the  art  of  making  cryftal-glafs  for  mirrors. 
A  clock  that  ftrikes  the  hours  was  unknown  in 
Europe  till  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  And 
hence  the  cuftom  of  employing  men  to  proclaim 
the  hours  during  night,  which  to  this  day  conti- 
nues in  Germany,  Flanders,  and  England.  Ga- 
lileo was  the  firfl  who  conceived  an  idea  that  a 
pendulum  might  be  ufeful  for  meafuring  time ; 
and  Hughens  was  the  firft  who  put  the  idea  in 
execution,  by  making  a  pendulum  clock.  Hook, 
in  the  year  1660,  invented  a  fpiral  fpring  for  a 
watch,  though  a  watch  was  far  from  being  a  new 
invention.  Paper  was  made  no  earlier  than  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  the  invention  of  print- 
ing was  a  century  later.  Silk  manufactures  were 
long  eflablimed  in  Greece  before  lilk- worms  were 
introduced  there.  The  manufacturers  were  pro- 
vided with  raw  lilk  from  Perfia :  but  that  com- 
merce being  frequently  interrupted  by  war,  two 
monks,  in  the  reign  of  Juftinian,  brought  eggs  of 
the  lilk- worm  from  Hindoftan,  and  taught  their 
countrymen  the  method  of  managing  them.  The 
art  of  reading  made  a  very  flow  progrefs.  To 
encourage  that  art  in  England,  the  capital  punifh- 
ment  for  murder  was  remitted,  if  the  criminal 
could  but  read,  which  in  law-language  is  termed 
benefit  of  clergy.  One  would  imagine  that  the  art 
muft  have  made  a  very  rapid  progrefs  when  fo 
greatly  favoured  :  but  there  is  a  fignal  proof  of 
the  contrary  ;  for  fo  fmall  an  edition  of  the  Bible 

as 


SK.IV.  §  i.]  ARTS:  143 

as  fix  hundred  copies,  tranflated  into  Englifh  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  was  not  wholly  fold  off  in 
three  years.  The  people  of  England  muft  have 
been  profoundly  ignorant  in  Queen  Elizabeth's 
time,  when  a  forged  claufe  added  to  the  twen- 
tieth article  of  the  Englifh  creed  pafTed  unnoticed 
till  about  forty  years  ago*.  The  Emperor  Ro- 
dolphus,  anno  1281,  appointed  all  public  acls  to 
be  written  in  the  German  language,  inftead  of 
Latin  as  formerly.  This  was  imitated  in  France, 

but  not  till  the  year  1539.     In  Scotland  to   this 

• 

day  charters,  feilins,  precepts  of  Clare  conftat,  and 
fome  other  land-titles,  continue  to  be  in  La- 
tin, or  rather  in  a  fort  of  jargon.  Ignorance  is  the 
mother  of  devotion,  to  the  church  and  to  law^ 
yers. 

The 


*  In  the  a&  I3th  Elizabeth,  anno  1571,  confirming  the 
thirty-nine  articles  of  ,the  church  of  England,  thefe  articles  are 
not  engrdfTed,  but  referred  to  as  comprifed  in  a  printed  bookj 
intitled,  Articles  agreed  to  ly  the  ivholf  clergy,  in  the  convocation 
bolden  at  London  1562.  The  forged  claufe  is,  "  The  church 
4<  has  power  to  decree  rites  and  ceremonies,  and  authority  in 
'*'  controvei  fies  of  faith."  That  claufe  is  not  in  the  articles 
referred  to  ;  nor  the  flighted  hint  of  any  authority  with  re- 
fpe&  to  matters  of  faith.  In  the  fame  year  1571,  the  articles 
•were  printed  both  in  Latin  and  Englifh,  precifely  as  in  the 
year  1562.  But  foon  after  came  out  fpurious  editions,  in 
which  the  faid  claufe  was  foifted  into  the  twentieth  article, 
and  continues  fo  to  this  day.  A  forgery  fo  impudent  would 
not  pafs  at  prefent ;  and  its  fuccefs  (hows  great  ignorance  in 
the  people  of  England  at  that  period. 


144  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

The  difcoveries  of  the  Portuguefe  in  the  weft 
coafl  of  Africa,  is  a  remarkable  inftance  of  the  flow 

* 

progrefs  of  arts."  In  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  • 
century,  they  were  totally  ignorant  of  that  coafl 
beyond  Cape  Non,  28  deg.  north  latitude.  In  the 
1410,  the  celebrated  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal 
fitted  out  a  fleet  for  difcoveries,  which  proceeded 
along  the  coaft  to  Cape  Bojadore,  in  26  deg.  but 
had  not  courage  to  double  it.  In  1418,  Triftan 

C'  t    t 

Vaz  difcovered  the  ifland  Porto  Santo  ;  and  the 
year  after,  the  ifland  Madeira  was  difcovered.  In 
1439,  a  Portuguefe  captain  doubled  Cape  Boja- 
dore ;  and  the  next  year  the  Portuguefe  reached 
Cape  Blanco,  lat.  20  deg.  In  1446,  Nuna  Triftan 

**•'    ^ *•» ••• 

doubled  Cape  Verd,  lat.  14°  40'.  In  1448,  Don 
Gonzallo  Vallo  took  pofleirlon  of  the  Azores. 
In  the  1449,  the  iflands  of  Cape  Verd  were  difco- 
vered for  Don  Henry.  In  the  1471,  Pedro  d'Ef- 

covar  difcovered  the  ifland  St  Thomas  and  Prince's 

Fi 

ifland.  In  1484,  Diego  Cam  difcovered  the  king- 
dom of  Congo.  In  1486,  Bartholomew  Diaz,  em- 
ployed by  John  II.  of  Portugal,  doubled  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  which  he  called  Cabo  Tormentofo, 
from  the  tempeftuous  weather  he  found  in  the 
paflaee. 

More  arts  have  been  invented  by  accident  than 
by  inveftigation.  The  art  of  porcelain  is  more  in- 
tricate than  that  of  glafs.  The  Chinefe,  however, 
have  pofTeiTed  the  former  many  ages,  without 

knowing 


•Mrrfrjfc'- bnfifjji 


SK.  4.  §  I.]  ART3.  145 

.knowing  any  thing  of  the  latter  till  they  were 
taught  by  Europeans. 

The  exertion  of  national  fpirit  upon  any  parti- 
cular art,  promotes  activity  to  profecute  other 
arts.  The  Romans,  by  conftant  ftudy,  came  to 
excel  in  the  art  of  war,  which  led  them  to  im- 
prove upon  other  arts.  Having  in  the  progrefs  of 
fociety  acquired  fome  degree  of  tafte  and  polim,  a 
talent  for  writing  broke  forth.  Naevius  compofed 
in  verfe  feven  books  of  the  Punic  war,  befide  co- 
medies, replete  with  bitter  raillery  againft  the  no- 
bility *.  Ennius  wrote  annals,  and  an  epic  poem  f  . 
Lucius  Andronicus  was  the  father  of  dramatic 
poetry  in  Rome  J.  Pacuvius  wrote  tragedies  |j. 
Plautus  and  Terence  wrote  comedies.  Lucilius 
compofed  fatires,  which  Cicero  efteems  to  be  flight, 
and  void  of  erudition  §.  Fabius  Pictor,  Cincius 
Alimentus,  Pifo  Frugi,  Valerius  Antias,  and  Cato, 
were  rather  annalifts  than  hiilorians,  confining 
themfelves  to  naked  fadts,  ranged  in  order  of  time. 
The  genius  of  the  Romans  for  the  fine  arts  was 
much  inflamed  by  Greek  learning,  when  free  in- 
tercourfe  between  the  two  nations  was  opened. 
Many  of  thofe  who  made  the  greateil  figure  in  the 
Roman  (late  commenced  authors,  Caefar,  Cicero, 

*  Titus  Livius,  lib.  7.  c.  2. 
•f  Quintilum,  lib.  10.  c.  17. 

Cicero  De  oratore,  lib.  2.  No.  72. 

-  J)e  oratore,  lib.  2.  No.  193* 


§  —         De  finibus,  lib.  I.  No.  7 

VOL.  I.  K 


146  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY*  [fi.  1. 

&-c.  Sylla  compofed  memoirs  of  his  own  tranfao 
tions,  a  work  much  efteemed  even  in  the  days  of 
Plutarch. 

The  progrefs  of  art  feldom  fails  to  be  rapid, 
when  a  people  happen  to  be  roufed  out  qf  a  torpid 
Hate  by  fome  fortunate  change  of  circumflances  ; 
profperity  contrafted  with  former  abafement,  gives 
to  the  mind  a  fpring,  which  is  vigoroufly  exerted 
in  every  new  purfuit.  The  Athenians  made  no 
figure  under  the  tyranny  of  Pififtratus ;  but  upon 
regaining  freedom  and  independence,  they  became 
heroes-  Miletus,  a  Greek  city  of  Ionia,  being  de- 
ilroyed  by  the  King  of  Perlia,  and  the  inhabitants 
made  ilaves,  the  Athenians,  deeply  affedted  with 
the  mifery  of  their  brethren,  boldly  attacked  that 
King  in  his  own  dominions,  and  burnt  the  city  of 
Sardis.  In  lefs  than  ten  years  after,  they  gained 
a  fignal  victory  over  him  at  Marathon  ;  and  under 
Themiilocles,  made  head  againfl  a  prodigious  ar- 
my, with  which  Xerxes  threatened  utter  ruin  to 
Greece.  Such  profperity  produced  its  ufual  effect : 
arts  flourifhed  with  arms,  and  Athens  became  the 
chief  theatre  for  fciences  as  well  as  fine  arts.  The 
reign  of  Auguftus  Caefar,  which  put  an  end  to  the 
rancour  of  civil  war,  and  reftored  peace  to  Rome 
with  the  comforts  of  fociety,  proved  an  aufpicious 
aera  for  literature  ;  and  produced  a  cloud  of  La- 
tin hiftorians,  poets,  and  philofophers,  to  whom  the 
moderns  are  indebted  for  their  tafte  and  talents. 

One 


SK.  4.  §  1.]  ARTS.      •  147 

One  who  makes  a  figure  roufes  emulation  in  all : 
one  catches  fire  from  another,  and  the  national  fpi- 
rit  flourifhes :  clafiical   works  are  compofed,  and 
ufeful  difcoveries  made  in  every  art  and  fcience. 
This  fairly  accounts  for  the  following  obfervation 
of  Velleius  Paterculus  *,  that  eminent  men  gene- 
rally appear  in  the  fame  period  of  time.     "  One 
"  age,'1  fays  he,  "  produced  ^Efchylus,  Sophocles, 
^  and  Euripides,  who  advanced  tragedy  to  a  great 
"  height.     In   another  age  the  old  comedy  flou- 
"  rimed   under   Eupolis,    Cratinus,    and    Arifto- 
"  phanes  ;  and  the  new  was  invented  by  Menan- 
"  der,  and  his  cotemporaries  Diphilus  and  Phile- 
"  mon,  whofe  competitions  are  fo  perfect  that  they 
"  have  left  to  pofterity  no  hope  of  rivalftiip.    The 
"  philofophic  fages  of  the  Socratic  fchool,  appear- 
u  ed  all  about  the  time  of  Plato  and  Ariftotle. 
"  And  as  to  rhetoric,  few  excelled  in  that  art  be- 
"  fore  Ifocrates,   and  as  few  after  the  fecond  def- 
"  cent  of  his  fcholars."   The  hiflorian  applies  the 
fame  obfervation  to  the  Romans,  and  extends  it 
even  to  grammarians,  painters,  ftatuaries,  and  fculp- 
tors.     With  regard  to  Rome,  it  is  true  that  the 
Roman  government  under  Auguftus  was  in  effect 
defpotic  :  but  defpotifm,  in  that  fingle  inftance, 
made.no  obstruction  to  literature,  it  having  been 
the  policy  of  that  reign  to  hide  power  as  much  as 
poffible.     A  fimilar  revolution  happened  in  Tuf- 
cany  about  three  centuries  ago.     That  country 

K  2  was 

*  Hiftoria  Romaiia,  lib.  I.  in  fine. 


148  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B,  I. 

was  divided  into  many  fmall  republics,  which,  by 
mutual  hatred,  ufual  between  nations  in  clofe 
neighbourhood,  became  ferocious  and  bloody*. 
Thefe  republics  being  united  under  the  Great 
Duke  of  Tufcany,  enjoyed  the  fweats  of  peace  in 
a  mild  government.  That  comfortable  revolution, 
which  made  the  deeper  impreflion  by  a  retrofpecl 
to  recent  calamities,  roufed  the  national  fpirit,  and 
produced  ardent  application  to  arts  and  literature. 
The  reftoration  of  the  royal  family  in  England, 
which  put  an  end  to  a  cruel  and  envenomed  civil 
war,  promoted  improvements  of  every  kind  :  arts 
and  induftry  made  a  rapid  progrefs  among  the 
people,  though  left  to  themfelves  by  a  weak  and 
fluctuating  adminiftration.  Had  the  nation,  upon 
that  favourable  turn  of  fortune,  been  bleffed  with 
a  fucceffion  of  able  and  virtuous  princes,  to  what 
a  height  might  not  arts  and  fciences  have  been 
carried  !  In  Scotland,  a  favourable  period  for  im- 
provements was  the  reign  of  the  firft  Robert,  after 
lhaking  off  the  Englifti  yoke :  but  the  domineer- 
ing fpirit  of  the  feudal  fyftem  rendered  abortive 
every  attempt.  The  reftoration  of  the  royal  fa- 
mily, mentioned  above,  animated  the  legiflature  of 
Scotland  to  promote  manufactures  of  various  kinds: 
but  in  vain  ;  for  the  union  of  the  two  crowns  had 
introduced  defpotifm  into  Scotland,  which  funk 
the  genius  of  the  people,  and  rendered  them  heart- 
lefs  and  indolent.  Liberty,  indeed,  and  many 
other  advantages,  were  procured  to  them  by  the 

union 


. 


9K.  4»  §  I.]  ARTS.  149 

union  of  the  two  kingdoms  ;  but  thefe  falutary 
effects  were  long  fufpended  by  mutual  enmity,  fuch 
as  commonly  fubfifts  between  neighbouring  na- 
tions. Enmity  wore  away  gradually,  and  the  eyes 
of  the  Scots  were  opened  to  the  advantages  of 
their  prefent  condition  :  the  national  fpirit  was 
roufed  to  emulate  and  to  excel  :  talents  were  ex- 
erted, hitherto  latent ;  and  Scotland,  at  prefent* 
makes  a  figure  in  arts  and  fciences,  above  what  it 
ever  made  while  an  independent  kingdom  *. 

Another  caufe  of  activity  and  animation,  is  the 
being  engaged  in  fome  important  action  of  doubt- 
ful event,  a  ftruggle  for  liberty,  the  refitting  a  po- 
tent invader,  or  the  like,  Greece,  divided  into 
fmall  flates,  frequently  at  war  with  each  other, 
advanced  literature  and  the  fine  arts  to  unrivalled 
perfection.  The  Corficans,  while  engaged  in  a  pe- 
rilous war  for  defence  of  their  liberties,  exerted  a 
vigorous  national  fpirit :  they  founded  an  univer- 
fity  for  arts  and  fciences,  a  public  library,  and  a 

K  3  public 

*  In  Scotland,  an  innocent  bankrupt  imprifoned  for  debt, 
obtains  liberty  by  a  procefs  termed  ccjjlo  bonorum.  From  the 
year  1694.  to  the  1744,  there  were  but  twenty-tour  procefTes 
of  that  kind,  which  fhows  how  languidly  trade  was  carried  on 
while  the  people  remained  ignorant  of  their  advantages  by 
the  union.  From  that  time  to  the  year  1771,  there  have  been 
thrice  that  number  every  year,  taking  one  year  with  another ; 
an  evident  proof  of  the  late  rapid  progrefs  of  commerce  in 
Scotland.  Every  one  is  roufed  to  venture  his  fmall  ftock, 
though  every  one  cannot  be  fuccefsful. 


I5O  MEN  INDEPENDENT    OF  SOCIETY.  B.  I. 

public  bank.  After  a  long  ftupor  during  the  dark 
ages  of  Chriftianity,  arts  and  literature  revived 
among  the  turbulent  dates  of  Italy.  The  Royal 
Society  in  London,  and  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  Paris,  were  both  of  them  inflituted  after  civil 
wars  that  had  animated  the  people,  and  roufed 
their  activity. 

An  ufeful  art  is  feldom  loft,  becaufe  it  is  in  con* 
ftant  practice.  And  yet,  though  many  ufeful  arts 
were  in  perfection  during  the  reign  of  Auguftus 
Caefar,  it  is  amazing  how  ignorant  and  ftupid  men 
became,  after  the  Roman  empire  was  fhattered  by 
northern  barbarians ;  they  degenerated  into  fava- 
ges.  So  ignorant  were  the  SpaniQl  Chriflians  du- 
ring the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  that  Alphon- 
fusfthe  Great,  King  of  Leon,  was  neceflitated  to 
employ  Mahometan  preceptors  for  educating  his 
eldefl  fon.  Even  Charlemagne  could  not  fign  his 
name :  nor  was  he  iingular  in  that  refpect,  being 
kept  in  countenance  by  feveral  neighbouring  princes. 

As  the  progrefs  of  arts  and  fciences  toward  per- 
fection is  greatly  promoted  by  emulation,  nothing 
is  more  fatal  to  an  art  or  fcience  than  to  remove  that 
fpur,  as  where  fome  extraordinary  genius  appears 
who  foars  above  rivalfliip.  Mathematics  feem  to 
be  declining  in  Europe :  the  great  Newton,  hav- 
ing furpafled  all  the  ancients,  has  not  left  to  the 
moderns  even  the  faintefl  hope  of  equalling  him  ; 
and  what  man  will  enter  the  lifts  who  defpairs  of 
victory  ? 

'  -•'        " 


SK.  4.  §   I.]  ARTS.  151 

In  early  times,  the  inventors  of  ufeful  arts  were 
remembered  with  fervent  gratitude.  Their  hifto- 
ry  became  fabulous  by  the  many  incredible  ex- 
ploits attributed  to  them.  Diodorus  Siculus  men- 
tions the  Egyptian  tradition  of  Ofiris,  that  with  a 
numerous  army  he  traverfed  every  inhabited  part  of 
the  globe,  in  order  to  teach  men  the  culture  of 
wheat  and  of  the  vine.  Befide  the  impracticability 
of  fupporting  a  numerous  army  where  hufbandry  is 
unknown,  no  army  could  enable  Ofiris  to  introduce 
wheat  or  wine  among  ftupid  favages  who  live  by 
hunting  and  fifhing ;  which  probably  was  the  cafe, 
in  that  early  period,  of  all  the  nations  he  vifited. 

In  a  country  thinly  peopled,  where  even  necef- 
fary  arts  want  hands,  it  is  common  to  fee  one  per- 
fon  exercifing  more  arts  than  one  :  in  feveral  parts 
of  Scotland,  the  fame  man  ferves  as  a  phyiician, 
furgeon,  and  apothecary.  In  a  very  populous 
country,  even  fimple  arts  are  fplit  into  parts,  and 
there  is"  an  artift  for  each  part :  in  the  populous 
towns  of  ancient  Egypt,  a  phyiician  was  confined 
to  a  fingle  difeafe.  In  mechanic  arts,  that  mode  is 
excellent.  As  a  hand  confined  to  a  fingle  operation 
becomes  both  expert  and  expeditious,  a  mechanic 
art  is  perfected  by  having  its  different  operations 
diflributed  among  the  greateft  number  of  hands : 
many  hands  are  employed  in  making  a  watch  ; 
and  a  ftill  greater  number  in  manufacturing  a  web 
of  woollen  cloth.  Various  arts  or  operations  car- 

K  4  rie4 


152  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.          [fi.  I* 

ried  on  by  the  fame  man,  envigorate  his  mind,  be- 
caufe  they  exercife  different  faculties  ;  and,  as  he 
cannot  be  equally  expert  in  every  art  or  operation, 
he  is  frequently  reduced  to  fupply  want  of  (kill  by 
thought  and  invention.  Conftant  application,  on 
the  contrary,  to  a  fingle  operation,  confines  the 
mind  to  a  fingle  object,  and  excludes  all  thought 
and  invention :  in  fuch  a  train  of  life,  the  operator 
becomes  dull  and  ftupid,  like  a  bead  of  burden. 
The  difference  is  vifible  in  the  manners  of  the 
people  :  ^n  a  country  where,  from  want  of  hands, 
feveral  occupations  mud  be  carried  on  by  the 
fame  perfon,  the  people  are  knowing  and  con- 
verfable :  in  a  populous  country  where  manufac- 
tures flourifh,  they  are  ignorant  and  unfociable. 
The  fame  effect  is  vifible  in  countries  where  an  art 
or  manufacture  is  confined  to  a  certain  clafs  of 
men.  It  is  vifible  in  Hindoflan,  where  the  people 
are  divided  into  cafts,  which  never  mix  even  by 
by  marriage,  and  where  every  man  follows  his  fa- 
ther's trade.  The  Dutch  lint-boors  are  a  fimilar 
inflance  :  the  fame  families  carry  on  the  trade 
from  generation  to  generation,  and  are  according- 
ly ignorant  and  brutiih  even  beyond  other  Dutch 
peafants.  The  inhabitants  of  Buckhayen,  a  fea- 
port  in  the  county  of  Fife,  were  originally  a  colo- 
ny of  foreigners,  invited  hither  to  teach  our  people 
the  art  of  fitting.  They  continue  fifhers  to  this 
day,  marry  among  themfelves,  have  little  inter- 

caurfe 


SK.4*  §  2.]  ARTS.  153 

courfe  with  their  neighbours,  and  are  dull  and  ftu- 
pid  to  a  proverb  *. 

A  gentleman  of  a  moderate  fortune  pafled  his 
time  while  hufbandry  was  afleep,  like  a  Birming- 
ham workman  who  hammers  a  button  from  morn- 
ing to  evening.  A  certain  gentleman,  for  example, 
who  lived  on  his  eftate,  iflued  forth  to  walk  as  the 
clock  ft  ruck  eleven.  Every  day  he  trod  the  fame 
path,  leading  to  an  eminence  which  opened  to  a  view 
of  the  fea.  A  rock  on  the  fummit  was  his  feat,  where, 
after  refting  an  hour,  he  returned  home  at  leifure. 
It  is  not  a  little  fingular,  that  this  exercife  was  re- 
peated day  after  day  for  forty-three  years,  without 
interruption  for  the  laft  twenty  years  of  the  gentle- 
man's life.  And  though  he  has  been  long  dead,  the 
impreffion  of  his  heels  in  the  fod  remains  vilible  to 
this  4ay.  Men  by  inaction  degenerate  into  oyfters. 

SECT.     II. 

Progrefs  ofFafte  and  of  the  Fine  Arts. 

THE  fenfe  by  which  we  perceive  right  and 
wrong  in  actions,  is  termed  the  moral  fenfe : 
the  fenfe  by  which  we  perceive  beauty  and  deformi- 
ty in  objects,  is  termed  tajle.   Perfection  in  the  mo- 
ral 

*  Population  has  one  advantage  not  commonly  thought  of 
which  is,  that  it  baniflies  ghofts  and  apparitions.  Such  ima- 
ginary beings  are  never  feen  but  by  folitary  perfons  in  folitary 
places.  In  great  towns  they  are  unknown  :  you  never  hear 
of  fuch  a  thing  in  Holland,  which  in  effeft  is  one  great  town*. 


154  MSN"    INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

ral  fenfe  confifts  in  perceiving  the  minuteil  diffe- 
rences between  right  and  wrong :  perfection  in 
tafte  confifts  in  perceiving  the  minuteft  differences 
between  beauty  and  deformity  ;  and  fuch  perfec- 
tion is  termed  delicacy  of  tafte*. 

The  moral  fenfe  is  born  with  us  ;  and  fo  is  tafte  J 
yet  both  of  them  require  much  cultivation.  A- 
mong  favages,  the  moral  fenfe  is  faint  and  obfcure  ; 
and  tafte  ftill  more  fo  f .  Even  in  the  moft  en- 
lightened ages,  it  requires  in  a  judge  both  educa- 
tion and  experience  to  perceive  accurately  the  va- 
rious modifications  of  right  and  wrong  :  and  to  ac- 
quire delicacy  of  tafte,  a  man  muft  grow  old  in 
examining  beauties  and  deformities.  In  Rome, 
abounding  with  productions  of  the  fine  arts,  an  il- 
literate fhopkeeper  is  a  more  correct  judge  of  fta- 
tues,  of  pictures,  and  of  buildings,  than  the  beft 
educated  citizen  of  London  J.  Thus  tafte  goes 
hand  in  hand  with  the  moral  fenfe  in  their  pro- 
grefs  toward  maturity  ;  and  they  ripen  equally  by 
the  fame  fort  of  culture.  Want,  a  barren  foil, 
cramps  the  growth  of  both  :  fenfuality,  a  foil  too 
fat,  corrupts  both  :  the  middle  ftate,  equally  dif- 
tant  from  difpiritingtpoverty  and  luxurious  fenfua- 
lity, is  the  foil  in  which  both  of  them  flourifh. 

•    '•:    -      ;      •  As' 

*  Some  Iroquois.  after  feeing  all  the  beauties  of  Paris,  ad- 
mired nothing  but  the  ftreet  Pe  la  Houchette,  where  they 
found  a  conftant  fupply  of  eatables. 

f  Elements  of  Criticifm,  vol.  i.  p.  112.  edit.  5. 
Elements  of  Criticifm,  chap.  25. 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  155 

As  the  fine  arts  are  intimately  connected  with 
tafte,  it  is  impracticable,  in  tracing  their  progrefs, 
to  feparate  them  by  accurate  limits.  I  join  there- 
fore the  progrefs  of  the  fine  arts  to  that  of  tafle, 
where  the  former  depends  entirely  on  the  latter ; 
and  I  handle  feparately  the  progrefs  of  the  fine 
arts,  where  that  progrefs  is  influenced  by  other  cir- 
cumftances  befide  tafte. 

During  the  infancy  of  tafte,  imagination  is  fuf- 
fered  to  roam,  as  in  fleep,  without  control.  Won- 
der is  the  pafiion  of  favages  and  of  nifties ;  to 
raife  which,  nothing  is  necelfary  but  to  invent 
giants  and  magicians,  fairy-land  and  inchantment. 
The  earlieft  exploits  recorded  of  warlike  nations, 
are  giants  mowing  down  whole  armies,  and  little 
men  overcoming  giants ;  witnefs  Joannes  Magnus, 
Torfaeus,  and  other  Scandinavian  writers.  Hence 
the  abfurd  romances  that  delighted  the  world  for 
ages,  which  are  now  funk  into  contempt  every 
where.  The  more  fupernatural  the  facts  related 
are,  the  more  is  wonder  raifed  ;  and  in  proportion 
to  the  degree  of  wonder,  is  the  tendency  to  belief 
among  the  vulgar*.  Madame  de  la  Fayette  led 
the  way  to  novels  in  the  prefent  mode.  She  was 
the  firft  who  introduced  fentiments  inftead  of  won- 
derful adventures,  and  amiable  men  inftead  of 
bloody  heroes.  In  fubftituting  diftrefies  to  pro- 
digies, (lie  made  a  difcovery,  that  perfons  of  tafte 

and 

*  Elements  of  Critiqfm,  vol.  i.  p.  163.  edit.  5, 


156  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  t. 

and  feeling  are  more  attached  by  compaflion  than 
by  wonder. 

By  the  improvement  of  our  rational  faculties, 
truth  and  nature  came  to  bear  fway  :  incredible 
fictions  were  banifhed  :  a  remaining  bias,  how- 
ever, for  wonder  paved  the  way  to  bombaft  lan- 
guage, turgid  fimiles,  and  forced  metaphors.  The 
Song  of  Solomon,  and  many  other  Afiatic  compo- 
fitions,  afford  examples  without  end  of  fach  figures, 
Thefe  are  commonly  attributed  to  force  of  imagi-  "" 
nation  in  a  warm  climate  ;  but  a  more  extenfive 
view  will  mow  this  to  be  a  miftake.  In  every 
climate,  hot  and  cold,  the  figurative  ftyle  is  car- 
ried to  extravagance,  during  a  certain  period  in 
the  progrefs  of  writing  ;  a  ftyle  that  is  relifhed  by 
all  at  firft,  and  continues  to  delight  many,  till  it 
yield  to  a  tafte  poliftied  by  long  experience*. 
Even  in  the  bitter-cold  country  of  Iceland,  we  arex 
at  no  lofs  for  examples.  A  rainbow  is  termed 
Bridge  of  the  gods :  gold,  Tears  of  Fry  a  :  the  earth 
is  termed  Daughter  of  Night,  the  veffel  that  floats 
upon  Ages  ;  and  herbs  and  plants  are  her  hair,  or 
her  fleece.  Ice  is  termed  the  great  bridge:  a  fhip, 
horfe  of  the  floods.  Many  authors  foolifhly  con- 
je&ure,  that  the  Hurons  and  fome  other  neigh- 
bouring nations,  are  of  Afiatic  extraction  ;  becaufe, 
like  the  Afiatics,  their  difcourfe  is  highly  figura- 
tive. 

•'- .''••••-:      •;-',"  ,'_•       ;  ;;:'.>         -   !   The 

*  Elements  of  Criticifm,  vol.  ii.  p.  184.  284.  edit.  5. 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  157 

The  national  progrefs  of  morality  is  flow  :  the 
national  progrefs  of  tafte  is  flower.  In  proportion 
as  a  nation  polifhes  and  improves  in  the  arts  of 
peace,  tafte  ripens.  The  Chinefe  had  long  enjoy- 
ed a  regular  fyftem  of  government,  while  the  Eu- 
ropeans  were  comparatively  in  a  chaos ;  and  ac- 
cordingly literary  compofitions  in  China  were 
brought  to  perfection  more  early  than  in  Europe. 
In  their  poetry  they  indulge  no  incredible  fables, 
like  thofe  of  Ariofto  or  the  Arabian  Tales ;  but 
commonly  felect  fuch  as  afford  a  good  moral. 
Their  novels,  like  thofe  of  the  moil  approved  kind 
among  us,  treat  of  misfortunes  unforefeen,  unex- 
pected good  luck,  and  perfons  finding  out  their 
real  parents.  The  Orphan  of  China,  compofed  in 
the  fo5rteenth  century,  furpafles  far  any  European 
play  of  that  early  period.  But  good  writing  has 
made  a  more  rapid  progrefs  with  us  ;  not  from  fu- 
periority  of  talents,  but  from  the  great  labour  the 
Chinefe  muft  undergo,  in  learning  to  read  and 
write  their  own  language.  The  Chinefe  tragedy- 
is  indeed  languid,  and  not  fufficiently  interefting, 
which  M.  Voltaire  afcribes  to  want  of  geryus. 
With  better  reafon  he  might  have  afcribed  it  to 
the  nature  of  their  government,  fo  well  contrived 
for  preferving  peace  and  order,  as  to  afford  few 
examples  of  furpriiing  events,  and  little  opportu- 
nity for  exerting  manly  talents. 

A  nation  cannot  acquire  a  tafte  for  ridicule  till 
it  emerges  out  of  the  favage  ftate.    Ridicule,  how- 
ever, 


158  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY; 

ever,  is  too  rough  for  refined  manners :  Cicero  dif- 
covers  in  Plautus  a  happy  talent  for  ridicule,  and 
peculiar  delicacy  of  wit ;  but  Horace,  who  figured 
in  the  court  of  Auguftus,  eminent  for  delicacy  of 
tafte,  declares  againft  the  low  roughnefs  of  that  au- 
thor's raillery  *.  The  fame  Cicero,  in  a  letter  to 
Papirius  Poetus,  complains  that  by  the  influx  of  fo- 
reigners the  true  Roman  humour  was  loft.  It  was 
not  the  influx  of  foreigners,  but  the  gradual  pro- 
grefs  of  manners  from/  the  rough  to  the  polifhed. 
The  high  burlefque  ftyle  prevails  commonly  in  the 
period  between  barbarity  and  politenefs,  in  which 
a  tafte  fomewhat  improved  difcovers  the  ridicule  of 
former  manners.  Rabelais  in  France,  and  Butler 
in  England,  are  illuftrious  examples.  Dr  Swift  i 
our  lateft  burlefque  writer,  and  probably'  is  the 


Emulation  among  a  multitude  of  finall  ftates  in 
Greece,  was  inflamed  by  their  public  games :  by 
that  means  tafte  ripened,  and  the  fine  arts  were 
promoted.  Tafte  refines  gradually,-  and  is  advan- 
ced towards  perfection  by  a  diligent  ftudy  of  beau- 
tiful  productions.  Rome  was  indebted  to  Greece 
.for  that  delicacy  of  tafte  which  figured  during  the 
reign  of  Auguftus,  efpecially  in  literary  compofi-- 
tions.  But  tafte  could  not  long  flourifh  in  a  defpo- 
tic  government :  fo  low  had  the  Roman  tafte  fallen 
in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  that  nothing 

v  would 

*  Elements  of  Criticifm,  chap.  ii.  part  2. 


SK.4*  §2.]  ARTS.  159 

would  pleafe  him  but  to  fupprefs  Homer,  and  in 
his  place  to  inftall  a  lilly  Greek  poet,  named  Anti- 
jnachus. 

The  northern  barbarians  who  defolated  the  Ro- 
man Empire,  and  revived  in  fome  meafure  the  fa- 
vage  ftate,  occalioned  a  woful  decay  of  tafte.  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great,  ftruck  with  the  beauty  of  fome 
Saxon  youths  expofed  to  fale  in  Rome,  afked  to 
what  country  they  belonged.  Being  told  they 
were  Angles,  he  faid  that  they  ought  more  proper- 
ly to  be  denominated  angels ;  and  that  it  was  a  pi- 
ty fo  beautiful  a  countenance  Ihould  cover  a  mind 
devoid  of  grace.  Hearing  that  the  name  of  their 
province  was  Defri,  a  diviiion  of  Northumberland, 
"  De'iri !'  replied  he,  "  excellent :  they  are  called 
"  to  the  mercy  of  God  from  his  anger  \de  ira~\." 
Being  alfo  told,  that  Alia  was  the  king  of  that  pro- 
vince, "  Alleluia,"  cried  he,  "  we  muft  endeavour 
"  that  the  praifes  of  God  be  fung  in  their  coun- 
"  try."  Puns  and  conundrums  paiTed  in  ignorant 
times  for  fteiTmg  wit.  Pope  Gregory  VII.  anno 
1080,  prefented  to  the  Emperor  Rodolph  a  crown 
of  gold,  with  the  following  infcription,  Petra  dedit 
Petro,  Petrus  diadema  Rodolpbo.  Miferably  low 
muft  tafte  have  been  in  that  period,  when  a  childiih 
play  of  words  was  relifhed  as  a  proper  decoration 
for  a  ferious  folemnity. 

Pope  Innocent  III.  anno  1207,  made  a  prefent  of 
jewels  to  John  King  of  England,  accompanied 
with  the  following  letter,  praifed  by  Pere  Orleans 

as 


tt 


6< 


l6o  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

as  full  of  fpirit  and  beauty.  "  Confider  this  pre- 
"  fent  with  refpect  to  form,  number,  matter,  and 
"  colour.  The  circular  figure  of  the  ring  denotes 
"  eternity,  which  has  neither  beginning  nor  end. 
"  And  by  that  figure  your  mind  will  be  elevated 
"  from  things  terreftrial  to  things  celeftial.  The 
"  number  of  four,  making  a  fquare,  denotes  the 
"  firmnefs  of  a  heart,  proof  againft  both  adveriity 
"  and  profperity,  efpecially  when  fupported  by 
"  the  four  cardinal  virtues,  juftice,  ftrength,  pru- 
dence, and  temperance.  By  the  gold,  which  is 
the  metal  of  the  ring,  is  denoted  wifdom,  which 
excels  among  the  gifts  of  Heaven,  as  gold  does 
"  among  metals.  Thus  it  is  faid  of  the  Meffiah, 
"  that  the  fpirit  of  wifdom  mail  reft  upon  him : 
"  nor  is  there  any  thing  more  neceffary  to  a  king, 
"  which  made  Solomon  requeft  it  from  God  pre- 
"  ferably  to  all  other  goods.  As  to  the  colour  of 
"  the  ftones,  the  green  of  the  emerald  denotes 
"  faith  ;  the  purity  of  the  fapphire,  hope  ;  the  red 
"  of  the  granite,  charity  ;  the  clearnefs  of  the  to- 
"  paz,  good  works.  You  have  therefore  in  the 
"  emerald  what  will  increafe  your  faith ;  in  the 
"  fapphire,  what  will  encourage  yoir  to  hope ;  in 
"  the  granite,  what  will  prompt  you  to  love ;  in 
"  the  topaz,  what  will  excite  you  to  act ;  till,  ha- 
"  ving  mounted  by  degrees  to  the  perfection  of  all 
"  the  virtues,  you  come  at  laft  to  fee  the  God  of 
*'  gods  in  the  celeftial  Sion." 

The 


SK»  4.  $  2.]  ARTS.  l6~I 


The  famous  golden  bull  of  Germany,  digefted 
anno  1356,  by  Bartolus,  a  celebrated  lawyer,  and 
intended  for  a  mailer-  piece  of  compoiition,  is  re- 
plete with  wild  conceptions,  without  the  lead  re- 
gard to  truth,  propriety,  or  connection.  It  begins 
with  an  apoftrophe  to  Pride,  to  Satan,  to  Choler, 
and  to  Luxury  :  it  afferts,  that  there  muft  be  feven 
electors,  for  oppoiing  the  feven  mortal  iins  :  the 
fall  of  the  angels,  terreilrial  paradife,  Pompey  and 
Caefar,  are  introduced  ;  and  it  is  faid,  that  Germa- 
ny is  founded  on  the  Trinity,  and  on  the  three 
theological  virtues.  What  can  be  more  puerile  I 
A  fermon  preached  by  the  Bifhop  of  Bitonto,  at 
the  opening  of  the  council  of  Trent,  excels  in  that 
mode  of  compoiition.  He  proves  that  a  council  is 
neceffary  ;  becaufe  feveral  councils  have  extirpated 
herefy,  and  depofed  kings  and  emperors  ;  becaufe 
the  poets  aflemble  councils  of  the  gods  ;  becaufe 
Mofes  writes,  that  at  the  creation  of  man,  and  at 
confounding  the  language  of  the  giants,  God  a&ed 
in  the  manner  of  a  council  ;  becaufe  religion  has 
three  heads,  doctrine,  facraments,  and  charity,  and 
that  thefe  three  are  termed  a  council.  He  exhorts 
the  members  of  the  council  to  ftricl:  unity,  like  the 
heroes  in  the  Trojan  ho  rfe.  He  aflerts,  that  the 
gates  of  paradife  and  of  the  council  are  the  fame  ; 
that  the  holy  fathers  Ihould  fprinkle  their  dry 
hearts  with  the  living  water  that  flowed  from  it  ; 
and  that  otherwife  the  Holy  Ghoit  would  open 

VOL.  I.  L  their 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  {B.  U 

their  mouths  like  thofe  of  Balaam  and  Caiaphas  '*. 
James  I.  of  Britain  dedicates  his  Declaration  a- 
gainft  Vorftius  to  our  Saviour,  m  the  following 
words  :  *'  To  the  honour  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour 
"  Jefus  Chrift,  the  eternal  Son  of  the  eternal  Fa- 
"  ther,  the  only  Theanthropos,  mediator,  and  re- 
te  conciler  of  mankind  ;  in  Iign  of  thankfulnefs,  his 
"  moft  humble  and  obliged  fervant,  James,  by  the 
"  grace  of  God,  King  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
"  and  Ireland,  Defender  of  the  Faith,  doth  dedi- 
"  cate  and  confecrate  this  his  Declaration."  Fu- 
neral orations  were  fome  time  ago  in  fafhion.  Reg- 
nard,  who  was  in  Stockholm  about  the  year  1680, 
heard  a  funeral  oration  at  the  burial  of  a  fervant- 
maid.  The  prieft,  after  mentioning  her  parents  and 
the  place  of  her  birth,  praifed  her  as  an  excellent 
cook,  and  enlarged  upon  every  ragout  that  me  had 
made  in  perfection.  She  had  but  one  fault,  he  faid, 
which  was  the  falting  her  dimes  too  much ;  but 
that  fhe  mowed  thereby  her  prudence,  of  which 
fait  is  the  fymbol ;  a  ftroke  of  wit  that  probably 
was  admired  by  the  audience.  Funeral  orations 
are  out  of  fafhion  :  the  futility  of  a  trite  panegyric 
purchafed  with  money,  and  indecent  flattery  in 
circumftances  that  require  fincerity  and  truth, 
could  not  long  ftand  againft  improved  tafte.  The 
yearly  feaft  of  the  afs  that  carried  the  mother  of 

God  into  Egypt,  was  a  moft  ridiculous  farce,  high- 
ly 

*  Father  Paul's  Hiftory  of  Trent,  lib.  i. 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS. 

ly  relifhed  in  the  dark  agefc  of  Chriftianity.  See  the 
defcription  of  that  feaft  in  Voltaire's  General  Hif- 
tory  *. 

The  public  amufements  of  our  forefathers,  ihow 
the  groffnefs  of  their  taile  after  they  were  reduced 
to  barbarifm  by  the  Goths  and  Vandals.  The 
plays  termed  Myjleries,  becaufe  they  were  borrow- 
ed from  the  Scriptures,  indicate  grofs  manners,  as 
well  as  infantine  taile ;  and  yet  in  France,  not  far- 
ther back  than  three  or  four  centuries,  thefe  My- 
ileries  were  fuch  favourites  as  conftantly  to  make  a 
part  at  every  public  feftival.  In  a  Spanifh  play  or 
myflery,  Jefus  Chrift  and  the  devil,  ridiculouily 
drefled,  enter  into  a  difpute  about  fome  point  of 
controverfy,  are  enflamed,  proceed  to  blows,  and 
finim  the  entertainment  with  a  faraband.  The  re- 
formation of  religion,  which  roufed  a  fpirit  of  in- 
quiry, banifhed  that  amufement,  not  only  as  low 
but  as  indecent.  A  fort  of  plays  fucceeded,  term- 
ed Moralities,  lefs  indecent  indeed,  but  little  pre- 
ferable in  point  of  compofition.  Thefe  Moralities 
have  alfo  been  long  banifhed,  except  in  Spain, 
where  they  ftill  continue  in  vogue.  The  devil  is 
commonly  the  hero :  nor  do  the  Spaniards  make 
any  diliiculty,  even  in  their  more  regular  plays,  to 
introduce  fupernatural  and  allegorical  beings  upon 
the  fame  ilage  with  men  and  women.  The  Cardi- 
nal Colonna  carried  into  Spain  a  beautiful  buft  of 

Ici  the 

*  Chap. 


164     MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.     [B.  I. 

the  Emperor  Caligula.  In  the  war  about  the  fuc- 
ceffion  of  Spain,  after  the  death  of  its  king  CharlesIL 
Lord  Gallway,  upon  a  painful  fearch,  found  that 
bail  ferving  as  a  weight  to  a  church-clock. 

In  the  days  of  our  unpolifhed  forefathers,  who 
were  governed  by  pride  as  well  as  by  hatred, 
princes  and  men  of  rank  entertained  a  changeling> 
diftinguifhed  by  the  name  of  fool;  who  being  the 
butt  of  their  filly  jokes,  flattered  their  felf-conceit. 
Such  amufement,  no  lefs  grofs  than  inhuman,  could 
not  mow  its  face  even  in  the  dawn  of  tafte : 
it  was  rendered  lefs  infipid  and  lefs  inhuman,  by 
entertaining  one  of  real  wit,  who,  under  difguife  of 
a  fool,  was  indulged  in  the  moft  fatirical  truths. 
Upon  a  further  purification  of  tafte,  it  was  difco- 
vered,  that  to  draw  amufement  from  folly,  real  or 
pretended,  is  below  the  dignity  of  human  nature. 
More  refined  amufements  were  invented,  fuch  as 
balls,  public  fpe&acles,  gaming,  and  fociety  with 
women.  Parafites,  defcribed  by  Plautus  and  Te- 
rence, were  of  fuch  a  rank  as  to  be  permitted  to 
dine  with  gentlemen  ;  and  yet  were  fo  defpicable, 
as  to  be  the  butt  of  every  man's  joke.  They  were 
placed  at  the  lower  end  of  the  table  \  and  the 
guefts  diverted  themfelves  with  daubing  their 
faces,  and  even  kicking  and  cuffing  them ;  all 
which  was  patiently  borne  for  the  fake  of  a  plen- 
tiful meal.  They  refembled  the  fools  and  clowns 
of  later  times,  being  equally  intended  to  be  laugh- 
ed at:  but  the  parafite  profeifion  ihows  grofier 

manners  ; 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  165 

manners  ;  it  being  fhockingly  indelicate  in  a  com- 
pany of  gentlemen  to  abufe  one  of  their  own  num- 
ber, however  contemptible  in  point  of  character. 

Pride,  which  introduced  fools,  brought  dwarfs 
alfo  into  fafhion.  In  Italy,  that  tafte  was  carried 
to  extravagance.  "  Being  at  Rome  in  the  year 
"  1566,'"  fays  a  French  writer,  "  I  was  invited  by 
"  Cardinal  Vitelli  to  a  feaft,  where  we  were  ferved 
"  by  no  fewer  than  thirty-four  dwarfs,  moft  of 
"  them  horribly  diftorted."  Was  not  the  tafte  of 
that  Cardinal  horribly  diftorted  ?  The  fame  au- 
thor adds,  that  Francis  I.  and  Henry  II.  Kings  of 
France,  had  many  dwarfs :  one  named  Great  John, 
was  the  lead  ever  had  been  feen,  except  a  dwarf  at 
Milan,  who  was  carried  about  in  a  cage. 

In  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  no  fort  of 
commerce  was  carried  on  in  Europe  but  in  mar- 
kets and  fairs.  Artificers  and  manufacturers  were 
difperfed  through  the  country,  and  fo  were  mona- 
fteries ;  the  towns  being  inhabited  by  none  but 
clergymen,  and  thofe  who  immediately  depended 
on  them.  The  nobility  lived  on  their  eflates,  un- 
lefs  when  they  followed  the  court.  The  low  peo- 
ple were  not  at  liberty  to  defert  the  place  of  their 
birth :  the  villain  was  annexed  to  the  eftate,  and 
ihcjlave  to  the  perfon  of  his  lord.  Slavery  fofter- 
ed  rough  manners ;  and  there  could  be  no  im- 
provement in  manners,  nor  in  tafte,  where  there 
was  no  fociety.  Of  all  the  polite  nations  in  Eu- 
rope, the  Englifti  were  the  lateft  of  taking  to  a 

L  3  town-life  -3 


l66  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I, 

town-life  ;  and  their  progrefs  in  tafte  and  manners 
has  been  proportionally  flow. 

Our  celebrated  poet  Ben  Johnfon  lived  at  a  time 
when  turgid  conceptions   and  bombaft  language 
were  highly  relifhed  ;   and  his  compofitions  are  in 
the  perfe&ion  of  that  tafte,  witnefs  the  quotations 
from  him  in  Elements  of  Criticifm  %.    He  was  but 
too  faithfully  imitated  by  Beaumont  and  Fletcher, 
and  other  writers  of  that  age.   We  owe  to  Dryden- 
the  dawn  of  a  better  tafte.     For  though  the  mode 
of  writing  in  his  time  led  him  to  the  bombaft,  yet 
a  juft  imitation  of  nature  frequently  breaks  forth, 
efpecially  in  his  later  compofitions.     And,  as  na- 
ture will  always  at  laft  prevail,  the  copies  of  nature 
given  by  that  eminent  writer  were  highly  relifhed, 
produced   many   happy  imitations,   and   in   time 
brought  about  a  total  revolution  of  tafte,  which 
kept  pace  with  that  of  government,  both  equally 
happy  for  this  nation.     Here  is  a  fair  deduction  of 
the  progrefs  of  tafte  in  Britain.     But,  according  to 
that  progrefs,  what  fhall  be  faid  of  the  immortal 
Shakefpeare,  in  whofe  works  is  difplayed  the  per- 
fection of  tafte  ?     Was  not  his  appearance  at  leaft 
a  century  too  early  ?     Such  events  happen  fome- 
times  contrary  to  the  ordinary  progrefs.    This  was 
the  cafe  of  Roger  Bacon,  as  well  as  of  Shake- 
fpeare :   they  were  blazing  ftars  that  gave  but  a 
temporary  luftre,  and  left  the  world  as  void  of 
1  ' 


f  Vol.  i.  p.  244.  edit. 

1  > 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  167 

i  x 

light  as  before.  Ben  Johnfon,  accordingly,  and 
even  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  were  greater  nation- 
al favourites  than  Shakefpeare ;  and,  in  the  fame 
manner,  the  age  before,  Lucan  was  ranked  above 
Virgil  by  every  critic.  By  the  fame  bad  tafte, 
the  true  fublime  of  Milton  was  little  relilhed  for 
more  than  half  a  century  after  Paradife  Loft  was 
publilhed.  Ill-fated  Shakefpeare!  who  appeared^ 
in  an  age  unworthy  of  him.  That  divine  writer, 
who,  merely  by  force  of  genius,  fo  far  furpafled  his 
co  tern  paries,  how  far  would  he  have  furpafled  even 
himfelf,  had  he  been  animated  with  the  praifes  fo 
juftly  beftowed  on  him  in  later  times  ?  We  have 
Dry  den's  authority,  that  tafte  in  his  time  was  con-* 

liderably  refined : 

"  They  who  have  beft  fucceeded  on  the  ftage, 
"  Have  ftill  conformed  their  genius  to  their  age. 
"  Thus  Johnfon  did  mechanic  humour  fhow, 
"  When  men  were  dull,  and  converfation  low. 
"  Then  comedy  was  faultlefs,  but  'twas  coarfe  : 
M  Cobb's  Tankard  was  a  jeft,  and  Otter's  Horfe. 
et  Fame  then  was  cheap,  and  the  firft  comer  fped  t 
"  And  they  have  kept  it  fmce  by  being  dead. 
"  But  were  they  now  to  write,  when  critics  weigh 
"  Each  line  and  ev'ry  word  throughout  a  play, 
"  None  of  them,  no  not  Johnfon  in  his  height, 
<*  Could  pafs  without  allowing  grains  for  weight. 
"  If  love  and  honour  now  are  higher  rais'd, 
ft  It's  not  the  poet,  but  the  age  is  prais'4  : 
"  Wit's  now  arriv'd  to  a  more  high  degree, 
"  Our  native  language  more  refin'd  and  free. 
t:  Our  ladies  and  our  men  now  fpeak  more  wit 
converfation,  than  thofe  poets  writ." 

L4  The 


l68  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

The  high  opinion  Dry  den  had  of  himfelf,  and 
of  his  age,  breaks  out  in  every  line.  Johnfon 
probably  had  the  fame  opinion  of  himfelf,  and 
of  his  age :  the  prefent  age  is  not  exempted  from 
that  bias ;  nor  will  the  next  age  be,  though  pro- 
bably maturity  in  tafte  will  be  ftill  later.  We 
humble  ourfelves  before  the  ancients,  who  are  far 
•  removed  from  us ;  but  not  to  foar  above  our  im- 
mediate predeceflbrs,  would  be  a  fad  mortification. 
Many  fcenes  in  Dryden's  plays,  if  not  lower  than 
Cobb's  Tankard  or  Otter's  Horfe,  are  more  out  of 
place.  In  the  Wild  Gallant,  the  hero  is  a  wretch 
conftantly  employed,  not  only  in  cheating  his  cre- 
ditors, but  in  cheating  his  miftrefs,  a  lady  of  high 
rank  and  fortune.  And  how  abfurd  is  the  fcene, 
where  he  convinces  the  father  of  his  miftrefs,  that 
the  devil  had  got  him  with  child !  The  character 
of  Sir  Martin  Marall  is  below  contempt.  The 
fcenes  in  the  fame  play,  of  a  bawd  inftru&ing  one 
of  her  novices  how  to  behaye  to  her  gallants,  and 
of  the  novice  pra&ifing  her  leflbns,  are  perhaps  not 
lower  than  Cobb's  Tankard  or  Otter's  Horfe,  but 
furely  they  are  lefs  innocent. 

It  is  common  to  fee  people,  fond  of  a  new  fa- 

„  •  *••  *  •*  ."•'''• 

fliion,  vainly  imagining  that  tafte  is  greatly  impro- 
ved. Difguifed  difhes  are  a  fort  of  baftard  wit, 
like  turrets  jutting  out  at  the  £op  of  a  building. 
Such  difhes  were  lately  in  high  fafhion,  without 
having  even  the  flender  merit  of  being  a  new  fa- 
fhion. They  prevailed  in  the  days  of  Charles  II. 

(•      h  <• 

as 


" 


« 


" 


" 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  169 

as  we  learn  from  one  of  Dry  den's  plays.  "  Ay,  it 
"  look'd  like  variety,  till  we  came  to  tafte  it  ;  there 
were  twenty  feveral  dimes  to  the  eye,  but  in  the 
palate  nothing  but  fpices.  I  had  a  mind  to  eat 
of  a  pheafant  ;  and,  fo  foon  as  I  got  it  into  my 
"  mouth,  I  found  I  was  chewing  a  limb  of  cinna- 
mon  ;  then  I  went  to  cut  a  piece  of  kid,  and  no 
fooner  it  had  touched  my  lips,  but  it  turn'd  to 
red  pepper  :  at  laft  I  began  to  think  myfelf  ano- 
"  ther  kind  of  Midas,  that  every  thing  I  had 
"  touched  fhould  be  turned  to  fpice." 

Portugal  was  riling  in  power  and  fplendor  when 
Camoens  wrote  the  Lufiad  ;  and,  with  refpecl:  to 
the  mufic  of  verfe,  it  has  merit.  The  author,  how- 
ever, is  far  from  mining  in  point  of  tafte.  He 
makes  a  ftrange  jumble  of  Heathen  and  Chriftian 
Deities.  "  Gama,"  obferves  Voltaire,  "  in  a  ftorm 
"  addrefles  his  prayers  to  Chrift,  but  it  is  Venus 
"  who  comes  to  his  relief."  Voltaire's  obfervation 
is  but  too  well  founded.  In  the  firft  book,  Jove 
fummons  a  council  of  the  gods,  which  is  defcribed 
at  great  length,  for  no  earthly  purpofe  but  to  fhow 
that  he  favoured  the  Portuguefe.  Bacchus,  on  the 
other  hand,  declares  againft  them  upon  the  follow- 
ing account,  that  he  himfelf  had  gained  immortal 
glory,  as  conqueror  of  the  Indies  ;  which  would  be 
eclipfed  if  the  Portuguefe  fhould  alfo  conquer 
them.  A  Moonfh  commander  having  received 
Gama  with  fmiles,  but  with  hatred  in  his  heart, 
the  poet  brings  down  Bacchus  from  heaven  to 

confirm 


170  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

confirm  the  Moor  in  his  wicked  purpofes ;  which 
would  have  been  perpetrated,  had  not  Venus  inter- 
pofed  in  Gama's  behalf.  In  the  fecond  canto, 
Bacchus  feigns  himfelf  to  be  a  Chriftiari,  in  order 
to  deceive  the  Portuguefe ;  but  Venus  implores 
her  father  Jupiter  to  protedl  them.  And  yet,  after 
all,  I  am  loth  to  condemn  an  early  writer  for  in- 
troducing Heathen  Deities  as  a&ors  in  a  real  hifto- 
ry,  when,  in  the  age  of  Lewis  XIV.  celebrated  for 
refinement  of  tafte,  we  find  French  writers,  Boileau 
in  particular,  guilty  fometimes  of  the  fame  abfur- 
dity*. 

At  the  meeting  anno  15-20  near  Calais  between 
Francis  I.  of  France  and  Henry  VIII.  of  England, 
it  is  obferved  by  feveral  French  writers,  that  the 
French  nobility  difplayed  more  magnificence,  the 
Englifh  more  tafte.  If  fo,  the  alteration  is  great 
iince  that  time :  France  at  prefent  gives  the  law  to 
the  reft  of  Europe  in  every  matter  of  tafte,  garden- 
ing alone  excepted.  At  the  fame  time,  though 
tafte  in  France  is  more  correcl:  than  in  any  other 
country,  it  will  bear  ftill  fome  purification.  The 
fcene  of  a  clyfter-pipe  in  Moliere  is  too  low  even 
for  a  farce ;  and  yet  to  this  day  it  is  aded,  with  a 
few  foftenings,  before  the  moft  polite  audience  in 
Europe  f . 

.   •    '  :       ',;,-,^        •^•:u.f(_:'     In 

*  Elements  of  Criticifm,  chap.  22. 

f  No  nation  equals  the  French  in  drefs,  houfehold  furni- 
ture, watches,  fnuff-boxes,  and  in  toys  of  every  kind.  The 
Italians  have  always  excelled  in  architecture  and  painting, 

the 


5K.  4-  §  2«]  ARTS' 

In  Elements  of  Criticifin*   feveral  caufes  are' 
mentioned  that  may  retard  tafte  in  its  progrefs  to- 
ward maturity,  and  that  may  give  it  a  retrogade 
motion  when  it  is  in  maturity.      There  are  many 
biafies,   both  natural  and  acquired,   that  tend  to 
miflead  perfons  even  of  the  bed  tafte.     Of  the  lat- 
ter, inftances  are  without  number.    I  felecl:  one  or 
two,  to  mow  what  influence  even  the  flighted  cir- 
cumftances  have  on  tafte.    The  only  tree  beautiful 
at  all  feafons  is  the  holly  :  in  winter,  its  deep  and 
fhining  green  entitles  it  to  be  the  queen  of  the 
grove :  in  fummer,  this  colour  completes  the  har- 
monious mixture  of  (hades,  fo  pleafing  in  that  fea- 
fon  !      Mrs  D — • —  is  lively  and  fociable.      She  is 
eminent  above  moft  of  her  fex  for  a  correct  tafte, 
difplayed  not  only  within  doors  but  in  the  garden 
and  in  the  field.  Having  become  miftrefs  of  a  great 
houfe  by  matrimony,  the  moft  honourable  of  all 
titles,  a  group  of  tajl  hollies,  which  had  long  ob- 
fcured  one  of  the  capital  rooms,  foon  attracted  her 
eye.     She  took  an  averiion  to  a  holly,  and  was  not 
at  eafe  till  the  group  was  extirpated.     Such  a  bias 
is   perfectly  harmlefs.     What   follows   is   not   fo. 

The 

the  Englifb  in  gardening.  How  are  fuch  national  differences 
to  be  explained  ?  A  nation,  like  an  individual,  may  be  difpo- 
fed  to  grand  objects,  which  fwell  the  mind.  A  nation,  like  an 
individual,  may  relifh  things  neat,  pretty,  and  elegant.  And 
if  a  tafte  of  any  kind  happen  once  to  prevail  among  men  of 
figure,  it  foon  turns  general.  The  verdure  of  the  fields  int- 
England  invites  a  polifhing  hand. 

*  Chap.  25. 


J72  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

The  Oxonians  difliked  the  great  Newton,  becaufe 
he  was  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  and  they  favour- 
ed every  book  writ  againft  him.  That  bias,  I  hope, 
has  not  come  down  to  the  prefent  time. 

Refinement  of  tafte  in  a  nation,  is  always  accom- 
panied with  refinement  of  manners :  people  accuf- 
tomed  to  behold  order  and  elegance  in  public 
buildings  and  public  gardens,  acquire  urbanity  in 
private.  But  it  is  irkfome  to  trudge  long  in  a 
beaten  track,  familiar  to  all  the  world  ;  and  there- 
fore, leaving  what  is  faid  above,  like  a  ftatue  cur- 
tailed of  legs  and  arms,  I  haften  to  the  hiftory  of 
the  fine  arts. 

Ufeful  arts  paved  the  way  to  fine  arts.  Men 
upon  whom  the  former  had  beftowed  every  conve- 
nience, turned  their  thoughts  to  the  latter.  Beau- 
ty was  ftudied  in  objects  of  fight ;  and  men  of  tafte 
attached  themfelves  to  the  fine  arts,  which  multi- 
plied their  enjoyments  and  improved  their  bene- 
volence. Sculpture  and  painting  made  an  early 
figure  in  Greece  ;  which  afforded  plenty  of  beau- 
tiful originals  to  be  copied  in  thefe  imitative  arts. 
Statuary,  a  more  fimple  imitation  than  painting^ 
was  fooner  brought  to  perfection  :  the  ftatue  of  Ju- 
piter by  Phidias,  and  of  Juno  by  Polycletes,  though 
the  admiration  of  all  the  world,  were  executed 
long  before  the  art  of  light  and  lhade  was  known. 
Apollodorus,  and  Z.euxis  his  difcipie,  who  flourifh- 
ed  in  the  fifteenth  Olympiad,  were  the  firft  who 
figured  in  that  eut.  Another  caufe  concurred  to 

advance 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  :-rij  173 

advance  ftatuary  before  painting  in  Greece,  name- 
ly, a  great  demand  for  ftatues  of  their  gods.  Ar- 
chitecture, as  a  fine  art,  made  a  flower  progrefs. 
Proportions,  upon  which  its  elegance  chiefly  de- 
pends, cannot  be  accurately  afcertained  but  by  an 
infinity  of  trials  in  great  buildings :  a  model  can- 
not be  relied  on  ;  for  a  large  and  a  fmall  building, 
even  of  the  fame  form,  require  different  propor- 
tions. Gardening  made  a  ftill  flower  progrefs  than 
architecture :  the  palace  of  Alcinoous,  in  the  feventh 
book  of  the  Odyffey,  is  grand,  and  highly  orna- 
mented ;  but  his  garden  is  no  better  than  what  we 
term  a  kitchen-garden.  Gardening  has  made  a 
great  progrefs  in  England.  In  France,  nature  is 
facrificed  to  conceit.  The  gardens  of  Verfailles 
deviate  from  nature  no  lefs  than  the  hanging  gar- 
dens at  Babylon.  In  Scotland,  a  tafte  is  happily 
commenced  for  neat  houfes  and  ornamented  fields ; 
and  the  circumftances  of  the  people  make  it  pro- 
bable, that  tafte  there  will  improve  gradually  till 
it  arrive  at  perfection.  Few  gentlemen  in  Scotland  . 
can  afford  the  expence  of  London  ;  and  fuppofing 
them  to  pafs  the  winter  in  a  provincial  town,  they 
return  to  the  occupations  of  the  country  with  re* 
doubled  ardor.  As  they  are  fafe  from  the  corrup- 
tion of  opulence,  nature  will  be  their  guide  in 
every  plan  ;  and  the  very  face,  of  their  country 
will  oblige  them  to  follow  nature  ;  being  diverfi- 
fied  with  hills  and  plains,  rocks  and  rivers,  that  re- 
quire nothing  but  polifhing.  It  is  no  unpleafing 

profpect, 


174  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY,  [B.I, 

profpecl,  that  Scotland  may  in  a  century,  or  foon- 
er,  compare  with  England  ;  not,  indeed,  in  mag- 
nificence of  country-feats,  but  in  fvveetnefs  and  va- 
riety of  concordant  parts. 

The  ancient  churches  in  this  iiland  cannot  be 
our  own  invention,  being  unfit  for  a  cold  climate. 
The  vaft  fpace  they  occupy,  quantity  of  ftone,  and 
gloominefs  by  excluding  the  fun,  afford  a  refrefh- 
ing  coolnefs,  and  fit  them  for  a  hot  climate.  It  is? 
highly  probable  that  they  have  been  copied  from 
the  mofques  in  the  fouth  of  Spain,  creeled  there 
by  the  Saracens.  Spain,  when  pofferTed  by  that 
people,  was  the  centre  of  arts  and  fciences,  and  led 
the  falhion  in  every  thing  beautiful  and  magnifi- 
cent. 

From  the  fine  arts  mentioned,  we  proceed  to  li- 
terature. It  is  agreed  among  all  antiquaries,  that 
the  firft  writings  were  in  verfe,  and  that  profe  was 
of  a  much  later  date.  The  firft  Greek  who  wrote 
in  profe,  was  Pherecides  Syrus :  the  firft  Roman, 
was  Appius  Caecus,  who  compofed  a  declamation 
againft  Pyrrhus.  The  four  books  of  Chatah  Bhade, 
the  facred  book  of  Hindoftan,  are  compofed  in 
verfe  ftanxas ;  and  the  Arabian  compofitions  in 
profe  followed  long  after  thofe  in  verfe.  To  ac- 
count for  that  fingular  fact,  many  learned  pens  have 
been  employed  ;  but  without  fuccefs.  By  fome  it 
has  been  urged,  that  as  memory  is  the  only  record 
of  events  where  writing  is  unknown,  hiftory  origi- 
nally was  compofed  in  verfe  for  the  fake  of 


SK.  4.  §2.]  ARTS.  175 

ry.  This  is  not  fatisfactory.  To  undertake  the 
painful  talk  of  compofing  in  verfe  for  the  fake  of 
memory,  would  require  more  foreiight  than  ever 
was  exerted  by  a  barbarian ;  not  to  mention  that 
other  means  were  ufed  for  preferving  the  memory 
of  remarkable  events,  a  heap  of  ftones,  a  pillar,  or 
other  object  that  catches  the  eye.  The  account 
given  by  Longinus  is  more  ingenious.  In  a  frag- 
ment of  his  treatife  on  verfe,  the  only  part  that  re- 
mains, he  obferves,  "  that  meafure  or  verfe  belongs 
"  to  poetry,  becaufe  poetry  reprefents  the  various 
"  paflions  with  their  language  ;  for  which  reafon 
"  the  ancients,  in  their  ordinary  difcourfe,  deliver- 
"  ed  their  thoughts  in  verfe  rather  than  in  profe.'1 
Longinus  thought,  that  anciently  men  were  more 
expofed  to  accidents  and  dangers,  than  when  they 

4 

were  protected  by  good  government  and  by  forti- 
fied cities.  But  he  feems  not  to  have  confidered, 
that  fear  and  grief,  infpired  by  dangers  and  mis- 
fortunes, are  better  fuited  to  humble  profe  than  to 
elevated  verfe.  I  add,  that  however  natural  poe- 
tical diction  may  be  when  one  is  animated  with 
any  .vivid  pailion,  it  is  not  fuppofable  that  the  an- 
cients never  wrote  nor  fpoke  but  when  excited  by 
pafiion.  Their  hiflory,  their  laws,  their  cove- 
nants, were  certainly  not  compofed  in  that  tone  of 
mind. 

An  important  article  in  the  progrefs  of  the  fine 
arts,  which  writers  have  not  fufficiently  attended 
to,  will,  if  I  miftake  not,  explain  this  myftery. 

The 


176  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY*         [B.  I* 

The  article  is  the  profeflion  of  a  bard,  which 
fprung  up  in  early  times  before  writing  was  known, 
and  died  away  gradually  as  writing  turned  more 
and  more  common.  .  The  curiofity  of  men  is  great 
with  refpedt  to  the  tranfadions  of  their  forefa- 
thers ;  and,  when  fuch  tranfadlions  are  defcribed 
in  verfe,  accompanied  with  mulic,  the  perform- 
ance is  enchanting.  'An  ear,  a  voice,  fkill  in  in- 
ftrumental  mufic,  and,  above  all,  a  poetical  genius, 
are  requifite  to  excel  in  that  complicated  art.  As 
fuch  talents  are  rare,  the  few  that  poffefled  them 
were  highly  efteemed ;  and  hence  the  profeffion  of 
a  bard,  which,  betide  natural  talents,  required 
more  culture  and  exercife  than  any  other  known 
art.  Bards  were  capital  perfons  at  every  feftival 
and  at  every  folemnity.  Their  fongs,  which,  by 
recording  the  atchievements  of  kings  and  heroes, 
animated  every  hearer,  muft  have  been  the  enter- 
tainment of  every  warlike  nation.  We  have  He- 
liod's  authority,  that  in  his  time  bards  were  as  com- 
mon as  potters  or  joiners,  and  as  liable  to  envy. 
Demodocus  is  mentioned  by  Homer  as  a  celebrated 
bard*  ;  and  Phemius,  another  bard,  is  introduced 
by  him  deprecating  the  wrath  of  Ulyffes,  in  the 
following  words  : 


** 
" 
" 


O  king  !  to  mercy  be  thy  foul  inclined, 
And  fpare  the  poet's  ever  gentle  kind. 
A  deed  like  this  thy  future  fame  would  wrong* 
"  For  dear  to  gods  and  men  is  facred  fong. 

«'  Self- 
*  Ody/Tey,  b.  viii, 


3K.  4.  $  2.]  ARTS. 

"  Self-taught  I  fing  :  by  "heav'n,  and  heav'n  alone., 

"  The  genuine  feeds  of  poefy  are  fown  ; 

"  And  (what  the  gods  beftow)  the  lofty  lay, 

"  To  gods  alone,  and  godlike  worth,  we  pay. 

"  Save  then  the  poet,  and  thyfelf  reward  ; 

"  'Tis  thine-  to  merit,  mine  is  to  record." 

Cicero  reports,  that  at  Roman  feftivals  anciently, 
the  virtues  and  exploits  of  their  great  men  were 
lung*.  The  fame  cuftom  prevailed  in  Peru  and 
Mexico,  as  we  learn  from  GarcilafTo  and  other  au- 
thors. Strabo  f  gives  a  very  particular  account  of 
the  Gallic  bards.  The  following  quotation  is  from 
Ammianus  Marcellinus  J  :  "  Bardi  quidem  fortia 
*'  virorum  illuftrium  facta,  heroicis  compofita  ver- 
"  fibus,  cum  dulcibus  lyree  modulis,  cantitarunt." 
We  have  for  our  authority  Father  Gobien,  that 
even  the  inhabitants  of  the  Marian  iflands  have 
bards,  who  are  greatly  admired,  becaufe  in  tjieir 
fongs  are  celebrated  the  feats  of  their  anceftors. 
There  are  traces  of  the  fame  kind  among  the  Apa- 
lachites  in  North  America  §.  And  we  fhall  fee 

afterward, 

*  Tnfculan  Queftions,  lib.  iv.  N°  3.  &  4. 

f  Lib.  iv.  J  Lib.  xv.  cap.  9. 

§  The  firft  feal  that  a  young  Greenlander  catches,  is  m#de 
4  feaft  for  the  family  and  neighbours.  The  young  champion^ 
during  the  repaft,  defcants  upon  his  addrefs  in  catching  the 
animal :  the  guefts  admire  his  dexterity,  and  extol  the  flavour 
of  the  meat.  Their  only  mufic  is  a  fort  of  drum,  which  ac- 
companies a  fong  in  praife  of  feal-catching  ;  in  praife  of  their 

anceftors ; 

VOL.  I.  M 


17$  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  Ir 

+ 

afterward  t,  that  in  no  other  part  of  the  world 
were  bards  more  honoured  than  in  Britain  and 

v  -  • 

Scandinavia. 

Bards  were  the  only  hiftorians  before  writing 
•was  introduced.  Tacitus  f  fays,  that  the  fongs  of 
the  German  bards  were  their  only  annals.  And 
Joannes  Magnus,  Archbifhop  of  Upfal,  acknow- 
ledges, that,  in  compiling  his  hiftory  of  the  ancient 
Goths,  he  had  no  other  records  but  the  fongs  of 
the  bards.  As  thefe  fongs  made  an  illuftrious  fi- 
gure at  every  feftival,  they  were  conveyed  in  eve- 
ry family  by  parents  to  their  children  ;  and  in 
that  manner  were  kept  alive  before  writing  was 
known. 

,  t 

The  invention  of  writing  made  a  change  in  the 
bard-profeffion.  It  is  now  an  agreed  point,  that 

*  *  "  *  tt 

'"•'    '    '  V       '  •••'•.  :•'     :  :'••'•  r'}'' :'•    no 

•  /•   ,  ^^-  • 

anceftors ;  or  in  welcoming  £he  fun's  return  tp  them.  Here 
are  the  rudiments  of  the  bard-profeffion.  The  fong  is  made 
for  a  chorus,  as  many  of  our  ancient  fongs  are.  Take  the 
following  example : 

"  The  welcome  fun  returns  again, 
"  Amna  ajah,  ajah,  ah  hu  J 
*'  And  brings  us  weather  fine  and  fair, 
"  Amna  ajah,  ajah,  ah-hu  !" 

The  bard  fings  the  firft  and  third  lines,  accompanying  it  with 

his  drum,  and  with  a  fort  of  dance.     The  other  lines,  terme4 

.... 

the  burden  of  the  fong,  are  fung  by  the  guefts, 
*  Sketch  vi .  Progrefs  of  Manners. 

s. 

t  De  Moribus  Germanoruxn,  cap.  2, 

1    -        '•       ••      •'    •'•  •     -••      •*    *• 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  179 

no  poetry  is  fit  to  be  accompanied  with  mufic,  but 
•what  is  iimple  :  a  complicated  thought  or  defcrip- 
tion  requires  the  utmoft  attention,  and  leaves  none 
for  the  mufic  ;  or,  if  it  divide  the  attention,  it 

v 

makes  but  a  faint  impreffion  *.  The  fimple  ope- 
ras of  Quinault  bear  away  the  palm  from  every 
thing  of  the  kind  compofed  by  Boileau  or  Racine. 
But  when  a  language,  in  its  progrefs  to  maturity, 
is  enriched  with  a  variety  of  phrafes  fit  to  exprefs 
the  mod  elevated  thoughts,  men  of  genius  afpire, 
to  the  higher  ftrains  of  poetry,  leaving  mufic  and 
fong  to  the  bards  :  which  diftinguifhes  the  profef- 
fion  of  a  poet  from  that  pf  a  bard.  Homer,  in  a 
lax  fenfe,  may  be  termed  a  bard  ;  for  in  that  cha- 
racter he  ftrolled  from  feaft  to  feaft.  Bqt  he  was 
not  a  bard  in  the  original  fenfe :  he  indeed  recited 
his  poems  to  crowded  audiences;  but  his  poems 
are  too  complex  for  mufic,  and  he  probably  did 
riot  fing  them,  nor  accompany  them  with  the  lyre, 
The  Trovadores  of  Provence  were  bards  in  the 
original  fenfe  ;  and  made  a  capital  figure  in  days 
of  ignorance,  when  few  could  read,  and  fewer 
write.  In  later  times  the  fongs  of  the  bards  were 
taken  down  in  writing,  which  gave  every  one  ac- 
cefs  to  them  without  a  bard  ;  and  the  profeffion 
funk  by  degrees  into  oblivion.  Among  the  High- 
landers of  Scotland,  reading  and  writing  in  their 
own  tongue  is  not  common  even  at  prefent ;  and 
that  circumftarice  fupported  long  the  bard-profef- 

M  2  fion 

*  See  Elements  of  Criticifm,  vol.  ii.  Appendix,  article  33, 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

fion  among  them,  after  being  forgot  among  neigh- 
bouring nations.  Oflian  was  the  mod  celebrated 
bard  in  Caledonia,  as  Homer  was  in  Greece  *. 

From   the   foregoing  hiftorical   deduction,    the 
reader  will  difcover  without  my  affiftance  why  the 
firfl  writings  were  in  verfe.      The  fongs  of  the 
bards,  being  univerfal  favourites,  were  certainly  the 
firft  compofitions  that  writing  was  employed  upon : 
they  would  be  carefully  collected  by  the  mod  Ikil- 
ful  writers,  in  order  to  preferve  them  in  perpetual 
remembrance.      The  following  part  of  the  pro- 
grefs  is  equally  obvious.     People  acquainted  with 
no  written  compofitions  but  what  were  in  verfe, 
compofed  in  verfe  their  laws,  their  religious  cere- 
monies, and  every  memorable  tranfaclion.      But 
when  fubjedls  of  writing  multiplied,  and  became 
more  and  more  involved,   when  people  began   to 
reafon,  to  teach,  and  to  harangue,  they  were  obli- 
ged to  defcend  to  humble  profe  :  for  to  confine  a 
writer  or  fpeaker  to  verfe  in  handling  fubjeds  of 
that  nature,  would  be  a  burden  unfupportable. 

The  profe  compofitions  of  early  hiftorians  are  all 
of  them  dramatic.     A  writer  deftitute  of  art  is  na- 
turally 

*  The  multitude  are  ftruck  with  what  is  new  and  fplendid,--* 
but  feldom  continue  long  in  a  wrong  tafte.  Voltaire  holds  it 
to  be  a  ftrong  teftimony  for  the  Gierufaleme  Liberata,  that 
even  the  gondoliers  in  Venice  have  it  moftly  by  heart ;  and 
that  one  no  fooner  pronounces  a  ftanza  than  another  carries 
it  on.  Offian  has  the  fame  teftimony  in  his  favour  :  there  are 
not  many  Highlanders,  even  of  the  loweft  rank;  but  can  re- 
peat long  pafTages  out  of  his  works. 


SK.  4.  §  2J  AK-TS,  l8l 

turally  prompted  to  relate  fadls  as  he  favv  them 
performed  :  he  introduces  his  perfonages  as  fpeak- 
ing  and  conferring  \  and  relates  only  what  was  adted 
and  not  fpoken  *.  The  hiftorical  books  of  the  Old 
Teftament  are  compofed  in  that  mode  ;  and  fo  ad- 
dicted to  the  dramatic  are  the  authors  of  thefe 
books,  that  they  frequently  introduce  God  himfelf 
into  the  dialogue.  At  the  fame  time,  the  fimpli- 
city  of  that  mode  is  happily  fuited  to  the  poverty 
of  every  language  in  its  early  periods.  The  dra- 
matic mode  has  a  delicious  effecl  in  expreffing  fen- 
timents,  and  every  thing  that  is  ilmple  and  ten- 
der f.  Take  the  following  inftance  of  a  low  in- 
cident becoming  by  that  means  not  a  little  inte- 
refting.  Naomi  having  loft  her  hufband  and  her 
two  fons  in  foreign  parts,  and  purpoiing  to  return 
to  the  land  of  her  forefathers,  faid  to  her  two 
daughters-in-law,  "  Go,  return  each  to  her  mo- 
"  ther's  houfe  :  the  LORD  deal  kindly  with  you,  as 
ye  have  dealt  with  the  dead,  and  with  me.  The 
LORD  grant  you  that  you  may  find  reft,  each  of 
you  in  the  houfe  of  her  hufband.  Then  Ihe  kifled 
them  :  and  they  lift  up  their  voice  and  wept. 
And  they  faid  unto  her,  Surely  we  will  return 
"  with  thee  unto  thy  people.  And  Naomi  faid, 

"  Turn 


tt 


if 


tt 


*  Low  people  to  this  day  tell  their  ftory  in  dialogue,  as  an- 
cient writers  did,  and  for  the  fame  reafon.  They  relate  thing's 
as  they  faw  and  heard  them. 

f  See  Elements  of  Criticifm,  chap.  22.  ' 


l82  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.        [B.  1, 


a 
<t 


tt 

(6 


Turn  again,  my  daughters  :  why  will  ye  go  with 
me  ?  are  there  yet  any  more  huibands  in  my 
"  womb,  that  they  may  be  your  hufbands?  Turn 
"  again,  my  daughters,  go  your  way,  for  I  am  too 
"  old  to  have  an  hulband  :  If  I  mould  fay,  I  have 
"  hope,  if  I  fhould  have  a  hufband  alfo  to  night,  and 
"  fhould  alfo  bear  fons  ;  would  you  tarry  for  them 
till  they  were  grown  ?  would  ye  flay  for  them 
from  having  hufbands  ?  nay,  my  daughters ;  for 
"-  it  grieveth  me  much  for  your  fakes,  that  the 
"  hand  of  the  LORD  is  gone  out  againft  me.  And 
"  they  lift  up  their  voice  and  wept  again  :  and 
"  Orpah  kiffed  her  mother-in-law,  but  Ruth  clave 
"  unto  her.  And  (he  faid,  Behold,  thy  fifter-in- 
"  law  is  gone  back  unto  her  people,  and  unto  her 
"  gods :  return  thou  after  thy  fifter-in-law.  And 
"  Ruth  faidj  Entreat  me  not  to  leave  thee,  or  to 
"  return  from  following  after  thee  :  for  whither 
"  thou  goefl,  I  will  go  ;  and  where  thou  lodgefl  I 
"  will  lodge  :  thy  people  £hall  be  my  people,  and 
**  thy  God  my  God  :  where  thou  dieft,  will  I  die^ 
"  and  there  will  I  be  buried  :  the  Lord  do  fo  to 
"  me,  and  more  alfo,  if  ought  but  death  part  thee 
"  and  me*  When  ftie  faw  that  fhe  was  ftedfaftly 
"  minded  to  go  with  her,  then  fhe  left  fpeaking 
"  unto  her. 

"  So  they  two  went  until  they  came  to  Beth- 
"  lehem*     And  it  came  to  pafs  when  they  were   /• 
"  come  to  Beth-lehem,   that  all  the  city  was  mo- 
"  ved  about  them,  and  they  faid,  Is  this  Naomi  ? 

"  And 


.4»  §  2.]  ARTS.  183 

"  And  fhe  faid  unto  them,  Call  me  not  Naomi* 
"  call  me  Mara  :  for  the  Almighty  hath  dealt  ve- 
"  ry  bitterly  with  me.  I  went  out  full,  and  the 
"  LORD  hath  brought  me  home  again  empty : 
"  why  then  call  ye  me  Naomi,  feeing  the  LORD 
"  hath  teftified  againft  me,  and  the  Almighty  hath 
"  afflicted  me  ?  So  Naomi  returned,  and  Ruth  the 
"  Moabitefs  her  daughter-in-law  with  her,  which 
"  returned  out  of  the  country  of  Moab  :  and  they 
"  came  to  Beth  lehem  in  the  beginning  of  barley- 
"  harveft. 

"  And  Naomi  had  a  kinfman  of  her  hufband's, 
"  a  mighty  man  of  wealth,  of  the  family  of  Eli- 
"  melech  ;  and  his  name  was  Boaz.  And  Ruth 
"  the  Moabitefs  faid  unto  Naomi,  Let  me  now  go 
"  to  the  field,  and  glean  ears  of  corn  after  him  in 
"  whofe  fight  I  (hall  find  grace.  And  fhe  faid 
"  unto  her,  Go,  my  daughter.  And  fhe  went,  and 
"  came,  and  gleaned  in  the  field  after  the  reapers  t 
"  and  her  hap  was  to  light  on  a  part  of  the  field 
"  belonging  unto  Boaz,  who  was  of  the  kindred 
"  of  Elimelech. 

"  And  behold,  Boaz  came  from  Beth-lehem,  and 
"  faid  unto  the  reapers,  The  LORD  be  with  you  : 
"  and  they  anfwered  him,  The  LORD  blefs  thee. 
"  Then  faid  Boaz  unto  his  fervant  that  was  fet 
"  over  the  reapers,  Whofe  damfel  is  this  ?  And 
"  the  fervant  that  was  fet  over  the  reapers  auiwcr- 
"  ed  arid  faid,  It  is  the  Moabrifh  damfei  that 
"  came  back  with  Naomi,  out  of  the  countr,  of 

M  4  •'  Moab  ; 


6t 
tt 


184  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OT  SOCIETY.  [B.  I* 

"  Moab :  and  fhe  faid,  I  pray  you  let  me  glean, 
**.  and  gather  after  the  reapers,  amongft  the  fheaves  : 
"  fo  fhe  came,  and  hath  continued  even  from  the 
*'  morning  until  now,  that  fhe  tarried  a  little  in 
"  the  houfe.     Then  faid  Boaz  unto  Ruth,,  Heareft 
"  thou  not,   my  daughter?    Go  not  to  glean  in 
"  another  field,  neither  go  from  hence,  but  abide 
"  here  faft  by  my  maidens.     Let  thine  eyes  be  on 
M  the  field  that  they  do  reap,  and  go  thou  after 
"  them  :  have  I  not  charged  the  young  men,  that 
"  they  fhall  not  touch  thee  ?  and  when  thou  art 
athirft,  go  unto  the  vefTels,  and  drink  of  that 
which  the  young  men  have  drawn.     Then  fhe 
"  fell  on  her  face,  and  bowed  herfelf  to  the  ground, 
"  and  faid  unto  him,  Why  have  I  found  grace  in 
"  thine  eyes,  that  thou  fhouldft  take  knowledge 
"  of  me,  feeing  I  am  a  ftranger  ?    And  Boaz  an- 
"  fwered  and  faid  unto  her,  It  hath  fully  been 
"  fhewed  me  all  that  thou  haft  done  unto  thy  mo- 
"  ther-in-law  fince  the  death  of  thine  hufband : 
"  and  how  thou  haft  left  thy  father  and  thy  mo- 
"  ther,  and  the  land  of  thy  nativity,  and  art  come 
unto  a  people  which  thou  kneweft  not  here- 
tofore.    The  LORD  recompenfe  thy  work,  and  a 
"  full  reward  be  given  thee  of  the  LORD  God  of 
Ifraet,  under  whofe  wings  thou  art  come  to  trurL 
Then  fhe  faid,  Let  me  find  favour  in  thy  fight, 
my  lord,  for  that  thou  haft  comforted  me,  and 
*'  for  that  thou  haft  fpoken  friendly  unto  thine 
"  handmaid,  though  I  be  not  like  unto  one  of 

"  thine 


6t 
tt 


ft 


•i 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  185 

"  thine  handmaidens.  And  Boaz  iaid  unto  her, 
"  At  meal-time  come  thou  hither,  and  eat  of  the 
"  bread,  and  dip  thy  morfel  in  the  vinegar.  And 
"  ihe  fat  beiide  the  reapers:  and  he  reached  her 
"  parched  corn,  and  me  did  eat,  and  was  fufficed, 
"  and  left.  And  when  ihe  was  rifen  up  to  glean, 
"  Boaz  commanded  his  young  men,  faying,  Let 
"  her  glean  even  among  the  iheaves,  and  reproach 
"  her  not.  And  let  fall  alfo  fome  of  the  handfuls 
"  of  purpofe  for  her,  and  leave  them,  that  ihe  may 
"  glean  them,  and  rebuke  her  riot.  So  ihe  glean- 
"  ed  in  the  field  until  even,  and  beat  out  that  ihe 
"  had  gleaned :  and  it  was  about  an  ephah  of 
"  barley. 

"  And  ihe  took  it  up,  and  went  into  the  city : 
"  and  her  mother-in-law  faw  what  ihe  had  glean- 
"  ed  :  and  ihe  brought  forth,  and  gave  to  her  that 
"  ihe  had  referved,  after  (he  was  fufficed.  And 
"  her  mother-in-law  faid  unto  her,  Where  haft 
"  thou  gleaned  to  day  ?  and  where  wroughteft 
"  thou  ?  blefied  be  he  that  did  take  knowledge  of 
4<  thee.  And  ihe  mewed  her  mother-in-law  with 
"  whom  ihe  had  wrought,  and  faid,  The  man's 
*'  name  with  whom  I  wrought  to  day,  is  Boaz. 
"  And  Naomi  faid  unto  her  daughter-in-law, 
**  BleiTed  be  he  of  the  LORD,  who  hath  not  left  off 
"  hiskindnefs  to  the  living  and  to  the  dead.  And 
"  Naomi  faid  unto  her,  The  man  is  near  of  kin 
**  unto  us,  one  of  our  next  kinfmen.  And  Ruth 
"  the  Moabitefs  faid,  He  faid  unto  me  alfo,  Thou 

"  ihah 


186  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY*  [B.  f« 

"  fhalt  keep  faft  by  my  young  men,  until  they 
"  have  ended  all  my  harveft.  And  Naomi  faid 
"  unto  Ruth  her  daughter-in-law,  It  is  good,  my 
"  daughter,  that  thou  go  out  with  his  maidens, 
"  that  they  meet  thee  not  in  any  other  field.  Sb 
"  fhe  kept  faft  by  the  maidens  of  Boaz  to  glean, 
"  unto  the  end  of  barley-harveft,  and  of  wheat- 
"  harveft  ;  and  dwelt  with  her  mother-in-law. 

"  Then  Naomi  her  mother-in-law  faid  unto  her, 
"  My  daughter,  fhall  I  not  feek  reft  for  thee,  that 
"  it  may  be  well  with  thee  ?  And  now  is  not 
"  Boaz  of  our  kindred,  with  whofe  maidens  thou 
"  waft  ?  Behold,  he  winnoweth  barley  to  night 
"  in  the  threfhing- floor.  Wafh  thyfelf  therefore, 
"  and  anoint  thee,  and  put  thy  raiment  upon  thee, 
"  and  get  thee  down  to  the  floor :  but  make  not 
"  thyfelf  known  unto  the  man,  until  he  fhall  have 
"  done  eating  and  drinking.  And  it  fhall  be  when 
"  he  lieth  down,  that  thou  fhalt  mark  the  place 
"  where  he  fhall  lie,  and  thou  fhall  go  in,  and  un- 
"  cover  his  feet,  and  lay  thee  down,  and  he  will 
"  tell  thee  what  thou  fhalt  do.  And  fhe  faid  un- 
"  to  her,  All  that  thou  fayeft  unto  me,  I  will  do. 

And  fhe  went  down  unto  the  floor,  and  did 
according  to  all  that  her  mother-in-law  bade 
her.  And  when  Boaz  had  eaten  and  drunk, 
and  his  heart  was  merry,  he  went  to  lie  down 
at  the  end  of  the  heap  of  corn',  and  fhe  came 
foftly,  and  uncovered  his  feet,  and  laid  her 
down. 

"  And 


4t 

€4 


Sfc.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  187 

"  And  it  came  to  pafs  at  midnight,  that  the 
"  man  was  afraid,  and  turned  himfelf :  and  be- 
"  hold,  a  woman  lay  at  his  feet.     And  he  faid, 
"  Who  art  thou  ?  And  fhe  anfwered,  I  am  Ruth 
"  thine  handmaid  :  fpread  therefore  thy  fkirt  over 
"  thine  handmaid,  for  thou  art  a  near  kinfman. 
<*  And  he  faid,  BlefTed  be  thou  of  the  LORD,  my 
"  daughter :  for  thou  haft  fhewed  more  kindnefs 
"  in  the  latter  end,  than  at  the  beginning,  inaf- 
"  much  as  thou  folio wedft  not  young  men,  whe- 
"  ther   poor  or   rich.     And  now,   my  daughter, 
"  fear  not,  I  will  do  to  thee  all  that  thou  requi- 
"  reft  :  for  all  the  city  of  my  people  doth  know, 
"  that  thou  art  a  virtuous  woman.     And  now  it 
"  is  true,  that  1  am  thy  near  kinfman :  howbeit 
"  there  is  a  kinfman  nearer  than  I.     Tarry  this 
"  night,  and  it  fhall  be  in  the  morning,  that  if  he 
rt  will  perform  unto  thee  the  part  of  a  kinfman, 
"  well,  let  him  do  the  kinfman' s  part ;  but  if  he 
"  will  not  do  the  part  of  a  kinfman  to  thee,  then 
"  will  I  do  the  part  of  a  kinfman  to  thee,  as  the 
"  LORD  liveth  :  lie  down  until  the  morning. 

"  And  fhe  lay  at  his  feet  until  the  morning  : 
"  and  fhe  rofe  up  before  one  could  know  another. 
"  And  he  faid,  Let  it  not  be  known  that  a  woman 
*'  came  into  the  floor.  Alfo  he  faid,  Bring  the 
"  vail  that  thou  haft  upon  thee,  and  hold  it.  And 
"  when  fhe  held  it,  he  meafured  fix  meafures  of. 
**  barley,  and  laid  it  on  her  :  and  fhe  went  into 
"  the  city.  And  when  fhe  came  to  her  mother- 

"  in-law, 


188  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

"  in-law,  fhe  faid,  Who  art  thou,  my  daughter? 
"  And  fhe  told  her  all  that  the  man  had  done  to 
"  her.  And  Ihe  faid,  Thefe  fix  meafures  of  bar- 
•«  iey  gave  he  me  ;  for  he  faid  to  me,  Go  not 
"  empty  unto  thy  mother-in-law.  Then  faid  Iher 
"  Sit  ftill,  my  daughter,  until  thou  know  how  the 
"  matter  will  fall :  for  the  man  will  not  be  in  reft, 
"  until  he  have  finiihed  the  thing  this  day. 

"  Then  went  Boax  up  to  the  gate,  and  fat  him 
"  down  there :  and  behold,  the  kinfman  of  whom 
"  Boaz  fpake,  came  by  ;  unto  whom  he  faid,  Ho, 
"  fuch  a  one,  turn  afide,  fit  down  here.  And  he 
"  turned  afide,  and  fat  down.  And  he  took  ten 
"  men  of  the  elders  of  the  city,  and  faid,  Sit  ye 
"  down  here.  And  they  fat  down.  And  he  faid 
"  unto  the  kinfman,  Naomi  that  is  come  again  out 
*'  of  the  country  of  Moab,  felleth  a  parcel  of  land, 
"  which  was  our  brother  Elimelech's.  And  J 
"  thought  to  advertife  thee,  faying,  Buy  it  before 
"  the  inhabitants,  and  before  the  elders  of  my 
"  people.  If  thou  wilt  redeem  it,  redeem  it ;  but 
"  if  thou  wilt  not  redeem  it,  then  tell  me,  that  I 
<c  may  know  :  for  there  is  none  to  redeem  it  be-r 
"  fide  thee,  and  I  am  after  thee.  And  he  faid,  I 
"  will  redeem  k.  Then  faid  Boaz,  What  day 
"  thou  buyeft  the  field  of  the  hand  of  Naomi,  thou 
"  muft  buy  it  alfo  of  Ruth  the  Moabitefs,  the  wife 
**  of  the  dead,  to  raife  up  the  name  of  the  dead 
^  upon  his  inheritance.  And  the  kinfman  faid,  I 
"  cannot  redeem  it  for  myfelf,  left  I  mar  mine 

"  own 


(t 

it 

it 
u 
it 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS, 

"  own  inheritance  :  redeem  thou  my  right  to  thy- 
"  felf,  for  I  cannot  redeem  it.  Now  this  was  the 
manner  in  former  time  in  Ifrael,  concerning  re- 
deeming, and  concerning  changing,  for  to  con- 
firm all  things :  A  man  plucked  off  his  fhoe,  jand 
gave  it  to  his  neighbour :  and  this  was  a  tefti- 
mony  in  Ifrael.  Therefore  the  kinfman  faid 
unto  Boaz,  Buy  it  for  thee  :  fo  he  drew  off  his 
*f  fhoe.  And  Boaz  faid  unto  the  elders,  and  unto 
"  all  the  people,  Ye  are  witneffes  this  day,  that  I 
f  have  bought  all  that  was  Elimelech's,  and  all 
"  that  was  Chilion's,  and  Mahlon's,  of  the  hand 
"  of  Naomi.  Moreover,  Ruth  the  Moabitefs,  the 
"  wife  of  Mahlon,  have  I  purchafed  to  be  my 
"  wife,  to  raife  up  the  name  of  the  dead  upon  his 
"  inheritance,  that  the  name  of  the  dead  be  not 
"  cut  off  from  among  his  brethren,  and  from  the 
"  gate  of  his  place  :  ye  are  witneffes  this  day. 
"  And  all  the  people  that  were  in  the  gate,  and 
"  the  elders  faid,  We  are  witneffes :  The  Lord 
**  make  the  woman  that  is  come  into  thine  houfe, 
•"  like  Rachel,  and  like  Leah,  which  two  did  build 
"  the  houfe  of  Ifrael :  and  do  thou  worthily  in 
f*  Ephratah,  and  be  famous  in  Beth-lehem.  And 
"  let  thy  houfe  be  like  the  houfe  of  Pharez  (whonj. 
4<  Tamar  bare  unto  Judah)  of  the  feed  which  the 
"  LORD  fhall  give  thee  of  this  young  woman. 

"  So  Boaz  took  Ruth,  and  fhe  was  his  wife  :  an4 
"  when  he  went  in  unto  her,  the  LORD  gave  her 
#'  conception,  and  fhe  bare  a  fon.  And  the  wo- 

"•  men 


I9O  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.'  [fi.  I. 

"  men  faid  unto  Naomi,  BlefTed  be  the  LORD, 
"  which  hath  not  left  thee  this  day  without  a  kinf- 
"  man,  that  his  name  may  be  famous  in  IfraeL 
"  And  he  fhall  be  unto  thee  a  reftorer  of  thy  life, 
"  and  a  nourifher  of  thine  old  age  :  for  thy  daugh- 
"  ter-in-law  which  loveth  thee,  which  is  better  to 
"  thee  than  feven  fons,  hath  born  him.  And 
"  Naomi  took  the  child,  and  laid  it  in  her  bofom, 
"  and  became  nurfe  unto  it  *." 

The  dramatic  mode  is  far  from  being  fo  agree- 
able in  relating  bare  hiftorical  fadts.  Take  the  fol- 
lowing example. 

"  Wherefore  Nathan  fpake  unto  Bath-fheba  the 
"  mother  of  Solomon,  faying,  Haft  thou  not  heard 
"  that  Adonijah  the  fon  of  Haggith  doth  reign, 
"  and  David  our  lord  knoweth  it  not  ?  Now 
"  therefore  come,  let  me,  I  pray  thee,  give  thee 
"  counfel,  that  thou  mayft  fave  thine  own  life, 
"  and  the  life  of  thy  fon  Solomon.  Go,  and  get 
"  thee  in  unto  king  David,  and  fay  unto  him, 
"  Didfl  not  thou,  my  lord  O  king,  fwear  unto 
"  thine  handmaid,  faying,  AfTuredly  Solomon  thy 
"  fon  fhall  reign  after  me,  and  he  fhall  fit  upon 
*'  my  throne  ?  Why  then  doth  Adonijah  reign  ? 
"  Behold,  while  thou  yet  talkeft  there  with  the 
"  king,  I  alfo  will  come  in  after  thee,  and  confirm 
"  thy  words. 

"  And  Bath-fheba  went  in  unto  the  king,  into 
*'  the  chamber  :  and  the  king  was  very  old  ;  and 


*  Ruth  i.  $. — iv.  16. 


4.1 
ll 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  191 

"  Abiihag  the  Shunammite  miniilered  unto  the 
"  king.  And  Bath-iheba  bowed,  and  did  obei- 
"  fance  unto  the  king  :  and  the  king  faid,  What 
"  wouldil  thou  ?  And  me  faid  unto  him,  My  lord, 
f  thou  fwareil  by  the  LORD  thy  God  unto  thine 
"  handmaid,  faying,  Afluredly  Solomon  thy  fon 
ihall  reign  after  me,  and  he  ihall  fit  upon  my 
throne  :  and  now  behold,  Adonijah  reigneth  ; 
*'  and  now  my  lord  the  king,  thou  knoweft  it  not. 
"  And  he  hath  ilain  oxen,  and  fat  cattle,  and 
*'  fheep  in  abundance,  and  hath  called  all  the  fons 
"  of  the  king,  and  Abiathar  the  prieft,  and  Joab 
"  the  captain  of  the  hoil :  but  Solomon  thy  fer- 
"  vant  hath  he  not  called.  And  thou,  my  lord 
*'  O  king,  the  eyes  of  all  Ifrael  are  upon  thee,  that 
"  thou  ihouldft  tell  them  who  fhall  fit  on  the 
"  throne  of  my  lord  the  king  after  him.  Other- 
"  wife  it  ihall  come  to  pafs,  when  my  lord  the 
*'  king  fhall  ileep  with  his  fathers,  that  I  and  my 
"  fon  Solomon  ihall  be  counted  offenders. 

"  And  lo,  while  fhe  yet  talked  with  the  king, 
*'  Nathan  the  prophet  alfo  came  in.  And  they 
?*  told  the  king,  faying,  Behold,  Nathan  the  pro- 
"  phet.  And  when  he  was  come  in  before  the 
king,  he  bowed  himfelf  before  the  king  with  his 
face  to  the  ground.  And  Nathan  faid,  My  lord 
"  O  king,  hail  thou  faid,  Adonijah  ihall  reign  af- 
"  ter  me,  and  he  ihall  fit  upon  my  throne  ?  For 
?'  he  is  gone  down  this  day,  and  hath  flain  oxen, 
tt  and  fat  cattlej  and  llieep  in  aoundance,  and  hath 

"  called 


it 
4( 


,J92  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

"  called  all  the  king's  fons,  and  the  captains  of 
"  the  hoft,  and  Abiathar  the  prieft ;  and  behold, 
"  they  eat  and  drink  before  him,  and  fay,  God 
"  fave  king  Adonijah.  But  me,  even  me  thy  fer- 
"  vant,  and  Zadok  the  prieft,  and  Benaiah  the  fon 
"  of  Jehoiada,  and  thy  fervant  Solomon  hath  he 
"  not  called.  Is  this  thing  done  by  my  lord  the 
"  king,  and  thou  haft  not  fhewed  it  unto  thy  fer- 
"  vant  who  fhould  fit  on  the  throne  of  my  lord 
**  the  king  after  him  ? 

"  Then  king  David  anfwered  and  faid,  Call  me 
"  Bath-lheba  :  and  fhe  came  into  the  king's  pre- 
"  fence,  and  ftood  before  the  king.  And  the  king 
"  fware,  and  faid,  As  the  LORD  liveth,  that  hath 
"  redeemed  my  foul  out  of  all  diftrefs,  even  as  I 
"  fware  unto  thee  by  the  LORD  God  of  Ifrael,  fay- 
"  ing,  Aflu redly  Solomon  thy  fon  fhall  reign  after 
"  me,  and  he  fhall  fit  upon  my  throne  in  my  ftead ; 
"  even  fo  will  I  certainly  do  this  day.  Then 
"  Bath-fheba  bowed  with  her  face  to  the  earth, 
"  and  did  reverence  to  the  king,  and  faid,  Let  my 
"  lord  king  David  live  for  ever. 

"  And  king  David  faid,  Call  me  Zadok  the  prieft, 
"  and  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  Benaiah  the  fon 
41  of  Jehoiada.  And  they  came  before  the  king, 
"  The  king  alfo  faid  unto  them,  Take  with  you 
"  the  fervants  of  your  lord,  and  caufe  Solomon  my 
f  fon  to  ride  upon  mine  own  mule,  and  bring  him 
"  down  to  Gihon.  And  let  Zadok  the  prieft,  and 
"  Nathan  the  prophet,  anoint  him  there  king  over 

"  Ifrael: 


4t 
tt 
it 
tt 
tt 


SK.  4.  §  2.J  ARTS. 

*'  Ifrael :  and  blow  ye  with  the  trumpet,  and 
"  fay,  God  fave  king  Solomon.  Then  ye  fhall 
'*  come  up  after  him,  that  he  may  come  and  fit 
upon  my  throne  \  for  he  fhall  be  king  in  my 
flead :  and  I  have  appointed  him  to  be  ruler 
over  Ifrael,  and  over  Judah.  And  Benaiah  the 
fon  of  Jehoiada  anfwered  the  king,  and  faid, 
Amen  :  the  LORD  GOD  of  my  lord  the  king  fay 
"  fo  too.  As  the  LORD  hath  been  with  my  lord 
"  the  king,  even  fo  be  he  with  Solomon,  and  make 
"  his  throne  greater  than  the  throne  of  my  lord 
"  king  David.  So  Zadok  the  prielt,  and  Nathan 
"  the  prophet,  and  Benaiah  the  fon  of  Jehoiada, 
"  and  the  Cherethites  and  the  Pelethites,  went 
"  down  and  caufed  Solomon  to  ride  upon  king 
"  David's  mule,  and  brought  him  to  Gihon.  And 
"  Zadok  the  prieft  took  an  horn  of  oil  out  of  the 
"  tabernacle,  and  anointed  Solomon  :  and  they 
"  blew  the  trumpet,  and  all  the  people  faid,  God 
"  fave  king  Solomon.  And  all  the 'people  came 
"  up  after  him,  and  the  people  piped  with  pipes, 
"  and  rejoiced  with  great  joy,  fo  that  the  earth 
"  rent  with  the  found  of  them. 

"  And  Adonijah,  and  all  the  guefts  that  were 
"  with  him,  heard  it,  as  they  had  made  an  end  of 
"  eating :  and  when  Joab  heard  the  found  of  the 
"  trumpet,  he  faid,  Wherefore  is  this  noife  of  the 
"  city,  being  in  an  uproar  ?  And  while  he  yet 
"  fpake,  behold,  Jonathan  the  fon  of  Abiathar  the 
*'  pried  came,  and  Adonijah  faid  unto  him,  Come 
VOL,  I.  N  a  "  in, 


194  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [8.  I. 

"  in,  for  thou  art  a  valiant  man,  and  bringeft  good 
"  tidings.  And  Jonathan  anfwered  and.  faid  to 
"  Adonijah,  Verily  our  lord  king  David  hath 
•  *'  made  Solomon  king.  And  the  king  has  fent 
"  with  him  Zadok  the  prieft,  and  Nathan  the  pro- 
*'  phet,  and  Benaiah  the  fon  of  Jehoiada,  and  the 
"  Cherethites,  and  the  Pelethites,  and  they  have 
"  caufed  him  to  ride  upon  the  king's  mule.  And 
"  Zadok  the  prieft,  and  Nathan  the  prophet  have 
"  anointed  him  king  in  Gihon :  and  they  are  come 
"  up  from  thence  rejoicing,  fo  that  the  city  rang 
"  again :  this  is  the  noife  that  ye  have  heard. 
"  And  alfb  Solomon  fitteth  on  the  throne  of  the 
"  kingdom.  And  moreover  the  king's  fervants 
"  came  to  blefs  our  lord  king  David,  faying,  God 
"  make  the  name  of  Solomon  better  than  thy 
"  name,  and  make  his  throne  greater  than  thy 
"  throne :  and  the  king  bowed  himfelf  upon  the 
"  bed.  And  alfo  thus  faid  the  king,  Bleffed  be 
"  the  LORD  GOD  of  Ifrael,  which  hath  given  one 
"  to  fit  on  my  throne  this  day,  mine  eyes  even 
"  feeing  it.  And  all  the  guefts  that  were  with 
"  Adonijah  were  afraid,  and  rofe  up,  and  went 
«'  every  man  his  way  *." 

In  the  example  here  given  are  found  frequent 
repetitions  ;  not  however  by  the  fame  perfon,  but 
by  different  perfons  who  have  occafion  in  the  courfe 
of  the  incidents  to  fay  the  fame  things;,  which  is 

natural 

*  i  Kings  i.  ii. — 49. 

'•  -.  • ' 


SK.  4.  §   2.]  •  •      ARTS.  195 

natural  in 'the  dramatic  mode,  where  things  are 
reprefented  precifely  as  they  were  tranfa&ed.  In 
that  view,  Homer's  repetitions  are  a  beauty,  not  a 
blemilh ;  for  they  are  confined  to  the  dramatic 
part,  and  never  occur  in  the  narrative.  In  the 
24th  chapter  of  Genelis,  there  is  a  repetition  pre- 
cifely in  the  manner  of  Homer. 

But  the  dramatic  mode  of  compofition,  however 
pleafing,  is  tedious  and  intolerable  in  a  long  hif- 
tory.  In  the  progrefs  of  fociety,  new  appetites 
and  new  paflions  arife  ;  men  come  to  be  involved 
with  each  other  in  various  connections;  incidents 
and  events  multiply,  and  hiftory  becomes  intricate 
l)y  an  endlefs  variety  of  circumilances.  Dialogue, 
accordingly,  is  more  fparingly  ufed,  and  in  hiftory 
plain  narration  is  mixed  with  it.  Narration  is  as 
it  were  the  ground- work,  and  dialogue  is  raifed, 
upon  it,  like  flowers  in  embroidery.  Homer  is 
admitted  by  all  to  be  the  great  mafter  in  that  mode 
of  compofltion.  Nothing  can  be  more  perfect  in  that 
tefpedlthan  the  Iliad.  The  Odyfley  is  far  inferior  ; 
and  to  guard  myfelf  againft  the  cenfure  of  the  un- 
diftinguifhing  admirers  of  Homer,  a  tribe  extremely 
formidable,  I  call  to  my  aid  a  celebrated  critic, 
whofe  fuperior  tafte  and  judgment  never  was  difput- 
ed.  "  The  Odyfley,"  fays  Longinus,  "  fhows  how 
**-  natural  it  is  for  a  writer  of  a  great  genius,  in  his 
"  declining  age,  to  flnk  down  to  fabulous  narration  , 
"  for  that  Homer  compofed  the  Odyfley  after,  the 
"  Iliad,  is  evident  from  many  circumilances.  As 

N  2  "  the 


196          MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.       [B.  fr 

"  the  Iliad  was  compofed  while  his  genius  was  in 
*  *its  greateft  vigour,  the  ftrudure  of  that  work 
"  is  dramatic  and  full  of  adlion  ;  the  Odyfley,  on 
"  the  contrary,  is  moftly  employed  in  narration, 
"  proceeding  from  the  coldnefs  of  old  age.  In 
"  that  later  compofition,  Homer  may  be  compared 
"  to  the  fetting  fun,  which  has  ftill  the  fame  great- 
"  nefs,  but  not  the  fame  ardor  or  force.  We  fee 
"  not  in  the  Odyfley  that  fublime  of  the  Iliad, 
"  which  conftantly  proceeds  in  the  fame  anima- 
'*  ted  tone,  that  ftrong  tide  of  motions  and  paf- 
"  lions  flowing  fucceflively  like  waves  in  a  ftorm. 
"  But  Homer,  like  the  ocean,  is  great,  even  when 
"  he  ebbs,  and  lofes  himfelf  in  narration  and  in- 
"  credible  fictions  ;  witnefs  his  defcription  of  tem- 
"  pefts,  the  adventures  of  Ulyfles  with  Polyphe- 
"  mus  the  Cyclops,  and  many  others  *." 

The  narrative  mode  came  in  time  fo  to  prevail, 
that  in  a  long  chain  of  hiftory,  the  writer, com- 
monly leaves  off  dialogue  altogether.  Early  wri- 
ters of  that  kind  appear  to  have  had  very  little 
judgment  in  diftinguifhing  capital  fa&s  from  mi- 
nute circumftances,  fuch  as  can  be  fupplied  by  the 
reader  without  being  mentioned.  The  hiftory  of 
the  Trojan  war  by  Dares  Phrygius  is  a  curious  in- 

ftance 


*  The  Pilgrim's  Progrefs,  and  Robifon  Crufoe^  great  favou- 
rites of  the  vulgar,  are  compofed  in  a  ftyle  enlivened  like  that 
of  Homer,  by  a  proper  mixture  of  the  dramatic  and  narrative  j 
and  upon  that  account,  chiefly,  have  been  tranflated  into  feve- 
ral  European  languages.  & 


SK..  4.  §  2.J  ARTS.  Ip7 

fiance  of  that  cold  and  creeping  manner  of  com- 
pofition.  Take  the  following  palTage.  Hercules 
having  made  a  defcent  upon  Troy,  flew  King  Lao- 
medon,  and  made  a  prefent  of  Hefione,  the  king's 
daughter,  to  Telamon  his  companion.  Priamus, 
who  fucceeded  to  the  kingdom  qf  Troy  upon  the 
death  of  his  father  Laomedon,  fent  Antenor  to  de- 
mand his  fifter  Hefione.  Our  author  proceeds  in 
the  following  mannner  :  "  Antenor,  as  command- 
"  ed  by  Priamus,  took  fhipping,  and  failed  to  Mag- 
"  nefia,  where  Peleus  refided.  Peleus  entertain- 
*'  ed  him  hofpitably  three  days,  and  the  fourth 
"  day  demanded  whence  he  came.  Antenor  faid, 
*'  that  he  was  ordered  by  Priamus  to  deniand  from 
"  the  Greeks,  that  they  fhould  reftore  Hefione. 
"  When  Peleus  heard  this  he  was  angry,  becaufe 
"  it  concerned  his  family,  Telamon  being  his  bro- 
"  ther ;  and  ordered  the  ambafTador  to  depart, 
"  Antenor,  without  delay,  retired  to  his  fftip,  and 
"  failed  to  Salamis,  where  Telamon  refided,  and 
"  demanded  of  him,  that  he  fhould  reftore  He-p 
"  fione  to  her  brother  Priamus,  as  it  was  unjuft  to 
"  detain  fo  long  in  fervitude  a  young  woman  of 
"  royal  birth.  Telamon  anfwered,  that  he  had 
"  done  nothing  to  Priamus ;  and  that  he  would 
"  not  reftore  what  he  had  received  as  a  reward 
"  for  his  valour  ;  and  ordered  Antenor  to  leave 
"  the  ifland.  Antenor  went  to  Achaia  ;  and  fail- 
"  ing  from  thence  to  Caftor  and  Pollux,  demanded 
*•'  of  them  to  fatisfy  Priamus,  by  reftoring  to  him 

N  3  .«  his 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY,  [B.I. 

"  his  lifter  Helione.  Caftor  and  Pollux  denied 
"  that  they  had  done  any  injury  to  Priamus,  but 
"  that  Laomedon  had  firft  injured  them;  order- 
"  ing  Antenor  to  depart.  From  thence  he  failed 
*4  to  Neftor  in  Pylus,  telling  him  the  caufe  of  his 
*'  coming  ;  which  when  Neftor  heard,  he  begun 
*'  to  exclaim,  how  Antenor  durft  fet  his  foot  in 
"  Greece,  feeing  the  Greeks  were  firft  injured  by 
"  the  Phrygians.  When  Antenor  found  that  he. 
"  had  obtained  nothing,  and  that  Priamus  was  con- 
"  tumelioufly  treated,  he  went  on  ihipboard,  and 
"  returned  home."  The  Roman  hiftories,  before 
the  time  of  Cicero  are  chronicles  merely.  Cato, 
Fabius  Piftor,  and  Pifo,  confined  themfelves  to 
naked  facts  *.  In  the  Auguftee  Hijlorice  fcriptores 
we  find  nothing  but  a  jejune  narrative  of  facts, 
commonly  very  little  interefting,  concerning  a  de- 
generate people,  without  a  {ingle  incident  that  can 
roufe  the  imagination,  or  exercife  the  judgment, 
The  monkifh  hiftories  are  all  of  them  gompofed  in 

the  fame  manner  -|-, 

•.--,,,,  .-rfr-M.  Thq 
*  Cicero  &e  Oratore,  lib.  ii.  N°  5. 


•j-  Euripides,  in  his  Phoenicians,  introduces  CEdipus,  under 
fentence  of  banifhment,  and  blind,  calling  for  his  ftaff,  his 
daughter  Antigone  putting  it  in  his  hand  and  directing  every 
ftep,  to  kejep  him  from  ftumbling.  Such  minute  circumftan- 
ces,  like  what  are  frequent  in  Rkhardfon's  novels,  tend  in- 
deed to  make  the  reader  conceive  himfelf  to  be  a  fpectator  *  : 
but  whether  that  advantage  be  not  more  than  over-balanced 
by  the  languor  of  a  creeping  narrative,  may  be  jjiftly  doubt- 

*  See  Elements  of  Criticifra,  ch.  ii,  part  I.  feel.  jr. 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  -ARTS. 

The  dry;  narrative  manner  being  very  little  in- 
terefting  or  agreeable,  a  tafte  for  embellifhment 
prompted  fome  writers  to  be  copious  and  verbofe, 
£axo  Grammaticus,  who  in  the  i2th  century  com- 
pofed  in  Latin  a  hiftory  of  Denmark,  furpriiingly 
pure  for  that  early  period,  is  extremely  verbofe, 
and  full  of  tautologies.      Such  a  ftyle,  at  any  rate 
unpleafant,  is  intolerable  in  a  modern  tongue,  be- 
fore it  is  enriched  with  a  ftock  of  phrafes  for  ex- 
preffing  aptly  the  great  variety  of  incidents  that 
enter  into  hiftory.     Take  the  following  example 
out  of  an  endlefs  number.     Henry  VII.  of  Eng- 
land, having  the  young  Queen  of  Naples  in  view 
for  a  wife,  deputed  three  men,  in  chara&er  of  am- 
baiTadors,  to  vifit  her,  and  to  anfwer  certain  que- 
Jlions  contained  in  curious  and  exquiftte  inftruttions 
for  taking  a  furvey  of  her  perfon,  complexion,  $3  c. 
as  expreffed  by  Bacon  in  his  life  of  that  prince. 
One  of  the  inftructions  was,  to  procure  a  picture  of 
the  Queen,  which  one  would  think  could  not  re- 
quire many  words,  yet  behold  the  inftruction  it- 
felf.    "  The  King's  faid  fervants  (hall  alfo,  at  their 
comyng  to  the  parties  of  Spayne,  diligently  en- 
quere  for  fome  conynge  paynter  having  good 
"  experience  in  making  and  paynting  of  vifages 
**  and  portretures,  and  fuche  oon  they  fhall  take 
"  with  them  to  the  place  where  the  faid  Quuins 
"  make  their  abode,  to  the  intent  that  the  {hid 
"  paynter  maye  draw  a  picture  of  the  vifage  and 
"  femblance  of  the  faid  young  Quine,  as  like 

N4 


" 
" 


5tOO  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

ft  her  as  it  can  or  may  be  conveniently  doon,  which 
"  picture  and  image  they  lhall  fubftantially  note, 
?'.  and  marke  in  every  pounte  and  circumftance, 
^  foo  that  it  agree  in  ii militude  and  likenefle  as 
f*  near  as  it  may  poflible  to  the  veray  vifage.,  counT 
I '  tenance,  and  fembla  ice  of  the  faid  iQuine ;  and 
?'  hi  cafe  they  may  perceyve  that  the  paynter,  «at 
"the  furft  or  fecond  making  thereof,   hath  not 
"  made  the  fame  perfaite  to  her  fimilytude  and 
"  likenefle,  or  that  he  hath  omitted  any  feiture  or 
fc  circumftance,  either  in  colours,  or  other  propor- 
"  cions  of  the  faid  vifage,  then  they  ihall  caufe  the 
*f  fame  paynter,  or  fome  other  the  moft  conyng 
V  paynter  that  they  can  gete  foo  oftentimes  to  re- 
"newe«and  reforrne  the  fame  pidhire,  till  it  be 
"  made  perfaite,  and  agreeable  in  every  behalfe, 
"  with   the  very  image   and  vifage  of  the  faid 
**  Quine  f ."     After  this  fpecimen  fo  much  appro- 
ved by  his  Lordftiip,  one  will  not  be  furprifed  at 
the  flatnefs  of  the^  hiftorical  ftyle  during  that  pe- 
riod.    By  that  flatnefs  of  ftyle  Lord  Bacon's  hifto- 


*  The  following  pafTage,  copied  from  an  Edinburgh  newf- 
paper,  may  almoft  rival  this  eloquent  piece.  After  obferving 
that  the  froft  was  intenfe,  which,  fays  the  writer,  renders  tra- 
velling very  dangerous  either  in  town  or  country,  he  proceeds 
thus  :  "  We  would  therefore  recommend  it  to  fhop keepers, 
4*  and  thofe  whofe  houfes  are  clofe  upon  the  ftreets  or  lanes, 

»  •  '''1'  ';  T   ''•'•1*(-:        i   ' • '       >'   •  i  •'      '  *•)' 

**  to  fcatter  afties  oppofite  to  their  doors,  as  it  may  be  a  means 
*'  of  preventing  paflengers  from  falling,  which  they  are  in 
"  great  danger  of  doing  at  prefent,  from  the  flippinefs  of  the 
<*  ftreets,  where  that  practice  is  nqt  followed." 

.  I        ,        :       1,"      ;.  1  ..'.,,...•,-.  !  ,    .  .  *  V. 


2.]  ARTS.  2O1 

>y  of  Henry  VII.  finks  below  the  gravity  and  dig-  - 
nity  of  hiftory ;  particularly  in  his  fimiles,  meta- 
phors, and  allufions,  no  lefs  diftant  than  flat.  Of 
Perkin  Warbeck  and  his  followers,  he  fays,  "  that 
•"  they  were  now  like  fand  without  lime,  ill  bound 
"  together.'3  Again,  *'  But  Perkin,  advifed  to  keep 
"  his  fire,  which  hitherto  burned  as  it  were  upon 
«  green  wood,  alive  with  continual  blowing,  failed 
"  again  to  Ireland."  Again,  "  As  in  the  tides  of 
-"  people  once  up,  there  want  not  commonly  ftir- 
"  ring  winds  to  make  them  more  rough,  fo  this 
4<  people  dj.d  light  upon  two  ringleaders  or  cap- 
."  tains."  Again,  fpeaking  of  the  Cornifh  infur- 
gents,  and  of  the  caufes  that  inflamed  them,  "  But 
"  now  thefe  bubbles  by  much  ftirring  began  to 
"  meet,  as  they  ufed  to  do  on  the  top  of  water." 
Again,  fpeaking  of  Perkin,  "  And  as  it  fareth  with 
"  fmoak,  that  never  lofeth  itfelf  till  it  be  at  the 
"  htgheft,  he  did  now  before  his  end  raife  his  ftile 
"  intytling  himfelf  no  more  Richard  Duke  of  York, 
"  but  Richard  the  Fourth,  King  of  England."  He 
defcends  fometimes  fo  low  as  to  play  upon  words ; 
witnefs  the  following  fpeech  made  for  Perkin  to 
the  King  of  Scotland.  "  High  and  mighty  King  ! 
"  your  Grace  may  be  pleafed  beningly  to  bow 
your  ears  to  hear  the  tragedy  of  a  young  man 
that  by  right  ought  to  hold  in  his  hand  the  ball 
of  a  kingdom,  but  by  fortune  is  made  himfelf  a 
ball,  toffed  from  mifery  to  mifery>  and  from 
place  to  place."  The  following  is  a  ftrangely 

forced 


n 

-I 
it 

. 

et 


2O2  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

forced  alluiion.  Talking  of  Margaret  Duchefs  of 
Burgundy,  who  had  patronized  Lambert  Simnel 
and  Perkin  Warbeck,  he  fays,  "  It  is  the  ftrangeft 
"  thing  in  the  world,  that  the  Lady  Margaret 
"  fhould  now,  when  other  women  give  over  child* 
V  bearing,  bring  forth  two  fuch  mo&fters,  be- 
"  ing,  at  birth,  not  of  nine  or  ten  months,  but  of 
*'  many  years.  And  whereas  other  natural  mo- 
*'  thers  bring  furth  children  weak,  and  not  able 
"  to  help  themfelves,  me  bringeth  furth  tall  ftrip- 
"  lings,  able,  foon  after  their  coming  into  the 
"  world,  to  bid  battle  to  mighty  kings.'*  I  fhould 
not  have  given  fo  many  inftances  of  puerilities  in 
compolition,  were  they  not  the  performance  of  a 
great  philofopher.  Low  indeed  muft  have  been 
the  tafte  of  that  age,  when  it  infe&ed  its  greateft 
genius. 

The  perfection  of  hiftorical  compofition,  which 
writers  at  laft  attain  to  after  wandering  through 
various  imperfect  modes,  is  a  relation  of  interefting 
fadls  connected  with  their  motives  and  confequen- 
ces.  A  hiftory  of  that  kind  is  truly  a  chain  of 
caufes  and  effects.  The  hiftory  of  Thucydides,  and 
flill  more  that  of  Tacitus,  are  fhining  inftances  of 
that  mode.  There  was  not  a  book  written  in 
France  correct  in  its  ftyle  before  the  year  1654, 
when  the  Lettres  Provinciates  appeared  ;  nor  a 
book  in  a  good  hiftorical  ftyle  before  the  hiftory  of 
the  confpiracy  againft  Venice  by  the  Abbe  St 
Real.  £  ^«  £ftr#d'P.f>i  ? iff '-".--  ' .;  ... 

A 


it 
tt 


it 
it 
tl 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  203 

A  language  in  its  original  poverty,  being  defi- 
cient in  flrength  and  variety,  has  nothing  at  com- 
mand for  enforcing  a  thought  but  to  redouble  the 
expreffion.  Inftances  are  without  number  in  the 
Old  Teftament.  "  And  they  fay,  How  doth  God 
know,  and  is  there  knowledge  in  the  Moil 
High?"  Again,  "  Thus  fhalt  thou  fay  to  the 
houfe  of  Jacob,  and  tell  to  the  children  of  If- 
rael."  Again,  "  I  will  be  an  enemy  unto  thine 
enemies,  and  an  adverfary  unto  thine  adverfa~ 
ries."  Again,  "  To  know  wifdom  and  inftruc- 
tion,  to  perceive  the  words  of  underilanding,  to 
"  receive  the  inftruction  of  wifdom."  "  She  lay- 
4<  eth  her  hands  to  the  fpindle,  and  her  hands  hold 
"  the  diftaff."  "  Put  away  from  thee  a  froward 
"  mouth,  and  perverfe  lips  put  far  from  thee.  Let 
"  thine  eyes  look  right  on,  and  let  thine  eye-lids 
"  look  ftraight  before  thee.'1 

Eloquence  was  of  a  later  date  than  the  art  of 
literary  compofition  ;  for  till  the  latter  was  impro- 
\7ed,  there  were  no  models  for  ftudying  the  former. 
Cicero's  oration  for  Rofcius  is  compofed  in  a  ftyle 
diffufe  and  highly  ornamented  ;  which,  fays  Plu- 
tarch, was  univerfally  approved,  becaufe  at  that 
time  the  ftyle  of  Alia,  introduced  into  Rome  with 
its  luxury,  was  in  high  vogue.  But  Cicero,  in  a 

journey  to  Greece,  where  he  leifurely  itudied  Greek 

. 

authors,  was  taught  to  prune  off  fuperfluities,  and 
to  purify  his  ilyle,  which  he  did  to  a  high  degree 
of  refinement.  He  introduced  into  his  native 

tongue 


204  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

tongue  a  fweetnefs,  a  grace,  a  majefty,  that  fur- 
prifed  the  world,  and  even  the  Romans  themfelves. 
Cicero  obferves  with  great  regret,  that  if  ambition 
for  power  had  not  drawn  Julius  Caefar  from  the 
bar  to  command  legions,  he  would  have  become 
the  molt  complete  orator  in  the  world.  So  partial 
are  men  to  the  profeflion  in  which  they  excel. 
Eloquence  triumphs  in  a  popular  affembly,  makes 
fome  figure  in  a  court  of  law  compofed  of  many 
judges  ;  very  little  where  there  is  but  a  iingle 
judge,  and  none  at  all  in  a  defpotic  government. 
Eloquence  flourifhed  in  the  republics  of  Athens 
and  of  Rome  ;  and  makes  fome  figure  at  prefent 
in  a  Britifh  Houfe  of  Commons. 

In  Athens  eloquence  could  not  but  flourim.  In 
an  affembly  of  the  people,  confifling  of  5000  and 
upward,  where  every  individual  was  entitled  to 
give  his  opinion,  the  certainty  of  employing  the 
talent  of  eloquence,  was  a  ftrong  motive  with  every 
young  man  of  ambition  to  ftudy  that  art.  In  Bri- 
tain, very  few  are  certain  of  obtaining  a  feat  in  the 
Houfe  of  Commons  ;  and  that  man  muft  have 
great  perfeverance  who  can  beftow  years  in  acqui- 
ring an  art  that  he  may  never  have  occafion  to 
exercife.  The  eldefl  fons  of  peers  have  indeed  a 
nearer  profpect  of  a  feat  in  the  upper  houfe  :  but 
young  men  of  quality  are  commonly  too  much  ad- 
dicted to  pleafure  ;  and  many  of  them  come  not 
to  be  peers  till  the  fire  of  youth  is  fpent.  I  am 
forry  to  add  another  reafon.  Eloquence  can  never 

make, 


SK.4-  §  2.]  ARTS.  205 

make  a  capital  figure,  but  where  patriotifm  is  the 
ruling  paflion  5  for  what  can  it  avail  among  men 
who  are  deaf  to  every  motive  but  what  contributes 
to  the  intereft  or  ambition  of  their  party  ?  When 
Demofthenes  commenced  his  career  of  eloquence, 
patriotifm  made  a  figure  in  Athens,  though  it  was 
on  the  decline.  Had  that  great  orator  appeared 
more  early,  his  authority  in  Athens  would  have 
been  fupreme  #. 

The  Greek  ftage  has  been  juftly  admired  among 
all  polite  nations.  The  tragedies  of  Sophocles  and 
Euripides  in  particular  are  by  all  critics  held  to  be 
perfect  in  their  kind,  excellent  models  for  imita- 
tion, but  far  above  rivalfhip.  If  the  Greek  ftage 
was  fo  early  brought  to  maturity,  it  is  a  pheno- 
menon not  a  little  lingular  in  the  progrefs  of  arts. 
The  Greek  tragedy  made  a  rapid  progrefs  from 
Thefpes  to  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  whofe  com- 
politions  are  indeed  the  moil  complete  that  ever 
were  exhibited  in  Greece :  but  whether  they  be 
really  fuch  mafterpieces  as  is  generally  thought, 
will  admit  fome  doubt.  The  fubject  is  curious : 
and  the  candid  reader  will  give  attention. 

No 

*  Eloquence  is  neceflary  to  thofe  only  who  requeft,  not  to 
thofe  who  command.  The  Spartans,  a  bold  and  firm  people, 
were  deciuve  in  their  refolutions,  and  of  few  words ;  whence 
the  laconic  ftyle.  Take  a  modern  inftance  of  that  ftyle.  In 
the  year  1487,  caufes  of  difcontent  arifing  between  O'Neal 
and  Tirconuel,  two  Irilh  chieftains,  the  former  wrote  to  the 
latter,  "  Send  me  tribute,  or  elfe."  The  latter  anfwered, 
4<  I  owe  you  none,  and  if." 


106  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

No  human  voice  could  fill  the  Greek  theatre, 
which  was  fo  fpacious  as  to  contain  feveral  thou- 
fands  without  crowding.  A  brafs  pipe  was  in- 
vented to  llrengthen  the  voice  ;  but  that  invention 
deftroyed  the  melody  of  pronunciation,  by  con- 
fining the  voice  to  a  harfh  monotony.  The  pipe 
was  not  the  only  unpleafant  circumftance  :  every 
actor  wore  a  maik ;  for  what  end  or  purpofe  is  not 
explained.  It  may  be  true,  that  the  expreffions  of 
the*  countenance  could  not  be  diflinctly  feen  by 
thofe  who  occupied  the  back  rows ;  and  a  malk 
poffibly  was  thought  necelfary  in  order  to  put  all 
the  citizens  upon  a  level.  But  without  prying  in- 
to the  caufe,  let  us  only  figure  an  actor  with  a 
malk  and  a  pipe.  He  may  reprefent  tolerably  a 
limple  incident  or  plain  thought,  fuch  as  are  the 
materials  of  an  Italian  opera ;  but  the  voice,  coun- 
tenance, and  geftures,  are  indifpenfable  in  expref- 
iing  refined  fentiments,  and  the  more  delicate  tones 
of  paffion. 

Where  then  lies  the  charm  in  ancient  tragedies 
that  captivated  all  ranks  of  men  ?  Greek  tragedies 
are  more  active  than  fentimental  :  they  contain 
many  judicious  reflections  on  morals,  manners,  and 
upon  life  in  general ;  but  no  fentiments  except 
what  are  plain  and  obvious.  The  fubjects  are  of 
the  fimpleft  kind,  fuch  as  give  rife  to  the  paflions  of 
hope,  fear,  love, 'hat red,  envy,  and  revenge,  in  their 
moft  ordinary  exertions :  no  intricate  or  delicate 
fituation  to  occafion  any  fingular  emotion ;  no  gra- 
dual 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  207 

dual  fwelling  and  fubfiding  of  paffion ;  and  feldom 
any  conflict  between  different  paflions.  I  would 
not  however  be  underftood  as  meaning  to  depre- 
ciate Greek  tragedies.  They  are  indeed  wonder- 
ful productions  of  genius,  confidering  that  the 
Greeks  at  that  period  were  but  beginning  to  e- 
merge  from  roughnefs  and  barbarity  into  a  tafte 
for  literature.  *  The  compolitions  of  ^Efchylus,  So- 
phocles, and  Euripides,  muft  have  been  highly  re- 
limed  among  a  people  who  had  no  idea  of  any 
thing  more  perfedt  :  we  judge  by  comparifon, 
and  every  work  is  held  to  be  perfedt  that  has  no 
rival.  It  ought  at  the  fame  time  to  be  kept  in 
view,  that  it  was  not  the  dialogue  which  chiefly 
enchanted  the  Athenians,  nor  variety  in  the  paf- 
lions reprefented,  nor  perfection  in  the  adors,  but 
machinery  and  pompous  decoration,  accompanied 
with  exquilite  mufic.  That  thefe  particulars  were 
carried  to  the  greateft  height,  we  may  with  cer- 
tainty conclude  from  the  extravagant  fums  be- 
llowed on  them :  the  exhibiting  a  lingle  tragedy 
was  more  expenfive  to  the  Athenians  than  their 
fleet  or  their  army  in  any  lingle  campaign. 

One  would  imagine,  however,  that  thefe  com- 
pofitions  are  too  iimple  to  enchant  for  ever ;  as 
without  variety  in  adlion,  fentiment,  and  paflion, 
the  ilage  will  not  continue  long  a  favourite  enter- 
tainment :  and  yet  we  find  not  a  fingle  improve- 
ment attempted  after  the  days  of  Sophocles  and 
Euripides,  This  may  appear  a?  matter  of  wonder 

at 


»  .  r- 

208  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

-,    i 

at  firft  view.  But  the  wonder  valnifhes  upon  con- 
lidering,  that  the  manner  of  performance  prevent- 
ed abfolutely  any  improvement.  A  fluctuation  of 
paffion  and  refined  fentiments  would  have  made 
no  figure  on  the  Greek  ftage.  Imagine  the  dif- 
cording  fcene  between  Brutus  and  Caffius,  in  Ju- 
lius Caefar,  to  be  there  exhibited,  or  the  handker- 
chief in  the  Moor  of  Venice  :  how  flight  would 
be  their  efFecl,  when  pronounced  in  a  mafk,  and 
through  a  pipe  ?  The  workings  of  nature  upon 
the  countenance  and  the  flexions  of  voice  expref- 
five  of  various  feelings,  fo  deeply  affedling  in  mo- 
dern reprefentation,  would  have  been  entirely  loft. 
If  a  great  genius  had  arifen  with  talents  for  com- 
poling  a  pathetic  tragedy  in  perfection,  he  would 
have  made  no  figure  in  Greece.  An  edifice  muft 
have  been  ere&ed  of  a  moderate  lize  :  new  players 
muft  have  been  trained  to  act  without  a  mafk,  and 
to  pronounce  in  their  own  voice.  And,  after  all, 
there  remained  a  greater  miracle  ftill  to  be  wrought, 

• 

namely,  a  total  reformation  of  tafte  in  the  people 
of  Athens.  In  one  word,  the  fimplicity  of  the 
Greek  tragedy  was  fuited  to  the  manner  of  acting, 
and  that  manner  excluded  all  improvements. 

In  compofing  a  tragedy,  the  Grecian  writers 
feem  to  have  had  no  aim  but  to  exhibit  on  the 
ftage  fome  known  event  as  it  was  fuppofed  to  have 
happened.  To  give  a  diftincl:  notion  of  the  event 
before-hand,  a  perlbn  introduced  on  the  ftage  re- 
lated every  incident  to  the  audience ;  and  that 

perfonr 


ARTS.  2O9 

perfon  fometimes  gave  a  particular  account  of  all 
that  was  to  happen  during  the  action,  which  feems 
to  me  a  very  idle  thing.  This  fpeech  was  term- 
ed the  prologue.  There  was  no  notion  of  an  in- 
vented fable,  by  which  the  audience  might  be  kept 
in  fufpenfe  during  the  action.  In  a  word,  a  Greek 
tragedy  refembles  in  every  refpect  a  hiftory-pic- 
ture,  in  which  is  reprefented  fome  event  known  to 
all  the  world.  Thus  we  fee  the  fame  fubject 
handled  by  different  tragic  writers,  each  fhowing 
his  genius  in  the  manner  of  reprefenting  it.  Shake- 
fpeare's  hiilorical  plays  are  all  of  the  fame  kind. 
But  the  entertainment  afforded  by  fuch  a  compo- 
lition  is  far  inferior  to  what  arifes  from  an  unknown 
ftory,  where  every  incident  is  new,  where  the  hopes 
and  fears  of  the  audience  are  kept  in  conflant  agi- 
tation, and  where  all  is  fufpended  till  the  final  con- 
clulion. 

From  thefe  premifes  an  inference  may  with  cer- 
tainty be  drawn,  that  delicacy  of  tafte  and  feeling 
were  but  faintly  known  among  the  Greeks,  even 
when  they  made  the  greateft  figure.  Mufic,  in- 
deed, may  be  fuccefsfully  employed  in  a  fentimen- 
tal  tragedy ;  but  pomp  and  fplendour  avail  no- 
thing. A  fpectator  deeply  affected  is  regardlefs  of 
decoration.  I  appeal  to  the  reproving  fcene  be- 
tween Hamlet  and  the  Queen  his  mother  :  does 
any  man  of  tafte  give  the  flighteft  attention  to  the 
beauty  of  the  fcenery  ?  It  would,  however,  be 
rafh  to  involve  in  the  fame  cenfure  every  Atheni- 

VOL.  I.  O  an. 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY. 


[B.  i. 


an.  Do  not  pantomime-fhow,  rope-dancing,  and 
other  fuch  fafhionable  fpeftacles,  draw  multitudes 
from  the  deepeft  tragedies  ?  and  yet  among  us  there 
are  perfons  of  tafte,  no£  a  few,  who  defpife  fuch 
fpeclacles  as  fit  only  for  the  mob,  perfons  who 
never  bowed  the  knee  to  Baal.  And,  if  there  were 
fuch  perfons  in  Athens,  of  which  we  have  no  rea- 
fon  to  doubt,  it  evinces  the  fuperiority  of  their 
tafte  :  they  had  no  example  of  more  refined  com- 
politions  than  were  exhibited  on  their  flage  ;  we 
have  many. 

With  refpecl:  to  comedy,  it  does  not  appear  that 
the  Greek  comedy  furpafied  the  tragedy,  in  its 
progrefs  toward  perfection.  Horace  mentions  three 
ftages  of  Greek  comedy.  The  firft  was  well  fuited 
to  the  rough  and  coarfe  manners  of  the  Greeks 
when  Eupolis,  Cratinus,  and  Ariftophanes  wrote, 
Thefe  authors  were  not  afhamed  to  reprefent  on 
the  ftage  real  perfons,  not  even  difguiiing  their 
names  ;  ©f  which  we  have  a  ftriking  inftance  in  a 
comedy  of  Ariftophanes,  called  The  Clouds,  where 
Socrates  is  introduced,  and  moft  contemptuoufly 
treated.  This  fort  of  comedy,  fparing  neither 
gods  nor  men,  was.  reftrained  by  the  magiftrates  of 
Athens  forbidding  perfons  to  be  named  on  the 
ftage.  Ttyis  led  writers  to  do  what  is  imitated  by  us : 
the  characters  and  manners  of  known  perfons  were 
painted  fo  much  to  the  life,  that  there  could  be  no 
rniftake.  The  fatire  was  indeed  heightened  by 
this  regulation,  as  every  one  contributed  to  the 

ft    -4    .  ...W  "         •  Y 

fatire 


SX.  4.       2.]  ARTS.  ill 

fatire  by  detecting  the  perfons  who  were  meant  in 
the  reprefentation.  This  was  termed  the  middle 
comedy.  But,  as  there  dill  remained  too  great 
fcope  for  obloquy  and  licentioufnefs,  a  law  was 
made,  prohibiting  real  events  or  incidents  to  be 
introduced  upon  the  ftage.  This  law  happily  ba- 
ni(hed  fatire  againft  individuals,  and  confined  it  to 
manners  and  cuftoms  in  general.  Obedient  to  this 
law,  are  the  comedies  of  Menander,  Philemon,  and 
Diphiiiis,  who  flourifhed  about  300  years  before 
the  Chriftian  era.  And  this  is  termed  the  third 
Jlage  of  Greek  comedy.  The  comedies  of  Arifto- 
phanes,  which  ftill  remain,  err  no  lefs  againft  tafte 
than  againft  decency.  But  we  have  good  ground 
to  believe,  that  the  Greek  comedy  was  conflderably 
refined  by  Menander  and  his  cotemporaries  ;  tho* 
we  muft  rely  upon  collateral  evidence,  having  very 
few  remains  of  them.  Their  works,  however, 
were  far  from  perfection,  if  we  can  draw  any  con- 
jecture from  their  imitator  Plautus,  who  wrote 
about  a  century  later.  Plautus  was  a  writer  of 
genius  ;  and  it  may  reafonably  be  fuppofed  that 
his  copies  did  not  fall  greatly  fnort  of  the  originals, 
in  matters  at  leaft  that  can  be  faithfully  copied. 
At  that  rate,  they  muft  have  been  extremely  de- 
fective «in  their  fubjects,  as  well  as  in  the  conduct 
of  their  pieces,  for  he  (hows  very  little  art  in  ei- 
ther. With  refpect  to  the  former,  his  plots  are 
wondrous  limple,  very  little  varied,  and  very  lit- 
tle interefting.  The  fubject  of  almoft  every 

O  2  piece 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

piece  is  a  young  man  in  love  with  a  mulic-girl, 
deiiring  to  purchafe  her  from  the  procurer,  and 
employing  a  favourite  flave  to   cheat  his  father 
out  of  the  price  ;   and  the  different  ways  of  ac- 
qomplifhing  the  cheat,  is  all  the  variety  we  find. 
Jn  fofne  fe, w  of  his  comedies,  the  flory  rifes  to  a 
higher  tone,  the  mufic-girl  being  difcovered  to  be 
the  daughter  of  a  free  man,  which  removes  every  ob- 
ft  ruction  to  a,  marriage  between  her  and  her  lover. 
With  refpect  to  the  conduct  of  his  pieces,  there  is 
a  miferable  defeft  of  art.     Inflead  of  unfolding  the 
fubject  in  the  progrefs  of  the  action,  as  is  done  by 
Terence  and  by  every  modern  writer,  Plautus  in- 
itroduces  an  a&or,  for  no  better  purpofe  than  to 
•explain  the  ftory  to  the  audience.      In  one  of  his 
comedies,  a  houfehold-god  is  fo  obliging  as  not  on- 
ly to  unfold  the  fubject,  but  to  relate  beforehand 
every  particular  that  is  to  be  reprefented,  not  ex- 
cepting the  cataftrophe.     Did  not  Plautus  know, 
that  it  is  pleafant  to  have  our  curiolity  raifed  about 
.what  will  happen  next  ?    In  the  courfe  of  the  ac- 
tion,   perfons  are  frequently  introduced  who  are 
heard  talking  to  themfelves  on  the  open   ftreet. 
One  would  imagine  the  Greeks  to  have  been  great 
babblers,  when  they  could  not  refrain  foliloquies 
even  in  public.     Gould  Plautus  have  been  fo  art- 
lefs  in  the  conduct  of  his  pieces,  had  a  more  per- 
fect model  been  exhibited  to  him  by  Menander  or 

4  i 

the  other  Authors  mentioned  ? 

*" .  JF     I  f     ,    t'l  i*  *  «  *  *~J  J  *  V    7  » 


^ 


SK.  4*  §  2.]  ARTS.  213 

£  It  is  obferved  in  Elements  of  Criticifm  *,  that 
when  a  language  has  received  fome  polifh,  and  the 
meaning  of  words  is  tolerably  afcertained,  then  it 
is  that  a  play  of  words  comes  to  be  relifhed.  At 
that  period  of  the  Roman  language,  Plautus  wrote. 
His  wit  confifts  almoft  entirely  in  a  play  of  words, 
an  eternal  jingle,  words  brought  together  that  have 
nearly  the  fame  found,  with  different  meanings, 
and  words  of  different  founds  that  have  the  fame 
meaning.  As  the  Greek  language  had  arrived  to 
its  perfection  many  years  before,  fuch  falfe  wit 
may  be  juflly  afcribed  to  Plautus  himfelf,  not  to 
the  Greeks  from  whom  he  copied.  What  was 
the  period  of  that  bailard  wit  in  Greece,  I  kpow 
not ;  but  it  appears  not  to  have  been  antiquated 
in  Homer's  days,  witnefs  the  joke  in  the  Odyffey, 
where  Ulyffes  impofed  upon  Polyphemus,  by  call- 
ing him  Houtis  or  No-man.  Nor  feems  it  to  have 
been  antiquated  in  the  days  of  Euripides,  who  in 
his  Cyclops  repeats  the  fame  filly  joke.  The  Ro- 
man genius  foon  purged  their  compofitions  of  fuch, 
infantine  beauties  ;  for  in  Terence,  who  wrote 
about  fifty  years  later  than  Plautus,  there  is  fcarce 
a  veflige  of  them.  The  dialogue  befide  of  Terence 
is  more  natural  and  correct,  not  a  word  but  to  the 
purpofe :  Plautus  is  full  of  tautologies,  and  di- 
greflions  very  little  to  the  purpofe.  In  a  word, 
confidering  the  flow  progrefs  of  arts,  the  Roman 
theatre,  from  the  time  of  PL.utus  to  that  of  Te- 
rence, made  as  rapid  a  progrefs  as  perhaps  ever 

O  3  happened 

*  Chap.  13. 


214  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

happened  in  any  country.  Ariftotle  defines  co- 
medy to  be  an  imitation  of  light  and  trivial  fub- 
jects  provoking  laughter.  The  comedies  of  Plau- 
tus  correfpond  accurately  to  that  definition :  thofe 
of  Terence  rife  to  a  higher  tone. 

Befide  the  difadvantages  of  the  mafk  and  pipe 
mentioned  above,  there  are  two  caufes  that  tended 
tp  keep  back  the  Greek  and  Roman  comedy  from 
the  perfection  of  its  kind.     The  firft  is  the  flow 
progrefs  of  fociety  among  thefe  nations,  occaiioned 
by  feparating  from  the  female  fex.     Where  wo- 
men are  excluded  from  fociety,  it  never  can  arrive 
at  any  degree  of  refinement,  not  to  talk  of  per- 
fection.    In  a  fociety  of  men  and  women,  every 
one  endeavours  to  fhine :  every  latent  talent,  and 
every  variety  of  character,  are  brought  to  light. 
To  judge  from  ancient  writers,  man  was  a  very 
plain  being.     Tacitus  wrote  when  fociety  between 
the  fexes  was  abundantly  free  ;  and  hi  no  author 
before  him  is  to  be  found  any  thing  beyond  the 
outlines  of  character.     In  ancient  comedies  there 
are  mifers,  lovers,  parafites,  procurers;   but  the 
individuals  of  each  clafs  are  caft  in  the  fame  mould. 
In  th.e  Rudens  of  Plautus,  it  is  true,  a  mifer  is 
painted  with  much  anxiety  about  his  hidden  trea- 
fure,  every  trifling  incident  being  converted  by 
him  intp  a  caufe  of  fufpicion ;  but  he  is  ftill  the 
fame  mifer  that  is  painted  by  others,  without  any 
lhade  or  fingularity  in  the  character.     Homer  is 
the  only  ancient  that  deferves  to  be  excepted :  his 

heroes 


1 


SK.  4.  $  2.]  ARTS 


heroes  have  all  courage  ;  but  courage  in  each  is 
clearly  of  a  diftinct  kind.     Knowledge  of  an  end* 

efs  variety  of  character  in  the  human  fpecies,  ac- 
quired from  unreflrained  fociety,  has  enabled  the 
moderns  to  enrich  the  theatre  with  new  characters 
without  end.  What  elfe  is  it  but  defect  of  know- 
ledge in  the  difpoiitions  of  men,  that  has  confined 

he  comedies  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  like  thofe  of 
Italy,  to  a  very  few  characters  ? 

Nothing  is  more  evident,  than  the  fuperiority 
of  Terence  above  Plautus  in  the  art  of  writing  -y 
and,  coniidering  that  Terence  is  a  later  writer,  no- 
thing would  appear  more  natural,  if  they  did  not 
copy  the  fame  originals.  It  may  t>e  owing  to  ge* 
nius  that  Terence  excels  in  purity  of  language,  and 
propriety  of  dialogue  ;  but  how  account  for  his 
fuperiority  over  Plautus  in  the  conilrudion  and 
conduct  of  a  play  ?  It  will  not  certainly  be  thought, 
that  Plautus  would  copy  the  worft  models  leaving 
the  bed  to  future  writers.  This  difficulty  has  not 
occurred  to  any  of  the  commentators,  as  far  as  I 
can  recollect.  If  it  be  fair  to  judge  of  Menander 
and  of  his  cotemporaries  from  Plautus  their  imita- 
tor, the  talents  of  Terence  muft  have  been  great, 
to  excel  all  of  them  fo  much  both  in  the  conflruc* 
tion  and  conduct  of  his  plays. 

Homer,  for  more  than    two  thoufand  years,  has 
been  held  the  prince  of  poets.     Such  perfection  in- 
an  author  who  flourifhed  when  arts  were  far  fhort 
of  maturity,  would  be  furpriiing,  would  be  mira- 

O  4  culous. 


2l6  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  L 

culous.  An  author  of  genius  *  has  endeavoured 
to  account  for  this  extraordinary  phenomenon  ; 
and  I  willingly  acknowledge,  that  he  has  exerted 
much  indultry,  as  well  as  invention ;  but,  in  my 
apprehenlion,  without  giving  fatis faction .  The 
new  light  that  is  thrown  above  upon  the  Greek 
theatre,  has  emboldened  me  to  attempt  a  criticifm 
on  the  Iliad,  in  order  to  judge  whether  Homer  has 
fo  far  anticipated  the  ordinary  progrefs  of  nature, 
as  in  a  very  early  period  to  have  arrived  at  the 
perfection  of  his  art. 

To  form  a  good  writer,  genius  and  judgment- 
muft  concur.  Nature  fupplies  the  former  ;  but,  to 
the  latter,  inftruction  and  imitation  are  efTential. 
Shakefpeare  lived  in  an  age  that  afforded  him  little 
opportunity  to  cultivate  or  improve  his  judgment ; 
and,  though  inimitable  in  every  article  that  de- 
pends on  genius,  there  are  found  many  defects  in 
the  conduct  of  his  plays,  and  in  other  particulars, 
that  require  j  udgment  ripened  by  experience.  Ho- 
mer lived  in  a  rude  age,  little  advanced  in  ufeful 
arts,  and  ftill  lefs  in  civilization  and  enlarged  be- 
nevolence. The  nations  engaged  in  the  Trojan 
war,  are  defcribed  by  him  as  in  a  progrefs  from 
the  fhepherd-ftate  to  that  of  agriculture.  In  the 
Iliad,  many  eminent  men  are  faid  to  be  fhep- 
herds.  Andromache,  in  particular  f,  mentions  fe- 
ven  of  her  brethren,  who  were  ilain  by  Achilles  as 

they 

*  EfTay  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Homer. 

f  Book  vi. 


SK.4«  §  I-]  ARTS.  217 

they  tended  their  father's  flocks  tind  herds.  In 
that  ftate,  garments  of  woollen  cloth  were  ufed  ;* 
but  the  Ikins  of  beafts,  the  original  clothing,  were 
flill  worn  as  an  upper  garment :  every  chief  in 
the  Iliad  appears  in  that  drefs.  Such,  indeed,  was- 
the  limplicity  of  this  early  period,  that  a  black 
ewe  was  promifed  by  each  chief  to  the  man  who 
would  undertake  to  be  a  fpy.  In  fuch  times  li- 
terature could  not  be  far  advanced  ;  and  it  is  a 
great  doubt,  whether  there  was  at  that  time  a 
fingle  poem  of  the  epic  kind,  for  Homer  to  imi- 
tate or  improve  upon.  Homer  is  undoubtedly  a 
wonderful  genius,  perhaps  the  greateft  that  ever 
exifted  :  his  fire,  and  the  boldnefs  of  his  concep- 
tions are  inimitable.  But,  in  that  early  age,  it 
would  fall  little  fhort  of  a  real  miracle,  to  find 
fuch  ripenefs  of  judgment  and  correctnefs  of  exe- 
cution, as  in  modern  writers  are  the  fruits  of  long 
experience  and  progreffive  improvements,  during 
the  courfe  of  many  centuries.  Homer  is  far  from 
being  fo  ripe  or  fo  correct.  I  fhall  mention  but 
two  or  three  particulars ;  for,  to  dwell  upon  the 
imperfections  of  fo  illuftrious  an  author,  is  not 
pleafant.  The  firft  is,  that  he  reduces  his  heroes 
to  be  little  better  than  puppets.  Not  one  of  them 
performs  an  action  of  eclat,  but  with  the  afiiftance 
of  fome  deity  :  even  Achilles  hiinfelf  is  every 
where  aided  by  fuperior  powers.  It  is  Jupiter 
who  infpires  Hector  with  boldnefs  to  perforin  the 
heroic  actions  fo  finely  defcribed  in  the  I5th  book  ; 

and 


21$  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  f. 

and  it  is  Jupiter  who,  changing  fides,  fills  his 
heart  with  difmay.  Glaucus,  defperately  wound- 
ed, fupplicates  Apollo,  is  miraculoufly  healed,  and 
returns  to  the  battle  perfedly  found.  Hedor, 
ftruck  to  the  ground  with  a  ftone,  and  at  the  point 
of  giving  up  the  ghoft,  is  cured  by  Apollo,  and 
fent  back  to  the  battle  with  redoubled  vigour. 
Homer  refembles  a  feel:  of  Chriilians,  who  hold, 
that  a  man  can  do  nothing  of  himfelf,  and  that 
he  is  merely  an  inftrument  which  God  employs,  as 
we  do  a  fpade  or  a  hatchet.  Can  Homer's  ad- 
mirers be  fo  blind  as  not  to  perceive,  that  this 
fort  of  machinery  detrads  from  the  dignity  of  his 
heroes,  renders  them  lefs  interefting,  and  lefs  wor- 
thy of  admiration  ?  Homer,  however,  is  defervedly 
fuch  a  favourite,  that  we  are  prone  to  admit  any 
excufe.  In  days  of  ignorance,  people  are  much 
addided  to  the  marvellous.  Homer  himfelf,  it 
may  be  juftly  fuppofed,  was  infected  with  that 
weaknefs  ;  and  he  certainly  knew,  that  his  hearers 
would  be  enchanted  with  every  thing  wonderful, 
and  out  of  the  common  courfe  of  nature.  Another 
particular  is  his  digreflions  without  end,  which 
draw  our  attention  from  the  principal  fubjed,  I 
wifh  fome  apology  could  be  made  for  them.  Dio- 
medes*,  for  inftance,  meeting  with  Glaucus  in  the 
field  of  battle,  and  doubting,  from  his  majeftic  air, 
whether  he  might  not  be  an  immortal,  inquires 
who  he  was,  declaring  that  he  would  not  fight 

with, 

*  Book  vi. 


.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  219 

with  a  god.     Glaucus  lays  hold  of  thfs  very  flight 
opportunity,  in  the  heat  of  action,  to  give  a  long 
hiftory  of  his  family.      In   the   mean  time,    the 
reader's  patience  is  put  to  a  trial,  and  his  ardor 
cools.     Agamemnon  *  deiiring  advice  how  to  re- 
fift  the  Trojans,  Diomedes  fprings  forward  ;  but, 
before  he  offers  advice,  gives  the  hiftory  of  all  his 
progenitors,  and  of  their  characters,  in  along  train. 
And,  after  all,  what  was  the  fage  advice  that  re- 
quired fuch  a  preface  ?  It  was,  that  Agamemnon 
Ihould  exhort  the   Greeks  to  fight  bravely.     At 
any  rate,  was  Diomedes  fo  little  known,  as  to  make 
it  proper  to  fufpend  the   action  at  fo  critical  a 
juncture  for  a  genealogical  hiftory  ?    A  third  par- 
ticular, is  an  endlefs  number  of  minute  circum- 
ftances,  efpecially  in  the  defcription  of  battles, 
where  they  are  the  leaft  tolerable.     One  capital 
beauty  of  an  epic  poem,  is  the  felection  of  fuch  in- 
cidents and  circumftances  as  make  a  deep  impref- 
fion,  keeping  out  of  view  every  thing  low  or  fa- 
miliar f      An  account  of  a  (ingle  battle  employs 
the  whole  fifth  book  of  the  Iliad,  and  a  great  part 
of  the  fi^th  :  yet  in  the  whole  there  is  no  general 
action  ;  but  warriors,  whom  we  never  heard  of  be- 
fore, killed  at  a  diftance  with  an  arrow  or  a  jave- 
lin ;  and  every   wound  defcribed  with    anatomi- 
cal accuracy.     The  whole  fcventeenth  book  is  em- 
ployed in  the  conteft  about  the  dead  body  of  Pa- 

troclus, 

*  Book  xiv. 

Elements  of  Criucifm,  vol.  i.  p.  232.  edit.  5. 


- 


220  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I*, 

troclus,  fluffed  with  minute  circumftances  below 
the  dignity  of  an  epic  poem  :  the  reader  fatigued, 
has  nothing  to  relieve  him  but  the  melody  of  Ho- 
mer's verfification.  Gratitude  would  prompt  an 
apology  for  an  author  who  affords  fo  much  enter- 
tainment :  Homer  had  no  good  models  to  copy<- 
after  ;  and,  without  good  models,  we  cannot  ex- 
peft  maturity  of  judgment.  In  a  word,  Homer 
was  a  blazing  ftar,  and  the  more  to  be  admired, 
.  becaufe  he  blazed  in  an  obfcure  age.  But  that  he 
fhould,  in  no  degree,  be  tainted  with  the  imperfec- 
tions of  fuch  an  age,  is  a  wild  thought :  it  is  fcarce 
poflible,  but  by  fuppofing  him  to  be  more  than 
man. 

Particular  caufes  that  advance  the  progrefs  of 
fine  arts,  as  well  as  of  ufeful  arts,  are  mentioned  in 
the  firft  part  of  this  Sketch,  and  to  thefe  I  refer. 

HAVING  traced  the  progrefs  of  the  fine  arts  to- 
ward maturity  in  a  fummary  way,  the  decline  of- 
thefe  arts  comes  next  in  order.  A  ufeful  art  fel- 
dom  turns  retrograde,  becaufe  every  one  has  an  in- 
tereft  to  preferve  it  in  perfection.  Fine  arts  de- 
pend on  more  flender  principles  than  thofe  of  Uti- 
lity ;  and  therefore  the  judgment  formed  of  them 
is  more  fluctuating.  The  variety  of  form  that  is 
admitted  into  the  fine  arts  by  fuch  fluctuation  of 
judgment,  excites  artifts  to  indulge  their  love  of 
novelty.  Reftlefs  man  knows  no  golden  mean,  but 
will  be  attempting  innovations  without  end.  Such 

innovations 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  221 

innovations  do  well  in  an  art  diftant  from  perfec- 
tion :    but  they  are  commonly  the  caufe  of  de- 
generacy in   arts  that  are  in  perfection:  for  an 
artilt  ambitious  to  excel,  aims  always  to  be  an 
original,   and  cannot   fubmit  to   be   an    imitator. 
This   is   the    plain    meaning   of  a   florid   paflage 
of  Velleius  Paterculus  (Roman   Hiftory,   lib.   i.) 
"  Naturaque,    quod    fummo   ftudio    petitum    eft, 
"  afcendit  in  fummum  ;   difficilisque   in  perfecto 
"  mora  eft ;  naturaliterque,  quod  procedere  noil 
"  poteft,  recedit."     Which  may  pafs  in  a  learn- 
ed   language,    but    will    never    do    in   our   own 
tongue.      "   The    idea,''    fays    Winchleman,    of 
"  beauty  could  not  be  made  more  perfect  ;  and 
"  thofe  arts  that  cannot  advance  farther,  become 
"  retrograde,  by  a  fatality  attending  all  human 
"  things,  that  if  they  cannot  mount,  they   muft 
"  fall  down,  becaufe  liability  is  not  a  quality  of 
"  any  created  thing."      1  fhall  endeavour  to  il- 
luftrate  the  caufe  afligned  by  me  above  for  decline 
of  the  fine  arts,  beginning  with  architecture.     The 
Ionic   was  the  favourite  order  when  architecture 
was  in  its  height  of  glory.     The  Corinthian  order 
came  next ;  which,  in  attempting  greater  perfec- 
tion, has  deviated  from  the  true  iimplicity  of  na- 
ture :  and  the  deviation  is  ftill  greater  in  the  Com. 
polite  order  *. 

With  refpect  to  literary  productions,  the  firft 
efiays  of  the  Romans  were  very  imperfect.     We 

may 

f  Elements  of  Criticifm,  vol.  i.  p.  206.  edit.    . 


222  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

may  judge  of  this  from  Plautus,  whofe  competi- 
tions are  abundantly  rude,  though  much  admired 
by  his  cotemporaries,  being  the  beft  that  exifted 
at  that  time  in  Rome.  The  exalted  fpirit  of  the 
Romans  hurried  them  on  to  the  grand  and  beauti- 
ful ;  and  literary  productions  of  ail  kinds  were  in 
perfection  when  Auguitus  reigned.  In  attempting 
ftill  greater  perfection,  the  Roman  compolitions 
became  a  ftrange  jumble  of  inconiirtent  parts  ; 
they  were  tumid  and  pompous,  and,  at  the  fame 
time,  full  of  antithefes,  conceit,  and  tinfel  wit. 
JEvery  thing  new  in  a  fine  art  pleafes ;  and,  for 
that  reafon,  fuch  compofitions  were  reliflied.  We 
fee  not  by  what  gradual  fteps  writers,  after  the 
time  of  Auguftus,  deviated  from  the  patterns  that 
were  before  them  ;  for  no  book  of  moment,  from 
the  death  of  that  Emperor,  is  preferred  till  we 
come  down  to  Seneca,  in  whofe  works  nature  and 
fimplicity  give  place  to  quaint  thought  and  ba- 
ftard  wit.  He  was  a  great  corrupter  of  the  Ro- 
man tafle  ;  and  after  him  nothing  was  relifhed  but 
brilliant  ftrokes  of  fancy,  with  very  little  regard 
to  fentiment :  even  Virgil  and  Cicero  made  no  fi- 
gure in  comparifon.  Lucan  has  a  drained  eleva- 
tion of  thought  and  ftyle,  very  difficult  to  be  fup- 
ported :  he  finks  often  into  puerile  reflections ; 
witnefs  his  encomium  on  the  river  Po,  which,  fays 
he,  would  equal  the  Danube,  had  it  the  fame  num- 
ber of  tributary  ftreams.  Quintilian,  a  writer  of 
true  and  claflical  tafte,  who  was  protected  and  en- 

co^raged 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  223 

couraged  by  Vefpafian,  attempted  to  ftem  the  tide 
of  falfe  writing.  His  rhetoric  is  compofed  in  an 
elegant  ftyle  ;  and  his  obfervations  contain  every 
delicacy  of  the  critical  art.  At  the  fame  time 
flourifhed  Tacitus,  poffefling  a  more  extenfiv& 
knowledge  of  human  nature  than  any  other  author 
ancient  or  modern,  if  Shakefpeare  be  not  except- 
ed.  His  ftyle  is  original,  concife,  compact,  and 
comprehenfive  ;  and,  in  what  is  properly  called  his 
hiftory,  perfectly  correct  and  beautiful.  He  has 
been  imitated  by  feveral,  but  never  equalled  by 
any.  Brutus  is  faid  to  be  the  laft  of  the  Romans 
for  love  of  liberty  :  Quintilian  and  Tacitus  may  be 
faid  to  be  the  laft  of  the  Romans  for  literary  ge- 
nius. Pliny  the  younger  is  no  exception  :  his 
ftyle  is  affected,  turgid,  and  full  of  childifh  bril- 
liancy. Seneca  and  Pliny  are  proper  examples  of 
writers  who  ftudy  mow  more  than  fubftance,  and 
who  make  fenfe  yield  to  found. 

Whether  mufic  be  or  be  not  on  the  decline, 
feems  a  doubtful  point,  as  the  virtuofi  are  divided 
about  it.  In  Greece,  celebrated  for  tafte,  mufic 
was  a  theatrical  entertainment,  and  had  a  dignified 
pffice,  that  of  enlivening  or  enforcing  the  impref- 
fions  made  on  the  audience  by  the  action.  Ii> 
that  office,  harmony  being  of  little  ufe,  was  little 
cultivated :  nor  did  the  mufical  inftruments  at 
that  time  known  afford  great  fcope  for  harmony. 
Among  us,  harmony  is  brought  to  perfection ; 
and,  in  modern  compofitions,  it  commonly  is  the 

chief 


224  M^N  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [&.  I. 

chief  part.  To  have  melody  and  harmony  both 
in  perfection,  they  can  never  be  united  in  the 
fame  piece.  The  heart,  fwoln  by  a  melancholy 
ilrain,  is  regardlefs  of  harmony  ;  and,  when  fub- 
dued  by  a  delightful  ilrain  of  whatever  kind,  it 
has  no  leifure  for  complicated  harmony.  Rich 
harmony,  on  the  other  hand  engroffing  the  whole 
attention,  leaves  the  heart  in  a  meafure  vacant  *. 
The  Greeks  excelled  in  melody  :  the  moderns  ex- 
cel in  harmony.  A  juft  comparifon  between  thefe, 
with  refpeft  to  their  effects  on  the  hearer,  will 
give  inftrudlion,  and  perhaps  may  enable  us  to  de- 
termine whether  mufic  be  or  be  not  on  the  de- 
cline. 

Nature,  kindly  to  its  favourite  man,  has  furnifh- 
ed  him  with  five  external  fenfes,  not  only  for  fup- 
porting  animal  life,  but  for  procuring  to  him  va- 
riety of  enjoyments.  A  towering  hill  as  an  object 
of  fight,  a  blufhing  rofe  as  an  object  of  fmell,  a 
pine-apple  as  an  object  of  tafte,  a  fine  fur  as  an 
object  of  touch,  do  every  one  of  them  produce  a 
pleafant  feeling.  With  refpect  to  the  fenfe  of 
hearing  in  particular,  certain  founds  heard  at  the 
fame  inilant  raife  a  pleafant  feeling  \  and  certain 
founds  heard  in  fucceifion  raife  another  pleafant 
feeling  ;  the  former  termed  barmony,  the  latter  me- 

lody, 

*  Corelli  excells  in  combining  harmony  with  melo_dy.  His 
melody  could  not  be  richer  without  impoverifhing  his  har- 
mony ;  nor  his  harmony  richer  without  impoverifhing  his  me- 
lody. 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  235 

lody.  Harmony,  like  the  pleafure  of  tafiing  or  of 
fmelling,  affects  us  at  the  organ  of  fenfe  only,  and 
ceafes  when  its  object  is  removed.  But  melody  is 
not  confined  to  the  organ  of  fenfe  :  it  pierces  to 
the  heart,  and  pvoduces  different  emotions,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  modulation.  An  emotion 
fo  raifed,  fuch  as  that  of  gaiety,  of  melancholy,  of 
pity,  of  courage,  of  benevolence,  fubfifts  after  the 
mufic  ceafes,  and  even  fwells  into  a  paffion  where 
it  meets  with  a  proper  object.  An  air,  fweet  and 
melting,  raifes  an  emotion  in  the  tone  of  love,  and 
readily  is  elevated  to  the  paffion  of  love  on  the  fight 
of  a  beautiful  object.  An  air,  flow  and  plaintive, 
produces  an  emotion  in  the  tone  of  pity  or  grief, 
which,  on  the  appearance  of  a  perfon  in  diftrefs, 
becomes  a  paffion.  A  lively  and  animating  ftrain 
produces  an  emotion  of  courage :  the  hearer  ex- 
alted to  a  hero,  longs  for  an  opportunity  to  exert 
his  prowefs. 

Spumantanque  dariy  fecora  inter  inertia,  votis 
Optat  aprumt  autfuhum  dffcendere  monte  leonem. 

Can  harmony  produce  an  effect  in  any  degree  fimi- 
lar?  The  greatefl  admirer  of  harmony  will  not 
affirm  that  it  can.  The  emotion  raifed  by  harmo- 
ny has  no  affinity  to  paffion  or  fentiment,  more 
than  the  fmell  of  a  tuberofe,  or  the  tafte  of  an  or- 
tolan ;  and  it  vanifhes  inftantaneoufly  with  the  con- 
cordant founds  that  produced  it. 

Hence  it  may  fairly  be  concluded,  that,  as  far  as 
melody  is  fuperior  to  harmony,  as  far  was  Greek 

VOL.  I.  P  rnufic 


236  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

mufic  fuperior  to  the  generality  of  what  is  now  in 
practice.  Exceptions  there  are  undoubtedly  that 
rival  whatever  could  be  performed  by  the  ancients  : 
but  they  are  not  many  in  number  :  the  talent  of 
compofing  mufic  in  the  tone  of  a  paffion,  feems  in 
a  great  meafure  to  lie  dormant.  The  Italian  ope- 
ra refembles  in  form  the  Greek  tragedy,  from 
which  evidently  it  is  copied,  but  very  little  in  fub- 
ilance.  In  the  latter,  the  dialogue  maintains  its 
fuperior  flation  ;  and  mufic,  confined  to  its  proper 
place,  has  the  flrongeft  effedt  that  mufic  can  pro- 
duce. In  the  former,  mufic  ufurping  the  fuperior 
ftation,  commands  attention  by  a  ftorm  of  found, 
leaving  the  dialogue  languid  and  uninterefting. 
This  unnatural  disjunction  of  found  from  fenfe, 
has  introduced  a  fort  of  baftard  mufic,  termed  re* 
citative.  Suffering  the  words  to  pafs,  though  abun- 
dantly flat  and  languid  *,  I  objed:  to  the  execution, 
an  unnatural  movement  between  pronouncing  and 
finging,  that  cannot  be  agreeable  but  to  thofe  who 
have  been  long  accuftomed  to  it.  Of  one  thing  I 
am  certain,  that  graceful  pronunciation,  whether 
in  the  calm  narrative  tone,  or  in  the  warm  tone  of 
paffion,  is  far  more  pleafant.  What  puts  the  pre- 
ference of  the  Greek  model  far  beyond  a  doubt,  is, 
that  the  tragedies  of  Sophocles  and  Euripides  were 
for  a  long  courfe  of  time  the  delight  of  the  molt  re- 
fined nation  that  ever  exiiled  :  an  Italian  opera,  on 


*  No  perfon  will  fufpedt  that  under  this  cenfure  is  compre- 
hended the  celebrated  Metaftafio. 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  237 

the  contrary,  never  runs  above  a  feafon  ;  and,  after 
being  once  laid  afide,  is  never  revived.  But  this 
flight  and  fuperficial  tafte  for  harmony  above  me- 
lody, cannot  be  lafting:  nature  maybe  wrefted, 
but  foon  or  late  refumes  its  empire.  Sentimental 
mufic  will  be  feriouily  cultivated,  and  reftored  to 
the  place  in  the  theatre  it  anciently  poflefled  with 
dignity  and  propriety.  Then  it  is  that  we  may* 
hope  to  rival  the  Greeks  in  mufic  as  in  other  arts. 
Upon  the  whole,  mufic  undoubtedly  is  much  im- 
proved with  refpect  to  its  theory  ;  but,  with  refpecl 
to  the  practical  part,  there  appears  as  little  doubt 
of  a  woful  degeneracy. 

I  lay  hold  of  this  opportunity  to  add  a  Ihort  ar- 
ticle concerning  the  hiftory  of  mufic,  which  regard 
to  my  native  country  will  not  fuffer  me  to  omit. 
We  have  in  Scotland  a  mulitude  of  fongs  tender  and 
pathetic,  expreffive  of  love  in  its  varieties,  of  hope, 
fear,  fuccefs,  defpondence,  and  defpair.  The  ftyle  of 
the  rrlufic  is  wild  and  irregular,  extremely  pleafing 
to  the  natives,  but  little  relifhed  by  the  bulk  of  thofe 
who  are  accuftomed  to  the  regularity  of  the  Italian 
flyle.  None  but  men  of  genius,  who  follow  nature 
and  break  loofe  from  the  thraldom  of  cuftom, 
efteem  that  mufic.  It  was  a  favourite  of  the  late 
Geminiani,  whofe  compofitions  fhow  delicacy  of 
tafte  equal  to  the  fuperiority  of  his  genius ;  and  it 
is  warmly  praifed  by  Aleflandro  Taflbni,  the  cele- 
brated author  of  Secchia  Rapita.  Difcourfing  of 
ancient  and  modern  mufic,  and  quoting  from  vari- 

P  2  ous 


238  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

ous  authors  the  wonderful  effe&s  produced  by 
fbme  modern  competitions,  he  fubjoins  the  follow- 
ing paffage  :  "  Noi  ancora  poffiamo  connumerar 
"  tra  noftri,  lacopo  Re  de  Scozia,  che  non  pur  cofe 
*'  facre  compofe  in  tanto,  ma  trovo  da  feftefib  una 
"  nuovo  mulica  lamentevole  e  mefta,  difFerente  da 
"  tutte  1'atre.  Nel  che  poi  e  ftato  imitato  da  Car- 
"  lo  Gefualdo  Principe  di  Venofa,  che  in  quefta 
"  noflra  eta  ha  illuftrata  anch'  egli  la  mulica  con 
"  nuova  mirabili  invenzioni  #.''  The  king  men- 
tioned muil  be  James  I.  of  Scotland,  the  only  one 
of  our  kings  who  feems  to  have  had  any  remark- 
able tafte  in  the  fine  arts ;  and  the  mufic  can  be  no 
other  than  the  fongs  mentioned  above.  Thefe  are 
commonly  attributed  to  David  Rizzio,  becaufe  he 
was  an  Italian  and  a  mulician  ;  but  erroneoufly,  as 
we  now  difcover  from  Taflbni.  Our  James  I.  was 
eminent  for  poetry  no  lefs  than  for  mufic.  He  is 
praifed  for  the  former  by  Bifhop  Leflie,  one  of  our 
hlftorians,  in  the  following  words  :  "  Patrii  car- 
"  minis  gloria  nulli  fecundus."  We  have  many 
poems  afcribed  by  tradition  to  that  king ;  one  in 
t  particular, 

*  **  We  may  reckon  among  the  compofers  of  the  moderns 
"  James^  King  of  Scotland,  who  not  only  compofed  facred 
"  fongs,  but  was  himfelf  the  inventor  of  a  new  ftyle  of  mufic, 
**  plaintive  and  jpathetic,  different  from  all  others.  Iri  this 
"  manner  of  compofition,  he  has  been  imitated  in  our  times 
*'  by  Carlo  Gefualdo,  Prince  of  Venofa,  who  has  illuftrated 
*?  that  ftyle  of  mufic  with  new  and  wonderful  invention."—- 
Penfieri  diverfi,  lib.  IQ.  cap.  23. 


SX.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  239 

particular,  Chrift's  kirk  on  the  green,  is  a  ludicrous 
poem,  defcribing  low  manners  with  no  lefs  proprie- 
ty than  fprightlincfs. 

Another  caufe  that  precipitates  the  downfal  of 
every  fine  artf  is  defpotifm.     The  reafon  is  ob- 
vious ;  and  there  was  a  difmal  example  of  it  in 
Rome,  particularly  with  regard  to  eloquence.  We 
learn  from  a  dialogue  accounting  for  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  Roman  eloquence,  that,  in  the  decline 
of  the  art,  it  became  fafhtonable  to  fluff  harangues 
with  impertinent  poetical  quotations,  without  any 
view  but  ornament  merely ;  and  this  alfo  was  long 
fafhionable  in  France.     It  happened  unluckily  for 
the  Romans,  and  for  the  world,  that  the  fine  arts 
were  at  their  height  in  Rome,  and  not  much  upon 
the  decline  in  Greece,  when  defpotifm  put  an  end  to 
the  republic.     Auguftus,  it  is  true,  retarded  their 
fall,  particularly  that  of  literature  ;  it  being  the 
policy  of  his  reign  to  hide  defpotifm,  and  to  give 
his  government  an  air  of  freedom.     His  court  was 
a  fchool  of  urbanity,  where  people  of  genius  ac- 
quired that  delicacy  of  tafle,  that  elevation  of  fen- 
timent,  and  that  purity  of  exprefiion,  which  cha- 
racterize the  writers  of  his  time.     He  honoured 
men  of  learning,  admitted  them  to  his  table,  and 
was  bountiful  to  them.    It  would  be  painful  to  fol- 
low the  decline  of  the  fine  arts  in  Rome  to  their 
total  extirpation.    The  tyranny  of  Tiberius  and  of 
Uibfequent  emperors,  broke  at  laft  the  elevated  and 
independent  fpirit  of  the  brave  Romans,  reduced 

P  3  theiri 


340  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

them  to  abject  flavery,  and  left  not  a  fpark  of  ge- 
nius *.  The  fcience  of  law  is  the  only  exception, 
as  it  flourifhed  even  in  the  worft  of  times :  the 
Roman  lawyers  were  a  refpeclable  body,  and  lefs 
the  object  of  jealoufy  than  men  of  power  and  ex- 
tenfive  land  property*  Among  the  Greeks  alfo,  a 
conquered  people,  the  fine  arts  decayed,  but  not  fo 
rapidly  as  at  Rome  :  the  Greeks,  farther  removed 
from  the  feat  of  government,  were  lefs  within  the 
reach  of  a  Roman  tyrant.  During  their  depref- 
fion,  they  were  guilty  of  the  moft  puerile  con- 
ceits ;  witnefs  verfes  compofed  in  the  form  of  an 
axe,  an  egg,  wings,  and  fuch  like.  The  ftyle  of 
Greek  writers  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Ha- 

v  .  -•.]•.-  .-  r  •>  -'  •;..*.•      i 

drian, 

*  A  fingular  persecution  was  carried  on  by  Pope  Gregory, 
moft  improperly  furnamed  the  Great,  againft  the  works  of  Cice- 
ro, Titus  Livius,  and  Cornelius  Tacitus,  which  in  every  cor- 
ner of  Chriftendom  were  publicy  burnt ;  and  from  that  time, 

I    \*  *'•'-.  -  -      •  .  •  -  '  .  :  •  < 

there  has  not  been  feen  a  complete  copy  of  any  of  thefe  au- 
thors. This  happened  in  the  fixth  century :  fo  foon  had  the 
Romans  fallen  from  the  perfection  of  tafte  and  knowledge  to 
the  moft  humbling  barbarity.  Nor  was  that  the  only  perfe- 
cution  of  books  on  the  fcore  of  religion.  Many  centuries  ber 
fore,  a  fimilar  inftance  happened  in  China,  directed  by  a  fool- 
ifh  emperor.  The  Alexandrian  Library  was  twice  confumed 
by  fire,  once  in  the  time  of  Julius  Csefar,  and  once  in  the  tim^ 
of  the  Calif  Omar.  What  a  profufion  of  knowledge  was  loft 
paft  redemption  !  And  yet,  upon  the  whole,  it  feems  doubt- 
ful, whether  the  moderns  have  fuffered  by  thefe  events.  At 
what  corner  of  a  library  (hall  a  man  begin  where  he  fees  an 
infinity  of  books,  choice  ones  too  ?  He  will  turn  his  back  to  the 
library,  and  begin  at  no  corner. 


' 


SK.  4.  §  2]  ARTS.  241 

drian,  is  unequal,  obfcure,  ftiff,  and  affe&ed.    Lu- 
cian  is  the  only  exception  I  am  acquainted  with. 

We  need  fcarce  look  for  any  other  caufe  but  def- 
potifm,  to  account  for  the  decline  of  ftatuary  and 
painting  in  Greece.  Thefe  arts  had  arrived  at 
their  utmoft  perfection  about  the  time  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great :  from  that  time  they  declined  gra- 
dually along  with  the  vigour  of  a  free  people  ;  for 
Greece  was  now  enilaved  by  the  Macedonian  power. 
It  may  in  general  be  obferved,  that  when  a  nation 
becomes  ftationary  in  that  degree  of  power  and 
eminence  which  it  acquires  from  its  conftitution 
and  fituation,  the  national  fpirit  fubfides,  and  men 
of  talents  become  rare.  It  is  {till  worfe  with  a  na- 
tion that  is  funk  below  its  former  power  and  emi- 
nence ;  and  worft  of  all  when  it  is  reduced  to  flave- 
ry.  Other  caufes  concurred  to  accelerate  the 
downfal  of  the  arts  mentioned.  Greece,  in  the 
days  of  Alexander,  was  filled  with  ftatues  of  ex- 
cellent workmanfhip ;  and  there  being  little  de- 
mand for  more,  the  later  ftatuaries  were  reduced 
to  heads  and  bufts.  At  laft  the  Romans  put  a  to-? 
tal  end  both  to  ftatuary  and  painting  in  Greece,  by 
plundering  it  of  its  fineft  pieces ;  and  the  Greeks, 
expofed  to  the  avarice  of  the  conquerors,  bellowed 
no  longer  any  money  on  the  fine  arts. 

The  decline  of  the  fine  arts  in  Rome,  is  by  a  wri- 
ter of  tafte  and  elegance  afcribed  to  a  caufe  differ- 
ent from  any  above  mentioned,  a  caufe  equally  de- 
ftruclive  to  manhood  and  to  the  fine  arts ;  and  that 

P4  is 


(6 
*( 
U 


242  MEN  INDEPENPENT  OF  SOCIETY,  [B,  |. 

is  opulence,  joined  with  its  conftant  attendants  ava- 
rice and  luxury.  Jt  would  b,e  doing  injuftice  to 
that  author  to  quote  him  in  any  words  but  his 
own.  "  Prifcis  temporibus,  quum  adhuc  nudgi 
"  virtus  placeret,  vigebant  artes  ingenuaey  fum- 
"  mumque  certamen  inter  homines  erat,  ne  quid 
"  profuturum  feculis  diu  lateret.  Itaque,  Hercu- 
*'.  les  !  oinnium  herbarum  fuccos  Democritus  ex- 
*'  preflit :  et  ne  lapidum  virgultorumque  vis  late- 
ret, aetatem  inter  experimenta  confumpfit.  Eu- 
doxus  quidem  in  c^cumine  excelfiflimi  montis 
confenuit,  ut  aftrorum  coelique  motus  deprehen- 
"  deret :  et  Chryfippus,  ut  ad  inventionem  fuffici- 
"  ret,  ter  helleboro  animum  deterfit.  Verum  ut 
"  ad  plaftas  convertar,  Lyfippum  ftatuae  unius 
w  lineamentis  inhaerentem  inopia  extinxit :  et 
"  Myron,  qui  pene  hominum  animas  ferarumque 
aere  comprehenderat,  non  invenit  hceredem.  At 
nos,  vino  fcortisque,  demerfi,  ne  paratas  quidem 
"  artes  audemus  cognofcere  ;  fed  accufatores  an- 
"  tiquitatis,  vitia  tantum  docemus,  et  difcimus. 
"  Ubi  eft  dialectica  ?  ubi  aftronomia  ?  ubi  fapien- 
"  tiae  confultiflima  via  ?  Quis  unquam  venit  in 
"  templum,  et  votum  fecit  ft  ad  eloquentiam  per- 
"  veniflet  ?  quis,  ft  philpfophiae  fontem  inveniflet  ? 
<€  Ac  ne  bonam  quidem  men  tern,  aut  bonam  va- 
^  letudinem,  petunt :  fed  ftatim,  antequam  limen 
"  capitolii  tangunt,  alius  donum  promittit  ii  pro- 
?'  pinquum  divitem  extulerit ;  alius,  ft  thefaurum 
ff  pfFoderit ;  alius,  fi  ad  trccenties  H — S.  falvus 

"  perveneri|,f 


if. 
it 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  243 

"  pervenerit.     Ipfe  fenatus,  rccli  bonique  praecep- 

"  tor,  mille  pondo  auri  capitolio  promittere  folet : 

"  et  ne  quis  dubitet  pecuniam  concupifcere,  Jovem 

"  quoque  peculio  exorat.     Nolito  ergo  mirari,  fi 

"  pi&ura  defecit,  quum  omnibus  diis  hominibusque 

"  formoiior  videatur  mafia  auri,  quarn  quidquid 

"  Apelles   Phidiasve  fecerunt  *.''       In   England, 

-  the 

*  '*  In  ancient  times,  when  naked  virtue  had  her  admirers, 
tl  the  liberal  arts  were  in  their  higheft  vigour ;  and  there  was 
*'  a  generous  conteft  among  men,  that  nothing  of  real  and 
"  permanent  advantage  fhould  long  remain  undiicovered. 
"  Democritus  extracted  the  juic£  of  every  herb  and  plant ; 
*'  and,  left  the  virtue  of  a  fmgle  done  or  twig  Ihould  efcape 
"  him,  he  confumed  a  lifetime  in  experiments.  Eudoxus,  im- 
"  merfed  in  the  ftudy  of  aftronomy,  fpent  his  age  upon  the 
"  top  of  a  mountain.  Chryfippus,  to  ftimulate  his  inventive 
*•  faculty,  thrice  purified  his  genius  with  hellebore.  To  turn 
"  to  the  imitative  arts :  Lyfippus,  while  labouring  on  the 
"  forms  of  a  fmgle  ftatue  periftied  from  want.  Myron,  whofe 
"  powerful  hand  gave  to  the  brak  almoft  the  foul  of  man,  and 
*'  animals, — at  his  death  found  not  an  heir  !  Of  us  of  modern 
"  times  what  fhall  we  fay  ?  Immerfed  in  drunkennefs  and  de~ 
**  bauchery,  we  want  the  fpirit  to  cultivate  thofe  arts  which 
"  we  poflefs.  We  inveigh  againft  the  manners  of  antiquity  ; 
"  we  ftudy  vice  alone  ;  and  vice  is  all  we  teach.  Where  now 
"  is  the  art  of  reafoning  ?  where  aftronomy  ?  where  is  the 
right  path  of  wifdom  ?  What  man  now-a-days  is  heard  in 
our  temples  to  make  a  vow  for  the  attainment  of  eloquence, 
"  or  for  the  difcovery  of  the  fountain  of  true  philofophy  ?  Nor 
"  do  we  even  pray  for  health  of  body,  or  a  found  underftand- 
"  ing.  One,  while  he  has  fcarce  entered  the  porch  of  the 
f '  temple,  devotes  a  gift  in  the  event  of  the  death  of  a  rich  re- 

f  lation ; 


(C 

« 


244  M£N  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I, 

the  fine  arts  are  far  from  *fuch  perfection  as  to  fuf- 
fer  by  opulence.  They  are  in  a  progrefs,  it  is  true, 
toward  maturity  ;  but,  gardening  alone  excepted, 
they  proceed  in  a  very  flow  pace. 

There  is  a  particular  caufe  that  never  fails  to 
undermine  a  fine  art  in  a  country  where  it  is 
brought  to  perfection,  abftracting  from  every  one 
of  the  caufes  above  mentioned.  In  the  firft  part 
of  the  prefent  {ketch  it  is  remarked,  that  nothing 
is  more  fatal  to  an  art  or  to  a  fcience,  than  a  per- 
formance fo  much  fuperior  to  all  of  the  kind,  as  to 
extinguifh  emulation.  This  remark  is  exemplified 

/  »  * 

in  the  great  Newton,  who,  having  furpaffed  all  the 
ancients,  has  not  left  to  his  countrymen  even  the 
fainteft  hope  of  rivalling  him ;  and  to  that  caufe  is 
attributed  the  viiible  decline  of  mathematical 
knowledge  in  Great  Britain.  The  fame  caufe 
would  have  been  fatal  to  the  arts  of  ftatuary  and 
painting  among  the  Greeks,  even  though  they  had 
continued  a  free  people.  The  decay  of  painting 
in  modern  Italy,  is  probably  owing  to  the  fame 

caufe  : 

<l  lation ;  another  prays  for  the  difcovery  of  a  treafure ; 
€t  a  third  for  a  minifterial  fortune.  The  fenate  itfelf,  the 
"  exemplary  preceptor  of  what  is  good  and  laudable,  has 
«'  promifed  a  thoufand  pounds  of  gold  to  the  capitol ;  and 
0  to  remove  all  reproach  from  the  crime  of  avarice,  has  offer. 
"  ed  a  bribe  to  Jupiter  himfelf.  How  fhould  we  wonder  that 
<(  the  art  of  painting  has  declined,  when,  in  the  eyes  both  of 
"  the  gods  and  men,  there  is  more  beauty  in  a  mafs  of  gold, 
««  than  in  all  the  works  of  Phidias  and  Apelles  ?"— Petroniuts 
Arbiter. 


66 
66 

* 

6t 
66 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  245 

caufe :  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  Titian,  &c.  are 
lofty  oaks  that  keep  down  young  plants  in  their 
neighbourhood,  and  intercept  from  them  the  fun- 
Ihine  of  emulation.  Had  the  art  of  painting  made 
a  flower  progrefs  in  Italy,  it  might  have  there  con- 
tinued in  vigour  to  thi&  day.  Valleius  Paterculus 
fays  judicioufly,  "  Ut  primo  ad  confequendos  quos 
priores  ducimus  accendiinur  ;  ita,  ubi  aut  prae- 
teriri  aut  aequari  eos  poffe  defperavimus,  ftudium 
cum  fpe  fenefcit ;  et  quod  adfequi  non  poteft, 
fequi  definit :  praeteritoque  eo  in  quo  eminere 
"  non  poflimus,  aliquid  in  quo  nitarnuv  conquiri-? 
"  mus*." 

The  decline  of  an  art  or  fcience  proceeding  from 
the  foregoing  caufe,  is  the  mod  rapid  where  a  ftridt 
comparifon  can  be  inilituted  between  the  works  of 
different  matters.  The  fuperiority  of  Newton 
above  every  other  mathematician,  can  be  afcer- 
tained  with  precilion  ;  and  hence  the  fudden  de- 
cline of  that  fcience  in  Great  Britain.  In  Italy,  a 
talent  for  painting  continued  many  years  in  vigour ;. 
becaufe  no  painter  appeared  with  fuch  fuperiority 
of  genius,  as  to  carry  perfection  into  every  branch 
of  the  art.  A$  one.  furpafled  in  deiign,  one  in  co- 
lours, 

*  "  As  at  firft  we  are  excited  to  emulate  thofe  fuperior 
'*  models,  fo,  when  once  we  have  loft  the  hope  of  excelling,  or 
"  even  of  equalling  them,  our  ambition  fails  us  with  our 
"  hopes  :  we  ceafe  to  purfue  what  we  cannot  attain  ;  and,  nc- 
"  gle&ing  that  ftudy  in  which  we  are  debarred  from  arriving 
1  at  excellence,  we  fearch  for  a  different  field  of  emulation." 


246  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

lours,  one  in  graceful  attitudes,  there  was  Hill 
fcope  for  emulation.  But  when,  in  the  progrefs 
of  the  art,  there  was  not  a  lingle  perfection  but 
had  been  feized  by  one  or  other  mailer,  from  that 
period  the  art  began  to  languifh.  Architecture 
continued  longer  in  vigour  than  painting,  becaufe 
the  principles  of  comparifon  in  the  former  are  lefs 
precife  than  in  the  latter.  The  artift  who  could 
not  rival  his  predecefTors  in  an  eilablifhed  mode, 
fought  out  a  new  mode  for  himfelf,  which,  though 
perhaps  lefs  elegant  or  perfect,  was  for  a  time  fup- 
ported  by  novelty. 

Corruption  of  the  Latin  tongue  makes  a  proper 
appendix  to  the  decline  of  the  fine  arts  in  Rome. 
That  the  Latin  tongue  did  not  long  continue  in 
purity  after  the  Emperor  Auguflus,  is  certain  ;  and 
all  writers  agree,  that  the  caufe  of  its  early  cor- 
ruption was  a  continual  influx  into  Rome  of  men, 
to  whom  the  Latin  was  a  foreign  language.  The 
teafon  is  plauiible,  but  whether  folid,  may  be 
doubted.  In  all  countries,  there  are  provincial 
diale&s,  which,  however,  tend  not  to  corrupt  the 
language  of  the  capital,  becaufe  they  are  carefully 
avoided  by  all  who  pretend  to  fpeak  properly ; 
and,  accordingly,  the  multitude  of  provincials  who 
flock  to  Paris  and  to  London,  have  no  influence  to 
corrupt  the  language.  The  fame  probably  was 
the  cafe  in  old  Rome,  especially  with  refpect  to 
ftrangers  whofe  native  tongue  was  totally  different 
from  that  of  Rome :  their  imperfect  manner  of 

fpeaking 


SK.4-  $  2.]  ARTS.  %     247 

fpeaking  Latin  might  be  excufed,  but  certainly 
was  not  imitated.     Slaves  in  Rome  had  little  con- 
verfation  with  their  matters,  except  in  receiving 
orders  or  reproof ;  which  had  no  tendency  to  vi- 
tiate the   Latin  tongue.     The  corruption  of  that 
tongue,  and  at  laft  its  death  and  burial  as  a  living 
language,  were  the  refult  of  two  combined  caufes  ; 
of  which  the  early  prevalence  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage in  Rome  is  the  firft.     Latin  was  native  to 
the  Romans  only,  and  to  the  inhabitants  of  Latium. 
The  languages  of  the  reft  of  Italy  were  numerous : 
the  MeiTapian  was  the  mother-tongue  in  Apulia, 
the  Hetrufcan  in  Tufcany  and  Umbria,  the  Greek 
in  Magna  Graecia,  the  Celtic  in  Lombardy  and  Li- 
guria,  &c.  &-c.     Latin  had  arrived  at  its  purity 
not  many  years  before  the  reign  of  Auguftus,  and 
had  not  taken  deep  root  in  thofe  parts  of  Italy 
where  it  was  not  the  mother-tongue,  when  Greek 
became  the  fafhionable  language  among  people  of 
rank,  as  French  is  in  Europe  at  prefent.     Greek, 
the  ftorehoufe  of  learning,  prevailed  in  Rome  even 
in  Cicero's  time  ;  of  which  he  himfelf  bears  tefti- 
mony  in  his  oration  for  the  poet  Archias  :  "  Graeca< 
"  leguntur  in  omnibus  fere  gentibus  :    Latina  fuis 
"  finibus,  exiguis  fane,   continentur."     And,  for 
that  reafon,  Atticus  is  warmly  folicited  by  him  to 
write  the  hiftory  of  his  confulate  in  Greek.     Thus 
Latin,  juftled  by  Greek  out  of  its  place,  was  left 
to  inferiors,  and  probably  would  have  funk  to  ut- 
ter oblivion,  even  though  the  republic  had  conti- 
nued 


248  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B,  I. 

nued  in  vigour.  But  the  chief  caufe  was  the  def- 
potifm  of  the  Roman  government,  which  proved 
the  deftruction  of  the  fine  arts,  and  of  literature  in 
particular.  In  a  country  of  fo  many  different  lan- 
guages, the  Latin  tongue  could  not  be  preferved 
in  purity,  but  by  conftant  perufal  of  Roman  claf- 
fics :  but  thefe  were  left  to  rot  in  libraries,  a  dark 
cloud  of  ignorance  having  overfpread  the  whole 
empire.  Every  perfon  carelefsly  fpoke  the  lan- 
guage acquired  in  the  nurfery  ;  and  people  of  dif- 
ferent tongues  being  mixed  under  one  govern- 
ment, without  a  common  ftandard,  fell  gradually 
into  a  fort  of  mixed  language,  which  every  one 
made  a  fhift  to  underftand.  The  irruption  of  many 
barbarous  nations  into  Italy,  feveral  of  whom  fet- 
tled there,  added  to  the  jargon.  And  that  jargon, 
compofed  of  many  heterogeneous  parts,  was  in 
procefs  of  time  purified  to  the  tongue  that  is  now 
native  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  Italy. 

In  a  hiftory  of  the  Latin  tongue,  it  ought  not 
to  be  overlooked,  that  it  continued  long  in  purity 
among  the  Roman  lawyers.  The  fcience  of  law 
was  in  Rome  more  cultivated  than  hi  any  other 
country.  The  books  written  upon  that  fcience  in 
Latin  were  numerous  ;  and,  being  highly  regard- 
ed, were  the  conftant  ftudy  of  every  man  who 
afpired  to  be  an  eminent  lawyer.  Neither  could 
fuch  men  have  any  bias  to  the  Greek  tongue,  as 
law  was  little  cultivated  in  Greece.  Thus  it  hap- 
pened, that  the  Latin  tongue,  as  far  as  concerns 

law, 


SK*  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  249 

law,  was  preferved  in  purity,  even  to  the  time  of 
the  Emperor  Juftinian. 

Greek  was  preferved  in  purity  much  longer  than 
Latin.     The  fame  language  was  fpoken  through 
all  Greece,  with  fome  flight  varieties  in  dialecl. 
It  was  brought  to  great  perfection  and  firmly  root- 
ed during  the  profperous   days  of  Greece.      Its 
daffies  were  numerous,  and  were  ftudied  by  every 
perfon   who    pretended  to    literature  *.       Now, 
though  the  free  and  manly  fpirit  of  the  Greeks 
yielded  to  Roman  defpotifm,  yet  while  any  appe- 
tite for  literature  remained,  their  invaluable  dailies 
were  a  ilandard,  which  preferved  the  language  in 
purity.     But  ignorance  at  length  became  univer- 
fal ;  and  the  Greek  claffics  ceafed  to  be  a  ftandard, 
being  buried  in  libraries,  as  the  Roman  claffics 
had  been  for  centuries.     In  that  ftate,  the  Greek 
tongue  could  not  fail  to  degenerate  among  an  ig- 
norant and  fervile  people,  who  had  no  longer  any 
ambition  to  act  well,  write  well,   or  fpeak  well. 
And  yet,  after  all,   that  beautiful  tongue,  far  be- 
yond a  rival,  has  fufFered  lefs  alteration  than  any 
other  ever  did  in  fimilar  circumftances ;   one  caufe 
of  which  is,  that  to  this  day  the  Greeks  live  fepa- 
rate  from  their  mailers  the  Turks,  and  have  little 
commerce  with  them. 

From  the  fate  of  the  Latin  tongue,  an  obferva- 
tion  is  drawn  by  many  writers,  that  all  languages 

are 

*  There  ftill  remain  about  three  thoufand  Greek  books  ; 
of  Latin  books  not  above  fixty. 


250  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

are  in  a  continual  flux,  changing  from  age  to  age 
without  end.  And  fuch  as  are  fond  of  fame,  de- 
plore it  as  a  heavy  misfortune,  that  the  language 
in  which  they  write  will  foon  become  obfolete  and 
unintelligible.  But  it  is  a  common  error  in  rea- 
foning,  to  found  a  general  conclulion  upon  a  fingle 
fadl.  In  its  progrefs  toward  perfe&ion,  a  language 
is  continually  improving,  and  therefore  continually 
changing.  But  fuppofing  a  language  to  have  ac- 
quired its  utmoft  perfection,  I  fee  nothing  that 
Ihould  neceflarily  occafion  any  change :  on  the  con- 
trary, the  claffical  books  in  that  language  become 
a  ftandard  for  writing  and  fpeaking,  to  which  every 
man  of  tafte  and  figure  conforms  himfelf.  Such 
was  the  cafe  of  the  Greek  tongue,  till  the  Greeks 
were  brutified  by  defpotifm.  The  Italian  has  con- 
tinued in  perfection  more  than  three  centuries, 
and  the  French  more  than  one.  The  Arabic  has 
continued  without  change  more  than  a  thoufand 
years :  there  is  no  book  in  that  language  held  to 
be  in  a  ftyle  more  pure  or  perfect  than  the  Koran  #. 
The  Englifh  language  has  not  yet  acquired  all  the 

purity 

*  I  am  far  from  thinking  that  the  language  of  the  Ara- 
bians, an  illiterate  people  in  the  days  of  their  prophet  Ma- 
;  hornet,  was  at  that  time  carried  to  fuch  purity  and  perfection, 
as  not  to  be  fufceptible  of  improvement.  The  fixing  that 
language  was  undoubtedly  owing  to  the  Koran,  which  was 
held  the  word  of  God  delivered  to  Mahomet  by  the  angel 
Gabriel,  and  confequently  was  pioufly  judged  to  be  the  (land- 
a.r4  of  perfection. 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  251 

purity  it  is  fufceptible  of;  but,  when  there  is  no 
place  for  further  improvements,  there  feems  little 
doubt  of  its  becoming  ftationary,  like  the  languages 
mentioned.  I  bar  always  fuch  a  revolution  as  era- 
dicates knowledge,  and  reduces  a  people  to  a  ftate 
of  barbarity.  In  an  event  fo  difmal,  the  deftruc- 
tion  of  claflical  books  and  of  a  pure  language,  is  not 
the  greateft  calamity  :  they  will  be  little  regretted 
in  the  univerfal  wreck.  In  the  mean  time,  to  a 
writer  of  genius  in  a  polilhed  nation,  it  cannot  but 
be  a  charming  profpecl,  that  his  works  will  fland 
and  fall  with  his  country.  To  make  fuch  a  writer 
exert  his  talents  for  purifying  his  mother-tongue, 
and  for  adding  to  the  number  and  reputation  of 
its  claffics,  what  nobler  excitement,  than  the  cer- 
tainty of  being  tranfmitted  to  pofterity,  and  ad- 
mired by  every  perfon  of  tafte  through  all  ages- ! 

As  before  the  invention  of  printing,  writers 
could  have  nothing  in  view  but  reputation  and 
praife,  they  endeavoured  to  give  the  utmoft  per- 
fection to  their  compolitions.  They  at  the  fame 
time  iludied  brevity,  in  order  that  their  works 
might  pafs  through  many  hands ;  for  the  expence 
of  tranfcribing  great  volumes,  could  not  t>e  afford- 
ed by  every  reader.  The  art  of  printing  has  made- 
a  great  revolution  :  the  opportunity  it  furnilhes  to 
multiply  copies,  has  degraded  writing  to  be  a  lu- 
crative employment.  Authors  now  ftudy  to  fwell 
their  works,  in  order  to  raife  the  price  ;  and  being 
in  a  hurry  for  money,  they  reject  the  precept  ot 

VOL.  I.  Horace 


2-52  REN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

Horace,  Nonum  prematur  in  annum.     Take  for  ex- 
ample the  Natural  Hiftory  of  Aldrovandus,  in  many 
folio   volumes.      After  filling   his   common-place 
book  with  paffages  from  every  author  ancient  and 
modern,  to  the  purpofe  and  not  to  the  purpofe; 
be  fits  down  to  compofe,  bent  to  transfufe  into  his 
book  every  article  thus  painfully  collected.     For 
example,  when  he  introduces  the  ox,  the  cock,  or 
any  other  animal ;  far  from  confining  himfelf  to 
jits  natural  hiftory,  he  omits  nothing  that  has  been 
faid  of  it  in  books  where  it  has  been  occafionally 
introduced,  not  even  excepting  tales  for  amufing 
children :  he  mentions  all  the  fuperftitious  notions 
concerning  it,  every  poetical  comparison  drawn 
from  it,  the  ufe  it  has  ferved   in   hieroglyphics 
and  in  coats- armorial;  in  $  word,  all  the  hiftories 
and  all  the  fables  in  which  it  has  been  named. 
Take  another  jnftance  from  a  German  or  Dutch 
chronologer,  whofe   name   has   efcaped   me,   and 
which  I  give  in  a  tranflation  from  the  Latin,  to 
prevent  the  bias  that  one  has  for  a  learned  lan- 
guage.    "  Samfon  was  the  fame  with  the  Theban 
"  Hercules ;    which  appears  from  the  actions  attri- 
"  buted  to  each  of  them,  efpecially  from  the  fol- 
"  lowing,  That  Hercules,  unarmed,  is  faid  to  have 
"  fuffocated  the  Nemean  lion  with  a  fqueeze  of  his 
"  arms :    Samfon,  unarmed,  did  the  fame,  by  tear- 
"  ing  a  lion  to  pieces ;  and  Jofephus  fays,  that  he 
"  did  not  tear  the  lion,  but  put  out  his  breath  with 
?c  a  fqueeze ;   which  could  be  done,  and  was  done 

"  by 
M/ 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS.  253 

"  by  Scutilius  the  wrefller,  as  reported  by  Suidas. 
"  David  alfo,  unarmed,  tore  to  pieces*  a  lion,  i  Sa- 
"  muel,  chap.  17. ;  and  Benaiah  the  fon  of  Jehoiada 
"  alfo  flew  a  lion,  2  Sam.  chap.  23.  ver.  20.  More- 
"  over  we  read,  that  Samfon  having  caught  three 
<"  hundred  foxes,  tied  lighted  firebrands  to  their 
"  tails,  and  drove  them  into  the  Handing  corn  of 
"  the  Philiilines,  by  which  both  the  fhocks  and 
'"  Handing  corn,  with  the  vineyards  and  olives, 
"  were  burnt  up.  Many  think  it  incredible,  that 
*'  three  hundred  foxes  Ihould  be  caught  by  one 
"  man ;  as  the  fox,  being  the  moH  cunning  of  all 
"  animals,  would  not  fuffer  itfelf  to  be  eafily  ta- 
u  ken.  Accordingly  Oppian,  a  Greek  poet  who 
46  writes  upon  hunting,  aflerts,  that  no  fox  will  fuf- 
"  fer  itfelf  to  be  taken  in  a  gin  or  a  net ;  though 
"  we  are  taught  the  contrary  by  Martial,  lib.  10. 
"  epig.  37. 

"  Hie  olidum  clamofus  ages  in  retla  vulfiem* 

"  In  India,  eagles,  hawks,  and  ravens,  are  taugh^ 
*'  to  hunt  foxes,  as  we  are  informed  by  Olianus, 
"  Var.  hiH.  lib.  9.  cap.  26.  They  are  alfo  caught 
44  by  traps  and  fnares,  and  in  covered  pits,  as 
"  wolves  are,  and  other  large  animals.  Nor  is  it 
"  wonderful  that  fuch  a  multitude  of  foxes  were 
u  caught  by  Samfon,  conlidering  that  PaleHine 
"  abounded  with  foxes.  He  had  hunters  without 
**  number  at  command  ;  and  he  was  not  confined 
'*  in  time.  The  fame  of  that  exploit  was  fpread 

"  far 


" 


(( 


<( 


254  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  j~B.  I. 

far  and  near.  Even  among  the  Romans  there 
"  were  veftiges  of  it,  as  appears  from  Ovid,  Faft. 
lib.  9.  ver.  68  1.  In  one  Roman  feflival,  armed 
foxes  were  let  loofe  in  the  circus  ;  which  Ovid, 
in  the  place  quoted,  fays  was  done  in  memory 
of  the  Carfiolan  fox,  which,  having  deilroyed 
"  many  hens  belonging  to  a  country  woman,  was 
f'  caught  by  her,  and  plinimed  as  follows.  She 
wrapped  up  the  fox  in  hay,  which  fhe  fet  fire  to  ; 
and  the  fox  being  let  go,  fled  through  the  {land- 
ing corn,  and  fet  it  on  fire.  There  can  be  no 
f<  doubt  but  that  this  feftival  was  a  veilige  of  Sam- 
"  fon's  foxes,  not  only  from  congruity  of  circum- 
"  fiances,  but  from  the  time  of  celebration,  which 
"  was  the  month  of  April,  the  time  of  harveft  in 
*'  Paleftine.  See  more  about  foxes  in  Burman's 
*'  works.-*  Not  to  mention  the  ridiculous  argu- 
ments of  this  writer  to  prove  Samfon  to  be  the 
fame  with  the  Theban  Hercules,  nor  the  childifh 
wanderings  from  that  fubjecl  ;  he  has  totally  over- 
looked the  chief  difficulties.  However  well  fixed 
the  fire-brands  might  be,  it  is  not  eafily  concei- 
vable, that  the  foxes,  who  would  naturally  fly  to 
their  lurking-holes,  could  much  injure  the  corn, 
or  the  olive-trees.  And  it  is  as  little  conceivable, 
what  fhould  have  moved  Samfon  to  employ  foxes, 
when,  by  our  author's  fuppofition,  he  had  men  at 
command,  much  better  qualified  than  foxes  for 
pommitting  wafle.  This  author  would  have  faved 
himfelf  much  idle  labour,  had  he  embraced  a  very 

*,   14  ..-•:.  '  J 

probabjc 


SK.  4.  §  2.]  ARTS*  255 

\ 

probable  opinion,  that,  if  the  tranilation  be  not  er- 
roneous, the  original  text  muft  be  corrupted.  But 
enough,  and  more  than  enough,  of  thefe  writers. 
Maturity  of  tafte  has  banifhed  fuch  abfurdities  ; 
and  at  prefent,  happily,  books  are  lefs  bulky,  and 
more  to  the  pnrpofe  than  formerly. 

It  is  obferved  above  *,  that  in  a  country  thinly 
peopled,  where  the  fame  perfon  muft  for  bread 
undertake  different  employments,  the  people  are 
knowing  and  con  verf  able  ;  but  ftupid  and  igno- 
rant in  a  populous  country  where  induftry  and 
manufactures  abound.  That  obfervation  holds  not 
with  refpecl  to  the  fine  arts.  It  requires  fo  much 
genius  to  copy  even  a  lingle  figure,  whether  in 
painting  or  in  fculpture,  as  to  prevent  the  opera- 
tor from  degenerating  into  a  brute.  The  great 
exertion  of  genius,  as  well  as  of  invention,  requi- 
red in  grouping  figures,  and  in  imitating  human 
actions,  tends  to  invigorate  thefe  faculties,  with  re- 
fpecl  to  every  fubject,  and  of  courfe  to  form  a  man 
of  parts. 


SKETCH 


f  Firlt  fetfion  of  the  prefent  Sketch. 


i. 


256  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 


SKETCH  V. 

MANNERS. 

*  * 

SOME  perfons  have  a  peculiar  air,  a  peculiar 
manner  of  fpeaking  or  of  acting,  which,  in 
oppofition  to  the  manners  of  the  generality,  are 
termed  their  manners.  Such  peculiarities  in  a 
whole  nation,  by  which  it  differs  from  other  na- 
tions or  from  itfelf  at  different  periods,  are  termed 
the  manners  of  that  nation.  Manners  therefore 
lignify  a  mode  of  behaviour  peculiar  to  a  certain 
perfon,  or  to.  a  certain  nation.  The  term  is  not 
applied  to  mankind  in  general ;  except  perhaps  in 
contradiftinction  to  other  beings. 

Manners  are  diftinguifhed  from  morals ;  but  in 
what  refpedt  has  not  been  clearly  ftated.     Do  not 

}  i 

the  fame  actions  come  under  both ;  Certainly  ; 
but  in  different  refpects ;  an  action  confidered  as 
right  or  wrong,  belongs  to  morals ;  confidered  as 
peculiar  to  a  perfon  or  to  a  people,  it  belongs  to 
manners. 

The  intention  of  the  prefent  fketch  is,  to  trace 
out  fuch  manners  only  as  appear  to  proceed  imme- 
diately 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  257 

diately  from  the  nature  and  character  of  a  people, 
whether  influenced  by  the  form  of  government,  or 
depending  on  the  degree  of  civilization.  I  am  far 
from  regretting,  that  manners  produced  by  cli- 
mate, by  foil,  and  by  other  permanent  caufes,  fall 
not  under  my  plan :  I  Ihould  indeed  make  a  forry 
figure  upon  a  fubjecl:  that  has  been  acutely  dif- 
cufled  by  the  greateft  genius  of  the  prefent  age  *. 

I  begin  with  external  appearance,  being  the  firil 
thing  that  draws  attention.  The  human  coun- 
tenance and  geilures  have  a  greater  variety  of  ex- 
preflions  than  thofe  of  any  other  animal :  and  fome 
perfons  differ  widely  from  the  generality  in  thefe 
exprefiions,  fo  as  to  be  known  by  their  manner  of 
walking,  or  even  by  fo  flight  an  action  as  that  of 
putting  on  or  taking  off  a  hat :  fome  men  are 
known  even  by  the4bund  of  their  feet  in  walking. 
Whole  nations  are  diftinguifhable  by  fuch  pecu- 
liarities.. And  yet  there  is  lefs  variety  in  looks  and 
geflures,  than  the  different  tones  of  mind  would 
produce,  were  men  left  to  the  impulfes  of  pure 
nature  :  man,  an  imitative  animal,  is  prone  to  copy 
others ;  and  by  imitation,  external  behaviour  is 
nearly  uniform  among  thofe  who  ftudy  to  be  agree- 
able ;  witnefs  people  of  fafhion  in  France.  I  reft 
upon  thefe  outlines :  to  enter  fully  into  the  fub- 
jedt  would  be  an  endlefs  work  ;  difproportioned  at 
any  rate  to  the  narrownefs  of  my  plan. 

Q^4  Drefs 

*  Montefquieu. 


258  MEN  INDEPENDENT  tiF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I, 

Drefs  muft  not  be  omitted,  becaufe  it  enters  alfo 
into  external  appearance.  Providence  hath  clo- 
thed all  animals  that  are  unable  to  clothe  them- 
felves.  Man  can  clothe  himfelf;  and  he  is  en- 
dowed befide  with  an  appetite  for  drefs,  no  lefs 
natural  than  an  appetite  for  food.  That  appetite 
is  proportioned  in  degree  to  its  ufe  :  in  cold  cli- 
mates it  is  vigorous  ;  in  hot  climates,  faint.  Sa- 
vages muft  go  naked  till  they  learn  to  cover  them- 
felves ;  and  they  foon  learn  where  covering  is  ne- 
ceflary.  The  Patagonians,  who  go  naked  in  a  bit- 
ter-cold climate,  muft  be  wofully  ftupid.  And 
the  Picts,  a  Scotch  tribe,  who,  it  is  faid,  continued 
naked  down  to  the  time  of  Severus,  did  not  pro- 
bably much  furpafs  the  Patagonians  in  the  talent 
of  invention. 

Modefty  is  another  caufe  for  clothing  :  few  fa- 
vages  expofe  the  whole  of  the  body.  It  gives  no 
high  idea  of  Grecian  modefty,  that  at  the  Olym- 
pic games  people  wreftled  and  run  races  ftark  na- 
ked. 

There  is  a  third  caufe  for  clothing,  which  is, 
tfie  pleafure  it  affords.  A  fine  woman,  feen  naked 
once  in  her  life,  is  made  a  defirable  object  by  no- 
velty. But  let  her  go  naked  for  a  month,  how 
much  more  charming  will  me  appear,  when  dref- 
fed  with  propriety  and  elegance  !  Clothing  is  fo 
effential  to  health,  that  to  be  lefs  agreeable  than 
nakednefs  would  argue  an  incongruity  in  our 
nature.  Savages  probably  at  firft  thought  of  clo- 
thing 


SK.  5«]  MANNERS.  259 

thing  as  a  prote&ion  only  againft  the  weather  ;  but 
they  foon  difcovered  a  beauty  in  drefs  :  men  led 
the  way,  and  women  followed.  Such  favages  as 
go  naked  paint  their  bodies,  excited  by  the  fame 
fondnefs  for  ornament  that  our  women  Ihew  in 
their  party-coloured  garments.  Among  the  Jews, 
the  men  wore  ear-rings  as  well  as  the  women  *. 
When  Media  was  governed  by  its  own  kings,  the 
men  were  fumptuous  in  drefs:  they  wore  loofe 
robes,  floating  in  the  air  ;  had  long  hair  covered 
with  a  rich  bonnet,  bracelets,  chains  of  gold,  and 
precious  ftones :  they  painted  their  faces,  and  mix- 
ed artificial  hair  with  that  of  nature.  As  authors 
are  filent  about  the  women,  they  probably  made 
no  figure  in  that  kingdom,  being  ihut  up,  as  at 
prefent,  in  feraglios.  In  the  days  of  Socrates, 
married  women  in  Greece  were  confined  to  be 
houfehold  drudges  merely.  Xenophon  in  his  Me- 
morabilia Socratis,  introduces  Ifomachus,  an  Athe- 
.nian  of  great  riches  and  reputation,  difcourfing 
to  Socrates  of  his  family  affairs,  "  that  he  told  his 
"  wife  that  his  main  objedfc  in  marrying  her  was  to 
*'  have  a  perfon  in  whofe  difcretion  he  could  con- 
"  fide,  who  would  take  proper  care  of  his  fervants, 
"  and  lay  out  his  money  with  economy ;''  thajt 
one  day  he  obferved  her  face  painted,  and  with 
high-heeled  fhoes  ;  that  he  chid  her  feverely  for 
fuch  follies,  "  could  fhe  imagine  to  pafs  fuch  filly 
*'  tricks  on  a  hulband  ?  If  fhe  wanted  to  have  at 

/ 

"  better 

*  JExod.  xxxii.  2.. 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  X. 

"  better  complexion,  why  not  weave  at  her  loom 
"  Handing  upright,   why  not   employ  herfelf  in 
"  baking  and  other  family  exercifes,  which  would 
"  give  her  fuch  a  bloom  as  no  paint  could  imi- 
"  tate  ?'      But  when  the  Athenian  manners  came 
to  be  more  polifhed,  greater  indulgence  was  given 
to  the  ladies  in  drefs  and  ornament.     They  con- 
fumed  the  whole  morning  at  the  toilette  ;  employ- 
ing paint,  and  every  drug  for  cleaning  and  whiten- 
ing the  fkin  :  they  laid  red  even  upon  their  lips, 
and  took  great  care  of  their  teeth  ;    their  hair, 
made  up  in  buckles  with  a  hot  iron,  was  perfu- 
med and  fpread  upon  the  fhoulders  :  their  drefs 
was  elegant,  and  artfully  contrived  to  fet  off  a  fine 
fhape.     Such  is  the  influence  of  appetite  for  drefs  : 
vanity  could  not  be  the  fole  motive,  as  married 
ladies  were  never  feen  in  public  *.    We  learn  from 
St  Gregory,  that  women  in  his  time  dreffed  the 
head  extremely  high,    environing  it  with  many 
treffes  of  falfe  hair,  difpofed  in  knots  and  buc- 
kles, fo  as  to  refemble  a  regular  fortification.     Jo- 
fephus  reports,    that  the    Jewifh  ladies  powder- 
ed  their    hair   with   gold   duftj    a   fafhion  that 
was  carried  from  Afia  to  Rome.     The  firft  wri- 
ter who    mentions   white  powder  for    the    hair, 
the  fame  we  ufe  at  prefent,  is  L'Etoile,  in  his 

journal 

*  Young  women  in  Athens  appeared  frequently  in  public, 
but  always  by  themfelves.  In  feftivals,  facrifices,  &c.  they 
/made  part  of  the  {how.  crowned  with  flowers,  chanting  hymn? 
and  dancing  in  knots. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  26t 

journal  for  the  year  1593.  He  relates,  that  nuns 
walked  the  flreets  of  Paris  curled  and  powdered. 
That  fafhion  fpread  by  degrees  through  Europe. 
For  many  years  after  the  civil  wars  in  France,  it 
was  a  fafhion  in  Paris  to  wear  boots  and  fpurs,  with 
a  long  fword  :  a  gentleman  was  not  in  full  drefs 
without  thefe  accoutrements.  The  fword  con- 
tinues an  article  of  drefs,  though  it  diftinguifhes 
not  a  gentleman  from  his  valet.  To  mow  that  a 
tafte  for  drefs  and  ornament  is  deeply  rooted  in 
human  nature,  favages  difplay  that  tafte  upon  the 
body,  having  no  covering  to  difplay  it  upon.  Sel- 
dom is  a  child  of  a  favage  left  to  nature  :  it  is  de- 
prived of  a  tefticle,  a  finger,  a  tooth  ;  or  its  fkin 
is  engraved  with  figures. 

Clothing  hath  no  flight  influence,  even  with  re- 
fpecl  to  morals.  I  venture  to  affirm,  at  the  hazard 
of  being  thought  paradoxical,  that  nakednefs  is 
more  friendly  to  chaflity  than  covering.  Adultery 
is  unknown  among  favages,  even  in  hot  climates 
where  they  have  icarce  any  covering.  Drefs  gives 
play  to  the  imagination,  which  pictures  to  itftflf 
many  fecret  beauties  which  vanifh  when  rendered 
familiar  by  fight:  if  a  lady  accidentally  difcover 
half  a  leg,  imagination  is  inftantly  inflamed ; 
though  an  adrefs  appearing  in  breeches  is  beheld 
with  indifference  :  a  naked  Venus  makes  not  fuch 
an  impreflion  as  when  a  garter  only  is  difcovered. 

Cleannefs  is  an  article  in  external  appearance. 
Whether  cleanlinefs  be  inherent  in  the  nature  of 

man. 


262  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

man,  or  only  a  refinement  of  polifhed  nations,  may 
at  firft  appear  doubtful.  What  pleads  for  the 
former  is,  that  cleannefs  is  remarkable  in  feveral 
nations  which  have  made  little  progrefs  in  the  arts 
of  life.  The  favagesof  the  Caribbee  iilands,  once 
a  numerous  tribe,  were  remarked  by  writers  as 
neat  and  cleanly.  In  the  iiland  Otaheite,  or  King 
George's  ifland,  both  fexes  are  cleanly  :  they  bathe 
frequently,  never  eat  nor  drink  without  wafhing 
before  and  after,  and  their  garments,  as  well  as 
their  perfons,  are  kept  free  of  fpot  or  blemifh. 
Ammianus  Marcellinus,  defcribing  the  Gauls,  fays, 
that  they  were  cleanly ;  and  that  even  the  pooreft 
women  were  never  feen  with  dirty  garments.  The 
Negroes,  particularly  thofe  of  Ardrah  in  the  Have- 
coaft,  have  a  fcrupulous  regard  to  cleannefs.  They 
warn,  morning  and  evening,  and  perfume  them- 
felves  jvith  aromatic  herbs.  In  the  city  of  Benin, 
women  are  employed  to  keep  the  ftreets  clean  ^ 
and  in  that  refpecl  they  are  not  undone  by  the 
Dutch.  In  Corea,  people  mourn  three  years  for 
the  death  of  their  parents  ;  during  which  time 
they  never  warn.  Dirtinefs  muft  appear  difmal 
to  that  people,  as  to  us*.  But  inftances  are  no 
lefs  numerous  that  favour  the  other  fide  of  the, 
queftion.  Ammianus  Marcellinus  reports  of  the 

Huns, 

*  Many  animals  are  remarkable  for  cleannefs.  Beavers  are 
fo,  and  fo  are  cats.  This  muft  be  natural.  Though  a  tafte 
for  cleannefs  is  not  remarkable  in  dogs,  yet,  like  men,  they 
learn  to  be  cleanly. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  263 

Huns,  that  they  wore  a  coat  till  it  fell  to  pieces 
with  dirt  and  rottennefs.  Plan  Carpin,  who 
vilited  the  Tartars  anno  1246,  fays,  "  That  they 
"  never  wafh  face  nor  hands ;  that  they  never 
"  clean  a  dim,  a  pot,  nor  a  garment ;  that,  like 
"  fwine,  they  make  food  of  every  thing,  not 
"  excepting  the  vermin  that  crawl  on  them.' 
The  prefent  people  of  Kamlkatka  anfwer  to  that 
defcription  in  every  article.  The  naflinefs  of 
North-American  favages,  in  their  food,  in  their 
cabins,  and  in  their  garments,  pafles  all  conception. 
As  they  never  change  their  garments  till  they  fall 
to  rags,  nor  ever  think  of  wafhing  them,  they  arc 
eat  up  with  vermin.  The  Efquimaux,  and  many 
other  tribes,  are  equally  nafty. 

As  cleannefs  requires  attention  and  induftry,  the 
cleannefs  of  fome  favages  muft  be  the  work  of  na- 
ture, and  the  dirtinefs  of  others  muft  proceed  from 
indolence  counteracting  nature.  In  fact,  clean- 
nefs is  agreeable  to  all,  and  naftinefs  difagreeable  : 
no  perfon  prefers  dirt ;  and  even  thofe  who  are  the 
moft  accuftomed  to  it  are  pleafed  with  a  cleanly 
appearance  in  others.  It  is  true,  that  a  tafte  for 
cleannefs,  like  that  for  order,  for  fymmetry,  for 
congruity,  is  extremely  faint  during  its  infancy 
among  favages.  Its  ftrongeft  antagonift  is  indo- 
lence, which  favages  indulge  to  excefs  :  the  great 
fatigue  they  undergo  in  hunting,  makes  them  fond 
of  eafe  at  home  ;  and  dirtinefs,  when  once  habi- 
tual, is  not  ealily  conquered.  But  cleannefs  im- 
proves 


264  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  1. 

proves  gradually  with  manners,  and  makes  a  figure 
•in  every  induftrious  nation.  Nor  is  a  tafte  for 
cleannefs  beftowed  on  man  in  vain :  its  final  caufe 
is  confpicuous,  cleannefs  being  extremely  whole- 
fome,  and  naftinefs  no  lefs  unwholefome*. 

Thus 

*  The  plague,  peftilential  fevers,  and  other  putrid  difeafes, 
were  more  frequent  in  Europe  formerly  than  at  prefent,  efpe- 
cially  in  great  cities,  where  multitudes  were  crowded  together 
in  fmall  houfes,  feparated  by  narrow  ftreets.  Paris,  in  the 
days  of  Henry  IV.  occupied  not  the  third  part  of  its  prefent 
fpace,  and  yet  contained  nearly  the  fame  number  of  inhabi- 
tants ;  and  in  London  the  houfes  are  much  larger,  and  the 
ftreets  wider  than  before  the  great  fire  1666.  There  is  alio 
a  remarkable  alteration  in  point  of  diet.  Formerly,  people  of 
rank  lived  on  fait  meat  the  greater  part  of  the  year :  at  pre- 
fent, frefh  meat  is  common  all  the  year  round.  Pot-herbs 
and  roots  are  now  a  confiderable  article  of  food  :  about  Lon- 
don, in  particular,  the  confumption  at  the  Revolution  was 
not  the  fixth  part  of  what  it  is  now.  Add  the  great  con- 
fumption of  tea  and  fugar,  which  I  am  told  by  phyficians  to 
be  no  inconfiderable  antifeptics.  But  the  chief  caufe  of  all  is 
cleannefs,  which  is  growing  more  and  more  general,  efpeci-, 
ally  in  the  city  of  London.  In  Conftantinople,  putrid  difeafes 
reign  as  much  as  ever  ;  not  from  unhealthinefs  in  the  climate, 
but  from  the  narrownefs  and  naftinefs  of  the  ftreets.  How  it 
comes  that  Turkifh  camps  differ  fo  much  from  the  metropo- 
lis, I  cannot  fay.  Bufbequius  vifited  a  Turkifh  camp  in  the 
days  of  Solyman  the  Magnificent.  The  ordure  was  carefully 
buried  under  ground  ;  not  any  noifome  fmell ;  in  every  cor- 
ner it  was  clean  and  neat.  The  excrements,  which  appear 
every  where  in  our  camps  when  ftationary,  create  a  fort  of 
plague  among  the  men.  Captain  Cook  lately  made  a  voyage 

round 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  26$ 

Thus  it  appears,  that  a  tafte  for  cleannefs  is  in- 
herent in  our  nature.  I  fay  more  :  cleannefs  is 
evidently  a  branch  of  propriety,  and  confequently 
a  felf-duty.  The  performance  is  rewarded  with 
approbation  ;  and  the  negledl  is  punifhed  with  con- 
tempt #. 

A  tafte  for  cleannefs  is  not  equally  diftributcd 
among  all  men  ;  nor  indeed  is  any  branch  of  the 
moral  fenfe  equally  diftributed :  and  if,  by  nature, 
one  perfon  be  more  cleanly  than  another,  a  whole 
nation  may  be  fo.  I  judge  that  to  be  the  cafe  of 
the  Japanefe,  fo  finically  clean  as  to  find  fault  even 
with  the  Dutch  for  dirtinefs.  Their  inns  are  not 
an  exception  ;  nor  their  little  houfes,  in  which  wa- 
ter is  always  at  hand  for  warning  after  the  opera- 
tion. I  judged  it  alfo  to  be  the  cafe  of  the  Eng- 
lifh,  who,  high  and  low,  rich  and  poor,  are  re- 
markable for  cleannefs  all  the  world  over  ;  and  I 
have  often  amufed  myfelf  with  fo  fingular  a  re- 
femblance  between  iilanders,  removed  at  the  great- 
eft  diftance  from  each  other.  But  I  was  forced  to 
abandon  the  refemblance,  upon  a  difcovery  that 

the 

round  the  world,  and  loft  but  a  Angle  man  by  difeafe,  who  at 
the  fame  time  was  fickly  when  he  entered  the  fhip.  One 
main  article  that  preferred  the  health  of  the  crew,  was  clean- 
nefs The  Captain  regularly  one  morning  every  week,  re- 
viewed his  iliip's  company,  to  fee  that  every  one  of  them  had 
clean  linen  ;  and  he  beftowed  the  fame  care  with  refpedl  to 
their  clothes  and  bedding. 

t  Elements  of  Criticifm,  chap.  x. 


266  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.          [B.  I. 

the  Englifti  have  not  always  been  fo  clean  as  at 
prefent.  Many  centuries  ago,  as  recorded  in  Monk- 
ifh  hiftory,  one  caufe  of  the  averfion  the  Englifh 
had  to  the  Danes  was  their  cleannefs  :  they  comb- 
ed their  hair,  and  put  on  a  clean  fhirt  once  a-week. 
It  was  reputed  an  extraordinary  effort  in  Thomas 
a  Becket,  that  he  had  his  parlour  ftrewed  every  day 
with  clean  ftraw.     The  celebrated  Erafmus,  who 
vilited  England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII,  com- 
plains of  the  naftinefs  and  flovenly  habits  of  its 
people ;  afcribing  to  that  caufe  the  frequent  plagues 
which  infefted  them.     "  Their  floors,"   fays  he, 
"  are  commonly  of  clay  ftrewed  with  rufhes,  im- 
41  der  which  lies  unmolefted  a  collection  of  beer, 
*'  greafe,  fragments,  bones,  fpittle,  excrements  of 
"  dogs  and  cats,  and  of  every  thing  that  is  nau- 
"  feous  #."     And  the  ftrewing  a  floor  with  draw 
or.  ruihes  was  common  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  time, 
not   excepting   even   her   prefence-cbamber.      A 
change  fo  extraordinary  in  the  tafte  and  manners 
of  the  Englifh,  roufes  our  curiolity  \  and  J  fatter 
myfelf  that  the  following  caufe  will  be  fatisfactory. 
A  favage,  remarkably  indolent  at  home,  though 
not  infenfible  of  his  dirtinefs,  cannot  roufe  up  ac- 
tivity fufficient  to  attempt  a  ferious  purgation  ;  and 
would  be  at  a  lofs  where  tQ  begin.     The  induf- 
trious,  on  the  contrary,  are  improved  in  neatnefs 
and   propriety,   by  the  art   or   manufacture  that 
conftantly  employs  them  :  they  are  never  reduced 

to 

.  432. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  267 

to  purge  the  liable  of  Augeas ;  for  being  prone  to 
adtion,  they  fuffer  not  dirt  to  reft  unmolefted.  In- 
duftrious  nations,  accordingly,  all  the  world  over, 
are  the  moft  cleanly.  Arts  and  induftry  had  long 
flourifhed  in  Holland,  where  Erafmus  was  born 
and  educated  :  the  people  were  clean  above  all 
their  neighbours,  becaufe  they  were  induftrious 
above  all  their  neighbours  ;  and,  upon  that  ac- 
count, the  dirtinefs  of  England  could  not  fail  to 
ftrike  a  Hollander.  At  the  period  mentioned,  in- 
duftry was  as  great  a  ftranger  to  England  as  clean- 
nefs :  from  which  conlideration,  may  it  not  fairly 
be  inferred,  that  the  Englifh  are  indebted  for  their 
cleanlinefs  to  the  great  progrefs  of  induftry  among 
them  in  later  times  ?  If  this  inference  hold,  it 
places  induftry  in  an  amiable  light.  The  Spa- 
niards, who  are  indolent  to  a  degree,  are  to  this 
day  as  dirty  as  the  Englifh  were  three  centuries 
ago.  Madrid,  their  capital,  is  naufeouily  nafty  : 
heaps  of  unmolefted  dirt  in  every  ftreet,  raife  in 
that  warm  climate  a  peftiferous  fleam,  which 
threatens  to  knock  down  every  ftranger.  A  pur- 
gation was  lately  fet  on  foot  by  royal  authority. 
But  people  habituated  to  dirt  are  not  eafily  reclaim- 
ed :  to  promote  induftry  is  the  only  effectual  re- 
medy *.  The  naftinefs  of  the  ftreets  of  Lifbon  be- 
fore 

*  Till  the  year  1760  there  was  not  a  privy  in  Madrid, 
though  it  is  plentifully  fupplied  with  water.  The  ordure, 
during  night,  was  thrown  from  the  windows  into  the  ftreet, 

where 

VOL.  I.  R 


268  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

fore  the  late  earthquake,  was  intolerable  ;  and  fo 
is  at  prefent  the  naftinefs  of  the  ftreets  of  Cadiz. 

Though  induftry  be  the  chief  promoter  of  clean- 
nefs,  yet  it  is  feldom  left  to  operate  alone  ;  other 
caufes  mix,  fome  to  accelerate  the  progrefs,  fome 
to  retard  it.  The  moifture  of  the  Dutch  climate 
has  a  confiderable  influence  in  promoting  cleanli- 
nefs  ;  and,  joined  with  induftry,  produces  a  fur- 
prifing  neatnefs  and  cleannefs  among  people  of  bu- 
finefs :  men  of  figure  and  famion,  who  generally 
refort  to  the  Hague,  the  feat  of  government,  are 
<  not  fo  cleanly.  On  the  other  hand,  the  French  are 
lefs  cleanly  than  the  Englifh,  though  not  lefs  in- 
duftrious.  But  the  lower  claffes  of  people  being 
in  England  more  at  their  eafe  than  in  France,  have 
a  greater  tafte  for  living  well,  and  in  particular  for 

keeping  themfelves  clean  *. 

A 

where  it  was  gathered  into  heaps.  By  a  royal  proclamation, 
privies  were  ordered  to  be  built.  The  inhabitants,  though 
long  accuftomed  to  an  arbitrary  government,  refented  this 
proclamation  as  an  infringement  of  the  common  rights  of 
mankincl ,  and  ftruggled  vigoroufly  againft  it.  The  phyfi" 
cians  were  the  moft  violent  oppofers  -.  they  remonftrated,  that 
if  the  filth  was  not  thrown  into  the  ftreets,  a  fatal  ficknefs 
would  enfue  ;  becaufe  the  putrefcent  particles  of  air,  which 
the  filth  attra&ed,  would  be  imbibed  by  the  human  body. 

*  In  a  country  thinly  peopled,  cleannefs  feldom  prevails. 
The  incitement  is  wanting  of  appearing  agreeable  to  others, 
and  the  natural  inclination  for  cieannefs  yields  to  indolence. 
In  the  high  country  between  Derby  and  Matlock,  thinly 
peopled,  the  inhabitants  are  as  dirty  as  in  the  wildeft  parts  of 
Scptland. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS,  269 

A  beard  gives  to  the  countenance  a  rough  and 
fierce  air,  fuited  to  the  manners  of  a  rough  and 
fierce  people.  The  fame  face  without  a  beard  ap- 
pears milder ;  for  which  reafon,  a  beard  becomes 
unfafhionable  in  a  poliihed  nation.  Demolthenes, 
the  orator,  lived  in  the  fame  period  with  Alexan- 
der the  Great,  at  which  time  the  Greeks  began  to 
leave  off  beards.  A  buft,  however,  of  that  orator, 
found  in  Herculaneum,  has  a  beard,  which  muft 
either  have  been  done  for  him  when  he  was  young, 
or  from  reluctance  in  an  old  man  to  a  new  famion. 
Barbers  were  brought  to  Rome  from  Sicily  the 
454th  year  after  the  building  of  Rome.  And  it 
muft  relate  to  a  time  after  that  period  what  Aulus 
Gellius  fays*,  that  people  accufed  of  any  crime, 
were  prohibited  to  fhave  their  beards  till  they 
were  abfolved.  From  Hadrian  downward,  the 
Roman  Emperors  wore  beards.  Julius  Capitolinus 
reproaches  the  Emperor  Verus  for  cutting  his  beard 
at  the  inftigation  of  a  concubine.  All  the  Roman 
generals  wore  beards  in  Juftinian's  timef.  The 
Pope  fhaved  his  beard,  which  was  held  a  mariifeft 
apoftafy  by  the  Greek  church,  becaufe  Mofes,  Je- 
fus  Chrift,  and  even  God  the  Father,  were  always 
drawn  with  beards  by  the  Greek  and  Latin  paint- 
ers. Upon  the  dawn  of  fmooth  manners  in  France, 
the  beaus  cut  the  beard  into  mapes,  and  curled  the 
whiikers.  That  famion  produced  a  whimlical  ef- 

R  2 
*  Lib.  Hi.  cap.  4. 

Procopii  Hifloria  Vandalica,  lib.  ii. 


270  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.          [B.  1. 

fed  :  men  of  gravity  left  off  beards  altogether.  A 
beard  in  its  natural  fhape,  was  too  fierce  even  for 
them  ;  and  they  could  not  for  fhame  copy  after  the 
beans.  This'accounts  for  a  regulation,  anno  1534, 
of  the  Univerfity  of  Paris,  forbidding  the  profeffors 
to  wear  a 'beard. 

Language,  when  brought  to  any  perfection  among 

r          • 

a  polifhed  people,  may  juftly  be  confidered  as  one 
of  the  fine  arts;  and,  in  that  view,  is  handled 
above.  But,  confidered  as  a  branch  of  external  be- 
haviour, it  belongs  to  the  prefent  fketch.  Every 
part  of  external  behaviour  is  influenced  by  temper 
and  difpofition,  and  fpeech  more  than  any  other 
part.  In  Elements  of  Criticifm  *  it  is  obferved, 
that  an  emotion  in  many  inftances  bears  a  refem- 
blance to  its  caufe.  The  like  holds  univerfally  in 
all  the  natural  founds  prompted  by  paffion.  Let  a 
paffion  be  bold,  rough,  cheerful,  tender,  or  humble, 
ftili  it  holds,  that  the  natural  founds  prompted  by 
it,  are  in  the  fame  tone  :  and  hence  the  reafon  why 
thefe  founds  are  the  fame  in  all  languages.  Some 
flight  refemblance  of  the  fame  kind  is  difcoverable 
in  many  artificial  founds.  The  language  of  a  fa- 
vage  is'  harfh ;  of  polite  people  fmooth  ;  and  of 

women,  foft  and  mufical.      The  tongues  of  favage 

• 

nations  abound  in  gutturals,  or  in  nafals  :  yet  one 
would  imagine  that  fuch  words,  being  pronounced 
with  difficulty,  mould  be  avoided  by  favages,  as 
they  are  by  children.  But  temper  prevails,  and 
fuggeils  to  favages  harfh  founds,  conformable  to 

their 

*  Chap.  ii.  part  6. 


SK..5-J  MANNERS.  271 

their  roughnefs.  The  Efquimaux  have  a  language 
compofed  of  the  harfheft  gutturals  ;  and  the  lan- 
guages of  the  northern  European  nations  are  not 
remarkably  fmoother.  The  Scotch  peafants  are  a 
frank  and  plain  people  ;  and  their  dialed:  is  in  the? 
tone  of  their  character.  The  Huron  tongue  hath 
flatelinefs  and  energy  above  mod  known  languages, 
which  is  more  conformable  to  the  elevation  of  their 
fentiments,  than  to  their  prefent  low  condition. 
Thus  the  manners  of  a  people  may,  in  fome  meafure, 
be  gathered  from  their  language.  Nay,  manners 
may  frequently  be  gathered  from  fingle  words.  The 
Hebrew  word  LECHOM  fignifies  both  food  and^/.tf- 
ing  ;  and  TEREPH  fignifies  both  food  and  plunder. 
KARAB  fignifies  to  draw  near  to  one,  and  fignifies  allb 
to  fight.  The  Greek  word  LEIA,  which  figniried  ori- 
gmallyjpoil  procured  by  war  or  piracy,  came  to  fig- 
nify  wealth.  And  the  great  variety  of  Greek  words 
fignifying^  otfd  and  better,  fignified  originally^ro^ 
and  violent. 

Government,  according  to  its  different  kinds, 
hath  confiderable  influence  in  forming  the  tone  of 
a  language.  Language  in  a  democracy  is  com- 
monly rough  and  coarfe  ;  in. an  ariflocracy,  manly 
and  plain  ;  in  a  monarchy,  courteous. and  infinuat- 
iflg;  in  defpotifm,  imperious  with  refpeft  to  infe- 
riors, and  humble  with  refpecl  to  fuperiors.  The 
government  of  the  Greek  empire  is  well  reprefent- 
ed  in  Juflinian's  edicts,  termed  Novella  Conftitu- 
tiones  ;  the  ftyle  of  which  is  ftiff,  formal,  and  af- 

R  3  fededly 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIEtY.  [B.  t. 

/ 

fe&edly  {lately,  but  deftitute  of  order,  of  force, 
and  of  ligament.  About  three  centuries  ago, 
Tufcany  was  filled  with  fmali  republics,  whofe 
dialed:  was  manly  and  plain.  Its  rough  tones 
were  purged  oft*  by  their  union  under  the  Great 
Duke  of  Tufcany  ;  and  the  Tufcan  dialed:  has  ar- 
rived nearer  to  perfection  than  any  other  in  Italy. 
The  tone  of  the  French  language  is  well  fuited  to 
the  nature  of  its  government :  every  man  is  polite- 
ly fubmiflive  to  thofe  above  him  ;  and  this  tone 
forms  the  character  of  the  language  in  general,  fo  as 
even  to  regulate  the  tone  of  the  few  who  have  occa- 
lion  to  fpeak  with  authority.  The  freedom  of  the 
Englifh  government  forms  the  manners  of  the  peo- 
ple :  the  Englifh  language  is  accordingly  more 
manly  and  nervous  than  the  French,  and  abounds 
more  with  rough  founds.  The  Lacedemonians  of 
old,  a  proud  and  auftere  people,  affected  to  talk 
with  brevity,  in  the  tone  of  command  more  than 
of  advice  ;  and  hence  the  Laconic  ftyle,  dry  but 
mafculine.  The  Attic  ftyle  is  more  difficult  to  be 
accounted  for :  it  is  fweet  and  copious,  and  had  a 
remarkable  delicacy  above  the  ftyle  of  any  other 
nation.  And  yet  the  democracy  of  Athens  produ- 
ced rough  manners  ;  withefs  the  comedies  of  Arif- 
tophanes,  and  the  orations  of  Efchines  and  Demoft- 
henes.  We  are  not  fo  intimately  acquainted  with 
the  Athenians,  as  to  account  for  the  difference  be- 
tween their  language  and  their  manners.  We  are 
equally  at  a  lofs  about  the  Ruffian  tongue,  which, 

-notwithftanding  • 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  273 

notwithftanding  the  barbarity  of  the  people,  is 
fmooth  and  .timorous  :  and,  though  the  Malayans 
are  the  fierceft  people  in  the  univerfe,  their  lan- 
guage is  the  fofteil  of  all  that  are  fpoken  in  Afia. 
All  that  can  be  faid  is,  that  the  operation  of  a  ge- 
neral caufe  may  be  difturbed  by  particular  cir- 
cumftances.  Languages  refembie  tides  :  the  in- 
fluence of  the  moon,  which  is  the  general  caufe  of 
tides,  is  in  feveral  inftances  overbalanced  by  parti- 
cular caufes  adting  in  oppoiition. 

There  may  be  obferved  in  fome  favage  tribes  a 
certain  refinement  of  language  that  might  do  ho- 
nour to  a  poliihed  people.  The  Canadians  never 
give  a  man  his  proper  name,  in  fpeaking  to  him.  If 
he  be  a  relation,  he  is  addrefled  to  in  that  quality ; 
if  a  ftranger,  the  fpeaker  gives  him  fome  appella- 
tion that  marks  affection  ;  fuch  as  brother,  coulin, 
friend. 

In  early  times,  people  lived  in  a  very  iimple 
manner,  ignorant  of  fuch  habitual  wants  as  are 
commonly  termed  luxury.  Rebecca,  Rachel,  and 
and  the  daughters  of  Jethro,  tended  their  father's 
flocks :  they  were  really  fhepherdeiTes.  Young 
women  of  falhion  drew  water  from  the  well  with 
their  own  hands.  The  joiner  who  made  the  bridal 
bed  of  UlyiTes,  was  UlyfTes  himfelf  #.  The  Prin- 
cefs  Naulicaa  wafhes  the  family-clothes  ;  and  the 
Princes  her  brothers,  upon  her  return,  unyoke  the 
car,  and  carry  in  the  clothes  f.  Queens,  and  even, 

R  4  female 

*  -Odyffey,  book  23.  t  Book  6,  &  7. 


274  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.          [B.  I. 

female  deities,   are  employed  in  fpinning*.     Is  it 
.from  this  fafhion  that  young  women  in  England 
are  denominated  fplnjlers  ?    Telernachus  goes  to 
council  with  no  attendants  but  two  dogs : 

"  Soon  as  in  folernn  form  th*  aflembly  fat, 
"  From  his  high  dome  himfelf  defcends  in  ftate  ; 
"  Bright  in  his  hand  a  ponderous  jav'lin  (hin'd  ; 
"  Two  dogs,  a  faithful  guard,  attend  behind." 

Ody/eyt  book  2. 

Priam's  car  is  yoked  by  his  own  fons,  when  he  goes 
to  redeem  from  Achilles  the  body  of  his  fon  Hec- 
tor. Telernachus  yokes  his  own  carf.  Homer's 
heroes  kill  and  drefs  their  own  victuals  J.  Achilles 
entertaining  Priam,  flew  a  fnow-white  fheep  ;  and 
his  two  friends  flea'd  and  drefled  it.  Achilles  him- 
felf divided  the  roafted  meat  among  hisguefts§. 
The  ftory  of  Ruth  is  a  pleafing  inftance  of  iimpli- 
city  in  ancient  times  ;  and  her  laying  herfelf  down 
to  fleep  at  the  feet  of  Boaz,  a  no  lefs  pleafing  in- 
ftance of  innocence  in  thefe  times.  No  people  li- 
ved more  innocently  than  the  ancient  Germans, 
though  men  and  women  lived  together  without  re- 
ferve.  They  flept  promifcuoufly  round  the  walls 
of  their  houfes ;  and  yet  we  never  read  of  adultery 

among 
*  Book  10. 

f  OdyiTey,  book  15.  J  Odyffey,  book  19.  &  20. 

§  Pdpe,  judging  it  below  the  dignity  of  Achilles  to  act  the 
butcher,  fupprefles  that  article,  impofmg  the  talk  upon  his 
two  friends.  Pope  did  not  confider,  that  from  a  lively  pic- 
ture of  ancient  manners,  proceeds  one  of  the  capital  pleafures 
we  have  in  perufmg  Homer. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  275 

among  them.  The  Scotch  Highlanders  to  this  day 
live  in  the  fame  manner.  In  Sparta,  men  and  women 
lived  familiarly  together  :  public  baths  were  com- 
mon to  both  ;  and  in  certain  games,  they  danced 
and  combated  together  naked  as  when  born.  In  a 
later  period,  the  Spartan  dames  were  much  cor- 
rupted ;  occafioned,  as  authors  fay,  by  a  fhameful 
freedom  of  intercourfe  between  the  fexes.  But  re- 
mark, that  corruption  was  not  confined  to  the  fe- 
male fex,  men  having  degenerated  as  much  from 
their  original  manhood  as  women  from  their  ori- 
ginal chaftity  ;  and  I  have  no  difficulty  to  main- 
tain, that  gold  and  filver,  admitted  contrary  to  the 
° 

laws  of  Lycurgus,  were  what  corrupted  both  fexes. 
Opulence  could  not  fail  to  have  the  fame  efFedl 

there  that  it  has  every  where  :  which  is  to  excite 

w  • 

luxury  and  every  fpecies  of  fenfuality.  The  Spar-- 
tans accordingly,  renouncing  aufterity  of  manners, 
abandoned  themfelves  to  pleafure  :  the  mod  expen- 
iive  furniture,  the  fofteft  beds,  fuperb  tapeftry,  pre- 
cious vafes,  exquifite  wines,  delicious  viands,  were 

not  now  too  delicate  for  an  effeminate  Spartan,  once 

•*•          7 

illuftrious  for  every  manly  virtue.  Lycurgus  un- 
derftood  human  nature  better  than  the  writers  do 

who  carp  at  him.     It  was  his  intention,  to  make 
*  7 

his  countrymen  foldiers,  not  whining  lovers :  and 
he  juftly  thought,  that  familiar  intercourfe  be- 
tween the  fexes,  would  confine  their  appetites 

r  rr 

within  the  bounds  of  nature ;  an  ufeful  leflbn  to 
women  of  falhion  in  our  days,  who  expofe  their 

nakeariefs 


276  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

nakednefs  in  order  to  attract  and  enflame  lovers. 
What  juftifies  this  reafoning  is,  the  aicendant  that 
Spartan  dames  had  over  their  hufbands  while  the 
laws  of  Lycurgus  were  in  vigour :  they  in  effect 
ruled  the  ilate  as  well  as  their  own  families. 
Such  afcendant  cannot  be  obtained  n5r  preferved 
but  by  ftrict  virtue  :  a  women  of  looie  manners 
may  be  the  object  of  loofe  defire  ;  but  feldom  will 
fhe  gain  an  afcendant  over  any  man,  and  never 
over  her  hufband. 

Not  to  talk  of  gold,  lilver  was  fcarce  in  Eng- 
land during  the  reign  of  the  third  Edward.  Rents 
were  paid  in  kind  ;  and  what  money  they  had, 
was  locked  up  in  the  coffers  of  the  great  barons. 
Pieces  of  plate  were  bequeathed  even  by  kings  of 
JEngland,  fo  trifling  in  our  eflimation,  that  a  gen- 
tlemen of  a  moderate  fortune  would  be  afhamed 
to  mention  fuch  in  his  will. 

Next  of  action.  Man  is  naturally  prone  to  mo- 
tion ;  witnefs  children,  who  are  never  at  reft  but 
•when  afleep.  Where  reafon  governs,  a  man  reftrains 
that  reftlefs  difpofition,  and  never  acts  without  a 
motive.  Savages  have  few  motives  to  action  when 
the  belly  is  full ;  their  huts  require  little  work, 
and  their  covering  of  ikins  flill  lefs.  Hunting  and 
fifhing  employ  all  their  activity.  After  much  fa- 
tigue in  hunting,  reft  is  fweet ;  which  the  favage 
prolongs,  having  no  motive  to  action  till  the  time 
of  hunting  returns.  Savages  accordingly,  like 
dogs,  are  extremely  active  in  the  field,  and  ex- 
tremely 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS. 

tremely  indolent  at  home  *.  Savages  in  the  tor- 
rid zone  are  indolent  above  all  others  ;  they  go  na- 
ked ;  their  huts  coil  them  no  trouble  ;  and  vege- 
tables, that  grow  fpontaneouily,  are  their  only 
food.  The  Spaniards  who  firft  landed  in  Hifpa- 
niola,  were  furprifed'at  the  manners  of  the  inha- 
bitants. They  are  defcribed  as  lazy,  and  without 
ambition  ;  paffing  part  of  their  time  in  eating  and 
dancing,  and  the  reft  in  fleep  ;  having  no  great 
mare  of  memory,  and  ftill  lefs  of  underftanding. 
The  character  given  of  thefe  favages  belongs  to 
all,  efpecially  to  favages  in  hot  climates.  The  im- 
perfection of  their  memory  and  judgment  is  oc- 
caiioned  by  want  of  exercife.  The  fame  imper- 
fection was  remarkable  in  the  people  of  Paraguay, 

when 

/ 

*  "  Quoties  bella  non  ineunt,  non  multum  venatibus,  plus 
per  otium,  tranfigunt,  dediti  fomno,  ciboque.  Fortiflimus 
quifque  ac  bellicofiffimus  nihil  agens,  delegata  domus  et  pe- 
natium  et  agrorum  cura  fceminis  fenibusque,  et  infirmiffimo 
cuique  ex  familia,  ipfi  hebent  ;  mira  diverfitate  naturae,  cum 
iidem  homines  lie  ament  inertiam,  et  oderint  quietem."  Taci- 
tus ,  De  moribus  Germanorum^  cap.  15.—  -[V»  Englt/b  thus  :  '*  While 
*'  not  engaged  in  war,  they  do  not  often  fpend  their  time  in 
*'  hunting,  but  chiefly  in  indolence  minding  nothing  but 
*'  their  fleep  and  food.  The  braveft  and  moft  warlik-.  among 
"  them,  having  nothing  to  do,  pafs  the  time  in  a  fluggifli 
ftupidy  ,  committing  the  care  of  the  houfe,  the  family,  and  the 
culture  of  the  lands,  to  women,  old  men,  and  to  the  moft 
weakly.  Such  is  the  wonderful  diverfity  of  their  nature,  that 
**  they  are  at  once  the  mod  indolent  of  beings,  and  the  moil 
*'  impatient  of  reft."] 


" 


" 


278  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

when  under  Jefuit  government ;  of  which  after- 
ward *. 

We  now  take  under  confide  rat  ion,  the  progrefs 
of  fuch  manners  as  are  more  peculiarly  influenced 
by  internal  difpoiition  ;  preparing  the  reader  by  a 
general  view,  before  entering  into  particulars, 
Man  is  by  nature  a  timid  animal,  having  little 
ability  to  fecure  himfelf  againft  harm  :  but  he  be- 
comes bold  in  fociety,  and  gives  vent  to  paffion 
againft  his  enemies.  In  the  hunter-ftate,  the  daily 
practice  of  flaughtering  innocent  animals  for  food, 
hardens  men  in  cruelty :  more  favage  than  bears 
or  wolves,  they  are  cruel  even  to  their  own  kindf. 

The 

*  Book  2.  fketch  i. 

f  Though  it  is  beyond  the  reach  of  conception,  that  blood, 
fiefh,  fibres,  or  bones,  can  be  ^fubjlratum  for  thought,  for  will, 
for  paffion,  or  for  any  mental  quality ;  yet  certain  philofo- 
phers  boldly  undertake  to  derive  even  the  nobleft  principles 
from  external  circumftances  relative  to  the  body  only.  Thus, 
courage  and  cowardice  are  held  to  depend  on  the  climate  by 
the  celebrated  Montefquieu  and  feveral  others.  Sir  William1 
Temple  afcribes  thefe  qualities  to  food,  maintaining,  that  no- 
animal  which  lives  on  vegetables  is  endowed  with  courage', 
the  horfe  and  cock  alone  excepted.  I  relifh  not  doftrines 
that  tend  to  degrade  the  moft  refined  mental  principles  into' 
bodily  properties.  With  refpect  to  the  point  under  confide- 
ration,  a  very  acute  philofopher,  taking  a  hint  from  Sir  Wil- 
liam Temple,  derives  from  the  difference  of  food  the  mental 
qualities  of  cruelty  and  humanity,  (a)  "  Certain  it  is,  (fays 
"  that  author),  that  the  people  who  fubfift  moftly  on  animal 

"food* 

(«)  Era  lie,  liv.  r. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  279 

The  calm  and  fedentary  life  of  a  fhepherd,  tends 
to  foften  the  harfli  manners  of  hunters ;  and  agri- 
culture, 


"  food  are  cruel  and  fierce  above  others.  The  barbarity  of 
*'  the  Englifh  is  well  known  :  the  Gaures,  who  live  wholly 
"  on  vegetables,  are  the  fweeteft-tempered  of  all  men.  Wicked 
"  men  harden  themfelves  to  murder  by  drinking  blood.'* 
Even  the  moft  acute  thinkers  are  not  always  on  their  guard 
againft  trivial  analogies.  Blood  and  {laughter  are  the  fruits 
of  cruelty  ;  and  hence  it  is  rafhly  inferred,  that  the  drinking 
blood  and  eating  flefh  tend  to  infpire  cruelty.  The  Carribbees, 
in  the  fame  way  of  thinking,  abftain  from  fwlnes  flefh  ; 
"  which  (fay  they),  would  make  our  eyes  fmall  like  thofe  of 
*'  fwine."  Before  venturing  on  a  general  rule,  one  ought 
to  be  prepared  by  an'extenfive  induction  of  particulars.  What 
.will  M.  RolTeau  fay  as  to  the  Macaflars,  whp  never  taft.e  ani- 
mal food,  and  yet  are  acknowledged  to  be  the  fierceft  of 
mortals  ?  And  what  will  he  fay  as  to  the  Negroes  of  New 
Guinea,  remarkably  brutal  and  cruel  ?  A  favourite  dog» 
companion  to  his  mafter,  lives  commonly  on  the  refufe  of 
his  table,  and  yet  is  remarkably  gentle.  The  Engliih  are 
noted  for  love  of  liberty  :  they  cannot  bear  oppreffion  ;  and 
they  know  no  bounds  to  refentment  againfl  opprefTors.  He 
may  call  this  cruelty  if  he  be  fo  difpofed  :  others,  more  can- 
did, will  efteem  it  a  laudable  property.  But  to  charge  a 
nation  in  general  with  cruelty  and  ferocity,  can  admit  no  ex- 
cufe  but  flubborn  truth.  Ignorance  cannot  be  admitted  : 
and  yet  he  fhews  grofs  ignorance,  as  no  people  are  more 
noted  for  humanity:  in  no  other  nation  do  fympatheac  af- 
fections prevail  more  :  none  are  more  ready,  in  cafes  of  di- 
ftrefs,  to  ftretch  out  a  relieving  hand.  Did  not  the  Englifh, 
in  abolifhing  the  horrid  barbarity  of  torture,  give  an  illuftrious 
example  of  humanity  to  all  other  nations  ?  Nay,  his  inftance 
that  butchers  are  prohibited  from  being  put  upon  a  jury,  the 

only 


28O  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

culture,  requiring  the  union  of  many  hands  in  one 
operation,  improves  benevolence.  But  here  the 
hoarding  appetite  ftarts  up  to  difturb  that  aufpi- 
cious  commencement  of  civilization.  Skilful  huf- 
bandry,  producing  the  necefTaries  of  life  in  plenty, 
paves  the  way  to  arts  and  e manufactures.  Fine 
hotifes,  fplendid  gardens,  and  rich  apparel,  are  de- 
firable  objeds  :  the  appetite  for  property  becomes 
headftrong,  and  to  obtain  gratification  tramples 
down  every  obftacle  of  juftice  or  honour*.  Diffe- 
rences arife,  fomenting  difcord  and  refentment : 
war  fprings  up,  even  among  thofe  of  the  fame 
tribe  ;  and  while  it  was  lawful  for  a  man  to  take 
revenge  at  his  own  hand  f ,  that  fierce  paffion  fwal- 
lovved  up  all  others.  Inequality  of  rank  and  fortune 
foftered  diflbcial  paffions  ;  witnefs  pride,  in  parti- 

cular^ 

only  particular  inftance  he  gives  of  their  cruelty,  is,  on  the 
contrary,  a  proof  of  their  humanity.  For  why  are  butchers 
excluded  from  being  judges  in  criminal  trials  ?  for  no  other 
reafon  than  that  being  inured  to  the  blood  of  animals,  they 
may  have  too  little  regard  to  the  lives  of  their  fellow-fubjecls. 
Flefli  is  compofed  of  particles  of  different  kinds.  In  the 
ftomach,  as  in  a  ftill,  it  is  refolved  into  its  component  par- 
ticles, and  ceafes  to  be  flefh  before  it  enters  the  lacleals.  Will 
M.  Roffeau  venture  to  fay,  which  of  thefe  component  par- 
ticles it  is  that  generates  a  cruel  difpofition  ?  Man,  from  the 
form  of  his  teeth,  and  from  other  circumftances,  is  evidently 
fitted  by  his  maker  for  animal  as  well  as  vegetable  food  ;  and 
it  would  be  an  imputation  on  providence,  that  either  of  them 
Ihould  have  any  bad  effect  on  his  mind  more  than  on  his  body. 

*  See  Sketch  3.        f  See  Historical  Law-tra&s,  tracl  i. 


SK.   5.]  MANNERS.  28l 

cular,  which  produced  a  cuftom,  once  univerfal  a- 
mong  barbarians,  of  killing  men,  women,  dogs,  and 
horfes,  for  the  ufe  of  a  chieftain  in  the  other  world. 
Such  complication  of  hateful  and  violent  paffions, 
rendering  fociety  uncomfortable,  cannot  be  ftem- 
med  by  any  human  means,  other  than  whole- 
fome  laws :  a  momentary  obftacle  inflames  defire ; 
but  perpetual  reftraint  deadens  even  the  mod  fer- 
vid paffion.  The  authority  of  good  government 
gave  vigour  to  kindly  affections  ;  and  appetite  for 
fociety,  which  acts  inceffantly,  though  not  violent- 
ly, gave  a  currency  to  mutual  good  offices.  A  cir- 
cumflance  concurred  to  blunt  the  age  of  dnTocial 
paffions  :  the  firft  focieties  were  fmall ;  and  fmall 
ftates  in  clofe  neighbourhood  engender  difcord  and 
refentment  without  end  :  the  junction  of  many  fuch 
ftates  into  a  great  kingdom,  removes  people  farther 
from  their  enemies,  and  renders  them  more  gen- 
tle *.  In  that  fituation,  men  have  leifure  and  fe- 
datenefs  to  relifh  the  comforts  of  focial  life  :  they 
find  that  felfifh  and  turbulent  paffions  are  fubver- 
five  of  fociety  ;  and  through  fondnefs  for  focial  in- 
tercourfe,  they  patiently  undergo  the  fevere  diici- 
pline,  of  retraining  paffion  and  fmoothing  manners. 
Violent  paffions  that  difturb  the  peace  of  fociety 
have  fubfided,  and  are  now  feldom  heard  of:  hu- 
manity is  in  fafhion,  and  focial  affections  prevail; 
Men  improve  in  urbanity  by  converfing  with  wo- 
men ;  and,  however  felfifh  at  heart,  they  conciliate 

favour 

*  See  this  more  fully  handled,  book  2.  {ketch  i. 


282  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

favour,  by  afTuming  an  air  of  dilintereftednefs. 
Selfifhnefs,  thus  refined,  becomes  an  effectual  caufe 
of  civilization.  But  what  follows  ?  Turbulent  and 
violent  pailions  are  buried,  never  again  to  revive  ; 
leaving  the  mind  totally  ingroffed  by  felf-interefl. 
In  the  original  flate  of  hunters,  there  being  little 
connection  among  individuals,  every  man  minds  his 
own  concerns,  and  felfifhnefs  governs.  The  difco- 
very  that  hunting  is  beft  carried  on  in  company, 
promotes  fome  degree  of  fociety  in  that  flate :  it 
gains  ground  in  the  fhepherd  flate,  and  makes  a  ca- 
pital figure  where  hufbandry  arid  commerce  flou- 
rifh.  Private  concord  is  promoted  by  focial  affec- 
tion ;  and  a  nation  is  profperous  in  proportion  as 
the  amor  pat  rice  prevails.  But  wealth,  acquired 
whether  by  conquefl  or  commerce,  is  productive  of 
luxury,  and  every  fpecies  of  fenfuality.  As  thefe 

increafe,  focial  affections  decline,  and  at  lad  vanifh. 

'  *  , 

This  is  vifible  in  every  opulent  city  that  has  long 
flourifhed  in  extenfive  commerce.  Selfiihnefs  be- 
comes the  ruling  paffion  :  friendfhip  is  no  more  ; 
and  even  blood- relation  is  little  regarded.  Every 
man  ftudies  his  own  interefl :  opulence  and  fenfual 
pleafure  are  idols  worfhipped  by  all.  And  thus, 
in  the  progrefs  of  manners,  men  end  as  they  be- 
gan :  felfifhnefs  is  no  lefs  eminent  in  the  lafh  and 
moft  polifhed  flate  of  fociety,  than  in  the  firfl  and 
mofl  rude  flate. 

From  a  general  view  of  the  progrefs  of  manners 
we  defcend  to  particulars.   And  the  firfl  fcene  that 

prefents. 


•  5-3 


283 


prefents  itfelf  is,  cruelty  to  ftrangers,  extended,  in, 

p 

procefs  of  time,  againft  members  of  the  fame  tribe. 
Anger  and  refentment  are  predominant  in  favages, 
who  never  think  of  reftraining  pailion.  But  this 
character  is  not  univerfal :  fome  tribes  are  remark- 
able for  humanity,  as  mentioned  in  the  firft  {ketch. 
Anger  and  refentment  formed  the  character  of  our 
European  anceftors,  and  rendered  them  fierce  and 
cruel.  The  Goths  were  fo  prone  to  blood,  that,  in 
their  firft  inroads  into  the  Roman  territories,  they 
mafTacred  man,  woman,  and  child.  Procopius  re- 
ports, that  in  one  of  thefe  inroads  they  left  Italy 
thin  of  inhabitants.  They  were  however  an  ho- 
neft  people  ;  and  by  the  polifh  they  received  in  the 
civilized  parts  of  Europe,  they  became  no  lefs  re- 
markable for  humanity,  than  formerly  for  cruelty. 
Totila,  their  king,  having  mattered  Rome  after  a 
long  and  bloody  liege^  permitted  not  a  {ingle  per- 
fon  to  be  killed  in  cold  blood,  nor  the  chaflity  of 
any  woman  to  be  attempted.  One  cannot  without 
horror  think  of  the  wanton  cruelties  exercifed  by 
the  Tartars  againft  the  nations  invaded  by  them, 
under  Gengiican  and  Timor  Bee. 

A  Scythian,  fays  Herodotus,  prefents  the  king 
with  the  heads  of  the  enemies  he  has  killed  in  bat- 
tle ;  and  the  man  who  brings  not  a  head,  gets  no 
fhare  of  the  plunder.  He  adds,  that  niany  Scythi- 
ans clothe  themfelves  with  the  {kins  of  men,  and 
make  ufe  of  the  flculls  of  their  enemies  to  drink  out 
Diodorus  Siculus  reports  of  the  Gauls,  that 

VOL.  I.  S  they 


284  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  X. 

they  carry  home  the  heads  of  their  enemies  (lain  in 
battle  ;  and  after  embalming  them,  depolit  them  in 
chefts  as  their  chief  trophy  ;  bragging  of  the  fums 
offered  for  thefe  heads  by  the  friends  of  the  decea- 
fed,  and  refufed.  In  iimilar  circumftances,  men 
are  the  fame  all  the  world  over.  The  fcalping  of 
enemies,  in  daily  ufe  among  the  North- American 
favages,  is  equally  cruel  and  barbarous. 

No  favages  are  more  cruel  than  the  Greeks  and 
Trojans  were,  as  defcribed  by  Homer ;  men  but- 
chered in  cold  blood,  towns  reduced  to  allies,  fove- 
reigns  expofed  to  the  mofl  humbling  indignities,  no 
refpect  paid  to  age  nor  to  fex.  The  young  Adraf- 
tus  *,  thrown  from  his  car,  and  lying  in  the  dufr, 
obtained  quarter  from  Menelaus.  Agamemnon  up- 
braided his  brother  for  lenity  :  "  Let  none  from  de- 
"  ftruction  efcape,  not  even  the  lifping  infant  in 
"  the  mother's  arms :  all  her  fons  muil  with  Ilium 
"  fall,  and  on  her  ruins  unburied  remain."  He 
pierced  the  fupplicant  with  his  fpear;  and  fetting 
his  foot  on  the  body,  pulled  it  out.  Hedor,  ha- 
ving ftripped  Patroclus  of  his  arms,  drags  the  ilain 
along,  vowing  to  lop  the  head  from  the  trunk,  and 
to  give  the  mangled  corfe  a  prey  to  the  dogs  of 
Troy.  And  the  feventeenth  book  of  the  Iliad  is 
wholly  employed  in  defcribing  the  conteft  about 
the  body  between  the  Greeks  and  Trojans.  Belide 
the  brutality  of  preventing  the  lail  duties  from  be- 
ing 

*Book  6.  of  the  Iliad. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS,  285 

ing  performed  to  a  deceafed  friend,  it  is  a  low 
fcene,  unworthy  of  heroes.  It  was  equally  brutal 
in  Achilles  to  drag  the  corfe  of  He&or  to  the  fhips 
tied  to  his  car.  In  a  fcene  between  Hector  and 
Andromaqhe  *,  the  treatment  of  vanquifhed  ene- 
mies is  pathetically  defcribed  ;  fovereigns  mafia  - 
cred,  and  their  bodies  left  a  prey  to  dogs  and  vul- 
tures ;  fucking  infants  darned  againft  the  pavement; 
ladies  of  the  firft  rank  forced  to  perform  the  lowed 
acts  of  flavery.  Hector  doth  not  difiemble,  that  if 
Troy  fhould  be  conquered,  his  poor  wife  would  be 
condemned  to  draw  water  like  the  vileft  Have.  He- 
cuba, in  Euripides,  laments  that  me  was  chained 
like  a  dog  at  Agamemnon's  gate ;  and  the  fame  fa- 
vage  manners  are  defcribed  in  many  other  Greek 
tragedies.  Prometheus  makes  free  with  the  hea- 
venly fire,  in  order  to  give  life  to  man.  As  a  pu- 
niihment  for  bringing  rational  creatures  into  exift- 
ence,  the  gods  decree,  that  he  be  chained  to  a  rock, 
and  abandoned  to  birds  of  prey.  Vulcan  is  intro- 
duced by  ^Efchylus  rattling  the  chain,  nailing  one 
end  to  a  rock,  and  the  other  to  the  breaft-bone  of 
the  criminal.  Who  but  an  American  favage  can 
at  prefent  behold  fuch  a  fpectacle,  and  not  be 
fhocked  ?  A  fcene  reprefenting  a  woman  murder- 
ed by  her  children,  would  be  hified  by  every  mo- 
dern aucjience  ;  and  yet  that  horrid  fcene  was  re- 
prefented  with  applaufe  in  the  Elect ra  of  Sopho- 

82  x  cles. 

*  Iliad,  book  6. 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY. 


[B. 


cles.  Stoboeus  reports  a  faying  of  Menander,  that 
even  the  gods  cannot  infpire  a  foldier  with  civility- 
no  wonder  that  the  Greek  foldiers  were  brutes  and 
barbarians,  when  war  was  waged,  not  only  againft 
the  ftate,  but  againft  every  individual.  At  prefent, 
humanity  prevails  among  foldiers  as  among  others  -x 
becaufe  we  make  war  only  againft  a  ftate,  not  a- 
gainft  individuals.  The  Greeks  are  the  lefs  excu- 
fable  for  their  cruelty,  as  they  appear  to  have  been 
fenfible  that  humanity  is  a  cardinal  virtue.  Bar- 
barians are  always  painted  by  Homer  as  cruel  ;  po~ 
lifhed  nations  as  tender  and  compaffionate  : 

*'  Ye  gods  !  (he  cried)  upon  what  barren  coafl> 
"  In  what  new  region  is  Ulyfles  toft  ? 
*'  Poflefs'd  by  wild  barbarians  fierce  in  arms, 
'*  Or  men  whofe  bofom  tender  pity  warms  ?" 

Book  13.  241. 


Cruelty  is  inconiiftent  with  true  heroifm  ;  and,, 
accordingly,  very  little  of  the  latter  is  difcoverable 
in  any  of  Homer's  warriors.  So  much  did  they 
retain  of  the  favage  character,  as,  even  without 
blufhing,  to  fly  from  an  enemy  fuperior  in  bodily 
ftrength.  Biomedes,  who  makes  an  illuftrious 
figure  in  the  fifth  book  of  the  Iliad,  retires  when 
Hedlor  appears  :  "  Diomedes  beheld  the  chief,  and 
"  fhuddered  to  his  inmoft  foul."  Antilochus,  fon 
of  Neftor,  having  flam  Melanippus  *,  rufUed  for- 
ward, eager  to  feize  his  bright  arms.  But  feeing 

He&or; 

*  Book  15. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS* 

Hector,  he  fled  like  a  beaft  of  prey  who  Ihuns  the 
gathering  hinds.  And  the  great  Hector  himfelf 
lhamefully  turns  his  back  upon  the  near  approach 
of  Achilles :  "  Periphetes,  endowed  with  every 
"  virtue,  renowned  in  the  race,  great  in  war,  in 
"  prudence  excelling  his  fellows,  gave  glory  to 
*'  Hector,  covering  the  chief  with  renown."  One 
would  expect  a  fierce  combat  between  thefe  two 
bold  warriors.  Not  fo,  Periphetes  Humbling,  Jfell 
to  the  ground;  and  Hector  was  not  afhamed  to 
transfix  with  his  fpear  the  unrefifting  hero. 

In  the  fame  tone  of  character,  nothing  is  more 
common  among  Homer's  warriors  than  to  infult  a 
vanquilhed  foe.  Patroclus,  having  beat  Cebriones 
to  the  ground  with  a  huge  ftone,  derides  his  fall  in 
the  following  words : 

"  Good  heav'ns  !  what  a&ive  feats  yon  artift  fhows, 
"  What  fldlful  divers  are  our  Phrygian  foes  ! 
* '  Mark  with  what  eafe  they  fink  into  the  fand. 
"  Pity  !  that  all  their  practice  is  by  land." 

The  Greeks  are  reprefented  *  one  after  another' 
ftabbing  the  dead  body  of  Hector:  "  Nor  flood  an 
"  Argive  pear  the  chief  who  inflicted  not  a  wound. 
"  Surely  now,  faid  they,  more  eafy  of  accefs  is 
"  Hector,  than  when  he  launched  on  the  fhips 
"  brands  of  devouring  fire.'' 

When  fuch  were  the  manners  of  warriors  at  the 
liege  of  Troy,  it  is  no  furprife  to  find  the  heroes  on 

S  3  both 

*  JSook  22, 


•288  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

both  fides  no  lefs  intent  on  ftripping  the  flain,  than 
on  victory.  They  are  every  where  reprefented  as 
greedy  of  fpoil. 

The  Jews  did  not  yield  to  the  Greeks  in  cruel- 
ty. It  is  unnecefiary  to  give  inftances,  as  the  hif- 
torical  books  of  the  Old  Teftament  are  in  the  hands 
of  every  one.  I  fhall  feledr.  one  inftance  for  a  fpe- 
cimen,  dreadfully  cruel  without  any  juft  provoca- 
tion :  "  And  David  gathered  all  the  people  toge- 
"  ther,  and  went  to  Rabbah,  and  fought  againil  it, 
"  and  took  it.  And  he  brought  forth  the  people 
"  that  were  therein,  and  put  them  under  faws,  and 
"  under  harrows  of  iron,  and  under  axes  of  iron, 
"  and  made  them  pafs  through  the  brick-kiln :  and 
"  thus  did  he  unto  all  the  cities  of  the  children  of 
"  Ammon*." 

That  cruelty  was  predominant  among  the  Ro- 
mans, is  evident  from  every  one  of  their  hjftorians. 
If  a  Roman  citizen  was  found  murdered  in  his  own 
houfe,  his  whole  houfehold  Haves,  perhaps  two  or 
three  hundred,  were  put  to  death  without  mercy, 
unlefs  they  could  detect  the  murderer.  Such  a 
law,  cruel  and  unjuft,  could  never  have  been  en- 
acted among  a  people  of  any  humanity.  Brutality 
to  their  offspring  was  glaring.  Children  were 
held,  like  cattle,  to  be  the  father's  property  :  and 
fo  tenacious  was  the  patria  pote/las,  that  if  a  fon  or 
daughter  fold  to  be  a  Have  was  fet  free,  he  or  me 

fell 

*  2  Samuel,  xii.  20. 

"  •  4* 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  289 

fell  again  under  the  father's  power,  to  be  fold  a  fe- 
cond  time,  and  even  a  third  time.  The  power  of 
life  and  death  over  children  was  much  lefs  unna- 
tural, while  no  public  tribunal  exifted  for  punifh- 
ing  crimes.  A  fon,  being  a  Have,  could  have  no 
property  of  his  own.  Julius  Caefar  was  the  firft 
who  privileged  a  fon  to  retain  for  his  own  ufe 
fpoils  acquired  in  war.  When  law  became  a  lucra- 
tive profeffion,  what  a  fori  gained  in  that  way  was 
declared  to  be  his  property.  In  Athens,  a  man 
had  power  of  life  and  death  over  his  children  ;  but, 
as  they  were  not  flaves,  what  they  acquired  be- 
longed to  themfelves.  So  late  as  the  days  of  Dio- 
clefian,  a  fon's  marriage  did  not  dhTolve  the  Ro- 
man patria  poteftas*.  But  the  power  of  felling- 
children  wore  out  of  ufe  f  .  When  powers  fo  un- 
natural were  given  to  men  over  their  children,  and 
exercifed  fo  tyrannically,  can  there  be  any  doubt 
of  their  cruelty  to  others  £  ?  During  the  fecond 

S  4  triumvirate, 

*  1.  i.  Cod.  cap.  De  patria  poteftate. 
f  1.  10.  eod. 


The  effect  of  fuch  unnatural  powers  was  to  eradicate 
natural  affedion  between  a  man  and  his  children.  And,  in- 
deed, fo  little  of  nature  was  left  in  this  connexion,  that  a  law 
was  found  neceffary,  prohibiting  a  man  to  difmherit  his  chil- 
dren, except  for  certain  caufes  fpecified,  importing  grofs  in- 
gratitude  in  the  latter  ;  which  was  done  by  Juftinian  the  Em- 
peror in  one  of  his  novels.  But  behold  what  follows.  A 
'prohibition  to  exheredate  childen  fenders  them  independent  ; 
and  fuch  independence  produces  an  effect  flill  more  perniciou$ 

than 


290  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  J. 

triumvirate,  horrid  cruelties  were  every  day  per- 
petrated without  pity  or  remorfe.  Antony,  having 
ordered  Cicero  to  be  beheaded,  and  the  head  to  be 
brought  to  him,  viewed  it  with  favage  pleafure. 
His  wife  Fulvia  laid  hold  of  it,  ftmck  it  on  the 
face,  uttered  many  bitter  execrations,  and,  having 
placed  it  between  her  knees,  drew  out  the  tongue, 
and  pierced  it  with  a  bodkin.  The  delight  it 
gave  the  Romans  to  fee  wild  beails  fet  loofe  a- 
gainft  one  another  in  their  circus,  is  a  proof  not  at 
all  ambiguous  of  their  tafte  for  blood,  even  at  the 
time  of  their  higheft  civilization.  The  edile  Scau- 
rus  fent  at  one  time  to  Rome  150  panthers,  Pom- 
pey  410,  and  Auguftus  420,  for  the  public  fpecla- 
cles.  Their  gladiatorian  combats  are  a  lefs  evi- 
dent proof  of  their  ferocity :  the  courage  and  ad- 
drefs  exerted  in  thefe  combats  gave  a  manly  plea- 
fure,  that  balanced  in  fome  meafure  the  pain  of 
feeing  thefe  poor  fellows  cut  and  flam  one  another. 
And,  that  the  Romans  were  never  cured  of  their 
thirft  for  blood,  appears  from  Caligula,  Nero,  and 
many  other  monfters,  who  tormented  the  Romans 

It        *          •  . -      i         ;    .      .  •  .A  -  •        •    •  •      • 

after 

than  defpotic  power  in  a  father.  Awe  and  reverence  to  pa- 
rents make  the  only  effectual  check  againft  the  headftrong 
paffions  of  youth  :  remove  that  check,  and  young  men  of 
fortune  wijl  give  the  rein  to  every  vice.  It  deferves  to  be  fe- 

\  '•  ''  •      -  ,  ,  '  i        •  ',  > 

rioufly  pondered,  whether  the  fame  encouragement  be  not 
given  to  vice,  by  a  practice  general  in  England  among  men 
of  fortune  in  their  marriage-articles,  which  is,  to  veft  the 
eftate  in  truftees,  for  behoof  of  the  beir  of  the  marriage. 


.  4-3  MANNERS.  2J)jt 

after  Auguftus.  There  is  no  example  in  modern 
times  of  fuch  monfters  in  France,  though  an  abib- 
lute  monarchy,  nor  even  in  Turkey. 

Ferocity  was,  in  the  Roman  empire,  confiderably 
mollified  by  literature  and  other  fine  arts  ;  but  it 
acquired  new  force  upon  the  irruption  of  the  bar- 
barous nations  who  crufhed  that  empire.  In  the 
year  559,  Clotaire,  King  of  the  Franks,  burnt  alive 
his  fon,  with  all  his  friends,  becaufe  they  had  re- 
belled againfl  him.  Queen  Brunehaud,  being  by 
Clotaire  II.  condemned  to  die,  was  dragged  through 
the  camp  at  a  horfe's  tail,  till  fhe  gave  up  the 
ghoil.  The  ferocity  of  European  nations  became 
boundlefs  during  the  anarchy  of  the  feudal  fyftem. 
Many  peafants  in  the  northern  provinces  of  France 
being  forely  opprefled  in  civil  wars  carried  on  by 
the  nobles  againft  each  other,  turned  defperate, 
gathered  together  in  bodies,  refolving  to  extirpate 
all  the  nobles.  A  party  of  them,  anno  1358,  forced 
open  the  caftle  of  a  knight,  hung  him  upon  a  gal- 
lows, violated  in  his  prefence  his  wife  and  daugh- 
ters, toafted  him  upon  a  fpit,  compelled  his  wife 
and  children  to  eat  of  his  fleih,  and  terminated  that 
horrid  fcene  with  maflacring  the  whole  family,  and 
turning  the  caftle.  When  they  were  alked,  fays 
FroifTard,  why  they  committed  fuch  abominable 
adlions,  their  anfwer  was,  "  That  they  did  as  ther 
"  faw  others  do  ;  and  that  all  the  nobles  in  tr^e 
"  world  ought  to  be  deftroyed."  The  nobles, 
when  they  got  the  upper  hand,  were  equally  cruel. 

They 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY*  [j3.  I. 

They  put  all  to  fire  and  fword,  and  maflacred  eve- 
ry peafant  who  came  in  the  way,  without  trou- 
bling themfelves  to  feparate  the  innocent  from  the 
guilty.  The  Count  de  Ligny  encouraged  his  ne- 
phew, a  boy  of  fifteen,  to  kill  with  his  own  hand 
fome  prifoners  who  were  his  countrymen ;  in 
which,  fays  Monftrelet,  the  young  man  took  great 
delight.  How  much  worfe  than  brutal  muft  have 
been  the  manners  of  that  age  !  for  even  a  beaft  of 
prey  kills  not  but  when  iniligated  by  hunger.  The 
third  act  of  Healing  from  the  lead-mines  in  Derby 
was,  by  a  law  of  Edward  I.  punifhed  in  the  follow- 
ing manner.  A  hand  of  the  criminal  was  nailed  to 
a  table ;  and,  in  that  condition,  he  was  left  with- 
out meat  or  drink,  having  no  means  of  freedom  but 
to  employ  the  one  hand  to  cut  off  the  other.  The 
barbarity  of  the  Englifh  at  that  period  made  fevere 
punimments  neceflary :  but  the  punifhment  men- 
tioned goes  beyond  feverity ;  it  is  brutal  cruelty. 
The  barbarous  treatment  of  the  Jews,  during  the 
dark  ages  of  Chriilianity,  gives  pregnant  evidence, 
that  Chriftians  were  not  fhort  of  Pagans  in  cruel- 
ty. Poifoning  and  affailination  were  moft  licen- 
tioufly  perpetrated  no  farther  back  than  the  lad 
century.  Some  pious  men  made  vigorous  efforts 
in  more  than  one  general  council,  to  have  afTailina- 
tion  condemned,  as  repugnant  to  the  law  of  God ; 

but  in  vain  *. 

I 

*  It  required  the  ferocity  and  cruelty  of  a  barbarous  age 
to  give  currency  to  a  Mahometan  doctrine,  That  the  fword  is 

the 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  293 

I  wifli  to  foften  the  foregoing  fcene  :  it  may  be 
foftened  a  little.  Among  barbarians,  punimments 
muft  be  fanguinary,  as  their  bodies  only  are  fen- 
lible  of  pain,  not  their  minds  *. 

The  reftoration  of  arts  and  fciences  in  Europe, 
and  a  reformation  in  religion,  had  a  wonderful  ef- 
fect in  fweetening  manners,  and  promoting  the  in- 
terefls  of  fociety.  Of  all  crimes,  high  treafon  is 
the  moft  involved  in  circumilances,  and  the  moll 
difficult  to  be  defined  or  circumfcribed-  And  yet, 
for  that  crime,  are  referved  the  moft  exquifite  tor- 
ments. In  England,  the  punimment  is,  to  cut  up 
the  criminal  alive,  to  tear  out  his  heart,  to  dafh  it 
about  his  ears,  and  to  throw  it  into  the  flames. 
The  fame  puniihment  continues  in  form,  not  in 
reality:  the  heart  indeed  is  torn  out,  but  not  till 
the  criminal  is  ftrangled.  Even  the  virulence  of 

religious 

the  moft  effectual  means  of  converting  men  to  a  dominant  re- 
ligion. The  eftablifhment  of  the  Inquifition  will  not  permit 
me  to  fay,  that  Chriftians  never  put  in  practice  a  doctrine  fo 
deteftable  :  on  the  contrary,  they  furpafled  the  Mahometans, 
giving  no  quarter  to  heretics,  either  in  this  life,  or  in  that  to 
come.  The  eternity  of  hell-torments  is  a  doctrine  no  lefs  in- 
confiftent  with  the  juftice  of  the  Deity,  than  with  his  benevo- 
lence. 


*  The  Ruffians  are  far  from  refinement,  either  in  manners 
or  feelings.  The  Baron  de  Manftein,  talking  of  the  feverity 
of  Count  Munich's  military  difcipline,  obferves,  that  it  is  in- 
difpenfable  in  Ruffia,  where  mildnefs  make  no  impreffion  ;  and 
the  Ruffians  are  governed  by  fear,  not  by  love. 


294  M£N  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

religious  zeal  is  coniiderably  abated.  Savonarola 
was  condemned  to  the  flames  as  an  impious  impof- 
tor  j  but  he  was  firft  privately  flrangled.  The  fine 
arts,  which  humanize  manners,  were  in  Italy  at 
'that  time  accelerating  toward  perfection.  The  fa- 
mous Latimer  was  in  England  condemned  to  be 
burnt  for  herefy  :  but  bags  of  gunpowder  were  put 
under  his  arms,  that  he  might  be  burnt  with  the 
lead  pain.  Even  Knox,  a  violent  Scotch  reformer, 
acknowledges,  that  Wifhart  was  flrangled  before  he 
was  thrown  into  the  flames  for  herefy.  \  So  bitter 
was  the  late  perfecution  againfl  the  Jefuits,  that 
not  only  were  their  perfons  profcribed,  but  in  ma- 
ny places  their  books,  not  even  excepting  books 
upon  mathematics,  and  other  abftradl  fubjedts. 
That  perfecution  refembled  in  many  particulars 
the  perfecution  againft  the  knights -templars  :  fifty- 
nine  of  the  latter  were  burnt  alive :  the  former 
were  really  lefs  innocent ;  and  yet  fuch  humanity 
prevails  at  prefent,  that  not  a  drop  of  Jefuit-lplood 
has  been  fhed.  A  bankrupt  in  Scotland,  if  he  have 
not  fufFered  by  unavoidable  misfortune,  is  by  law 
condemned  to  wear  a  party-eoloured  garment. 
That  law  is  not  now  put  in  execution,  unlefs  where 
a  bankrupt  defer ves  to  be  ftigmatized  for  his  cul- 
pable mifcondudl. 

Whether  the  following  late  inftance  of  barbarity 
do  not  equal  any  of  thofe  above  mentioned,  I  leave 
to  the  reader.  No  traveller  who  vifited  Peterf- 
burgh  during  the  reign  of  the  Emprefs  Elizabeth 

can 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  295 

can  be  ignorant  of  Madam  Lapouchin,  the  great 
ornament  of  that  Court.  Her  intimacy  with  a 
foreign  ambaflador  having  brought  her  under  fuf- 
picion  of  plotting  with  him  againft  the  govern- 
ment, me  was  condemned  to  undergo  the  punifh- 
ment  of  the  knout.  At  the  place  of  execution, 
me  appeared  in  a  genteel  undrefs,  which  height- 
ened her  beauty.  Of  whatever  indifcretion  me 
might  have  been  guilty,  the  fweetnefs  of  her 
countenance  and  her  compofure,  left  not  in  the 
fpe&ators  the  flighted  fufpicion  of  guilt.  Her 
youth  alfo,  her  beauty,  her  life  and  fpirit  pleaded 
for  her.  But  all  in  vain :  me  was  deferted  by  all, 
and  abandoned  to  furly  executioners ;  whom  me 
beheld  with  aftonifhment,  feemihg  to  doubt  whe- 
ther fuch  preparations  were  intended  for  her.  The 
cloak  that  covered  her  bofom  being  pulled  off,  mo- 
deity  took  the  alarm,  and  made  her  ftart  back : 
me  turned  pale,  and  burft  into  tears.  One  of  the 
executioners  dripped  her  naked  to  the  wafte,  feized 
her  with  both  hands,  and  threw  her  on  his  back, 
railing  her  fome  inches  from  the  ground.  The 
other  executioner  laying  hold  of  her  delicate  limbs 
with  his  rough  fifts,  put  her  in  a  poilure  for  re- 
ceiving the  punifhment.  Then  laying  hold  of  the 
knout,  a  fort  of  whip  made  of  a  leathern  ftrap,  he 
with  a  lingle  flroke  tore  off  a  flip  of  ikin  from  the 
neck  downward,  repeating  his  ftrokes  till  all  the 
fkin  of  her  back  was  cut  off  in  (mall  flips.  The 

executioner 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY,  [B.  I. 

executioner  finifhed  his  taik  with  cutting  out  her 
tongue ;  after  which  me  was  banifhed  to  Siberia  *. 

The  native  inhabitants  of  the  ifland  Amboyna 
are  Malayans.  Thofe  on  the  fea-coaft  are  fubjedt 
to  the  Dutch  :  thofe  in  the  inland  parts  are  their 
declared  enemies,  and  never  give  quarter.  A  Dutch 
captive,  after  being  confined  five  days  without 
food,  is  ripped  up,  his  heart  cut  out,  and  the  head 
fevered  from  the  body,  is  preferved  in  fpice  for  a 
trophy.  Thofe  who  can  mow  the  greateft  num- 
ber of  Dutch  heads  are  the  moft  honourable. 

In  early  times,  when  revenge  and  cruelty  tramp- 
led on  law,  people  formed  aflbciations  for  fecuring 
their  lives  and  their  pofleflions.  Thefe  were  com- 
mon in  Scandinavia  and  in  Scotland.  They  were 
alfo  common  in  England  during  the  Anglo-Saxon 
government,  and  for  fome  ages  after  the  Conqueft. 
But,  inftead  of  fup porting  juftice,  they  contributed 
more  than  any  other  caufe  to  confufion  and  anar- 
chy, the  members  protecting  each  other,  even  in 

robbery 

*  The  prefent  Emprefs  has  laid  an  excellent  foundation 
for  civilizing  her  people ;  which  is  a  code  of  laws,  founded 
on  principles  of  civil  liberty,  banifhing  llavery  and  torture,, 
and  expreffing  the  utmoft  regard  for  the  life,  property,  and 
liberty,  of  all  her  fubjecls,  high  and  low.  Peter  I.  reformed 
many  bad  cuftoms  :  but  being  rough  in  his  own  manners,  he 
left  the  manners  of  his  people  as  he  found  them.  If  this 
Emprefs  happen  to  enjoy  a  long  and  profperous  reign,  fhe 
may  poflibly  accomplidi  the  moft  difficult  of  all  undertakings^ 
that  of  polifhing  a  barbarous  people.  No  tafk  is  too  arduous 
for  a  woman  of  fuch  fpirit. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS. 

robbery  and  murder.  They  were  fupprefTed  in 
England  by  a  ftatute  of  Richad  II. ;  and  in  Scot- 
land by  reiterated  ftatutes. 

Roughnefs  and  harfhnefs  of  manners  are  gene- 
rally connected  with  cruelty ;  and  the  manners  of 
the  Greeks  and  Trojans  are  accordingly  reprefented 
in  the  Iliad  as  remarkably  rough  and  harlh.  When 
the  armies  were  ready  to  engage*,  Meneftheus 
King  of  Athens,  and  Ulyfles  of  Ithaca,  are  bitterly 
reproached  by  Agamemnon  for  lingering,  while 
others  were  more  forward.  "  Son  of  Pelens,  he 
"  faid,  and  thou  verfed  in  artful  deceit,  in  mif- 
"  chief  only  wife,  why  trembling  Ihrink  ye  back 
"  from  the  field ;  why  wait  till  others  engage  in 
"  fight  ?  You  it  became,  as  firft  in  rank,  the  firft 
46  to  meet. the  flame  of  war.  Ye  firft  to  the  ban- 
quet are  called,  when  we  fpread  the  feaft.  Your 
delight  is  to  eat,  to  regale,  to  quaff  unftinted  the 
generous  wine."  In  the  fifth  book,  Sarpedon 
upbraids  Hector  for  cowardice.  And  Tlepolemus, 
ready  to  engage  with  Sarpedon,  attacks  him  firft 
with  reviling  and  fcurrilous  words.  Becaufe  Hec- 
tor was  not  able  to  refcue  the  dead  body  of  Sar- 
pedon from  the  Greeks,  he  is  upbraided  by  Glau- 
cus,  Sarpedon' s  friend,  in  the  following  words  : 
"  Hector,  though  fpecious  in  form,  diftant  art  thou 
**  from  valour  in  arms.  Undeferved  haft  thou 
"  fame  acquired,  when  thus  thou  fhrinkeft  from 
"  the  field.  Thou  fuftaineft  not  the  dreadful  arm, 

•".",'••  "  not. 

*  Book  4. 


« 


« 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [BV  I; 

"  not  even  the  light  of  godlike  AjaX.  Thou  haft 
"  fhunned  his  face  in  the  fight :  thou  dareft  not 
"  approach  his  fpear.'1 

Rough  and  harm  manners  produced  ftavery  -7 
and  flavery  foftered  rough  and  harm  manners,  by 
giving  them  conftant  exercife.  The  brutality  of 
the  Spartans  to  the  Helots,  their  Haves,  is  a  re- 
proach to  the  human  fpecies.  Befide  f offering  the 
harfheft  ufage,  they  were  prevented  from  multi- 
plying by  downright  murder  and  maflacre.  Why 
did  not  fuch  barbarity  render  the  Spartans  de- 
teftable,  inftead  of  being  refpe&ed  by  their  neigh- 
bours as  the  moft  virtuous  people  in  Greece  ?  There" 
can  be  but  one  reafon,  that  the  Greeks  were  all  of 
them  cruel,  the  Spartans  a  little  more  perhaps  than 
the  reft.  In  Rome,  a  flave,  chained  at  the  gate  of 
every  great  houfe,  gave  admittance  to  the  guefts" 
invited  to  a  feaft:  could  any  but  barbarians  be- 
hold fuch  a  fpectacle  without  pain  ? 

Whence  the  rough  and  harm  manners  of  oiu* 
Weft  Indian  planters,  but  from  the  unreftrained 
licence  of  venting  ill  humour  upon  their  Negro 
ilaves  *  ?  Why  are  carters  a  rugged  fet  of  men  ? 

Plainly 

•* 

*  t(  C'eft  de  cet  efclavage  des  negres,  que  les  Creoles  tirent 
peut-etre  en  partie  un  certain  caraclere,  qui  les  fait  paroitre 
bizarres,  fantafques,  et  d'une  foeiete  peu  goutee  en  Europe'. 
A  peine  peuvent-ils  marcher  dans  Penfance,  qu'ils  voient 
autour  d'eux  des  hommes  grands  et  robuftes,  deftines  a  de- 
viner,  a  prevenir  Tear  volonte.  Ce  premier  coup  d'oeil  doit' 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  299 

Plainly  becaufe  horfes,  their  flaves,  fubmit  without 
refiftance.  An  ingenious  writer,  defcribing  Guiana 

in, 

leur  donner  d'etix-memes  1'opinion  la  plus  extravagante.  Rare- 
ment  exposes  a  trouver  de  la  refiftance  dans  leurs  fantaifies 
meme  injuftes,  Us  prennent  un  efprit  de  prefomption,  de  ty- 
rannie,  et  de  mepris  extreme,  pour  une  grande  portion  du 
genre  humain  Rien  n'eft  plus  infolent  que  1'hornme  qui  vit 
prefque  toujours  avec  fes  infrrieurs  ;  mais  quand  ceux-ci  font 
des  efclaves,  accoutumes  a  fervir  des  enfans,  a  craindre  jusqu* 
a  des  cris  qui  doivent  leur  attirer  des  chatiments,  que  peuvent 
devenir  des  maitres  qui  n'ont  jamais  obei,  des  medians  qui 
n'ont  jamais  etc  punis,  des  foux  qui  mettent  des  hommes  a  la 
chaine  ?"  Htftolre  Philofophique  et  Politique  des  ctallffemens  des  Eu- 
rope ens  dans  les  Deux  Indes,  L  4.  p.  2OI.— [/»  Englijh  thus  :  '*  It 
"  is  from  the  flavery  of  the  Negroes  that  the  Creoles  derive  in 
"  a  great  meafure  that  character  which  makes  them  appear 
"  capricious  and  fantaftical,  and  of  a  ftyle  of  manners  which 
"  is  not  relifhed  in  Europe.  Scarcely  have  the  children 
"  learned  to  walk,  when  they  fee  around  them  tall  and  robuft 
"  men,  whofe  province  it  is  to  guefs  their  inclinations,  and 
**  to  prevent  their  wifhes.  This  firft  obfervation  muft  give 
<«  them  the  mod  extravagant  opinion  of  themfelves.  From 
"  being  feldom  accuftomed  to  meet  with  any  oppofition,  even 
**  in  their  moft  unreafonable  whims,  they  acquire  a  pre- 
"  fumptuous  and  tyrannical  difpofition,  and  entertain  an  ex- 
"  treme  contempt  for  a  great  part  of  the  human  race.  None 
t{  is  fo  infolent  as  the  man  who  lives  almoft  always  with  his 
et  inferiors  ;  but  when  thefe  inferiors  are  (laves  accuftomed  to 
'*  ferve  infants,  and  to  fear  even  their  crying,  for  which 
•'  they  muft  fuffer  punifhment,  what  can  be  expedted  of  thofe 
"  mafters  who  have  never  obeyed,  profligates  who  have  never 
"  met  with  chaftifement,  and  madmen  who  load  their  fellow- 
#  creatures  with  chains  ?"] 

VOL.  I.  T 


f 

30O  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

in  the  fouthern  continent  of  America,  obferves, 
that  the  negroes,  who  are  more  numerous  than 
the  whites,  mull  be  kept  in  awe  by  feverity  of  dif- 
cipline.  And  he  endeavours  to  juftify  the  practice ; 
urging,  that  beiide  contributing  to  the  fafety  of  the 
white  inhabitants,  it  makes  the  Haves  themfelves 
lefs  unhappy.  "  Impoffibility  of  attainment,'1 
fays  he,  "  never  fails  to  annihilate  delire  of  en- 
"  joyment  ;  and  rigid  treatment,  fupprefiing 
"  every  hope  of  liberty,  makes  them  peaceably 
"  fubmit  to  flavery."  Sad  indeed  muft  be  the 
condition  of  Haves,  if  harfh  treatment  contribute  to 
make  them  lefs  unhappy.  Such  reafoning  may  be 
relilhed  by  rough  European  planters,  intent  upon 
gain  :  I  am  inclined,  however,  to  believe,  that  the 
harfh  treatment  of  thefe  poot  people  is  more  owing 
to  the  avarice  of  their  matters  than  to  their  own 
perverfenefs  *.  That  flaves  in  all  ages  have  been 
harfhly  treated,  is  a  melancholy  truth.  One  ex- 
ception I  know,  and  but  one,  which  I  gladly  men- 
tion in  honour  of  the  Mandingo  Negroes.  Their 
Haves,  who  are  numerous,  receive  very  gentle 
treatment ;  the  women  efpecially,  who  are  gene- 
rally 

*  In  England,  flavery  fubfifted  fo  late  as  the  fixteenth 
century.  A  commiffion  was  iffued  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  anno 
1574,  for  inquiring  into  the  lands  and  goods  of  all  her  bond- 
men and  bondwomen  in  the  counties  of  Cornwall,  Devon, 
Somerfet,  and  Gloucefler,  in  order  to  compound  with  them 
for  their  manumiffion  or  freedom,  that  they  might  enjoy 
their  own  lands  and  goods  as  free  men. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  30! 

rally  fo  well  drefled  as  not  to  be  diftinguifhable 
from  thofe  who  are  free. 

Many  political  writers  are  of  opinion,  that  for 
crimes  iniligated  by  avarice  otily,  flavery  for  life, 
and  hard  work,  would  be  a  more  adequate  punifh- 
ment  than  death.  I  would  fubfcribe  to  that  opi- 
nion but  for  the  following  conlideration,  that  the 
having  fuch  criminals  perpetually  in  view,  would 
harden  our  hearts,  and  eradicate  pity,  a  capital 
moral  paflion.  Behold  the  behaviour  of  the  Dutch 
in  the  ifland  of  Amboyrta.  A  native  who  is  found 
guilty  of  theft,  is  deprived  of  his  ears  and  nofe,  and 
made  a  flave  for  life.  William  Funnel,  who  was 
there  anno  1705,  reports,  that  500  of  thefe  wretches 
were  fecured  in  prifon,  and  never  fuffered  to  go 
abroad  but  in  order  to  faw  timber,  to  cut  Hone,  or 
to  carry  heavy  burdens.  Their  food  is  a  pittance 
of  coarfe  rice  boiled  in  water,  and  their  bed  the 
hard  ground.  What  is  ilill  worfe,  poor  people 
who  happen  to  run  in  debt,  are  turned  over  to  the 
Jervants  of  the  £aft  India  company,  who  fend  them 
to  work  among  their  flaves,  with  a  daily  allowance 
of  twopence,  which  goes  to  the  creditor.  A  nation 
muft  be  devoid  of  bowels  who  can  eftablifh  fuch 
inhumanity  by  law.  But  time  has  rendered  that 
pra&ice  fo  familiar  to  the  Dutch,  that  they  behold 
with  abfolute  indifference  the  multiplied  miferies 
of  their  fellow  creatures.  It  appears,  indeed,  that 
fuch  a  puniihment  would  be  more  effectual  than 
death  to  reprefs  theft ;  but  can  any  one  doubt, 

T  2  that 


302  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  1. 

that  fociety  would  fuffer  more  by  eradicating  pity 
and  humanity,  than  it  would  gain  by  punifhing 
capitally  every  one  who  is  guilty  of  theft  ?  At  the 
fame  time,  the  Dutch,  however  cruel  to  the  na- 
tives, are  extremely  complaifant  to  one  another : 
feldorn  is  any  of  them  punifhed  but  for  murder : 
a  fmall  fum  will  procure  pardon  for  any  other 
crime. 

Upon  the  brutality  and  harm  manners  of  fa- 
vages,  was  founded  an  opinion  univerfally  preva-* 
lent,  that  man  is  an  obdurate  being  who  muft  be 
governed  by  fear,  not  by  love.  It  was  the  politic 
of  princes  to  keep  their  fubjects  in  awe  ;  and  every 
fubject  became  a  creeping  Have.  Hence  the  uni- 
verfal  practice  of  never  appearing  before  a  fove- 
reign  or  a  prince  but  with  a  fplendid  prefent,  in 
order  to  deprecate  his  wrath  or  foften  his  temper, 
Philofophy  has  in  time  banifhed  thefe  crude  no- 
tions of  human  nature,  and  taught  us  that  man  is 
a  focial  being,  upon  whom  benevolence  has  a  more 
powerful  influence  than  fear.  Benevolence,  ac- 
cordingly, has  become  the  ruling  principle  in  fo- 
ciety ;  and  it  is  now  the  glory  of  princes  to  bellow 
favours  and  to  receive  none.  This  change  of  man- 
ners governs  equally  the  worfhip  paid  to  the  Deity. 
Among  rude  nations,  the  Deity  is  reprefented  as 
an  angry  God,  vifiting  the  fins  of  the  fathers  upon 
the  children  ;  and  hence  oblations,  offerings,  fa- 
crifices,  not  even  excepting  human  victims.  Happy 
it  is  for  us  to  have  received  more  refined  riotions 

'        of 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  303 

of  the  Deity.  The  opinion,  juftly  founded,  that 
benevolence  is  his  prime  attribute,  has  banifhed 
oblations,  facrifices,  and  fuch  trumpery  ;  and  we 
depend  on  the  goodnefs  of  the  Deity,  without  any 
retribution  but  that  of  a  grateful  heart. 

A  degree  of  coarfenefs  and  indelicacy  is  con- 
nected with  rough  manners.  The  manners  of  the 
Greeks,  as  copied  by  Plautus  and  Terence  from 
Menander  and  other  Greek  writers,  were  extreme- 
ly coarfe  ;  fuch  as  may  be  expected  from  a  people 
living  among  their  flaves,  without  any  fociety  with 
virtuous  women.  The  behaviour  of  Demofthenes 
and  Efchines  to  each  other  in  their  public  ha- 
rangues is  wofully  coarfe.  But  Athens  was  a  de- 
mocracy ;  and  a  democracy,  above  all  other  go- 
vernments, is  rough  and  licentious.  In  the  Athe- 
nian comedy,  neither  gods  nor  men  are  fpared. 
The  mod  refpeclable  perfons  of  the  republic  are 
ridiculed  by  name  in  the  comedies  of  Ariilophanes, 
which  wallow  in  loofenefs  and  detraction.  In  the 
third  act  of  Andromache,  a  tragedy  of  Euripedes, 
Peleus  and  Menelaus,  Kings  of  Theflaly  and  Sparta, 
fall  into  downright  ribaldry ;  Menelaus  fwearing 
that  he  will  not  give  up  his  victim,  and  Peleus 
threatening  to  knock  him  down  with  his  flafF. 
The  manners  of  Jafon,  in  the  tragedy  of  Medea 
by  Euripides,  are  wofully  indelicate.  With  un- 
paralleled ingratitude  to  his  wife  Medea,  he,  even 
in  her  prefence,  makes  love  to  the  King  of  Co- 
rinth's daughter,  and  obtains  her  in  marriage.  In- 

T  3  Head 


304  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOGTETy.  [B.  I, 

ileaid  of  blufhing  to  fee  a  perfon  he  had  fo  deeply 
injured,  he  coolly  endeavours  to  excufe  himfelf, 
"  that  he  was  an  exile  like  herfelf,  without  fup- 
"  port;  and  that  his  marriage  would  acquire 
"  powerful. friends  to  them  and  to  their  children." 
Could  he  imagine  that  fuch  frigid  reafons  would 
touch  a  woman  of  any  fpirit  ?  A  moil  finking 
picture  of  indelicate  manners  is  exhibited  in  the 
tragedy  of  Alceftes.  Admetus  prevails  upon  Al- 
ceftes,  his  loving  and  beloved  wife,  to  die  in  hi$ 
ilead.  What  a  barbarian  muft  the  man  be  who 
grafps  at  life,  upon  fuch  a  condition  ?  How  ridi- 
culous is  the  bombaft  flourifh  of  Admetus,  that,  if 
he  were  Orpheus,  he  would  pierce  to  hell,  brave 
the  three-headed  Cerberus,  and  bring  his  wife  to 
earth  again  !  and  how  indecently  does  he  fcold  his 
father  for  refuiing  to  die  for  him  !  What  pretext 
could  the  monfler  have  to  complain  of  his  father, 
when  he  himfelf  was  fo  difgracefully  fond  of  life, 
as  even  to  folicit  his  beloved  fpoufe  to  die  in  his 
Head !  What  ilronger  inilance,  after  all,  would 
one  require  of  indelicacy  in  the  manners  of  the 
Greeks,  than  that  they  held  all  the  world  except 
themfelves  to  be  barbarians  ?  In  that  particular, 
however,  they  are  not  altogether  fingular.  Though 
the  Tartars,  as  mentioned  above,  were  foul  feeders, 
and  hoggifhly  nafly,  yet  they  were  extremely 
proud,  defpifmg,  Jike  the  Greeks,  every  other  na- 
tion. The  'people  of  Congo  think  the  world  to  be 
the  work  of  angels,  except  their  own  country, 

which 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  30$ 

which  they  hold  to  be  the  handiwork  of  the  fu- 
preme  architect.  The  Greenlanders  have  a  high 
conceit  of  themfelves ;  and  in  private  make  a  mock 
of  the  Europeans,  or  Kablunets,  as  they  call  them. 
Defpiling  arts  and  fciences,  they  value  themfelves 
on  their  fkill  in  catching  feals,  conceiving  it  to  be 
the  only  ufeful  art.  They  hold  themfelves  to  be 
the  only  civilized  and  well-bred  people  ;  and  when 
they  fee  a  modeft  ftranger,  they  fay,  "  he  begins 
"  to  be  a  man  ;r  that  is,  to  be  like  one  of  them- 
felves. Sometimes,  however,  fparks  of  light  are 
perceived  breaking  through  the  deepeft  gloom. 
When  the  Athenians  were  at  war  with  Philip 
King  of  Macedon,  they  intercepted  fome  letters 
addrefled  by  him  to  his  minifters.  Thefe  they 
opened  for  intelligence  :  but  one  to  his  Queen 
Olympias  they  left  with  the  meffenger  untoudie'd. 
This  was  done  not  by  a  {ingle  perfon,  but  by  au- 
thority of  the  whole  people. 

So  coarfe  and  indelicate,  were  Roman  manners, 
that  whipping  was  a  punifhment  infli&ed  on  the 
officers  of  the  army,  not  even  excepting  centu- 
rions*. Doth  it  not  fhow  extreme  grojTnefs  of 
manners,  to  exprefs  in  plain  words  the  parts  that 
modefly  bids  us  conceal  ?  and  yet  this  is  common 
in  Greek  and  Roman  writers.  In  the  Cyclops  of 
Euripides,  there  is  reprefented  a  fcene  of  the  vice 
againft  nature,  grofsly  obfcene,  without  the  leaft 
difguife.  How  wofully  indelicate  muft  the  man 

T  4  Jiave 

*    Julius  Capitolinus,  in  the  life  of  Albinus* 


306  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

have  been,  who  could  fit  down  gravely  to  compofe 
fuch  a  piece  !  and  how  diflblute  muft  the  fpedta- 
tors  have  been  who  could  behold  fuch  a  fcene 
without  hiffing  !  Next  to  the  indecency  of  expor 
fing  one's  nudities  in  good  company,  is  the  talk- 
ing of  them  without  referve.  Horace  is  extreme- 
ly obfcene,  and  Martial  no  lefs.  But  I  cenfure 
neither  of  them,  and  as  little  the  Queen  of  Navarre 
for  her  tales ;  for  they  wrote  according  to  the- 
manners  of  the  times :  it  is  the  manners  I  cenfure, 
not  the  writers.  In  Rome,  a  woman  taken  in  adul- 
tery was  proflituted  on  the  public  ftreet  to  all 
comers,  a  bell  ringing  the  whole  time.  This  abo- 
minable practice  was  abolilhed  by  the  Emperor 
Theodofius  *.. 

The  manners  of  Europe,  before  the  revival  of 
letters,  were  no  lefs  coarfe  than  cruel.  In  the 
Cartularies  of  Charlemagne,  judges  are  forbidden 
to  hold  courts  but  in  the  morning,  with  an  empty 
ilomach.  It  would  appear,  that  men  in  thofe  days 
were  not  afhamed  to  be  feen  drunk,  even  in  a  court 
of  juflice.  It  was  cuftomary,  both  in  France  and 
Italy,  to  collect  for  fport  all  the  ftrumpets  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  to  make  them  run  races.  Se- 
veral feudal  tenures  give  evidence  of  manners  both 

\ 

low  and  coarfe.  Struvius  mentions  a  tenure,  bind- 
ing the  vaflal,  on  the  birth- day  of  his  lord,  to 
(lance  and  fart  before  him.  The  cod-piece,  which, 
8,  few  centuries  ago,  made  part  of  a  man's  drefs, 

and 
t  Socrates,  Hift.  Eccl.  liy.  5.  chap.  18. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  307 

and  which  fwelled  by  degrees  to  a  monftrous  fize, 
teftifies  fhamefully  coarfe  manners  ;  and  yet  it  was 
a  modeft  ornament,  compared  with  one  ufed  in 
France  during  the  reign  of  Lewis  XI.  which  was 
the  figure  of  a  man's  privy  parts  fixed  to  the  coat 
or  breeches.     In  the  fame  period,  the  judgment 
of  Paris  was  a  favourite  theatrical  entertainment : 
three   women   flark-naked   reprefented  the   three 
goddefles,    Juno,   Venus,    and    Minerva.       Nick- 
names, fo  common  not  long  ago,  are  an  inflance  of 
the  fame  coarfenefs  of  manners ;  for  to  fix  a  nick- 
name on  a  man,  is  to  ufe  him  with  contemptuous 
familiarity.    In  the  thirteenth  century,  many  cler- 
gymen refufed  to  adminifter  the  facrament  of  the 
Lord's  fupper,  unlefs  they  were  paid  for  it*.     In 
the  tenth  century,  Edmond  King  of  England,  at 
a  feftival  in  the  county  of  Gloucefter,  obferved 
Leolf,  a  notorious  robber,  under  fentence  of  banilh- 
ment,*  fitting  at  table  with  the  King's  attendants. 
Enraged  at  this  infolence,  he  ordered  Leolf  to  leave 
the  room.      On  his  refufing  to  obey,  the  King 
leaped  on  him,  and  feized  him  by  the  hair.     The 
ruffian   drew  his    dagger,   and  gave  the  King  a 
wound,   of  which  he  immediately  expired.     How 
lamentable  would  be  our  condition,  were  we  as 

much 

*  *'  Corpus  Chrifti  tejientes  in  manibus,  (fays  the  canon), 
ac  fi  dicerent,  Quid  mihi  vultus  daie.  et  ego  eum  vobis 
tradam  ?" — [/«  Engli/b  thus  :  •'  Holding  the  body  of  Chrift  in 
M  their  hands,  as  if  they  faid,  What  will  you  give  me  for 


308  MEK  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

much  perfecuted  as  our  forefathers  were  with 
omens,  dreams,  prophelies,  aftrologers,  witches, 
and  apparitions  ?  Our  forefathers  were  robufl  both 
in  mind  and  body,  and  could  bear  without  much 
pain  what  would  totally  overwhelm  us. 

Even  after  the  revival  of  letters,  the  European 
manners  were  a  long  time  coarfe  and  indelicate. 
In  the  year  1480,  the  Cardinal  Bibiena  exhibited 
the  Calendra,  a  comedy  of  intrigue  upon  a  good 
model,  but  extremely  licentious,  as  all  compoii- 
tions  of  that  age  were.  The  Mandragora  of  Ma- 
chiavel  is  equally  licentious ;  and,  coniidering  the 
author,  the  Queen  of  Navarre's  tales,  woril  of  all. 

Swearing  as  an  expletive  of  fpeech,  is  a  violent 
fymptom  of  rough  and  coarfe  manners.  It  prevails 
among  all  barbarous  nations.  Even  women  in 
Plautus  ufe  it  fluently.  It  prevailed  in  Spain  and 
in  France,  till  it  was  banifhed  by  polite  manners. 
Our  Queen  Elifabeth  was  a  bold  fwearer  *  ;  and 
the  Englilh  populace,  who  are  rough  beyond  their 
neighbours,  are  noted  by  ilrangers  for  that  vice. 
John  King  of  England  fwore  commonly,  "  by  the 
'•'  teeth  of  God."  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  "  by 

«  God's 

'*  Writing  to  her  fitter  the  Queen,  begging  that  fhe  might 
not  be  imprifoned  in  the  Tower,  fhe  concludes  her  letter  thus  : 
"  As  for  that  traitor  Wyat,  he  might  peradventure  write  me 
**  a.  letter  :  but  on  my  faith  I  never  received  any  from  him. 
**  And,  as  for  the  copy  of  my  letter  fent  to  the  French  King, 
* "  I  pray  God  confound  me  eternally  if  ever  I  fent  him 
*'  word,  meffage,  token,  or  letter." 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  309 

**  God's  day."  Francis  I.  "  upon  the  faith  of  a 
"  gentleman."  And  the  oath  of  Lewis  XII.  was, 
"  May  the  devil  take  me."  Though  f weaving,  m 
order  to  enforce  an  expreffion,  is  not  in  itfelf  im- 
moral ;  it  is,  however,  hurtful  in  its  confequences, 
rendering  facred  names  too  familiar.  God's  beard, 
the  common  oath  of  William  Rufus,  fuggefts  an 
image  of  our  Maker  as  an  old  man  with  a  long 
beard.  In  vain  have  acts  of  parliament  been  made 
againft  fwearing:  it  is  eafy  to  evade  the  penalty, 
by  coining  new  oaths ;  and,  as  that  vice  proceeds 
from  an  overflow  of  fpirits,  people  in  that  condition 
brave  penalties.  Polifhed  manners  are  the  only 
effectual  cure  for  that  malady. 

When  a  people  begin  to  emerge  out  of  barbarity, 
loud  mirth  and  rough  jokes  come  in  place  of  ran- 
cour and  refentment.  About  a  century  ago,  it  was 
ufual  for  the  fervants  and  retainers  of  the  Court 
of  Seffion  in  Scotland,  to  break  out  into  riotous 
mirth  and  uproar  the  laft  day  of  every  term,  throw- 
ing bags,  duft,  fand,  or  ftones,  all  around.  We 
have  undoubted  evidence  of  that  diforderly  prac- 
tice from  an  act  of  the  Court,  prohibiting  it  under 
a  fevere  penalty,  as  difhonourable  to  the  Court, 
and  unbecoming  the  civility  requilite  in  fuch  a 
place  *. 

And  this  leads  to  the  lownefs  of  ancient  man- 
ners; plainly  diftinguilhable  from  limplicity  of 
manners  :  the  latter  is  agreeable,  not  the  former. 

Among 
f  Aft  of  Sedenmt,  2ift  February  1663.  , 


3IO  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY:  [B.  f. 

Among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  to  cram  a  man  was 
an  act  of  high  refpecT:.  Jofeph,  the  King's  firft 
minifter,  in  order  to  honour  Benjamin  above  his 
brethren,  gave  him  a  five-fold-mefs  *.  The  Greeks, 
in  their  feafts,  diftinguifhed  their  heroes  by  a  double 
portion  f .  UlyfTes  cut  a  fat  piece  out  of  the  chine 
of  a  wild  boar  for  Demodocus  the  bard  J.  The 
fame  refpeclful  politenefs  is  practifed  at  prefent 
among  the  American  favages,  fo  much  are  all  men 
alike  in  fimilar  circumftances.  Telemachus  [|  com- 
plains bitterly  of  Penelope's  fuitors,  that  they  were 
gluttons,  and  confumed  his  beef  and  mutton.  The 
whole  1 4th  book  of  the  Odyffey,  containing  the 
reception  of  Ulyfles  by  Eumseus  the  fwine-herd, 
is  miferably  low.  Manners  muft  be  both  grofs  and 
low,  where  common  beggars  are  admitted  to  the 
feails  of  princes,  and  receive  fcraps  from  their 
hands  § .  In  Rome  every  gueft  brought  his  own 
napkin  to  a  feaft.  A  flave  carried  it  home,  filled 
with  what  was  left  from  the  entertainment.  So- 
phbcles,  in  his  tragedy  of  Iphigenia  in  Aulis,  re- 
prefents  Clytemneflra,  ftepping  down  from  her  car, 
and  exhorting  her  fervants  to  look  after  her  bag- 
gage, with  the  anxiety  and  minutenefs  of  a  lady's 
wait  ing- woman.  In  the  tragedy  of  Jon,  this  man, 
a  fervant  in  the  temple  of  Delphos,  is  reprefented 

cleaning 

*  Gen-  xliii.  34.  f  Odyfley,  b.  8.  v.  513.  B.  15.  v.  156, 

J  Odyfley,  b.  8.  v.  519.  ||  Odyfley,  b.  2. 

§  See  i7th  and  i8th  books  of  the  Odyfley. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS. 

cleaning  the  temple,  and  calling  out  to  a  flock  of 
birds,  each  by  name,  threatening  to  pierce  them 
with  his  arrows  if  they  dunged  upon  the  offerings. 
Homer  paints  in  lively  colours  the  riches  of  the 
Phoeacians,  their  Ikill  in  navigation,  the  magnifi- 
cence of  the  King's  court,  of  his  palace,  and  of 
the  public  buildings.  But,  with  the  fame  breath, 
he  defcribes  Nauficaa,  the  King's  daughter,  tra- 
velling to  the  river  on  a  waggon  of  greafy  clothes, 
to  be  warned  by  her  and  her  maids.  Poffibly  it 
may  be  urged,  that  fuch  circumilances,  however 
low  in  our  opinion,  did  not  appear  low  in  Greece, 
as  they  were  introduced  by  their  chief  poet,  and 
the  greatelt  that  ever  exilted.  I  acknowledge  the 
force  of  this  argument :  but  what  does  it  prove, 
more  than  that  the  Greeks  were  not  fenfible  of 
the  lownefs  of  their  manners  ?  Is  any  nation  fen- 
fible of  the  lownefs  of  their  own  manners  ?  The 
manners  of  the  Greeks  did  not  correfpond  to  the 
delicacy  of  their  taile  in  the  fine  arts  :  nor  can  it 
be  expected,  when  they  were  ftrangers  to  that  po- 
lite fociety  with  women,  which  refines  behaviour, 
and  elevates  manners.  The  firft  kings  in  Greece, 
as  Thucydides  obferves,  were  elective,  having  no 
power  but  to  command  their  armies  in  time  of  war  \ 
which  refembles  the  government  r,that  obtains  at 
prefent  in  the  ifthmus  of  Darien.  The  Greeks  had 
no  written  laws,  being  governed  by  cuftom  mere- 
ly. To  live  by  plunder  was  held  honourable ;  for 
it  was  their  opinion,  that  the  rules  of  juftice  are 

not 


312  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.I. 

not  intended  for  retraining  the  powerful.  All 
ftrangers  were  accounted  enemies,  as  among  the 
Romans ;  and  inns  were  unknown,  becaufe  people 
lived  at  home,  having  very  little  intercourfe  even 
with  thofe  of  their  own  nation.  Inns  were  un- 
known in  Germany,  and  to  this  day  are  unknown 
in  the  remote  parts  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  ; 
but  for  an  oppolite  reafon,  that  hofpitality  prevail- 
ed greatly  among  the  ancient  Germans,  and  con- 
tinues to  prevail  fo  much  among  our  Highlanders, 
that  a  gentleman  takes  it  for  an  affront  if  a  ftr an- 
ger pafs  his  door.  At  a  congrefs  between  Fran- 
cis I.  of  France  and  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  a- 
mong  other  fpedacles  for  public  entertainment,  the 
two  Kings  had  a  wreftling  match.  Had  they  for- 
got that  they  were  fovereign  princes  ? 

One  would  imagine  war  to  be  a  foil  too  rough 
for  the  growth  of  civilization  ;  and  yet  it  is  not 
always  an  unkindly  foil.  War  between  two  fmall 
tribes  is  fierce  and  cruel :  but  a  large  ftate  miti- 
gates refentment,  by  directing  it  not  againft  indi- 
viduals, but  againft  the  ftate.  We  know  no  ene- 
mies but  thofe  who  are  in  arms :  we  have  no  re- 
fentment againft  others,  but  rather  find  a  pleafure 
in  treating  them  with  humanity  *.  Cruelty,  ha~ 

_  ving 

*  The  conftable  du  Guefclin,  the  greateft  warrior  of  hfc 
time,  being  on  deathbed,  anno  1380,  and  bidding  adieu  to  his; 
veteran  officers  who  had  ferved  under  him  for  forty  years, 
entreated  them  not  to  forget  what  he  had  faid  to  them  a 

thoufand 


« 

It 
« 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  313 

ving  thus  in  war  few  individuals  for  its  object, 
naturally  fubfides ;  and  magnanimity  in  its  ftead 
transforms  foldiers  from  brutes  to  heroes.  Some 
time  ago,  it  was  ufual  in  France  to  demand  battle  ; 
and  it  was  held  difhonourable  to  decline  it,  how- 
ever unequal  the  match.  Before  the  battle  of 
Pavia,  Francis  I.  wrote  to  the  Marquis  Pefcara, 
the  Imperial  General,  "  You  will  find  me  before 
"  Pavia,  and  you  ought  to  be  here  in  fix  days :  I 
give  you  twenty.  Let  not  the  fuperiority  of 
my  forces  ferve  for  an  excufe  ;  I  will  fight  you 
with  equal  numbers."  Here  was  heroifm  with- 
out prudence  ;  but,  in  all  reformations,  it  is  natu- 
ral to  go  from  one  extreme  to  the  other.  While 
the  King  of  England  held  any  pofieffions  in  France, 
war  was  perpetual  between  the  two  nations,  which 
was  commonly  carried  on  with  more  magnanimity 
than  is  ufual  between  inveterate  enemies.  It  be- 
came cultomary  to  give  prifoners  their  freedom, 
upon  a  fimple  parole  to  return  with  their  ranfom 
at  a  day  named.  The  fame  was  the  cuftom  in  the 
border-wars  between  the  Engliih  and  Scots,  before 
their  union  under  one  monarch.  But  parties  found 
their  account  equally  in  fuch  honourable  beha- 
viour. Edward  Prince  of  Wales,  in  a  pitched 
battle  againft  the  French,  took  the  illuflrious  Ber- 
trand  du  Guefclin  prifoner.  He  long  declined  to 

accept 

thoufand  times,  '«•  that  in  whatever  country  they  made  war, 
"  churchmen,  women,  infants,  and  the  poor  people,  were 
"  not  their  enemies." 


314  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I* 

accept  a  ranfom;  but,  finding  it  whifpered  that 
he  was  afraid  of  that  hero,  he  inftantly  fet  him  at 
liberty  without  a  ranfom.  This  may  be  deemed 
impolitic  or  whimfical  :  but  is  love  of  glory  lefs 
praife-worthy  than  love  of  conqueft  ?  The  Duke 
of  Guife,  victor  in  the  battle  of  Dreux,  refted  all 
night  in  the  field  of  battle  ;  and  gave  the  Prince 
of  Conde,  his  prifoner,  a  mare  of  his  bed,  where 
they  lay  like  brothers.  The  Chevalier  Bayard, 
commander  of  a  French  army  anno  1524,  being 
mortally  wounded  in  retreating  from  the  Impe- 
rialifts,  placed  himfelf  under  a  tree,  his  face,  how- 
ever, to  the  enemy.  The  Marquis  de  Pefcara, 
general  of  the  Imperialifts,  finding  him  dead  in 
that  poilure,  behaved  with  the  generofity  of  a  gal- 
lant adverfary  :  he  directed  his  body  to  be  em- 
balmed, and  to  be  fent  to  his  relations  in  the  molt 
honourable  manner.  Magnanimity  and  heroifm, 
in  which  benevolence  is  an  efiential  ingredient,  are 
inconfiilent  with  cruelty,  perfidy,  or  any  grovel- 
ling paffion.  Never  was  gallantry  in  war  carried 
to  a  greater  height,  than  between  the  Englifh  and 
Scotch  borderers  before  the  crowns  were  united. 
The  night  after  the  battle  of  Otterburn,  the  vic- 
tors and  vanquifhed  lay  promifcuouily  in  the  fame 
camp,  without  apprehending  the  leaft  danger  one 
from  the  other.  The  manners  of  ancient  warriors 
were  very  different.  Homer's  hero,  though  fupe- 
rior  to  all  in  bodjly  ftrength,  takes  every  advan- 
tage of  his  eneay,  and  never  feels  cither  compaf-  , 

fion 


SK«  5.]  MANNERS,  315 

fion  or  remorfe.  The  policy  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  in  war,  was  to  weaken  a  (late  by  plunder- 
ing its  territory,  and  deftroying  its  people.  Hu- 
manity with  us  prevails  even  in  war.  Individuals 
not  in  arms  are  fecure,  which  faves  much  innocent 
blood.  Prifoners  were  fet  at  liberty  upon  paying 
a  ranfom  \  and,  by  later  improvements  in  manners, 
even  that  practice  is  left  off  as  too  mercantile,  a 
more  honourable  practice  being  fubftituted,  name- 
ly, a  cartel  for  exchange  of  prifoners.  Humanity 
was  carried  to  a  flill  greater  height,  in  our  late 
war  with  France,  by  an  agreement  between  the 
Duke  de  Noailes  and  the  Earl  of  Stair,  That  the 
hofpitals  for  the  lick  and  wounded  foldiers  mould 
be  fecure  from  all  hoftilities.  The  humanity  of 
the  Duke  de  Randan  in  the  fame  war,  makes  an 
illuftrious  figure  even  in  the  prefent  age,  remark- 
able for  humanity  to  enemies.  When  the  French 
troops  were  compelled  to  abandon  their  conquefts 
in  the  electorate  of  Hanover,  their  Generals  every 
where  burnt  their  magazines,  and  plundered  the 
people.  The  Duke  de  Randan,  who  commanded 
in  the  city  of  Hanover,  put  the  magiftrates  in  pof- 
feflion  of  his  magazines,  requefting  them  to  diftri- 
bute  the  contents  among  the  poor  ;  and  he  was, 
beiide,  extremely  vigilant  to  prevent  his  foldiers 
from  committing  ads  of  violence  *.  I  relifh  not 
VOL.  I.  U  the 

*  Such  kindnefs  in  an  enemy  from  whom  nothing  is  ex- 
but  znifchief,  is  an  illuftrious  inftance  of  humanity. 

And 


316  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

the  brutality  exercifed  in  theprefent  war  between 
the  Turks  and  Ruffians.   The  latter,  to  fecure  their 

winter 

And  a  fimilar  inftance  will  not  make  the  lefs  figure  that 
it  was  done  by  a  man  of  inferior  rank.  When  Monf.  Thurot, 
during  our  late  war  with  France,  appeared  on  the  coaft  of 
Scotland  with  three  armed  veffels ;  the  terror  he  at  firft 
fpread,  foon  yielded  to  admiration  of  his  humanity.  He  paid 
a  full  price  for  every  thing  ;  and,  in  general,  behaved  with 
fo  much  affability,  that  a  country -man  ventured  to  complain 
to  him  of  an  officer  who  had  robbed  him  of  fifty  or  fixty 
guineas.  The  officer  acknowledged  the  fact,  but  faid,  that 
he  had  divided  the  money  among  his  men.  Thurot  ordered 
the  officer  to  give  his  bill  for  the  money,  which,  he  faid, 
fliould  be  flopped  out  of  his  pay,  if  they  were  fo  fortunate  as 
to  return  to  France.  Compare  this  incident  with  that  of  the 
great  Scipio,  celebrated  in  Roman  ftory,  who  reftored  a 
beautiful  young  woman  to  her  bridegroom,  and  it  will  not 
fuffer  by  the  comparifon-  Another  inftance  is  no  lefs  re- 
markable. One  of  his  officers  gave  a  bill  upon  a  merchant 
in  France,  for  the  price  of  provifions  purchafed  by  him. 
Thurot  having  accidentally  feen  the  bill,  informed  the  coun- 
try-man that  it  was  of  no  value,  reprimanded  the  officer  bit- 
terly for  the  cheat,  and  compelled  him  to  give  a  bill  upon  a 
merchant  who  he  knew  would  pay  the  money.  At  that  very 
time,  Thurot's  men  were  in  bad  humour,  and  difpofed  to 
mutiny.  In  fuch  circumftances,  would  not  Thurot  have  been 
excufed  for  winking  at  a  fraud  to  which  }ie  was  not  accefibry  ? 
But  he  acted  all  along  with  the  ftricteft  honour,  even  at  the 
hazard  of  his  life.  Common  honefty  to  an  enemy  is  not  a 
common  practice  in  war,  Thurot  was  ftrictly  honeft  in  cir- 
cumftances  that  made  the  exertion  of  common  honefty  an  act 
pf  the  higheft  magnanimity.  Thefe  incidents  ought  to  be 
up  to  princes  as  examples  of  true  heroifm.  War  carried 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  317 

winter  quarters  on  the  left  hand  of  the  Danube,  laid 
wade  a  large  territory  on  the  right.    To  reduce  fo 
many  people  to  mifery  merely  to  prevent  a  furprife, 
which  can  be  more  effectually  done  by  Uriel:  difci- 
pline,  is  a  barbarous  remedy.     But  the  peace  con- 
cluded between  thefe  great  powers,  has  given  an 
opening  to  manners  very  different  from  what  were 
to   be   expected   from   the   fact   now  mentioned. 
This  peace  has  been  attended  with  fignal  marks 
not  only  of  candour,  but  of  courtefy.     The  Grand 
Signior,   of  his  own  accord,   has  difmiffed  from 
chains  every  Chriflian  taken  prifoner  during  the 
war  ;  and  the  Emprefs  of  Ruflia  has  fet  at  liberty 
3000  Turks,   with  an  order  to  fet  at  liberty  every 
Turk   within  her  dominions.      The   neceffity  of 
fortifying  towns  to  guard  from  definition  the  in- 
nocent and  defencelefs,  affords  convincing  evidence 
of  the   favage   cruelty  that   prevailed   in   former 
times.     By  the  growth  of  humanity,  fuch  fortifi- 
cations have  become  lefs  frequent :  and  they  ferve 
no  purpofe  at  prefent,  but  to  defend  againft  inva- 
fion  ;  in  which  view  a  fmall  fortification,  if  but 
fufficient  for  the  garrifon,  is  greatly  preferable,  be- 
ll 1  ing 

on  in  that  manner,  would,  from  defolation  and  horror,  be 
converted  into  a  fair  field  for  acquiring  true  military  glory, 
and  for  exercifing  every  manly  virtue.  I  feel  the  greateft 
fatisfa&ion,  in  paying  this  tribute  of  praife  to  the  memory  of 
that  great  man.  He  will  be  kept  in  remembrance  by  every 
true-hearted  Briton,  though  he  died  fighting  againft  us.  But 
he  died  in  the  field  of  honour,  fighting  for  his  country. 


318  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY. 

ing  conftructed  at  a  much  lefs  expence,  and  ha- 
ving the  garrifon  only  to  provide  for. 

In  the  progrefs  of  fociety,  there  is  commonly  a 
remarkable  period,  when  focial  and  diflbcial  paf- 
iions  feem  to  bear  equal  fway,  prevailing  alter- 
rjately.  In  the  hiftory  of  Alexander's  fucceflbrs, 
there  are  frequent  inftances  of  cruelty,  equalling 
that  of  American  favages ;  and  inftances  no  lefs 
frequent  of  gratitude,  of  generoiity,  and  even  of 
clemency,  that  betoken  manners  highly  polifhed. 
Ptolemy  of  Egypt,  having  gained  a  complete,  vic- 
tory over  Demetrius,  fon  of  Antigonus,  reftored  to 
him  his  equipage,  his  friends,  and  his  domeftics, 
faying,  that  "  they  ought  not  to  make  war  for 
"  plunder,  but  for  glory.':  Demetrius  having  de- 
feated one  of  Ptolemy's  generals,  was  lefs  delighted 
with  the  victory,  than  with  the  opportunity  of  ri- 
valling his  antagorjift  in  humanity.  The  fame 
Demetrius  having  reftored  liberty  to  the  Atheni- 
ans, was  treated  by  them  as  a  demi-god  ;  and  yet 
afterward,  in  his  adverfity,  found  their  gates  fhut 
againftV  him.  Upon  a  change  of  fortune,  he  laid 
fiege  to  Athens,  refolving  to  chaftife  that  rebellious 
and  ungrateful  people.  He  afTembled  the  inhabi- 
tants in  the  theatre,  furrounding  them  with  his  ar- 
my, as  preparing  for  a  total  maflacre.  Their  ter- 
ror was  extreme,  but  fhort :  he  pronounced  their 
pardon,  and  beftowed  on  them  100,000  meafures 
pf  wheat.  Ptolemy,  the  fame  who  is  mentioned 
above,  having,  at  t|ie  fiege  of  Tyre,  fummoned 

Andronicus 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  319 

Andronicus  the  governor  to  furfender,  received  a 
provoking  and  contemptuous  anfwer.  The  town 
being  taken,  Andronicus  gave  himfelf  up  to  de- 
fpair  :  but  the  King,  thinking  it  below  his  dignity 
to  refent  an  injury  done  to  him  by  an  inferior,  now 
his  prifoner,  not  only  overlooked  the  injury,  but 
courted  Andronicus  to  be  his  friend.  Edward,  the 
Black  Prince,  is  an  inftance  of  refined  manners, 
breaking,  like  a  fpark  of  fire,  through  the  gloom 
of  barbarity.  The  Emperor  Charles  V.  after  lo- 
ling  30,000  men  at  the  fiege  of  Metz,  made  an 
ignominious  retreat,  leaving  his  camp  filled  with 
lick  and  wounded,  dead  and  <lying.  Though  the 
war  between  him  and  the  King  of  France  was  car- 
ried on  with  unufual  rancour,  yet  the  Duke  of 
Guife,  governor  of  the  town,  exerted,  in  thofe  bar- 
barous times,  a  degree  of  humanity  that  would 
make  a  fplendid  figure  even  at  prefent.  He  order- 
ed plenty  of  food  for  thofe  who  were  dying  of  hun- 
ger, appointed  furgeons  to  attend  the  lick  and 
wounded,  removed  to  the  adjacent  villages  thofe 
who  could  bear  motion,  and  admitted  the  remain- 
der into  the  hofpitals  that  he  had  fitted  up  for  his 
own  foldiers :  thofe  who  recovered  their  health 
were  fent  home,  with  money  to  defray  the  ex- 
pence  of  the  journey. 

In  the  period  that  intervenes  between  barbarity 
and  humanity,  there  are  not  wanting  inftances  of 
oppofite  paffions  in  the  fame  perfon,  governing  al- 
ternately \  as  if  a  man  could  this  moment  be  mild 

TJ  3  and 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

and  gentle,  and  next  moment  harih  and  brutal. 
To  vouch  the  truth  of  this  obfervation,  I  beg  leave 
to  introduce  two  rival  monarchs,  who  for  many 
years  diftrefied  their  own  people,  and  difturbed 
Europe,  the  Emperor  Charles,  and  the  French  King 
Francis.  The  Emperor,  driven  by  contrary  winds 
on J  the  coaft  of  France,  was  invited  by  Francis, 
who  happened  to  be  in  the  neighbourhood,  to  take 
fhelter  in  his  dominions,  propofing  an  interview  at 
Aigues-Mortes,  a  fea-port  town.  The  Emperor 
inftantly  repaired  there  in  his  galley  ;  and  Francis, 
relying  on  the  Emperor's  honour,  vilited  him  on 
fhipboard,  and  was  received  with  every  expreflion 
of  affection.  Next  day  the  Emperor  repaid  the 
confidence  repofed  in  him  :  he  landed  at  Aigues- 
Mortes  with  as  little  precaution,  and  found  a  re- 
ception equally  cordial.  After  twenty  years  of 
open  hoflilities  or  of  fecret  enmity  ;  after  having 
formally  given  the  lie  and  challenged  each  other 
rto  fingle  combat;  after  the  Emperor  had  public- 
ly inveighed  againll  Francis  as  void  of  honour, 
and  Francis  had  accufed  the  Emperor  as  murderer 
of  his  own  fon, — a  behaviour  fo  open  and  frank 
will  fcarce  be  thought  confident  with  human  na* 
ture.  But  thefe  monarchs  lived  in  a  period  ver- 
ging from  cruelty  to  humanity  ;  and  fuch  periods 
abound  with  furprifing  changes  of  temper  and  be- 
haviour. In  the  prefent  times,  changes  fo  violent 
are  unknown. 

Conqueft  has  not  always  the  fame  effect:  upon 

the 


.  5.]  MANNERS.  321 

the  manners  of  the  conquered.  The  Tartars  who 
fubdued  China  in  the  thirteenth  century,  adopted 
immediately  the  Chinefe  manners :  the  govern- 
ment, laws,  cuftoms,  continued  without  variation. 
And  the  fame  happened  upon  their  fecond  conqueft 
of  China  in  the  feventeenth  century.  The  barba- 
rous nations  alfo  who  crufhed  the  Roman  empire, 
adopted  the  laws,  cuftoms,  and  manners,  of  the 
conquered.  Very  different  was  the  fate  of  the 
Greek  empire  when  conquered  by  the  Turks. 
That  warlike  nation  introduced  every  where  their 
own  laws  and  manners :  even  at  this  day  they  con- 
tinue a  diftind  people  as  much  as  ever.  The  Tar- 
tars, as  well  as  the  barbarians  who  overthrew  the 
Roman  empire,  were  all  of  them  rude  and  illite- 
rate, deftitute  of  laws,  and  ignorant  of  govern- 
ment. Such  nations  readily  adopt  the  laws  and 
manners  of  a  civilized  people  whom  they  admire. 
The  Turks  had  laws,  and  a  regular  government ; 
and  the  Greeks,  when  fubdued  by  them,  were  re- 
duced by  fenfuality  to  be  objects  of  contempt,  not 
of  imitation. 

Manners  are  deeply  affected  by  perfecution. 
The  forms  of  procedure  in  the  Inquilition  enable 
the  inquifitors  to  ruin  whom  they  pleafe.  A  per- 
fon  accufed  is  not  confronted  with  the  accufer : 
every  fort  of  accufation  is  welcome,  and  from  every 
perfon:  a  child,  a  common  proftitute,  one  branded 
with  infamy,  are  reputable  vvitnefles :  a  man  is 
compelled  to  give  evidence  againft  his  father,  and 

U4  a 


322  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

a  woman  againft  her  hufband.  Nay,  the  perfons 
accufed  are  compelled  to  inform  againil  themfelves, 
by  gueffing  what  fin  they  may  have  been  guilty 
of.  Such  odious,  cruel,  and  tyrannical  proceed- 
ings, made  all  Spain  tremble  :  every  man  diftrufted 
his  neighbour,  and  even  his  own  family  :  a  total 
end  was  put  to  friendfhip,  and  to  focial  freedom. 
Hence  the  gravity  and  referve  of  a  people,  who 
have  naturally  all  the  vivacity  arifing  from  a  tem- 
perate clime  and  bountiful  foil*.  Hence  the  pro- 
found ignorance  of  that  people,  while  other  Euro- 
pean nations  are  daily  improving  in  every  art  and 
in  every  fcience.  Human  nature  is  reduced  to  its 
lowed  ftate,  when  governed  by  fuperftition  clothed 
with  power. 

We  proceed  to  another  capital  article  in  the  hi- 
ilory  of  manners,  namely,  the  felfifh  and  focial 
branches  of  our  nature,  by  which  manners  are 
greatly  influenced.  Selfifhnefs  prevails  among  fa- 
vages ;  becaufe  corporeal  pleafures  are  its  chief 
objects,  and  of  thefe  every  favage  is  perfectly  fen- 
fible.  Benevolence  and  kindly  affedtion  are  too 
refined  for  a  favage,  unlefs  of  the  limpleft  kind, 
fuch  as  the  ties  of  blood.  While  artificial  wants 
^ere  unknown,  felfilhnefs,  though  prevalent,  made 
no  capital  figure  :  the  means  of  gratifying  the  calls 

of 

*  The  populace  of  Spain,  too  low  game  for  the  Inquifition, 
are  abundantly  chearful,  perhaps  more  fo  than  thofe  of  France. 
And  I  am  credibly  informed,  that  the  Spanifh  woman  are 
perpetually  dancing,  finging,  laughing  or  talking. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS*  323 

of  nature  were  in  plenty ;  and  men,  who  are  not 
afraid  of  ever  being  in  want,  never  think  of  pro- 
viding againft  it ;  and  far  lefs  do  they  think  of  co- 
veting what  belongs  to  another.  The  Caribbeans, 
who  know  no  wants  but  what  nature  infpires,  are 
amazed  at  the  induftry  of  the  Europeans  in  amaf- 
iing  wealth.  Liften  to  one  of  them  expoftulating 
with  a  Frenchman  in  the  following  terms  :  "  How 
"  miferable  art  thou,  to  expofe  thy  perfon  to  te- 
"  dious  and  dangerous  voyages,  and  to  fuffer  thy- 
"  felf  to  be  oppreiTed  with  anxiety  about  futurity  ! 
"  An  inordinate  appetite  for  wealth  is  thy  bane  ; 
"  and  yet  thou  art  no  lefs  tormented  in  preferving 
"  the  goods  thou  haft  acquired,  than  in  acquiring 
"  more  :  fear  of  robbery  or  fhipwreck  fuffers  thee 
"  not  to  enjoy  a  quiet  moment.  Thus  thou  grow- 
"  eft  old  in  thy  youth,  thy  hair  turns  gray,  thy 
"  forehead  is  wrinkled,  a  thoufand  ailments  afflicl: 
"  thy  body,  a  thoufand  diftrefles  furround  thy 
"  heart,  and  thou  moveft  with  painful  hurry  to  the 
"  grave.  Why  art  thou  not  content  with  what 
"  thy  own  country  produceth  ?  Why  not  contemn 
"  fuperfluities,  as  we  do  ?"  But  men  are  not  long 
contented  with  iimple  neceftaries :  an  unwearied 
appetite  to  be  more  and  more  comfortably,  provi- 
ded, leads  them  from  neceflaries  to  conveniences, 
and  from  thefe  to  every  fort  of  luxury.  Avarice 
turns  headftrong  ;  and  locks  and  bars,  formerly 
unknown,  become  neceflary  to  protect  people  from 
the  rapacity  of  their  neighbours.  When  the  goods 

of 


3^4  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.         [fi.  J. 

of  fortune,  money  in  particular,  come  to  be  prized, 
felfifhnefs  foon  difplays  itfelf.     In  Madagafcar,  a 
man  who  makes  a  prefent  of  an  ox  or  a  calf,  ex- 
pects the  value  in  return  ;  and  fcruples  not  to  fay, 
"  You  my  friend,  I  your  friend  ;  you  no  my  friend, 
"  I  no  your  friend  ;  I  falamanca  you,  you  fala- 
"  manca  me*."    Admiral  Watfon  being  introdu- 
ced to  the  king  of  Baba,  in  Madagafcar,  was  aflced 
by  his  Majefty,  What  prefents  he  had  brought  ? 
Hence  the  cuftom,  univerfal  among  barbarians,  of 
always  accofting  a  king,  or  any  man  of  high  rank, 
with  prefents.     Sir  John  Chardin  fays,  that  this 
cuftom  goes  through  all  Afia.     It  is  reckoned  an 
honour  to  receive  prefents :  they  are  received  in 
public ;  and  a  time  is  chofen  when  the  crowd  is 
greateft.     It  is  a  maxim  too  refined  for  the  poten- 
tates of  Afia,  that  there  is  more  honour  in  beftow- 
ing  than  in  receiving. 

The  peculiar  excellence  of  man  above  all  other 
animals,  is  the  capacity  he  has  of  improving  by 
education  and  example.  In  proportion  as  his  fa- 
culties refine,  he  acquires  a  relifh  for  fociety,  and 
finds  a  pleafure  in  benevolence,  generofity,  and  in 
every  other  kindly  affection,  far  above  what  felfifh- 
nefs can  afford.  How  agreeable  is  this  fcene  ! 
Alas,  too  agreeable  to  be  lafting.  Opulence  and 
luxury  inflame  the  hording  appetite ;  and  felfifh- 
nefs at  laft  prevails  as  it  did  originally.  The  fel- 
fifhnefs, however,  of  favages  differs  from  that  of 
pampered  people.  Luxury  confining  a  man's  whole 

views 
*  Salamanca  means  the  making  2 


SK-.  5«]  MANNERS.  3^5 

views  to  rthimfelf,  admits  not  of  friendihip,  and 
fcarce  of  any  other  focial  paflion.  But  where  a 
favage  takes  a  liking  to  a  particular  perfon,  the 
whole  force  of  his  focial  affedlion  being  directed  to 
a  fingle  object,  becomes  extremely  fervid.  Hence 
the  unexampled  friendfhip  between  Achilles  and 
Patroclus  in  the  Iliad  ;  and  hence  many  fuch  friend- 
Ihips  among  favages. 

But  there  is  much  more  to  be  faid  of  the  influ- 
ence of  opulence  on  manners.  Rude  and  illiterate 
nations  are  tenacious  of  their  laws  and  manners  ; 
for  they  are  governed  by  cuftom,  which  is  more 
and  more  rivetted  by  length  of  time.  A  people, 
on  the  contrary,  who  are  polifhed  by  having  paf- 
fed  through  various  fcenes,  are  full  of  invention, 
and  conftantly  thinking  of  new  modes.  Man- 
ners, in  particular,  can  never  be  flationary  in  a  na- 
tion refined  by  profperity  and  the  arts  of  peace. 
Good  government  will  advance  men  to  a  high  de- 
gree of  civilization  ;  but  the  very  bed  government 
will  not  preferve  them  from  corruption,  after  be- 
coming rich  by  profperity.  .Opulence  begets  luxu- 
ry, and  envigorates  the  appetite  for  fenfual  plea- 
fure.  The  appetite,  when  inflamed,  is  never  con- 
fined within  moderate  bounds,  but  clings  to  every 
objedt  of  gratification,  without  regard  to  propriety; 
or  decency.  When  Septimius  Severus  was  elected 
Emperor,  he  found  on  the  roll  of  caufes  depending 
before  the  judges  in  Rome  no  fewer  than  three 
thoufand  accufations  of  adultery.  From  that  mo- 
ment 


326  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

ment  he  abandoned  all  thoughts  of  a  reformation. 
Love  of  pleafure  is  limilar  to  love  of  money :  the 
more  it  is  indulged  the  more  it  is  inflamed.  Po- 
lygamy is  an  incentive  to  the  vice  againft  nature  j 
one  act  of  incontinence  leading  to  others  without 
end.  When  the  Sultan  Achmet  was  depofed  at 
Conftantinople,  the  people,  breaking  into  the  houfe 
of  one  of  his  favourites,  found  not  a  lingle  woman. 
It  is  reported  of  the  Algerines,  that  in  many  of 
their  feraglios  there  are  no  women.  For  the 
fame  reafon  polygamy  is  far  from  preventing  a- 
dultery,  a  truth  finely  illuflrated  in  Nathan's  pa- 
rable to  David.  What  judgment,  then,  are  we 
to  form  of  the  opulent  cities,  London  and  Pa- 
ris, where  pleafure  is  the  ruling  paffion,  and 
where  riches  are  coveted  as  inftruments  of  fen- 
fuality  ?  What  is  to  be  expected  but  a  peftife- 
rous  corruption  of  manners  ?  Selfifhnefs,  ingroffing. 
the  whole  foul,  eradicates  patriotifm,  and  leaves 
not  a  cranny  for  fbcial  virtue.  If  in  that  condition 
men  abftain  from  robbery  or  from  murder,  it  is  not 
love  of  juilice  that  reftrains  them,  but  dread  of 
punifhment.  Babylon  is  arraigned  by  Greek  wri- 
ters for  luxury,  fenfuality,  and  profligacy.  But 
Babylon  reprefents  the  capital  of  every  opulent 
kingdom,  ancient  and  modern  :  the  manners  of  all 
are  the  fame  ;  for  power  and  riches  never  fail  to 
produce  luxury,  fenfuality,  and  profligacy  #.  Can- 

gni, 

*  In  Paris  and  London,  people  of  fafhion  are  inceflantly 
running  after  pleafure,  without  ever  attaining  it.     Diffatisfied 

with 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  327 

ghi,  Emperor  of  China,  who  died  in  the  year  1722, 
deferves  to  be  recorded  in  the  annals  of  fame,  for 
refilling  the  foftnefs  and  effeminacy  of  an  Afiatic 
court.  Far  from  abandoning  himfelf  to  fenfual 
pleafure,  he  pafled  feveral  months  yearly  in  the 
mountains  of  Tartary,  moflly  on  horfeback,  and 
declining  no  fatigue.  Nor  in  that  fituation  were 
affairs  of  flate  neglected  :  many  hours  he  borrow- 
ed from  fleep,  to  hear  his  minifters,  and  to  ifTue  or- 
ders. How  few  monarchs,  bred  up  like  Canghi 
in  the  downy  indolence  of  a  feraglio,  have  refolu- 
tion  to  withftand  the  temptations  of  fenfual  plea- 
fure ! 

In  no  other  hiftory  is  the  influence  of  profperity 
and  opulence  on  manners  fo  confpicuous  as  in  that 
of  old  Rome.  During  the  fecond  Punic  war,  when 
the  Romans  were  reduced  by  Hannibal  to  fight  pro 
aris  et  focis,  Hiero,  King  of  Syracufe,  fent  to  Rome 
a  large  quantity  of  corn,  with  a  golden  ftatue  of  Vic- 
tory weighing  three  hundred  and  twenty  pounds, 
which  the  fenate  accepted.  But,  though  their  fi- 
nances were  at  the  loweft  ebb,  they  accepted  but 
the  lighted  of  forty  golden  vafes  prefented  to  them 
by  the  city  of  Naples ,  and  politely  returned, 
with  many  thanks,  fome  golden  vafes  fent  by  the 
city  of  Paeftum,  in  Lucania  :  a  rare  inftance  of 
magnanimity.  But  no  degree  of  virtue  is  proof 

againft 

with  the  prefent,  they  fondly  imagine  that  a  new  purfuit  will 
relieve  them.  Life  thus  pafles  like  a  dream,  with  no  enjoy- 
ment buj;  what  arifes  from 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.I. 

againft  the  corruption  of  conqueft  and  opulence. 
Upon  the  influx  of  Afiatic  riches  and  luxury,  the 
Romans  abandoned  themfelves  to  every  vice  :  they 
became,  in  particular,  wonderfully  avaricious, 
breaking  through  every  reftraint  of  juftice  and  hu- 
manity *.  Spain  in  particular,  which  abounded 
with  gold  and  lilver,  was  for  many  years  a  fcene, 
not  only  of  oppreflion  and  cruelty,  but  of  the  bafeft 
treachery,  praclifed  againft  the  natives  by  fuccef- 
live  Roman  generals,  in  order  to  accumulate  wealth. 
Lucullus,  who  afterwards  made  a  capital  figure  in 
the  Mithridatic  war,  attacked  Cauca,  a  Celtiberian 
city,  without  the  flighteft  provocation.  Some  of 
the  principal  citizens  repaired  to  his  camp  with 
olive  branches,  defiring  to  be  informed  upon  what 
conditions  they  could  purchafe  his  friendfhip.  It 
was  agreed  that  they  mould  give  hoftages,  with  a 
hundred  talents  of  lilver.  They  alfo  confented  to 
admit  a  garrifon  of  2000  men,  in  order,  faid  Lucul- 
lus, to  protect  them  againft  their  enemies.  But  how 
were  they  protected  ?  The  gates  were  opened  by 

'  the 

*  "  Poftquam  divitte  honori  efle  coeperunt,  et  eas  gloria,  im- 
perium,  potentia  fequebatur;  hebefcere  virtus,  paupertas  pro- 
bro  haberi,  innocentia  pro  malevolentia  duel,  coepit.  Igitur 
ex  divitiis  juventutem  luxuria,  atque  avaritia,  cum  fuperbia 
invafere."  Salluft.  Bell.  Cat.  c.  12 — [In  Engltfb  thus  :  "  After 
**  it  had  become  an  honour  to  be  rich,  and  glory,  empire,  and 
"  power,  became  the  attendants  of  riches,  virtue  declined 
"  apace,  poverty  was  reckoned  difgraceful,  and  innocence 
"  was  held  fecret  malice.  Thus  to  the  introduction  of  riches 
«<  our  youth  owe  their  luxury,  their  avarice,  and  pride."] 


SK.  5.J  MANNERS.  329 

the  garrifon  to  the  whole  army ;  and  the  inhabi- 
tants were  butchered,  without  diflinclion  of  fex  or 
age.  What  other  remedy  had  they,  but  to  invoke 
the  gods  prefiding  over  oaths  and  covenants,  and 
to  pour  out  execrations  againft  the  Romans  for 
their  perfidy  ?  Lucullus,  enriched  with  the  fpoils 
of  the  town,  felt  no  remorfe  for  leaving  20,000 
perfons  dead  upon  the  fpot.  Shortly  after,  having 
laid  fiege  to  Intercatia,  he  folicited  a  treaty  of 
peace.  The  citizens  reproaching  him  with  the 
ilaughter  of  the  Cauceans,  afked,  Whether,  in  ma- 
king peace,  he  was  not  to  employ  the  fame  right 
hand,  and  the  fame  faith,  he  had  already  pledged 
to  their  countrymen  ?  Seroclius  Galba,  another 
Roman  general,  perfuaded  the  Lufitanians  to  lay 
down  their  arms,  promifing  them  a  fruitful  terri- 
tory inftead  of  their  own  mountains ;  and  having 
thus  got  them  into  his  power,  he  ordered  all  of 
them  to  be  murdered.  Of  the  few  that  efcaped, 
Viriathus  was  one,  who,  in  a  long  and  bloody  war 
againft  the  Romans,  amply  avenged  the,  maffacre 
of  his  countrymen.  Our  author  Appian  reports, 
that  Galba,  furpafling  even  Lucullus  in  covetouf- 
nefs,  diftributed  but  a  fmall  ihare  of  the  plunder 
among  the  foldiers,  converting  the  bulk  of  it  to  his 
own  ufe.  He  adds,  that  though  Galba  was  one  of 
the  richeft  men  in  Rome,  yet  he  never  fcrupled  at 
lies  nor  perjury  to  procure  money.  But  the  cor- 
ruption was  general :  Galba  being  accufed  of 
many  mifdemeanours,  was  acquited  by  the  fenate, 

through 


330  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

through  the  force  of  bribes.  A  tribe  of  the  Celti- 
berians,  who  had  long  ferved  the  Romans  againfl 
the  Lufitanians,  had  an  offer  made  them  by  Titus 
Didius  of  a  territory  in  their  neighbourhood,  late- 
ly conquered  by  him.  He  appointed  them  a  day 
to  receive  pofTeffion  ;  and  having  inclofed  them  in 
his  camp,  under  mow  of  friendfhip,  he  put  them  all 
to  the  fword  ;  for  which  mighty  deed  he  obtained 
the  honour  of  a  triumph.  The  double-dealing  and 
treachery  of  the  Romans,  in  their  laft  war  againfl 
Carthage,  is  beyond  example.  The  Carthagi- 
nians, fufpecting  that  a  florm  was  gathering  againfl 
them,  fent  deputies  to  Rome  for  fecuring  peace  at 
any  rate.  The  fenate,  in  appearance,  were  difpo- 
fed  to  amicable  meafures,  demanding  only  hofta- 
ges ;  and  yet,  though  three  hundred  hoflages  were 
delivered  without  lofs  of  time,  the  Roman  army 
landed  at  Utica.  The  Carthaginian  deputies  at- 
tended the  Confuls  there,  deliring  to  know  what 
more  was  to  be  done  on  their  part.  They  were 
required  to  deliver  up  their  arms ;  which  they 
chearfully  did,  imagining  that  they  were  now  cer- 
tain of  peace.  Inftead  of  which,  they  received  per- 
emptory orders  to  evacuate  the  city,  with  their 
wives  and  children,  and  to  make  no  fettlement 
within  eighty  furlongs  of  the  fea.  In  perufing 
Appian's  hiflory  of  that  memorable  event,  compaf- 
fion  for  the  diftrefled  Carthaginians  is  ftifled  by  in- 
dignation at  their  treacherous  oppreflbrs.  Could 
the  monfters,  after  fuch  treachery,  have  the  impu^ 

dence 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  33! 

dence  to  talk  of  Punica  fides  ?  The  profligacy  of 
the  Roman  people,  during  the  triumvirate  of  Cae- 
far,  Pompey,  and  CrafTus,  is  painted  in  lively  co- 
lours by  the  fame  author.  "  For  a  long  time,  dif- 
"  order  and  confulion  overfpread  the  common- 
"  wealth  :  no  office  was  obtained  but  by  faction, 
"  bribery,  or  criminal  fervice  :  no  man  was  afha- 
"  med  to  buy  votes,  which  were  fold  in  open  mar- 
"  ket.  One  man  there  was,  who,  to  obtain  a  lu- 
"  crative  office,  expended  eight  hundred  talents* : 
"  ill  men  enriched  themfelves  with  public  money, 
"  or  with  bribes :  no  honeft  man  would  ftand  can- 
"  didate  for  an  office  ;  and,  into  a  lituation  fo  mi- 
"  ferable  was  the  commonwealth  reduced,  that 
"  once  for  eight  months  it  had  not  a  fingle  magif- 
"  trate.'  Cicero,  writing  to  Atticus,  that  Clodius 
was  acquitted  by  the  influence  of  Crafllis,  expref 
fes  himfelf  in  the  following  words  :  "  Biduo,  per 
unum  fervum,  et  eum  ex  gladiatorio  ludo,  con- 
fecit  totum  negotium.  Acceriivit  ad  fe,  promi- 
fit,  interceffit,  dedit.  Jam  vero,  O  dii  boni,  rem 
perditam  !  etiam  nodles  certarum  mulierum,  at- 
que  adolefcentulorum  nobilium,  introdudiones 
nonnullis  judicibus  pro  mercedis  cumulo  fue- 
runt  f ."  Ptolomy,  King  of  Egypt,  was  dethro- 
ned 

*•  About  L.  150,000  Sterling. 


ii 
(i 
it 
tt 


"  In  two  days  he  completed  the  affair,  by  the  means  of 
"  one  flave,  a  gladiator.    He  fent  for  him,  and  by  promifes, 

"  wheedling, 

VOL.  I.  X 


INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

ned  by  his  fubjeds  for  tyranny.  Having  repaired 
to  Rome  for  protection,  be  found  means  to  poifou 
the  greater  part  of  a  hundred  Egyptians,  his  accu- 
fers,  and  to  affaffiqate  Dion  their  chief.  And  yet 
thefe  crimes,  perpetrated  in  the  heart  of  Rome, 
were  fufferecj  to  pals  with  impunity.  But  he  had 
fecured  the  leading  men  by  money,  and  was  pro- 
tected by  Pompey.  The  following  inftance  is,  if 
poflible,  ilill  more  grofs.  Ptolomy,  King  of  Cy- 
prus, had  always  been  a  faithful  ally  to  the  Ro- 
mans. But  his  gold,  jewels,  and  precious  move- 
3bles,  were  a  tempting  bait :  and  all  was  confifca- 
ted  by  a  decree  of  the  people,  without  even  a 
pretext.  Money  procured  by  profligacy  is  not 
commonly  hoarded  up  ;  and  the  Romans  were  no 
lefs  voluptuous  than  avaricious.  Alexander  ab 
Alexandro  mentions  the  Faniari,  Orchian,  Didjan, 
Qppian,  Corneljan,  Andan,  and  Julian  laws,  for 
reprefling  luxury  of  drefs  and  of  eating,  all  of 
which  proved  ineffectual.  He  adds,  that  Tibe- 
rius had  it  long  at  heart  to  contrive  fome  effectual 
law  againft  luxury,  which  now  had  fufpafled  all 
pounds,  but  that  he  found  it  impracticable  to  ftem. 
the  tide.  He  concludes,  that  by  tacit  agreement 

among 

<*  wheedling,  and  large  gifts,  he  gained  his  point.  Good 
"  God,  to  what  an  infamous  height  has  corruption  at  length 
-*'  arrived  !  Some  judges  were  rewarded  with  a  night's  lodg- 
"  ing  of  certain  ladies ;  and  others,  for  an  illuftrious  bribq, 
"  had  fome  young  boys  pf  noble  family  introduced  to  them/' 
— Lib,  i.  epift.  1 3. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  333 

among  a  corrupted  people,  all  fumptuary  laws  were 
in  effect  abrogated  ;  and  that  the  Roman  people, 
abandoning  themfelves  to  vice,  broke  through 
every  reftraint  of  morality  and  religion*.  Trem- 
ble, O  Britain,  on  the  brink  of  a  precipice  !  how 
little  diflant  in  rapacity  from  Roman  fenators  are 
the  leaders  of  thy  people  f  ! 

The  free  ftates  of  Italy,  which  had  become  rich 
by  commerce,  employed  mercenary  troops  to  fave 
their  own  people,  who  were  more  profitably  em- 
ployed at  home.  But,  as  mercenaries  gained  no- 
thing by  victory  or  bloodfhed,  they  did  very  little 
execution  againfl  one  another.  They  exhaufted 
the  ftates  which  employed  them,  without  doing 

X  2  any 

*  Lib.  iii.  cap.  u. 

f  Down  on  your  knees,  my  countrymen,  down  on  your 
knees,  and  render  God  thanks  from  the  bottom  of  your  hearts, 
for  a  Minifter  very  different  from  his  immediate  predecefTors. 
Untainted  with  luxury  or  avarice,  his  talents  are  dedicated  to 
his  King  and  his  country.  Nor  was  there  ever  a  period  in 
Britain,  when  prudence  and  difcernment;  in  a  Minifter  were 
more  neceflary  than  in  the  prefent  year  1775.  ®UT  colonies, 
pampered  with  profperity,  aim  at  no  lefs  than  independence, 
and  have  broken  out  into  every  extravagance.  The  cafe  is 
extremely  delicate,  it  appearing  equally  dangerous  to  pardon 
or  to  punifli.  Hitherto  the  moil  falutary  meafures  have  been 
profecuted  ;  and  we  have  great  reafon  to  hope  a  happy  iiTue 
equally  fatisfaclory  to  both  parties.  But  tremble  ftill,  O  Bri- 
tain, on  the  brink  of  a  precipice  !  Our  hold  of  that  eminent 
Minifter  is  fadly  precarious  ;  and,  in  a  nation  as  deeply  funk 
in  felfifhnefs  as  formerly  it  was  exalted  by  patriotifm,  how  frnall 
i$  our  chance  of  a  fucceflbr  equal  tp  him  1 


334  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

any  real  fervice.  Our  condition  is  in  fome  degree 
fimilar.  We  employ  generals  and  admirals,  who, 
by  great  appointments,  foon  lofe  relifh  for  glory, 
intent  only  to  prolong  a  war  for  their  own  benefit. 
According  to  our  prefent  manners,  where  luxu- 
ry and  felfifhnefs  prevail,  it  appears  an  egregious 
blunder,  to  enrich  a  general  or  admiral  during  his 
command  :  have  we  any  reafon  to  expeft,  that  he 
will  fight  like  one  whofe  fortune  depends  on  his 
good  behaviour  ?  This  fingle  error  againft  good 
policy  has  reduced  Britain  more  than  once  to  a 
low  condition,  and  will  prove  its  ruin  at  laft. 

Riches  produce  another  lamentable  effect :  they 
enervate  the  pofleflbr,  and  degrade  him  into  a 
coward.  He  who  commands  the  labovir  of  others, 
who  eats  without  hunger,  and  refls  without  fa- 
tigue, becomes  feeble  in  mind  as  well  as  in  body, 
has  no  confidence  in  his  own  abilities,  and  is  re- 
duced to  flatter  his  enemies,  becaufe  he  hath  not 
courage  to  brave  them. 

Selfiftinefs  among  the  rude  and  illiterate  is  rough, 
blunt,  and  undifguifed.  Selfifhnefs,  which  in  an 
opulent  kingdom  ufurps  the  place  of  patriotifm,  is 
fmooth,  refined,  and  covered  with  a  veil.  Pecu- 
niary intereft,  a  low  obje6t,  muft  be  covered  with 
the  thickeft  veil :  ambition,  lefs  difhonourable,  is 
lefs  covered  :  but  delicacy  as  to  character  and  love 
of  fame,  are  fo  honourable,  that  even  the  thinneft 
veil  is  held  unneceflary.  Hiftory  justifies  thefe 
obfervations.  During  the  prolpenty  of  Greece 

U'.'t-.  :i     ?      •         •.-•;,      i  -i,      ..  W  =.  X  A  * 

and 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  335 

and  Rome,  when  patriotifm  was  the  ruling  paflion, 
no  man  ever  thought  of  employing  a  hoftile  wea- 
pon but  againft  the  enemies  of  his  country  :  fwords 
were  not  worn  during  peace,  nor  was  there  an  in- 
flance  of  a  private  duel.  The  frequency  of  duels 
in  modern  times,  is  no  flight  fymptom  of  degene- 
racy :  regardlefs  of  our  country,  felfifhnefs  is  ex- 
erted without  difguife  when  reputation  or  charac- 
ter is  in  queftion  ;  and  a  nice  fenfe  of  honour 
prompts  revenge  for  every  imagined  affront,  with- 
out regard  to  juftice.  How  much  more  manly 
and  patriotic  was  the  behaviour  of  Themiftocles, 
when  infulted  by  the  Lacedemonian  general  in  de- 
liberating about  the  concerns  of  Greece  !  "  Strike," 
fays  he,  "  but  firft  hear  me  *." 

-  X3  When 

*  Is  duelling  a  crime  by  the  law  of  nature  ?  A  diftinction 
is  neceffary.  If  two  men,  bent  to  deftroy  each  of  them  the 
other,  meet  armed,  and  one  or  both  be  (lain,  the  ad  is  highly 
criminal :  it  is  murder  in  the  ftricteft  fenfe  of  the  word.  If 
they  appoint  time  and  place  to  execute  their  murderous  pur- 
pofe,  fuch  agreement  will  not  be  more  innocent  than  an 
agreement  among  a  band  of  robbers  to  attack  every  paffenger  : 
they  will  be  abhorred  as  unfit  for  civil  fociety.  A  duel 
which  an  affront  forces  a  man  upon  for  vindicating  his  ho- 
nour, when  no  fatisfa&ion  is  offered,  or  no  proper  fatisfaclion, 
is  very  different.  I  cannot  fee  that  the  perfon  affronted  is 
guilty  of  any  crime  ;  and,  if  the  perfon  who  gave  the  affront 
have  offered  what  he  thinks  full  fatisfadion,  I  fee  no  crime  on 
either  fide.  The  parties  have  agreed  to  decide  their  quarrel 
in  the  honourable  way,  and  no  other  perfon  is  hurt.  II  it  be 
urged,  that  duelling  is  a  crime  agaiml  the  ftate,  which  is  in- 

terefted 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [»,  I. 

When  a  nation,  formerly  in  profperity,  is  de- 
prefled  by  luxury  and   felfifhnefs,    what  follows 

next  ? 

terefted  in  the  lives  of  its  fubje&s,  I  anfwcr,  that  individuals 
are  entitled  to  be  protected  by  the  ftate  ;  but  that  if  two  men, 
waving  that  prote&ion,  agree  to  end  the  difpute  by  fingle 
combat,  the  ftate  has  no  concern.    There  is  nothing  Snconfift- 
ent  with  the  laws  of  fociety,  that  men,  in  an  affair  of  honour, 
ihould  referve  the  privilege  of  a  duel ;  and,  for  that  reafon, 
the  privilege  may  be  juftly  underftood  as  referved  by  every 
man  when  he  enters  into  fociety,     I  admit,  that  the  ufmg  the 
privilege  on  every  flight  occafion,  cannot  be  too  much  dif- 
couraged ;  but  fuch  difcouragement,  if  duelling  be  not  cri- 
minal, belongs  to  a  court  of  police,  not  to  a  court  of  law. 
What  then  (hall  be  faid  of  our  ftatutes,  which  punilh  with 
death  and  confifcation  of  moveables  thofe  who  fight  a  fmgle 
combat  without  the  King's  licence ;  and  which  punifh  even 
the  giving  or   accepting   a   challenge  with  banifhment   and 
confifcation  of  moveables  ?     Where  a  man  thinks  his  honour 
at  (lake,  fear  of  death  will  not  deter  him  from  feeking  re- 
drefs  :  nor  is  an  alternative  left  him,  as  the  bearing  a  grofa 
affront  is  highly  difhonourable  in  the  opinion  of  all  the  world. 
Have  we  not  inftances  without  number,  of  men  adhering  to 
the  fuppofed  orthodoxy  of  their  religious  tenets,  unawed  by 
flames  arid  gibbets  ?     How  abfurd,  then,  is  it  in  our  legifla- 
ture  to  punifh  a  man  for  doing  what  is  indifpenfable,  if  he 
wifh  to  avoid  contempt  ?     Laws  that  contradict  honeft  prin- 
ciples, or  even  honeft  prejudices,  never  are  effectual  :  nature 
revolts  againft  them.     And,  it  is  believed,  that  thefe  ftatutes 
have  never  been  effectual  in  any  one  inftance,  unlefs  perhaps 
to  furnijh  an  excufe  for  declining  a  fingle  combat. 

As  duelling  falls  under  cenforian  powers,  the  proper  cen- 
fvfe  for  jaihnefs  or  intemperance  in  duelling,  is  difgrace,  not 

death 


SK.  g.]  MANNERS.  337 

next  ?    Let  the  Egyptians  anfwer   the  queftion. 
That  unhappy  people,  having  for  many  ages  been 

X4  a 

death  or  confifcation  of  moveables.     In  that  view,  the  follow- 
ing, or  fome  fuch  plan,  may  be  adopted.     It  appears,  from 
the  ftatute  firft  mentioned,  to  be  a  branch  of  the  royal  prero- 
gative, to  licenfe  a  duel.     Therefore,  if  an  affront  be  fo  grofs, 
as  in  the  perfon's  opinion  nd't  to  admit  of  any  reparation  but 
a  duel,  let  him  be  entitled  to  apply  to  his  Majefty  for  liberty 
to  give  a  challenge.     In  Britain  formerly,  and  through  all 
Europe,  fmgle  combat  was  a  legal  method  of  determining 
controverfies,  even  in  matters  of  right  and  wrong ;  and  there 
is  great  reafon  for  continuing  that  law,  with  refpect  to  matters 
of  honour.     If  the  King  have  any  doubt  whether  other  repa^ 
ration  may  not  be  fufficient,  he  is  to  name  three  military  offi- 
cers who  have  ferved  with  honour  for  twenty  years,  granting 
to  them  full  powers,  as  a  court  of  honour,  to  judge  of  the 
application  ;  and  upon  calling  the  parties  before  them,  to 
pronounce  fentence.     If  a  duel  be  judged  neceflary,  it  muft 
be  done  in  prefence  of  the  court,  with  proper  folemnities. 
Obedience  will  of  courfe  be  given  to  this  judgment ;  becaufe 
to  decline  it  would  be  attended  with  public  infamy.     If  other 
reparation  be  enjoined,  the  party  who  ftands  out  fhall  be  de- 
clared infamous ;  unworthy  for  ever  of  the  privilege  of  a 
duel  ;  which  ought  to  fatisfy  the  other  party,  as  he. comes  off 
with  honour.    If,  notwithftanding  the  prohibition  of  the  court, 
they  afterward  proceed  to  a  duel,  and  both  be  killed,  the  pub- 
lic gains  by  having  two  quarrelfome  men  removed  out  of  the 
way.     If  one  of  them  be  killed,  the  furvivor  (hall  be  incapable 
of  any  public  office,   civil  or  military,  mall  be  incapable  of 
electing  or  being  elected  a  member  of  parliament,  fhall  be 
prohibited  to  wear  a  fword,  fliall  forfeit  his  title  of  honour, 
and  have  his  arms  erazed  out  of  the  herald's  regifter.     If 
both  Awvive,  this  cenfure  ihall  reach  both.     Degrading  cen- 

fure* 


338  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.      -    [fi.  I. 

a  prey  to  every  barbarous  invader,  are  now  be- 
come effeminate,  treacherous,  cruel,  and  corrupted 
with  every  vice  that  debafes  humanity.  A  nation 
in  its  infancy,  however  favage,  is  fufceptible  of 
every  improvement ;  but  a  nation  worn  out  with 
age  and  difeafe  is  fufceptible  of  no  improvement. 
There  is  no  remedy,  but  to  let  the  natives  die  out* 
and  to  repeople  the  country  with  better  men. 
Egypt  has  for  many  ages  been  in  the  fame  languid 
and  fervile  ftate.  An  Arabian  author,  who  wrote 
the  hiftory  of  the  great  Saladin,  obferves,  that  the 
Egyptians  never  thought  of  fupporting  the  monarch 
in  pofieffion,  but  tamely  fubmitted  to  every  con- 
queror. "  It  was,"  fays  he,  "  the  cuftom  in  Egypt 
"  at  that  time  to  deliver  to  the  vidtor  the  enligns 
"  of  royalty,  without  ever  thinking  of  inquiring 
"  into  his  title."  What  better  than  a  flock  of 

fheejT, 

fares  which  difgrace  a  man,  are  the  only  proper  punifhment 
in  an  affair  of  honour.  The  tranfgreffion  of  the  act  of  Par- 
liament, by  fighting  privately  without  licence  from  the  King, 
ihall  be  attended  with  the  fame  degrading  puniftiments. 

It  is  a  capital  circumftance,  that  the  court  of  honour  has 
power  to  authorife  a  duel.  A  man  grofsly  affronted  will  not 
be  eafily  perfuaded  to  fubmit  his  caufe  to  a  court  that  cannot 
decree  him  adequate  reparation ;  and  this  probably  is  the 
caufe  why  the  court  of  honour  in  France  has  fallen  into  con- 
tempt. But  they  muft  be  perverfe  indeed,  or  horribly  obfti- 
nate,  who  decline  a  court  which  can  decree  them  ample  repa- 
ration. At  the  fame  time,  the  neceflity  of  applying  for  a 
court  of  honour  affords  time  for  paffion.  to  fubfide,  and  for 
friends  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation. 


SK.5-]  MANNERS;  339 

fhecp,  obedient  to  the  call  of  the  prefent  fhep-* 
herd  ! 

I  fly  from  a  fcene  fo  difmal  to  one  that  will  give 
no  pain.     Light  is  intended  by  our  Maker  for  ac- 
tion, and  darknefs  for  reft.     In  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, the  fhops  in  Paris  were  opened  at  four  in  the 
morning  :    at  prefent,  a  fhopkeeper  is  fcarce  a- 
wake  at  feven.     The  King  of  France   dined  at 
eight  in  the  morning,  and  retired  to  his  bed-cham- 
ber at  the  fame  hour  in  the  evening ;  an  early 
hour  at  prefent  for  public  amufements  *.     The 
Spainards  adhere   to   ancient   cuftomsf.      Their 
King  to  this  day  dines  precifely  at  noon,  and  fups 
no  lefs  precifely  at  nine  in  the  evening.  During  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  fafhionable  people  in  Eng- 
land breakfafted  at  feven  in  the  morning,  and  dined 
at  ten  in  the  forenoon.     In  Elizabeth's  time,  the 
nobility,  gentry,  and  ftudents,  dined  at  eleven  fore- 
noon, and  fupped  between  five  arid  fix  afternoon. 
In  the  'reign  of  Charles  II.  four  in  the  afternoon, 
was  the  appointed  hour  for  adting  plays.     At  pre- 
fent, even  dinner  is  at  a  later  hour.     The  King  of 

Ye  man, 

*  Louts  XII.  of  France,  after  taking  for  his  fecond  wife 
Mary,  fifter  to  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  much  under  him  in 
years,  totally  changed  his  manner  of  living.  Inftead  of  di- 
ning at  eight  in  the  morning,  he  now  dined  at  mid-day  :  in- 
ftead  of  going  to  bed  at  fix  in  the  evening,  he  now  frequently 
fat  up  till  midnight. 

f  Manners  and  fafliions  feldom  change  where  women  are 
locked  up. 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.          [fi.  I, 

Yeman,  the  greateft  prince  in  Arabia  Felix,  dines 
at  nine  in  the  morning,  fups  at  five  afternoon,  and 
goes  to  reft  at  eleven.  From  this  Ihort  fpecimen 
it  appears,  that  the  occupations  of  day-light  com- 
mence gradually  later  and  later  ;  as  if  there  were 
a  tendency  in  polite  nations,  of  converting  night 
into  day,  and  day  into  night.  Nothing  happens 
without  a  caufe.  Light  difpofes  to  action,  dark- 
nefs  to  reft  :  the  diverfionsof  day  are  tournaments, 
tennis,  hunting,  racing,  and  other  active  exercifes : 
the  diverfions  of  night  are  fedentary  ;  plays,  cards, 
converfation.  Balls  are  of  a  mixed  nature,  partly 
active  in  dancing,  partly  fedentary  in  converfing. 
Formerly,  adlive  exercifes  prevailed  among  a  robuft 
and  plain  people  *  :  the  milder  pleafures  of  fociety 
prevail  as  manners  refine.  Hence  it  is,  that  candle- 
light amufements  are  now  fafhionable  in  France, 
and  in  other  polifhed  countries ;  and  when  fuch 
amufements  are  much  relifhed,  they  banifh  the  ro- 
buft exercifes  of  the  field.  Balls,  I  conjecture, 
were  formerly  more  frequent  in  day-light :  at  pre- 
fent,  candle-light  is  their  favourite  time  :  the  ac- 
tive part  is  at  that  time  equally  agreeable ;  and 
the  fedentary  part,  more  fo. 

Gaming  is  the  vice  of  idle  people.  Savages  are 
addicted  to  gaming  y  and  thofe  of  North  America 

in 

*  The  exercifes  that  our  forefathers  delighted  in  were  fo 
violent  as  that,  in  the  days  of  Henry  II.  of  England,  cock- 
fighting  and  horfe-racing  were  defpifed  as  unmanly  and  child- 
iih  amufements. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  34! 

in  particular  are  fond  to  diilradlion  of  a  game 
termed  the  platter.  A  lofing  gamefter  will  (trip 
himfelf  to  the  fkin  ;  and  fome  have  been  known  to 
flake  their  ^liberty,  though  by  them  valued  above 
all  other  bleffings.  Negoes  on  the  ilave-coaft  of 
Guinea,  will  llake  their  wives,  their  childern,  and 
even  themfelves.  Tacitus,  talking  of  gaming  a- 
mong  the  Germans,  fays,  "  Extreme  ac  noviffimo 
"  jaclu,  de  libertate  et  de  corpore  contendant  *." 
The  Greeks  were  an  active  and  fprightly  people, 
conflantly  engaged  in  war,  or  in  cultivating  the 
fine  arts.  They  had  no  leifure  for  gaming,  nor 
any  knowledge  of  it.  Happy  for  them  was  their 
ignorance  ;  for  no  other  vice  tends  more  to  render 
men  felfifh,  difhoneft,  and,  in  the  modifh  ftyle,  dif- 
honourable.  A  gamefter,  a  friend  to  no  man,  is  a 
bitter  enemy  to  himfelf.  The  luxurious  of  the 
prefent  age,  pafs  every  hour  in  gaming  that  can  be 
fpared  from  fenfual  pleafure.  Idlenefs  is  their  ex- 
cufe,  as  it  is  among  favages ;  and  they  would  in 
fome  degree  be  excufable,  were  they  never  adtua- 
ted  by  a  more  difgraceful  motive. 

Writers  do  not  carefully  diftinguifh  particular 
cuftoms  from  general  manners,  Formerly,  women 
were  not  admitted  upon  the  ftage  in  France,  Italy, 
or  England :  at  that  very  time,  none  but  women 
were  admitted  in  Spain.  From  that  fauYion  it 
would  be  rafh  to  infer,  that  women  have  more  li- 
berty 

*  '*  For  their  laft  throw  they  flake  their  liberty  and  life." 
«— De  Moribus  Germanorum,  c.  24. 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

berty  in  Spain  than  in  the  other  countries  men- 
tioned y  for  the  contrary  is  true.  In  Hindoftan, 
eftablifhed  cuftom  prompts  women  to  burn  them- 
felves  alive  with  the  bodies  of  their  deceafed  huf- 
bands ;  but  from  that  fingular  cuftom,  it  would  be 
a  falfe  inference,  that  the  Hindoo  women  are  ei- 
ther more  bold,  or  more  affectionate  to  their  huf- 
bands,  than  in  other  countries.  The  Polanders, 
even  after  they  became  Chriftians  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  adhered  to  the  cuftoms  of  their  forefa- 
thers, the  Sarmatians,  in  killing  infants  born  de- 
formed, and  men  debilitated  by  age  ;  which  would 
betoken  horrid  barbarity,  if  it  were  not  a  fingular 
cuftom.  Roman  Catholics  imagine,  that  there  is 
no  religion  in  England  nor  in  Holland  ;  becaufe, 
from  a  fpirit  of  civil  liberty,  all  feds  are  there  to- 
lerated. The  encouragement  given  to  aflaffination 
in  Italy,  where  every  church  is  a  fan&uary,  makes 
ftrangers  ralhly  infer,  that  the  Italians  are  all  af- 
faffins.  Writers  fometimes  fall  into  an  oppofite 
miftake,  attributing  to  a  particular  nation,  certain 
manners  and  cuftoms  common  to  all  nations  in  one 
or  other  period  of  their 'progrefs.  It  is  remarked 
by  Heraclides  Ponticus  as  peculiar  to  the  Atha- 
manes,  that  the  men  fed  the  flocks,  and  the  women 
cultivated  the  ground.  This  has  been  the  prac- 
tice of  all  nations,  in  their  progrefs  from  the  Ihep- 
herd-ftate  to  that  of  huibandry  ;  and  is  at  prefent 
the  practice  among  American  favages.  The  fame 
author  obferves,  as  peculiar  to  the  Celtae  and  Aphi- 

taei. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  343 

taei,  that  they  leave  their  doors  open  without  ha- 
zard of  theft.  But  that  practice  is  common  among 
all  favages  in  the  firft  ftage  of  fociety,  before  the 
ufe  of  money  is  known. 

Hitherto  there  appears  as  great  uniformity  in 
the  progrefs  of  manners,  as  can  reafonably  be  ex- 
pected among  fo  many  different  nations.     There 
is  one  exception,    extraordinary  indeed  if  true, 
which  is,  the  manners  of  the  Caledonians  defcri*^ 
bed  by  Offian,  manners   fo  pure   and  refined  as 
fcarce  to  be  paralleled  in  the  moil  cultivated  na- 
tions.    Such  manners  among  a  people  in  the  firft 
ftage  of  fociety,  acquainted  with  no  arts  but  hunt- 
ing and  making  war,  I  acknowledge,  miraculous. 
And  yet  to  fuppofe  thefe  manners  to  be  the  inven- 
tion of  an  illiterate  favage,  is  really  no  lefs  mira- 
culous :   I  mould  as  foon  expect  from  a  favage  a 
performance  equal  to  the  elements  of  Euclid,  or 
even  to  the  Principia  of  Newton.     One,  at  firft 
view,  will  boldly  declare  the  whole  a  modern  fic- 
tion ;   for  how  is  it  credible,  that  a  people,  rude 
at  prefent  and  illiterate,  were,  in  the  infancy  of 
their    fociety,   highly   refined    in    fentiment   and 
manners  ?   And  yet,  upon  a  more  accurate  infpec- 
tion,  many  weighty  confiderations  occur  to  balance 
that  opinion. 

From  a  thoufand  circumftances  it'  appears,  that 
the  works  of  Offian  are  not  a  late  production. 
They  are  competed  in  an  old  dialect  of  the  Celtic 
tongue  }  and  as,  till  lately,  they  were  known  only 

in 


344  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

in  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  the  author  muft 
have  been  a  Caledonian.  The  tranflator*  faw,  in 
the  Jfle  of  Sky,  the  fir  ft  four  books  of  the  poem 
Fingal,  written  in  a  fair  hand  on  vellum,  and 
bearing  date  in  the  year  1403.  The  natives  be- 
lieve that  poem  to  be  very  ancient :  every  perfon 
has  pafiages  of  it  by  heart,  tranfmitted  by  memo- 
ry from  their  forefathers.  Their  clogs  bear  com- 
monly the  name  of  Luath,  Bran,  &c.  mentioned  in 
thefe  poems,  as  our  dogs  do  of  Pompey  and  Ctzfar-^. 
Many  other  particulars  might  be  mentioned  ;  but 
thefe  are  fufficient  to  prove,  that  the  work  muft 
have  exifted  at  leaft  three  or  four  centuries.  Ta- 
king that  for  granted,  I  proceed  to  certain  conii- 
derations  tending  to  evince,  that  the  manners  de- 
fcribed  in  Offian  were  Caledonian  manners,  and 
not  a  pure  fiction.  And,  after  perilling  with  at- 
tention thefe  confiderations,  I  am  not  afraid  that 
even  the  moft  incredulous  will  continue  altogether 
unfhaken. 

It  is  a  noted  and  well-founded  pbfervation,  That 
manners  are  never  painted  to  the  life  by  any  one 
to  whom  they  are  not  familiar.  It  is  not  difficult 

to 

*  Mr  Macpherfon. 

f  In  the  Ifle  of  Sky,  the  ruins  of  the  Caftle  of  Dunfcaicfc, 
upon  an  abrupt  rock  hanging  over  the  fea,  are  ft  ill  vifible. 
That  caftle,  as  vouched  by  tradition,  belonged  to  Cuchullin, 
Lord  of  that  ifle,  whofe  hiftory  is  recorded  in  the  Poem  of 
Fingal.  Upon  the  green  before  the  caftle  there  is  a  great 
ftone,  to  which,  according  to  the  fame  tradition,  his  dog; 
Luath  was  chained. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  345 

to  draw  the  outlines  of  imaginary  manners ;  but  to 
fill  up  the  pi&ure  with  all  the  variety  of  tints  that 
manners  afiume  in  different  circumftances,  uniting 
all  concordantly  in  one  whole — bic  labor,  hoc  opus 
eft.  Yet  the  manners  here  fuppofed  to  be  invent- 
ed, are  delineated  in  a  variety  of  incidents,  of 
fentiments,  of  images,  and  of  allulions,  making 
one  entire  picture,  without  once  deviating  into 
the  flighteft  incongruity.  Every  fcene  in  Offian 
relates  to  hunting,  to  fighting,  or  to  love,  the  fole 
occupations  of  men  in  the  original  ftate  of  fociety  t 
there  is  not  a  fingle  image,  fimile,  or  allufion,  but 
what  is  borrowed  from  that  ftate,  without  a  jar- 
ring circumftance.— Suppofing  all  to  be  mere  in- 
vention, is  it  not  amazing  to  find  no  mention 
of  Highland  clans,  or  of  any  name  now  in  ufe  ? 
Is  it  not  dill  more  amazing,  that  there  is  not  the 
flighteft  hint  of  the  Chriftian  religion,  not  even  in 
a  metaphor  or  allufion  ?  Is  it  not  equally  ama- 
zing, that,  in  a  work  where  deer's  flefh  is  fre- 
quently mentioned,  and  a  curious  method  of  roaft- 
ing  it,  there  Ihould  not  be  a  word  of  fifti  as  food, 
fo  common  in  later  times  ?  Very  few  Highland- 
ers know  that  their  forefathers  did  not  eat  fi(h  ; 
and,  fuppofing  it  to  be  known,  it  would  require 
fingular  attention,  never  to  let  a  hint  of  it  enter 
j:he  poem.  Can  it  be  fuppofed,  that  a  modern 
writer  could  be  fo  conftantly  on  his  guard,  as  never 
to  mention  corn  nor  cattle  ?  In  a  ftory  fo  fcanty 

<qf  poetical  images,  the  fedentary  life  of  a  fhepherd, 

, 

and 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

and  the  induftry  of  a  hufbandman,  would  make  a 
capital  figure  :  the  cloven  foot  would  fomewhere 
peep  out.  And  yet,  in  all  the  works  of  Offian, 
there  is  no  mention  of  agriculture ;  and  but  a 
flight  hint  of  a  herd  of  cattle  in  one  or  two  allu- 
lions.  I  willingly  give  all  advantages  to  the  un- 
believer :  Suppofing  the  author  of  Oflian  to  be  a 
late  writer,  adorned  with  every  refinement  of  mo- 
dern education ;  yet,  even  upon  that  fuppofition, 
he  is  a  miracle,  far  from  being^  equalled  by  any 
other  author  ancient  or  modern. 

But  difficulties  multiply  when  it  is  taken  into 
the  account,  that  the  poems  of  Oflian  have  exifted 
three  or  four  centuries  at  lead.  Our  highlanders 
at  prefent  are  rude  and  illiterate ;  and  were  in  fact 
little  better  than  favages  at  the  period  mentioned. 
Now,  to  hold  the  manners  defcribed  in  that  work 
to  be  imaginary/is  in  effect  to  hold,  that  they  were 
invented  by  a  highland  favage,  acquainted  with 
the  rude  manners  of  his  country,  but  utterly  un- 
acquainted with  every  other  fyftem  of  'manners. 
The  manners  of  different  countries  are  now  fo  well 
known  as  to  make  it  an  eafy  talk  to  invent  man- 
ners by  blending  the  manners  of  one  country  vyith 
thofe  of  another  ;  but  to  invent  manners  of  which 
the  author  has  no  example,  and  yet  neither  whim-, 
lical  nor  abfurd,  but  congruous  to  human  nature  in 
its  moft  polifhed  flate,  I  pronounce  to  be  far  above 

the  powers  of  man.     Is  it  fo  much  as  fuppofable, 

• 

at  fuch  a  work  could  be  the  production  of  a  Tar- 
tar, 


SK.  5»jh~  MANNEBLS.  347 

tar,  or  of  a  Hottentot  ?  From  what  fource  then 
did  Oflian  draw  the  refined  manners  fo  delicioufly 
painted  by  him  :  Suppoling  hirri  to  have  been  a 
traveller,  of  which  we  have  not  the  flighted  hint, 
the  manners  of  France  at  that  period,  of  Italy,  and 
of  other  neighbouring  nations,  were  little  lefs  bar- 
barous than  thofe  of  his  own  country.  I  can  dif- 
cover  no  fource  but  infpiration.  In  a  word,  who- 
ever ferioufly  believes  the  manners  of  Oflian  to  be 
fictitious,  may  well  fay,  with  the  religious  enthu- 
fiaft,  "  Credo  quia  impojjibile  eft  t  I  believe  it  be- 
"  caufe  it  is  impoffible." 

But  further  :  The  uncommon  talents  of  the  au- 
thor of  this  work  will  cheerfully  be  acknowledged 
by  every  reader  of  tafle  :  he  certainly  was  a  great 
matter  in  his  way.  Now,  whether  the  work  be 
late,  or  compofed  four  centuries  ago,  a  man  of  fuch 
talents  inventing  a  hiftorical  fable,  and  laying  the 
fcene  of  action  among  favages  in  the  hunter-flate, 
would  naturally  frame  a  fyftem  of  manners  the 
belt  fuited  in  his  opinion  to  that  flate.  What  then 
could  tempt  him  to  adopt  a  fyftem  of  manners,  fo 
oppofite  to  any  notion  he  could  form  of  favage 
manners  ?  The  abfurdity  is  fo  grofs,  that  we  are 
forced,  however  reluctantly,  to  believe,  that  thefe 
manners  are  not  fictitious,  but  in  reality  the  man- 
tiers  of  his  country,  coloured  perhaps,  or  a  little 
heightened,  according  to  the  privilege  of  an  epic 
poet.  And  once  admitting  that  fact,  there  can  be 
no  hefitation  in  afcribing  the  work  to  Offian,  fon 

VOL.  I.  Y  of 


348  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I 


of  Fingal,  whofe  name  it  bears  :  we  have  no 
ter  evidence  for  the  authors  of  feveral  Greek  and 
Roman  books.  Upon  the  fame  evidence,  we  muft 
believe,  that  Offian  lived  in  the  reign  of  the  Em- 
peror Caracalla,  of  whom  frequent  mention  is  made 
under  the  deiignation  of  Caracul  the  Great  King  ; 
at  which  period,  the  (hepherd-ftate  was  fcarce 
known  in  Caledonia,  and  hufbandry  not  at  all. 
Had  he  lived  fo  late  as  the  twelfth  century,  when 
there  were  flocks  and  herds  in  that  country,  and 
fome  fort  of  agriculture,  a  poet  of  genius,  fuch  as 
Offian  undoubtedly  was,  would  have  drawn  from 
thefe  his  fined  images. 

The  foregoing  conliderations,  I  am  perfuaded, 
would  not  fail  to  convert  the  moft  incredulous  ; 
were  it  not  for  a  confequence  extremely  impro- 
bable,. that  a  people,  little  better  at  prefent  than 
favages,  were  in  their  primitive  hunter-ftate  high- 
ly refined  ;  for  fuch  Offian  defcribes  them.  And 
yet  it  is  BO  lefs  improbable,  that  fuch  manners 
fhould  be  invented  by  an  illiterate  highland  bard. 
Let  a  man  chufe  either  fide,  the  difficulty  cannot 
be  folved  but  by  a  fort  of  miracle.  What  mall  we 
conclude  upon  the  whole  ?  for  the  mind  cannot  for 
ever  remain  in  fufpenfe.  As  dry  reafoning  has  left 
us  in  a  dilemma,  tafte  perhaps  and  feeling  may  ex- 
tricate us.  May  not  the  cafe  be  here  as  in  real 
painting  ?  A  portrait  drawn  from  fancy,  may  re- 
femble  the  human  vifage  ;  but  fuch  peculiarity  of 
countenance  and  expreffion  as  ferves  to  diftinguifii 

a 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  349 

a  certain  perfon  from  every  other,  is  always  want- 
ing. Prefent  a  portrait  to  a  man  of  tafte,  and  he 
will  be  at  no  lofs  to  fay,  whether  it  be  copied  from 
life,  or  be  the  product  of  fancy.  If  Offian  paint 
from  fancy,  the  cloven  foot  will  appear:  but  if  his 
portraits  be  complete,  fo  as  to  exprefs  every  peculia- 
rity of  character,  wby  mould  we  doubt  of  their  be- 
ing copied  from  life  ?  In  that  view,  the  reader,  I 
am  hopeful,  will  not  think  his  time  thrown  away 
in  examining  fome  of  Oflian's  ftriking  pictures;  I 
perceive  not  another  refource. 

Love  of  fame  is  painted  by  Offian  as  the  ruling 
pafiion  of  his  countrymen  the  Caledonians.  War- 
riors are  every  where  defcribed,  as  efteeming  it 
their  chief  happinefs  to  be  recorded  in  the  fongs 
of  the  bards :  that  feature  is  never  wanting  in  any 
of  Offian' s  heroes.  Take  the  following  inftances* 

"  King  of  the  roaring  Strumon,  faid  the  rifmg  joy  of  Fin- 
«'  gal,  do  I  behold  thee  in  arms  after  thy  ftrength  has  failed  ? 
"  Often  bath  Morni  fhone  in  battles,  like  the  beam  of  the  ri- 
"  fmg  fun,  when  he  difperfes  the  ftorms  of  the  hill,  and 
"  brings  peace  to  the  glittering  fields.  But  why  didft  ihou 
"  not  reft  in  thine  age  ?  Thy  renown  is  in  the  fong  the 
"  people  behold  thee,  and  blefs  the  departure  of  mighty 
"  Morni  *."  <«  Son  of  Fingal,  he  faid,  why  burns  the  foul 
'•  of  Gaul  ?  My  heart  beats  high  :  my  fteps  are  difordered  ; 
"  and  my  hand  trembles  on  my  fword.  When  I  look  to- 
•'  ward  the  foe,  my  foul  lightens  before  me,  and  I  fee  their 
"  fleeping  hoft.  Tremble  thus  the  fouls  of  the  valiant,  in 
«  battles  of  the  fpear  ?  How  would  the  foul  of  Morni  rife,  if 

Y  2  "  we 

*  Lathmon. 


35°  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  T* 

"  we  fliould  rufti  oh  the  foe  !  Our  renown  would  grow  in  the 
*  fong,  and  our  fteps  be  (lately  in  the  eye  of  the  brave  *." 

That  a  warrior  has  acquired  his  fame  is  a  confo- 
lation  in  every  diflrefs : 

*'  Carril,  faid  the  King  in  fecret,  the  ftrength  of  Cuchullin 
"  fails.  My  days  are  with  the  years  that  are  paft ;  and  no 
"  morning  of  mine  fhall  arife.  They  (hall  feek  me  at  Temo- 
"  ra,  but  I  fhall  not  be  found.  Cormac  will  weep  in  his  hall, 
"  and  fay,  Where  is  Tura's  chief?  Bat  my  name  is  renown- 
"  ed,  my  fame  in  the  fong  of  bards.  The  youth  will  fay,  0 
"  let  me  die  -as  Cuckullin  died  s  renown  clothed  htm  like  a  robe  ;  and 
f<  the  light  of  his  fame  is  great.  Draw  the  arrow  from  my  fide ; 
"  and  lay  Cuchullin  below  that  oak.  Place  the  fhield  of 
"  Caithbat  near,  that  they  may  behold  me  amid  the  arms  df 
"  m'y  fathers  f ." 

/  ' 

Fiiigal  fpeaks : 

•'  Ullin,  my  aged  bard,  take  the  fhip  of  the  Kingi  Carry 
"  Ofcar  to  Selma,  and  let  the  daughters  of  Morven  weep. 
*'  We  fhall  fight  in  Erin  for  the  race  of  fallen  Cormac.  The 
"  days  of  my  years  begin  to  fail :  I  feel  the  weaknefs  of  my 

"  arm. 

-, • -___^ .^ ; , ^_^ ^J^_^_^___—_^^___^_ 

*  Lathmon. 

Love  of  fame  is  a  laudable  paflion,  which  every  man  va- 
lues himfelf  upon.  Fame  in  war  is  acquired  by  courage  and 
candour,  which  are  efleemed  by  all.  It  is  not  acquired  by 
fighting  for  fpoil,  becaufe  avarice  is  defpifed  by  all.  The 
fpoils  of  in  enemy  were  difplayed  at  a  Roman  triumph,  not 
for  their  own  fake,  but  as  a  mark  of  victory.  When  nations 
at  war  degenerate  from  love  of  fame  to  love  of  gain,  ftrata- 
gem,  deceit,  breach  of  faith,  and  every  fort  of  immorality, 
are  never-failing  confequences. 

f  The  death  of  Cuchullin. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  35 1 

*'  arm.  My  fathers  bend  from  their  clouds  to  receive  their 
"  gray-hair'd  fon.  But,  Trenmor !  before  I  go  hence,  one 
*'  beam  of  my  fame  ihall  rife  :  in  fame  (hall  my  days  end,  as 
"  my  years  began ;  my  life  fhall  be  one  ft  ream  of  light  to 
"  other  times  *." 

* 

Oflian  fpeaks : 

"  Did  thy  beauty  laft,  Q  Ryno  !  ftopd  the  ftrength  of  car- 
'  borne  Ofcar  f  !  Fingal  himfelf  pafled  away,  and  the  halls 
"  of  his  fathers  forgot  his  fteps.  And  (halt  thou  remain,  aged 
"  bard,  when  the  mighty  have  failed  ?  But  my  fame  ihall 
«'  remain  ;  and  grow  like  the  oak  of  Morven,  which  lifts  its 
*'  broad  head  to  the  ftorm,  and  rejoiceth  in  the  courfe  of  the 
ft  wind 


The  chief  caufe  of  affliction  when  a  young  man 
is  cut  off  in  battle,  is  his  not  having  received  his 
fame : 

i 

"  And  fell  the  fwifteft  in  the  race,  fald  the  King,  the  firfl 
**  to  bend  the  bow  ?  Thou  fcarce  haft  been  known  to  me  ; 
"  why  did  young  Ryno  fall  ?  But  fleep  thou  foftly  on  Lena, 
"  Fingal  Ihall  foon  behold  thee.  Soon  Ihall  my  voice  be 
•*'  heard  no  more,  and  my  footfteps  ceafe  to  be  feen.  The 
*'  bards  will  tell  of  Fingal's  name ;  the  ftones  will  talk  of  me. 
"  Bup,  Jlyno  !  thou  art  low  indeed,  thou  haft  not  received  thy 

Y  3  fame. 

*  Temora. 

f  Several  of  Offian's  heroes  are  defcribed  as  fighting  in  cars. 
The  Britons,  in  general,  fought  in  that  manner.  *'  Britanni 
"  demicant  non  equitatu  modo,  aut  pedite,  verum  et  bigis  et 
"  curribusj"  Pomponius  Mela,  1.  3. — [/«  Engli/h  thus  :  ''The 
"  Britons  fight,  not  only  with  cavalry,  or  foot,  but  alfp  lyith 
"  cars  and  chariots."] 

Berrathon. 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

<  *  fame.  Ullin,  ftrike  the  harp  for  Ryno  ;  tell  what  the  chief 
"  would  have  been.  Farewell  thou  fir  ft  in  every  field.  No 
"  more  (Hall  I  direft  thy  dart.  Thou  that  haft  been  fo  fair  ; 
?'  I  behold  thee  not.  -  Farewell  *."  <*'  Calthon  rufhed  in- 
"  to'the  ft  ream  :  I  bounded  forward  on  my  fpear  :  Teutha's 
"  race  fell  before  us  :  night  came  rolling  down.  Dunthalmq 
"  refted  on  a  rock,  amidft  an  aged  wood  :  the  rage  of  his  bo- 
"  fom  burned  againft  the  car-borne  Calthon.  But  Calthon 
"  ftood  in  his  grief  ;  he  mourned  the  fallen  Colmar  ;  Colmar 
«'  flain  in  youth,  before  his  fame  arofe  f  ." 

Lamentation  for  lofs  of  fame.   Cuchullin  fpeaks  : 

"  But,  O  ye  ghofts  of  the  lonely  Cromla  !  ye  fouls  of  chiefs 
"  that  are  no  more,  be  ye  the  companions  of  Cuchullin,  and 
"  talk  to  him  in  the  cave  of  his  forrow.  For  never  more 
"  (hall  I  be  renowned  among  the  mighty  in  the  land.  I  am, 
f  (  like  a  beam  that  has  fhone  ;  like  a  mift  that  fled  away  when 
"  the  blaft  of  the  morning  came,  and  brightened  the  fliaggy 
'*  fide  of  the  hill.  Connal,  talk  of  arms  no  more  ;  departe4 
"  is  my  fame.  My  fighs  (hall  be  on  Cromla's  wind,  till  my 
**  footfteps  ceafe  to  be  feen.  And  thou  white-bofom'd  Bra- 
f  gela,  mourn  over  the  fall  of  my  fame  ;  for,  vanquifhed,  ne- 
f  ver  will  I  return  to  thee,  thou  fun-beam  of  Dunfcaich 


Love  of  fame  begets  heroic  actions,  which  go 
hand  in  hand  with  elevated  fentiments  :  of  the  for- 
mer there  are  examples  in  every  page  ;  of  the  lat- 
ter take  the  following,  examples  : 

"  And  let  him  come,  replied  the  King.  I  love  a  foe  like 
f  '  Cathmor  :  his  foul  is  great  ;  his  arm  ftrong  ;  and  his  battles 
*'  full  of  fame.  But  the  little  foul  is  like  a  vapour  that  ho- 

«  vers 


* 


Fingal.  f  Calthon  and  Colmar.        $  FingaL 


SK.  5.]  ^MANNERS.  353 

*  vers  round  the  marfhy  lake,  which  never  rifes  oh  the  green 
"  hill,  left  the  winds  meet  it  there  *." 

Offian  fpeaks : 

*'  But  let  us  fly,  fon  of  Morni,  Lathmon  defcends  the  hill*- 
««  Then  let  our  Heps  be  flow,  replied  the  fair-hair'd  Gaul,  left 
"  the  foe  fay  with  a  fmile,  Behold  the  warriors  of  night : 

they  are  like  ghofts,  terrible  in  darknefs  ;  but  they  melt  away 
"  before  the  beam  of  the  Eaft  f."     "  Son  of  the  feeble  hand, 
*'  faid  Lathmon,  fnall  my  hoft  defcend  !  They  are  but  two, 
**  and  lhall  a  thoufand  lift  their  fteel !  Nuah  would  mourn  in 
"  his  hall  for  the  departure  of  Lathmon's  fame  :  his  eyes 
«'  would  turn  from  Lathmon,  when  the  tread  of  his  feet  ap- 
"-  preached.      Go   thou  to    the  heroes,  fon   of  Dutha,    for 
"  I  behold  the  ftately  fteps  of  Offian.     His  fame  is  worthy 
*'  of  my  fteel :  let  him  fight  with  Lathmon  J."     "  Fingal 
"  does  not  delight  in  battle,  though  his  arm  is  ftrong.     My 
i*  renown  grows  on  the  fall  of  the  haughty  :  the  lightning  of 
*'  my  fteel  pours  on  the  proud  in  arms.     The  battle  comes  ; 
"  and  the  tombs  of  the  valiant  rife  ;  the  tombs  of  my  people 
'*  rife,  O  my  fathers !  and  I  at  laft  muft  remain  alone.     But 
"  I  will  remain  renowned,  and  the  departure  of  my  foul  fhall 
"  be  one  ftream  of  light  § ."     "  I  raifed  my  voice  for  Fovar- 
"  gormo,  when  they  laid  the  chief  in  earth.     The  aged  Cro- 
"  thar  was  there,   but  his  figh  was  not  heard.     He  fearched 
"  for  the  wound  of  his  fon,   and  found  it  in  his  breaft  :  joy 
**  arofe  in  the  face  of  the  aged  ;  he  came  and  fpoke  to  Oflian  : 
«'  King  of  fpears,  my  fon  hath  not  fallen  without  his  fame : 
**  the  young  warrior  did  not  fly,  but  met  death  as  he  went  for- 
4<  ward  in  his  ftrength.     Happy  are  they  who  die  in  youth, 
"  when  their  renown  is  heard  :  their  memory  fliall  be  honour- 
•**  ed  in  the  fong;  the  young  tear  of  the  virgin  falls  ||."    Cu- 

Y  4  "  chullin 

*  Lathmon.  f  Lathmon.  J 

Lathmon.  |]  Croma, 


354          MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.         [B.  i. 

• 

"  chullin  kindled  at  the  fight,  and  darknefs  gathered  on  his 
"  brow  His  hand  was  on  the  fword  of  his  fathers  :  his  red- 
"  rolling  eye  on  the  foe.  He  thrice  attempted  to  rufh  to 
11  battle,  and  thrice  did  Connal  ftop  him.  Chief  of  the  ifle  of 
**  mi  ft,  he  faid,  Fingal  fubdues  the  foe  :  feek  not  a  part  of  the 
'*  fame  of  the  King  *." 


pi&ures  tfyat  Oflian  draws  of  his  country- 
men, are  no  lefs  remarkable  for  tender  fentiments, 
than  for  elevation.  Parental  affedion  is  finely 
couched  in  the  following  paflage  ; 

"  Son  of  Cqmhal,  replied  the  chief,  the  ftrength  of  Morni's 
"  arm  has  failed.  I  attempt  to  draw  the  fwprd  of  my  youth, 
"  but  it  remains  in  its  place  :  I  throw  the  fpear,  but  it  falls 
"  fhort  of  the  mark  ;  and  I  feiel  the  weight  of  my  fhield.  We 
?'  decay  like  the  grafs  of  the  mountain,  and  our  ftrength  re- 
f  turns  no  more.  I  have  a  fon,  O  Fingal  !  his  foul  has  de- 
*'  lighted  in  the  aclions  of  Morni's  youth  ;  but  his  fword  has 
"  not  been  lifted  againft  the  foe,  neither  has  his  fame  begun. 
*'  I  come  with  him  to  battle,  to  dired  his  arm.  His  renown 
'*  will  be  a  fun  t©  my  foul,  in  the  dark  hour  of  my  departure. 
*'  O  that  the  name  of  Morni  were  forgot  among  the  people, 
"  that  the  heroes  would  only  fay,  Behold  the  father  of 
V  Gaulf!"  '  '  '  •  ,  ' 

And  no  lefs  finely  touched  is  grief  for  the  lofs 
of  children  : 

**  We  faw  Ofcar  leaning  oij  his  fhield;  we  faw  his  blood 
f  around.  Silence  darkened  on  the  face  of  every  hero  :  each 
«'  turned  his  back  and  wept.  The  King  ftrove  to  hide  his 
*f  tears.  He  bends  |^is  head  pve^r  his  fon  ;  and  his  words  are 
ff  mixed  with  fighs.  And  ar^thou  fallen,  Ofcar,  in  the  mid  ft 
"  ,of  thy  courfe  !  The  heart  of  the  aged  beats  over  thee.  I 

"  fee 

*  Fingal.  f  Lathmon. 


'* 


•*' 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  355 

tf  fee  thy  coming  battles  :  I  behold  the  battles  that  ought  to 
"  come,  but  they  are  cut  off  from  thy  fame.  When  fhall  joy 
a  dwell  at  Selma  ?  when  fhall  the  fong  of  grief  ceafe  on  Mor- 
ven  ?  My  fons  fall  by  degrees,  Fingal  will  be  the  laft  of  his 
race.  The  fame  I  have  received  fhall  pafs  away  :  my  age 
(hall  be  without  friends.  I  fhall  fit  like  a  gray  cloud  in  my 
«'  hall  :  nor  fhall  I  expe<5t  the  return  of  a  fon  with  his  founding 
'*  arms.  Weep,  ye  Jieroes  of  Morven  :  never  more  will  0£car 
«  rife  *." 

Crothar  fpeaks  : 

'*  Son  of  Fingal  !  doft  though  not  behold  tke  darknefs  of 
¥  Crothar's  hall  of  fhells  ?  My  foul  was  not  dark  at  the  feaft, 
V  when  my  people  lived..  I  rejoiced  in  the  prefence  of  ftran- 
*-'  gers,  when  my  fon  fhone  in  the  hall.  But,  Oflian,  he  is  a 
<*  beam  that  is  departed,  and  left  no  ftreak  of  light  behind. 
"  He  is  fallen,  fon  of  Fingal,  in  the  battles  of  his  father. 
"  Rothmar,  the  chief  of  grafly  Tromlo,  heard  that  my  eyes 
"  had  failed  ;  he  heard  that  my  arms  were  fixed  in  the  hall, 
'*  and  the  pride  of  his  foul  arofe.  He  came  toward  Cronu  » 
'*  my  people  fell  before  him.  1  took  iny  arms  in  the  hall  ;  but 
M  what  could  ilghtlefs  Crothar  do  ?  My  fteps  were  unequal  ; 
f  '  my  grief  was  great.  I  wifhed  for  the  days  that  were  paft, 
"  days  wherein  I  fought  and  won  in  the  field  of  blood.  My 
«'  fon  returned  from  the  chace,  the  fair-hair'd  Fovar-gormo. 
"  He  had  not  lifted  his  fword  in  battle,  for  his  arm  was  young. 
".  But  the  foul  of  [the  youth  was  great;  the  fire  of  valour 
"  burnt  in  his  eyes.  He  faw  the  difordered  fteps  of  his,  fa- 
"  ther,  and  his  figh  arofe.  King  of  Croma,  he  faid,  is  it  be- 
"  caufe  thou  haft  no  fon  ;  is  it  for  the  weaknefs  of  Fovar- 
«'  gormo's  arm  that  thy  fighs  arife  ?  I  begin,  my  father,  to 
«'  feel  the  ftrength  of  my  arm  ;  I  have  drawn  the  fword  of 
**  my  youth  ;  and  I  have  hent  the  bow.  Let  me  meet  this 
?«  Rothmar  with  the  youths  of  Croma  :  let  me  meet  him,  O 


"my 


t  Temora. 


356  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

"  my  father ;  for  I  feel  my  burning  foul.  And  thou  (halt 
"  meet  him,  I  faid,  fon  of  the  fightlefs  Crothaj  I  But  let  o- 
«  thers  advance  before  thee,  that  I  may  hear  the  tread  of  thy 
'*  feet  at  thy  return  ;  for  my  eyes  behold  thee  not,  fair-hair'd 

"  Fovar-gormo  ! He  went,  he  met  the  foe  ;  he  fell.     The 

*'  foe  advances  toward  Croma.  He  who  flew  my  fon  is  near, 
'*  with  all  his  pointed  fpears  *." 

The  following  fentiments  about  the  fhortnefs  of 
human  life,  are  pathetic. 

"  Defolate  is  the  dwelling  of  Moinna,  filence  in  the  houfe 
*'  of  her  fathers.  Raife  the  fong  of  mourning  over  the  ftran- 
"  gers.  One  day  we  muft  fall ;  and  they  have  only  fallen 

"  before  us Why  doft  thou  build  the  hall,   fon  of  the 

"  winged  days  !  Thou  looked  from  thy  towers  to  day  :  foon 
"  will  the  blaft  of  the  defert  come.  It  howls  in  thy  empty 
**  court,  and  whittles  over  thy  half-worn  fhield  f."  gt  How 
"  long  fhall  we  weep  on  Lena,  or  pour  tears  in  Ullin !  The 
*{  mighty  will  not  return  ;  nor  Ofcar  rife  in  his  ftrength  :  the 
**  valiant  muft:  fall  one  day,  and  be  no  more  known.  Where 
*'  are  our  fathers,  O  warriors,  the  chiefs  of  the  times  of  old  ! 
"  They  are  fet,  like  ftars  that  have  (hone  :  we  only  hear  the 
*'  found  of  their  praife.  But  they  were  renowned  in  their  day, 
"  and  the  terror  of  other  times.  Thus  fhall  we  pafs,  O  war- 
"  riors,  in  the  day  of  our  fall.  Then  let  us  be  renowned  while 
"  we  may ;  and  leave  our  fame  behind  us,  like  the  laft  beams 
"  of  the  fun,  when  he  hides  his  red  head  in  the  weft  J. " 

In  Homer's  time,  heroes  were  greedy  of  plun- 
der ;  and,  like  robbers,  were  much  difpofed  to  in- 
fult  a  vanquimed  foe.  According  to  Offian,  the 
ancient  Caledonians  had  no  idea  of  plunder  :  and 
as  they  fought  for  fame  only,  their  humanity  over- 
flowed to  the  vanquilhed.  American  favages,  it  is 

true, 
t  Croma.  t  Carthon.        J  Temora. 


SK,  5-J  MANNERS. 

true,  are  not  addicted  to  plunder,  and  are  ready  to 
beftow  on  the  firft  comer  what  trifles  they  force 
from  the  enemy.  But  they  have  no  notion  of  a 
pitched  battle,  nor  of  {ingle  combat :  on  the  con- 
trary, they  value  themfelves  upon  flaughtering 
their  enemies  by  furprife,  without  riiking  their 
own  fweet  perfons.  Agreeable  to  the  magnani- 
mous character  given  by  Offian  of  his  countrymen, 
we  find  humanity  blended  with  courage  in  all 
their  actions, 

"  Fingal  pitied  the  white- armed  maid  :  he  ftayed  the  up- 
lifted fword.  The  tear  was  in  the  eye  of  the  King,  as  bend- 
ing forward  he  fpoke :  King  of  ftreamy  Sora,  fear  not  the 
"  fword  of  Fingal :  it  was  never  ftained  with  the  blood  of  the 
**  vanquifhed  ;  it  never  pierced  a  fallen  foe.  Let  thy  people 
"  rejoice  along  the  blue  waters  of  Tora  :  let  the  maids  of  thy 
*'  love  be  glad.  Why  fhould'ft  thou  fall  in  thy  ycuth,  King  of 
1*  ftreamy  Sora*." 

Fingal  f  peaks : 

"  Son  of  my  ftrength,  he  faid,  take  the  fpear  of  Fingal :  go 
"  to  Teutha's  mighty  ilream,  and  fave  the  car-borne  Colmar. 
•'  Let  thy  fame  return  before  thee  like  a  pleafant  gale ;  that 
"  my  foul  may  rejoice  over  my  fon,  who  renews  the  renown 
"  of  our  fathers.  Oflian  !  be  thou  a  ftorm  in  battle,  but  mild 
'*  where  the  foes  are  low.  It  wa?  thus  my  fame  arofe,  O  my 
*  fon ;  and  be  thou  like  Selma's  chief.  When  the  haughty 
e  come  to  my  hall,  my  eyes  behold  them  not ;  but  my  arm 
'*  is  ft  retched  forth  to  the  unhappy,  my  fword  defends  the 
<*  weak  f."  «'  O  Ofcar,  bend  the  ftrong  in  arm,  but  fpare  the 
"  feeble  hand.  Be  thou  a  flream  of  many  tides  againft  the 
*f  foes  of  thy  people,  but  like  the  gale  that  moves  the  grafs  to 

"  thofc 
^  Carric-thura.         f  Calthon  and  Colmar. 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

"  thofe  who  afk  thy  aid.  Never  fearch  for  the  battle,  nor  ftmn 
"  it  when  it  comes.  So  Trenmor  lived  ;  fuch  Trathal  was  ; 
"  and  fuch  has  Fingal  been.  My  arm  was  the  fupport  of  the 
'«  injured  ;  and  the  weak  refted  behind  the  lightning  of  my 
"  fteel  V 

Humanity  to  the  vanquifhed  is  difplayed  in  the 
following  paflTages,  After  defeating  in  battle  Swa- 
ran  King  of  Lochlin,  Fingal  fays, 

"  Raife,  Ullin,  raife  the  fong  of  peace,  and  foothe  my  foul 
(<  after  battle,  that  my  ear  may  forget  the  noife  of  arms.  And 
*'  let  a  hundred  harps  be  near  to  gladden  the  King  of  Loch- 
*'  lift  :  he  muft  depart  from  us  with  joy  :   none  ever  went  fad 
*'  from  Fingal.     Ofcar,  the  lightning  of  my  fword  is  againft 
*'  the  ftrong  ;  but  peaceful  it  hangs  by  my  fide  when  warriors 
"  yield  in  battle  f."     '*  Uthal  fell  beneath  my  fword,  and  the 
'*  fons  of  Berrathon  fled.    It  was  then  I  faw  him  in  his  beauty, 
"  and  the  tear  hung  in  my  eye.     Thou  art  fallen,  young  tree, 
<{  I  faid,    with  all  thy  budding  beauties  round  thee.     The 
*'  winds  come  from  the  defert,  and  there  is  no  found  in  thy 
<<  leaves.     Lovely  art  thou  in  death,  fon  of  car-borne  Lath-. 
'«  mor 


After  perilling  thefe  quotations,  it  will  not  be 
thought  that  Offian  deviates  from  the  manners  re- 
prefented  by  him,  in  defcribing  the  hofpitality  of 
bis  chieftains  : 

"  We  heard  the  voice  of  joy  on  the  coaft,  and  we  thought 
«'  that  the  mighty  Cathmor  came  ;  Cathmor,  the  friend  of 
«  ftrangers,  the  brother  of  red-hair'd  Cairbar.  But  their  fouls 
<*  were  not  the  fame  ;  for  the  light  of  heaven  was  in  the  bofom 
"  of  Cathmor.  His  towers  rofe  on  the  banks  of  Atha  :  feven 
"  paths  led  to  his  hall  :  feven  chiefs  flood  on  thefe  paths,  and 
"  called  the  ftranger  to  the  feaft.  But  Cathmor  dwelt  in  the 

*'  wood, 
*  Fingal,  book  3.    f  Fingal,  book  6.    $  Berrathon. 


SK.  5»]  MANNERS*  359 

"  wood,  to  avoid  the  voice  of  praife  *."  €t  Rathmot1  was  a 
"  chief  of  Clutha.  The  feeble  dwelt  in  his  hall.  The  gates 
"  of  Rathmor  were  never  clofed  ;  his  feaft  was  always  fpread. 
"  The  fons  of  the  ftranger  came,  and  bleflpd  the  generous 
"  chief  of  Glutha.  Bards  raifed  the  fong,  and  touched  the 
<c  harp  :  joy  brightened  on  the  face  of  the  mournful.  Dun- 
"  thalmo  came  in  his  pride,  and  rufhed  into  combat  with 
"  Rathmor.  The  chief  of  Clutha  overcame.  The  rage  of 
"  Dunthalmo  rofe  :  he  came  by  night  with  his  warriors  ;  and 
"  the  mighty  Rathmor  fell :  he  fell  in  his  hall,  where  his  feaft 
"  had  been  often  fpread  for  ftrangers  f ." 

It  feems  not  to  exceed  the  magnanimity  of  his 
chieftains,  intent  upon  glory  only,  to  feaft  even  an 
enemy  before  a  battle.  Cuchullin,  after  the  firfl 
day's  engagement  with  Swaran,  King  of  Lochlin 
or  Scandinavia,  fays  to  Carril,  one  of  his  bards, 

*'  Is  this  feaft  fpread  for  me  alone,  and  the  King  of  Lochlin 
11  on  Ullin's  fhore  ;  far  from  the  deer  of  his  hills,  and  found- 
"  ing  halls  of  his  feafts  ?  Rife,  Carril  of  other  times,  and 
*'  carry  my  words  to  Swaran  5  tell  him  from  the  roaring  of 
*'  waters,  that  Cuchullin  gives  his  feaft.  Here  let  him  liften 
"  to  the  found  of  my  groves  amid  the  clouds  of  night :  for  cold 
"  and  bleak  the  bluftering  winds  rufti  over  the  foam  of  his 
"  feas.  Here  let  him  praife  the  trembling  harp,  and  hear  the 
"  fongs  of  heroes  J." 

The  Scandinavian  King,  lefs  polifhed,  refufed 
the  invitation.  Cairbar  fpeaks : 

'*  Spread  the  feaft  on  Lena,  and  let  my  hundred  bards  at- 
"  tend.  And  thou,  red-hair'd  Olla,  take  the  harp  of  the 
*«  King.  Go  to  Ofcar,  King  of  fwords,  and  bid  him  to  our 
«'  feaft.  To  day  we  feaft  and  hear  the  fong  ;  to-morrow  break 

"the 

*  Temora.     f  Calthon  and  Colmar.    t  Fingal,  book  i. 


360  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

"  the  fpears  *."  "  Olla  came  with  his  fongs.  Ofcar  went  to 
"  Cairbar' s  feaft.  Three  hundred  heroes  attend  the  chief,  and 
*'  the  clang  of  their  arms  is  terrible.  The  gray  dogs  bound  on 
*'  the  heath,  and  their  howling  is  frequent.  Fingal  faw  the 
"  departure  of  the  hero  :  the  foul  of  the  King  was  fad.  He 
"  dreads  the  gloomy  Cairbar :  but  who  of  the  race  of  Tren- 
•'  mor  fears  the  foe  f  ?" 

Cruelty  is  every  where  condemned  as  an  infa- 
mous vice.     Speaking  of  the  bards, 

"  Cairbar  feared  to  ftretch  his  fword  to  the  bards,  though 

i 

"  his  foul  was  dark ;  but  he  clofed  us  in  the  midft  of  dark- 
"  nefs.  Three  days  we  pined  alone  :  on  the  fourth  the  noble 
"  Cathmore  came.  He  heard  our  voice  from  the  cave,  and 
4<  turned  the  eye  of  his  wrath  on  Cairbar.  Chief  of  Atha,  he 
"  faid,  how  long  wilt  thou  pain  my  foul  ?  Thy  heart  is  like 
"  the  rock  of  the  defert,  and  thy  thoughts  are  dark.  But  thou 
"  art  the  brother  of  Cathmor,  and  he  will  fight  thy  battles. 
"  Cathmor' s  foul  is  not  like  thine,  thou  feeble  hand  of  war. 
"  The  light  of  my  bofom  is  ftained  with  thy  deeds.  The 
'<  bards  will  not  fmg  of  my  renown  ;  they  may  fay,  Cath- 
*'  mor  was  brave,  but  he  fought  for  gloomy  Cairbar ;  they 
"  will  pafs  over  my  tomb  in  filence,  and  my  fame  fhall 
"  not  be  heard.  Cairbar,  loofe  the  bards ;  they  are  the  fons 
'*  of  other  times  :  their  voice  fliall  be  heard  in  other  ages  when 
"  the  Kings  of  Temora  have  failed  J."  "  Ullin  raifed  his  white 
"  fails  :  the  wind  of  the  fouth  came  forth.  He  bounded  on 
**  the  waves  toward  Selma's  walls.  The  feaft  is  fpread  on 
"  Lena  :  an  hundred  heroes  reared  the  tomb  of  Cairbar ;  but 
"  no  fong  is  raifed  over  the  chief,  for  his  foul  had  been  dark 
"  and  bloody.  We  remembered  the  fall  of  Cormac  ;  and 
"  what  could  we  fay  in  Cairbar's  praife  }  ?" 

Genuine 
*  Temora.        f  Temora,        J  Temora.        §  Temora. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  361 

Genuine  manners  never  were  reprefented  more 
to  the  life  by  a  Tacitus  nor  a  Shakefpeare.  Such 
painting  is  above  the  reach  of  pure  invention  :  it 
mufl  be  the  work  of  knowledge  and  feeling. 

One  may  difcover  the  manners  of  a  nation  from 
the  figure  their  women  make.  Among  favages, 
women  are  treated  like  flaves  ;  and  they  acquire 
not  the  dignity  that  belongs  to  the  fex,  till  man- 
ners be  confiderably  refined  *.  According  to  the 
manners  above  defcribed,  women  ought  to  have 
made  a  confiderable  figure  among  the  ancient  Ca- 
ledonians. Let  us  examine  Offian  upon  that  fub- 
jecl:,  in  order  to  judge  whether  he  carries  on  the 
fame  tone  of  manners  through  every  particular. 
That  women  were  highly  regarded,  appears  from 
the  following  paffages. 

"  Daughter  of  the  hand  of  fnow  !  I  was  not  fo  mournful 
"  and  blind,  I  was  not  fo  dark  and  forlorn,  when  Everallin 
*'  loved  me,  Everallin  with  the  dark-brown  hair,  the  white- 
"  bofomed  love  of  Cormac.  A  thoufand  heroes  fought  the 
"  maid,  ftie  denied  her  love  to  a  thoufand  ;  the  fons  of  the 
"  fword  were  defpifed  ;  for  graceful  in  her  eyes  was  Offian* 
'"  I  went  in  fuit  of  the  maid  to  Lego's  fable  furge  ;  twelve  of 
"  my  people  were  there,  fons  of  the  ftreamy  Morven.  We 
"  came  to  Branno  friend  of  ftrangers,  Branno  of  the  founding 
"  mail.— From  whence,  he  faid,  are  the  arms  of  fteei  ?  Not 
"  eafy  to  win  is  the  maid  that  has  denied  the  blue-eyed  fons 
"  of  Erin.  But  bleft  be  thou,  O  fon  of  Fingal,  happy  is  the 
"  maid  that  waits  thee.  Though  twelve  daughters  of  beauty 
"  were  mine,  thine  were  the  choice,  thou  fon  of  fame  !  Then 
«'  he  opened  the  hall  of  the  maid,  the  dark-haired  Everallin. 

"  Joy* 

*  See  the  Sketch  immediately  following. 


362  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OT  SOCIETY.  [fi.  tv 

*'  Joy  kindled  in  our  breafts  of  fteel,  and  bleft  the  maid  of 
"  Branno  *."  "  Now  Connal,  on  Cromla's  windy  fide,  fpoke 
"  to  the  chief  of  the  noble  car.  Why  that  gloom,  fon  of  Se- 
"  mo  ?  Our  friends  are  the  mighty  in  battle.  And  renowned 
"  art  thou,  O  warrior  f  many  were  the  deaths  of  thy  fteel. 
**  Often  has  Bragela  met  thee  wrth  blue-rolling  eyes  of  joy ; 
'*  often  has  {he  met  her  hero  returning  in  the  mid  ft  of  the  va~ 
"  liant,  when  his  fword  was  red  with  (laughter,  and  his  foes 
'*  filent  in  the  field  of  the  tomb.  Pleafant  to  her  ears  were 
"  thy  bards,  when  thine  a&ions  rofe  in  the  fong  f."  '*  But, 
"  King  of  Morven,  if  I  {hall  fall,  as  one  time  the  warrior  inuft 
"  fall,  raife  my  tomb  in  the  midft,  and  let  it  be  the  greateft 
"  on  Lena.  And  fend  over  the  dark-blue  wave  the  fword  of 
"  Orla,  to  the  fpoufe  of  his  love ;  that  ihe  may  {how  it  to  her 
w  fon,  with  tears,  to  kindle  his  foul  to  war  J."  "1  lifted  my 
"  eyes  to  Cromla,  and  I  faw  the  fon  of  generous  Semo. — Sad 
"  and  flow  he  retired  from  his  hill  toward  the  lonely  cave  of 
"  Tura.  He  faw  Fingal  vi&orious,  and  mixed  his  joy  with 
4<  grief.  The  fun  is  bright  on  his  armour,  and  Connal  {lowly 
fr<  followed.  They  funk  behind  the  hill,  like  two  pillars  of  the 
"  fire  of  night,  when  winds  purfue  them  over  the  mountain, 
"  and  the  flaming  heath  refounds.  Befide  a  ftream  of  roar- 
"  ing  foam,  his  cave  is  in  a  rock.  One  tree  bends  above  it ; 
"  and  the  rufliing  winds  echo  againft  its  fides.  There  refts 
<'  the  chief  of  Dunfcaich,  the  fon  of  generous  Semo.  His 
thoughts  are  on  the  battles  he  loft  ;  and  the  tear  is  on  his 
cheek.  He  mourned  the  departure  of  his  fame,  that  fled 
ft  like  the  mi  ft  of  Cona.  O  Bragela,  thou  art  too  far  remote 
**  to  cheer  the  foul  of  the  hero.  But  let  him  fee  thy  bright 
form  in  his  foul ;  that  his  thoughts  may  return  to  the  lonely 
fun  beam  of  Dunfcakh  j{."  "  Ofiian  King  of  fwords,  re-^ 
plied  the  bard,  thou  beft  raifeft  the  fong.  Long  haft  thou 
been  known  to  Carril,  thou  ruler  of  battles.  Often  have  I 

.."  touched 

*  Fingal,  book  iv.  f  Fingal,  book  v. 

Fingal,  book  v.  |j  Fingal,  book  v. 


« 

C( 


« 


t( 


•  S'3  MANNERS.  363 

"  touched  the  harp  to  lovely  Everallin.    Thou,  too,  haft  of* 
"  ten  accompanied  my  voice  in  Branno's  hall  of  fhells.     And 
"  often  amidft  our  voices  was  heard  the  mildeft  Everallin. 
"  One  day  {he  fung  of  Cormac's  fall,  the  youth  that  died  for 
"  her  love.     I  faw  the  tears  on  her-  cheek,  and  on  thine,  thou 
chief  of  men.     Her  foul  was  touched  for  the  unhappy, 
"  though  flie  loved  him  not.     How  fair  amfcng  a  thoufand 
"  maids,  was  the  daughter  of  the  generous  Branno  *."     "  It 
*'  was  in  the  days  of  peace,  replied  the  great  Cleffammor,  I 
*'  came  in  my  bounding  fhip  to  Balclutha's  walls  of  towers. 
"  The  winds  had  roared  behind  my  fails,  and'Clutlja's  ftreams 
received  my  dark-bofomed  veflel.     Three  days  I  remained 
tf  in   Reuthamir's   halls,   and  faw    that   beam   of  light,  hi? 
"  daughter.     The  joy  of  the  jfhell  went  round,  and  the  aged 
*'  hero  gave  the  fair.     Her   breads  were  like  foam  on   the 
**  wave,  and  her  eyes  like  ftars  of  light :  her  hair  was  dark  as 
'*  the  raven's  wing ;  her  foul  was  generous  and  mild.     My 
*'  love  for  Moina  was  great :  and  my  heart  poured  forth  in 
"  j°7  1~'"     "  The  fame  of  Offian  fhall  rife  :  his  deeds  fhall  be 
**  like  his  father's.     Let  us  rufli  in  our  arms,  fon  of  Morni, 
'*  let  us   rufh  to  battle.     Gaul,  if  thou  ihalt  return,  go  to 
t(  Selma's  lofty  hall.     Tell  Everallin  that  I  fell  with  fame : 
"  carry  the  fword  to  Branno's  daughter :  let  her  give  it  to 
"  Ofcar  when  the  years  of  his  youth  fhall  arife  j." 

Next  to  war,  love  makes  the  principal  figure : 
and  well  it  may  ;  for  in  Offian' s  poems  it  breathes 
every  thing  fweet,  tender,  and  elevated. 

"  On  Lubar's  graffy  banks  they  fought ;  and  Grudar  fell. 
"  Fierce  Cairbar  came  to  the  vale  of  the  echoing  Tura.,  where 
'*  BrafTolis,  faireft  of  his  fi tiers,  all  alone  raifed  the  fong  of 
*«  grief.  She  fung  the  actions  of  Grudar,  the  youth  of  her 
4<  fecret  foul :  {he  mourned  him  in  the  field  of  blood ;  but  (till 

"  fhe 
*  Fingal,  book  v.         •(•  Carthon,        J  Lathmon. 

VOL.  I.  X 


364  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

"  flie  hoped  his  return.     Her  white  bofom  is  feen  from  her . 

"  robe,  as  the  moon  from  the  clouds  of  night :  her  voice  was 

**  fofter  than  the  harp,  to  raife  the  fong  of  grief :  her  foul  was 

"  fixed  on  Grudar,  the  fecret  look  of  her  eye  was  his  ; — when 

"  wilt  thou  come  in  thine  arms,  thou  mighty  in  the  war  ? 

"  Take,  Braflblis,  Cairbar  faid,  take  this  fhield  of  blood  :  fix 

"  it  on  high  within  my  hall,  the  armour  of  my  foe.     Her  foft 

*'  heart  beat  againft  her  fide  :    diftracled,  pale,  (he  flew,  and 

"  found   her   youth  in  his  blood — She   died   on   Cromla's 

"  heath.     Here  refts  their  duft,  Cuchullin ;    and  thefe  two 

<c  lonely  yews,  fprung  from  their  tombs,  wifti  to  meet  on 

*<  high.     Fair  was  Braflblis  on  the  plain,  and  Grudar  on  the 

"  hill.      The  bard  fhall  preferve  their  names,   and   repeat 

'*  them  to  future  times*."     '"  Pleafant  is  thy  voice,  O  Car- 

<•<  ril,  faid  the  blue-eyed  chief  of  Erin ;  and  lovely  are  the 

"  words  of  other  times :    they  are  like  the  calm  fhower  of 

"  fpring,  when  the  fun  looks  on  the  field,  and  the  light  cloud 

**  flies  over  the  hill.     O  ftrike  the  harp  in  praife  of  my  love, 

"  the  lonely  fun-beam  of  Dunfcaich :    ftrike  the  harp   in 

"  praife  of  Bragela,  whom  I  left  in  the  ifle  of  mift,  the 

"  fpoufe  of  Semo's  fon. — Doft  thou  raife  thy  fair  face  from 

€t  the  rock  to  find  the  fails  of  Cuchullin  ?  the  fea  is  rolling 

•'  far  diftant,  and  its  white  foam  will  deceive  thee  for  my 

•*'  fails.     Retire,  my  love,  for  it  is  night,  and  the  dark  winds 

0  figh  in  thy  hair :   retire  to  the  hall  of  my  feafts,  and  think 

w  of  times  that  are  paft  ;   for  I  will  not  return  till  the  ftorm 

"  of  war  ceafe. — O  Connal,  fpeak  of  war  and  arms,  and  fend 

"  her  from  my  mind ;  for  lovely  with  her  raven  hair  is  the 

<4  white-bofomed  daughter  of  Sorglan  f ." 

Malvina  fpeaks. 

'*  But  thou  dwelled  in  the  foul  of  Malvina,  fon  of  mighty 
*'  Offian.     My  fighs  arife  with  the  beam  of  the  eaft,  my  tears 

"  defcend 

*  Fingal,  book  i.  f  Fingal,  book  i. 


S£.  5.]  MANNERS.  365 

*'  defcend  with  the  drops  of  the  night.  I  Was  a  lovely  tree 
"  in  thy  prefence,  Ofcar,  with  all  my  branches  round  me : 
"  but  thy  death  came  like  a  blaft  from  the  defert,  and  laid 
"  my  green  head  low :  the  fpring  returned  with  its  fhowers, 
"  but  of  me  not  a  leaf  fprung.  The  virgins  faw  me  filent 
"  in  the  hall,  and  they  touched  the  harp  of  joy.  The  tear 
<l  was  on  the  cheek  of  Malvina,  and  the  virgins  beheld  my 
"  grief.  Why  art  thou  fad,  they  faid,  thou  firfl  of  the  maids 
"  of  Lutha  ?  Was  he  lovely  as  the  beam  of  the  morning, 
*'  and  (lately  in  thy  fight  *  ?"  "  Fingal  came  in  his  xnild- 
*<  nefs,  rejoicing  in  fecret  over  the  actions  of  his  fon.  Mor- 
"  ni's  face  brightened  with  gladnefs,  and  his  aged  eyes  look- 
"  ed  faintly  through  tears  of  joy.  We  came  to  the  halls  of 
"  Selma,  and  fat  round  the  feaft  of  {hells.  The  maids  of  the 
"  fong  came  into  our  prefence,  and  the  mildly-blufhing  Eve- 
"  rallin.  Her  dark  hair  fpreads  on  her  neck  of  fnow,  her 
"  eye  rolls  in  fecret  on  Offian.  She  touches  the  harp  of 
"  mufic,  and  we  blefs  the  daughter  of  Branno  f ." 

Had  the  Caledonians  made  Haves  of  their  wo- 
men, and  thought  as  meanly  of  them  as  favages 
commonly  do,  Offian  could  never  have  thought, 
even  in  a  dream,  of  bellowing  on  them  thofe  num- 
berlefs  graces  that  exalt  the  female  fex,  and  ren- 
der many  of  them  objeds  of  pure  and  elevated  af- 
fe&ion.  I  fay  more  :  Suppofing  a  favage  to  have 
been  divinely  infpired,  manners  fo  inconiiftent  with 
their  own  would  not  have  been  reliftied,  nor  even 
comprehended,  by  his  countrymen.  And  yet  that 
they  were  highly  relifhed  is  certain,  having  been 
diffufed  among  all  ranks,  and  preferved  for  many 
ages  by  memory  alone,  without  writing.  Here 

Z  2-  ,  the 

*  Crorna.  f  Lathmon. 


366  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [#.  T, 

the  argument  mentioned  above  ftrikes  with  double 
force,  to  evince,  that  the  manners  of  the  Caledo- 
nians muft  have  been  really  fuch  as  Oflian  de- 
fer ibes. 

Catharina  Alexowna,  Emprefs  of  Ruflia,  pro- 
moted aflemblies  of  men  and  women,  as  a  means 
to  polifh  the  manners  of  her  fubjecls.  And  in  or- 
der to  preferve  decency  in  fuch  aflemblies,  me  pu- 
blifhed  a  body  of  regulations,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing are  a  fpecimen.  "  Ladies  who  play  at  for- 
"  feitures,  queftions  and  commands,  See.  mail  not 
"  be  noify  nor  riotous.  No  gentleman  muft  at- 
"  tempt  to  force  a  kifs,  nor  ftrike  a  woman  in  the 
"  aflembly,  under  pain  of  exclufion.  Ladies  are 
"  not  to  get  drunk  upon  any  pretence  whatever ; 
"  nor  gentlemen  before  nine.''  Compare  the  man- 
ners that  required  fuch  regulations  with  thofe  de- 
fcribed  above.  Can  we  fuppofe,  that  the  ladies 
and  gentlemen  of  Oflian' s  poems  ever  amufed  them- 
felves,  after  the  age  of  twelve,  with  hide  and  feek, 
queftions  and  commands,  or  fuch  childifh  play. 
Can  it  enter  into  our  thoughts,  that  Bragela  or 
Malvina  were  fo  often  drunk,  as  to  require  the  re- 
primand of  a  public  regulation  ?  or  that  any  hero 
of  Oflian  ever  ftruck  a  woman  of  fafhion  in  ire  ? 

The  immortality  of  the  foul  was  a  capital  ar- 
ticle in  the  Celtic  creed,  inculcated  by  the  Druids  *. 
And  in  Valerius  Maximus  we  find  the  following 
paflage  : — "  Gallos,  memoriae  proditum  eft,  pecu- 

"  nias 
*  Pomponius  Mela.  Ammianus  Marcellinus. 


SK.  5»]  MANNERS.  367 

"  nias  mutuas,  quae  fibi  apud  inferos  redderentur, 
"  dare  :  quia  perfuafum  habuerint,  animas  homi- 
"  num  immortales  efle.  Dicerem  ftultos,  nifi  idem 
"  braccati  fenfuTent  quod  pajliatus  Pythagoras  fen- 
"  fit*.':  All  favages  have  an  impreffion  of  im- 
mortality ;  but  few,  even  of  the  moft  enlightened 
before  Chriftianity  prevailed,  had  the  lealt  notion 
of  any  occupations  in  another  life,  but  what  they 
were  accuftomed  to  in  this.  Even  Virgil,  in  his 
poetical  fervency,  finds  no  amufements  for  his  de- 
parted heroes,  but  what  they  were  fond  of  when 
alive  ;  the  fame  love  for  war,  the  fame  tafte  for 
Bunting,  and  the  fame  affection  to  their  friends. 
As  we  have  no  reafon  to  expect  more  invention  in 
Offian,  the  obfervation  may  ferve  as  a  key  to  the 
ghofts  introduced  by  him,  and  to  his  whole  ma- 
chinery, as  termed  by  critics.  His  defcription  of 
thefe  ghofts  is  copiepl  plainly  from  the  creed  of  his 
country. 

In  a  historical  account  of  t]ie  progrefs  of  man*- 
ners,  it  would  argue  grofs  infenlibility  to  overlook 
thofe  above  mentioned.  The  fubject,  it  is,  true, 
has  fwelled  upon  my  hands  beyond  expectation  ; 

I 

but  it  is  not  a  little  intereiting.  If  theje  manners 
be  genuine,  they  are  a  imgular  phenomenon  in  the 

7,  3  Hiftory 

*  "  It  is  reported,  that  the  Gauls  frequently  lent  money  to 
'*  be  paid  back  in  the  infernal  regions,  from  a  firm  perfuafion 
"  that  the  fouls  of  men  were  immortal.  I  would  have  called 
"  them  fools,  if  thofe  wearers  of  breeches  had  not  thought 
"  the  fame  as  Pythagoras  who  wore  a  cloak.". — *%Lib«.  3» 


368  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

Hiftory  of  Man  :  if  they  be  the  invention  of  an  il- 
literate bard,  among  favages  utterly  ignorant  of 
fuch  manners,  the  phenomenon  is  no  lefs  fingular. 
Let  either  fide  be  taken,  and  a  fort  of  miracle  mult 
be  admitted.  In  the  inftances  above  given,  fuch  a 
beautiful  mixture  there  is  of  fimplicity  and  dig- 
nity, and  fo  much  life  given  to  the  manners  de- 
fcribed,  that  real  manners  were  never  reprefented 
with  a  more  flriking  appearance  of  truth.  If  thefe 
manners  be  fictitious,  I  fay  again,  that  the  author 

« 

muft  have  been  infpired  :  they  plainly  exceed  the 
invention  of  a  favage  ;  nay,  they  exceed  the  in- 
vention of  any  known  writer. .  Every  man  will 
judge  for  himfelf :  it  is  perhaps  fondnefs  for  fuch 
refined  manners,  that  makes  me  incline  to  reality 
againft  fidion. 

I  am  aware  at  the  fame  time,  that  manners  fo 
pure  and  elevated,  in  the  firft  itage  of  fociety,  are 
difficult  to  be  accounted  for.  The  Caledonians 
were  not  an  original  tribe,  who  may  be  fuppofed 
to  have  had  manners  peculiar  to  themfelv7es  :  they 
were  a  branch  of  the  Celtae,  and  had  a  language 
common  to  them  with  the  inhabitants  of  Gaul,  and 
of  England.  The  manners  probably  of  all  were 
the  fame,  or  nearly  fo  ;  and  if  we  expect  any  light 
for  explaining  Caledonian  manners,  it  muft  be  from 
that  quarter  :  we  have  indeed  no  other  refource. 
Diodorus  Siculus  *  reports  of  the  Celtae,  that, 
though  warlike,  they  were  upright  in  their  deal- 
ings, 


v 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  369 

ings,  and  far  removed  from  deceit  and  duplicity. 
CadTar  #,  "  Galli  homines  aperti  minimeque  inli- , 
"  dioli,  qui  per  virtutem,  non  per  dolum,  dimi- 
"  care  confueverunt  f .''  And  though  cruel  to  their 
enemies,  yet  Pomponius  Mela  If.  obferves,  that  they 
were  kind  and  compaffionate  to  the  fupplicant 
and  unfortunate,  Strabo  §  defcribes  the  Gauls  as 
ftudious  of  war,  and  of  great  alacrity  in  fighting  ; 
otherwife  an  innocent  people,  altogether  void  of 
malignity.  He  fays,  that  they  had  three  orders  of 
men,  bards,  priefts,  and  druids  ;  that  the  province 
of  the  bards  was  to  ftudy  poetry,  and  to  compofe 
longs  in  praife  of  their  deceafed  heroes  ;  that  the 
priefts  prelided  over  divine  worfhip  ;  and  that  the 
druids,  beiide  ftudying  moral  and  natural  philofo- 
phy,  determined  all  controveriies,  and  had  fome 
direction  even  in  war.  Caefar,  lefs  attentive  to 
civil  matters,  comprehends  thefe  three  orders  un- 
der the  name  of  druids ;  and  obferves,  that  the 
druids  teach  their  difciples  a  vaft  number  of  ver- 
fes,  which  they  muft  get  by  heart.  Diodorus  Si- 
culus  fays,  that  the  Gauls  had  poets  termed  bards, 
who  fung  airs  accompanied  with  the  harp,  in  praife 
of  fome/and  difpraife  of  others.  Lucan,  fpeaking 
of  the  three  orders,  fays, 

X  4  "  Vos 

*  De  bello  Africo.  * 

\ 

f  "  The  Gauls  are  of  an  open  temper,  not  at  all  infidious; 
41  and  in  fight  they  rely  on  valour,  not  on  ftratagem." 

Lib.  3.  {  Lib.  4. 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

I 

"  Vos  quoque,  qui  fortes  animas,  belloque  peremptas, 
"  Laudibus  in  longum,  vates,  dimittitis  aevum, 
"  Plurima  fecuri  fudiftis  carmina  bardi  *." 

With  rcfpedl  to  the  Celtic  women  in  particular, 
it  is  agreed  by  all  writers,  that  they  were  extreme- 
ly beautiful  f  ;  and  no  lefs  remarkable  for  fpirit 
than  for  beauty.  If  we  can  rely  on  Diodorus  Si- 
culus,  the  women  in  Gaul  equalled  the  men  in  cou- 
rage. Tacitus,  in  his  life  of  Agricola,  fays,  that 
the  Britifh  women  frequently  joined  with  the  men, 
when  attacked  by  an  enemy.  And  fo  much  were 
they  regarded,  as.  to  be  thought  capable  of  the 
higheft  command.  '*  Neque  enim  fexum  in  impe- 
*'  riis  difcernunt,"  fays  the  fame  author  J.  And 
accordingly,  during  the  war  carried  on  by  Carac- 
tacus,  a  gallant  Britiih  King,  agaipft  the  Romans, 
Cartifmandua  was  Queen  of  the  Brigantes.  Boa- 
dicea  is  recorded  in  Roman  annals  as  a  Queen  of 
^  warlike  fpirit.  She  led  on  a  great  army  againfi 
the  Romans  ;  and  in  exhorting  her  people  to  be- 

have 

*  «'  You  too,  ye  bards  !  whom  facred  raptures  fire, 

**  To  chant  your  heroes  to  your  country's  lyre  ; 

'*  Who  confecrate  in  your  immortal  ftrain, 

"  Brave  patriot  fouls,  in  righteous  battle  flam  ; 

"  Securely    .;w  the  tuneful  ta£k  renew, 

"  And  nobleft  themes  in  dcathlefs  fongs  purfue." 
r 


Diodorus  Siculus,  lib.  5.     Athena?us,  lib.  13. 

'  They  made  no  diftin&ion  of  fex  in  conferring  authp 
rity."-  -  Vita  Agncolx,  cap.  16. 

*  -  r  '•  ^\   ' 


£K.  5.]  MANNERS.  37! 

have  with  courage,  fhe  obferved,  that  it  was  not 
unufual  to  fee  a  Britifh  army  led  on  to  battle  by  a 
woman ;  to  which  Tacitus  adds  his  teftimony : 
"  Solitum  quidem  Britannis  foeminarum  ductu  bel- 
"  lare  *.v  No  wonder  that  Celtic  women,  foam- 
ply  provided  with  fpirit,  as  well  as  beauty,  made 
a  capital  figure  in  every  public  entertainment  f . 

The  Gallic  Celtae  undoubtedly  carried  with  them 
their  manners  and  cultoms  to  Britain,  and  fpread 
them  gradually  from  fouth  to  north.  Arid  as  the 
Caledonians,  inhabiting  a  mountainous  country  in 
the  northern  parts  of  the  ifland,  had  little  com- 
merce with  other  nations,  they  preferved  long  in 
purity  many  Celtic  cuftoms,  particularly  that  of 
retaining  bards.  Arthur  the  laft  Celtic  King  of 
England,  who  was  a  hero  in  the  defence  of  his 
country  againft  the  Saxons,  protected  the  bards, 
and  was  immortalized  by  them.  All  the  chief- 
tains had  bards  in  their  pay,  whofe  province  it  was 
to  compofe  fongs  in  praife  of  their  anceilors,  and 
to  /accompany  thefe  fongs  with  the  harp.  This 
entertainment  enflamed  their  love  for  war,  and  at 
the  fame  time  foftened  their  manners,  which,  as 
Strabo  reports,  were  naturally  innocent  and  void 
of  malignity.  It  had  beiide  a  wonderful  influence 
in  forming  virtuous  manners :  the  bards,  in  prai- 
iing  deceafed  heroes,  would  naturally  feled:  vir- 
tuous actions,  which  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  he- 
roic 

*  "  The  Britons  even  followed  women  as  leaders  in  the 
<*  field/' — Annalium,  lib.  14.  f  Athenaeus,  lib.  10. 


372  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY^  [B.  I. 

roic  poetry,  and  tend  the  moft  to  illuftrate  the  hero 
of  their  fong  :  vice  may  be  flattered  ;  but  praife  is 
never  willingly  nor  fuccefsfully  bellowed  upon  any 
atchievement  but  what  is  virtuous  and  heroie.  It 
is  accordingly  obferved  by  Ammianus  Marcelli- 
nus  *,  that  the  bards  inculcated  in  their  fongs  vir- 
tue and  actions  worthy  of  praife.  The  bards,  who 
were  in  high  eftimation,  became  great,  proficients 
in  poetry  ;  of  which  we  have  a  confpicuous  in- 
flate in  the  works  of  Oflian.  Their  capital  com- 
politions  were  diligently  ftudied  by  thofe  of  their 
own  order,  and  admired  by  all.  The  fongs  of  the 
bards,  accompanied  with  the  harp,  made  a  deep 
impreffion  on  the  young  warrior,  elevated  fome 
into  heroes,  and  promoted  virtue  in  every  hearer  f . 
Another  circumftance,  common  to  the  Caledonians 
with  every  other  nation  in  the  firft  ftage  of  fociety, 
concurred  to  form  their  manners  ;  which  is,  that 
avarice  was  unknown  among  them.  People  in  that 
ftage,  ignorant  of  habitual  wants,  and  having  a 
ready  fupply  of  all  that  nature  requires,  have  little 
notion  of  property,  and  not  the  ilighteft  delire  of 

accumulating 
*  Lib.  15. 

j-   Polydore  Virgil  fays,  Hiberm  funt  mufica  perittffim [7« 

Engllfh  thus  :  "  The  Irifh  are  moft  Ikilful  in  mulic."]-— Ire- 
land was  peopled  from  Britain  ;  and  the  mufic  of  that  coun- 
try muft  have  been  derived  from  Britifli  bards.  The  Welfh 
bards  were  the  great  champions  of  independence ;  and  in  par- 
ticular promoted  an  obftinate  refiftance  to  Edward  I.  when 
he  carried  his  arms  into  Wales.  And  hence  the  tradition* 
that  the  Welfli  bards  were  all  Slaughtered  by  that  King. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  373 

accumulating  the  goods  of  fortune  ;  and  for  that 
reafon  are  always  found  honeft  and  difinterefted. 
With  refped:  to  the  female  fex,  who  make  an  il- 
luftrious  figure  in  Offian' s  poems,  if  they  were  fo 
eminent  both  for  courage  and  beauty  as  they  are  re- 
prefented  by  the  beft  authors,  it  is  no  wonder  to  find 
them  painted  by  Offian  as  objects  of  love  the  moil 
pure  and  refined.  Nor  ought  it  to  be  overlooked, 
that  the  foft  and  delicate  notes  of  the  harp  have  a 
tendency  to  purify  manners,  and  to  refine  love. 

Whether  the  caufes  here  afiigned  of  Celtic  man- 
ners be  fully  adequate,  may  well  admit  of  a  doubt ; 
but  if  authentic  hiftory  be  relied  on,  we  can  enter- 
tain no  doubt,  that  the  manners  of  the  Gallic  and 
Britilh  Celtae,  including  the  Caledonians,  were  fuch 
as  are  above  defcribed.  And  as  the  manners  afcri- 
bed  by  Offian  to  his  countrymen  the  Caledonians, 
are  in  every  particular  conformable  to  thofe  now 
mentioned,  it  clearly  follows,  that  Offian  was  no 
inventor,  but  drew  his  pictures  of  manners  from 
real  life.  This  is  made  highly  probable  from  in- 
trinfic  evidence,  the  fame  that  is  fo  copioufly 
urged  above :  and  now  by  authentic  hiftory,  that 
probability  is  fo  much  heightened,  as  fcarce  to 
leave  room  for  a  doubt. 

Our  prefent  highlanders  are  but  a  fmall  part  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Britain  ;  and  they  have  been 
finking  in  their  importance,  from  the  time  that 
arts  and  fciences  made  a  figure,  and  peaceable 
manners  prevailed.  And  yet  in  that  people  are 

difcernible 


374  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

difcernible  many  remaining  features  of  their  fore- 
fathers the  Caledonians.  They  have  to  this  day  a 
difpofitipn  to  war,  and  when  difciplined  make  ex- 
cellent foldiers,  fober,  active,  and  obedient.  They 
are  eminently  hofpitable  ;  and  the  character  given 
by  Strabo  of  the  Gallic  Celtae,  that  they  were  in- 
nocent and  devoid  of  malignity,  is  to  them  per- 
fectly applicable.  That  they  have  not  the  magna- 
nimity and  heroifm  of  the  Caledonians,  is  eafily  ac- 
counted for.  The  Caledonians  were  a  free  and  in- 
dependent people,  unawed  by  any  fuperior  power, 
and  living  under  the  mild  government  of  their  o\yn 
chieftains ;  compared  with  their  forefathers,  the 
prefcnt  highlanders  make  a  very  inconfiderable 
figure  :  their  country  is  barren,  and  at  any  rate  is 
but  a  fmall  part  of  a  potent  kingdom  ;  and  their 
language  deprives  them  of  intercourfe  with  their 
polifned  neighbours. 

There  certainly  never  happened  in  literature,  a, 
difcovery  more  extraordinary  than  the  works  of 
Offian.  To  lay  the  fcene  of  action  among  hunters 
in  the  firft  ftage  of  fociety,  and  to  beftovv  upon  fuch 
a  people  a  fyflem  of  manners  that  would  do  ho- 
nour to  the  moft  polimed  ftate,  feemed  at  firft  an 
ill-contrived  forgery.  But  if  a  forgery,  why  fo 
bold  and  improbable  ?  why  not  invent  manners 
more  congruous  to  the  favage  ftate  ?  And  as  at 
any  rate  the  wrork  has  great  merit,  why  did  the 
author  conceal  himfelf  ?  Thefe  coniiderations  rou- 
fed  my  attention,  and  produced  the  foregoing  dif- 

quifition ; 


SK.5-]  MANNERS.  3?5 

quifition;  which  I  finiihed,  without  imagining 
that  any  more  light  could  be  obtained.  But,  after 
a  long  interval,  a  thought  ftruck  me,  that  as  the 
Caledonians  formerly  were  much  connected  with 
the  Scandinavians,  the  manners  of  the  latter  might 
probably  give  light  in  the  prefent  inquiry.  I 
cheerfully  fpread  my  fails  in  a  wide  ocean,  not 
without  hopes  of  importing  precious  merchandife. 
Many  volumes  did  I  turn  over  of  Scandinavian 
hiflory  ;  attentive  to  thofe  paiTages  where  the  man- 
ners of  the  inhabitants  in  the  firft  ftage  of  fociety 
are  delineated.  And  now  I  proceed  to  prefent  my 
reader  with  the  goods  imported. 

The  Danes,  fays  Adam  of  Bremen,  are  remark- 
able for  elevation  of  mind  :  the  punifhment  of 
death  is  lefs  dreaded  by  them  than  that  of  whip- 
ping. "  The  philofophy  of  the  Cimbri,r  fays 
Valerius  Maximus,  "  is  gay  and  refolute  :  they 
"  leap  for  joy  in  a  battle,  hoping  for  a  glorious 
"  end  :  in  licknefs  they  lament,  for  fear  of  the 
"  contrary.''  What  fortified  their  courage,  was 
a  perfuafion,  that  thofe  who  die  in  battle  righting 
bravely  are  inftantly  tranflated  to  the  hall  of  Odin, 
to  drink  beer  out  of  the  fkull  of  an  enemy.  "  Hap- 
"  py  in  their  miitake,''  fays  Lucan,  "  are  the 
"  people  who  live  near  the  pole  :  perfuaded  that 
"  death  is  only  a  paflage  to  long  life,  they  are  un- 
"  diilurbed  by  the  moil  grievous  of  all  fears,  that 
"  of  dying  :  they  eagerly  run  to  arms,  and  efteem 
"  it  cowardice  to  fpare  a  life  they  fhall  foon  reco*- 


"  ver 


376  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

"  ver  in  another  world."  Such  was  their  mag- 
nanimity, that  they  fcorned  to  fnatch  a  vidlory 
by  furprife.  Even  in  their  piratical  expeditions, 
inftances  are  recorded  of  fetting  aiide  all  the 
ihips  that  exceeded  thofe  of  the  enemy,  leit  the 
victory  mould  be  attributed  to  fuperiority  of  num- 
bers. It  was  held  unmanly  to  decline  a  combat, 
however  unequal  ;  for  courage,  it  was  thought, 
rendered  all  men  equal.  The.  fhedding  tears  was 
unmanly,  even  for  the  death  of  friends. 

The  Scandinavians  were  tenfible  in  a  high  de^ 
gree  to  praife  and  to  reproach  ;  for  love  of  fame 
was  their  darling  paffion.  Olave,  King  of  Nor- 
way, placing  three  of  his  fcalds  or  bards  around 
him  in  a  battle,  "  You  mall  not  relate,"  faid  he, 
"  what  you  have  only  heard,  but  what  you  are 
"  eye-witnefles  of."  Upon  every  occalion  we  find 
them  infilling  upon  glory,  honour,  and  contempt 
of  death,  as  leading  principles.  The  bare  fufpi- 
cion  of  cowardice  was  attended  with  univerfal  con- 
tempt :  a  man  who  loft  his  buckler,  or  received  a 
wound  behind,  durft  never  again  appear  in  public. 
Frotho  King  of  Denmark,  made  captive  in  a  battle, 
obflinately  refufed  either  liberty  or  life.  "  To 
"  what  end,"  fays  he,"  "  mould  I  furvive  the 
"  difgrace  of  being  made  a  captive  ?  Should  you 
"  even  reftore  to  me  my  fifter,  my  treafure,  and 
"  my  kingdom,  would  thefe  benefits  reftore  me  to 
"  m.y  honour  ?  Future  ages  will  always  have  to 
"  fay,  that  Frotho  was  taken  by  his  enemy  *." 

Much 
*  Saxo  Grajnmaticus. 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  377 

Much  efficacy  is  above  afcribed  to  the  fongs  of 
Caledonian  bards  ;  and  with  fatisfadion  I  find  my 
obfervations  juftified  in  every  Scandinavian  hitlory. 
The  Kings  of  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  are 
reprefented  in  ancient  chronicles  as  conftantly  at- 
tended with  fcalds  or  bards,  who  were  treated 
with  great  refpecl:,  efpecially  by  princes  diftin- 
guifhed  in  war.  Harold  Harfager  at  his  feafts 
placed  them  above  all  his  other  officers;  and  em- 
ployed them  in  negotiations  of  the  greateft  im- 
portance. The  poetic  art,  held  in  great  eilima- 
tion,  was  cultivated  by  men  of  the  firil  rank.  Rog- 
vald,  Earl  of  Orkney,  pafled  for  an  able  poet. 
King  Regnar  was  diftinguifhed  in  poetry,  no  lefs 
than  in  war.  It  was  the  proper  province  of  bards 
in  Scandinavia,  as  in  other  countries,  to  celebrate 
in  odes  the  atchievements  of  deceafed  heroes.  They 
were  frequently  employed  in  animating  the  troops 
before  a  battle.  Hacon,  Earl  of  Norway,  in  his 
famous  engagement  againft  the  warriors  of  lomf- 
burg,  had  five  celebrated  poets,  each  of  whom 
fung  an  ode  to  the  foldiers  ready  to  engage.  Saxo 
Grammaticus,  defcribing  a  battle  between  Walde- 
mar  and  Sueno,  mentions  a  fcald  belonging  to  the 
former,  who,  advancing  to  the  front  of  the  army, 
reproached  the  latter  in  a  pathetic  ode  as  the  mur- 
derer of  his  own  father. 

The  odes  of  the  Scandinavian  bards .  have  a  pe- 
culiar energy  ;  which  is  not  difficult  to  be  accoun- 
ted for.  The  propenfity  of  the  Scandinavians  to- 


378  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

war,  their  love  of  glory,  their  undaunted  courage, 
and  their  warlike  exploits,  naturally  produced 
elevated  fentiments,  and  an  elevated  tone  of  lan- 
guage ;  both  of  which  were  difplayed  in  cele- 
brating heroic  deeds.  Take  the  following  inftan- 
ces.  The  firft  is  from  the  Edda,  which  contains 

"""^k  •' 

the  birth  and  genealogy  of  their  gods.  •"  The 
"  giant  Rymer  arrives  from  the  ealt,  carried  in  a 
"  chariot :  the  great  ferpent,  rolling  himfelf  fu- 
"  rioufly  iR  the  waters,  lifteth  up  the  fea.  The 
"  eagle  fc reams,  and  with  his  horrid  beak  tears 
"  the  dead.  The  vefTel  of  the  gods  is  fet  afloat. 
"  The  black  prince  of  fire  hTues  from  the  fouth, 
"  furrounded  with  flames :  the  f  words  of  the  gods 
"  beam  like  the  fun :  fhaken  are  the  rocks,  and 
"  fall  to  pieces.  The  female  giants  wander  about 
"  weeping :  men  in  crowds  tread  the  paths  of 
"  death.  Heaven  is  fplit  afunder,  the  fun  darken- 
"  ed,  and  the  earth  funk  in  the  ocean.  The  fhin- 
"  ing  ftars  vanilh :  the  fire  rages :  the  world  draws 
"  to  an  end;  and  the  flame  afcending  licks  the 
"  vault  of  heaven.  From  the  bofom  of  the  waves 
"  an  earth  emerges,  clothed  with  lovely  green  ; 
"  the  floods  retire :  the  fields  produce  without 
"  culture :  misfortunes  are  banimed  from  the 
"  world.  Balder  and  his  brother,  gods  of  war, 
"  return  to  inhabit  the  ruin'd  palace  of  Odin.  A 
"  palace  more  refplendent  than  the  fun,  rifes  now 
"  to  view  ;  adorned  with  a  roof  of  gold :  there 
good  men  mall  inhabit ;  and  live  in  joy  and 

pleafure 


g\JVi/M.         JLO.lV.il        AllCvAL        *IJ,1AL4,U/I.I.     •,  «4.iiW        J.1  »  \* 

at 


it 

(6 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  379 

"  pleafure  through  all  ages."  In  a  collection  of 
ancient  hiftorical  monuments  of  the  north,  pu- 
blifhed  by  Bionar,  a  learned  Swede,  there  is  the 
following  paflage.  "  Grunder,  perceiving  Gry- 
"  mer  rufhing  furioufly  through  oppoling  bat- 
"  talions,  cries  aloud,  Thou  alone  remaineft  to  en- 
"  §aS6  with  me  in  Jingle  combat.  It  is  now  thy  turn 
"  to  feel  the  keennefs  of  my  fword.  Their  fabres, 
"  like  dark  and  threatening  clouds,  hang  dreadful 
"  in  the  air.  Grymer' s  weapon  darts  down  like 
a  thunderbolt :  their  fwords  furioufly  Ilrike : 
they  are  bathed  in  gore.  Grymer  cleaves  the 
"  cafque  of  his  enemy,  hews  his  armour  in  pieces, 
"  and  pours  the  light  into  his  bofom.  Grunder 
"  finks  to  the  ground ;  and  Grymer  gives  a  dread- 
"  ful  fhout  of  triumph.''  This  piclure  is  done 
with  a  mafterly  hand.  The  capital  circumflances 
are  judicioufly  felefted  ;  and  the  narration  is  com- 
pact and  rapid.  Indulge  me  with  a  moment's  paufe, 
to  compare  this  picture  with  one  or  two  in  Oflian's 
manner.  "  As  autumn's  dark  florms  pour  from 
"  two  echoing  hills ;  fo  to  each  other  approach  the 
"  heroes.  As  from  high  rocks  two  4ark  flreams 
"  meet,  and  mix  and  roar  on  the  plain ;  fo  meet 
"  Lochlin  and  Inis-fail,  loud,  rough,  and  dark  in 
"  battle.  Chief  mixes  his  flrokes  with  chief,  and 
"  man  with  man ;  fleel  founds  on  fleel,  helmets  are 
"  cleft  on  high.  Blood  burfls,  and  fmoaks  around. 
"  Strings  murmur  on  the  polifhed  yew.  Darts 
"  rufh  along  the  fky.  Spears  fall  like  fparks  of 
VOL.  I.  A  a  "  flame 


380     MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.     [B.  I, 

"  flame  that  gild  the  ftormy  face  of  night.   As  the 
"  noife  of  the  troubled  ocean  when  roll  the  waves 
**  on  high,  as  the  laft  peal  of  thundering  heaven, 
"  fuch  is  the  noife  of  battle.     Though  Cor  mac' 5 
*'  hundred  bards  were  there,  feeble  were  the  voice 
P  of  an  hundred  bards  to  fend  the  deaths  to  future 
"  times ,  for  many  were  the  heroes  who  fell,  and 
"  wide  poured  the  blood  of  the  valiant."     Again, 
"  As  roll  a  thoufand  waves  to  the  rocks,  fo  came 
"  on  Swaran's  hoft :  as  meets  a  rock  a  thoufand 
"  waves,  fo  Inis-fail  met  Swaran.     The  voice  of 
"  death  is  heard  all  around,  and  mixes  with  the 
M  found  of  fhields.     Each  hero  is  a  pillar  of  dark- 
"  nefs,  and  the  fword  a  beam  of  fire  in  his  hand, 
f4  From  wing  to  wing  echoes  the  field,  like  a  hun- 
"  dred  hammers  that  rife  by  turns  on  the  red  fun 
?'  of  the  furnace.   Who  are  thqfe  on  Lena's  heath, 
"  fo  gloomy  and  dark  ?  they  are  like  two  clouds, 
"  and  their  fworjis  lighten  above.     Who  is  it  but 
f  Ofiian's  fon  and  the  car-borne  chief  of  Erin  ?' 
Thefe  two  defcriptions  make  a  deeper  imprefiion, 
and  fwell  the  Jieart  more  than  the  former :   they 
are  more  poetical,  by  Ihort  fimiles  finely  interwoT 
yen ,  and  the  images  are  far  more  lofty.     And  yet 
Offian's  chief  talent  is  fentiment,  in  which  Scandi- 
navian bards  are  far  inferior :  in  the  generofity, 
tendernefs,  and  humanity  of  his  fentiments,  he  has 
not  a  rival. 

The  ancient  Scandinavians  were  undoubtedly  a 
barbarous  people,  compared  with  the  fouthern  na- 
tions^ 


5K.  5-]  MANNERS.  381 

tions  of  Europe ;  but  that  they  were  far  from  be- 
ing grofs  favages,  may  be  gathered  from  a  poem 
Hill  extant,  named  Havamaal;  or,  Tbefublime  dif- 
courfe  of  Odin.  Though  that  poem  is  of  great  an- 
tiquity, it  is  replete  with  good  leflbns  and  judicious 
reflections ;  of  which  the  following  are  a  fpeei*- 
men  : 

"  Happy  he  who  gains  the  applaufe  and  good 
will  of  men. 

"  Love  your  friends,  and  love  alfo  their  friends. 

"  Be  not  the  fir  ft  to  break  with  your  friend :  for- 
row  gnaws  the  heart  of  him  who  has  not  a  fingle 
friend  to  advife  with. 

"  Where  is  the  virtuous  man  that  hath  not  a 
failing  ?  Where  is  the  wicked  man  that  hath  not 
fome  good  quality  ? 

4<  Riches  take  wing  ;  relations  die :  you  yourfelf 
fhall  die.  One  thing  only  is  out  of  the  reach  of 
fate;  which  is,  the  judgment  that  paiTes  on  the 
dead. 

"  There  is  no  malady  more  fevere  than  the  be- 
ing difeontented  with  one's  lot. 

"  Let  not  a  man  be  overwife  nor  overcurious  :  if 
he  would  ileep  in  quiet,  let  him  not  feek  to  know 
his  deftiny. 

"  While  we  live,  let  us  live  well :  a  man  lights 
his  fire,  but  before  it  be  burnt  out  death  may  enter. 

"  A  coward  dreams  that  he  may  live  for  ever ; 
if  he  (hould  efcape  every  other  weapon,  he  cannot 
efcape  old  age. 

A  a  2  "  The 


382  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

"  The  flocks  know  when  to  retire  from  pafture : 
the  glutton  knows  not  when  to  retire  from  the 
feaft. 

"  The  lewd  and  diflblute  make  a  mock  of  every 
thing,  not  confidering  how  much  they  deferve  to 
be  mocked. 

"  The  beft  provifion  for  a  journey,  is  ftrength  of 
underftanding :  more  ufeful  than  treafure,  it  wel- 
comes one  to  the  table  of  the  ftranger.' 

Hitherto  the  manners  of  the  Scandinavians  re- 
femble  in  many  capital  circumftances  thofe  deli- 
neated in  the  works  of  Offian.  I  lay  not,  however, 
great  ftrefs  upon  that  refemblance,  becaufe  fuch 
manners  are  found  among  feveral  other  warlike 
nations  in  the  firft  ftage  of  fociety.  The  circum- 
ftance  that  has  occafioned  the  greateft  doubt  about 
Offian's  fyftem  of  manners,  is  the  figure  his  women 
make.  Among  other  favage  nations,  they  are  held 
to  be  beings  of  an  inferior  rank ;  and  as  fuch  are 
treated  with  very  little  refpecl :  in  Offian  they 
make  an  illuftrious  figure,  and  are  highly  regarded 
by  the  men.  I  have  not  words  to  exprefs  my  fa- 
tisfadtion,  when  I  difcovered,  that  anciently  among 
the  barbarous  Scandinavians,  the  female  fex  made 
a  figure  no  lefs  illuftrious.  A  refemblance  fo  com- 
plete with  refpecl:  to  a  matter  extremely  fingular 
among  barbarians,  cannot  fail  to  convert  the  molt 
obftinate  infidel,  leaving  no  doubt  of  Offian's  vera- 
city.— But  I  ought  not  to  anticipate.  One.  cannot 
pafs  a  verdict  till  the  evidence  be  fummed  up ;  and 

to 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  383 

to  that  talk  I  now  proceed  with  fanguine  hopes  of 
fuccefs. 

It  is  a  fad  afcertained  by  many  writers,  That 
women  in  the  north  of  Europe  were  eminent  for 
refolution  and  courage.  Caefar,  in  the  firft  book 
of  his  Commentaries,  defcribing  a  battle  he  fought 
with  the  Helvetii,  fays,  that  the  women  with  a 
warlike  fpirit  exhorted  their  hufbands  to  perlift, 
and  placed  the  waggons  in  a  line  to  prevent  their 
flight.  Florus  and  Tacitus  mention,  that  feveral 
battles  of  thofe  barbarous  nations  were  renewed 
by  their  women,  prefenting  their  naked  bofoms, 
and  declaring  their  abhorrence  of  captivity.  Fla- 
vius  Vopifcus,  writing  of  Proculus  Caefar,  fays, 
that  a  hundred  Sarmatian  virgins  were  taken  in 
battle.  The  Longobard  women,  when  many  of 
their  hufbands  were  cut  off  in  a  battle,  took  up 
arms,  and  obtained  the  victory  *.  The  females  of 
the  Galaclophagi,  a  Scythian  tribe,  were  as  war- 
like as  the  males,  and  went  often  with  them  to 

V 

war  f .  In  former  times,  many  women  in  Den- 
mark applied  themfelves  to  arms  J.  Jornandes 
defcribes  the  women  of  the  Goths  as  full  of  co.u- 
rage,  and  trained  to  arms  like  the  men.  Joannes 
Magnus,  Archbifhop  of  Upfal,  fays  the  fame;  and 
mentions  in  particular  an  expedition  of  the  Goths 
to  invade  a  neighbouring  country,  in  which  more 

A  a  3  women 

*  Paulus  Diaconus.  f  Nicolaus  Damafcenus. 

J  Saxo  Grammaticus. 


384  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

women  went  along  with  the  men  than  were  left  at 
home  #.  Several  Scandinavian  women  exercifed 
piracy  f .  The  Cimbri  were  always  attended  with 
their  wives  even  in  their  diftant  expeditions,  and 
were  more  afraid  of  their  reproaches  than  of  the 
blows  of  the  enemy.  The  Goths,  compelled  by 
famine  to  furrender  to  Belifarius  the  city  of  Raven- 
na, were  bitterly  reproached  by  their  wives  for 
cowardice  J.  In  a  battle  between  Regner  King  of 
Denmark  and  Fro  King  of  Sweden,  many  women 
took  part  with  the  former,  Langertha  in  particu- 
lar, who  fought  with  her  hair  flowing  about  her 
moulders.  Regner,  being  victorious,  demanded 
who  that  woman  was  who  had  behaved  fo  gallant- 
ly ;  and  finding  her  to  be  a  virgin  of  noble  birth, 
he  took  her  to  wife.  He  afterwards  divorced  her, 
in  order  to  make  way  for  a  daughter  of  the  King 
of  Sweden.  Regner,  being  unhappily  engaged  in 
a  civil  war  with  Harald,  who  afpired  to  the  throne 
of  Denmark ;  Langertha,  overlooking  her  wrongs, 
brought  from  Norway  a  body  of  men  to  aflift  her 
hufband ;  and  behaved  fo  gallantly,  that,  in  the 
opinion  of  all,  Regner  was  indebted  to  her  for  the 
victory* 

To  find  womenr  in  no  conliderable  portion  of 
the  globe,  rivalling  men  in  their  capital  property 
of  courage,  is  a  fingular  phenomenon.  That  this 

phenomenon 

*  Book  i. 
f  Olaus  Magijus. 
Procopius,  Hiftoria  Gothica,  lib.  2. 


SK.  £.]  MANNERS.  385 

phenomenon  muft  have  had  an  adequate  caufe,  13 
certain  ;  but  of  that  caufe,  it  is  better  to  acknow- 
ledge our  utter  ignorance,  however  mortifying, 
than  to  fqueeze  out  conjectures  that  will  not  bear 
examination. 

In  rude  nations^  prophets  and  foothfayers  are 
held  to  be  a  fuperior  clafs  of  men :  what  a  figure 
then  muft  the  Vandal  women  have  made,  when  in 
that  nation,  as  Procopius  fays,  all  the  prophets  and 
foothfayers  were  of  the  female  fex  ?  In  Scandina- 
via, women  are  faid  to  have  been  ikilful  in  magic 
arts  as  well  as  men.  Tacitus  informs  us,  that  the 
Germans  had  no  other  phyficians  but  their  women. 
They  followed  the  armies,  to  ftaunch  the  blood, 
and  fuck  the  wounds  of  their  hufbands  *.  He 
mentions  a  fact  that  fets  the  German  women  in  a 
confpicuous  light,  That  female  hoftages  bound  the 

^ 

Germans  more  ftrictly  to  their  engagements  than 
male  hoftages.  He  adds,  "  Inefle  quinetiam  fane- 
"  turn  aliquid  et  providum  putant :  nee  aut  conli- 
"  lia  earum  afpernantur,  aut  refponfa  negligun- 

Aa  4    Vkj^dt ..|i!:.'«  tur." 

*  The  expreflion  of  Tacitus  is  beautiful :  "  Ad  matres,  ad 
*'  conjuges,  vulnera  ferunt :  nee  illae  numerare  aut  exfugere 
"  plag-as  pavent :  cibosque  et  hortamina  pugnantibus  geftant." 
— (/«  Englift)  thus:  '*  When  wounded,  they  find  phyficians  in 
"  their  mothers  and  wives,  who  are  not  afraid  to  count  and 
<*  fuck  their  wounds.  They  carry  provifions  for  their  fons 
"  and  hufbands,  and  animate  them  in  battle  by  their  eahorta- 
«  tions.") 


386  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  (fi.  1* 

"  tur  #."  The  hiftories  and  romances  of  the  north 
reprefent  women,  and  even  princefles,  ading  as 
phyficians  in  war. 

Polygamy  fprung  up  in  countries  where  women 
are  treated  as  inferior  beings :  it  can  never  take 
place  where  the  two  fexes  are  held  to  be  of  equal 
rank.  For  that  reafon,  polygamy  never  was  known 
among  the  northern  nations  of  Europe.  Saxo 
Grammaticus,  who  wrote  the  hiflory  of  Denmark 
in  the  twelfth  century,  gives  not  the  flighteft  hint 
of  polygamy,  even  among  kings  and  princes. 
Crantz,  in  his  hiftory  of  the  Saxons  f ,  affirms,  that 
polygamy  was  never  known  among  the  northern 
nations  of  Europe  ;  which  is  confirmed  by  every 
other  writer  who  gives  the  hiflory  of  any  of  thefe 
nations.  Scheffer  in  particular,  who  writes  the 
hiftory  of  Lapland,  obferves,  that  neither  polyga- 
my nor  divorce  were  ever  heard  of  in  that  country, 
not  even  during  Paganifm. 

We  have  the  authority  of  Procopius  J,  that  the 
women  in  thofe  countries  were  remarkable  for 
beauty,  and  that  thofe  of  the  Goths  and  Vandals 
were  the  fineft  that  ever  had  been  feen  in  Italy  ; 

and 

'i 

*  "  They  believe  that  there  is  fomething  facred  in  their  cha- 
"  rafter,  and  that  they  have  a  forefight  of  futurity  :  for  this 
"  reafon,  their  counfels  are  always  refpefted  j  nor  are  their 
'*  opinions  ever  disregarded." 

•(•  Lib.  i.  cap.  2. 

Hiftoria  Gothica,  lib.  3. 


sjt.  5.]  MANNERS.  387 

and  we  have  the  authority  of  Crantz,  that  chaftity 
was  in  high  eftimation  among  the  Danes,  Swedes, 
and  other  Scandinavians.  When  thefe  fads  are 
added  to  thofe  above  mentioned,  it  will  not  be 
thought  ftrange,  that  love  between  the  fexes,  even 
among  that  rude  people,  was  a  pure  and  elevated 
paflion.  That  it  was  in  fad  fuch,  is  certain,  if  hif- 
tory  can  be  credited,  or  the  fentiments  of  a  people 
expreffed  in  their  poetical  compofitions.  I  begin 
with  the  latter,  as  evidence  the  moil  to  be  relied 
on.  The  ancient  poems  of  Scandinavia  contain  the 
warmed  expreflions  of  love  and  regard  for  the  fe- 
male fex.  In  an  ode  of  King  Regner  Lodbrog,  a 
very  ancient  poem,  we  find  the  following  fenti- 
ments :  "  We  fought  with  fwords  upon  a  promon- 
"  tory  of  England,  when  I  faw  ten  thoufand  of  my 
"  foes  rolling  in  the  duft.  A  dew  of  blood  diftil- 
"  led  from  our  fwords :  the  arrows  that  flew  in 
"  fearch  of  the  helmets,  hhTed  through  the  air. 
"  The  pleafure  of  that  day  was  like  the  clafping  a 
"  fair  virgin  in  my  arms."  Again,  "  A  young 
"  man  fhould  march  early  to  the  conflict  of  arms ; 
"  in  which  coniifts  the  glory  of  the  warrior.  He 
"  who  afpires  to  the  love  of  a  miilrefs,  ought  to  be 
"  dauntlefs  in  the  clam  of  fwords."  Thefe  Hy- 
perboreans, it  would  appear,  had  early  learned  to 
combine  the  ideas  of  love  and  of  military  prowefs ; 
which  is  ftill  more  confpicuous  in  an  ode  of  Harald 
the  Valiant,  of  a  later  date.  That  prince,  who 
figured  in  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  tra- 

verfed 


1 


388  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY*  [B.  I. 

verfed  all  the  feas  of  the  north,  and  made  piratical 
incurfions  even  upon  the  coails  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. In  this  ode  he  complains,  that  the  glory  he 
had  acquired  made  no  impreffion  on  Eliffir,  daugh- 
ter to  Jariflas,  King  of  Ruffia.  "  I  have  made  the 
"  tour  of  Sicily.  My  brown  vefTel,  full  of  mari- 
"  ners,  made  a  fwift  progrefs.  My  courfe  I 
"  thought  would  never  ilacken — and  yet  a  Ruffian 
"  maiden  fcorns  me.  The  troops  of  Drontheim, 
*'  which  I  attacked  in  my  youth,  exceeded  ours  in 
"  number.  Terrible  was  the  conflict :  I  left  their 
"  young  king  dead  on  the  field— and  yet  a  Ruffian 
"  maiden  fcorns  me.  Six  exercifes  I  can  perform  : 
"  I  fight  valiantly  :  firm  is  my  feat  on  horfeback  : 
"  inured  I  am  to  fwimming :  fwift  is  my  motion 
"  on  fcates :  I  dart  the  lance :  I  am  fkilful  at  the 
"  oar — and  yet  a  Ruffian  maiden  fcorns  me.  Can 
"  fhe  deny,  this  young  and  lovely  maiden,  that 
"  near  a  city  in  the  fouth  I  joined  battle,  and  left 
"  behind  me  lailing  monuments  of  my  exploits  ? 
"  — and  yet  a  Ruffian  maiden  fcorns  me.  My 
"  birth  was  in  the  high  country  of  Norway,  fa* 
"  mous  for  archers  :  but  mips  were  my  delight ; 
"  and,  far  from  the  habitations  of  men,  I  have  tra- 
"  verfed  the  feas  from  north  to  fouth — and  yet  a 
"  Ruffian  maiden  fcorns  me.1'  In  the  very  an-* 
cient  poem  of  Havamaal,  mentioned  above,  there 
are,  many  expreffions  of  love  to  the  fair  fex.  "  He 
"  who  would  gain  the  love  of  a  maiden,  mufl  ad- 
"  drefs  her  with  fmooth  fpeeches,  and  fhowy  gifts. 

"It 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS..  389 

"  It  requires  good  fenfe  to  be  a  ikilful  lover." 
Again,  "  If  I  afpire  to  the  love  of  the  chafteft  vir- 
"  gin,  I  can  bend  her  mind,  and  make  her  yield  to 
"  my  defires."  The  ancient  Scandinavian  chro- 
nicles prefent  often  to  our  view  young  warriors  en- 
deavouring to  acquire  the  favour  of  their  miftreiTes, 
by  boafting  of  their  accomplilhments,  fuch  as  their 
dexterity  in  fwimming  and  fcating,  their  talent  in 
poetry,  their.ikill  in  chefs,  and  their  knowing  all 
the  ftars  by  name.  Mallet,  in  the  introdu&ion  to 
his  Hiftory  of  Denmark,  mentions  many  ancient 
Scandinavian  novels  that  turn  upon  love  and  hero- 
ifm.  Thefe  may  be  juftly  held  as  authentic  evi- 
dence of  the  manners  of  the  people :  it  is  common 
to  invent  fadls ;  but  it  is  not  common  to  attempt 
the  inventing  of  manners.  *  , 

It  is  an  additional  proof  of  the  great  regard  paid 
to  women  in  Scandinavia,  that  in  Edda,  the  Scan- 
dinavian Bible,  female  deities  make  as -great  a  figure 
as  male  deities. 

Agreeable  to  the  manners  defcribed,  we  find  it 
univerfally  admitted  among  the  ancient  Scandina- 
vians, that  beauty  ought  to  be  the  reward  of  cou- 
rage and  military  (kill.  A  warrior  was  thought 
entitled  to  demand  in  marriage  any  young  woman, 
even  of  the  higheft  rank,  if  he  overcame  his  rivals 
in  fingle  combat :  nor  was  it  thought  any  hardfhip 
on  the  young  lady,  to  be  yielded  to  the  viclor. 
The  ladies  were  not  always  of  that  opinion  ;  for 
the  ftouteft  fighter  is  not  always  the  handfomeft 

man, 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

man,  nor  the  moil  engaging.     And  in  the  hiftories 
of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  many  inftances 
are  related,  of  men  generoufly  interpoiing  to  refcue 
young  beauties  from  brutes,  deflitute  of  every  ac- 
complimment  but  ftrength  and  boldnefs.      Such 
ilories  have  a  fabulous  air,  and  many  of  them  pro- 
bably are  mere  fables.     Some  of  them,  however, 
have  a  ftrong  appearance  of  truth  :  men  are  intro- 
duced who  make  a  figure  in  the  real  hiftory  of  the 
country  ;  and  many  circumflances  are  related,  that 
make  links  in  the  chain  of  that  hiftory.     Take  the 
following  fpecimen.     The  ambaffadors  of  Frotho, 
King  of  Denmark,   commiffioned  to  demand  in 
marriage  the  daughter  of  a  King  of  the  Huns, 
were  feafted  for  three  days,  as  the  cuftom  was  in 
ancient  times ;  and  being  admitted  to  the  young 
Princefs,  me  rejected  the  offer  ;   "  Becaufe,"  fays 
Ihe,  *'  your  King  has  acquired  no  reputation  in 
"  war,  but  pafles  his  time  effeminately  at  home." 
In  Biorner's  collection  of  ancient  hiftorical  monu- 
ments, mentioned  above,  there  is  the  following  hif- 
tory :  Charles  King  of  Sweden  kept  on  foot  an  ar- 
my of  chofen  men.    He  had  a  daughter  named  In- 
guegerda,  whofe  lively  and  graceful  accomplim- 
ments  were  admired  ftill  more  than  her  birth  and 
fortune.     The  breaft  of  the  King  overflowed  with 
felicity.     Grymer,  a  youth  of  noble  birth,  knew 
to  dye  his  fword  in  the  blood  of  his  enemies,  to 
run  over  craggy  mountains,  to  wreftle,  to  play  at 
chefs,  and  to  trace  the  motions  of  the  ftars.     He 

ftudied 


<l 
« 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  39! 

u  died  to  fhow  his  fkill  in  the  apartment  of  the 
damfels,  before  the  lovely  Inguegerda.  At  length 
he  ventured  to  open  his  mind.  "  Wilt  thou,  O 
fair  Princefs !  accept  of  me  for  a  hufband,  if  I 
obtain  the  King's  confent?"  "Go,"  fays  fhe, 
"  and  fupplicate  my  father."  The  courtly  youth 
refpedlfully  addreffing  the  King,  faid,  "  O  King  ! 
"  give  me  in  marriage  thy  beautiful  daughter.' 
He  anfwered  fternly,  "  Thou  haft  learned  to  handle 
"  thy  arms :  thou  haft  acquired  fome  honourable 
"  diftindions  :  but  haft  thou  ever  gained  a  victory, 
"  or  given  a  banquet  to  favage  beafts  that  rejoice 
"  in  blood  ?"  "  Where  fhall  I  go,  O  King  !  that 
"  I  may  dye  my  fword  in  crimfon,  and  render  my- 
"  felf  worthy  of  being  thy  fon-in-law  ?" — "  Hial- 
"  mar,  fon  of  Harec,"  faid  the  King,  "  who  go- 
"  verns  Biarmland,  has  become  terrible  by  a  keen 
"  fword :  the  firmeft  fhields  he  hews  in  pieces,  and 
"  loads  his  followers  with  booty.  Go,  and  prove 
thy  valour  by  attacking  that  hero  :  caufe  him  to 
bite  the  duft,  and  Inguegerda  fhall  be  thy  re- 
"  ward."  Grymer,  returning  to  his  fair  miftrefs, 
"  faluted  her  with  ardent  looks  of  love.  "  What 
"  anfwer  haft  thou  received  from  the  King:' 
"  To  obtain  thee  I  muft  deprive  the  fierce  Hial- 
"  mar  of  life."  Inguegerda  exclaimed  with 
grief,  "  Alas !  my  father  hath  devoted  thee  to 
"  death.'1  Grymer  felected  a  troop  of  brave  war- 
riors, eager  to  follow  him.  They  launch  their 
veflels  into  the  wide  ocean :  they  unfurl  the  fails, 

which 


ti 
n 


392-  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I, 

*. 

which  catch  the  fpringing  gale  :  the  fhrouds  rattle  : 
the  waves  foam,  and  dafh  againfl  the  prows  :  they 
fleer  their  numerous  veflels  to  the  fhore  of  Goth- 
land ;  bent  to  glut  the  hungry  raven,  and  to  gorge 
the  wolf  with  prey.  Thus  landed  ^Grymer  on 
Gothland  !  and  thus  did  a  beauteous  maiden  oc- 
cafion  the  death  of  many  heroes.  Hialmar  de- 
manded who  the  ftrangers  were.  Grymer  told  his 
name  ;  adding,  that  he  had  fpent  the  fummer  in 
queft  of  him.  "  May  your  arrival,  replied  Hi- 
*'  almar,  be  fortunate  ;  and  may  health  and  ho- 
*'  nour  attend  you.  You  (hall  partake  of  my  gold, 
"  with  the  unmixed  juice  of  the  grape.  Thy  of- 
"  fers,  faid  Grymer,  I  dare  not  accept.  Prepare 
"  for  battle  ;  and  let  us  haften  to  give  a  ban- 
"  quet  to  beads  of  prey.  Hialmar  laid  hold  of 
'*'  his  white  cuirafs,  his  fword,  and  his  buckler. 
"  Grymer,  with  a  violent  blow  of  his  fabre,  trans- 
"  fixes  Hialmar's  (hield,  and  cuts  off  his  left  hand. 
*'  Hialmar  enraged,  brandifhes  his  fword,  and 
"  ftriking  off  Grymer's  helmet  and  cuirafs,  pierces 
"  his  bread  and  fides :  an  effufion  of  blood  fol- 
lows. Grymer  raifinghis  fabre  with  both  hands, 
lays  Hialmar  proftrate  on  the  ground  ;  and  he 
"  himfelf  finks  down  upon  the  dead  body  of  his 
"  adverfary.  He  was  put  on  fhipboard,  and  when 
"  landed  feemed  to  be  at  the  laft  period  of  life. 
"  The  diftrefied  Princefs  undertook  his  cure  ;  and 
"  reftored  him  to  health.  They  were  married 
"  with  great  folemnity  j  and  the  beauteous  bride 

'*  of 


it 
tf 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  393 

"  of  Grymer  filled  the  heart  of  her  hero  with  un- 
"  fading  joy." 

According  to  the  rude  manners  of  thofe  times, 
a  lover  did  not  always  wait  for  the  confent  of  his 
rniflrefs.     Joannes  Magnus,  Archbifhop  of  Upfal, 
obierves  in  his  Hiftory  of  the  Goths,  that  ravifhing 
of  women  was  of  old  no  lefs  frequent  among  the 
Scandinavians  than  among  the  Greeks.     He  re- 
Jates,   that  Gram,  fon  to  the  King  of  Denmark, 
carried  off  the  King  of  Sweden's  daughter,  whofe 
beauty  was  celebrated  in  verfes  remembered  even 
iq  his  time.     Another  inftance  he  gives,  of  Ni- 
cqlaus  King  of  Denmark  *,  who  courted  Uluilda, 
a  noble  and  beautiful  Norvegian  lady,  and  obtained 
her  confent.     Nothing  remained  but  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  nuptials,  when  me  was  carried  off  by 
Suercher,  King  of  Sweden.     We  have  the  autho- 
rity of  Saxo  Grammaticus,  that  Sldold,  one  of  the 
firft  Kings  of  Denmark,  fought  a  duel  for  a  beau- 
tiful young  woman,  and  obtained  her  for  a  wife. 
That  author  relates  many  duels  of  the  fame  kind. 
It  was  indeed  common  among  the  Scandinavians, 
before  they  became  Chriitians,  to  fight  for  a  wife, 
and  to  carry  off  the  defired  objedt  by  force  of  arms. 
No  caufe  of  War  between  neighbouring  kings  was 
rnore  frequent.     Fridlevus  King  of  Denmark  fent 
a  folemn  ernbafly  to  Hafmundus  King  of  Norway, 
to  demand  in  marriage  his  daughter.     Hafmundus 
had  a  rooted  averfion  to  the  Danes,  who  had  done 

much 
f  Book  1 8. 


394  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

much  mifchief  in  his  country.  "  Go,"  fays  he  to 
the  ambafladors,  "  and  demand  a  wife  where  you 
"  are  lefs  hated  than  in  Norway."  The  young 
lady,  who  had  no  averlion  to  the  match,  intreated 
leave  to  fpeak.  "  You  feem,"  faid  fhe,  "  not  to 
"  confult  the  good  of  your  kingdom  in  rejecting 
"  fo  potent  a  fon-in-law,  who  can  carry  by  force 
"  what  he  is  now  applying  for  by  intreaties." 
The  father  continuing  obitinate,  difmifTed  the  am- 
bafladors. Fridlevus  fent  other  ambafladors,  re- 
doubling his  intreaties  for  a  favourable  anfwer. 
Hafmundus  faid,  that  one  refufal  might  be  thought 
fufficient ;  and  in  a  fit  of  paflion  put  the  ambaf- 
fadors  to  death.  Fridlevus  invaded  Norway  with 
a  potent  army ;  and,  after  a  defperate  battle,  car- 
ried off  the  lady  in  triumph. 

The  figure  that  women  made  in  the  north  of 
Europe  by  their  courage,  their  beauty,  and  their 
chaftity,  could  not  fail  to  produce  mutual  efteem 
and  love  between  the  fexes  :  nor  could  that  love 
fail  to  be  purified  into  the  moft  tender  affection, 
when  their  rough  manners  were  fmoothed  in  the 
progrefs  of  fociety.  If  love  between  the  fexes 
prevail  in  Lapland  as  much  as  any  where,  which 
is  vouched  by  Scheffer  in  his  hiftory  of  that  coun- 
try, it  muft  be  for  a  reafon  very  different  from  that 
now  mentioned.  The  males  in  Lapland,  who  are 
great  cowards,  have  no  reafon  to  defpife  the  females 
for  their  timidity  ;  and  in  every  country  where 
the  women  equal  the  men,  mutual  efteem  and  af- 
fection 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS*  395 

^  . 
fedlion  naturally  take  place.     Two  Lapland  odes 

communicated  to  us  by  the  author  mentioned, 
leave  no  doubt  of  this  fact,  being  full  of  the  ten- 
dereft  fentiments  that  love  can  infpire.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  literal  tranflation. 

FIRST  ODE. 

I. 

Kulnafatz  my  rein-dee^ 

We  have  a  long  journey  to  go  t 

The  moors  are  vaft, 

And  we  muft  hafte  ; 

Our  ftrength,  I  fear, 

Will  fail  if  we  are  flow ; 

Andfo 

V 

Our  fongs  will  do. 

II, 

Kaige,  the  watery  moor, 

Is  pleafant  unto  me, 

Though  long  it  be  ; 

Since  it  doth  to  my  miftrefs  lead 

Whom  I  adore : 

The  Kilwa  moor 

I  ne'er  again  will  tread. 

III. 

Thoughts  fill'd  my  mind 
Whilft  I  thro'  Kaige  paft 
Swift  as  the  wind, 

• 

And  my  defire, 
Wing'd  with  impatient  fire  : 
My  rein-deer  let  us  hafte. 

IV. 

So  (hall  we  quickly  end  our  pleafing  pain : 
Behold  my  miftrefs  there, 

VOL.  I.  B  b  With 


396 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY. 


[B.I. 


With  decent  motion  walking  o'er  the  plain. 

Kulnafatz  my  rain-deer, 

Look  yonder,  where 

She  waflies  in  the  lake  : 

See  while  fhe  fwims, 

The  waters  from  her  purer  limbs 

New  clearnefs  take. 

SECOND  ODE. 

/ 

i 

I. 

With  brighteft  beams  let  the  fun  ftiine 

On  Orra  moor. 

Could  I  be  fure 

That  from  the  top  o*  th*  lofty  pine 

I  Orra  moor  might  fee, 

I  to  its  higheft  bow  would  climb, 

And  with  indufti  ious  labour  try 

Thence  to  defcry 

My  miflrefs,  if  that  there  fhe  be. 

II. 

Could  I  but  know,  amid  what  flowers, 
Or  in  what  (hade  fhe  ftays, 
The  gaudy  bowers, 
With  all  their  verdant  pride, 
Their  bloflbms  and  their  fprays, 
Which  make  my  miftrefs  difappear, 
And  her  envious  darknefs  hide, 
I  from  the  roots  and  bed  of  earth  would  tear. 

III. 

Upon  the  raft  of  clouds  I'd  ride, 
Which  unto  Orra  fly  : 
OJ  th*  ravens  I  would  borrow  wings, 
And  all  the  feather'd  inmates  of  the  fky  : 
But  wings,  alas,  are  me  deny'd, 
The  ftork  and  fwan  their  pinions  will  not  lend, 


There's 


.  5.]  MANNERS.  397 

There's  none  who  unto  Orra  brings, 

Or  will  by  that  kind  conduct  me  befriend* 

IV. 

Enough,  enough  !  thou  haft  delay'd 
So  many  fummers  days 
The  bed  of  days  that  crown  the  year, 
Which  light  upon  the  eye-lids  dart, 
And  melting  joy  upon  the  heart : 
But  fmce  that  thou  fo  long  haft  ftay'd, 
They  in  unwelcome  darknefs  difappear. 
Yet  vainly  doft  thou  me  forfake ; 
1  will  purfue  and  overtake. 

V. 

What  ftronger  is  than  bolts  of  fteel  ? 
What  can  more  furely  bind  ? 
Love  is  ftronger  far  than  it ; 
Upon  the  head  in  triumph  {he  doth  fit  j 
Fetters  the  mind, 
And  doth  control 
The  thought  and  foul. 

VI. 

A  youth's  defire  is  the  defire  of  wind  ; 
All  his  efTays 
Are  long  delays : 
No  iflue  can  they  find. 
Away  fond  counfellors,  away, 
No  more  advice  obtrude : 
I'll  rather  prove 
The  guidance  of  blind  love  ; 
To  follow  you  is  certainly  to  ftray : 
One  fmgle  counfel,  tho'  unwife,  is  good. 

In  the  Scandinavian  manners  here  defcribed,  is 

i  V 

difcovered  a  ftriking  refemblance  to  thole  defcri- 
bed  by  Ofiian.     And  as  fuch  were  the  manners  of 

B  b  2  the 


398  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

the  Scandinavians  in  the  firft  ftage  of  fociety,  it  no 
longer  remains  a  wonder,  that  the  manners  of  Ca- 
ledonia ftiould  be  equally  pure  in  the  fame  early 
period.  And  now  every  argument  above  urged  for 
Offian  as  a  genuine  hiitorian  has  its  full  weight, 
without  the  lead  counterpoife.  It  is  true,  that 
Caledonian  manners  appear  from  Offian  to  have 
been  (till  more  polifhed  and  refined  than  thofe  of 
Scandinavia  ;  but  that  difference  may  have  pro- 
ceeded from  accidents  which  time  has  buried  in 
oblivion. 

I  make  no  apology  for  infifting  fo  largely  on 
Scandinavian  manners  ;  for  they  tend  remarkably 
to  fupport  the  credit  of  Offian  ;  and  confequently 
to  afcertain  a  facl:  sot  a  little  interefting,  that  our 
forefathers  were  not  fuch  barbarians  as  they  are 
commonly  held  to  be.  All  the  inhabitants  of  Bri- 
tain were  of  Celtic  extraction  ;  and  there  is  rea- 
fon  to  believe,  that  the  manners  of  Caledonia  were 
the  manners  of  every  part  of  the  ifland,  before  the 
inhabitants  of  the  plains  were  enflaved  by  the  Ro- 
mans. The  only  circumftance  peculiar  to  the  Ca- 
ledonians, is  their  mountainous  fituation  :  being 
lefs  expofed  to  the  oppreffion  of  foreigners,  and 
farther  removed  from  commerce,  they  did  longer 
than  their  fouthern  neighbours  preferve  their  man- 
ners pure  and  untainted. 

I  have  all  along  conlidered  the  poems  of  Offian 
in  a  hiftorical  view  merely.  In  the  view  of  cri- 
ticifm  they  have  been  examined  by  a  writer  of 

diftinguifhed 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  399 

% 

diftinguifhed  tafte  *  ;  and  however  bold  to  enter  a 
field  where  he  hath  reaped  laurels,  I  imagine  that 
there  ftill  remain  fome  trifles  for  ihe  to  glean.  Two 
of  thefe  poems,  Fingal  and  Temora,  are  regular 
epic  poems ;  and  perhaps  the  fingle  inftances  of 
epic  poetry  moulded  into  the  form  of  an  opera. 
We  have  in  thefe  two  poems  hoth  the  Recitativo 
and  Aria  of  an  Italian  opera  ;  dropped  indeed  in 
the  translation,  from  difficulty  of  imitation.  Of* 
iian's  poems  were  all  of  them  compofed  with  a 
view  to  mufic ;  though  in  the  long  poems  men- 
tioned, it  is  probable  that  the  airs  only  were  ac- 
companied with  the  harp,  the  recitative  being  left 
to  the  voice.  The  poems  of  Offian  are  fingular  in 
another  refpecl:,  being  probably  the  only  regular 
work  now  remaining  that  was  compofed  in  the 
hunter-ilate.  Some  fongs  of  that  early  period  may 
poffibly  have  efcaped  oblivion ;  but  no  other  poem 
of  the  epic  kind.  One  may  advance  a  ftep  far- 
ther, and  pronounce,  with  a  high  degree  of  proba- 
bility, that  Fingal  and  Temora  are  the  only  epic 
poems  that  ever  were  compofed  in  that  ftate.  How 
great  muft  have  been  the  talents  of  the  author,  be- 
fet  with  every  obftruction  to  genius,  the  manners 
of  his  country  alone  excepted  ;  a  cold  unhofpi- 
table  climate  ;  the  face  of  the  country  fo  deform- 
ed as  fcarce  to  afford  a  pleafing  objecl; ;  and  he 
himfelf  abfolutely  illiterate  !  One  may  venture^ 

B  b  3  boldly 

*  Dr  Blair,  ProfeiTor  of  Rhetoric  in  the  College  of  Edin- 


4OO  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

boldly  to  affirm,  that  fuch  a  poem  as  Fingal  or 
Temora  never  was  compofed  in  any  other  part 
of  the  world,  under  fuch  difadvantageous  circum- 
ftances. 

• 

Though  permanent  manners  enter  not  regularly 
into  the  prefent  fketch,  I  am  however  tempted  to 
add  a  few  words  concerning  the  influence  of  foil 
upon  the  manners  of  men.     The  ilupidity  of  the 
inhabitants  of  New  Holland,  mentioned  above,  is 
occalioned  by  the  barrennefs  of  their  foil,  yielding 
nothing  that  can  be  food  for  man  or  bead.     Day 
and  night  they  watch  the  ebb  of  the  tide,  in  or- 
der  to  dig  fmall  fifti  out  of  the  fand  ;  and  fleep  in 
the  intervals,  without  an  hour  to  fpare  for  any  other 
occupation.      People  in  that  condition,  muft  for 
ever  remain  ignorant  and  brutim.     Were  all  the 
earth  barren  like  New  Holland,  all  men  would  be 
ignorant  and  brutim,  like  the  inhabitants  of  New 
Holland.     On  the  other  hand,  were  every  portion 
of  this  earth  fo  fertile  as  fpontaneoufly  to  feed  all 
its  inhabitants,  which  is  the  golden  age  figured  by 
poets,  what  would  follow  ?    Upon  the  former  fup^ 
petition,  man  would  be  a  meagre,  patient,  and  ti- 
mid animal :  upon  the  latter  fuppofition,  he  would 
be  pampered,  lazy,  and  effeminate.    In  both  cafes, 
he  would  be  ftupidly  ignorant,  and  incapable  of 
any  manly  exertion,  whether  of  mind  or  body. 
But  the  foil  of  our  earth  is  in  general  more  wifely 
accommodated  to  man,  its  chief  inhabitant.     It  is 
neither  fo  fertile  as  to  fuperfede  labour,  nor  fa 


SK.  5.]  MANNERS.  4OI 

barren  as  to  require  the  utmoft  labour.  The  la- 
borious occupation  of  hunting  for  food,  produced 
originally  fome  degree  of  induftry :  and  though 
all  the  induftry  of  man  was  at  firft  neceflary  for 
procuring  food,  clothing,  and  habitation  ;  yet  the 
foil,  by  fkill  in  agriculture,  came  to  produce 
plenty  with  lefs  labour;  which  to  fome  afforded 
time  for  thinking  of  conveniences.  A  habit  of  in- 
duftry thus  acquired,  excited  many  tobeftow  their 
leifure  hours  upon  the  arts,  proceeding  from  ufeful 
arts  to  fine  arts,  and  from  thefe  to  fciences.  Wealth, 
accumulated  by  induftry,  has  a  wonderful  influ- 
ence upon  manners :  feuds  and  war,  the  offspring 
of  wealth,  call- forth  into  action  friendship,  cou- 
rage, heroifm,  and  every  focial  Virtue,  as  well  as 
many  felfifh  vices.  How  like  brutes  do  we  pafs 
our  time,  without  once  reflecting  on  the  wifdoni 
of  Providence  vifible  even  in  the  foil  we  tread 
upon  ! 

Diverfity  of  manners,  at  the  fame  time,  enters 
into  the  plan  of  Providence,  as  well  as  diverlity  of 
talents,  of  feelings,  and  of  opinions.  Our  Maker 
hath  given  us  a  tafte  for  variety  \  and  he  hath  pro- 
vided objects  in  plenty  for  its  gratification.  Some 
foils,  naturally  fertile,  require  little  labour :  fome 
foils,  naturally  barren,  require  much  labour.  But 
the  advantages  of  the  latter  are  more  than  fufficient 
to  counterbalance  its  barrennefs :  the  inhabitants 
are  fober,  induftrious,  vigorous  ;  and  confequently 
courageous,  _as  far  as  courage  depends  on  bodily 

B  b  4  ftrength, 


402  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.          [B.  I. 

ftrength  *.  The  difadvantages  of  a  fertile  foil,  on 
the  contrary,  are  more  than  fufficient  to  counter- 
balance its  advantages :  the  inhabitants  are  ren- 
dered indolent,  weak,  and  cowardly.  Hindoftan 
may  feem  to  be  an  exception  ;  for  though  it  be 
extremely  fertile,  the  people  are  induftrious,  and 
export  manufactures  in  great  abundance  at  a  very 
low  price.  But  Hindoftan  properly  is  not  an  ex- 
ception, The  Hindoos,  who  are  prohibited  by 
their  religion  to  kill  any  living  creature,  muft  aban- 
don to  animals  for  food  a  large  proportion  of  land  ; 
which  obliges  them  to  cultivate  what  remains  with 
double  induftry,  in  order  to  procure  food  for  them- 
felves.  The  populoufnefs  of  their  country  contri- 
butes alfo  to  make  them  induftrious.  Arragon  was 
once  the  moft  limited  monarchy  in  Europe,  Eng- 
land not  excepted  :  the  barrennefs  of  the  foil  was 
the  caufe,  which  rendered  the  people  hardy  and 
courageous.  In  a  preamble  to  one  of  their  laws, 
the  dates  declare,  that,  were  they  not  more  free 

than 

*  That  a  barren  country  is  a  great  fpur  to  induftry,  appears 
from  Venice  and  Genoa  in  Italy,  Nuremberg  in  Germany, 
and  Limoges  in  France.  The  fterility  of  Holland  required  all 
the  induftry  of  its  inhabitants  for  procuring  the  neceflaries  of 
life  ;  and  by  that  means  chiefly  they  became  remarkably  in- 
duftrious. Camden  afcribes  the  fuccefs  of  the  town  of  Ha- 
lifax in  the  cloth  manufacture,  to  its  barren  foil.  A  feel  of 
pampered  Englishmen,  it  is  to  be  hoped  not  many  in  number, 
who  center  all  their  devotion  in  a  luxurious  board*  defpife 
Scotland  for  its  plain  fare  j  and  in  bitter  contumely, 
jri^e  it  as  a  poor  country, 


SK.  5-]  MANNERS.  403 

than  other  nations,  the  barrennefs  of  their  country 
would  tempt  them  to  abandon  itv  Oppofed  to  Arra- 
gon  (lands  Egypt,  the  fertility  of  which  renders 
the  inhabitants  foft  and  effeminate,  and  confequent- 
ly  an  eafy  prey  to  every  invader  #.  The  fruitful- 
nefs  of  the  province  of  Quito  in  Peru,  and  the  low 
price  of  every  neceflary,  occalioned  by  its  diftance 
from  the  fea,  have  plunged  the  inhabitants  into 
fupine  indolence,  and  exceflive  luxury.  The  peo- 
ple .of  the  town  of  Quite- in  particular,  have  aban- 
doned themfelves  to  every  fort  of  debauchery  :  the 
time  they  have  to  fpare  from  wine  and  women,  is 
employed  in  exceflive  gaming.  In  other  refpecls 
alfo  the  manners  of  a  people  are  influenced  by  the 
country  they  inhabit.  A  great  part  of  Calabria, 
formerly  populous  and  fertile,  is  at  prefent  covered- 

with 

*  Fear  imprefled  by  ftrange  and  uaforefeen  accidents,  is  the 
moft  potent  caufe  of  fuperftition.  No  other  country  is  lefs 
liable  to  ftrange  and  unforefeen  accidents  than  Egypt ;  no 
thunder,  fcarce  any  rain,  perfect  regularity  in  the  feafons,  and 
in  the  rife  and  fall  of  the  river.  So  little  notion  had  the 
Egyptians  of  variable  weather,  as  to  be  furprifed  that  the  n-, 
vers  in  Greece  did  not  overflow  like  the  Nile.  They  could 
not  comprehend  how  their  fields  were  watered  ;  rain,  they 
faid,  was  very  irregular ;  and  what  if  Jupiter  fhould  take  a 
conceit  to  fend  them  no  rain  ?  What  then  made  the  ancient 
Egyptians  fo  fuperftitious  ?  The  fertility  of  the  foil,  and  the 
inaction  of  the  inhabitants  during  the  inundation  of  the  river, 
enervated  both  mind  and  body,  and  rendered  them  timid  and 
pufillanimous.  Superftition  was  the  offspring  of  this  cha- 
racter in  Egypt,  as  it  is  of  ftrange  and  unforefeen  accidents  in 
other  countries, 


404  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  j. 

with  trees  and  flirubs,  like  the  wilds  of  America  ; 
and  the  ferocity  of  its  inhabitants  correfponds  to 
the  rudenefs  of  the  fields.  The  fame  is  vifible  in 
the  inhabitants  of  Mount  Etna  in  Sicily  :  the  coun- 
try and  its  inhabitants  are  equally  rugged. 


SKETCH  VI. 

PROGRESS  OF  THE  FEMALE  SEX. 


THE  progrefs  of  the  female  fex,  a  capital  branch 
of  the  hiftory  of  man,  comprehends  great 
variety  of  matter,  curious  and  interefting.  But 
fketches  are  my  province,  not  complete  hiflories ; 
and  I  propofe  in  the  prefent  iketch  to  trace  the 
gradual  progrefs  of  women,  from  their  low  Hate  in 
favage  tribes,  to  their  elevated  ftate  in  civilized 
nations. 

With  regard  to  the  outlines,  whether  of  internal 
difpofition  or  of  external  figure,  men 'and  women 
are  the  fame.  Nature,  however,  intending  them 
for  mates,  has  given  them  difpofitions  different  but 
concordant,  fo  as  to  produce  together  delicious  har- 
mony. The  man,  more  robuft,  is  fitted  for  fevere 
labour  and  for  field-exercifes :  the  woman,  more 
delicate,  is  fitted  for  fedentary  occupations ;  and 
particularly  for  nurfing  children.  That  difference 

1  ia 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  405 

is  remarkable  in  the  mind,  no  lefs  than  in  the  body. 
A  boy  is  always  running  about ;  delights  in  a  top 
or  a  ball,  and  rides  upon  a  flick  as  a  horfe.     A  girl 
has  lefs  inclination  to  move  :  her  firft  amufement 
is  a  baby ;  which  me  delights  to  drefs  and  undrefs. 
I  have  feen  oftener  than  once  a  female  child  under 
fix  getting  an  infant  in  its  arms,  carefling  it,  fing- 
ing,  and  walking  about  flaggering  under  the  weight. 
A  boy  never  thinks  of  fuch  a  paflime.     The  man, 
bold  and  vigorous,  is  qualified  for  being  a  protec- 
tor :  the  woman,  delicate  and  timid,  requires  pro- 
tection *.     The  man,  as  a  protector,  is  directed  by 
nature  to  govern :   the  woman,  confcious  of  infe- 
riority, is  difpofed  to   obey.      Their  intellectual 
powers  correfpond  to  the  deflination  of  nature: 
men  have  penetration  and  folid  judgment  to  fit 
them  for  governing  :    women   have  fufficient  un- 
derflanding  to  make  a  decent  figure  under  good 
government ;    a  greater  proportion  would  excite 
dangerous  rivalfhip.     Women  have  more  imagina- 
tion and  more  fenfibility  than  men  ;  and  yet  none 
of  them  have  made  an  eminent  figure  in  any  of 
the  fine  arts.     We  hear  of  no  fculptor  nor  flatuary 
among  them  ;   and  none  of  them  have  rifen  above 
a  mediocrity  in  poetry  or  painting.     Nature  has 
avoided  rivalfhip  between  the  fexes,  by  giving  them 
different  talents.     Add  another  capital  difference 

of 

*  From  which  it  appears  to  proceed,  that  women  naturally 
are  more  careful  of  their  reputation  than  men,  and  more  hurt 
by  obloquy. 


406  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  t. 

of  difpofition  :  the  gentle  and  infinuating  manners 

x 

of  the  female  fex,  tend  to  f often  the  roughnefs  of 
the  other  fex  ;  and  wherever  women  are  indulged 
with  any  freedom,  they  polifh  fooner  than  men  *. 

Thefe  are  not  the  only  particulars  that  diftin- 
guifh  the  fexes.  With  refpedl  to  matrimony,  it  is 
the  privilege  of  the  male,  as  fuperior  and  protec- 
tor, to  make  a  choice  ;  the  female  preferred  has  no 
privilege  but  barely  to  confent  or  to  refufe.  Na- 
ture fits  them  for  thefe  different  parts :  the  male 
is  bold,  the  female  bamful.  Hence  among  all  na- 
tions it  is  the  practice  for  men  to  court,  and  for 
women  to  be  courted  :  which  holds  alfo  among 
many  other  animals,  probably  among  all  that  pair. 

Another  diftindlion  is  equally  viiible :  The  maf- 
ter  of  a  family  is  immediately  conne&ed  with  his 
country  ;  his  wife,  his  children,  his  fervants,  are 
immediately  connected  with  him,  and  with  their 
country  through  him  only.  Women  accordingly 

have 

*  The  chief  quality  of  women,  fays  Roufleau,  is  fweetnefs 
of  temper.  Made  by  nature  for  fubmiffion  in  the  married 
ftate,  they  ought  to  learn  to  fuffer  wrong,  even  without  com- 
plaining.  Sournefs  and  ftubbornefs  ferve  but  to  increafe  the 
hufband's  unkindnefs  and  their  own  diflrefles.  It  was  not  to 
indulge  bad  humour,  that  Heaven  beftowed  on  them  manners 
infmuating  and  perfuafive  :  they  were  not  made  weak  in  order 
to  be  imperious :  a  fweet  voice  fuits  ill  with  fcolding  ;  deli- 
cate features  ought  not  to  be  disfigured  with  paflion.  They 
frequently  may  have  reafon  for  complaints  :  but  never,  to  ut- 
;er  them  publicly. 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX,  407 

have  lefs  patriotifm  than  men  ;  and  lefs  bitternefs 
againft  the  enemies  of  their  country. 

The  peculiar  modefty  of  the  female  fex,  is  alfo  a 
diftinguiihing  circumftance.  Nature  hath  provided 
them  with  it  as  a  defence  againft  the  artful  felici- 
tations of  the  other  fex  before  marriage,  and  alfo 
as  a  fupport  of  conjugal  fidelity. 

A  fundamental  article  in  the  prefent  iketch  is 
matrimony  ;  and  it  has  been  much  controverted, 
whether  it  be  an  appointment  of  nature,  or  only 
of  municipal  law.  Many  writers  have  exercifed 
their  talents  in  that  controverfy,  but  without  giv- 
ing fatisfaction  to  a  judicious  inquirer.  If  I  mif- 
take  not,  it  may  be  determined  upon  folid  princi- 
ples ;  and  as  it  is  of  importance  in  the  hiftory  of 
man,  the  reader,  I  am  hopeful,  will  not  be  difgufted 
at  the  length  of  the  argument. 

Many  writers  hold  that  women  were  originally 
common  ;  that  animal  love  was  gratified  as  among 
horfes  and  horned  cattle  ;  and  that  matrimony  was 
not  known,  till  nations  grew  in  fome  degree  to  be 
orderly  and  refined.  I  feledt  Cicero  as  an  author 
of  authority  :  "  Nam  fuit  quoddam  tempus,  cum 
"  in  agris  homines  paflim,  beftiarum  more,  vaga- 
"  bantur,  et  fibi  victu  ferino  vitam  propagabant : 
"  nee  ratione  animi  quicquam  fed  pleraque  viribus 
"  corporis  adminiftrabant.  Nondum  divinae  re- 
"  ligionis  non  humani  officii  ratio  colebatur.  Nemo 
"  legitimas  vide  rat  nuptias,  non  certos  quifquam 

"  infpexerat 


408  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I* 

"  infpexerat  liberos*." — Pliny,  in  fupport  of  that 
dodrine,  informs  us,  that  among  the  Garamantes, 
an  African  nation,  male  and  female  lived  promifcu- 
ouily  together,  without  any  notion  of  matrimony. 
Among  the  Aufes,  a  people  of  Libya,  as  Herodotus 
fays,  matrimony  was  not  known,  and  men  coha- 
bited with  women  indifferently,  like  other  animals. 
A  boy  educated  by  his  mother  was  at  a  certain 
age  admitted  to  an  aflembly  of  men,  and  the  man 
he  clung  to  was  reputed  his  father.     Juftin  and 
other   authors  report,  that  before  Cecrops,  who 
reigned  in  Attica  about  1600  years  before  Chrift, 
marriage  was  not  known  in  Greece ;  and  that  the 
burden  of  children  lay  upon  the  mother. 

Before  entering  dire&ly  into  the  matter,  it  is 
proper  to  remove,  if  poflible,  the  bias  of  thefe  great 
names.  The  practice  of  the  Garamantes  and  of  the 
Aufes  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  and  Herodotus  as 
lingular ;  and,  were  it  even  well  vouched,  it  would 
avail  very  little  againft  the  practice  of  all  other 
nations.  Little  weight  can  be  laid  upon  Pliny's 
evidence  in  particular,  conlidering  what  he  reports, 
in  the  fame  chapter,  of  the  Blemmyans,  that  they 

had 

*  "  For  there  was  a  time,  when  men,  like  the  brutes,  roam- 
'*  ed  abroad  over  the  earth,  and  fed  like  wild  beafts  upon, 
"  other  animals.  Then  reafon  bore  no  fway,  but  all  was 
'*  ruled  by  fuperior  ftrength.  The  ties  of  religion,  and  the 
**  obligations  of  morality,  were  then  unfelt.  Lawful  mar- 
4<  riage  was  unknown,  and  no  father  was  certain  of  his  off- 
"  fpring." — De  Inventione,  lib.  i. 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  409 

had  no  head,  and  that  the  mouth  and  eyes  were  in 
the  breaft.  Pliny  at  the  fame  time,  as  well  as 
Herodotus,  being  very  deficient  in  natural  know- 
ledge, were  grofsly  credulous  ;  and  cannot  be 
relied  on  with  refpect  to  any  thing  ftrange  or  un- 
common. As  to  what  is  reported  of  ancient  Greece, 
Cecrops  poflibly  prohibited  polygamy,  or  introdu- 
ced fome  other  matrimonial  regulation,  which  by 
writers  might  be  miftaken  for  a  law  appointing 
matrimony.  However  that  be,  one  part  of  the 
report  is  undoubtedly  erroneous ;  for  it  will  be 
made  evident  afterward,  that,  in  the  hunter-ftate, 
or  even  in  that  of  Ihepherds,  it  is  impracticable  for 
any  woman,  by  her  own  induftry  alone,  to  rear  a 
numerous  iflue.  If  this  be  at  all  poffible,  it  can 
only  be  in  the  torrid  zone,  where  people  live  on 
fruits  and  roots,  which  are  produced  in  plenty 
with  very  little  labour.  Upon  that  account,  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus  is  lefs  blameable.  for  liftening  to  a  re- 
port, that  the  inhabitants  of  Taprobana,  fuppofed 
to  be  the  ifland  of  Ceylon,  never  marry,  but  that 
women  are  ufed  promifcuoufly.  At  the  fame  time, 
as  there  is  no  fuch  cuftom  at  prefent  in  the  Eaft 
Indies,  there  is  no  good  ground  to  believe,  that  it 
ever  was  cuftomary  ;  and  the  Eaft  Indies  were  fo 
little  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks,  that  their  au- 
thors cannot  be  much  relied  on,  in  the  accounts 
they  give  of  that  diftant  region.  The  authority  of 
Cicero,  however  refpectable  in  other  matters,  will 
not  be  much  regarded  upon  the  prefent  queftion, 

when 


410  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  t. 

•when  the  paffage  above  quoted  is  dhTefted.  How 
crude  muft  his  notions  be  of  the  primitive  ftate  of 
man,  when  he  denies  to  favages  any  fenfe  of  reli- 
gion or  of  moral  duty  !  Ought  we  to  rely  more 
on  him,  when  he  denies  that  they  have  any  notion 
of  matrimony  ?  Caefar's  account  of  the  ancient 
Britons  approaches  the  neareft  to  a  loofe  commerce 
with  women,  though  in  the  maift  it  is  good  evi- 
dence againft  Cicero.  It  was  common,  he  fays, 
for  a  number  of  brothers,  or  other  near  relations, 
to  ufe  their  wives  promifcuoufly.  -  The  offspring 
however  were  not  common  ;  for  each  man  main- 
tained the  children  that  were  produced  by  his  own 
wife.  Herodotus  reports  the  fame  of  the  Mafla- 
.getae. 

Laying  thus  afide  the  great  names  of  Cicero,  He- 
rodotus, and  Pliny,  the  field  lies  open  to  a  fair  and 
impartial  inveftigation.  And  as  the  means  provi- 
ded by  nature  for  continuing  the  race  of  other  a- 
nimals,  may  probably  throw  light  upon  the  eco- 
nomy of  nature  with  refpec"l  to  man  ;  I  begin  with 
that  article,  which  has  not  engaged  the  attention 
of  naturalifts  fo  much  as  it  ought  to  have  done. 
With  refpecl  to  animals  whofe  nourifhment  is  grafs, 
pairing  would  be  of  no  ufe  :  the  female  feeds  her- 
felf  and  her  young  at  the  fame  inftant ;  and  no- 
thing is  left  for  the  male  to  do.  On  the  other 
hand,  all  brute  animals  whofe  young  require  the 
nurfing  care  of  both  parents,  are  di  reded  by  na- 
ture to  pair  j  nor  is  that  connection  difiblved  till 

the 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE    SEX.  4!! 

till  the  young  can  provide  for  themfelves.  Pairing  is 
indifpenfable  to  wild  birds  that  build  on  trees ;  be- 
caufe  the  male  muft  provide  food  for  his  mate  while 
me  is  hatching  the  jeggs.  And  as  they  have  com- 
monly a. numerous  ifliie,  it  requires  the  labour  of 
both  to  pick  up  food  for  themfelves  and  for  their 
young.  Upon  that  account  it  is  fo  ordered,  that 
the  young  are  fufficiently  vigorous  to  provide  for 
themfelves,  before  a  new  brood  is  produced. 

What  I  have  now  opened  fuggefts  the  following 
queftion,  Whether,  according  to  the  economy  a- 
bove  difplayed,  are  we  to  prefume,  or  not,  that 
man  is  diredted  by  nature  to  matrimony  ?  If  ana- 
logy can  be  relied  on,  the  affirmative  muft  be  held, 
as  there  is  no  other  creature  in  the  known  world 
to  which  pairing  is  fo  neceflary.  Man  is  an  ani- 
mal of  long  life,  and  is  proportionally  flow  in  grow- 
ing to  maturity  :  he  is  a  helplefs  being  before  the 
age  of  fifteen  or  fixteen  ;  and  there  may  be  in  a 
family  ten  or  twelve  children  of  different  births, 
before  the  eldeft  can  fhift  for  itfelf.  Now,  in  the 
original  ftate  of  hunting  and  fifhing,  which  are  la- 
borious occupations,  and  not  always  fuccefsful,  a 
woman,  fuckling  her  infant,  is  not  able  to  provide 
food  even  for  herfelf,  far  lefs  for  ten  or  twelve  vo- 
racious children.  Matrimony,  therefore,  or  pair- 
ing, is  fo  neceflary  to  the  human  race,  that  it  muft 
be  natural  and  inftindive.  When  fuch  ample 
means  are  provided  for  continuing  every  other  a- 
nimal  race,  is  it  fuppofable  that  the  chief  race  is 

VOL.  I.  C  c  neglected  ? 


412  kEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.          [B.  I, 

neglected  ?  Providential  care  defcends  even  to  ve- 
getable life  ;  every  plant  bears  a  profufion  of  feed  •, 
and  in  order  to  cover  the  earth  with  vegetables, 
fome  feeds  have  wings,  fome  are  fcattered  by  means 
of  a  fpring,  and  fome  are  fo  light  as  to  be  carried 
about  by  the  wind.  Brute  animals  which  do  not 
pair,  have  grafs  and  other  food  in  plenty,  enabling 
the  female  to  feed  her  young  without  needing  any 
affiftance  from  the  male.  But  where  the  young 
require  the  nuriing  care  of  both  parents,  pairing  is 
a  law  of  nature.  When  other  races  are  fo  amply 
provided  for,  can  it  be  ferioufly  thought,  that  Pro- 
vidence is  lefs  attentive  to  the  human  race  ?  If 
men  and  women  were  not  impelled  by  nature  to 
matrimony,  they  would  be  lefs  fitted  for  continu- 
ing the  fpecies,  than  even  the  humblefl  plant.  Have 
we  not  then  reafon  fairly  to  conclude,  that  matri- 
mony in  the  human  race  is  an  appointment  of  na^- 
ture  ?  Can  that  conclulion  be  refilled  by  any  one 
who  believes  in  Providence,  and  in  final  caufes  *. 

To  confirm  this  doctrine,  let  the  confequences 
of  a  loofe  commerce  between  the  fexes  be  examit 
ned.     The  carnal  appetite,  when  confined  to  one 
object,  feldom  tranfgreiles  the  bounds  of  tempe- 
rance. 

*  It  appears  a  wife  appointment  of  Providence,  that  women 
give  over  child-bearing  at  fifty,  while  they  are  ftill  in  vigour 
of  mind  and  body  to  take  care  of  their  offspring.  Did  the 
power  of  procreation  continue  in  women  to  old  age  as  in  men, 
children  would  often  be  left  in  the  wide  world,  without  a  mor- 
tal to  look  after  them. 


.  6.]  FEMALE  $££.  413 

ranee.  But  were  it  encouraged  to  roam,  like  a 
bee  fucking  honey  from  every  flower,  every  new 
object  would  inflame  the  imagination  ;  and  fatiety 
with  refpect  to  one,  would  give  new  vigour  with 
refpect  to  others  :  a  generic  habit  would  be  form- 
ed of  intemperance  in  fruition  *  ;  and  animal  love 
would  become  the  ruling  pailion.  Men,  like  the 
hart  in  rutting-time,  would  all  the  year  round  fly 
with  impetuofity  from  object  to  object,  giving  no 
quarter  even  to  women  fuckling  their  infants  :  and 
women,  abandoning  themfelves  to  the  fame  appe- 
tite, would  become  altogether  regardlefs  of  their 
offspring.  In  that  ftate,  the  continuance  of  the 
human-  race  would  be  a  miracle.  In  the  favage 
ftate,  as  mentioned  above,  it  is  beyond  the  power 
of  any  woman  to  provide  food  for  a  family  of  chil- 
dren ;  and  now  it  appears,  that  intemperance  in 
animal  love  would  render  a  woman  carelefs  of  her 
family,  however  eafy  it  might  be  to  provide  for 


Cca 

*  Elements  of  Criticifm,  chap.  14. 


I  have  often  been  tempted  to  blame  Providence  for  bring- 
ing to  perfection  in  early  youth  the  carnal  appetite,  long  before 
people  have  acquired  any  prudence  or  felf-command.  It 
rages  the  moft  when  young  men  fhould  be  employed  in  ac- 
quiring knowledge,  and  in  fitting  themfelves  for  living  com- 
fortably in  the  world.  I  have  fet  this  thought  in  various 
lights  ;  but  I  now  perceive  that  the  cenfure  is  without  foun- 
dation. The  early  ripenefs  of  this  appetite,  proves  it  to  be  the 

intention 


4*4  M£N  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.          [B.  la 

I  fay  more.  The  promifcuous  ufe  of  women, 
would  unqualify  them  in  a  great  meafure  to  pro- 
create. The  carnal  appetite  in  man  refembles  his 
appetite  for  food  :  each  of  them  demands  gratifi- 
cation, after  fhort  intervals.  Where  the  carnal 
appetite  is  felt  but  a  Ihort  fpace  annually,  as  among 
animals  who  feed  on  grafs,  the  promifcuous  ufe  of 
females  is  according  to  the  order  of  nature :  but 
fuch  a  law  in  man,  where  the  carnal  appetite  is  al- 
ways awake,  would  be  an  effectual  bar  to  procrea- 
tion ;  it  being  an  undoubted  truth,  that  women 
who  indulge  that  appetite  to  excefs,  feldom  have 
children  ;  and  if  all  women  were  common,  all 
women  would  in  effecl:  be  common  proftitutes. 

If  undifguifed  nature  fhow  itfelf  any  where,  it 
is  in  children.     So  truly  is  matrimony  an  appoint- 
ment of  nature,  as  to  be  underftood  even  by  chil- 
dren. 

intention  of  Providence  that  people  ftiould  early  fettle  in  ma- 
trimony. In  that  ftate  the  appetite  is  abundantly  moderate^ 
and  gives  no  obftruclion  to  education.  It  never  becomes  un- 
ruly, till  a  man,  forgetting  the  matrimonial  tie,  wanders  from 
object  to  object.  Pride  and  luxury  are  what  dictate  late  mar- 
'  riages  :  induftry  never  fails  to  afford  the  means  of  living  com- 
fortably, provided  men  confine  themfelves  to  the  demands  of 
nature.  A  young  man,  at  the  fame  time,  who  has  the  care  of 
a  family  upon  him,  is  impelled  to  be  active  in  order  to  provide- 
food  for  them.  And  fuppofing  him  to  have  a  fufficiency  with- 
out labour,  attention  to  his  wife  and  children  produces  a  habit 
of  doing  good,  which  is  regularly  extended  to  all  around. 
And  married  men  become  thus  good  citizens ;  and  fome  of 

, 

them  eminent  patriots. 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  415 

dren.  They  often  hear,  it  is  true,  people  talking 
of  matrimony  ;  but  they  alfo  hear  of  logical,  me- 
taphylical,  and  commercial  matters,  without  un- 
derftanding  a  fyllable.  Whence  then  their  notion 
of  marriage  but  from  nature  ?  Marriage  is  a  com- 
pound idea,  which  no  inftruftion  could  bring  with- 
in the  compreheniion  of  a  child,  did  not  nature  co- 
operate. 

That  the  arguments  urged  above  againfl  a  pro- 
mifcuous  ufe  of  women,  do  not  necefiarily  con- 
clude againft  polygamy,  or  the  union  of  one  man 
with  a  plurality  of  women,  will  not  efcape  an  at- 
tentive reader.  St  Auguftin  and  other  fathers  ad- 
mit, that  polygamy  is  not  prohibited  by  the  law 
of  nature ;  and  the  learned  Grotius  profefles  the 
fame  opinion  #.  But  great  names  terrify  me  not ; 
and  I  venture  to  maintain,  that  pairing,  in  the 
ftri&eft  fenfe,  is  a  law  of  nature  among  men  as 
among  wild  birds ;  and  that  polygamy  is  a  grofs 
infringement  of  that  law.  My  reafons  follow. 

I  urge,  in  the  firft  place,  the  equal  number  of 
males  and  females,  as  a  clear  indication  that  Pro- 
vidence intends  every  man  to  be  confined  to  one 
wife,  and  every  woman  to  one  huiband.  That 
equality,  which  has  fubfifted  in  all  countries  and 
at  all  times,  is  a  iignal  inftance  of  over- ruling  Pro- 
vidence ;  for  the  chances  againft  it  are  infinite. 
All  men  are  by  nature  equal  in  rank ;  no  man  is 
privileged  above  another  to  have  a  wife  ;  and 

C  c  3  therefore 

*  De'jure  belli  ac  pacis,  lib.  2.  cap.  5.  §  9. 


416  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  \E.  !„• 

therefore  polygamy  is  contradictory  to  the  plan  of 
Providence.  Were  ten  women  born  for  one  man, 
as  is  erroneoufly  reported  to  be  the  cafe  in  Ban- 
tam, polygamy  might  be  the  intention  of  Provi- 
dence ;  but  from  the  equality  of  males  and  fe- 
males, it  is  clearly  the  voice  of  nature,  as  well  as 
of  the  Sacred  Scripture,  "  That  a  man  fhall  leave 
"  his  father  and  mother,  and  cleave  to  his  wife  ; 
"  and  they  fliall  be  one  flefh.': 

Coniider,  in  the  next  place,  that  however  plau- 
lible  polygamy  may  appear  in  the  prefent  ftate  of 
things,  where  inequality  of  rank  and  of  fortune 
have  produced  luxury  and  fenfuality  ;  yet  that 
the  laws  of  nature  were  not  contrived  by  our  Ma- 
ker for  a  forced  ftate,  where  numberlefs  indivi- 
duals are  degraded  below  their  natural  rank,  for 
the  benefit  of  a  few  who  are  elevated  above  it. 
To  form  a  juft  notion  of  polygamy,  we  muft  look 
back  to  the  original  ftate  of  man,  where  all  arc 
equal.  In  that  ftate,  every  man  cannot  have  two 
wives  ;  and  confequently  no  man  is  entitled  to 
more  than  one,  till  every  other  be  upon  an  equal 
footing  with  him.  At  the  fame  time,  the  union 
of  one  man  with  one  woman  is  much  better  cal- 
culated for  continuing  the  race,  than  the  union  of 
one  man  with  many  women.  Think  of  a  favage 
who  may  have  fifty  or  fixty  children  by  different 
wives,  all  depending  for  food  upon  his  induftry  : 
chance  muft  turn  out  much  in  his  favour,  if  the 
half  of  them  perifh  not  by  hunger.  How  much  a 

VZ**S  •  f  <f  Q 

better; 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  417 

better  chance  for  life  have  infants  who  are  diftri- 
buted  more  equally  in  different  families  ? 

Polygamy  has  an  effect  flill  more  pernicious, 
with  refpecl  to  children  even  of  the  mofl  opulent 
families.  Unlefs  affection  be  reciprocal  and  equal, 
there  can  be  no  proper  fociety  in  the  matrimonial 
ftate,  no  cordiality,  nor  due  care  of  offspring.  But 
fuch  affection  is  inconfiftent  with  polygamy  :  a 
woman  in  that  ftate,  far  from  being  a  companion 
to  her  hufband,  is  degraded  to  the  rank  of  a  fer- 
vant,  a  mere  inftrurnent  of  pleafure  and  propaga- 
tion. Among  many  wives  there  will  always  be  a 
favourite :  the  reft  turn  peevifh ;  and  if  they  re- 
fent  not  the  injury  againft  their  hufband,  and 
againft  their  children  as  belonging  to  him,  they 
will  at  leaft  be  dimeartened,  and  turn  negligent  of 
them.  At  the  fame  time,  fonduefs  for  the  favou- 
rite wife  and  her  children,  makes  the  hufband  in- 
different about  the  reft ;  and  woful  is  the  condi- 
tion of  children  who  are  neglected  by  both  pa- 
rents *.  To  produce  fuch  an  effect,  is  certainly 
not  the  purpofe  of  nature. 

It  merits  peculiar  attention,  that  Providence  has 
provided  for  an  agreeable  union,  among  all  crea- 
tures who  are  taught  by  nature  to  pair.  Animal 
love  among  creatures  who  pair  not,  is  confined 
within  a  narrow  fpace  of  time  :  while  the  dam  is 
occupied  about  her  young,  animal  love  lies  dor- 

C  c  4  mant, 

*  J-'Efprit  des  Loix,  liv.  16.  chap.  6* 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

rnant,  that  fhe  may  not  be  abftracted  from  her 
duty.  In  pairing  animals,  on  the  contrary,  ani- 
mal love  is  always  awake  :  frequent  enjoyment 
endears  a  pair  to  each  other,  and  makes  condancy 
a  pleafure.  Such  is  the  cafe  of  the  human  race  ; 
and  fuch  is  the  cafe  of  wild  birds  *.  Among  the 
wild  birds  that  build  on  trees,  the  male,  after  feed- 
ing his  mate  in  the  neft,  plants  himfelf  upon  the 
next  fpray,  and  cheers  her  with  a  fong  f .  There 
is  flill  greater  enjoyment  provided  for  the  human 
race  in  the  matrimonial  Hate,  and  ftronger  incite- 
ments to  conftancy.  Sweet  is  the  fociety  of  a  pair 
fitted  for  each  other,  in  whom  are  collected  the  af- 
fections of  huiband,  wife,  lover,  friend,  the  ten^ 
dereft  affections  of  human  nature.  Public  govern- 
ment is  in  perfection,  when  the  fovereign  com- 
mands with  humanity,  and  the  fubjects  are  cordial 
in  their  obedience.  Private  government  in  conju- 
gal fociety  arrives  at  flill  greater  perfection,  where 
huiband  and  wife  govern  and  are  governed  reci- 
procally, with  entire  fatisfaction  to  both.  The 
man  bears  rule  over  his  wife's  perlbn  and  conduct ; 
fhe  bears  rule  over  his  inclinations  :  he  governs  by 
law  :  fhe  by  perfuafion.  Nor  can  her  authority 

ever 

*  Buffon,  lib.  5.  p.  359.  o&avo  edition. 

i 

f  A  male  canary  bird,  finging  to  his  mate  on  her  neft  in  a 
breeding-cage,  fell  down  dead.  The  female  alarmed  left  her 
neft  and  pecked  at  him  :  finding  him  immovable,  jflie  refufed 
fiourifhment,  and  died  at  his  fide. 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  419 

ever  fail,  where  it  is  fupported  by  fweetnefs  of 
temper,  and  zeal  to  make  him  happy  *. 

The 

*  *'  L 'empire  de  la  femme  eft  un  empire  de  douceur,  d'ad- 
drefle,  et  de  complaifance  ;  fes  ordres  font  des  carefies,  fes  me- 
naces font  des  pleurs.     Elle  doit  regner  dans  la  maifon  comme 
un  miniftre  dans  1'etat,  en  fe  faifant  commander  ce  qu'elle  veut 
faire?     En  ce  fens  il  eft  conftant  que  les  meilleurs  menage^ 
font  ceux  ou  la  femme  a  le  plus  d'autorite.      Mais  quand  elle 
meconnoit  la  voix  du  chef,  qu'elle  veut  ufurper  fes  droits  et 
commander  elle-m£me  :  il  ne  refulte  jamais  de  ce  defordre,  que 
mifere,  fcandale,  et  difhonneur  ;"  Roujfiau,  Emite,  ii<v.  5.  p.  96. 
—  [/«  EngHJh  thus  :  '*  The  empire  of  the  woman  is  an  empire 
•"  of  foftnefs,  of  addrefs,  of  complacency ;  her  commands  are 
"  careiTes,  her  menaces  are  tears.     She  ought  to  reign  in  the 
"  family  \like  a  minifter  in  the  ftate,  by  making  that  which  is 
"  her  inclination  be  enjoined  to  her  as  her  duty.      Thus  it  is 
*'  evident,  that  the  beft  domeftic  ceconomy  is  that  where  the 
*'  wife  has  moft  authority.      But  when  fhe  is  infenfible  to  the 
"  voice  of  her  chief,  when  (he  tries  to  ufurp  his  prerogative, 
"  and  to  command  alone,  what  can  refult  fKom  fuch  diforder, 
"  but  mifery,  fcandal,  and  difbonour  ?"J — The  Emprefs  Li  via 
being  queftioned  by  a  married  lady,  how  fhe  had  obtained 
fuch  afcendent  over  he'r  hufband  Auguftus,  anfwered,   "  By 
"  being  obedient  to  his  commands,  by  not  wiftiing  to  know  his 
*'  fecrets,  and  by  hiding  my  knowledge  of  his  amours."     The 
late  Queen  of  Spain  was  a  woman  of  fmgular  prudence,  and 
of  folid  judgment.     A  character  of  her,  publiflied  after  hep 
death,  contains  the  following  paflage  :  "  She  had  a  great  af- 
"  cendency  over  the  King,  founded  on  his  perfuafion  of  her 
"  fuperior  fenfe,  which  flie  fhowed  in  a  perfect  fubmiflion  to 
*'  his  commands  ;  the  more  eauly  obeyed,  as  they  were  com, 
*'  monly,   though  to  him  imperceptibly,  dictated  by  herfelf. 
ft  She  cured  him  of  many  foibles,  and,  in  a  word,  was  his 
'*  Minerva,  under  the  appearance  of  Mentor." 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

The  God  of  nature  has  enforced  conjugal  fo- 
ciety,  not  only  by  making  it  agreeable,  but  by  the 
principle  of  chaftity  inherent  in  our  nature.  To 
animals  that  have  no  inftincl  for  pairing,  chaftity 
is  utterly  unknown ;  and  to  them  it  would  be  ufe- 
lefs.  The  mare,  the  cow,  the  ewe,  the  me-  goat, 
receive  the  male  without  ceremony,  and  admit  the 
firft  that  comes  in  the  way  without  diftinclion. 
Neither  have  tame  fowl  any  notion  of  chaftity : 
they  pair  not ;  and  the  female  gets  no  food  from 
the  male,  even  during  incubation.  But  chaftity 
and  mutual  fidelity  are  eflential  to  all  pairing  ani- 
mals ;  for  wandering  inclinations  would  render 
them  negligent  in  nurfing  their  young.  Wild 
birds  pair ;  and  they  are  by  inftincl:  faithful  to  each 
other,  while  their  young  require  nurture.  Chafti- 
ty is  eflential  to  the  human  race  ;  enforced  by  the 
principle  of  chaftity,  a  branch  of  the  moral  fenfe. 
Chaftity  is  eflential  even  to  the  continuation  of  the 
human  race.  As  the  carnal  appetite  is  always 
alive,  the  fexes  would  wallow  in  pleafure,  and  be 
foon  rendered  unfit  for  procreation,  were  it  not  for 
the  reftraint  of  chaftity. 

Nor  is  chaftity  confined  to  the  matrimonial  ftate. 
Matrimony  is  inftituted  by  nature  for  continuing 
the  fpecies ;  and  it  is  the  duty  of  man  to  abftain 
from  animal  enjoyment,  except  in  that  ftate.  The 
ceremonies  of  marriage  and  the  caufes  of  fepara- 
tion  and  divorce,  are  fubjecled  to  municipal  law : 
but,  if  a  man  beget  children,  it  is  his  duty  to  unite 

with 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE    SEX.  42* 

with  the  mother  in  taking  care  of  them ;  and  fuch 
union  is  matrimony  according  to  the  law  of  na- 
ture. Hence  it  is,  that  the  firft  acts  of  inconti- 
nence, where  enjoyment  only  is  in  view,  are  al- 
ways attended  with  lhame,  and  with  a  degree  of 
remorfe  *.  At  the  fame  time,  as  chaility  in  per- 
fons  who  are  lingle  is  only  a  felf-duty,  it  is  not  fo 
lirongly  enforced  by  the  moral  fenfe  as  chaftity  is 
in  married  perfons,  who  owe  fidelity  to  each  other. 
Deviations  accordingly  from  the  former  make  a 
lefs  figure  than  from  the  latter:  we  fcarce  ever 
hear  of  adultery  among  favages ;  though  among 
them  incontinence  before  marriage  is  not  uncom- 
mon. In  Wales,  even  at  prefent,  and  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland,  it  is  fcarce  a  difgrace  for  a  young 
woman  to  have  a  baftard.  In  the  country  lait 
mentioned,  the  firft  inftance  known  of  a  baftard- 
child  being  deilroyed  by  its  mother  through  fhame, 
is  a  late  one.  The  virtue  of  chaility  appears  to 
be  there  gaining  ground ;  as  the  only  temptation, 
a  woman  can  have  to  deflroy  her  child,  is  to  con- 
ceal her  frailty.  The  principle  of  chaftity,  like 
that  of  propriety  or  of  decency,  is  faint  among  fa- 
vages ;  and  has  little  of  that  influence  which  pre- 
vails among  polilhed  nations  before  they  are  cor- 
rupted 

"  *  Quand  enfin  cette  aimable  jeuneffe  vient  a  fe  marier,  les 
deux  epoux  fe  dormant  mutuellement  les  premices  de  leur  per- 
fonne,  en  font  plus  chers  1'un  a  1'autre  ;  des  multitudes  d'en- 
fans  fains  et  robuftes  deviennent  le  gage  d'une  union  que 
rien  n'altere  j"  Roffeau,  Emik, 


422  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

rupted  by  luxury.  We  ihall  have  occafion  to  fee 
afterward,  that  even  the  great  duty  of  juftice  is 
faint  among  barbarians  ;  and  that  it  yields  readily 
to  every  irregular  impulfe,  before  the  moral  fenfe 
has  arrived  to  maturity. 

Chaftity  is  a  reftraint  upon  nature ;  and,  there- 
fore, if  fhame  be  removed  by  making  it  lawful  to 
obey  the  appetite,  nature  will  prevail.  In  the  year 
1707,  a  contagious  diftemper  having  carried  off  a 
large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Iceland,  the 
King  of  Denmark  fell  on  a  device  to  repeople  the 
country,  which  fucceeded  to  a  wiih.  A  law  was 
made,  authoriiing  young  women  in  that  ifland  to 
have  baftards,  even  to  the  number  of  fix,  without 
wounding  their  reputation*.  The  young  women 
were  fo  zealous  to  repeople  their  country,  that  af- 
ter a  few- years  it  was  found  proper  to  abrogate  the 
law. 

Modefty  is  by  nature  intended  to  guard  chaftity, 
as  chaftity  is  to  guard  matrimony.  And  modefty, 
like  chaftity,  is  one  of  thofe  delicate  principles  that 
make  no  great  figure  among  favages.  In  the  land 

of  Jeflb,  young  women  fometimes  go  naked  in  fum- 
\ 

mer 

*  Don  Juan  de  Ulloa,  in  his  voyage  to  Peru,  mentions  a 
very  fingular  tafte  prevalent  in  that  country,  that  a  man  never 
takes  a  virgin  to  wife  ;  and  thinks  himfelf  dishonoured  if  his. 
wife  have  not,  before  marriage,  enjoyed  many  lovers.  If  we 
can  truft  Paulus  Venetus,  a  young  woman  of  Thibet,  in  Afia, 
*s  not  reckoned  fit  to  be  married  till  fhe  be  deflowered. 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  425 

mer :  if  however  they  meet  a  ftranger,  they  hang 
the  head,  and  turn  away  through  fhame.  Nature 
here  is  their  only  inftru&or*.  Some  favage  tribes 
have  fo  little  notion  of  modefty,  as  to  go  naked, 
without  even  covering  their  privy  parts.  Reg- 
nard  reports,  upon  his  own  knowledge,  that  in 
Lapland,  man,  woman,  and  child,  take  the  hot 
bath  promifcuoufly,  and  are  not  afhamed  to  be 
feen  in  that  condition,  even  by  a  ftranger.  As  this 
appeared  lingular,  I  took  an  opportunity  to  men- 
tion it  to  Dr  Solander,  who  had  made  more  than 
one  vifit  to  that  country.  He  faid,  that  Regnard's 
report  might  be  true  ;  but  without  any  imputation 
on  the  modefty  of  the  Laplanders,  for  that  their 
place  of  bathing  is  always  fo  dark  that  nothing 
can  be  feen.  He  added,  that  the  females  in  Lap- 
land, both  married  and  unmarried,  are  extremely 
chafte.  The  inhabitants  of  Otaheite,  if  Bougain- 
ville can  be  trufted,  feern  to  have  as  little  notion 
of  modefty  as  of  chaftity.  But  many  of  that  au- 
thor's facts  ftarid  contradicted  by  later  voyagers. 
The  women  of  New  Zealand  are  both  chafte  and 
modeft.  Captain  Cook,  in  his  voyage  round  the 
world,  ftumbled  upon  fome  of  them  naked,  diving 
for  lobfters  ;  and  they  were  in  great  confulion  foi 

being  feen  in  that  condition  by  ftrangeraf 

But 

*  Doth  not  modefty  prevail  among  many  animals  ?  Ele- 
phants are  never  feen  in  copulation,  nor  cats,  nor  beads  of 
prey. 


4^4  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OT  SOCIETY.  [B.  It 

But  now,  if  pairing  in  the  ftricteft  fenfe  be  a 
law  of  nature  among  men,  as  among  fome  other 
animals,  how  is  polygamy  to  be  accounted  for, 
which  formerly  was  univerfal,  and  to  this  day  ob- 
tains among  many  nations  ?  Polygamy,  I  anfwer, 
is  derived  from  two  fources ;  firft,  from  favage 
manners,  once  univerfal ;  and  next,  from  voliip- 
tuoufnefs  in  warm  climates,  which  inftigates  men 
of  wealth  to  tranfgrefs  every  rule  of  temperance. 
Thefe  two  fources  I  propofe  to  handle  with  care, 
becaufe  they  make  a  large  branch  in  the  hiftory  of 
the  female  fex. 

With  refpecl  to  the  firft,  fweetnefs  of  temper, 
a  capital  article  in  the  female  character,  di-fplays- 
itfelf  externally  by  mild  looks  and  gentle  manners. 
But  fuch  graces  are  fcarce  difcernible  in  a  female 
favage ;  and  even  in  the  moft  poliftied  women, 
would  not  be  perceived  by  a  male  favage.  Among 
favages,  ftrength  and  boldnefs  are  the  only  valued 
qualities :  in  thefe  females  are  miferably  deficient : 
and  for  that  reafon,  are  contemned  by  the  males, 
as  beings  of  an  inferior  order.  The  North  Ame- 
rican tribes  glory  in  idlenefs :  the  drudgery  of  la- 
bour degrades  a  man  in  their  opinion,  and  is  pro- 
per for  women  only.  To  join  young  perfons  in 
marriage  is  accordingly  the  bufinefs  of  parents ; 
and  it  would  be  unpardonable  meannefs  in  the 
bridegroom,  to  Ihew  any  fondnefs  for  the  bride. 
Young  men  among  the  Hottentots,  are  admitted  in- 
to fociety  with  their  feriiors  at  the  age  of  eighteen  ; 

after 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  425 

after  which  it  is  difgraceful  to  keep  company  with 
women.  In  Guiana,  a  woman  never  eats  with  her 
hufband  ;  but  after  every  meal  attends  him  with 
water  for  warning.  In  the  Caribbee  iilands,  fhe 
is  not  permitted  to  eat  even  in  prefence  of  her 
hufband  ;  and  yet  we  are  allured  *,  that  women 
there  obey  with  fuch  fweetnefs  and  refpecl,  as 
never  to  give  their  hufbands  occaiion  to  remind 
them  of  their  duty  ;  "  an  example,"  adds  our  fage 
author,  "  worthy  the  imitation  of  Chriftian  wives, 
"  who  are  daily  inftrudled  from  the  pulpit  in  the 
"  duties  of  obedience  and  conjugal  fidelity,  but  to 
"  very  little  purpofe.*'  Dampier  obferves  in  ge- 
neral, that,  among  all  the  wild  nations  he  was  ac- 
quainted with,  the  women  carry  the  burdens, 
while  the  men  walk  before,  and  carry  nothing  but 
their  arms.  Women  even  of  the  higheft  rank  are 
not  better  treated.  The  fovereign  of  Giaga,  in 
Africa,  has  many  wives,  who  are  literally  his 
Haves :  one  carries  his  bow,  one  his  arrows,  and 
one  gives  him  drink;  and  while  he  is  drinking 
they  all  fall  on  their  knees,  clap  their  hands,  and 
fing.  Not  many  centuries  ago,  a  law  was  made  in 
England,  prohibiting  the  New  Teftament  in  En- 
glilh  to  be  read  by  women,  'prentices,  journey- 
men, or  ferving  men  f ,  What  a  pitiful  figure 
muft  the  poor  females  have  made  in  that  age  !  In 
Siberia,  and  even  in  Ruffia,  the  capital  excepted, 

men 

*  Labat's  Voyages  to  the  American  Iflands. 
34th  and  35th  Henry  VIII.  cap.  i. 


426  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

men  treat  their  wives  in  every  refpeft  as  flaves. 
The  regulations  of  Peter  I.  put  marriage  upon  a 
more  refpe&able  footing  among  people  of  rank  j 
and  yet  fuch  are  the  brutal  manners  of  the  Ruf- 
fians, that  tyrannical  treatment  of  wives'is  far  from 
being  eradicated. 

The  low  condition  of  the  female  fex  among  fa- 
vages  and  barbarians,  paved  the  way  to  polygamy. 
Savages,  excited  by  a  tafte  for  variety,  and  ftill 
more  by  pride,  which  is  gratified  by  many  fe*- 
vants,  delight  in  a  multiplicity  of  wives.  The 
pairing  principle,  though  rooted  in  human  nature, 
makes  little  figure  among  favages,  yielding  to  every 
irregular  appetite ;  and  this  fairly  accounts  why 
polygamy  was  once  univerfal.  It  might  indeed 
be  thought,  that  animal  love,  were  there  nothing 
elfe,  mould  have  raifed  women  to  fome  degree  of 
eftimatiori  among  the  men.  But  male  favages,  ut- 
ter ftrangers  to  decency  or  refinement,  gratify  ani- 
mal love  with  as  little  ceremony  as  they  do  hunger 
or  thirft. 

Hence  appears  the  reafon  of  a  practice  that  will 
furprife  thofe  who  are  unacquainted  with  ancient 
cuftoms ;  which  is,  that  a  man  purchafed  a  woman 
to  be  his  wife,  as  one  purchafes  an  ox  or  a  fheep 
to  be  food.  Women  by  marriage  became  flaves  ^ 
and  no  man  will  give  his  daughter  to  be  a  flave, 
but  for  a  valuable  confideration.  The  practice 
was  univerfal.  I  begin  with  the  Jews.  Abraham 
bought  Rebekah,  and  gave  her  to  his  fon  Ifaac  for 

a 


<( 

if, 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  427 

a  wife  *.  Jacob,  having  nothing  elfe  to  give,  fer- 
ved  Laban  fourteen  years  for  two  wives  f.  Sechem 
demanding  in  marriage  Dinah,  Jacob's  daughter, 
faid,  "  Afk  me  never  fo  much  dowry  and  gift,  and 

I  will  give  according  as  ye  (hall  fay  unto  me : 

but  give  me  the  damfel  to  wife  £."     To  David 
demanding  Saul's  daughter  in  marriage,  Saul  faid, 
"  The  king  deiireth  not  any  dowry,  but  an  hun- 
"  dred   forefkins  of  the   Philiflines  §."     In   the 
Iliad,  Agamemnon  offers  his  daughter  to  Achilles 
for  a  wife  ;  and  fays,  that  he  would  not  demand 
for  her  any  price.     Paufanias  reports  of  Danaus, 
that  no   fuitors  appearing  to  demand   any  of  his 
daughters,  he  publifhed,  that  he  would  give  them 
without  dowry.    In  Homer,  there  is  frequent  men- 
tion of  nuptial  gifts  from  a   bridegroom   to  his 
bride's  father.     From  terming   them  gifts,  it  is 
probable  that  the  former  method  of  purchafe  was 
beginning  to  wear  out.     It  wore  out  before  the 
time  of  Ariftotle  ;  who  infers,  that  their  forefa- 
thers muft  have  been  a  very  rude  people.     The 
ancient    Spaniards   purchafed   their    wives.     We 
have  the  authority  of  Herodotus  and  of  Heraclides 
Ponticus,  that  the  Thracians  followed  the  fame 
practice.     The  latter  adds,  that  if  a  wife  was  ill 
treated,  her  relations  could  demand  her  back,  up- 
on repaying  the  price  they  got  for  her.   In  the  Ro- 
man law  mention  is  made  of  matrimony  per  <es  et 
VOL.  I.  D  d  libram, 

*  Genefis,  xxiv.  53.  f  Genefis,  chap,  xxix. 

J  Genefis,  xxxiv.  12.  §  i  Samuel,  xviii.  25, 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

libram,  which  was  folemnized  by  laying  down  a 
quantity  of  brafs  with  a  balance  for  weighing  it, 
underftood  to  be  the  price  paid  for  the  bride. 
This  muft  have  been  once  a  reality  \  though  it 
funk  down  to  be  a  mere  ceremony,  after  it  be- 
came cuftomary  for  a  Roman  bride  to  bring  a 
dowry  with  her.  The  Babylonians  and  the  Afiy- 
rians,  at  ftated  times,  collected  all  the  marriageable 
young  women,  and  difpofed  of  them  by  auction. 
Rubruguis,  in  his  voyage  to  Tartary  anno  1253, 
reports,  that  there  every  man  bought  his  wife. 
"  They  believev  he  adds,  that  their  wives  ferve 
"  them  in  another  world  as  they  do  in  this  ;  for 
"  which  reafon,  a  widow  has  no  chance  for  a  fe- 
"  cond  hufband,  whom  me  cannot  ferve  in  the 
"  other  world."  Olaus  Magnus,  remarking  that 
among  the  ancient  Goths  no  dower  was  provided 
on  the  bride's  part,  gives  a  reafon,  better  fuited 
perhaps  to  the  time  he  lived  in,  than  to  what  he 
defcribes.  "  Apud  Gothos,  non  mulier  viro  fed 
"  vir  mulieri  dotem  aflignat ;  ne  conjux,  ob  mag- 
"  nitudinem  dotis  infolefcens,  aliquando  ex  pla- 
"  cida  conforte  proterva  evadet,  atque  in  ma- 
"  ritum  dominari  contendat*  ;"  as  if  the  hazard 
of  petulance  in  a  wife  would  hinder  a  man  to  ac- 
cept a  dower  with  her  : — a  fad  doctrine  for  an  hei- 
refs.  There  is  preferved  in  the  abbey  of  St  Peter 

a 

*  "  Among  the  Goths,  a  man  gave  a  dowry  for  his  bride, 
**  inftead  of  receiving  one  with  her  ;  to  prevent  pride  and  in- 
"  folence,  that  commonly  accompany  riches  on  the  woman's 
"  part." 


sic.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  429 

a  charter,  judged  to  be  700  years  old,  in  which  the 
Countefs  of  Amiens  gifts  to  the  faid  Abbey  land  (he 
received  from  her  hufband  at  their  marriage,  "  ac- 
"  cording  to  the  Salic  law,"  fays  fhe,  "  obliging 
"  the  hufband  to  give  a  dowry  to  his  wife."     By 
the  laws  of  King  Ethelbert,  feel.  32*  a  man  who 
committed  adultery  with  his  neighbour's  wife,  was 
obliged  to  pay  him  a  fine,  and  to  buy  him  another 
wife.     Giraldus  Cambrenfis,  in  his  defcription  of 
Wales,  fays,  that  formerly  they  hardly  ever  mar- 
ried without  a  prior  cohabitation ;  it  having  been 
cuftomary  for  parents  to  let  out  their  daughters  to 
^oung  men  upon  trial,  for  a  fum  of  money  told 
down,  and  under  a  penalty  if  the  girls  were  return- 
ed.    This  I  believe  to  be  a  miftake.     It  is  more 
probable,  that  in  Wales  men  purchafed  their  wives, 
as  was  done  all  the  world  over,  with  liberty  to  re- 
turn them   if  they  proved  not   agreeable.     The 
bride's  parents  retained  the  dowry,  and  her  chance 
for  a  hufband  was  as  good  as  ever. 

The  fame  cuftom  continues  among  barbarous 
nations.     It  continues  among  the  Tartars,  amon^ 
the  Mingrelians,  among  the  Samojdes,  among  the. 
Oftiacs,  among  the  people  of  Pegu,  and  of  the  Mo- 
lucca iflands.     In   the  ifland  of  Sumatra,  a  man 
purchafes  his  wives.    He  may  return  a  wife  to  her 
relations ;  but  they  keep  the  purchafe- money.     If 
a  woman  diflike  her  hufband,  fhe  or  her  relations 
mud  pay  to  him  double  the  purchafe  money.     In 
Timor,  an  Eaft-Indian  iflund,  men  fell  evea  their 

D  d  2  children 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.          [fc.  f* 

children  to  purchafe  more  wives.  The  Prince  of 
Circaffia  demanded  from  the  Prince  of  Mingrelia, 
who  was  in  fuit  of  his  daughter,  a  hundred  flaves 
loaded  with  tapeftry  and  other  houfehold-furni- 
ture,  a  hundred  cows,  as  many  oxen,  and  as  many 
horfes.  We  have  evidence  of  the  fame  cuftqm  in 
Africa,  particularly  in  Biledulgerid,  among  the  Ne- 
groes on  the  fea-coaft,  and  in  Monomotapa.  Among 
the  Caribbees,  there  is  one  inftance  where  a  man 
gets  a  wife  without  paying  for  her.  After  a  fuccefs- 
ful  war,  the  vidlors  are  entertained  at  a  feaft,  where 
the  General  harangues  on  the  valour  of  the  young 
men  who  made  the  beft  figure.  Every  man  who  has 
marriageable  daughters,  is  fond  to  offer  them  to 
fuch  young  men  without  any  price.  The  purcha- 
iing  of  wives  is  univerfal  among  the  wild  Arabs, 
When  the  bargain  is  concluded,  the  bridegroom  is 
permitted  to  vifit  the  bride :  if  me  anfwer  not  his 
expectations,  he  may  turn  her  off;  but  has  no  claim 
for  the  price  he  paid.  In  Arabia,  fays  Niebuhr,  a 
young  married  woman  fufpeded  of  not  being  a 
virgin,  is  fent  back  to  her  father,  who  muft  reftore 
the  price  that  was  paid  for  her.  The  inland  Ne- 
groes are  more  polilhed  than  thofe  on  the  coafl ; 
and  there  is  fcarce  any  remains  among  them  of 
purchafing  wives :  the  bridegroom  makes  prefents 
to  his  bride,  and  her  father  makes  prefents  to  him. 
There  are  remaining  traces  in  Ruflia  of  purchafing 
wives.  Even  fo  late  as  the  time  of  Peter  I.  Ruf- 
iians  married  without  feeing  each  other  ;  and  be- 
fore 


S'K.  6.]  FEMALE    SEX.  43! 

fore  folemnization,  the  bride  received  from  the 
bridegroom  a  prefent  of  fweatmeats,  foap,  and  other 
little  things. 

The  purchafing  of  wives  made  it  a  lawful  prac- 
tice, to  lend  a  wife  as  one  does  a  Have.  The  Spar- 
tans lent  thei*  wives  to  their  friends  ;  and  Cato  the 
elder  is  faid  to  have  done  the  fame.  The  Indians 
of  Calicut  frequently  exchange  wives. 

If  brutifh  manners  alone  be  fufficient  to  degrade 
the  female  fex,  they  may  reckon  upon  harm  treat- 
ment when  purchafed  to  be  Haves.  The  Giagas,  a 
fierce  and  wandering  nation  in  the  central  parts  of 
Africa,  being  fupinely  idle  at  home,  fubjecl:  their 
wives  and  their  Haves  to  every  fort  of  drudgery, 
fuch  as  digging,  fowing,  reaping,  cutting  wood, 
grinding  corn,  fetching  water,  &c.  Thefe  poor 
creatures  are  fuffered  to  toil  in  the  fields  and 
-woods,  ready  to  faint  with  exceffive  labour ;  while 
the  monfters  of  men  will  not  give  themfelves  the 
trouble  even  of  training  animals  for  work,  though 
they  have  the  example  of  the  Portuguefe  before 
their  eyes.  It  is  the  bufinefs  of  the  women  among 
the  wandering  Arabs  of  Africa,  to  card,  fpin,  and 
weave,  and  to  manage  other  houfehold  affairs. 
They  milk  the  cattle,  grind,  bake,  brew,  drefs  the 
victuals,  and  bring  home  wood  and  water.  They 
even  take  care  of  their  hufband's  horfes,  feed,  cur- 
ry, comb,  bridle,  and  faddle  them.  They  would 
alfo  be  obliged,  like  Moorim  wives,  to  dig,  fow, 
and  reap  their  corn;  but  luckily  for  them  the 

D  d  3  Arabs 


432  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

Arabs  live  entirely  upon  plunder.  Father  Jofeph 
Gumilla,  in  his  account  of  a  country  in  South 
America,  bordering  upon  the  great  river  Oroono- 
ko,  defcribes  pathetically  the  miferable  flavery  of 
married  women  there  ;  and  mentions  a  practice, 
that  would  appear  incredible  to  one  -unacquainted 
with  that  country,  which  is,  that  married  women 
frequently  deftroy  their  female  infants.  A  mar- 
ried woman,  of  a  virtuous  character  and  good  un- 
derftanding,  having  been  guilty  of  that  crime,  was 
reproached  by  our  author  in  bitter  terms.  She 
heard  him  patiently  with  eyes  fixed  on  the  ground  ; 
and  anfwered  as  follows  :  "  I  wim  to  God,  Fa- 
"  ther,  I  wim  to  God,  that  my  mother  had  by  my 
"  death  prevented  the  manifold  diftreffes  I  have 
"  endured,  and  have  yet  to  endure  as  long  as  I  live. 
"  Had  me  kindly  ftifled  me  at  birth,  I  had  not  felt 
"  the  pain  of  death,  nor  numberlefs  other  pains  that 
"  life  hath  fubjected  me  to.  Confider,  Father,  our 
deplorable  condition.  Our  hulbands  go  to  hunt 
with  their  bows  and  arrows,  and  trouble  them- 
felves  no  farther.  We  are  dragged  along,  with  one 
"  infant  at  the  bread,  and  another  in  a  bafket, 
f1  They  return  in  the  evening  without  any  burden^ 
"  we  return  with  the  burden  of  our  children  ;  and, 
"  though  tired  with  a  long  march,  are  not  per- 
"  mitted  to  fleep,  but  muil  labour  the  whole 
"  night,  in  grinding  maize  to  make  chica  for 
"  them.  They  get  drunk,  and  in  their  drunken- 
"  nefs  beat  us,  draw  us  by  the  hair  of  the  head, 

"  and 


u 
It 
ft 


(6 
it 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  433 

"  and  tread  us  under  foot.  And  what  have  we  to 
"  comfort  us  for  flavery  that  has  no  end  ?  A  young 
"  wife  is  brought  in  upon  us,  who  is  permitted  to 
"  abufe  us  and  our  children,  becaufe  we  are  no 
"  longer  regarded.  Can  human  nature  endure 
"  fuch  tyranny  !  What  kindnefs  can  we  fhow  to 
our  female  children  equal  to  that  of  relieving 
them  from  fuch  oppreffion,  more  bitter  a  thou- 
"  fand  times  than  death  ?  I  fay  again,  would  to 
"  God  that  my  mother  had  put  me  under  ground 
"  the  moment  I  was  born."  One  would  readily 
imagine,  that  the  women  of  that  country  fhould 
have  the  greatefl  abhorrence  at  matrimony  :  but 
all-prevailing  nature  determines  the  contrary  ;  and 
the  appetite  for  matrimony  overbalances  every  ra- 
tional confideration. 

Nations  polifh  by  degrees  ;  and,  from  the  loweft 
ftate  to  which  a  human  creature  can  be  reduced, 
women  were  reftored  to  their  native  dignity.  At- 
tention to  drefs  is  the  firft  fymptom  of  the  progrefs. 
Male  favages,  even  of  the  grofTeft  kind,  are  fond  of 
drefs.  Charlevoix  mentions  a  young  American 
hired  as  a  rower,  who  adjufted  his  drefs  with  care 
before  he  entered  the  boat  ;  and  at  intervals 
infpedled  his  looking-glafs,  to  fee  whether  vio- 
lence of  motion  had  not  difcompofed  the  red  upon 
his  cheeks.  We  read  not  of  paffion  for  drefs  in 
females  of  fuch  favage  nations  :  they  are  too  much 
difpirited  to  think  of  being  agreeable.  Among 
nations  in  any  degree  humanized,  a  different  fcene 

JP  d  4  opens. 


434  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

opens.     In  the  ifthmus  of  Darien,  government  has 
made  fome  progrefs,  and  a  chieftain  is  eledled  for 
life :  a  glimmering  of  civility  appears  among  the 
inhabitants  ;  and  as  fome  regard  is  paid  to  women, 
they  rival  the  men  in   drefs.      Both  fexes  wear 
rings  in   their  ea»s  and  nofes ;  and   are   adorned 
with  many  rows  of  fhells  hanging  from  the  neck. 
A  female  in  a  fultry  climate  fubmits  to  fry  all  day 
long,  under  a  load  of  twenty  or  thirty  pounds  of 
{hells  ;  ai.d  a  male  under  double  that  load.     Well 
may  they  exclaim  with  Alexander,  "  Oh  Athe- 
"  nians  !   what  do   I  not  endure  to  gain  your  ap- 
"  probation  !r     The  female  Caribbeans  and  Brali- 
lians,  are  no  lefs  fond  of  ornament  than  the  males. 
Hottentot  ladies  ftrive  to  outdo  each  other  in  a- 
dorning  their  croffes,  and  the  bag  that  holds  their 
pipe  and  tobacco  :  European  ladies  are  not  more 
vain  of  their  filks  and  embroideries.     Women  in 
Lapland  are  much  addi&ed  to  finery.     They  wear 
broad  girdles,  upon  which  hang  chains  and  rings 
without  end,  commonly  made  of  tin,  fometimes  of 
lilver,    weighing   perhaps   twenty   pounds.      The 
Greenlanders  are  nafty  and  flovenly,  eat  with  their 
dogs,  make  food  of  the  vermin  that  make  food  of 
them,  feldom  or  never  wafh  themfelves  ;  and  yet 
the  women,  who  make  fome  figure  among  the  men, 
are  gaudy  in  their  drefs.     Their  cheif  ornaments 
are  pendants  at.  their  ears,  with  glafs  beads  of  va- 
rious colours  ;  and  they  draw  lines'  with  a  needle 
and  black  thread  between  their  eyes,  crofs  the  fore- 
head, 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  435 

head,  upon  the  chin,  hands,  and  legs.  The  Ne- 
groes of  the  kingdom  of  Ardrah  in  Guinea  have 
made  a  confiderable  progrefs  in  police,  and  in  the 
art  of  living.  Their  women  carry  drefs  and  finery 
to  an  extravagance.  They  are  cloathed  with  loads 
of  the  fineft  fatins  and  chintzes,  and  are  adorned 
with  a  profuiion  of  gold.  In  a  fultry  climate,  they 
gratify  vanity  at  the  expence  of  eafe.  Among  the 
inland  Negroes,  who  are  more  polifhed  than  thofe 
on  the  fea-coaft,  the  women,  befide  domeftic  con- 
cerns, fow,  plant,  and  reap.  A  man  however  fuf- 
fers  in  the  efteem  of  his  neighbours,  if  he  permit 
his  wives  to  toil  like  flaves,  while  he  is  indulging 
in  eafe. 

From  that  aufpicious  commencement,  the  female 
fex  have  rifen,  in  a  flow  but  fteady  progrefs,  to 
higher  and  higher  degrees  of  eftimation.  Con- 
verfation  is  their  talent,  and  a  difplay  of  delicate 
fentiments  :  the  gentlenefs  of  their  manners  and 
winning  behaviour,  captivate  every  fenfible  heart. 
Of  fuch  refinements,  favages  have  little  conception  : 
but,  when  the  more  delicate  fenfes  are  unfolded, 
the  peculiar  beauties  of  the  female  fex,  internal  as 
well  as  external,  are  brought  into  full  ligjit ;  and 
women,  formerly  coniulered  as  .qbjedts  of  animal  love 
merely,  are  now  valued  as  faithful  friends  and  a- 
greeable  companions.  Matrimony  afiumes  a  more 
decent  form,  being  the  union,  not  of  a  matter  and 
flave,  but  of  two  perfons  equal  in  rank  uniting  to 
form  a  family.  And  it  contributed  greatly  to  this 

delicious 


436  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

delicious  refinement,  that  in  temperate  climes  a- 
nimal  love  is  moderate,  and  women  long  retain  good 
looks,  and  power  of  procreation.  Thus  marriage 
became  honourable  among  poliftied  nations :  which 
banifhed  the  barbarous  cuftom  of  purchaiing 
wives ;  for  a  man  who  wifhes  to  have  his  daughter 
advantageoufly  matched,  will  gladly  give  a  dowry 
with  her. 

Polygamy  is  intimately  connected  with  the  cuf- 
tom of  purchaiing  wives.     There  is  no  limitation 
in  purchaiing  Haves :  nor  has  a  woman  purchafed 
as  a  wife  or  a  Have,   any  juft  caufe  for  complain- 
ing  that  others   are   purchafed   as  fhe   was :    on 
the  contrary,    addition  of  hands  for  performing 
the   fervile  offices   of  the  family,   is  fome  relief 
to  her.     Polygamy  accordingly  has  always  been 
permitted,    where    men    pay    for    their    wives. 
The  Jews  purchafed  their  wives,  and  were  indul- 
ged in  polygamy  #.     Diodorus  Siculus  fays,  that 
polygamy   was    permitted    in   Egypt,    except   to 
prieftsf.     This  probably  was  the  cafe  originally  ; 
but  when  the  Egyptian  manners  came  to  be  po- 
lifhed,  a  man  gave  a  dowry  with  his  daughter,  in- 
ftead  of  receiving  a  price  for  her ;   witnefs  Solo- 
mon, who  got  the  city  of  Gazer  in  dowry  with  the 
King  of  Egypt's  daughter.     When  that  cuftom 
became  univerfal,  we  may  be  certain  that  it  put 
an  end  to  polygamy.    And  accordingly  Herodotus 
affirms,  that  polygamy  was  prohibited  in  Egypt  J. 

Polygamy 

*  Leviticus,  xviii.  18.  f  Lib.  i.  J  Lib.  2.  §  92. 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  437 

Polygamy  undoubtedly  prevailed  in  Greece  and 
Rome,  while  it  was  cuftomary  to  purchafe  wives ; 
but  improved  manners  put  an  end  to  the  latter, 
and  confequently  to  the  former.  Polygamy,  to 
this  day,  obtains  in  the  cold  country  of  Kamikat- 
ka,  and  in  the  ftill  colder  country  round  Hudfon's 
Bay.  In  the  land  of  Jeflb,  near  Japan,  a  man  may 
have  two  wives,  who  perform  every  fort  of  domef- 
tic  drudgery.  The  Negroes,  in  general,  purchafe 
their  wives,  and  indulge  in  polygamy  :  and  this  is 
alfo  law  in  Monomotapa.  Polygamy,  and  the 
purchafing  wives,  were  cuftomary  among  the  ori- 
ginal inhabitants  of  the  Canary  Iflands,  and  among 
the  people  of  Chili.  , 

The  low  condition  of  women  among  barbarians, 
introduced  the  purchafing  them  for  wives,  and 
confequently  polygamy.  The  juft  refpect  paid  to 
them  among  civilized  nations,  reftored  the  law  of 
nature,  and  confined  a  man  to  one  wife.  Their 
equality  as  to  rank  and  dignity,  bars  the  man 
from  taking  another  wife,  as  it  bars  the  woman 
from  taking  another  hufband.  We  find  traces  in 
ancient  hiftory  of  polygamy  wearing  out  gradual- 
ly. It  wore  out  in  Greece  as  manners  refined  ; 
but  fuch  was  the  influence  of  long  habit,  that 
though  a  man  was  confined  to  one  wife,  he  was 
indulged  in  concubines  without  limitation.  In 
Germany,  when  Tacitus  wrote,  very  few  traces  re- 
jnained  of  polygamy.  4<  Severa  iilic  matrimonia, 

"  ne^c 


ti 
(I 
tc. 
tt 


43$  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi,  I. 

"  nec  ullam  morum  partem  magis  laudaveris : 
nam  prope  foli  barbarorum  fingulis  uxoribus 
content!  funt,  exceptis  admodum  paucis,  qui 
non  libidine,  fed  ob  nobilitatem,  plurimis  nup- 
tiis  ambiuntur  *.v  As  polygamy  was  in  that 
country  little  praclifed,  we  may  be  certain  the 
purchafing  wives  did  not  remain  in  vigour.  And 
Tacitus  accordingly,  mentioning  the  general  rule, 
"  dotem  non  uxor  marito,  fed  uxori  maritus  of- 
"  fertf,"  explains  it  away  by  obferving,  that  the 
only  dos  given  by  the  bridegroom  were  marriage- 
prefents,  and  that  he  at  the  fame  time  received 
marriage-prefents  on  the  bride's  part  f.  The 
equality  of  the  matrimonial  engagement  for  the 
mutual  benefit  of  hufband  and  wife,  was  well  un- 
derftood  among  the  Gauls.  Caefar  fays,  "  Viri 
"  quantas  pecunias  ab  uxoribus  dotis  nomine  ac- 
"  ceperunt,  tantas  ex  fuis  bonis,  aeftimatione  facia, 
cum  dotibus  communicant.  Hujus  omnis  pe- 
cuniar conjundlim  ratio  habetur,  frudtusque  fer- 
**  vantur.  Uter  eorum  vita  fuperarit,  ad  eum  pars 
"  utriufque  cum  fruclibus  fuperiorum  temper um 

"  pervenit.'; 

*  "  Marriage  is  there  rigidly  refpecled ;  nor  is  there  any 
"  part  of  their  morality  more  laudable  :  for  they  are  almoft 
"  the  only  race  of  barbarians  who  are  contented  with  a  fmgle 
"  wife  ;  a  very  few  excepted,  who,  not  from  incontinency,  but 
tc  from  an  ambition  of  nobility,  take  more  wives  than  one." 

•f  te  The  hufband  gives  a  dowry  to  the  wife,  but  the  wife 
*'  brings  none  to  the  hufband." 

De  moribus  Germanorum,  cap.  18. 


it 

tt 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  439 

"  pervenit  *."  In  Japan,  and  in  Nicaragua,  a 
man  can  have  but  one  wife ;  but  he  may  have 
many  concubines.  In  Siam,  polygamy  is  Hill  per- 
mitted, though  the  bride  brings  a  dowry  with 
her :  but  that  abfurdity  is  corrected  by  refined 
manners  ;  it  being  held  improper,  and  even  dif- 
graceful,  to  have  more  than  one  wife.  The  pur- 
chaling  wives  wore  out  of  falhion  among  the  an- 
cient Tufcans ;  for  it  was  held  infamous,  that  mar- 
riage fhould  be  the  refult  of  any  motive  but  mu- 
tual love.  This  at  the  fame  time  put  an  end  to 
polygamy.  Polygamy  was  probably  early  eradi- 
cated among  the  ancient  Periians ;  for  the  bride's 
dowry  was  fettled  in  marriage-articles,  as  among 
us.  And  there  is  the  fame  reafon  for  prefuming, 
that  it  was  not  long  permitted  in  Mexico  ;  mar- 
riage there  being  folemnized  by  the  prieft,  and 
the  bride's  dower  fpecified,  which  was  reftored  in 
cafe  of  feparation.  In  the  countries  where  the 
Chriftian  religion  was  firft  propagated,  women 
were  fail  advancing  to  an  equality  with  the  men, 
and  polygamy  was  wearing  out  of  fafhion.  The 
pure  fpirit  of  the  Gofpel  battened  its  extinction  ; 
and,  though  not  prohibited  exprefsly,  it  was  how- 
ever 

*  "  Whatever  fum  the  hufband  has  received  as  his  wife's 
41  -portion,  he  joins  as  much  of  his  own  effects.  An  account 
«  is  kept  of  this  joint  flock,  and  the  fruits  of  it  are  preferred. 
"  Upon  the  death  of  either,  the  furviving  fpoufe  has  the  pro- 
«  perty  of  both  fhares,  with  the  fruits  or  profits." — Lib.  6. 
cap.  19.  De  bello  Gallico. 


44^  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

ever  held,  that  Chriftianity  is  a  religion  too  pure 
for  polygamy. 

But,  as  hinted  above,  it  was  by  flow  degrees 
that  the  female  fex  emerged  out  of  flavery,  to  pof- 
fefs  the  elevated  (lation  they  are  entitled  to  by 
nature.  The  practice  of  expofing  infants  among 
the  Greeks  and  many  other  nations,  is  an  invin- 
cible proof  of  their  depreflion,  even  after  the  cu- 
ftom  ceafed  of  purchafing  them.  It  is  wifely  order- 
ed by  Providence,  that  the  affection  of  a  woman  to 
her  children  commences  with  their  birth  ;  becaufe, 
during  infancy,  all  depends  on  her  care.  As  du- 
ring that  period,  the  father  is  of  little  ufe  to  his 
child,  his  affection  is  but  flight,  till  the  child  be- 
gin to  prattle  and  mew  fome  fondnefs  for  him, 
The  expofing  an  infant  therefore  fhewi,  that  the 
mother  was  little  regarded  :  if  (he  had  been  al- 
lowed a  vote,  the  practice  never  would  have  ob- 
tained in  any  country.  In  the  firft  book  of  the 
Iliad,  Achilles  fays  to  Agamemnon,  who  threaten- 
ed to  force  from  him  his  miftrefs  Brifeis,  "  An- 
"  other  thing  I  will  tell  thee :  record  it  in  thy 
"  foul.  For  a  woman  thefe  hands  mail  never 
"  fight,  with  thee  nor  with  thy  foes.  Come,  feize 
*'  Brifeis :  ye  Argives,  take  the  prize  ye  gave. 
"  But  beware  of  otfrer  fpoil,  which  lies  flowed  in 
"  my  Ihips  on  the  more.  I  will  not  be  plundered 
"  farther.  If  other  be  thy  thoughts,  Atrides, 
"  come  in  arms,  a  trial  make  :  thefe  very  flaves  of 
"  thine  mail  behold  thy  blood  pouring  around 

"  my 


V 

SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  44! 

"  myfpear*."  The  comedies  of  Menander,  Phi- 
lemon, and  Diphilus,  are  loft ;  but  manners  muft 
have  been  little  polifhed  in  their  time,  as  far  as 
can  be  conjectured  from  their  tranflators  or  imi- 
tators, Plautus  and  Terence.  Married  women  in 
their  comedies  are  fometimes  introduced  and  treat- 
ed with  very  little  refpedl.  A  man  commonly 
vents  his  wrath  on  his  wife,  and  fcolds  her  as  the 
caufe  of  the  mifcondu6l  of  their  children.  A  lady, 
perhaps  too  inquifitive  about  her  hufband's  amours, 
is  addreffed  by  him  in  the  following  words : 

"  Ni  mala,  ni  ftulta  fis,  ni  indomita  imposque  anim?, 
"  Quod  viro  efle  odio  videas,  tute  tibi  odia  habeas. 

"  Prster 

*  Pope  difguifes  that  fentiment  as  follows : 

*'*  Seize  on  Brifeis,  whom  the  Grecians  doom'd 

"  My  prize  of  war,  yet  tamely  fee  refumed ; 

"  And  feize  fecure ;  no  more  Achilles  draws 

"  His  conquering  fword  in  any  woman's  caufe. 

"  The  gods  command  me  to  forgive  the  paft  j 

"  But  let  this  firft  invafion  be  the  laft  : 

"  For  know,  thy  blood,  when  next  thou  dar'ft  invade, 

"  Shall  flream  in  vengeance  on  my  reeking  blade." 

*v 

Such  contempt  of  the  female  fex  as  exprefled  by  Achilles  was 
perhaps  thought  too  grofs  for  a  modern  ear.  But  did  not 
Pope  difcover,  that  one  capital  beauty  in  Homer,  is  the  deli- 
neation of  ancient  manners  ?  At  that  rate,  had  it  fallen  to  his 
{hare  to  defcribe  Julius  Caefar,  he  would  have  drefTed  him  like 
a  modem  beau.  And  why  not  ?  for  in  a  genteel  aflembly, 
what  a  favage  would  he  appear,  without  breeches,  aad  with-, 
out  linen ! 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

"  Praeter  hac  fi  mihi  tale  poft  hunc  diem 
"  Faxis,  faxo  foris  vidua  vifas  patrem  *." 

So  little  formerly  were  women  regarded  in  Eng- 
land, that  the  benefit  of  clergy  was  not  extended 
to  them,  till  the  days  of  William  and  Mary,  when 
an  acl  of  parliament  was  made,  bellowing  that 
privilege  on  them. 

One  will  not  be  furprifed  that  women  in  Greece 
were  treated  with  no  great  refpecl:  by  their  huf- 
bands.  A  woman  cannot  have  much  attraction 
who  pafles  all  her  time  in  folitude :  to  be  admired, 
{he  mufl  receive  the  polifh  of  fociety.  At  the  fame 
time,  men  of  fafhion  were  fo  much  improved  in 
manners,  as  to  relifh  fociety  with  agreeable  wo- 
men, where  fuch  could  be  found.  And  hence  the 

i 

figure  that  courtezans  made  at  that  period,  efpe- 
cially  in  Athens.  They  ftudied  the  temper  and 
taile  of  the  men,  and  endeavoured  to  gain  their  af- 
fe&ion,  by  every  winning  art.  The  daily  conver- 

fations  they  liftened  to,  on  philofophy,   politics, 

\ 

poetry,  enlightened  their  underftanding,  and  im- 
proved their  taile.  Their  houfes  became  agreeable 
fchools,  where  every  one  might  be  inftru6led  in  his 

owrv 

*  "  Would  you  be  held  a  wife  and  virtuous  fpoufe, 
*'  And  of  difcretion  due,  obferve  this  counfel : 
"Whatever  I,  your  lord,  blame  or  approve, 
"  Still  let  your  praife  or  cenfure  be  the  fame. 

«*  But  harkee, be  this  reprimand  the  laft : 

"  If  you  again  offend,  no  more  a  wife 

"  Within  thefe  walls  j — your  father  has  you  back." 


3KL.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  443 

own  art.  Socrates  and  Pericles  met  frequently  at 
the  houfe  of  Afpafia  :  from  her  they  acquired  de- 
licacy of  tafte,  and,  in  return,  procured  to  her  pu- 
blic refpecT:  and  reputation.  Greece  at  that  time 
was  governed  by  orators,  over  whom  fome  cele- 
brated courtezans  had  great  influence ;  and  by  that 
means  entered  deep  into  the  government.  It  was 
faid  of  the  famous  Demofthenes,  "  The  meafure 
"  he  hath  meditated  on  for  a  year,  will  be  over- 
"  turned  in  a  day  by  a  woman."  It  appears  ac- 
^ordingly  from  Plautus  and  Terence,  that  Athe- 
nian courtezans  lived  in  great  fplendor.  See  in 
particular  Heautontimoroumenos,  Ac~l  3.  Scene  2. 

I  proceed  to  the  other  caufe  of  polygamy,  viz. 
opulence  in  a  hot  climate.  Men  there  have  a  burn- 
ing appetite  for  animal  enjoyment ;  and  women 
become  old,  and  lofe  the  prolific  quality,  at  an 
age  which  carries  them  little  beyond  the  prime  of 
life  in  a  temperate  climate.  Thefe  circumftances 
difpofe  men  of  opulence  to  purchale  their  wives, 
triat  they  may  not  be  confined  to  one ;  and  purchafe 
they  muft ;  for  no  man,  without  a  valuable  con- 
iideration,  will  furrender  his  daughter,  to  be  one 
of  many  who  are  deftined  to  gratify  the  carnal  ap- 
petite of  a  Jingle  man.  The  numerous  wives  and 
concubines  in  Aiiatic  harems,  are  all  of  them  pur- 
chafed  with  money.  In  the  hot  climate  of  Hin- 
cjoftan  polygamy  is  univerfal,  and  men  buy  theij? 
wives.  The  fame  obtains  in  China  :  After  the 
price  is  adjufted  and  paid,  the  bride  is  conducted 
VOL.  I.  E  e  to 


444  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OT  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

to  the  bridegroom's  houfe,  locked  in  a  fedan,  and 
the  key  delivered  to  him :  If  he  be  not  fatisfied 
with  his  bargain,  he  fends  her  back,  at  the  expence 
of  lofing  the  fum  he  paid  for  her  :  If  fatisfied,  he 
feafts  his  male  friends  in  one  room,  and  me  her 
female  friends  in  another.  A  man  who  has  little 
fubftance  takes  a  wife  for  his  fon  from  an  hofpital, 
which  faves  him  a  dowry. 

It  has  been  pleaded  for  polygamy  in  warm  cli- 
mates, that  women  are  fit  for  being  married  at  or 
before  the  age  of  ten ;  that  they  are  pail  child- 
bearing  at  twenty-five,  while  men  are  yet  in  the 
prime  of  life  ;  and  therefore  that  a  fecond  wife 
ought  to  be  permitted  who  can  bear  children.  Are 
women  then  created  for  no  other  purpofe  but  pro- 
creation merely,  to  be  laid  afide  as  ufelefs  animals 
when  they  ceafe  to  bear  children  ?  In  the  hotter! 
climates,  a  woman  may  be  the  mother  of  ten  or 
twelve  children ',  and  are  not  both  parents  ufefully 
employed,  in  rearing  fuch  a  number,  and  fitting 
them  to  do  for  themfelves  ?  After  this  important 
talk  is  performed,  is  not  the  woman  well  entitled, 
for  the  remainder  of  life,  to  enjoy  the  conjugal 
fociety  of  a  man,  to  whom  me  dedicated  the  flower 
of  her  youth  ?  But,  even  attending  to  the  male 
fex  only,  without  paying  any  regard  to  the  other' 
fex,  it  ought  to  be  confidered,  that  a  man,  by  ta- 
king a  fecond  wife,  prevents  fome  other  man  from 
having  any.  The  argument  for  polygamy  would 
indeed  be  conclufive,  were  ten  females  born  for 

one 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  445 

one  male,  as  is  erroneoufly  faid  to  be  the  cafe  in 
Bantam  :  But,  as  an  equality  of  males  and  females 
is  the  invariable  rule  of  Nature,  the  argument  has 
no  force.  All  men  are  born  equal  by  Nature  ; 
and  to  permit  polygamy  in  any  degree,  is  to  au- 
thorife  fome  to  ufurp  the  privilege  of  others. 

Thus,  in  hot  climates,  women  remain  in  the  fame 
humble  and  dependent  ftate,  in  which  all  women 
were  originally,  when  all  men  were  favages.  As 
polygamy  is  a  forced  ftate,  contradictory  to  nature, 
locks  and  bars  are  the  only  fure  means  for  reftrain- 
ing  a  number  of  women  confined  to  one  hufband. 
When  the  King  of  Perfia,  with  his  wives,  removes 
from  Ifpachan  to  any  of  his  villas,  the  hour  of  his 
departure,  and  the  ftreet  through  which  he  is  to 
pafs,  are  proclaimed  three  days  before,  in  order 
that  every  man  may  keep  out  of  the  way.  Wo- 
men, by  the  law  of  Hindoflan,  are  not  admitted  to 
be  witnefTes,  even  in  a  civil  caufe  ;  and  I  blulh  to 
acknowledge,  that,  in  Scotland,  the  fame  law  has 
not  been  long  in  difufc. 

In  contradiction  to  the  climate,  Chriilianity  has 
banifhed  polygamy  from  Ethiopia,  though  the 
judges  arc  far  from  being  fevere  upon  that  crime. 
The  heat  of  the  climate  makes  them  wifh  to*in- 
dulge  in  a  plurality  of  wives,  even  at  the  expence 
of  purchafing  each  of  them.  Among  the  Chri- 
ftians  of  Congo,  polygamy  is  in  ufe,  as  formerly 
when  they  were  Pagans.  To  be  confined  to  one 
wife  during  life,  is  held  by  the  nioft  zealous  Chri- 

E  e  2  flians 


44^  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

ftians  there,  to  be  altogether  irrational :  Rather 
than  be  fo  confined,  they  would  renounce  Ghriftia- 
nity. 

Belide  polygamy,  many  other  cuftoms  depend 
on  the  nature  of  the  matrimonial  engagement,  and 
vary  according  to  its  different  kinds.  Marriage- 
ceremonies,  for  that  reafon,  vary  in  different  coun- 
tries, and  at  different  times,  Where  the  pradlice 
is  to  purchafe  a  wife,  whether  among  favages  or 
among  pampered  people  in  hot  climates,  pay- 
ment of  the  price  completes  the  marriage  without 
any  other  ceremony.  Other  ceremonies,  however, 
are  fometimes  practifed.  In  old  Rome,  the  bride 
was  attended  to  the  bridegroonVs  houfe  with  a  fe^ 
male  Have  carrying  a  dillaff  and  a  fpindle,  import- 
ing that  fhe  ought  to  fpin  for  the  family.  Among 
the  favages  of  Canada,  and  of  the  neighbouring 
countries,  a  flrap,  a  kettle,  and  a  faggot,  are  put 
in  the  bride's  cabin,  as  fymbols  of  her  duty,  viz. 
to  carry  burdens,  to  drefs  victuals,  and  to  provide 
wood.  On  the  other  hand,  the  bride,  in  token  of 
her  flavery,  takes  her  axe,  cuts  wood,  bundles  it 
up,  and  lays  it  before  the  dpor  of  the  bridegroom's 
hut.  All  the  falutation  fhe  receives  is,  "  It  is  time 
*'  to  go  to  reft.' -  The  inhabitants  of  Sierra  Leona, 
a  negro  country,  have  in  all  their  towns  a  board- 
ing-fchool,  Xvhere  young  ladies  are  educated  for  a 
year,  under  the  cafe  of  a  venerable  old  gentleman. 
When  their  education  i?  completed,  they  are  car- 
ried in  their  beft  attire  to  a  public  affembly  ;  which 

may 


SK.  6\]  FEMALE  SEX.  447 

may  be   termed  a  matrimonial   market,   becaufe 
there  young  men  convene  to  make  a  choice.  Thofe 
who  fit  themfelves  to  their  fancy,  pay  the  dowry ; 
and,  over  and  above,  gratify  the  old  fuperinten- 
dant  for  his  extraordinary  care  in  educating  the 
bride.     In  the  ifland  of  Java,  the  bride,  in  token 
of  fubjeclion,  wafhes  the  bridegroom's  feet ;  and 
this  is  a  capital  ceremony.     In  Ruffia,  the  bride 
prefents  to  the  bridegroom  a  bundle  of  rods,  to  be 
ufed  againft  her  when  Ihe  deferves  to  be  chaflifed ; 
and  at  the  fame  time  me  pulls  off  his  boots.     The 
prefent  Emprefs,  intent  upon  reforming  the  rude 
manners  of  her  fubje&s,  has  difcountenanced  that 
ceremony  among  people  of  fafhion.     Very  diffe- 
rent were  the  manners  of  Peru,  before  the  Spanifh 
conqueit.     The  bridegroom  carried  fhoes  to  the 
bride,  and  put  them  on  with  his  own  hands.     But 
there,  purchafing  of  wives  was  unknown.     Mar- 
riage-ceremonies in  Lapland  are  directed  by  the 
fame  principle.     It  is  the  cuftom  there  for  a  man 
to  make  prefents  to  his  children  of  rain-deer ;  and 
young  women,  fuch  as  have  a  large  llock  of  thefe 
animals,  have  lovers  in  plenty.     A  young  man 
looks  for  fuch  a  wife,  at  a  fair,  or  at  a  meeting  for 
paying   taxes.     He   carries  to  the  houfe   of  the 
young  woman's  parents,  fome  of  his  relations ; 
being  felicitous  in  particular  to  have  an  eloquent 
fpeaker.     They  are  all  admitted  except  the  lover, 
who  muft  wait  till  he  be  called  in.     After  drink- 
ing fome  fpirits,  brought  along  for  the  purpofe, 

E'e  3  the 


448  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  ['B.  I. 

the  fpokefman  addreffes  the  father  in  humble  terms, 
bowing  the  knee,  as  if  he  were  introduced  to  a 
prince.  He  flyles  him,  the  worlhipful  father,  the 
high  and  mighty  father,  the  bed  and  moft  illuf- 
trious  father,  &-c.  &c. 

In  viewing  the  chain  of  caufes  and  effects,  in- 
ftances  fometimes  occur  of  bizarre  facts,  Ilarting 
from  the 'chain  without  any  caufe  that  can  be  dif- 
covered.  The  marriage-ceremonies  among  the  Hot- 
tentots are  of  that  nature.  After  all  matters  are 
adjufted  among  the  old  people,  the  young  couple 
are  fliut  up  by  themfelves ;  and  pafs  the  night  in 
ftruggling  for  fuperiority,  which  proves  a  very  fe- 
rious  work  where  the  bride  is  reluctant.  If  me 
perfevere  to  the  laft  without  yielding,  the  young 
man  is  difcarded  ;  but,  if  he  prevail,  which  com- 
monly happens,  the  marriage  is  completed  by  ano- 
ther ceremony,  no  lefs  lingular.  The  men  and 
women  fquat  on  the  ground  in  different  circles; 
the  bridegroom  in  the  centre  of  one,  and  the  bride 
in  the  centre  of  another.  The  Suri,  or  mailer  of 
religious  ceremonies,  piffes  on  the  bridegroom  ; 
Who  receives  the  ftream  with  eagernefs,  and  rubs 
it  into  the  furrows  of  the  fat  with  which  he  is  co- 
vered. He  performs  the  fame  ceremony  on  the 
bride,  who  is  equally  refpectful.  The  ceremonies 
of  marriage  among  the  prefent  Greeks  are  no  lefs 
bizarre.  Among  other  particulars,  the  bridegroom 
and  bride  walk  three  rounds  ;  during  which  they 
are  kicked  and  cuffed  heartily.  Our  author  Tour- 

\ 

nefort 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  449 

nefort  adds,  that  he  only  and  his  companions  for- 
bore to  join  in  the  ceremony  ;  which  was  af- 
cribed  to  their  rufticity  and  ignorance  of  polite 
manners.  Marriage- ceremonies  among  the  Kam- 
ikatkans  are  extremely  whimfical.  A  young  man, 
after  making  his  propofals,  enters  into  the  fervice 
of  his  intended  father-in-law.  If  he  prove  agree- 
able, he  is  admitted  to  the  trial  of  the* touch.  The 
young  woman  is  Twaddled  up  in  leathern  thongs  ; 
and  in  that  condition  is  put  under  the  guard 
of  fome  old  women.  Watching  every  opportu- 
nity of  a  flack  guard,  he  endeavours  to  uncafe 
her,  in  order  to  touch  what  is  always  the  moft 
concealed.  The  bride  muft  refill,  in  appearance 
at  leaft ;  and  therefore  cries  out  for  her  guards  ; 
who  fall  with  fury  on  the  bridegroom,  tear  his 
hair,  fcratch  his  face,  and  act  in  violent  oppofition. 
The  attempts  of  the  lover  prove  fometimes  unfuc- 
cefsful  for  months  ;  but  the  moment  the  touch  is 
atchieved,  the  bride  teftifies  her  fatisfadion,  by 
pronouncing  the  words  Ni,  Ni,  with  a  foft  arid  lo- 
ving voice.  The  next  night  they  bed  together 
without  any  oppofition.  One  marriage-ceremony 
among  the  inland  Negroes,  is  fingular.  As  foon  as 
preliminaries  are  adjufted,  the  bridegroom,  with  a 
number  of  his  companions,  fet  out  at  night,  and 
furround  the  houfe  of  the  bride,  as  if  intending 
to  carry  her  off  by  force.  She  and  her  female  at- 
tendants, pretending  to  make  all  poffible  refiftance, 
cry  aloud  for  help,  but  no  perfon  appears.  This 

E  e  4  refembles 


45^        MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.         [#.  i, 

refembles  flrongly  a  marriage-ceremony  that  is 
or  was  cuftomary  in  Wales.  On  the  morning 
of  the  wedding-day,  the  bridegroom,  accompanied 
with  his  friends  on  horfeback,  demands  the  bride. 
Her  friends,  who  are  likewife  on  horfeback,  give  a 
poiitive  refufal,  upon  which  a  mock  fcufHe  enfues. 
The  bride,  mounted  behind  her  neareft  kinfman,  is 
carried  off,  and  is  purfued  by  the  bridegroom  and 
his  friends,  with  loud  fhouts*  It  is  not  uncommon 
on  fuch  an  occalion  to  fee  two  or  three  hundred 
ilurdy  Cambro-Britains  riding  at  full  fpeed,  crofT- 
ing  and  joflling,  to  the  no  fmall  amufement  of  the 
fpe&ators.  When  they  have  fatigued  themfelves 
and  their  horfes,  the  bridegroom  is  fuffered  to 
overtakejhis  bride.  He  leads  her  away  in  triumph, 
and  the  fcene  is  concluded  with  feafting  and  fefti- 
vity.  The  fame  marriage-ceremony  was  ufual  in 
Mufcovy,  Lithuania,  and  Livonia,  as  reported  by 
Olaus  Magnus  *. 

Divorce  alfo  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  matri- 
monial engagement.  Where  the  law  is,  that  a 
man  muft  purchafe  his  wife  as  one  does  a  Have,  it 
follows  naturally,  that  he  may  purchafe  as  many 
as  he  can  pay  for,  and  that  he  may  turn  them  off 
at  his  pleafure.  This  law  is  univerfal,  without  a 
lingle  exception.  The  Jews,  who  purchafed  their 
wives,  were  privileged  to  divorce  them,  without 
being  obliged  to  affign  a  caufe  f .  The  Negroes 

purchafe 
*  Lib.  14.  cap.  9. 

Deuteronomy,  chap.  24. 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  45* 

purchafe  their  wives,  and  turn  them  off  when  they 
think  proper.  The  fame  law  obtains  in  China,  ia 
Monomotapa,  in  the  ifthmus  of  Darien,  in  Caribe- 
ana,  and  even  in  the  cold  country  round  Hudfon's 
Bay.  All  the  favages  of  South  America  who  live 
near  the  Oroonoko,  purchafe  as  many  wives  as 
they  can  maintain  ;  and  divorce  them  without 
ceremony. 

Very  different  is  a  matrimonial  engagement  be- 
tween equals,  where  a  dowry  is  contracted  with 
the  bride.  The  nature  of  the  engagement  implies, 
that  neither  of  them  mould  difmifs  the  other,  with- 
out a  juft  caufe.  In  Mexico,  Where  the  bride 
brought  a  dowry,  there  could  be  no  divorce  but  by 
mutual  confent.  In  Lapland,  the  women  who 
have  a  flock  of  rain-deer,  as  above  mentioned,  make 
a  confiderable  figure.  This  lays  a  foundation  for 
a  matrimonial  covenant  as  among  us,  which  bars 
polygamy,  and  confequently  divorce,  without  a  juft 
caufe.  And,  when  thefe  are  tarred  in  feveral  in- 
flances,  the  prohibition  in  time  becomes  general. 

I  proceed  to  adultery,  the  criminality  of  which 
depends  alfo  in  fome  meafure  on  the  nature  of  the 
matrimonial  engagement.  Where  wives  are  pur- 
chafed,  and  polygamy  is  indulged,  adultery  can 
fcarce  be  reckoned  a  crime  in  the  hufband ;  and, 
where  there  are  a  plurality  of  wives,  found  fenfe 
makes  it  but  a  venial  crime  in  any  of  them.  But, 
as  men  are  the  lawgivers,  the  punifhment  of  female 
adultery,  where  polygamy  takes  place,  is  generally 

.     too 


45^  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

too  fevere.  It  is,  however,  more  or  lefs  fevere  in 
different  countries,  in  proportion  as  the  men  are 
more  or  lefs  prone  to  revenge.  The  Chinefe  are  a 
mild  people,  and  depend  more  on  locks  and  bars 
for  preventing  adultery,  than  on  feverity ;  the 
punifhment  being  only  to  fell  an  adulterefs  for  a 
Have.  The  fame  law  obtains  in  the  kingdom  of 
Laos,  bordering  upon  China.  An  adulterefs  among 
the  ancient  Egyptians  was  puniihed  with  the  lofs 
of  her  nofe.  In  ancient  Greece,  a  pecuniary  pe- 
nalty was  inflidted  on  an  adulterer*.  An  adul- 
terefs was  probably  punifhed  more  feverely.  Among 
the  Negroes,  who  have  very  little  delicacy,  adul- 
tery is  but  flightly  punifhed  ;  except  in  the  king- 
dom of  Benin.  There,  an  adulterefs,  after  a  fevere 

t  •  .-  - 

whipping,  is  banimed  ;  and  the  adulterer  forfeits 
his  goods,  which  are  beflowed  on  the  injured  huf- 
band.  Among  the  ancient  Germans,  a  grave  and 
virtuous  people,  adultery  was  rare.  An  adulterefs 
was  deprived  of  her  hair,  expelled  from  her  huf- 
band's  houfe,  and  whipped  through  the  village  f . 
In  Japan,  where  the  people  are  remarkably  fierce, 
female  adultery  is  always  puniihed  with  death. 
In  Tonquin,  a  woman  guilty  of  adultery  is  thrown 
to  an  elephant  to  be  deftroyed.  By  the  law  of 
Mofes,  an  adulterefs  is  punifhed  with  death,  as  alfo 
the  adulterer  J.  Margaret  of  Burgundy,  Queen 

to 

*  OdyfTey,  b.  8. 1.  384. 

-4i 

f  Tacitus,  De  moribus  Germanorum,  cap.  19. 
J  Leviticus,  xx.  10. 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  453 

to  Lewis  Hutin  King  of  France,  was  hanged  for 
adultery  ;  and  her  lovers  were  fleaed  alive.  Such 
were  the  favage  manners  of  thofe  times.  There 
is  an  old  law  in  Wales,  that,  for  defiling  the  Prince's 
bed,  the  offender  muft  pay  a  rod  of  pure  gold,  of 
the  thicknefs  of  the  finger  of  a  ploughman  who  has 
ploughed  nine  years,  and  in  length  from  the  ground 
to  the  Prince's  mouth  when  fitting. 

Matrimony  between  a  fingle  pair,  for  mutual 
comfort,  and  for  procreating  children,  implies  the 
flriftefi  mutual  fidelity.  Adultery,  however,  is  a 
deeper  crime  in  the  wife  than  in  the  hufband  :  in 
him  it  may  happen  occafionally,  with  little  or  no 
alienation  of  affection ;  but  the  fuperior  modefly 
of  the  female  fex  is  fuch,  that  a  wife  does  not  yield, 
till  unlawful  love  prevails,  not  only  over  modelty, 
but  over  duty  to  her  hufband.  Adultery,  there- 
fore, in  the  wife,  is  a  breach  of  the  matrimonial 
engagement  in  a  double  refpeft  :  it  is  an  alienation 
of  affection  from  the  hufband,  which  unqualifies 
her  to  be  his  friend  and  companion  ;  and  it  tends 
to  bring  a  fpurious  iffue  into  the  family,  betraying 
the  hufband  to  maintain  and  educate  children  who 
are  not  his  ov/n. 

The  gradual  advance  of  the  female  fex  to  an 
equality  with  the  male  fex,  is  vifible  in  the  laws  of 
female  fucceffion  that  have  been  eflablifhed  at  dif- 
ferent times,  and  in  different  countries.  It  is  not 
probable  that,  in  any  country,  women  were  early 
admitted  to  inherit  land :  they  are  too  much  de- 

fpife4 


454  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY'.  [fi.  iV 

fpifed  among  favages,  for  fo  valuable  a  privilege. 
The  fiercenefs  and  brutality  of  the  ancient  Romans 
in  particular  unqualified  the  women  to  be  their  com- 
panions :  it  never  entered  their  thoughts  that  wo- 
men mould  inherit  land,  which  they  cannot  defend 
by  the  fword.  But  women  came  to  be  regarded 
in  proportion  as  the  national  manners  refined.  The 
law  prohibiting  female  fucceflion  in  land,  efta- 
blifhed  in  days  of  rufticity,  was  held  to  be  rigo- 
rous and  tinjuft  when  the  Romans  were  more  po- 
lifhed.  Proprietors  of  land,  fuch  of  them  as  had 
no  fons,  were  difpofed  to  evade  the  law,  by  ample 
provifions  to  their  daughters,  which  rendered  the 
land  of  little  value  to  the  collateral  heir-male.  To 
reform  that  abufe,  as  termed  by  thofe  who  adhe- 
red to  ancient  cuftoms,  the  lex  Voconia  was  made, 
confining  fuch  provifions  within  moderate  bounds: 
and  this  regulation  continued  in  force,  till  regard 
for  the  female  fex  broke  through  every  legal  re- 
ftraint,  and  eftablifhed  female  fucceflion  in,  land, 
as  formerly  in  moveables  *»  The  barbarous  na- 
tions 

*  Juftinian,  or  more  properly  the  lawyers  employed  by  him 
upon  that  abfurd  compilation  the  Pandefts,  is  guilty  of  a  grofs 
error,  in  teaching,  that,  by  the  Twelve  Tables,  males  and  fe- 
males of  the  fame  degree  fucceeded  equally  to  land.  The  lex 
Voconia  (explained  in  Alexandri  ab  Alexandra  geniales  dies,  lib.  6. 
cap.  15.)  vouches  the  contrary.  And  one  cannot  fee,  without 
pain,  Juftinian's  error,  not  only  adopted  by  an  illuftrious  mo- 
dern, but  a  caufe  affigned  for  it  fo  refined  and  fubtile,  as  to  go4 
quite  out  of  fight,  L'Efprit  de Loixt  tiv.  27.  chap.  I.  I  venture 

to 


SK.  6-]  FEMALE  SEX.-  455 

tions  who  crufhed  the  Roman  power,  were  not  late 
in  adopting  the  mild  manners  of  the  conquered  : 
they  admitted  women  to  inherit  land,  and  they 
exacted  a  double  compofition  for  injuries  done  to 
them.  By  the  Salic  law  among  the  Franks,  wo- 
men were  exprefsly  prohibited  to  inherit  land  : 
but  we  learn  from  the  forms  of  Marculfus,  that 
this  prohibition  was  in  time  eluded  by  the  follow- 
ing folemnity.  The  man  who  wanted  to  put  his 
daughter  upon  a  footing  with  his  fons,  carried  her 
before  the  commiffary,  faying,  '«  My  dear  child, 
"  an  ancient  and  impious  cuftom  bars  a  young 
"  woman  from  fucceeding  to  her  father :  but,  as 
"  all  my  children  are  equally  given  me  by  God,  I 
"  ought  to  love  them  equally  ;  therefore,  my  dear 
*'  child,  my  will  is,  that  my  effects  (hall  divide 
f  equally  between  you  and  your  brethren."  In 
polifhed  dates,  women  are  not  excluded  from  fuc- 
ceeding  even  to  the  crown.  Ruffia  and  Britain  af- 
ford examples  of  women  capable  to  govern,  in  an 
abfolute  as  well  as  in  a  limited  monarchy*. 

What 

to  affirm,  that  fubtile  reafoning  never  had  any  influence  upon 
a  rough  and  illiterate  people  ;  and  therefore,  at  the  time  of 
the  Decemvirs,  who  compofed  the  Twelve  Tables  of  law, 
the  fubtile  caufe  affigned  by  our  author  could  not  have  been 
the  motive,  had  the  Decemvirs  introduced  female  fucceffion  in 
land,  which  they  certainly  did  not. 

*  The  kingdom  of  Gurrah,  in  Hindoftan,  was  governed  by 
Queen  Dargoutte,  eminent  for  fpirit  and  beauty.    Small  as 

that 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

What  I  have  faid  regards  thofe  nations  only 
where  polygamy  is  prohibited.  I  take  it  for  grant- 
ed, that  women  are  not  admitted  to  inherit  land 
where  polygamy  is  lawful :  they  are  not  in  fuch 
eilimation  as  to  be  entitled  to  a  privilege  fo  illuf- 
trious. 

Among  the  Hurons  in  North  America,  where 
the  regal  dignity  is  hereditary,  and  great  regard 
paid  to  the  royal  family,  the  fuccefiion  is  continu- 
ed through  females,  in  order  to  preferve  the  royal 
blood  untainted.  When  the  chief  dies,  his  fon 
fucceeds  not,  but  his  fitter's  fon  ;  who  certainly 
is  of  the  royal  blood,  whoever  be  the  father :  and, 
when  the  royal  family  is  at  an  end,  a  chief  is 
elected  by  the  nobleft  matron  of  the  tribe.  The 

fame 

that  kingdom  is,  it  contained  about  70,000  towns  and  villages, 
the  effect  of  long  peace  and  profperity.  Being  invaded  by 
Afaph  Can,  not  many  years  ago,  the  Queen,  mounted  on  an 
elephant,  led  her  troops  to  battle.  Her  fon,  Rajan  Bier  Shaw, 
being  wounded  in  the  heat  of  action,  was  by  her  orders  car- 
ried from  the  field.  That  accident  having  occafioned  a  gene- 
ral panic,  the  Queen  was  left  with  but  300  horfemen.  Ad- 
har,  who  conducted  her  elephant,  exhorted  her  to  retire  while 
it  could  be  done  with  fafety.  The  heroine  rejected  the  advice. 
"  It  is  true,"  faid  fhe,  "  we  are  overcome  in  battle  ;  but  not 
et  in  honour.  Shall  I,  for  a  lingering  ignominious  life,  lofe  a 
"  reputation  that  has  been  my  chief  ftudy  !  Let  your  grati- 
4<  tude  repay  now  the  obligations  you  owe  me  :  pull  out  your 
*{  dagger,  and  fave  me  from  flavery,  by  putting  an  end  to 
*'  my  life."  The  kingdom  of  Agonna  in  Guinea  was  go. 
by  a  Queen  when  Bofman  wrote. 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  A?« 

fame  rule  of  fuccefiion  obtains  among  the  Natches, 
a  people  bordering  on  the  Mififfippi ;  it  being  an 
article  in  their  creed,  That  their  royal  family  are 
children  of  the  fun.  On  the  fame  belief  was 
founded  a  law  in  Peru,  appointing  the  heir  of  the 
crown  to  marry  his  fifter  ;  which,  equally  with 
the  law  mentioned,  preferved  the  blood  of  the  fun 
in  the  royal  family,  and  did  not  incroach  fo  much 
upon  the  natural  order  of  fuccefiion. 

Female  fucceflion  depends  in  fome  degree  on 
the  nature  of  the  government.     In   Holland,   all 
the  children,  male  and  female,  fucceed  equally. 
The  Hollanders  live  by  commerce,  which  women 
are  capable  of  as  well  as  men.      Land  at  the  fame 
time  is  fo  fcanty  in  that  country,  as  to  render  it 
impracticable  to  raife   a  family  by  engroffing  a 
great  eftate  in  land ;  and  there  is  nothing  but  the 
ambition  of  railing  a  family,  that  can  move  a  man 
to  prefer  one  of  his  children  before  the  reft.     The 
fame  law  obtains  in  Hamburgh,  for  the  fame  rea- 
fons.      Exteniive  eftates  in  land  fupport  great  fa- 
milies in  Britain,  a  circumftance  unfavourable  to 
younger  children.     But  probably  in  London,  and 
in  other  great  trading  towns,  mercantile  men  pro- 
vide againft  the  law,  by  making  a  more  equal 
diftribution  of  their  effedls  among  their  children. 

After  traverfing  a  great  part  of  the  globe  with 
painful  induftry,  would  not  one  be  apt  to  con- 
clude, that  originally  females  were  every  where 
fcjefoifed,  as  they  are  at  prefent  among  the  favages 


45$  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

of  America  ;  that  wives,  like  flaves,  were  procu- 
red by  barter  ;  that  polygamy  was  univerfal ;  and 
that  divorce  depended  on  the  whim  of  the  huf- 
band  ?  but  no  fort  of  reafoning  is  more  fallible, 
than  the  drawing  general  conclufions  from  parti- 
cular facts.  The  northern  nations  of  Europe,  as 
appears  from  the  foregoing  (ketch,  mud  be  ex- 
cepted  from  thefe  conclufions.  Among  them, 
women  were  from  the  beginning  courted  and  ho- 
noured, nor  was  polygamy  ever  known  among 
{hern. 

We  proceed  now  to  a  capital  article  in  the  pro- 
grefs  of  the  female  fex ;  which  is,  to  trace  the 
different  degrees  of  reflFaint  impofed  upon  mar- 
ried women  in  different  countries,  and  at  different 
times  in  the  fame  country  ;  and  to  affign  the  caufes 
of  thefe  differences.  Where  luxury  is  unknown, 
and  where  people  have  no  wants  but  what  are 
fuggefted  by  uncorrupted  nature  ;  men  and  wo- 
men live  together  with  great  freedom,  and  with 
great  innocence.  In  Greece  anciently,  even  young 
women  of  rank  miniftered  to  men  in  bathing. 

"  While  thefe  officious  tend  the  rites  divine, 

'?  T(ie  laft  fair  branch  of  the  Neftorian  line, 

"  Sweet  Polycafte,  took  the  pleafant  toifc 

"  To  bathe  the  Prince,  and  pour  the  fragrant  oil  V 

Men  and  women  among  the  Spartans  bathed  pro- 
mi  feu  oufly,  and  wreftled  together  (lark  naked. 

Tacitus 

*  Odyfley,  b.  3.     See  alfo  b.  8.  1.  491. 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  450 

Tacitus  reports,  that  the  Germans  had  not  even 
feparate  beds,  but  lay  promifcuoufly  upon  reeds 
or  heath  along  the  walls  of  the  houfe.      The  fame 
cuftom  prevails  even  at  prefent  among  the  tempe- 
rate Highlanders  of  Scotland  ;  and   is  not  quite 
worn  out  in  New  England.     A  married  woman  is 
under  no  confinement,  becaufe  no  man  thinks  of 
an  a£t  fo  irregular  as  to  attempt  her  chaftity.     In 
the  Caribbee  iflands,  adultery  was  unknown,  tell 
European  Chriftians  made  fettlements  there.     At 
the  fame  time,  there  fcarce  can  be  any  fuel  for 
jealoufy,    where   men   purchafe  their  wives,  put 
them  away  at  pleafure,  and  even  lend  them  to  a 
friend.      But  when,  by  ripening  fenfibility,  a  man 
feels  pleafure  in  his  wife's  attachment  to  him,  jea- 
loufy commences  ;  jealoufy  of  a  rival  in  her  affec- 
tions.     Jealoufy  accordingly  is  a  fymptorn  tif  in- 
creafing  efteem  for  the  female  fex ;  and  that  paf- 
lion  is  vifibly  creeping  in  among  the  natives  of 
Virginia.     It  begins  to  have   a  real  foundation, 
when  inequality  of  rank  and  of  riches  takes  place. 
Men  of  opulence  ftudy  pleafure  :  married  women 
become  objedls  of  a  corrupted  tafte  ;  and  often 
fall  a  facrifice,  where  morals  are   imperfedl,  and 
the  climate  an  incentive  to  animal  love.     Greece 
is  a  delicious  country,  the  people  handfome  ;  and 
when  the  ancient  Greeks  made  the  greateft  figure, 
they  were  miferably  defective  in  morals.      They 
became  jealous  of  rivals  ;  which  prompted  them, 
According  to  the  rough  manners  of  thofe  times,  to 
VOL.  i,  Ff  exclude 


460  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.          [B.  I. 

exclude  women  from  fociety  with  men.  Their 
women  accordingly  were  never  feen  in  public  ; 
and,  if  my  memory  ferve  me,  an  accidental  inter- 
view of  a  man  and  a  woman  on  the  public  ftreet 
brings  on  the  cataftrophe  in  a  Greek  tragedy.  In 
Hecuba,  a  tragedy  of  Euripides,  the  Queen  excu- 
fes  herfelf  for  declining  to  vifit  Polymeftor,  faying, 
"  that  it  is  indecent  for  a  woman  to  look  a  man 
"  in  the  face."  In  the  Eleclra  of  Sophocles,  An- 
tigone is  permitted  by  her  mother  Jocafta  to  take 
a  view  of  the  Argian  army  from  a  high  tower  : 
an  old  man  who  accompanies  her,  being  alarmed 
at  feeing  fome  females  pafs  that  way,  and  afraid 
of  cenfure,  prays  Antigone  to  retire  ;  "  for,"  fays 
he,  "  women  are  prone  to  detraction ;  and  to 
"  them  the  mereft  trifle  is  a  fruitful  fubjecl  of 
"  converfation  *,"  Spain  is  a  country  that  fcarce 
yields  to  Greece  in  finenefs  of  climate  \  and  the 
morals  of  its  people  in  the  dark  ages  of  Chriftiani- 
ty,  were  not  more  pure  than  thofe  of  Greece.  By 
a  law  of  the  Viligoths  in  Spain,  a  furgeon  was  pro- 
hibited to  take  blood  from  a  free  woman,  except 
in  prefence  of  her  hufband,  or  neareft  relations. 

By 

*  Women  are  not  prone  to  detraction,  unlefs  when  denied 
the  comforts  of  fociety.  The  cenfure  of  Sophocles  is  proba- 
bly juft  with  refpecl:  to  his  countrywomen,  becaufe  they  were 
locked  up.  Old  maids  have  the  character  with  us  of  being 
prone  to  detraction  ;  but  that  holds  not,  unlefs  they  retire 
from  fociety. 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  461 

By  the  Salic  law  *,  he  who  fqueezes  the  hand  of 
a  free  woman  fhall  pay  a  fine  of  fifteen  golden 
fhillings.  In  the  fourteenth  century,  it  was  a  rule 
in  France,  that  no  married  woman  ought  to  ad- 
mit a  man  to  vifit  her  in  abfence  of  her  hufband. 
Female  chaflity  mud  at  that  time  have  been  ex- 
tremely feeble,  when  fo  little  truft  was  repofed  in 
the  fair  fex. 

To  treat  women  in  that  manner,  may  poffibly 
be  neceffary,  where  they  are  in  requefl  for  no  end 
but  to  gratify  animal  love.  But,  where  they  are 
intended  for  the  more  elevated  purpofes  of  being 
friends  and  companions,  as  well  as  affectionate 
mothers,  a  very  different  treatment  is  proper. 
Locks  and  fpies  will  never  anfwer  ;  for  thefe  tend 
to  debafe  their  minds,  to  corrupt  their  morals,  and 
to  render  them  contemptible.  By  gradual  open- 
ings in  the  more  delicate  fenfes,  particularly  in  all 
the  branches  of  the  moral  fenfe,  chaftity,  one  of 
thefe  branches,  acquires  a  commanding  influence 
over  females  ;  and  becomes  their  ruling  principle. 
In  that  refined  flate,  women  are  trailed  with  their 
own  conduct,  and  may  fafely  be  t rafted  :  they 
make  delicious  companions,  and  uncorruptible 
friends  ;  and  that  fuch  at  prefent  is  generally  their 
cafe  in  Britain,  I  am  bold  to  affirm.  Anne  of  Bri- 
tanny,  wife  to  Charles  VIII.  and  to  Lewis  XII. 
Kings  of  France,  introduced  the  fafhion  of  ladies 
appearing  publicly  at  court.  This  fathion  was  in- 

Ffs  troduced 

*  Tit.  22. 


462  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B,  I. 

troduced  much  later  in  England  :  even  down  to 
the  Revolution,  women  of  rank  never  appeared  in 
the  ftreets  without  a  mafk.  In  Scotland,  the  veil, 
or  plaid,  continued  long  in  fafhion,  with  which 
every  woman  of  rank  was  covered  when  fhe  went 
abroad.  That  fafliion  has  not  been  laid  aiide  above 
forty  years.  In  Italy,  women  were  much  longer 
confined  than  in  France  ;  and  in  Spain,  the  indul- 
ging them  with  fome  liberty  is  but  creeping  into 
fafhion.  In  Abyffinia,  polygamy  is  prohibited ; 
and  married  women  of  fafliion  have  by  cuftom 
obtained  the  privilege  of  vifiti'ng  their  friends, 
though  not  much  with  the  good- will  of  many  huf- 
bands. 

It  were  to  be  wifhed,  that  a  veil  could  be  drawn 
over  the  following  part  of  their  hiflory.  The 
growth  of  luxury  and  fenfuality,  undermining  eve- 
ry moral  principle,  renders  both  fexes  equally  dif- 
folute :  wives  in  that  cafe  deferve  to  be  again 
locked  up ;  but  the  time  of  fuch  feverity  is  paft. 
In  that  cafe,  indeed,  it  becomes  indecent  for  the 
two  fexes  to  bathe  prom i feu oufly.  Men  in  Rome, 
copying  the  Greeks,  plunged  together  in  the  fame 
bath  ;  and  in  time  men  and  women  did  the  fame*. 
Hadrian  prohibited  that  indecent  cuftom.  Mar- 
cus Antoninus  renewed  the  prohibition  ;  and  Alex- 
ander Severus,  a  fecond  time  :  but  to  fo  little  pur- 
pofe,  that  even  the  primitive  Chriflians  made  no 

difficulty 

*  Plutarch,  Life  of  Cato. 


0K.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  463 

i 

difficulty  to  follow  the  cuftom  :  fuch  appetite  there 
is  for  being  nudus  cum  nuda,  when  juftified  by  fa- 
Ihion.  This  cuftom  withftood  even  the  thunder  of 
general  councils ;  and  was  not  dropt  till  people 
became  more  decent. 

In  days  of  innocence,  when  chaftity  is  the  ruling 
paffion  of  the  female  fex,  we  find  great  franknefs 
in  external  behaviour  ;  for  women  above  fufpicion 
are  little  felicitous  about  appearances.  At  the 
fame  period,  and  for  the  fame  reafon,  we  find  great 
loofenefs  in  writing ;  witnefs  the  Queen  of  Na- 
varre's tales.  In  the  capital  of  France,  at  prefent, 
chaftity,  far  from  being  practifed,  is  fcarce  admit- 
ted to  be  a  female  virtue.  But  people^  who  take 
much  freedom  in  private,  are  extremely  circum- 
fpect  in  public :  no  indecent  expreffion  nor  infi- 
nuation  is  admitted,  even  into  their  plays  or  other 
writings.  In  England,  the  women  are  lefs  cor- 
rupted than  in  France  ;  and  for  that  reafon  are  not 
fo  fcrupulous  with  refpect  to  decency  in  writing. 

Hitherto  of  the  female  fex  in  temperate  climes, 
where  polygamy  is  prohibited.  Very  different  is 
their  condition  in  hot  climes,  which  inflame  ani- 
mal love  in  both  fexes  equally.  In  the  hot  re- 
gions of  Afia,  where  polygamy  is  indulged,  and 
wives  are  purchafed  for  gratifying  the  carnal  ap- 
petite merely,  it  is  vain  to  think  of  reftraining 
them  otherwife  than  by  locks  and  bars,  after  ha- 
ving once  tailed  enjoyment.  Where  polygamy  is 
indulged,  the  body  is  the  only  object  of  jealoufy, 

F  f  3  not 


464  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

X 

not  the  mind,  as  there  can  be  no  mutual  affe&ion 
between  a  man  and  his  inftruments  of  fenfual  plea- 
fure.     And,  if  women  be  fo  little  virtuous  as  not 
to  be  fafely  trufted  with  their  own  conduct,  they 
ought  to  be  locked  up  \  for  there  is  no  jufl  medi- 
um between  abfolute   confinement   and   abfolute 
freedom.     The   Chinefe   are   fo  jealous   of  their 
wives,   as  even  to  lock  them  up  from  their  rela- 
tions ;  and,  fo  great  is  their  diffidence  of  the  fe- 
male fex  in  general,  that  brothers  and  lifters  are 
not  permitted  to  converfe  together.     When  wo- 
men go  abroad,  they  are  (hut  up  in  a  clofe  fedan, 
into  which  no  eye  can  penetrate.     The  intrigues 
carried  on  by  the  wives  of  the  Chinefe  Emperor, 
and  the  jealoufy  that  reigns  among  them,  render 
them  unhappy.     But  luckily,  as  women  are  little 
regarded  where  polygamy  is  indulged,  their  ambi- 
tion and  intrigues  give  lefs  difturbance  to  the  go- 
vernment, than  in  the  courts  of  European  princes. 
The  ladies  of  Hindoftan  cover  their  heads  with  a 
gauze  veil,  even  at  home,  which  they  lay  not  a- 
lide  except  in  company  of  their  neareft  relations. 
A  Hindoo  buys  his  wife  ;  and  the  firft  time  he  is 
permitted  to  fee  her  without  a  veil  is  after  mar- 
riage, in  his  own  houfe.     In  feveral  hot  countries, 
women  are  put  under  the  guard  of  eunuchs,   as  an 
additional  fecurity  ;  and  black  eunuchs  are  com- 
monly preferred  for  their  uglinefs.     But,  as  a  wo- 
man, deprived  of  the  fociety  of  men,  is  apt  to  be 
inflamed  even  with  the  appearance  of  a  man,  fome 

jealous- 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  465 

jealous  nations,  refining  upon  that  circuraftance, 
employ  old  maids,  termed  duennas,  for  guarding 
their  women.  In  the  city  of  Moka,  in  Arabia  Fe- 
lix, women  of  fafhion  never  appear  on  the  ftreets 
in  day-light ;  but  it  is  a  proof  of  manners  refined 
above  thofe  in  neighbouring  countries,  that  they 
are  permitted  to  vifit  one  another  in  the  evening* 
If  they  find  men  in  their  way,  they  draw  afide  to 
let  them  pals.  A  Fvench  furgeon  being  called  by 
one  of  the  King  of  Yeman's  chief  officers,  to  cure 
a  rheumatifm  which  had  feized  two  of  his  wives, 
was  permitted  to  handle  the  parts  affected,  but 
could  not  get  a  fight  of  their  faces. 

I  proceed  to  examine  more  minutely  the  man- 
ners of  women,  as  refulting  from  the  degree  of  re- 
ilraint  they  are  under  in  different  countries.  In 
the  warm  regions  of  Alia,  where  polygamy  is  in- 
dulged, the  education  of  young  women  is  extreme- 
ly loofe,  being  calculated  for  the  fole  end  of  ani- 
mal pleafure.  They  are  accomplifhed  in  fuch 
graces  and  allurements  as  tend  to  inflame  the  fen- 
fual  appetite :  they  are  taught  vocal  and  inftru- 
mental  mufic,  with  various  dances  that  cannot 
iland  the  tefl  of  decency  :  but  no  culture  is  be- 
ftowed  on  the  mind,  no  moral  inftru&ion,  no  im- 
provement of  the  rational  faculties  ;  becaufe  fuch 
education,  which  qualifies  them  for  being  virtuous 
companions  to  men  of  fenfe,  would  infpire  them 
with  abhorrence  at  the  being  made  proftitutes.  In 
a  word,  fo  corrupted  are  they  by  vicious  educa- 
tion, 


466-  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  1* 

tion,  as  to  be  unfit  objects  of  any  deiire  but  what 

1    / 

is  merely  fenfual.  The  Afiatic  ladies  are  not  even 
trufled  with  the  management  of  houfehold  affairs, 
which  would  afford  opportunities  for  infidelity. 
In  Periia,  fays  Chardin,  the  ladies  are  not  permit- 
ted, more  than  children,  to  choofe  their  own  drefs : 
no  lady,  knows,  in  the  morning,  what  gown  fhe  is 
to  wear  that  day.  The  education  of  young  wo- 
men in  Hindoftan  is  lefs  indecent.  They  are  not 
taught  mufic  nor  dancing,  which  are  reckoned  fit 
only  for  ladies  of  pleafure  :  they  are  taught  all  the 
graces  of  external  behaviour  ;  particularly,  to  con- 
verfe  with  fpirit  and  elegance  :  they  are  taught  al- 
fo  to  few,  to  embroider,  and  to  drefs  with  tafte* 
Writing  is  negle&ed  ;  but  they  are  taught  to  read, 
that  they  may  have  the  confolation  of  ftudying  the 
Alcoran  j  which  they  never  open,  nor  would  under- 
ftand  if  they  did.  Notwithstanding  fuch  care  in 
educating  Hindoftan  ladies,  their  manners,  by  be- 
ing (hut  up  in  a  feraglio,  become  extremely  loofe  : 
the  moft  refined  luxury  of  fenfe,  joined  with  idle- 
nefsj  or  reading  love-tales,  ftill  worfe  than  idlenefs, 
cannot  fail  to  vitiate  the  minds  of  perfons  deprived 
of  liberty,  and  to  prepare  them  for  every  fort  of 
intemperance.  The  wives  and  concubines  of  gran- 
dees in  Conftantinople  are  permitted  fometimes  to 
walk  abroad  for  air  and  exercife.  A  foreigner 
{tumbling  accidentally  on  a  knot  of  them,  about 
forty  in  number,  attended  with  black  eunuchs,  was 
in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  feized  by  a  brilk  girl, 

with 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  467 

with  the  reft  at  her  heels :  fhe  accofted  him  with 
loofe  amorous  expreflions,  attempting  at  the  fame 
time  to  expofe  his  nakednefs.  Neither  threats  nor 
intreaties  availed  him  againft  fuch  vigorous  afTail- 
ants  ;  nor  could  the  vehemence  of  their  curiolity 
be  moderated,  by  reprefenting  the  fhame  of  a  be- 
haviour fo  grofsly  immodeil.  An  old  Janizary, 
(landing  at  a  little  diftance.  was  amazed  :  his  Ma- 
hometan bafhfulnefs  would  not  fuffer  him  to  lay 
hands  upon  women  ;  but,  with  a  Stentorian  voice, 
he  roared  to  the  black  eunuchs,  that  they  were 
guardians  of  proftitutes,  not  of  modeft  women  -? 
urging  them  to  free  the  man  from  fuch  harpies  ;— 
All  in  vain*. 

Very  different  are  female  manners  in  temperate 
climes,  where  polygamy  is  prohibited,  and  women 
are  treated  as  rational  beings.  Thefe  manners, 
however,  depend  in  fome  meafure  on  the  nature  of 
the  government.  As  many  hands  are  at  once  em- 
ployed in  the  different  branches  of  republican  go- 
vernment, and  a  ftill  greater  number  by  rotation  ; 
the  males,  who  have  little  time  to  fpare  from  pub- 
lic bufinefs,  feel  nothing  of  that  languor  and  wea- 
rinefs,  which  to  the  idle  make  the  moft  frivolous 
amufemerits  welcome.  Married  women  live  reti- 
red at  home,  managing  family-affairs,  as  their  huf- 
bands  do  thofe  of  the  flate :  whence  it  is,  that  fim- 
plicity  of  manners,  is  more  the  tone  of  a  republic, 
than  of  any  other  government.  Such  were  the 

manners 

*  Obfervations  on  the  religion,  laws,  &c.  of  the  Turks. 


468  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF'sOClETY.          [B.  I. 

manners  of  the  female  fex  during  the  flourifhing 
periods  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  commonwealths  ; 
and  fuch  are  their  manners  in  Switzerland  and  in 
Holland. 

There  will  be  occafion  afterward,  to  difplay  an 
important  revolution  in:-  manners,  refulting  from 
chivalry*.  One  branch  of  it  mud  be  handled  at 
prefent,  that  which  concerns  the  intercourfe  be- 
tween the  fexes.  The  Crufades  were  what  firft 
gave  a  turn  to  the  fierce  manners  of  our  anceftors. 
The  combatants,  fighting  more  for  glory  than  for 
revenge  or  intereft,  became  eminent  for  magnani- 
mity and  heroifm.  After  fo  active  a  life  abroad, 
they  could  not  bear  idlenefs  at  home,  efpecially 
when  there  was  fuch  a  demand  for  their  prowefs. 
Europe  had  never  been  worfe  governed  than  at  that 
period :  difleniion  and  difcord  were  univerfal ;  and 
every  chieftain  bore  deadly  feud  againft  his  neigh- 
bours. Revenge  was  the  ruling  paffion,  which  was 
licentioufly  indulged,  without  the  leaft  regard  to 
juftice.  The  heroes  who  had  lignalized  themfelves 
abroad,  endeavoured  to  acquire  fame  at  home  : 
they  entered  into  bonds  of  chivalry,  for  redreffing 
wrongs,  and  protecting  widows  and  orphans.  An 
object  fo  noble  and  humane,  tempered  courage  with 
mildnefs,  and  magnanimity  with  courtefy.  The 
protection  given  to  widows  and  orphans  improved 
benevolence ;  ajid  female  beauty,  which  makes  the 
deepeft  impreflion  on  the  benevolent,  came  to  be 

the 

^ 

*  Boook  2.  Sketch  6. 


SK.  6.]  TEMALE    SEX.  469 

the  capital  object  of  protection.    Each  knight  took 
under  his  peculiar  care  the  beauty  that  inflamed 
him  the  mod  ;  and  each  knight  was  difpofed  to 
elevate  the   goddefs  of  his  heart  above  all  rival 
beauties.     In  his  heated  imagination,  fhe  was  per- 
fection without  frailty,  a  paragon  of  nature.   Emu- 
lation  for  the  fame  of  a  beloved  object  has  no 
bounds,  becaufe  there  is  nothing  felfifh  in  4t :  me 
is  exalted  into  a  fort  of  divinity :  the  lover  def- 
cends  to  be  a  humble  votary.    And  mark,  that  de- 
votion to  a  vifible  deity  always  flames  the  higheft. 
This  connection,  which  reverfes  the  order  of  na- 
ture, by  elevating  women  far  above  men,  produced 
an  artificial  fort  of  gallantry,  that  was  carried  to 
extravagance  :  the  language  of  devotion  became 
that  of  love,  and  all  was  bombaft  and  unnatural. 
Chaftity,  however,  was  a  gainer  by  this  mode  of 
love  :  it  became  neceflarily  the  ruling  principle,  to 
be  preferved  in  purity  without  fpot  or  blemifh  ; 
poiTeffion  diflblves  the  charm  ;   for,   after  furren- 
dering  all   to   a   lover,  a  female  cannot  hope  to 
maintain  her  angelic  character  a  moment.     Duke. 
John  de  Bourbonnois,  anno  1414,  caufed  it  to  be 
proclaimed,  that  he  intended  an  expedition  to  Eng- 
land with  lixteeri  knights,  in  order  to  combat  the 
like  number  of  Engliih  knights,  for  glorifying  the 
beautiful  angel  he  worfhipped.     Inftances  of  this 
kind,  without  number,  Hand  upon  record.     Rene", 
ftyled  King  of  Sicily  and  Jerufakm,  obferves,  in 
writing  upon  tournaments,  that  they  are  highly 

ufeful 


47O  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

ufeful  in  furniming  opportunities  to  young  knights 
and  efquires  to  difplay  their  prowefs  before  their 
miftrefTes.  He  adds,  "  that  every  ceremony  re- 
"  garding  tournaments  is  contrived  to  honour  the 
"  ladies.  It  belongs  to  them  to  infpeft  the  arms 
"  of  the  combatants,  and  to  diflribute  the  re- 
"  wards.  A  knight  or  efquire  who  defames  any 
"  one  of  them,  is  beat  and  bruifed  till  the  injured 
"  lady  condefcend  to  intercede  for  him."  Remove 

/ 

a  female  out  of  her  proper  fphere,  and  it  is  eafy  to 
convert  her  into  a  male.  James  IV.  of  Scotland, 
in  all  tournaments,  profeffed  himfelf  knight  to 
Anne  Queen  of  France.  She  fummoned  him  to 
prove  himfelf  her  true  and  valorous  champion,  by 
taking  the  field  in  her  defence  againfl  Henry  VIII. 
of  England.  And,  according  to  the  romantic  gal- 
lantry of  that  age,  the  Queen's  fummons  was 
thought  to  have  been  James's  chief  motive  for 
declaring  war  againft  his  brother-in-law.  The 
famous  Gallon  de  Foix,  general  of  the  French  at 
the  battle  of  Ravenna,  rode  from  rank  to  rank, 
calling  by  name  feveral  officers,  and  even  private 
men,  recommending  to  them  their  country  and 
their  honour ;  adding,  "  that  he  would  fee  what 
"  they  would  perform  for  love  of  their  miftrefles.' 
During  the  civil  wars  in  France,  when  love  and 
gallantry  were  carried  to  a  high  pitch,  Monfieur 
de  Chatillon,  ready  to  engage  in  a  battle,  tied 

i 

round  his  arm  a  garter  of  Mademoifelle  de  Guerchi 
his  miftrefs.  De  Liques  and  d'Etrees  were  both 

fuitors 


,SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  47! 

fuitors  to  Mademoifelle  de  Fouquerolles  for  mar- 
riage. De  Liques  prevailed,  and  the  marriage- 
day  was  fixed.  But  that  very  day,  he  was  taken 
prifoner  by  his  rival  in  a  battle  anno  1525.  The 
lady  wrote  a  letter  to  d'Etrees,  demanding  her 
hufband  ;  and  d'Etrees  inflantly  fent  him  to  her 
without  even  demanding  a  ranfom  #. 

In  peaceable  times,  the  fovereign  power  having 
acquired  more  authority,  the  neceility  of  private 
protection  ceafed.  But  the  accuftomed  fpirit  of 
gallantry  did  not  ceafe.  It  could  not,  however, 
fubfift  for  ever  againfl  nature  and  common  fenfe : 
it  fubfided  by  degrees  into  mutual  affability  and 
politenefs,  fuch  as  ought  always  to  obtain  between 
the  fexes.  But  obferve,  that,  after  a  mod  inti- 
mate connection,  matters  could  not  fall  back  to 
the  former  decency  and  referve.  The  intimate 
connection  remained  ;  and  a  more  fubflantial  gal- 
lantry took  place,  not  always  innocent.  This 
change  of  manners  was  firft  vilible  in  monarchy. 
Monarchy  employs  but  a  few  hands  ;  and  thofe 
who  are  not  occupied  in  public  affairs,  find  leifure 
for  gallantry  and  for  defires  that  are  eafily  grati- 
fied. 

*  We  are  indebted  to  Brantom  for  what  follows.  In  the 
time  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  a  young  woman,  having  a  talk*, 
ative  lover,  ordered  him  to  be  dumb.  His  obedience  for  two 
long  years  made  all  the  world  believe  that  he  was  funk  in  melaii- 
choly.  One  day,  in  a  numerous  aflembly,  the  young  woman, 
who  was  not  known  to  be  his  miftrefs,  undertook  to  cure  him, 
did  it  with  a  fingle  word,  Speak. 


47^  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  ffi.  I. 

tied.  Women  of  rank,  on  the  other  hand,  laid 
open  to  corruption  by  opulence  and  fuperficial 
education,  are  more  ambitious  to  captivate  the  eye 
than  the  judgment ;  and  are  fonder  of  lovers  than 
of  friends.  Where  a  man  and  a  woman  thus  pre- 
pared meet  together,  they  foon  grow  particular : 
the  man  is  idle,  the  woman  frank ;  and  both  equal- 
ly addicted  to  pleafure.  Unlawful  commerce  be- 
tween the  fexes  becoming  thus  common,  high  gal- 
lantry vanifhes  of  courfe :  the  bombaft  ftyle  ap- 
pears ridiculous,  and  the  fenfual  appetite  is  grati- 
fied with  very  little  ceremony.  Nothing  of  love 
remains  but  the  name  ;  and,  as  animal  enjoyment 
without  love  is  a  very  low  pleafure,  it  foon  finks 
into  difguft  when  confined  to  one  object.  What 
is  not  found  in  one,  is  fondly  expected  in  another ; 
and  the  imagination,  roving  from  object  to  object, 
finds  no  gratification  but  in  variety.  An  attach- 
ment to  a  woman  of  virtue  or  of  talents,  appears 
abfurd  :  true  love  is  laughed  out  of  countenance  -y 
and  men  degenerate  into  brutes.  Women,  on  the 
other  hand,  regarding  nothing  but  fenfual  enjoy- 
ment, become  fo  carelefs  of  their  infants,  as  even, 
xvithout  blufhing,  to  employ  mercenary  nurfes  *. 

In 

*  "  Les  femmes  d'un  certain  etat  en  France  trouvent  qu'elles 
per  dent  trop  a  faire  des  enfans,  et  £  caufe  de  cela  meme,  la 
plupart  vivent  celibataires,  dans  le  fein  meme  du  manage. 
Mais  fi  i'envie  de  fe  voir  perpetuer  dans  une  branche  de  de- 
fcendans,  les  porte  a  fe  conformer  aux  vceux  de  Phymen  ;  la 

population, 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  473 

In  Perfia,  it  is  a  common  practice  among  women  of 
fafhion  to  ufe  drugs  that  caufe  abortion  ;  becaufe 
after  pregnancy  is  advanced,  the  huiband  attaches 
himfelf  to  other  women,  it  being  held  indecent 
to  touch  a  woman  who  is  pregnant.  Such  a  courfe 
of  life  cannot  fail  to  fink  them  into  contempt : 
marriages  are  difTolved  as  foon  as  contracted  ;  and 
the  ftate  is  fruftrated  of  that  improvement  in  mo- 
rals and  manners,  which  is  the  never-failing  pro- 
duel  of  virtuous  love.  A  ftate  enriched  by  con- 
queft  or  commerce,  declines  gradually  into  luxury 
and  fenfual  pleafure  :  manners  are  corrupted,  de- 
cency baniflied,  andchaftity  becomes  a  mere  name. 

What 

population,  dans  cette  claffe,  n'en  eft  pas  plus  avancee,  pars 
que  leur  delicatefle  rend  inutile  leur  propagation  ;  car,  parmi 
les  femmes  du  premier  et  fecond  rang  en  France,  combien  y 
en  a  t  il,  qui  nouriiTent  leprs  enfans  ?  II  feroit  facile  de  les 
compter.  Ce  devoir  indifpenfable  de  mere,  a  cefie  chez  nous 
d'en  ctre  un."  Les  Interefls  de  la  France,  vol.  i.  p.  234. — [/« 
Engll/Jo  thus :  "  The  women  of  a  certain  rank  in  France  find 
"  that  they  lofe  too  much  by  child-bearing  ;  and,  for  that 
"  reafon,  even  though  married,  live  in  a  ftate  of  celibacy. 
"  But  population  is  not  advanced,  even  by  thofe  who,  from  a 
"  defire  of  feeing  themiVlves  perpetuated  in  their  defcendanu, 
'*  conform  to  the  purpofe  of  marriage  ;  for  their  delicacy 
"  counterbalances  their  fertility.  How  few  of  the  firft  and 
"  fecond  rank  of  women  in  France  fuckle  their  children  ? 
"  It  would  be  eafy  to  count  the  number.  This  indifpenfable 
"  duty  of  a  mother  has  now  ceafed  to  be  one  with  us-"] — 
As  iuch  woful  neglect  of  education  is  the  fruit  of  voluptuouf- 
nefs,  we  may  take  it  for  granted,  that  the  fame  obtains  in  eve> 
ry  opulent  and  luxurious  capitaL 


474  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I, 

What  a  fcene  of  rank  and  diffolute  pleafure  is  ex- 
hibited in  the  courts  of  Alexander's  fuccefibrs,  and 
in  thofe  of  the  Roman  emperors  ! 

Gratitude  to  my  female  readers,  if  I  mall  be  ho- 
noured with  any,  prompts  me  to  conclude  this 
Iketch  with  a  fcene,  that  may  afford  them  inftruc- 
tion,  and  cannot  fail  of  being  agreeable  ;  which  is, 
the  figure  a  woman  is  fitted  for  making  in  the 
matrimonial  flate,  where  polygamy  is  excluded. 
Matrimony  among  favages,  having  no  object  but 
propagation  and  flavery,  is  a  very  humbling  ftate 
for  the  female  fex :  but  delicate  organization, 
great  fenfibility,  lively  imagination,  with  fweet- 
nefs  of  temper  above  all,  qualify  women  for  a  more 
dignified  fociety  with  men  ;  which  is,  to  be  their 
companions  and  bofom-friends.  In  the  common 
courfe  of  European  education,  young  women  are 
trained  to  make  an  agreeable  figure,  and  to  behave 
with  decency  and  propriety  :  very  little  culture  is 
beftowed  on  the  head ;  and  flill  lefs  on  the  heart, 
if  it  be  not  the  art  of  hiding  paffion.  Such  educa- 
tion is  far  from  feconding  the  purpofe  of  nature, 
that  of  making  women  fit  companions  for  men  of 
fenfe.  Due  cultivation  of  the  female  mind  would 
add  greatly  to  the  happinefs  of  the  males,  and  ftill 
more  to  that  of  the  females.  Time  runs  on;  and 
when  youth  and  beauty  vanifh,  a  fine  lady,  who 
never  entertained  a  thought  into  which  an  ad- 
mirer did  not  enter,  furrenders  herfelf  now  to  di.f- 
content  and  peevifhnefs.  A  woman,  on  the  con- 
trary, 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  475 

trary,  who  has  merit,  improved  by  virtuous  and 
refined  education,  retains  in  her  decline  an  influ- 
ence over  the  men,  more  flattering  than  even  that 
of  beauty  :  me  is  the  delight  of  her  friends,  as  for- 
merly of  her  admirers. 

Admirable  would  be  the  effe&s  of  fuch  refined 
education,  contributing  no  lefs  to  public  good  than 
to  private  happinefs.  A  man,  who  at  prefent  muft 
degrade  himfelf  into  a  fop  or  a  coxcomb  in  order 
to  pleafe  the  women,  would  loon  difcover,  that 
their  favour  is  not  to  be  gained  but  by  exerting 
every  manly  talent  in  public  and  in  private  life  ; 
and  the  two  fexes,  initead  of  corrupting  each  other, 
would  be  rivals  in  the  race  of  virtue.  Mutual 
efteem  would  be  to  each  afchool  of  urbanity  ;  and 
mutual  delire  of  pleafing,  would  give  fmoothnefs 
to  their  behaviour,  delicacy  to  their  fentiments, 
and  tendernefs  to  their  paflions. 

Married  women  in  particular,  deftined  by  nature 
to  take  the  lead  in  educating  children,  would  no 
longer  be  the  greateft  obftrudtion  to  good  educa- 
tion, by  their  ignorance,  frivolity,  and  diforderly 
manners.  Even  upon  the  bread,  infants  are  fuf- 
ceptible  of  impreffions  *  ,  and  the  mother  hath 

opportunities 

*  May  not  a  habit  of  cheerfulnefs  be  produced  in  an  infant, 
by  being  trained  up  among  cheerful  people  ?  An  agreeable 
temper  is  held  to  be  a  prime  qualification  in  a  nurfe.  Such 
is  the  connection  between  the  mind  and  body,  as  that  the 
features  of  the  face  are  commonly  moulded  into  an  expreffion 

of 
VOL.  I.  G  g 


476  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY,  [B.  I. 

opportunities  without  end  of  inftilling  into  them 
good  principles,  before  they  are  fit  for  a  male  tutor. 
Coriolanus,  who  made  a  capital  figure  in  the  Ro- 
man republic,  never  returned  from  war  without 
meriting  marks  of  diftinclion.  Others  behaved 
valiantly,  in  order  to  acquire  glory  :  he  behaved 
valiantly,  in  order  to  give  pleafure  to  his  mother. 
The  delight  me  took  in  hearing  him  praifed,  and 
her  weeping  for  joy  in  his  embraces,  made  him  in 
his  own  opinion  the  happiefl  perfon  in  the  univerfe, 
Epaminondas  accounted  it  his  greater!  felicity,  that 
his  father  and  mother  were  ftill  alive  to  behold  his 
conduct,  and  enjoy  his  victory  at  Leuclra.  In  a 
Latin  dialogue  about  the  caufes  that  corrupted  the 
Roman  eloquence,  injudicioufly  afcribed  to  Taci- 
tus, becaufe  obviouily  it  is  not  his  ftyle,  the  method 
of  education  in  Rome,  while  it  ilourifhed  as  a  com- 
monwealth, is  defcribed  in  a  lively  manner.  I  mall 
endeavour  to  give  the  fenfe  in  Englilh,  becaufe  it 
chiefly  concerns  the  fair  fex.  "  In  that  age,  chil- 
"  dren  were  fuckled,  not  in  the  hut  of  a  mercenary 
"  nurfe,  but  by  the  chafte  mother  who  bore  them. 
"  Their  education  during  nonage  was  in  her  hands ; 

"  and 

of  the  internal  difpofition  ;  and  is  it  not  natural  to  think,  that 
an  infant  in  the  womb  may  be  affected  by  the  temper  of  its 
mother  ?  Its  tender  parts  make  it  fufceptible  of  the  flighted 
Smpreffions  When  a  woman  is  breeding,  flie  ought  to  be 
doubly  careful  of  her  temper  ;  and,  in  particular,  to  indulge 
no  ideas  but  what  are  cheerful,  and  no  fentiments  but  what 
are  kindly. 


« 


4« 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  477 

"  and  it  was  her  chief  care  to  inftil  into  them  every 
virtuous  principle.  In  her  prefence,  a  loofe 
word  or  an  improper  adion,  were  ftricHy  pro- 
hibited. She  fuperintended,  not  only  their  fe- 
"  rious  ftudies,  but  even  their  amufements  ;  which 
"  were  conducted  with  decency  and  moderation. 
*'  In  that  manner  the  Gracchi,  educated  by  Cor- 
"  nelia  their  mother,  and  Auguftus,  by  Attia  his 
*'  mother,  appeared  in  public  with  untainted 
"  minds ;  fond  of  glory,  and  prepared  to  make  a 
"  figure  in  the  world."  In  the  expedition  of  the 
illuftrious  Bertrand  du  Guefclin  againft  Peter  the 
Cruel,  King  of  Caftile,  the  governor  of  a  town, 
fummoned  to  give  it  up,  made  the  following  an- 
fwer  :  "  That  they  might  be  conquered,  but  would 
"  never  tamely  yield  ;  that  their  fathers  had  taught 
"  them  to  prefer  a  glorious  death  before  a  diflio- 
"  nourable  life  ;  and  that  their  mothers  had  not 
"  only  educated  them  in  thefe  fentiments,  but  were 
"  ready  to  put  in  practice  the  leiTons  they  had  in- 
"  culcated."  During  the  civil  wars  in  France  be- 
tween the  Catholics  and  Proteftants,  Bari,  governor 
of  Leucate,  having  fallen  by  furprife  into  the  hands 
of  the  Catholics,  wrote  from  prifon  to  his  fpoufe 
Conftance  Cei.elli  not  to  furrender  even  though 
they  fhould  threaten  to  put  him  to  death.  The  be- 
liegers  brought  him  within  her  light ;  and  threaten- 
ed to  maflacre  him  if  Ihe  did  not  inftantly  open 
the  gates.  She  offered  for  his  ranfom  her  children 
and  all  fhe  had  in  the  world — but  that  the  town 

G  g  2  belonged 


47$  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

belonged  to  the  King,  and  was  not  at  her  difpofal. 
Would  one  think  it  poffible,  that  any  woman  ever 
did  exift  fo  brutal  as  to  put  her  hufband  to  death  ? 
Yet  this  was  done  in  cold  blood.  Let  the  moft 
profound  politician  fay,  what  more  efficacious  in- 
centive there  can  be  to  virtue  anci  manhood,  than 
the  behaviour  of  the  Spartan  matrqns,  flocking  to 
the  temples,  and  thanking  the  gods  that  their  huf- 
bands  and  fons  had  died  glorioufly,  fighting  for 
their  country.  In  the  war  between  Lacedemon 
and  Thebes,  the  Lacedemonians  paving  behaved 
ill,  the  married  men,  as  Plutarch  reports,  were  fp 
afhamed'of  themfelves,  that  they  duril  not  look 
their  wives  in  the  face.  What  a  glorious  prize  is 
here  exhibited,  to  be  contended  for  by  the  female 
fex! 

By  fuch  refined  education,  love  would  take  on  a 
new  form,  that  which  nature  infpires,  for  making 
us  happy,  and  for  fpftening  the  diilrefTes  of  chance : 
it  would  fill  delicioufly  the  whole  foul  with  tender 
amity,  and  mutual  confidence.  The  union  of  a 
worthy  man  with  a  frivolous  wpman,  can  never, 
with  all  the  advantages  of  fortune,  be  made  com- 
fortable :  how  different  the  union  of  a  virtuous 
pair,  who  have  no  aim  but  to  make  each  other 
happy  !  Between  fuch  a  pair  emulation  is  rever- 
fed,  by  an  ardent  defire  in  each  tP  be  furpafled  fyy 
the  other. 

Roufleau,  in  his  treatife  of  Education,  affirms, 
that  convents  are  no  better  than  fchools  of  coquet- 
ry* 
«  -• 


SK.  6.]  FEMALE  SEX.  479 

ry  ;  and  that  among  Proteftants,  women  make  bet- 
ter wives  and  more  tender  mothers  than  among  Ro- 
man Catholics ;  for  which,  fays  he,  no  reafon  can 
be  given  but  convent-education,  which  is  univer- 
fal  among  the  latter.  He  then  goes  on  in  the  fol- 
lowing words :  "  Pour  aimer  la  vie  paiiible  et  do- 
"  meftique  il  faut  la  conn6itre ;  il  faut  en  avoir 
"  fenti  les  douceurs  dds  1'enfance.  Ce  n'eft  que 
"  dans  la  maifon  paternelle  qu'on  prend  du  gout 
"  pour  fa  propre  maifon,  et  toute  femme  que  fa 
"  mere  n'a  point  elevee  n'aimera  point  elever  fes 
"  enfans.  Malheureufement  il  n'y  a  plus  d'edu- 
"  cation  privee"  dans  les  grandes  villes.  La  fociete 
'  y  eft  fi  generale  et  li  melee  qu'il  ne  refte  plus 
"  d'alile  pour  la  retraite,  et  qu'on  eft  en  publique 
"  jufques  chez  foi.  A  force  de  vivre  avec  tout  le 
"  monde  en  n'a  plus  de  famille,  a  peine  connoit- 
"  on  fes  parens  y  on  les  voit  en  etrangers,  et  la 
"  fimplicite'  des  moeurs  domeftiques  s'eteint  avec 
"  la  douce  familiarite  qui  en  faifoit  le  charme. 
"  C'eft  ainli  qu'on  fuce  avec  le  lait  le  gout  des 
"  plaiiirs  du  iiecle  et  des  maximes  qu'on  y  voit 
"  regner."  Rouffeau,  Emile. 

Cultivation  of  the  female  mind,  is  not  of  great 
importance  in  a  republic,  where  men  pafs  little  of 
their  time  with  women.  Such  cultivation,  where 
polygamy  is  indulged,  would  to  them  be  a  deep 
misfortune,  by  opening  their  eyes  to  their  mifer- 
able  condition.  But  in  an  opulent  monarchy, 
where  polygamy  is  prohibited,  female  education  is 

Ggs  of 


480  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETT.         [B.  I. 

of  high  importance  ;  not  fingly  with  refpect  to 
private  happinefs,  but  with  refpect  to  the  fociety 
in  general. 


APPENDIX. 


CONCERNING  PROPAGATION  OF  ANIMALS,  AND 

CARE  OF  PROGENY. 

/ 

I 

/ 

THE  natural  hiflory  of  animals,  with  refpect  to 
pairing  and  care  of  progeny,  is  fufceptible  of 
more  elucidation,  than  could  regularly  be  introdu- 
ced into  the  (ketch  itfelf,  where  it  makes  but  a 
fingle  argument.  Loth  to  quit  a  fubject  that  emi- 
nently difplays  the  wifdom  and  benevolence  of 
Providence,  I  embrace  the  prefent  opportunity, 
however  flight,  to  add  what  further  occurs  upon 
it.  M.  Buffon,  in  many  large  volumes,  beflows 
fcarce  a  thought  on  that  favourite  fubjecl: ;  and 
the  neglect  of  our  countrymen  Ray  and  Derham 
is  flill  lefs  excufable,  coniidering  that  to  difplay 
the  conduct  of  Providence  was  their  fole  purpofe 
in  writing  natural  hiflory. 

The  inflinct  of  pairing  is  beflowed  on  every  fpe- 
cies  of  animals  to  which  it  is  neceflary  for  rearing 
their  young  ;  and  on  no  other  fpecies.     All  wild 
birds  pair :  but  with  a  remarkable  difference  be- 
tween 


.  6.  APP.]  ANIMALS.  481 

tween  fuch  as  place  their  neils  on  trees,  and  fuch 
as  place  them  on  the  ground.  The  young  of  the 
former,  being  hatched  blind  and  without  feathers, 
require  the  nurling  care  of  both  parents  till  they 
be  able  to  fly.  The  male  feeds  his  mate  on  the 
lieft,  and  cheers  her  with  a  fong.  As  foon  as  the 
young  are  hatched,  tinging  yields  to  a  more  necef- 
fary  occupation,  that  of  providing  food  for  a  nu- 
merous hTue,  a  tafk  that  requires  both  parents. 

Eagles  and  other  birds  of  prey  build  on  trees, 
or  on  other  places  difficult  of  accefs.  They  not 
only  pair,  but  continue  in  pairs  all  the  year  ;  and 
the  fame  pair  procreate  together,  year  after  year. 

\ 

This  at  lead  is  the  cafe. of  eagles  :  the  male  and 
female  hunt  together ;  and  during  incubation  the 
female  is  fed  by  the  male.  A  greater  number 
than  a  fingle  pair  never  are  feen  in  company. 

Gregarious  birds  pair,  in  order  probably  to  pre- 
vent difcord,  in  a  fociety  confined  to  a  narrow 
fpace.  This  is  the  cafe  particularly  of  pigeons 
and  rooks.  The  male  and  female  fit  on  the  eggs 
alternately,  and  divide  the  care  of  feeding  their 
young.  During  incubation,  the  male  raven  is  al- 
ways at  hand  to  defend  the  female  againil  birds  of 
prey.  No  fooner  does  a  kite  appear  than  he  gets 
above  it,  and  ftrikes  it  down  with  his  bill. 

Partridges,  plovers,  pheafants,  fea-fowl,  groufe, 
and  other  kinds  that  place  their  nefts  on  the  ground, 
have  the  inftincl  of  pairing  ;  but  differ  from  fuch 
as  build  on  trees  in  the  following  particular,  that 

G  g  4  after 


482  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

after  the  female  is  impregnated,  fhe  completes  her 
talk  without  needing  any  help  from  the  male.  Re- 
tiring from  him,  me  chufes  a  fafe  place  for  her 
neft,  where  fhe  can  find  plenty  of  worms  and  grafs- 
feed  at  hand.  And  her  young,  as  foon  as  hatched, 
take  foot  and  feek  food  for  themfelves.  The  only 
remaining  duty  incumbent  on  the  dam  is,  to  lead 
them  to  proper  places  for  food,  and  to  call  them 
together  when  danger  impends.  Some  males, 
provoked  at  the  defertion  of  their  mates,  break  the 
eggs  if  they  happen  to  find  them.  If  a  Turkey 
hen  die  during  hatching,  the  cock  takes  her  place 
in  the  neft  \  and  after  the  young  are  hatched,  he 
tends  them  as  a  hen  does.  Not  only  fo,  but  when 
the  female  is  engaged  with  a  new  brood,  the  cock 
takes  care  of  the  former  brood,  leads  them  about 
for  food,  and  acts  in  every  refpecl  as  the  female 
did  before.  Eider-ducks  pair  like  other  birds  that 
place  their  nefts  on  the  ground ;  and  the  female 
finiihes  her  neft  with  down  plucked  from  her  own 
breaft.  If  the  neft  be  deftroyed  for  the  down, 
which  is  remarkably  warm  and  elaftic,  Ihe  makes 
another  neft  as  before.  If  Ihe  be  robbed  a  fecond 
time,  fhe  makes  a  third  neft ;  but  the  male  fur- 
nifhes  the  down.  A  lady  of  fpirit  obferved,  that 
the  Eider-duck  may  give  a  lefTon  to  many  a  mar- 
ried woman,  who  is  more  difpofed  to  pluck  her 
hufband  than  herfelf.  The  black  game  never 
pair :  in  fpring  the  cock  on  an  eminence  crows, 

and 


SK.  6.  APP.]  ANIMALS.  483 

and  claps  his  wings;  and  all  the  females  within 
hearing  inftantly  refort  to  him  *. 

Pairing  birds,  excepting  thofe  of  prey,  flock  to- 
gether in  February,  in  order  to  chufe  their  mates. 
They  foon  difperfe ;  and  are  not  feen  afterwards 
but  in  pairs. 

Pairing  is  unknown  to  quadrupeds  that  feed  on 
grafs.  To  fuch  it  would  be  ufelefs ;  as  the  fe- 
male gives  fuck  to  her  young  while  me  herfelf  is 
feeding.  If  M.  Buffon  deferve  credit,  the  roe- 
deer  are  an  exception.  They  pair,  though  they 
feed  on  grafs,  and  have  but  one  litter  in  a  year. 

Beafts  of  prey,  fuch  as  lions,  tigers,  wolves,  pair 
not.  The  female  is  left  to  fhift  for  herfelf  and  for 
her  young ;  which  is  a  laborious  talk,  and  fre- 
quently fo  unfuccefsful  as  to  fhorten  life.  Pairing 
is  eiTential  to  birds  of  prey,  becaufe  incubation 
leaves  the  female  no  fufficient  time  to  fearch  for 
food.  Pairing  is  not  neceflary  to  beads  of  prey, 
becaufe  their  young  can  bear  a  long  fait.  Add 
another  reafon,  that  they  would  multiply  fo  faft 
by  pairing,  as  to  prove  troublefome  ^neighbours  to 
the  human  race. 

Among  animals  that  pair  not,  males  fight  def- 
perately  about  a  female.  Such  a  battle  among 
horned  cattle  is  finely  defcribed  by  Lucretius. 

Nor 

*  A  hen  that  had  hatched  feveral  broods  of  ducklings,  car- 
TJ^ed  her  own  chickens  to  the  water,  thruft  them  in  by  force, 
and  refted  not  till  they  were  all  drowned.  Such  is  the  force 
of  cuftom,  even  againft  nature. 


484          MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.        [B.  i. 


is  it  unufual,  that  feven  or  eight  lions  wage 
bloody  war  for  a  fingle  female. 

The  fame  reafon  that  makes  pairing  necefiary 
for  gregarious  birds,  obtains  with  refpecl  to  gre- 
garious quadrupeds  ;  thofe  efpecially  who  llore 
up  food  for  winter,  and  during  that  feafon  live  in 
common.  Difcord  among  fuch,  would  be  attend- 
ed with  worfe  confequences  than  even  among 
lions  or  bulls,  who  are  not  confined  to  one  place. 
The  beavers,  with  refpecl:  to  pairing,  referable 
birds  that  place  their  nefls  on  the  ground.  As 
foon  as  the  young  are  produced,  the  males  aban- 
don their  ftock  of  food  to  their  mates,  and  live  at 
large  ;  but  return  frequently  to  viiit  them,  while 
they  are  fuckling  their  young. 

Hedge-hogs  pair,  and  feveral  of  the  monkey 
kind.  We  are  not  well  acquainted  with  the  na- 
tural hiftory  of  thefe  animals  ;  but  it  may  be  pre- 
fumed  that  the  young  require  the  nurling  care  of 
both  parents. 

Seals  have  a  fingular  economy.  Polygamy  feems 
to  be  a  law  of  nature  among  them,  as  a  male  affo- 
ciates  with  feveral  females.  The  fea-turtle  has  no 
occafion  to  pair,  as  the  female  concludes  her  talk 
with  laying  her  eggs  in  the  fand.  The  young  are 
batched  by  the  fun  ;  and  immediately  crawl  to  the 
fea. 

In  every  other  branch  of  animal  economy  con- 
cerning the  continuance  of  the  fpecies,  the  hand  of 
Providence  is  equally  confpicuous.  The  young  of 

pairing 


SK.  6.  APP.]  ANIMALS.  485 

pairing  birds  are  produced  in  the  fpring,  when  the 
weather  begins  to  be  comfortable  ;  and  their  early 
production  makes  them  firm  and  vigorous  before 
winter,  to  endure  the  hardfhips  of  that  rigorous 
feafon.  Such  early  production  is  in  particular  fa- 
vourable to  eagles,  and  other  birds  of  prey  ;  for  in 
the  fpring  they  have  plenty  of  food,  by  the  return 
^>f  birds  of  pafTage. 

Though  the  time  of  geflation  varies  confiderably 
in  the  different  quadrupeds  that  feed  on  grafs,  yet 
the  female  is  regularly  delivered  early  in  fummer, 
when  grafs  is  in  plenty.  The  mare  admits  the  ftal- 
lion  in  fummer,  carries  eleven  months,  and  is  deli- 
vered the  beginning  of  May.  The  cow  differs 
little.  A  fheep  and  a  goat  take  the  male  in  No- 
vember, carry  five  months,  and  produce  when 
grafs  begins  to  fpring.  Thefe  animals  love  fhort 
grafs,  upon  which  a  mare  or  a  cow  would  ftarve. 
The  obfervation  holds  in  climates  fo  temperate  as 
to  encourage  grafs  in  the  fpring,  and  to  preferve  it 
in  verdure  all  the  fummer.  I  am  informed  that  in 
Italy,  fheep  copulate  from  June  to  July  :  the  fe- 
male goes  twenty  weeks,  and  is  delivered  in  No- 
vember or  December,  preeifely  at  the  time  when 
grafs  there  is  in  the  greateft  plenty.  In  April  the 
grafs  is  burnt  up  ;  and  fheep  have  nothing  but 
fhrubs  to  browfe  on.  This  appears  to  me  a  fignal 
inftance  of  providential  care  *.  The  rutting-fea- 

fon 

*  I  have  it  upon  good  authority,  that  ewes  pafturmg  in  a  hilly 
country  choofe  early  forae  fnug  fpot,  where  they  may  drop 

their' 


4§6  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  f, 

fon  of  the  red-deer  is  the  end  of  September,  and 
beginning  of  Odlober :  it  continues  for  three  weeks ; 
during  which  time,  the  male  runs  from  female  to 
female  without  intermiflion.  The  female  brings 
forth  in  May,  or  beginning  of  June ;  and  the  fe- 
male of  the  fallow-deer  brings  forth  at  the  fame 
time.  The  fhe-afs  takes  the  male  the  beginning 
of  fummer ;  but  me  bears  twelve  months,  which 
fixes  her  delivery  to  fummer.  Wolves  and  foxes 
copulate  in  December :  the  female  carries  five 
months,  and  brings  forth  in  April,  when  animal 
food  is  as  plentiful  as  at  any  other  feafon  ;  and  the 
fhe-lion  brings  forth  about  the  fame  time.  Of  this 
early  birth  there  is  one  evident  advantage,  hinted 
above  :  the  young  have  time  to  grow  fo  firm  as 
eafily  to  bear  the  inclemencies  of  winter. 

Were  one  to  guefs  what  probably  would  be  the 
time  of  rutting,  fummer  would  be  named,  efpe- 
cially  in  a  cold  climate.  And  yet  to  quadrupeds 
who  carry  but  four  or  five  months,  that  economy 
would  throw  the  time  of  delivery  to  an  improper 
feafon,  for  warmth,  as  well  as  for  food.  Wifely  is 
it  ordered,  that  the  delivery  fhould  conft^ntly  be 
at  the  bed  feafon  for  both. 

Gregarious  quadrupeds  that  ftore  up  food  for 
winter,  differ  from  all  other  quadrupeds  with  re- 

fpeft 

their  young  with  fafety.  And  hence  the  rifle  of  removing  a 
flock  to  a  new  field  immediately  before  delivery ;  many  lambs 
perifn  by  being  dropped  in  improper  places, 


SK.  6.  APP.]  ANIMALS.  487 

fpecl  to  the  time  of  delivery.  Beavers  copulate 
about  the  end  of  autumn,  and  bring  forth  in  Ja- 
nuary, when  their  granary  is  full.  The  fame  eco- 
nomy probably  obtains  among  all  other  quadrupeds 
of  the  fame  kind. 

One  rule  takes  place  among  all  brute-animals, 
without  a  lingl.e  exception,  That  the  female  never 
is  burdened  with  two  litters  at  the  fame  time/ 
The  time  of  geftation  is  fo  unerringly  calculated 
by  nature,  that  the  young  brood  can  provide  for 
themfelves  before  another  brood  comes  on.  Even 
a  hare  is  not  an  exception,  though  many  litters 
are  produced  in  a  year.  The  female  carries  thirty 
or  thirty-one  days  \  but  me  fuckles  her  young  on- 
ly twenty  days,  after  which  they  provide  for  them- 
felves, and  leaye  her  free  to  a  new  litter. 

The  care  of  animals  to  preferve  their  young 
from  harm  is  a  beautiful  initance  of  Providence. 
When  a  hind  hears  the  hounds,  me  puts  herfelf  in 
the  way  of  being  hunted,  and  leads  them  from  her 
fawn.  The  lapwing  is  no  lefs  ingenious :  if  a  per- 
fon  approach,  fhe  flies  about,  retiring  always  from 
her  neft.  A  partridge  is  extremely  artful :  me 
hops  away,  hanging  a  wing  as  if  broken :  lingers 
fill  the  perfon  approach,  and  hops  again  *.  A  hen, 

timid 

*  The  following  incident  hardly  deferves  to  be  mentioned, 
it  is  fo  common,  but  that  the  tear  is  fcarce  dry  which  the  fight 
wrung  from  me.  A  man  mowing  a  field  for  hay,  pafled  over 
a  partridge  fitting  on  her  eggs.  Turning  about  to  cut  down 


488  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

timid  by  nature,  is  bold  as  a  lion  in  defence  of  her 
young :  fhe  darts  upon  every  creature  that  threat- 
ens danger.  The  roebuck  defends  its  young  with 
refolution  and  courage.  So  doth  a  ram  ;  and  fo 
do  many  other  quadrupeds. 

Let  me  add  a  few  words  about  the  nature  of  in- 
ftinct  in  animals.  Inftinct  is  an  impulfe  of  nature 
to  perform  neceflary  acts  where  reafon  is  deficient. 
The  actions  of  brute  animals  are  generally  direct- 
ed by  inftinct ;  but,  as  in  man,  the  rational  prin- 
ciple is  more  vigorous,  he  is  trufted  to  the  conduct 
of  that  principle,  and  is  not  left  to  be  directed  by 
inilinct,  except  in  fingular  cafes  where  reafon  can- 
not be  of  ufe.  The  inftincts  of  animals  are  finely 
adjuiled  to  the  other  branches  of  their  conftitution. 
An  ox,  which  chews  the  cud,  fwallows  greedily, 
and  grinds  after  at  leifure.  A  horfe,  which  does  not 
chew  the  cud,  grinds  carefully  in  eating.  Mon- 
fieur  Buffon  admits,  that,  by  inilinct,  birds  of  paf- 
fage  change  their  habitation  ;  and  yet,  fo  crude 
are  his  notions  of  inftinct,  as  to  aflign  caufes  for 
the  change,  which  require  both  reflection  and  fore- 
light  far  above  the  glimmering  reafon  they  are 
endued  with.  Quails,  fays  he,  during  fummer, 
are  always  travelling  north,  becaufe  they  are  a- 
fraid  of  heat ;  or,  perhaps,  to  leave  a  country 

where 

a  tult  that  had  been  left,  he  unhappily  brought  up  the  par- 
tridge on  the  point  of  his  fey  the.  Such  affe&ion  there  is  even 
for  a  brood  not  yet  brought  to  light. 


SK.  6.  APP.]  ANIMALS.  489 

where  the  harveft  is  over,  for  another  where  it  is 
later.     This  would  be  a  degree  of  knowledge  de- 
nied even  to  man,  unlefs  from  experience.     Ari- 
ftotle,  with  as  little  accuracy,  maintains,  that  it  is 
from  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  feafons  that 
birds  of  paflage  change  their  habitation  twice  a- 
year.     It  is,  I  admit,  the  final  caufe  of  their  mi- 
gration ;  but  undoubtedly  blind  inftinct  is  the  ef- 
ficient caufe.    The  magpie,  he  obferves,  covers  its 
neft,  leaving  only  a  hole  in  the  fide  to  get  in  and 
out  at ;  well  knowing  that  many  birds  of  prey  are 
fond  of  its  eggs.     Yet  the  fame  BufFon  obferving, 
that,  when  a  fparrow  builds  under  a  roof,  it  gives 
no  cover  to  its  neft,  covering  it  only  when  it  builds 
on  a  tree  ;  and  that  a  beaver,  which  erects  a  ftrong 
dam-dike  to  keep  a  running  water  always  at  the 
fame   height,  never  thinks  of  fuch   an   operation 
when  it  fettles  on  the  brink  of  a  lake  which  va- 
ries little  in  height ;  maintains  thefe  variations  to 
be  the  perfection  of  inftinct.     Is  it  not  apparent 
that  reafon  is  necefiary  to  make  a  being  to  vary  its 
conduct:  according  to  circumftances  ;  and  that  what 
is  obferved  of  the  fparrow  and  beaver  is  evidence 
of  no  flight  degree  of  reflection  ?    Inftinct,  on  the 
contrary,    is   a   blind    impulfe   of  nature,    which 
prompts  always  the  fame  uniform  courfe,  without 
regard  to  variation  of  circumftances. 

It  is  obferved  by  an  ingenious  writer*,  that  na- 
ture fports  in  the  colour  of  domeftic  animals,  in 

order 

f  Pennant. 


490        MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.       [B.  I.  APF. 

order  that  men  may  the  more  readily  diftinguifh 
their  own.  It  is  not  eafy  to  fay  why  colour  is 
more  varied  in  fuch  animals,  than  in  thofe  which 
remain  in  the  ftate  of  nature :  I  can  only  fay>  that 
the  caufe  affigned  is  not  fatisfadory.  One  is  fel- 
dom  at  a  lofs  to  diflinguim  one  animal  from  ano- 
ther ;  and  Providence  never  interpofes  to  vary  the 
ordinary  courfe  of  nature,  for  an  end  fo  little  ne- 
ceflary  as  to  make  the  diftindlion  ftill  more  ob- 
vious. I  add,  that  it  does  not  appear,  in  any  in- 
ftance,  the  intention  of  Providence,  to  encourage 
inattention  and  indolence. 

The  foregoing  particulars  are  offered  to  the  pub- 
lic as  hints  merely  :  may  it  not  be  hoped,  that  they 
will  excite  curiolity  in  thofe  who  relifli  natural 
hiftory  ?  The  field  is  rich,  though  little  cultiva- 
ted ;  and  I  know  no  other  branch  of  natural  hif- 
tory that  opens  finer  views  into  the  conduct  of  Pro- 
vidence. 


SKETCH 


SK.  7.]  LUXURY,  491 


SKETCH  VII. 

PROGRESS    AND    EFFECTS    OF    LUXURY. 

t 

THE  wifdam  of  Providence  is  in  no  inftance 
more  confpicuous  than  in  adjufting  the  con- 
ftitution  of  man  to  his  external  circumftances. 
Food  is  extremely  precarious  in  the  hunter-ftate  ; 
fometimes  fuperabounding  with  little  fatigue,  fome- 
times  failing  after  great  fatigue.  A  favage,  like 
other  animals  of  prey,  has  a  ftomach  adjufted  to 
that  variety  :  he  can  bear  a  long  fad  ;  and  gorges 
voraciouily  when  he  has  plenty,  without  being  the 
worfe  for  it.  Whence  it  is,  that  barbarians,  who 
have  fcarce  any  fenfe  of  decency,  are  great  and 
grofs  feeders  *.  The  Kamlkatkans  love  fat ;  and 
a  man  entertains  his  guefts,  by  cramming  into 

their 

*  In  the  Iliad  of  Homer,  book  ix.  Agamemnon  calls  a 
council  at  night  in  his  tent.  Before  entering  on  bufmefs,  they 
go  to  fupper,  (line  122).  An  embafly  to  Achilles  is  refolved 
on.  The  ambafladors  again  fup  with  Achilles  on  pork  grif- 
kins,  (line  271).  Achilles  rejecls  Agamemnon's  offer;  and 
the  fame  night  Ulyfles  and  Diomed  fet  out  on  their  expedition 
to  the  Trojan  camp :  returning  before  day,  they  had  a  third 
fupper. 

VOL,  I.  H  h 


492  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

their  mouths  fat  flices  of  a  feal,  or  a  whale,  cut- 
ting off  with  his  knife  what  hangs  out.     Barba- 
rians are  equally  addicted  to  drunkennefs ;  and  pe- 
culiarly fond  of  fpiritous  liquors.     Drinking  was 
a  fafhionable  vice  in  Greece,  when  Menander,  Phi- 
lemon, and  Diphilus,  wrote,  if  we  can  rely  on  the 
tranflations  or  imitations  of  their  plays  by  Plautus 
and  Terence.     Cyrus  preparing  to  attack  his  bro- 
ther Artaxerxes,  King  of  Perfia,  publifhed  a  ma«< 
Hi&fto,  that  he  was  more  worthy  of  the  throne 
than  his  brother,  becaufe  he  could  fwallow  more 
wine.     Diodorus  Siculus  reports,  that,  in  his  time, 
the  Gauls,  like  other  barbarians,  were  much  ad- 
dicted to  drinking.     The  ancient  Scandinavians, 
who,  like  other  favages,  were  intemperate  in  eat- 
ing and  drinking,  fwallowed  large  cups  to  their 
gods,  and  to  fuch  of  their  countrymen  as  had  fallen 
bravely  in  battle.     We  learn  from  the  25th  fable 
of  the  Edda,  which  was  their  facred  book,  that  to 
hold  much  liquor,  was  reputed  a  heroic  virtue. 
Contarini,  the  Venetian  ambaffador,  who  wrote  an* 
no  1473,  fays,  that  the  Ruffians  were  abandoned  to 
drunkennefs ;  and  that  the  whole  race  would  have 
been  extirpated,  had  not  ftrong  liquors  been  dif- 
charged  by  the  fovereign. 

A  habit  of  fafting  long,  acquired  as  above,  in 
the  hunter-ftate,  made  meals  in  the  fhepherd  ilate 
lefs  frequent  than  at  prefent,  though  food  was  at 
hand.  Anciently  people  fed  but  once  a-day,  a  fa- 
fhion  that  continued  even  after  luxury  was  indul- 
ged 


S.K.  7.]  LUXURY.  493 

ged  in  other  refpech.  In  the  war  of  Xerxes  againft 
Greece,  it  was  pleafantly  faid  of  the  Abderites,  who 
were  burdened  with  providing  for  the  King's  ta^le, 
that  they  ought  to  thank  the  gods  for  not  inclining 
Xerxes  to  eat  twice  a-day.  Plato  held  the  Sici- 
lians to  be  gluttons,  for  having  two  meals  every- 
day. Arian  *  obferves,  that  the  Tyrrhenians  had 
the  fame  bad  habit.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VL 
the  people  of  England  fed  but  twice  a-day.  Hec^ 
tor  Boyes,  in  his  Hiftory  of  Scotland,  exclaiming 
againft  the  growing  luxury  of  his  contemporaries, 
fays,  that  fome  perfons  were  fo  gluttonous,  as  to 
have  three  meals  every  day. 

Luxury,  undoubtedly,  and  love  of  fociety,  tend- 
ed to  increafe  the  number  of  meals  beyond  what 
nature  requires.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a 
caufe  that  kept  down  the  number  for  fome  time, 
which  is,  the  introduction  of  machines.  Bodily 
ftrength  is  effential  to  a  favage,  being  his  only  in- 
ftrument ;  and  with  it  he  performs  wonders.  Ma- 
chines have  rendered  bodily  ftrength  of  little  im- 
portance ;  and,  as  men  labour  lefs  than  originally, 
they  eat  lefs  in  proportion  f.  Liften  to  Hollin- 
fhed,  the  Englifh  hiftorian,  upon  that  article : 
"  Heretofore,  'there  hath  been  much  more  time 

H  h  2  "  fpent 

*  Lib.  iv.  cap,  16. 

f  Before  fire-arms  were  known,  people  gloried  in  addrefs 
and  bodily  ftrength,  and  commonly  fought  hand  to  hand.  But 
violent  exercifes,  becoming  lefs  and  lefs  neceflary,  went  infen- 
fibly  out  of  fafhion. 


it 
it 


494  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  i, 

"  fpent  in  eating  and  drinking,  than  commonly  is 
in  thefe  days  ;  for  whereas,  of  old,  we  had  break  - 
fafts  in  the  forenoon,  beverages  or  nunchions  after 
"  dinner,  and  thereto  rear-fuppers  when  it  was 
"  time  to  go  to  reft  ;  now  thefe  odd  repafts,  thank- 
"  ed  be  God,  are  very  well  left,  and  each  one  con- 
"  tenteth  himfelf  with  dinner  and  fupper  only." 
Thus,  before  cookery  and  luxury  crept  in,  a  mo- 
derate ftomach,  occafioned  by  the  abridging  bo- 
dily labour,  made  eating  lefs  frequent  than  for- 
merly. But  the  motion  did  not  long  continue  re- 
trograde :  good  cookery,  and  the  pleafure  of  eating 
in  company,  turned  the  tide  ;  and  people  now 
eat  lefs  at  a  time,  but  more  frequently. 

Feafts  in  former  times  were  carried  beyond  all 
bounds.  William  of  Malmftjury,  who  wrote  in  the 
days  of  Henry  II.  fays,  "  That  the  EngliQi  were 
"  univerfally  addided  to  drunkennefs,  continuing 
"  over  their  cups  day  and  night,  keeping  open 
"  houfe,  and  fpending  the  income  of  their  eftates 
"  in  riotous  feafts,  where  eating  and  drinking 
"  were  carried  to  excefs,  without  any  elegance." 
People  who  live  in  a  corner  imagine  that  every 
thing  is  peculiar  to  themfelves :  what  Malmlbury 
fays  of  the  Englifh  is  common  to  all  nations,  in 
advancing  from  the  felfifhnefs  of  favages  to  a  relifh 
for  fociety,  but  who  have  not  yet  learned  to  bridle 
their  appetites.  Giraldus  Cambrenfis,  fpeaking  of 
the  Monks  of  Saint  Swithin,  fays,  that  they  threw 
themfelves  proftrate  at  the  feet  of  King  Henry  II. 

and 


f 


SK.7.]  LUXURY.  495 

and  with  many  tears  complained,  that  the  Bifhop, 
who  was  their  abbot,  had  withdrawn  from  them 
three  of  their  ufual  number  of  dimes.  Henry,  ha- 
ving made  them  acknowledge  that  there  ftill  re- 
mained ten  dimes,  faid,  that  he  himfelf  was  con- 
tented with  three,  and  recommended  to  the  Bifhop 
to  reduce  them  to  that  number.  Leland*  men- 
tions a  feaft  given  by  the  Archbifhop  of  York,  at 
his  inflallation,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  The 
following  is  a  fpecimen  :  300  quarters  of  wheat, 
300  tons  of  ale,  100  tons  of  wine,  1000  fheep,  104 
oxen,  304  calves,  304  fvvine,  2000  geefe,  1000  ca- 
pons, 2000  pigs,  400  fwans,  104  peacocks,  1500 
hot  venifon  pafties,  4000  cold,  5000  cuflards,  hot 
and  cold.  Such  entertainments  are  a  pidlure  of 
manners.  At  that  early  period,  there  was  not  dif- 
covered  in  fociety  any  pleafure  but  that  of  crowd- 
ing together  in  hunting  and  feafting.  The  deli- 
cate pleafures  of  converfation,  in  communicating 
opinions,  fentiments,  and  delires,  were  to  them  un- 
known. There  appeared,  however,  even  at  that 
early  period,  a  faint  dawn  of  the  fine  arts.  In 
fuch  feafts  as  are  mentioned  above,  a  curious  de- 
fert  was  fometimes  exhibited,  termed  futteltie,  viz. 
pafte  moulded  into  the  lhape  of  animals.  On  a 
faint's  day,  angels,  prophets,  and  patriarchs,  were 
fet  upon  the  table  in  plenty.  A  feaft  given  by 
Trivultius  to  Lewis  XII.  of  France,  in  the  city  of 
Milan,  makes  a  figure  in  Italian  hiftory.  No  fewer 

H  h  3  than 

*  Colleftanea. 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

than  1200  ladies  were  invited  ;  and  the  Cardinals 
of  Narbon  and  St  Severin,  with  many  other  pre- 
lates, were  among  the  dancers.  After  dancing, 
followed  the  feaft,  to  regulate  which  there  were 
no  fewer  employed  than  160  mafter-houfeholds. 
Twelve  hundred  officers,  in  an  uniform  of  velvet, 
or  fatin,  carried  the  victuals,  and  ferved.  at  the 
iideboard.  Every  table,  without  diftinclion,  was 
ferved  with  filver- plate,  engraved  with  the  arms 
of  the  landlord ;  and  beiide  a  prodigious  number 
of  Italian  lords,  the  whole  court,  and  all  the  houfe- 
hold  of  the  King,  were  feafted.  The  bill  of  fare 
of  an  entertainment  given  by  Sir  Watkin  Williams 
Wynn  to  a  company  of  1500  perfons,  on  his  co- 
ining of  age,  is  a  fample  of  ancient  Englifh  hofpi- 
tality,  which  appears  to  have  nothing  in  view  but 
crowding  and  cramming  merely.  The  following 
paffage  is  from  Hollinftied  :  "  That  the  length  and 
"  fumptuoufnefs  of  feafts  formerly  in  ufe,  are  not 
V  totally  left  off  in  England,  notwithftanding  that 
"  it  proveth  very  beneficial  to  the  phyiicians,  who 
"  moft  abound  where  moft  excefs  and  mifgovern- 
"  ment  of  our  bodies  do  appear."  He  adds,  that 
claret,  and  other  French  wines,  were  defpifed,  and 
ftrong  wines  only  in  requeft.  The  beft,  he  fays? 
were  to  be  found  in  monafteries  :  for  "  that  the 
f*  merchant  would  have  thought  his  foul  would  go 
"  ftraightway  to  the  devil,  if  he  mould  ferve 
"  monks  with  other  than  the  beft."  Our  forefa- 
thers relilhed  ftrong  wine,  for  the  fame  reafon  that 

their 


SK,  7.]  LUXURY.  497 

their  forefathers  relifhed  brandy.  In  Scotland, 
fumptuous  entertainments  were  common  at  mar- 
riages, baptifms,  and  burials.  In  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  a  ftatute  was  thought  necefiary  to  con» 
fine  them  within  moderate  bounds. 

Of  old,  there  was  much  eating  with  little  varie- 
ty :  at  prefent,  there  is  great  variety,  with  more 
moderation.  From  a  houfehold-book  of  the  Earl 
of  Northumberland,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
it  appears  that  his  family,  during  winter,  fed  moft- 
ly  on  fait  meat,  and  fait  fifh ;  and  with  that  view 
there  was  an  appointment  of  160  gallons  of  muf- 

j 

tard.  On  flefh-days,  through  the  year,  breakfaft  for 
my  Lord  and  Lady  was  a  loaf  of  bread,  two  man- 
chets a  quart  of  beer,  a  quart  of  wine,  half  a  chine 
of  mutton,  or  a  chine  of  beef  boiled  :  on  meagre 
days,  a  loaf  of  bread,  two  manchets,  a  quart  of 
beer,  a  quart  of  wine,  a  dim  of  butter,  a  piece  of 
fait  fifti,  or  a  difh  of  buttered  eggs :  during  Lent, 
a  loaf  of  bread,  two  manchets,  a  quart  of  beer,  a 
quart  of  wine,  two  pieces  of  fait  fifh,  fix  baconed 
herring,  four  white  herring,  or  a  difh  of  fproits. 
There  was  as  little  variety  in  the  other  meals,  ex- 
cept on  feftival  days.  That  way  of  living  was  at 
the  time  high  luxury  :  a  lady's  waiting-woman, 
at  prefent,  would  never  have  done  with  grumbling 
at  fuch  a  table.  We  learn  from  the  fame  book, 
that  the  Earl  had  but  two  cooks  for  dreffing  vic- 
tuals to  more  than  two  hundred  domeflics.  In 
thofe  days,  hen,  chicken,  capon,  pigeon,  plover, 

H  h  4  partridge, 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

partridge,  were  reckoned  fuch  delicacies,  as  to  be 
prohibited,  except  at  my  Lord's  table  *. 

But  luxury  is  always  creeping  on,  and  delicacies 
become  more  familiar.  Hollinfhed  obferves,  that 
white  meats,  milk,  butter,  and  cheefe,  formerly  the 
chief  food  of  his  countrymen,  were  in  his  time  de- 
graded to  be  the  food  of  the  lower  fort ;  and  that 
the  wealthy  fed  upon  flefh  and  filh.  By  a  roll  of 
the  King  of  Scotland's  houfehold  expence,  anno 
1378,  we  find,  that  the  art  of  gelding  cattle  was 
known.  The  role  is  in  Latin,  and  gelt  hogs  are 
termed  porcelli  eunuchl.  Mention  is  alfo  made  of 
chickens,  which  were  not  common  on  Englifh 
tables  at  that  time.  Olive  oil  is  alfo  mentioned. 

In  this  progrefs,  cooks,  we  may  believe,  came  to 
make  a  figure.  Hollinfhed  obferves,  that  the  no- 
bility, rejecting  their  own  cookery,  employed  as 
cooks  mufical-headed  Frenchmen  and  ilrangers,  as 
he  terms  them.  He  fays,  that  even  merchants, 
when  they  gave  a  feaft,  rejected  butcher's  meat  as 
unworthy  of  their  tables ;  having  jellies  of  all  co- 
lours, and  in  all  figures,  reprefenting  flowers,  trees, 
beads,  fifti,  fowl,  and  fruit.  Henry  Wardlaw, 
Archbifhop  of  St  Andrews,  obferving  the  refine- 
ments in  cookery  introduced  by  James  I.  of  Scot- 
land, who  had  been  eighteen  years  a  prifoner  in 
England,  exclaimed  againft  the  abufe  in  a  parlia- 
ment held  at  Perth  1433  :  he  obtained  a  law,  re- 

ftraining 

*     *  Houfchold-book  above  mentioned. 


SK.  7.]  LUXURY.  499 

{training  fuperfluous  diet ;  and  prohibiting  the  ufe  of 
baked  meat  to  any  under  the  degree  of  gentlemen, 
and  permitting  it  to  gentlemen  on  feftival-days  on- 
ly ;  which  baked  meat,  fays  the  bifhop,  was  never 
before  feen  in  Scotland.  The  peafants  in  Sicily 
regale  themfelves  with  ice  during  fummer.  They 
fay,  that  fcarcity  of  fnow  would  be  more  grievous 
to  them  than  fcarcity  of  corn  or  of  wine.  Such 
progrefs  has  luxury  made,  even  among  the  popu- 
lace. People  of  fafhion  in  London  and  in  Paris, 
who  employ  their  whole  thoughts  on  luxurious  li- 
ving, would  be  furprifed  to  be  told,  that  they  are 
Hill  deficient  in  that  art.  In  order  to  advance 
luxury  of  the  table  to  the  acme  of  perfection,  there 
ought  to  be  a  cook  for  every  dim,  as  in  ancient 
Egypt  there  was  a  phyfician  for  every  difeafe. 

Barbarous  nations,  being  great  eaters,  are  fond 
of  large  joints  of  meats ;  and  love  of  mow  retains 
great  joints  in  fafhion,  even  after  meals  become 
more  moderate  :  a  wild  boar  was  roafled  whole  for 
a  fiipper-dim  to  Anthony  and  Cleopatra  ;  and  fluf- 
fed with  poultry  and  wild-fowl,  it  was  a  favourite 
difh  at  Rome,  termed  the  Trojan  boar,  in  allufion 
to  the  Trojan  horfe.  The  hofpitality  of  the  An- 
glo-Saxons  was  fometimes  exerted  in  roafting  an 
ox  whole.  Great  joints  are  left  off  gradually,  .as 
people  become  more  and  more  delicate  in  eating. 
In  France,  great  joints  are  lefs  in  ufe  than  former- 
ly ;  and  in  England,  the  enormous  furloin,  for- 
merly the  pride  of  the  nation,  is  now  in  polite  fa- 

milies 


it 
it 


5OO  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.          [B.  I. 

milies  banifhed  to  the  fide-board.  In  China, 
where  manners  are  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  re- 
finement, dimes  are  compofed  entirely  of  minced 
meat*. 

In  early  times,  people  \Vere  no  lefs  plain  in  their 
houfes  than  in  their  food.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
fixteenth  century,  when  Hollinfhed  wrote,  the 
people  of  England  were  beginning  to  build  with 
brick  and  Hone.  Formerly  houfes  were  made  of 
timber  polls,  wattled  together  and  plaftered  with 
clay  to  keep  out  the  cold  :  the  roof  was  draw, 
fedge,  or  reed.  It  was  an  obfervation  of  a  Spa- 
niard in  Queen  Mary's  days,  "  Thefe  Englimhave 
their  houfes  of  flicks  and  dirt,  but  they  fare  as 
well  as  the  King.'5  Hollinfhed  mentioning  mul- 
titudes of  chimneys  lately  erected,  obferves,  upon 
the  authority  of  fome  old  men,  that  in  their  young^ 
er  days  there  were  not  above  two  or  three,  iffo 
many,  in  moft  uplandifh  towns  of  the  realm,  reji- 
gious  houfes  and  manor-places  of  their  lords  cx- 
cepted  ;  but  that  each  made  his  fire  againlt  a  rere- 

doffe 

*  The  fize  of  an  animal  may  be  abridged  by  fpare  diet ; 
but  its  ftrength  and  vigour  are  not  abridged  in  proportion. 
Our  Highlanders  live  very  poorly ;  and  yet  are  a  hardy  race. 
The  horfes  bred  in  that  mountainous  country  are  of  a  dimi- 
nutive fize  ;  but  no  other  horfes  can  bear  fo  much  fatigue. 
Camels  in  the  defarts  of  Arabia  are  trained  to  long  abftinence. 
They  are  loaded  more  and  more  as  they  grow  up  ;  and  their 
food  is  diminiiaed  in  proportion.  Plenty  of  fucculent  food 
raifes  an  animal  to  its  greateft  fize  j  but  its  folids  are  foft  and 
flexible  in  proportion  to  its  fize. 


SK.  7.]  LUXURY.  501 

dofle  in  the  hall,  where  he  dined,  and  drefled  his 
meat.  From  Lord  Northumberland's  houfehold- 
book,  it  would  feem  that  grates  were  unknown  at 
that  time,  and  that  they  burnt  their  coal  upon  the 
hearth  :  a  certain  fum  is  allotted  for  purchafing 
wood  ;  becaufe,  fays  the  book,  coals  will  not  burn 
without  it.  There  is  alfo  a  certain  fum  allotted 
for  purchafing  charcoal,  that  the  frrioke  of  the  fea- 
coal  might  hot  hurt  the  arras.  In  the  fourteenth 
century,  the  houfes  of  private  perfons  in  Paris,  as 
well  as  in  London,  were  of  wood.  Morrifon,  who 
wrote  in  the  beginning  of  the  lad  century,  fays, 
that  at  London  the  houfes  of  the  citizens  were  ve- 
ry narrow  in  the  ftreet- front,  five  or  iix  ilories 
high,  commonly  of  wood  and  clay  with  plafter. 
The  ilreets  of  Paris,  not  being  paved,  were  cover- 
ed with  mud  \  and  yet  for  a  woman  to  travel  thefe 
ftreets  in  a  cart,  was  held  an  article  of  luxury,  and 
as  fuch  prohibited  by  Philip  the  Fair.  Paris  is 
enlarged  two-thirds  fince  the  death  of  Henry  IV. 
though  at  that  time  it  was  perhaps  no  lefs  popu- 
lous than  at  prefent. 

People  were  equally  plain  in  their  houfehold- 
furniture.  While  money  was  fcarce,  fervants  got 
land  inftead  of  wages.  An  old  tenure  in  England, 
binds  the  vaflal  to  find  ftraw  for  the  King's  bed, 
and  hay  for  his  horfe.  From  Lord  Northumber- 
larxl's  houfehold-book,  mentioned  above,  it  ap- 
pears, that  the  linen  allowed  for  a  whole  year 
Amounted  to  no  more  but  feventy  ells ;  of  which 

there 


MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

there  were  to  be  eight  table-cloths  (no  napkins) 
for  his  Lordfhip's  table,  and  two  towels  for  wafh- 
ing  his  face  and  hands.  Pewter  veflels  were  pro- 
hibited to  be  hired,  except  on  Chriflmas,  Eafter, 
§t  George's  day,  and  Whitfunday.  Hollinfhed 
mentions  his  converfing  with  old  men,  who  re- 
marked many  alterations  in  England  within  their 
remembrance  ;  that  their  fathers,  and  they  them- 
felves  formerly,  had  nothing  to  ileep  on  but  a  ftraw 
pallet,  with  a  log  of  wood  for  a  pillow  ;  a  pillow, 
faid  they,  being  thought  meet  only  for  a  woman 
in  childbed  ;  and  that  if  a  man  in  feven  years  af- 
ter marriage  could  purchafe  a  flock-bed,  and  a 
fack  of  chaff  to  reft  his  head  upon,  he  thought 
himfelf  as  well  lodged  as  the  lord  of  the  town  ; 
who  peradventure  lay  feldom  on  a  bed  entirely 
of  feathers.  Another  thing  they  remarked,  was 
change  of  houfehold- veflels  from  timber  plates  in- 
to pewter,  and  from  wooden  fpoons  into  tin  or 
.iilver. 

Nor  were  they  lefs  plain  in  their  drefs.  By  an 
act  of  Parliament  in  Scotland,  anno  1429,  none 
were  permitted  to  wear  filk  or  coftly  furs,  but 
knights  and  lords  of  200  merks  yearly  rent.  But 
luxury  in  drefs  advanced  fo  faft,  that,  by  another 
act,  anno  1457,  the  fame  drefs  was  permitted  to 
aldermen,  bailies,  and  other  good  worthy  men 
within  burgh.  And  by  a  third  act,  anno  1471,  it 
was  permitted  to  gentlemen  of  L.  100  yearly  rent. 
By  a.  fumptuary  law  in  Scotland,  anno  1621,  cloth 

of 


SK.  7.]  LUXURY.  503 

of  gold  and  filver,  gold  and  filver  lace,  velvet, 
fatin,  and  other  (ilk  fluffs,  were  prohibited  except 
to  noblemen,  their  wives  and  children,  to  lords  of 
parliament,  prelates,  privy  councillors,  lords  of 
manors,  judges,  magiftrates  of  towns,  and  to  thofe 
who  have  6000  merks  of  yearly  rent.  Such  dif- 
tin&ions,  with  refped:  to  land  efpecially,  are  invi- 
dious ;  nor  can  they  ever  be  kept  up.  James,  the 
firfl  Britifh  monarch,  was,  during  infancy,  com- 
mitted to  the  Dowager-Countefs  of  Mar,  who  had 
been  educated  in  France.  The  King  being  feized 
with  a  cholic  in  the  night-time,  his  houfehold  fer- 
vants  flew  to  his  bed-chamber,  men  and  women, 
naked  as  they  were  born  ;  the  Countefs  only  had 
a  fmock. 

During  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  the  imports 
into  England  were  not  the  feventh  part  of  the  ex- 
ports. Our  exports  at  that  time  were  not  the  fe- 
venth part  of  our  prefent  exports ;  and  yet  our 
luxury  is  fuch,  that,  with  all  our  political  regula- 
tions, it  is  with  difficulty  that  the  balance  of  trade 
is  preferved  in  our  favour. 

Men,  in  different  ages,  differ  widely  in  their 
notions  of  luxury  :  every  new  object  of  fenfual 
gratification,  and  every  indulgence  beyond  what 
is  ufual,  are  commonly  termed  luxury  ;  and  ceafe 
to  be  luxury  when  they  turn  habitual.  Thus  eve- 
ry hiflorian,  ancient  and  modern,  while  he  in- 
veighs againft  the  luxury  of  his  own  times,  won- 
ders at  former  hiftoriaqs  for  charaderifmg  as  luxu- 

ry 


t( 
ft 


504  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

ry  what  he  confiders  as  conveniences  merely,  or 
rational  improvements.  Hear  the  Roman  hifto- 
rian,  talking  of  the  war  that  his  countrymen  car- 
ried on  fuccefsfully  againft  Antiochus  King  of 
Syria  :  "  Luxuriae,  enim  peregrinae  origo  ab  ex- 
"  ercitu  Afiatico  inveda  urbem  eft.  li  primum 
"  lectos  aeratos,  veftem  ftragulam  pretiofam,  pla- 
gulas  et  alia  textilia,  et  quae  turn  magnificas  fu- 
pelleclilis  habebantur,  monopodia  et  abacos  Ro- 
"  mam  advexerunt.  Tune  pfaltriae,  fambufiftriae- 
"  que,  et  convivalia  ludionum  oblectamenta  addi- 
"  ta  epulis :  epulae  quoque  ipfae  et  cura  et  fumptu 
*'  majore  adparari  cceptae  :  turn  coquus,  viliffi- 
"  mum  antiquis  mancipium  aeftimatione  et  ufu, 
"  in  pretio  efle  :  et,  quod  minifterium  fuerat,  ars 
*'  haberi  caepta.  Vix  tamen  ilia,  quae  turn  con- 
"  fpiciebantur,  femina  erant  futurae  luxuriae  *." 

Houfehold- 

*  '*  For  the  Afiatic  foldiers  firft  introduced  into  Rome  the 
*'  foreign  luxury.  They  firft  brought  with  them  beds  orna- 
"  mented  with  brazen  fculptures,  painted  coverings,  curtains 
"  and  tapeftry,  and  what  were  then  efteemed  magnificent  fur- 
*'  niture,  fide-boards,  and  tables  with  one  foot.  Then  to  the 
*'  luxury  of  our  feafts  were  added  fmging  girls,  female  play- 
"  ers  on  the  lute,  and  morris-dancers :  greater  care  and  ex- 
"  pence  were  beftowed  upon  our  entertainments :  the  cook, 
"  whom  our  forefathers  reckoned  the  meaneft  {lave,  became 
"  now  in  high  efteem  and  requeft  ;  and  what  was  formerly  a 
**  fervile  employment,  was  now  exalted  into  a  fcience.  All 
"  thefe,  however,  fcarcely  deferve  to  be  reckoned  the  feeds  or 
*'  buds  of  the  luxury  of  after  times." — -Tit.  Liv.  lib.  xxxir 
cap.  6. 


§£.  7*]  LUXURY. 

Houfehold-furniture  at  Rome  muft  at  that  pe- 
riod have  been  wonderfully  plain,  when  a  carpet 
and  a  one-footed  table  were  reckoned  articles  of 
luxury.  When  the  gelding  of  bulls  and  rams  was 
firft  praclifed,  it  was  probably  confidered  as  abo- 
minable luxury.  Galvanus  Fiamma,  who  in  the 
fourteenth  century  wrote  a  hiftory  of  Milan,  his 

native  country,  complains,  that  in  his  time  plain  li- 

• 

ving  had  given  way  to  luxury  and  extravagance. 
He  regrets  the  times  of  Frederic  Barbarofla  and 
Frederic  II.  when  the  inhabitants  of  Milan,  a  great 
capital,  had  but  three  flefh  meals  in  a  week,  when 
wine  was  a  rarity,  when  the  better  fort  made  ufe 

of  dried  wood  for  candles,  and  when  their  fhirts 

1 

were  of  ferge,  linen  being  confined  to  perfons  of 
the  higheft  rank.  "  Matters,"1  fays  he,  "  are  won- 
"  derfully  changed  :  linen  is  a  common  wear  :  the 
"  women  drefs  in  filk,  ornamented  frequently  with 
"  gold  and  filver ;  and  they  wear  gold  pendants 
"  at  their  ears."  A  hiftorian  of  the  prefent  times 
would  laugh  at  Fiamma,  for  ftating  as  articles  of 
luxury  what  are  no  more  but  decent  for  a  tradefr 
man  and  his  wife.  John  Muflb,  a  native  of  Lorn- 
bardy,  who  alfo  wrote  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
declaims  againft  the  luxury  of  his  cotemporaries, 
particularly  againft  that  of  the  citizens  of  Placen- 
tia  his  countrymen.  "  Luxury  of  the  table,"  fays 

he,  "  of  drefs,  of  houfes  and  houfehold- furniture, 

'          .          "  •       ~ 

"  in  Placentia,  began  to  creep  in  after  the  year 
1300.    Houfes  have  at  prefent  halls,  rooms  with 

chimneys, 


4.   SWW.          X-LVL41V- J    lit*  Y  \-     tAU     t'LV-A-^ZAU    aAM.Ai.u 

it 


506  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  B.  I, 


"  chimneys,  porticos,  wells,  gardens,  and  many 
"  other  conveniencies,  unknown  to  our  anceftors. 
"  A  houfe  that  has  now  many  chimneys,  had 
if  none  in  the  laft  age.  The  fire  was  placed  in  the 
*'  middle  of  the  houfe,  without  any  vent  for  the 
"  fmoke  but  the  tiles  :  all  the  family  fat  round  it, 
"  and  the  victuals  were  drefled  there.  The  ex- 
"  pence  of  houfehold-furniture  is  ten  times  great- 
"  er  than  it  was  fixty  years  ago.  The  tafte  for 
"  fuch  ex  pence  comes  to  us  from  France,  from 
"  Flanders,  and  from  Spain.  Eating  tables,  for- 
"  merly  but  twelve  inches  long,  are  now  grown 
"  to  eighteen.  They  have  table-cloths,  with  cups, 
"  fpoons,  and  forks,  of  filver,  and  large  knives. 
"  Beds  have  filk  coverings  and  curtains.  They 
"  have  got  candles  of  tallow  or  wax  in  candle- 
"  fticks  of  iron  or  copper.  Almoft  every  where 
"  there  are  two  fires,  one  for  the  chamber,  and  one 
"  for  the  kitchen.  Confections  have  come  greatly 
"  in  ufe,  and  fenfuality  regards  no  expence.11 
Hollinfhed  exclaims  againft  the  luxury  and  effe- 
minacy that  prevailed  in  his  time.  "  In  times 
"  pad,"  fa^s  he,  "  men  were  contented  to  dwell 
"  in  houfes  builded  of  fallow,  willow,  plumtree, 
"  or  elm  ;  fo  that  the  ufe  of  oak  was  dedicated  to 
"  churches,  religious  houfes,  princes  palaces,  noble- 
"  mens  lodgings,  and  navigation.  But  now,  thefe 
"  are  rejected,  and  nothing  but  oak  any  whit  re- 
*  garded.  And  yet  fee  the  change  ;  for  when  our 
"  houfes  were  builded  of  willow,  then  had  we 

"  oaken 


u 
it 


ft 
n 


ft 
it 


SK.  7.]  LUXURY.  507 

"  oaken  men  ;  but  now  that  our  houfes  are  made 
"  of  oak,  our  men  are  not  only  become  willow,  but 
many,  through  Perfian  delicacy  crept  in  among 
us,  altogether  of  ftraw,  which  is  a  fore  altera- 
"  tion.  In  thofe  days,  the  courage  of  the  owner 
was  a  fufficient  defence  to  keep  the  houfe  in 
fafety  ;  but  now,  the  aflurance  of  the  timber, 
"  double  doors,  locks  and  bolts,  muft  defend  the 
man  from  robbing.  Now,  have  we  many  chim- 
neys, and  our  tenderlings  complain  of  rheums, 
"  catarrhs,  and  pofes.  Then,  had  we  none  but 
"  rere- dofies,  and  our  heads  did  never  ake.  For 
"  as  the  fmoke  in  thofe  days  was  fuppofed  to  be  a 
"  fufficient  hardening  for  the  timber  of  the  houfe ; 
fo  it  was  reputed  a  far  better  medicine  to  keep, 
the  goodman  and  his  family  from  the  quack  or 
pofe,  wherewith  very  few  were  then  acquaint- 
"  ed."  Not  many  more  than  fifty  years  ago, 
French  wine,  in  Edinburgh  taverns,  was  prefented 
to  the  gueils  in  a  fmall  tin  veflel,  meafuring  about 
an  Englifh  pint.  A  fingle  drinking  glafs  ferved  a 
company  the  whole  evening  ;  and  the  firil  perfons 
who  infilled  for  a  clean  glafs  with  every  new  pint, 
were  accufed  of  luxury.  A  knot  of  Highlanders 
benighted,  wrapped  themfelves  up  in  their  plaids, 
and  lay  down  in  the  fnow  to  fleep.  A  young  gen- 
tleman making  up  a  ball  of  fnow,  ufed  it  for  a 
pillow.  His  father  #,  finking  away  the  ball  with 
VOL.  I.  I  i  his 

*  Sir  Evan  Cameron. 


it 
ft 
tt 


508  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

his  foot,  "  What,  Sir,"'  fays  he,  "  are  you  turning 
"  effeminate  ?'  Crantz,  defcribing  the  kingdom 
of  Norway  and  the  manners  of  the  people,  has  the 
following  reflection  :  "  Robuftiffimos  educat  viros, 
"  qui,  nulla  frugum  luxuria  moliti,  faepius  impug- 
"  nant  alios  quam  impugnantur*  ."  In  the  moun- 
tainous ifland  of  Rum,  one  of  the  Weilern  Iflands  of 
Scotland,  the  corn  produced  ferves  the  inhabitants 
but  a  few  months  in  winter.  The  reft  of  the  year 
they  live  on  flefh,  fim,  and  milk  ;  and  yet  are 
healthy  and  long-lived.  In  the  year  1768,  a  man 
died  there  aged  103,  who  was  50  years  old  before 
he  ever  tailed  bread.  This  old  man  frequently  ha- 
rangued upon  the  plain  fare  of  former  times  ;  find- 
ing fault  with  his  neighbours  for  indulging  in 
bread,  and  upbraiding  them  for  toiling  like  Haves 
to  produce  fuch  an  unneceflary  article  of  luxury. 
The  inhabitants  of  Canada,  before  they  were 
known  to  Europeans,  were  but  thinly  clothed  in  a 
bitter  cold  climate.  They  had  no  covering  but  a 
fingle  Ikin,  girded  about  them  with  a  belt  of  lea- 
ther. The  coarfe  woollen  cloth  which  they  were 
taught  to  wear  by  the  French,  raifed  bitter  lamen- 
tations in  their  old  men  for  increafe  of  luxury  and 
decline  of  manners. 

Thus,  every  one  exclaims  againft  the  luxury  of 
the  prefent  times,  judging  more  favourably  of  the 

paft  ; 

*  et  It  produces  a  moft  robuft  race  of  men,  who  are  ener- 
*?  vated  by  no  luxury  of  food,  and  are  more  prone  to  atuck 
?'  and  harafs  their  neighbours,  than  fubjeded  to  their  at- 

:  ,  .  *•*  ,.,....'••  t    :•  • 

$  tacks." 


SK.  7.]  XUXURY.  '  509 

pail ;  as  if  what  is  luxury  at  prefent,  would  ceafe 
to  be  luxury  when  it  becomes  cuftomary.  What 
is  the  foundation  of  a  fentiment  fo  univerfal  ?  In 
point  of  dignity,  corporeal  pleafures  are  the  loweft 
of  all  that  belong  to  our  nature ;  and  for  that  rea- 
fon  perfons  of  delicacy  difiemble  the  pleafure  they 
have  in  eating  and  drinking  #.  When  corporeal 
pleafure  is  indulged  to  excefs,  it  is  not  only  low, 
but  mean.  But  as,  in  judging  of  things  that  ad- 
mit of  degrees,  comparifon  is  the  ordinary  ftand- 
ard  ;  every  refinement  in  corporeal  pleafure  be- 
yond what  is  cuftomary,  is  held  to  be  a  blameable 
excefs,  below  the  dignity  of  human  nature.  For 
that  reafon,  every  improvement  in  living  is  pro- 
nounced to  be  luxury  while  recent,  and  drops  that 
character  when  it  comes  into  common  ufe.  For 
the  fame  reafon,  what  is  moderation  in  the  capital, 
is  efteemed  luxury  in  a  country -town.  Doth  lu- 
xury then  depend  entirely  on  comparifon  ?  is  there 
no  other  foundation  for  diftinguifhing  moderation 
from  excefs  ?  This  will  hardly  be  maintained. 

This  fubject  is  rendered  obfcure  by  giving  dif- 
ferent meanings  to  the  term  luxury.  A  French 
writer  holds  every  fort  of  food  to  be  luxury  but 
raw  fleih  and  acorns,  which  were  the  original  food 
of  favages  ;  and  every  fort  of  covering  to  be  lu- 
xury but  fkins,  which  were  their  original  cloath- 
ing.  According  to  that  definition,  the  plough,  .the 
fpade,  the  loom,  are  all  of  them  initruments  of 

I  i  2  luxury  ; 

*  Elements  of  Criticifm,  vol.  i.  p.  356.  edit.  5. 


5IO  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I, 

luxury ;  in  which  view,  he  juftly  extols  luxury  to 
the  ikies.  We  are  born  naked,  becaufe  we  can 
clothe  ourfelves ;  and  artificial  cloathing  is  to  man 
as  much  in  the  order  of  nature,  as  hair  or  feathers 
are  to  other  animals.  But  whatever  accords  to 
the  common  nature  of  man,  is  right ;  and  for  that 
reafon  cannot  in  a  proper  fenfe  be  termed  luxury, 
Shoes  are  a  refinement  from  walking  barefoot ; 
and  Voltaire,  taking  this  refinement  to  be  luxury, 
laughs  at  thofe  who  declaim  againft  luxury.  Let 
every  man  enjoy  the  privilege  of  giving  his  own 
meaning  to  words  :  but  when  a  man  deviates  fo 
far  from  their  ufual  meaning,  the  neglect  to  define 
them  is  inexcufable.  In  common  language  and  in 
common  apprehenfion,  luxury  always  implies  a 
faulty  excefs ;  and  upon  that  account,  is  condemn- 
ed by  all  writers,  fucji  only  excepted  as  affect  to 
be  fingular. 

Faulty  excefs  is  clearly  one  branch  of  the  defi- 
nition of  luxury.  Another  is,  that  the  excefs  mu ft 
be  habitual':  a  fingle  act  of  intemperance,  how- 
ever faulty,  is  not  denominated  luxury :  reitera- 
tion muft  be  fo  frequent,  as  to  become  a  confirmed 
habit. 

Nor  are  thefe  particulars  all  that  enter  into  the 
definition  pf  luxury.  There  are  many  pleafures, 
however  intemperate  or  habitual,  that  are  not 
branded  with  that  odious  name.  Mental  pleafure, 
fuch  as  arifes  from  fentiment  or  reafoning,  falls 
rigt  within  the  verge  of  luxury,  to  whatever  ex- 
cefs 


BK«  7.]  LUXURY. 

cefs  indulged.   Jf  to  relieve  merit  in  diftrefs  be 
luxury,  it  is  only  fo  in  a  metaphorical  fenfe  :  nor 
is  it  deemed  luxury  in  a  damfel  of  fifteen  to  perufe 
love-novels  from  morning  till  evening.     Luxury  ig 
confined  to  the  external  fenfes  :  nor  does  it  belong 
to  every  one  of  thefe  :  the  fine  arts  have  no  rela- 
tion to  luxury.     A  man  is  not  even  faid  to  be  lu- 
xurious, merely  for  indulging  in  drefs,  or  in  fine 
furniture.     Hollinfhed  inveighs  againfl  drinking- 
glafles  as  an  article  of  luxury.     At  that  rate,  a 
houfe  adorned  with  fine  pi&ures  or  ftatues,  would 
be  an  imputation  on  the  proprietpr.    Thus,  paffing 
in  review  every  pleafure  of  external  fenfc,  we  find, 
that  in  proper  language  the  term  luxury  is  not  ap- 
plicable to  any  pleafure  of  the  eye  or  ear.     That 
term  is  confined  to  the  pleafures  of  taile,  touch, 
and  fmell,  which  appear  as  exifting  at  the  organ 
of  fenfe,  and  upon  that  account  are  held  to  be 
merely  corporeal  *. 

Having  thus  circumfcribed  our  fubjecT;  within 
its  proper  bounds,  the  important  point  that  re- 
mains to  be  afcertained  is,  Whether  we  have  any 
rule  for  determining  what  excefs  in  corporeal  plea- 
fure may  juftly  be  denominated  faulty.  About 
that  point  we  are  at  no  lofs.  Though  our  prefent 
life  be  a  flate  of  trial,  yet  our  Maker  has  kindly 
indulged  us  in  every  pleafure  that  is  not  hurtful 
to  the  mind  nor  to  the  body  ;  and  therefore  no 
excefs  but  what  is  hurtful  falls  under  the  cenfure 


*  See  Elements  of  Criticifm,  Intro  duttion. 


512  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

of  being  luxurious  :  it  is  faulty,  as  a  tranfgreffion 
of  felf-duty ;  and,  as  fuch,  is  condemned  by  the 
moral  fenfe.  The  moft  violent  declaimer  againft 
luxury  will  not  affirm,  that  bread  is  luxury,  or  a 
fnow-ball  ufed  for  a  pillow :  thefe  are  innocent, 
becaufe  they  do  no  harm.  As  little  will  it  be  af- 
firmed, that  d welling -houfes,  more  capacious  than 
thofe  originally  built,  ought  to  be  condemned  as 
luxury  ;  feeing  they  contribute  to  cheerfulnefs  as 
w^ll  as  to  health.  The  plague,  fome  centuries 
ago,  made  frequent  vilits  to  London,  promoted  by 
air  ftagnating  in  narrow  flreets  and-  fmall  houfes. 
From  the  great  fire  anno  1666,  when  the  houfes 
and  ftreets  were  enlarged,  the  plague  has  not  once 
been  in  London. 

Man  confifts  of  foul  and  body,  fo  intimately 
connected,  that  the  one  cannot  be  at  eafe  while 
the  other  fufFers.  In  order  to  have  mens  fana  in 
corpore  fano,  it  is  neceflkry  to  ftudy  the  health  of 
both :  bodily  health  fupports  the  mind  ;  and  no- 
thing tends  more  than  cheerfulnefs  to  fupport  the 
body,  even  under  a  difeafe.  To  preferve  this 
complicated  machine  in  order,  certain  exercifes 
are  proper  for  the  body,  and  certain  for  the  mind  ; 
which  ought  never  to  incroach  the  one  on  the 
other.  Much  motion  and  bodily  exercife  tend  to 
make  us  robuft ;  but,  in  the  mean  time,  the  mind 
is  flarved  :  much  reading  and  reflection  fortify  the 
mind  but  in  the  mean  time,  the  body  is  flarved* 
Nor  is  this  all :  excefs.  in  either  is  deftruclive  to 

both; 


SK.  7.]  LUXURY.  513 

both  ;  for  exercife  too  violent,  whether  of  mind 
or  body,  wears  the  machine.  Indolence,  on  the 
other  hand,  relaxes  the  machine,  and  renders  it 
weak  or  ufelefs.  Bodily  indolence  breeds  the 
gout,  the  gravel,  and  many  other  difeafes  :  nor  is 
mental  indolence  lefs  pernicious,  for  it  breeds 
peevifhnefs  and  pulillanimity.  Thus  health,  both 
of  mind  and  body,  is  beft  preferved  by  moderate 
exercife.  And  hence  a  general  propolition,  That 
every  indulgence  in  corporeal  pleafure,  which  fa- 
vours either  too  violent  or  too  languid  exercife, 
whether  of  mind  or  body,  is  hurtful,  and  corife- 
quently  is  luxury  in  its  proper  fenfe*  It  is  fcarce 
neceifary  to  be  added,  that  every  fuch  indulgence 
is  condemned  by  the  moral  fenfe;  of  which  eve- 
ry man  can  bear  teftimony  from  what  he  himfelf 
feels-. 

Too  great  indulgence  in  corporeal  pleafure  fel- 
dom  prompts  violent  exercife  ;  but  inftances  are 
without  number,  of  its  relaxing  even  that  mode- 
rate degree  of  exercife  which  is  healthful  both  to 
mind  and  body.  This,  in  particular,  is  the  cafe 
of  too  great  indulgence  in  eating  or  drinking: 
fuch  indulgence,  creating  a  habitual  appetite  for 
more  than  nature  requires,  loads  the  ftomach,  de- 
preffes  the  fpirits ;  and  brings  on  a  habit  of  lift- 
lefnefs  and  inactivity,  which  renders  men  cowardly 
and  effeminate  #.  And  what  does  the  epicure  gain 

I  i  4  h7 

*  Luxury  and  felfifhnefs  render  men  cowards.  People  who 
are  attached  to  riches  or  to  fenfual  pleafure,  cannot  think, 

without 


514  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I* 

by  fuch  excefs  ?    In  a  grand  palace,  the  mafter  oc- 
cupies not  a  greater  fpace  than  his  meaneft  do- 
meftic  ;    and  brings  to  his  moft  fumptuous  feaft 
perhaps  lefs  appetite  than  any  of  his  guefts.     Sa- 
tiety withal  makes  him  lofe  the  relifh  even  of  ra- 
rities, which  afford  to  others  a  poignant  pleafure. 
Liften  to  a  fp rightly  writer  handling  this  fubjecl:. 
"  Le  peuple  ne  s'ennuie  guerre,  fa  vie  eft  active  ; 
"  li  fes   amufemens  ne  font  pas   varies,  ils   font 
"  rares ;  beaucoup  de  jours  de  fatigue  lui  font  gou- 
"  ter  avec  delices  quelques  jours  de  fetes.      Une 
"  alternative  de  longs  travaux  et  de  courts  loilirs 
"  tient  lieu   d'affaifonement  aux   plaiiirs  de  fon 
"  etat.      Pour  les  riches,  leur  grand  fleau  c'eft 
"  1'ennui :    au  fein  de  tant  d'amufemens  raffem- 
"  bles  a  grands  fraix,  au  milieu  de  tant  de  gens 
"  concourans  a  leur  plaire,  1'ennui  les  confume  et 
"  les  tue ;    ils  paffent  leur  vie  a  le  fuir  et  a  en 
"  etre  atteints ;  ils  font  accables  de  fon  poids  in- 
"  fupportable :      les    femmes,    fur-tout,    qui    ne 
"  favent  plus  s'occuper,  ni  s'amufer,  en  font  de- 
"  vore"es  fous   le   nom    de  vapeurs."       Roitffeau, 
Emile.     What  enjoyment,  then,  have  the  opulent 
above  others  ?     Let  them  beftow  their  riches  in 
making  others  happy  :    benevolence  will  double 
their  own  happinefs  ;  firft,  in  the  direct  ad  of  do- 
ing 

without  horror,  of  abandoning  them.  A  virtuous  man  con- 
fiders  himfelf  as  placed  here  in  order  to  obey  the  will  of  his 
Maker :  he  performs  his  duty,  and  is  ready  to  quit  his  poft 
upon  the  firft  fummons. 


SK.  7.]  LUXURY.  515 

ing  good ;  and  next,  in  reflecting  upon  the  good 
they  have  done,  the  moft  delicate  of  all  feafts. 

Had  the  Englifh  continued  Pagans,  they  would 
have  invented  a  new  deity  to  prelide  over  cookery. 
I  fay  it  with  regret,  but  muft  fay  it,  that  a  luxu- 
rious table,  covered  with  every  dainty,  feems  to 
be  their  favourite  idol.  A  minilter  of  ftate  never 
withftands  a  feaft ;  and  the  link  that  unites  thofe 
in  oppolition,  is  the  cramming  one  another  *.  I 
mall  not  be  furprifed  to  hear,  that  the  cramming 
a  miflrefs  has  become  the  moft  fafhionable  mode 
of  courtfhip.  Luxury  in  eating  is  not  unknown  in 
their  univerfities ;  the  only  branch  of  education  that 
feldom  proves  abortive.  It  has  not  efcaped  obfer- 
vation,  that  between  the  1740  and  1770,  no  fewer 
than  fix  Mayors  of  London  died  in  office,  a  great- 
er number  than  in  the  preceding  500  years  :  fuch 
havoc  doth  luxury  in  eating  make  among  the  fons 
of  Albion -j*.  How  different  the  manners  of  their 
forefathers  !  Bonduca  their  Queen,  ready  to  en- 
gage the  Romans  in  a  pitched  battle,  encouraged 
her  army  with  a  pathetic  fpeech,  urging  in  par- 
ticular 

*  This  was  compofed  in  the  year  1770. 

f  Suicide  is  not  influenced  by  foggy  air  ;  for  it  is  not  more 
frequent  in  the  fens  of  Lincoln  or  EfTex,  than  in  other  parts 
of  England.  A  habit  of  daily  excefs  in  eating  and  drinking, 
with  intervals  of  downy  eafe,  relax  every  mental  fpring.  The 
man  flags  in  his  fpirits,  becomes  languid  and  low  :  nothing 
moves  him :  every  connection  with  the  world  is  diflblved  :  a 
tedium  vita  enfues  ;  and  then 


5l6  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

\ 

ticular  the  following  confideration :  "  The  great 
"  advantage  we  have  over  them  is,  that  they  can- 
"  not,  like  us,  bear  hunger,  thirft,  heat,  nor  cold. 
"  They  muft  have  fine  bread,  wine,  and  warm 
"  houfes :  every  herb  and  root  fatisfies  our  hun- 
"  ger ;  water  fupplies  the  want  of  wine ;  and 
*'  every  tree  is  to  us  a  warm  houfe  (a)  *.'* 

If  it  fhould  be  afferted,  that  no  excefs  in  eating 
or  drinking  is  better  entitled  to  be  termed  luxury, 
than  the  univerfal  ufe  of  fermented  liquors,  re- 
jecting water  entirely  ;  the  propoiition  would  be 
ridiculed,  as  proceeding  from  fome  low-fpirited 
afcetic.  Water,  it  will  be  faid,  is  indeed  the  ori- 
ginal drink  of  animals,  and  a  wholefome  drink  it 
is.  But  why  deny  to  the  ingenuity  of  man  im- 
provements in  nourifhment,  as  well  as  in  habita- 
tion and  clothing  ?  I  grant  there  can  be  no  rea- 
fonable  obje&ion  to  fermented  liquors,  ufed  as  a 
delicacy,  by  people  of  eafy  fortune.  But  what  I 
condemn,  is  their  being  the  fole  drink  of  all  ranks, 
not  even  excepting  thofe  who  live  on  charity. 
Confider  the  quality  of  animal  and  vegetable  food 
that  can  be  produced  on  land  employed  entirely  in 
railing  vines,  barley,  and  other  materials  of  fer- 
mented 

(a)  Dion  Caflius. 

*  Providence  has  provided  the  gout  as  a  beacon  on  the 
rock  of  luxury  to  warn  againft  it.  But  in  vain  :  during  dif- 
trefs,  vows  of  temperance  are  made  :  during  the  intervals, 
thefe  vows  are  forgot  Luxury  has  gained  too  much  ground 
in  this  iiland,  to  be  retrained  by  admonition* 


SK.  7.]  LUXURY.  '         517 

mented  liquors.  The  exiftence  of  many  thou- 
fands  is  annually  prevented  by  that  fpecies  of 
luxury. 

The  indulging  in  down-beds,  foft  pillows,  and 
eafy  feats,  is  a  fpecies  of  luxury  ;  becaufe  it  tends 
to  enervate  the  body,  and  to  render  it  unfit  for  fa- 
tigue. Some  London  ladies  employ  an  operator  for 
pairing  their  nails.  Two  young  women  of  high 
quality,  who  were  lifters,  employed  a  fervant  with 
foft  hands  to  raife  them  gently  out  of  bed  in  a 
morning.  Nothing  lefs  than  all-powerful  vanity 
can  make  fuch  perfons  fubmit  to  the  fatigues  of  a 
toilet :  how  can  they  ever  think  of  fubmitting  to 
the  horrid  pangs  of  child-bearing  !  In  the  hot  cli- 
mates of  Afia,  people  of  rank  are  rubbed  and  chaf- 
fed twice  a-day  ;  which,  befide  being  pleafant,  is 
necelfary  for  health,  by  moving  the  blood  in  a  hot 
country,  where  lloth  and  indolence  prevail.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  were  curried,  bathed,  and  oil- 
ed, daily  ;  though  they  had  not  the  fame  excufe 
for  that  practice  :  it  was  luxury  in  them,  though 
not  in  the  Aliatics. 

Nations,  where  luxury  is  unknown,  are  troubled 
with  few  difeafes,  and  have  few  phyficians  by  pro* 
feffion.  In  the  early  ages  of  Rome,  women  and 
(laves  were  the  only  phyficians,  becaufe  vegetables 
were  the  chief  food  of  the  people  ;  who  befide  were 
conftantly  employed  in  war  or  in  hulbanciry. 
When  luxury  prevailed  among  the  Romans,  their 

difeafes 


5l8  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

difeafes  multiplied,  and  phylic  became  a  liberal 
profeffion. 

With  refpect  to  exercife,   the  various  machines 
that  have  been  invented  for  executing  every  fort 
of  work,  render  bodily  flrength  of  lefs  importance 
than  formerly.     This  change  is  favourable  to  men- 
tal operations,  without  hurting  bodily  health.   The 
travelling  on  horfeback,  though   a  lefs  vigorous 
exertion  of  ftrength  than  walking,  is  not  luxury, 
becaufe  it  is  a  healthful  exercife.     I  dare  not  fay 
fo  much  for  wheel-carriages :  a  fpring-coach,  rol- 
ling along  a  fmooth  road,  gives  no  exercife  ;  or  fo 
little,  as  to  be  preventive  of  no  difeafe :  it  tends 
to  enervate  the  body,  and,  in  fome  meafure,  alfo 
the  mind.     The  increafe  of  wheel-carriages  within 
a  century  is  a  pregnant  proof  of  the  growth  of 
luxurious  indolence.     During  the  reign  of  James  I. 
the  Englifh  judges  rode  to  Weftminfter  on  horfe- 
back, and  probably  did  fo  for  many  years  after  his 
death.     Charles  I.  iflued  a  proclamation,  prohibit- 
ing hackney-coaches  to  be  ufed  in  London,  except 
by  thofe  who  travel  at  leaft  three  miles  out  of  town* 
At  the  Reiteration,  Charles  II.  made  his  public 
entry  into  London  on  horfeback,  between  his  two 
brothers,  Dukes  of  York  and  Gloucefler.   We  have 
Rufhworth  for  our  voucher,  that  in  London,  not 
above  a  hundred  years  ago,  there  were  but  twenty 
hackney-coaches ;  which  did  not  ply  on  the  flreets, 
but  were  kept  at  home  till  called  for.     He  adds, 

that 


SK.  7,]  LUXURY.  519 

that  the  King  and  council  publifhed  a  proclama- 
tion againft  them,  becaufe  they  raifed  the  price  of 
provender  upon  the  King,  nobility,  and  gentry. 
At  prefent,  1000  hackney-coaches  ply  on  the  ilreets 
of  London  ;  befide  a  great  number  of  ftage-coaches 
for  travelling  from  London  to  all  parts  of  the  king- 
dom. The  firil  coach  with  glaffes  in  France  was 
brought  from  BrufTels  to  Paris,  anno  1660,  by  the 
Prince  of  Conde.  Sedan-chairs  were  not  known 
in  England  before  the  year  1634.  Cookery  and 
coaches  have  reduced  the  military  fpirit  of  the 
Englifh  nobility  and  gentry  to  a  languid  Hate :  the 
former,  by  overloading  the  body,  has  infected  them 
with  difpiriting  ailments  ;  the  latter,  by  foftering 
eafe  and  indolence,  have  banifhed  labour,  the  only 
antidote  to  fuch  ailments*.  Too  great  indulgence 
in  the  fine  arts  confumes  part  of  the  time  that 
ought  to  be  employed  on  the  important  duties  of 
life  :  but  the  fine  arts,  even  when  too  much  indul- 
ged, produce  one  good  effe.cl:,  which  is,  to  foften 
land  humanize  our  manners :  nor  do  they  harm  the 
body,  if  they  relax  not  that  degree  of  exercife. 
which  is  necefTary  for  fupporting  it  in  health  and 

vigour, 

The 

'  ,  ' ' 

*  "  J'ai  toujours  vu  ceux  qui  voyageoient  dans  de  bonnes  voi- 
tures  bien  douces,  reveurs,  triftes,  grondans  ou  fouffrans  ;  et 
les  pietons  toujours  gais,  legers,  et  contens  de  tout.  Com- 
bien  le  cceur  rit  quand  on  approche  du  gite  !  Combien  un  re- 
pas  groffier  paroit  favcureux  !  avec  quel  plaifir  on  fe  repofe 
a  table  !  Quel  bon  fommeil  on  fait  dans  un  mauvais  lit !" 
Roufleau,  Emi/e. 


52O  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [B.  I. 

The  enervating  effects  of  luxury  upon  the  body, 
are,  above  all,  remarkable  in  war.  The  officers  of 
Alexander's  army  were  foon  tainted  with  Afiatic 
manners.  Moft  of  them,  after  bathing,  had  fer- 
vants  for  rubbing  them,  and,  inftead  of  plain  oil, 
ufed  precious  ointments.  Leonatus,  in  particular, 
commiflioned  from  Egypt  the  powder  he  ufed 
when  he  wreftled,  which  loaded  feveral  camels. 
Alexander  reproved  them  mildly  :  "  I  wonder  that 
"  men  who  have  undergone  fuch  fatigues  in  war, 
"  are  not  taught  by  experience,  that  labour  pro- 
"  duces  fweeter  and  founder  fleep  than  indolence. 
"  To  be  voluptuous,  is  an  abject  and  flavifh  ftate. 
"  How  can  a  man  take  care  of  his  horfe,  or  keep 
"  his  armour  bright,  who  difdains  to  employ  his 
"  own  hands  upon  what  is  deareft  to  him,  his  own 
"body*?" 

With  refpect  to  the  mind  in  particular,  manifold 
are  the  pernicious  effects  of  luxury.  Corporeal 
pleafures  are  all  of  them  felfifh  ;  and,  when  much 
indulged,  tend  to  make  felfiftmefs  the  leading  prin- 
ciple. Voluptuoufnefs  accordingly,  relaxing  every 
fympathetic  affe<3tion,  brings  on  a  beaftly  felfifh- 
nefs,  which  leaves  nothing  of  man  but  the  external 
figure.  Luxury,  beiide,  renders  the  mind  fo  effe- 
minate, as  to  be  fubdued  by  every  diftrefs  :  the 
flighted  pain,  whether  of  mind  or  body,  is  a  real 
evil :  and  any  higher  degree  becomes  a  torture. 

The 

*  Plutarch. 


SK.  7.]  LUXURY. 

The  French  are  far  gone  in  that  difeafe.  Pi&ures 
of  deep  diftiefs,  which  attract  Englifh  fpeclators, 
are  to  the  French  unfupportable  :  their  averfion  to 
pain  overcomes  the  attractive  power  of  fympathy, 
and  debars  from  the  ftage  every  diftrefs  that  makes 
a  deep  impreffion.  The  Britifh  are  gradually  fink- 
ing into  the  fame  weaknefs  :  Venice  Preferred  col- 
ledls  not  fuch  numbers  as  it  did  originally  ;  and 
would  fcarce  be  endured,  were  not  our  fympathy 
blunted  by  familiarity  :  a  new  play  in  a  fimilar 
tone  would  not  take.  The  gradual  decay  of  man- 
hood in  Britain,  appears  from  their  funeral  rites. 
Formerly  the  deceafed  were  attended  to  the  grave 
by  relations  and  friends  of  both  fexes  ;  and  the  day 
of  their  death  w as  prefer ved -in  remembrance,  with 
folemn  lamentation,  as  the  day  of  their  birth  was 
with  exhilarating  cups.  In  England,  a  man  was 
firft  relieved  from  attending  his  deceafed  wife  to 
the  grave ;  and  afterward  from  attending  his  de- 
ceafed children  ;  and  now  fuch  effeminacy  of  mind 
prevails  there,  that,  upon  the  laft  groan,  the  de- 
ceafed, abandoned  by  every  relation,  is  delivered 
to  an  undertaker  by  profeffion,  who  is  left  at  lei- 

SJ^ 

fure  to  mimic  the  funeral  rites.  In  Scotland,  fuch 
refinement  has  not  yet  taken  place:  a  man  is  in- 
deed excufed  from  attending  his  wife  to  the  grave  ; 
but  he  performs  that  duty  in  perfon  to  every  other 
relation,  his  children  not  excepted.  I  am  told, 

that 


522  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fi.  I. 

that  people  of  high  fafhion  in  England  begin  to 
leave  the  care  of  their  fick  relations  to  hired  nurfes  ; 
and  think  they  do  their  duty  in  making  fhort  vifits 
from  time  to  time. 

Hitherto  I  have  confidered  luxury  with  refpect 
to  thofe  only  who  are  infected  with  it  ;  and,  did 
its  poifon  fpread  no  wider,  the  cafe  perhaps  would 
be  the  lefs  deplorable.  But  unhappily,  where 
luxury  prevails,  the  innocent  fuffer  with  the 
guilty.  A  man  of  economy,  whether  a  mer- 
chant, or  a  manufacturer,  lays  up  a  flock  for 
his  children,  and  adds  ufeful  members  to  the 
flate.  A  man,  on  the  contrary,  who  lives  above 
his  fortune,  or  his  profits,  accufloms  his  chil- 
dren to  luxury,  and  abandons  them  to  poverty 
when  he  dies.  Luxury,  at  the  fame  time,  is 
a  great  enemy  to  population  :  it  enhances  the 
cxpence  of  living,  and  confines  many  to  the  bache- 
lor-flate.  Luxury  of  the  table,  in  particular,  is  re- 
markable for  that  effect :  "L'homme  riche  met  toute 
"  fa  gloire  a  confommer,  toute  fa  grandeur  a  per- 
"  dre,  en  un  jour  a  fa  table,  plus  de  biens  qu'il 
"  n'en  faudroit  pour  faire  fubfifter  plufieurs  fa- 
"  milles.  II  abufe  egalement  et  des  animaux  et  des 
"  homines :  dont  le  refle  demeure  affame,  languit 
"  dans  la  mifere,  et  ne  travaille  que  pour  fatisfaire 
"  a  Pappetit  immodere,  et  a  la  vanite  encore  plus 
<f  infatiable,  de  cet  homme  ;  qui  detruifant  les 

"  autres 


SK.  7.]  tUXURY.  523 

"  autres  par  la  difette,  fe  detruit  lui-meme  par  les 
"  exces  *." 

To  confider  luxury  in  a  political  view,  no  re- 
finement of  drefs,  of  the  table,  of  equipage,  of  ha- 
bitation, is  luxury  in  thofe  who  can  afford  the  ex- 
pence  ;  and  the  public  gains  by  the  encouragement 
that  is  given  to  arts,  manufactures,  and  commerce- 
But  a  mode  of  living  above  a  man's  annual  income, 
weakens  the  ftate,  by  reducing  to  poverty,  not  only 
the  fquanderers  themfelves,  but  many  innocent 
and  induftrious  perfons  connected  with  them.  Lu- 
xury is,  above  all,  pernicious  in  a  commercial 
ftate.  A  perfon  of  moderation  is  fatisfied  with 
fmall  profits  :  not  fo  the  luxurious,  who  defpife 
every  branch  of  trade  but  what  returns  great  pro- 
fits :  other  branches  are  engrofled  by  foreigners 
who  are  more  frugal.  The  merchants  of  Amfter- 
dam,  and  even  of  London,  within  a  century,  lived 
with  more  economy  than  their  clerks  do  at  prefent. 
Their  count ry-houies  and  gardens  make  not  the 
greateft  articles  of  their  expence.  At  firft,  a  mer- 
chant 

*  "  The  fole  glory  of  the  rich  man  is,  to  confume  and  de- 
"  ftroy  ;  and  his  grandeur  confifts,  in  lavifhing  in  one  day 
"  upon  the  expence  of  his  table  what  would  procure  fubfift- 
"  ence  for  many  families.  He  abufes  equally  animals  and 
"  hi-  fellow-creatures  ;  a  great  part  of  whom,  a  prey  to  fa- 
"  mine,  and  languifhing  in  mifery,  labour  and  toil  to  fatisfy 
*'  his  immoderate  defires,  and  infatiable  vanity  ;  who,  deftroy- 
"  ing  others  by  want,  deilroys  himfelf  by  excefs." — JBuJfon. 

Vot.  L  Kk 


524  MEN  INDEPENDENT  OF  SOCIETY.  [fl.  I. 

chant  retires  to  his  country-houfe  on  Sundays  only 
and  holidays  :  but  beginning  to  relifh  indolent  re- 
tirement, bufinefs  grows  irkfome,  he  trufts  all  to 
his  clerks,  lofes  the  thread  of  his  affairs,  fees  no 
longer  with  his  own  eyes,  and  is  now  in  the  high 
way  to  perdition.  Every  crofs  accident  makes 
him  totter :  and  in  labouring  circumftances,  he  is 
tempted  to  venture  all  in  hopes  of  re-eftablifhment. 
He  falls  at  laft  to  downright  gaming  ,  which,  fetting 
confcience  afide,  is  a  prudent  meafure  :  he  riiks 
only  the  money  of  his  creditors,  for  he  himfelf  has 
nothing  to  lofe  :  it  is  now  with  him,  Ccefar  aut 
nihil*.  Such  a  man  never  falls  without  involving 
many  in  his  ruin. 

The  bad  effects  of  luxury  above  difplayed,  are 
not  the  whole,  nor  indeed  the  moft  deftruclive.  In 

7 

all  times  luxury  has  been  the  ruin  of  every  ilate 
where  it  prevailed.  Nations  originally  are  poor 
and  virtuous.  They  advance  to  induitry,  com- 
merce, and  perhaps  to  conqueli  and  empire.  But 
this  ilate  is  never  permanent :  great  opulence  opens 
a  wide  door  to  indolence,  fenfuality,  corruption, 
v  proftitution,  perdition.  But  that  more  important 
branch  of  the  fubjedt  is  refer ved  to  particular 
{ketches,  where  it  will  make  a  better  figure. 

In  the  favage  flate,  man  is  almoft  all  body,  with 
a  very  fmall  proportion  of  mind.  In  the  maturity 
of  civil  fociety,  he  is  complete  both  in  mind  and 

body. 

*  *'  Cxfar  or  nothing." 


SK.  7.] 


LUXURY. 


body.     In  a  Hate  of  degeneracy  by  luxury  and 
luptuoufnefs,  he  has  neither  mind  nor  body  *. 


*  In  ancient  Egypt,  execution  again  ft  the  perfon  of  a  debtor 
was  prohibited.  Such  a  law  could  not  obtain,  but  among 
a  temperate  people,  where  bankruptcy  happens  by  misfortune, 
and  feldom  by  luxury  or  extravagance.  In  Switzerland,  not 
only  a  bankrupt  but  even  his  fons  are  excluded  from  public 
office  till  all  the  family  debts  be  paid. 


END  OF  VOLUME  FIRST, 


0 


JAN  i 


C3      Kanes,  Henry  Home 
25        Sketches 

K3 

1807 

v.l 


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