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•OLOGYUB.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

FROM THE LIBRARY OF

DR. JOSEPH LECONTE.

GIFT OF MRS. LECONTE.

No.

BIOLOGY ua

SKETCHES

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

GEOLOGY

NEBRASKA.

SAMUEL AUGHEY, PH.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Natural Sciences in the University of Nebraska, Corresponding Member of the

Buffalo Academy of Sciences, Correspond! g Member of the

St. Louis Academy of Sciences, Etc.

OMAHA, NEBRASKA :

DAILY REPUBLICAN BOOK AND JOB OFFICE.

1880.

Nfc

Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1880,

BY SAMUEL AUGHEY,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress.

PREFACE.

^T^HE continual demand for some of my papers on the geology of Ne-
braska, now out of print, suggested the preparation of this volume. It
includes in a revised form the most important of my publications on our
geology. The greater part of this work, however, is entirely new, and in-
cludes many facts and observations now for the first time made known. I
had intended to give a much fuller treatment of the Loess deposits and pe-
riod, but the materials have accumulated to such an extent that it was
thought best to reserve them for a separate volume. In preparing this work
I have always kept in mind the many letters of inquiry continually being re-
ceived about the State- such questions as are mot»t frequently asked of a
naturalist about Nebraska. Only a small part of the State has received a de-
tailed geological examination, and therefore many material points could
barely receive mention. In the sketches of our geological history, I have
attempted to give an idea of the chain of events that resulted in the present
order of things in Nebraska. My conclusions on many points are very dif-
ferent from others, but I have come to them by a careful study of our geol-
ogy for fifteen years, with all the means which I could command. Wherever
I have used the works of others it is acknowledged in the text. It is possi-
ble that there are omissions of this kind, as I may not always have remem-
bered whether myself or another first observed a fact or discovered a princi-
ple. All such omissions, if any, are unintentional. It was intended to in-
clude a new geological map of the State in this work, but I have not been
able to satisfy myself about the accuracy of some of the boundaries of geo-
logical formations, and therefore postpone its publication till spring. •

I am under obligations to Prof. C. D. Wilber for important suggestions;
and to many persons over the State, whom I cannot mention in detail, who
have provided me with specimens from their localities. I am also under
great obligations to the Burlington & Missouri River Railroad in Nebraska,
to the Union Pacific Railroad, to the Atchison & Nebraska Railroad, and to
other roads for transportation and other favors. Without the aid thus re-
ceived, it would have been impossible to make many of the investigations
included in this work. Wherever I have gone in the State I have received
all possible help from the people in making geological and other natural his-
tory examinations. Hoping that this work will help others to understand,
the physical conditions of our State, and stimulate an interest in our natural
history, I submit it to the people of Nebraska.

SAMUEL AUGHEY.

UNIVERSITY OF NERRASKA, January 1st, 1880.

101283

CONTENTS.

PART FIRST— PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Chapter. 1'ajrr.

I. Topography and General Character of Nebraska ... 3
II. Climatology of Nebraska . . . . . . . .17

III. Moisture and Rainfall 34

IV. Evidences of Increasing Rainfall — Sources of Rainfall . . 41
V. Waters of Nebraska ......... 52

VI. Drainage of Nebraska, and Character of its Water .

VII. General Flora of Nebraska

VIII. Forest Trees and Shrubs of Nebraska, with Notes on their Dis-
tribution 84

IX. The Wild Fruits of Nebraska . 97

X. Wild Grasses 108

XI. Fauna of Nebraska — Vertebrates 117

XII. Insect Life . . . 131

XIII. The Locusts— Mollusks 130

XIV. Healthfulness. — Reserve Forces and Probable Future of the Race

in Nebraska . M5

PART SECOND— GEOLOGY.

Chapter. I'ajre.

I. Carboniferous Age in Nebraska ....... l(jl

II. Mediaeval or Me^ozoic Times in Nebraska 173

III. Mediaeval or Mesozoic Times in Nebraska, Continued . . 107

IV. The Cenozoic Age in Nebraska. — Eocene Tertiary Epoch . . 209
V. The Tertiary Period, Continued— Miocene Epoch . . .221

VI. Tertiary Period, Continued — Pliocene Epoch .... 232
VII. Quaternary Age — Glacial Period to the Loess — Superficial De-
posits . 252

VIII. The Quaternary Age and Su erficial Deposits, Continued — Loess

Period . 2(55

IX. Quaternary Age and Superficial Deposits, Continued. — Terrace
Epoch. — Alluvium. — Sand Hills. — Alkali Lands. — Timber,
and Cause of Change of Climate . . ...

X. Economic Geology

Appendix . . . . . . . . . .3.9

PART FIRST.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER I.

TOPOGRAPHY AND GENERAL CHARACTER OF

NEBRASKA.

Position — Surface— Bottom Lands — Tables of Elevation — Average Ele-
vation and Grade— How to gain a Conception of its Topography — Num-
ber of Valleys — Exceptional Features of the Niobrara River Region — Sand
Hills — Bad Lands.

"VTEBRASK A occupies a position near the centre of the Republic.
1 i The parallel of 40° is its southern boundary, and the Missouri
River, the Niobrara and the Keya Paha rivers form the Northern
boundary as far west as range twenty west of the sixth principal
meridian. West of this point the parallel of 43° forms its northern
boundary. Its eastern boundary is the Missouri, whose direction
here is a little east of south. This brings the southeast corner of
the State to the 95° 25' meridian. The 104 meridian west of Green-
wich marks its western boundary down to latitude 41°. Below
this point a line a few miles west of the 102° meridian constitutes
the western boundary of the State. This notch takes out of the
southwest corner of the State, 7,300 square miles. Were it not
for this offset the State in shape would approximate to a parallelo-
gram. The extreme width of the State from north to south is 208.5
miles, and its length from east to west is within a fraction of 413
miles. In area the State approximates closely to 75,995 square
miles, or nearly 48,636,800 acres. Taking Ohio, which has an area
of 39,964 square miles, as the type of a model sized state, it is seen
that Nebraska contains almost twice as much territory. The area of
Nebraska is 12,359 square miles larger than all the New England
states combined. It contains 20,000 more square miles of territory
than Iowa. England and Wales combined have less area by
17,000 square miles than Nebraska. In extent of territory it is an

4 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

empire, and yet as we shall see hereafter, few states have really so
little waste land as Nebraska. It lies in the same path in which the
currents of emigration have been flowing — in the line of the great
States of the Union, and must in the nature of things receive their
overflow of population.

SURFACE OF THE STATE.

The surface of Nebraska is exceedingly varied. There are in-
deed no elevations that can be dignified with the name of mountains,
but in the northern and western parts of the State there are lofty
hills of very varied character. Generally the ascent is gentle,
though occasionally it is precipitous. Unlike the ridges of the east
which are so generally the result of elevations and subsidences of
the earth's crust modified by subsequent aqueous agencies, the hills
and rolling lands of Nebraska are mostly wholly caused by erosion.
In the east the body of hills is mainly made up of massive rocks,
here it is partly composed of loosely compacted drift materials, but
mainly of Loess. In fact, Nebraska emerged so recently geologically
from the waters of the Loess age, that it still exhibits as a whole
many of the phenomena of a recently drained lake bed. The gen-
tly rolling lands of three-fourths of the State appear very much like
the suddenly petrified waves and billows of the ocean. Sometimes
extensive stretches of surface are met with that appear to be level,
but closer observation shows even these to be gently undulating.
From these last mentioned forms to the few isolated sections of lim-
ited extent,broken by canyons with precipitous sides, the transition is
gradual. Every shade of form and surface connects the two varieties

of relief. The

BOTTOM LANDS

are the most conspicuous modifying feature of the landscape of the
State. In crossing the State at rf'ght angles to the direction of the
streams, the bottom lands are met with every few miles. They are
huge, generally shallow troughs, in breadth proportionate common-
ly, to the size of the streams. They range in width from a quarter
of a mile on the smaller streams to twenty-three miles on the Platte
and the Missouri. They are frequently terraced, and the terraces like
broad steps gradually lead to the bordering bluffs which in turn are
very varied in height and form. Frequently the low terraces on
the bottoms have had their edges so worn away that their charac-
ter is concealed. What was once a terrace has become a gentle slope.

TOPOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 5

A good example of this character are the slopes on the bottoms be-
tween Crete and Beatrice, and between Ashland and Lincoln. The
bottoms with their bordering lines of bluffs wind and vary in direc-
tion as much as the serpentine movements of the streams them-
selves. The bluffs are steepest and roughest on the Missouri, es-
pecially towards the north line of the State. On the middle Nio-
brara they frequently assume the exceptional character of borders to
deep canyons. Even on the Missouri there are very few that cannot
be successfully cultivated. Occasionally it is hard to tell where the
bottom ceases and the bluffs begin. This is owing betimes to the ter-
races that ascend the bluffs, and sometimes to the lowness of the
bluffs whose rounded outlines like the sides of a shallow basin merge
gradually into the bottom. Sometimes the wind has worn the
sides of a bluff into stair like forms. The observer not infrequent-
ly meets portions of a bluff standing out in isolated, perpendicular
walls like huge battlements. The innumerable tributaries that
creep quietly and unexpectedly into the main bottoms compli-
cate still further these forms of landscape. The traveler with poe-
try and art in his composition is often tempted to ascend a bluff adjoin-
ing a valley, which lying at his feet, enables him to trace it as far as the
eye can reach. The upland plain on the other side, whose inequal-
ities are wavelike, gives a sharply outlined background to the pic-
ture of the valley. He is at a loss to which to assign the palm of
greatest beauty. The effect is intensified wThen upland and valley
are dotted with homesteads and cultivated grounds. The quiet
beauty that comes from human industry then blends with the sub-
limity of nature.

The dominant geometrical form observed in the forms of the sur-
face is the curve. The observer never gets outside of curves.
They intrude themselves everywhere. They are not uniform mo-
notonous curves, but curves infinitely varied. Rarety is a straight
line needed to relieve from sameness, but wrhen it is needed it is
there. The streams, the terraces, the bluffs, the valleys themselves
all follow curves. There are short curves and long curves; regu-
lar and irregular curves; infinitely varied, seemingly in confusion,
but all full of profound expression — the expression of matchless
beauty. " The curve is the line of beauty." Here nature has put
forth her best efforts to exemplify this law. No artist has yet suc-
cessfully painted Nebraska scenery. It still awaits the master
mind who can catch with his artist's eye these superb forms of

6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

quiet beauty and place them on canvass. A remarkable feature is
the commonness of beautiful landscapes. Almost every mile along
the river valleys affords them. The bottoms along the bluffs at
every turn are sculptured with beautiful coves, which, sheltered
from wind and storm, afford favorite building spots formany people.

ELEVATION OF NEBRASKA.

The greater part of Nebraska is a plateau. This will be appar-
ent by an examination of the following list of 'elevations above the
sea level. For convenience the elevations are given, first in lines
running along the Missouri, and then in lines running east and
west. Those marked with a star were taken by myself with a
barometer and are only proximately correct. Those along the
Republican Valley from Orleans westward, were taken by D. N.
Smith, Esq., of Burlington, Iowa, and I have reason to believe
from observations taken with him that they are proximately cor-
rect. The observations in northwestern Nebraska not marked
with a star were taken by Captain W. S. Stanton, of the engineer
corps, U. S. A. The remaining determinations of heights have
been taken from the railroad surveys of the State. The e'evations
are in feet.

Southeast corner of the State on the bottoms. at the mouth of the Nemaha

River *878

Brownville 919

Nebraska City 964

" " at low water of the Missouri 919

Plattsmouth 984

Omaha, U. P. Depot '... 1,056.26

" low water of Missouri 983.26"

" high " " " 1,002.26

Blair 1,111

Tekamah *1,040

Decatur '. *1,052

Dakota City *1,069

Ponca *1,178

St. James *1,185

Green Island *1,204

Niobrara *1 ,240

ELEVATIONS NEAR THE SOUTH LINE OF THE STATE.

Falls City 904

Beatrice *1,278

Fairbury 1,324

TOPOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 7

Belvidere '. x 509

Red Cloud

Bloomington

Orleans 2,150

Arapahoe 2,250

Indianola 2,600

Culbertson 2,760

State Line 3 QQQ

Head of the Republican in Colorado 4,050

ELEVATIONS ALONG THE LINE OF THE B. & M. R. R. IN NE-
BRASKA.

Plattsmouth 934

Omaha Junction 1,001

Louisville ', .1,041

South Bend 1,002

Ashland 1,102

Greenwood. 1,141

Waverly 1,137

Lincoln 1,164

Highland 1,429

Crete 1,369

Dorchester 1,502

Fairraount 1,657

Harvard 1,815

Juiiiata 1 ,985

Keiiepaw 2,064

Lowell 2,086

Kearney Junction 2,163

ELEVATIONS ON THE B. & M. R. R. FROM NEBRASKA CITY TO
YORK, VIA LINCOLN.

Nebraska City 964

Dunbar . . .1,069

Syracuse
Palmyra .
Bennett..
Cheneys .
Lincoln . .

,064
,154
,154
,444
,164

Woodlawn 1,194

Germantown 1,584

Seward 1,449

York *1,473

ELEVATIONS ON THE LINE OF THE ATCHISON & NEBRASKA

RAILROAD.

Rulo *887

Falls City 904

8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Salem ; 917

Humboldt 989

Table Rock 1,036

Tecumseh . 1,120

Sterling 1 ,193

Summit 1,375

Lincoln 1 ,1 64

ELEVATIONS ALONG THE LINE OF THE UNION PACIFIC RAIL-
ROAD.

Omaha, Union Pacific R. R. Depot 1,050

Papillion 1 ,009

Elkhorn. 1,187

Fremont 1,220

Schuyler 1,372

Columbus 1,469

Clarks 1,647

Lone Tree 1,723

Grand Island 1,887

Wood River 2,011

Gibbon 2,083

Kearney 2,143

Elm Creek 2,278

Plum Creek 2,406

Willow Island 2,547

Bradley 2,673

North Platte 2,825

O'Fallon's 3,012

Alkali 3,074

Ogalalla 3,225

Brule 3,301

Julesburg 3,535

Lodge Pole 3,835

Sidney 4,108

Antelope 4,747

Pine Bluffs 5,061

ELEVATIONS ALONG THE LINE OF THE FREMONT, ELKHORN AND
MISSOURI VALLEY RAILROAD.

Fremont 1,220

Nickerson 1 ,222

Hooper 1,248

Scribner 1,227

Crowell 1,296

West Point 1,337

Wisner 1 ,404

Norfolk * 1 ,428

TOPOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 9

ELEVATIONS ALONG THE NORTH LINE OF THE STATE.

Niobrara *1,240

Mouth of Keya Paha , . . .*i,960

Mouth of Snake River *2,690

Camp Sheridan, Old Spotted Tail Agency *3,490

Camp Robinson 3,764

State Line on Cottonwood Creek 3,781

Indian Creek, northwest corner of State 4,013

Scott's Bluffs, thirty miles north of Pine Bluffs *G,051

Clark's Bridge, north of Sidney 3,707

Niobrara River, southeast of Fort Robinson 4,118

White Man's Fork on State Line, south of U. P. R. R 3,188

From the preceding data it is estimated that the eastern half or
the State along the line of the Union Pacific Railroad has an average
elevation of 1,700 feet, the western half 3,525 feet. The average
elevation of the whole line would be 2,612 feet.

Along the south line of the State the elevation of the eastern
half averages 1,200 feet; the western half 2,672 feet.

Along the north line of the State the data given makes the eastern
half beginning at Ponca 1,353 above the sea level. The western
half averages about the same as that of the line of Union Pacific
Railroad. It is proportionately greater along its middle and less
along its western portion. This would give an elevation of 2,312
feet for the whole State. This is a much smaller elevation than is
usually given for the State, but it is the more accurate because based
on elevations along the north and south line, as well as through the
centre of the State from the east to west. Estimates heretofore
made place the mean elevations at 2,550 feet.

For the first one hundred miles west from Omaha the ascent
is at the rate of five and a half feet to the mile. The second
hundred miles increases the ascent to seven feet ; the third
hundred, seven and a half feet, and the fourth hundred to ten and a
half feet to the mile. The ascent on the last fifty miles on the
west end of the State is eighteen feet to the mile. While these
figures are not exact they are close approximations to the truth.
The calculation has been made for the line of the Union Pacific
Railroad, but the south line of the State differs very little from this.
A similar gradual ascent characterizes the northern line of the
State. It will be observed that the second and third hundred miles
have almost the same gradual ascent. After this the ascent in-
creases quite rapidly until it reaches eighteen feet to the mile. The

10 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

increase of elevation going north and west on the eastern boundary
of the State along the Missouri is much less. Taking the mouth of
the Nemaha as our starting point, whose elevation is 878 feet, and
comparing it with the elevation of the Missouri bottom at Omaha,
which is 1,002 feet we have a difference of 124 feet, or a rise of one
and a fourth feet to the mile. The fall between Omaha and Dako-
ta City is even less than this.

In western Nebraska the difference in elevation between the
south line of the State and the Union Pacific Railroad approxi-
mates to 352 feet. On the west line of the State the ascent con-
tinues going north until at Scott's Bluffs an elevation of 6,051 feet
is reached. Although this is only approximately correct, as I took
the observations with a barometer, yet there is little doubt that this is
the highest point in the State. From here there is a gradual de-
scending slope to the north line of the State with some intervening
inequalities and depressions in the valleys of the Niobrara, the
White Earth, and Indian Creek. From the Republican River on
the West line of the State to Big Springs in the same meridian on
the Union Pacific Railroad there is an ascent of 352 feet. From
this latter place there is a still further rise of 283 feet to the Niobra-
ra River, or a total ascent along this line from south to north of 635 .
feet, against a corresponding difference of less than 200 feet along
the eastern border of the State. It will also be remembered that
the lowest part of the State is its southeast corner, and the highest
part is a point north of the Union Pacific Railroad on Scott's Bluffs.
Take the State therefore as a whole and it will be seen that it slopes
tnainly toward the east and in a minor degree toward the south.
The only exception to this rule is the extreme western line of the
State, where the Colorado notch has taken from Nebraska territory
a section which legitimately should belong to her. Because of this
shortening of our southwestern border, Pine Bluffs, the last station of
the Union Pacific Railroad in Nebraska is near the south line of the
State. From here the ascent toward the north continues only for
about thirty-six miles to Scott's Bluffs from which there is a grad-
ual descent to Indian Creek near the northwest corner of the State.
But eastward from this point the descent is generally south and
still more east. As would be expected from such relief forms the
great majority of the tributaries of the main streams, except those of
the Niobrara, flow towards the southeast. Prof. Wilber has re-
marked that lines drawn along the main divides of the State on any

TOPOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 11

map would enclose the drainage systems in forms resembling huge
oags. The open end representing the mouths or lower ends of
the rivers will face the east or southeast.

How TO GAIN A CONCEPTION OF NEBRASKA TOPOGRAPHY.

Conspicuous as are the valleys of Nebraska no good idea of its
topography can be formed by following them exclusively. Thou-
sands pass through the Platte Valley from east to west without
comprehending the physical features of the State. In fact, I have
met many old freighters across the plains who entirely mistook its
character, because they had followed mainly the valleys. This, too,
is one cause for the misstatements of tourists, who have described
Nebraska as a monotonous, level plain.

To gain a clear conception then of Nebraska topography, one
must cross the valleys and divides nearly at right angles. In do-
ing this it will be observed that the most rolling lands generally
border the valleys or bottoms. Advancing, the rolling and some-
times broken character gradually disappears when the divide is
reached which separates the last from the next drainage system.
Here the land swells out into a gently undulating plain that varies
extremely in extent. The extent of such a divide may be limited
to a half mile or may extend for thirty or more miles. These
swells or long tongues of undulating lands are found on the divides
between nearly all the rivers of the State. Occasionally between
the lesser streams a single low bluff, a few hundred feet wide, and
only slightly raised above the general level, marks the divide.
Among the most conspicuous of these divides are the beautiful up-
lands between the Republican and the Platte, between the Platte
and the Blue Rivers, and between the forks of the Blue Rivers.
Between the Blues and Nemahas, and between the forks of the lat-
ter similar divides exist. North of the Platte, conspicuous for their
beauty, are the divides between the forks of the Elkhorn, and at
the headwaters and between the forks of the Logan, and between
the Elkhorn and the Loups. In fact they are met with between
most of the streams of the State. Some of these high uplands have
great numbers of shallow basin-shaped depressions whose soil and
grasses closely resemble those of the bottom lands. They are evi-
dently the remains of lakes that until recently occupied their sites.
Indeed some of them still retain this character, being filled with water
the whole year round, varying from one to ten feet in depth.

12 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Between these last and swamps and bogs, every kind of transition
form is found. Fillmore, Clay, York, Hamilton, Franklin, Phillips
and Wayne Counties have a notable number of these old lake beds.

NUMBER OF NEBRASKA VALLEYS.

Nothing is more surprising to one who studies the relief forms
of the State than the amazing number of valleys or bottom lands.
Some writers have stated that there were several hundred. It would
have been more correct to have reported several thousand. Take
the region of the Republican as an example. On an average a
tributary valley comes into the main bottom from the north side
every two miles. Now as this river flows for two hundred miles
through the State, it would give one hundred for this section alone.
Counting, however, the streams that come in from the south side,
and those flowing into its larger tributaries, this number should be
multiplied by at least four, giving four hundred valleys great and
small for this region alone. Now add to these valleys those that
are tributary to the Platte, the Blues, the Nemahas, the Elkhorns,
the Logan, the Bows, the Missouri between its larger tributaries,
the Niobrara and the Loups, and it will increase the number to
thousands. It is true that many of them are narrow, ranging from
one fourth to a mile in width, but still they are valleys with living
or extinct stream beds in the middle or towards one side of them,'
and having all the physical features of the larger river bottoms.
As already intimated there are a few minor valleys among the
smaller tributaries of the upper Elkhorns, Bazile, Loups, Niobra-
ra and Republican, in the stream beds of which the water no long-
er flows, but as will be shown further on many of them are regain-
ing, and all of them will in time, their former supply of water.
Thus can be seen why over the larger part of Nebraska the settler
can have his choice between bottom and upland. The great body
of these bottom lands, though composed of the richest mould and
modified alluvium and Loess materials are perfectly dry. It is true
that swamps are occasionally met with, but they occur at long in-
tervals and are the exception.

No one can gain any idea of the number of these bottom lands by
looking at a map. Neither can they ^be found on the plats of the
government surveys, though in the latter they are more fully given
than in the former. In fact, counting in the small tributaries with
their narrow bottoms, not less than twenty-five per cent of the

TOPOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 13

entire surface of the State is made up of bottom lands. This is a
higher estimate than I formerly made, but I have come to it by in-
creased study of the physical features of the State.

EXCEPTIONAL FEATURES OF THE NIOBRARA RIVER REGION.

The Niobrara River is the least known of all the drainage sys-
tems of the State. It deserves to be better known, and in the near
future will be visited and studied by the geologist and the artist.
It holds concealed many unrevealed wonders for the student of na-
ture and of art.

For the first ninety miles from its mouth the Niobrara is not
greatly different from other Nebraska rivers, save in the exception-
al rapidity of its current, and its sandy flats and numerous islands.
Its bottom is also narrower in proportion to the size of the river
than other streams of the State.

In going up the valley it is observed to change rapidly at about
longitude 99° 20'. The bluffs contract and become lofty. In fact,
the river here flows through a deep canyon. It retains this charac-
ter for the next 180 miles or to about longitude 102°. The sides of
the canyon are often three hundred and sometimes four hundred feet
high. The walls are mostly composed of silicious, and yellowish,
whitish and calcareous rocks. They are often capped with a hard
grit which preserves their vertical character, and often causes them
to be undermined and assume an umbrella form. In this cany on re-
gion it is next to impossible to follow along the immediate banks of
the river, owing to the numerous isolated buttes and walls that
rise perpendicularly from near the water's edge, making walls
across the line of travel hundreds of feet high. No indication of
the river's existence is here given in approaching it from either side,
except by the trees that sometimes rear their tops above the canyon,
and which grow near the water's edge. The sides of the canyon are
worn into innumerable labyrinths by the numberless springs that
have been, like the main river, chiseling the rocks for ages. These
lateral canyons are exceedingly mazy in their windings. Nowhere
else have I ever seen such cool, clear, strong and sparkling springs
as here abound. Their number is astonishing. They are met with
in places for miles every few hundred feet or yards.

At the lower end of this canyon region the rocks are of cretaceous
age. Towards the west end the cretaceous becomes covered with
tertiary rocks. Vegetation in the canyons of the Niobrara is

14 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

prolific. In places pines and cedars abound. Near the east end of the
canyon region the oak,ash, cottonwood and elm, and occasionally box
elder are intermingled with pines — which sometimes, however, are
entirely wanting. Grass, too, is abundant. Here formerly was the
paradise for elk, deer and antelope, wolves and foxes. Food and
shelter, the agencies most important to preserve brute life was spe-
cially abundant. No wonder that the Indian tenaciously clung to
this region. Here the chase always supplied him with abundance
of food. To him it was also consecrated ground. Here in the laby-
rinthine canyons among the trees, druid like, with the light of the
sun shut out, he communed with the shades of his ancestors. Here
he heard as he did nowhere else the voice of the Great Spirit in the
rustle of the leaves and the sighing of the winds.

Where the river enters the canyon it is about eighty-two yards
wide. It narrows towards its source, and before the west line of
the State is reached it is reduced in breadth to ten or fifteen feet.
The water, however, is remarkably clear and cool. Above the
canyon the valley is well covered with grass and a great abundance
of rushes. Wood, however, in this part of its course is rare.

A large part of the entire middle portion of the Niobrara River,
as first observed by General Warren, flows lengthwise of an anti-
clinal ridge. In the canyons, for example, the rocks dip away from
the river on each side. In places where I had opportunity to
measure the angle their inclination away from the stream amounted
to from ten to fifteen degrees. It is probable that the river has been
outlined only since the close of the submergence that attended the gla-
cial age. Flowing along this anticlinal ridge when it first emerged it
has continued in its old rut as the continent was rising, cutting
down its bed about as rapidly as the uplifting took place. It is
probably a continuation of some uplift and break eastward from
the mountains similar to the one seen near Camp Robinson. Over
a portion of the western end of the Niobrara River this anticlinal
ridge on top of which it flows is not visible. The cutting of the
river still continues, but its rate is uncertain but probably about a
foot to the century.

As would be expected the tributaries of the Niobrara that flow
into it from the north or south are very short. The larger ones in-
variably flow parallel or nearly so to it. The Keya Paha and
Snake River are the most conspicuous instances. I have no doubt
that hereafter it will be found that the Keya Paha occupies a

TOPOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 15

depression beyond the anticlinal ridge along which the Niobrara
flows. In the canyon region, in going to the Niobrara,when within
twelve or fifteen miles of it I invariably found myself going up
hill. It was rarely sensible to the eye, but the barometer noted it
distinctly. When the river was reached it lay from one hundred
and fifty to four hundred feet below. On the north side it was
again down hill for a short distance. Some of the head waters of
the Loup originate close to the Niobrara, because of this ridge on
top of which it flows. This makes it impossible to drain much of
the country from the south. For the exceptional meteorological
conditions here the reader is referred to Chapter III.

SAND HILLS.

South of the valley of the Niobrara and its canyons, and com-
mencing about longitude 100° are the far famed Sand Hills. The
sands of these hills are partially moveable. Where they monopo-
lize the ground travel is difficult, both because of the inequalities of
the ground and their shifting character. They vary in height from
a few yards to several hundred feet. Their shape approximates
the conical form. A curious character of these hills is the conical
depression so frequently found on or near their summits which are
made by the winds. Many of these have the form of craters.
Sometimes these crater-like excavations occur on the sides of the
sand hills. Indeed almost every kind of wind sculpturing occurs
among them, and the observer is surprised at every step at the
strange forms that meet him. It is a fine field for the study of the
opposite effects on landscape of wind and water agencies. Such
crater-like holes freshly formed are destitute of vegetation. Form-
erly these " barren holes " were abundant in the sand hill regions.
Now the great body of them are grown over with grass, and new
ones in process of forming are only met with at longer intervals*
But by no means is so large an extent of country covered by them
as is sometimes represented. In going southward from the Nio-
brara after wandering among the sand hills for ten or fifteen miles
they, are found often suddenly to cease, and a grass-covered prairie
of great richness to take their place. There are also extensive sand
hills at the head of the Loups. Between these sections there is
generally a gently rolling prairie with occasional sand hills dotted
over them. There are also sand hills south of the Platte from
Kearney eastward several miles in width, and on the upper Repub-

16 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

lican. The character and origin of these sand hills will be dis-
cussed in the chapter on the superficial geology of the State. Suffice
it here to say that these sand hills are being covered by the increas-
ing rainfall of the State with nutritious grasses, and are becoming
fine grazing grounds. While principally composed of sand they
also contain a large amount of potash, soda and lime, and these
fertilizers start vegetation as soon as there is a sufficiency of
moisture.

BAD LANDS.

The bad lands run into northwestern Nebraska, but cover a very
limited area mainly beyond the White River. They are made up
of indurated sands, clays and marl, and occasional layers of thin
hard rock. They have been cut up into deep canyons and ravines
by atmospheric agencies. The sides, until the talus at the bottom
is reached, are often vertical and sometimes capped at the top with
a hard rock that projects beyond the sides. Often without a parti-
cle of vegetation the isolated cones, columns and peaks look in the
distance like towers, pyramids, cathedrals and obelisks, resembling
the ruins of the eld cities of the Orient. The geological age and
the character of the fossil plants and animals will be discussed in
the chapter on the Tertiary Age.

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 17

CHAPTER II.

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA.

Temperature— Tables of Temperature— Mean Temperature of Summer,
Winter and Spring— Bulletins— Autumns— Mean Temperature of the Year-
Extremes of Temperature— Winds— Storms of Winter— Purity of the atmos-
phere— Ozone.

THE factors that enter into the determination of climate are tem-
perature, forms of relief, condition of the atmosphere, geo-
graphical position and rainfall. Before giving the characteristics
of the climate of Nebraska, it is important to look at the most im-
portant facts that produce them. For this purpose the following
meteorlogical tables are introduced.

TEMPERATURE.

There has been much misapprehension about the temperature of
Nebraska. Sometimes it has been represented as possessing a
semi-arctic climate; and again that its summers are of a torrid char-
acter. To show the real facts in the case, the following tables of
daily temperatures for a year are given from the reports of the Sig-
nal Service. The stations are on the U. P. R. R., three hundred
miles apart, and approximate closely to the mean temperature for
the whole State.

In addition to the tables of the Signal Service, no exhibit would
be complete without the results obtained by Dr. A. S. Childs, of
Plattsmouth, one of the most careful, conscientious and accurate
scientific observers in any country. He has been constantly report-
ing, first for the Smithsonian and then for the Signal Service, since
1 866. Prior to that year he had also been reporting at intervals.
The tables prepared by him follow these twro from the Signal
Service.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

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CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA.

TABLE "B."

In the following table we have the mean temperature of the
seasons and years, as also the total snow and rainfall, including
melted snow.

Year.

Seasons.

Temp,
of Seasons.

Temp, of Year

. Yearly Snow.

Yearly Rain
and Melted Snow.

18G6

Winter
Spring.
Summer.
Fall.

19 99°
47.03°

72.78°
49 75°

17 53°

11 45 ins.

4.10 inches.
8.34
11 95
7.31 31 70

1867

Winter.
Spring.
Summer.
Fall.

20.15°
39 20°
74 31°

52 57°

4». l>7°

35 55

6 14
13 17
9 55
2.65 31.31

1868

Winter.
Spring.
Summer.
Fall.

20 83°
61 53°
75 13°
47 00°

4,-S 84°

1
27.20

2 85
14 55
14 36
6 15 37.85

1869

Winter.

Spring.
Summer.
Fall.

21 61°
47 75°
72 44°
45 10°

47 42°

39 00

5 85
9 60
24 55
7.35 47.35

1870

Winter.
Spring.
Summer.
Fall.

22 14°
46 17°

70 00°
47.64°

46 61°

22 00

4 60
9 50
9.10
8 90 32.10

1871

Winter.
Spring.
Summer.
Fall.

22 28°
49 5-z°
71.97°
42 94°

46 82"

18 00

2.25
4.60
19.70
5.70 32.25

1872

Winter.
Spring.
Summer.
Fall.

22 "81°
37 80°
74.22°
47 71°

45.69°

12 80

1.85
7.70
13 00
8 80 31.35

1H73

Winter.

Spring.
Summer.
Fall.

17 75°
46 92°
76 22°
48 79°

47.58°

10 06

4 30
35 50
12 20
7.45 49 45

1874

Winter.
Spring.
Summer.
Fall.

20.88°
48 13°
78 50°
51 13°

49.81°

J>8 35

3 80
9 75
20 52
15 04 49 11

1875

Winter.
Spring.
Summer.
Fall.

15 06°
45 55°
71 67°
47 31°

45.09°

29 26

2 08
12.48

28 70
6.96 50. t -2

1876

Winter.
Spring.
Summer.
Fall.

29.17°

47.77"
72 89°
46 73°

49 20°

22 00

2.10
10 35
20 41
9.88 42.74

1877

WTinter.

Spring.
S 'miner.
Fall.

22 95°
47 23°
70 88°
49 69°

47.77°

23 30

1.81
14 46
18 17
11 18 40.62

1878

Winter.
Spring.
Summer.
Fall.

33.18°
52 73°
72 85°
51 98°

52 64°

17 60

3 57
12 64
22 48
4 78 53 87

1879

Winter.
Spring.

21 84°

52 98°

22.45

1.89
10 26

The winter season in the above table includes December, January
and February. Spring, the next three, &c.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

TABLE « C."

Gives the date of each day, from 1861 to 1876, inclusive, on
which the mercury of the thermometer has fallen below zero, as
also the degree. December being taken as the first month of the
succeeding civil year. The usual sign — denoting below zero.

TABLE C.

1861

1862

1863

1864

1865

1866

1867

1868

Jan20 -20 Dec23 - 6 Jan 16 -10
21 -24! 27-3 Feb 2 -10

Nov27 - 2 NOY22 - 2
28-9 Dec 7-6

Dec 5 -10 Decll'- 1
12 - 6 Jan 1-8

NOY 9 - 7
Jan 6-8

23-3 Jan 9-8 5-5

29-4

8 -16

13 -20

6-2

7-2

24-6: 11 - »

Decl4 - 4

9-7

14 -16

9-3

8-6

25 -13

12 -13

30 - 2

*10 -10

15 -15

21-3

9-6

27 -12

13 -1.2

31 -24

11 -14

16 -10

26-4

11-6

31-6

14-7

Jaii 1 --33 Jan 22 - 1

21 -18

27 -10

12-4

Feb 7-7

15-8

2 -151 24 -10

22 -30

29 - 1

15 -19

8-3

17 -17

3-5 25 -10

28-8

Feb 8-8

16 -26

18-2

4-4 26 -10 Jan 1(5 ~:5

9 -1C

17 -25

30-7

5 -10 27-7

17 -It;

2;> - 4

18 -13

6 -15 28 -10

18 -1?

21 -1(

20 - 8

7 -32 Mar 2 - 5| 19 - 8

23 - x

21-8

8-6

4 61 20 -;;

''4 - \

24 - :$

9-8

9 -17

21 - .

Mar •> - \

27 -16

11 -10

24 - i

13 -:0

29 -15

Feb 4 -.0

14 - 9

31 - 8

12 -M

16 - 1

Feb J - 5

14 -IX

17 - 1

ti -12

15 -K

24 -4

8 - r>

16 - f

9 -22

Marl.' -

1!) -12

11-3

28 -10

•December 10th, 1865, David Jardine Iro/e to Deaih.
T1.BLE C.— (Continued.)

1869

1870

1871

1872

1873

1874

1875

1876

Dec 8 - 9

9-8

Jan 8 - 7
16-4

Dec21 - 4
22 -11

Nov29 - 6
Dec 3-6

Nov27 - 4

28 - 1

Dec 3-1

20-7

Dec.28 - 3
29 -10

Nov^l - 1

29 - 7

10 -14

17-7

23 -16

4 -12

29-5

Jan 4-3

Jan 2-5

Decl7 - 8

11 -30

18 -13

24-9

19-1

Dec 9 - 3

14-6

3-1

JsnlO - 2

23 - 5Febl9 - 8

26-3

20-1

16 - 1

15 -10

4 -10

Feb 1 -12

24 - 8| 20 -12

Jan 13-9

25-6

20-5

23 -9

5 -18

3 - 1

Jan25 - 2 Mar 8-2

14-4

26-4

21 -20

24 -14

6-8

4-3

Feb 4 -10

14-5

17-4

Jan 23 -10

23 -20

Feb 9 - 1

8 -19

Mar20 - 4

22-1

15 -11

18-7

24-2

24 -16

23-4

9 -21

27-7

Feb 9-7

25-6

25 - 3

24-6

10-9

Mar 4-2

10-2

27 - 5

26-8

12 -11

6-5

12 -10

28 -111 27-10

13 -20

15 - 4

13 - 3

31 -12!Jan 8-3

14 -19

Febl2 - 1 9-9

15 -10

13 - 6

10 14;

16-1

14-5

16 - 8

18-7

17 -17

30 - 3

18-7

31 -10

^4-7

Feb 2-4

27 - 8

3 -12

28 -23

4 -21

29 -14

6-6

31 - 7

7-7

Feb 1 -10

8-2

2-4

9-2

20-3

15 - 1

22 - 4

17-9

23-2

25-7

Mar 3-4

27 - 1

Mar 3-3

In these sixteen years only twice as low as 32*and four times to 30*.

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 23

During the same period of 19 years, embraced in table "C," the
mercury has risen to 100° and upwards as follows:

1857. July 15, 102°, August 5, 100°, August 13, 101°.

1859. July 14, 101°.

1860. July 15, 100°, July 20, 104°, July 24, 100°.

1861. August 3, 100°, August 4, 104°, August 5, 104°.
1866. July 23, 100°, August 6, 101°.

1868. July 18, 100°, 20, 106°, 21, 100°, 28, 101°.

1873. August 30, 101°.

1874. July 7, 102°, 8, 105°, 14, 103°, 18, 100°, 23, 104°, 24, 107°, 25, 113»,
31, 110°, August 9, 100°, 10, 111°, 19, 100°, 21, 102°.

Dr. Childs' remarks of the above last two months "that the heat
was unparalleled on any record made in the United States."
During this period of nineteen years eleven have passed without
raising the mercury to 100 degrees.

The force or velocity of the wind is now generally rated on a
scale of 10, as follows:

1 . Indicates a very light breeze of 2 miles an hour.

2. Indicates a very gentle breeze of 4 miles an hour.

3. Indicates a very fresh breeze of 12 miles an hour.

4. Indicates a very strong wind of 25 miles an hour.

5. Indicates a very high wind of 35 miles an hour.

6. Indicates a gale of 45 miles an hour.

7. Indicates a very strong gale of 60 miles an hour.

8. Indicates a very violent gale of 75 miles an hour.

9. Indicates a hurricane of 90 miles an hour.

10. Indicates a most violent hurricane of 100 miles an hour.

This velocity is measured and registered by rather a costly in-
strument named an anemometer.

Without an anemometer, the observer notes the direction from
which the wind comes, and estimates its force as i, 2, 3, and 6.
This observation and record is made three times a day — the same as
with other meteorological instruments. In table "D," I give a sum-
mary of these observations for the year 1874.

24 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

TABLE "D."
Direction and force of wind for the year 1874.

NE.

SE.

SW.

NW.

Total.

Dec. 1873
Jan. 1874

14
14

2
6

3
3

14
•2

25
88

l»6
135

February.

105

March

If;

159

April

" n

Ih8

May

182

June

(53

160

July ...

172

August

157

September.

134

October

•>5

128

141

Total

170

107

150

349

454

165

118

220

1733

By exchanging the totals of March and April, as also by trans-
ferring 50 from the total of south, to the total of north, and this
gives nearly the mean of ten years past.

Tables "A," «B," "C" and «D," are all from Dr. Childs. The
following table of the direction and force of the wind is t.iken from
the report of the Signal Service. It shows how many times the
wind blew from the eight cardinal points, from July, 1877, to July,
1878.

Station.

Wind

C
w

1»

•5

w
O

3fi

N.W.

S. W.

Omaha 4

8.
S. E

40
12

24
19

38
12

18
15

22
9

24
4

23
5

17
13

8
9

11
17

21
16

85
47

78
36

71
21

-.- |

N.E.

Calm.

Blank

N.W.

101

S. W.

NorthPlatte-

S. E.

35
12

21
19

4
5

11
4

7
9

11
10

6
11

5
13

14
23

70
54

N.E.

ICalm.

Blank

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 25

MEAN TEMPERATURE OF SUMMER.

From the preceding tables it will b« seen that the average mean
temperature of the summer months, that is of June, July and Aug-
ust, in Eastern Nebraska, is between 72° and 74°; or, more accu-
rately, close to 73°. At North Platte it averages slightly higher.
Now, the summer isotherm of 72° starts about one-third of the
distance north of the south line of New Jersey, runs northwest
till it strikes the Appalachians in Pennsylvania, then goes south
and west, appearing again a little south of the east edge of Ohio,
and from there keeps a westerly direction until it strikes the Mis-
souri near Sioux City. There it follows the Missouri around its
big bend in Northeastern Nebraska and into Dakota Territory,
until it reaches almost to the 46th parallel. From this last point
it again moves a little south of west, passing through a small cor-
ner of Northwestern Nebraska, and thence on to Fort Laramie,
and thence southward, mainly near to or along the foothills, until
the loftier regions of Mexico are reached.

The summer isotherm of 76° is almost parallel with the last,
passing through Northern Kansas, but not reaching the State
line. Included between these two isotherms is a large part of
Southern New Jersey, Southern Pennsylvania, the southern half
of Ohio, a«d the greater part of Indiana and Illinois, the southern
half of Iowa, and the whole of Nebraska except a very small
patch in the northwestern corner of the State. Kentucky, Vir-
ginia, Maryland and Delaware are also necessarily included be-
tween these isotherms. Nebraska, therefore, has a mean summer
temperature considerably higher than States in the East in the
same latitudes. There are some advantages in this high summer
temperature, particularly in fruit culture. It is well known, for
example, that some of the finest grapes only mature where the
summer temperature is from 68° to 72°. Our fine soils and nat-
ural drainage, therefore, would be without avail were it not that
these conditions are complemented by a high mean summer tem-
perature.

THE MEAN WINTER TEMPERATURE.

The winter months are regarded as embracing December, Jan-
uary and February. The mean isochimal, or line of equal mean
temperature of 20°, according to the Smithsonian Reports, includes
the south half of the State, and the northeastern portion as far as

26 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

one hundred miles west of the Missouri. This line enters the
State near its northwest corner, and then passing southeast, and
then in an easterly direction, slightly north of a line half way be-
tween the Platte and the north line of the State until it reaches
within about one hundred miles of the Missouri. It then makes
an angle, turning to the northwest, and mainly keeping that direc-
tion until it strikes the mouth of the White Earth River. Cross-
ing Northern Iowa, it strikes the northwest corner of Illinois, then
turns northeast to Green Bay, and thence to the coast by way of
the Straits of Mackinaw. From this it appears that all of Ne-
braska, except the small part north and west of the line just de-
scribed, has an average temperature like Northern Illinois and
Ohio. The portion north and west of the line described has a
mean winter temperature slightly lower, if the Smithsonian data
can be trusted. The number of observations, however, on which
this isochimal line was based through Northern Nebraska were no-
toriously few and imperfect. My own conviction is that future,
more perfect data will assign the whole of Northern Nebraska to
at least the isochimal line of 20°.

MEAN TEMPERATURE AND CHARACTER OF SPRING.

The next season of greatest interest is that of spring. What in
other words is the mean temperature of March, April and May ?
The best exhibit of the spring temperature is found in Dr. Childs'
table, " B." From that it is seen that the mean temperature of
spring for the last ten years was 47°, 47'. The reports of the
Signal Offices at Omaha and North Platte do not differ materially
from this determination. The Nebraska Weather Service, inaug-
urated first by Prof. Bailey, and now conducted by Prof. Thomp-
son, Superintendent of Public Instruction, gives the following
bulletins for the spring months confirmatory of the above, with
additional facts of great importance :

Bulletin for March. — " Highest temperature recorded, 92° at
Palmyra, at 2 p. M., on the 2yth; lowest 21°, at Desota, on the
1 4th. Average noon observations for the whole State, 52°. Low
est noon temperature 15°, on the ist. Highest noon temperature
92°, on the 27th. Average of all the observations gives the tern
perature of the ist at 20°, and of the 2yth at 86°. Four stations
report over an inch of rainfall, viz.: Weeping Water, 1.25 of an

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 27

inch; Sterling, 1.08; Desota, 1.43; Logan Valley, 1.04. Average
of all stations east of 6th principal meridian, ^ of an inch. West
of that line, i-io of an inch. March, 1878, had more than three
times that amount. Wild geese first seen in Cedar County on the
4th, at Kearney on the yth. Adder's tongue in bloom at Table
Rock on the 3Oth. Meadow larks seen at Logan Valley in Cedar
County on the 23d; plover and curlew on the 25th. Prevailing
winds of the month from the northwest and westerly points, but
considerable also from the southeast."

S. R. THOMPSON, Director.

Bulletin for April, 1879: — " Highest noon temperature re-
ported from several stations, 84°; lowest, 29°, at Logan Valley,
Cedar County. Noon observations average 60°. Rainfall for all
stations east of 6th principal meridian average 2 inches; west of that
line 2^/3 inches. Minden Station reports 9.93 inches. As there may
be some mistake about this, it is not included in the averages. Rain-
fall of April, '79, almost the same as April '78 It seemed drier
this year because at the beginning of April, 1878, the ground was
very moist, while in 1879 it was comparatively dry. Prevailing
winds from southeast. Plums in bloom on the loth, in the north
part of the State; peaches on i9th; apple trees on 23d. Box
elders in leaf on 28th. Vegetation several weeks later than last
year." S. R. THOMPSON, Director.

Bulletin for June, 1879: — Temperature — The highest noon
temperature was 100°, reported at Humboldt, Richardson County.

The highest at no station was less than 87° ; generally it was
above 90°.

The lowest was 50° reported from Weeping Water. The gen-
eral report averaged about 60° for the lowest noon observation.

Light frost on the night of the ist, at Inavale, Webster County,
also at Kearney on night of the 2d.

Rainfall — During first ten days of the month the rainfall was
very slight; from many stations none at all are reported. During
the two last decades — ten days — the rainfall was abundant and
evenly distributed. The average of all stations reported east of the
sixth principal meridian is 4.88 inches, and for all west of that line
5.46 inches. The greatest fall reported at any one station east was
at Mission Creek, Pawnee County, being 8.25 inches, and the
smallest amount reported was at Palmyra, Otoe County, it being

28 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

3.07. The largest fall reported west was at Minden, Kearney
County, which was 10.30 inches, and the smallest fall was near
Genoa, Platte County, it being 3.25 inches. The average for the
State was just 5 inches.

Prevailing winds were from the south and southeast.

June loth a severe storm reported from Inavale; high wind with
hail and rain; injuring crops and destroying buildings. Storm of
June 25th was severe in many parts of the State, the wind doing
some damage to buildings and beating down the corn.

Crops — General reports very encouraging. Wheat damaged in
some localities by chinch bugs. S. R. THOMPSON, Director.

From the preceding bulletins the general character of the spring
months can be determined. March is often characterized, as else-
where, by frequently changing winds and sudden rises and falls of
temperature. Pleasant weather sets in in April. The genial sun-
shine and the bursting into life of the vegetable kingdom in this
stimulating climate renders this a most inspiring season.

AUTUMNS.

Nothing in the Nebraska climate is more notable than its pe-
culiar, long, mild, dry autumns. It can be seen from Dr. Childs'
exhibit that the average temperature for the ten years end-
ing with 1875, for September was 62° 20', and for October 50° 64',
and for November 35° 61'. The average for the entire three
months for the ten years ending in 1875 is 49° 49'. The signal
service reports the temperature at Omaha for September, 1878,
as 66° 6', and for October, 51° i', and at North Platte for the same
year, for September, 64° 6', and for October 44° 6\ It will also
be observed that excessive rains seldom fall during these months.
The autumns are therefore exceedingly mild and long. Some-
times there is a short rough spell in October, but almost univer-
sally it is followed by mild weather which is often prolonged into
December, and has been known to last till January. These
long "Indian Summers" are here, even more than elsewhere
characterized by a curious haze which mellows the light of the
sun. It has the curious effect on "high strung" natures of rousing
the poetic sensibilities, and giving the weird shadowy experi-
ences of dream land. It is a most favorable season for toil, mental
and physical. The numberless things to be done on the farm
become, during this season, almost a pastime to the agriculturist.
Existence to a healthy body now is a pleasure and toil a delight.

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 29

MEAN TEMPERATURE OF THE WHOLE YEAR.

The mean temperature of the whole year in Nebraska, not-
withstanding the extreme cold of winter, is remarkably high.
The mean yearly isotherm of55°, for example, which passes
through Washington, D. C., Cincinnati, and southern Iowa,
strikes the Missouri River a little south of Nebraska City,
and then moving a little north of west crosses the Platte
near Columbus, and thence in a northwesterly direction across
the State. This mean annual isotherm therefore embraces
over one-half of the State. The mean yearly isotherm of 52^°
which passes through Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, crossing the centre
of Iowa diagonally, strikes the Missouri River above Sioux City,
thence following the river for some distance takes in the whole of
Nebraska not included in the yearly isotherm of 55°. The yearly
isotherm of 57^° passes south of Nebraska. A portion of south-
ern and southwestern Nebraska is therefore included between the
yearly isotherms of 571^° and 55° and the balance between 55°
and 52^°.

EXTREMES OF TEMPERATURE.

In Dr. Childs' record (Table) ofnineteen years the mercury
rose to 100° F., and upwards, twenty-nine times, or on an av-
erage a little more than a day and a half a year. The hot-
test year was that of 1874, when in July and August, the
thermometer rose to 100° and upwards on twelve different
days. On July I3th it rose to 113°, it being the hottest day accord-
ing to Dr. Childs' record, in nineteen years.

In table C, it will be seen how many days during the time from
1 86 1 to 1876, the mercury fell below zero. It will also be seen from
this record that while the mean temperature of Nebraska is high
for a region in these latitudes, its extremes are great. And yet no
acute suffering or other ill consequences flow from it. As we will
hereafter see, the heat of summer is modified by the breezes that
fan the land. On the other hand, the severe cold of the extreme
days of winter are made endurable by the dry ness of the atmos-
phere. The dryness is so great and potent that the cold is not felt
here more when the thermometer marks twenty degrees below
than it is in Pennsylvania when only at zero. The reason of this
is well understood. It is moisture that intensifies the sensation of
chilliness. Every one knows the meaning of a drizzly, chilly day.
It is because the atmosphere in the east is more filled with moisture

30 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

that makes the sensation and effect of cold so much more severe
there than here. It is owing to this fact also that a temperature
which is fatal to fruit buds in the east has no effect on them here.

THE WINDS OF NEBRASKA.

The atmosphere is rarely quiescent in Nebraska. While hur-
ricanes are very rare, storms are more frequent in winter, and
gentle zephyrs and winds are almost constant. These great-
ly modify the heat of summer and the cold of winter. When
the thermometer is up among the nineties, even a south or
southwest wind makes the weather endurable. At this high
temperature the atmosphere is almost certain to be in per-
ceptible motion from some direction. By reference to table D of
Dr. Childs' and the report of the U. S. Signal Office on winds, it
will be seen that the prevailing winds in the winter are from the
north and northwest. With the coming of Spring there is a great
change in this respect. The winds veer around and a strong cur-
rent sets in from the south, blowing from the Gulf of Mexico, but
entering the interior is deflected by the earth's motion and becomes
a southwest wind. This remains the prevailing wind during the
whole of summer, and often until late in autumn. It sometimes
happens that this southwest wind commences to blow during the
coldest days of winter, when the curious phenomenon is observed
of snow melting when the thermometer is at, a little above, or
even below zero. This of course is caused by the temperature of
the coming current of air being much higher than that of the place.
This character of north and northwest winds in winter, and south
and southwest winds in summer, with some local exceptions is the
dominant character of the atmospheric movements between the
Mississippi and the mountains, and the gulf to an unknown dis-
tance north.

THE STORMS OF WINTER.

From no cause has Nebraska, in company with Iowa and
Kansas suffered more in popular estimation than from the re-
puted severity and frequency of its storms. And yet they
occur at comparatively long intervals. During one-half the
years none 'are experienced of any severity, and when they do
come the laws that govern their occurrence are so well understood
by at least the older citizens of the State that little damage is
suffered from them. One of the laws of their occurrence is their
periodicity. When the first one of the season comes whether it is,

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 31

in November, December or January, a similar one is almost sure
to occur within a few days of a month from the first. Those
whose necessities therefore or business calls them out during the
winter season need only note the date of the first to know when to
guard against the next. It is rare, however, that more than one of
these periodical storms is of great severity.

When the storms commence they are rarely heralded by any-
thing except areas of low barometer. Even this warning is some-
times absent. The wind generally blows gently at first from the
north, northeast or northwest. It is often preceded and accompa-
nied by a fall of fine snow. Sometimes the storm of wind does
not commence till the snowfall has ceased. The wind gradually
increases in intensity, accompanied by a falling thermometer. Its
violence increases until the snow is blown into huge drifts, and
sometimes all that fell during several days seems mingled with the
atmosphere, so that it is impossible to recognize roads, or even the
points of the compass. Progression becomes impossible except in
the same direction with the wind. This is an extreme case, but a
truthful one, and fortunately of rare occurrence. Such storms last
from one to three. days, and a few instances are on record where
they have lasted five days. When the wind ceases to blow the
thermometer reaches its lowest point, and the intensest cold that
occurs in these latitudes is experienced. In a few days the ther-
mometer rises, the weather becomes moderate and pleasant, and all
about the storm is apt to be forgotten. So mild does the weather
often become in December and January between these storms, that
men work in the open air in their shirt-sleeves. This is what
often deceives the unwary, and especially new comers. I have
known men, starting off in new settlements for loads of woodr
going in their shirt-sleeves with a single coat in reserve in the
wagon, to be caught in such storms, and losing their way, to per-
ish. Proper observation and care as we have seen would avoid
such suffering and disaster. Notwithstanding, however, these
storms of winter, there are many more days here during winter
when men can work comfortably in the open air than in the East.

CLEARNESS AND PURITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

A number of circumstances combine to make the atmosphere of
Nebraska exceptionally pure and clear. Its mean elevation of
2,312 feet above the sea, its general slope towards the east and

32 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

south, its distance from the sea, the constant motion of its atmos-
phere, the general character of its finely silicious soil and perfect
natural drainage, and its general freedom from swamps, bogs and
sloughs, all combine to give the State the purest possible atmos-
phere. Its constant breezes sweep away or mingle with the gen-
eral current of the atmosphere such impurities as may have been
generated from any cause. Only during the Indian summer of
autumn is there a haze that obscures distant objects. Fogs seldom
occur. It is remarkable at how great a distance' objects can usually
be seen. Often when a bluff is ascended the larger limbs of a tree
can be counted from eight to twelve miles distant. Objects univer-
sally appear to be much nearer than they really are, to strangers
coming from the East. I have sometimes been amused to see them
going through the same experience that befell me during my first
residence here — the experience of shooting at prairie chickens
when they were a quarter of a mile off, under the supposition ^that
they were close by. Only gradually does the eye get accustomed
to measure distances in such a clear and rare atmosphere. In fact,
judging from the European meteorological reports, the atmosphere
of Nebraska is as clear, and much purer, than trje far-famed skies
of Italy and Greece.

Owing to this pureness of the atmosphere, clouds, when formed,
are exceptionally clearly out lined. They stand out as most con-
spicuous objects in the sky. Nothing can surpass their evening or
morning splendors. The sunsets are remarkable for the brightness
and variety of their coloring. I have seen many magnificent sun-
sets in the mountains, but never anything to compare for extent,
coloring, form and grandeur, with those that so often occur on the
rolling prairies of Nebraska.

Another prominent feature of the Nebraska atmosphere is the
allotropic form, called ozone, that oxygen so constantly assumes.
The amount of this in the atmosphere is very much greater than
in the East. During 1869 and 1870, while engaged almost con-
stantly in traveling and exploring over Northern Nebraska, I car-
ried with me much of the time the so-called Shoenbein test papers.*
These turned blue in a short time when exposed, thus indicating
the presence of ozone in the atmosphere. This rarely occurs in
the East, and even but slightly after a thunder-storm. Many other

*Paper moistened with a solution of potassium iodide and starch, and kept until wanted for
use, in a tightly-stoppered bottle.

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 33

experiments were made, all indicating that the atmosphere was
exceptionally rich in ozone.

The cause of this condition of our atmosphere is probably two-
fold. First, it is due to the comparative dryness of the atmosphere.
Second, it also results from the highly electric condition of the at-
mosphere. The greater the elevation, other things being equal,
the more abundant is the electricity (Tyndall). A friction electric
machine can be charged here on almost any day in the year with
ease. In the East during much of the time this cannot be done.
Now, one of the most potent of all agencies for the formation of
ozone is the silent discharge of electricity through oxygen, or
through the atmosphere which is in part composed of oxygen
(Barker). In fact, as Barker has shown in practice, there is no
agent so efficient for the formation of ozone as Siemer's Tube,
through which there is a constant silent discharge of electricity
from a Ruhmkorff coil. Now, through our dry atmosphere, there
is a constant electric discharge, which generates ozone in immense
quantities. The bearing of ozone on the question of health will
be considered under another head.

34 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER III.

CLIMATE CONTINUED.
MOISTURE AND RAINFALL.

Abundance of Moisture — The Rainy Season — Decrease Towards the West
— Vapor in the Atmosphere — Rain Charts and their Explanation — Excep-
tional Conditions of Rainfall in the Niobrara Region and its Cause — Compara-
tive Estimates with Europe.

T^ ASTERN Nebraska has an abundance of moisture. This may
lj appear like an exaggeration to those who were educated to be-
lievethat Nebraska was an arid region. And yet there is nothing in
the natural history of the State better established than that there is
here an abundance of rainfall.

When the snows of winter disappear the ground is in good con-
dition to be worked. Sufficient showers come during early spring
to excite the crops of cereal grains, grasses and corn to an active
growth. Sometimes it is comparatively dry between the spring
showers and the June rains. These come sometimes earlier than
June — in the last of May, and sometimes not till the last of June
and constitute the rainy season for the State. It begins whenever
the "big rise" of the Missouri and the Platte occur. This rainy
season lasts from four to eight weeks. In fifteen years I have not
known it to fail. During its continuance it does not indeed rain
every day, except occasionally for a short period. Generally during
this period it rains from two to three times a week. It is more apt
to rain every night than every clay. In fact during the whole of
this season three-fourths of the rain falls at night. It is not an
unusual occurrence for rain to fall every night for weeks, fol-
lowed by cloudless days. This rainy season of June occurs at a
period when crops most need rain, and owing to the regularity of
its occurrence, drouths sufficiently severe to destroy the crops in
eastern Nebraska, \vhere there is proper cultivation, have not yet
been known. Even in 1874, when the drouth in some parts of the
State was damaging, there were some fields of corn that produced

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA.

good crops where the majority were failures. The successful fields
were the ones that were well and deeply cultivated. After the wet
season of June, which sometimes extends into July, is over, there
are rains and showers at longer intervals until and during autumn.
During winter it rarely rains. Snow falls in winter, but seldom to
a great depth. The snows generally range in depth from one to
ten inches and in a few extreme cases to fifteen inches. During
the majority of winters, as can be seen from Dr. Childs' table A,
no snows fall over eight inches in depth.

West of the looth meridian the amount of rainfall gradually
decreases from the yearly average of thirty inches, at or near
Kearney Junction to twenty inches at North Platte. If the last
two years only were taken into the account, even there and almost
to the west line of the State the rainfall would be estimated at
thirty inches. It will hardly as yet average that much for ten
years, though for reasons stated hereafter there will be that
amount of rainfall over western Nebraska in the near future.

Even the relative amount of moisture in the atmosphere is high.
This is evident from the reports of the Signal Service at Omaha
and North Platte. It reports as much vapor on an average in the
atmosphere at Omaha as exists in the States in the Mississippi
Valley. At North Platte which represents western Nebraska, the
atmosphere contains a comparatively large amount of vapor. The
following table, taken from the report of the Signal office for the
year ending June 3Oth, 1878, gives the vapor in the atmosphere for
each month.

Monthly and annual mean relative humidity; from observations taken at 7 a. m.,

2 and 9 p. wi., &c.

N. Platte.

Omaha.

July, 1877

Pr Cent.
47. 2

Pr Cent.
02.4

August, 1877 ..

57.5

«G7 4

September, 1877

52.9

09.0

October, 1877

04.8

73.6

November 1877

64.3

73.7

December, 1877 '

08.4

77.8

January 1878

08.4

78 6

February 1878 .

00.3

73.1

March 1878

01 4

64 8

April 1878 ; ;

54.5

59.8

May 1878

04.4

63.6

June 1878

09.7

71.1

Annual Means

01.0

09.0

36 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

In addition to the preceding table it may be repeated here, that
according to Dr. Childs' tables the amount of rainfall during the
year ending November 3oth, 1877, was 40.62 inches; for the year
ending November 3oth, 1878, was 53.87 inches. The average for
the ten years ending November 3Oth, 1878, was 42.86 inches.

In order to exhibit the areas of certain quantities of rainfall to
the eye, I have constructed the following rain charts for the State.
The first chart gives the average rainfall during the ten years ending
November 3Oth, 1868. The second gives the average rainfall for the
ten years ending November 3Oth, 1878. In constructing these
charts I have availed myself of all the Smithsonian Reports, the
Signal Office Reports, and my own observations of fifteen years.
It will be seen that my results are very different from those hitherto
obtained by an exclusive dependence on the Smithsonian Reports.
By comparing these two maps it will be seen that there is a con-
stant increase of rainfall in the State.

Chart No. I. — This chart gives the areas where a certain aver-
age amount of rainfall occurred from 1859 to 1869. The rainfall
during the years nearest to 1859 had less, and the years nearest to
1869 had more than that indicated on the chart. In other words,
the amount of rainfall towards 1869 approximated already closely
to that of the next period. These facts, however, cannot be ex-
hibited on the diagram.

From the Missouri River in Eastern Nebraska to a line running
across the State from north to south, from above Dakota City and
near to Sioux City on the Iowa side, the average rainfall during
these ten years was thirty inches. From this line to another that
starts near the mouth of the Bow River in Cedar County, and
which runs a little west of south to near Kearney Junction, and
then southeasterly to a point on the State line half way between
the Blue and Republican rivers, the rainfall for the same time was
twenty-six inches. The next line west of this starts a little above
the mouth of the Niobrara, and crosses the State diagonally to a
point a little east of North Platte. The space enclosed between
this line and the preceding received a rainfall during this period
that averaged twenty inches. The next line west of the last starts
about longitude 101°, runs southwest until it strikes the Niobrara,
and then southerly until it reaches the south line of the State oppo-
site Big Springs. An average yearly rainfall of sixteen inches fell
here during this same period. West of this line the average rain-

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA.

ANNUAL AVERRGE RAINFALL FROM 1859 TO 1869,

ANNUAL AVERAGE RAINFALL FROM 1869 TO 1879

38 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY.

fall was not determined, but it could not differ much from the pre-
ceding space.

Chart No. 2. — On this chart we have the mean annual rainfall
between 1869 and 1879. Along the Missouri, as far west as to the
line which starts near the mouth of the Big Sioux River, and
crosses the State southerly and then southwesterly, and then a
little east of south until it strikes the south line of the State where
the Blue River emerges from it, over this space the mean annual
rainfall during this period was thirty-eight inches. Closer to the
river the rainfall was still greater. Between this last line and the
next which starts on the Missouri a little south of the mouth of
the Bow River, runs diagonally in a curve until near Kearney, and
then south to the south line of the State, this section thus bounded
receives an average annual rainfall of thirty-two inches. West of
this last line there is another, which starts at the mouth of the Ni-
obrara, curves southwesterly to a point a little east of North Platte,
and then slightly southwest to a point a little west of Culbertson,
on the Republican River. An average annual rainfall of twenty-
six inches covers the space bounded by these lines. The next line
west commences on the north line of the State at the mouth of the
Keya Paha, runs southwest across the State, striking the south line
half way between Culbertson and the west line of the State. The
space between this line and the last receives an average annual
rainfall of nineteen inches. Between this line and the next west,
which starts a little east of the 101° meridian, runs in a curve south-
westerly to a point near Lodge Pole, on the Union Pacific Railroad,
and then south to the south line of the State. The space bounded by
this and the last line receives an average annual rainfall of seventeen
inches. West of this line the rainfall is not definitely determined,
but it probably does not differ materially from the preceding sec-
tion. It should be remembered in examining these charts, that
towards each line the amount of rainfall shades into the next di-
vision.

EXCEPTIONAL METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS IN THE NIOBRARA

REGION.

In Chapter I., some exceptional physical features were noted in
the Niobrara region. These exceptional physical features no doubt
help to produce the exceptional meteorological conditions. Of late
years more than formerly, in these sections during June, July and

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 39

August, there are almost daily thunder-showers. There is little
snowfall in winter, but when the hot weather approaches these
storms are almost constant. Every time it has been my fortune to
be there, every day there was a thunder-storm, and on some days
several. The morning sun would appear with wonderful clearness,
and the heat would become intense by two o'clock, and then in a few
minutes clouds would form and thunder peal. After the outpouring
of the clouds, which generally lasted from thirty minutes to an
hour, the clouds would vanish and the sun appear. Frequently
there was another thunder-shower during the early hours of the
night.

The cause of these frequent showers appears to me to be this :
At the head of the Elkhorn and the Loups, and between these
rivers and the Niobrara, there are great numbers of small lakes
and ponds and sloughs. These are underlaid by an impervious
clayey stratum, so that the only escape possible for the waters is
by overflow and evaporation. Some drain into these rivers, but
many have no visible outlet. Near to and among these lakes are
the Sand Hills, already described. The sun shining on these hills
heats them up to an extreme degree, and necessarily also the at-
mosphere around and above them. I have experienced a tempera-
ture myself here in the shade of 110° F., when the register at
Plattsmouth marked only from 85° to 90° F. The consequence is,
that the evaporation is enormous. The atmosphere becomes super-
saturated with moisture. The least fall now in temperature, pro-
duced by a change of wind or other cause, creates cloud, the play
of lightning and rainfall. My own experience in this region is not
a solitary one. Captain W. S. Stanton, of the Topographical En-
gineers of the U. S. A., had a similar experience. The " cattle
men" who have invaded that region testify to the same facts.
This region of showers covers the entire section occupied by both
lakes, sloughs, ponds, and sand hills. With the increasing moisture
all over the State, it will be interesting to note the changes as the
Sand Hills become more covered with grasses. The rainfall there
will then probably continue to increase, but will be more equally
distributed.

Comparative Estimates with other Regions — Europe:— While
therefore many will admit that there is an abundance of rainfall
east of the looth meridian, they still claim that west of that line it
is too dry for the successful production of anything but stock.

40 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

They point to the less amount of rainfall west of that line, and ask
how a region that receives so little can be utilized for agricultural
purposes. Two replies can be made.

The fallacy of this conclusion can be seen at once if we compare
the rainfall in western Nebraska with that which obtains in some
of the most favored spots of the old world. The following table
I have taken from Guoyot:

Table of Rainfall.

Depth in Inches

British Islands,

Western France,

Eastern "

Central and North German}7,

Hungary,

Northeast Portugal .

Madrid

Paris itself, according to the researches of Arago, has only an
average annual rainfall of twenty inches. (Cosmos, vol. I, p. 331.)*

Now it is true that there are many rainy days in western France
(152) and in central and north Germany (150) yet if we count in
the nights when it rains and the days and nights when it snows,
there is not so much difference as at first imagined between the wet
days of Nebraska and middle and western Europe. Regions in
Europe with less rainfall than even western Nebraska, are made
successful in agriculture. Less toil than is expended to make the
dry portions of Europe a garden would make western Nebraska
agriculturally rich. Even, therefore, judged by European stand-
ards, western Nebraska is already sufficiently watered for the needs
of certain kinds of agriculture.

Not only is western Nebraska far removed from desert condi-
tions, but every part of North America. No sections of its low
or table lands have the aridity that Humboldt and Ehrenberg found
[Cosmos] between the valleys of the Irtish and the Oby. There with
temperature of 74° / the dew point was at 24°. The air therefore
contained only .10 of aqueous vapor. The structure of North
America makes genuine desert conditions impossible. There are
dry and arid sections but the aridity nowhere produces a genu-
ine desert comparable to the Sahara.

* See also lor early rainfall in Central Europe, Gasparins' Researches.

RAINFALL IN NEBRASKA. 41

The second reply to those who object to the little rainfall in
western Nebraska, is that the rainfall is increasing from year to
year. This fact will be considered in the next chapter.

CHAPTER IV.

EVIDENCES OF INCREASING RAINFALL IN NE-
BRASKA—SOURCES OF RAINFALL.

Appearance of New Springs— Increasing Size of Streams— Changing Vegeta-
tion—Former Character of Vegetation— Causes Producing Increased Rainfall
—Wrong Reasons Assigned— True Reason, the Increased Absorptive Power
of the Soil, produced by Cultivation— Experimental Proofs— Special Ab-
sorptive Power of Nebraska Soil— Extension of Sufficient Rainfall over
Western Nebraska— Original Sources of Rainfall— Effect of Change in the
Direction of the Winds — Moisture from the Rivers — Amount of River Sur-
face Exposed to Evaporation— Temperature of the Rivers— Nebraska ef-
fected by the Amount of Precipitation in the Mountains.

SOON after I first came to the State in 1864, it was reported that
some new springs had made their appearance at the base of the
bluffs facing the Missouri bottom and river in Dakota County. On
investigation this was found to be correct. This phenomenon was
observed in other portions of the State. It has occurred, for ex-
ample, during the last few years in the Pierce precinct in Lancaster
County. Up to this time I have a record of one hundred and fifty
springs that have made their appearance during the last ten years
where they were never known before. This same appearing of
new springs has been noticed by many observers in the State, and
is particularly familiar to the older settlers of the State. Connected
with this same line of facts is the phenomenon of the appearance
of water in old creek beds, where it apparently had not been flow-
ing for ages. Manv of the smaller tributaries of the Elkhorn, the
Logan, the Bows, the Loups and the Niobrara, with beautiful
small bottoms and old stream beds in the midst or one side of them,
and which were perfectly dry when I first knew them in 1865 and
1866, are again living streams. Indeed many of them, especially
towards the head of the Elkhorns, that had sod grown over the
stream beds which were even difficult to find so nearly obliterated

42 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

were they, are again supplied with water, not merely during part
of the year, but apparently permanently.

Still another fact in the same connection is the increasing size of
the streams of the State. Old settlers observe this. It is a phe-
nomenon that every old settler must notice, who has been inter-
ested in matters of this kind.

The changing vegetation of the State proves the same fact.
There was a time within the memory of many now living when
the buffalo grass was the most conspicuous vegetable form west of
the Missouri. When Lewis and Clarke passed up the Missouri in
1804, it was almost the only grass that they found growing along
this portion of their route. Fremont observed the same thing as
late as 1842. The first settlers in this territory found it abounding
along all the river counties. The early freighters across the plains
depended most on it for pasturage for their cattle. Now how
changed. It has almost entirely disappeared for two hundred
miles west of the Missouri. There is comparatively little of it now
on the third hundred. Every year it is retreating further west-
ward. Its place is supplied with grasses indigenous to moister
climates. Where formerly the ground was covered with grasses
from two to four inches high, there is now a carpet of green from
six inches to four feet high. Many of the blue joints and sorghum
grasses exceed even this height. Still other forms besides the
grasses, characteristic of moist regions, are occupying the spaces
left by the retreating buffalo grass. There is also an increase in
the spontaneous growth of timber. Wherever there are abandoned
cultivated fields, and the prairie fires are kept away, and the tract
is left unmolested from other hindering causes, thick growths of
cottonwood and sometimes box elder frequently, soon monopolize
the ground. This is especially true of lands in close proximity to
existing timber belts. There is an increasing disposition to do this
all over eastern Nebraska. Where formerly there was not suffi-
cient moisture to start the seeds into life on the high lands, which
are scattered each year by the winds, birds and rodents, there is
an abundance. In fact it is questionable, if prairie fires were en-
tirely repressed, whether groves of timber would not now gradu-
ally creep over all the unoccupied lands of Nebraska. The proofs,
therefore, that the rainfall of Nebraska is steadily increasing, are
manifold. If space permitted, many more could be given. It is
therefore probable that the early explorers of this region were cor-

RAINFALL IN NEBRASKA. 43

rect in ascribing to it a partially desert character. And yet even
then they could only have been partially correct. No desert can
support countless thousands of buffalo, elk, deer and antelope as
the plains of Nebraska did when Lewis and Clarke made their first
voyages of discovery up the Missouri. The probabilities are, that
those eminent explorers confounded the appearance of a section
closely pastured, and in some places made bare by the pasturing,
of those immense herds of buffalo of which they speak, with the
barrenness that a true desert always exhibits. A land that is sup-
plied with sufficient moisture in such a climate as this, to produce
food for such an affluence of animal life, can always be made avail-
able for the purposes of a high civilization.

CAUSES THAT ARE PRODUCING INCREASED RAINFALL.

Various reasons have been assigned to account for the increased
rainfall of the State. Some have maintained that the cause is secular
- — that there are great periods when the moisture of a region in-
creases for ages independent of any human agency, and that when
it has reached a maximum it commences to decrease, which contin-
ues until it reaches a minimum. According to this theory, this
region is now in a stage of increasing moisture. The advocates of
this theory point out the fact that the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and
Lake Mono, lying at the eastern foot of the Sierras,are both undoubt-
edly rising.* One of the objections to this theory is that the geo-
logical causes which produce increased rainfall, are not now spon-
taneously operative. Western America passed through many such
revolutions during the progress of the later geological ages, and
their causes are well understood. When, for example, .the region
of the plains was much lower than at present, and were dotted
over with great fresh water lakes, a much moister climate than the
present must have prevailed. The country between this and the
Pacific is not now sinking — it is rather rising at the rate, according
to Whitney, of a foot or two to the century. Denudation keeps
it at about the same level. Unless therefore the cause is extra
terrestrial we cannot ascribe the increasing rainfall to merely secu-
lar changes. There are no cosmical causes definitely known that
would cause an increase of rainfall over an isolated region of the
earth. That cause, therefore, as a producer of increased rainfall
must also be dismissed.

*On Lake Mono see LeCutes' paper on the existence of volcanoes around Mono, read before
National Academy, April ISth, 1879.

44 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Another theory tenaciously held by some, is that the increased
rainfall is produced by the iron on the railroad lines of the State
and the wires of the telegraph lines. A few also believe that
it is effected by the disturbance of the atmospheric circulation
through the concussions of locomotives and moving trains. The
objection to these views comes largely from the fact that in the
older States where railroad lines are much more numerous and
have existed much longer, no increase of rainfall has been noticed.

A more plausible theory is, that the planting of trees has been
the cause of increased rainfall. This, I admit, is a helping cause,
but cannot be the main cause of increased rainfall. In Nebraska
increase of rainfall commenced before the number of trees planted
equaled the number destroyed. Comparatively few of the first
settlers planted trees. Again, the statistics of forestry in the east,
in Europe, in Asia, show that forests modify temperature, the vio-
lence of winds and equalize rainfall, but do not increase it. While
therefore it is admitted that the growth of forests exercises the hap-
piest influences on climate, it is still evident that we must look
elsewhere for the permanent causes of increasing rainfall. The
same argument that applies to forests can be used in reply
to those who insist that increased rainfall is due to the pro-
ductions of corn and the cereal grains. It may be that the
continued and combined action of these causes has some effect in
increasing rainfall, but it must be small. There is, however, an
other cause, not heretefore mentioned, most potently acting to pro-
duce all the changes in rainfall that the facts indicate have taken
place. What then is that cause?

// is the great increase in the absorptive power of the soil,
'wrought by cultivation, that has caused, and continues to cause
an increasing rainfall in the State.

Any one who examines a piece of raw prairie closely, must observe
how compact it is. Every one who opens up a new farm, soon finds
that it requires an extra force to break it. There is nothing extra-
ordinary about this. For vast ages the prairies have been pelted by the
elements and trodden by millions of buffalo and other wild animals,
until the naturally rich soil became as compact as a floor. When
rain falls on a primitive soil of this character, the greater part runs
off into the canyons, creeks and rivers, and is soon through the
Missouri on its way to the Gulf. Observe now the change which
cultivation makes. After the soil is broken, the rain as it falls is

RAINFALL IN NEBRASKA. 45

absorbed by the soil like a huge sponge. The soil gives this ab-
sorbed moisture slowly back to the atmosphere by evaporation.
Thus year by year as cultivation of the soil is extended, more of the
rain that falls is absorbed and retained to be given off by evapora-
tion, or to produce springs. This, of course, must give increasing
moisture and rainfall.

In order to test the accuracy of this theory, which struck me as
the only true explanation of this phenomenon as early as 1867, I, at
various times, made some experiments. The first accurate experi-
ments I made in May, 1872. I went east of the Antelope, about a
mile, from Lincoln, to a farm now owned by Mr. Hawley, after a
heavy rain. With a rule, six inches square was marked off, of un-
broken prairie, and this was taken up six inches deep and placed in
a porcelain dish that had been previously weighed. The same
amount to the same depth, was taken from a cultivated field. The
difference in weights between the two specimens was sufficiently great
to prove that the cultivated land absorbed at least during this rain,
twelve times as much moisture as the uncultivated. The
specimens were taken from lands only a few yards apart. After
another rain, from near the same locality, a square foot three inches
deep, was lifted and compared with a-n equal amount from an ad-
joining field. The specimens were first weighed, then dried and then
weighed again. The difference in this case indicated that ten times
as much moisture had been absorbed by the cultivated ground as by
the unbroken prairie. In June, 1873, similar experiments were
made and with the same results. Where the rainfall is slight, the
difference will not be found to be so great. Much also depends on
the lay of the land ; care must also be taken that the cultivated
land that is experimented with, lies adjoining unbroken
prairie, as there is often considerable difference in rainfall, espec-
ially in thunder storms, in the space of a quarter of a mile. In all
cases the experiments were made immediately after or during the
intermissions of rainfall. After only slight rains, the difference in
absorptive power was only as four to one. The mean, however, of
fifty of these experiments, gives an average absorptive power of
cultivated ground over unbroken prairie of nine to one. To make
allowances, however, for possible mistakes, I will make eight to one
the basis of our future calculations on this subject.

When the first settlements were commenced in Nebraska the
rainfall of the State was not over twenty inches. Of these twenty

46 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

inches probably not more than five inches soaked into the ground.
Cultivated soil, however, absorbs nearly all the rain that falls.
Where thirty-two inches of rain now falls in Nebraska on cultiva-
ted ground, not less than twenty-four inches are absorbed by the
soil. Some of this is slowly given back into the atmosphere, and
some of it goes to form the new springs of water that are making
their appearance in so many places. Any one can see that this
must make an enormous difference in the moisture of the atmos-
phere and on rainfall. Before the settlement of the State, and be-
fore the consequent cultivation of the soil, what rain did fall, as
already stated, soon left the State through creeks and rivers. Now
the greater part of what does fall on all cultivated or broken ground,
is retained by the soil which becomes a reservoir of water to sup-
ply growing crops, and to give greater humidity to the atmosphere.

ABSORPTIVE POWER OF NEBRASKA SOIL.

No soil in the Eastern States has so great an absorptive power
as the land in Nebraska. There, as a general rule, the underlying
hard rock is soon reached, and during excessive rains the thin soil
is so supersaturated with water that excessive denudation of the
soil is common. A thin soil also dries out, because there are no
stores of moisture below from which it can draw supplies. Here,
however, the superficial deposits are of very great thickness. The
loess itself, ranges from two feet to two hundred feet, and often
where it is thin, there are below it great bodies of drift. The av-
erage thickness of all the superficial deposits — loess and drift —
is considerably over one hundred feet. This thickness, therefore,
of surface materials constitutes the huge sponge that absorbs ex-
cesses of rainfall, and retains it to be given back to the atmosphere
only gradually.

Here, then, we have a cause competent to account for the in-
creased rainfall of the State — a cause that not only has operated
thus far but is continuous. Through the operations of this cause,
the rainfall will become even more abundant than it has yet been,
especially over the central and western portion of the State. The
area of cultivation is extending rapidly each year, and continual en-
croachments are made on the lands in western Nebraska, that have
been condemned as barren because of a deficiency of rainfall. Last
year a large amount of land breaking was done near to and west
of the looth meridian in the Republican Valley and the table lands

RAINFALL IN NEBRASKA. 47

adjoining it. And it is a remarkable fact, that last winter, (1879),
there was an exceptionally large fall of snow, and this summer an
abundant rainfall in the same region. In fact, this snow and rain-
fall extended all over Western Nebraska.

The question is often asked whether the causes now producing
the increased rainfall over the eastern two-thirds of the State will
ever be sufficiently operative over the extreme western third as to
make it an agricultural region. Of this I have no doubt. It prob-
ably will take a longer time to produce this change here than it
did in eastern Nebraska. The cause of this will be discussed pres-
ently. When the great body of the land near to and west of the
looth meridian is once cultivated that is capable of cultivation, the
sufficiently and increasingly moist region will encroach gradually
on the dry region until it is entirely crowded out of the State.
And the reason why this cause will be slower here in its operation
is because extreme western Nebraska is under the lee of the Rocky
Mountains. The moisture-bearing winds do not strike it so direct-
ly as they do eastern Nebraska. This is better understood when

THE ORIGINAL SOURCES OF THE RAINFALL OF NEBRASKA
ARE CONSIDERED.

These sources are mainly of a two-fold and combined character.
One source is the moisture-laden winds from the Gulf of Mexico;
the other is the enormous evaporation from those rivers of Nebras-
ka that have their source in the Rocky Mountains.

Rains are most apt to fall when there is a change in the direc-
tion of the winds. If the wind, for example, has been blowing for
days from the southwest, south, or southeast, and turns around and
comes from the north, rain is almost certain to fall. There will
also be a fall of rain if the change is from the north to the south.
Any one looking at a map of the United States will see that the
south wind coming directly upon the west end of the Mexican
Gulf, would strike Red Willow, Furnas, Dawson, Custer, Elk-
horn, and Kiiox counties. Whenever, therefore, all of Nebraska,
including these and the counties east of them are bathed by this
moisture-bearing wind from the Gulf, either after a north wind or
followed by one there is precipitation of moisture into cloud and
generally rainfall. When the wind is slightly from the southeast,
extreme western Nebraska shares in this rainfall, otherwise it does
so to only a limited extent. This is, it appears to me, one reason

48 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

•why there has been less rainfall in this section than in eastern Ne-
braska.

As, however, there are trusty indications of a regular rate of in-
crease of rainfall for western Nebraska, similar to that going on in
eastern Nebraska the probabilities are that when the eastern two-
thirds of the State are once properly cultivated, and its rainfall
averages forty inches, that of western Nebraska will approximate
twenty-eight or thirty inches, and that in this State is sufficient to
produce successfully the cereal grains, cultivated grasses and corn.

The second source of rainfall for Nebraska is the moisture from,
the rivers that flow from the mountains. These rivers are the
Platte, the Niobrara to a small extent, and the Missouri and its
tributaries. The flood time of these rivers is always a rainy season
for Nebraska. This rainy season comes earlier or later as the
"big rise" is earlier or later. Then the moisture that is wafted
here by the winds from the Gulf, is reinforced by the moisture that
is evaporated from these rivers; and the consequent precipitation
into cloud and rainfall, constitutes the rainy season for Nebraska.
A map of Nebraska shows how two of these rivers run the whole
length of the State, and that the mighty Missouri is east and north
of it. The Missouri too, it should be remembered, has a course of
four hundred miles along eastern Nebraska, for though the State
is little more than two hundred miles from north to south, the
serpentine windings of the river give it at least double that length.
We have, therefore, a length of four hundred miles of the Missouri,
and (for the same reason as applied to the Missouri) at least six
hundred miles of the Platte, or one thousand miles of river aver-
aging one mile broad, or one thousand square miles of rapidly mov-
ing river surface, exposed to a warm atmosphere, from which the
evaporation is simply enormous. The Niobrara, counting its wind-
ings, adds five hundred more miles of evaporating surface. Unlike
the floods of eastern rivers, these "big rises" last for a considerable
length of time, often indeed from its beginning to its close, over
two months. What adds greatly to the rapidity of the evapora-
tions is the difierence of temperature between the waters of these
rivers and the atmosphere. Lewis and Clarke', during their famous
expedition up the Missouri in 1804, spoke of the sameness of the
temperature of the water of the Missouri and its tributaries with
that of the atmosphere. If no difierence existed then, it does now.
For example, the signal service at Omaha for June, 1878, report a

RAINFALL IN NEBRASKA. 49

mean temperature of 68° 4'. My own determinations for the tem-
perature of the water of the Missouri at the same point, being a
mean of many observations for this month, give 63° 9', showing
that the temperature of the water is for this month 4° 5' lower than
that of the atmosphere. The mean temperature for July, 1877, at
Omaha, as determined by the signal office was 76°. For this month
the signal office also report the mean temperature of the river 73^°.
The temperature of the water at the Platte at its mouth, approxi-
mates more closely to that of the atmosphere, it being for June,
1878,68° and for June 1879, 67° 9'. At North Platte the tem-
perature of the waters of the Platte is much lower, it being for
June 65° and for July 68°. It should also be remembered that the
temperature of the water is much more uniform than that of the
atmosphere. Its daily oscillations are small. It is rarely during
twenty-four hours the same as that of the atmosphere. From all
these causes then the evaporation from the surface is very great and
the winds carry the moisture in various directions, until finally it is
again deposited as rain.

NEBRASKA AFFECTED BY THE AMOUNT OF PRECIPITATION OF
MOISTURE IN THE MOUNTAINS.

As the seasons of greatest rainfall in Nebraska are the seasons
of greatest rise in the Missouri and the Platte, and as the magni-
tude of these rises is dependent on the amount of snowfall in the
mountains, the moisture of the plains is to this extent dependent on
the amount of precipitation there during the winter season. A
question, therefore, in which every one here is interested, is
whether the amount of moisture there is decreasing, is station-
ary, or is on the increase. Some scientific authorities have ex-
pressed the opinion that the whole Rocky Mountain region is in a
comparatively rapid process of drying up, and that the amount of
rain and snowfall must be less each decade and century. One of
the theoretical arguments presentedin proof -of this view is, that in
ages geologically recent, the Rocky Mountain area was a region
of great lakes, and that it then lay at a much lower level, but that
now the lakes have nearly all disappeared, and that it is still rising
at the rate of a few feet to the century, and that, therefore, in the
nature of things, the drying-up process must continue. The facts
relied on for this opinion, are mainly that wherever the mountain
sides are from any cause denuded of their timber, no young trees

50 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

take their place. In other words, whenever the mountain sides
become bare of forests, they remain so. It has also been asserted
that many groves along the sides of the mountains and on the
summits were dying off without any apparent cause, except the
increasing dryness of the region. I am now confident that the ad-
vocates of this theory are mistaken in their theories and their facts.
It is true that since the miocene tertiary age or even since the cre-
tacious, the amount of water. in the form of great lakes has on the
whole been decreasing. But there are limits to these processes.
There have been many revolutions in the condition, geological and
meteorological, of central and western North America in the meso-
zoic and cenozoic ages. For example, during the earlier ages the
greater part of western Nebraska was dry land. But it gradu-
ally and slowly commenced to sink, and in the course of centuries
that are numberless, the Gulf of Mexico extended itself in a north-
westerly direction over our plains to the Arctic sea. The uplift-
ing of the Rocky Mountains that commenced at the close of the
cretaceous age, inaugurated the area of making of dry land which
has continued to the present time, but with many intermissions.
My limits will not permit me to discuss these interruptions. But
these facts in geological history do not warrant us to conclude, be-
cause in the most recent periods the tendency has been to continued
elevation and dryness, that this tendency must continue. Rather
should the opposite conclusion be reached, that sooner or later the
limit of elevation and dryness will be attained, and that a reaction
must follow as in the past. This reaction must for countless ages
in the future bring increasing moisture. Now, the facts of the
present operations of nature in the mountains do not sustain this
theory.

The advocates of the increasing dryness of the mountains evident-
ly make many of their observations at "long range." They have
viewed mountain sides and tops like some newspaper men have
battles — a great way off. Commencing at Georgetown I have
climbed every mountain side and examined every mountain top
that I could see where the timber had been destroyed from any
cause. The whole number of such places that I examined was
twenty-seven, and in every instance I found countless numbers of
young pines and sometimes deciduous trees coming up to take the
place of the old ones. Often when I looked at a mountain side
from a distance nothing could be seen but old trees deadened by

RAINFALL IN NEBRASKA. 51

fire. When, however, the spot was reached the ground was often
so covered with young trees from one to five years old that it was
difficult to penetrate through the mass of tangled limbs. Where
small areas were not crowded with young trees the grasses were
growing with a luxuriance that surprised many of the old residents
of the mountains. Take for example the side of Griffith Mountain
on the south side of Georgetown. The timber here was removed
for fuel and other purposes. In spots over its denuded surface
countless numbers of young pines, spruce and quaking asps from
six inches to four feet high are making their appearance. Where
squirrels and birds failed to plant seeds for another forest luxuriant
grasses and magnificent flowers cover the ground. Every nook
and corner among the rocks seems to be utilized for plant life. I
found the same condition of things on the mountain sides around
Middle Park. As all who have visited this beautiful region will
remember, the mouutain slopes are here very densely timbered,
and wherever I found the timber here destroyed by fires a young
crop was struggling to take its place. On going north from Grand
Lake for twenty-five miles along the western base of the main
range, and in sight of the Rabbit-ear mountains, about twelve miles
of my route, passed through fallen timber that had been destroyed a
few years ago by a huge fire. Some sections of this desolation
was already covered by a dense growth of pine from two to four
feet high, while in other spots the young trees were just be-
ginning to make their appearance. In some places it was
hard to tell whether the grasses or the trees would gain the
mastery. This section of the park is rarely visited, owing,
probably, to the absence of roads or trails, and yet no part is
more beautiful or has grander scenery. I was accompa
nied by D. N. Smith, of Burlington, Iowa, and both of us were
conducted by a notable guide, George W. Cole, whom we found
exceedingly intelligent and perfectly reliable, and who never flinch-
ed when we were in a tight place. The rapidity of growth of the
mountain timber has also been underestimated. I measured a great
many pines and spruces in Berthoud Pass that had made a growth
of from five to eleven inches during the year. Some quak-
ing asps on Willow Mountain had made a growth of fourteen
inches.

These facts, which, if space permitted, would be greatly multi-
plied, demonstrate that those are greatly mistaken who insist that

52 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the Rocky Mountain region is drying up. The evidence, so far as
it goes, points in the other direction, and proves that it is increasing.
The agency of man probably has something to do with this, just as
it has in Nebraska, but our limits will not permit a discussion of
this point.

CHAPTER V.

WATERS OF NEBRASKA.

Lakes— Springs— Wells— Artesian Wells— Saline Springs— Rivers— Mis-
souri— Platte — Republican — Niobrara — Keya Paha — White River — Elklio rn
Logan — Bow Rivers — Nemahas — Blues, Loups, etc.

IN striking contrast to past geological times, there are now no
large lakes in Nebraska. There are, however, a great numbej
of small lakes in the State. From their small size and their dis-
tance from railroads they have thus far attracted little attention.
Those along the Missouri, such as the ones in Dakota and Burt
counties, have been produced in recent times, some of them indeed
within a few years. The " cut-offs " of the Missouri often leave
small lakes. The one northwest of Dakota City is about five miles
long. Similar lakes, in, a similar way, have been formed on the
Elkhorn,the Platte and the Blue rivers. Many of these, however,
in the interior, are the remnants of what was once, in loess times,
a vast inland lake that covered the larger part of Nebraska.* An
extensive region of small lakes is found at the head of the Elkhorn
River. Of the lakelets that exist here, over thirty in number,
many of them are of great beauty with sandy or pebbly bottoms.
A still more extensive lake region exists at the headwaters of the
North Loup, and between that and the Niobrara River. Most of
these are of fresh water, but a few are saline or alkaline. At the
head of Snake River, a tributary of the Niobrara, there are a num-
ber of small saline and fresh water lakes. Perhaps the most exten-
sive groups of saline lakes are those at the head of Pine Creek, also
one of the tributaries of the Niobrara. There are also a number
of alkaline and fresh water lakes between the heads of the Dismal
and Middle Loup. In my notes of exploration and travel there is

*See chapter on Superficial Deposits of Nebraska.

WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 53

a list of over one hundred, and no doubt there are many more that
have not been noted. In addition to these there are great numbers
of ponds that almost approach in size to the dignity of lakes.
Some of these lakelets at the head of the Elkhorn were in former
years, when first visited, remarkable for the number of fishes that
they contained. Unaccustomed to the presence of man, they
seemed to have no fears of him. At least, when I waded into
them they gathered around me in huge shoals. The alkaline lakes
can always be detected on sight. No grass or other vegetable forms
grow near the water, wliile at fresh water lakes luxuriant growths
of vegetation extended to the very water's edge. With the in-
crease of rainfall going on over the State, the level of these lakes
will naturally rise, and many of them that are now isolated will
become connected and cover much more extended areas than at
present. A prominent characteristic of most of these lakes and
lakelets is the wonderful clearness of the water. A silver three or
five cent piece thrown into them can be distinctly seen at the bot-
tom with the naked eye, even when they are from fifteen to twenty
feet deep. This I ascertained in many instances by actual measure-
ment. Most of the deeper lakes, especially of the northern and
western portions of the State, have gravelly, -coarse, sandy or peb-
bly bottoms. Here formerly, much more than at present, was a
paradise of water fowl.

SPRINGS, WELLS, AND ARTESIAN WELLS.

In the eastern half the State springs are abundant, and wherever
the lay of the land and the underlying rocks are favorable to their
existence. It is well known that however abundant rainfall and
moisture may be, no springs are produced unless the waters that
percolates through the soil are arrested by some impervious layers
along which they can be carried to some break or cut, where they
can flow out. Such impervious layers in Nebraska, are of two gen-
eral types. The first type, are those on or among the underlying
rocks, along which the water flows until it emerges on Lill sides or
edge of valleys. In south-eastern Nebraska, many springs appear
on top of limestone strata that underlie loosely, compacted sandy
rocks or shales. Where the Dakota Group of sand rock exists,
springs frequently proceed above some harder layers of this deposit.
Warner's Spring, southwest from Dakota City, in the bluffs, is an
instance of this character. Another is a famous spring near Teka-

54 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

mah, in the bluffs, called sometimes, from the color of the rocks,
Yellow Springs. The former has the rock above the spring cov-
ered with Indian hierogliphics. Occasionally springs proceed from
or near the line of junction between these rocks and the next below.
Some impervious layers of clayey, brownish shale in the Fort Ben-
ton Group, also arrest the downward course of water and leads it to
the next break or valley of erosion to appear as a spring.

The se ond class of springs are those that proceed from between
different kinds of layers of the drift and loess. The drift is
specially remarkable for the number of clayey layers that are inter-
posed between layers of sand and pebbles. These layers of clay
carry the water to the nearest cut, where they form springs.
Where these layers of clay do not exist, the water is carried along
the top of the underlying rocks, if these happen to be hard or com-
pact, and springs as in the former case appear on the edges of the
valley. Many of the springs that emerge from the bluffs of all the
river valleys owe their origin to these causes. This explains, too,
why in many sections of the State, springs are found (often several
of them on every quarter section of land), and why in other por-
tions of the State they are found only at long intervals. The more
broken or rolling, other things being equal, the more abundant
they are. On the long reaches of nearly level land springs occur
at much longer intervals. On and near the top of the level water
sheds springs occur still more rarely.

Water, however, is abundant even here. Wells or borings
always obtain it. Over the greater portion of the State, shafts or
holes sunk down from fifteen to fifty feet are sure to obtain it in
abundance. The exceptions to this rule are some portions of wide
divides in such counties as Fillmore, Clay, Adams and Phelps,
where there is a great thickness of loess and drift to be penetrated
before impervious strata, capable of holding water are reached.
Many farmers prefer land with no springs or running water on it.
There is less waste, they claim. A well with a wind mill attached
supplies water to man and beast in whatever quantity needed. A
wind mill and reservoir attached to a well not unfrequently is made
to water a thousand head of cattle daily, besides supplying the wants
of a household.

Artesian Wells have been bored in a few places. The one in the
public square in Lincoln is one thousand and fifty feet deep. It was
put down in the hope that fresh water would be found. This effort

WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 55

was a failure. At five hundred and sixty feet saline water spout-
ed up a in powerful current. The contractor, Mr. Eaton, however,
was uncertain whether the brine was here first struck, or whether
a current of fresh water only forced it to the surface. It was cer-
tain that strong brine was found at the horizon between seventy
and two hundred and fifty-five feet in the reddish sandstones of the
Dakota Group. It did not, however, flow to the surface. The
weight of evidence favored the conclusion that the salt water above
was forced to the surface by the stronger currents below, especially
as the tubing was so defective that all the waters encountered were
intermingled. Between the level of five hundred and sixty feet
and the end of the boring other artesian currents were struck,
and the mingling of all that were encountered has given a well of
water which, for variety of salts held in solution, is unsurpassed
anywhere. An artesian boring was also made in Beatrice to the
depth of twelve hundred feet, without, however, obtaining a flow of
water to the surface. One has also been put down in Omaha, and a
good flow of pure water obtained at a depth of 750 feet. On the
whole, the geological formations of Nebraska are favorable for
such wells. The general slope is upwards to the west and slightly
towards the north. And although the tertiary strata overlie the
cretaceous as we proceed westward, yet their thickness is far less
than the rise of the country. The pressure of water, therefore,
from between underlying rocks is sufficient to force it to the sur-
face from some point between five hundred and twenty-five hundred
feet.

SALINE SPRINGS.

There are several localities where saline springs or bogs exist.
One of these is in Lancaster County, near Lincoln. The largest
here covers approximately five hundred acres. Others of smaller
area are not far distant. In this largest basin the water emerges in
hundreds of places, and exhibits the curious phenomenon of vary-
ing in depth through the day. It is highest during the morning.
It decreases through the day, and is at its lowest point about three
o'clock in the afternoon. About this time any one passing over the
basin and closely observing it will see the salt water bubbling up
at hundreds of places. Where it comes up in this way the water
contains about ten per cent, of common salt; at least that is the
mean of several analyses, and is also indicated by the salometer.
Many diverse opinions have been expressed about the value of

56 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

these salt basins. Some have regarded them as of little value and
incapable of supplying brine in quantity sufficient to make it pos-
sible to compete with the great salt-producing sections of Mich-
igan and New York; others again have placed an extravagant
value on them, representing them as capable of building up
princely fortunes for any who are fortunate enough to possess the
capital to work them. The truth is probably somewhere between
these extremes. If the salt water that flows away and is lost were
placed in reservoirs and evaporated by solar heat, a richly remu-
nerative business could be built up. Sooner or later this will be
done. When the artesian well on the Government Square in Lin-
coln reached a depth of 560 feet, there was a heavy flow of salt
water to the surface. The salt water, however, had been struck
long before, but it did not flow out. The salt-giving rock is the
reddish, porous sandstone that lies between seventy and two hun-
dred and fifty-five feet in depth. It is because this artesian well
\vas sunk down over a thousand feet and came in contact with
many other strata of rock containing different kinds of water, that
the flow now embraces so many different chemical elements An-
other artesian well had previously been bored on the north s'de of
the main salt basin. This one struck a flow of salt water at about
the same depth as the one on the Government Square. There is
some uncertainty in the mind of Mr. Eaton, who made the borings
in Lincoln, whether the " great flow " was produced by salt water,
or whether the fresh water that was then struck simply combined
with and forced out the salt water. All the known facts, however,
go to support the view that salt water is here abundant, and only
needs to be properly handled to make it a most profitable industry.
There are also saline springs and lakelets beyond and near the
head of the Elkhorn and Loup rivers, and at long intervals toward
the northwestern corner of the State on tributaries of the Niobrara
flowin^ from the south. I visited these under such unfavorable

£•>

circumstances for investigation, that I am not prepared to report
on their extent or probable value.

THE RIVERS OF NEBRASKA

are distinguished for their breadth, their number, and some of them
for their rapiditity and depth. In fact, the name of Nebraska means
land of broad rivers.

Chief of all, not only of Nebraska, but of the United States, is the
Missouri, because it gives character to all the rivers that unite with

WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 57

it below down to the gulf. Forming the eastern border of the
State, and a small extent of its northern boundary, and being tor-
tuous in its path, at least five hundred miles of the river are on its
western and southern side in Nebraska. It is deep and rapid. Its
bed is moving sand, mud and alluvium. It no where in Nebras-
ka has rock bottom. Before rock can be reached a thickness of
from forty to one hundred feet of sand and mud must be penetrated
from low water mark. Its immediate banks, sometimes on both,
and almost always on one side, are steep — often, indeed, perpen-
dicular or leaning over towards the water. It is generally retreating
or advancing from, or on to one or other shore. It is the shore from
which it is retreating that is sometimes gently sloping, while the
one towards which it is advancing is steep. This steepness is produced
by the undermining of the banks and the caving in that follows.
Near the bottom there is a stratum of sand which being struck by
the current is washed out and the bank falls in. Many acres in
some places have been carried away in a single season: The prin-
cipal part of this "cutting" is done while the river is falling.
One of the places, famous in early Nebraska history that the
Missouri in this way destroyed, is the town of Omadi, in Dakota
County. Almost the entire town site is now in the river. When the
river is low and winding through bottoms fringed with, in many
places, dark groves of cottonwood and other timber, it is a sad,mel-
ancholly, weird stream. When it is "on a big rise," however, and
presses forward with tremendous volume and force towards the gulf
it becomes surpassingly grand and majestic. It is now full of eddies,
and whole trees that have been undermined and have fallen into
the river are dragged forward at a fearful velocity. It is never
fordable. Boats of various kinds were exclusively used for crossing
the river until the advent of the railroad bridge at Omaha. Another is
now building by the B. and M. R. R. at Plattsmouth, The water
always muddy or full of finely comminuted sand, the currant rapid
and full of whirling eddies. It is a dangerous stream to trifle with.
Often, indeed, during flood times does the boiling, seething mass of
water look as if it had been stirred up at bottom with the sand by
some mighty convulsive movement of the earth. Few that fall
into it ever reach the shore alive without assistance. The clothes
are soon saturated with the sediment of the river which is always
turbid or muddy, and sinks the victim to the bottom. So well
understood, however, is this feature of the Missonri that no more

58 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

persons are drowned in it than in other rivers of corresponding-
magnitude. The peculiar character of the Missouri gives unique-
ness to the scenery along its shores. A position on some of the
terraces or bluffs overlooking the river give views of unsurpassed
beauty. There is one such of remarkable grandeur above lona,
in Dixon County, where the river touches the bluff, throwing its
wide bottom into Dakota Territory. From this point the river can
be seen towards the east for fifteen miles. The jdark cotton wood
groves, the curves of the river, the Dakota plain on the northern
side, studded with homesteads, constitutes a picture that rivals in
beauty the most famous scenes in the world. Another equally fine
view of the river can be had from the top of the bluff on the road
from Ponca to the Missouri bottom.

With some obnoxious elements attached to its character, it is as
we have already seen, a storehouse of blessings to the sections
through which it flows. Had it not been for the Missouri the set-
tlement of this region would have been indefinitely delayed. It is
a highway to the commerce and markets of the world; and on this
highway the first emigrants reached Nebraska, and sent off their
products to other regions. As the Missouri is navigable for two
thousand miles above Omaha it was a great highway for traffic
with the mountain regions of Idaho, Dakota and Montana. Since
the building of railroads its business has fallen off. Vessels still
run from Sioux City and Yankton to the upper Missouri and the
Yellowstone. Latterly there are indications of a revival of business
on the lower Missouri. Joseph A. Conner, Esq. has this season
(Summer of 1879) shipped three boat loads of produce to St. Louis
from Plattsmouth. The last load took down sixty car loads of
corn and twelve hundred hogs. It cost him fifteen cents per hun-
dred against twenty-seven cents which the railroads charged.
Unfortunately, this competition only lasts through the summer.
The Missouri is not navigable for five or six months through the
winter season.

Next in importance to the Missouri is the Platte river. For
length it approximates closely to twelve hundred miles. Its head
waters originate in the mountains, and many of them rise in beauti-
ful lakelets fed by the everlasting snows. No lakelets for example
can be more interesting than those between the spurs of mountains
twelve thousend feet above the sea level, wrhere the Cache Le
Poudre river is born. Though precipitous and eratic in Colorado

WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 59

and Wyoming, by the time it reaches Nebraska it is broad, shallow,
sandy, but still with a rapid current. It flows through the whole
length of the State from east to west, dividing the State, but
leaving the largest part on the north. In places at low water it can
IDC forded, though teams are sometimes in danger of sticking fast
in the quick sands. It is not navigable. It has been bridged at
Fremont, Schuyler, Grand Island, Kearney Junction, North Platte
and other points. An important point on the river is North Platte,
where it forks, one branch being known as the South Fork, enters
the State from Colorado near the angle of the southwest corner, or
near the parallel of 41°. The North Fork enters the State from
Wyoming near latitude 42. The average volume of water at North
Platte is greater than at its mouth, though it receives in the meantime
some large tributaries, the most important of which are the Elkhorn,
Papillion, Shell Creek, Loup and Wood River. A few held that
this was caused by evaporation. The tributaries, however, that
enter the Platte from the north more than supply the waste from
this cause. The explanation of this phenomenon is found in the
character of the bottom and its continuation with the Drift under-
lying the uplands south of the Platte. The bottom of the Platte is
extremely sandy, and is continuous with a sandy, gravelly and
pebbly deposit of the Drift under the Loess as far as to the Repub-
lican. It will also be seen in the lists of elevations that have been
given that the general level of the Republican is three hundred and
fifty-two feet below that of the Platte. There is therefore a descent
from the Platte to the Republican, and along such a formation that
there is easy drainage from the one into the other. That there is such
drainage on an extensive scale I have no doubt. Wading in the
Republican in August, as I have done for many miles at a time, I
noticed on the north side water ozing out of the drift continuously
every few feet in places, and rarely at greater intervals than every
few rods. Nothing of the kind was noticed on its southern shore.
Where tributaries of the Republican from the northwest cut deep
enough to strike the drift they share in the reception of this water
from the Platte. Few, however, do this.

Flood time for the Platte is generally about the same time as that
of the Missouri — sometimes a few days or weeks earlier, but the
continuance of both is so long that they meet, though they rarely
culminate together.

60 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The Platte drains principally from the northwest. Its water shed
on the south is generally only a few miles from its valley, while on
the norrh it extends in places to within thirty-six miles of the north
line of the State.

If the bottoms and channel of the Platte were favorable for it
there would be an abundance of water for navigation. It is next
to impossible for railroads going to the mountains to do all the
business that will be demannedof them when the Platte Valley and
the mountain regions are once developed. Cheaper freights than
these that railroads furnish will also be demanded. Then a canal
can be built along side of the Platte to receive its waters from the
mountains to the Missouri. It could be made as the Suez canal
was, largely from artificial stone. For such a canal the valley of
the Platte is one of the best in the world. No one now living may
see such a work, but Nebraska is capable of sustaining a population
so dense that such a canal will be a necessity.

The Republican River rises in the Colorado Plains, near range
49 west of the 6th principal meridian. Here anciently there was
a lake whose basin was about four miles across. The outlet, or
river draining it, however, long since cut down the narrow rim
and drained the lake. Its head here in the old lake is 4,050
feet above the sea. A few small springs new rise below the
site of this old lake, and produce a tiny streamlet a foot across.
Other streams, about or nearly as large, soon join it, but at
the State line I could still, — when there in the spring of 1877, with
D. N. Smith, — jump across it. Along this part of its course there
are a few beautiful little lakelets into which and from which it
flows. Here the water is cool, and clear as crystal. When it re-
ceives the waters of the Arickaree, about seven miles east of the
State line, it assumes its characteristic character. It now becomes
shallow and sandy, and in places rapid. Its principal tributary in
this portion of the State is the Republican Fork, and comes from
the southwest. Its junction with the Republican is in range 38,
west. Frenchman's Fork is an important tributary that rises in
Colorado, and, flowing southeast, joins the Republican at Culbert-
son. After this the most important tributary from the southwest
is the Beaver. Red Willow and Medecine Creeks, from the north-
west, are also important tributaries. An immense number of small
creeks flow, every few miles, into the Republican, especially from
the north. This river, unlike the Platte, increases regularly in

WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 61

breadth and volume all the way from its source to its exit from the
State, in Nuckalls County. It is forded in many places, and the
only clanger is from quicksands. There is little danger with a
team that does not balk in the water. It is already bridged in va-
rious places. As was stated in the discussion of the Platte River,
the Republican receives by subterranean drainage a portion of the
waters of the former.

The Niobrara River, from its source, in Wyoming, to its mouth,
is 460 miles long. Its source, in Wyoming, is 5,100 feet above the
sea level. At the State line it is about ten feet wide, and of beau-
tiful, clear, running water. Its elevation here above the sea level
approximates closely to 4,594 feet. It continues to be clear
and sparkling, but widening to about fifteen feet down to longi-
tude 103° 15'. From this point it widens rapidly until, in longitude
102° 30', it is from sixty to eighty yards wide. Here it enters a
canyon whose walls are high and steep. This canyon region con-
tinues down to longitude 99° 20', or about 180 miles. After its
emergence from the canyon it is still a broad, rapid, sandy river to
its mouth. Owing to its rapidity and quicksands, it is exceedingly
difficult to ford in the lower part of its course. At least, this was
my own experience. After sticking fast in the quicksands a few
times, and being compelled to take a wagon apart and carry every-
thing to shore, the river loses all romance for the explorer. In the
lower part of its course there are many low islands, mostly cov-
ered with timber. It flows into the Missouri in range 6, west, and
32, north.

There are numerous tributaries of the Niobrara, most of which
are of small size. On the south side, the first of importance is the
Verdigris. This beautiful stream, which rises in Antelope County
and flows north through the west end of Knox County, flows into
the Niobrara six miles from its mouth. Between this and the
mouth of the Keya Paha, on the south side, there are a great num-
ber of small tributaries. From the mouth of the Keya Paha to
the Wazihonska there are also a great number of small tributaries,
and the most of these are remarkable for the great number of fine
springs of water which feed them, and for the groves of pine and
oak on their narrow bottoms and on their bluffs. The word
Wazihonska signifies, in the Dakota language, " the place where
the pine extends far out." This stream is about forty-five miles
long, and its valley, though much narrower, closely resembles that

62 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

of the Niobrara. Snake River is the next tributary of importance.
Its mouth is near longitude 100° 45'. Its bed is thirty-five yards
wide, and it has a narrow valley. Its bluffs are covered with pine.
Beyond Snake River there are no large branches coming in from
the south.

The Keya Paha is the first large tributary above its mouth on
the north side of the Niobrara. It is about 125 miles long. Where
I crossed it, fifty miles above its mouth, is has a fine valley, three-
fourths of a mile wide, with a good soil, and some cottonwood
timber. The bed of the river, like that of the Niobrara, is sandy,
but its waters are clear, and delicious to the taste. At its mouth it
is about fifty-five yards wide. The next tributary from the north-
west is Rapid Creek, which, however, is only nine yards wide at
its mouth. It connects with the Niobrara in longitude 100° 23'.
Its valley is in some places half a mile wide, and the soil is, judging
from the vegetation, quite fertile. A few small trees fringe its
banks. It is about fifty-five miles long. Reunion Creek, which
flows into the Niobrara at longitude 101° 18', has hardly any bot-
tom, and flows between lofty rock bluffs, very hard to ascend or de-
scend. At its mouth it is fifty-eight yards wide, and has clear, cold,
rapid-running water.

At longitude 101° 30' a creek flows into the Niobrara, a little
more than half the size of Rapid Creek, which it closely resem-
bles. Above this there are a great number of small rivulets,
which flow into the Niobrara, many of which are dry except in
rainy weather- They, however, indicate the former abundance of
water here, and will, with the growing moisture and rainfall of the
State, again, no doubt, become permanent fresh-water streams.
The peculiarities of the exceptional characters of the Niobrara
region are given in a former paragraph under this head.

The White River flows through Northwestern Nebraska It
enters the State from Wyoming, flows eastward and northeast-
ward, north of the Niobrara, until it enters Dakota Territory,
a little east of longitude 103°. It has its source not far from that
of the Niobrara, near a sudden descent of 500 feet, south of Hat
Creek Station, on the road from Fort Laramie. This abrupt de-
scent, when approached from the south, is not suspected until it is
reached. Sometimes this descent is a slope that a team can climb,
and again it changes to a bare wall five hundred feet high. Nu-
merous brooks flow down the gullies and ravines formed on the

% WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 63

side of this steep ascent and wall, and these go to form White
River. The road from Hat Creek Station to Camp Robinson,
thirty miles distant, lies near its base. " From Hat Creek the
trend is a little south of east for thirty-eight miles to the point
where this road makes its steep and difficult ascent." «« Beyond
this point it runs northeasterly for a few miles, then southerly un-
til it meets and terminates the northern bluffs of White River, iii
the prominent landmark called Soldiers' Grove Cliffs, north of and
overlooking Camp Robinson." * * * "It was traced eastward
to Camp Sheridan, forming the southern border of White River
valley." — (Captain Stanton.) Hence, the river and its valley are
shut out from the rest of Nebraska by this natural barricade on the
south. On most maps of the State, this range is represented too far
to the north. It forms in the midst of a valley otherwise easily
traversed. The White River in Nebraska has many small trib-
utaries, many of which are beautiful, clear rivulets. Except the
ridge just mentioned, it flows through a rather gently rolling
country.

The Elkhorn River, is one of the most beautiful streams of the
State. It rises west of Holt and Elkhorn Counties. Near its
source the valley widens to a very great breadth, and the bluffs
bordering it are low and often almost inappreciable. In the
region of its source especially south of the centre of the valley, are
a great number of beautiful, small, fresh water lakes. Within a
region eighteen by twelve miles square, there are at least twenty of
these lakelets, most of which drain into the headwaters of the West
Fork of the Elkhorn. It soon becomes in size a respectable
stream. In the eastern border of Madison County it receives the
North Branch of the Elkhorn, which rises in the southern part
of Knox County. Unlike the West Fork, or main branch, it does
not originate in a lake region, but in a region of innumerable
small springs. The channel is full of water holes, between which
the water often in midsummer flows under-ground. Soon it looses
this character and becomes a rapid, clear, deep and beautiful
stream. The general direction of the main river approximates to
250 miles. Its direction is southeast. It empties into the Platte
in the western part of Sarpy County. For a large part of its
course, the Elkhorn flows over rock bottom. It has considerable
fall, and its steady, large volume of waters will render it a most
valuable manufacturing region.

64 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The Logan is the most important tributary of the Elkhorn.
It rises principally in Cedar County. Of several branches of this
river, it is impossible to tell which is the longest or deserves the
name of principal stream. They all originate in bogs or old
filled up lake beds. Large beds of peat are here found. After
erne -gi ig from these bogs, which lie in the midst of the most
beautiful and gently rolling lands conceivable, these Logan streams
soon become constant, clear, and rapid. The bottoms are pebbly
or sandy. There are many of these branches in Wayne County,
which through their instrumentality, has among the finest physi-
cal features of any sections of the State. There are numerous
smaller tributaries of the Elkhorn, all of which have characters in
a miner degree like the parent stream. The general direction
of all these Logan rivers, is southeast, until Burt County is
reached, after which it is south, until a junction is formed with the
Elkhorn in the eastern portion of Dodge County.

The Bow Rivers in northeastern Nebraska are not known as
they deserve to be. They are known as the East, the Middle and
the West Bows. No rivers of the State have interested me more.
The water is clear and cold. They originate in the coolest and
most delightful springs of mostly soft water. In the centre
of Cedar County, near Curlew, there is a spring of cold water that
emerges from a bluff strong enough to turn a mill. In fact, almost
every half mile, along these rivers, these magnificent springs make
their appearance. Except the East Bow, their general direction
is northeast. The East Bow flows northwest until it unites wTith
the Middle Bow. Below St. James, all united they join their
waters to those of the Missouri. Sooner or later, when fish cul-
ture receives the • attention in this State, which it deserves, these
Bow Rivers will become noted as trout streams.

The Nemahas early became noted rivers in Nebraska. The
north branch of the Nemaha runs in a southeasterly direction,
diagonally through Johnson and Richardson Counties, until it
unites with the main river, in the latter county. Its length is
about sixty miles and increases regularly in size, from its source to
its mouth, by the addition of numerous tributaries. The main
Nemaha rises in Pawnee County, takes a southerly direction into
Kansas, then turns northeast into Richardson County and then
flows a little south of east, until it unites with the Missouri near
the southeast corner of the State. Its length is but sixty miles,

WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 65

but it receives so many comparatively large tributaries, that its
magnitude at the end of its course is much greater than many
much longer rivers. The bottom lands of these rivers are broad,
often beautifully terraced, and the bordering bluffs are gently
rounded off. The impression left on the mind, after traversing
these valleys, is that their beauty cannot be surpassed. The fall
-and size of these rivers and their larger tributaries, will supply
motive power to an immense number of manufacturing industries.
The Little Nemaha is a smaller edition of the " Big Nemaha."
It rises in Cass County, flows in a southeasterly direction through
Otoe, and Nemaha Counties, and unites with the Missouri near
Nemaha City, in Nemaha County. It also has numerous tribu-
taries. It is a beautiful stream of water, and with its characteristic
wide bottoms and gently rounded bluffs, gives character to the
counties through which it flows.

The Blues are among the most important rivers of Nebraska.
The main branch with its tributaries drains eight counties, which
are among the best in the State. It is about 132 miles long. It
rises in Hamilton County, and after flowing for thirty-six miles, a
little northeast, it curves around and follows a southeast direction
through Butler, Seward, Saline, and Gage Counties. It enters
Kansas from the Otpe Reservation, where it ultimately unites
with the Republican. The Middle Fork of the Blue also rises in
Hamilton County, and flowing first a little north of east, unites
with the North Blue at Seward. Its length is about sixty miles.
The West Fork of the Big Blue rises in Hall County and flows a
little north of east through Hamilton, then east through York,
and then southeast through Seward, and finally unites with the
main Blue, five miles above Crete in Saline County. School
Creek and Beaver Creek are tributaries of the West Fork of
nearly the size of the parent stream. Turkey Creek is also a
large tributary from the northwest, which unites with the Blue
near the line of junction, between Saline and Page Counties. All
these Blue Rivers and their tributaries, few of which can even be
alluded to, are remarkable for the amount of water which they
carry off, and the great beauty of the bottom lands through which
they meander. The uplands between the bottoms are also for the
most part gentlv rolling and composed of the richest soil. The
bottoms are often terraced, and the materials in such cases are
mostly of a Loess character. The bluffs bordering these bottom

66 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

lands are generally gently rounded off, and infinitely varied. It
is doubtful whether the mind could imagine a section better sup-
plied with rivers and creeks and rivulets giving an abundance
of water privileges of the best character. There is such an abun-
dance of water in these rivers and their tributaries, and the fall
adequate, that the motive power is ready to propel a vast amount
of machinery for manufacturing industries. With superior water
privileges and the choicest lands a dense population must here
rapidly accumulate.

There is still another Blue River that rises in Adams County
and flows in a southwesterly direction through Clay, Nuckolls,
Thayer, and in the southeast corner of Jefferson County, enters
Kansas where it finally unites with the " Big Blue." About no
miles of this river are in Nebraska. In its most important features,
it resembles the " Big Blue." Like the last, it is a magnificent
stream. It also has numerous tributaries, which are in miniature,
what the parent stream is.

The Lottos, next to the Niobrara, are the most unique rivers in
Nebraska. Even these streams, however, have many things in
common with the other rivers of Nebraska. The whole length
of the middle or main Loup approximates to 250 miles. It rises
a little east of the 102° parallel and fifty miles from the north line
of the State. My barometer indicated 3,230 feet above the sea
level for this point. There are a great number of small lakes and
lakelets. I counted nine within a radius of ten miles. Some
of them drain into the Loup. It flows in a southeastern direction
until the southeast corner of Howard County is reached, when it
turns first a little north of east, and then a little south of east, and
unites with the Platte, near Columbus, commencing at its lower
end on the north side. Its first important tributary is the Beaver,
and then Cedar Creek, which originally took its name from the
Cedar Groves along its banks. The North Loup also rises among
a cluster of small lakes, a little east of the 101° meridian and forty-
five miles from the north line of the State. Here I found a dozen
of small lakes within a radius of eight miles, and many of them
of great beauty, with pebbly and sandy bottoms, and with water
clear as crystal. Calamus Creek is its most important tributary.
I regret that I failed to reach its source. The entire length of this
Loup, until its junction with the Middle Loup is 150 miles. Its
general direction is southeast. Perhaps there is no more interest-

WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 67

ing and beautiful valley in all Nebraska than the North Loup.
The water is of crystal clearness and the fertility of the valley is
very great. The scenery is varied. This judgment formed
twelve years ago, is more than confirmed since its settlement.
Corn and the cereal grains are most successfully produced.
Timber and fruit trees are grown with an ease surpassed nowhere
in the State.

On the south side the main tributaries are Mud Creek and the
South Loup. This latter river rises immediately beyond the west
boundary of Custer County, and flows in a southeasterly direction
into Buffalo County, and then northeast to its junction with the
Middle Loup in Howard County. There are a large number of
smaller tributaries. The rivers are in places excessively sandy and
quite rapid. The quality of the bottom lands vary more than in
other Nebraska valleys. There are many sandy elevations here.
At the ordinary level there is a somewhat sandy loam, rich in
humus and of a dark color. In depressions slightly below the level
of the former, and often of a cloggy texture, the alkaline soil
occurs. Slightly elevated above both these varieties is a coarser
sandy soil. These different soils often shade into each other, and
again they are sharply outlined. The good soil, however, greatly
predominates over the inferior varieties. Very little of the alkaline
soil however can be called poor. Cultivation permits the waters to
percolate through it and carry to lower levels the excess of alkaline
matter, and much is consumed by the crops that are cultivated,
especially in wet seasons. Here as elsewhere over the State, where
these soils occur, a few years of cultivation often renders them
equal to the best in the State.

Towards the head of the Loups the sand hills in places crowd the
bottom lands. Where they occur travel is difficult. Often where
they are most abundant they suddenly cease and the country
changes to a gently rolling plain of first and second class land.
Some explorers have pronounced one-half of the region of the
Loups waste land. This is certainly by one-half too high. And if
one-fourth of the upper Loup region is taken up with sand hills
they still make choice pasture or grazing grounds. It is remarkable
that where twelve years ago the sand hills were comparatively
bare they have now, through the influence of increasing rainfall,
become covered to some extent with a growth of nutritious grasses.
This is proof, if any were needed, of the abundance of mineral
fertilizers which these sands contain.

68 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Salt Creek derives its name from the number of saline springs
and bogs that unite with it in Lancaster County. It is formed near
Lincoln by the junction of Oak Creek, Middle Creek, South Creek
and other small' streams. From this place it flows in a northeast-
erly direction until it unites with the Platte below Ashland. It is
a rather deep stream with a muddy bottom. Its valley is composed
of remarkably fine bottom lands. The slope from the bottom up
to the top of the bluff on the southeast side is exceptionally gentle.
In many places it is impossible to tell where the bottom leaves off
and the upland begins. The characteristics of the salt springs are
discussed under the head of the Historical, Superficial and Econom-
ical Geology of the State.

There are many other rivers of Nebraska to which our limits
will not permit us even to allude. Important, however, among
these are the Weeping Water in Cass County, the Wahoo in
Saunders County, Elk Creek in Dakota County, and South and
West Iowa Creeks in Dixon County. All possess more or less
of the general character of Nebraska rivers. Traveling over the
State in almost any direction, and the study of a good map,
demonstrates that this State is eminently the land of many and
broad rivers. Many of the smaller streams, however, in eastern
Nebraska are losing their character of broad and shallow streams.
They are becoming deep streams. They have, since the settlement
of the country, been cutting deep between their banks. Many
streams which sixteen years ago could be stepped across are now
wider, and very much deeper than then, and running between such
high banks that they can only be readily crossed by bridges. Shut
out from the influence of the sun their evaporation is much less,
and their size increases from this cause as well as from the increase
of rainfall.

The water supply, therefore, of Nebraska, is most bountiful.
Rivers or creeks — often both — are found in every county. The
number of rivulets is enormous. Where springs fail to appear
water can be obtained by wells.

THE WATER POWER

of Nebraska is simply enormous. As the rise of the State towards the
west approximates to seven and a half feet to the mile, the fall of most
of the streams averages at least one-half of that. Were the streams
straight, they would average the same fall as the rise of the country,

WATERS OF NEBRASKA. 69

but fhey all meander more or less through their wide bottoms.
Every few miles, however, places can be found on most of the
creeks and rivers where the fall is from seven to ten feet to the
mile, and even more, for the reason that the descent is very
irregular, being much greater at some points than at others.
Where there is no fall for a mile, it is made up by a more rapid
descent further on. Counting in then all the creeks and rivers of
the State the motive power that is now wasted and waits tobe'used
is beyond calculation.

The dams built across the Nebraska rivers are best modeled after
those of the beavers. These brute engineers constructed their dams
by laying sticks and twigs up and down the streams across their,
currents, and filling in the interstices with mud. It has been found
by experience that mill dams constructed in this way, with brush,
wherever there is no rock bottom, most successfully resist the
action of floods. In fact, very few dams well built on this plan
have ever been disturbed by the severest freshets.

70 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER VI.

DRAINAGE OF NEBRASKA AND CHARACTER OF

ITS WATER.

General Character of the Drainage — Character of the Water — Source of
Impurities — Character of the River Water — Temperature of the Missouri
River Water — Water of the Platte, Republican and Bow Rivers.

GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE DRAINAGE.

FROM the preceding presentation of facts, and the discussions
concerning them, it is clear that the drainage system of Ne-
braska is complete. The State, as a whole, slopes eastward, and a
little southward. There is little flat land. The great body of the
State varies from a very gently, almost imperceptibly rolling region,
to one that is made up of rounded, hill-like masses, with long, gentle
slopes. The subsoil is the best in the world for drainage, being
made up principally of Loess materials, and, where these run out,
is composed of Alluvium, or Drift. The Loess contains eighty
per cent, of finely comminuted silica, and as this deposit is of enor-
mous average thickness, it absorbs excessive rainfall like a sponge.
The Alluvium also contains a large amount of silica, and the Drift
is noted for that material. The average elevation of the whole
State is about 2,312 feet above the sea. In the lay of the land,
therefore, its physical character, its slope, and elevation above the
sea, it is in the best possible condition for perfect drainage. It is
owing to this combination of causes that farmers are seldom, in the
wettest weather, delayed more than a day or two in plowing. In
fact, as soon as the rain ceases, in most soils, they can plow with-
out injury to the land. It is also owing to these causes that Ne-
braska possesses such admirable natural roads. Twelve hours after
the heaviest rains the roads are comparatively dry. It is true that
roads that cross creek bottoms are sometimes an exception ; and
this is because occasionally there are longer or shorter distances
here that are underlaid with strata of clayey material. Here the

DRAINAGE AND CHARACTER OF WATER. 71

water stands longer, and in the rainy season the mud may continue
for a few weeks or a month. Such cases only attract attention be-
cause of the general dryness of the roads. Less road taxis needed
than in any other State. The obstacles to good roads are the
creek and river crossings, which are everywhere being rapidly
bridged. It is sometimes objected that there are peat bogs in the
State, and, at long intervals, a few marshes. These are, however,
the remnants of old lakes, and these, having a small accumulation
of clay on their bottoms, retain the water, and make possible that
accumulation of peaty matter, much of which may eventually be-
come important for fuel.

CHARACTER OF THE WATER.

The commonest ingredient of the water of springs and wells is
carbonate of lime. Then follow, in minute and varying quanti-
ties, in different springs, carbonate of potash and soda, sulphate of
potash, magnesia, soda and lime, chlorides of sodium, and potas-
sium, and iron and free carbonic acid. Many springs are free from
the most of these salts. Carbonate of lime, the commonest of
these impurities, is seldom present in injurious quantites. Perhaps
three-fourths of the springs and wells of the State contain it, in
amount varying from a trace to distinctly hard water. There are
many springs and wells whose waters are remarkably soft. Those
along the Bow Rivers are mainly of this character. Generally,
where springs emerge from the gravel beds and pebble, or strata
of sand in the Drift, the waters are soft, and otherwise remarkably
pure. Wells sunk into such deposits are also apt to be free from
lime, or contain it in only minute quantity. On the other hand,
water obtained in the Loess, whether from springs or from wells,
has a perceptible quantity of carbonate of lime, and a small quan-
tity of iron in solution. There are also strata in the Drift contain-
ing a large amount of lime, and this often is the source of the
hardness of the water that proceeds from this deposit. In general,
the water of springs and wells is remarkably clear and cool, and
free from injurious ingredients. The reader, of course, under-
stands that such a thing as absolutely pure water is an impossi-
bility, except by distillation. It is the salts that natural water con-
tains that make it palatable. It rarely happens that any organic
matter is present in a spring or well, unless it gets there through
the carelessness of men. This leads us to consider the

72 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

SOURCE OF IMPURITIES.

Sometimes the water of springs and wells has a disagreeable
taste from an excessive quantity of iron that is present. It may be
a peroxide of iron, but more frequently it is a sulphate or sulphu-
ret. This is particularly the case with springs and wells that flow
over or through rocks of Cretaceous age, abounding in iron
pyrites, the decomposition of which, and combination with the
\vater, gives it its peculiar iron and sulphur taste. The Dakota
group, for example, abounds in peroxide of iron, and the Fort
Benton group in iron pyrites. Seme strata of the upper carbon-
iferous equally abound in the compounds of iron. I have some-
times been called on to decide the character of such water, on the
supposition that it was impregnated with organic matter, but, on
analysis, nothing could be found except iron and sulphur, besides
the ordinary salts that are universally present. Such waters are
probably more disagreeable than unhealthy.

Impurities from the presence of organic matter in water are far
more fatal to health. There is no need for the occurrence of such
cases, but, unfortunately, through ignorance or carelessness, they
do occur.

It sometimes happens that filth is permitted to accumulate near
wells, and, too often, all unsuspected, drains into them from the
surface. Owing, however, to the porous nature of the soil, filth
more frequently drains into them by subterranean passages. I
have frequently been called to examine well water that was be-
lieved to be the cause of illness in families. Often I found organic
matter, which frequently was partly composed of uric acid. The
source could universally be traced to a sewer, vault or cattle-yard
near by. In fact, in such a soil as that of Nebraska, no filth, and
especially no sewer matter, should ever be placed within seventy-
five feet of a well or spring. It is almost absolutely certain to
drain into a well if closer than that. One hundred feet, or more,,
would be a safer distance. This is often inconvenient, and some-
times nigh impossible in towns. Under such circumstances, where
\vater works cannot be provided, families should depend on filtered
cistern water for household use. Where rainfall is as abundant as
here, cisterns can be made capacious enough to supply water for
households during the whole year. More sickness, I am confident,
is caused by well water that has been permitted to become tainted

DRAINAGE AND CHARACTER OF WATER. 73

by foul matter than from all other causes. Even in the country,
where these faults could so readily be avoided, wells are too often
located alongside of the cattle-yard, or close by a cesspool. The
inevitable consequence is, that the water sooner or later becomes
impure, by the presence of decayed animal matter.

Another source of impurity, though by no means as dangerous
as the last, is the curbing used for wells. The water of wells often
gains a bad repute by the disagreeable taste and odor given to it by
the cottonwood or pine lumber which is used to protect them from
caving at the bottom. The first settlers, before stone quarries were
opened, or brick were burned, resorted to this method to secure
their wells. It is still practiced to a large extent in many sections
of the State. Frequently, in examining wells that were declared
to be unfit for use, nothing was found the matter with them except
this wooden curbing, which had imparted to it its own taste.

CHARACTER OF RIVER WATER.

The waters of the creeks and rivers of Nebraska must neces-
sarily vary a great deal in character. That of the Missouri is the
most peculiar. It is always muddy. It has this character to the
mouth of the Yellowstone, above which the Missouri is, for a larger
part of the year, a clear stream. It is the Yellowstone that gives
character to the Missouri, it being, like the Missouri below their
junction, turbid to its source. In 1873 I collected water from its
channel, at Omaha, during high water, when the bank was nearly
full, and in October, during low water, at the same place. The
sediment was separated by filtration, and the amount was as fol-
lows: At high water, 403.7 grains from one gallon; at low water,
51.9 grains from one gallon.

This result differed slightly from that of Prof. Emmons, of the
Iowa geological survey. His determination was as follows: At
high water, 404 grains per gallon; at low water, 52 grains per gal-
lon. The amount of suspended sediment at high water is, there-
fore, upwards of seven times as much as at low water. It was
found, however, that the amount of solid matter held in solution,
was greatest at low water. This would naturally be expected, as
during flood time the sediment has but recently been added to the
water, but by the time low water arrives, the river has exercised
its solvent powers. In the chapter on the Superficial Deposits
of Nebraska, the reader will find analysis of Missouri River sedi-

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

ment. Only a qualitative analysis was made of the water with the
following result:

Carbonate of lime was present in the largest quantity. Next
came carbonate of soda, iron in various forms and carbonic hydro-
chloric acid. In smaller proportions there was present sulphuric
acid, magnesia, and organic matter. Only a trace of potash
appeared. Iron was clearly most abundant at high water.

The temperature of the Missouri River at Dakota City during

May, 1869, was 60°

June, 1869, was 62°

July, 1869, was 70°

August, 1869, was 73°

September, 1869, was 66°

October, 1869, was 54°

November, 1869, was 36^°

December, 1869, was 35°

The above were my own observations. The following are
taken from the report of the United States Signal office at Omaha
during 1877 and 1878.

Temperature at
bottom .

Average
depth of
water.

JUly

Max.
77

Min.

64
4fi
32
32

Feet.
26

10
10
14

72
6«
45
38

October .....

March

Mav

June

During several years between 1873 and 1879 I attempted to
ascertain the temperature of the Missouri at Plattsmouth, but the
result did not differ materially from the above.

Though the water of the Missouri is muddy, yet when it is
allowed to settle and become clear, it is singularly sweet, and in
summer, when cooled with ice, it is even delicious. I have seen
barrels filled with Missouri water, in July and August, and
whether standing in the sun or shade, no infusoria or other minute
animal forms could be detected with the microscope, even after
a week's exposure. I have had no such experience with any other
river water anywhere. Probably, one reason of this is, that the
sediment held in suspension, by the water, carries to the bottom, as
it settles, all organic matter. Eventually infusoria appear in it — in

DRAINAGE AND CHARACTER OF WATER. 75

from ten to twelve days, while with ordinary water, under the
same circumstances, they can be found within a week.

The waters of the Platte do not differ materially from those of the
Missouri. It holds almost as much sediment in suspension during
flood time, but materially less during low water. In 1874, I
took a sample from the Platte, near Omaha Junction, in flood
time in June, and one from the same place, at low water in Octo-
ber. The following result was obtained by filtering. At high
water, 397 grains from one gallon; at low water, 39 grains from
one gallon. It is seen from this result that the amount of sedi-
ment held in suspension by the Platte^ during high water, is over
ten times as great, as during low water. The difference is much
greater than between high and low water, in the Missouri. In
other words, the Platte much more nearly becomes clear than the
Missouri. The qualitative analysis also showed the presence
of lime, soda, iron, carbonic and hydrochloric acid. Then in less
quantities followed sulphuric acid, magnesia, potash, and organic
matter. There was less lime and iron, and more potash than in
the water of the Missouri. Analyses varied considerably between
high and low water, and between samples taken at different
places. The above is, therefore, only an approximation to the
correct composition of the water.

The temperature of the Platte waters is comparatively high.
At or near its mouth, its average for June, 1879, was 69°; for July,
76°, and for August, 78°. When, however, the water of the Platte
is left to settle, and become clear, it can safely be used for domestic
purposes. It is purer than that which is used by the majority
of mankind.

On analysis, it is found, that the water of the Republican closely
resembles that of the Platte. As it receives by drainage a consider-
able quantity of the water of the Platte, and flows over similar
deposits, this similarity in chemical character would be expected.

The Niobrara River varies in different parts of its course in the
quality and temperature of its waters, more than any other river in
Nebraska. Where it enters the State, it is a clear, sparkling
stream, and before it reaches the canyon region, it approximates in
character to that of the upper Platte. Here, however, it flows
between lofty walls and receives such a vast number of cold
springs of water, that the whole river partakes of their character.
After it emerges from this canyon region, it again gradually approxi-
mates in the character of its water to that of the Platte.

76 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The Bow Rivers, as we have already seen, are peculiar in the
great number of pure springs of water, that are found along their
whole length. Their mean temperature is, therefore, somewhat
lower than that of other rivers of the State. And yet because
of the springs with which they are directly fed, large sections
of them never freeze, even in the coldest winters. For reasons
previously stated the water of these rivers is less hard than that
of other rivers of the State. The only other river with which I
can compare it, in these respects, is the Bazile, and in a still less
'degree, the Verdigris. The Bazile, like the Bows, is largely fed
by springs flowing directly .into it.

The waters of the remaining rivers that rise within the State
have many points in common. One of them is the blackish hue
that is given to them after rains and during flood time. This
is caused by the organic matter which is brought down by every
rivulet from the black surface soil of the State. This black soil
being from one to twenty feet in thickness, all the water pouring
into the rivers, after rains, is more or less, loaded with it. This,
then, gives to the waters those ingredients which constitute its dis-
solved substance. Among these in addition to the organic matter,
is lime, salts of soda, potash and magnesia, and iron. In minute
quality, also, sulphuric and hydrochloric acid. When flood time is
over, the streams that rise within the State, are proximately clear.
The Blues have in places, a blue tinge, and yet objects can be seen
at the bottom, where the water is from two to four feet deep.

GENERAL FLORA OF NEBRASKA. 77

CHAPTER VII,

GENERAL FLORA OF NEBRASKA.

AN OBSERVER casually passing over the State little suspects
the wealth of vegetable forms that clothe the land. To under-
stand, however, its botany, this one fact needs to be borne in mind,
namely that Nebraska is the meeting place of two somewhat
diverse floras. Here the plants indigenous to dry regions and those
common to humid sections come together. The slope of the land
eastward is so gentle that Rocky Mountain forms come more than
half way to meet their distant relatives from the moister regions of
the Missouri and Mississippi. In fact here Rocky Mountain plants
by slight and gradual change in environment, have adapted them-
selves to a climate very different from their native habitat. The
same can be said of forms whose centre of dispersion was the Mis-
sissippi basin. Hence it is that the best botanical floras of the
schools — such as Gray's Manual and Wood's Class Book — do not
describe many of our floral forms. Singularly enough what they
leave off can mostly be found in Porter's and Coulter's Colorado
Flora. The former were only intended for the region east of the
Mississippi, but this section, in addition to that, grows many of the
plants of the Rocky Mountains. This is one reason why there is
such a wealth of vegetable forms in the State. It has drawn for
its supplies from two diverse regions, and owing to the magnifi-
cence of its climate, and the richness and variety of its soils, it has
successfully acclimated plants from high, dry and cold regions, and
those from low, humid and hot sections. I have thus far collected
over 2,100 species and varieties of plants from this State.* Com-
paring this number with the lists from other States, it will be seen
that our wealth of native varieties and species is exceptionally
great. And yet the harvest to be gathered, especially among the
lowly cryptogamic forms, is hardly touched.

* See my Catalogue of the Flora of N«brafka, published by the University of Nebraska,
1875. The next edition will hare at least 100 additional species.

78 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The highest of all the orders, the Crowfoot Family (Ranuncu-
lacece) is represented by forty-two. Characteristic among these
for their humble beauty are six species and one variety of Anemone.
Five species and one variety of Crowfoot (Ranunculus) are abun-
dant in their season. The Larkspurs (Delphinium) are still more
abundant. No species, however, of this family is so remarkable
for its beauty and abundance as the Columbine (Aquilegia.) They
are a conspicuous form along the line of the Burlington & Missouri
Railroad in Nebraska, between Ashland and Plattsmouth. Here they
grow to a size, and attain to a beauty rarely witnessed elsewhere.

Among the early flowering plants the violets here, as elsewhere,
hold a conspicuous place. No temperate region is complete without
them. Eleven species adorn our prairies and woodlands. One of
them, the Downy Yellow Violet ( Viola pubescens) is found only
in the belts of timber. The Larkspur Violet ( V. delphinefolia)
and the Arrow-leaved Violet ( V. sagittatd) are the most abun-
dant. Their abundance sometimes is so great in woodlands that
they give a violet hue to the ground and exclude all other forms.

In the Pink family no flower is so abundant as the Starry Cam-
pion (Silene stellatd). Its favorite locality is the thick underbrush
of woodlands.

The Mallows are represented by some delicately beautiful forms.
Chief among these is one with scarlet flowers and branching stems
(Callirrhoe involucrata). Another (C. triangulate?}, is more abun-
dant, and only less beautiful than the last. Another, with a scarlet
salmon color, shading into yellow purple, grows in patches cover-
ing the ground. This is one of the most desirable for cultivation.
Two species of Hebiscus are abundant, but one of them (If. trior-
num) which has become abundant in many parts of the State, is a
foreigner, having escaped from cultivated grounds.

The Pulse Family (Leguminosce) are exceedingly abundant in
species and individuals. One of the earliest of the species of this
order to bloom is the Ground Plum (Astragalus caryocarpus),
so called by the early " voyageurs" over the plains. Its young
tender pods are no mean substitute for peas, as I many times ascer-
tained by experience when camped on the unsettled prairies. Its
purplish violet racemes of flowers which often shade into white,
are the most conspicuous forms on the plains in their season.
There are nineteen other species of Astragalus in the State, many
of which with intense scarlet flowers are marvelously beautiful.

GENERAL FLORA OF NEBRAtitfS 79

They increase in the number of species towards the western part
of the State, their centre of distribution being the Rocky Moun-
tains. Other characteristic forms of this order are the Psoraleas,
Prairie Clovers (Petalastemon violaceus and P. candidus], Tick-
Trefoils (Desmodiums), and Indigo Plants (Baptista). Baptisia
leucophaea, with its large racemes of cream-colored flowers, is
abundant, and arrests the attention of every one traveling over the
prairies when it is in bloom. The Wild Senna (Cassia Mart
landicd) is exceedingly abundant and largely sensitive, and full of
beautiful yellow flowers is one of the most interesting plants in the
State. Still more highly sensitive is the Sensitive Brier (Shrankia
uncinatd). Its rose-purple flowers are in small heads, and is most
abundant in Southwestern Nebraska.

Of the Rose Family there are fifty-nine species in the State. Of
these the wild plums are the most conspicuous. These are found
in almost every county, and grow to a size and spread into varie-
ties, and attain a richness of flavor rarely equaled elsewhere. The
Cinquefoils (Potentilld) are represented by fourteen species. The
wild strawberries, raspberries and June berries are all well repre-
sented. Of wild roses there are at least four species. Occasion-
ally one of these (Rosa blanda) becomes a nuisance, its eradication
being difficult from old formerly abandoned fields.

The Evening Primrose Family (Onagraccd) gives many beautiful
forms to the State. One of these ((Enothera biennis] which has
been successfully reduced to cultivation, is found growing in West-
ern Nebraska with flowers three and four inches in diameter.
Another one, growing in Central and Western Nebraska, is still
larger, but with a low stem, and the flowers light yellow, with
orange veins. One of the commonest forms of this order in
Eastern Nebraska is (Enothera serrulata. Its flowers are yellow
and its leaves narrow and serrulate. All the species of this order
increase towards the western limits of the State.

One of the most curious of all orders is the Cactus Family. Of
this order there are in this State twenty species and varieties.
Along the eastern counties the commonest forms are Opuntea
vulgaris and O. Rafinesquii. They increase greatly in numbers of
species and individuals towards the central and western portions of
the State. One of the most beautiful is the Cereus caespitosus. It
is of a short cylindrical form, writh rose purple flowers two and
three inches in diameter. The yellow flower becoming green of

80 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

C. viridiflorus is scarcely less beautiful. Many admire most the
large, deep purple flower of C. fendleri, and the scarlet one, open
day and night, of C. gonacanthus. The varieties of colors among
these flowers is exceptionally great, shading from pink purple to
yellowish green, and from deep scarlet to rose purple and yellow.

The Honeysuckle Family is represented by fourteen species, the
most common being the Yellow Honeysuckle (Lonicera flavd}.
The Sweet Wild Honeysuckle (L. grata] is abundant in the State.
The Hairy Honeysuckle is rarely met with. The Bush Honey-
suckle (Diervilla trifida), so common in the East, is also abundant
here on the borders of woodlands.

The Composite Family is the most abundant in the number of
species of any in the State, there being at least 244 different forms.
Some of the earliest and some of the latest flowering plants belong
to this order. One of the former is Townsendia grandiflora.
Almost stemless, crouched among the dead grass, it is a most
beautiful object amid the bleakness of early spring. There are
nineteen species of sunflowers. These in the latter part of sum-
mer and autumn everywhere attract attention, and still later by
their seeds furnish food to great nnmbers of grouse, quail and
other birds. The beautiful blazing stars (Liatris) are represented
by six species. The asters here find a most congenial home,
as twenty- eight species adorn our prairies. The Golden Rods
(SaKdago), so well loved by the bees, are represented by twenty
species. The Coreopsis, so much sought after and cultivated
in the east is represented by eight species. A short distance
northeast of Fairmount, acres are covered with these golden-hued
flowers, to the exclusion of all other forms. One of the most uni-
versally spread of this order is Aplopoppus rubignosus, and A.
spinulosus. The former is peculiar in being "viscidly pubescent,"
the flowers in subglobose heads, and generally have many, on erect
stems from ten to eighteen inches high. It is one of those curious
forms that has spread over the State from the lofty regions on the
west.

The finest representative of the Lobelia Family is becoming ex-
ceedingly rare. I refer to the cardinal flower (L. cardinal is],
which was abundant along the Missouri wooded bluffs, but is now
rarely met with.

The Figwort Family finds here a most congenial home. Twenty
species of Pentstemon grace the State; only six, however, are found

GENERAL FLORA OF NEBRASKA. 81

in the eastern counties. They increase rapidly westward, until the
mountains are reached, where they have their greatest develop-
ment. Among the most beautiful are P. grandiflora and P. ceru-
leus. P. albidus is only found along our western border. More
of these beautiful species deserve a place in the garden than have
yet been admitted there. The scarlet Castilleias, in western Ne-
braska, are not less beautiful than the last. The rose-purple
Gerardia also abounds in places. It is curious that a homely mem-
ber of this tribe, the common mullein of the East, though not
native, has, since its accidental introduction, spread rapidly over
eastern Nebraska.

The Verbenas are among the most generally spread species of
the State. Some of the native nine species of the State are found
in every county. Verbena hastata is most abundant. V. bracle-
asa is at home in every county. I have seen it grow at the very
edge of the Bad Lands, and at the foot of the Sand Hills.

Of the forty-eight species of the Mint Family, perhaps the most
attractive is Salvia azurea, which grows here from four to five
feet high, with showy, azure blue flowers, in a spike-like raceme.

The Polemonium Family receives here a wonderful develop-
ment in the number of individuals. Phlox is the most abundant.
In June, in many places, the prairies are made scarlet by their
numbers. Some of the counties along the Elkhorn and its tribu-
taries are particularly remarkable for their numbers. The Logan
bottoms, in Wayne County, in former years, had a most extra-
ordinary profusion of these flowers. The Gilias are most abundant
towards our western limits. One form, however, {G. tricolor^
first described from California, is frequently seen in eastern Ne-
braska.

Of the Convolvulus Family, the most interesting form is the
Bush Morning Glory (Ipomcea leptopkylla). Its purple, funnel-form
flower, three inches long, is a most attractive object in southwestern
Nebraska. The dodder, also, unfortunately, abounds in our woods.

The Night- Shade Family is represented, among many others,,
by the Potato-Beetle weed (Solanum rostratum). It was intro-
duced from the mountains by freighters across the plains. It is the
original plant on which the potato beetle fed, before the more
luscious potato came in its way.

The Gentian Family is most fully represented by the type genus
Gentiana. Of the fourteen species that here belong to this order,
6

82 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

nine belong to this genus. They are rarer than in former years,
G. crinita, or fringed gentian, being now rarely found. One
species, with a short stem, is a very late bloomer in autumn. It is
of a very deep blue color, and appears after the first frosts.

The Milkweed Family is particularly rich in species of the
genus Asclepias, of which there are fourteen different forms.
Asclepia verticillata, with its greenish-white flowers, is rapidly,
for some reason, increasing in southern Nebraska. -

The Buckwheat Family is represented by forty-two species.
The ioint-weeds (Polygonuni) are the most abundant. Of these
there are nineteen species and varieties. Polygonum amphibium
and its two varieties, are the most abundant, it being found abund-
antly in low, swampy ground. The Missouri bottoms seem to be
its centre of distribution. The plant is remarkable for the large
amount of tannic acid which it contains.

The Spurge Family is conspicuous in the State, not for the
number of species, as there are only twenty-two, but because of
the singular appearance of a few forms. Euphorbia marginata,
so abundant in every county, is conspicuous for its beautiful silver-
white margined leaves. These are recognized a great way off.
This plant is cultivated in the east for its beauty of form. Here,
in places, its very abundance makes it a nuisance. E. hetero-
phylla, on the other hand, has a beautiful scarlet-red base to its
upper leaves. This species does not make itself so conspicuous as
the last, as it needs to be sought after to be found.

The Orchis Family is well represented by twenty-nine species.
Only a few are abundant. The Great Western White Orchis
(Habernaria leucophced) is found sparingly in all low lands. Its
cream-white raceme of flowers are remarkable alike for their
beauty and their delicious odor. The common Lady Slippers
(Cypripediuiri) are abundant in some woodlands. C. pubescens is
most frequently met with, and grows to a size rarely observed in
the east.

The Iris Family is chiefly remarkable for the great number of
individuals of one species, namely, the Blue-Eyed Grass (Sisyrin-
chium Bermudiand}. When in bloom, it is observed everywhere
on the prairies, because of the attractiveness of its numerous, tiny,
star-like, blue and white flowers.

The Lily Family furnishes one of the earlie&t of our flowering
plants, namely, the Dog's-Tooth Violets (Erythronium). E.

GENERAL FLORA OF NEBRASKA. 83

Americanum and E. albidum often make their appearance when
snow still covers some of the hillsides. Three species of Lily
grow wild, and the almost universal Solomon's seal. One of the
most peculiar of all species is the so-called Soap Plant (Tucca an-
gustifolia). It is exceedingly abundant in western Nebraska, and
very rarely met with in the eastern counties. It contains a large
amount of alkaline matter in its tissues, and hence its popular
name, it frequently being used by " voyageurs ," in the absence of
soap, for washing. The plants do not bloom every year, but when
a flower-stalk is produced it bears from a dozen to one hundred
and twenty large, greenish, cream-colored, lily-like flowers. Its
leaves are long, narrow, numerous and pointed.

Abundant among the plants of the State are the sedges. They bear
such an external resemblance to the grasses that they are commonly
confounded with them. There are at least one hundred and fifty-
four species in the State, varying in size from forms only a few
inches high, to flags, in ponds and sloughs, six feet high. They
can generally be recognized by their three-cornered stems and
solid culms, differing in this respect from the grasses, whose culms
are round and hollow, or, at least, are not angled. As everywhere
else, the genus Carex is represented by the most species, more than
two-thirds of all in the State belonging to it.

The higher Cryptogamia (Flowerless Plants) are well repre-
sented in the State. Thirty -six species and varieties of ferns
flourish in our woodlands. Four species of Lycopods are also met
with. Over one hundred species of mosses have been identified.
At least sixty-two species of lichens are scattered over the State.
The Fresh Water Algae are exceeding abundant, and of these
ninety-two species have been detected. In this department I have
only skimmed the surface, but hope to renew my labors in this
field, when many more will be added to the number of our species.

As some features of our flora have a special interest, I will dis-
cuss them more in detail in the following chapters.

84 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER VIII.

FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS OF NEBRASKA,
WITH NOTES ON THEIR DISTRIBUTION.

IN the early reports on Nebraska it was represented that some
half dozen species of forest trees were native here. Such reports
•were evidently made at random. It has too often happened that
men with a respectable acquaintance with natural history felt com-
petent to to describe the physical aspects and flora of a region after
going through it on horse back at a gallop. Only after the most
painstaking labor of fourteen years have I found many of the species
contained in this list. Since my own catalogue of our Flora was
published, and after I had given a list of our trees and shrubs to
different parties for publication I discovered some additional species
within our borders. One of these is the common white walnut or
butternut ( Juglans cinerea ), that turned up in Dixon County, a
few miles from lona, in a woodland that I had frequently ex-
amined before. Simon Baltzley first informed me of its existence.
I have no doubt that still more trees remain to be added to our
Flora. There are so many sequestered canyons clothed with timber,
which no botanist has yet visited, that it would be extraordinary
indeed if some of them did not contain species as yet unknown in
the State. I have shown elsewhere that in times quite recent, geo-
logically, Nebraska was heavily timbered with a varied forest veg-
etation.* When the causes commenced to operate that finally re-
duced its area to present limits, some of the species retired gradu-
ally to such protected localities as favored their perpetuation. One
of these causes probably was forest and prairie fires, inaugurated
by primitive races, for the chase and for war. Some species are
now confined to spots where fires cannot reach them. Another
cause was probably the encroachment of the prairie on the timber
area, caused by the ground being so compacted by the tread of
countless numbers of buffaloes, that tramped out growing shoots^

*Chapter on Superficial Deposits ef Nebraska.

FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS. 85

and unfitting the soil for the burial, germination and growth of
seeds. Since the buffalo has retired, and prairie fires are repressed,
and rainfall is increasing, the area of timber lands is spontaneously
-extending again in many directions.

The following is my corrected list of our trees and shrubs. For
the sake of convenience, the trees and shrubs are placed in separate
lists, but the botanical order is preserved in both :

FOREST TREES.

1. Papaw (Asimina triloba.) This species is generally a shrub
in Nebraska, but I found a few in Richardson county that reached
the dignity of small trees. Found only in southeastern Nebraska,
and most abundant in Richardson County.

2. Linwood. Basswood. (Tilia Americana^ Most abundant
along the bluffs of the Missouri. On the Elkhorn, Upper Loup, Ne-
maha, etc. Have seen it as far as the 102° meridian on the Nio-
brara, and on the Upper Republican. One of our native trees,
most deserving of cultivation.

3. Var. Pubesceus of this species is found along the Missouri
bluffs, south of the Platte, and on the lower Republican.

4. Hop Tree (Ptelea trifoliata.) Tree and shrub. Grows to the
size of a small tree in St. John's timber in Dakota County. Found
also on the Niobrara. Have not met with it south of the Platte.

5. Staghorn Sumach. (Rhus typhina.} Rare. Have seen only
a few specimens in Dakota and Dixon Counties.

6. Ohio Buckeye (.sEsculus glabra.) Occasional in southeast
Nebraska. Most abundant on the Nemaha, and in Nemaha and
Otoe Counties.

7. Sweet Buckeye (A. Jlava.) Rarer than the preceding, but
lias about the same range.

8. Sugar Maple (Acer sacckarinum.) Rarely found native in
Nebraska. I have only observed it in the Plyburg timber in Da-
kota County.

9. Silver Maple (Acer dasy carp um.) Rare in Nebraska. Found
one growing during the last year, for the first time, on bottom
near the borders of Cass and Otoe Counties.

10. Red Maple (Acer rubrum.) Abundant among other timber
along most of our water courses.

11. Box Elder (N eg undo ace ro ides ^ One of the most abun-
dant trees in the State. It ^rows largest and finest in northeast

86 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Nebraska. Many trees of this species, near Ponca, are two feet in
diameter, and from forty to fifty feet high. On the Missouri bot-
tom, in the same section, they often grow in dense thickets. Is
found to the west line of the State in south Nebraska, and to the
102° meridian along the Niobrara and its tributaries. Also on the
Platte, in places, on the Elkhorn and the Loups. One of the
easiest of our trees to propagate.

12. Red Bud. Judas Tree (Cercis Canadensis^ Common
along the Missouri bluffs. Occasionally on the Platte, Republican,
Elkhorn and Loup. Sometimes a shrub.

13. Coffee- Tree (Gymnocladus Canadensls^] Nowhere abun-
dant. It is often met with in most of the larger timber belts of
the State. I have found it of larger size and more frequently in
Dixon and Dakota Counties than elsewhere in the State.- I no-
ticed a few near the mouth of F airfield Creek on the Niobrara.

14. Honey Locust (^Gleditschia triacantkos.) Common south
of the Platte, but rare north. A few on the Loup and on the Re-
publican.

15. Water Locust (G. monosperma.) Rare in Nebraska*
Found only a few growing south of the Nemaha in Richardson
County.

1 6. Wild Red Cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanica^) Southeastern
Nebraska. Saw the finest in Richardson County. Grows there
thirty feet high.

17. Wild Black Cherry (P.serotina?) Southeastern Nebraska,
along the Missouri bluffs and on the Nemaha.

1 8. Choke Cherry (P. Virginiana^ Common along the Mis-
souri bluffs, on the Republican, Nemaha, Niobrara and Loup*
Only occasionally reaches the dimensions of a tree; generally a
shrub.

19. Scarlet Fruited Thorn {Cratcegus coccinea.) Tree small.
As frequently a shrub as tree. Widely spread over Nebraska
wherever there is timber, but nowhere abundant. In the form of
a tree it formerly could be frequently found along the Missouri
timbered bluffs, from the Omaha Agency to the north line of the
State.

20. Black Thorn (C. tomentosal) A low tree, but often a mere
shrub. It exists of tree size on the middle Niobrara.

21. White Ash (Fraxinus Americana.) Grows in northeast
Nebraska to a magnificent size, and is comparatively abundant.

FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS. 87

Found in less numbers south of the Platte. Have seen it near the
west line of the State, on the Arickaree, and on the Niobrara as
far as the 101° meridian. Also found on the Elkhorn and the Loup
and Blue Rivers.

22. Red Ash (F. pub esc ens?) Very rare in eastern Nebraska.
Have met with it sparingly on the Republican, Arickaree, and on
the Niobrara. Occasionally found on the Elkhorn and Loup.

23. Green Ash (F. viridis.) Medium sized. Common in east-
ern Nebraska. Found a few in southwestern Nebraska, on the
Arickaree, on the Niobrara, Loup, Elkhorn ank Bazile.

24. Black Ash (F. sambuctfolia.) Rare. Found it for the first
time during the last few years near the Nemaha, in Richardson
County.

25. Blue Ash (F. quadrangulata?) Tree here of medium size.
Next to White Ash in abundance. Most frequently found in south-
eastern Nebraska. I have seen a few of them on the Republican,
Elkhorn, Loup and Niobrara.

26. Slippery or Red Elm (Ulmus fulva.) Found' widely spread,
but nowhere very abundant over eastern Nebraska. It is apt to
be met with in timber belts along water courses. It is met with
at intervals along the Republican, Nemaha, Elkhorn, and on the
Niobrara.

27. White Elm (U. Americana^ Same localities in the main
as the last, but more abundant.

28. Cork White Elm (U. racemosa.} A few in Dakota and
Dixon Counties. Still more rarely met with in Cass, Otoe and
Nemaha Counties. Found a few on the Niobrara, east of the
mouth of the Snake river. A fine specimen on Mr. Master's
grounds, a few miles east of Nebraska City.

29. Wahoo Elm (U. alata.} Rarest of all our elms. Have
only seen three specimens in Nebraska — one in Cass and two in
Richardson County.

30. Hackberry (Celt is occidentalism] Common in eastern Ne-
braska. It is sparingly represented on the Republican, is more
abundant on the Niobrara. A few are also found on the Elkhorn
and the Loups.

31. Red Mulberry (Morns rubra.} Found sparingly all along
eastern Nebraska, and generally on the timbered bluffs of the Mis-
souri. The finest trees occur in Dakota and Dixon counties. It
also occurs on the Niobrara as far west as the loist meridian.

88 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

32. White Mulberry (M. alba?) This species is supposed to be
a foreigner introduced into the State. As I have some doubts
about this, I give it a place in this list. Have only found it on the
Missouri bluffs, southwest from Dakota City.

33. Buttonwood (Platanus occidentalis?) Have found it only in
Cass, Otoe, Nemaha and Richardson Counties. Most abundant in
Otoe. The bottoms of the Missouri afford it a congenial home,
and here it flourishes. In some groves it has excluded most other
forms.

34. Butternut (Juglans ctnerea.) Rare in Nebraska Know of
but one tree native to the State. This was first found by Simon
Baltzley, Esq., near Ionia, in Dixon County, on the Missouri bot-
tom, near the bluffs.

35. Black Walnut (/". nigra.) On the whole the most valuable
of our native trees. It was formerly quite abundant in eastern
Nebraska. Owing to the high price of the lumber, millions of
feet have been shipped away, the bulk of it going to St. Louis.
In 1865 and 1866 a half million feet of lumber was taken from
Dakota County alone. In Dakota and Dixon Counties there are
yet some of these Black Walnuts standing, forty feet without a
limb, and from three to five feet in diameter. They are found on
the Republican, on the Loup, and on the Niobrara and Elkhorn.
When raised from the seed, and not transplanted, they are com-
paratively fast growing. One of the most desirable trees for cul-
tivation.

36. Shell Bark Hickory (Carya alba?) Found, at long inter-
vals, in southeastern Nebraska, and still more rarely north of the
Platte.

37. White-heart Hickory (C. fomentosa.) Have only seen a few
of this species, in Richardson and Nemaha Counties.

38. Pignut Hickory (C. porcina.) Mostly in northeastern Ne-
braska, and on the Niobrara.

39. Butternut Hickory (C amara.~) Our commonest species.
Have observed it sparingly in every county along the Missouri,
and also at long intervals on the Republican and Elkhorn. Often
these hickories only reach the dimensions of shrubs.

40. Burr Oak ( Quercus macrocarpa.} Our most abundant spe-
cies of oak. Found all along the Missouri, on the Niobrara and
its tributaries, as far as to the iO2d meridian, on the Elkhorn, the
Upper Loups, on the Nemaha, Republican, etc.

FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS. 89

41. Var. Olivce formis, of the above, is found principally in
northeast Nebraska

42. Post Oak (Q. obtusiloba.} Sparingly on the Elkhorn and
Niobrara.

43. White Oak. Variety of. (Q. alba. Var. Gunnisonii.)
Rather abundant in some of the canyons leading into the middle
course of the Niobrara, also a few on the Upper Loup. Rare in
eastern Nebraska.

44. Yellow Chestnut Oak (Q. primus. Var. acuminata.) South-
eastern Nebraska; occurs sparingly.

45. Swamp White Oak (Q. bicolor.) Most abundant in tim-
bered bottoms and edge of bluffs, in northeast Nebraska and on
the Niobrara. More sparingly represented south of the Platte, in
the counties bordering on the Missouri.

46. Yellow Chestnut Oak (Q. castanea.) Southeastern Ne-
braska. Sparingly on the upper Niobrara.

47. Dwarf Chestnut Oak (Q. prinoides.} Though this is a
shrub, it in exceptional cases grows to the size of a small tree.
Eastern Nebraska, Elkhorn, Nemaha and the Niobrara.

48. Black Jack Oak (Q. nigra.} Occurs sparingly in south-
eastern Nebraska, and most abundantly in Richardson County. A
few in northeast Nebraska, on the Niobrara and Elkhorn.

49. Scarlet Oak (Q. cocdnea.} Occurs sparingly along the
Missouri, on the Nemaha, Elkhorn and Niobrara.

50. Var. tinctoria of the above is a rarer form. I have obtained
it only from Otoe County, through Mr. Masters.

31. Red Oak (Q. rubra.) Found on the Niobrara, Bazile, Mis-
souri, Elkhorn and the Nemaha, but nowhere in large quantities.

52. Swamp or Pine Oak ( Q. palustrus). Have only found it on
the Missouri bluffs and between north of the Platte and on the
Niobrara.

53. Iron Wood (Carpinus Americana). Very sparingly repre-
sented in most of the eastern woodlands of the State. Most
abundant in Northeastern Nebraska.

54. Paper Birch (Betula papyraced). Only occasionally repre-
sented along the wooded bluffs bordering the Missouri bottoms.
Found it once on the Niobrara, near the mouth of Rapid Creek.

55. Red Birch (B. nigrd]. Rare in Nebraska. Found my first
and only specimen three years ago, on the timbered bluffs in
southern part of Dakota County.

90 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

56. Glaucous Willow (Salzx discolor]. Generally a shrub, but
on the Missouri bottoms and on Willow Creek, a tributary of the
Republican, sometimes becomes a small tree. Is widely spread
over the State.

57. Long-headed Willow (S. rostratd). This generally a shrub,
but often reaches the dimensions of a tree on the Missouri bottoms,
and especially in the St. John's timber in Dakota County. Found
on the Niobrara, Republican and Loup.

58. Black Willow (S. nigrd]. Abundant on the Missouri bot-
toms in a few localities. Largest trees occur in St. John's timber
in Dakota. It is also found on the Republican, on Willow Creek,
Nemaha, Elkhorn, Loup and Niobrara.

59. Shining Willow (S. lucidd]. Generally a shrub, but on the
islands of the Platte and low Missouri bottoms it often reaches the
size of a small tree. Found also on the Elkhorn, Republican,
Loup and Niobrara.

60. Long Silver-leaved Willow. (S. longifolia var-argophylld}.
Also generally a shrub, but is found of tree size in St. John's
timber, in Dakota County. It is also found on the Loup and
Southeastern Nebraska.

61. American Aspen (Poputus tremuloides^] I found this species
within our western border, only during the last few years. Oil
Upper Republican, North Branch of Platte and Niobrara.

62. Cottonwood (P. monilifera.) This is the most widely spread
and abundant tree in the State, being found, with few exceptions,
on our western and northern border, wherever trees grow at all.
It apparently does equally well on upland or bottom. It constitutes
extensive forests on some of the Missouri bottoms. Some trees in
the St. John's timber, in Dakota County, five feet in diameter at the
butt, were over three hundred years old, as that \vasthe number of
rings that were counted on them.

63. Angled Cottonwood (P. angulata^] Rare. Found only in
northeast Nebraska.

64. Balsam Poplar (P. balsamifera^] Have found it only in
Cedar County, and on the Niobrara.

65. Var. Candicans of the above have found only on the middle
Niobrara.

66. Western Yellow Pine (Pinus ponderosa^] Canyons and low
bluffs in western Nebraska and on the Niobrara.

67. Pinus flexilis. Rare. Fonnd a few growing northwest
and southwest of Sidney, and finer ones on the Niobrara.

FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS. 91

68. Engleman Spruce (Abies Englemanii.) Have found it only
on the Niobrara and tributaries.

69. Douglass Spruce (Abies Douglassii.) On the Niobrara and
its tributaries.

70. White Cedar (Cupressus thyotdes.) Northeast Nebraska,
along the Missouri and on the Niobrara.

71. Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana^] Generally scattered
over the State where timber occupies bluff lands or dry bottoms,
but abundant only in a few localities in northeast Nebraska, on the
Niobrara, and on the Loup. Extensive groves occur on the Loups
and their tributaries, and on the Niobrara and its tributaries. It is
one of the most hardy and most easy to cultivate of all our ever-
greens. A slow grower, it is still a most desirable tree, because
of its great hardiness, and when trimmed into shape, of great
beauty.

After subtracting from the foregoing list ten kinds that are as
frequently shrubs as trees, the number of species and varieties
that are left is still sixty-one. In the St. John's timber, in Dakota
County, and at the edge of the bluffs, I once on the space of two
acres counted eighteen species of the trees included in this list.
Facts like these demonstrate the great adaptation of Nebraska to
the growth of forests. A little assistance from man, and nature
will again gradually clothe a large part of the plains with a cover-
ing of timber.

SHRUBS.

1. Papaw (Asimina triloba^) Southeastern Nebraska. Some-
times becomes a small tree.

2. Creeping Barberry (Berberh repens.) On Loup and Nio-
brara. One foot high in the mountains; here from one to two feet
high.

3. Downy Hudsonia (Hudsonia tcmentosa^ In counties border-
ing the Missouri, and occasionally in Johnson, Lancaster and
Satmders. Everywhere rather rare.

4. Shrubby St. John's Wort (Hypericum prolificum.) Have
seen it only on south side of the Nemaha in Richardson County.

5. Naked Clustered St. John's Wort (H. mtdiflarum^ Widely
spread over eastern Nebraska, but nowhere abundant. Have seen
it on the Republican, on Wood River and the Elkhorn.

6. Prickley Ash (Zanthaxyfam Americanum] Along the Mis-
souri, Niobrara, Blue, Republican, etc.

92 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

7. Hop Tree (Ptelea trifoliata^ Only found a few specimens
in Dakota and Dixon Counties, and on the Niobrara.

8. Smooth Sumach (Rhus glabra?) Common in Nebraska.

9. Dwarf Sumach (/?. copallina?) Only met with at long in-
tervals in the eastern counties.

10. Fragrant Sumach (R. aromatica^] Have found this only on
the Niobrara.

11. Alder-leaved Buckthorn (Rhamnus alnifolius^] Have only
met it at long intervals in northeastern Nebraska.

12. New Jersey Tea (Ceanothus Americanus.) Common.

13. Dwarf Redroot (C. ovalis.) Widely dispersed as the fore-
going, but not so abundant.

14. Climbing, Bitter Sweet (Cetastrus scandens?) Common in
woodlands. Have seen it as far west as 101° meridian.

15. Spindle Tree (Euonymus atropurpureusl) Only occasionally
found on the borders of timber belts.

16. Strawberry Bush (E. Americanus.) Rarer than the preced-
ing, but found at long intervals over the greater part of eastern
Nebraska.

17. Var. obovatus of the preceding, I found only in Dakota
County.

18. American Bladder Nut (Staphylea trifolia.} Common along
the Missouri bluffs, on the Nemaha. Occasionally on the Blues and
on the Niobrara.

19. False Indigo (Amorpho fruttcosa.) Common along all our
principal water courses.

20. Yellow or Red Plum ( Prunus Americana?) Found in the
thickets in and bordering timber belts, in canyons, draws and narrow
valleys in almost every county in the State. In many places very
abundant.

21. Chickasaw Plums (P? chicasa.} Same distribution as the
preceding.

22. Dwarf Cherry— Sand Hill Cherry (P. Pumilla.) Found
most abundantly in central and western Nebraska, on sand hills and
on sandy land.

23. Choke Cherry (P. Vtrgimana.} Found all along the Mis-
souri, on the Niobrara, Platte, Nemaha, and in places on the Re-
publican. Sometimes becomes a small tree.

24. Nine Bark (Spircea apulifolta.} This shrub grows from four
to six feet high. On the Niobrara, and rarely in eastern Nebraska.

FOEEST TREES AND SHRUBS. 93

25. Var. parvifolia occurs only rarely, on the Niobrara.

26. Meadow Sweet (S. salicifolia.} On low grounds in eastern
Nebraska. Have seen most in Dakota County.

27. Cercocarpus parvifolius. Diffusely branches from the ground,
with tomentose leaves six to eight lines long. Have found it only
on the Niobrara.

28. Scarlet Fruited Thorn (Crataegus coccinea.) This sometimes
becomes a small tree. Not abundant, but widely spread in wood-
lands over eastern Nebraska.

29. Black Thorn (C. tomentosa.) Sometimes a low tree. Most
abundant along the Missouri and on the Niobrara. Found at longer
distances on the Blue, Republican, Elkhorn and Loup.

30. Var molts of the above I have seen only once on the Re-
publican.

31. June Berry (Amelanchier Canadensis.) Frequently met with
in woodlands over eastern Nebraska, on the Republican, Elkhorn,
and quite abundant on the Niobrara.

32. Var. Botrychium. Only on the Niobrara.

33. Var. Ablongifolia. Quite small. Southeast Nebraska.

34. Var. Alnifolia. More abundant than the type form, and in
the same localities.

35. Climbing Prairie Rose (Rosa satigera.) Northeastern Ne-
braska. Have found the most in Dakota County.

36. Swamp Rose (R. Carolina.) Most abundant in Northeast-
ern Nebraska, and rare south of the Platte.

37. Dwarf Wild Rose (R. lucida.) Abundant everywhere.

38. Early Wild Rose (R. olanda.) Found all over the State.

39. Wild Gooseberry ( Riots cynosbati.) Northeastern Nebras-
ka, and on the Niobrara.

40. Smooth Wild Gooseberry (R, Rotundifoltum.) Common
all over Nebraska, in woodlands, sheltered valleys, ^canyons and
draws.

41. Swamp Gooseberry (R. lacustre.} Abundant along the
Missouri bottoms and in spots on the Nemaha, Platte, Elkhorn,.
Loup and Republican.

42. Smooth Wild Gooseberry (R. hirtellum.} Common in most
woodlands in Nebraska. Many forms of gooseberry have not yet
been reduced to order. They grow here with an exceptional lux-
uriance. See chapter on Wild Fruits.

43. Wild Black Currant (R.floridum.) Occasionally found OB

94 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the Missouri bottoms and its tributaries, and on the Republican.
Most abundant on the Niobrara.

44. Missouri Currant (J?. aureum.) Rare in southeast Ne-
braska. On the Loup and the Niobrara, and occasionally on the
Elkhorn.

45. Dwarf Cornel (Cornus Canadensis^] This barely a shrub.
Stem mostly subterranean, and only five or six inches above ground.
On the Niobrara.

46. Round Leafed Cornel (C. cirdnnata?) Occurs sparingly in
most of the woodlands in eastern Nebraska, on the Republican, and
more abundantly on the Niobrara.

47. Kinnikinnick (C. sertcea.) More abundant than the last.
Found in most of the woodlands of the State.

48. Red-osier Dogwood (C. stolonifera^] Most abundant in the
timber belts and their borders in northeastern Nebraska, and on the
Niobrara. Rare in south Nebraska.

49. Rough-leaved Dogwood (C. asperifolia^) Sparingly in tim-
ber belts in southeast Nebraska. Have only met it in Dakota and
Cedar counties in north Nebraska.

50. Panicled Cornel ( C. paniculata^) Rare. Only found a few
on the Niobrara.

51. Alternate-leaved Cornel (C. alternifolia^ Rare. Only in
northeastern Nebraska.

52. Cornus pubesceus. North branch of the Platte, and on the
Niobrara.

53. Wolf berry (Symphoricarpus occidentalism) Common in timber
belts and their borders.

54. Snowberry (S. racemosus.) Common on the prairies and bor-
ders of woodlands.

55. Var. parciflorus of the above mostly in southeastern Ne-
braska.

56. American Woodbine (Lonicera grata.) Rare. Only in north-
east Nebraska.

57. Yellow Honeysuckle (L. flava^) Rather abundant. Have
seen it on the Niobrara as far west as 102° meridian, and on the
Republican as far west as the Arickaree. Lines the sides of wooded
bluffs and their borders.

58. Hairy Honeysuckle (L. hirmta.) Rare. Have only ob-
served it once on the side of a bluff above Ponca, and once near the
Yellow-banks on the Elkhorn.

FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS. 95

59. L. involucrata. On the North Platte and on the Niobrara.

60. Bush Honeysuckle (Diervilla trifida.) Counties on the Mis-
souri, north of the Platte and on the Niobrara.

61. Elder (Sambucus Canadensts.) Sometimes is here ten feet
high. Common and abundant.

62. Red-berried Elder (S. pubens.) Rare. Have seen it only
on the Niobrara.

63. Maple-leaved Arrow- wood (Viburnum acerifolium.) Have
seen it only on the Niobrara.

64. Var. paudflorum. Extreme western Nebraska, and the Nio-
brara. Rare.

65. Button Bush ( Cephalanthus occidentalism) Sparingly in east-
ern Nebraska, along the Missouri.

66. Small Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus.) In bogs at the
head waters of the Loups and their tributaries. Four to nine feet
high.

67. Dwarf Bilberry ( V. caespifosum.) Rarely met with in north-
east Nebraska, and on the Niobrara.

68. Bearberry (Archtostaphylos Uva-ursi.) In the middle Nio-
brara region.

69. Canadian Sheperdia (Sheperdia Canadensts.) On the Nio-
brara.

70. Buffalo Berry (S. argentea.) Common in northeastern Ne-
braska, in most timber belts, especially on the Missouri bottoms,
and on the Platte. Is very abundant on the Republican, and in
places almost to the west line of the State. On the Elkhorn and
Loups. Abundant on the Niobrara. Deserves cultivation for
its beauty, hardihood and fruit. Grows sometimes into a small
tree.

71. Dwarf Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinoides.) On the Missouri
bottoms and edge of bluffs. Nemaha, Elkhorn, and on the Niobrara .

72. Beaked Hazelnut (Corylus rostrata.) Northern and north-
eastern Nebraska.

73. Wild Hazelnut ( C. Americana.) Abundant and widely dis-
tributed. Along almost the whole length of the Niobrara, on the
Elkhorn, Missouri bluffs, Platte, Loups and Republican.

74. Sweet Gale (Myrica gale.) In Dakota, Dixon and Cedar
counties, and on the lower Niobrara.

75. Sweet Fern (Comptonia asplenifolia.) Found occasionally
on the sides of bluffs over eastern Nebraska.

96 PHYSICAL, GEOGRAPHY.

76. Low Birch (Betula pumtlla.) Found rather frequently in
most of the timber belts on the Missouri, Nemaha and Niobrara.

77. Western Birch (13. ocddentallis^) Have found it only on the
Niobrara.

78. Green Alder (Alnus vtridts.) Have found it only on the
Niobrara.

79. Speckled Alder (A. in f ana.) Sparingly in Northeastern Ne-
braska.

80. Smooth Alder (A. serrulata.) Rare in eastern Nebraska.
Have only found half a dozen specimens along the counties on the
Missouri.

Si. Hoary Willow (Satix Candida.) Common in low situations
over the greater part of Nebraska.

82. Dwarf Gray Willow (S. fristis.) In eastern Nebraska; most
abundant north of the Platte, and especially on the Niobrara.
Rarely on the Republican.

83. Bush Willow (S. humilisl) Missouri bottoms, Niobrara.
Loups, Elkhorn, Logan, Platte and Republican.

84. Glaucous Willow (S. discolor?) Sometimes a small tree.
Republican River, Willow Creek, Loups, Elkhorn, and Missouri
bottoms.

85. Heart-leaved Willow (S. cordata.) Lower Niobrara,.
Platte, Nemaha, Republican, and occasionally on the Missouri bot-
toms.

86. Narrow-leaved Willow (S. attgustata.) Common over the
State. Have observed it on the west line of the State on the Re-
publican and Niobrara. On Loups, Elkhorn, etc.

87. Long Beaked Willow (S. rostrata.) Habital same as the
preceding. Often a small tree.

88. Shining Willow (S. lucida.) Low bottoms in eastern and
northern Nebraska, and on some of the tributaries of the Repub-
lican.

89. Long Silver-leaved Willow (S. longifolia, var. argophylla.}
Mostly a shrub, but sometimes becomes a tree. Loup Rivers, Ni-
obrara, Republican and Missouri.

90. Stalk-fruited Willow (S. pedtcellaris.) On the Niobrara.

91. Common Juniper (Juniperus communts.) Missouri River,,
counties north of the Platte, and the Niobrara.

WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA. 97

CHAPTER IX,

THE WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA.

PLUMS. — Prunus Americana. — Its appearance, habits, abundance, and
qualities.— P. Chicasa.— Hybrids.— A late variety.— Cultivation.— Stock for
grafting peaches, plums, and apricots. — Hardiness. — The Curculio. — P.Pumila,
or sand-hill cherry. — P. Pennsylvanic. — P. Virginica. — STRAWBERRIES. — Fra-
garia vesca. — Delicious and abundant. — F. Virginiana — RASPBERRIES. — Ru-
bus Occidentalis. — R. Triflorus. — R. Strigosus. — R. Villosus. — HAWTHORNS. —
Crataegus tomentosa. — C. Malis. — JUNE BERRIES. — Araalanchier Canadensis.
— A. Alinifolia. — WILD CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. — Ribes Hirtellum. —
R. Rotundifolium. — R. Lacustre. — R. Cynosbati. — R. Floridum. — GRAPES. —
Vitis sestivalis. — V. Cordifolia. — Re-classification and hybrids. — Wine. — THE
MULBERRY. — THE BUFFALO BERRY. — Shepherdia Argentia. — THE EL-
DERBERRY.— THE PAP AW. — Asimina triloba. — NUTS. — Juglans nigra. —
Carya Alba. — Corylus Americanus.

WILD fruits are a prominent feature of Nebraska. They lux-
uriate in its rich soil and almost semi-tropical summers.
Among the wild fruits of this State the plum family is a remarka-
ble example of how nature herself sometimes ameliorates and im-
proves her original productions.

There are three type species of plums in the State, namely, Pru-
nus Americana, P. chicasa, and P.pumila. Of these there is an al-
most endless number of varieties. In a plum thicket in Dakota
County, covering only a few acres, I counted, while in fruit, nine-
teen varieties of Prunus Americana and P. chtcasa, varying in size
from a fourth to an inch and a quarter in diameter, and in color
from almost white and salmon, to many shades of yellow, tinged
with green and red, and from a light, dark, and scarlet red, to pur-
ple tinged with different shades of yellow. Such instances are fre-
quent over most portions of the State, the plums being common in
almost every county, especially along the water courses, and border-
ing the belts of timber. These plum groves in spring time present
a vast sea of flowers, whose fragrance is wafted for miles, and
whose beauty attracts every eye. The varieties of the Prunus
7

98 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Americana have oval or obovate leaves (broader at the tip than
where the stem is attached), with saw-toothed or doubly saw-toothed
edges and very full of veins. The fruit is globular or oval, and
ranges from a half-inch to an inch and a quarter in diameter, the
latter being an exceptionally large size. The color is all shades of
yellow, with some red and crimson. Its juice is pleasant, but its
skin is tough and acerb; and its stone is sharp edged or margined.
The shrub varies in height from six to twenty-five feet. The fruit
ripens in August and the first half of September. These are the
prevailing characters, but they vary greatly, some of the varieties
producing fruit which is a great improvement in size and taste on
the type species, while others again have deteriorated. Nearly all
the varieties part readily from the stone.

Still more subject to change is the Prunus chicasa, which grows
from four to twelve feet in height, sometimes thorny, and always
with long, narrow, almost lance-shaped, acute leaves, whose edges
are set with very fine teeth. The fruit is globular, of all shades of
red, and from half an inch to an inch or more in diameter, of pleas-
ant (some varieties, of delicious) flavor, thin-skinned, and contain-
ing an almost round and entirely marginless stone. Most of
the varieties of this plum do not part readily from the stone. The
fruit ripens the latter part of July and in August.

I have found many forms that cannot be readily classed with eith-
er of these species, but seem to be a cross between the two. In
fact these plums often hybridize. This is not strange where both
species often grew together in such compact thickets that it is difficult
to penetrate them. When the pollen of the one is carried to the pis-
tils of the other species the young plants that come from the seeds
must exhibit some characters which are common to both.

One variety of the Prunus Americana, that grows from six to ten
feet in height, and has greenish white fruit, occasionally tinged with
yellow, rarely ripens its fruit. I have seen its fruit hard and green
towards the end of October; but when plucked, even then, and
stowed away in an empty room, it readily ripens, like pears when
similarly treated. Occasionally a tree is found producing a little
round red plum, slightly larger than a morella cherry, which bears
double fruit.

Delicious as some of these wild plums are, their size and flavor
are much improved by cultivation and pruning. It is easy to pro-

WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA. 99

duce an early and fruitful grove of these plums from the seed. A
tree grown in my former grounds in Dakota City yielded thirty-
nine blossoms the second year from the seed, and seven hundred
and ninety the third year. It is also found that these wild plums
are magnificent stock on which to graft the peach, other varieties of
plums, and the apricot. Their great hardiness, and the readiness
with which they unite with the old cultivated plums, makes them
invaluable to those who raise such fruit.

Alas! there is one drawback to this picture. The everlasting
enemy of the plum, the curculio,* is also present. The young fruit
sets each year by the million, but some of the finest groves are
sometimes for years in succession prevented by this cause from
bearing much fruit. Yet so great is the vitality of the plum fami-
ly in this State that some varieties will succeed even in despite of
the curculio. One such grove I found years ago along the bluffs
southwest of Dakota City. The trees were laden with fruit even
when all the other groves in the neighborhood were almost entire-
ly shorn of their treasures. The foliage indicated a hybrid between
the two species under consideration, at least it possessed some char-
acteristics that belonged to these two separately, along with others
of its own. The fruit was large for wild plums, the skin tough,
though comparatively thin, and could readily be pared. The flesh
was hard and acid until it was fully ripe, when it became juicy and
melting. I have no doubt varieties of this kind could be selected
from these ample stores of nature which would be of incalculable
value to the horticulturist.

The dwarf or sand-hill cherry, so famous on our western plains,
is really botanically a dwarf plum, (Prunus pumild) — and therefore
we speak of it last. The stem is smooth, depressed, trailing or
semi-erect, from eight to twenty-four inches high. The leaves are
obovate lanceolate, tapering to the base, sometimes a little toothed
towards the apex, and pale underneath; the flowers numerous, two
to four in a cluster. The fruit varies greatly, but is generally
about half an inch long and three-eighths broad, ovoid, dark pur-
ple, brown purple, brown, reddish, or nearly black, generally sweet,
sometimes delicious and occasionally almost insipid. It is enor-
mously productive. The shrub has a spreading habit, form-
ing dense masses, sometimes covering from thirty to sixty

* Conotrachelus nenuphar, commonly spoken of as the "plum weevil."

100 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

square feet of ground, but usually the tufts are not more than
fifteen to twenty-five feet in area. It suckers abundantly from the
roots, and propagates in this way as well as by seeds. It is found
over the greater part of the western half of the State, and while
it is not excluded from the richest soil if dry, it seems to be partial
to sandy localities, rich in alkaline earths. As this plum is nearly
related to some of our cultivated varieties of cherries, and the sta-
mens and pistils of the flowers are large in both, it will require no
great skill to produce a cross between them. And as Fuller has
remarked ("Small Fruit Culturist"), a cross between the dwarf
plum and a Bigarreau or Morella variety, retaining the dwarf hab-
it, vigor, and productiveness of the former, with the flavor of the
latter, would be an acquisition of incalculable value, and would com-
pletely revolutionize cherry culture. However this may be, the
best varieties of the dwarf cherry are valuable as they come from
the hand of nature. Many an explorer and traveler in the unset-
tled regions has been refreshed by them, and the day is not distant
when this fruit will, as it deserves to, have a place in the gardens of
all the people.

Three species of wild cherries grow in various parts of the State.
The wild red cherry, (Prunus Pennsylvania], grows sometimes to
the dimensions of a small tree. Its leaves are oblong, lanceolate,,
pointed, margins finely saw-toothed, green on both sides, flowers
on long stems, and the fruit of a light red color, sour, very small
and of little merit. The wild black cherry, {Prunus scritina), is val-
uable only for its wood, which is close grained, reddish or brown-
ish, and highly esteemed by the cabinet maker for the high polish
of which it is capable. The lance oblong, smooth leaves are taper
pointed, glandular and saw-toothed. The flowers are produced in
long clusters (racemes); its fruit is reddish or purplish black, ripen-
ing in autumn. Though the fruit is not sought after by human be-
ings, it is eagerly devoured by birds. The bark is a remarkable
tonic. I have only noticed the tree in the southeastern part of the
State.

The choke cherry (Prunus Virginica), is a tall shrub with greyish
bark, oval, oblong, or obovate and abruptly pointed thin leaves,
very slender, sharp saw-toothed, and from two to three inches
long. The flowers are in a short close cluster. The fruit ripens
in summer, and is of a dark red color, and very astringent to the
taste, but rather agreeable.

WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA. 101

STRAWBERRIES.

Two species and one variety of strawberries, with endless modi-
fications, are common all over Eastern Nebraska. They flourish on
the sides of the bluffs, and at the edge of timber belts, from which
they creep far out on the prairies. Perhaps the commonest straw-
berry is Fragaria vesca, which has produced the Alpine, Wood,
Perpetual, and many other varieties. Here it is mostly slender,
•with thin dull leaves, strongly marked by the veins, calyx open or
reflexed after flowering; and fruit inclined to be conical or elongat-
ed, much like the so-called lady finger, and fully as large and high
scented. The runners often creep several feet. This strawberry
varies so much that I have often been unable to distinguish it from
the Fragaria Virginiana except by one character, its seeds (akenes],
which are always superficial, and seem to stick out of the berry. So
abundant is this fruit in some seasons that the ground in its favorite
retreats seems absolutely red with it. Once when making a survey
of some timber lands in Dakota County, on a sultry July day, and
almost exhausted by the heat and from thirst, I unexpectedly came
to a patch of these berries in an opening of the woods. Never be-
fore was I so grateful for fruit, and fruit that was delicious enough
to adorn the finest tables in Christendom. As already intimated,
this species is the most variable of all the strawberries. It is found
all over Europe and in all the high and on many of the low lands of
Ndrth America. Its tendency to become everbearing, so strikingly
exemplified elsewhere, is also characteristic of it in many places in
Nebraska. I have noticed localities where it produced a succession
of ripe berries for two months.

The other species common to this State is Fragaria Virginiana.
It is the original of the American scarlet and innumerable other va-
rieties. It can be distinguished from the former by the seeds (akenes)
being sunk in the flesh of the berry. Its runners are seldom over a
foot long. Its flowers however are staminate, that is, its male and
female organs arc on different plants. There is an insensible gra-
dation between this species and the variety Illinoiensis of Gray,
which is coarser and larger, and the hairs which are scattered over
it, especially on the flower stock, are rougher. The strawberries of
Nebraska need to be thoroughly examined. Certainly where there
is such a tendency shown to varieties and improvement, some of the
most promising, under the skillful treatment of the gardener, would
become permanent additions to our list of desirable small fruits.

102 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

RASPBERRIES

are represented in Nebraska by three species. A black raspberry,
a variety of Rubus occidentalism is common in every county. It is a
profuse bearer, and the fruit is nearly a third larger than the Amer-
ican blackcap. It is most abundant along streams and in woodlands
and their borders. Where it is cultivated the canes make a much
stronger growth than in their native wilds, though even there some
varieties seem equal to any produced in gardens. A dwarf rasp-
berry, (Rubus triflorus^ and the wild red, (Rubus strigosus^) were
sent to me in flower during the past season from the western part of
the State, previous to which I was not aware that they existed with-
in our borders. They have not yet been found in the eastern part
of the State.

BLACKBERRIES.

Of these only one species has yet been found in the State. This
is the high blackberry, (Rubus villosus). It is rather abundant along
some of the streams and timber belts in the southeastern part of the
State. Wherever this wild variety is transplanted into gardens and
cultivated, it bears large quantities of delicious fruit.

HAWTHORNS.

Though unimportant as fruits the hawthorns should not be over-
looked by the amateur horticulturist. The blackthorn (Crat&gus
torn entosd], and its variety malis, are most abundant. It is a shrub
or small tree from six to twenty-five feet in height. The leaves are
oval, abrupt at the base, margins sharply saw-toothed or cut into
many small lobes, and downy beneath, especially when young.
The flowers are compacted into clusters (corymbs) of from six to
thirty flowerlets in a bunch. The fruit is scarlet or orange, from
two-thirds to three-fourths of an inch long and rather pleasant to
the taste. The fruit of the variety mails is dull red and more insip-
id. Though not esteemed by man, the fruit is eagerly sought after
by prairie chickens and quail. I have seen hundreds of these wild
fowl atone time feasting on this fruit, which they seemed to prefer
in its season to all other food.

THE JUNE BERRY.

This fruit is abundant in some portions of Nebraska. It is a small
tree or shrub, from ten to thirty-five feet in height. There are ap-
parently three or four species, but they run so much into each other,

WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA. 103

that botanists as yet treat them as one species with many varieties.
It is known as Amelanchier Canadensis. The variety most common
here is Alinifolia, with roundish, blunt leaves, which are toothed
towards the summit. The flowers, which are white, are produced
in long loose clusters (racemes). Berry purplish, sweet, and gener-
ally deliciously-flavored. This berry has always been a favorite
with the Indians. They dry and mix it with pemican (preserved
meats), to which it gives a delicious flavor. Nothing is supposed to
give more daintiness to an Indian feast than June berries boiled in
the broth of fat meat. Children of every age equal the Indians in
their admiratioji and enjoyment of June berries. It would " pay"
to cultivate them for "the litttle ones" alone.

WILD CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES.

There are four species of gooseberries growing wild in the
State. One of these, a " Smooth Wild Gooseberry" (Ribes hirtel-
luni), has smooth stems, short thorns, or none, and smooth, small,
purple, and sweet berries. It is not very abundant. Another
" Smooth Wild Gooseberry" (R. rotundifoliuni), in its many varieties,
is met with constantly, especially in the timber and along our
streams, and is a most abundant bearer. The leaves are nearly
smooth, roundish, three tofivelobed and truncate at the base ; stems
slender and from one to three flowered. It grows from two to four
feet high, the stems having whitish bark. One variety of this spe-
cies bears a berry, long, large, and green. Another variety, which
grows from three to four feet high, sets its canes thickly, and they
are covered with slim thorns of a brownish, purplish color. The
fruit is as large as a Houghton, sometimes larger, somewhat veined,
and of a clear, glossy, transparent color, oval or round, and some-
timely slightly flattened at the ends, and with a rich vinous flavor.
I have found a few specimens three-fourths of an inch in diameter
when ripe, and never observed them to be affected with mildew.
So abundant are they that the Indians often pick many bushels per
day for weeks in succession and carry them to the various markets.
They bear transportation well. Many citizens are now well sup-
plied with these berries from stocks transplanted from the woods
into their own grounds. I have myself planted the Houghton in a
row alongside of this wild variety, and the latter proved superior
in productiveness and hardiness to the former. The Swamp Goose-
berry (R. lacustre), whose young stems are clothed with bristly

104 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

prickles, and small weak thorns, and whose leaves are heart-shaped,
and from three to five parted, and the lobes cut, and whose fruit is
bristly, small, and disagreeable, is unimportant. Even birds gener-
ally give it a wide berth. The "Wild Gooseberry" (R. Cynosbati),
with pubescent leaves, slender peduncles and spines, and a large
berry armed with long bur-like prickles, is no better than the last-
In a few localities it is quite abundant.

Two species of wild currants abound. The " Wild Black Cur-
rant" {R. floriduni) is remarkable for its large flowers. The leaves
are from five to seven-lobed, doubly saw-toothed, and generally
sprinkled with resinous dots, slightly heart-shaped, and the racemes
are downy, drooping; the fruit is round-ovoid, black and smooth,
and in smell and flavor much like the black currant of the garden
The Buffalo or Missouri currant also abounds in many localities. It
is remarkable for the spicy fragrance of its yellow blossoms, and is
often cultivated for ornament. Its fruit is of little or no value.

BLACK HAWS.

Recently the Black Haws (Viburnum Prunifolium) have turned
up in Nebraska. They escaped my notice until my attention was
directed to them by J. Gillman Esq., of Otoe County. The leaves and
fruit have since been sent to me. They are found in some of the tim-
ber belts of Otoe, Cass, and Nemaha counties. Though not specially
sought after for its fruit except by birds, its broadly oval leaves, its
beautiful form and flowers make it a desirable tree to give variety
to cultivated grounds.

GRAPES.

Two species of grapes, with a great number of hybrids and va-
rieties, abound in Nebraska. It is hard to realize without seeing it,
with what luxuriance the vine grows in this State. Some of the
timber belts are almost impassible from the number and length of
the vines, which form a network from tree to tree. Straggling
vines are sometimes found far out on the prairies. Where deprived
of any other support they creep along the ground and over weeds
and grass. The Summer Grape (Vitis cestiva/ts) can generally be
recognized by the downy character of its young leaves, which are
smooth when old. They are simple, rounded, heart-shaped, and
often variously lobed. The panicles are compound, long, and slen-
der. The berries are small, from one-third to one-fourth of an inch in
diameter; color black with a bloom, ripe in September and October.

WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA. 105

The Frost Grape (V. cot dif olid] has thin leaves, heart-shaped,
sharp-pointed, sharply and coarsely toothed, and sometimes ob-
scurely three-lobed. The bunch is compound, large, and loose.
The berries are small, about one-fourth of an inch broad, and blue
or black with a bloom, very acerb, and ripening after frost. Very
late in autumn, when dead ripe, these grapes become comparatively
sweet. As already intimated there are many forms that cannot
well be classified with either of these species. Some appear to be
hybrids, and some approach one or the other more closely, but va-
rying much from them. In the opinion of some of our best bota-
nists a thorough re-examination and a new classification of these
wild grapes is needed. There is as much difference in flavor and
quality as there is in form. Future investigation and culture will
no doubt produce from these wild grapes varieties that will be em-
inently worthy of cultivation. Their superior hardiness, the ease
with which they can be grown, their early bearing, and the compar-
atively fine flavor of many of them, entitle them to more attention
than they have yet received.

A great deal of wine has been manufactured from these grapes in
some portions of the State. The wine has a fine body, is rather
dark, and in a year or two is much like the Oporto in flavor and
color. It is sometimes shipped to other States to mix with wines
manufactured from cultivated grapes to give them body and color.

THE MULBERRY.
Alonp- the bluffs of the Missouri and some of its tributaries the

Red Mulberry (Jbforus rubrd} abounds. Sometimes it is a mere
shrub, and sometimes it reaches the dimensions of a small tree.
Though called the reel mulberry, its fruit in Nebraska is as often of
a blackish color, as reel or brown. Its sweetish blackberry-like
fruit is eagerly sought after by many of the settlers, and seems to
be one of the special delights of prairie chickens, quail, \vild tur-
keys, and other birds. At least I have often found them feasting
on this fruit. This tree or shrub is easily cultivated, and is often
transplanted for ornament and for its fruit into cultivated grounds.

THE BUFFALO BERRY.

The Buffalo Berry (Shcpkerdia argent ea] is found on the banks
of the Missouri, the Niobrara, the Platte, the 'Republican rivers,
and many of their tributaries. Though not yet seen in cultivation
it deserves a place in every fruit garden. It varies from the habit

106 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

of a shrub to that of a small tree. The leaves are oblong, silvery
white, the branches rusty white, and sometimes quite thorny, with
numerous thorn-like limbs. The flowers are small, yellow, dioecious,
the sterile ones with a four-parted calyx, and eight stamens. The
fertile flowers have a calyx, shaped like an urn, which en-
closes the ovary that becomes the berry-like fruit. The
fruit is roundish, varying in color from a dull red to a
scarlet, slightly, but only slightly, acid, and until quite ripe,
somewhat astringent, though agreeable. It is an enormous
bearer, the fruit being produced in very compact masses in the axils
of the branches. The fruit ripens in early autumn, and if left un-
disturbed hangs until winter. The plant is very hardy, and can be
grown in any good soil. The only drawback to the cultivation of this
fruit is that it is dioecious, and one of each sex must be planted to
obtain fruit, though if many be planted in a row or cluster, one
staminate or male tree will be enough to fertilize seven or eight
pistillate plants. It is one of the easiest of all fruits to propagate.
After the berries are gathered and the seeds removed from the pulp,
they can be planted at once or kept in sand until spring. They
ought to be sowed in drills and covered about two inches deep. At
one year old they should be transplanted into ordinary nursery
rows, about four feet apart. In three years from the seed they will
bloom, when they can be examined, and labels attached to the stam-
inate plants, after which, for convenience sake, each kind had bet-
ter be placed in a row by itself.

Wherever this berry becomes known it is at once a favorite, and
being so hardy and easily propagated it soon could supply the set-
tler with an abundance of delicious berries. Among the purposes
for which it is used is' the manufacture of jelly, of which it produces
an article that for richness of flavor is surpassed by no other fruit.

Sheperdia Canadensis, which is found on the Niobrara is scarcely
less beautiful than the Buffalo Berry. Its fruit is less insipid than
represented, and is even esteemed by many. The berry is yellow-
ish red.

THE ELDERBERRY.

Many of the emigrants from the eastern States are glad to find
an old favorite, the Elderberry, Sambucus Canadensis, among the
wild fruits of Nebraska. Though the shrub which produces this
berry has a rather rank smell, especially when bruised, and its fruit
is seldom eaten in a raw state, yet the berries are really so delicious,

WILD FRUITS OF NEBRASKA. 107

when prepared with skill, that wherever they abound they are eag-
erly gathered, and dried for future use, or manufactured at once in-
to various kinds of jellies or sauce. A good article of wine is fre-
quently made from them. The stems are half woody, from five to
ten feet high; leaves pinnate; leaflets from seven to eleven, ob-
long, the lower often three parted; the flowers are small and white,
in compound clusters or cymes; fruit, black purple. It grows
abundantly all over eastern Nebraska.

THE PAPAW.

The Papaw, Asimina triloba, is one of the four North American
representatives of a large tropical family, which is generally aro-
matic. Over three hundred species grow in the two tropical hemi-
spheres. Its yellow fruit is from two to three inches long, is pulpy ^
with many flat seeds, fragrant, and ripe in October. The tree is
from ten to twenty feet high. The leaves are thin, obovate, lance-
olate, and pointed. The flowers are dull purple; the petals are
veiny, round-ovate, and the outer ones from three to four times as
long as the calyx. The flowers appear with the leaves and some-
times precede them. It is only found in the southeastern part of
the State, and though of no practical value, botanically it is of much

interest.

NUTS.

Though nuts are not always classed with fruits it seems proper
in this place to mention the few that abound in Nebraska. First in
the list is the nut of the noble Black Walnut (Juglans nigra). A
few years ago this tree was abundant over eastern Nebraska. So
valuable, however, is the wood, and so high the price it brings in
market, that in many places where great numbers formerly existed
it is becoming quite rare. Fortunately, this tree is so hardy and is
so easily grown from the seed, that great numbers are started in
the artificial groves that are planted all over the settled portions of
the State. The nuts are almost as much of a favorite with adults
as with children ; and wherever the trees remain they should be
carefully preserved to supply the means for future groves, and for
the intrinsic value of their fruit.

In a few places along the Missouri the Shell-bark Hickory (Car-
ya alba) abounds. Though not in sufficient quantities to supply the
markets with hickory nuts, it is worthy of cultivation for its timber,
which is valuable for many purposes besides fuel. When once

108 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

grown, groves of hickory will also supply an almost unfailing har-
vest of nuts.

The Hazel Nut ( Corylus Americanus), is widely distributed over
the State. It grows here from four to seven feet high. The nuts
have been as much of a favorite with the Indians as they are now
with the children of the white settlers.

CHAPTER X.

WILD GRASSES.*

The Most Valuable ones of Nebraska, with Notes on Their Perpetua-
tion, and the Disappearance of the Buffalo Grass. — Origin of our Flora.

VTEBRASKA is remarkable, among other things, for its wild
1M grasses. They constitute everywhere the covering of the
prairies. Even where old breaking is left untilled, the grasses vie
with the weeds for possession, and often in a few years are victori-
ous. Every close observer, passing through the State, in summer,
must notice the great number of species, and their vigorous growth.
I have in my collection 149 species of grasses that are 'native to the
State. Of the sedges so closely related to them, there are also at
least 150 species. Of course there is a great difference in the value
of these grasses. Some of them are seldom or never touched by
cattle, while others are sought out by them at all seasons. The fol-
lowing, so far as I have observed, are the most valuable:

Sorgum nutans, Bouteloua hirsuta,

Andropogon furcatus, Bouteloua curtipenclula,

Andropogon scoparius, Bouteloua oligostaclmi,

Andropogon Virginicus, Festuca ovina,

Buchloe Dactyloides, Poa serotina,

Sporobolus heterolepis, Stipa viridula.

It is impossible to give a correct estimate of the proportions in
which these grasses are found in Nebraska, as they vary a great

* First published in the New York Tribune, with the following note: " We take pleasure
in introducing to the readers of the Tribune Prof. Samuel Auyhey, of the University of Ne-
braska, an earnest, enthusiastic and thoughtful student, who is most esteemed where best
known. In this, his initial article, he does not write from compilation or hearsay. He has
been over nearly every square mile of the territory in question, some portions of it many
.— \Ed. Tribune.'"

WILD GRASSES.

109

deal from year to year in different parts of the State. In the eastern
half Andtopogon furcatus, A. scoparius, Bouteloua curtipendula, B.
hirsuta, Sorgum nutans and Sporobolus heterolepis supply perhaps
about two-thirds or three-fourths of the grazing and hay lands.
For the purpose of ascertaining the value of these grasses, com-
pared with cultivated ones, I have made an analysis of Sorgum nutans
and Andropogon furcatus. The analysis of red clover, white clover
and lucerne is that of EinhofF and Cronie. For convenience, they
are placed in parallel columns :

Sorgum Anclropogon Red

White.

Water 74.0

Starch 1.9

Woody fibre 14.0

Sugar 3.5

Albumen 21

Extractive matter and gum. ... 2.9

Fatty matter 0.0

Phosphate of Lime 1 .0

100.0

furcatus. Clover. Clover. Lucerne.

76.0

80.0

75.0

1.8

1.4

1.0

2.2

14.0

13.9

11.5

14.3

1.8

2.1

1.5

0.8

1.6

2.0

1.5

1.9

3.7

3.5

3.4

4.4

0.3

0.1

0.2

0.6

0.8

1.0

0.9

0.&

100.0

The substances which produce fat, such as sugar, starch, and
gum, contain the three elements of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.
Those that produce muscle, blood and nerves, like albumen, contain
in addition to the preceding, nitrogen. Now, an examination of the
above analysis shows that all the essential qualities for the best food
for cattle are contained by these wild grasses. They are at least
equal, if not superior in these particulars, to the best cultivated
forage and hay crops. It will also be noticed that in phosphate of
lime, so essential for the growth of bones (uand brain food?") these
grasses are equally well supplied. The buffalo grass also contains
three and six- tenths per cent of saccharine matter. I have not had
time to carry out this analysis any further. First in the list of Ne-
braska grasses is Sorgum nutans, Gray. The only popular name
that I have heard is one that I proposed myself, namely, sorgum
grass. When growing in the early part of the season, it is not
easy to distinguish it from blue joint. As soon, however, as its
tawny, russet-like spikelets in a dense panicle, make their appear-
pearance, it is known at a glance among any number of other
species. Toward the end of the season, the panicle nods. Spike-
lets are generally in pairs or threes, and are ciliate with a ring of

110 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

bristles at the base. The lower paleae are tipped with a contorted
awn. It grows from three to six feet high. I have seen it remarked
that some seasons it does not produce seed. If that is the case in
this State, I have failed to observe it. This grass has been increas-
ing rapidly in Nebraska. It competes successfully with all its rivals
for the possession of the soil. The amount now growing is treble
what it was ten years ago. This season it monopolized the ground
where, in former years, only stray stalks were seen. It produces
the best hay if cut just before frost. For hay and for pastures it is
one of the noblest of the grasses. I often noticed, when camped
on the plains, that it was the first choice of horses after the buffalo
grass that was within reach was all consumed. Whether it can be
domesticated, remains to be seen. Three years ago an attempt was
made to grow it on the Agricultural Farm, but the locusts ate it
as fast as it came up. It did not survive the third time it was eaten
off.

Andropogon furcatus, Muhl. — This is also a valuable grass in
this State. It is sometimes called blue joint in the West. It is
often confounded wite Andropogon scoparius, and even with Sorgum
nutans. It is distinguished by having from three to five straight
and rather rigid hairy spikes, from three to five inches long, to-
gether at the naked summit (Gray), and of a purple color. Occa-
sionally there are lateral spikes. The stem is from four to six
feet high. Some years it does not fruit, but the cause is not clear
to me, as this occurs in wet and dry seasons.

Andropogon scoparius, Mich. — This grass is in some places even
more abundant than the former, but generally it does not seem to
be able to compete with it in the struggle for existence. I am not
sure which of these two is the most valuable for feed. It is dis-
tinguished from the former by not being more than half as tall and
by having a paniculate stem, one side of which is furrowed. The
spikes are simple, lateral, and growing from the end on rather long
peduncles, two or three being found on each sheath, and of a purple
color. It is generally slightly silky and hairy. It is generally dif-
ficult to distinguish these two grasses until they begin to flower.

Andropogon Virginicus, L. — In a few localities in Southern Ne-
braska this grass is common. Though elsewhere it is of little re-
pute; here I have often seen cattle grazing on it, and apparently
enjoying it. No complaints have been made about it when used for
hay. The stem is flat below, and somewhat downy with scattered

WILD GRASSES 111

hairs. The leaves are long, narrow and carinate. Two or three
spikes are together in different appressed clusters. It grows from
three to four feet high.

Bouteloua oligostachya, Torr. — Until within a few years, this grass
was only occasionally met with in eastern Nebraska, though com-
mon in the middle and western portions of the State, where it has
often been classed with the gramma grasses. This common name,
however, is indiscriminately applied to several other species in as
many different genera. It is rapidly moving eastward. This year
it was so abundant in Lancaster County that it in many places mon-
opolized the soil, as could be seen on the wagon road between Lin-
coln and Milford. It is distinguished by spikelets of flowers hang-
ing from one side of the axis or inflorescence. From three to five
spikes are supported on each stalk. The color ranges from purple
to indigo blue. Its height varies from ten to sixteen inches. It is
exceptionally smooth and hairless, and is a perennial. For grazing,
this grass is exceedingly valuable, and where it grows thick and
strong, as it is beginning to do in many of the eastern counties, it
makes most excellent hay.

Bouteloua curtipendula, Gray. — This grass is abundant in many
places. It grows from one to three feet high, but the leaves are
scanty, and it is not much sought after by stock. It is, however, a
grass of great beauty. It can always be easily recognized by its
racemes, which are from eight to fifteen inches long, and contain
from fifteen to sixty small spikelets of a purple or scarlet color.
For its beauty it deserves a place in the garden, if not in the field.

Bouteloua hirsuta, Lagasca. — This species is frequently confounded
with B. oligostachya. The whole stalk is somewhat hairy. When
ripening, the spikes are curved, short, and somewhat bristly, be-
cause of the great number of stiff hairs that grow from the dark
colored glands of the glumes. In sterile situations in the western
part of the State, it is short, but further east, where it is increasing
rapidly, it is from ten to sixteen inches high. Though perhaps not
so valuable as the preceding for forage and hay, yet here herds of
cattle are often seen grazing on and apparently enjoying and fatten-
ing on it.

Sporobolu s heterolepis, Gray. — This grass is abundant in some por-
tions of the State. It makes good hay, for which it is often used.
It grows from twenty-five to thirty inches high. Its leaves, which
grow from the base of the plant, are thread-like and remarkable

112 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

for being as long as the stalk, and bending over gracefully until
the tips touch the ground. It has a great tendency to produce
stools. The stalk is naked above, bearing a small loose panicle
whose sharp-pointed spikelets bear round seeds. The seeds, when
bruised, give out a strong odor, which is offensive to some olfactories.
It does not fruit in some dry seasons.

Spartina cynosuroides, Wild. — This grass is abundant in some
places, but unfortunately, it is worthless. It is known as cord, and
fresh water grass. It makes a poor article of hay, but its very
abundance tempts many to use it for this purpose. Only extreme
hunger will induce animals to eat it. It can be recognized by its-
slender stem, which grows from two to six feet high, and its narrow
leaves, which are sometimes three and four feet long, and half slen-
der points. The entire leaf, except the margins, is smooth. The
straw-colored spikes are from two to three inches long, and from
five to fourteen in number. They are scattered and spreading. A
wide berth should be given to it.

Triticum — It sometimes happens that grasses which are compar-
atively worthless in one regard are valuable in another. This may
come from the improved quality that soil, climate and situation give.
Several species of Triticum which are everywhere regarded as
almost worthless, in Central and Western Nebraska afford, in the
early part of the season, good pasturage. It can be recognized by the
character of the glumes, among which are the single spikelets at each
joint, and placed with the side against the axis of inflorescence.
Several species of Festuca abound in portions of the State, and
make valuable forage.

Festuca ovina, L., is the most valuable. The culms and leaves
are hard and wire-like, but exceedingly nutritious. The panicle is
small and narrow, and the spikelets flat, numerous, and from two
to six flowered. This grass has a tendency to grow in dense tufts,
and is sometimes of a purple color. The stalks grow from ten to
twenty-four inches high.

Bromus kalmii, Gray. — This grass is only abundant in the west-
ern part of the State, although it is occasionally met as far east as
the Missouri. It is a perennial, producing a simple panicle, with
spikelets drooping from simple capillary stems, and densely covered
with silky hairs. These are sometimes flat and sometimes round,
wThen matured. It grows from one to three feet high, and affords
good forage. Some species of Poa abound in Nebraska. They

WILD GRASSES. ] ! 3

are very nutritious, and wherever found afford rich food for stock.
Poa serotina, Ehrh, is perhaps the most important. It may be
recognized by its open panicle, which branches in fives, the spike-
lets being pediciled, acute, a little flattened, and from two to four
flowered. The flowers are acute, green, and occasionally tinged
with purple. It grows from two to three feet high.

Poa Pratensis, L., is not native to the State, but has spread from
old Fort Calhoun, north of Omaha, where it was probably intro-
duced many years ago by the hay which the Government sent to
the troops at this point. It has spread from this place over twenty-
five miles of territory.

Ihichloe dactyloides, Engl. — This is the famous buffalo grass which
once grew over the whole region from the Missouri to the moun-
tains. It is so well known that it scarcely needs any description.
It rarely exceeds two or three inches in height, except the male
flower stalk, which may reach five or six inches. The male flowrers
are in flat spikes on the top of the stock. The seed-producing
flowers are almost covered by the leaves close to the earth. Both
kinds of flowers are borne by the same plant, though the contrary
was once believed. It forms dense tufts, spreading by stolens, form-
ing broad mats. Engleman first detected the true botanical rela-
tions of this plant. This grass has always been a favorite with all
kinds of stock. Often when camped on the plains, my lariated
horses and mules would touch no other grasses until all the buffalo
grass within their reach was consumed. This always occurred, no
matter what other kinds of grass were present. This grass, before
the advent of the white man, was the chief food of the buffaloes,
which, in countless numbers, occupied the plains. It will be found
that wherever the buffalo grass is not highly valued, it is confounded
with Munroa squarrosa, Torr., which is an almost worthless species.
It bears some resemblance to buffalo grass, and is often mistaken
for it. But it is an annual with many branches from the base,
creeping, and with the leaves clustered together. Of the disap-
pearance of the buffalo grass, and my theory as to the cause, I will
have something to say presently.

A word in conclusion as to the way to perpetuate prairie pastures*
A complaint often heard in Nebraska is that in a short time the
best of prairie grasses, such as sorgum nutans, Andropogon furcattis,
etc., will, under severe pasturing and mowing, soon be exterminated,
and their place be occupied by weeds. Where no chance is given
8

114 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

to the prairie grasses to recuperate, this is undoubtedly the case.
It is found, however, that where fields of the best wild grasses are
inclosed, and only mowed when mature, they will remain good
meadows for many years. It soon kills these grasses to mow them
early in the season, when or before they are in flower. I have fre-
quently seen tracts of land inclosed where weeds had already gained
partial possession, and by leaving them lie untouched for a number of
years, the ground would again become thickly matted over with
these rich grasses. With a little care, the new settler in Nebraska
can get his supply of hay and pasture of the best quality from the
prairies for a great number of years. He can be supplied, at least,
until his own industry and advancement will prompt him to raise the
cultivated grasses. Many of these wild grasses deserve to be experi-
mented with. They have done so much to enrich the West already,
that their cultivation, if possible, would be a great agricultural gain.

DISAPPEARANCE OF BUFFALO GRASS.

Buffalo grass {Buchlce dacty hides] was once common all over
Nebraska. Other species were present, but this grass was more
abundant than all the others put together. It has now almost en-
tirely disappeared from the eastern half of the State. Here it is
now found only in isolated spots, which sometimes are slight de-
pressions in the surface, some times elevations, and sometimes on
a level with the plain. In examining the last retreats of this grass
to ascertain the cause of its pertinacious life in such places, I inva-
riably found that they were spots where the excess of alkali had
entered into slight chemical union with the other ingredients of
the soil, and more or less hardened it. This seems to indicate that
such soils wrould be favorable to the cultivation of this grass ; but
whether this is the case, and whether, supposing this was possible,
it is worthy of cultivation, remains to be determined by actual ex-
periment. The manner and the cause of the disappearance of this
grass is exceedingly curious. It cannot be caused by the ingress
of domestic cattle. I have known whole counties from which the
buffalo grass disappeared long before any domestic cattle or culti-
vation had interrupted the work of nature. For example, I vis-
ited Wayne County, Nebraska, for the first time in 1865, when as
yet there was not a single wrhite man or any domestic cattle within
its bounds. And yet the buffalo grass wras even then rapidly disap-
pearing, and in a few years more was almost entirely gone. Many
other instances of the same kind could be given.

WILD GRASSES. 115

Some old frontiersmen claim that the perpetuation of this grass
depends on its seeds being scattered by the buffaloes, and that
when they ceased to visit their old haunts it would necessarily have to
die out. But it is difficult to understand why the foraging of domestic
cattle would not have the same effect. It cannot be ascribed to the
buffaloes' manner of cropping this grass. These animals some-
times pastured this grass more closely and constantly than domestic
cattle. I have sometimes followed a herd of a few thousand buf-
falo and they seemed to eat the short, sparse grass in places almost
out of the ground, leaving almost bare soil behind them. Causes
with which neither the buffaloes nor domestic cattle have anything
to do, evidently produce its extermination. The rate of its disap-
pearance varies somewhat. In northern Nebraska it retreated west-
ward at the rate of about twenty miles a year, until it reached its
present eastern boundary. Along the Republican Valley, during
some years, it has retreated at the rate of thirty miles a year, and
other grasses, alreadv mentioned in this chapter, took its place. In
other years it has retreated more slowly. In favored localities it
lingers behind several years longer, but even the alkali spots finally
give it up. It is remarkable that the grasses that take its place are
such as are indigenous to comparatively moist regions. I suggest,
therefore, that change of climate, especially increase of rainfall, has
most to do with this phenomenon. In Chapter IV was shown the
constantly increasing rainfall in the Stitc. It is the only fact com-
petent to explain all the phenomena accompanying the disappear-
ance of this grass on which the millions of buffalo, elk, deer and
•antelope had previously fed for ages.

ORIGIN OF OUR FLORA.

One of the questions that most frequently occurs to the thinking
mind is when and how did our Flora originate? Did it originate
here, or did it come by migration from some other region:

The earliest memorials of our present Flora are found engraven
on the rocks of the lowest member of the cretaceous rocks of the
west, known as the Dakota group*. In the chapter on the cre-
taceous deposits, the geological features of these rocks are given.
Here are found impressions of the first oaks, cottonwoods, willows,
maples, gums, hickories, walnuts, plums, cedars, pines, grapes, etc.
The formation in which these early memorials are found, stretches

*See Lisquereux, Report on Cretaceous Flora.

116 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

through Kansas, Nebraska, Northwestern Iowa, Minnesota, Can-
ada, and is found to appear in Greenland.

At the opening of the next, or Tertiary Age, in its lowest mem-
ber, the Eocene, it makes its appearance in the far north in Green-
land. Many of the species are identical with those now common
in Nebraska. It is true that Heer pronounces these to be Miocene,
but Dawson has shown them to be of Eocene age. (Report on
Geological Survey of Canada.) By the time thai the Miocene
age commenced, they were still among the conspicuous forms in
high northern latitudes. They emigrated southward with the
gradually advancing cold of the Pliocene Age, and when the Gla-
cial Age spread its mantle of ice over the north, they found a re-
treat in the southern United States and Mexico. At the final re-
treat of the glaciers, this Flora advanced northward, and found a
home in central North America. The nearest allies, therefore, of
our present Flora are the vegetable forms preserved in the rocks of
the Tertiary Ages, in high northern latitudes. All life, vegetable
and animal, probably commenced far north, and moved southward.
The old idea, that it must have originated in tropical regions, has
been eliminated from scientific belief by the advance of knowledge.
This view also accords best with what is known of the history of
the globe. The first known dry land was in high northern regions,
Arctic lands first became cool enough to sustain vegetable and ani-
mal life. (Heer.)*

*See on this subject Gray's Forest Geography and Archaeology, Heer's Flora Fossilis Arc-
tica; Dawson's Reports on Canadian Geology; Saparta, "Ancienne Vegetation Polairr*":
Hooker's Presidential Address to the Royal Society.

FAUNA OF NEBRASKA. 117

CHAPTER XI.

FAUNA OF NEBRASKA.— VERTEBRATES.

BUFFALO. — DEER FAMILY. — CARNIVEROUS ANIMALS. — INSECT EATING
ANIMALS. — BIRDS. — The Leading Varieties — REPTILES. — List of our Reptiles.
FISH CULTURE. — List of Known Nebraska Fishes.

BEFORE the advent of the white man, Nebraska was a par-
adise for wild animals. Game of many kinds was amazingly
abundant. Even the Indian could not keep it within clue limits; it
took immense numbers of the carniverous animals to do this.

MAMMALS.

Here was the empire of the buffalo, (Bos Ameriiamts?)* The
early settlers and the old freighters across the plains tell wonderful
stories of the immense herds of buffalo which they so often en-
countered. Had I not myself, years ago, found large herds in places
where there are now flourishing villages, these stories would appear
like exaggerations. It is to be feared that the days of the buffalo
are numbered. What the Indian alone could not accomplish, has
been done by the remorseless war made on the buffalo by the white
man. Now he is rarely found within the State. If he is perpetu-
ated it will be done by domesticating him. Already some domesti-
cated buffalo are found among the cattle herds in western Nebraska.
Whether this experiment will be successful cannot yet be deter-
mined. No animal deserves to be perpetuated more than the
buffalo. Buffalo robes are among the most important of commer-
cial articles. Who has not been made comfortable bv one? The
buffalo is as readily tamed as the ox, and can be reared with as
little difficulty. He is exceedingly hardy. He might be profitably
reared for the pecuniary value of his hide. His flesh, which is con-
sidered coarse, would no doubt be refined by civilized environment.
Even the buffalo's milk is a fair substitute for that of the domestic
cow.f

. "It will be understood tliat 1 only follow popular usage in calling this ai-imal a buffalo. It i»
* bison. No true buffalo has a hump on his back.

|See an exhaustive treatise on the buffalo, in Hay den's Report for 1875.

118 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Next to the buffalo, the elk (Cervus Canadensis)wa&the largest
and finest native animal. It was formerly exceedingly abundant
and is still often found in the northern and western portions of the
State. Never shall I forget the magnificent herds of elk that
crossed my path on the Niobrara and Elkhorn in 1866 and 1867.
Their bulky bodies, huge antlers, and numbers, made them a pic-
ture never to be forgotten.

Four species of deer were formerly found here, and two of them
very abundantly. These were the common deer (Cervus Virgin-
ianus), the white tailed deer (C. leucrus), the mule deer (C. macro-
//j), and the blacktailed deer (C. columblanus). The first and the
last of this list were the most abundant, at least those are the species
that I have most frequently seen myself roaming the prairies, and
whose skins most frequently found their way to the traders. The
special habitat of the black tailed deer was north Nebraska, and
especially the Niobrara region.

Next to the buffalo in numbers comes the Pronghorn Antelope
(Antilocapra Americana], It was formerly common to meet these
on the prairie in herds of from twenty to five hundred. Only a
few years ago it was yet common to meet herds of hundreds of
these beautiful and graceful animals in central and western Ne-
braska. They are now mostly confined to the northern and west-
ern portions of the State. The antelope remains abundant after the
buffalo and elk are gone, and when but few deer remain, and yet
the last of them disappear before the deer is entirely exter-
minated from a district. The antelope is more disposed to go in
herds than the deer; it frequently brings forth two at a birth, and
while buffalo, elk and deer last they are often passed by, by fron-
tiersmen. Their natural curiosity makes them an easy prey. It is
well known that they will go close to a white covered wagon, or
to a rag stuck on a ramrod in the ground, to ascertain what it is,
The hunter, concealed in the grass, or behind or on one side 6f his
wagon, easily secures one.

Bears have probably always been rare in the State. I have met
but one in all mv explorations in the unsettled portions. That one
was on the Niobrara, and a black one {Ursus Americanus}. I have
also been reliably informed by old settlers that one was killed in
the early history of Otoe County, on the Missouri bottom. I have
been told by Indians that the cinnamon bear was formerly occasion-
ally found on the Niobrara, but I regard this as doubtful.

FAUNA OF NEBRASKA. 119

Two raccoons are common. in Nebraska, namely, the common
raccoon (Procyon loter), and the black-footed raccoon (P. ffernan-
dezzii]. The former is the most abundant.

The Carnivora are well represented. The Panther (Felts con-
color}, is the largest, or at least the most powerful. I have only
seen it a few times on the Niobrara and the Loup.

The Wildcat (Lynx rufus), is comparatively common in the wooded
sections of the State. At rare intervals specimens of the Red
Wildcat (L.fasciatus] are taken in north Nebraska. The common
Canada Lynx (Lynx Canadensis], is widely distributed over the
State, but few of them have been captured.

Several varieties of the timber wolf formerly were common in
the State, but are now rarely heard of. The varieties were Canus
occidentalls^ Var. nubilus and the White Wolf (C. occidentalism
Var. griseo-albus}. I have several times found this latter species
lingering on the flanks of herds of buffalo, apparently on the look-
out for any old animal that could not keep up with the herd, or was
unable to defend itself.

The Coyote, or Prairie Wolf (Canis latrans^) was formerly
exceedingly abundant. When on exploring expeditions in unsettled
sections, trie cooking of supper would invariably bring them
around us through the night. They never venture to make an at-
tack under such circumstances. I doubt whether a man is ever in
danger from them. Settlers have destroyed so many by poison
that they are now rare in the oldest portions of the State. A few,
however, linger on even here.

Foxes have here disappeared more completely than the wolves.
Formerly the Prairie Fox (Vulpes macrourus) was comparatively
abundant, but is now rarely seen. The Swift (V. velox), however,
yet holds his own in central and western Nebraska. The Gray
P^ox ( V. Virginianus), was never abundant. The only specimens that
I saw were in Pierce County, in 1869.

A few specimens of the American Sable (Mustela Americana]
have been taken in northwestern Nebraska, but their presence within
our borders is rare. The weasels, however, are abundant, there
being at least seven species within the State. The most abundant
are the Common Weasel (Putorius noveboracensis), the Long Tailed
Weasel (P. longicauda) and the common Mink (P. visori). Those
less frequently seen are the Least Weasel (P. pusillus}, the Small
Brown Weasel (P. cigognanii), the Little Black Mink (P. nigrescent),
and the Black Footed Ferret (P. nignpas.} •

120 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The Wolverine (Guleo luscus) is yet found in central and western
Nebraska, but it has never been abundant. The American Otter
(Lufra Canadensis) is found more or less abundantly in all the rivers
of Nebraska.

As would be expected, the Skunks are also here. Two species
are common, namely, Mephitis mephitica and M. occidentalis. The
American Badger ( Taxidea Americana] was formerly common all
over the State. The advance of settlements has almost exterminated
it from the eastern part of the State.

Rodents are common here as elsewhere, but I am less confident
as to the accuracy of my list. Many more must remain to be added
to it when the State is once thoroughly examined with reference to
this point.

Among the Rodents (gnawers), the squirrel family (sciuridae] are
well represented by at least ten species. Among these are the
Western Fox Squirrel (Sciurus ludovicianus^ the Gray and Black
Squirrel (S. Carolinensis) and occasionally, in northern Nebraska,
the Pine Squirrel (S. Hudsonicusl) Even the Flying Squirrel
(Pttromys volucella] is sometimes found on the timbered bottoms of
the Missouri. The Chipmuck (Tamias striatus) is rare, but the
Missouri Striped Squirrel (T. quadrivittatus] is common/>ver a large
part of the State. Say's Squirrel (Spermaphilus laterahs) is abun-
dant in some localities, and the Striped Prairie Squirrel (S. triaeccm-
Uneatus, is abundant all over the State. The Gray Gopher (S. Frank-
lint]^ which is classed in this section, is common ontheprairies.

Two species of Prairie Dogs formerly disputed between them
the territory of western Nebraska. One of them (Cynomys lu-
dovicianus) formerly lived in villages over the whole length of
the State, from the Missouri to its western limits. It is now mostly
confined to central and western Nebraska. Many thousands collect
together in these villages. The other species (C. Gunnisonii).
sometimes called Short Tailed Prairie Dog, is now only met in
western Nebraska.

Two species of Woodchuck were formerly rather common in
Nebraska. The common Woodchuck (Arctomys monax), is found
at long intervals. The Yellow Footed Marmot (A. jlaviventer).
probably only found on the Niobrara. I never saw it alive, but
met trappers who had skins of it obtained in that locality.

The Beaver (Castor Canadensis), was until recently common
on all the streams of Nebraska. Even on the larger streams, like

FAUNA OF NEBRASKA. 121

the Platte, the Missouri and the Republican, where they could not
build -dams, they constructed excavated houses in the banks.
Sections of trunks of cottonwood are yet found along these rivers,
from eight to fourteen inches in diameter, which were gnawed off
by beavers. They are now mostly confined to western and north-
ern Nebraska, though a few linger on most of the streams of the
State. The value and beauty of its fur causes a constant war to
be waged against it by Indian and white man.

Of the Gophers, the Pouched Gopher (Geomys bursarins), is the
most common, being found all over the State. The Short-headed
Gopher (G. breviceps], is only rarely found in south Nebraska.

The Northern Pocket Gopher, (Themomys talpoides), whose
habitat is placed far north by Coues and Allen, I found on the
north side of the Niobrara in north Nebraska.

The Kangaroo Rat (Dipodomys ordi^ occurs in western and
northern Nebraska on the Loup and Niobrara.

A rodent for which I know no popular name, but related to the
above is rather common over western and central Nebraska. It is
known among naturalists as Perognathus fasdatus. It is, without
the tail, four inches long and mouse like.

The Yellow Pocket Mouse (Cricetedipus flavus), smaller than the
house mouse is also common over central and western Nebraska.

The Wood Rat (Neotoma Floridana), is a native of Nebraska,
but is only met with at long intervals.

The Bushy Tailed Wood Rat (/V. cinerd], only occurs on the
Niobrara. At least that is the only section from which I have
obtained or heard of it.

The White Footed Mouse (Hesperomys leucopus), is frequently
found in almost every county in the State.

Another rodent (H. sonariensis], closely related to the above, is
still more abundant. It has a shorter tail and lighter color than
the preceding.

The Michigan Mouse (ff. Michiganensis), found sparingly all
over Nebraska. The Missouri Mole Mouse (If. leucogasfer), is
quoted as abundant in Nebraska by Coues and Allen, but I have
found only one specimen here.

The Little Harvest Mouse (Ochetodon humilis), is common south
of the Platte, but rare north of that river.

The Common American Meadow Mouse (Avicola riparius), is
sparingly represented on the prairies of the State. The Prairie

122 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Meadow Mouse (A. austerus], is rather abundant over the State,
both on high bottoms and uplands. Still more abundant every-
where is the Western Prairie MeadoAv Mouse (A. curtatus}. The
Pine Mouse (A. pinetarutri), occasionally occurs along the Missouri.

The Jumping Mouse (Zapus H'tdsonius], is found only in the
wooded portions of Nebraska. At least I have never met it any-
where on the prairies.

The Musk Rat is found in almost every stream of the State,
and though much reduced in numbers by trapping still holds its own.

The Porcupine is present in the State in small numbers. It is
the Yellow Haired Variety {Erethizon epixanthus}.

The Hares are well represented in Nebraska. The Prairie Hare
(Lepus campestris), is found in central and western Nebraska. The
Varying Hare (L. Americanus), in some of its varieties, is common
in the State. The Gray Rabbit (L. sylvaticus), is still more abundant
than the former. The Jackass Hare (Z. caltotis}^ is abundant in
western and central Nebraska, and more sparingly as for east as
the Missouri. I have captured specimens within a mile of the Mis-
souri bottom. Cones and Allen give its habitat here only as west-
ern Nebraska.*

The Insectivara are represented by only a few species. Five of
these are shrews, belonging to one genus, namely, Sorex pachvurus,
S. richa, S. Cooperi, S. Haydeni and S. Hoyi. I have not ascertained
their relative abundance. Another genus of shrews (Blarina) is
represented by three species, namely, B. talpoides, B. brevicauda and
B. exilipes. B. brevicauda is the most common and abundant, being
found almost everywhere in the State.

The Moles are more abundant in individuals. One of them
(Scallops Argentatus) is abundant everywhere. Two others are
rare, namely, Condylura cristata and Uratrichus gibbsii.

One Marsupial is rather common in the wooded portion of the
State. It is the common Possum {Didelphis Virginiana^]

From the foregoing it is seen that at least eighty-two species of
mammals are native to Nebraska.

BIRDS.

The bird Fauna of Nebraska is remarkably developed. It is
particularly rich in genera, of which there are at least one hundred
and fifty-six in the State. The species amount to at least two hun-

*For an exhaustive discussion of the Rodents, see " Cones' aud Allen's Monographs of North
American Rodentia."

FAUNA OF NEBRASKA. 123

dred and forty-nine.* At least, that is the number whose eating-
habits I have studied and described in a former publication. Since
the publication of that work, nearly a dozen additional species have
come to light within our territory. The fullest order is that of the
Perchers (Passeres), of which there are eighty genera and one hun-
dred and forty-seven species. Among these, the Singing Birds
(Oscines) are represented by sixty-nine genera and one hundred and
thirty-three species. The next division of this order, the Clama-
tores, are not so abundant, there being only eleven genera and four-
teen species.

At the head of the Singing birds stands, of course, the glorious
Robin, \vhich is becoming more abundant each year. Four addi-
tional species of Thrush are here. The Mocking Bird is sparingly
represented in south Nebraska, and the Cat Bird generally along
the timber belts of water courses all over the State. In places the
Sandy Mocking Bird is abundant. The common Blue Bird is in
every community. The Western Blue Bird, formerly rare, is in-
creasing in many places. Eight species of Wren, led off by the
House Wren, abound. The Blue-eyed Warbler is common in all
sections, but the Cserulean Warbler only along the wooded bottoms.
This genus (Dendraecd) of warblers is represented by fourteen
species, some of which are only here during their migrations. One
of them (D. disco/or) is very abundant, and breeds here. Of the
Thrushes, the Golden-Crowned is the most abundant, #nd breeds
within the State. One of the commonest birds is the Maryland
Yellow Throat, and is on the increase in all parts of the State.
Over the greater part of the State the Yellow Brested Chat is
found. Six species of Swallow make their summer residence here.
The most abundant is the Cliff Swallow. Its special home is in
northeastern Nebraska. On one chalk cliff, east of the town of
Niobrara, I counted twenty-one hundred nests which were made by
this bird. There were other points near by where there were
almost as many. The purple Martin is also common, and breeds
here.

The vireos are represented by seven species, the most abundant
of which is the Red-eyed Vireo, which can always be found in
summer in the timber belts along the Missouri and other rivers.
The Butcher Bird (Collurio borealis], which was formerly rare, is

*See the writer's fannal list and Natural Food of Birds, published in Report of U. S. En-
tomological Commissions for 1878.

124 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

now becoming; abundant. Its old habit of impaling insects and
small reptiles on thorns, is perpetuated here. The American Gold
Finch, or Yellow Bird (C. cristatus], is a regular summer visitant.
The buntings make things lively in winter. Five species come to
Nebraska during this season. Among these, the Snow Bunting
(Ptectrophanes nivalis] is the most common. The Chestnut-collared
Bunting is scarcely less common, and breeds here. Ten species, at
least, of sparrows come to Nebraska, some of which are only
present during their migrations. One of the most abundant is the
Yellow-winged Sparrow. Great numbers of Lincoln's Sparrows
pass through Nebraska on their migrations. The Long Sparrow
is becoming more abundant each year, but the Tree Sparrow is only
present in winter. The Chipping, Clay-colored and White-
throated Sparrow are all rather common.

The Cardinal Grosbeak (Cardlnalis Virginianus}, is common
in southern Nebraska. This beautiful bird so much admired as a
caged pet, is rapidly on the increase. One owned by Mrs. Chap-
man in Plattsmouth, often wants to share half its worm or insect
with its mistress.

The American Starlings are represented by many species. Among
the most common are the Bobolink, Cow-Blackbird, Red-winged
Blackbird, and Yellow-headed Blackbird. All these are very
abundant.

One of the most abundant as well as most popular of Nebraska
birds is the Meadow Lark. Its magnificent song in spring can be
heard in all parts of the State and cheers every heart.

The orioles are becoming more abundant each year. The Balti-
more and Orchard Oriole are especially becoming common. The
Grackles are also here in large numbers, particularly Brewers and
the Crow-Blackbird. The crow family is most largely represented,
as elsewhere, by the Common Crow, though the Magpie is found
in northern and western Nebraska. The Blue Jay is unfortunately
found in places in large numbers. It is well known that it is
destructive to the eggs and young of other birds, and should there-
fore be kept reduced in numbers by being made a target for
sportsmen.

The Fly Catchers are well represented by eleven species. The
King Bird is one of the most common. The Arkansas Fly Catcher
is common only along wooded streams. The Least Fly Catcher
is the most abundant, being found in almost every part of the State.

FAUNA OF NEBRASKA. 125

The Plccarlan Birds are represented by eleven genera and
fifteen species. Among these are the common Whippoorwill, in
the eastern part of the State, and Nuttall's Whippoorwill in central
and western Nebraska. The Night-Hawk (Chordciles Virgini-
anus} is common and breeds here. The Chimney Swallow is
abundant in the older settlements of the State. The Humming
Birds are represented by two species. The Belted King- Fisher
is most frequently seen in the eastern part of the State. Seven
woodpeckers are at home in the State. The Hairy, Yellow-bellied
and Red-headed Woodpeckers are the most abundant. The latter
is rapidly on the increase.

Birds of Prey are here in large numbers, though only a few
that live exclusively on other birds. Among these is the Barn
Owl which lives on insects. The Snowy Owl is here in winter.
The Burrowing Owl so abundant in western and central Nebraska
is a very large destroyer of insects, mice, and small reptiles. The
Swallow-tailed Hawk, the most beautiful air sailer in America^
feeds almost exclusively on insects. It is sparingly represented all
over the State. The Pigeon Hawk and Coopers Hawk are unfor-
tunately abundant all over the State. The American Merlin and
Sparrow HawTk and Hen Hawk are common. Smainson's Buzzard
is onlv abundant along timbered streams of water. The Golden
and Bald Eagle are both occasionally seen in Nebraska, especially
the latter, which has been known to breed here.

The Pigeons are very sparsely represented here, there-being but
two genera and two species. The wild Pigeons are abundant
during some years. The common dove is very abundant all over
the State.

Gallinaceous Birds are represented by only six genera and as
many species. The Wild Turkey was formerly exceedingly abun-
dant in all the woodlands of the State but is now much reduced in
numbers. The Sharp-tailed Grouse has been reduced to a small
number. The Prarie Chicken was once very abundant in Nebraska.
Hunting them with dogs now keeps their numbers very much
reduced. Quails are very abundant during some years. They are
common over the greater part of the State.

The Wading Birds are represented here by twenty-six genera
and thirty-seven species. Among these, the King Plover is abun-
dant during its spring and fall migrations. The Piping and Moun-
tain Plover are also common. Wilson's Phalerope is only common

126 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY.

in eastern Nebraska. Wilson's and the Gray Snipe are abundant
during the migrating seasons. The Least and Baird's Sandpiper
are also common during their migrations. The great Marbled
Godwit breeds in the State. The greater and lesser Tattler abound
here along rivers and creeks. The Wood Tattler occasionally
breeds here. The most abundant of the tattlers is the Barlraniian
or Upland Plover. It is very abundant during its migrations and
many remain to breed. The Long-billed Curlew was formerly
very abundant and still is in the new sections of the State. Gun-
ners easily frighten it away and the following season it rarely returns.

The Great Blue Heron comes occasionally to our rivers. The
White Heron, Snowy Heron and American Bittern are rare in the
State.

The Whooping and Sand Hill Crane are "both in Nebraska, and
the latter quite abundantly. The three species of rail in the State
occur at long intervals. The American Coot, or Mud Hen, is often
met in the State, and is remarkable for feeding on insects and mol-
lusks.

The Anserine Birds, to which the swans, geese and ducks belong,
are fully represented in the State. Ten genera and at least twelve
species have been noted in my previous publications, and since then
several more species have come to light. The Trumpeter Swan is
here, but very rare. The White Brant is very abundant during its
migrations. The common Wild Goose is equally common at these
seasons.

The Mallard was formerly exceedingly common in the State
during its migrations, but is now much less so, owing no doubt to
the manner in which it is hunted down. Many formerly brought
forth their young in northern Nebraska. The Green-winged Teal
is also abundant during its migrations. The Blue-winged Teal
and Shoveller are rarer than the preceding. The Wood Duck is
common in some years, and breeds in north Nebraska. The Butter
Ball and Ruddy Duck are common along the Missouri and on its
tributaries for a short distance.

Of the Totipalmate Birds, only two species of Pelican visit the
State.

Of the Long-winded Swimmers, there are four genera and ten
species, one of which I found since my previous list was published.
Of the Gulls, the Ring-billed and Franklin's Rosy Gull are the
most common during the migrating season. Of the Terns, the

FAUNA OP NEBRASKA. 127

Least Tern and Black Tern are the most abundant. They breed
in Nebraska.

The Diving Birds are represented in the State by only one
species, namely, the American-eared Grebe. It is particularly abun-
dant on the Platte and the Missouri.

This brief sketch will, I trust, give some idea of the affluence of
bird life in Nebraska. I have in another work, already alluded to,*
shown how highly insectiverous the most of our birds are, and
what vast millions of insects they destroy. Bird life is the poetry
of animal life. Every sentiment of admiration for exquisite beauty,
for the charm of song, for utility, and abhorrence for the infliction
of needless suffering, calls on cultivated and refined natures to
protest against the needless destruction of birds.

REPTILES.

Owing to the large amount of time devoted to the other depart-
ments of our natural history, I have been unable to do much with
our reptiles and fishes. The following is therefore only a partial
list of such as I have found in the State :

Soft Shelled Turtle (Trionyx ferox). Missouri.

Snapping Turtle (Chelonoura serpentina). In most of our rivers.

Painted Tortoise (Emys pi eta]. Missouri and Platte rivers.

Painted Tortoise (Emys guttata). Widely dispersed.

Wood Terrapin (Emys insculpta). Widely dispersed.

Geographic Tortoise (Emys geographicd). Common.

Pseudo graphic Tortoise (Emys pseudo graphicd). Rare.

Mud Tortoise (Kinosternon Pennsylvanicwri). Rare.

Musk Tortoise (Sternothacrus odoratus). Have seen but one in
the State.

Common Box Tortoise (Cistuda Carolina). Common.

Blanding's Box Tortoise (Gistuda Blandingii}. Rare.

SAURIANS.

Blue Tailed Skink (Suncus fasciatus). Rare.
Fine-lined Lizard (Lygosoma quinquelineatus}. Rare.
Horned Toad (Phrynosoma carnutd). West Nebraska.
Brown Swift (Tropidolopis undulatus}. Niobrara region.
Chiroter lumbricoides. Southeast Nebraska.
Glass Snake (Opiosaurus ventralis]. South Nebraska.

*N»tural Food of Birds.

128 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

SNAKES.

Black Snake {Coluber constrictor.} Common.

Pilot Blacksnake Racer {Coluber Allegheniensis]. Rare.

Milk Snake. House Snake {Coluber eximius). Seen occasion-
ally.

Ring Snake {Coluber punctatu*s}. Seen at long intervals.

Grass Snake Coluber vernalis}. Rare.

Coluber testaceus. West Nebraska.

Water Snake {Trophidonotus sipeciori). Seen at long intervals.

Striped Snake. Garter Snake {Trophidonotus taenia}. Rare.

Yellow Bellied Snake {Ttopkidonotus leberis]. South Nebraska^

Small Brown Snake {Tropkidonotus DeKayi}. Some seasons
rather abundant.

Little Garter Snake. Ribbon Snake {Leptophis saurita]. Rare.
Only in timber.

Bull Snake {Pituophis melanoleucas\ Common.

Northern Rattlesnake. Yellow Rattlesnake {Crotalus durissus)~
Sparingly. Most abundant in North Nebraska.

Michigan Rattlesnake {Crotalophorus miliarius). Rare.

Western Rattlesnake {Crotalophorus tergeminus). Rare.

Massasaugua. Prairie Rattlesnake {Crotalophorus Kirtlandt].
Now supposed to be the same as the preceding. Formerly abun-
dant.*

Harlequin Snake {Elaps fulvius). Rare.

AMPHIBIANS.

Bullfrog {Rana pipiens). Common.

Northern Bullfrog {Rana hariconensis]. Rare.

Spring Frog- {Rana fontinalis). Rather numerous in favorite
localities.

Marsh Frog. Leopard Frog {Rana palustris). Common and
abundant.

Shad Frog. Lopard Frog {Rana kalecina). Common.

Wood Frog {Rana sylvaticd}. Common in timber along the
Missouri.

Common Toad {Bufo Americanus). Common.

Missouri Toad {Bufo cognathus]. Occasional.

Northern Tree Toad {Hyla versicolor). Along the Missouri.

*For the use of the rattles of the Rattlesnake, see the writer's paper, published in the
'American Naturalist," Feb. ,1872.

FAUNA OF NEBRASKA. • 129

TAILED BATRACHIANS.

Yellow-bellied Salamander (Salamandra fymmetrtca). Occa-
sional.

Violet-colored Salamander {Salamandra subviolaced]. Rather
common.

Blotched Salamander (Salamandra fasciata). Common.

Long-tailed Salamander (Salamandra longicaudd]. On the Ni-
obrara.

Striped-back Salamander (Salamandra bilineata). Rare.

Red Salamander (Salamandra rubrd). South Nebraska. Rare.

Blue-spotted Salamander (Salamandra glutinosa}. Rare.

Banded Proteus (Menobranchus latter alls]. Rare.

Allegheny Hell-bender (Manapoma Allcghcniensis}. Occa-
sional.

FISHES.

The following list of our fishes includes only the few that I have
identified. For reasons already stated, I could not devote myself
to a special investigation of our fish fauna. One-half of our species
are not included in this list.

The waters of Nebraska are eminently adapted. to the artificial
propagation of fish. Even the trout can be successfully reared in
many of our streams, especially in some like the Bows, in north
Nebraski. These Bow Rivers are largely made up of the most
delicious springs along the greater length of their course, and where
these are most abundant never freeze over in winter. The Bazile
is equally well adapted to this industry. There are also many kinds
that will flourish in the Elkhorn and its tributaries, the Nemahas
and their tributaries, and the Blues and Loups and their tributaries.
There are other rivers and their tributaries that could be stocked
equally well with choice fish.

BONY FISHES.

Many-lined Bass (Labrax multilinealns}. Missouri River.

Pike Perch (Leuciaperea griscd). Occasionally found in the
Missouri.

The Growler (Grystes salmoides}. Rare. Missouri and Ne-
maha.

Black Bass (Centrarchus fasciatus). Elkhorn, Logan, etc.

Centrarchus pent acanthus. Nemaha. Rare.

Pond Fish (Pomotis vulgaris). Common in most of our streams.

130 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Three additional species of Pond Fish (Pomotis) not identified.

Lake Catfish (Pimeloidus nigricarts}. Missouri, Platte.

Common Catfish (Pimeloidus cattis}. Common.

Forked Tail Catfish (Pimeloidus furcatus). Missouri.

Brazen Catfish Pimeloidus deneus). Platte and Elkhorn.

Blue Catfish (Pimeloidus celurescens.) Missouri, Republican, Ne-
maha, Elkhorn.

Yellow Catfish (Pimeloidus cupreus}. Probably same as Brazen
Catfish above.

Channel Catfish {Pimeloidus -pallidus). Missouri, Platte, Blue,
Elkhorn, etc.

Mud Catfish {Pimeloidus nebufasus). Common.

Black Bullhead (Pimeloidus xanthocephalus}. Missouri and Nio-
brara.

Four additional species of catfish I failed to identify.

Chubsucker {Labeo ). Only occasionally seen.

Sucker {Catast»mus ). Missouri.

Black Buffalo Fish (Catastomus elongatd]. Common.

Shiner (Stilbe chrysoleucas). Platte, Missouri.

Black- nosed Dace (Lends cus abronascus). Same as above.

Vermillion-eyed Dace (Lenciscus bigutlatus). Platte, Bow, Blue,
Elkhorn, etc.

Chubb Big Head (Lencisctis cephalus). Bow Rivers.

Minnow (Hydrargira ). Common.

Muskallonge (Esox ester]. Missouri. Rare.

Common Pickerel (Esox reticulatus]. In most of our streams.

Missouri Trout (Salmo Lewisi). I caught one in the Bow and
one in the Iowa Creek, in Dixon County. Probably wandered
down from the upper Missouri.

Gar Pike (Lepidosteus ). Common.

Western Mud Fish (Amia occidentalism. Rare.

Common Eel (Anguilia tenuirosttis). Elkhorn River. Rare.
CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.

Sturgeon (Aeiphensex maculosus). Missouri. Rare.

Lamprey (Pteromyzon ). Elkhorn. Rare.

INSECT LIFE. 131

CHAPTER XII.

INSECT LIFE.

Number of Species. — Predatory species.— Chinch Bug.— Army Worm. —
Hessian Fly.— Potato Beetle. — Insects that prey on orchards and groves.

IN articulate animal life, the most important class is that of in-
sects. As in temperate latitudes generally, they are more nu-
merously developed in genera, species and individuals than any
other section of the animal kingdom. In fact, they dispute with
man the empire of the world. During spring and summer they
are omnipresent ; when the naked eye does not recognize them the
microscope brings them to light. In Nebraska the number of
species is very great, approximating to eight or nine thousand.
About one-fourth of these are predatory and non-injurious species,
leaving not less than six thousand, or two and a half injurious
species to every species of plant in the State. This calculation is
based on the original constitution of the State, and not on the con-
dition into which it has been brought by civilization. The great
body of injurious species are so few in number that they rarely do
any damage that is noticeable. Here, as elsewhere, only excep-
tional conditions, as a rule, develope injurious species to a tempor-
ary and damaging multitude. Judging from observation for fif-
teen years, the insects which we have most to dread are the chinch
bug, army worm, Hessian fly, potato beetle, the insects which prey
on our orchards and groves, and the locusts.

THE CHINCH BUG

is the dread of the agriculturists of the Mississippi Valley. It some-
times occurs in Kansas in enormous numbers, and the probabilities
are that it is more to be dreaded on the plains of Nebraska than
even the locust. I fear it is on the increase. At least, during the
lae,t season more have been sent to me for examination than ever
before. And although most persons are familiar with its gen-
eral life-history, I will repeat it, because I believe that here
it has slightly changed its habits; at least, some individuals

132 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

have done so. The reports say that about June the eggs are
laid on the ground or among the roots of plants, and that
this process of egg-laying lasts fifteen or twenty days, and that they
number about 500 for each female. In fifteen days the eggs hatch
out. The bright red larvae remain under ground, sucking at the
roots of plants. The full grown insect is one-twelfth of an inch
long, of a black color, with white wings, and appears from the
middle of July to August. A second brood hatches out still later
in the summer, and further south a third brood. Evidently some of
the perfect insects survive the winter, harboring under rails, boards,
leaves and grass. I found them frozen solid, apparently, during the
last winter, when hunting for locust eggs, but they soon revived
when brought into a warm room. Now here I have found the
chinch bug vary from this history in this, that it occasionally de-
posits its eggs on the lower part of the plant itself, as I ascertained
by bringing such plants home an 1 observing their transformations.
As the damage done by this insect sometimes in western States like
Illinois reaches as high as $73,000,000 in a season, it is important to
note the remedies that have been devised against them. Lady bugs
(Coccinellidae) destroy them, as also lace-wing flies. During the last
summer I dissected several quail, whose stomachs were filled writh
these bugs. The protection of quail, therefore, must have a salu-
tary influence on restraining their increase. The methods devised
against the chinch bugs are various. Among the best are ditching
to keep them from traveling from one field to another, and keeping
the ground constantly stirred. They appear to dislike ground that
is yielding, or that dirties their bodies. By ditching, as many as
forty bushels have been destroyed in one day. One plan is to drag
a log through the ditch to kill them, and another is to dig pits in
the ditches in which they are buried or otherwise destroyed.

THE ARMY WORM

(Ltuicania unipucto^) as far as I know, has not yet done any injury
to the crops of the State. I was at least three years in the State
before I found a single moth of this insect. The first one I found
was in the autumn of 1867. No more came across my path till
1869. The first autumn (that of 1871) that I spent at the Univer-
sity, I found great numbers, and on the whole they have been in-
creasing ever since. Here probably two broods are raised in a year.
The eggs are laid near the roots of the prairie grass in June or July,
and lie dormant till the next spring.

INSECT LIFE. 133

Remedies. — Hence a successful method of warring against them
has been the burning of plots of grass where they abound. Mr.
Walsh, the former eminent entomologist of Illinois, after a long
study of this insect, became confident that this is an infallible rem-
edy. And of course, where the larvae or worm makes its appear-
ance, ditching must be resorted to as in other cases with marching
destructive insects. And I have no doubt that our immunity thus
far from occasional depredations from this enemy has been the
yearly burning of large tracts of the prairies of this State. And
just in proportion as this practice is abandoned for other reasons
will the dangers from this source multiply. I have received a few
letters from different portions of the State complaining about the
appearance of

THE HESSIAN FLY.

This is no indication that it will become troublesome, and yet, to be
forewarned is often to be forearmed. I have had no experience to
amount to anything with this insect.

Habits. — But it is said to deposit its eggs in the long slits of wheat,
grass, barley and rye blades, etc., both in spring and fall. In from
live to twenty days the eggs hatch. The larvae crawl down be-
tween the leaf and the stock until they reach a joint, where they
rest and suck the sap. They mature in from four to five weeks.
The pupa has a striking resemblance to a flax seed, and is found at
the same place where the larvae was sucking the sap. In April,
May or the first of June, the winged insect appears, and commences
egg-laying.

Remedies. — It is also said that large numbers of the pupae are de-
stroyed by cleaning off all the stubble by deep plowing, but especi-
ally by burning over the fields. Quicklime scattered over the fields
after harvest has also been relied on in some places in the east as a
remedial agent. Strewing the fields in April and May with wood
ashes has also been found efficacious.

The larvae of the wheat midge \Diplasis destructor] has also been
sent to me this season, but to what extent it prevails in the State I
am unable to say.

FRUIT DESTROYERS.

I have observed no indications of any special increase in the
species that prey on orchards and groves, except in the case
of plant-lice, which have been abundant for several years
past. It is well known that the species are exceedingly abundant, ;

134 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

and that they increase with marvelous rapidity, a single pair being
capable by the end of the season of producing millions. The con-
ditions of their great increase during some seasons and their de-
crease during others are not well understood. During this season
they were abundant not only on the milkweeds, amorphas, and
some few sun flowers, but were specially abundant on oak trees, on
the willows, elms and cottonwoods, though I am not advised as to
any particular damage that they have done. It is claimed by many
that a moderate increase of plant-lice is an advantage where apiaries
are kept, because of the heavy honey dew that some species produce.
This is questionable, but it is one of those compensations of which
nature is so full. Something at least is gained, if when the vigor
of vegetation is impaired by the sucking of wood-lice, the bees pro-
duce double their ordinary stores. For a few years, in many por-
tions of the State, there has been an alarming increase of the

COTTONWOOD LEAF BEETLE,

or, as it is known to science, the Plogiodera scripta. Nowhere has
it done more injury than in Lancaster County, though it has been
sent to me to identify from many other places. Some of the groves
beyond the Antelope, and many of the cottonwoods on the State
Agricultural Farm, were despoiled of their leaves by this insect.
It prevailed as far north as Dakota and Dixon counties. I saw
trees stripped of their foliage by it in Burt and Washington coun-
ties. It has done more or less damage in at least twrenty counties
of the State. During this season, however, it has greatly declined
in numbers, and in the damage it has been doing for several past
years. What has caused all this decrease I am unable to say, but
one element of the process has been the work of predatory insects.
I have found ichneumons and chalcis flies at work on them. Rainy
seasons also seem to be injurious to them. This, however, has been
denied. The fears, however, that many began to entertain that this
insect was going to place an embargo on the cultivation of the cot-
tonwood, is proved to be not well founded. Prof. Culbertson I
think has somewhere given an account of its life history, and the
best methods of counteracting its work, and that, therefore, I need
not here repeat.

During this season, also, the various species of borers have not, so
far as I am advised, made any special inroads on the trees of th e
State. I have no doubt the increase of our insectiverous birds has had
much to do with lessening the number of many of our insect enemies .

INSECT LIFE. 135

Since the first settlement of the State,
THE MATERIAL CONDITIONS IN RELATION TO INSECTS

have greatly changed, and are still in process of change, and more
rapidly than ever. Forests have been removed in some places, and
planted in hundreds of others. Whole counties have been rapidly
transformed from raw prairies to cultivated fields. The old balance
between insects and plants has been disturbed. The natural food
of the insects has been removed, but the insects themselves pro-
bably remained. No alternative then remains but for the in-
sects, in accordance with natural law, to adapt themselves to the
changed condition. If man takes away their natural fond, they will
naturally confiscate, or try to, some of his. For the loss of the
-spontaneous vegetable productions of the State, they find compen-
sation in corn fields, vineyards, orchards, gardens, wheat fields and
clover and timothy and clover fields. If the new vegetable forms
introduced into the State had only native foes to fight, the struggle
for existence would not be so severe. But in addition, other foes,
old enemies from their native climes, follow them. The apple tree
and the vine, the peach and the pear, in their westward march, have
gathered the foes of all climes and all lands, until their numbers are
legion.

Friends and Enemies. — Still with the enemies that have accumu-
lated, came some friends, often in disguise. Vast numbers of insect
parasites often make their appearance to re-establish again the broken
harmony of nature. Thus ever changing man keeps nature in tur-
moil in her efforts to adapt herself to the newly imposed conditions.
Insect enemies sometimes make their appearance and increase with
•such amazing rapidity as to threaten the entire destruction of some
horticultural or agricultural industry. Finally an enemy stealthily
makes its appearance, sometimes from the native region of the
plant, and sometimes from other lands. The abundance of food
favors its rapid increase, until in a few years it has almost wholly
destroyed the source of its food, when both fall back to the narrow
dimensions, and the obscurity from which they had emerged. This
continued disturbance and readjustment of the relations between in-
sect life, horticulture and agriculture must, in the nature of things,
continue for a generation. This involves the continued need of
watchfulness and special labor in the entomological field. We need
for our State

136 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

A MANUAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY,

— such a one as Harris prepared for Massachusetts — that is, one
similar in plan, but very different in specific detail. For one-half of
the insects that are troublesome in Massachusetts do not give us
any concern here, while the great body of our injurious species
were unknown in Harris' day. But while there is a great need for
such a work, it cannot yet be prepared, because many of our in-
jurious species are as yet neither known nor studied. But every
friend of horticulture can aid in the preparation of such a work, by
keeping a careful record and close notes of the habits and life-history
of such species as come within his observations.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE LOCUSTS*— MOLLUSKS.

Nativity. — Spring History and Migration. — Numbers that Light Down.—
Egg Laying. — Manner of Egg Laying. — Hatching. — Departure of Locusts. —
Destructiveness of Locusts. — How to Combat and Destroy the Locusts.
— Nature's Methods of Destroying Locusts. — Invertebrate Enemies. — Ver-
tebrate Enemies. — Extent of Locust Invasions. — Probable Future of Locust
Depredations — Mollusks.

NOTHING in the natural history of Nebraska has excited such
general interest as the locust question. Where then, do they
.breed, how frequently do their visitations occur, and what is the
amount of damage which they do?

The migrating locust, ( Caloptenu s spretus^) is native to the high
and dry regions of the Rocky Mountains. Its permanent habitat
is the region between latitude 43° and 53° north, and 103° and
114° west of Greenwich. Even some portions of this section are
sometimes deserted for a few years for other grounds, but always
somewhere within this territory they will be found to exist. In a
majority of years some locusts will also be found to breed south of
the above line, along the region west of longitude 105° 30'. The

*The reader is referred for a detailed account of the Locust question to the Report of the
IT S. Entemolojrical Commission for 1877, which includes the writer's investigations and con-
clusions on this subject at greater length and fulness.

THE LOCUSTS. 137

great interior region between the Wasatch and the Sierras over
much of its territory will be found to harbor a few during most
years. W henever, therefore, over these regions the conditions are
favorable they increase to astonishing numbers. These favoring
conditions are exceptional dryness and warmth. If two such
seasons follow each other in the native habitat of the locust they
are sure to migrate.

Their Spring History and Migration. — After they hatch out in the
spring it takes about seven weeks before they reach their full
growth. During this time they moult five different times, and
each time change slightly in color. Only at the last moult are full
wings acquired, the thorax flattened and the insect ceases to grow.
Where now they cover the ground in their native haunts from their
abundance the scanty vegetation is soon exhausted. It is now that
they manifest their peculiar instincts. They take short flights for
several weeks, apparently to test and strengthen their newly ac-
quired wings. The warm pleasant days with gentle winds are the
favorable peiiods for flight. When all is in readiness they rise
from eight to ten o'clock in the forenoon and move ofF with a
rapidity dependent on the wind, varying from three to fifteen miles
an hour. They do not move in broad sheets, but in columns like
fleecy clouds from one to five thousand feet thick. They some-
times continue their flight through clear, warm, moonlight nights,
but more generally come down between three and five o'clock to
feed. On the following day they continue their flight if the weather
is favorable. A change of wind or fall of temperature brings them
to the ground at any time. From their native habitat they move
mainly in an easterly, southeasterly, and southern direction.
Moving in this direction those that commence migrating from
Montana by the middle of July reach Nebraska and Kansas some
time in August or September. They do not always deposit their
eggs where they first light down. Frequently they remain from
one day to three weeks and then move farther on before egg laying-
is commenced.

The Numhers that Light Down is often enormous. In 1866 in
Cedar County, during Julv, they appeared in such numbers that
the sun was darkened. The limbs of trees bent down and broke
under their weight. It was exceedingly difficult for one to move
through the living mass. Others have had, and reported similar
experiences. It is true that such cases are extreme and exceptional,

138 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

and occur at long intervals over limited areas. It has been no un-
common thing, however, for them to be so abundant as to entirely
cover the ground.

Egg Laying. — The time for the commencement of egg laying
varies somewhat in different years and localities. Generally it
commences about the middle of August and continues to severe
frost, and lasts therefore from six to eight weeks. In 1876 the
locusts were laying eggs far into October. The female generally
lays three times, at intervals of from three days to three weeks.
Each egg mass contains from twenty to thirty-five eggs.

Place and Method of Egg Laying — The places for egg laying are
not uniformly the same. They seem to prefer ground that is high
and dry, and somewhat compact. Low lands, however, that are
•dry are much used for this purpose. Road sides are frequently
honeycombed with holes, but comparatively few egg 'masses are
found there. New breaking is generally fuller of eggs than any
other kind of ground. The number laid is often simply enormous.
I have often found sections of land where the eggs averaged from
ten to fourteen thousand, and in rare instances to upwards of twenty-
one thousand to the square foot. These enormous numbers are only
reached during years when the locust swarms are exceptionally
dense.

Manner of Egg Laying. — When the female is about to lay her
eggs she selects a spot and " forces a hole in the ground by means
of the two pairs of horny valves, which open and shut, at the tip
of her abdomen, and which from their peculiar structure are ad-
mirably fitted for the purpose. With the valves closed she pushes
the tips into the ground, and by a series of muscular efforts, and
the continued opening and shutting of the valves, she drills a hole
until in a few moments (the time varying with the nature of the
soil) the whole abdomen is buried. The abdomen stretches to its
utmost for this purpose, especially at the middle, and the hole is
generally a little curved and more or less oblique. Now with hind
legs hoisted straight above the back and the shanks hugging more
or less closely the thighs she commences ovipositing." (Riley.)
Before the eggs come out there exudes from the end of the body
a mucous matter \vhich fills the bottom of the hole and bathes the
valves. The eggs separately, by convulsive throbs, are placed in
order in the hole. The mucous matter binds all the eggs together.
When the locust is through with this process, she fills the upper

THE LOCUSTS. 139

end of the mass with the same mucous matter, and then shuts up
the hole carefully. This mucous after hardening is only pervious
to water under frequent changes of temperature and during long
wet seasons.

When severe frost comes the old die off rapidly and at the ap-
pearance of permanent cold weather they have all disappeared.

Hatching* — It often happens that during the long dry autumns
of Nebraska, great numbers of the earlier laid eggs hatch out and
soon perish with the cold of winter. Many eggs also become
segmented in autumn and whether they survive till spring in a
healthy condition is still with many a disputed question. My own
opinion, derived from the closest observation, is that all such come
out in the spring, if they come out at all, in a sickly condition and
soon perish. Sometimes, too, as happened in 1877, there is much
warm weather in January and February, during which great num-
bers hatch out that invariably perish by the subsequent cold weather.
During spring the great hatching months are March and April.
In these months cold always interrupts the process. This occurred
in the Spring of 1877? when there were many cold days and chilly
winds, and as a consequence hatching was not over till early June.

Departure of Locusts. — As already stated, a few days after the
last moult on favorable days they are disposed to migrate. No ex-
ception to this rule is known in the region of the plains. It is pos-
sible that where they are few in number in their native habitat they
do not always migrate, but even that is uncertain. In Nebraska,
Iowa, Dakota, Kansas and Missouri they are disposed to return to
their native regions. They therefore move mainly northward and
westward. Their instincts seem to force them to dryer and higher
regions, where they originated. Such was specially the case when
countless millions left the Stale in 1876. During 1877, ^e sPrmg
of which was rainy, cold and chilly, the greater part of those that
hatched out soon perished, and the few that survived seemed sickly
and demoralized. These survivors first mainly moved northward,
and then moved southward, and finally were seen to move in all
directions; often two columns, one above the other, moving in op-
posite directions. The greater part of this season's product of lo-
custs evidently ran out, and perished by too long a stay in a region
un adapted to them.

Destructiveness of Locusts. — When the migrating locusts make
their appearance in Nebraska, the cereal grains are already har-

140 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

vested. Wheat, oats and barley are safe. Corn and the gardens are
the victims, if they come before the former are sufficiently ripened
to resist their attacks, which is not always the case. A swarm of
locusts in July or August can ruin a field of corn in a few days, and
sometimes in a few hours. Often the fields are only partially de-
stroyed. Sometimes the silk and foliage is partially eaten off, and
the ends of the ears bared, so that the crops cannot mature. If
they leave at this stage of their proceedings, all is well, and if not,
their eggs are deposited and the wheat crop endangered during the
coming spring. The countless numbers that are hatched out, if the
spring is favorable to them, become exceedingly voracious. As
they soon commence to move by jumping in one direction, when
abundant, they are apt to devour everything in their path. This
continues until they are old enough to fly, when they depart for
other regions. Generally some corn can be saved in spring, and
late planting may entirely escape. Often the third planting of
corn during locust years yielded a fair crop. The cereal grains,
however, have in some places, and during some years, been largely
destroyed during the time between the hatching out and flight of
the locusts.

How to Combat and Destroy the Locusts. — No successful method has
yet been devised to destroy the locusts on their first appearance in
migrating swarms from the northwest. The injury, as already
stated, which they now do is to the corn crops and the gardens, and
sometimes to young growing fruit and forest trees. The eggs*
however, which are laid in autumn, have been frequently destroyed
by repeatedly harrowing the ground, breaking up the nests, and ex-
posing them to the action of rain and cold and birds. Hon. R. W.
Furnas, of Brownville, who first to my knowledge devised this
method, found it to be very successful. Plowing them under very
deep, also destroys great numbers. When they hatch out in spring
in destructive numbers, the most vigorous methods need to be em-
ployed. One of the most successful ways of destroying them is
the digging of ditches around fields across the path on which they
are moving. If the trenches are made from twelve to fourteen
inches deep, and still deeper holes dug every few rods in the trenches,
the young locusts first get into the trenches, then into the holes,
where, unable to get out, they can be destroyed by piling ground
on them. I have known many farmers to save their entire crops
in this way in the very midst of the most infected districts.

THE LOCUSTS. Ill

Still others have saved their crops by a system very generally in
use in the spring of 1877. Pans made of sheet iron, from five to
ten feet long, low in front and high behind and at the sides, with
cross partitions from front to rear, is the general plan of the ap-
paratus used. A little coal oil is placed in these pans, and
dragged over the fields by hand or horse power. The young
locusts jump into or over the pans, and even the fume's are fatal to
them. In this way I have known fourteen bushels to be captured
in one day by one man. The combination of these two plans —
ditching and coal oil pans — will save any farm in the spring from
the ravages of the brood hatched in that locality, if commenced in
time. Unfortunately, farmers too often simply look on until their
crops are partly destroyed, before anything is done to protect them-
selves. It requires energy and decision to do this, but when it is
properly commenced and persevered in, it is successful.

Nature's Method of Destroying Locusts. — Nature has placed limits
to the increase of the individuals of a species. When there is an
undue increase from exceptional favoring conditions, either natural
enemies soon proportionally increase or the need of food compels
migration, which often forces to unhealthy regions. This is the
case with the migrating locust. Its native habitat is a high, dry
region, where the rainfall is from ten to twenty inches a year. It
cannot long endure a combination of low altitudes and moisture,
combined with extreme and sudden changes of temperature.
Hence, the locust can never become localized in Nebraska. The
memorable spring of 1877 is a notable illustration of this fact. In
March and April immense numbers hatched out, and then followed
cold rains, with sudden alternations of extremes of temperature.
Countless millions of young locusts died. Many spots where the
ground seemed to be covered with them, none could be found in a
few days. Nothing often convinced me that death was the cause ot
their disappearance, until, getting down on my hands and knees
and examining the ground;with a huge magnifying glass, I found
their dead carcasses. 'The young brood just hatched out disap-
peared as if by magic from whole counties. The localities where
much damage was done were exceedingly few. In fact, the brood
was so impaired constitutionally that it fell an easy victim to the
extremes of a moist climate in a comparatively low altitude. I also
noticed, in previous locust years, that moisture accompanied by an
extremely hot or cold day was always fatal to many of them.

142 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY.

Invertebrate Enemies. — It is a law of nature that the undue devel-
opment of any animal is checked sooner or later by a like increase
of its natural enemies. Were it not for that law, the slowest breed-
ing species would soon overrun, to the exclusion of all other ani-
mals, its own special habitat.

Among locust egg destroyers, no insect equals in efficacy the An-
thomyia egg-parasite (Anthomyia angustifrous}. A few were noticed
in 1874, and by 1876 it destroyed about ten per cent of the eggs in
Nebraska, and Prof. Thomas reports an equal destruction in Kansas,,
Missouri, Iowa and Minnesota. He also remarks that " we never
dug for five minutes among the locust eggs, anywhere in our
travels during May, without finding this parasite, in various stages
of development." It is a small white magot, and is found in the
locust egg pod extracting the juices and leaving nothing but dry
dissolved shells. From this magot is developed a small gray two-
winged fly, about one-fourth of an inch long. The common flesh
fly, many species of Ground, Blister, Soldier and Dick beetles, also
prey on locust eggs.

After the locusts emerge from the eggs, their greatest insect enemy
is the Locust Mite (Trombidium locustarium}. It also preys on the
eggs. The parent mite lays from three to four hundred eggs, and
therefore increases at a prodigious rate. The young mite manages
to fasten itself on the locust, especially during and after rains, and
mostly lodges under the base of the wings. Such numbers are often
found lodged on single locusts as necessarily to produce death.
During locust flights, I have frequently seen hundreds fall to the
ground, which, on examination, proved to be partially destroyed by
these mites. Ground beetles, Asilus flies, Flesh flies, Digger
Wasps and Tachina flies, especially the latter, also feed on locusts
and destroy great numbers. Hair worms, Spiders, Soldier-bugs
and Dragon flies also prey on the locust.

Vertebrate Enemies. — Among vertebrates, no animals equal the
birds as destroyers of insects, and especially of locusts. The num-
bers of locusts which birds consume is simply incalculable. Many
species in locust years live entirely on them, and most do so par-
tially. Often each bird of a species captures several hundred during
each day. In fact, after many years' study of this subject, and after
dissecting more or less of several hundred species, I have been
forced to the conviction that even the gramnivorous birds cannot
be excluded from the list of locust enemies. The reader will find

THE LOCUSTS. 14S

the record of each case of dissection of over 200 species of our
birds, which I made during many years, in the report of the U. S.
Entomological Commission for 1877. It is clear to my mind that
few as yet appreciate the great and commanding importance of
protecting our birds. If this was properly done, few species of in-
sects would ever increase to destructive numbers. Unfortunately,,
the savage is still dominant in man, and many calling themselves
cultivated regard it sport to maim and kill innocent birds. Such a
course destroys the harmony of nature, and one of the consequences
is the devastations of insects.

Extent of Locust Invasions. — Unfortunately, the human mind
has a tendency to exaggeration. Owing to this, during every lo-
cust invasion, the damage done has been over-estimated. In 1874^
1876 and 1877, they did much damage, but by no means as much as
was reported. The drouth, and human indolence and carelessness,
did much more. I knew men during these years that never touched
their corn after it was planted, and of course, got none, as they did
not deserve any, who yet charged the locusts with destroying
their crops, though none had come within five miles of their home-
steads.

Sometimes there are many years between locust invasions. It
rarely occurs that the whole State suffers at once. While the
small visitations have been frequent, the destructive ones occurred
at long intervals and over comparatively small areas.

Future Locust Depredations. — One reason for the destructiveness
of locusts heretofore has been the small area in the thickest settle-
ments under cultivation. The locusts seemed to select the corn-
fields and gardens for their feeding grounds. When the area under
cultivation is trebled, the amount of damage which they can do
will be more than one-half less. Another more potent agency
against their increase and destructiveness is the increasing rainfall of
the State. We have already seen how the wet season of 1877 de-
stroyed the greater part of those that appeared that spring. Dur-
ing each coming decade the number of similar seasons will increase*
The instincts of the locust will also prompt it to remain away from
a region so hostile to its existence.

While, therefore, the presence of the locust in the trans-Missouri
region is extremely undesirable, it is by no means the pest that it
sometimes has been represented to be. Human energy and skill
can in a large measure counteract their injurious effects.

UNIVERSITY

144 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

MOLLUSKS.*

Though not directly connected with the main question of this
chapter, yet, for convenience, the following brief enumeration of
our moluscan fauna is given. There being no sea-coast, only land
and fresh water forms are native to the State. Of these, the air-
breathers are well represented. The Vitrianas, a subfamily closely
allied to the snails, are represented by seventeen species. Of the
snails proper (Helicince), there are thirty species, the most abundant
of which is the Spotted Snail (Helix alternata]. There have been
classified of the Pupinae twelve species, of Succiniae eight species,
of Zonitinse seven species, these last being distantly allied to the
preceding group. The fresh water shells are even more abundant than
the preceding land shells. Thus far, there have been found of these
thirteen species of Limnaea, eight species of Physa, two of Bullimus,
twelve of Planorbis, one of Segmentina, four of Ancyclus, two of
Valvata, three of Vinipera, three of Melantho, two of Amnicola,
two of Pomatiopsis and five Melanians. These fresh water shells
having but one valve in a spiral are often .all popularly designated
as water snails. But the most abundant of all our fresh water
shells are the so-called clams (Unios and Anadontas]. Of the Unios
there are at least sixty-seven species, of the Margaritanas two, and
of the thin-shelled, muddy-bottom loving Anadontas there have
been fourteen species found in the State. These are the numbers
that I have identified, but as I have examined only comparatively
small sections of our rivers, it cannot be possible that all the species
came in my way. Many more species must, therefore, be added to
our list. In fact, I have often waded in our rivers for miles with-
out finding a single shell, and then, coming upon a hard or solid
bottom of limestone, the bed appeared lined with Unios of many
species. Before we know what our rivers contain of our molluscan
fauna, they must be closely examined along their whole length, a
task too severe for any one investigator.

*For a specific list of our Land and Fresh Water Shells, the reader is referred to the
writer's Catalogue of the Land and Fresh Water Shells of Nebraska, published in Bulletin
3, Vol. III. of U. S. Geological Survey.

HEALTH FULNESS. 145

CHAPTliR XIV.

Healthfulness. — Reserve Forces, and Probable Future of the Race in
Nebraska.

IS Nebraska a healthy region? That is a question which is more
frequently asked than any other by many classes contemplating
removal to Nebraska. Among the special questions asked are:
Do fever and ague, dyspepsia, consumption, etc., exist here? No
spot on the globe is absolutely free from disease, but this State is
singularly exempt from its severe forms. Fever and ague are
rarely met with. The fact is that less malarial diseases exist here
than in any other western State. When they do occur it is owTing
to limited local causes, or extraordinary exposure, and they are
generally successfully treated by the simplest remedies. The bad
cases that have been met were invariably contracted elsewhere,
and came here in the hope of having the disease cured by our
climate. They never were disappointed if they here gave nature
a chance to exert its full health-making power on their bodies.
Every effect must have a cause, and the cause of this general
exemption from this class of diseases is probably found in the
peculiar climate and surface conditions of the State. The general
drainage of the State, as we have seen, is the best possible. Its
general slope is east and south, the southeastern corner being the
lowest. The rivers with the smaller streams that flow into them
have high banks, on top of which the flood plains begin, and extend
to a greater or less distance back to the bluffs where there is another
rise to the general plain above. The rivers themselves are gener-
ally comparatively rapid, and their flood plains are rarely a dead
level, but descend gradually in the direction of the main streams.
And although often the flood plain is slightly higher next to the
river than it is next to the bluffs, the water that tends to accumulate
there is carried off by the lateral tributaries that join the main
stream. As these smaller tributaries are met with every few miles,
and often on an average every mile, the drainage of even the
great majority of the bottom lands is complete.
10

146 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Besides these favoring conditions the soil is principally Loess and
Modified Drift and contains from sixty to eighty per cent, of sili-
cious matter, very finely comminuted, which readily permits all
\vater from rains and snows to percolate through it. Beneath the
Loess unmodified Drift occurs, and this being made up of sand,
pebbles and boulders, all the conditions for complete drainage are
completely supplied. Even the black, rich surface soil, so wonder-
ful for its fertility, contains silicious material in sufficient quantities
to produce good drainage. The consequence of such inclination of
the land and character of the soil and subsoil is that over large
areas in the State standing water is unknown. Indeed, many
citizens of the State, who have not traveled much, fancy that there
is no standing water within its boundaries. There are, however, a
few limited localities where swamps and bogs exist, such as a por-
tion of the Missouri bottom in Dixon and Burt counties, and on
small portions of the level prairies, in Clay, Webster, Fillmore and
Saline counties. Even here the general elevation of these counties,
and the constant movement of the winds seems to counteract
the conditions of the surface that favor malarial diseases. Not
only does the atmosphere seem to be constantly in motion, but is
also comparatively dry. In summer and autumn the prevailing-
winds are south and southwest. In winter the prevailing winds
are from the north and northwest. In spring the winds, as else-
where, are exceedingly variable, and seem to be nearly equally
divided, between north and northwest, and south and southwest.
Often in the spring the prevailing winds are from the northeast.
The air is always remarkably pure and generally clear. All these
are conditions that are unfavorable to- the production and propaga-
tion of miasmatic poisons.

An additional reason for the healthfulness of Nebraska might be
the presence of an unusual quantity of ozone in the atmosphere.
I merely suggest this as a partial explanation of this fact, as no
single cause, but many combined, produce the healthfulness of a
region. In the section on the Atmosplierc of Nebraska, I have
shown that the atmosphere of Nebraska is exceptionally full
of ozone, caused probably by its highly electric condition, and the
constant movement of electricity through dry air. As is well
known, ozone is found in the east in perceptible quantities only
after thunder storms, by which many suppose it to be produced.
As here during much of the time, before as well as after thundci

HEALTHFULNESS. 147.

showers, there is a perceptible quantity of ozone in the atmos-
phere, sufficient at least to respond to the Shcenbein test papers, it
must have some effect on health. That its effects are salutary,
especially in the destruction of malarial poisons, is the conviction
of the best medical authorities.

The bane of some otherwise favored localities in America, is
consumption. In Massachusetts, for instance, the vital statistics of
the United States show this to be one of the commonest causes of
death. Now, whatever maybe the cause, Nebraska has a singular
immunity from this and kindred diseases. During a residence of
nearly fifteen years in the State I have not known .of a single case
of consumption to be contracted in Nebraska. There may have
been such cases, but I have not been able to find any after diligent
inquiry, or even to hear of such.* Many indeed have died of this
disease in the State, but so far as I have learned the particulars of
their cases, they all came into the State in an advanced stage of the
disease, and sometimes here succumbed to it, only because o'f a want
of proper care and remedies. On the other hand, hundreds come
here with the disease who are cured by the climate alone. I know,
for example, one young lady who was sent here from Philadelphia,
apparently far gone with consumption, and reduced almost to skin
and bone, and too weak to walk. She immediately commenced to
improve, and in a year weighed one hundred and forty pounds. I
admit that this was an extreme case and that she had the best atten-
tion and care, but it shows at least the possibilities in this direction
of this climate with such adjuncts. This same lady was struck by
cupid, got married, and is now the mother of three healthy, rosy
children. Many more instances of a similar kind could be given.

I have known a great number of asthmatic subjects to come here,
and soon all symptoms of the disease disappeared. Some years ago
a young lady, a relative of my family, came to visit us from Penn-
sylvania. She had not been able, from difficulty of breathing, to
lie down in her old home for six months before she came here. The
first night in Nebraska she was able to lie down and sleep comfortably
till morning. In a few months she seemed perfectly restored, which
proved to be permanent for years after her return home. It is also
curious that horses with the heaves lose all traces of this disease when

*Since writing the above, I have learner! from Or. Livingston of Plattsmouth, an eminent
physician, that one ciixe of consumption contracted in .Nebraska came to his professional
knowledge. This, however., is exceptional.

148 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

brought to Nebraska. Bronchitis also here readily yields to the influ-
ence of the climate. Inflammation of the lungs seldom occurs, and
when contracted, readily yields to treatment. A volume could easily
be filled with cures wrought by this climate on this class of patients.
Of course the climate cannot perform miracles. No one should ex-
pect to be cured here who is in the third stage of pulmonary disease.
Sick ones who come for health should be sure to go where they can
get rest and be provided with home cemforts. When scarlet
fever and measles appear they are generally in their mild forms.
They rarely appear as epidemics. As to typhus and cerebro-spinal
fevers they are comparatively rare. Physicians of eminence assure
me that the mortality from these diseases in other States is compar-
atively much greater than here.

The chief complaint that I have heard from citizens of Nebraska
concerning its healthfulness is that it tends to produce rheumatism
and nervous disorders. On diligent inquiry, however, I have al-
most invariably found that the great body of those complaining in
this direction are such as have been insufficiently clothed during the
colds of winter, or have exposed themselves to an extent or indulged
in practices that would have produced these diseases in any climate.
The tendency always is, in a new State, among the first energetic
settlers, to great exposure. Many start for the West with barely
enough to reach their destination. Often little is produced the first
year on the homestead, and the old clothes are made to do duty the
second year. Until the new homestead is fairly under cultivation
(which sometimes takes several years), the new immigrant is often
put to great straits for groceries and clothing. Of course, when the
immigrant brings along money or stock to carry him over the first
year, it need not be so, but thus far the majority have not been of
this class. The circumstances, too, of a new country, stimulate to
great risks and enterprises. Men will often start off on long
journeys, through sparsely settled districts, ford streams, and in
many other ways subject themselves unnecessarily to flood and
storm. The consequence is that the principal diseases in some sec-
tions and seasons, have been rheumatism and neuralgia. I was once
laid up with rheumatism, but it was after working in the Elkhorn
River, with the water above my middle, when the thermometer
was fifteen degrees below zero, trying to extricate my team which
had broken through the ice. For this I could not blame the climate.
Turkish baths soon took the rheumatism out of me. And yet with

HEALTHFULNE8S. 149

all these circumstances favorable to contracting rheumatism, statis-
tics show that most of the States have more deaths from this cause
than Nebraska. Even California has double the number of deaths
from this cause.

It has sometimes been objected that the extremes of temperature
and of other conditions in Nebraska, must be unfavorable to health.
There is, however, a great difference between an extreme and a de-
structive climate. That Nebraska has no destructive climate, is at
once apparent, from the great variety of its vegetable forms and
the exuberance of its natural animal life. Extremes of climate up
to a certain point, while they may be injurious, and even destruc-
tive to the weak individuals of a species, rather benefit the normally
healthy and strong. There is a greater variety of vegetable and
animal life in the extreme climate of Nebraska than in the more
moderate and equatable climate of England. It even favors those
gradual changes of specific characters that advance the grade of
vegetable and animal life. Compare, for example, the extremes of
climate in Massachusetts and Nebraska. In the former, a warm,
mild day is frequently changed to a cold one by a moisture-laden
wind suddenly blowing from the northeast. These winds blowing
there from the cold currents of the Atlantic, that come from the
Labrador coast, chill the body to an extreme degree, and too often
sow the seeds of consumption and other diseases which are the bane
of that region. The character, therefore, of the northeast winds
renders the climate there a partially destructive one. The north-
east wind, on the other hand, in Nebraska, is dry in autumn and
winter, and even in spring and summer, until the June rains come.
And then they become laden with the moisture of the already
warmed up waters of the Missouri and the Platte. Our moist
winds here come from the Mexican Gulf, and are south and south-
west, rather than north, east and northeast, as in Massachusetts.
Our climate is therefore extreme, without being destructive. Its
health conditions are the reverse of those in the Eastern States.
Our extremes can be comparable to the Turkish bath, which stimu-
lates into activity the functions of the body.

Nearly everyone who comes into the State feels a general quick-
ening and elasticity of spirits. The appetite and digestion improve
wonderfully. Mind and body are lifted up. All this occurs even
with the execrably prepared food eaten in the most of the rural dis-
tricts. For in most of the rural districts, hot biscuit, green with

150 • PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

soda, is still the form of bread usually eaten. Now this improve-
ment in physical and mental condition cannot arise simply from
change of locality. It must originate from our peculiarities of
climate. I have myself felt in this State as I have never felt it
elsewhere, especially when camping out, faraway from settlements,
and alcne with nature and God, how luxurious existence was, and
how pleasant life was intended to be. One needs but to go through
the fever and ague stricken districts of other States, and then pass
through the rural districts of Nebraska, to notice the contrasts be-
tween the sallow complexions found in the former region, and the
hue of health and glow of spirits found here.

Owing to these facts, Nebraska must sooner or later become a
health resort. In addition to the health producing properties of
the climate, there are in various sections of the State mineral
\vaters of high medicinal value. One of these is the artesian well
on the Government square in Lincoln. It throws up a strong
column of water from a depth of a thousand feet. It is used in
two bathing establishments in the city. In the one at the Com-
mercial Hotel, besides many others, over twelve hundred Turkish
baths were given during the last (the first after opening) year.
Some remarkable cures have already been performed here, es-
pecially on rheumatic and neuralgic patients: This water is also
believe<J to be specific in many cases of dyspepsia, constipation,
incipient scrofula, skin and kidney diseases. The water is strongly
aperient.

The following substances I have obtained in making qualitative
tests of the water. As the examination has not been completed,
the results are only proximate:

Chloride of sodium (common salt), oxide and peroxide of iron,
iron stilphuret, magnesia sulphate, bicarbonate of magnesia, bicar-
bonate of lime, sulphate of lime, sulphate of soda, sulphate of pot-
ash, oxide of manganese, etc.

There are other springs in the State containing various forms of
sulphur, iron, magnesia, soda and lime. There is one, remarkable
for its size and purity, near Curlew, in Dixon County. Unfortun-
ately, our medicinal springs have not yet been systematically ex-
plored and examined, and until that is done, we cannot even approx-
imate to their number and general quality, except in the case of the
artesian well in Lincoln.

HEALTHFULXESS. 151

RESERVE AND Now WASTED FORCES IN NEBRASKA.

Owing to the almost constant movements of the atmosphere it
can be much more extensively employed as a motive power than
has yet been attempted. Wind mills are in general use now for
pumping water and for motive power where little force is required.
That it has capacity to do much more than this is evident when we
formulate its force. A wind, for example, of three miles an hour
moves 4.40 feet per second, and produces a pressure of about thirty-
eight pounds for every square foot directly exposed to it. But
winds that constitute a stiff breeze, traveling at the rate of twenty-
five miles an hour, are not uncommon in Nebraska. This rate of
motion equals 39.67 feet per second and produces a pressure of
about 2,641 pounds for every square foot exposed to its action-
Between these two velocities lie the movements of winds that could
be depended on to propel machinery. Now, remembering that the
movement of the winds is almost constant, and is felt in all situa-
tions, the amount of its wasted force is seen to be prodigious. Its
use already, all over the west on farms and railroad stations for
pumping water is a prophecy of its far more extensive employment
as a propelling agent in the near future. Mechanical ingenuity
will contrive a method by which the effect of the irregularity of the
winds can be better overcome. The wind mills now used are al-
ready immeasurably better than those contrived only a few years
ago. This improvement no doubt will continue until, like water in
a mill dam, the wind itself can be stored up for future use. The'
mechanical engineer is already familiar with similar contrivances.
Its intermittant character cannot always be an obstacle to its exten-
sive use for driving machinery. It has one prime recommendation.
It is cheap. Each year will therefore see a great multiplication of
them.

A still greater source of force and energy and the the fountain of
all the complicated'movements on the earth is the sun. All the ex-
hibitions of force, organic and inorganic, chemical or physical, the
production of winds, currents, rainfall, the intricate causes that
operate to produce varieties of climate — all these are dependent on
solar radiation. Potiillet calculated that the earth received every
minute from the sun 2,247 billion units of heat, which quantity, if
transformed into mechanical force, "would raise 2,247 billions x 774
pounds to the height of ore foot."

152 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

On the ocean alone " the sun raises during every minute an aver-
age of not less than 2,000,000,000 tons of water to a height of three
and a half miles — the mean altitude of the clouds." In other
words, to raise this quantity of water to the height of three and a
half miles per minute, would require the continued exercise of the
force of 2,757,000,000,000 horses per minute.

Here then is a power enormous beyond conception. Now such
engineers as Ericson, have announced the opinion that an engine
run by solar heat is practicable. He has even constructed an engine
that gives uniformly a speed of 240 revolutions per minute, and at
this rate uses up only a part of the steam produced by his solar
generator. His machine includes a concentrating apparatus by
means of which the feeble intensity of the sun's rays is increased to
the degree that will answer to produce steam at a working pressure.
He has also shown that such " a concentrating apparatus will
abstract in all latitudes between 45° North and 45° South at least
three and a half heat units for every square foot presented vertically
to the sun's rays." " With one hundred square feet of surface,
eight and two-tenths horse power would be developed during nine
hours between the above latitudes." In the latitude of Nebraska it
could be used for at least ten hours on each day of sunshine.

Monchat has advanced even farther than Ericson, and exhibited
a solar engine at the Paris exhibition that attracted the attention of
engineers from all lands. It received one of the medals of the ex-
hibition.

" The time will come," says Ericson, "when Europe must stop
her mills and factories for want of coal. Upper Egypt, then, with
her never-ceasing sun-power, will invite the European manufacturer
to remove his machinery and erect his mills on the firm ground
along the sides of the alluvial plain of the Nile, where sufficient
power can be obtained to enable him to run more spindles than a
hundred Manchesters." Now it is true that the coal fields of the
United States will not be exhausted for many thousand years,
but the transportation of coal is costly, and there is no reason, if solar
engines are possible, why the sections that are adapted to them
should not use them, especially if their cost is much less than those
run with coal.

Now then, in Nebraska, as if it was a region specially reserved
for the exhibition of the adaptability of the solar engine to the uses
of civilization, there is a remarkable amount of .sunshine. As we

HEALTHFULNESS. 153

have seen, even most of the rainfall occurs at night. Only during
portions of June and July, and occasionally the last weeks in May,
are there any continuous rainy or cloudy days. During the re-
mainder of the year, the sky is remarkably clear. All the stupen-
dous sun force that is here exhibited is now wasted, except the
minute portion that is used for the processes of organic life and the
production of the winds and rains. These wasted energies must,
in the nature of things, hereafter be utilized. Some time in the fu-
ture, the manufacturing establishments of the East can be run here
without coal or water power. Probably the East, because of its
murky skies, can never change its motive power. Coal and water
power will always be in demand there. Here the now wasted en-
ergies of the sun will be utilized to produce the motive power need-
ful to manufacture the cotton, woolen and other fabrics which a
population of many millions will consume.

PROBABLE FUTURE OF THE RACE IN NEBRASKA.

This question often suggests itself in a newly settled country;
what kind of an abode is this for humanity ? Will the race here
go into decay, remain stationary, or advance? It is taken for
granted that that people is the most advanced where there is the
greatest happiness of the greatest number. When the causes that
produce a great people are sought, we invariably find that they are
complex. Among them, however, we always find some of the fol-
lowing: Good government, good climate, fertile soil and a good
geographical position. Nebraska possesses all of these, as we have
seen by the preceding discussions, in an eminent degree. That
environment helps greatly to make character is now universally
admitted. The Englishman of New England, the Dutchman of
New York, and the German of Pennsylvania are all exceedingly
different from their ancestors of two centuries ago, and from their
distant kinsmen in Europe at the present day. The new world
with its new conditions has made a new order of men. Wherever
there is freedom character is multiform. In the older States the
families that live on the ridges, on naturally barren soil, are inferior
in culture and social life to those that live in the fertile valleys.
The latter occupy lands that yield them a better return, more
wealth, and as a consequence there is more time for study, more
means for travel, and for the cultivation of the amenities of life.
It requires more than mere physical labor to better the conditions

154 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

of a people — it takes money, leisure, incentives to study, and good
climatic conditions. The mass of those communities that have been
most distinguished for a high civilization, and for leading the
thought of the world, have occupied regions highly favored by
nature. Witness for example, Mesopotamia, Palestine, Egypt,
Hindoostan, Greece, Italy, etc. As already observed Nebraska is
the peer in many particulars of the best of these regions. It has
no sea coast, but its soil is one of the best, easiest worked and most
lasting in the world. It has no lofty mountains, but it has a variety
of landscape which for quiet beauty is unequaled. Its atmosphere
is exceptionally clear and pure, and the extremes of temperature
are only such as are most promotive of good health and energy of
character. While there are no great lakes, there is a superabun-
dance of fresh water in creeks, river, springs, and rills. Its health
conditions never lead to stolidity, but to intellectual activity.

There has not yet been time for this climate to exercise its full
influence on the people. That it will, in a marked and happy way,
affect the people in the course of time, is as certain as any other
fact in nature. The true Nebraskian does not yet exist, because
even if born here he is yet too much affected by entailed peculiari-
ties. And the great body of those that are living here were born
and married in the east. Our skies, rivers, soils, surroundings are
all moulding the people, but they have not had time to perfect the
work. Look for example at the type of people that the States
bordering on the upper Mississippi have produced. The true type
of American character is no longer the east, but the west. And
this is true because while in the east there is more wealth and
outside polish, in the west there is more originality, more inde-
pendence in manners and opinions, more freedom from restraint
and more sincerity. The west has already so affected the life of
the people that a young man coming here from the east
will be more ambitious, more active, more successful, more
courageous, and more of a man than if he had remained in
his native State. Absence from the sea-board does not lessen
but rather increases western energy. The railroad cultivates
the mind, requires as high an order of character, to say the
least, as the sea. As high an order of ability is needed to work
a railroad train as to manage a ship. A brakesman in character is
more than the peer of the sailor. The west is checkered with
railroads which make the people sociable, as well as carry their

HEALTHFULNESS. 155

products to distant regions. And if, as some claim, there is less
devotion to hard physical labor, there is, on the whole, more
reading, more thinking, more intelligence.

But the Missouri Valley is greatly different from the Mississippi.
In its upper portions at least, there are still clearer skies, a dryer
atmosphere, more freedom from malaria, and is more elevated.
Here the American character is subject'ed to new influences and
will be still farther specialized, and will necessarily reach a still
higher stage.

What then may we legitimately expect of the people in Nebraska
in the future? We have a right to expect that our school system
will reach the highest possible stage of advancement — that the
great mass of the people will become remarkable for their intellec-
tual brightness and quickness. Along with this mental develop-
ment and synchronizing with it, there will be developed a healthy
vigorous and beautiful race of men and women. Art culture will
then receive the attention which it deserves. Music, painting, and
sculpture will be cherished and cultivated for their own sake. The
marvelous richness of our soils will give a true and lasting basis for
prosperity and wealth. For be it remembered that agriculture in
all its branches, endures the tests of time better than any other
industry. It is also the best school of virtue for a nation. Happy
the children that are trained to industry on a farm. More men and
women of high character and endowments come from the farm,
than from any other station. It is nearest to the heart of nature and
nature's God. Though yet in its infancy, all these agencies for the
prosperity and well-being of Nebraska are steadily at work, and in
the fullness of time will blossom into fullfilment of its early promise.

PART SECOND.— GEOLOGY.

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PART SECOND.— GEOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.

CARBONIFEROUS AGE IN NEBRASKA.

Preceding Conditions. — Carboniferous Age Proper. — Age of the Nebraska
Rocks. — 4 Different Opinion. — Section at Nebraska City. — Coal Features of
the Carboniferous Age in Nebraska. — Vegetation of the Coal Age. — Animal
Life of the Coal Age. — Climate of the Coal Age. — Permian Age. — Its Tran-
sition Character. — Character of the Permian Rocks.

PRECEDING CONDITIONS.

IT does not enter into the plan of this work to treat of the
early condition of the globe, or even to discuss the earlier
periods of Palaeozoic times. Suffice it to say that our globe
was once companion star to the sun, and that after it had cooled
down sufficiently, the oceans were at first probably universal.
Then came a nameless period when lofty uplands were formed
towards the far north that supplied the materials for the old sea
bottoms that were afterwards uplifted . and became known as the
Archaeon highlands of Canada and the United States. The two-
well marked divisions of these old deposits are known as Lau-
rentian and Huronian rocks. As the rocks of these ages still left
in Canada are forty thousand feet thick, and at least as extensive in
the Rocky Mountains and the Sierras, and still greater in Bohemia
and Bavaria, after being subjected to numberless ages of erosion,
the time represented by their deposition was greater, probably, than
the whole of geological history since their close. So far as we now
know, during all this immense age there was no dry land in Ne-
braska.

Then followed what the geologists call Palaeozoic times, because

of the antique or old life form of all the animals and plants in the

old world. The earlier portions are known as the Silurian ages,

during which invertebrate life was dominant, and the continent was

162 GEOLOGY.

growing and extending southward from its Archaeon nucleus. The
next age, called often the age of fishes, and also known as the De-
vonian, followed, but neither in this or in the preceding Silurian
was any dry land in Nebraska. By the close of this age, however,
the continent in its southern extension had reached the south line
of what is now New York, and many islands also existed still
farther south, and in some places west. The Appalachian region
seemed to have been rich in low islands, covered with a colossal
vegetation. The sub carboniferoos period, which had such a re-
markable development in some sections of Illinois, Kentucky, Iowa
and Missouri, and which was the stage preparatory to the carbon-
iferous period proper, is not represented by any known deposits in
Nebraska.* Even the millstone grit so common in the East, under
the coal, has not here been found. Whether it exists at all in this
region can only be ascertained when borings or shafts reach its
geological equivalent. We come now to

The Carboniferous Age Ptoper. — This is a geological age of the
most absorbing interest, because of the general character of the
time, and because during its progress the first dry land appeared in
Nebraska. The carboniferous age was one of the most wonderful
in all the history of the globe, for during its progress the thickest,
most extensive and most valuable of all the coal beds were formed.
It has excited the most profound interest alike of the political econ-
omist, the statesman, the chemist and the geologist.

To understand the probable history of geological events in Ne-
braska during this period, let us look at the oldest coal beds that
are nearest to us. These are the beds along the Des Moines River
and some of its tributaries extending westward within from seventy-
five to one hundred miles of the Missouri. The coal here, which
Dr. White regards as of Lower Carboniferous age, is from one to
seven feet in thickness. Worthen first, and then Dr. White to a
much greater extent, investigated these beds. Meek also carefully
re-examined them. Subsequently I passed over the same region,
attempting as Meek and White had done before me, to estimate the
thickness of the rocks that lapped over the coal bearing strata as
far west as the farther or Nebraska shore of the Missouri. Meek's
objective point was Nebraska City, and mine was Plattsmouth. I
shall therefore use Meek's observations to supplement my own.

*The opinion of Marcou and Geinitz (Bulleton Geological Society of France, XXL, etc.,
New Series), that some of our Nebraska rocks are sub-carboniferous, was shown long ago, by
Meek, to be a mistake.

CARBONIFEROUS AGE. 163

At and near Des Moines there is no millstone grit such as is
found at this horizon farther east, and therefore the lower coal beds
rest, as White and Meek have observed, on the sub-carboniferous
rocks. • West of the Des Moines River, as also shown by these ge-
ologists, the coal measures belong to a higher geological horizon,
and most probably to the middle series, though there is no serious
palasontological or physical break between these and the lower
rocks of this age. On going southwestward from the Des Moines,
in the deep valley of Middle River, which lies about two hundred
and fifty feet below the plain, the rocks here dipping slightly to-
wards the southwest. Here the increasing thickness of the upper
coal measure beds can be distinctly seen. The upper bed of the
middle series is last seen at Winterset, at the very bottom of the
valley, and all the beds above for two hundred and fifty feet belong
to the still higher series, consisting largely of heavy beds of light
yellow limestone, sandy micaceous shale, black laminated shale,
blue, drab and reddish clays, and occasionally a few inches of im-
pure coal. In these upper beds are found almost identically the
same fossils as on the Nebraska side of the Missouri. Amon<r

these is the curious fossil {Fusilina cylindrical), which is so often
mistaken for fossil rice or wTheat. Twenty-three additional fossils
are characteristic of these two sections. On leaving this valley, no
more exposures of the middle series are visible, the inclination of
the strata towards the southwest taking these beds below the deepest
eroded valleys. At various points, however, between this place and
the Missouri, opposite Plattsmouth, the upper beds are exposed, and
can be readily identified by their contained fossils. Dr. White, also,
who made a critical examination of the whole region, is confident
that he can identify the upper members of the Winterset exposures
in the Missouri bluffs on the Iowa side between Nebraska City and
Plattsmouth. However that may be, there is no doubt, judging
from the evidence of fossils, and the physical character of the rocks,
that the series on both sides of the Missouri, between the south line
of the State and Omaha, belongs to the upper series of the coal
measures. According to Dr. White, the nearest visible series of the
middle coal measures to the Missouri is at a point in Iowa nearly
due east from Blair, at a distance of about sixtv miles. Having

*/ o

also myself gone over and carefully examined these exposures, the
conviction was forced on me that White and Meek are proximately
correct in their determinations of the horizons of these rocks. It is
therefore definitely established that on the Nebraska side, as far as

164

GEOLOGY.

the coal measures extend from above Omaha, near old Fort Cal-
houn, to the southeast corner of the State, the rocks are of Upper
Carboniferous Age.

A Different Opinion. — In 1866 Prof. Geinitz, of Dresden, made a
report on carboniferous fossils which were collected in Nebraska
mainly by Prof. Marcou, in which he expressed the conviction that
the rocks along the Missouri belong in part to the Lower Car-
boniferous and in part to the Permian. He evidently made this-
mistake, as Meek has shown, by examining an imperfect series-
of fossils, and by a lack of acquaintance with the range of species
in the Palasozoic of this country.* In order to exhibit the facts on
which he bases these references the following section is given as-
taken at Nebraska City.

Section Exposed at Nebraska City Landing.

NATURE OF STRATA.

Thickness.

Loess deposit, Grayish yellow 00 feet.

D. Yellowish-gray micaceous, soft sandstone, laminated, j
sometimes ripple-marked, except about 14 inches of .-Dint-
times hard and compact stone at bottom, with fragments
of plants 10 feet.

, __

C. Drab, ash, and lead-colored, and brownish clays and
near the middle a ten inch, hard bluish-gray, clayey,
limey layer, becoming rusty on exposure. Fossils nu-
merous ; 30 feet.

B. Several beds of hard light grayish, and yellowish lime j
stone in layers of from five to twenty inches thick, with '
soft, marly clay seams and partings. Fossils numerous
especially fusilina, etc 13 feet.

A. («) Lead — grayish and greenish clay, four feet.

(A) Reddish brown ferruginous, slightly gritty, indu-
rated clay, four feet expo>ed above high water j 8 feet.

: : 2 J _

Total below drift 70 feet.

* See Meek's report iu " Hayden's Final Report on Geological Survey of Nebraska," p. S3.
t This section i* slightly different from that of Meek aud Marcou. because taken a little
below theirt*.

CARBONIFEROUS AGE. 165

Now the thirty fossils in bed 3, and the sixty-six in bed B, of this
section are all of them in the Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri coal
fields characteristic of the Upper Carboniferous and not of the
Permian, though some of the genera are known to pass into it.
They cannot therefore be Permian, as Marco u and Geinitz supposed.
The beds, on the other hand, at Bellevue and Omaha which they re-
ferred to the Sub-carboniferous, contained the characteristic organic
forms that characterize the true Upper Carboniferous everywhere
else in this country. These distinguished foreign geologists at-
.tempted to generalize on American rocks by the principles that
interpret aright European geology, and hence they were led into a
blunder. Here, almost universally the vertical range of species is
much greater than in Europe. American geology must be studied
independently of European systems, or at least cannot be interpreted
by them.

Coal. — Thus far no thick workable beds of Coal have been found
in our carboniferous measures. The question rises whether there
is any probability of any valuable beds being found anywhere in
the State. Truth compels the admission that such a result is un-
certain and even doubtful.

Mr. Broadhead, one of the State Geologists of Missouri, has long
since reached that conclusion with reference to the Upper Carbon-
iferous measures of that State, where, owing to changes of level and
numerous natural exposures a great thickness of these beds had
early and easily been examined by him. He gives sections through
these rocks extending to a depth of nearly two thousand feet before
reaching coal two and a half feet thick, all above being only from
a few inches to two feet in thickness. Dr. White's numerous sec-
tions observed in many places west of Winterset to the Missouri
show clearly that the upper series thicken westward and south-
westward, and not by the super-position of newer beds, but simply
by the thickening of those seen at that place. At a few places a
considerable thickness of these upper beds have also been examined
in Nebraska along the Missouri, and with the same result as in
Missouri and Iowa. Mr. Croxton, as early as 1865, made an arte-
sian boring near Nebraska City, to the depth of three hundred and
forty-four feet. Shales, limestones, micaceous sandstones and cal-
careous sandstones constituted the materials passed through, but no
indications of coal were met until at the depth of one hundred and
eighty-nine feet, a bed fifteen inches thick was struck. None was

166 GEOLOGY.

struck after that. An artesian boring has also recently been made
near the west end of the Union Pacific Railroad bridge at Omaha,
to a depth of seven hundred and fifty feet. This point, which is the
lowest yet reached along the river in Nebraska, by borings, was-
struck without encountering any beds of coal. For this depth
therefore these upper measures, at least at this place are barren.
At Lincoln, on the public square, the artesian boring was put down
to the depth of a trifle over a thousand feet. A little before this
point was reached the contractor, Mr. Eaton, reported going
through a thirty inch bed of coal. As Lincoln is at least one hun-
dred and eight feet above the level of Omaha, it is clear that the
boring of the Union Pacific well at that place did not reach the
horizon of the coal bed reported by Mr. Eaton. This bed of coal
is probably in the lower coal measures and is the geological equi-
valent of the Des Moines beds. These Des Moines coal beds or
their equivalent would therefore be struck at Plattsmouth some-
where between eight hundred and one thousand feet below the
surface. According to my own calculations made in traversing the
space between Des Moines and the Missouri, it would be about
nine hundred feet. Prof. Meek believed that Omaha, where the
upper coal measures are exposed at a lower horizon, borings would
strike the geological equivalent of the Des Moines beds under one
thousand feet, and at still greater depth further down the river..
Owing to the facts developed by the artesian boring at Lincoln, it
is probable that all these estimates were too high and that these
Des Moines coal beds or their equivalents would be reached
between Plattsmouth and Omaha at a depth of between eight and
nine hundred feet.

The question then returns whether there are or can be no good
workable beds of coal anywhere in these Upper Measures. The
old Nuckolls coal bed, worked near Rulo, in Pawnee County, in
Otoe County, and at several places in Cass and Johnson counties,,
ranges from eight to eighteen inches in thickness, and in places is a
fair article of coal. The bed at Aspinwall, which is from twenty-
two to twenty-four inches thick, is not certainly its geological equiv-
alent. The same remark applies to a comparatively pure bed of
light coal, from eighteen inches to two feet in thickness, on the In-
dian Reservation south of Rulo, near the State line. But no beds
thicker than these have yet been found in these Upper coal measures,
and as we have seen, the probabilities are against their existence.

CARBONIFEROUS AGE. 167

If extensive basins of coal existed in them they probably would
have been observed in Missouri, where they have been more thor-
oughly explored. With the Lower Coal Measures the case stands
different. These are the coal bearing measures in Iowa and Mis-
souri, and at least in one place (Lincoln), where they have been
penetrated, a respectable coal bed was reported. All the chances
then are in favor of finding large workable beds at this horizon.
This is a question that should speedily be settled at public expense.
If there are workable beds, the State should have the benefit of it as-
soon as possible. An artesian boring within six miles of the Platte
River, near its mouth, to a depth of one thousand feet; another near
Nebraska City and one near Rulo, would settle this question*.

Features of the Carboniferous Age in Nebraska. — All the
students of geology admit that the Carboniferous age was a very
long one — an age whose length could not be measured by thous-
ands, but by millions of years. During the greater part of this
great age, Nebraska was occupied by an arm of the ocean. Some-
times for long periods this sea was turbulent, as is indicated by the
rocks, which so generally change their character within a few
miles. A sand rock often, when followed for a few miles, changes
to a shale, then to indurated variously colored clays, and then a con-
glomerate. Owing to this feature, the exact equivalent of the rocks
at widely different stations is hard to distinguish, except -along river
bluffs, where the strata are exposed for long distances. The lime-
stones having been formed in deep water, are more constant in
character over extensive areas, but even these sometimes exhibit
sudden transition characters. They present various forms and col-
ors, such as silicates of lime and magnesia, nearly pure limestone,
yellow, gray and white limestone, and shaly, rotten limestone.
Many of the shales and conglomerates exhibit the character of off-
shore deposits. If future borings brings to light beds of coal in the
lower coal measures, it will be proof of the existence at that time
of dry land near by, and of a boggy, swampy condition on the sites
where they are now found. As one foot of bituminous coal rep-
resents from nine to eleven feet of original peat, and many centuries
are required for the formation of such an amount of vegetable
matter, and as these beds represent only an infinitesimal amount of
the time during which the events of this age were in progress, it is

*See on the subject of this section, Meek's Report in the Hayden Surveys.

168 GEOLOGY.

additional proof that its length was beyond all calculation. But
during its progress, deep seas and shallow seas, quiet seas and tur-
bulent seas, and vast bogs and swamps near to slightly elevated
land masses, in turn predominated.

Vegetation. — The vegetation of the Carboniferous age was re-
markable for its luxuriance and its antique form. In organization
it was below the high modern types, but many of its forms were
exquisitely beautiful, synthetic and complex.

The conifers that then existed, and which were the most advanced
in type of all the vegetable forms, flourished mainly on the uplands.
The most of them were closely related to Araucarian pines, which
still flourish in low latitudes and mainly south of the equator. The
fern family, of which a few diminutive representatives still linger
among us, culminated in that age, many species growing to the
dimensions of trees, and with a gracefulness and beauty unsur-
passed by any vegetable form at the present day. Many hundreds
of species flourished over the -forming coal fields of the west. In
fact, one-half of the coal plants were probably ferns. The calamites
of that day, which grew to tree size, were also abundant. The
scouring rushes (Equtsetae), which seldom reach over one or two
feet in height, are their modern representatives. Two great orders,,
more abundant in the number of individuals than any others, the
Lepidodendrids and Sigillaria are no longer in existence. They,
along with the calamites, formed a large part of the material of the
coal. The Lepidodendrids had a dense bark, underneath which
was a dense mass of loose tissue, through the centre of which ran
a small cylinder with a distinct pith. Such a structure unfitted it
For anything like bearing timber, but adapted it most admirably,
when flattened down, for flakes of coal. The sigillarids, with
" trunks fluted like Corinthian columns," and ornamented with seal-
like impressions in vertical ranks, and " with few large branches
and long needle-like, tapering leaves," were unfitted for anything
except to minister to the beautiful and to make coal. It is remark-
able that in that distant past, long ages before man appeared, the
jungles and forests of the globe were as remarkable for beautiful
forms as the woodlands of to-day. The Deity, however, was there
to enjoy it.

Animal Life. — Animal life during this age was abundant, though,
as in the vegetable kingdom, the forms were mostly antiquated.
One of the most abundant of all in individuals was the curious little

CARBONIFEROUS AGE. 169

animal, already referred to, and which is frequently called fossil
wheat or rice. It is, however, a lowly animal, classed with the
protozoans, and known a&Fusilina cylindrica. The shell is small,
half cylindrical and bluntly pointed at the end, and averaging about
the .size of a grain of rice. Its shell is composed of seven or eight
closely coiled whorls. Unlike its condition in Europe, it here
ranges all through the coal measures. It is questionable whether
it is anywhere in America as abundant as it is here in Nebraska.
In Johnson County in many places around Tecumseh, it constitutes
almost the entire fabric of many rocks, often from four to ten feet
in thickness. It is often present in enormous numbers in shale,
and where it is decomposed, hundreds can be picked up, already by
the decomposition of the matrix lying loose and cleansed ready to
be placed in a cabinet. All along the carboniferous exposures in
Nebraska, it is abundant, in limestone, sand sto-ne and shale. The
massive compact limestone from Stout's quarry, on the north side
of the Platte, at South Bend, contains immense numbers of these
-Fusilina, which gives the rock great beauty when polished.

Corals, which are now confined to low latitudes, were abundant
in Nebraska during Carboniferous times. Five species have thus
far been identified here. The most characteristic grew into a
curious form remotely resembling a short ram's horn. It is known
by the name of Campophyllum torquium. A loose bed of shale in
the bluffs at Rock Bluffs contains an immense number of them.

The Crinoids were represented by seven species at least, and
some of them existed in great numbers. While the heads of these
sea lilies, as they are sometimes called, are only occasionally found,
owing no doubt to their original fragile character, their screw-like
stems are abundant in all the rocks.

As elsewhere during Carboniferous times molluscan life flourished
here. The Polyzoa were represented by eight, and the Branchi-
opods by twenty six species, of which eight were Producti.*
Among these one known as Productus Semireti(ulatus is quite large
and was one of the most abundant animals in the^e old Carbon-
iferous seas. Those known as P. longispinus, P. prattenianus, and
P. Nebraskensis are also abundant. Two species of thin flat shells
called chonetes granulifera and C. glabra, make up the almost entire
mass of some limestone rock at Plattsmouth and other places along
the Missouri. No shell is perhaps so widely dispersed as the one

*The Producti are now mostly classed with the Articulata.

1 70 GEOLOGY.

called Athyrus subtilita. It occurs in almost every layer of the
Carboniferous rocks and of many sizes. Among the Spirifers
the most abundant and beautiful is 6". cameratus. Lamellibranchs
(two valved shells with gills in laminae on the sides) were repre-
sented in Nebraska during this age by at least forty species. The
Gasteropods (one valved, like snails. Belly creepers) were
abundant in individuals and species, not less than eighteen forms
having thus far been identified. Of chambered shells there was
one strait species {Orthoceras cribrosum) and two coiled ones,
{Nautilus occidentals and N. ponderosd).

Of the five species of Crustaceans found fossil in these rocks
three are trilobites of the genus Phillipsia.

Vertebrate life so far as is now known was represented here in
Carboniferous times principally by fishes, of which eight species
have been described by Orestes St. John. Many more have been
found which have not yet been identified.

Climate. — The vegetable and animal life of the Carboniferous
Age indicates that its climate was not subject to extremes, at least
during the epochs when the rocks were deposited, whatever it may
have been during the transition intervals. It was neither intensely
hot nor cold. It was just such a climate as a constantly murky,
cloudy atmosphere, over semi-continental levels and flats would
naturally produce.* Tyndall has shown that a slight addition to
our atmosphere of carbonic dioxide would raise its mean tempera-
ture many degrees. If our atmosphere then, at that time, as many
geologists believe, contained the greater part of the coal deposits
of the globe in the form of carbonic dioxide gas, it would have
made it a huge hot house. This would account for the uniformly
warm temperature that then existed far into the arctic regions.

CLOSE OF THE CARBONIFKROUS AGE.

In the eastern portion of the continent the Carboniferous Age
was evidently closed by the Appalachian revolution. This great
uplift was evidently continental in character, the level of the land
on each side being raised along with it. This was no sudden con-
vulsion. The Appalachians commenced to rise long before the
close of the age and during its progress a point was reached when
the old conditions were passed and new ones inaugurated. Vege-

*The theory that the Coal Age was produced by a period of high eccentricity of the earth'*
orbit, during times similar to the subsequent glacial ages is best discussed in CrolPs work o»
" Climate and Time."

CARBONIFEROUS AGE. 171

table and animal life partook of the change and the whole move-
ment inaugurated or constituted

THE PERMIAN AGE.

This age was the last volume in the history of Palaeozoic life.
The great Appalachian revolution was only partially completed,
for the upward movement still continued. The peculiarities of the
coal age had ceased, but its impress was left on Permian times.
While the upward movement was advancing towards completion,
at many places, especially in Europe and Asia, around the borders
of the old coal fields, depressions still exi.-ted for extensive seas
which received the sediments that entombed and preserved the or-
ganic remains of the age. Hence we have records of the earlier
part of the age, but none of its latter portion, because the conti-
nents reached such an elevation that all the seas were drained, and
no place was left to stow away the debris and worn out life of the
period. The process of uplifting, therefore, was continued until
the continent was raised far above its present level, during which
none of its memorials could be preserved. The whole latter por-
tion, therefore, of the Permian, a portion of time incalculably long,
is a lost interval in geological history. For the first time in geo-
logical history the conditions were favorable for the complete
drainage of the continent. Lofty mountains produced great rivers
and steep inclinations towards the sea. Clear skies, took the place of
murky ones in the previous age. The seasons gradually became
more changeable and varied. The old vegetable and animal life
was not adapted to these conditions and hence it had. to change or
perish. As a matter of fact during this last interval occurred those
mighty changes in the fauna and flora of the globe which trans-
formed the Palaeozoic life into the middle or Mesozoic world.

In the United States the Permian deposits occur mainly in Kan-
sas and Nebraska. Here the western boundary of the Permian
passes a little west of south, a few miles east of Lincoln, extending
to Beatrice, and thence into Kansas. Opposite Lincoln it is only a
few miles broad, but widens going southwest and through Kansas.
Towards the west at Lincoln and Beatrice it passes under the
Dakota group of the cretaceous. It is, however, as already inti-
mated, only the lower Permian that is here represented. In the
earlier Permian this portion of the continent was not raised above
the old carboniferous seas, and of course it received the sediments
brought down by the rivers and creeks from lands sloping towards

172 GEOLOGY.

the west on the east, north and northeast. These lands were partial-
ly the upraised carboniferous sea bottoms. As elsewhere, the pro-
gress of elevation left the latter Permian here without any memorials
"of its existence.

It is possible that in some section of the old world, not yet geo-
logically explored, remnants of this as yet lost interval will be re-
covered, or discovered. If so, we will no longer be compelled as
now to people this age with the changing life that then must have
existed. The old notion of cataclysmic changes of sufficient force
to destroy all life, and subsequently entirely new creations has long
since been abandoned. "Nature rarely turns a sharp corner."
Life has not ceased on the globe since it began. In obedience to
new conditions it has ever been changing into new forms. And in
no period of world history have the transformations been so great
as during the Permian Age.

Character of the Permian Rocks. — Near and around Beatrice
there are many exposures of yellowish, occasionally bluish magne-
sian limestone, full of geode cavities lined writh cale spar.* This
rock is arranged in layers from four inches to two feet thick; and
the whole series of strata are from twelve to twenty feet thick.
Below this there is a bed of yellow compact limestone from eighteen
inches to three feet thick. Next below, there is a thickness of from
eight to twelve feet of a dark grayish clayey limestone, also full of
geode cavities, lined with crystals of cale spar, and sometimes of
silica or silicate of lime. This stratum often becomes light colored
on exposure to the air. Occasionally it becomes massive cream
colored limestone. Wherever, therefore, such beds as thus de-
scribed are found in Nebraska, bordering the Upper Carboniferous
rocks, they invariably indicate our Permian deposits. Towards the
east, in Pawnee County, they runout, as the carboniferous then be-
comes the surface rock, which, on the contrary, in a westward
direction, run under the Permian. Above the first of these Per-
mian rocks there is a bed of variegated clay, and sometimes of pot-
ter's clay, whose geological age is uncertain, but which probably
belongs to the Dakota Group of Cretaceous rocks, w^hich comes in
next above. This Dakota Group, itself, can be recognized by its
dark gray, brownish and red sandstones, which around and west-
ward from Beatrice overlies the Permian.

*These geode cavities are now generally believed to be formed by cavities left in the
original eediinents by covered up sponges, that subsequently decayed.

MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZO1C TIMES. 173

CHAPTER II.

MEDIEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES IN NEBRASKA.

Absence of Deposits of the Triassic and Jurassic Periods. — Cause of this
Absence. — Length of these Periods in Nebraska. — Cretaceous Period. — How
it Originated. — Divisions of the Cretaceous. —Dakota Group. — Its Character,
Extent and Remarkable Flora — Origin of this Flora. — Climate of the Dakota
Group Epoch. — Fort Benton Group. — Its General Character. — Length of this
Epoch, and its Vegetable and Animal Life. — Niobrara Group Epoch. — Extent
of its Deposits, and General Character. — Vegetable Remains. — Animal life
of this Epoch. — Rhizopods, Mollusks and Fishes. — Reptiles, their Great
Abundance and Peculiar Character. — Final Disappearance of this Reptile
Fauna.

TRIASSIC AND JURASSIC PERIODS.

''INHERE are no known deposits of the Triassic and Jurassic
.L periods in Nebraska. The deposits of the next or Cretaceous
period rest directly on the Permian. Two explanations of this fact
are possible. First, the Triassic and Jurassic deposits may once
have been here, and were removed before the Cretaceous was laid
down by denudation. Or, second, this region may have been a land
surface during these periods. This latter view seems to be the most
probable, and best explains all the facts of this portion of our geo-
logical history.

We have already seen that the Carboniferous Age was brought
to a close by an upward movement of the continent, and that this
movement continued through the Permian, until much of the pre-
vious water surface was drained, and made it impossible to preserve
the memorials of its latter history. The same events that prevented
the preservation of the memorials of the Permian, would, if con-
tinued, prevent the deposition of Triassic and Jurassic rocks. With
a large degree, therefore, of certainty, we may rest assured that
during these periods Nebraska was an extended land surface, and
if so, there must have flourished here for countless centuries the
peculiar vegetable and animal life of those times.

Length of the Trio-Juro Periods. — The length of the Trio-Juro
periods can be ascertained only relatively. Not even an approxi-
mate estimate can be -made, but all geologists admit that they were

174 GEOLOGY.

very long periods. In the Rocky Mountains the Triassic deposits
lie in unconformable masses, directly on or against the Archaean
islands that form the back-bone of the continent.* Here the Tri-
assic forms a series of sandstones from three hundred to one thous-
and feet thick, whiph are loose, friable sediments wherever there is
an approach to a horizontal position. "On approaching the Arch-
aean, the Trias always is composed, or largely made up of con-
glomerates, the materials of which were derived, from the shores
against which they abut." — Clarence King. Towards the eastern
part of the Uintas the Trias thicken still more, reaching finally a
depth of from two thousand to twenty-five hundred feet.. Still
farther westward the Trias diminishes in thickness and increases in
compactness and the quantity of conglomerates. From these facts
Clarence King concludes that there was a land mass towards the
west, during this period from which the materials that enter into its
deposits were derived.

Overlying the upper beds of Triassic rocks, which are intercal-
latecl with gypsum and dolomitic limestone, are the Jurassic beds,
which are first met in the eastern flank of the Colorado range.
Here they are only two hundred and fifty to two hundred and sev-
enty-five feet in thickness, and increase westward, until, on the
Wasatch, they are eighteen hundred feet thick. The Jurassic is
almost entirely made up of soft clays, clayey calcareous marls, and
intercalations of fine lithographic limestone. These rocks are
therefore a lime and clay deposit. — Clarence King. The maximum
development of the Triassic and Jurassic, east of the Wasatch, is
not less than thirty-eight hundred feet.

Immediately above the Jurassic, on the eastern foothills, lies a
" heavy bed of conglomerate, which is the base member of the
Dakota Cretaceous. * * "The upper clay and sandstone beds
directly under the bottom of the Dakota conglomerate have been
called by Marsh the Atlantasaurus beds." — Clarence King. Hay-
den and Meek have shown that it is probable that the Jurassic
beds extend eastward beneath the Cretaceous. As the Cretaceous
extends in turn beneath the Tertiary, it is possible that there may
be Jurassic beds in western Nebraska that cannot be observed, ow-
ing to the thickness of the overlying deposits of later geological
periods. This is the more probable, since during Jurassic times
there was a deepening of what had been the old Triassic seas, and a

*King's Report ou the Fortieth Parallel.

MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 175

deposition, as we have seen, of clay and calcareous marls and fine
limestones, where previously sand and other shallow water de-
posits were taking place. At least in the Jurassic, water communi-
cation existed directly with the ocean, as is indicated by the abun-
dant marine life that is preserved in these deposits.

Now, the length of these periods must have been exceedingly
great, during which 3,800 feet of sediment was deposited, especially
as a large part of them were of a character that never, so far as is
now known, accumulate rapidly. The Jurassic beds at least, which
are made up almost exclusively of soft clays, clayey calcareous
marls and intercalated beds of thin lithographic limestone, must
have been deposited with extreme slowness. Some authorities esti-
mate the increase of sediment at a foot to the century, and others
at only a few inches. Even at the larger figures, a foot to the cen-
tury, the time involved would be 180,000 years for the Jurassic alone.
Elsewhere, especially in Europe, the deposits of the Jurassic are
thicker even than this, and therefore the probabilities are that this
estimate is far too low. The preceding Triassic period was only
one-fourth shorter than the Jurassic. This would give for the two
periods combined 31^,000 years. (See Dana's Manual, page 491.)
During all these long centuries, therefore, and far into the Cre-
taceous, as we shall presently see, the greater part, and perhaps the
whole of Nebraska existed as an extended land surface. The events
that occurred here during these periods can never be certainly
known. The imagination alone can, with the few data from the
vegetable and animal life of the time, fill out imperfectly this lost
page in our geological history.

Vegetable Life. — Nebraska during these periods, owing to its
position, and because bounded on the west and southwest by seas of
great extent, had a warm, temperate and moist climate. The pecu-
liar vegetable forms of the Mediaeval world must then have flour-
ished here. Among these, in the Triassic period, were huge tree
ferns, cycads and conifers, these last being principally araucarians,
a family which is now mainly confined to South America and Aus-
tralia. In the succeeding Jurassic, the vegetation was similar, and
the conditions on the whole still more favorable for a gigantic
growth. In this period were re-introduced the conditions favorable
to the production and preservation of a vegetation for the formation
of coal. To this period belong some of the coal fields of Scotland
and England, of India and China. Either to this or the preceding

176 GEOLOGY.

Triassic belong, also, the coal fields of Eastern Virginia and North
Carolina. It is probable that while the conditions under which coal
was accumulated in all geological times were.similar, the plants dif-
fered exceedingly. The higher cryptogams obtained in carbonifer-
ous times, but in the Triassic Ferns, and especially conifers and
cycads, were the common forms. (Le Conte). The Jurassic was
eminently the age of naked seeded trees (gymnosperms), especially
of the Cycads, which at that time culminated m the number of
species and individuals. In fact, three- fourths of all the fossil Zamiae
and one-half the cycads known from all the geological formations,
are from the Jurassic. No one can look at a cycad, with its long,
fern-like leaves, without admiring its beauty. These vegetable
forms are now confined to low, moist latitudes, but for immense
periods of geological time they were the dominant type on what
are now the plains of Nebraska. Here, in those times, along
with tree ferns and araucarians, they made immense thickets and
forests.

Animal Life. — The Mesozoic was eminently a Reptilian Age.
All kinds of vertebrate life took on more or less of this type. Ne-
braska, being then a land surface throughout the Triassic and Ju-
rassic periods, we will omit the consideration of the animal life pe-
culiar to the seas. The land, however, with the peculiar vegetation
referred to in the preceding section, and with its warm, temperate
climate, was eminently adapted to the support of a land reptile
fauna. What this fauna was, we can only imagine from the reptilian
remains preserved in the deposits of these periods nearest to us.
Many are found in western Kansas and eastern Colorado. The
foothills are of Jurassic age, and are composed of clay and sand-
stone beds, overlaid directly by a heavy bed of the peculiar con-
glomerate of the Cretaceous Dakota Group. These beds, as al-
ready remarked, have been called Atlantosaurus beds by Marsh,
from the prevalence in them of huge remains of Dinosaurs. No
land animals of such gigantic size have ever been discovered else-
where in deposits of any geological age. The most important lo-
cality for these remains is at Morrison and Canyon City, where the
Atlantosaurus immanis (monstrous sized lizard) was found. Its
femur was eight feet four inches long, which would indicate, on the
principles of comparative anatomy, an animal walking on all fours
of over one hundred feet in length and over thirty feet in height.
It approximated closely in size to the limits beyond which locomo-

MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 177

tion would be impossible, owing- to the specific gravity becoming
too great to be moved by muscular power. Apparently, to over-
come this 'obstacle, its bones were made partially hollow, similar to
those of birds. Atlantosaurus montanus was almost as large as the
preceding. Eleven additional reptile forms were found in these lo-
calities, some of which were also of gigantic mould. One of them,
however, Creosaurus airax, was a small carniverous Dinosaur. It
is also curious that among these gigantic forms there were two of
the smallest Dinosaurs yet discovered. One of them was not larger
than a cat. Another reptile found here is the type of a new group,
and is named by Marsh Stagosaurzis armatus. A crocodile found
here had biconcave vertebras like a fish. A small animal, structured
like a possum (marsupial), was also found among these remains.

As observed already, some of these remains are the most gigantic
land animals yet discovered. No land vertebrates approaching
them in size have ever been discovered anywhere else. Thev
probably represent but a tithe of the fauna of that period. As the
general slope of the continent at that time was westward, and many
great rivers must have flowed from the direction of Nebraska into the
old Jurassic sea, it is almost absolutely certain that these gigantic
land animals were carried there from the east, and that they repre-
sent the fauna of this territory during the Jurassic period. If, there-
fore, we picture to ourselves the climate of that time, its curious
forests of tree ferns, conifers, zamias and cycads, full of all sizes of
reptilian life, and especially of the gigantic forms, along with a few
lonely mamalian species, and some reptilian birds, it will give a
faint idea of what Nebraska and much of the adjoining State of
Kansas was during the Triassic and Jurassic periods.

Close of the Jurassic Period. — The Jurassic period was brought
to a close by a further contraction of the cooling globe. One of
the results of this contraction was, according to Whitney, the up-
rising of the Sierras. The rocks of the next period (Cretaceous)
lie unconformably on or against its side. At the same time, the
Wasatch, almost parallel with the Sierras, and the Uintas, almost
at right angles with the last, also came up from the bottom of the
old Jurassic sea. This probably raised the whole of this portion of
the continent to so high a level as to drain the whole of what had
been the Jurassic sea, and constituted it a land surface until the
middle Cretaceous period.
12

178 GEOLOGY.

THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD.

As is well known, the name Cretaceous is taken from the Latin
Creta, meaning chalk, which is exceedingly abundant in deposits
of this age in Europe. This, the closing period of the Mesozoic
or Reptilian Age, is well represented in the rocks of Nebraska. It
is somewhat remarkable, however, that no equivalent of the Euro-
pean lower Cretaceous has yet been found in the West. The equiv-
alent of the lower green sand of the English Cretaceous is there-
fore not present here. It is even questionable whether the upper
green sand, or middle Cretaceous, is here represented. The follow-
ing is probably the explanation of this fact. As has already been
stated, the Sierras, Wasatch and Uinta uplifts probably raised with
them the adjoining territories that had been covered by the old Ju-
rassic seas. During the whole of the period represented by the
lower green sand of the European Cretaceous, the entire Rocky
Mountain region was dry land. Whether its utmost height was
reached at the close of the Jurassic, or whether it continued rising
far into the Cretaceous, is only a matter for conjecture. The weight
of evidence is, however, at present in favor of the former view. In
Europe the lower and middle Cretaceous were periods of subsidence,
and therefore it is probable that this was the case here. This sink-
ing extended over a large part of the Rocky Mountain region, and
embraced the plains of Nebraska as far east at least as Fort Calhoun,
on the Missouri, and north of that point to a considerable distance
beyond it. From Fort Calhoun, the eastern line of subsidence ex-
tended in the opposite direction first southward and then southwest-
ward, entering Kansas a little west of the Otoe reservation. At
least this far east the lower member of our Cretaceous system is
found. It may once have covered the whole of the State, as there
are indications that it has been removed from the Carboniferous and
Permian by denudation. What adds greatly to the probability of
this view is the fact that small areas of Cretaceous rocks are marked
by Prof. White, in his geological map of Iowa, in the latitude of
41° 30' as far east as the southeast corner of Guthrie County. If
that view is the correct one, then this Cretaceous subsidence extended
much farther eastward.

Divisions of the Cretaceous. — Nowhere in this country is the
Cretaceous so well represented as in the far west, and on the upper
Missouri. The following is the detailed section prepared by Meek
and Hayden. Having gone over much of this ground myself,

MEDIEVAL OR MESOZO1C TIMES.

179

their divisions on the whole appear to me the best possible. I have
changed the descriptions of Meek and Hayden slightly to make
them correspond more particularly with the geology of Nebraska.

DIVISIONS.

LOCALITIES.

Gray ferruginous and yellowish sand-

Fox Hills, near Long

w ^

stone and arenaceous clays containing

Lake above Ft. Pierre

r 5

massive molluscan, and reptilian fossils.

and along Big Horn

§25

Maximum thickness, 500 feet.

Mountains. Not in.

Nebraska.

^ O

£ ^

Dark grey and bluish plastic clays, also

Sage Creek. Chey-

C/3

containing massive fossils near the upper

enne and White River

O ^*

part, also reptilian remains. Maximum

above the Bad Lands.

« 6

thickness, 700 feet.

Not in Nebraska.

^•^ P^

W fc

•s 8

Middle nearly barren of fossils. Lower

Fort Pierre out to

2 2

r_j -H

Zone contains many massive chambered

Bad Lands, down the

&3 vj

* . —

shells. Dark bed of fine unctuous clay,

Missouri to Gr'tBend.

rH J?5

H —

containing carbonaceous matter, with

Knox County on Ni.

veins and seams of gypsum, masses of

obrara and on upper

sulphuret of iron, small scales, fishes,

Republican.

local, filling depressions in the bed below.

180

GEOLOGY.

DIVISIONS.

LOCALITIES.

Lead gray calcareous marl, weathering

Bluffs along the Mis-

•d

to a yellowish or whitish chalky appear-

souri below the Great

ance, containing man}r large scales of fish-

Bend, greatly devel-

es and many ostrea congesta attached to

oped below the mouth

.** cci

fragments of Inoceramus. Passing down

of the Niobrara, and

OH J
D O

into yellowish and whitish limestone con-

on to Dakota County

taining many Inoceramus problematicus,

along the Missouri.

o £

ostrea congesta, etc.

West of this line ex-

o
-i 2

tends an underlying

.« H

rock to Kansas. Most

<•

extensive group of

cretaceous rocks in

Nebraska. Maximum

thickness 200 feet.

Dark gray laminated clays, sometimes

Fort Benton on the

D-<i

alternating near the upper part with seams

upper Missouri, and

*U0

§2

and layers of soft gray and light colored

along the latter from

5!§

limestone. Many chambered shells and

ten-miles above James

& x

other marine molluscan forjns.

River to the Big

Sioux, Black Hills.

£ H

Found in Nebraska

W •<

« S

beneath the Niobrara

H g

Group, but rarely the

surface rock. Maxi-

mum thickness, 800

feet.

£'-

Yellowish, reddish, and occasionally

Back of Dakota and

o 6

white sandstone with occasional alterna-

in surrounding coun-

gfc

tions of various colored clays and beds and

try. Thence south-

«*

seams of impure lignite. Also, silicified

westward into Kan-

•

£ s

wood and casts of marine mollusks. Many

sas and beyond. Max-

O p*
« 0

remains of the higher types of dicotyledo-

imum thickness, 400

nous leaves from tree forms.

feet.

These groups are readily separated and distinguished on the up-
per Missouri and through Nebraska, except along the Republican
River. Had I first studied the Cretaceous on the Republican,
Meek and Haydenvs divisions would have appeared inapplicable as
these groups there shade into each other. The geologist, however,
who first studies the rocks of this period on the Missouri cannot
well deny the validity of this grouping. Since the rocks of this
period have been studied in the mountains by the United States
Surveys, two of the chiefs, Clarence King and Dr. Hay den, have
agreed on a slightly different division. They retain No I, or the
Dakota Group as the basal member of the series. The next three?
however, namely, the Fort Benton, Niobrara, and Fort Pierre

MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 181

Groups they now call the Colorado.* The. Fox Hills Group, Dr.
Hayden's No. 5 becomes then, with this division, No. 3.

THE DAKOTA GROUP.

This was so named by Hayden because of its great development
southwest from Dakota City in Dakota County. Beginning from
below, it consists in the main of a whitish clay frcm a few inches
to four feet in thickness, then various thicknesses of conglomerate
and concretionary sandstone averaging from one to ten feet; next
yellowish coarse sandstone from fifteen feet and upwards; and next
a red hard ferruginous sandstone containing impressions of plants,
leaves, wood, etc., from thirty to seventy feet in thickness.

Extent of the Dakota Group Deposits. — The Dakota Group
towards the west extends under the Fort Benton and Niobrara
Groups and therefore its real breadth cannot be ascertained. I
have traced it, however, from east to west over a breadth of from
sixty to ninety miles. In the States of Iowa and Kansas Lesque-
rcux estimates its breadth as slightly greater. Its eastern boundary
is that of the Cretaceous and can be seen in the accompanying geo-
logical map of the State. It is mainly found in the following coun-
ties: Dakota, Wayne, Winnebago and Omaha reservation, Burt,
Washington, Cuming, Stanton, Colfax, Dodge, Douglas, Sarpy,
Saunders, Butler, Seward, Lancaster, Cass, Gage, Jefferson,
Saline, and occasionally in the counties bordering on these. South-
westerly it has been traced to Texas. It crops out in numerous
places as the basal member of the cretaceous series in the mountains.
It covers a large part of northwestern Iowa, and extends towards
the northern limits of Minnesota. There are evidences of its
presence in British America. Prof. Heer has also described fossil
leaves from Greenland, some of whose genera and species are ident-
ical with those from the Dakota Group, and therefore it is probable
that it has been continuous, as Lesquereux remarks, from the Gulf
of Mexico to Greenland and other Arctic lands, or over thirty-five
decrees of latitude.

Origin of the Dakota Group. — We have already seen that during,
at least the lower Cretaceous, Nebraska, with a large part of the
Rocky Mountain region was an extended land surface in process of
slow subsidence. By the time the middle Cretaceous began, this
subsidence had reached so low a level as to admit the Gulf of

*Havden considers the Fort Pierre Group from its organic rf mains moit closely allied to
the Fox Hills.

182 GEOLOGY.

Mexico, which' spread over the area where the sediments of the
Dakota Group are now found. There can be no question about
the Dakota Group being a shallow sea and beach deposit. Just
such materials are now being deposited in existing shallow seas.
Examples can be seen along the North Sea, on the Belgian coast,
and along the shores of Holland where there are extensive muddy
flats composed of substances which if compacted would be similar
in constitution to the Dakota sandstone. Small grains of sand are
rolled up by the sea which are mingled with the mud deposits
brought down by the rivers. The rivers bring down iron held in
solution which is deposited in the presence of organic matter on the
bottoms, often giving the grains of sand a coating, which subse-
quently became loosely compacted sand rock with a rusty, red, or
brown color. " Marine animals, especially shells, are rare in deposits
of this kind." "It is shunned by every kind of land animals, and it
has therefore no other remains imbedded into its compound but
saurians and rarely fishes. It has no remains of marine plants be-
cause these do not grow on the soft ground." — (Lesquereux.)

Prof. Marcou and Capellini regarded the Dakota Group as a
fresh water deposit. If the considerations already adduced are cor-
rect it cannot possibly have such an origin. It can also be added
that at Sioux City, and in the bluffs in Dakota County are found
mingled with dicotyledonous leaves peculiar -to this deposit such
marine shells as Pharella Dakotensis, Axinea Siouxensis, and Cy-
prina arenacea. Prof. Meek has also identified not less than twelve
additional marine species from this group in Kansas where the leaf
impressions are characteristically abundant. Its very extent con-
tradicts such an opinion. It is from sixty to one hundred miles
broad and adjoining and overlapping the Carboniferous and Per-
mian, it extends from Texas through Minnesota to, and probably
through British America to Greenland. It is not conceivable that
there should be a fresh water deposit of such extent. The homo-
genous character of its materials also contradicts this view. No
American geologist, however, ever entertained this opinion.

Discussions tn Regard to the Character and Age of the Dakota
Group. — No group of remains have ever excited more, and few as
much interest as that of the Dakota. When first studied in Kan-
sas, it was regarded by Prof. Hawn and Swallow as of Triassic
age. Afterwards it was pronounced Jurassic by Prof. Marcou.
"In the mean time Dr. Hayden sent some sketches of the leaf im-

MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 183

pressions to Prof. O. Heer, of Switzerland, who complicated the
discussion still more by pronouncing them to he of Tertiary age."
Hayden himself had reported on the peculiar character of this group
as early as 1853. In 1856 and 1857, assisted now by Meek, he re-
sumed the study of this deposit in Kansas as they had previously
done in Nebraska, and both reaffirmed the conviction which Hayden
had previously expressed, that these rocks were of Cretaceous age.
Dr. Newberry expressed the same conviction when their whole
collection of leaves was submitted to him. This reference of these
leaves to the Cretaceous, first by Hayden, and then by Meek and
Newberry, produced a difference of opinion and much discussion
among some European and American geologists. Dr. Newberrv
has given the details of this discussion in his "Extinct Floras." To
settle the question of the geological age of the Dakota Group,
Professors Capellini, of Paris, and Marcou, of Dresden, visited Ne-
braska and examined the stratiography of this group and collected
the fossil leaf impressions which it contain*, all of which were af-
terwards submitted to Prof. O. Heer for examination. In his
report — Phyilites ttu Nebraska — seventeen new species were de-
scribed with illustrations. In this report Prof. Heer admitted the
accuracy of Hayden's original reference of this deposit to the Cre-
taceous. Capeliini and Marcou also on stratiographical evidence
came to the same conclusion, and admitted that they wrere much
less successful than the American geologist, as they, unlike him
were unable to discover the line of junction with the next group
above. It therefore became settled in the minds of the eminent
European and American geologists, who had especially investigated
the matter, that the Dakota Group was the basal member of the
Cretaceous in this region, and was the equivalent of the middle or
lower part of the upper of the European Cretaceous. 1 have given
this outline because, even yet, in the minds of some geologists who
have not studied the history of these investigations there is a doubt
about the cretaceous reference of this group.* It should also he
remembered to the credit of Dr. Hayden that he was the first to
outline, to name, and to ascertain the true position of this group.

Fossil Leaves of the Dakota Group. — As early as 1853 Dr.
Hayden had obtained impressions of dicotyledonous leaves from the
rocks, which he subsequently named the Dakota Group. They
were remarkable for their modern aspect, as most of the genera

*See on this subject Lesquereux's Dakota Group Cretaceoua Flora.

184 GEOLOGY.

to which they belonged are still represented in our existing flora.
The collection of these leaves has steadily gone on until the pres-
ent time, some of the most important being made by Meek and
Hayden in 1856 and 1857, and again in 1865. Prof. Newberry
also engaged in this work in another field. Prof. Marcou and
Capellini also added to the number, as well as Prof. James Hall,
Lesquereux and Prof. Mudge. One of the first published reports,
with drawings of the leaves, was that of Prof. O. Heer, of Swit-
zerland. In 1874 the Hayden surveys published Lesquereux' Da-
kota Group, Cretaceous Flora, which combined all the previously
published descriptions, with a great deal of original matter, and
gave a full description of all these^leaf impressions that had been
discovered up to that time. According to this report there have
been found thus far in this group 132 species, distributed among
seventy-two genera. Of these there were of non-flowering plants
seven species, and six of these were ferns. Of naked seeded
plants (Gymnosperms] there were seven species, one of which was-
a zamisk and six conifers. Two of these belonged to the giant
cedar family (Sequoia], and one a glyptostrobus, similar to the one
still growing in China and Japan. There were three moncoty-
ledons, one of which was a palm. The dicotyledonous trees, called
also exogens (outside growers], to which division all our common
trees belong, were the most fully represented, all the remaining
forms belonging to these classes. Among these there were five
species of populus, the genus to which our cottonwood belongs.
Closely allied to the last were four species of populites. Of the
willows (Salix], there were six species. The oaks (Quercus], were
represented by eight species, and the beeches (Fagus], by two.
There were six species of buttonwood (Platanus], and one fig
tree. There were two species of spicewood (Laurus], seven of
sassafras and two of cinnamonum. The magnolias were abundant,
as the presence of fine species attest. The tulip trees (Lirioden-
drori), which are among the most magnificent of all modern trees,
were represented by three species. One buckthorn (Rhamnus)y
one walnut (Juglans), and one sumac (Rhus], have left their re-
mains in this group. Even an apple (Pyrus), and a plum {Prunus]^
flourished in those times.

No one, however, can get a clear idea of the character of this
rich modern flora without studying its remains, or the remarkable
and beautiful report of Lesquereux on " The Fossil Flora of the Da-

MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 185

kota Cretaceous Group." I have also added these fossils to the cabi-
net of the State University, where they can be seen.

Origin of the Flora of the Dakota Group. — No geological ques-
tion is more involved in doubt than the source or origin of the

flora of the Dakota Group. So far as known it is entirely discon-
nected from all antecedent types. "The remarkable disproportion
between the number of genera compared to species in the Dakota
Group seems at first to corroborate the system so generally admitted
now of a successive development of vegetable forms, according to
a supposed rule of progression of more complex forms constantly
originating by the multiplication or subdivision of simple organs of
inferior types." — (Lesquereux). According to this view, as we go
back in time there should be few species and more genera, and
what species there are should differ only slightly from the characters
assigned to the genera. There are, however, some genera in this
group represented by from six to eight species, and it is equally
probable that the others, if all the forms had been preserved, would
liave been fully as abundant.

It is, however, not scientific to depend on suppositions on either
side. The facts, alone should be considered. And the facts, so far
as is now know^n, as already remarked, totally disconnect this flora
from all that went before it.

We have already seen that the Dakota Group rests directly on
the Upper Carboniferous or Lower Permian. The Upper Per-
mian, the Triassic, Jurassic, and Lower Cretaceous are all wanting.
The uppermost vegetable remains in the Permian, a calamite in the
Rocky JMountains, is yet palaeozoic in type. Even if we look at the
vegetable remains in the Triassic of South Carolina and Virginia,
nothing is found but forms representing ferns, equisetacese, cycads
and conifers. Even in Europe the Triassic and Jurassic floras
belong to the same types. No dicotyledonous leaf has been found
anywhere before the Cretaceous. Now the slightest examination
of the flora of the Dakota Group shows the "prodigious difference
which separates this flora from that of any former epoch, even
considering the antecedent vegetation of the Jurassic, known as it
is from European specimens and publications." It differs equally
from anything yet found in the Jurassic in America. "The ferns,
conifers and cycads with a few equisetae, which constitute the
whole known flora of that epoch are all of peculiar types, without
relations to any of the species of the same families recognized as
yet in the flora of the American Cretaceous." — (Lesquereux).

186 GEOLOGY.

There are only two ways in which we can account for the sudden
appearance of this Dakota Group flora. One is, that it appeared
without any connection with antecedent types. It involves the
theory that by some fiat of Nature's God it was spontaneously and
suddenly produced. Few naturalists now accept this view. They
regard the vegetable world as a connected chain. They are there-
fore in this case driven to .use the "scientific imagination" and sug-
gest the following explanation — the second explanation already
referred to.

We have already seen that throughout the unnumbered centuries
of the latter Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, and Lower Cretaceous
Nebraska was an extended land surface, and covered by a colossal
vegetation of which no memorials have been preserved. The pecu-
liar animal life of the time flourished here as elsewhere. Now, it
is conceivable that during these long periods, whose length is
simply incalculable, vegetable life underwent many changes, be-
cause the conditions of climate and environment changed many
times. The transformation therefore from primitive types was
gradual, all the intermediate links of which have been lost, and
the last factor, the flora of the Dakota Group alone preserved.

Climate of the Dakota Group Epoch. — Many of the genera of
plants of the Dakota Group period are still flourishing in Nebraska,
Kansas, and even in Minnesota. Professor Heer has also pub-
lished a memoir on a group of Cretaceous plants from Greenland,
whose facies resembles that of the Dakota Group. If the Green-
land fossil Cretaceous flora is cotemporaneous with that of the
Dakota Group, which seems probable, then a similar climate pre-
vailed from southern Kansas to near the Arctic circle. However
that may be, little difference can be detected between the fossil
vegetable forms in Kansas and Minnesota, and therefore a tem-
perate climate must have prevailed over this entire region, during
Dakota group times, not greatly different from the one that now
exists in Nebraska. The similarity of the vegetable forms that
then existed, to those that now obtain here, proves that the climate
of that epoch was much like ours to day. It was, judging from
the presence of some species, only slightly warmer than our pres-
ent climate. It was colder, however, than the preceding Triassic
and Jurassic, and also colder than the climate that subsequently
prevailed in the Niobrara Cretaceous, and during Eoeene and Mio-
cene times.

MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 187

THE FORT BENTON GROUP.

The preceding period was closed by the changed conditions
brought on by a further subsidence of the region where its deposit
are found. Where shallow seas and extended sea beaches and flats
full of low islands had obtained, now rolled deeper waters and
quieter seas. The deposits formed during these times have been
called by Hayden the Fort Benton Group. They are dark gray
laminated clays, sometimes alternating near the upper part with
seams and layers of soft gray and light colored limestone, filled in
many places with marine shells. Occasionally in Nebraska this
group contains seams of impure lignite and other carbonaceous
matter. It lies conformably on the Dakota Group below. It is so
friable and easily eroded and disintegrated, that wherever it is left
exposed, so far as I have observed, it has disappeared. In many
places, however, where deep sections have been made by canyons
and railroad cuts through theNiobrara Group, which lies above, its
deposits are almost invariable present, and often in notable thick-
ness. One of the finest of these exposures is seen below the
mouth of Iowa Creek, in Dixon County, along the Missouri bluffs.
Here for a long distance the line of demarkation between the Da-
kota, Fort Benton and Niobrara groups are distinctly seen and clear-
ly outlined. Below Milford, on the banks of the Blue, and at other
points in Seward County, in deep sections, it is also observed.

That this period was a long one is evident from the fact, as ob-
served by Hayden, that its deposits are in some places 800 feet
thick. The materials, too, are of a kind that are slowly deposited.
It is probable that the numerous low islands that had existed in
Nebraska during the previous epoch, had now mostly disappeared
beneath the constantly deepening seas. Some land surfaces still
existed in southeastern Nebraska, but no such memorials of its con-
dition have come down to us as marked the preceding epoch.
Marine life, however, was abundant. Meek alone has described
from this group five species of Inoceramus, a mollusk distantly re-
lated to the oyster, and nine species of chambered shells, some of
•which were of great size and beauty. He has also given eleven
additional marine molluscan forms*. The seas swarmed with fishes.
Reptilian life was abundant, but this feature will be presented in
the discussions of the next epoch.

*See Meek's "Cretaceous Invertebrate Fossils "

188 GEOLOGY.

THE NIOBRARA GROUP EPOCH.

A still further subsidence of the continent, especially towards the
north and west, inaugurated the Niobrara Group Epoch. Hayden
gave it this name because of the great development of its deposits
below the mouth of the Niobrara in northeastern Nebraska. Here
its deposits consist of an impure chalk rock, varying from a gray-
ish white to a pink bluish and yellow hue. Below the mouth of
the Niobrara many of the chalk bluffs are several hundred feet
high, with a perpendicular face often excavated beneath by atmos-
pheric agencies. These chalk rocks are seen through Knox, Cedar,
in many places in Dixon County, and in places on the lower Re-
publican. Elsewhere the deposits, especially those beneath the
stratum of chalk, are mostly of an impure limestone, which often
shade imperceptibly into a silicate of lime. This stratum is often
called the Inoceramus bed, from the immense numbers of this mol-
lusk which frequently compose it. Under the Inoceramus bed
there is in many places toward the southwest, a stratum varying
from a few inches to fifteen feet in thickness, of an impure, yellow-
ish, silicious limestone. According to Prof. Mudge, it is the char-
acteristic feature of this group in Kansas. It can be observed at
Milford, in Seward County, in places in Harlan County, and at
many other . points between these stations. Lately a chalk bed of
this deposit was found near Red Cloud, in the Republican Valley.
It is pure white, soft, easily worked, and contains little besides car-
bonate of lime and a small amount of iron carbonate, but not
sufficient to color it. Judging from microscopic and chemical tests,
it is as pure as the best European chalks.

The Niobrara is the most widely extended of all the Cretaceous
groups in Nebraska. In southern Nebraska, from the western line
of the Dakota Group to Harlan County — where it is overlaid by
the Pliocene, it is over 100 miles wide. In north Nebraska, from
Dakota County — where it begfns to overlie the Dakota Group, it
extends westward for over 150 miles. In general, the area on the
geological map marked Cretaceous is all Niobrara Group, except a
border from sixty to one hundred miles wide on the eastern rim,
from the Omaha Reservation southward, which mainly belongs to the
Dakota Group. As before intimated, it was mostly a period when
deep seas overspread a large part of the area now covered by its
deposits. Southeastern Nebraska was also a land surface during

MEDIJEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 189

this epoch. The eastern border, at least, of the Cretaceous area,
was the eastern shore line of th6 interior sea of the time.

Vegetable Life of the Niobrara Group Epoch. — The diatoms and »

desrj^ds which abounded in some strata in the European chalk, *
were sparingly represented in the Niobrara Group seas. I have \
only in a single instance found a*few diatoms under the microscope
in some chalk obtained below the mouth of the Niobrara River.
The specimen was overlaid by a portion of the skeleton of a fish
which seems to have protected the silicious matter which had ac-
cumulated and which contained the diatoms.

The peculiar impressions of geologically modern leaves (dicotyle-
donous] which characterize the Dakota Group, are wanting in the
Niobrara. Different seas now prevailed, and as is evident from the
fossil animals, to be noticed hereafter, a warmer climate. Only one
leaf impression, to my knowledge, has been obtained from this
group in Nebraska. It was found in the Inoceramus bed in Dakota
County, by Hon. Jesse Warner, and presented to me for the cabinet
of the State University. Owing to the absence of nerve marks, it
could not be certainly identified, but its external form was that of a
laurus.

Fossil wood, however, is abundant, both petrified and agatised.
Of this material I have made microscopic sections of seventy-nine
specimens, which under the microscope showed the structure of the J
original wood. Of these seventy-nine specimens, forty-seven be-s
longed to the conifers of araucarian type, and the balance were )
cycads and zamias. Judging only from these few remains, the di-^
cotyledonous vegetation that characterized this region in Dakota
Group times, had retreated, where to is not certainly known, but ^
probably northward or northeastward. A southern flora, or one
that had reached its culmination in Jurassic times, returned again
to this region by migration. At the same time a few species from
the Dakota Group era lingered among these mediaeval vegetable
forms.

Animal Life of the Niobrara Group Epoch. — The chalk of Europe
was largely made up of remains of rhizopods which were so abun-
dant that a cubic inch, according to Ehrenberg, contained millions
of these low organisms. In our own chalk seas they were probably
little less abundant, though not so well preserved. Some specimens
of chalk that I obtained below the mouth of the Niobrara, and in
Cedar County, afforded them, under the compound microscope, in

190 GEOLOGY.

immense numbers. Often, however, no trace of these organisms is
left. I found them where they had apparently been preserved from
crushing first beneath the huge scale of a fish, and then in the hol-
lows of reptilian vertebra. As in the European chalk, the spicula
of sponges are occasionally found in this group.

This era was evidently well adapted to the support of molluscan
life, though the number of species is less than from the preceding and
the next two following. The number of individuals, however, is
enormous. One of the last tasks that the lamented Meek performed,
was the completion of his great work on the Invertebrate Palaeon-
tology of the Cretaceous, in which he described four species of
mollusks from this group. One of these was a species of oyster
(Ostrea congesta), which must have been very abundant, as remains
of it are found in every stratum of this group. An anomia is
found principally in Knox County. An oyster-like shell (Inocer-
amus problemalicus], and a variety of the same, are the most abun-
dant, some whole strata being almost entirely composed of it. The
Inoceramus bed is so named from the abundance of this shell. Re-
lated to these is a genus represented by two species which were re-
markable for their size. They were described by Conrad, and
named Haploscapha grandis and H. eccentrica. The former is of gi-
; gantic size, being twenty-seven inches in diameter, and the latter
(nine inches. They are found in this group on the Republican,
Solomon and the Smoky Hill. In the stratum of yellowish impure
limestone beneath the Inoceramus bed there are many impressions
of ammonites and nautilus and other chambered shells. They are,,
however, so poorly preserved that it is impossible to identify them
with any certainty. One impression of an ammonite from the chalk
in the cabinet of the University is eighteen inches across.

The seas of this era swarmed with fishes. In the chalk in Knox
and Cedar counties, for over a hundred feet through it vertically,
almost every spadeful of rock contains fish scales or teeth or both.
Many of the species were of reptilian type, or at least were pre-
daceous and allied to the modern saury or salmon. Cope has de-
scribed forty-eight species, most of which were from the Niobrara
Group in Kansas. Many of these I have identified from the same
group in Nebraska. One of the most abundant of these fishes, and
also one of the most rapacious that ever existed, is known as Por-
theus molossus. — Cope. Its bones are sometimes found to project
from the sides of the limestone bluffs in the Republican Valley.

MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 191

" The head was a few inches longer than that of a grizzly bear,
and the jaws even deeper in proportion to the length. The muzzle
was shorter and deeper than that of a bull-dog. The teeth were
long cylindrical fangs, smooth, glistening, and of irregular size.
At certain points in each jaw they projected three inches above the 1 ]
gum, and were sunk one inch into deep pits, being thus as long as
the fangs of a tiger, but much more slender. Two pairs of such
fangs crossed each other on each side of the end of the snout." Six
species of these rapacious fishes have left their remains in these
rock, and probably more will be found with the progress of dis-
covery.

In this group in Nebraska, the remains of sharks are quite abun-
dant. Many fine specimens of their teeth have been obtained in
the Inoceramus bed at Pleasant Hill in Saline County, from near
Seward, Milford, and in Dakota County. Some of these teeth
represent the pavement teeth kind {Cestraciont — Pycodus Mortoni),
and others the common modern shark family.

Reptiles. — Many reptilian forms from the west have been de-
scribed by Leidy, Marsh and Cope. The latter, from the Niobrara
Group of Kansas, alone, has described thirty-seven species of rep-
tiles. Many of these I have identified from the same group in
Nebraska, and as this group is continuous through these two States,
it is almost absolutely certain that they all, or their equivalents,
swarmed here during those times. What adds to this probability
is the certainty that there were deeper se^s towards the northern QuJ
boundary of the Niobrara Group waters. u In the deep seas of
this era could have been seen an animal lying on the water, with a
body of elephantine size. Its neck was twenty-two feet long,
snake-like, and with an arrow-shaped head. One minute it would
run this long neck in the water, and then, raising it up, would peer
for victims over the deep. Its tail was also of serpent pattern, and
served to balance it behind, or propel it through the water, though
it also had two pairs of paddle-like limbs, resembling those of the
Plesiosaurus, from which it differed mainly in the arrangement of
the bones of the breast. This is the Elasmosaurus platyurus, (Cope),
a carniverous sea reptile adapted to deep water. Its total length
was fifty feet. It was structured to swim below or on the surface,
and while lying still would explore the depth forty feet below with-
out changing the posture of its body. That it fed on fishes, is evi-
dent from the scales and teeth found in the posibon of its stomach."

192 GEOLOGY.

— Cope. A few years ago a magnificent specimen of what I take
to be this reptile, judging from a photograph submitted to me, was
found in Dixon County, at the edge of the Missouri bluffs. Un-
fortunately, it fell into the hands of men who cared more for money
than for science. They attempted to make money by exhibiting
it, and after this proved a failure, gave it away partly by piece
meal.

A species similar to the last, and also described: by Cope, was the
polycotylus latipinnis. It was extraordinary for the length of its
neck and attenuated head, though its tail was short and massive,
doubtless to balance its long neck while moving through the water
and capturing its prey. It was a powerful swimmer, as is evident
from its two pairs of paddles, four feet long, with a lateral expanse
of from eleven to twelve feet. The bones of a reptile found near

/ Sheridan, Kansas, has been referred to the genus Plesiosaurus, of
.. -s which there have been found and described the remains of many

7 species in the European chalk. The two preceding and this last
(Plesiosaurus gulo) are the only ones in this large family of Saurop-
tergia that have yet been found in the Cretaceous in the West. This
is evidently, as Cope has remarked, because of the presence of an-
other order, almost entirely absent in Europe, but the real rulers of
our Cretaceous seas — the Pythonomorphs or Mososaurs of Leidy-
These reptiles had characters that related them to the lizards and
serpents, and in the absence of a sternum, to tortoises and plesio-
saurs. They pre-eminently characterized the cretaceous seas oT
America, being found in the deposits of this age in Alabama, New
Jersey, and especially in Kansas and Nebraska. One-half of all
ir the reptiles found here belong to this order, but only four species
V have yet been found in Europe.

It was Cope who first made known the wonderful forms of these
reptiles, especially the mouth parts. Their form was very much
elongated, especially the tail. The head was long, conical and flat,
with the eyes directed upward and forward. As in snakes, the roof
of their mouth was furnished with four rows of conical large teeth,
which were not structured for masticating, but for seizing their prey.
The structure of their jaws was unique among animals. Though
they swallowed their prey whole, like snakes, they were without
their expansability of throat, which is due to an arrangement of
muscular levers "supporting the lower jaw." They were, how-
ever, furnished with an additional joint in each side of this organ,

MEDIEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES, 193

nearly midway between the base and the anterior end.- This joint
was of the ball and socket type, which enabled it to make an angle
outward, and thus greatly to widen the space between the two*
halves. This arrangement, in fact, seems to have anticipated that
of the arms, which can be made to imitate it by placing the hands
close together, extended forward and with the elbows bowed out.-
The ends of the bones, like in the serpents, were only bound to-
gether by flexible ligaments. This posture of the arms gives a
diamond shaped space, and represents the expansion practiced in
these reptiles to enable the passage of a large fish or other victim.
The arms only represent the size of the jaws of the smaller species,
the larger ones being much more extended. The basal half of
the jaw, like in all other reptiles, is attached by a column-like
bone (quadrate bone), whose shape and form varies a great
deal in the different species, being dependent on the degree of
twist to be allowed or needed. In consequence of this peculiar
structure, the mouth of the gullet must have been prolonged for-
ward, and the throat must also have been loose and baggy like that
of a pelican. Such a structure would also necessitate the throwing
forward the opening of the wind pipe or glottis, as this is always
in front of the gullet. The tongue must also have been far for-
ward, long and forked. The only noise that could have been made
by such an animal would be a hiss like in the serpents, but a hiss
which for loudness would resemble distant thunder. They were
furnished with two pairs of huge paddles "which were attached to
the body by short peduncles." Their tails were flattened, but their
strokes, aided by the paddles, must have sent them through the
water with great velocity.

The most gigantic of these reptiles (Liodon proriger, Cope), at-
tained a length of not less than seventy-five feet, and probably
much greater. This species was very abundant. It had a long,
projecting muzzle, remotely resembling that of the Atlantic blunt-
nosed sturgeon, but the ends of the lower jaw were much more
blunt and massive. Such an arrangement must have made it a
terrible ram, and no doubt it often stunned its victims by a butt
before swallowing them. Liodon dyspelar, Cope, was perhaps
equally as large as the preceding, but by no means so abundant.
Two somewhat smaller species of Liodon occupied the same seas.

A genus closely related to the last, and whose remains are
specially abundant in Nebraska, is Clidastes. The species of this

194 GEOLOGY.

genii's were more flexible, and much more elegant inform than the
Liodons, and also less in size. " Perhaps to prevent their distor-
tions from dislocating the vertebral column, they had an additional
pair of articulations at each end." (Cope.) One of these species
Clidastes tortor, (Cope), was only thirty feet long, but its narrow
pointed head had a length of thirty inches. Its teeth had cutting
edges lengthwise of the animal, and in the lower jaw were eighteen
in number. " The palate was armed with eleven teeth." The
light and slender bones and elongated vertebrae indicated that this
reptile was of exceptionally slender proportions. The largest species
{Clidastes cineriaruni), was about forty feet in length. Another
species, remarkable for its elegance and lance-shaped head, was de-
scribed by Marsh, and named by him Clidastes pumilus. It was
only about twelve feet in length. Altogether, Marsh has described
from the Niobrara Cretaceous five species, Cope three, and Leidy
one species.

Closely related to the preceding genus is that of Platecarpus.
Of the species assigned to this genus, seven were described by Cope
and four by Marsh. These reptiles were almost equally abundant
with those in the preceding genera in the old Niobrara Cretaceous
seas.

Tortoises have long been known from the Cretaceous of the At-
lantic coast, but have only lately been described from the Niobrara
group. Three genera and as many species are now known. The
largest (Protostega gigas, Cope), had a spread -of expanded flippers
of over fifteen feet. The ribs in this species did not entirely coal-
esce, and in its entire structure it was like an ordinary turtle just
hatched.

European writers describe an immense number of flying reptiles
(Pterosaurs], from the chalk. Prof. Owen and Von Meyer first
made known their true structure, since which time they have ex-
cited much interest among geologists. All sizes, from minute
forms to those with an expanse of twenty-five feet of wing, have
been found in the European chalk. Those that I found in Ne-
braska were so fragile that they fell to pieces in excavating them.
Prof. Marsh has described one from the Niobrara of Kansas, with
a spread of wing of eighteen feet, and one (Pterodactylus ingens),
with a spread of twenty-three to twenty-five feet. The one that
Cope has described, from the same region, (P. umbrosus), was still
larger, having, as he claims, a spread of twenty-five feet. Marsh

MEDIEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 195

has shown that the American pterosaurs were toothless, differing
in that respect from the European, and for this reason erects them
into a new order, called Pteronodontia, which means winged tooth-
less. One of these flying saurians,' "(P. ingens), has toothless
jaws four feet long." Unquestionably there were many more species,
some gigantic, and some, as in Europe, small. They roamed through
the air, often plunging down to seize fish or reptile, they would fly
away to some rock on a neighboring coast or island and there con-
sume their victims at leisure.

No crocodiles have yet been described from the Niobrara group,
but they were undoubtedly present in that old sea, as they existed
in the preceding and subsequent eras. One {Hyposaurus Webbii^
Cope), obtained in the Fort Benton group of lead colored shales,
was about ten feet long, and belonged to the division that had sub-
biconcave vertebra, and with a long subcylindric snout.

Only one species of Dinosaurs has been found in the Niobrara
group. They were no doubt abundant in this era, but the condi-
tions for their preservation were not favorable. Many have been
found in the geological equivalent of the Niobrara in New Jersey.
They were present in considerable numbers during subsequent Cre-
taceous eras, and no doubt on the land surfaces of the time they
were the rulers.

Birds. — Nothing is more remarkable about this marvelous age
than the peculiarities of its bird life. Like all other vertebrate
forms, it was almost entirely of reptilian type. Thus far eleven
species have^ been described from the Niobrara group deposits.
The New Jersey green sand has yielded five more. The Saururae
were the most remarkable, as they combined fish, reptile and bird
characters. They are embraced in two genera, Ichthyornis and
A-patornis. They had no horny beak, like modern birds, but in lieu
of it they had slender, thin and long jaws, filled with sharp conical
teeth in sockets, numbering at least twenty on each side below, and
Marsh thinks as many above, though that could not be ascertained
from the specimens. " Their vertebras were amphicoelous or bicon-
cave, as in fishes and many extinct reptiles, but in no modern bird-"
— Marsh. Of the former there were two species, namely, Ichthyor-
nu dispar and /. celer. The generic name {Ichthyornis}, means fish-
bird, referring to the fish-like structure of its vertebrae. They had
a keel on the breast, like modern birds, for the attachment of the
muscles of flight. Marsh supposes that the tail, which was not

196 GEOLOGY.

found, was vertebrated like the old Jurassic birds, but probably
shorter and less reptilian. In size they were not larger than pigeons,,
but were capable of flight.

Three others resembled the last in the possession of teeth, which,
however, were placed in grooves in place of sockets. They had
no keel, but on the other hand had ordinary bird vertebrae. Two
of these, namely, Hesperornis regalis and Lestornis crassipes, were of
gigantic size, the former being five and a half feet high, and the
latter six feet. This combination of fish, reptile and bird characters
is so unique that Marsh has erected out of them two new orders —
OdontotormiE (socket-toothed), and Odontolcce (teeth in grooves), and
a new subclass — Oddntornithes. (toothed birds). It is remarkable
that the presence of these toothed birds in the Niobrara group era
— birds that had not yet been entirely separated from the fish and
reptile classes — is exactly what the doctrine of evolution demands.
Modern birds are the most specialized of all animals, but these old
Cretaceous forms raise the dbubt whether they are most reptile or
most bird. They are a transition form between the two classes.

From these brief outlines, it is evident that there was a most vig-
orous life during the Niobrara group times. The oceans swarmed
with many kinds of fishes, a large proportion of which were ra-
pacious. Gigantic reptiles flourished on sea and land. Flying-
saurians navigated the air; many of them of huge size. Reptilian
birds abounded, of all sizes, from diminutive forms to gigantic di-
mensions. During the earlier and middle portion of this era, the
Niobrara ocean was connected on the west with the Pacific. Laterr
the sea bottoms were raised up along the Rocky Mountain chain,
giving access and egress alone from the Gulf on the south, and the
Arctic Ocean on the northwest. A slow process of elevation con-
tinued on the east as well as on the west, contracting this ocean to
ever narrower limits. A reverse movement was now going on
from what was taking place early in its history. Then it was in
process of subsidence, now it was in process of slow elevation.
When sand bars eventually were thrown across the channels of
moving waters, much of its life was imprisoned and gradually de-
stroyed. The most vigorous species and individuals would last the
longest, but all eventually had to submit to the inexorable fate of
final extinction.

MEDIEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 197

GHAPTBR III.

MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES IN NEBRASKA,

CONTINUED.

Fort Pierre Group Cretaceous. — Its Position and Extent. — Thickness. —
Life of this Epoch. — The Fox Hills Group. — Its Exposures, Character and
Extent. — Its Vegetable and Animal Life. — Laramie Group. — Where Exposed,
and Probable Presence in Nebraska. — Conformability to the Preceding
Groups. — Whence its Materials were Derived. — Its General < haracter and
Thickness. — By Whom Explored. — Its Great Extent. — Its Characteristic
Feature. — Character of its Flora, and the Great Number and Modern Char-
acter of its Species.— Animal Life, made up of Marine, Brackish and Fresh
Water Species. — Reptilian Remains. — Transition Character of this Group. —
Probable Existence of Coal in the Cretaceous Groups in Nebraska.— -How
this can be Ascertained. — Close of the Cretaceous and Transition Period.

FORT PIERRE GROUP

THE preceding (Niobrara Group) era came to a close by a con-
tinuation of that process of elevation that eventually drained
the region where its deposits now constitute the surface rocks.
Here and there the deeper portions of the old sea beds were still
filled with water It is doubtful, however, whether these Fort
Pierre seas in Nebraska were at this time connected with the Ocean.
However that may be, the filling up of these seas gave us the pe-
culiar deposits of this era. It is possible that the elevation going
on at the close of the preceding era continued until the whole State
was a land surface. The great inequalities of the Niobrara group,
on which this group was laid down, suggests this explanation. It
is hard to conceive a sea bottom so uneven and irregular. If, how-
ever, it was first elevated into dry land, and exposed to sub-aerial
action, which produces inequalities of surface, its broken character
is accounted for.

Two regions of Nebraska contain these deposits. One of them
is in northeastern Nebraska, in Knox County, below the mouth of
and for a short distance along the Niobrara. The other is on the
Upper Republican, towards the west line of the State.

The m iterials of the Fort Pierre group, in Nebraska, are made
up largely on the Upper Republican, of occasionally thin beds of

198 GEOLOGY.

brownish sandstone, underlaid by dark gray plastic clay, calcareous
shales, sometimes containing sulphuret of iron, and more rarely
carbonaceous matter. A large amount of gypsum is present, which
often has the form of selenite. The star-like shapes which it fre-
quently assumes, makes it desirable for cabinets. The masses of
selenite scattered over these deposits, on the Missouri" bluffs, beyond
the Niobrara, has given them the name of shining hills. From the
occasional presence of scales of fishes, and still more rarely of am-
monites and other chambered shells, I conclude that only the lower
member of this group is present in Nebraska.

On the Upper Republican this group in many places lies beneath
the Tertiary, and can only be seen in cuts and canyons, and the
sides of bluffs and ravines. It almost certainly extends from near
the mouth of the Niobrara in a southwesterly direction across the
State. Passing beneath the Tertiary, it is not seen again until the
western Republican region is reached in Hitchcock and Dundy
counties. It runs, therefore, proximately parallel to the Niobrara
group, and on its northwestern side.

Clarence King unites this group with the preceding Niobrara
and Fort Benton group, to constitute the Colorado group. Hayden
and White, on the other hand, attach it to the next above, or Fox.
Hills group. King's reason for this reference is lithological. That
is, in the character of its rocks and other deposits it is much like
the preceding groups. Hayden and White refer it to the Fox Hills
groups or palasontological grounds, its animal life being more nearly
like that of the next era.

The Fort Pierre sea that extended diagonally across the State
from the mouth of the Niobrara and beyond represents a depression
left or made after the elevation of the Niobrara group area above
the old oceans. As already intimated, it is questionable whether
this interior sea of Nebraska was connected with the ocean, except
for a very brief period. The rarity of organic remains in this ter-
ritory in this group is indicative of that unfitness for life which
characterizes a sea that is losing more water by evaporation than it
gains. Gypsum, which is so abundant in this deposit, is also formed
under the same circumstances. Hence the vegetable and animal life
that it here at first possessed gradually but surely was exterminated.

Elsewhere, however, it was very different. While this region
was steadily rising, further northward and westward it was for a
time slowly sinking, and had direct communication with the ocean.

MEDIEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. . 199

At Fort Pierre, on the Upper Missouri, this group constitutes the
hrlls along the Missouri, and extends to the Bad Lands. From
Fort Pierre it also extends northward to the Cheyenne and Moreau
Rivers, where it dips beneath the Fox Hills group. It also occurs
on the Yellowstone. — (Meek and Hayden.) , As already observed, it
extends from Fort Pierre to the Great Bend, below which, to be-
low the mouth of the Niobrara, it rests on the uneven surface of
the Niobrara group. This group is met with again on the eastern
base of the Rocky Mountains and northward to and beyond the
Black Hills. It is seen westward, along the line of the Union
Pacific Railroad, on and beyond the Laramie Plains. Where the
grayish black carbonaceous shales and marls, and the nearly black
arenaceous clays prevail, and no superficial deposits cover them,
they give a barren, bleak appearance to the country. — (Meek.)

The thickness of this group on the Upper Missouri is not less
than 700 feet. There are a few localities where it is even greater.
It was therefore a very long era; so long, indeed, that the ages of
human history are as nothing compared with it. During all this
time a large portion, and after the middle of the era the greater por-
tion of what is now Nebraska was again an extended land surface.

Life of the Fort Pierre Group Epoch. — From the few vegetable
remains in the form of petrified and agatized wood that has been
preserved, it is evident that the vegetable kingdom was represented
mainly by the forms that characterized the preceding era. These,
it will be remembered, were mainly cycads, zamias, araucarian con-
ifers and tree ferns.

The animal life of the seas was probably richer than in the pre-
ceding era in molluscan forms, and poorer in reptilian life. The
Cretaceous, the last period of Mesozoic times, was drawing to a
close, and with it its characteristic life.

Meek has described one echinoderm from this group. He has
also described two species of oysters and several varieties. Closely
related to the oysters were two Gryphaea and eleven species of
Inoceramus. Some of these were of great size and beauty. Ino-
ceramus sagensis was nearly six inches long. /. vanuxemi was still
larger, being ten inches long and nine inches high. The bivalves
seemed to have been specially abundant, as besides the preceding,
Meek has described thirty-five species. Thirty species of univalves
have also been described. There were many beautiful chambered
shells. Two baculites were abundant. Among the eighteen ad-

200 GEOLOGY.

•ditional species of chambered shells there were seven of Heteroceras
and one Placenticeras; This last was a form of exceptional beauty.
P. Placenta was equally fine. The three partially uncoiled scaphites
;show the beginning of a return to the original form of chambered
shells. The three species of Nautilus are as perfect as the finest
from existing seas. Fish life was abundant. Reptiles were pres-
ent, but not in such amazing numbers as in the preceding era. The
commonest kind being species of Mosassaurs.

This era was closed by a further elevation of the country in Ne-
braska, on the Upper Missouri and wherever this group now con-
stitutes the upper rock of a region.

THE Fox HILLS GROUP.

No deposits of this group are exposed in Nebraska, and it is un-
certain whether any exist in the State. If they are present, they
underlie the Tertiary in the northwestern part of the State. As
this group constitutes the surface or upper rock in the Fox Hills,
from which it was so named by Hayden, above Moreau River, on
the upper Missouri, and near Long Lake, above Fort Pierre, it is
possible that it also runs in a southwesterly direction, and underlies
the Tertiary in northwestern Nebraska, as stated above. In doing
so it would follow the law of the preceding groups in Nebraska,
each of the newer following after the preceding on its northwestern
side. This group is also found along the base of the Big Horn
Mountains, on the North and South Platte Rivers, and at other
points in the mountains. Its thickness is about five hundred feet. —
(Meek and Hayden.) It is largely composed of gray ferruginous
and yellowish sandstone and arenaceous clays. During the depo-
sition of these deposits, the greater part of Nebraska *was an ex-
tended land surface. Nebraska doubtless drained into this Fox
Hills sea, but the sediments that filled it up were derived mainly
from land surfaces on the west and north, as is indicated by their
character. That it was also a long period, is evident from the
thickness of the deposits — 500 feet in the region of the upper Mis-
souri. According to Clarence King, (Systematic Geology, p 349),
east of the North Platte and north of the Union Pacific Railroad
in Wyoming, its maximum thickness is 4,000 feet. At the most
rapid rate of deposition, the time involved in laying down such a
mass of sediment is beyond calculation. According to Hayden,
Meek and Lesquereux and others, it was the closing portion of

MEDIEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 201

-Cretaceous and Mesozoic times in the West. Clarence King, Le
Comte, Stevenson, Powell, Newberry and Cope, however, regard
the next group above (Laramie Group of King and Hayden), as the
•closing member of the Cretaceous. It will, however, suit my present
plan best to consider the Laramie (also called by Hayden Lignitic
Group) as the transition group from the Cretaceous to the Tertiary.

The vegetable remains found in the Fox Hills group still indicate
the presence of cycads, zamias, tree ferns and araucarian pines, but
in greatly diminishing proportionate numbers. There is already a
large admixture of more modern tree forms.

Animal life was specially rich in molluscan forms, closely related
to that of the preceding group, or Fort Pierre fauna. Like the
latter, it contains the remains of many chambered shells, such as
baculites and scaphites, the latter being specially, abundant and
beautiful. No more beautiful shell ever existed than Scaphites Con-
radi, which is found in these deposits. Other unrivaled shells and
bivalves were also abundant. Vertebrates were represented by nu-
merous fishes and some large reptiles, the commonest being in the
Fort Pierre group, Mosasaurus Missouriensis. No doubt the plains
of Nebraska, during this epoch, was the home of huge Dinosaurs
and reptilian birds, but their 'remains, under the geological circum-
stances of the times, could not be preserved to us.

LARAMIE GROUP.

This is the Lignitic group of Hayden, but changed to Laramie
by mutual agi cement between Dr. Hayden and Clarence King.
Like the preceding, it is not exposed in Nebraska, but may be
present in the northwestern part of the State, underlying the Ter-
tiary. A line joining the Laramie on the Missouri and its eastern
exposures in Colorado, would pass across northwestern Nebraska.
As this grcup is known in numerous places to pass under the Mio-
cene, its presence in northwestern Nebraska in the same position
is not impossible. However that may be, it represents, even more
than the preceding, a very long epoch, and the history of our plains,
the greater part of which at least wras, during its continuance, a
land surface, can only be surmised by studying the character of this
group, and the events which it represents.

It is the last of that series of groups, commencing with the Da-
kota, that are conformable through their united thickness of not
less than 12,000 feet in the Rocky Mountain region. Of these
12,000 feet of sediment, four-fifths are of sandy materials, more or

202 GEOLOGY.

less mixed with calcareous deposits, which were derived mainly
from a land mass that was raised up at the close of the Carbonifer-
ous, and extended from the Wasatch west of the meridian of 117°
30' for 200 miles westward, and for an unknown distance north and
south. — (King.) The materials of this land mass were mainly silic-
ious, and fully seven-tenths of the deposits that constitute these
cretaceous rocks came from their disintegration and erosion. At
the close of each epoch represented by these groups, the shore line
of the old interior cretaceous ocean retreated farther to the west and
northwest. By the time the Laramie epoch was reached, it was>
during much of the time, only a vast marsh or bog, full, no doubt,,
of low islands, and subjected often to incursions from the sea, and
again constituting an estuary, and occasionally even becoming a
fresh water lake. All this is evident from its vegetable and animal
remains, which sometimes are marine, sometimes land, and some-
times of brackish and fresh water types. From the Triassic to the
Cretaceous, and through its groups to the upper boundary of the
Fox Hills, only marine forms are found, except in a very few in-
stances where a few fresh water species exist underlaid and over-
laid by a true cretaceous fauna.

The materials of this Laramie Group are, like the preceding,,
principally sandstones, but varying a great deal more in litho-
graphic character in different sections. Intercalated with the sand-
stones, at various horizons, are clayey and shaly layers, and a few
beds of pure clay, and many strata of carbonaceous shales. The
principal colors are buff, pink, red and various shades of yellow*
Sometimes the dip is slightly east or west, or even entirely horizon-
tal. Its undulations are wave like, and the inclination of the flanks
are always under 5° or 6°. — (Clarence King.) The thickness of this
series of beds ranges from 1,500 to 5,000 feet.

This group can be studied to great advantage at the exposures
along the railroad east of Separation station, where colored sand-
stones, some clayey beds, and a number of coal seams, leaf impres-
sions and carbonized stems are found, and often exposed. No-
where, however, is it seen on a grander scale than in the Upper
Missouri, where it was first noticed and reported on by Lewris and
Clarke, as early as 1804. From a Mandan village on the Missouri,,
they traced these lignitic measures to the Yellowstone, and for a
great distance along this river. The length of these measures, as
observed by these explorers, was over six hundred miles. After-

MEDIJEVAL. OR ME8OZOIC TIMES. 203

wards, Audubon and Morris explored the same region, and gave
details similar to those of Lewis and Clarke. No one, however, has
done so much to make known the character and the great extent of
this group as Dr. Hayden. Commencing his explorations in 1854,
and continuing them down to the present time, he reduced to order
the data which others as well as himself accumulated. Lesquereux>
speaking of his work in this field, remarks: " His researches show
the constant vigilance and circumspection of a master, attending to
the performance of a great work, the building of a monument
whose plan has been prepared by serious scientific studies." Hay-
den considers that the area of the Lignitic (Laramie) on the Upper j
Missouri cannot be less than 100,000 square miles, without taking j
into account the great belt that extends far north from the United
States into British America.* Altogether, from British America
to the Black Hills, the area covered is not less than 125,000 square
miles. Between the Black Hills and the Rocky Mountains, there
is still another area of 1,700 square miles. The extent of the
southern basin, which commences south of Cheyenne and extends
to the Colorado plains, east of Denver, and southward to New
Mexico, has not yet been estimated.

The most characteristic feature of this group, as already indicated r
is the great number of carbonaceous shales and true coal beds
which it contains. Fifteen and twenty coal beds sometimes occur
in the course of a thousand feet. — (King). Artesian borings at Rock
Springs station in 700 feet brought to light seventeen coal seams,
the principal bed being eleven feet thick. Some beds are known |
and worked that are over thirty feet in thickness. When the great
extent of this coal field is considered, it becomes apparent that it is
only second in importance to the coal fields of the Carboniferous
Age. As is well known, the coal belongs to the series of lignites,
and is a superior article.

Vegetable Life. — The vegetable kingdom had now become clearly
modern, the Mesozoic features having passed away. The Flora of
this group has been carefully studied by Lesquereux, who has de-
scribed from this and the Green River Groups 329 species. This is
probably only a fragment of the rich flora of that time, but it is
enough to show its general character, and the kind of forests that
must have obtained also over the land surface of Nebraska. j- In

*Hayden's Annual Report for 1874, p. 20.

jSee Lesquereux's Tertiary Flora, Vol. VII. of IT. S. Geological Surveys of the Territories,
F. V. Haydeii, Geologist.

204 GEOLOGY.

his list of Flowerless plants (Crypt ogamice), there are a few fungi,
one lichen, eight algae, one moss, four lycopods, twenty ferns, four
colamites, etc.

The Flowering Plants (Phcznogamice), were most fully developed.
Among the naked seeded were one zamiae and sixteen cone-bearing
trees. These latter first appeared in the Devonian, and apparently
culminated in the Tertiary, from which at least 200 species have
been described. Among these in the Laramie Group were eight
sequoias, the genus to which the giant trees of California belong.
Five species of grasses have also been described. The Palms,
"those noble children of the sun," were represented by at least
three genera and fifteen species. One beech (Fagus), flourished at
that time. No family, however, surpassed in the number of indi-
viduals the Oaks (Quercus), of which eighteen species have been
described from this group. At the present time there are only
thirty species known to the-entire United States. Even the Chest-
nut (Costanea), was then already present. Four species of Willow
(Saltx) must have been, judging from their remains, abundant.
Curious enough, the Cottonwood (Populus) was then represented
by at least twelve species. The Sycamores (Platinus) have left
the remains of five species in this group. Most wonderful of all is
it that already twenty-three species of Fig tree ('Ftcus) have been
described. Whether their fo62,was equal to the fig of the present
time, is uncertain, but if so, the monkeys that appeared in the Green
River Eocene had fine living. Ash (Fraximus), Dogwoods (Cor-
nus), and the Grape-vine ( Vitis], were all at home in this group.
That noble, majestic and beautiful named tree, the Magnolia, which
is the pride of the south, flourished during these times, as the re-
mains of four species attest. Eight species of the Maple family
(Acerinecz), and nineteen of the Buckthorn (Rhamnece}, also abounded.
That noble tree, the Black Walnut (Juglans), which had appeared
first in the Dakota Group Cretaceous, had now increased to six
species. Five species of Sumach (Rhus) were in company with the
last. Even an Eucalyptus flourished at this time. Many other
forms, to which my limits will not permit me even to allude, illus-
trate the wonderfully rich and divergent type of the Flora at that
time — a Flora that combines many semi-tropical and high temper-
ate characters.

Animal Life. — The Animal life of the Laramie Group has been
regarded as unique and exceptional. Its marine forms are al-

MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 205

most entirely Cretaceous, while its lacustrine species are most closely
allied to the Tertiary. Oysters (Ostrea) are the most abundant in
species and individuals of all the marine forms.

The following marine mollusks of Cretaceous type are reported
from this group; the first three being given by King, and the re-
mainder by Meek.*

Avicula Nebrascana.
Nucula cancellata.
Ammonites lobatus.
Ostrea glabra.
Ostrea subtrigonalis.

The following brackish water species are also given from this
group, by Meek :

Cyrena, one species.
Carbicula, five species.
Carbula, three species.
Certhida, one species.
Hydrobia, five species.
Micropyrgus, one species.

The following are the fresh water species :

Unios, four species.
Sphaerium, five species.
Limnasa, one species.
Planorbis, four species.
Bullimus, three species.
Goniobasis, nine species.
Viviparus, eight species.
Campeloma, three species.
Valvata, three species.

There are some others inhabiting both brackish and fresh water,
A few land shells of the genera, Helix and Hyalina are also found
mingled with the above.

The most remarkable, however, of all the facts connected with
the animal remains of this group, is the presence of reptilian re-
mains of Cretaceous type. At Black Buttes station, about half-way
up the base of the bluff, are laminated light gray shales over a coal

*See Meek's Invertebrate Palaeontology of the Cretaceous and Tertiary Fossils of the Upper
Missouri, Vol. IX. of U. S. Geological Surveys, F. V. Hayden, Geologist.

206 GEOLOGY.

bed two feet thick. Here are found marine and fresh water shells.
About 100 feet from the top, in a dark gray sandstone filled with
leaves and stems, Bannister, and afterwards Cope, exhumed the
body of a Dinosaur (Agathaumus sylvestre). Four species of Dino-
saurs have also been described by Leidy, from the Judith beds
(Laramie) in Montana. Still. others, from this same group in Col-
orado, have been described by Cope.

It is therefore a fact that a Cretaceous vertebrate fauna flourished
during this Laramie epoch. According to Lesquereux and New-
berry, a Tertiary flora existed here at the same time, as we have
already seen. Cope, summing up the evidence, remarks: "There
is, then, no alternative but to accept the result that a Tertiary Flora
was contemporaneous with a cretaceous fauna, establishing an uninter-
rupted succession of life across what is generally regarded as one of
the greatest breaks in geological times." "The appearance of
mammalia, and sudden disappearance of Mesozoic types of reptiles
in the immediately next epoch, may be regarded as evidence of mi-
gration, and not of creation. Lizards, tortoises and crocodiles, con-
tinue from the Mesozoic through the Tertiary to our own time,
without great modification of structure. The Dinosauria, how-
ever, disappeared from the land, exterminated by the more active
and intelligent mammal. Herbivorous reptiles, like Agathaumas
and Cienodon, would have little chance in competing with the
powerfully armed mammals of Tertiary times. This transition
series, therefore, of Hayden, is such in fact as well as in name, and
Paleontology demonstrates his conclusion " that there is no real
physical break between the well marked Cretaceous and Tertiary
Groups." This rich Tertiary flora and Cretaceous fauna flourished
then during this epoch also over the plains and in the lakes of Ne-
braska.

COAL IN THE CRETACEOUS.

No question about the Cretaceous in Nebraska is more frequently
asked than this: Is there coal in workable quantity in any of the
groups of this period in Nebraska? There is no question about
the Cretaceous in the mountains being coal bearing. On this sub-
ject, Clarence King observes*: " In the extreme western exposures
in the territory of the Wasatch and Uinta ranges, coal beds appear
at the very base of the series, immediately upon the capping mem-
bers of the Jura; and from that horizon to the summit of the series,

*Systematic Geology, p. 539.

MEDIAEVAL OR MESOZOIC TIMES. 207

throughout the whole 12,000 feet, they recur in that region. They
increase in frequency after the close of the Fox Hills Group, and
are most abundant through the 4,000 or 5,000 feet of the closing or
Laramie Group of the series." In illustration of this statement, it
is reported by Emmbns that a bed of coal ten feet thick, of excel-
lent quality, is located south of the Uinta at Ashley Creek, in the
Dakota Group. Of equal excellence is another bed of coal of equal
thickness in the Fort Benton Group, higher up in the series, but
near the same place. Another thick coal bed, on the south side of
the Uintas, is reported by Marsh, in the Niobrara Group. Coal
is also reported in workable quantities in the Fort Pierre, and in
still larger quantities in the Fox Hills Group. The inference,
therefore, is legitimate that there were betimes, during the progress
of the Cretaceous Age, extended land surfaces in this region, fol-
lowed by subsidences.

Were there such subsidences and land surfaces in Nebraska dur-
ing this period? Thus far none to the same extent have been
found. At a few places in the Dakota Group, and also in the Fort
Benton, thin beds of lignite have been found. The thickest, thus
far, have been observed in Dakota and Dixon counties, where they
range from six to sixteen inches, but the lignite coal is of inferior
quality. As the strata are almost horizontal, and few canyons cut
through them, their study in Nebraska, in the absence of borings,
is difficult. It is possible, though hardly probable, that at some
points in our extended territory there may be basins of coal of good
quality in these deposits. Even in the mountains, the thick beds
occupy depressions in the strata, and soon thin out, only to increase
again in thickness farther on. To settle this question in Nebraska
definitely, will require many borings, over a large area of our ter-
ritory. One of the most favorable regions for testing for these
lignite coals is in northern and northwestern Nebraska.

CLOSE OF THE CRETACEOUS AND TRANSITION PERIODS.

With the close of the Laramie epoch, the whole series of con- .
formable strata, which had commenced with the Dakota Groups
ceased. When the last sediments of the Laramie Group had been
laid down, there occurred one of the great geological revolutions in
the history of the globe. Frorn the eastern base of the mountains
to the Wasatch, the whole region was thrown into a series of folds,
and undulations. The Uinta Range, with its broad, flat anticlinal,

208 GEOLOGY.

was made at this time. The whole chain of the Rocky Mountain,,
was lifted up, so as to leave a broad depression eastward of the
Wasatch, and on both sides of the Uintas. — (King.) The Laramie
Group was turned up at all angles, from a few degrees to a vertical
position, as it is now found in many places beneath the superincum-
bent Tertiary. This upturning affected also the Cascade Range,
which was then first outlined. The whole region of the plains
sympathized with this movement, so that they became an extended
land surface. Nebraska now certainly, for the first time since the
early Cretaceous, over its whole territory became a land surface.
The elevation in the mountains became sufficient to give free drain-
age to the sea, and exclude the oceanic waters. The great interior
sea became so completely exterminated, and the continent so
elevated, that it has never since been subjected to the sway of the
ocean. Henceforward, fresh water lakes became dominant, down
to the borders of our own times.

THE CENOZOIC AGE. 209

CHAPTER IV,

THE CENOZOIC AGE IN NEBRASKA. — EOCENE
TERTIARY EPOCH.

Causes that Produced the Cenozoic Age. — Tertiary Period. — How Divided.
— Eocene and Its Divisions in the West. — Eocene Not Represented in Ne-
braska. — Why Discussed Here. — Its Peculiar Modern Vegetable and Animal
Life, and its Origin. — Vermillion Group of the Eocene. — Its Vegetable and
Animal Life. — Green River Group, and Its Organic Remains. Fort Bridger
Group, and Peculiar Scenery. — Its Animal Remains. Uintah Group. — Close
of the Eocene.

culmination of those physical changes that had been in pro-
JL gress during the whole of the latter portion of the Cretaceous
period inaugurated the Cenozoic Age. We have already seen that
successive portions of ihe old Cretaceous sea bottoms became dry
land. After the Dakota and Fort Benton groups, the first extended
land surface wrested from the Cretaceous sea was the Niobrara
Group. Portions of the Fort Pierre Group were next added. The
Fox Hills and Laramie are not exposed in Nebraska, but both may
and probably do exist in northwestern Nebraska beneath the super-
incumbent Tertiary. In fact, the Cretaceous period came to a close
by a very gradual uplift, not of single mountain masses or chains,
but by the elevation of the whole western portion or half of the
continent, along with mountain folding. Heretofore the highest
portion of the continent existed in the east with the Appalachian
chain as the central axis; now it came to be the western portion,
with the Rocky Mountains as the main axis.

The emergence of the continent was most complete towards the
north. The great American Mediterranean Sea, which from the
middle Cretaceous period had extended from the Wasatch to the
meridian of eastern Nebraska and middle Kansas, had separated
the continent into two elongated bodies of American land. This
great sea had now become virtually extinct by the continued conti-
nental uprising, thus " giving free drainage to the sea, except along
a basin-like depression extending from the Wasatch Range east-

210 GEOLOGY.

ward to the meridian of 107° 30', with a north and south extension
not yet definitely known. This depression was immediately occu-
pied by an early Eocene lake, whose northern portion corres-
ponded with approximate accuracy to the present drainage basin of
/ Green River. Southward it extended through portions of Utah,
Y__ New Mexico, Colorado, and probably Arizona." — (Clarence King).
Along with this uprising of the western portion of the continent,,
there was an epoch of mountain making at the close of the Laramie
period, as already stated. The Wasatch and Uinta mountains-
were further folded and raised, and the Colorado range was greatly
elevated. This folding helped to make the depression towards the
Wasatch and on each side of the Uintas, which became the bed
of the great Eocene lake, referred to above. This emergence to-
wards the north, and on the west of the continent, the greater ele-
vation of its mass, and the retreat of the seas necessarily produced
great changes of climate. The mean temperature had gradually
become lower, and the extremes greater. The climate also became
drier. And yet it was warmer and moister than at present, as is-
evident from the vegetable and animal life of the time. All the
old Cretaceous forms had disappeared, or had been, by changes of
environment, transformed into the modern representatives. Thus
was inaugurated the Cenozoic Age.

The Cenozoic Era, or Age of Mammals, comprises two periods^
namely: First, The Tertiary; second, The Quaternary.

TERTIARY PERIOD.

Lyell divided the Tertiary into three divisions, which were
named from the number of species of fossil shells which they con-
tain, and which are living in existing seas. They are the Eocene,
Miocene and Pliocene. Other divisions are in use in the east and
south, but as Lyell's method is most convenient, and his divisions
the most characteristic of the west, they are followed in this work.

Eocene Epoch. — As already stated, there are no deposits of this
period in Nebraska. During the whole of it, Nebraska was an
extended land surface. The forces that had finally lifted the conti-
nent from the embrace of the sea, during the closing centuries of
the Cretaceous period, had extended their work to the region of the
plains, and made them dry land. During the whole of the Eocene,,
therefore, Nebraska was an extended land surface. What really
occurred here during this period, can only be inferred from the veg-

THE CENOZOIC AGE. 211

etable and animal life that is found entombed in the Eocene beds
of the mountains. The record there is comparatively full — here
there is none whatever. At the present day nearly 500 species of
Nebraska plants grow in the mountains, and on the foot-hills.
The proportion of animals common to the two regions is still
greater. In Eocene times the differences in level and climate were
probably not near so great as now. It is therefore highly probable
that the larger number of vegetable and animal forms, that then
flourished around the shores of this old Eocene lake in the moun-
tains, also lived in Nebraska. Unfortunately, many species, also,
that then existed here did not range so far west, and therefore no *
memorials of their presence have been preserved.

Clarence King has recognized four groups of the Eocene, which
he has named as follows:

1. Vermillion Creek Grotip. — This is the Wasatch Group of Hay-
den. Lowest Eocene, 5,000 feet thick.

2. Green River Group. — Hayden and King. Middle Eocene,
2,000 feet thick.

3. Fort Bridger Group. — Hayden and King. Lower and middle
horizon of the upper Eocene, 2,500 feet thick.

4. Uinta Group. — King. Upper Eocene, shading into Miocene,
500 feet thick.

In these groups we have the most complete memorials of the
higher land and fresh water life of the Eocene of the continent.
The Gulf Alabama Eocene beds are much less complete, as they
begin at a much higher horizon than the Vermillion beds. As the
Eocene is not present in Nebraska, I will omit the lithological and
physical description of these beds, referring only to such particulars
as may throw light on Nebraska's geological history during those
times.

The Length of the Eocene Epoch was very great. This is inferred ^ ->.
from the 12,000 feet of sediments that were accumulated in the ) /
bottom of the Rocky Mountain Eocene lakes. Many of the sedi-
ments of the Green River and Fort Bridger groups are of the
character that accumulate with extreme slowness. A large part,
too, of the upper beds, where they constitute the surface rocks, has '
been removed by erosion. Their original thickness, therefore,
must have been much greater than at present. The estimates of
time, however, are made from the remnants of these beds. It has
been estimated that at the most rapid rate, not more than one-fourth

212 GEOLOGY.

of an inch of solid sediment, on an average, could accumulate in a
year. It was probably far less rapid than that, but even at that
rate, over half a million of years were required to accumulate these
12,000 feet of sediments that are left from these old lake beds.
During the progress of these deposits, there were occasional oscil-
lations of level and interruptions in the accumulation of materials.
This is indicated by the shifting of the shore lines westward, and
the slight unconformability of the Green Riverbeds with the under-
lying Vermillion.

We can best understand the progressive movements, and the ad-
vanced position of those times by considering the vegetable and
animal life which is found entombed in its various groups.

It was the great changes in climate resulting from the changes
in physical geography, that either exterminated the vegetable and
animal life of the preceding Cretaceous period, or by gradual change
of environment transforming them into the advanced stages which
they exhibited during the opening centuries of the Eocene.

Life during the Vermillion Creek Period. Wasatch of Hayden. — In
the sediments of this group (5,000 feet thick), have been found, and
described by Lesquereux, forty-six species of plants. Among these
are found the following notable forms: One Cypress (Taxodium
.dubium), one Giant Cedar (Sequoia Heerii), one Sweet Gum Tree
{Liqitidamber gracilis), six species of Cottonwood (Populus), one
Alder (Alnus Kefersleinii), one Birch (Betula Stevensoni\ five Oaks
, two Hazel-nuts (Corylus), two Beeches (Fagus), five figs
, two Sycamores (.Platanus], two Dogwoods (Cornus), one
Magnolia, one Papaw (Asimina mioceneca), one Grape-vine, three
Walnuts (Juglans), and twenty-one other species. These vegetable
forms, according to Lesquereux, are, when compared with Euro-
pean fossils, all of Miocene type, though found here in the lower
Eocene. In fact, of the fifty-six species, thirty-one are identical
with the European Miocene, or the Arctic Miocene Flora. Accord-
ing to the same authority, they are indicative of a warm temperate
climate. This is specially indicated by the presence of the Magno-
lia, Fig Trees, Sequoias and Cypress.

Animal Life of the Vermillion Group Epoch. — The peculiarity
that marked the animal life of the earliest Eocene was the sudden
appearance of mammals of a high type. Though highly generalized
compared with their more modern representatives, the transition
forms connecting them with the animals of the preceding Cretace-

THE -CENOZOIC AGE. 213

cms period are unknown. If the period of transformation was the
preceding Laramie period, which is regarded by Hayden as a
transition group between the Cretaceous and Tertiary; then the ev-
olution of their forms occurred elsewhere, where no records have,
been preserved. It probably, however, was near by, and may have
been the region of the plains in Kansas and Nebraska; and if so,
during the early Eocene they came by migration around the shores
of the Vermillion lake, in whose sediments their remains were pre-
served.

The distinguishing peculiarity among the mammals that now
appeared in large numbers was the tapiroid features that marked
them all. They were mostly odd toed (Perissodactyls}, like birds
and dinosaurs. It has been observed by zoologists that as dinosaurs
in the character of the sacrum, vertebra, ischium, etc., were related
to, or had mammallian characters, so the tapiroid mammals of the
Eocene had also dinosaurian features. The dinosaurs were still
more closely in their organization related to birds, so that it is un-
certain of many of them whether they were most reptile or bird.
It is possible, therefore, that at some time along the transition pe-
riods of the Mesozoic the dinosaurian branch divided, one part pro-
ceeding towards or transforming into birds, and the other into the
mammalia.

Among the lower Eocene Vermillion animals Cope has des-
cribed three small species of carniverous animals, having more or
less of the then common tapiroid characters.

The hoofed (Ungulatd] animals are, however, the most interest-
ing. Fifteen species of these are from this group. Six of them be-
long to the famous Dawn Horse Family (Eohippus), and have
been described mainly by Marsh. They wrere about the size of a
fox, and had three toes on the hind foot and five on the front, four
of which were serviceable, and one splint (metacarpei) that did not
touch the ground, but probably carried a rudimentary thumb toe,
" like a dew claw." Unlike the modern horse, " the bones of the
leg and forearm were not yet distinct." — (Marsh.)

The Vermillion beds from which these animals were procured
have been called \h&Cary,phodonbeds^ from the presence of remains
of animals that have received that designation. These peak-toothed
animals (Caryphodons^ of which four species have been described,
were peculiar in their highly generalized type of foot and tooth
structure. They had five hoofed toes, and their general structure

214 GEOLOGY. » '

connected them with tapirs and such generalized carnivores as
bears. Cdryphodon elephantopus was about the size of a small
elephant, but some of the species were much smaller than the mod-
ern tapir.

Another group of animals described from these beds by Marsh,
were named Tillodontla. Like the preceding, they were highly
generalized in structure, and combined the hoofed toes of the Un-
gulata with the head of the bears and the incisor teeth of the ro-
dents. Thus far four clearly defined species have been described.
Among reptiles several species of crocodiles and many turtles have
been obtained.

Green River Group. — This group is unconformable to the pre-
ceding, indicating some changes of level preceding its deposition.
It overlaps the Vermillion group towards the west at least 200
miles (King). The sediments that constitute this group are 2,000
feet thick, and are exceedingly fine, indicating their deposition in
deep waters. In some localities, such as Barrel Springs, south and
east of Cathedral Bluff--, the shales of this group are extremely
carbonaceous, and are intercalated with fine, sandy members.
Many leaf impressions are found in them, and numerous fresh wa-
ter shells.

Vegetable Remains of the Green River Group. — Lesquereux has
described 82 species of plants from this group, but their general
facies is remarkably distinct from that of the preceding deposits.
Among these plants are six ferns, two species of Equisetae, eleven
conifers and nine grains and grasses (Glumaceoe). The willows
(Sallx) were represented by three species, the oaks (Quercus) by
five, hollies (Ilex) by four, sumac (Rhus) by two, and walnuts
(Juglans] by six species. Fig trees, the Cyprus, the giant cedars,
and the ash were still present, but the palms were gone. It con-
tains only a remnant of the Flora of the preceding group. Les-
quereux, in studying this Flora, came to the conclusion that it rep-
resented a vegetation characteristic of " high land, covered with
lakes, swamps, and deep forests of conifers with a thick under-
growth of ferns and shrubs." In the Tertiary it has its analogue
with the Flora of Oeningen in Switzerland, or upper stage of Eu-
ropean Miocene. As this vegetation is an upland flora, it is prob-
able that it does not so fully represent the vegetable forms that ob-
tained on the plains of Nebraska during this period as the preced-
ing Vermillion Group epoch. %

THE CENOZOIC AGE. 215

Animal Lije of the Green River Group. — As already stated, fresh
water shells were exceedingly abundant. Fish seemed to be enor-
mously abundant, at least in individuals, though the number of gen-
era represented are comparatively few. One of the commonest of
genera is Clupea, of which some half a dozen of species have been
clearly distinguished. Our existing, shad and herring belong to
this group. Several other genera, each represented by from one
to seven species, have been described. Turtles were abundant in
this old lake. But with the exception of a crocodile described by
Leidy, about the size of the one living in the Nile, the higher rep-
tiles of the period were not preserved. In mammallian life it does
not compare with the preceding or the next group.

Fort Bridger Group. — The areas of the Bridger beds are sur-
rounded by strata of the Green River formation, which pass under
them, exhibiting slight nonconformity. — (King.) They are 2,500
feet thick. " The materials are largely made up of almost uniform
buff and gray marls, and clays, interrupted at several horizons by
beds of peculiar green earth." " Fine sand and clay predominate,
arranged in varying proportions, and occasionally changed by cal-
careous admixtures. It is a sand and clay formation, while the
preceding Green River group is highly calcareous." The Bridger
beds are intricately eroded into all kinds of fantastical architectural
forms. At and near Cherokee Ridge a line of bold escarpments
extend northeast for fourteen miles. Here the Bridarer beds rise

300 feet above the level valley, and present many abrupt, nearly ver-
tical faces, worn into innumerable architectural forms. Often out-
liers stand detached in bold, isolated blocks, which have been sculp-
tured by the winds into many singular forms. Sometimes enor-
mous masses project from the main wall, the stratification lines be-
ing traced by the creamy, gray and green sands and marls, which
resemble courses of gigantic masonry. Narrow galleries often pro-
ject far into these labyrinths. The whole appearance is like a line
of Egyptian structures. Among the most interesting forms are the
isolated blocks, often over 100 feet in height, which are the last rel-
icts of the b^Js which once covered this region. The plains skirt-
ing these " Bad Lands" are quite level, there seldom being any
talus at the bottoms or base of the cliffs. The excessive fineness of
the materials is leveled by the water agencies that have for so long
a period been producing erosion. — (King.)

216 GEOLOGY.

The Briclger beds are most remarkable for the animal remains
which they have preserved, and which has made them classic,
ground for the geologist. From the above description it is seen
that they are eminently adapted for the preservation of animal re-
mains. At the foot of almost every cliff can be found some remains
of turtles or mammals.

Animal Life of the Fort Bridge r. — Moluscan life was abundant,,
but I can only refer to the vertebrate, and espe'cially to the mam-
malian life of the time.

Fishes were represented by numerous forms, among which were
species of Phineaster, closely related to the modern catfish, several
species of gars and many kinds of mud fish, as Amia. Closely re-
lated to the last are numerous species of Pappichthys, some of
which are classed by Marsh with Amia. Marsh has also described
many species of serpents, one genus of which (JBoanus) was allied
to our water snakes. The saurians were represented by many spe-
cies, which have been mainly described by Leidy and Marsh. The
most abundant of these are the crocodiles, of which at least six spe-
cies have been defined. Many others, closely related to the croco-
diles, are found in the same localities, among which the Glyplo-
saurus and Thinosaurus were also described by Marsh. The tur-
tles (Chelonid) were also present in large numbers. Species of the
genus Emys were most abundant, though there were also many of
the soft shelled kind (Trionyx), and of several other genera. Some
of them were small, but many of them were of gigantic size. Some
of the land turtles of the genus Hadrianus, described by Cope, were
from twenty-five to twenty-nine inches in length, and proportion-
ately broad. They were probably the largest of all the extinct
land tortoises.

True, birds seem to have been abundant. One of the first de-
scribed from this group was a form allied to an owl, and called by
Marsh Bubo leptosteus. One genus of waders {Alletornis}, was
represented by five species. The remains of a woodpecker {Uintot-
nis Uucaris), have also been described by Marsh.

The highly generalized Tillodontia, that appeared already in the
Vermillron group, were here represented by several genera. Of
these, species of Tellotherium were the most abundant. With these
fossils are mingled many species of rodents.

The hoofed odd-toed ( Ungulata] animals were present in great num-
bers. One of these genera, of which several species have been de-

THE CENOZOJC AGE. 217

scribed by Leidy, he has named Paleosyops paludosus. It had
forty-four teeth, and formed nearly an unbroken arch. The canines
were proportionately as large, and of the same form as in the bears.
It was about the size of the existing tapir of South America. In
tjie structure of the mouth and teeth it resembled the Paleotherium
of the European Eocene. From the structure of its mouth, Leidy
concludes that, like the bears, it was omniverous. Another species
(P. majo?'}, was as large as the Indian Rhinoceros.. Several other
species have been described. A still more curious species, described
by Leidy, was the gnawing hog (Trogosus). The two species ot
this genus combined the characters of the tapirs with those of the.
gnawing animals. The incisor teeth did not .extend so far back as
in the rodents, and in this respect approached the hog and pecary.
Unlike the rodents, however, the worn slope of the incisors is
directed both backwards and forwards. No canines existed ap-
proaching in this respect the Hyrax, Mastodon, Elephant and
Rhinoceros.

Another tapir-like genus of animals was the Hyrachyus, of which.
six species have been described by Leidy, Marsli and Cope. They
differed from the South American tapir only generically, and aver-
aged about the same in size. From the great numbers of their re-
mains, they must have been exceedingly abundant during this
period. Thus one of the animal forms most common in North
America in Eocene times still persists in the tropical regions of this
continent. Many other genera of tapiroid species have been de-
. scribed from this basin to which I cannot even allude.

The Mountain Horse (Orohippus], similar to the Eohippus of the
Vermillion beds, but wanting the fifth toe, is also found in this group.

Perhaps the most remarkable mammals yet discovered in rocks
of any geological age, are the Dinocerata, which received that name
from Marsh, who regards them as the type of a distinct and new
order. He gave them this name because of the peculiarities of
their heads, which were armed, some of them with three and some
of them with two pairs of horns. They were " terribly horned."
Cope, on the other hand, does not attach the same weight to these
characters, and merely considers them to be a sub-family of the ele-
phants {Proboscidians}. He claims that they had trunks similar to
the elephants. Marsh denies this, on the ground that the naral
opening and general structure of the head unfitted it for carrying a
large trunk or proboscis, and because their short limbs and longer

-I

218 GEOLOGY.

necks enabled them to reach the ground for food without the help
of such an appendage. The heads of most of the species were ex-
tremely elongated, but the limbs bore a striking resemblance to
those of the elephants. One pair of horns, of small size, was
placed above the nasal bones, far forward; the second pair, some-
what larger, above the canines on the maxillary bones; and a third
pair, of large size, on the parietal bones, far back on the head.
Large canines from the upper jaw extended in a slight curve down-
ward, varying in length, on the different species, from five to ten
inches. They had no incisor teeth.

' Cope recognizes four genera of these remarkable animals. Leidy
first made them known in his description of Uintdtherium, of which
three species at' least are now known. Subsequently Marsh and
Cope described other genera and species, and no little confusion has
been produced by the different names ascribed by different investi-
gators to the same species. Cope's type genus, and species is Lox-
olophodon cornutus ( Tinoceras grandis, Marsh). This species is
perhaps most remarkable for the narrow form of the cranium,
which at its middle is only one-fourth its length. The horn
cores diverge, "having in their upper portion an outward curvature."
* * " Its form and proportion of body was similar to that of an
elephant," but its limbs were shorter, and its tail was quite small.
The neck was longer than that of the elephants, but shorter than
that of the rhinoceros. The hind pair of horns towered far above
the others, "extending vertically, with a divergence when the head
was at rest." Cope, contrary to Marsh, claims that the muzzle
could not have reached the ground by several feet, and that there-
fore a proboscis,as in elephants and tapirs, was a necessity. The
horns were probably palmate.

Eobasileus is another genus of the family established by Cope,
but which may be included in the preceding. It was about the
same height as Loxolophldon, but more slender. The muzzle, too,
is shorter and more contracted, as also the horn sheaths. Still an-
other genus of this remarkable family, described by Leidy, wras
Megaceratops. It was about the size in bulk of body to a small
elephant.

re-SathnTodontidaB were a group of animals closely allied to the

OX J

preceding. Cope has described four species from deposits of this
age. The neck was longer and the dentition more complete than
in the preceding forms of this order. They stood in even closer re-
lation to the odd-toed animals than even the Eobasileus.

THE CENOZOIC AGE. 219

The Insectivera (animals with molars having short points) were,
represented by many, genera and species, indicating a great fullness
of insect life during the early Eocene times.

The Carnivora were already abundant. They were like the
preceding orders, of a remarkably comprehensive type. One of
the most curious was the Mesonyx abtusidens, described by Cope.
It was as large as our timber wolf, but with a more slender body
behind. The cheek bones were more prominent than in the wolves
and the tail more like that of the dogs. The phalanges of the first
series were elongated and curved, as in the cats, but like the dogs
it walked on its toes (digitigrade). The foot, moreover, was short,
and the claws flat and more adapted to aquatic use than prehensile
(grasping). The number of its molars exceeded that of any recent
families of carnivora. The teeth, though sectorial, are not so to the
same extent as in existing carnivora, the cutting edge being dull and
uccupying but half the crown. While, therefore, dog-like, it had
many characters relating it to other families. Still more curious
was an animal called by Cope Synoplotherium lanius. Its claws
approximated in character to the seals. The lower canines pro-
jected forwards, and were of large size and came so close together
that there was no room in front for the incisors. They, however,
rested against the incisors of the upper jaw, and latterly against
the upper canines. In other particulars, this animal resembled the
bears and the hyagnodons that appeared in the next or Miocene
epoch. The peculiar approach and projecting form of the lower
canines, was doubtless, as Cope has suggested, a modification of
structure for special habits, which was the destruction and devour-
ing of turtles, which so wonderfully abounded on land, lake and sea,
during early Eocene times.

Sinopa rapax was an animal that was intermediate in position
between the wolves and the dogs, and about the size of the red fox.
Canis montanis is described by Marsh as a species of wolf, larger
than the grey wolf.

Patriofelis ulta (Father of the Cats?) described by Leidy, was
related to the panther and the dog family, with some characters
approaching the weasels and civets. It was considerably larger
than the former.

.The Quadrumana, the order to which the monkeys and man be-
longs, were represented during this period by at least eight species,
among which the following were characteristic forms. Timotheri-

220 GEOLOGY.

um had a long thigh, free from the body, a forefoot capable of be-
ing set down flat, and a form of lower iaw and teeth, similar to
that of the lower modern monkeys. The form of the humerus and
its relative length to the femur, resembles that of the lemurs. * *
" The greatest difference is that of the increased number of teeth,
which related them in this respect to the ancient carnivora and un-
gulata," all of which had more teeth than their modern congeners.
(Cope). The genus Anaptomorphus represents a' group more nearly
related to the existing types of Madagascar and South Africa.
None of these quadrumana of the Fort Bridger Group are typical
forms, and all are much more generalized than existing families.*

The above species represent only a very small number of the
extinct species found in this group, but they will serve to give some
idea of the remarkable life that flourished during those times —
times " when the existing orders of the mammalia were yet in pro-
cess of differentiation, and were scarcely distinctly defined."

UINTA GROUP.

South of the Uinta Mountains there is a small group of Ter-
tiaries, about five hundred feet thick, which constitute the closing
deposits of this period. They have been called the Uinta Group
by King. The materials at the bottom are gritty, rough conglom-
erates, shading upward into finer grained sandstone, and at certain
points into beds of creamy, impure limestone. "The strata seem
to form an unbroken line from the region of the Wasatch east-
ward through the length of Uinta Valley, across Green River,
into the valley of tha White River. The animal remains which
are. found in this group, especially in White River Valley, belong
to a more advanced Eocene period than the Bridger series. They
contain sonTfc forms approximating to the lowest Miocene types." —
(King.) It is not improbable that these beds represent the transition
period between the Eocene and Miocene. Among the important
vertebrates of this series are the following:

Hyopsodus gracilis was a small animal, related in many of its
characters to the hog family. It was of small size, and retained
some tapiroid elements. Epihippus Uintensis and E. gracilis were
small, horse-like animals of this period, closely related to the oro-
hippus of the Bridger beds, but showing a structure approximat-
ing to the Mesohippus of the next or lowest Miocene period:

*For a full technical description of the extinct mammalian species of the Eocene of the
Rocky Mountains, the reader is referred to the reports of Leidy, Marsh and Cope.

THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 221

Agriochcerus was a genus of hog-like ruminants, that flourished
during these times. It was related to the Oreodon of the Miocene.
It differed from the latter and from all known ruminants in having
the orbits open behind. — Leidy.

This group closed the deposits of the Eocene period. This re-
gion of lakes had been rising during the latter portion of Eocene
times, and their final extinction closed this period.

CHAPTER V.

THE TERTIARY PERIOD, CONTINUED.— MIOCENE

EPOCH.

Inauguration of the Miocene Epoch. — Formation of a Lake on the Plains.
— Boundaries. — Where the Miocene is Exposed in Nebraska. — Extent. —
Miocene Lakes farther West. — Basin Region. — Oregon Region. — An Age of
Lakes. — Name of the Eastern Lake. — Kinds of Rock. — Whence the Materials
were obtained. — Why tjhe Miocene Beds are Thin on the Plains.— -Length of
the Miocene Epoch. — Bad Lands. — Flora of the Miocene. — Animal Life. —
Insectivora.— Rodentia.— Horse Family.— Titanotheriums— Symborodons.—
Mastodons and Elephants.— Rhinoceros'.— River Horse.— Hog Family.—
Camel Family. — Musk Deer. — Oreontidae. — Carnivora. — Hyaenodons. — Dre-
panodons. — Quadrumanna in the Miocene. — Mammals in the Miocene, not
Described nor Found. — Closing of the Miocene Epoch — Its Gradual Char-
acters.— Lava Floods at the Close.— Formation of the Coast Range. — Farther

Depression of the Plains. — Effect on life of these Changes.

THE Miocene Epoch was gradually inaugurated. During the
Eocene Epoch the plains were an extended land surface,
made up of the eroded materials of the Cretaceous and the Per-
mian and Carboniferous rocks. There was free drainage to the
sea, but of the rivers and their tributaries of that time, we know
nothing. The upward movement of the plateau regions that event-
ually drained the old Eocene lakes was accompanied by a subsi-
dence of portions of the adjoining plains. The old mountain lakes
were shifted eastward, the depressions in the plains making room
for them. While the- mountains went upward, the plains
went downward, like the changing waves of the sea. As this
movement was slowly in progress for ages before it was consum-

222 GEOLOGY.

mated, the probabilities are that the great Miocene lake of the plains-
commenjed to form before Uinta lake had terminated its history.
There probably were no great convulsive throbs of the earth's
crust, separating sharply the two epochs. The Eocene shaded into
the Miocene epoch. This lake of the plains extended from near
the north line of Kansas across Nebraska, a large part of Dakota
Territory, west of the Black Hills, and northward to Manitoba.
Its exact geographical extent has not been ascertained in Nebraska,
owing to the superincumbent Pliocene, which overlaps it, and
through which it only projects at intervals. The best exposures in
Nebraska commence on the Niobrara River, about 300 miles west
of the mouth of the Keya Paha or Turtle Hill River, and extend'
to the west line of the State, taking in the White Earth River re-
gion and the space between the latter and the north line of the
State. It is finely represented on and north of the latter river in
Dakota Territory, constituting there a portion of the famous Ma-
koo-si-tcha or Mauvais Terre of the French, which has been ren-
dered into English by the term Bad Lands, although in the Dakota
tongue it means simply a country hard to travel over. On the
west the Miocene abuts against the undulating surface of the Lar-
amie Group, and therefore did not extend quite to the foot-hills of
the Colorado Range. The extent of this great fresh water lake
has been variously estimated at from 100,000 to 130,000 and up-
wards of square miles.

The local subsidence of the plains on the east, next to the moun-
tains, was accompanied by a somewhat similar depression between
the Wasatch and the Sierras, forming also a large Miocene lake in
that region. Another great Miocene lake extended from Wash-
ington Territory through Oregon to Nevada and Colorado. In
eastern Oregon, the deposits of this epoch are enormously thick,
the depth reaching 5,000 feet, overlaid, however, by the lava beds,
which were poured from fissures at the close of the Miocene. It
does not fall within the plan of this work to discuss any of these
old Miocene lake beds except the one covering a portion of Ne-
braska.

From the above it is seen that the Miocene was pre-eminently an
age of great fresh water lakes. It is questionable whether on this
continent any other geological epoch was represented by such a
number and such large basins of fresh water.

THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 223

Clarence King has suggested for the Miocene lake that extended
.through Nebraska the name of Sioux Lake. Hayden, who first
studied these beds in this region, called them the White Earth River
Group.

Kinds of Rock. — The materials of these Miocene beds vary a
great deal in character. This would naturally be expected in a lake
bed which received the drainage, through countless ages, of the
rivers that now have their outlet through the Missouri. Varying
currents and other conditions would naturally frequently change
the character of the sediments deposited on the bottom. The rocks-
that supplied the materials that were carried into this Miocene lake
evidently came from the Archaean nucleus of the Rocky Mountains-
and the Black Hills, the Palaeozoic, the Juro-Trias and the different
groups of the Cretaceous. The eroded materials going seaward
were stopped in these old lake beds. Erosion, however, through
the Miocene, was by no means as rapid as at present. The height
of the plateau . region was much less than at present; the atmos-
phere was moister, the rainfall much gentler and more constant,
and a warm, temperate climate obtained. The extreme cold of
winter, which is such a mighty agent in the disintegration of rock,
and which now characterizes these regions, did not then exist. Hill,
valley, plain, mountain and plateau, were also covered by dense
growths, in places, of grasses, and in places of mighty forests,
which protected the land from the denuding agencies which are
now constantly at work. As already stated, the extreme thickness
of the Miocene in the West reaches its maximum in Oregon, where
beds 5,000 feet in vertical thickness are found. Owing to the causes
alluded to above, on the plains the Miocene beds are comparatively
thin. Meek estimates their thickness at from 530 to 600 feet.
Where I measured them, on the Upper Niobrara, they rarely ex-
ceeded 400 feet.

If we calculate the length of Miocene times on the same principle
as Eocene, this epoch was probably a quarter of a million years
long. It should be remembered, however, that there is no certainty
about the length of geological periods. k

In Nebraska, on and north of the White Earth, and on the Upper
Niobrara, the rocks of the Miocene have the following character:
Indurated grit, of a reddish brown color, with occasional layers of
concretions of silicate of lime, often shading into, first, a coarse and
then a fine green sandstone. Above this occur, sometimes, an-

224 GEOLOGY.

mense masses of conglomerate, with occasional layers of tabular
limestone. Then come coarse-grained sandstone, often loose and
friable, and sometimes compact and heavy bedded. A limestone
layer, followed several miles, often changes into a silicate of lime,
then sandstone, and then conglomerate, and the opposite. The
sections published by Meek, Hayden and Leidy correspond, in the
main, to the above.*

BAD LANDS.

A portion of this old Miocene lake bed, on and north of the
White Earth River, as already stated, now constitutes the Bad
Lands. This is one of the most wonderful regions on the globe.
Here, at present, there is very little, and in some places formerly
there was no vegetation. Water fit to drink is exceedingly rare.
This region is worn into labyrinthine canyons that wind around in
in every conceivable direction. Occasionally only isolated, some-
times almost perpendicular, portions of the original beds remain,
producing the appearance of abandoned human habitations, or old.
desolated, forsaken oriental cities. Climbing some of the heights,
far as the eye can reach, there seems to be an interminable array of
towers, spires, cathedrils, obelisks, pyramids and monuments. "Not
urifrequently the rising or setting sun will light up these grand old
ruins with a wild, strange beauty, reminding one of a city illum-
inated in the night, when seen from some high point." The harder
layers project from the sides of the canyons, or mimicked architect-
ural forms, with such regularity that they appear like seats, one abve
the other, of some vast weird amphitheater. It is here among these
strange, grotesque ruins, that the remains of the unique animals,
described farther on, are found." — (Hayden). To the geologist, no
region is so inspiring, though in summer time he will often find
the heat almost insupportable, as the sun heats up these bare walls
like an oven. I have been among these ruins when the thermome-
ter ranged from 108° to 115°. So great, however, is the interest
that is inspired by this page in the earth's history, that the natur-
alist gladly braves the hardships of travel among these desola-
tions.

As can be inferred from the preceding, during the Miocene epoch
the greater part of the eastern portion of Nebraska was a land sur-
face.

*See Leidy 'a Extinct Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska, page 16.

THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 225

Life of the Miocene. — The fossil remains which are found in this
old Miocene lake bed indicate the life of those times. I can only
point out by a few examples some of its salient points.

Not the least remarkable was the flora of the Miocene. In my
excursions to northwestern Nebraska, I found traces and impres-
sions of many land plants, but unfortunately they were too fragile
to remove them from the containing matrix, and all attempts to ac-
complish it resulted in their destruction. Among those identified
were cotton woods (Populus), willows (Salix), magnolias, oaks (Quer-
ais), sweet gum trees (Liquidamber), sassafras, our southern cypress
(Sequoia)^ Glyphtostrobus, which is closely allied to the preceding,
palms, fig trees (J?icus), lindens, birches, maples, pines, etc. Other
observers in other regions have observed many more species, and
have especially noted the vast abundance of the Sequoias and their
congeners which abounded in Miocene times, not only in America,
but over the whole of northern Europe and Asm, and even in
Greenland, Iceland and Spitzenbergen.* The forms, however,
that Heer describes from Greenland, Dawson supposes to be of the
Eocene Age. However that may be, it is clear that in Nebraska
there flourished in Miocene times trees of the same gigantic charac-
ter and even of the same genus, and probably of the same species,
as now grow in the sequestered vales of California. Some of the
United States geologists have, indeed, expressed the conviction
that in that age Nebraska was covered by a vast savanna. I take
the opposite ground, because of the occurrence in the Nebraska
Miocene beds of many species of trees. Besides these giant cedars
that here loomed heavenward, there were species of palms and fig
trees, as stated above, and these helped to give the vegetation that
warm, temperate, or semi-tropical aspect which marked its fades
as a whole.

Animal Life. — Along with this warm, temperate flora, there ex-
isted in Miocene times a still more wonderful animal life. Perhaps
never have the conditions for mammalian life been so favorable as
during this epoch. The few that can be noticed in this chapter
can simply illustrate its general character and richness. The in-
sectivora, which were represented by several genera and species,
must be passed over. Among the rodents the rat family was al-
ready represented by a species called by Leidy, Eumys elegans. A

*See on this subject Gray's Address to the American Association, Gray's Forest Geogra-
phy, Saparta's Anaenne Vegetation Polaire, Beer's Flora Arctica.

226 GEOLOGY.

beaver (Pal&caster Nebrascensis) , was also abundant at this time.
The squirrels of that time were large, as is indicated by the remains
of Ischyromys typus, whose' head was larger than that of a musk-
rat. The rabbit of the Nebraska Miocene was smaller than the
common species of the State at the present time

The horse family (Solidunguld), which is now represented by one
genus (Equus), whose characteristic species are the horse and the
ass, was rich in genera and species during the Miocene. We have
already seen that the family came into being in the early Eocene,
the first known characteristic form being the Eohippus. In the
early Miocene we already have the Mesohippus, represented by
several species whose distinctive peculiarity was that the fourth toe
had become a rudimentary useless splint. Next in the Miocene
came the Anchitheriums, which were represented in Nebraska by
one species, with three additional forms in Colorado. The peculiar
feature of these horses was that they had three toes, all of which
touched the ground, the two lateral, Jiowever, being comparative-
ly small and weak. Closely allied to these were the Hyperions,
several species of which lived during Nebraska Miocene times.
They also had three toes, but only the middle one touched the
ground, the two lateral swinging not much unlike the two side
toes of the hog, being, however, comparatively much smaller.
Another genus, Merychippus, was closely related to the preceding.
These Miocene horses ranged in size from an animal much smaller
than the ass to animals about the size of a small modern horse. It
is seen, therefore, that at least four genera of horses existed in Mio-
cene times, each genus, however, being represented by from one
to several species. They must have been exceedingly numerous,
and doubtless roamed over our plains in countless numbers.

Another peculiar family of odd-toed animals that existed in Mio-
cene times were the Titanotheriums. Leidy first described and
named them. So abundant are their remains at one horizon in the
lower Miocene that it has given it the name of Titanotherium bed.
Marsh afterwards described a closely related animal by the name of
Brontotherium. Subsequently Cope described another of the same
family by the name ofSymborodon. Megaceratops Coloradoensis,
of Leidy, belongs to the same group. These animals had the same
bulk of body of the elephants, and united the characters of the rhi-
noceros and elephants with more distant affinities to the Dinocer-
ata of the Eocene. The head was extremely elongated, and be

THE TERTIARY PERIOD.

227

cause of its depression in the middle, bore some resemblance to a
pack-saddle. They probably had a small trunk about as long as
that of the tapirs. They had two pairs of horns, one pair being
above the nasals and another pair above the eyes, the hind pair be-
ing powerful weapons of defense. They probably were the succes-
sors of the Dinocerata of the Eocene. Of the Symborodons Cope
has described five species. As two species of Brontotherium were
also described by Marsh, it is clear that the number of species was
great, and judging from the remains, there must have been a very*
great number of individuals.

Along with the Symborodons the elephants and mastodons were
already represented by several species. The remains of the one
that I found on the White Earth, in Nebraska, were too much de-
cayed to identify specifically. It bore the closest resemblance to
the Mastodon mirificus that appeared during the next or Pliocene
epoch. •

Among the most unexpected of all discoveries in the Nebraska
Miocene was the remains of rhinoceros'. One, the Rhinoceros oc-
cidentalis,was about three-fourths the size of the Indian rhinoceros.
R. Coloradoensis was found in the Miocene of the mountains.

The curious European genus of river horses {Hyopotamus) was
represented during those times by at least one species. It had af-
finities relating it to the hog family.

Genera closely related to the hog family (Suida) were abundant
during this epoch. One of these genera (EZoiherium), which was
first described from the Miocene of France, was represented by
several species during these times in Nebraska and Dakota. Its
nearest allies among existing animals are first the hogs, and then
the peccary and hippopotamus. One of these (E. Martont] was
about the size of a large hog, while another (E. ingens] was at least
one-third larger. The peccaries, which are now confined to South
America and the southern United States were represented in Ne-
braska during the Miocene by several species. Five other genera
of the Suiclse occur in these deposits. During this period, there-
fore, it is evident that suilline animals existed in great numbers all
over the land.

The most curious fact, perhaps, connected with the animal life of
this epoch, was the presence of many species of the camel family.
At present it is confined to Asia, Africa and South America. In
the former it is represented by the camel proper, and in the latter

228 GEOLOGY.

by the Auchenia or Llama. In Miocene times, however, they
were represented in Nebraska by several genera and many species*
One of the first, described by Leidy, was called Paebotherium Wil-
soni. It was only about as large as the domestic sheep. Protom-
erys Evansi was closely related to the preceding, and about the
same size. A musk deer (Septomeryx] Evansi, also occupied this
territory at this time. It had many characters, especially in the
form of its maxillaries, relating it to the deer. It was about the.
;size of the musk ox of Thibet.

No family of animals was represented in that epoch by more
genera, species and individuals than the Oreontidae. Leidy, who-
first described them, called them ruminating hogs. The skull ap-
proached more nearly to that of the peccaries, though the upper
part had some characters uniting them with the camels. The mo-
lars were like those of ruminants, and resembled most nearly those
of the deer, but unlike modern ruminants, they had incisors in both
jaws. The canines resembled most nearly those of the hog. The
teeth, as a whole, formed an almost unbroken arch, a condition
found in few animals besides the quadrumanna. Like the hogs,,
too, they had four toes on each foot, two being functional, and the
two on the sides being too elevated to touch the ground. They
were, therefore emphatically what Leidy called them, ruminating
hogs. They were, judging from the abundance of their remains,,
more numerous than any animals of those times. They were gre-
garious, and must have roamed over eastern Nebraska in countless
millions. In size they ranged from an animal not larger than a rac-
coon to one as large as a small elk. The most abundant was Oreo-
don Culbertsonii. It was slightly smaller than the domestic sheep.
I have occasionally seen a stratum in the Bad Lands which in
places was largely made up of their remains. The largest species-
was probably O. superbus, whose skull was fourteen inches long*
Besides the many species of Oreodon at least five additional genera
of this family are known. The number of species clearly defined
of all the genera was not less than twenty-five. These animals
were, therefore, among the characteristic features of the Miocene
epoch, and during those times could probably have been found ev-
erywhere in America.

The herbivora, however, did not hold undisputed possession of
the land. The happiness of these countless herds was interrupted
by most sanguinary enemies. The carnivorous mammalia were

THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 229

present in numbers proportionate 'to the herbivorous animals.
Among these the most blood-thirsty were the Hycenodkntidce.
They were first described from the Miocene of France by Cuvier
under another name. Subsequently four additional species were
found and described by De Laizer and De Parieu under the above
family name. The three distinct species found in the Bad Lands
by Evans, Shumard, Meek and Hayden were described by Leidy.
<c The genus HyaenJdon combined the characters af the wolf, tiger,
hyaena, weasel, raccoon and opossum." — (Leidy). It was, therefore,
one of the most comprehensive types of carnivorous mammalian ani-
mals that ever existed. The largest of the species was M. horridus,
and was about the size of the largest of the black bears. The den-
tition of this animal was the most formidable conceivable. " In
addition to powerful canine teeth, three of its molars were structured
after the single sectorial tooth of other carnivorous mammals,
though the last alone reached the full development of the corres-
ponding tooth of the latter. The last of the series of molars were
formed like those of the lion and tiger. These teeth — the strongest
and broadest — combined the mechanism of the wedsre and scissors,

and were eminently adapted for cutting tissues and bones. Im-
mense temporal fossa3 occupied the sides of the skull for the attach-
ment of the powerful muscles that operated the levers that moved
the lower jaw. The skull was about a foot in length. No animal
living contemporaneously with this formidable creature could have
resisted its power." — (Leidy.) Next in size was M. cruentus, and
smallest was M. crucinus.

Among the carnivora of the Nebraska Miocene the cat family
(Felidce] were well represented. Among the most remarkable of
the family was a genus of saber-toothed lions (Drepanodori). Its re-
mains were first found in Western Europe, afterwards in Greece
and Asia, and finally in both Americas. The largest species equaled
the lion and tiger in size, and judging from their terrible array of
destructive teeth were even of greater ferocity. In comparison
with the existing cat family they were characterized by a greater
proportionate size and flattened form of the upper canine teeth,
which has given these animals the name which they bear. Dre-
panidon occidentalis was about the size of the existing panther.
D. primaBvus was slightly smaller. Two of the skulls found by
Hayden exhibit marks of a conflict with some other carnivorous
animal and probably the largest HyaenJdon, as the canines of the

230 GEOLOGY.

latter fit exactly into the depressions or holes found on opposite
sides of the specimen. No doubt these animals had a fight in some
of the beautiful valleys that drained into this Miocene lake, and
then, after their death, their bodies were carried into it by some
flood. Closely allied to the last was the saber-toothed weasel, so-
called because the number and disposition of its teeth were the
same as that of the weasel. Leidy called it Dinictis. It differed
from the Drepanodon principally in the possession of two additional
molar teeth to the lower jaw. This animal was slightly smaller
than the panther, and about as large as the smaller contemporaneous
Drepanodons, whose formidable upper canines it also possessed. Its
remains were first found by Hayden in the Bad Lands of Dakota,,
but molars of the same I subsequently obtained from the White
River, in Nebraska. Cope has obtained additional genera, allied
to the above, from Colorado. He has also described from the Mio-
cene of Colorado several species of the dog family (Canida), mostly,,
however, of small size. I have found a few of their teeth in the
Miocene of Nebraska, but from the paucity of the materials, I was-
unable to identify them specifically.

If, as Cope supposes, the Leptochoerus of the Bad Lands was
most closely allied to the quadrumanna, then the monkeys were
here during the Miocene epoch. He has also described several
species from the Colorado Miocene. One of these he has named
Menotherium lemurinum, because of its close relationship to the
modern lemurs. It was about the size of the common cat. I infer
their presence in the Nebraska Miocene from the discovery on the
Whits Earth of a molar referable to this species. No doubt, there-
fore, that during these times the monkey family -was present and
chattered in the woodlands of eastern Nebraska during Miocene
times.

Many additional species of mammals have been unearthed in the
Miocene of Colorado which have not yet been found in the plains,
but which no doubt flourished here at that time. The preceding
animal forms, however, are only a small part of the species that
have been found, and all of those found probably are only a small
part of those that flourished during Miocene times. During the
whole of this epoch, which, as has already been stated, evidently
was of long duration, there was a most happy combination of phy-
sical geography and climate. Warm, temperate conditions existed
almost to the poles. In Nebraska the magnificent savannas and

THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 231

forests that covered the land gave shelter and food to countless
numbers of the mammalia that here enjoyed a happy existence.
The conditions were most favorable, not only to the perpetuation
and development of animal forms, but for the evolution of species
that were only to be developed completely during the following
epoch.

Like the preceding epochs, the Miocene was destined to come to
a close. The changing conditions evidently were not sudden — they
were of such a gradual character as slowly to alter the environment
of the animal life of the times. With change of climate came
change of flora, which in turn changed or destroyed the rich and
wonderful Miocene forms of animal life. The final catastrophe
came at the close. It was one of the greatest revolutions that oc-
curred in the history of the globe. At the end of the Jurassic, " the
Sierras, which had been a marginal sea bottom, were crushed to-
gether and folded into a mountain range. This transferred the coast
farther westward, and the present coast range became the marginal
sea bottom, and received an abundance of sediment, until, in turn,
at the end of the Miocene, it also yielded to the lateral pressure
from the Pacific, and was raised up into the coast range." — (Le
Conte). Coincident with this movement, great fissures were
formed in the Cascade, and great floods of lava poured out, which
in north California covered in wide sheets a great extent of coun-
try, several hundred feet thick. The lava flood in Oregon, in
places, was 3,000 feet thick. It extended from Washington Terri-
tory to British Columbia. The area of this great flood of lava cov-
ered at least 80,000 square miles, a space much larger than the
whole of Nebraska. Richthofen has shown (Natural History of
Volcanic Rocks), that this great lava flood could not have proceeded
from the dozen extinct craters that cover this region, and that
therefore, as stated above, it must have proceeded from earth frac-
tures or fissures. At the same time the Plateau region was farther
elevated, the Miocene lakes were drained or shifted eastward, and
the region of the plains was still more depressed. This sinking of
the plains extended far to the south, almost to the gulf, and to the
east in its central portion about to where Columbus is located, on
the Union Pacific Railroad, and for an unknown distance to the
north. On the Niobrara its eastern line was near the mouth of
Keya Paha or Turtle Hill River. On the Republican, it was near
the center of Harlan County. It thus changed the whole aspect

232 GEOLOGY.

of the western half of the continent. To the life then on the globe
it must have been an event so appalling that the overthrow of
Pompeii and Herculaneum, and the great Lisbon earthquake, in
comparison with it, w'ould have been an insignificant event. The
throes of this event must have shaken the globe and affected all
life, vegetable and animal. And as a matter of fact, the entire
facies of the animal life of the globe was changed from this time
forward, as we shall presently see. Thus was closed the Miocene
epoch.

CHAPTER VI.

TERTIARY PERIOD, CONTINUED.— PLIOCENE

EPOCH.

Inauguration of the Pliocene. — Extent of the Pliocene Lake of the Plains. —
Other Pliocene Lakes. — Eruptions at the beginning and during the Pliocene.
— Thickness of the Pliocene Beds. — Erosion of the Pliocene Beds. — Eleva-
tion of the Pliocene Deposits. — Eastward Barrier of the Pliocene Lake of
the Plains.— General Warren's Explanation.— Materials of the Pliocene
Beds. — Sections from the Niobrara, Loup and Driftwood. — General Character
in the Republican Valley. — So-called Tripoli Beds, and their Geyser Origin.
—Their Chemical Composition.— Nebraska Once a Geyser Region.— Length
of the Pliocene Epoch. — Vegetable Life. — Animal Life. — Rodents. — Horse
Family.— Camel Family.— Bisons.— Bear Family.— Cat Family.— Dog Family.
— Favorable Conditions during the Pliocene. — Picture of the Pliocene Epoch.
— Close of the Pliocene. — Convulsive Movements further West.— Gradual
Character of its Close.— General Remarks on the Tertiary Epochs.

AT THE close of the last chapter it was stated how the Mio-
cene epoch came to a close. At the opening of the Pliocene
epoch, the great Miocene lake of the plains underwent further sub-
sidence, but gently and gradually. There is no trace on the plains
of the intervention of a period of dry land, as some have supposed.
The Miocene lake here became the Pliocene by subsidence and
extension in every direction. It became much deeper than it had
been. " On the wrest it now reached the foot-hills of the Colorado
Range; on the south it enlarged the borders of the Miocene lake
from southern Nebraska, through Kansas, the Indian Territory,
far into Texas; on the north it stretched over the whole of the

THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 233

plains into British America."— (King). The Pliocene, therefore,
in eastern Nebraska, overlies the Cretaceous In south-west Ne-
braska it lies on the Fort Pierre Cretaceous. Further west, the
disturbance, as already stated, were much greater at the close of
the Miocene. There severe crumpling and fissuring of the earth's
crust had taken place. The basin region subsided to such an extent
that the Pliocene lake that was formed extended from the Wasatch
to the Sierras, and northward to the Columbia, while its southward
extension has not been ascertained. King believes that the ejection *
of trachytes occurred at the close of the Miocene, and that the '
•ejection of rhy elites marks the beginning, in this region, of the
Pliocene epoch. According to him, the basaltic eruptions occurred
wholly, within the Pliocene.* Still another Pliocene lake existed
in North Park, (North Park Group of Hayden.) It only comes
within the plan of this work to discuss the Pliocene lake deposits
of the plains, which cover so large a portion of Nebraska. These
deposits constitute the Loup Fork Group of Hayden, and the Nio-
brara of Marsh.

On the plains the Pliocene beds, wherever their point of junction
could be observed, are conformable to the underlying Miocene.
King, however, remarks that they are in places unconformable,
which I have not observed. Often they shade so insensibly into
each other that the line of junction could only be ascertained by
the fossils which they entombed.

Thickness of the Pliocene Beds. — Along the foot-hills of the Col-
orado Range, the Pliocene beds average nearly 2,000 feet in thick-
ness. They thin out eastward, probably because the mass of ma-
terials was obtained from the mountains, the greater part of which
was precipitated along, or near its western shores. In Nebraska,
Kansas, and Dakota towards the east, the Pliocene beds become
thinner; until they run out entirely. It is certain, however, that
originally they were much thicker than at present. Owing to them
oeing the upper rocks at the time, they must have been subjected
to an enormous amount of erosion during the subsequent Quater-
nary age. The monuments of this erosion are still visible in
many places. In township 10 North and 26 West of 6th Meridian
there is a Pliocene peak, nearly 300 feet high, that represents the
original level of these deposits. In 13 North, 51 West, there are
limestone cliffs 75 feet high, and similar ones all over this region in

*See King's Systematic Geology of the 40th Parallel.

234 GEOLOGY.

far separated, isolated spots. The top of all these rocky cliffs,
whose strata are horizontal, represent where the general level of
the Pliocene once was. Perhaps the most remarkable monument
of the original level of the Pliocene in Nebraska, is at Scott's
Bluffs, and at Chimney Rock, on the North Platte. These have
long been noted landmarks. The country is here eroded into many
forms, exhibiting some of the peculiar natural architecture of the
Bad Lands. Chimney Rock is about 150 feet high. The strata
here and at Scott's Bluffs are horizontal, and therefore the general
level of the country must have been as elevated, at least, as the top
of these crags. No doubt much material has also been removed
from the top of the highest of these old monuments, as they have
been subjected to erosive agencies ever since the commencement of
the Glacial Age. From two to four hundred feet, therefore, must
have been removed from the general surface of the Pliocene de-
posits of the plains. Notwithstanding the immensity of this erosion,
a considerable thickness of these deposits still remain. In Ne-
braska they range from 10 to 700 feet. King has remarked that
at the mountains, where they are lofty and form powerful con-
densers of moisture, the resultant streams have carried away in
front of them all the Tertiary and exposed the Cretaceous.

Elevation of the Pliocene. — At Chalk Bluffs, the line of separation
between the Miocene and Pliocene is 6,000 feet above the sea leveL
Near 41° 30' the Pliocene reaches an altitude of over 7,000 feet.
In the valley of the Loup Fork the contact plane between the Mi-
ocene and Pliocene approximates to 3,000 feet. There is, there-
fore, a gradual sinking eastward of the contact plane between the
Miocene and Pliocene.

Eastward Barrier of thr Pliocene Lake — It has been a question
what barriers on the east held in the waters of the Pliocene lake
of the plains. Two theories have been suggested. One is that the
whole western shore line, with the mountain chain against which
it abuts, and the present incline towards the east, was low enough,
during Pliocene times, to hold the waters of the lake. This theory,
however, is irreconcilable with the known facts concerning the ele-
vation of the Rocky Mountain system during the Tertiary epochs*.
Evidently this region near the eastern shores of the lake, and on
the south, was once elevated into a rim, and it was the sinking of
this border, towards the close of the Pliocene, and the transference

*See Clarence King's Systematic Geology of the 40th., Parallel, Chapter VI. on Stratigraphi-
cal Geology.

THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 235

of the geosynclinal of the continent to the Missouri and Mississippi
valleys, that helped to bring the Pliocene to a close. It is not at all
impossible that future investigation will show that the present divide
between the Missouri and the Mississippi was a portion of this rim,
and that the Pliocene deposits that once covered eastern Nebraska
were removed by erosion during subsequent glacial time«. The
Pliocene at least was deposited in a broad level lake between the
Meridian of 98° and 105°, and subsequently this whole area of sub-
sidence towards the east, accompanied by slight continued elevation
towards the west, was transformed into an incline from the base of
the foot-hills eastward. u From the 4<Dth parallel region this dip of
the Pliocene at present towards the east is equal to 4,000, and to-
wards the south of 7,000 feet." — (King). The original discovery of
the eastern conditions of the shore line of this old Pliocene lake of
the plains was made by Lieutenant (now General) Warren, in the
annual report of Captain (now General) Humphreys, for tlie year
1858. No clearer statements of this theory, and the reasons for it,
have since been made. I announced the same theory in public lec-
tures as early as 1872, and had adopted it without being aware that
Warren had long anticipated me. Clarence King, also, by inde-
pendent study, without knowing of Warren's discovery, had come
to the same conclusion. I mention these facts to show that students
of geology, in studying the phenomena of this region, will be
forced lo make this explanation. One curious feature of this sub-
sidence of 4,000 feet eastward over the Pliocene region, is that no
faults, breaks or crumplings have yet been detected. As the sedi*
ments of this old Pliocene lake are thickest next to the mountains,,
and thin out eastward, it is clear that the eastern rim was a low-
land, without lofty ridges or mountains. The streams that drained
into it from that quarter were of insignificant size.

Materials of the Pliocene Beds of the Plains. — Near the mountains
the materials of the Pliocene beds are exceedingly coarse, and
where they are in contact with the foot-hills they are composed of
conglomerates made up of water- worn pebbles, feldspar and quartz
in masses, and some small pieces or chips of all the Archaean rocks
which are represented towards the west. The fragments are of all
sizes, from a shot to a man's head, and even larger. The coarser
conglomerates form the upper beds, beneath which there are often
much finer materials. The erosion of the upper strata has in many
places cut through the coarse conglomerates and widened the bed
below in the finer sediments, producing over-hanging rocks.

236 GEOLOGY.

Beautiful illustrations of this kind of erosion can be seen along the
streams flowing eastward from the Laramie Hills. South of the
Union Pacific Railroad., west of Cheyenne, the Pliocene beds form
irregular terraces, which often change or are prolonged into curious
sharp escarpments. South of Cheyenne, and eastward, the upper
beds are often made up of light, creamy limestone, sometimes ex-
ceedingly brittle, intercalated with small veins of chalcedony. Still
further eastward, north and south of the Union Pacific Railroad,
the Pliocene beds become arenaceous, but fine-grained, beds of clay
and marl being interlaminated. The Chugwater is bordered for a
long distance with abrupt cliffs of Pliocene rocks, often forming
escarpments which have been cut out by lateral ravines and small
canyons. At Scott's Bluffs, near the western line of Nebraska,
there is a fine exposure of the Pliocene rocks, which are here made
up of sandstones, marls and whitish and yellowish white clays.
Along Lodge Pole Creek, the Pliocene rocks have assumed more
the forms of bluffs. Here, and occasionally on the upper Republi-
can, the thin, marly members sometimes contain thin masses of
jasper-like rocks, which occasionally contain dendritic markings,
produced by oxides of the metals. Among these, moss agates are
occasionally found. On the Niobrara and Loup rivers there is, in
many places, at the top, an immense amount of loose or at least in-
coherent sand, or loosely compacted sand. The decomposition of
these Pliocene beds in these regions has produced the famous sand
hills. Next below, are beds of compacted gravel and sand. Then
come calcareous and arenaceous concretions, combined with or en-
closed in whitish and yellowish grits. Greenish and greenish gray
sand comes next. Arenaceous marl, shading from deep yellow to
dull red, lies below the last. At the bottom is observed a grit of
yellowish hue, often highly calcareous, and someti'mes containing
limestone more or less concretionary, from one to seven inches thick.
The following section, beginning at the top, I have taken about
75 miles above the mouth of the Key a Paha:

1. Light brownish sand of undetermined thickness.

2. Incoherent gravel and sand. . . . . 25 feet.

3. Yellowish white grit, with calcareous concretions 19 "

4. Greenish and grayish sand 27 "

5. Reddish and yellowish sandy marl 35 **

6. Yellowish gray calcareous grit, containing layers of concre-

tionary limestone 42 "

Tdtal. . . 148 "

THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 23 T

The following is a section from the Loup, beginning at the top r

1. Light brownish sand, of undetermined thickness.

1. Loosely compacted sand and pebbles 21 feet.

3. Greenish and gray marls 13 "

4. Concretionary limestone 17 "

5. Sand and sandy marls . . . . , ....... 16 "

6. Concretionary limestone 11 "

7. Soft lime and marl 7 **• •

8. Silicious limestone, with concretions of limestone containing

iron and alumina 16 "

9. Fine loose sandstone, only eight feet exposed 8 "

Total . ... 109 "

South of the Republican Valley, in Nebraska, on the Driftwood
there are some fine exposures of the Pliocene. The following sec-
tion, which I took in the spring of 1877, is from township I North
and 32 West, and on sections 12 and 14. It is numbered from the top:

1. Loosely compacted sand and pebbles, with ebb and flow struc-
ture 10 feet.

2. Alternations of greenish and gray marls 14 "

3. Soft concretionary limestone 8 u

4. Sandy marl 10 "

5. Soft concretionary limestone 6 "

6. Soft limestone and marl 4 "

7. Silicious limestone, with pockets and concretions of pure

white lime 14 "

Total 55 "

The strata in all these sections vary very much, even within a
quarter of a mile, and sometimes within a hundred yards. The
least variation is observed in the green marl beds. The section on
the Driftwood, it will be observed, is quite different from the ones
on the Loup and the Niobrara. On the south side of the Republi-
can, in Harlan County, the Pliocene rests on the Niobrara Cre-
taceous, and so far as I could observe, conformably, Here the ma-
terials consist largely of lime mingled with silicious materials;
Thick strata of marly silicious beds, and some beds of coarse, .loosely
compacted sandstones, intercalated with them alternate below. I
regret that my section from this important locality has become
illegible, and I only describe it from memory. From Harlan County
to the west line of the State, along the Republican Valley, the
rocky bluffs of the valley are made up of a silicious limestone,
which often shades into a fine and then coarse conglomerate. The

238 GEOLOGY.

Pliocene thins out towards the upper end of the valley, and near
the State line, in places where it overlies the Fort Pierre Cretaceous,
is only from twenty-five to sixty feet thick. The means at my dis-
posal did not enable me to determine the probable cause of this
phenomenon.

The most silicious strata of the Pliocene in Nebraska contain
more or less of calcareous materials. The sandstones vary a great
deal in texture, the finest, as elsewhere, being^ generally beneath,
increasing in coarseness to the top, where, as already observed, the
rocks often assume the character of fine pudding stone conglomer-
ate. The pebbles, water-worn and smooth, are made up of all kinds
of rock, metamorphic materials being the most abundant. Among
these are granites, syenites, greenstones, quartz, sandstone and frag-
ments of silicified wood. This conglomerate, when decomposed
resembles the drift so closely that at first I mistook it for that for-
mation. Above the mouth of the Arickeree, and at other points in
southwestern Nebraska, the Pliocene is capped by an intensely
hard silicious stratum, from two to ten feet thick. It varies from
something akin to quartzite, to flint, hornstone and chalcedony.
The color of the latter varies from a creamy white to transparent,
and occasionally is coarsely opalized. A few moss agates are some-
times found in portions of this stratum. Prof. Mudge reports a
similar stratum in the Pliocene near Fort Wallace, Kansas. Ex-
cepting this hard layer, much of even the most compact strata is
apt to disintegrate on exposure to the elements. Sometimes the
most compact portion is so irregular in structure as to interfere with
the dressing of the stones for architectural purposes.

Polishing Powder. — Infusorial Earth. — Geyser Flocula. — One of
the most remarkable of all the deposits of this Pliocene lake of the
plains, is a peculiar, flour-like material that appears in beds of
greater or less thickness and extent, that occurs on the Republican,
the Loup, Niobrara, and other sections. When I first examined it
under the microscope, eight years ago, a few diatoms were collected,
from which circumstance it was regarded as probably of the char-
acter of tripoli. Since then, in many specimens that have come un-
der my observation, a diatom has rarely been found. In almost
every specimen examined, however, great numbers of the forms that
Ehrenberg called Phytolitharia were detected. The most conspic-
uous of these are triangular in shape, with one edge convex and
the other concave, or the opposite. They cover, under a micro-

THE TERTIARY PERIOD.

239

scope magnifying 90,000 times, or 300 diameters, the space of about
one-eighth of an inch, and of incalculable thinness. These speci-
mens, under such high powers, are translucent. Many other curi-
ous microscopic forms occur. The chemical analysis of this earth,
however, is very different from tripoli. It is proved to be a silicate
of the alkaline earths, and most generally of soda, potash, magnesia
or lime. Sometimes only one, and sometimes several of these alka-
lies are present. It ranges in color from light gray to snow white,
green and yellowish. All these colors are sometimes found in the same
ted, and the chemical composition varies even more than the color.
To the touch it feels very much like flour. The best specimens
have no grit, and when used as a polishing powder no scratches can
be detected, even with the microscope. It is most abundant along
the Republican, where it is found in almost every county. The
following is a characteristic section, taken at a bed in Furnas
County, south of the Republican, and about eight miles southeast
of Arapahoe. It is exposed on the East half of Northeast of 8,
and on West half of Northwest of 9, Township 3 North, and 21
West, of 6th Principal Meridian. One of these exposures here is
near a quarter of a mile long. The measurements are from the top

down :

SECTION.

1 . Loess, from three to 6

2. Drift 3 feet.

3. Compact silicate of lime and limestone 3 "

4. Flour-like earth 12 "

This bed is made up of layers one-fourth of an inch in thickness,
of snowy whiteness, and other layers, from nine inches to a foot
thick, of a grayish white color. Nine feet from the top there is a
layer two inches thick, of a greenish color, which contains potash
and iron.

As already intimated, it polishes as successfully and as finely as
the best tripoli.

Origin of this Flour-like Earth. — Near or in many of these beds
all over the Pliocene region of the plains are found many extinct
geyser tubes, and sometimes old geyser basins. Of these I ob-
served at least thirty between Arapahoe and the west line of the
State. I have also found them in the Loup region and on the Nk>-
brara. As some of these geyser tubes had their exit in the Fort
Pierre Group, on the upper Republican, it is probable that they

240

GEOL.OGY.

commenced their work in the Cretaceous period, and were in opera-
tion all through the long centuries of the Eocene, Miocene and
Pliocene epochs, and far into the Quaternary. A similar bed ex-
ists on Oak Creek, which was deposited in interglacial times. Ne-
braska, and at least northern Kansas, in fact, was a great geyser re-
gion all through the Tertiary period. It far exceeded in the num-
ber and magnitude of its geysers the upper Yellowstone region and
Iceland at the present day. Few memorials of these old extinct
geysers are visible at the present time, owing to their being covered
up by the superincumbent Quaternary deposits, but enough remain
to show that a prodigious number must have existed in at least
Pliocene times. It is probable that this flour-like silico alkaline
earth owes its origin to these old geysers. It is well known that
hot alkaline waters dissolve silica. When, therefore, the geyser
streams holding silica and alkalies in solution was poured into this
old lake, it was precipitated, on cooling, to the bottom. Indeed,,
many of the flakes of this earth, under the microscope, clearly re-
semble the dried flocculent flakes of aluminic silicate, which the
chemist obtains by pouring soluble sodic silicate into a solution of
sodic aluminate. Another fact which tends to establish the proba-
bility of this theory is that this Pliocene silico alkaline earth, on
analyses, bears a striking resemblance to geyserite, which is ob-
tained from the deposits of existing geysers. The following
analysis are illustrations of this statement. No. I is an analysis of
this earth from the deposit near Arapahoe; No. 2, from the Loup;
No. 3, from Iceland, and No. 3, from the Yellowstone. No. I and
2 were made by myself; No. 3 was made by Forchhammar, and
No. 4 by Dr. F. M. Endlich:

Loss on ignition

8 00

Silica

67 01

80 17

84 43

76 80

Water

8 03

7 43

7 88

5 00

Alumina

7 11

4 71

3 07

9 46

Iron

2 81

3 01

1 91

trace

Lime

2 01

0 70

1 80

Soda and potassa
Magnesia

7 87
4 05

2 27
80

92
1 06

trace
trace

98 89

99 31

99 98

101 06

From these analyses it is evident that the principal difference
between this Pliocene earth and geyserite is that the former contains
a much larger per cent of alkalies; though the specimen from the
Loup is strikingly like the geyserite from Iceland. By reference

THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 241

to Dr. Endlich's report on the composition of the geyserites of the
Yellowstone,* it will be seen that they differ very much in the per
cent of their constituent elements. In the great number of analyses
reported by him from as many different geysers, no two are alike.
Often geysers only a few feet apart produce very different qualities
of geyserite. The same is true of this peculiar earth under dis-
cusion. It not only differs a great deal in different localities, but
even in different layers of the same stratum. It differs most in the
quantity of the alkalies which it contains. Some specimens contain
twenty or more per cent, while others contain only a trace, the
latter approximating closely in chemical, though not in physical
constitution, to the true geyserite. I submit whether these facts do
not indicate a similar origin. It is possible that the peculiar modifi-
cation of geyserite into a flour-like alkaline silicate may have re-
sulted from geysers that were active in the waters of this old Plio-
cene lake.

The deposits of a similar character in the Quaternary contain,
where I have chemically examined them, a larger per cent of iron,
and are coarser in texture.

Length of the Pliocene Epoch. — The great amount of erosion to
which the Pliocene rocks have been subjected, and the great thick-
ness of the beds yet remaining, especially along the base of the
mountains on the west, indicates that this epoch was of long dura-
tion. It probably endured through as many centuries as the pre-
ceding Miocene.

Life of the Pliocene Epoch. — Vegetation. — In the lower beds of the
Nebraska Pliocene are found, in many places, and especially on the
Niobrara, many remains of coniferous trees. Among these are
petrified wood, cones and leaves. It is possible that some of the
petrified wood may have been derived from older formations. If
not, then there flourished during these times at least one araucarian
pine. A flake from an agatized specimen which I obtained from,
the Niobrara, under the microscope gave distinctly the structure of
the araucarians. There is no such doubt about the common pine
family, as both cones and leaves of these are preserved. The giant
trees (Sequoias] must have been abundant, judging from the number
of their remains. One species of cedar, closely related to, if not
identical with our common juniper, has also left its remains in the
Pliocene of the Republican Valley. Along with the last, a cypress

*Haydeii's Report for 1872, p. 157.

242 GEOLOGY.

occurs. On the Niobrara, in the lower beds of the Pliocene, occur,
at rare intervals, palm-like leaf lemains, which probably belonged
to some species of sabal, though the remains were too indistinct to
identify. At the same horizon remains of fig leaves occur. There
occur, also, occasional remains of the Sweet Fern (Comptoma),
Sweet Gum, Locust (Robinia), Honey Locust (Glcd,ifechia\ Cassia,
Sumach (Rhus), Walnut (Juglans), Tulip tree (Liriodendrori), Staff
tree {Gelastrus), Cottonwoods (Populus), and Oaks. A petrified
oak log, from the Niobrara Pliocene, in the cabinet of the State
University, is remarkable for its beauty and the distinctness with
which its structure has been preserved. The cells and medullary
rays are as perfect as in a live oak of to-day. In Harlan County,
on the south side of the Republican River, occur masses of silicious
limestone that are filled with the petrified or semi-petrified seeds of
probably some species of Arrow-wood (Viburnatn), which is a mem-
ber of our Honeysuckle family, which had its greatest develop-
ment in Tertiary times. A flora similar to this characterized
Europe during this epoch, but it disappeared at the end of the
Tertiary. Here, however, our conspicuous vegetable forms are yet
Tertiary in type, and almost in species. If Heer is correct, many
of our existing American species abounded already in Greenland,
Iceland and Spitzbergen in the middle Tertiary. So far, therefore,
as our flora is concerned, America, as has long since been remarked,
is the old world. •

Animal Life. — The turtle family was probably represented by
fewer species during the Pliocene than in the previous epoch.
Those that I have observed myself in the Niobrara Pliocene were
land tortoises, belonging to the genus Testudo. Their remains
were mixed with those of mammals.

During this epoch the higher forms of vegetable life, and espe-
cially the mammalian type, h.ad a remarkable development. They
must have been exceedingly abundant around the shores of the
great lake of the plains, as is evident from the vast numbers of
their remains.

The birds were represented by an eagle (Aqutla Dananus), and a
cormorant (^Grus Haydent), both found on the Loup, and described
by Marsh. The existence of the eagle implies the presence of
other species. And there can be no question that the happy physi-
cal conditions of those times were favorable to a great development

of bird life.

THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 243

The rodents were represented by several species. Among these
was a porcupine (Hystrix venustus), and a beaver (Castor tortus),
about half the size of the one now living.

The horse family (Efuufafjfc were represented by at least four
genera and fifteen species. One of the most remarkable of these
genera was the Hippari^n, which was already present in the pre-
vious Miocene, and was described under that head. The species
were comparatively small in size. Hj^^rion occidentalis, whose
remains occur at several horizons, and at widely separated localities,
was the largest species, but was only about the size of the ass.
Three other species, found on the Niobrara, and described by Leidy,
were still smaller. Merychippus, another genus, which occurs on
the Niobrara, was so named because of its large, broad grinders.
The name means ruminating horse, but it refers only to the resem-
blance, as it did not partake of the character of ruminants. Mery-
chippus mirabilis, the largest of the two species described by Leidy,
was a little larger than the ass. Protohippus, which is also repre-
sented in the Nebraska Pliocene by at least four species, had even
a more complicated structure of the enamel of the teeth than the
modern horse. Protohippus supremus, .which in size was about
half way between the ass and horse, was the largest species. Pro-
tohippus parvulus, which was obtained by Marsh at Antelope Sta-
tion, Nebraska, was only about two and a half feet high when
mature. Closely related to the preceding was Pliohippus, of which
Marsh described two species. It had only one hoof to each foot,
but large splint bones still remained. Its principal points of differ-
ence from the true horse lay in the shape of the skull, hoof, and in
the shorter molars. Another genus of animals from the Niobrara,
supposed to belong to the horse family, but which reference is un-
certain, owing to the paucity of the materials for determination,
Leidy has called Hyohirjpus, and under that name has described
two species. The most perfect, at the least the most modern of the
Pliocene horses of Nebraska, was Equus excelsus. Dr. Hayden
first found its remains on the Loup, then on the Niobrara, and then
at other points. It was about the size of a medium-sized modern
horse, and differed only in trifling details from the present one I
have found its remains in the uppermost Pliocene beds in the Re-
publican Valley, and in the Quaternary. It extended over from
the Pliocene to interglacial times. This most modern of the Plio-
cene horses, seems to have been the culminating form of the family

244 GEOLOGY.

in this epoch. It will be remembered that the family was first
represented in the Eocene of the mountains by the Dawn Horse,
or Eohippus, with five toes on the fore feet. The horses abounded
all through the Miocene and Pliocene, when in the higher forms
in this latter epoch the toes had all, except the middle one, disap-
peared, but leaving as a memorial of their former presence the
splint bones. It is evident that they must have existed here in
Pliocene times in prodigious numbers. In fact, these regions,
above any other in any geological age, were dominated by horses^

One species of Rhinoceros wTas a contemporary of the Pliocene
horses. It was about the size of the Indian Rhinoceros, and its
teeth had the same formula. Leidy has named it R. crassus.

The elephant family (Proboscidians), which first became sharply
outlined in the preceding Miocene epoch, was represented in the
Nebraska Pliocene by at least two genera and species. Mastodon
mirificus (wonderful Mastodon), was first described by Leidy from
the Pliocene beds on the Loup. Hayden also found its remains in
abundance on the Niobrara. I have also observed them on the
Driftwood, and in other localities. The finest molar of this animal
that I have seen is in the possession of Captain Palmer, in Platts-
mouth, who obtained it from the Republican Valley. It is finely
agatized, and is remarkable for its beauty. It is fortunate for us
that it fell into the hands of a gentleman who will retain it in the
State. This species of Mastodon belongs to Falconer's subgenus
Tetralophodon. Leidy was uncertain whether it had tusks. A
badly decayed section of a skull which I found on the Driftwood,
and which unfortunately fell to pieces in taking it out, had a section of
one tusk left. It is my own conviction that it had tusks in both
jaws. This species has not yet been found elsewhere outside of
Nebraska.

The remains of a gigantic elephant (Eltyhas imperator) was also
found by Hayden on the Niobrara, and described by Leidy. It
was either distinct from the elephant that appeared afterwards dur-
ing the Quaternary, or else was of larger size. A portion of the
femur of what I take to be this species, now in the cabinet of the
University, is certainly more robust in form than that of the
Quaternary elephants. The remains of other species have been
found on the Niobrara and Loup, but have not yet been specifically
described. It is evi lent, therefore, that in Pliocene times elephants
and mastodons were abundant over the land surface of Ne-
braska.

THE TERTIARY PERIOD, 245

That old type of mammals, so common in Eocene times, but
now confined to South America, the Tapirs were represented in
the Pliocene of the plains by one species. Marsh, who describes
it, calls it Tapirus rams.

The hog family (Sutda) had fewer representatives than in the
preceding epoch. One species of peccary alone seems to have been
abundant.

Ruminants were abundant during the Pliocene in Nebraska. An
antelope, ( Cosoryx furcatus^) described by Leidy, and intermediate
in character between the deers and antelopes, has left its remains on
the Niobrara. In company with the last was a true deer (Cervus
Warrent)', also described by Leidy. It was about the size of the
Virginia deer.

The Oreodons, described under the Miocene, had dwindled in
the Pliocene to three species of the genus Merychyus. The rela-
tive position, form of the teeth, and their number was the same as
in Oreodon. The crowns of the teeth, however, were larger in
proportion to their breadth than in Oreodon. Merychyus major
was the largest species, and was near the size of the camel. M.
medius was intermediate in size between the llama and camel. On
the whole, while the number of species was less, the average size
was greater in this family than during the Miocene.

The camel family (Camelida) were even richer in genera, species,
and the number of individuals than during the Miocene. The
most characteristic genus was Procamelus, which was represented
by at least four species, three of which were described by Leidy.
Their remains are found on the Niobrara, Loup, and Republican.
Procamelus had one more premolar to the upper, and two more to
the lower series of teeth than in the modern camel. This indicated
a less mature condition, or a condition before they have shed those
teeth which reduce them to that observed in their adult form. The
lower true molars are also smaller in proportion to the size of the
jaw than is the existing camel. The molar series, though composed
of smaller teeth than in the camel, occupy, because of their greater
number, more space along the border of the jaw. Thus in the
camel, while the four molar teeth occupy five and a half inches, in
i.n Procamelifc robustus the six molars occupy six and a fourth
inches. — (Leidy.) Some of the species approximate in some of the
characters of the lower jaw to the llamas. Procamelus robustus,
the largest species, was about the size of the existing camel. The

246 GEOLOGY.

remains of P. occidentalis, which, was about two-thirds as large,
are the most abundant. P. gracilis, a still smaller species, was about
as large as a sheep. I have found the remains of another species
most nearly related to P. robustus, and if it proves to be distinct,,
will call it P. Nebraskensis. Another species, whose remains Hay-
den found on the Niobrara, Leidy has called Homocamelus caninus^
It was remarkable, among other things, for the narrow snout-like
prolongation of the fore part of the face. The palate was more
deeply vaulted than in the camel. The caniniform incisor, the
canine and first premolar were all separated from each other, and
from the succeeding continuous row of premolars, and true molars
by wide arching intervals. The largest of all the family, whose
remains were found, Leidy has named Megalomeryx Niobrarensisr
from the locality where its remains were obtained. The molar
teeth had affinities to those of the llama and sheep. It was proba-
bly about one-fourth larger than the modern camel. A still more
curious, comprehensive, camel-like animal, described by Leidy, was-
Merycodus necatus. Its molar teeth combined the characters found
in the sheep, camel, and deer. It was about as large as the latter
animal.

Bisons already existed in the Pliocene epoch in Nebraska. The
progenitors of our buffalo probably then existed in the forms which
Marsh has described under the names of Bison ferox and Bison
Alleni.

A species which Leidy has described, under the name of Lep-
tarctus primus, was a bear-like animal, closely allied to, and about
the size of the existing Coati of South America.

The cat family (Feiidte) had fewer representatives than in the
preceding Miocene. ./Elu rod on- ferox was slightly larger than the
largest American wolves. One of its sectorial molars, according
to Leidy, was intermediate in character between that of the wolves
and the cats. "It approached in size the similar molar of a small
Bengal tiger. It had the proportion of the similar molar of the
wolves, and in addition the anterior accessory lobe of the cats." —
(Leidy.) The most characteristic, however, of these cats of the
Pliocene, was Pseudselurus intrepidus. The first species was found
and described from the Miocene of France by M. Gervais. It was
somewhat remarkable that another species should be found in the
Pliocene of Nebraska. The jaw of this species was intermediate
in character between that of the panther and lynx. The jaws and

THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 247

teeth were much as in the cat family generally, but in minute de-
tails they resembled most nearly those of the lynx.

The dog family (Canidce) was much more fully represented
than the last, not less than four species having already been des-
cribed by Leidy. Canis Haydeni was a wolf of much larger size
and more robust form than any now in existence. Another species
was also slightly larger than any now living. Leidy calls it Canis
rarus, and considers it a near relative if not actual projenitor of our
present wolf (Canis occidentalis}. Cotemporary with these large
species, and inhabiting the same localities, were two of small size.
One of these, called Canis temerarius, was intermediate in form
between our prairie wolf and red fox. A still smaller species, more
fox than wolf, was about the size of the swift (Cants velooc).

From the preceding it is apparent that many forms of mammal-
ian life culminated in the number of species and the size of individ-
uals during the Pliocene epoch. The conditions during those
times must have been exceedingly favorable to the development of
mammalian -life. Not the- least remarkable is it that most of those
animal forms which are now regarded as most useful to man were
the most numerous and best represented during an epoch when, so
far as we now certainly know, he had not become an actor on the
stage of the world. At least no undoubted monuments of his pres-
ence in the world during Pliocene times have been preserved in
geological history or tradition. The alleged special servants of
man, however, were present during the Pliocene epoch in extraor-
dinary numbers. Even the mastodon might have been made as
serviceable as the elephant was in historic times. There is no good
reason to doubt that the great Niobrara elephant (E. imperator}
might have been trained to toil as successfully as the species now
living in Asia and Africa. Some of the great number of species of
the camel family could certainly have been made as useful as the
modern " ship of the desert " Even the horse family culminated
during those times in the number of species. The fifteen species
already described from the Pliocene, were probably only a small
fraction of the kinds that then existed. If the three-toed H^/trion
horses were not adapted to the service of man, some of the many
species of Protohippus and Equus certainly could have been util-
ized. We may, therefore, abandon the idea that the development
of animal life was designed by the Supreme Intelligence solely for
the gratification and use of man. This may have been one pur-

248 GEOLOGY.

pose, but, in the nature of the case, it could only "have been one out
of many conceivable purposes.

Let us now, if we can, form some picture of the character and
physical condition of the Tertiary ages. Take, for example, the
middle Pliocene. Had we been in existence then, and started west-
ward on a journey from some point near where the Missouri now
flows, much of the peculiar life of the times would have been ob-
served. The climate was congenial in an eminent degree. The
great Pliocene lake caused a much moisture atmosphere than exists
at present. Groves of Sequoias, like the present gigantic trees of
California, the glyptostrobus of China and Japan, the cypress, the
date and the palm, were interpersed with magnificent savannas.
The songs of ten thousand birds, many of them of the most beau-
tiful plumage, would have greeted our -ears. At some places, herds
of thousands of Oreodons would have been encountered. Bisons,
similar in form to our buffaloes, would have been seen cropping
the grass. At other points might have been seen herds of elephants
and mastodons quietly proceeding towards some streamlet, or lake-
let, to indulge in a bath. Vast numbers of many species of camels
would have been seen reposing at mid-day on a gentle hill-side
under the shade of sequoias or cypress. More curious than all,
thousands of H/i^rions, those wonderful three- toed horses, along
with many kinds of one-toed horses, of all sizes, would sometimes
have made the earth tremble under their tread. When, at last, in
such a westward journey, the shores of the great Pliocene lake
would be reached, its borders would have been a marvel for the
life represented there. A rhinoceros might have been seen wal-
lowing in the mud near the shore. Thousands of water-fowl
would have been riding the gentle waves. Elephants, camels, ore-
dons, and horses might have been seen there slaking their thirst in
the streamlets flowing into the lake. Life would have been ob-
served everywhere — the hum of insects and the song of birds in
the air — life in the trees, in forest and glade, on land and lake
Most of it, too, was happy life. It is true some unfortunate rumin-
ants would fall victims to the gigantic wolves and cats of the time,
but the carnivora were not the rulers of the land. Grass and leaf,
and seed, and fruit-eating animals, were the rulers of the Pliocene
world in central North America. It was a physical paradise, for
violence, rapine, and murder, were the exception and not the rule
-Violence, indeed, has existed in every geological age, but in Plio-

THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 249

cene America, herbivorous life was so dominant that it could suc-
cessfully defend itself against the carnivora, and the latter evidently
obtained most of their prey by stealth and by picking off the aged
and infirm. Animal life is generally happy when it is left alone,
and this was specially the case during American Pliocene times.
It is a grave reflection on humanity that, not the Creator, but man's
injustice and inhumanity, produces most of the misery which we see
in the world. This is, however, but a very faint picture of these
happy Pliocene times which lasted for untold ages. But every one
can, for himself, by "the aid of the scientific imagination," form
such pictures of the wonders of that old-time world.

Close of the Pliocene Epoch. — There is evidence that the Pliocene
•epoch only gradually came to a close. The lake of the plains was
probably partially drained, and a large part of its surface became
dry land long before the last centuries of the Pliocene had ended.
Clarence King describes a series " of coarse semi-stratified gravels
and conglomerates " along the eastern base of the Colorado Range,
which, " in the benches of the Sybille, distinctly overlie the Nio-
brara Pliocene, which abut against the Archaean core of the range,"
from which these materials were derived. The same formations
are found at the head of the Chugwater, the valley of the Big
Thompson, and at other points. In places on these streams, these
gravels are from 200 to 300 feet thick, and descend in rude terraces.
As these formations, according to King, overlie the Niobrara Plio-
cene, and antedate the Quarternary, they evidently constitute, the
closing deposits of the Pliocene epoch. I have detected the equiv-
alents of these deposits nowhere in Nebraska, even where it is least
eroded. It is probable, therefore, that the great lake of the plains
was drained before these deposits were laid clown. The eastern
border of the great Pliocene rim commenced to descend and gradu-
ally left out the water until much of this great lake of the plains
became dry land. There is also evidence of increasing cold in the
deposits of this lake through their upper sections. The southern
shores of the lake were probably risin^ *.t the same time, which
would help to intensify the growing cold. An ice cap had now
formed in polar regions, and conditions of climate similar to the
present intervened. A^e after age the increasing cold, accompanied
by gradual elevation of land towards the north, continued, until
finally the Arctic ice cap crept down to our present temperate lati-
tudes. The flora and fauna of the Pliocene migrated southward,

250 GEOLOGY.

and many species and genera were exterminated. The distinct
fauna that made its appearance during the Quaternary originated
some time during this transformation of the Pliocene into the gla-
cial epoch.

During the closing centuries of the Pliocene epoch, some convul-
sive movements occurred further west. King remarks " that the
whole country from about 114° 30' was depressed to the west, the
western edge of the Pliocene lake settling 2,000 feet." * * *
" The same is true from Thousand Spring Valley eastward to Cache
Valley, and to the base of the Wasatch, which is a region of recur-
rent faults." * * "I consider it proved that the displacement at
the eastern base of the Sierras, and the western base of the WasatchT
occurred at the close of the Pliocene, and thus broke the one broad
lacustrine basin into two new lake basins — one at the foot of the
Sierras, the other under the shadow of the Wasatch Range — which
were to receive the waters of the quaternal age." Thus it appears
that as the Miocene closed with the production of fractures and
fissures that covered a vast area with lava, so the closing centuries
of the Pliocene were characterized by great vertical displacements
of mountain chains.

General Remarks on the Tertiary. — Many of the strata of the
Miocene deposits were specially favorable for the preservation of
animal remains. Some of the strata of the Pliocene, in at least a
few localities, were scarcely less adapted to such a purpose. The
perfect petrifaction of many of these remains also indicates that this
property was possessed by these waters in an eminent degree. The
mammalian skeletons must have been carried into the old lakes
during flood time from some of the low lands that were subjected
to overflow, and once in the quiet, muddy bottom of the lake, were
soon covered by sediments that preserved them to our times. The
very original sharpness of the outline of these remains have been
preserved. Seldom are any marks of erosion detected on any of
the specimens. The curious feature about these remains is that few
representatives of any sub-kingdom of animals, except the verte-
brates, have been preserved, and of these no classes but mammals
and birds, except a few species of turtles. No fishes have yet been
found, and only a few mollusks, and these, except a land snail, of
comparatively low type. Fish and mollusks could not have existed
extensively in these lakes, or else their remains would have been
preserved. The climate certainly was favorable to amphibious

THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 251

mammals, but none, except the marsh-loving beaver and rhinoceros
have yet been found. Leidy has suggested that the explanation
might be found in the probability that these old lakes were occa-
sionally flooded by the sea, producing an alternation of salt, brack-
sh and fresh water conditions. If that had been the case, it appears
to me that some indications of destroyed marine life would have
been detected. I suggest that the explanation may be found in the
probability that the waters of these lakes were too alkaline to be ^
favorable to life. The deposits from these lakes indicate an exces-
sively alkaline condition of the water. They are rarely found free
from the alkaline earths, and many of the strata are almost wholly
composed of them. Thick beds of almost pure marl abound — not
marl produced by beds of shells, but by precipitation from water
supersaturated at certain times with alkaline matters. Such waters
certainly were most unfavorable to animal life, and accounts for the
paucity of fresh water remains.

252 GEOLOGY.

CHAPTER VII.

QUATERNARY AGE.— GLACIAL PERIOD TO THE
LOESS.— SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS.

Opening of the Glacial Period. — A period of great humidity and cold.^—
Glaciation of the Plains. — Direction of the Glacial Mass and thickness. — Ma-
terials.— Blue Clay, its extent and character. — Eesemblance to the Till and
Erie Clays.— Analysis.— Whitish Clays.— Boulder Clay.— Drift Materials.—
Description of a Section. — Old Forest Bed. — Extent, Character and Sections
— Its Fossils — Second Appearance of Glacial Drift. — Karaes. — Calcareous and
Silicious Materials. — Section of them and General Character. — Transition
Beds — Analysis of the Calcareous Materials.— Origin of these Beds. — Course
of events to the beginning of the Loess.

WE have seen at the close of the last chapter how the Pliocene
epoch closed its remarkable history. Its closing centuries
were the opening ones of the Quaternary Age. The continent
had sunken towards the south and was rising towards the north.
Where once had been the floor of a lake of the plains had now su-
pervened a very great change of level. The southern end of the
once great Pliocene lake was now, at least, at the level of the sea, and
the northern end was 7,000 feet higher. The plains were dessi-
cated before the Pliocene had entirely passed away. King has
given reasons to suppose that this was even the case with the great
lake of the basin region — that between the Pliocene and Quater-
nary this region was dried up. Following this condition of dryness
was one of great humidity and a much lower temperature than the
present. The snows of winter accumulated too rapidly finally to
be removed by the summer warmth. Eventually the plains ot
Nebraska became glaciated and were covered by a thick mantle of
ice. This was the first, or glacial period of the Quaternary. In
this respect Nebraska agrees with the Quaternary in eastern Amer-
ica, where Dana divides the age into the Glacial period, the Cham-
plain or low level period, and the Terrace or recent period. These
divisions are not strictly applicable to Nebraska. Here we have a
Glacial, a Boulder Clay, or true Drift, a Forest Bed, a second
Drift, Loess and Terrace period. These divisions are more or less
clearly outlined in our superficial geology.

QUATERNARY AGE. 253

GLACIAL PERIOD.

The monuments of this period are undoubted. Along the Mis-
souri River, from Fort Calhoun to the Kansas line, wherever the
superficial deposits are removed and hard limestones constitute the
surface rocks, they are worn as smooth as mirrors, except diamond-
like scratches which cross them in a direction averaging about 17
degrees east of south. Below Plattsmouth at one point they run 2f
degrees east of south. On the Platte, as far west as the limestone
extends, the direction east of south averages about 19 degrees.
At Stout's former stone quarry, twelve miles southeast of Lincoln,
the direction is 13^ degrees east of south. These markings at
this quarry seem to cross fainter lines whose direction was a little
more easterly. In other places these slightly divergent lines are
found, as if the ice in glacial times had moved at first more easterly
than it did later. Where the rocks are of a soft, yielding nature,
as in the Cretaceous and Tertiary these lines have long since been
effaced. That they once existed is more than probable. On the
Niobrara at a few points where a hard, silicious layer of Cretaceous
rocks but recently was exposed to the surface, faint glacial lines
were visible. As such markings are now made by existing gla-
ciers, all geologists refer these scratches to a similar origin.

The materials lying on the country rock over the greater part of
the State are additional evidences of the former presence of glaciers
on our plains. The following section, taken on Oak Creek, Lan-
caster County, shows the character of the materials laid down dur-
ing this age. The section begins at the top.

1. Black surface soil ......................................... ... 4 feet.

2. Loess ........................................................ 21 "

3. Calcareous sand .............................................. 7 "

4. Gravel, sand and drift boulders ............................... 5 "

6. Black soil, with silicified wood ................................ 2 "

6. Gravel and boulders .......................................... 4 "

7. Modified drift-gravel and clay ................................. 9 "

8. Blue clay .................................................... .JLT "

Farther up the valley of Oak Creek a bed of blue clay exhibited
the following characters. It lies on the deposits of the Dakota Group.

1. Blue clay ................................................... 5 feet.

2. Sand ..................................................... 1 "

3. Blue clay .................................................... 13 "

4. Fine sand and gravel ........................................ % "

5. Blue clay .................................................. .11 "

30^ feet.

254 GEOLOGY.

Often, though not always, this blue clay has intercalated be-
tween its layers these thin strata of sand and pebbles. In Saline
County where they occur the clay sometimes shades into sand and
emerges from it the same way. This clay is a characteristic feature of
the earliest deposits of the Quaternary over the greater part of south-
ern Nebraska and over a considerable section of north Nebraska. In
south Nebraska it occurs in at least three-fourths of the counties.
It is brought to light more frequently in boring for water, but oc-
casionally it also crops out in railroad cuts, ravines and small canyons.
Its thickness ranges all the way from five to sixty feet. Where
free from mechanical admixture of sand, it is exceedingly compact
and hard. An augur penetrates it with great difficulty, and in such
cases it almost bids defiance to a pick. Occasionally it is full of
pebbles, many of which lie lengthwise the direction of the glacial
path, and, like the underlying rock, are marked by parallel striaea.
At other places, instead of pebbles and small boulders, it is inter-
mixed with sand in greater or less quantity. In such places it
readily permits of the passage of water, but where pure it is imper-
vious. In most of these characters it bears a striking resemblance
to the English till.* This till Geike shows was first formed be-
neath glacial ice (Moraine Profjnde). A body of ice 3,000 feet
thick moving forward a few inches or feet in a day would crush
and pulverize everything beneath it. This thickness, at least of
the glacial mass, can be inferred from the depth of the ice mass in
the east, where valleys 5,000 feet deep were filled, as is known by
the scorings that crossed them and were made at that height on the
bounding mountains. Boulders are also known to have been car-
ried across equally elevated mountains. It was nature's mighty
millstone to reduce to powder the stony fragments and organic ma-
terials beneath it. On the final retreat of the glaciers this-fine, im-
palpable mud in part accumulated at the lower end, and in part was
carried away by the rushing streams to be deposited in quiet
waters. In some such way it became somewhat irregularly laid
down over the land. The Erie clays described on the north side of
Lake Erie by Sir W. Logan had, according to Newberry, who
studied them so thoroughly in Ohio, a similar origin. All such
clays, according to these eminent authorities, owe their character,
physical and chemical, directly or indirectly to glacial action. In
Ohio Newberry, however, regards the Erie clays as a result of the

*See ' 'The Great Ice Age," by James Geike.

QUATERNARY AGE.

255

flooding that followed immediately the first retreat of the glaciers.
In Nebraska, however, they must have been formed at first be-
neath a glacial mass and then modified only in part by the floods
that followed immediately on their retreat. The reason of this
opinion is that here I have frequently found the boulders imbedded
n the blue clay lying lengthwise of the path of the glacier, and
striated like the rock beneath as already stated. If this clay had
been deposited from water this peculiar distribution and position of
the boulders would have been impossible.

The following analysis indicates the character of this blue clay.
For purposes of comparison, I give also Wormly's analysis of the
blue clay of Ohio :*

Nebraska
blue clay.

Ohio
blue clay.

Water

3 70

4 00

Silicic Acid .

61 80

59 70

Alumina

13 90

14 80

Iron SesQuioxide ...

5 01

4 60

Lime Carbonate ... . .

9 11

8 90

1 70

5 14

Fixed Alkalies

4 01

3 40

Loss in analysis .

100 00

100 54

The character, ac, will be observed, of these clays, though so
widely separated, closely resemble each other. It should, however,
be remembered that other specimens are widely different — some
having more silicic acid, alkalies, iron or alumina.

Above the blue clay, in a few places, a whitish clay occurs. I
have not ascertained what relation it sustains to the blue clay, or
what its chemical composition is.

Above these clays or till beds of boulder clay occur that occa-
sionally exhibit true marks of stratification. Following this is or-
dinary drift material, which lies directly on the country rocks, where
the blue, white and boulder clays are absent, as often occurs, espe-
cially in north Nebraska. This drift material is the most widely dif-
fused geological deposit in the State, though in vertical thickness it is
much less than others. Sometimes, in a few townships of some coun-
ties, it constitutes the surface soil, but generally it is buried beneath
later deposits. In rare instances it seems to have been removed
from the uplands by denudation, before the Loess was formed.

l. I. of Xewberry's Geological Survey of Ohio, page 177.

256 - GEOLOGY.

Sometimes, where it is exposed at the surface, it is so mingled with
the Loess, Alluvium, and organic matter as to escape the attention
of any one save a practical geologist. It ranges in thickness from
a few inches to seventy-five feet. It may be much thicker, but if
so I have seen no exposures that indicate it. Nowhere does it come
to the surface over wide areas. In the northern part of the State
it occasionally constitutes the surface, in the southern part of Dixon
County, in the northern part of Wayne, and in portions of Cedarr
Knox, Pierce*, Antelope, and Holt counties. In townships 30 and
and 31 north, range I and 2 east, in Cedar County, semicircular
rows of Drift pebbles and boulders even yet extend across narrow
valleys, that lie on the flanks of high bluffs in the form of terminal
moraines of glaciers, the marks of which unnumbered centuries
have not been able to efface. In this region some of the glacier-
marked boulders are of great size, weighing many tons. One of
the most remarkable lies near the quarter-section stone, between
sections 25 and 36, in township 30 north, range I east. It lies on
top of the highest bluff i.n this region, from which there is a mag-
nificent view of the whole country around. It is a granitic quartz-
ose rock, about four feet square. On the level top-surface there is
a beautiful engraving of a child's foot, a half-moon, a grape-vine,
and other hieroglyphics. The engraving of the child's foot is cut
in its deepest part, three-fourths of an inch into the hardest rock,
and for fidelity to nature it would do honor to the work of a Greek
artist. Previous to my discovery of this relic of the past (1869), no
one in that region had heard of its existence. It may have been
the work of the mound-builders, as their peculiar pottery and
mounds are found near by, but what implements enabled them to
carve these symbols in this hard rock, as well as the purpose of
such a monument, at such a place, will probably always remain a
mystery.

South of the Platte the Drift creeps to the surface on some of
the hillsides of Lancaster, Saunders, Saline, Butler, Gage, Seward,
Johnson, Pawnee, and Jefferson counties. In fact, there are few
counties in the eastern part of the State where the Drift is not oc-
casionally exposed by denudation. Four miles northwest of Ne-
braska City, on the farm of Hon. J. F. Kinney, is a granitic boulder
as large as a small house, on whose top smooth holes have been
worn by the Indians in grinding or pounding corn. This boulder
is imbedded in a Loess deposit, through which it extends from the

QUATERNARY AGE. 257

Drift below. Here, as in most other regions, the Drift varies a
great deal in character. As already intimated, it has here been so
modified by subsequent lacustrine agencies as generally to be ca-
pable of high cultivation. Recently I have made a special exam-
ination of the modified Drift in Johnson County. Where the
ground was covered with pebbles, the spade showed that the soil
beneath was composed largely of Loess materials, mixed with
Drift sand and clay, and organic matter. Here it is often in layers,
showing that it is genuine modified Drift. This modified Drift
soil, during the last season, where it was well cultivated, yielded
sixty bushels of corn to the acre. It is only inferior, if inferior at
all, to the Loess, which will be considered in the next section.
Where this Drift is the purest, it is composed of boulders, some of
which are of large size, pebbles, gravel, sand, and a small per cent
of alumina. In places the Drift contains considerable lime, which
was, no doubt, produced by the disintegration during glacial times
of the Niobrara division of Cretaceous rocks. Sometimes frag-
ments of these Cretaceous rocks are found in the Drift. Generally
the pebbles and boulders are composed of the primary rocks, such
as quartz, quartzose, granite, greenstone, syenite, gneiss, porphyry,
actinolite, etc. Occasionally the year presence of the Drift is indi-
cated by large boulders sticking up through soil composed of very
different material. In such cases I have learned by experience to
look for the modified Drift, which is so valuable in the agriculture
of this State. In the few localities where all the finer matter has
been removed by water agency, numbers of the different forms of
variegated agates, carnelians, jaspars, sardonyx, onyx, opals and
petrified wood, etc., are found. Agates and petrified wood are
specially abundant. The latter is found almost in every exposure
of the Drift. Some of the agates vie in beauty with those obtained
from the most celebrated localities in the mountains. Judging from
the remains of the matrix still attached to some of them, they were
originally formed in the secondary rocks, from which they were
separated by the disintegration to which they were subjected by
the wear and tear of the elements in glacial times.

A brief description of a remarkable section through the Drift on
Oak Creek, Lancaster County, will not be out of place. A few
miles from Lincoln the terrace on this creek, composed of Loess
materials, approaches the creek very closely. In this well the
Loess deposit was fifteen feet in thickness, then came two feet of

258 GEOLOGY.

Drift, then two feet of compact peat, then clay and black soil, and
then Drift and blue clay again. The lower Drift here probably
represents the period of the first glacial advance. The upper clay,
black soil, and peat represent the middle period when the glaciers
had retreated and a new forest-bed covered the State. The Drift,
immediately on top of this, marks the second advance of the gla-
ciers. The Loess on top represents the final retreat of the glaciers,
and that era of depression of the surface of the State when the
greater part of it constituted a great fresh-water lake into which the
Missouri, the Platte and the Republican rivers poured their waters.
Old Forest Bed. — This is not observed in sections through the
Quaternary in all parts of the State. Sometimes it is apparently
absent from whole counties, and probably its removal was caused
by a second advance of the glaciers, to be considered presently. In
some of the canyons of the Loup region I have found the bed of
black soil, but without a vestige of silicified wood. In other sec-
tions of the same region it was sparingly present. It is possible
that this may have been occasioned by a condition slightly resem-
bling the present — that is, a condition of alternating forests and
prairies. Though it is evident that the proportion of forest to prai-
rie must have been much greater than at present, as east of the 99th
meridian in 30 sections that I have examined through the Old For-
•est Bed, twenty-three contained silicified wood. West of the 99th
meridian only three out of fifteen sections contained any. The fol-
lowing is a section in a canyon running into the West Loup, where
no wood was visible. I examined the exposure carefully for half a
mile, and the most dilligent search failed to bring any to light :

Surface soil 3 feet.

Loess 21 «

Calcareous sand and gravel 7 "

Boulders, flint and gravel 4 "

Carbonaceous, shaly clay 3 "

Black soil 4 "

Silicious clay 2 «'

Gravel and boulders, exposed 3 "

The black soil of the Old Forest Bed in color and constitution
closely resembles the black surface soils of the State at the present
time. This is particularly true of the lower half. The upper por-
tion has probably been so modified by subsequent glacial and water
agencies as no longer to exhibit its original character. As already
observed in the eastern part of the State, specially large quantities

QUATERNARY AGE. 259

of silicified wood are found in this Old Forest Bed. Of fifty speci-
mens that I examined microscopically at different times, thirty-nine
were conifers. A few oaks, a willow, a cottonwood and some
other species that I could not determine also occurred among them.
If these specimens are any indication of dominant type, then a con-
iferous vegetation flourished here during those times. Here are
also found the remains of the elephant, mastodon, the Bison lati-
frons, a huge elk and deer, and the giant beaver {Castor Ohiaticus}.
Curiously enough, I found the molar of a horse in this same bed,
but too much injured to identify specifically. An abundant animal
life, a life remarkable for its gigantic character, ruled in these old
forests. It was probably colder than at present in the same lati-
tudes, but with conditions of moisture and temperature eminently
adapted to the production of vast and sombre forests, whose soli-
tudes were enlivened principally by huge herbivorous and carnivor-
ous mammals. That the Forest Bed period was a long one is clear
from the thickness of the bed that was formed, from its vast forests
and the remains of its abounding animal life. Black soils form
with excessive slowness, and as the Forest Bed is known, even in
Nebraska, to have a thickness in places of ten feet, the time involved
in its production is simply incalculable.

Second Appearance of Glacial Drift. — On top of the Old Forest
bed materials, and where these have been removed, on top of the
silicious clay floor of the Forest Bed, occur gravel, sands of various
degrees of fineness, boulders and boulder clay. In places the
boulders of various sizes constitute the principal portion of the over-
lying materials. Sometimes these boulders are marked with par-
allel striae, and beds and piles of them occur of enormous thickness.
One such exists on the banks of Oak Creek, six miles from Lin-
coln. Here I measured seventeen feet of vertical thickness of these
boulders of all sizes, from a grain of corn to a hundred pounds in
weight — some rounded and some angular, with sand also intermin-
gled. In the upper portion of these beds there are signs, with
greater or less distinctness, of stratification. Often it bears in its
lower portions a striking resemblance to the drift materials below
the Forest Beds. Above the indistinctly stratified materials are
various beds in places where the stratification is undoubted. These
beds are mostly made up of variously colored gravels and sands, the
latter predominating.

Kames. — On the Logan, Elkhorn, on tributaries of the Republi-
can and Loup, and in other places occur long rows of sometimes

260 GEOLOGY.

gravels and sometimes sands, very distinct from the Pliocene sands
of the Niobrara. The Loess deposits to be described hereafter
abut against them, but often their tops have been blown over the
Loess to such an extent that even geologists have been deceived in-
to the belief that they are of very recent origin. They, however,
antedate the Loess, as is evident from the fact that they extend be-
neath the latter. I am not sure whether any of them exhibit any
true marks of stratification. They bear some resemblance to the
Kames of Scotland and Asars of Scandinavia, and to them they
are for the present referred, though doubtfully. Though their up-
per portions are composed of sands, they often shade down into-
fine and then coarse gravels. This is specially true in southwest
Nebraska, where at long intervals canyons are found which par-
tially cut through them.

Calcareous and Silicious Materials. — Between the deposits which
are doubtfully referred to the Kames, and lying on their flanks, oc-
our, in many places, great beds of fine silicious matter, which in
places is calcareous to a greater or less degree, and is especially
rich in iron, mostly in the form of a sesquioxide. It is often mis-
taken for Loess, whose character it often approaches. The best ex-
amples of it are seen in the Republican Valley, from Harlan
County westward, where the line of junction between it and the
overlying Loess is sharply outlined, and is exposed for thirty miles.
Its color is a darker reddish brown than Loess. Under the micro-
scope, the silicious materials appear coarser than the Loess, with
the addition, occasionally, of small water-worn pebbles. It also
varies much more in character. The following analysis, only par-
tially completed, indicates its chemical character :

Insoluble (silicious) matter 78 . 10

Ferric oxide 5.9&

Alumina 2 . 70

Lime carbonate 11 . 01

Lime phosphate, undetermined.
Magnesia carbonate, "
Potassa, "

Soda, "

At other points in Nebraska this reddish brown silicious matter
shades insensibly into the overlying Loess. Such examples can be
seen along the Missouri River from Plattsmouth to the south line
of the State. Along this same route beds of almost pure sand oc-

QUATERNARY AGE. 261

casionally take its place. There are a few such points between La
Platte and Omaha. Not unfrequently this deposit is highly cal-
careous in its lower and upper portion. When it gradually shades
•down into gravel and boulder beds, the latter are often covered by
incrustrations of calcareous and other alkaline matter. It is possi-
ble that the alkaline matter that has been leached out of the over-
lying beds was deposited on these underlying pebbles and boulders.
I am, however, by no means sure that this explanation is the cor-
rect one. The most remarkable, however, of the deposits at this
horizon, are the strata of calcareous and other alkaline matters that
are found in the upper portion of these silicious beds. The amount
of alkaline matter ranges from ten to ninety per cent and the beds
vary in thickness from a few inches to fifteen feet. Between Ne-
braska City and Brownville, along the Missouri bluffs, are some
fine exposures of these alkaline beds, though they are more min-
gled with sand and gravel than farther west. The calcareous
concretions found here are, however, exceedingly abundant and
beautiful. Samples are common which measure from one to five
inches in diameter. Inside they are sometimes partially hollow, and
portions of the mass being separated and loose, they rattle, on being
shaken after drying. In Saline County there is a thin, almost pure
snow white layer of this calcareous matter. Further west, in Web-
ster, Fillmore, Hamilton, York and some other counties north, as
well as south of the Platte, this alkaline material occurs at this hori-
zon at various localities. It differs greatly in thickness and extent
of beds, and in the proportions of the alkalies present and silicious
materials with which it is combined. It has sometimes been used
for mortar and plastering, and from the people has received the
name of natural morlar. It does not, however, avail for outside
work, as the rain softens and gradually removes it. Not unfre-
quently layers of this alkaline matter are separated by layers of
sand, and even higher up in the series, where it occurs in the
Loess, as it sometimes does, it is separated into thin strata by the
same materials. The following section, taken about five miles
northwest from Fairmount, illustrates the mode of its occurrence :

1. Black soil 4 feet.

2. Loess 17 "

3. Calcareous and other alkaline earths 1 "

4. Loess 2 "

5. Calcareous and other alkaline earths 7 "

<>. Brownish calcareous sand, exposed 3 "

262 GEOLOGY.

The following analysis of these alkaline deposits show how they
vary in character. Both specimens were obtained from Fillmore
County:

INO.I.

NO. 2.
55.11

.70
1.21
19.70

7.13
4.01

Insoluble (silicious) matter

21 00
1.17
1.80
33.14

11.33
3.80

Alumina

Peroxide of iron

Lime carbonate

L/irne phosphate, undetermined . . ...

Magnes'a carbonate, "

Potassa, ' '

Soda, "

Organic matter, " .... ....

Moisture .'

These two specimens indicate the presenqe of a large quantity of
magnesia and lime. Along the Missouri the alkaline concretions
at this horizon are largely composed, in places, of magnesia. They
are white in color and vary in size from a pea to from one to three
inches in diameter. It is probable that a portion of the calcareous-
materials that are present in these deposits came from the chalk
rocks of the Niobrara Group that still exists in northeast Nebraska
and Dakota Territory. I have sometimes found in the Drift, and
also mingled with other alkaline deposits, small chalk rock. At
one place below Plattsmouth one of these chips of chalk contained
a fish scale characteristic of the Niobrara Group. Among- the
eroded calcareous materials that were carried down into this lake
the chalk rocks must have constituted a large portion. Evidently
the waters became supersaturated with alkaline matter either by
excessive activity of the eroding agents — ice and torrents — orr
which is more probable, by partial dessication of the lake. We
have an exemplification of this kind of agency in the present and
past history of the lakes in the Utah basin. The analysis of its
waters give a remarkably small per cent of carbonate of lime.
And yet the rivers bring a large amount of it annually into the
lake. King, however, has shown in the 4oth parallel survey that
lime in the form of tufa or thinolite has been precipitated in im-
mense quantities during some portions of its history. When the
waters of Salt Lake, (Lake Bonneville formerly, King), receded
below the line of outflow, but were kept at a high level for long
periods of time, great beds of tufa were deposited, especially along
the shore, and to some extent towards its interior. Lake Lahontan
(west of Lake Bonneville) is still a more remarkable instance where

QUATERNARY AGE. 263

calcareous tufas were produced. In reference to this, King re-
marks : " The occurrence of such a tremendous formation of alka-
line carbonates, necessitates a very long period, during which the
surface of Lake Lahontan was some distance below its level of
outlet. To account for the existing presence of the weak solutions
of the residual lakes, it is necessary, after the formation of gay-lus-
site and its pseudomorphism into thinolite, to suppose a flood-period
during which the lake had free drainage over its outlet, and which
continued long enough, practically, to wash out the saline contents
of the great lake." Now in a way somewhat similar, it is possible
that in immediately pre-Loess times, the great Quaternary lake of
Nebraska and western Iowa, may have become so reduced in vol-
ume by climatic change as to lose more by evaporation than by
overflow, anfl then through the interaction of other chemical
agents, precipitated its alkalies to the bottom. That some such
agency was here at work for a long time, is evident from the extent
and great thickness of these alkaline deposits. When finally this
condition of things was drawing to a close, the finer silicious de-
posits commenced to form, which shaded into the Loess or next
deposit above. As already observed, these transition beds can be
seen in the Republican Valley, and with still greater distinctness in
some of the small canyons in the region of the Loups, where often
it is impossible to tell with exactness where the Loess or next de-
posit above begins.

Resume of Geological History between the Glacial and Loess Pe-
riods.—-We have seen that the retreating ice sheet of the Glacial
Period left in its path huge beds of blue clay and other Drift ma-
terials, which in their upper portions were modified by water
agency. The land was flooded, and over the great lake or interior
sea thus formed icebergs floated and dropped their loads of sand,
gravel and boulders on the bottoms, and where they were stranded
left this debris in enormous heaps. This period of depression and
floods was followed by one of slow elevation, when the waters
were drained off and a new forest bed was formed to the shores of
the retreating lakes, or to the foot of the glacier mass. As the
period of glaciation was a time of great relative humidity, this
must also have been the character of the climate all through the
flood and Old Forest Bed period. The ice sheet again advanced
and destroyed these magnificent forests before it. Newberry, who
first directed attention to this Old Forest Bed, found no evidences

264 GEOLOGY.

of this period of glaciation in Ohio. Here, however, it is clear.
It has also been observed in northeastern Iowa by W. J. McGee.*
I attribute the absence of this Forest Bed in many sections of Ne-
braska to the second advance of the ice sheet in these regions. It
probably failed to advance so far south in Ohio and other sections
of the Mississippi Valley. When this ice sheet commenced its re-
treat, another period of depression came on, whefi the land was
again flooded, and a lake of fresh water again occupied the plains.
This body of water for ages abutted against the ice sheet on the
north, from which it received icebergs that floated over its waters.
In these waters the materials left by the retreating glaciers were
remodified in their upper portion, and new matter was brought
down by torrents and icebergs. When the ice sheet retreated from
the shores of this lake or interior sea, finer sediment* began to be
laid down. Fine sand took the place of gravels and boulders, and
as the waters contracted in volume the calcareous matter held in
suspension began to be precipitated. There is no evidence that the
lake was entirely dessicated previous to the beginning of the Loess
period. It was only reduced to smaller dimensions. W^hen at last
central and eastern Iowa became dry land, and the ice sheet had
retreated to the upper Missouri and the Yellowstone, the Loess
materials began to be laid down on the floor of the old lake bed.
So important, however, are these Loess materials in historic and
economic geology that they will be discussed in a separate chapter.

*See American Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. 15, page 339.

QUATERNARY AGE. 265

CHAPTER VIII.

THE QUATERNARY AGE, AND SUPERFICIAL
DEPOSITS, CONTINUED. LOESS PERIOD.

Name. — Extent. — Thickness. — Homogeneous Character. — Chemical Char-
acter.— Analyses.— Drainage. — Physical Character. — Example. — Cause of
these Peculiarities of the Loess. — Fruit on the Loess deposits. — Scenery
produced by the Loess. — Origin of the Loess. — Kichthofen's Theory. — Recent
Advocates of this Theory. — Facts bearing out this Theory in the -Nebraska
Loess. — Objections to this Theory. — Root Marks and their depth in the Ne-
braska Loess. — How Explained on the Subaqueous Theory. — Facts learned
from Sections in the Republican Valley and South of Plum Creek.— Changes
of Level Proved, by Fossil Soils in the Loess. — Differences in the Present
Level of Loess Districts, and its Causes. — Land and Fresh Water Shells in
the Loess, and How Explained. — Stratification of Loess, and its Lessons. —
True Origin of the Loess. — Resume of its History. — Missouri Mud, its
Analysis and Identity with the Loess. — Length of the Loess Period. — Re-
mains of Man. — Climate. — List of Shells in the Loess. ^

THE LOESS DEPOSITS.

The Loess deposits first received the name from Lyell, who ob-
served it closely along the Mississippi in various places. Hayden
frequently calls it the bluff formation, because of the peculiar config-
uration that it gives to the uplands which border the flood plains of
the rivers. He also frequently calls them marl-beds. This deposit,
although not particularly rich in organic remains, is in some re-
spects one of the most remarkable in the world. Its value for agri-
cultural purposes is not exceeded anywhere. It prevails over at
least three-fourths of the surface of Nebraska. It ranges in thick-
ness from five to one hundred and fifty feet. Some sections of it
in Dakota County measure over two hundred feet. At North
Platte, 300 miles west of Omaha, and on the south side of the
river, some of the sections that I measured ranged in thickness
from one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and fifty feet.
From Crete, on the Burlington & Missouri River Railroad, west
to Kearney, on the Union Pacific Railroad, its thickness for ninety

266 GEOLOGY.

miles ranges from forty to ninety feet. South of Kearney, and for
a great distance west, along the Union Pacific Railroad as far as to
the Republican, there is a great expanse of territory covered by a
great thickness of this deposit. I measured many sections in wells
over this region, and seldom found it less than forty, and often more
than sixty feet in thickness. Along the Republican I traced the
formation almost to the western line of the State, its thickness-
ranging from thirty to seventy feet. One section north of Kearney,
on Wood River, showed a thickness of fifty feet. The same varia-
tion in thickness is found along the counties- bordering on the Mis-
souri. One peculiarity of this deposit is that it is generally almost
perfectly homogeneous throughout, and of almost uniform color,
however thick the deposit, or far apart the specimens have been
taken. I have compared many specimens taken 300 miles apart,
and from the top and bottom of the deposits, and no difference could
be detected by the eye or by chemical analysis.

Over 80 per cent of this deposit is very finely comminuted silica.
When washed in water, left standing, and the water poured off, and
the coarser materials have settled, the residuum, after evaporation
to dryness, is almost entirely composed of fine silicious powder.
So fine, indeed, are the particles of silica, that its true character can
alone Ire detected by analysis or under a microscope. About ten
per cent is composed of the carbonates and phosphates of lime.
These materials are so abundant in these deposits, that they spon-
taneously crystalize, or form concretions, from the size of a shot to
that of a walnut; and these are often hollow or contain some or-
ganic matter, or a fossil, around which the crystallization took
place. Almost anywhere, when the soil is turned over by the plow
or in excavations, these concretions may be found. Often, after a
rain has washed newly-thrown-up soil, the ground seems to be lit-
erally covered with them. Old gopher hills and weather beaten
hill-sides furnish these concretions in unlimited quantities for the
geologist and the curiosity hunter. When first exposed, most of
these concretions are soft enough to be rubbed fine between the
fingers, but they gradually harden by exposure to the atmosphere.
This deposit also contains small amounts of alkaline matter, iron,
and alumina. For the purpose of showing the homogeneous
character and the chemical properties of the Loess deposits, I have
made five new analyses of this soil. No. i is from Douglas County,
near Omaha; No. 2 from the bluffs near Kearney; No. 3 from the

QUATERNARY AGE.

267

Lower Loup; No. 4 from Button, and No. 5 from the Republican
Valley, near Orleans, in Harlan County :

NO. 1.

NO. 2.

NO. 3.

NO. 4.

NO. 5.

Insoluble ("siliciousYmatter

81 28

81 32

81.35

81.30

81.32

Ferric oxide

3 86

3.87

3.83

3.85

3.86

Alumina

.75

» .75

.74

.73

.74

Lime carbonate

6 06

6 03

6 05

6 09

Lime phosphate

3 59

3 58

3.57

3 5D

Magnesia, carbonate .

1.28

1 28

1 31

1.31

1.29

Potassa .

.27

.29

.35

.34

.33

Soda

.16

1(>

Organic matter .

1.0?

1.06

1 05

1.06

1 06

Moisture

1.09

1.08

1 09

1 08

1.09

Loss in analysis

.59

.54

.53

.55

.4-7

100.00

TooooT

1UO.OO

loo". 06"

100.00

After making the above analyses I received from Dr. Hayden
his Final Report on the Geology of Nebraska. This report, on
page 12, contains two analyses of the Loess deposit from Hannibal,
Mo., made by Dr. Litton. According to these analyses, from one
hundred parts there were —

No. 1.

No. 2.

Silica

76.98

77.02

Alumina and peroxide of iron

11.54

12.10

Lime .

3.87

3.25

Maznesia

1.68

1.63

Carbonic acid

Not determined

2.83

Water .

2.01

2.43

96.17

99.2ft

According to these analyses the Loess contains more clay in Mis-
souri than it does in Nebraska. The analyses that I made of two
specimens of Loess from Richardson County also contained slight-
ly more alumina than the above.

For the purpose of comparison, I here reproduce, from Hayden's
report, Bischoff's analyses of the Lacustrine or Loess of the Rhine:

NO. OF ANALYSIS.

Silicic acid

58.97

79.53

78.61

62.43

81.04

Alumina

9.97

1345?

7.51

9.75

Peroxide of iron ....

4.25

481 )

15.26

5.14

6.6-7

Lime

0 02

002

Magnesia

0.04

006

0.09

0.21

0.27

Potash

0.11

1 05?

Soda

0.84

1 14)

3.31

1.75

2.27

Carbonate of lime
Carbonate of magnesia
Loss by ignition . . .

20.16
4.21
1 37

1.89

11.63
3.02
2.31

268 GEOLOGY.

It will be seen from the above analyses of BischofF that Nos. 3
and 5, in the quantity of silica and other elements that are present,
come very near the Loess of Nebraska. The principal difference
is the larger quantity of alumina present in the samples analyzed by
BischofF, Chemically the deposits of the Rhine Valley, as Hayden
remarks, are not essentially different from those of the Loess soils
along the Missouri.

As would be expected, from the elements which chemical analy-
sis shows to be present in these deposits, it forms one of the best
soils in the world. In fact, it can never be exhausted until every
hill and valley of which it is composed is entirely worn away.
Its drainage, which is the best possible, is owing to the remarkably
finely comminuted silica of which the bulk of the deposit consists.
Where the ground is cultivated the most copious rains percolate
through the soil, which, in its lowest depths, retains it like a huge
sponge. Even the unbroken prairie absorbs much of the heavy
rains that fall. When droughts come the moisture comes up from
below by capillary attraction. And when it is considered that the
depth to the solid rock ranges generally from five to two hundred
feet, it is seen how readily the needs of vegetation are supplied in
the driest seasons. This is the main reason why over all the re-
gion where these deposits prevail the natural vegetation and the
well-cultivated crops are rarely dried out or drowned out. I have
frequently observed a few showers to fall in April, and then little
more rain until June, when, as will be considered farther on, there
is generally a rainy season of from three to eight weeks' continuance.
After these June rains little more would fall till autumn; and yet, if
there was a deep and thorough cultivation, the crops of corn, ce-
reals and grass would be most abundant. This condition represents
the dry seasons. On the other hand, the extremely wet seasons
only damage the crops over the low bottoms, subject to overflow.
Owing to the silicious nature of the soils they never bake when
plowed in a wet condition, and a day after heavy rains the plow can
again be successfully and safely used.

The physical properties of the Loess deposits are also remarka-
ble. In the interior, away from the Missouri, hundreds of miles of
these Loess deposits are almost level or gently rolling. Not un-
frequently a region will be reached where, for a few miles, the
country is bluffy or hilly, and then as much almost entirely level,
with intermediate forms. The bluffs that border the flood-plains of

QUATERNARY AGE. 269

the Missouri, the Lower Platte, and some other streams, are some-
times exceedingly precipitous, and sometimes gently rounded off.
They often assume fantastic forms, as if carved by some curious
generations of the past. But now they retain their forms so un-
changed from year to year, affected by neither rain nor frost, that
they must have been molded into their present outlines under cir-
cumstances of climate and level very different from that which now
prevails.

For all purposes of architecture this soil, even for the most mas-
sive structures, is perfectly secure. I have never known a founda-
tion of a large brick or stone building, if commenced below the
winter frost line, to give way. Even when the first layers of brick
and stone are laid on top of the ground there is seldom such unev-
enness of settling as to produce fractures in the walls. On no other
deposits, except the solid rock, are there such excellent roads.
From twelve to twenty-four hours after the heaviest rains
the roads are perfectly dry, and often appear, sifter being
traveled a few days, like a vast floor formed from cement,
and by the highest art of man. The drawback to this pic-
ture is that sometimes during a drought the air along the highways
on windy days is filled with dust. And yet the soil is very easily
worked, yielding readily to the spade or plow. Excavation is re-
markably easy, and no pick or mattock is thought of for such pur-
poses. It might be expected that such a soil readily yielded to at-
mospheric influences, but such is not the case. Wells in this de-
posit are frequently walled up only to a point above the water line;
and on the remainder the spade-marks will be visible for years. In-
deed, the traveler over Nebraska will often be surprised to see
spade-marks and carved-out names and dates years after they were
first made, where ordinary soils would soon have fallen away into
a gentle slope. This peculiarity of the soil has often been a God-send
to poor emigrants. Such often cut out of the hillsides a shelter for
themselves and their stock. Many a time when caught out on the
roads in a storm, far away from the towns, have I found shelter in
a " dug-out" with an emigrant's family, where, cozy and warm,
there was perfect comfort, with little expenditure of fuel on the
coldest days.

In summer such shelters are much cooler than frame or brick
houses. I shall never forget one occasion in 1866 when, bewildered
by a blinding snow-storm, I came to a "dug-out," and although all

270 GEOLOGY.

the chambers were carved out of the soil (Loess), they were per-
fectly dry. The walls were hidden and ornamented with Harpers'
Weekly, with the emanations of Nast's genius made to occupy the
conspicuous corners. -My hostess, whose cultivated intellect and
kindly nature made even this abode a charming resort, was a grad-
uate of an eastern seminary. Her husband, after a failure in busi-
ness in New York, came here to commence life anew on a home-
stead, by stock raising. To get a start with young stock no money
could be spared for a house. Eight years afterward I found the
same family financially independent, and living in a beautiful brick
mansion, but I doubt whether they had any more substantial hap-
piness than when they were looking for better days in the old tem-
porary "dug-out." Thousands who are still coming into this land
of promise are still doing the same thing. So firmly does the ma-
terial of this deposit stand, that after excavations are made in it,
underground passages without number could be constructed with-
out meeting any obstacles, and without requiring any protection
from walls and timber.

CAUSE OF THESE PECULIARITIES.

These peculiarities of the Loess deposits are chiefly owing to the
fact that the carbonate of lime has entered into slight chemical
combination wTith the finely comminuted silica. There is always more
or less carbonic acid in the atmosphere which is brought down by
the rains, and this dissolves the carbonate of lime, which then read-
ily unites with silica, but only to a slight extent, and not enough to
destroy its porosity. Though much of the silica is microscopically
minute, and is water-worn or rounded, it still enters into this slight
union with the carbonate of lime. Had there been more lime and
iron in this deposit, and had it been subjected to a greater and
longer pressure from superincumbent waters, instead of a slightly
chemically compacted soil, it would have resulted in a sandstone
formation, incapable of cultivation. There is not enough of clayey
matter present to prevent the water from percolating through it as
perfectly as through sand, though a great deal more slowly. This
same peculiarity causes ponds and stagnant water to be rare within
the limits of this deposit. Where they do exist in slight depres-
sions on the level plain, it is found that an exceptionally large
quantity of clayey matter has been accumulated in the soil on the
bottom. In Clay, Fillmore, York, and a few other counties, there

QUATERNARY AGE. 271

are considerable numbers of ponds, covering from a few acres to
half a section of land, grown up around the border with reeds and
coarse grasses and sedges, and where the water is deeper, with ar-
row-leaves, pond-lillies, and other water-plants. In every instance
where I had opportunity to examine them, there was a thin bed of
clayey matter mixed with organic materials, from a few inches to
a foot or more in thickness, lying on the bottom, and on top of the
Loess deposit. This clayey matter was probably deposited there
before the waters finally retired from the old lake-bed in which
this soil originated. In the stiller portions of the lake, or in eddies,
about the time it commenced to be dry land, when portions were
already cut off from the main lake except in flood-time, in these
isolated pools all the clay in solution would be precipitated to the
bottom, before the next annual rise of the waters. This I propose
as a provisional explanation of this phenomenon.

FRUIT ON THE LOESS DEPOSITS.

In these Loess deposits are found the explanation of the ease
with which nature produces the wild fruits in Nebraska. So dense
are the thickets of wild grapes and plums along some of the bot-
toms and bluffs of the larger streams that it is difficult to penetrate
them. Over twenty varieties of wild plums have *been observed,
all of them having originated . either from Prunus Americana, P.
chickasa, or P. pumillu. Only two species of grapes are clearly
outlined, namely, Vitis cesfivalis and V. cardifolia, but these have
such interminable variations that the botanist becomes discouraged
in attempting to draw the lines between them, and to define the
ranee and limit of the varieties. The same remark could be

made of the strawberries. Raspberries and blackberries abound in
many parts of the State. The buffalo-berry (Shepherdia Canadensis]
is common on many of the Missouri and Republican River bot-
toms. Many other wild fruits abound, and grow with wonderful
luxuriance wherever timber protects them and prairie fires are re-
pressed. As would be expected, these deposits are also a paradise
for the cultivated fruits of the temperate zones. They luxuriate in
a soil like this, which has perfect natural drainage, and is composed
of such materials. No other.region, except the valleys of the Nile
and of the Rhine, can, in these respects, compare with the Loess
deposits of Nebraska. The Loess of the Rhine supplies Europe
with some of its finest wines and grapes. The success that has al-

272 GEOLOGY.

ready attended the cultivation of the grape in southeastern Ne-
braska, at least, demonstrates that the State may likewise become
remarkable in this respect. For the cultivation of the apple, its
superiority is demonstrated. Nebraska, although so young in
years, has taken the premium over all the other States in the pom-
ological fairs at Richmond and Boston. Of course there are ob-
stacles here in the way of the pomologist as well as in other fa-
vored regions. But what is claimed is, that the soil, as analysis and
experience prove, is eminently adapted to grape, and especially to
apple tree culture. The chief obstacle is particularly met with in
the interior of the State, and results from the climate. In mid-
summer occasional hot, dry winds blow from the southwest.
These winds, where the trunks of apple trees are exposed, blister
and scald the bark on the south side, and frequently kill the trees*
It is found, however, that when young trees are caused to throw
out limbs near to the ground, they are completely protected, or if
that has not been done, a shingle tacked on that side of the tree
prevents all damage from that source. Many fruit-growers also
claim that cottonwood and box-elder groves on the south side of
orchards is all that is necessary to protect them from these storms.
I mention this frere to put any new settler, who may read this and
who has not learned the experience of fruit-growers in this State, on
his guard.

SCENERY OF THE LOESS DEPOSITS.

It has been remarked that " no sharp lines of demarcation sepa-
rate the kinds of scenery that produce the emotions of the grand
and the beautiful." This is eminently true of some of the scenery
produced by the Loess formations. Occasionally an elevation is
encountered from whose summit there are such magnificent views
of river, bottom, forest, and winding bluffs as to produce all the
emotions of the sublime. One such elevation is Pilgrim Hill, in
Dakota County, on the farm of Hon. J. Warner. From this hill
the Missouri bottom, with its marvelous, weird-like river, can be
seen for twenty miles. Dakota City and Sioux City, the latter dis-
tant sixteen miles, are plainly visible. If it happens to be Indian
summer, the tints of the woods vie with the hazy splendor of the
sky to give to the far outstretched landscape more than an oriental
splendor. I have looked with amazement at some of the wonder-
ful canyons of the Rocky Mountains, but nothing there more com-
pletely filled me and satisfied the craving for the grand in nature

QUATERNARY AGE. 273

than did this view from Pilgrim Hill. Another view, equally ma-
jestic is on the Missouri, back of lona, in Dixon County. My at-
tention was directed to it by John HiH, Esq., who took me to a
high point for observing the river, which can here be seen for a
great distance. The alternations of lofty bluff and bottom, wood-
land and prairie, give a picture worthy the pencil of the most gifted1
artist, and of all who love the grand and picturesque in nature. It
is true that such scenes are rare, but then there are many landscapes'
which, if not grand, are still of wonderful beauty. This is the case
along most of the bluffs of the principal rivers. In Northern Ne~
braska these bluffs often reach two hundred or more feet in height,,
and this perhaps gives this portion of the State the most varied
scenery. At some points these bluffs are rounded off and melt
beyond into a gently-rolling plain. But they constantly vary, and
following them you come now into a beautiful cove, now to a curi-
ous headland, then to terraces, and, however far you travel, you in
vain look for a picture like the one just passed. Numerous rounded
tips, with strangely precipitous sides, are seen in every hour's
travel, and these, as they form bold curves, rampart like, stretch
away into the distance and form images of the most impressive
beauty. Indeed, the bluffs of the Loess deposits are unique, and
Ruskin cannot exhaust the subject of the beautiful until he sees
and studies the hills of Nebraska.

Origin of the Loess Deposits. — Richthoferfs Theory. — In a paper on
" The Superficial Deposits of Nebraska," which was published in
the Hay den Reports for 1874, I attributed the formation of the
Loess deposits to subaqueous agency. Since then renewed atten-
tion has been given to the Loess, which has been stimulated by
Baron Von Richthofen's great work on the Loess of northeastern
China. He took the ground, as a few American geologists had
previously suggested, that the Loess was a subaerial formation.*
So cogent is his reasoning that some American geologists, who I
am satisfied had never thoroughly studied the American Loess in
place, have been converted to his views. An examination, there-
fore, of this reference here, is not out of place, especially as this
theory, if true, would have the most important application to the
climatology of the plains.

Richthofen's theory is that the Loess of China, and the Loess
everywhere, was formed on dessicated regions covered by scanty
grasses, by the action through countless centuries of strong winds.
18

274 GEOLOGY.

The exigencies of his theory require that mountain chains should
cut off the moisture from a contiguous, elevated, undrained region.
The dessication of such a region exposed to dry, cold winds fur-
nished the dust-like materials that filled up lower lands and became
the Loess of this period. Prof. P^mp^lly, contrary to his former
views, now advocates this theory.* Clarence King now also lends to
this theory a qualified assent. These eminent men would account
for the Loess of Nebraska in the same way.

I admit that some facts concerning the Loess of Nebraska could
be explained by this theory. One of these is the wind structure of
some of the Loess hills on the Logan, Elkhorn, Loup and Repub-
lican rivers.' This structure is often found there as distinct as
among the shifting sands of our sea coast. In every case, however,
where I examined this structure in the Loess I found it to be su-
perficial. Out of nineteen such hills none of them possessed this
structure over ten feet deep, and few of them over five feet, and
many of them only from two to three feet deep. In the deep can-
yons where the Loess is exposed vertically from fifteen to one
hundred feet I have never found this wind structure over ten feet
deep. It occurs, therefore, only in the Loess that has been recently
modified by the winds, and long after it was first deposited.

Another fact which the theory of a subaerial origin would ex-
plain, is that the terraces in the valley of Oak Creek and Little
Salt are formed of Loess, but the high plateau or divides between
these streams are Drift. There are other similar cases in the State,
where the Loess is comparatively thin. It ,is natural to suppose
that if the Loess had been a subaqueous deposit, it would have
been laid clown on the uplands as well as in the valleys — if formed
suba3rially, the valleys would have been filled up first. In other
sections, however, the Loess covers with equal thickness uplands
•and the flanks of the valleys. West of Crete, as far as the Loess
extends, it was probably laid down alike on hills and valleys, with
only a few unimportant exceptions. In Dakota and Dixon coun-
ties, in southern Cedar, and many counties west of these, the Loess
frequently is as thick on the high hills as in the terraced valleys.
The isolated uplands now devoid of Loess, on the theory of its
subaqueous origin, must have been islands in this old Nebraska
lake, or else it has been removed by erosion. There are some facts
that point to the former theory — the island origin of these spots de-

*See American Journal of Scijnce and Arts for January, 1879.

QUATERNARY AGE. 275

void of Loess — as the correct explanation. One of these is that in
such sections the Loess that horders on to an exposed Drift region
is exceptionally full of the -remains of elephants and mastodons. As
if these animals had come down to the water to drink and to wal-
low, and had become mired and perished. This is proposed, how-
ever, as only a provisional explanation.

Another observation depended on by Richthofen to substantiate
his theory is the depth at which root holes are found in the Loess.
He supposes these to occur at such a depth that the grasses that oc-
cur at the surface could not possibly have penetrated the Loess to
such a depth, and that therefore they must have flourished when
this deposit was thinner than at present. Subserial filling up would
account for their presence, as they would be growing during the
Avhole period of the accumulation of the Loess. To this it may be
replied that roots descend from the surface through the Loess to an
enormous depth. In 1868 I measured the depth of a root of the
Buffalo berry (Shepherdia argophylla), at the edge of the St. John's j
timber, in Dakota County, and found it to extend fifty-five feet be- j
low the surface in undisturbed Loess. Near the same point, I
traced another root from near the bottom of the Loess in a slide for
thirty-nine feet to a stock of grass {Andropogon furcatus}. West
of old Fort Calhoun the roots of the common blue-grass have pen-
etrated the Loess to a depth of from five to fifteen feet. A sumach
(Rhits glabrd] near by was found to send down roots to a depth of
fifteen feet. South of Plum Creek, in the Loess canyons, roots of
the lead plant {Amorpha canescens}, can be traced in the Loess for
from ten to twenty feet. Prof. J. E. Todd has also observed in the
Iowa Loess the roots of other grasses to descend to depths of from '
six to twenty-five feet.* Moreover, these root marks inosculate in
every direction, and become fewer the deeper we descend, with
some notable exceptions. There are horizons in the Republican
Valley, far below the present surface, where the old root marks oc-
cur in exceptional numbers. As these fossil root marks are now
more or less completely filled with either lime carbonate or oxides
of iron,, they are readily distinguished. To understand the probable
reason for these phenomena, on the theory of the subaqueous origin
of the Loess, the following sections are given. The first is taken
from along the sides of a canyon leading into a tributary of the

*Procee<lings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. '27, St.
I.OIUS Meeting, August. 1878.

276 GEOLOGY.

Republican, in Township 27 West, i and 2 North. It is exposed
for many iiJles:

1 . Loess ..*... 4 feet,

2. Black soil 2 "

3. Loess extending down to upper terrace 4 "

4. Black soil 1>£"

5. Loess 5 "

6. Black soil : 1)£"

7. Stratified loess , 15 "

Another section, taken two miles above the Republican Forks in
Dundy County, from the sides of a small tributary, showed the
following characters :

1. Black soil 1 foot,

2. Loess .' . 5 feet.

3. Black soil 1 foot.

4. Loess 15 feet.

The following section was taken near the Arickeree, about six

miles east of the west line of the State. This section can be dupli-
cated in any of the numerous small canyons in this region :

1 . Black soil 1^ feet,

2. Loess 15 "

3. Black soil 2 "

4. Loess as far as exposed 15 "

Now, in all these sections the Loess next to the Black soils from
below is specially full of root marks — the Loess at the bottom of
the sections as well as at the top. This indicates that during the
progress of the Loess period there were many changes of level,,
during some of which these regions became level surfaces, similar
to the present, and covered with a rich black soil. These old land
* surfaces became covered with grasses, whose roots penetrated far
into the underlying Loess. Changes of level, and lake conditions
came on again, and deposited more Loess, and these changes, con-
tinuing through interminable centuries, have gone on till the present,
To show that the Republican region was not exceptionable in this
respect, the following section is given, from the canyon region
south of Plum Creek, on the road to Arrapahoe. It is near the
divide between the Platte and Republican:

1. Black soil 3 feet.

2. Loess 40 "

3. Black soil 2 "

4. Loess 15 "

5. Clay with calcareous concretions 4 "

6. Reddish sandy deposit, with a few calcareous concretions, only

two feet exposed 2 "

QUATERNARY AGE. 277

Here, as in the Republican Valley, the Loess at the bottom of
the section (No. 4) has a great many more root marks than the
lower part of the Loess above (or No. 2). The same explanation is
applicable here as in the former case, namely, that these fossil black
soils represent conditions of land surface like the present, when the
vegetation of the time penetrated from them into the underlying
Loess. Now it is probable that these black soils may have been
removed in some districts by erosion at the beginning of the re-
newed lake conditions, and left no sign of their former presence,
except the fossil root marks below. However abundant, therefore,
at some horizons these root marks may be in the Loess of this
country or Asia, its origin can easily be explained on the theory of
its sub iqueous origin. Again, it is questionable whether these black
soils filled with organic matter are ever formed except in the presence
of water. The most probable explanation is that the black soils on
top of the Loess have been formed when this lake gradually ap-
proached dessication or a drained condition. When it approxi-
mated the condition of a peat bog the organic matter was retained
•(as a large portion is always retained when it decays under water),
and mingling with the Loess bottom became a black soil when the
drainage was completed. This semi-boggy condition endured for
ages — long enough at least to form a black soil from three inches
to ten feet thick. In accordance with this view the highest knolls
where the land is rolling have in general the thinnest covering of
black soil. This process is still going on in the bogs of the Mis-
souri and many of its tributaries in the Loess region. If the Loess
was formed, as I maintain, by subaqueous agency, then it is appar-
ent that this old lake became dry land gradually. It surrendered
its bottom little by little, until modern conditions prevailed.

Another fact depended on by Richthofen to substantiate his
theory, is the difference in level between various points of con-
nected Loess regions. This objection is based on the assumption
that the Loess districts lie at the same level now as during the

•deposition of this peculiar sediment. No geologist, however,
doubts that during Glacial times the continent towards the north
laid relatively far above its present level. It is also conceded that
during the Champlain Epoch the level of a large part of North
America was below w'hat it is now. It is admitted that, partly
owing to this depression, and partly to melting ice sheets, temperate
latitudes were flooded. The re-elevation of the land drained it.

278 GEOLOGY.

Probably the huge terminal morraines helped to confine the water
and produce the great lakes of the time. Now it can easily be
seen that a certain stage would be reached in the re-elevation of the
land when the surface conditions would be precisely such as is
claimed for the great lakes of the Loess period. Confirmatory of
this induction is the fact that the Loess valleys running proxi-
mately east and west through Nebraska have almost universally
long gentle slopes on the north side and steeper bluffs on the south.
As the continent rose towards the north slowly and gently, the
streams retired gradually towards the south side of the valleys and
produced this peculiar configuration. It is true that here the Loess-
in southeast Nebraska is over 3,000 feet below the highest point on-
the west line of the State. At other points the difference of level
in the Loess of Nebraska is over 3,500 feet. But this is more
than paralleled by the remnants of the old Pliocene lake of the
plains, where the present difference of level between its eastern and
western shore is over 7,000 feet. No geologist, however, doubts-
that in Pliocene times it occupied about the same plane. The
change in level, therefore, on the theory that the Loess was formed
in a lake, since the close of that period, is only about half as great
as that which occurred since the close of Pliocene times.

The assumed fact that fresh water shells are absent and land
shells abundant in the Loess, is also depended on by Richthofen to-
prove his theory. However it may be in China, here fresh water
shells are quite abundant at some horizons. The species of land
and fresh water shells that I have thus far identified from the Loess
of Nebraska are appended to the end of this chapter. It will be
seen that large numbers of them are fresh water shells. They are
not found merely near existing fresh water streams, as has been
suggested — they are equally abundant on the divides wherever
there are well shafts to bring them to light. It is an interesting
analogous fact that in the eddies and in the sand bars and silted up
hollows of the Missouri, at the present time, about the same rela-
tive proportion of land and fresh water shells are found as in the
Loess. For example, four miles below Dakota City, on a sand
bar, I have on several occasions examined the exposed silt after
flood time for shells. In 1871 I here obtained of existing kinds
brought down by the river, thirty-five species of land and twenty
of fresh water shells. Three years afterwards, at the same point, I
obtained five less of the former and six of the latter. The Mis-

QUATERNARY AGE. 279

souri, in its upper portion at least, is not rich in fresh water shells,
neither its bottoms nor waters being highly adapted to them. This
evidently also was the case with the Loess lake of this region,
which was fed, as we shall presently see, by the Missouri and the
Platte. I do not adopt the views suggested by Hilgard that the
waters of this lake, probably from its alkaline character and the
constitution of the Loess itself, destroyed the more fragile shells.*
As in the Missouri at the present time, there were comparatively
few shells in this old lake. Even a large part of the fresh water shells
now found in the Loess were probably carried into this lake from
its smaller tributaries.

Richthofen also claims that the Loess exhibits no marks of strat-
ification, and that therefore it could not have been formed by sub-
aqueous agencies. In my earlier studies of the Loess it also ap-
peared to me to be without stratification. Since my earlier pub-
lished papers on this subject, I have found the most convincing evi-
dence that the Loess, at least in some sections, is as distinctly strati-
fied as the modified Drift beneath it. The following section is
given from the new railroad cut at Plattsmouth, to show the hori-
zon of stratification. The section is taken from the east end of the
cut:

1. Black soil 2 feet.

2. Yellow Loess 10 "

3. Typical Loess, finely laminated 30 "

4. Reddish brown, impure Loess, mingled with silicious streaks 15 "

5. Small boulders, gravel and lime concretions. Small boulders,

sometimes covered with lime. Some clay. Colors, various.
Exposed 6 "

In this section No. 3 is clearly stratified. A similar laminated
appearance is seen in some of the Loess at the west or Plattsmouth
end of this cut. In the Republican Valley the lower sections of
the Loess are now found to be distinctly laminated and occasionally
stratified. Here the strata of Loess are sometimes separated by
strata of sand, and even, sometimes, on the upper Republican,
by layers of sand and gravel. Similar sections can be seen in some
of the canyons through the Loess southwest of Plum Creek. At
Plattsmouth, and on the Lower Loup, beds of light are often sepa-
rated by beds of darker colored Loess. Along the bluffs of the
Republican Valley this condition can be observed for many miles
in a stretch. Conspicuous examples can be seen going west from

* American Journal of Science and Arts, for April, 1879.

280 GEOLOGY.

Orleans. I find, also, that almost any section of our Loess, when
saturated with moisture and then frozen and shaved smooth with a
knife, will show fine lines of stratification when looked at through
a large magnifying glass

A fact often overlooked is the transition character of some beds
of sand, as they shade into the Loess. As beds of Loess and strat-
ified sands at the bottom of Loess sections often alternate, und even
sometimes with strata of clay, it is not easily conceivable how
subaqueous agency should have formed the one and Aeolian agency
the other.

The preceding discussion disposes of the most important objec-
tions to the theory of the subaqueous origin of the Loess. The
theory of Richthofen is not tenable, in my judgment, for the Ne-
braska Loess. I have no doubt that future investigation will show
it to be untenable for China. We are now ready to state connect-
edly the history of the origin of the Loess.

True Origin of the Loess Deposits. — Geological events have already
been traced to the beginning of the Loess period. According to
Newberry the whole of the Old Forest Bed area now less than
i, 100 feet above the level of Lake Erie was flooded by the changes
of level and thawing of retreating glaciers that followed its disap-
pearance. In Nebraska during this time icebergs again floated
over the waters. The farther retreat of the glaciers and the eleva-
tion of eastern Iowa reduced the area of this great lake. What
had been a great interior sea of turbulent waters had now become
a system of placid lakes that extended from Nebraska and western
Iowa at intervals to the Gulf. The Missouri drained through
them all along its length. The Missouri, and sometimes the
Platte, have been amongst the muddiest streams in the world. If
we go up the Missouri to its source, and carefully examine the
character of the deposits through which it passes, we cannot be
surprised at its character. These deposits being of Tertiary and
Cretaceous ages, are exceedingly friable and easy of disintegration.
The Tertiary, and especially the Pliocene Tertiary, is largely silic-
ious, and the Cretaceous is both silicious and calcareous. In fact,
in many places the Missouri and its tributaries flow directly over
and through the chalk-beds of the Cretaceous deposits. From
these beds the Loess deposits no doubt received their per cent of
the phosphates and carbonates of lime. Flowing through such de-
posits for more than a thousand miles, the Missouri and its tribu-

QUATERNARY AGE. 281

taries have been gathering for vast ages that peculiar mud which
filled up their ancient lakes, and which distinguishes them even yet
from most other streams. Being anciently, as now, very
rapid streams, as soon as they emptied themselves into these
great lakes, and their waters hecame quiet, the sediment held
suspended was dropped to the bottom. While this process was
going on in the earlier portion of this age, the last of the glaciers
had probably not retreated farther than first a little beyond the
"boundary of the Loess lake, and then gradually to the headwaters
of the Platte, the Missouri and the Yellowstone. The tremendous
force of these mighty rivers was, for a while at least, aided by the
erosive action of ice, and therefore must have been vastly more
rapid at times than anything of the kind with which we are now
acquainted. The following analysis of Missouri River sediment
taken at high sta^e will show, by comparison with the analyses of
the Loess deposits, what a remarkable resemblance there is even
yet between the two substances.

In one hundred parts of Missouri River sediment, there are of —

Insoluble (silicious) matter 82.01

Ferric oxide 3.10

Alumina 1 . 70

Limo, carbonate f> . 50

Lime, phosphate 3 . 00

Magnesia, carbonate 1.10

Potassa 50

Soda 22

Organic matter : 1.20

Loss in analysis 07

100.00

Two other analyse? which I mads, the one from sediment at
high water and the other at low water, differ somewhat from this,
but in essential pirticulars are the same. This identity of chemical
combinations also points to the remarkable sameness of conditions
that have existed for long periods in the Upper Missouri and Yel-
lowstone regions.

After these great lakes were filled with sediment (Missouri mud),
they existed for a longer or shorter time, as already remarked, as
marshes or bogs. Isolated portions would first become dry land,
and as soon as they appeared above the water they were no doubt,
covered with vegetation, which, decaying from year to year, and
uniting under water or at the water's edge with the deposits at the

282 GEOLOGY.

bottom, formed that black soil so characteristic of Nebraska prai-
ries. For it is well known that when vegetable matter decays in
water or a wet situation its carbon is retained. In dry situations it
passes into the atmosphere as carbonic-acid gas. After the first low
islands appeared in this old lake, they gradually increased from
year to year in size and numbers.

The ponds and sloughs, some of which could almost be called
lakelets, still in existence, are probably the last remains of these
great lakes. These ponds, where they do not dry up in midsum-
mer,.swarm with a few species of fresh water shells, especially of
the Limntzs, Physces, and Pianorbi, which to me is strong proof of
this theory of their origin. The rising of the land continuing, the
rivers began to cut new channels through the middle of the old
lake beds. This drained the marshes and formed the bottom lands,
as the river beds of that period covered the whole of the present
flood-plains from bluff to bluff. It was then that the bluffs which
now bound these flood-plains received those touches from the hand
of nature that gave them their peculiar steep and rounded appear-
ance. Newer and more plastic, because less compactly bound and
cemented together, the rains and floods easily molded them into
those peculiar outlines which they have since preserved.

The Missouri, during the closing centuries of the Loess age,
must have been from five to thirty miles in breadth, forming a
stream which for size and majesty rivaled the Amazon. The
Platte, the Niobrara, and the Republican covered their respective
flood-plains in the same way. In the smaller streams of the State,
those that originated within or near the Loess deposits, such as the
Elkhorn, L-mp, Bow, Blue, and the Nemahas, we see the same
general form of flood-plain as on the larger rivers, and no doubt
their bottoms were also covered with water during this period.
Hayden, in his first reports, his already expressed the same opinion
as to the original size of these rivers. Only a few geologists will
dissent from this view. The gradually melting glaciers, which had
been accumulating for so many ages at the sources of these great
rivers, the vast floods of water caused by the necessarily moist
climate and heavy rains, the present forms and materials of the
river bottoms, are some of the causes which, in my opinion, would
operate to produce such vast volumes of water.

The changes of level were not all upward during this period.
The terraces along the Missouri, Platte and Republican indicate

QUATERNARY AGE. 283

that there were long periods when this portion of the continent was
stationary. Several times the movement was downward. Along
the bluffs in the Republican Valley, at a depth varying from ten to-
thirty feet from the top, there is a line or streak of the Loess min-
gled with organic matter. It is, in fact, an old bed, where vegeta-
tion must have flourished for a long period. It can be traced from
Orleans upward in places f$r seventy-five miles. It indicates that
after this bed had, as dry land, sustained a growth of vegetation,,
an oscillation of level depressed it sufficiently to receive a great ac-
cumulation of Loess materials on top of it. Other oscillations of
this character occurred previously to and subsequent to this main
halt. These have already been discussed. I have also found traces
of this movement in many other portions of the State.

LENGTH OF THE LOESS AGE.

The bases for speculation concerning the length of the Loess
age are of course uncertain, yet an approximate estimate may per-
haps be made by comparison with the present deposits of the Mis-
souri. The great lakes of the Loess age extended, with a few in-
terruptions, almost to the Gulf, and some of them covered an area
of at least 75,000 square miles. Now, were all the sediment which
is at present brought down the Missouri spread over such a vast
area, the thickness of the deposit would be less than one sixteenth
of an inch. Probably the yearly accumulations of sediment dur-
ing the Loess age amounted to that much, owing to the then
greater volume of the Missouri and the aids to erosion from the
greater prevalence of ice near its sources. In many places along
the Missouri there are small lakes, formed from the old river-bed,
where there has been a cut-off. Even where these little lakes re-
ceive the overflow of the river each year, it often requires at least
a century to fill them up, even when aided by the sands which the
winds waft into them. I have attempted to measure the sediment
left by the river in these lakes, which are seldom half a mile in
breadth, and it rarely amounted to half an inch in a season. The
winds are a much more efficient agent for filling up small, narrow
lakes, but in Loess times, where there were such immense bodies of
fresh water, their effects could only have been appreciable along
the sandy shore-lines. The highest bluffs represent the original
level of the Loess deposits before the tremendous denuding agen-
cies which removed so much of their materials had done their work.

284 / GEOLOGY.

Now, in places these sediments are even yet 200 or more feet in
thickness, so that it would be safe to estimate the average thickness
of the original deposits at 100 feet. A yearly increase of one-
sixteenth of an inch in thickness, would at this rate have required
19,200 years to form these deposits. This I consider a low estimate
for the length of the Loess age.

LIFE OF THE LOESS AGE.

At the close of this chapter will be found a list of the land and
fresh-water shells that I have found and identified in the Loess de-
posits. It will be seen that the list of land shells is quite large.
These, no doubt, were brought into this old lake during flood-
time. I have occasionally found large numbers of these shells
where drift-wood had evidently lodged and decayed. The fresh-
water and land shells are mainly such as are still to be found in the
.same region, the exceptions being the prevalence of a large num-
ber of southern forms at one horizon of these deposits. As will be
seen, the species belong to quite a large number of genera.

Occasionally I have found the teeth and a stray bone of fish, but
have not been able to identify any species. The remains of rab-
bits, gophers, otters, beavers, squirrels, deer, elk, and buffalo are
frequently found. Through the entire extent of these deposits are
many remains of mastodons and elephants, whose last vigorous life,
as Newberry remarks, expired in high northern latitudes. Lan-
caster County is specially rich in these proboscidian remains. They
are frequently found in this deposit in digging wells. In Lincoln
they have been found in at least twenty wells that have been dug
in and around the city. This town is near what appears to have
been the western shore-line of the Missouri lake of the period. Be-
tween it and the Blue River at Crete, there is a high divide
covered by Drift materials. These huge animals no doubt often
here came down to the shore to drink, and playing in the water be-
came mired in the mud. One tusk found in a well on P street, east
of Twelfth, must have been at least eleven feet long when entire.
It was so far decayed that it fell to pieces on exposure.

For years I have been closely watching for human remains in
the Loess deposits. Eight years ago, three miles east of Sioux
City, Iowa, in a railroad cut I found a small arrow-head in these
deposits. I was looking for mollusks, and was digging after them
with a large knife when I struck something hard, and, laying it

QUATERNARY AGE. 285

bare, to my great surprise and joy found it to be an arrow- bead.
So far as I knew, this was the first mark that had yet been dis-
covered of the presence of man during this age. From that time on-
ward I have seized every opportunity of exploring these deposits for
human remains. The same year I found some flint chips in the
bluffs back of Jackson, in Dakota County, but it was not absolutely
clear that these were of human origin. My next find was about
two and a half miles southeast of Omaha, in a railroad cut, where
I found a large coarse arrow or spear- head. This last was found
in 1874. It was found twenty feet below the top of the Loess, and
at least six inches from the edge of the cut, so that it could not have
slid into that place. The first found was fifteen feet below the top
of the deposit. It appears, then, that some old races lived
around the shores of this old l;tke, and paddled their ca-
noes over its waters, and accidentally dropped their arrows
in its waters or let them fly at a passing water-fowl. It is possible
also that these arrows came into this old lake by drift-wood. I
once found an arrow sticking in a log that came down the Mis-
souri, and if it had continued on to the Gulf it might have been un-
earthed in the far- off future, when that portion of the continent at
the mouth of the Mississippi had become dry land. Thirteen
inches above the point where the last named arrow was found, and
within three inches of being on a line with it, in undisturbed Loess,
there was a lumbar vertebra of an elephant (E/ephas Americanus}.
Unfortunately this vertebra partially fell to pieces on exposure. It
appears clear from this conjunction of a human relic and proboscid-
ian remains that man here as well as in Europe was the cotempor-
ary of the elephant in at least a portion of the Missouri Valley.

In 1876 and again in the spring of 1877 I found additional arrow-
heads in the Loess of the Republican Valley. One in a section
described on a previous page east of the Republican Forks in
Dundy County. It was in the Loess below the second bed of black
soil, or fourteen feet below the surface. Here, then, primeval man
existed anterior to two old land surfaces, between which and after
the last, this region again became the bed of a Loess lake. Hon.
R. W. Furnas also found a hatchet in the Loess, five feet below the
surface, in Brownville, Nebraska.

The climate probably varied considerably during the progress of
this age. What inclines me to that view is the fact that about the
middle horizon an unusually large number of southern species of

286 GEOLOGY.

mollusks are found. This indeed is not conclusive, as this region is
at this time remarkable for the presence of southern forms of in-
sects and fresh- water mollusks* -Yet it appears to me that an un-
usual number of southern forms at this horizon of the Loess must
indicate some modification of climate at that period. It may have
been only on the eastern shore of this great lake, and caused by the
-even temperature which so large a body of fresh water produces on
the side toward which the prevailing winds from the lake blow.
We have such a phenomenon at the ] resent day on the east
shore of Lake Michigan. The Mississippi Valley is by its con-
tour eminently favorable to the emigration northward of southern
species.

These Loess deposits, which have done so much to enrich Ne-
braska, have received profound attention and study from some of
the ablest geologists. But in many of the counties of the State
they have not yet been investigated. Much to be discovered must
yet remain in them. Though myself long engaged in their inves-
tigation, I rarely examine a new section in a well, ravine or railroad
cut without finding something new.

Close of the Loess Period. — It was a continuation of the up-
ward movement that had again begun during the second de-
pression epoch of the Quaternary that brought the Loess
period to a final close. As the land rose most towards the west
and north, the area of this Loess lake was gradually lessened from
these directions, and its remnants were last active on its southeast-
ern border. This explains the fact already mentioned in other con-
nections, that the long gentle slopes of the bluffs bordering the
flood-plains running in an easterly and westerly direction are al-
most universally on the north side of the valleys. The closing of
the Loess period first clearly outlined the present rivers of Ne-
braska, when they covered the whole of the bottoms, from bluff
to bluff, and when the mud-flats of the former Loess lake them-
selves constituted the flood-plain. So far as known, no convulsive
movements to a certainty accompanied the close of this period.
Many movements of this kind occurred in the regions of the
mountains during the Quaternary, but they have not yet been
synchronised with geological events on the plains.

*Haydeu's Report for 1870, page 467.

QUATERNARY AGE. 287

Moi.LUSKS IN THE LOESS DEPOSITS.

The following list of land and fresh-water shells comprises all
that I have thus far identified, in whole or in part, from the Loess
deposits. Nearly all are extremely fragile. The Hyalinas, Pupas,
and some of the Helices long eluded my efforts at identifying them.
I finally marked the localities where found, until the ground was
frozen, when they were cut out with a knife. They were then
identified by making thin sections with a sharp knife. Many of
these mollusks, after being placed for a while in my cabinet, fell to
pieces. For this reason I have no specimens to show of many
species here given, and, therefore, only present this as a provisional
list. Some well-preserved specimens appear to me to be new to
science, but as I have not access to the descriptions of the new
species discovered by Hay den, a bare list of which is given in Bin-
ney's and Eland's Land and Fresh Water Shells, I will not ven-
ture to describe them, as that has probably already been done. The
counties are indicated where the specimens were obtained, or where
they were the most abundant.

In addition to my own list of species, which were first published
in the Hayden Reports for 1874, Prof. J. E. Todd has given
eighteen from the Loess of Iowa. Prof. Swrallow also reports fifty
species from the Loess of Missouri, twenty of which are fresh-
water shells:

Vitrina limpida, Gould, Lancaster and Dixon Counties.

Hyalina nitida? Mueller, Dixon County.

Hyalina arborea, Say, Douglas and Dakota Counties.

Hyalina viridula, Monke, all Eastern Nebraska.

Hyalina indentata, Say, Otoe and Douglas Counties

Hyalina limatula, Ward, Douglas County.

Hyalina minuscula, Binney, all Eastern Nebraska.

Hyalina b'mneyana? Morse, Dixon and Cedar. Counties.

Hyalina ferrea? Morse, Dixon County.

Hyalina exigtia, Stimpson, Dixon and Cedar Counties.

Hyalina intertexta? Binney, Douglas County.

Hyalina ligera, Say, Otoe and Nemaha Counties.

Hyalina demissa? Binney, Nemaha and RicHardson Counties.

Hyalina fulva, Dreparnaud, Dixon and Cedar Counties.

Hyalina lasmodon, Phillips, Nemaha and Otoe Counties.

Hyalina interna, Say, Nemaha and Otoe Counties.

288 GEOLOGY.

Hyalina significans, Bland, Nemaha and Otoe Counties.
Hyalina lineata? Say, Douglas and Otoe Counties.
Macrocyclis concava, Say, Douglas and Otoe Counties.
Helix solitaria, Say, Otoe an 1 Burt Counties.
Helix strigosa, Gould, Otoe and Burt Counties.
Helix alternata, Say, all Eastern Nebraska.

Helix cumberlandiana, Lea, Middle Loess in Nemaha and Otoe
Counties.

Helix cooperi, W. G. B., Douglas and Washington Counties.

Helix striatella, Anthony, Dixon and Dakota Counties.

Helix labyrinthica, Say, all Eastern Nebraska.

Helix hubbardi, Brown, Middle Loess in Nemaha County.

Helix auriformis, Bland, Middle Loess in Otoe County.

Helix tholus? G. G. Binney, Middle Loess in Douglas County.

Helix fastigans, L. W. Say, Middle Loess in Otoe County.

Helix jacksonii? Bland, Middle Loess in Otoe County.

Helix hazardi? Bland, Middle Loess in Douglas County.

Helix dorfeuilliana, Lea, Middle Loess in Cass County.

Helix pustula? Fer, Middle Loess of Cass County.

Helix spinosa, Lea, Middle Loess of Harlan County.

Helix edgariana? Lea, Middle Loess of Richardson County.

Helix stenotrema, Fer, Otoe and Cass Counties.

Helix hirsuta, Say, Dixon and Cass Counties.

Helix monodon, Rackett, all Eastern Nebraska.

Helix palliata, Say, all Eastern Nebraska.

Helix abstricta? Say, all Eastern Nebraska.

Helix appressa? Say, Otoe and Nemaha Counties.

Helix inflecta, Say, all Eastern Nebraska.

Helix tridentata? all Eastern Nebraska.

Helix fallax, Say, all Eastern Nebraska and Republican Valley,

Helix albolabris, Say, Eastern Nebraska and RepublicanValley.

Helix multilineata, Say, all Eastern Nebraska.

Helix pennsylvanica, Green, Douglas County.

Helix elevata, Say, Eastern Nebraska and Republican Valley.

Helix exoleta, Binney, Eastern Nebraska andRepublican Valley.

Helix roemeri, Pfeifer, Middle Loess of Richardson County.

Helix thyroides, Eastern Nebraska and Republican Valley.

Helix clausa, Say, Eastern Nebraska.

Helix jejuna? Say, Richardson County.

Helix profunda, Say, all Eastern Nebraska and Republican Valley.

QUATERNARY AGE. 289

Helix pulchella, Mull, all Eastern Nebraska and Republican
Valley.

Helix , Republican Valley.

Helix , Otoe and Nemaha Counties.

Helix , Dakota and Dixon Counties.

Bulimulus dealbatus, Say, Middle Loess of Nemaha County.

Cionella subcylindrica, Linn., Southeastern Nebraska.

Pupa muscorum? Linn., Cedar County.

Pupa blandi, Morse, Dixorf^ Dakota and Burt Counties.

Pupa fallax, Say, Dixon, Dakota and Burt Counties.

Pupa armifera, Say, all Eastern Nebraska.

Pupa corticaria, Say, all Eastern Nebraska.

Succinea haydeni? W. G B., Republican Valley.

Succinea mooresiana, Lea, Republican Valley.

Succinea avara, Lea, Republican Valley.

Succinea obliqua, Say, Dixon and Dakota Counties.

Succinea , Otoe and Nemaha Counties.

Zonites fuliginosa, Griff, Republican Valley.
Zonites lasvigata? Pfeifer, Republican Valley.
Zonites inornata, Say, Cass and Otoe Counties.
Zonites, gularis, Say, Southeastern Nebraska.
Carychium? exiguum? Say, Nemaha County.
Limnoea stagnalis? Linn., Washington County.
Limncea reflexa, Say, Dakota and Dixon Counties.
Limnoea palustris, Mull., along Missouri Bluffs.
Physa gyrina, Say, Dakota County.
Physa heterostropha, Say, Douglas County.
Physa — — , Douglas County.

Physa , Douglas County.

Psulinus , Otoe County.

Planorbis glabratus, Say, Otoe County.
Planorbis campanulatus, Say, Dakota County.
Planorbis corpulentus? Say, Dakota County.
Planorbis deflectus, Say, Nemaha County.
Planorbis albus? Mull., Dixon County.
Ancylus — — , Dakota, Harlan County.
Valvata tricar in at a, Say, Dixon County.

290

GEOLOGY.

Valvata , Say, Otoe and Burt Counties.

Vivipara intertexta? Say, Otoe County.

Vivapara subpurpurea? Say, Otoe and Nemaha Counties.

Vivapara contectoides, Binney, Nemaha County.

Melantho ponderosa, Say, Washington County.

Melantho decisa, Say, Burt County.

Amnicola perata? Say, Washington County.

Amnicola lemnosa? Say, Washington County.

Pomatiopsis lapidaria, Say, Dakota County.

Helicina orbiculata, Say, Nemaha County.

Angitrema armigera, Say, Nemaha County.

Lithasia, obovata, Say, Richardso^ County.

Pleurocera undulatum? Harlan County.

Pleurocera canaleculatum, Say, Nemaha County.

Pleurocera elevatum, Say, Otoe County.

Pleurocera labiatum? Lea, Richardson County.

Pleurocera simplex? Lea, Otoe County.

Goniobasis depygis, Say, Richardson and Otoe Counties.

Goniobasis livescens? Menke, Richardson County.

Goniobasis brevispira? Anthony, Otoe County.

Goniobasis, semicaranata, Say, Otoe County.

Anculosa costata, Anthony, Richardson County.

Anculosa praerosa, Say, Richardson County.

Anculosa? , Richardson County.

Unio — — , Cedar, Dakota, and Burt Counties.
Unio -, Nemaha County.

Unio — — , Otoe and Cass Counties.

Anadonta — , Washington County.

Anadonta , Republican Valley.

QUATERNARY AGE. 291

CHAPTER IX.

QUATERNARY AGE AND SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS,
CONTINUED.— TERRACE EPOCH.— ALLUVIUM.—
SAND HILLS.— ALKALI LANDS.— TIMBER, AND
CAUSE OF CHANGES OF CLIMATE.

Relationship of the Terrace Epoch to Subsequent Times. — Level of the
Land. — Gradual Formation of Terraces. — Highest Elevation Reached, and
its Effects in the West.— Section Showing Glacial Action.— Effect of Ex-
treme Elevation on River Channels. — Varying Heights of Terraces. — Allu-
vium.— Its importance, and How Gradually Produced. — Character of the
Bottom Lands, and their Great Extent. — Analysis of Alluvium. — Sand Hills,
and their Extent and Geological Character. — Theories about their Origin. —
Pliocene Origin of Many of Them. — Capabilities for Cultivation.— Alkali
Lands. — Extent and Character. — Analysis of Alkali Soils. — How to Cultivate
Them. — Hard-pan, or "Gumbo" Soils. — Their Character, Extent and Analysis.
— Bad Lands.— Their Superficial Character and Appearance. — Organic Re-
mains, and Agricultural Character — Fuel from the Surface Deposits. — Peat.
— Its Extent and Character. — Timber in Modern Geological Times.— Causes
of Changes of Climate.

TERRACE EPOCH.

HROM the preceding, it ic evident that the Terrace Epoch in
Nebraska is closely connected with that order of events and
with tho<e changes that finally resulted in the present order of
things. It commenced here after the close of the Loess period.
When the rivers covered the whole of the existing bottoms, and
had the old Loess lake bed for a flood -plain, the land still lay far
below its present level, and was in the transition stage between the
Loess and Terrace periods. When the elevation became a little
greater, and the drainage better, and the volume of water less, it
cut a new channel amid its old bed, which now constituted its
flood-plain. This formed the first terrace, and fully inaugurated
this epoch. Here the land and the river must have stood for ages.
Again there was an upward movement, the drainage became still
better, the volume of water lessened, and another channel formed,
and the previous river bed changed to a flood-plain. Thus terrace

292 GEOLOGY.

after terrace was formed, each representing a stage of quiet in the
upward movement of the land. There are some indications that
this upward movement continued until this section of the continent
stood considerably above its present level. This is known to have
been the case in Europe, where even local glaciers were formed at
this time, which disappeared only when a movement in the oppo-
site direction had once more brought the land to a lower level-
The following section indicates some movement of this kind for
extreme southwestern Nebraska. It was taken in a canyon leading
into the Republican Valley, immediately west of the west line of
the State in Colorado. I saw similar sections, however, on the
Nebraska side of the State line:

1. Black soil 1 foot.

2. Drift 2 feet.

3. Alluvium 2 "

4. Black soil 75 "

5. Alluvium 4 "

6. Lre-s 4 "

7. Alluvium 4 "

8. Black i oil 1 foot.

9. Loess aud Drift 4 feet.

10. Black soil 1.25 "

This section tells its own story — a history of frequent changes of
level. After the last Loess was laid down, river alluvium was de-
posited, on top of which appeared a black soil, which was again
flooded and covered with alluvium. On top of the last, Drift ma-
terial, which most nearly resembles glacial Drift, was formed,
which in turn gave way again to the present black soil of this re-
gion. It would not be surprising if further investigation should
confirm the explanation suggested above — that the upward move-
ment of the Terrace Epoch continued until a much higher level
than the present was reached. Local glaciers might then readily
have been formed in the extreme western sections ot the State, or
at least in Colorado, the movements and melting of which pro-
duced the drift and gravel beds that are found in so many places
overlying the Loess. The rivers might then have been worn
down much below their present level, and even, in places, to bed-
rock. After the opposite or descending movement commenced,
the rivers again silted up their beds. This silting up continued to
recent times. At present the indications are that there is a slight

QUATERNARY AGE. 293

upward movement of this portion of the continent, amounting
to perhaps one or two feet to the century.

The terraces made during this epoch occupy various heights
above the flood-plains. The one next to the rivers in the interior
ranges from three to six feet above the lowest bottom. The next
is from twelve to twenty-five feet above the first, and a third at
varying heights above the last. Often terraces intermediate be-
tween these are detected. They vary so much in height that the
system ascertained to exist at one place is no guide for the next
river. This variation, no doubt, is partly caused by one or two or
more corresponding terraces being removed by subsequent erosion.
They are the memorials of the rivers' former stay for an indefinite
time at that level. It is possible that this Terrace Epoch was as long
as the Loess period, but of this there is no certainty, as it partakes
in part of the character of a lost interval of geological history.

Alluvium. — Next to the Loess deposits, in an economical point of
view, the Alluvium formations are the most important. The val-
leys and flood -plains of the rivers and smaller streams, where these
deposits are found, are a prominent feature of the surface geology
of the State. All the rivers of the interior, such as the Platte, the
Republican, the Niobrara, the Elkhorn, the Blues, the Nemahas,
and their tributaries, have broad bottoms in the center or on one side
of which the streams have their beds. The width of these bottoms
seem to be dependent on the character of the underlying rock-forma-
tion. Where this is soft or yielding, the bottoms are broad, but
where it is hard and compact they contract. This is, no doubt, one
reason why the bottoms on the middle or upper courses of some of
the rivers are wider than farther down.* These broad bottoms, as
we have already seen, represent the ancient river-beds toward the
close of the Loess age. It required many ages to drain the mighty
ancient lake-bed; and when the present rivers were first outlined,
the greater part of it was yet a vast swamp or bog. But, gradually,
as the continent ro^e to a higher level, the rivers cut deeper and
deeper, filling the whole flood-plain from bluff to bluff. Not until
the drainage of this region was completed and the continent had
reached nearly to its present level, was the volume of water so
much diminished that the rivers contracted their currents and cut
new beds somewhere through the present bottoms. The terraces,
which are so numerous along many of the river-bottoms, indicates

*See on this subject Hayden's Report for 1871.

294 GEOLOGY.

the slowness with which the land assumed its present form. The
upper terraces were dry bottom when all the rest of the valley was
yet a river-bed. It is probable that some of these bottoms were ex-
cavated during sub-glacial times, and afterward were filled up with
debris when the continent had reached the lowest level. The great
depth of sand and mud at the bottom of the Missouri, being from
forty to one hundred feet below water along the Nebraska line be-
fore solid rock is reached, indicates an elevation of this region, when
this was accomplished, far greater than it reached at any period
during or immediately after Loess times. When this great lake
commenced to be drained, the waters naturally took the direction
and place of least resistance, which was the original bed of the
river. If the Rocky Mountain system continues to rise, as it is be-
lieved to be doing, at the rate of a few feet to the century, although
degradation may be equal to elevation, a time must come in the dis-
tant future when the Missouri will again roll over solid rock at its
bottom.

As typical of the river-bottoms, let us look at the formation of
the Platte Valley. The general direction of this great highway
from the mountains to the Missouri is from west to east. This val-
ley is from three to twenty miles wide in Nebraska, and over five
hundred miles long. All the materials that once filled up this
trough, from the tops of the highest hills on each side, have beenr
since the present rivers were outlined, toward the close of the Lo-
ess age, transported by the agency of water to the Missouri and the
Gulf.* Here, then, are several thousand miles in area of surface en-
tirely removed by denudation. Now the Platte comprises only a
fraction of the river-bottoms of Nebraska. The Republican, alone,.
for two hundred miles has a bottom ranging from three to eight
miles in breadth. The combined length of the main bottoms of the
Blues, Elkhorns, and the Loups, would be over a thousand miles,
and their breadth ranges from one to ten miles. The Nemahas
and the Bows, and portions of the Niobrara, also acid a great deal
to the area of bottom lands. All these rivers have numerous
tributaries, which have valleys in size proportionate to the main
rivers, and these more than double the areas of bottom-land. The
Missouri has, also, in some counties, like Dakota and Burt, con-
tributed large areas of bottom-land to the soil of the State. These
Missouri bottoms in Nebraska are exceptionally high, so that few

*See Hayden's Report for 1870.

QUATERNARY AGE. 295

of them have been overflowed since the settlement of the country.
The one element of uncertainty about them is, when located near
the river, the danger of being gradually washed away by the un-
dermining action of the water. Sometimes during flood-time, when
the current sweeps the bank, it is so insiduously undermined that>
for several rods in length and many feet in breadth, it tumbles into
the river. This cutting of the river is greatest when it com-
mences to fall. Where the bank is removed on one side it gener-
ally is built up on the other. The old town of Omadi, in Dakota
County, is an instance of this kind. So rapidly did the river cut
into the bank, that many of the houses could not be removed, and
fell victims to the flood. The river cut far enough to the west of
the old site to leave it and its own bed, after being blowrn full of
sand, to be grown up into a forest of cottonwood.

When now we bring into our estimate all the river bottoms of
Nebraska, and the tributaries of these rivers, and reflect that all
these valleys were formed in the same way, within comparatively
modern geological times, the forces which water-agencies brought
into play almost appal the mind by their very immensity. So well
are these bottom-lands distributed that the emigrants can, in most
of the counties of the State, choose between them and the uplands
for their future home. In some of the new counties, like Fillmore,
where bottom-lands are far apart, there are many small, modern
dried-up lake beds, whose soil is closely allied to that of the valleys
Not unfrequently is the choice made of portions of each, on the
supposition that the bottom-lands are best adapted for the growth
of large crops of grasses. But all the years of experience in culti-
vating uplands and bottoms in Nebraska leave the question of the
superiority of the one over the other undecided. Both have their
advocates. The seasons as well as the location have much to do
with the question. Some bottom-lands are high and dry, while
others are lower and contain so much alumina that in wet seasons
they are difficult to work. On such lands, too, a wet spring inter-
feres somewhat with early planting and sowring. All the uplands,
too, which have a Loess origin, seem to produce cultivated grass as
luxuriantly as the richest bottoms, especially where there is deep
cultivation on old breaking. Again, most of the bottom-lands are
so mingled with Loess materials, and their drainage is so good that
the cereal grains and fruits are as productive on them as on the
high lands. The bottom-lands are, however, the richest in organic

296

GEOLOGY.

matter. The following analyses of these soils will give a better
idea of their physical character. The samples were taken from
what are believed to be average soils. The first is from the Elk-
iiorn, the second from the Platte, the third from the Republican,
and the fourth from the Blue River. The fifth is from an excep-
tionally wet and sticky soil, about two miles southeast of Dakota
City.

No 1.

No 2.

No. 3

No. 4.

No. 5.

Insoluble (silicious) matter

63.07
2.85
8.41
7.08
.90
1.41
.50
.49
.79
14.00
.50

63.70
2.25
7.76
7.99
.85
1.45
.54
.52
.70
13.45
.79

63.01
2.40
8.36
8.01
.99
1.39
.61
.54
.71
13.01
.97

62.99
2.47
8.08
7.85
.94
1.40
.67
.58
.79
13.27
.96

61.03
2.82
10.52
7.09
.98
1.38
.60
.57
.69
13.40
.92

Ferric oxide .

Alumina

Lime carbonate

Lime phosphate

Majrnesia carbonate

Potash

Soda . . .

Sulphuric acid

Organic matter

JLoss in analysis . .'....

Total

100.00

It is well known that many soils vary a great deal in chemical
properties that are taken only a few feet apart, and therefore anal-
yses often fail to give a correct idea of their true character. But
from the above analyses, taken from widely distant localities, it is
at least evident that chemically, alluvium differs from the Loess de-
posits principally in having more organic matter than alumina, and
less silica. The depth of the alluvium varies greatly. Occasionally
sand and drift materials predominate in the river bottoms, especially
in the subsoil; sometimes the alluvium is of unknown depth, and
again in a few feet the drift pebbles and sand of the subsoil are
struck. This is especially the case in some of the western valleys
which were worn down to the drift, and were not again subse-
qently filled up, though such cases are not often met with. There
must have been a period of longer or shorter duration, when the
bottoms were in the condition of swamps and bogs; and during this
period the greater part of that organic matter, which is a distinguish-
ing feature of these lands, accumulated in the surface-soil. It would
be easy to select isolated spots, where the soil has forty per cent of
organic matter; where, in fact, it is composed of semi-peat. When
we reflect that this black soil is often twenty feet thick, it is appar-

QUATERNARY AGE. 297

•ent that the period of its formation must have been very long. There
-are still some few localities where that formative condition has been
perpetuated to the present time — as, for example, the bogs that are
yet met with at the head-waters of the Elkhorn and the Logan,
along the Elk Creek, on the Dakota bottom, and on the Stinking
River, one of the tributaries of the Republican. In fact, along these
tributaries all the intermediate stages from perfectly dry bottom to
a bog can yet be found. But, so much has the volume of water
iDeen lessened in all the rivers of Nebraska through the influence of
geological causes, that there are few places where now, even in
flood-time, they overflow their banks. A curious phenomenon, il-
lustrating through what changes of level and other conditions these
river bottoms have passed, before reaching their present form, is
the occurrence at various depths, of from ten to fifty feet, of great
masses of timber in a semi-decayed condition. One such deposit on
the Blue River bottom, near the mouth of Turkey Creek, success-
fully interrupted the digging of a well. So many thicknesses of logs
occurred that it was found best to abandon the work already done for
a new place. I have frequently observed trees, with trunks twenty
to sixty feet long, sticking out from under the banks of the Mis-
souri, where the soil had been freshly removed. It is possible that
this timber accumulated in these places during the period when the
rivers yet covered their entire bottoms, and when numberless trees
must have been carried down during flood-time, and either stranded
on the ancient sand bars and mud-banks, or sunk to rise no more in
the deeper pools and eddies which were rapidly filled up. The
species, so far as I have yet been able to determine, from an exam-
ination of the half-decayed wood, are the same as yet grow in this
region. They are principally cottonwood, elm, cedar, maple and
walnut.

THE SAND-HILLS.

The sand-hills are an often-mentioned portion of Nebraska.
'They are found in certain sections of the western portion of the
State. South of the Platte Valley they run parallel with the river,
and are from one-half to six miles in breadth. A few are also
found on the tributaries of the Republican. Occasionally slightly
sandy districts are found as far east as the Logan, but they rarely
approach even a small hill in magnitude. A few sand ridges are
also found on the Elkhorn. North of the Platte, from about the
mouth of the Calamus on to the Niobrara, they cover much larger

298 GEOLOGY.

areas. They are also found over a limited area north of the Nio-
brara. Hayden (Report for 1870, p. 108) estimates the area of the
sand-hills at about 20,000 square milas. From exploring the same
region, I should not estimate them as so extensive, unless the fact
be kept in mind that they are not continuous over the whole region.
They are indeed found all the way for 100 miles west from the
mouth of Rapid River, but in many places from eight to twenty
miles south of the Niobrara there are spots where the soil seemed
to be a mixture of Drift and Loess, and of high fertility, as was in-
dicated by ths character and rankness of the vegetation. Some-
times these hills are comparatively barren, and then again they are
fertile enough to sustain a covering of nutritious grasses; so that
this region is by no means the utterly barren waste that it is some-
times represented to be. It has been a favorite range for buffalo,
and still is for antelope and deer; and, judging from their condition,,
the conclusion would be natural that this region could be used for
stock-raising. In fact, already large herds of cattle are kept here.
A great deal of the vegetation is peculiar to sandy districts. Some
of the hills seem to have their loose sands held together by the
Ucca angustifolia, which sends its roots down to a great depth. It
probably marks a certain stage in their history. After this plant
has compacted and given to the sands organic matter, the grasses
come in and partially clothe the hills. The materials of these sand-
hills are almost entirely sand, pebbles, and gravel, of varying de-
grees of fineness. The sand always predominates. Occasionally it
is more or less modified by the presence of other materials, such as
lime, potash, soda, alumina, and organic matter. These hills are
in some places stationary, and so covered by vegetation that their
true character is not suspected until closely examined. In other
places again, especially in portions of the Loup and Niobrara region y
they are so loosely compacted that the wind is ever changing their
form, and turning them into all kinds of fantastic shapes. The
most common appearance is that of a plain, undulating or hilly re-
gion, covered with conical hills of drifting sands. The smaller ele-
vations frequently show a striking resemblance to craters. One
such curious hill I found south of the Calamus, where the crater-
like basin seemed to be compacted at once, and grown over with a
species of wire grass. With the increase of rainfall and vegetation,,
the remodifying effects of the winds disappear.

QUATERNARY AGE. 299

Some eminent geologists have sought to account for these hills
by the theory that the winds in the course of ages have blown the
sand from the bars on the rivers until their accumulation caused
these peculiar elevations. There are many difficulties in the way
of this theory. East of Columbus no sand-hills are found, and it is
hard to conceive how they should come to be limited to the west-
ern portion of the State if they were formed in this way. In some
places at least the hills are partly composed of large pebbles and
stones that could not have been moved by the winds. This is espe-
cially the case in some of these hills south and east of Kenesaw, in
Adams County. I suggest, as a provisional explanation, the prob-
ability that, south of the Platte, the lines of sand-hills show the
track of a current in the old lake that produced the Loess deposits.
It is well known that fine sediment is deposited in still water, but
coarse materials, such as sand and pebbles, in the borders and in
tracks of currents. As the whole country rises toward the west,
the water here may have veen very rapid, and the land in process
of drying up when it was yet deep at its lower levels. Both
causes, the currents and the winds, may have co-operated to pro-
duce these deposits. I am also satisfied that in some localities the
sand-hills are nothing more than modified Loess deposits. They
are Loess deposits, with all the alumina, organic matter ard finest
sand washed out of them. This at least seems to be the origin of
some of the sand-hills on »the Lower Loup, where they occupy a
lower level than the Loess deposits. These two deposits so often
shade into each other in the vicinity of the sand-hills, rendering it
impossible to tell where the one begins and the other ends, that the
theory of their common origin best explains the phenomena of
these formations. After the western portion of the Loess deposits
first became dry land, water-agencies were yet so powerful espec-
ially in flood times that much of it must have been re modified, and
the coarser materials left to form sand-hills. And as we have
already seen in another chapter, some of,the sand and gravel hills
partake largely of the Old \Vorld Kames, and may have been
formed in the same way, especially as against these the Loess de-
posits abut. The sand-hills on the Upper Loup and the Niobrara
probably derived the bulk of their materials directly from the Plio-
cene Tertiary deposits, which were mainly loosely compacted
sands. This old Pliocene lake was probably perpetuated here
down through Loess times to the borders of our own era. Even

300 GEOLOGY.

yet lakelets are numerous over portions of this region, some of
of which are alkaline and others fresh water. The latter can easily
be distinguished from the former at sight by the thick vegetation
growing around their margins, of which the former have very little,
;and sometimes not a trace. It is at least evident that these fresh- water
lakes have had some common origin. Their fauna would prove
it. The same species of fish and fresh-water mollusks are found in
most of the large ones, even where there is no perceptible present
•outlet.

Although opposed to the views of eminent scientists, I have no
•doubt that many of these hills are capable of cultivation, and some
day will be cultivated. In fact already many of them, that ten
years ago were barren of vegetation, are now covered by a vig-
orous growth of grasses, and some that are favorably located are
successfully included among the cultivated fields of adjoining farms.
Notable examples of this can be seen south of Lowell. The trans-
formation has been caused by the increasing rainfall of the State.
Not all of them, indeed, will be utilized until the rich lands that
border them are improved. But when better lands become scarce
and costly, advances will gradually be made on the sand-hills.
Already it has been proved that they produce corn, sweet pota-
toes and other root crops equal at least to the New Jersey sands.
The rich marl beds in their vicinity will supply an inexhaustible
•source of fertilizing them.

Much has been done by geologists in exploring these sand-hills,
still much more remains to be accomplished before all the causes
that produced them are thoroughly understood.

ALKALI LANDS.

Every one in Nebraska will sooner or later hear of the so-called
alkali lands. They are not confined to any one geological forma-
tion, but are found sometimes on the Drift, Alluvium, or the Loess.
They increase in number from the eastern to the western portions
of the State. Yet one half ef the counties of the State do not
have any such lands, and often there are only a few in a township or
•county. Where they have been closely examined they are found
to vary a great deal in chemical constituents. Generally, however,
the alkali is largely composed of soda compounds, with an occa-
sional excess of lime and magnesia or potash. The following an-
alyses of these soils show how variable they are. The first is taken

QUATERNARY AGE.

301

from the Platte bottom, south of North Platte; the second from,
near old Fort Kearney, and the third two miles west of Lincoln:

| No 1. I No. 2. No. 3.

Insoluble (silicious) matter . . ....

74.00

73 10

73 90-

3.80

3.73

3.69

Alumina

2.08

2 29

2 10-

Lime carbonate. .

6.01

4 29

3.90>

Lime phosphate

1.70

1.40

1.49-

Magnesia carbonate . .

1.89

1 29

1 47

Potash .

1.68

1 80

3.69-

Soda carbonate and bicarbonate

5.17

7.33

4.91

Sodium sulphate . •

.70

891

Moisture

.99

.98-

Organic matter

1.20

2.10

2.10-

Loss in analysis . ...

.78

88-

Total . .

100.00

The specimens for analysis were not taken from soils crusted over
with alkaline matter, but from spots where the ground was covered
with a sparse vegetation.

Many of the alkali lands seem to have originated from an accu-
mulation of water in low places, where there is an excess of alum-
ina in the soil or subsoil. The escape of the water by evaporation
left the saline matter behind, and, in the case of salt (sodium chlo-
ride), which all waters are known to contain in at least minute
quantities, the chlorine, by chemical reactions, separated from the
sodium; which latter, uniting immediately with oxygen and car-
bonic acid, formed the soda compounds.

These alkali spots are often successfully cultivated. The first
steps toward their renovation must be drainage and deep cultiva-
tion. The next step is the consumption of the excess of alkali,,
which can be effected by crops of the cereal grains in wet seasons.
In such seasons these alkali lands, if deeply cultivated, often pro-
duce splendid crops of grain. Wheat is especially a great con-
sumer of the alkalies; and these being partly removed in this way,
and the remaining excess mingled with the deeply cultivated soil,
renders it, in many instances, in a few years capable of being used
for the other ordinary crops of Nebraska. Treated in this way,
these alkali lands often become the most valuable portions of the
farm. There are comparatively few alkali lands in the State that
cannot be reclaimed in this way.

302 GEOLOGY.

Hird Pan. — Gumbo Soil. — One of the peculiar deposits of the
State is known among the people as hard pan, and in some places
as gumbo soil. It never occurs in this State over extensive areas.
In some few counties and townships it occurs in spots — sometimes
on bottoms and sometimes on level uplands. The areas covered by
it range in extent from a few yards to several acres. Sometimes
these spots lie slightly below the general level of the land, and in
places shade insensibly into what are known as clay and wet lands.
There are a few townships in the south part of Cedar, Knox, and
the north part of Pierce counties where occasional sections occur
that have a spotted appearance which is produced by these " gum-
bo soils." They are easily recognized by the paucity of the pecu-
liar blue and wire grasses that cover them. More rarely they are
covered by from two to six inches of alluvium or ordinary upland
soil, and only give indications of their presence when an attempt is
made at their cultivation. They " bake " and become exceedingly
hard when dried. The most compact of these soils are plowed and
cultivated with great difficulty. The following analyses indicate
their composition. The first is taken from a specimen on Salt
Creek bottom, and the second from the lower Nemaha:

No. 1.

No. 2.

Insoluble (silicious) matter

27 11

20 67

Ferric oxide

4 32

2 83

Alumina, clay

50 11

57 30

Lime carbonate

8 21

9 08

Lime phosphate

1 OJ)

Magnesia carbonate

1 45

1 70

Potassa

1.98

(57

Soda

1 80

Organic matter

1 30

2 01

Moisture . . ^

2 90

2 09

Loss in analysis

Total

100 00

This analysis shows that these soils contain clay in excess. From
many other analyses which I made, only to ascertain the amount
of clay that was present, it was found to vary from fifteen to sixty
percent. The quantity of all their constituents varies a great deal,
but they all in common contain a large amount of clay. A few
contained a perceptible quantity of manganese. From these analy-
ses it is clear what is needed to redeem them or make them tillable

QUATERNARY AGE. 303

— they should he mingled with silicious matter, and often the soil
below them will answer for this purpose, as frequently they are
only a few inches thick.

The Bad Lands. — These have already been discussed and de-
scribed under the Miocene Period. They deserve a reference here
because they constitute all that there is of the surface beyond the
White Earth River, in the northwest corner of the State. As al-
ready stated, this section is made up of Miocene rocks. The sur-
face materials here are mostly made up of white and yellowish in-
durated clays, sands, marls, and occasional thin beds of lime and
sandstone. When going through these Bad Lands I observed these
lime and sandstones to appear and disappear in the most unexpected
manner, indicating a great variety of conditions under which they
were formed. Hayden first made known these wonderful regions.
It is hard to realize the grandeur and uniqueness of this region
without visiting it — this, at least, was the case with myself.
Here in the deep canyons, at the foot of the stair-like projections,
the earliest of those wonderful fossil treasures was found which
have been described by Leidy, and which have done so much to
revolutionize our notions of the progress of life and of Tertiary
times.

Agriculture in such a region as this, where comparatively little is
now growing, is of course impracticable. The scanty grasses,
however, can be, and are beginning to be — at least on the borders
of this region — utilized for pasturing stock. Even here rainfall is
increasing, as is indicated by a great increase in the quantity of
grass that is spontaneously produced. Whether this region can
ever be utilized for the purposes of agriculture, even when once the
rainfall is sufficient, is a problem for the future.. Regions as rough
have been cultivated by hand. Whenever in the distant future
population crowds in this direction, and the rainfall has sufficiently
increased, even these Bad Lands can be fertilized, if they need fer-
tilization, by the immense quantities of natural fertilizers, such as
marl, that here abound. In the mean time it will be utilized for pas-
turing stock. Though this region is so unattractive to the utilitar-
ian, I doubt whether any other equal area of Nebraska will be of
more benefit to mankind, simply because here we have outlined so
marvelously the old life of Miocene times, and it must ever be a
stimulus to geological studies, and those grand results which scien-
tific culture produces. No novel can be as interesting to a thought-

304 GEOLOGY.

ful mind as Hayden's and Leidy's descriptions of these Bad Lands
and their animal remains.

FUEL FROM THE SURFACE-DEPOSITS.

It is not yet absolutely settled, as already stated, how much de-
pendence can be placed on the coal-supplies of the Carboniferous,
Cretaceous, and Tertiary deposits, in each of which thin beds have
been found and worked to a limited extent. Hayden and Meek in-
cline to the opinion that no beds of coal thick enough and of suffi-
ciently good quality to be profitably worked will be found in the
State. (Hayden's Report for 1870, p. 134, etc.) This subject has
already been discussed in the chapter on Carboniferous Age.
There is, however, no question about the great quantity of peat in
Nebraska, which subject is discussed in the next chapter.

Wafer Resources of Nebraska. — This subject, which would natu-
rally come in here, is omitted in this connection, as it has already-
been fully discussed in the chapter on Physical Geography.

Timber in Modern Geological Times. — It is natural to suppose
from well-known natural causes that when the Loess age was-
drawing to a close, and the lower portions of the area covered by
these deposits were yet in a condition of a bog, the climate was much
more favorable than the present for the growth of timber. Rain-
fall and moisture in the atmosphere must then have been much
more abundant. In July, 1868, while walking along the edge of
one of the Logan peat-bogs in Cedar County, my Jacob staff struck
some hard body in the peat. Examining it more closely I found a
log buried in the peat at least sixty feet in length. Following up
this discovery with a careful search, I found in this and other bogs
a great many buried logs of various length and thickness. Most of
them were found where there was no existing timber within twenty
miles, and from which they could not have floated in flood- times,
I regret that I had no means of extricating some of those logs, and
ascertaining the species to which they belonged. That would no
doubt have thrown much light on the changes that haye taken
place since they were buried in the bog. But they evidently grew
on the shores or banks, and after falling into the bog they were
protected from decay by the well-known antiseptic properties of
peaty waters. Another fact that shows the greater prevalence of
timber within geologically recent times is the remnants of old pine
forests yet buried in the ground. In the summer of 1868, when

QUATERNARY AGE. 305

traveling along and near the Niobrara, roots of pine trees were
often found sticking in the ground, more than fifty miles south and
east of the present forests of this timber. Often did these old roots
furnish me with the materials of a camp fire. At no very remote
period pine forests must have flourished down to the mouth of the
Niobrara. Many other facts, of a similar character, seem to leave
no room to doubt that in geologically recent times far more exten-
sive forests prevailed all over Nebraska than those which now oc-
cupy the ground. What caused their disappearance can, perhaps,
not be certainly determined. Some geologists hold that the in-
creasing dryness of the climate caused the disappearance of any old
forests that might have existed. But might not the converse of this
also have been true here, as well as elsewhere, namely, that the de-
struction of forests inaugurated the dry climate that prevailed when
thU territory was first explored? It is at least conceivable that the
primitive forest received its death-blow in a dry summer by fire,
through the vandal acts of Indians in pursuit of game or for pur-
poses of war. What suggested this theory as a possible explanation
of the disappearance of forests on this territory, was the finding of
pine roots before referred to, and often, when partially, buried,
showing marks of fire from carbonized ends, and in localities so
sandy, and where vegetation was so scant, that an ordinary prai-
rie fire was out of the question. An old tradition that I once heard
from the Omaha Indians points to the same conclusion.

It is wonderful how nature here responds to the efforts of men
for reclothing this territory with timber. Man thus becomes am
efficient agent for the production of geological changes. As prai-
rie fires are repressed and trees are planted by the million, the cli-
mate must be still further ameliorated. When once there are-
groves of timber on every section or quarter- section of land in the
State, an approach will be made to some of the best physical con-
ditions of Tertiary times. The people of this new State have a-
wonderful inheritance of wealth, beauty and power in their fine
climate and their rich lands, and as they become conscious of this
they will more and more lend a helping hand to the processes of
nature for the development and utilization of the material wealth of
Nebraska.

Causes of Changes of Climatic Conditions During the Quaternary
Age. — Every geologist has noted the fact that there have been very-
many changes of climate during the progress of the worl<JV history,.

306 GEOLOGY.

Even in Arctic regions there are many evidences of the prevalence
at different times in the past of temperate and even semi-tropical
climates. In Grinnell Land Dr. Hayes obtained corals and cham-
bered shells, which indicate that warm oceans once obtained there.
The adjoining lands at the same time nourished a most luxuriant
vegetation. We have seen that in our own State there have been,
even in Cenozoic times, semi-tropical conditions, which very grad-
ually disappeared and gave place to Arctic and again to warm,
temperate climates. It is a fact, therefore, that climates rotate
throughout the geologic ages. The old idea that the earlier warm
climates were produced mainly by the then higher temperature of
the interior of the globe, and that the colder modern conditions
have been brought about principally by gradual cooling of its mass,
is now almost universally abandoned. The earth still radiates heat,
as it always has done, but its effects are not now — and it is doubtful
whether, during recorded geological time, it has been perceptible.
In all times climates have varied in proportion to the heat which
the globe received, directly or indirectly, from the sun. Even in
the Silurian the climates were probably as well marked as now.
The question then eventually rises, what is it that causes the varia-
tions in the climates of the globe? My limits only permit me to
refer to those explanations that have received the most attention,
and which, in my judgment, are the most probable.

The theory accounting for climatic changes which has been sanc-
tioned by the greatest number of geologists during this generation
:was proposed and defended by that prince among naturalists, Lyell.
He referred to the admitted fact that through the geological ages sea
.and land have many times changed places— that it is hard to find a
place where the billows of the ocean did not formerly roll — that all
the strata formed since the opening Laurentian are only so many
fossil sea bottoms. Even now some coast lines are sinking and
others are rising, and a continuation of these changes will engulf
some existing lands and raise some sea bottoms above the water.
Even the relative levels of closely-joining land masses slowly change
in this way. When, therefore, we are required by Lyell's theory
to believe that the relative distribution, of land and water was form-
erly very different from what it is now, no one questions the facts
on which this theory is based. If now such changes were brought
about that the principal land masses should be placed in equatorial
regions, the mean temperature of such high northern lands as were

QUATERNARY AGE. 307

left would be raised sufficiently to produce the cypress, sequoia, fig
tree, and even the palm. Such a vegetation under these circum-
stances might flourish within the Arctic circle. A heated equator
would send warm currents of air and water to heat up the polar re-
gions. Some such conditions Lyell thought existed, for example,
during the Miocene, or earlier still during the Carboniferous, when
tree ferns grew on islands in Arctic regions. Lyell considered the
atmosphere to be the chief instrument for the distribution of heat.
On the other hand the prevalence of polar continents and an oceanic
equator produced arctic conditions in all high latitudes. The pro-
gress of discovery, however, has brought to light many facts which
cannot well be reconciled with this theory. Among these facts are
intercallated beds representing mild conditions of climate in the
midst of and during glacial times. The most conspicuous example
of this is the Old Forest Bed already spoken of. Even in Arctic
regions tree trunks have been found in the midst of glacial debris*
It is also questionable whether the atmosphere flowing northward
from tropical land masses would heat up the poles. Its heat would
be dissipated long before reaching the extreme north. At the pres-
ent day western America receives its high temperature, not from
the tropical winds, but from the breezes that blow over the Japan
current, as western Europe is warmed by the Gulf Stream. East-
ern Europe and Asia receive no benefit from these warm winds —
they are cooled long before they reach the great interior. It is also
•extremely questionable whether there ever was exactly, or even ap-
proximately, such a distribution of land and water as this theory
calls for. Many other objections are urged against Lyell's theory.
Geologists, therefore, now look for the causes which produce
•changes of climate to cosmical rather than to terrestrial influences.
The cosmical theory that would explain the phenomena of cli-
mate that is now receiving most attention was proposed by and is
still ably defended by James Croll, and is also maintained by James
Geike, both connected with the Geological Survey of Scotland.
According to this theory, two causes are chiefly operative — the
changing eccentricity of the earth's orbit and the precession of the
equinoxes. Leverier's calculations make "the superior limit of the
earth's eccentricity 0-07775-" At the present time it is lessening,
and will continue to do so for 23,900 years, when its value will be
-.0031 4; after which it will again increase. These changes of ecccn-

*See James Geike's Groat Ice Age, page 462.

308 GEOLOGY.

tricity may affect climate in two ways. " It may increase or dimin-
ish the difference between the summer and winter tempera-
ture." Take for example the second case. When the eccen-
tricity is greatest the distance of the earth from the sun, when
in aphelion, or farthest away, is 98,506,350 miles; and when
in perihelion, or nearest to the sun, it is only 84,293,650 miles. The
earth is, therefore, during such times, 14,212,700 miles further from
the sun in aphelion than when in perihelion. This is a greater dif-
ference by many millions of miles than now obtains. During such
a period of high eccentricity when winter occurs in aphelion,
it is also longer by 36 days than the summer. At the present
time the difference between the length of winter and summer
(from the 22d of September to the 2oth of March, and from the
latter date to the 22d of September) is only seven or eight days.
Given, therefore, a winter 36 days longer than the present, with
the sun from 8,000,000 to 14,000,000 of miles further away from the
earth than now, and the mean temperature of the globe would not,
indeed, be greatly lowered, but the conditions of its reception would
be vastly different. One-fifth less heat would be received in winter
and one-fifth more in summer, which latter would be exceedingly
short. A long, cold winter and a short, hot summer would be the
result (Croll). What snows fell during autumn, winter and spring,
would not be dissipated by the short, hot summer. Snow would
accumulate and gradually form glaciers of immense thickness. Art
indirect result affecting climate greatly would be a change of the
oceans' circulation. The warm currents that now lave northern
zones would be largely excluded from the glaciated hemisphere.
While, however, one hemisphere would be glaciated, the other
would have its winter in perihelion and its summer in aphelion.
This condition, according to Croll and Herschel, would " annihilate
the difference between winter and summer in temperate latitudes."
* Owing to the precession of the equinoxes," these conditions would
change from north to south of the equator every 10,500 years, or
thereabouts. Such periods of high eccentricity occurred three
times during the last 3,000,000 years — the last one commencing
240,000 years ago and ending 80,000 years ago, embracing a period
of 160,000 years. The cold and glaciation was most intense be-
tween 30,000 and 40,000 years after it commenced.' (Geike.)

As the earth's orbit will continue to grow less eccentric for
23,900 years, during that time, at least, if this theory for the pro

ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY. 309

duction of varying climates is correct, the extremes of temperature
\vill also gradually become less, and continually milder conditions
will prevail. All the changes that may occur hereafter, therefore,
for a k>ng period will be favorable, and the globe as a whole be?
come more and more fitted for a theatre for the development of
mind and morals.

Even if this explanation of the causes of climatic changes is not
the correct one, there can be little doubt that some cosmical influ-
ences will in the end be found to furnish the key to unlock the
mysteries of these changing phenomena.

CHAPTER X,

ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY.

Coal, Bituminous and Lignite. — Peat, its Quantity, Quality, and Where
and How Formed.— Building Stone, Where and How Found; their Charac-
ter at South Bend. — Building Stone in the Cretaceous and Tertiary. — Lime
and Hydraulic Cement. — Its Manufacture at Beatrice. Brick Clay. — Fire
Clay.— Potters' Clay; Sections and Character of at Louisville — Kaolin. —
Oypsum, Where Found and How it Occurs. — Silica, its Great Extent and
Character. — Iron Ores. — Zinc and Lead. — Gold. — Marl Beds. — Salt, Where
and How it Occurs. — Artesian Well in Lincoln and its Medicinal Character.
Artesian Wells over the State; their Future Value and Importance.

Coal. — Bituminous coal has already been discussed in the chap-
ter on the Carboniferous measures; and lignite coal in the chapter
on the Cretaceous deposits.

Peat. — There is no question about the great quantity of peat in
Nebraska. Hayden mentions many localities where it is found.
•(Report for 1867, 1868, and 1869.) It is also found on the tributar-
ies and head-waters of the Logan, the Elkhorn, the Blue, and on
Stinking River, and other tributaries of the Republican. Great
quantities are also found in Boone County, on the Loups, and on
their tributaries. In fact, there is hardly a township in some sec-
tions of the State that does not contain some peat-bogs. When
people once learn its value, and more attention is directed to it, it
will be found where now it is not expected. One peat-bog on the

310 GEOLOGY.

Logan (township 28 north, i and 2 east) is five or six miles in lengths
and of variable breadth. I could find no bottom to this bog with a
fifteen-foot pole. This peat I personally tested and found to be of
excellent quality. In fact, nearly all the peat that I have tested in
this State is fully up to the average in quality. A singularly good
article is found at Pittsburgh, on the Blue River, where the deposit
is also quite extensive. Among the animal remains submitted to-
me for examination from this bed was the molar tooth of the gi-
gantic beaver (Castor ohioensis), proving that this animal existed in
Nebraska in times geologically recent. The most of the peat beds
that I have examined seem to have been formed in lakelets that
gradually became bogs by an accumulation of vegetable matter de-
rived from coarse grasses, sedges, rushes, polygonums, duck- weeds,,
pond-weeds, arrow- weed, etc., lilies, etc. Sphagnum which seems
to form the mass of organic matter in peat-bogs of granitic and sili-
cious districts, only occurs in Nebraska in a bog near Curlew, in Ce-
dar County, and one or two other places in the same region. At least
I found it nowhere else. Many of these peat-bogs are now so far-
advanced as to be dry enough to be wagoned over in midsummer,,
but through the middle of which a stream of water is still flowing..
Others have no visible outlet, but retain the water poured into
them, when the spring and June rains fall, during the remainder of
the year, and thus supply the conditions necessary for the peculiar
vegetation of such formations. Sometimes, too, depressions in the
surface where peat is forming are supplied with moisture from ever-
flowing springs. The beginnings of many of these peat-beds date
back at least to the close of the Loess age, so that sufficient time
has elapsed for the accumulation of great quantities of this material..
Peat can be cheaply taken out of a bog with a spade, and laid up
like cord-wood tinder cover to dry, when it is ready for use. The
objections to using it thus prepared is its liability to crumble. Un-
fortunately, to prepare it by molding and pressing requires some
capital for apparatus, and this is one reason why these beds have
not yet been worked. In some places, too, wood-fuel is yet cheap,,
and in others coal from abroad is easily obtained, and these causes
have also operated to delay the use of peat for fuel. But such
treasures cannot remain unused forever. Eventually this peat must
be utilized, and if it is cheaply furnished, as it can be, the State will
be supplied for a long time from its own territory for manufactur-
ing purposes and domestic use, with all the fuel needed. (For an*

ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY. 311

able discussion of peat in Nebraska, see Hayden's Final Report of
Geological Survey of Nebraska, p. 69.)

Building S'ones. — In portions of Nebraska building stones are
abundant. In the central and western portions of the State they
are difficult to obtain, owing to the great thickness of the superfi-
cial deposits, which must be removed in order to reach the underly-
ing rocks. This is easiest done along the edge of bluffs or ravines,
where they are often partially exposed.

The Carboniferous section of the State is, on the whole, the rich-
est in building stones. Here limestones, silicious limestones, and
many kinds of sandstones of all shades and colors abound. In
Richardson County there are many fine quarries, and those at Sa-
lem are among the best. Here two beds of limestone are exposed,
which generally extend under the superficial deposits. These strata
are exposed in many other places in this county. In Pawnee
County the building stone is still more abundant. Beds from six
inches to two feet in thickness crop out on hill-sides in many places.
One of the best crops out about eight miles west of Pawnee City»
It is cream colored, and soft, but of great tenacity. It is a fusulina
limestone, can be worked into any form with ease, and is a great
favorite with builders. Hay den regards it as of Permo-Carbonifer-
ous age. In Gage County there are various beds of soft, yellow
limestone, full of geode cavities, porous and spongy; and also of
compact limestone, which are used for building purposes.

Johnson County contains a silicious limestone of various thick-
ness, which is almost wholly composed of fusulina. The court
house in Tecumseh, is constructed of this material. It is exposed
at many places along the hillsides, and is easily quarried and
worked. In Nemaha and Otoe counties, along the Missouri
River, there are various beds of stone that are quarried and used
for building. One of these is a limestone, and at Peru it occurs
near the top of the bluffs. .Further down at Brownville, there is a
bed of limestone three feet thick, of very superior quality for build-
ing purposes. Fine-grained, micaceous sandstone that readily
cleaves into flags, also exists here. Towards the center of the
county some fine quarries have been opened. The church at Feb-
ing is an example of the quality of its stone and its fine architectural
effect. Similar exposures of rock, suitable for building materials,
occur along the Missouri through Otoe and Cass counties. One of
the best is below Plattsmouth, on the banks of the Missouri. Here

312 GEOLOGY.

are. some of the finest massive limestones in the State. The upper
surface, where the superficial deposits aie removed, are worn as
smooth as mirrors, and exhibit the parallel striae so characteristic of
glacial action. Unfortunately, the great thickness of the superfic-
ial deposits here makes these quarries expensive in working. At
•La Platte, near the line of the Burlington & Missouri Railroad,
there is another remarkable quarry of fine-grained, slightly silicious
limestone. It contains innumerable impressions of fusulinas. The
government architects selected the stones from this quarry with
which to build the United States post-office and court house in Lin-
coln. It successfully stood the severest mechanical and chemical
tests. Farther up the Platte and on its north side, opposite South
Bend, W. B. Stout, Esq., has opened a new quarry during the last
year. Here occur several strata of unusually massive limestone,
one, of which, eighteen inches thick, is partially oolitic and partly
filled with fusulina. Near the middle there is a layer of intensely
liard nodules of silicious matter. The limestones in this quarry are
of exceptional purity. They take a very fine polish. On the
whole, it is the best stone quarry that I have yet visited in the
State. Some of the piers in the new railroad bridge at Plattsmouth
were constructed of this stone. The contractor' is also using it in
the construction of the new capitol wing at Lincoln. Other fine
quarries are also opened on the south side of the Platte in strata of
a similar character. East of Lincoln, on the Nebraska railroad, at
Syracuse and at other points, there are quarries of impure, variously
colored limestone of considerable thickness, from which immense
quantities of building stones have been obtained. From these
quarries and from similar ones on the Atchison & Nebraska Rail-
road, a little southeast of Lincoln, the*stones were quarried for the
State penitentiary.

The Cretaceous rocks of Nebraska also furnish a large quantity
of excellent building stone. Those of the Dakota Group are mostly
silicious. They are of all shades of yellow and brown, sometimes
approaching to a cream color and white. They furnish the hardest
and the softest stone in the State. The softer varieties are unfit for
building stone. Large quantities, however, are a medium between
the two extremes, and are very valuable for smaller structures,
owing to the ease with which they can be quarried and dressed.
In Dakota County, in this. group, occurs the intensely hard quartz-
ite which has been used in Sioux City, Iowa, for the foundation of

ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY. 313

some of their largest brick blocks. The best quarry of it that I
have examined is that of Hon. J. Warner in Dakota County. This
group also furnishes building stones in portions of Dixon, Burt,
Dodge, Washington, Saunders, Lancaster and Gage Counties.
The rocks of the Niobrara Group which occur above those last
mentioned are mostly limestone more or less pure. One of its beds
called from the abundance of its fossils the Inoceramus bed, often
breaks up into flagging stone. It forms good building materials,
is easily worked, and is capable of resisting great pressure. Along
the Missouri it is first seen on the hill tops in Dakota County, and
increases in thickness northward and westward. It extends in a
southwestern direction across the State into Kansas. Over the In-
oceramus beds in Cedar and Knox counties, there is an immense
thickness of massive chalk rock. In a few places it is almost as
pure as the chalk of commerce. It varies in color from light blue,
and the various shades of yellow, to almost white. It can be easily
sawed and planed into any shape. Though soft, it does not disin-
tegrate on exposure, but appears when exposed to grow harder
with age. Some houses built of it on the Santee Agency in Knox
County, twenty years ago, show no sign of crumbling. Some
equally old houses, built of this chalk rock, in Yankton, D. T., are
still intact. The various rocks of the Niobrara Group furnish build-
ing materials in Cedar, Knox, Wayne, Cuming, Colfax, Stanton,
Butter, Saunders, Seward, Jefferson, Nuckolls, Webster, Franklin,
and some other counties.

West of the Cretaceous deposits the Tertiary beds occupy the
State to its very borders. The superficial deposits here generally
conceal the rocks, but as already observed where they are exposed,
there are some silicious beds, and silicates of lime that answer for
foundation stone. This is notably the case along the Republican
River and its tributaries, and on some of the tributaries of the Loup
and the Niobrara. But this section of the State has not yet been
sufficiently explored to indicate sharply where building stones may
be found.

LIME AND HYDRAULIC CEMENT.

As already stated, limestone is abundant in the Carboniferous
and Permo-Carboniferous measures of the State. The Niobrara
Group also furnishes an unlimited supply of it. A curious phenom-
enon of the limestone of the Carboniferous and Permo-Carbonifer-
ous, is that nearly all of it is more or less hydraulic. This is proba-

314 • GEOLOGY.

bly owing to the presence of greater or less quantities of carbonate
of magnesia, and a little alumina. In some sections the hydraulic
limestone is of very good quality. At Beatrice its manufacture was
for some time conducted, but owing to various causes it has been
temporarily suspended. All the work done with this cement has
stood the test of time. Owing to inadequate appliances it was not
sufficiently pulverized, but that defect will be remedied when its
manufacture will be resumed. This will probably be done during
the coming season. Sooner or later it must become an important
industry of the place and the State.

Btick Clay of good quality exists in every part of the State. The
Loess deposits which are so widely distributed over the State fur-
nish it in abundance. The only precaution needed is to select it
where there are no concretions of lime. Beneath the Loess and
the adjoining drift in many places is a greater or less thickness of
clay of glacial age that makes first-class brick. There are also oc-
casional strata in the alluviums of the river bottoms that furnish
brick clay in abundance.

fire Clay is also abundant. It underlies and sometimes overlies
the thin beds of coal in southeastern Nebraska, and is found at long
intervals in other sections of the State.

Potters1 Clay is occasionally found in the alluvium. Informer
years a bed was worked on the Missouri bottom, east of Dakota
City. The best now known or worked is located at Louisville, in.
Cass County. The following is a section:

1. Loess ,.;.'. .-..> 3 feet.

2. Ked rock ; Dakota Group < 2 to 3 "

3. Potters' clay, of greyish white color, with streaks of pure white

sand from one to eight inches thick 20 "

The bottom of this clay has not yet been reached. Three miles
east of this bed another occurs of which the following is a section:

1 . Black soil 2 feet,

2. Bluish potters' clay .with lime concretions towards the top 12 "

One mile and a half northeast of the first another bed occurs. The
following is a section :

1. Black soil 5 inches.

2. Reddish earth 18 "

3. Potters' clay, exposed 6 feet.

ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY. 315

A fine article of stone pottery is now turned out at this place
which, because of its excellence, has a large sale. The third sec-
tion now furnishes the greater part of the clay that is used in the
manufacture of pottery. It is not quite so light colored as that
from the first, but fewer cracks occur in burning. Similar beds-
that can be utilized in this way no doubt occur elsewhere in the
huge beds of blue clay that abound in the State.

Kaolin has been reported from various parts of the State. The
best that I have seen is that from Webster County, and from
Louisville, in Cass County, on the line of the Burlington & Mis
souri Railroad. The latter is in conjunction with the potters' clay-
already spoken of. From its chemical constitution it will no doubt
stand the test of expeiience.

Gypsum (sulphate of lime) exists in many places in the Cretace-
ous measures of the State. In Northern Nebraska, and especially
in Dakota, Dixon, Cedar and Knox Counties, along the Missouri
bluffs, there are innumerable crystals in leaf-like forms. Often
they assume the shape of a cross. No other localities in the Union
furnish more beautiful forms. Generally they are transparent,,
though occasionally coated with oxides of iron. In the Fort Pierre
Group, exposed on the hill tops near the town of Niobrara, and on
the Republican, these crystals glimmer in the distance, and have
^iven the name of Shining Hills to the country further up the
Missouri.

Mineral Paint — Ochre. — Along the Missouri from Plattsmouth
to Brownville, and further down, there are immense deposits of
mineral paint, or ochre. It is of different hues — dull red, various
shades of brown, yellow, and other colors, according to the amount
of iron that is present. Some of the beds are from three to five
feet thick, and of as fine a quality as any in the market. There are
also large beds of ochre in the Cretaceous deposits along the Re-
publican and on the Missouri in northwestern Nebraska. As flax
culture is one of the most successful industries in the State, because
of the ease with which it is grown and its superior quality, the
manufacture of mineral paint can be inaugurated on a large and
profitable scale, especially as oil mills and white lead works are in-
successful operation in Omaha.

Silica. — Although silica is one of the most abundant of minerals,
it is rarely found in so fine a state as in some sections of Nebraska-
Some most remarkable deposits of it exist along the Republican*

316 GEOLOGY.

These are often in combination with alkalies, and have already
"been discussed in the chapter on the Pliocene. Fine beds also exist
-on the Loup, Elkhorn, Logan, and Oak Creek. The great beds
of sand on the Platte contain some organic matter, and the sand
itself is contaminated more or less with iron, which is the character
of many other deposits in the State. The beds on the Elkhorn
above West Point are noteworthy for their purity. The drift in
-many places abounds in beds of pure sand, and the principal diffi-
culty in obtaining it comes from the thickness of the overlying
Loess. In the Pliocene Tertiary region where cuts, ravines or
bluffs exist, all grades from very fine to coarse can readily be ob-
tained.

Lithographic Stone, of Upper Carboniferous age, exists near Syra-
cuse, in Otoe County. It is of medium quality. The extent of the
deposit has not yet been ascertained, but the indications are that it
may be sufficient to make it of mercantile importance.

Iron Ores have not yet been found in beds thick enough to work.
The limenite of the Dakota Group, which is the best ore in the
State so far as known, occurs only in thin layers of a few inches in
thickness.

Zinc and Lead are frequently found in small quantities, but no-
where yet has enough been obtained to justify extensive prospect-
ing. The geological indications are not favorable for their presence
in large quantities any where in the State.

Gold in minute quantities is occasionally found in the sands of
the Platte, Nebraska, and other^ streams. But as our geological
formations are all more recent than those producing gold, we have
no scientific reason to suspect its existence within our borders. The
.minute quantities along our river beds no doubt came from the
mountains by drift agencies.

Marl Beds are exceedingly abundant in some sections of West-
ern Nebraska. They are specially characteristic of the Tertiary
deposits, and vary a great deal in character and in appearance.
The dominant colors are greenish, yellowish, and whitish. They
.are beautifully exposed on the driftwood south of Culbertson, close
by the river bank. Here there are sections of marl exposed, from
four to eight feet in thickness, and of green and yellow color. The
green marls are specially rich in potash and iron, and their various
-compounds. Similar beds are found in many other places along
the Republican and its tributaries as far as to the western line of the

ECONOMICAL, GEOLOGY. 317

State. They are also common on the Niobrara, on tributaries of
the Loup, and in other sections. As the sands of New Jersey have
been fertilized, and in many places transformed into gardens by
marl beds, so can the occasionally excessively sandy tracts of West-
ern Nebraska also be changed into rich lands when once the needs
of population make it necessary.

Salt in large quantities exists in a few sections of the State. In
Lancaster County there are a number of salt marshes, the one near
Lincoln covering about six hundred acres. There are a number of
smaller ones near by. They are nearly level and in dry weather
are covered with incrustations of salt. They are mostly destitute
of vegetation. Fine sand and loam comprise the soil, underlaid,
however, by the reddish sandstones of the Dakota Group. In the
deposits of this marsh, and all the others that I have visited, are the
bones of elk, deer, antelope and buffalo, which no doubt were
mired in past times when they resorted here for salt. Over this
marsh the water oozes up at innumerable places, and great quanti-
ties of it flow off into Salt Creek. Wherever I have tested it the
brine contained within a fraction of ten per cent of salt. Oftener
more than less. Much of the brine over this marsh that has stood
for days and partly evaporated, contains from twenty to thirty per
cent of salt. A number of vats have been constructed here and the
manufacture of salt is carried on on a small scale. The business is
capable of immense development. Artesian wells that have been
put down at and near this place have struck brine at different
depths, the saltiness varying from five to twenty per cent. The
well on the Government Square is one thousand and fifty feet deep.
It passed through various strata which furnished brine and mineral
waters of remarkable quality. The mingling together of all the
streams that flowr constantly from this well, furnishes a mineral
water which for efficacy in healing some kind of diseases, is be-
lieved not to be surpassed by any medicinal waters of the land. At
the Commercial Hotel, in Lincoln, this artesian water is employed
in giving Turkish and other baths. Remarkable cures have already
been performed through its agency.

In northwestern Nebraska, beyond the head-waters of the Elk-
horn, there is another region of salt springs and marshes far more
extensive than the one in Lancaster County. Unfortunately it is
beyond the railroad lines, and in a sparsely settled region. It has
not yet been thoroughly explored. In various other places brine

318 GEOLOGY.

has been found in boring for fresh water. There is no doubt, if the
•saline resources of the State were developed, the home supply
would be abundant for ages.

Artesian Wells. — The artesian wells now flowing in Lincoln, and
the one in successful operation in Omaha, are demonstrations of the
ease with they can be obtained. The former is over 1,000 and the
latter 750 feet deep. Water, however, flowing to the surface was
first obtained in the former at a depth of 550 feet. The geological
structure of the State is most favorable for obtaining water in almost
every quarter of it, and eventually it will be found that artesian
wells will supply an immense amount of the cheapest motive power.
It can be run into huge reservoirs, and let fall from heights
sufficient to propel large water wheels. Their value in the interior
for watering stock and other purposes wTill be incalculable.

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

APPENDIX.

The following are the most important works hitherto published giving an
account of or referring to the natural history of Nebraska:

1. Lewis and Clarke's Expedition to the Head Waters of the Missouri,

1 804-1 80G.

2. Explorations of Fremont, 1842 and subsequently.

3. Reports of the Union Pacific Railroad Surveying Expeditions from

1853 to 1856.

4. Geological Report of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, by David Dale

Owen, 1852. Contains some descriptions of vertebrates from the
Bad Lands and of Carboniferous fossils.

5. Swallow's Reports on Fossils of the Carboniferous Deposits.

<>. Geinitz's (Dresden) Carboniferous and Dyas of Nebraska, 18G6.

7. Marcou's Report on Carboniferous of Nebraska, Bull., Geol., Soc.

France; second series, volume 21.

8. Hayden's Report fo- 1867, 1868, and 1869.

9. Hayden's Report for 1870.

10. Hayden's Final Report, 1872.

CRETACEOUS GEOLOGY.

11. Hayden's papers in American Journal of Science and Arts from 1863 to

1807.

12. O. Heer's (Switzerland) Phyllites du Nebraska, 1865.

13. Some Cretaceous Fossil Plants of Nebraska, by Lesquereux, 1868.

14. Newberry's Late Extinct Floras of North America, Lyceum of Natural

History of New York, 1868.

15. Lesquereux's Cretaceous Flora, 1874. This work contains all the

descriptions of Cretaceous leaves from Nebraska, Kansas, etc.,
previously published.

16. Cretaceous Vertebrata, E. D. Cope, volume 2, 1875. Though describ-

ing mainly from Niobrara Group of Kansas, its descriptions are
good for many forms from the same horizon in Nebraska.

17. E. B. Meek's Invertebrate Paleontology of the Cretaceous of the North-

west; volume 9.

TERTIARY GEOLOGY.

18. Leidy's Ancient Fauna of Nebraska. Smithsonian publication, 1852.
18. Leidy's Mammalian Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska; 1879, published by

the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; volume 7, second
series.

20. Tertiary Flora, by Lesquereux; 1878, volume 5.

21. Superficial Deposits of Nebraska, by S. A.; 1874.

320 APPENDIX.

GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY.

22. Birds of the Northwest, Coues; 1874.

23. Faunal List and Natural Food of tbe Birds of Nebraska, by S. A. ; 1877.

24. Report of U. S. Entomological Commission ; 1877.

25. Catalogue of the Flora of Nebraska, by S. A., published by the Univers-

ity of Nebraska; 1875.

26. Catalogue of Land and Fresh Water Shells of Nebraska, by S. A ; Bul-

letin of Geological Surveys of the Territories, 1876.

Of the above publications the following numbers were published under the
direction of the Hayden Surveys, by authority of the government, namely;
Numbers 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, and 26.

INDEX.

PAGE

PAGE"

Agates

257 Birds, butcher bird ....

. 123

Alga', fresh water,

S3 k 4 fly catchers ....

. 124

Alkali lands,

301 j '4 gallinaceous ....

. 1 25

4 4 analysis of . .

301 4 4 grackles

. 124

4 4 origin of ....

301 44 gulls ......

. 126.

kk how best cultivated

301 44 hummingbirds

. 1 "5

Alkaline character of Pliocene lake .

251 kt long- winged swimmers .

matter beneath Loess .

261 " meadow larks

'. 124

Alluvium .......

262 44 mockingbirds
2!»3 ' k night hawks ....

1 23
. 125

Amphibians

128 44 orioles .....

. 124

Analysis of alkaline beds beneath Loess .

262 4k perchers ....

. 123

44 alluvium ....

269 tk piccariaii ....

. 125

flour-like polishing powder in

4 4 pigeons

. 1:5

Pliocene ....

240 '<• hinging

. 123

4 4 Loess

267 44 starlings ....

. 124

44 Missouri River sediment

281 4 k sparrows ....

. 124

4 4 water

74 kk swallows ....

. 123

4 ' silicious matter beneath Loess

262 kk thrushes ....

. 123

Anemones

78 '4 totipalmate ....

. 126

Animal Hie during Tertiary ages

247 44 vireos

. 123

Antelope, pronghorn, number of

118 4k wading

. 125

Appalachian revolution . . . 171

1-171 44 warblers ....

. 1 23

4 4 chain

209 ' 4 k woodpeckers ....

. 125

44 region .....

162 ' 4 wrens

. 12*

Appendix

319 Bishoff's analysis of Loess

. 267

Archajan highlands

K.l Bisons in tlie Pliocene

. 'J4U

Area of Nebraska

3 Bison latifrons

. 259

Artesian borings in Laramie Group .

2o:) Blackberries, wild ....

. 102

4 4 Lincoln

166 Black-haws

. 104

k 4 4 ' Omaha

166 i Blue clay, analysis of ...

255

Artesian well in Beatrice and Omaha

55 4 * character of

.' 254

44 k 4 Lincoln ....

54 4 k extent of . . . .

. 254

44 4 4 k 4 chemical consti-

44 glacial origin of

of water

150 4 4 section of ...

. 253

4 4 wells ....
Arickeree, Pliocene beds on

318 Blue Rivers, length and character of
238 Bogs, peat

. H5.
. 31 1>

Asthmatic subjects cured in Nebraska

147 Bony fishes

. 1 2!)

Atmosphere, a motive power .

151 Bottom lands •

purity and clearness of

31 4 k analysis of soil . •

. 2!!0:

Authorities on Nebraska Geology and

Bottom river of issouri Valley

. 291

Natural History

319 44 of Platte Valley .

. 2'.«4

Bad Lands ......

V> '4 how recent Iv formed .

2! '5'

agricultural character

303 Bow Rivers

(il

44 geological 44

303 Broadliead, opinion on coal

. 165

of F..rt Bridget- .

215 Brick clay

. S14

44 of Miocene age . . 222

-224 Buckwheat family •

Bathmodontidaee

218 Buffalo berry .

. 105

Batrachians, tailed
Beatrice, hydraulic limestone at

12!) Buffalo grass disappearance of
314 44 in Nebraska

. 114
. 42

Beetle, cottomvood leaf ....

134 Buffaloes, number of in Nebraska

. 117

Big Horn Mountains ....

2(i() Bulletins of Nebraska Weather Service

Birds, fossil in Pliocene beds .

242

26-27-28 •.

4 reptilian in Niobrara Group .

195 Cactus family

4 modern ......

122 Calcareous materials in Drift .

261

Anserine

126 Camel family in Miocene .

22 7

4 carnivorous .....

125 Canon City, reptilian remains at

. 176

' chimney swallows ....

125 Canons »f Nebraska ....

14-15

crow family

124 Carboniferous age ....

. 1 6-1

k diving birds

1-7 k' 44 animal life of

. 168

4 belted kingfisher ....

1 25 4 4 close of

. 17t

4 buntings . . . ...

124 ' 44 features of .

. 167

322

INDEX.

PAGE

. 165
163-164
. 164
. >J13
. 168

Carboniferous age, fossils of
44 4 4 rocks of

4 4 sections of rocks
4 4 rocks for building

44 age, vegetation of

Carnivora in Nebraska

4 4 of Fort Bridger Eocene .
44 of Miocene
Cat family in Miocene
4 4 in Pliocene

Cats, father of

Charts of rainfall ....

Chalk bluffs

4 ' rocks from, for building

Cherries, wild

Childs, Dr., meteorological tables of

20-'21-22-23

Chinch bug, history of etc.
Climate of Carboniferous age .
44 future effect in Nebraska
4 4 extreme effects in Nebraska
Climatic conditions in Quaternary .
44 44 Lyell 's theory .

44 44 Croll's and Geike's

theories

Climatology of Nebraska ....
Ckouds, sharp outlines of ....
Coal, artesian borings for

44 fields of TriaJuro deposits .
44 in Carboniferous of Nebraska
44 in Cretaceous of Nebraska
44 in Lincoln artesian boring
41 in Upper Carboniferous .
Colorado Group, how formed, by King .
44 Range, Pliocene beds of .

Columbine

Composite family

Conglomerate of Pliocene beds
Consumption discussed ....
Convolvulus family »

Convulsive movements in Pliocene

'229
2-'»
246
'219
37

1K8

313

100

170
154
149
305
306

307

PAGE

Dinosaurs 176

44 in Niobrara Group . . .195
4 ' in Laramie Group . . . '205

Dinocerata 217

Divide between Missouri and Mississippi . 235

. 230-247
. 70
255-256--2S7
m . '256
. ' . 257

119 I Dog family

219 Drainage, general character of

Drift materials

mingled with alluvi

4 4 sections of

Eaton on coal in Lincoln . . . .166

Eccentricity, the earth's changes of . 307

Economic geology 39

Ehrenberg .... 4)-l«})-210
Elevation of towns and stations in Ne-
braska 6

Elevation, average of east half of State . 9

4 4 of west half of State . 9

4 4 of going west . . 9

44 4 4 of whole State . . 9-70

Elkhorn River, where it rises, length,

character and tributaries .
Elevation of Pliocene beds
p]lephants, earliest forms of

4 4 in Pliocene ....

17 Elk, numbers of, etc .....
32 Emmons, Prof., analysis of Missouri wa-
167 | ter .......

63
234
217
•244
118

Endlich, Prof., analysis of geyserite, by
Enemies to injurious insects . .
Eocene Epoch

44 groups of

73
241
135

21 D
211

life of . 212-21 3-21 4-21 5

" length of . . 216-21 8-etc

Epoch, Niobrara ..... 187
" Miocene ..... 221
Erie clays ....... "254

Cope. Prof.

lJ»0-192-19i--2l7-219-226-2oO

Cottonwood leaf beetle . . . . 134 ,

Coyote 119 i

Cretaceous deposits represented . . 178 j
44 divisions . . . 179 S
' ' groups in Colorado . • 180

" period 178

44 close of . . 207

Crinoids 169

Crocodile in Green River beds . . . 215

Crowfoo family 78

Croxton's artesian boring . . . 165

Crustacians of Carboniferous Age . . 170

Curlew spring at 150

Currants, wild 1(,3

Curves dominant form of surface . . 5

Cycads 176

Dakota Group, climate of epoch . . 186

" discussions in regard to . 182

extent of . . . .181

" flora accounted for . .186

flora disconnected . .185

" first published reports of 184

how recognized . 172-176

Lesquereux's report on . 185

4 ' opinions of Marco u and

Capellini . . .182

origin of . . . .1*1

' ' source of salt at Lincoln . 55

shallow sea deposit . . 182

Dams, how best built . . . .69

Dawn horse 213

Deer number of species in Nebraska . 118

Destructive climates 149

Devonian age 162

Des Moines River coal beds . . 162-163

Erickson on solar engines

Erosion during the Miocene

Estimates comparative of rainfall with

other regions

Europe, rainfall of

Evaporation from rivers of Nebraska
Experiments on absorptive power of soils

Fauna of Nebraska

Ferns

Ferret, black-footed .

Figwort family

Fire clay, where found, etc.

Fishes, bony

44 cartilagenous .
Flora of Nebraska, general character of

44 4 4 origin of

44 Eocene

4 4 Miocene

152
'.''23

39
40
47
45
117
88
119
80
314
129
130
77

. 115
212-214
. 225

Pliocene 241

Floras, Gray's Manual, Wood's Class
Book

Flowerless plants
Flowering plants of Lignitic
Flood-plains of Nebraska rivers
Fly, Hessian ....
Forest trees of Nebraska

77
89
204
282
133
84

Forest bed. old 258

' 4 " 4 4 vegetation of . . . 259

Forests formerly and now of Nebraska . 84

44 of Jurassic period . . .177

Food, kind of in rural districts . . 149

Fort Bentou Group where found . . 187

' ' how originated . 187

" " length of epoch . 187

" life of . . .187

Fort Bridger Group 215

44 animal remains . 216

Fort Pierre Group 197

41 4 4 ' gypsum in • .198

sea . . . .198

INDEX.

323

PAGE

Fort Pierre Group, life of ... 199

4 ' 4 4 how closed . . -200

Foxes 119

Fox Hills Group 200

4 4 not found in Nebraska . 200

' ' vegetable remains of . 201

' ' animal life of . . . 201

Fremont on Buffalo grass • . .42

Fruit destroyers 1 33

Fruits, wild, of Nebraska ... 97

Gentian family 81

Geometrical forms of surface ... 5

Geike James, on origin of till . . . 254

Gervais M. of France .... 246

Gigantic reptiles 177

Glacial Drift, second appearance of . 209

44 period . 253

44 " sections of . . . . 253

44 " scratches of on rock . . 253

Glaciers, local during Terrace Epoch . 2.42

Gold 316

Gooseberries 103

Gophers 120-121

Grapes, where finest flourish . . • . 25

wild 104

44 summer, etc 104

Grasses, wild 108

analysis of 109

4* Buffalo disappearance of . .114

Griffith Mountain 51

Group, Dakota 181

4 ' Fox Hills 200

44 Fort Benton . . . . - . 187

44 Fort Pierre 197

44 Laramie 201

4 ' Loup Fork 2*3

Green River Group, flora of . . 203-214

41 animal life . . 215

Grinnell Laud, former climate of . . 3t>6

Gumbo soil, analysis of .... 302

G-uyot's table of rainfall .... 40

Hares 122

Harlan County, character of Pliocene . _'o7

Hard pan . , 3n->

41 analysis of 3u2

Hawn, Prof 182

Hawthorns . . . . . . ],«•_>

Hazel nuts . . . . . .108

Hay den quoted, etc. . 178-181-188-208=224-244

Healthfulness of Nebraska . . 145

Heat, amount received from the sun . 308

Hessian fly, habits of. etc. . . . 133

Heer, Prof. O. ... 183-225-242

Honeysuckle family 80

Hoofed animals . . . . . 213

Horse family in Miocene .... 226

in Pliocene . . .243

Humboldt quoted 4J

Humidity, annual and mean . . .86

Huronian rocks 161

Hydraulic limestone , 313
Hieroglyphic on boulder . . . .256

Ice sheet — retreating .... 263

Impurities of water, source of . . 72

Increasing rainfall 43

Indigo plant 79

Insectivora 122

Insect life, number of species, etc. . 131 j

Insect, material conditions in relation to 135

Insects, enemies to .... 135

Infusorial earth in the Pliocene . . 238
Iris family . . . . .82

Iron ores 318 |

Isotherm summer of 72 ° , 76 c . . 25

Isochimal, winter of 20° . . . 25 I

June berry 102

June rains . 34

PAGE
. 173
. 173
. 174
. 177
259-293
. 314

Jurassic deposits absent in Nebraska

Juro-Trio period

Jurassic beds, where found

Jurassic period, close of .

Kames

Kaolin

Keya Paha River ....

King, Clarence . 1 74-198-2 15-249-etc.

Labyrinths on the Niobrara ... 13

Lake Bonneville 262

Lake Lahontan . . . 263

Lake, Miocene . ... 222

Lakes, number and extent in Nebraska . 52

Laramie Group ...... 201

animal life of . . . 204

area of ... 202

coal beds of ... 203

sediments of . . . 201

44 vegetable life of . . 203

Lancaster County, section in . . . 257

Larkspur . 78

Laurentian rocks . ... 161

Lava Hood at close of Miocene . . . 231

Lead ... ... 318

Leidy, Dr. . 1 91-215-221-236-244-25 7-etc.

Lesquereux, quoted . 184-203-214-etc.

Level, changes of during Loess period . 282

Lewis and Clarke . . . . . 203

4 4 on buffalo grass . 42
44 44 on temperature of Mis-
souri .... 48

Lily family 82

Limestone 313

Lithographic stone . ... 316

Lobelia family . 80

Locusts, egg laying . ... 138

departure of swarms . .139

destructiveness of . . 139
future depredations of . .143

how to combat them . . 140
hatching of . . .139

invasions of ... 143

invertebrate enemies of . . 142

nativity of . . 136

nature's method to destroy . 141

numbers that light down . . 187

spring history and migration . 187

vertebrate enemies of . . 143

Loess deposits, and period of . . . 265

4 4 analysis of ... 267

adaptability to fruit . 271

architectural properties . 2d9

causes of peculiarities . 270

• 4 close of period . . 286

human remains in . . 283

4 4 length of ... 283

44 life of .... 284

mollusks of ... 287

physical properties of . 267

river sediments of . . 281

Rhine Loess, analysis of 267
44 Richthof en's theory con-
sidered . . .273

4 4 scenery of ... 272

4 4 true origin of . . . 280

Logan River, character of, etc. . . 64

Loup River, head waters of . . 15

4 • origin of, etc. ... 66

Lyell's theory on changes of climate . 306

Mallows . ..... 78

Mammals, wild of Nebraska . . . 117

44 of Eocene . . . 213

4 4 of Vermillion Group . . 213

Manual of Economic Entomology needed 136

Marl beds ... . 316

Marsh . . . 191-194-213-243-245-etc.

Mastodon of Pliocene . . . 244,

324

INDEX.

PAGE

McGee, W. G 264

Meek, opinions of on Nebraska Geology

162-164-179

Mediteranean sea during Cretaceous 209

Mesozoic times in Nebraska . . 173-1!>7
Mexico, Gulf of source of moisture 47

Mice . . . 121-122

Microscopic infusorial earth . . . 239
Milkweed family . 82

Mint family 81

Miocene Epoch, bad lands of . . . 224

' ' camel family in . . 227

4 ' carnivora of. . . 228

' * close of . . . . 231

deposits of ... 223

elephants of . . .227

extent of lakes of . 222

flora of . . . . 225

horse family in . . 220

inauguration of . 221

' ' length of ... 223

' ' life, animal of . . 225

Missouri River, at close of Loess period . 282

character of . 58-56

" character during Loess

period . . 282

sediments analyzed . 281

' ' valley different from Mis-

sissippi . . . .155
' ' traffic on . . . .58

Moisture in atmosphere .... 34
" relative amount . 35
' ' how much absorbed by the soil . 45
Mollusks, land and fresh water . . 144
' ' in Lignitic deposits . . . 205
" of Carboniferous age . .169
Monkeys, earliest of .... 21!>

' ' of the Miocene . . . 290
Monchat's solar engine . . » . 152

Mosses 83

Mountain horse .... 21 7

' k regions, supposed drying up of 49

Mudge, Prof 183-238

Mulberry, wild . . . 117

Muskrat 122

Nebraska affected by the precipitation in

the mountains . . . .49

Nebraska a health resort, .... 150
' ' future of the race in . . 153

' ' partly a land surface in Miocene 224
" reserve and now wasted forces of 151
" sun power in . . . 151-153
" what to be expected from its

people . . 155

" when second time a land surface 208

Nemaha, noted character, character of, etc 64

Neuralgia, cause of in Nebraska . . 148

Newberry 263

Night-shade family . ... 81

Niobrara Group, animal life of . .189
" birds of . . 195

fossil wood of . . 1 89
fishes of ... 200
reptiles in . . .191
vegetable life of . .189
' ' vigorous life of . ] 96

Niobrara River, exposures of Miocene on 222
' ' region, exceptional fea-

tures of ... 13
region, exceptional mete-
orological conditions of

38-39

source, elevation above
the sea, length, canons
of, tributaries, etc 61

Niobrara and Loup, character of Pliocene 236
North Park, Pliocene lake . . . 233

PAGE

Nuts . 107

Oak Creek, section of blue clay on . . 253
Ochre . . . . .315

Orchis family 82

Oreodons . . ... 245-22$

Owen, Prof R D 194

Oysters in Lignitic Group . . . 205
« lysters in Niobrara Group . . 190
Ozone in atmosphere . . . 32-146
Paint, mineral .... 315
Palmer, Captain, owner of molar of mas-
todon 244

Papaw 107

Parasite, insect 135

| Paris, rainfall of 40

Peak-toothed animals . . . .213

Peat 309

Peat, extent and character of . . 3C9-3IO

Penstemons . 80

Perchers . . . 123

Permian Age, character of its rocks . 172

" how caused, effects . . 171

'.' last portion lost . .172

" where its deposit occurs . 171

Petrified wood in Pliocene . . . 241

" " in Drift .... 257

Pine forests formerly in Nebraska . . 3(4

Pink family 78

Planting of trees, supposed effect on rain-
fall ....... 44

Plant lice, habits, increase, etc . .133

Platte drainage into Republican . . 59

" length, origin, character . 58-59

' ' North Fork of, level of, etc. . . 59

' ' temperature of waters at its mouth

and at North Platte . . 49

Pliocene Epoch, analysis of geysers . 280

animal life of . .242

' ' beds conformable to Mi-

ocene .... 233

" birds of . . . . 2-12

" bisons in ... 246

" calcareous character of . 238

" camels in . . . 245

cat family . . . 246

' ' close of . . . 249

dog family . . . 247

elephants in . . . 244

1 ' elevation of . . . 234

extinct geysers in . . 239

favorable conditions for

animal life in . . 247
' ' horse family in . . 243

how inaugurated . . 232
' ' lake, eastward barren of 234

length of ... 241

materials of in Nebraska 235
' ' Oreodons . . . 245

" origin of the above . 2o9

picture of, character of 247
* ' polishing powder, infuso-

rial earth, geyser flo-
cula .... 238

Rhionoseros in . . 244

ruminants in . . . '245

11 thickness of . . . 233

section of . . 23U-237

" vegetable life of . . 241

Pliocene lake, where perpetuated . . 299

Plum, ground . . . . 78

" wild of Nebraska . . . .97

Polemonium family . . . . .81

Polishing powder in Pliocene . . . 239

' ' origin of ... 239

" section of bed . . 239

Pouillet's solar physics .... 151

Position of Nebraska . . . 3

INDEX.

325

PAGE

Potters' clay, where found, and analysis

of 314

Prairie, its natural compactness . . 44

44 clover 79

" dogs 120

Pulse family 78

Quaternary Age, changes of climate in . 306

periods of . 253-265-291

' 4 inauguration of . . 253

Rabbits 122

Raccoons 119

Race, probable future of in Nebraska . 153

Rain, when most apt to fall . . 47

Rainfall, areas of equal . . . 36-37-38

4 • average amount of . . 35-36

' ' cause of increasing ... 44

44 increasing . . 41-43

' ' increase in west Nebraska . . 46

4 4 originating from rivers . . 48

west of 100th "Meridian . . 35

Rainy season 84

Rapid Creek 62

Raspberries 102

Rats 121

Reptiles in Niobrara Group . . .191

Republican River origin of, etc. . . 63

Resume of geological history . . . 262
Revolution, geological at close of Laramie

Group . 207

Rheumatism in Nebraska .... 48

Rhinoceros in Pliocene . . . .244

Richthofen's theory on origin of Loess . 273

what it explains . 274

4 4 objections to

274-275-276-etc.
44 his assumed absence

of shells . .278
his assumed absence

of stratification . 279

Rivers of Nebraska ..... 56

Roads, nature of Nebraska ... 70

Rocky Mountains, when formed, etc. . 208

Rose 'family 79

Ruminating hogs — oreodons — in Miocene . 228

Sable American 119

Saline Springs, where located ... 53

Salt 316

Salt Creek, name, character of. etc. . 55
Sand Hill cherry . . . .99

Sand Hills, area of 298

4 4 character of . . . . 298

' 4 cultivation of . . . . 300

4 4 location and description of . 15

origin of .... 299
4 4 where located . . . .297

Saurians 127

Scott's Bluffs, Pliocene origin of . . 236
Sections, geological 164-236-237-239-253-

25 8-260-2 61-262-2 67-2 76-2 79-281-292-317

Section showing potters' clay . . 314
Sediment of Missouri River water 73-74

Sensitive River 79

Sharks of Niobrara Group . . . 191

Shell bark hickory 107

Showers in spring ..... 34

4 4 on Niobrara . 39

Shrubs, list of in Nebraska . . 91 i

Silica 315 !

Silting up of river beds . . . . 292 j

Sioux Lake 228 j

Skunks . 120 i

Snakes in Nebraska 128 ,

Soap plant 83

Springs, appearance of new ... 41

Springs on Niobrara . ... 13

4 ' where found .... 63

Spurge family 82

PAGE
Stanton, Captain W. S., TJ. S. A. . 39-65

Strawberries, wild 201

Stone, building . . . .311

Stout, W. B , stone quarry of . . . 312
Streams, increasing size of in Nebraska . 42
Subsidence of Basin region . .' . 233
4 4 of Pliocene lake . . . 235
Superficial deposits . . . 253-265-291
Surface deposits, fuel in . . . . 304

Swift, the 119

Swallows 182-161-162

Squirrels 120

Tables of annual and mean humidity . 35

44 of temperature 18-19-20-21-22-23-24

Temperature above 100° in ten years . 23

below /ero .... 22

different estimates of . 17

extremes of ... 29

mean of years . . .21

' 4 for the seasons . 25-28

4 4 for the whole year . 29

of the Missouri ... 74

of the Platte ... 75

of the Missouri and its effect

on evaporation . . 48
44 tables .... 18-19

Terrace Epoch 291

44 in Europe .... 292
Terraces, number and height of . . 293
Tertiary ages, their character and condi-
tion 248

44 epoch . . 209-221-223-etc.

4 4 general remarks on . . 252

Thompson, S. R., head of Nebraska

weather service 26

Timber in modern geological times . . 304

Titanotheriums 226

Tortoises in Nebraska . . . .127
4 4 in Niobrara Group . . . 194
4 4 in Pliocene beds . . . 242
Transition bed between Eocene and Mio-
cene 220

Transition period between Cretaceous and

Tertiary 207

Trees covered by alluvium . . .297
4 4 increase of young in Colorado . 51
4 4 supposed dying out of in the moun-
tains 50

Triassic deposits absent from Nebraska . 173

Trio-Juro Periods 173

44 animal life of . .176

deposits of . . .174

length of . . .174

4 4 vegetable life of . .175

Trilobites of Carboniferous . . .170

Uintah Group 220

44 animal life of . . . 220

Uintah Range, Avhen formed . . . 207
Valleys, how to gain a conception of the

number 12

Vegetation, changing character of . . 42

Verbenas 81

Vertebrate fauna of Nebraska . . . 117

Vermillion Group— Eocene . . . 212

44 life of . . . .212-

Violets 78

Von Meyer 194

Walnut, black 107

44 white .... 84-88

Warner, Hon. J. T 189

44 4 4 stone quarry of . 312

Warren, Lieutenant, discovery by . . 235

Water, character of in Nebraska . . 71

4 4 river, character of the Bow . 7S

4 4 Niobrara . 75

44 44 4l Republican 75

44 4 4 4 4 Missouri . 74

326

INDEX.

PAGE

Water, river, character of the Platte 75
Waters of Nebraska .... 52
Wayne Count}', how affected by the Lo-
gan River 64

Weasels 119

Wells, artesian and common . . 54
Western Nebraska, future increase of

rainfall 48

WildCat 119

Wind, direction and force of, table . 24

PAGE

White, Dr. . . . 162-163-165-178
White River, character of, etc. . 62-63
Winds of Nebraska . 30

Winter, storms of . 30

Wood chucks . . . 120
Wolverines ... . . 120
Wolves, number of, etc. . . 119
Worm, army ... .133
Zinc 316

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